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ELEMENTS 
 
 — OF- 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 
 
 CONTAINING A 
 
 GEOGRAPHY OF THE WORLD 
 
 AND HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE 
 
 DIFFERENT COUNTRIES 
 
 ^W. S. CLARK. .0 
 
 ILLUSTKATED BY 
 
 STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 CLARK, LAKE & CO 
 
 ROCKFORD, ILLINOIS. 
 
 ROCKFORX) REGISTER STEAM PEINTING HOUSE. 
 ■1871. 
 
G> 
 
 
 .6 
 
 Z) 
 
 Entered accorcliug to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, hy 
 
 JAMES H. CLARK, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS 
 
 TEACHERS AND DIRECTORS. 
 
 Teachers, wlio liave examined into tlie nature of this work, will experi- 
 ence no difficulty m applying it successfully in their respective schools. 
 The plan of study in itself is simple, and when we add to this the interest 
 furnished by the illustrations, not only is the great drawback on the study 
 of Histoiy and Geography removed by renderiug their study easy and 
 entertaining, but theii' value is enhanced a hundred fold. 
 
 As a general thing we have furnished six books in coimection with this 
 work, with the view that they would constitute the reader of the school. 
 Where the scholars are- numerous they should be divided into classes of 
 six each, and time should be portioned off to the respective divisions. In 
 this connection the books should be used as readers. No scholar can read 
 well unless he understands what he is reading. Before coming into the class, 
 the lesson should be carefully noted, and the facts connected with it so 
 fully understood, that, if called upon, the student could render its contents 
 in his own language. We are sure, after this has been done, that the read- 
 ing lesson will be interesting and profitable. 
 
 Let the teacher, as an illustration occurs in the lesson, explain it accord- 
 ing to the key (Part 111), and render as much knowledge upon the Object 
 Lesson as he can. If both teachers and scholars enter into the spirit of 
 this work, much more benefit will be mutually derived than mil result in 
 the study of the geographies and histories now in use. The fii'st principles 
 of Geography, as given in Part I., should not be neglected. No scholai' 
 should attempt to study the continents until he has mastered the elemen- 
 tary prmciples. Neither should the History of the countries be omitted, 
 as it forms a connecting link in the importance of the work. 
 
 The views are generally arranged in the Stereoscope in the order in 
 which they occur in the book. The set commences with view " No. 1. 
 Snow Sheds on the line of the Union Pacific Railroad, Sierra Nevada Moun- 
 tains." 
 
 The arrangement of the " Cylinder " is such that two views can be 
 placed upon the cross-wire. There are one hundred of these wii-es in the 
 Stereoscope, and as only one hundred and three views are furnished, only 
 three of the wires contain more than one illustration. Consequently ninety- 
 seven views may be added, and these, with the wires necessary to fasten 
 ■ them, or any number desii-ed, may be ordered by the catalogue from the 
 firm with whom the district has contracted. Additional books also, may 
 be obtained at the regular cost. 
 
 CLARK, LAKE & CO, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 There is a growing tendency on the part of the District Schools of our 
 country to treat the study of Geography and History with indifference, as 
 though these branches were only intended for graded schools, and had no 
 du-ect reference to them. To some these studies are hard, and for them to 
 acquire a contiuued interest in their contents, is, iadeed, a most difficult 
 task. 
 
 With this difficulty still fastening itself upon our District Schools, it 
 appears to us that steps should immediately be taken towards rendering 
 these studies more useful, and at the same time, more interesting. With 
 this object in view we shall now introduce our " Elements of Geography 
 and History," and the principle of illustrating these Ijranches with Ster- 
 eoscopic Views. In the full conviction that we were engaged in a lauda- 
 ble work, we have labored long and faithfully to develop the best means 
 of arranging this book, and applying its illustmtions in the manner most 
 profitable to the stndent. 
 
 History and Geography have, hitherto, been presented in detail. The 
 wood-cut pictures with which they are usually accompanied are interesting 
 to the student, but they do not present the object in its j) roper outline and 
 features, and fail altogether in making the impression on the mind, and in 
 creating that zeal for thek study which attends the use of Stereoscopic 
 Views. 
 
 There is in the Stereoscopic Picture a solidity and roundness which 
 amazes the beholder, who does not expect to see a giant Iceberg of the 
 North Atlantic, or a crystal glacier of the Aljjs, brought immediately be- 
 fore him. Yet such is the case. The Stereoscope jiresents the object to 
 the student in exactly the same outline, and with the same expression and 
 effect us though he were on the spot occupied by the Artist and his 
 Camera. 
 
 It is by means of these illustrations that we exjject to add to the inter- 
 est and usefulness of Geography and History. We read of the great Cat- 
 aract of Niagara, and are taught to wonder at its magnitude. We look at 
 its picture through the Stereoscope, and while we are lost in contempla- 
 tion of the scene in which grandeur and sublimity are blended, we are 
 impressed with its truthfulness, and gain a knowledge which no j:) en can 
 convey. We look across the fields of England from the Thames, or view 
 the Stonehenge in the midst of a wide spreading plain, and we have illus- 
 trations of which no adequate description can be furnished. 
 
 In this work the studies of History and Geography have ]jeen com- 
 bined. We believe that there can be no profitable study of Geography 
 that does not associate the various localities in theii' proper connection. 
 Neither will the study of History result in any good without a knowledge 
 of Geography. In preparing this work we have endeavored to render it 
 simple in style and comprehensive in matter, and adapted to the wants ol 
 the student. THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 . CHAPTER I. 
 
 Pao-e. 
 
 Mathematical Geography. Form of the Earth. Mo- 
 tion of the Earth. Circumference and Diameter of the 
 Earth. The Globe. Maps. Imaginary Circles Equator. 
 Latitude. Longitude. Degrees of Longitude. Zones. 
 Days and Nights. -----_-9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Physical Geography. Continents. Oceans. Lands of 
 the Earth, Voleanos. Rivers. Lakes. Vegetation. An- 
 imals. Man. ------.» 14 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 -Political Geography. Occupation of Man. Govern- 
 ment. Religion. .-.-.-..21 
 
 :P.A.I^T II. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 Descriptive Geography. North America. United 
 States. -.-...--. 23 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Eastern States. Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. 
 Massachusetts. Connecticut. Rhode Island. - - 30 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Middle States. N^w_ York. New Jersey. Pennsyl- 
 vania. Delaware. '"- '' r~~" - - - '. - 41 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Southern States. Maryland. Virginia. West Vir- 
 ginia. North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia. Flor- 
 ida. Alabama. Mississippi. Louisiana, Texas, - 54 
 
6 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Western States. Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. Kentucky. 
 Tennessee. Arkansas. Missouri. Iowa. Michigan. Wis- 
 consin. Minnesota. California. Oregon. Kansas. Ne- 
 braska Nevada. - - ""- - - - - 79 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Territories. Washington. Idaho. Montana. Dakota. 
 Wyoming. Utah. Colorado. Arizona. New Mexico. 
 Indian Territory. 'Alaska, or Russian America. - 102 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 History of the United States. Discovery. Eng- 
 lish Discoveries. French Discoveries. . Early Inhabitants. 
 Settlements. Jamestown. Dutch Settlements. Plymouth. 
 Other Settlements. Union of the Colonies. King Philip's 
 War. Settlements in the South. Loss of Charters. French 
 and Indian Wars. Revolutionary War. - - - 106 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Events of the Administrations. Mexican War. The 
 Slave Question. Rebellion m the South. Civil War. - 125 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 British America. - 137 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Dominion of Canada. Ontario. Quebec. New Bruns- 
 wick. Nova Scotia. Cape Breton Island. - - - 140 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Prince Edward's Island. Newfoundland. British Co- 
 lumbia. History of British America. - - - 150 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Danish America. Greenland. Iceland. - . 156 
 CHAPTER. XIIL 
 
 Mexico. History of Mexico. Central America. His- 
 tory of Central America. West Indies. History of the 
 West Indies. - - - - - - - - 159 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 South America. United States of Columbia. Vene- 
 ;?uela. Guiana. Brazil. Uruguay. Argentine Republic. 
 
CONTENTS. 7 
 
 Page. 
 
 Paraguay. Patagonia. Chili. Bolivia. Peru. Ecuador. 
 History of South America. 165 
 
 CHAPTEH XV. 
 
 EuKOPE. Outline. Phji sical Features. Divisions.. - 181 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland. England. History of 
 England. Scotland. History of Scotland. Wales. His- 
 tory of Wales. Ireland. History of Ireland. Smaller 
 British Isles. History of Great Britain. . - - 184 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Holland. History of Holland. - - - - 227 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIL 
 Belgium. History of Belgium. . - - - 232 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 France, History of France. -~ . _ - 236 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Spain. History of Spain. 266 
 
 CHAPTER XXI, 
 Portugal, History pf Portugal. - . _ 276 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Italy. History of Italy, 281 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII, 
 Switzerland. History of Switzerland. - - 389 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 Germany. History of Germany. . . . 296 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 Denmark. Histoi-y of Denmark. - - - - 302 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 Sweden. History of Sweden, . _ - - 304 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 Norway. History of Norway, - - - - 308 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII, 
 Russia. History of Russia. - - . . 311 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Austria. History of Austria. . - - - 317 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 Turkey. History of Turkey. - - _ . 319 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 Greece, History of Greece. - - - - 323 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Asia, Siberia. Kamtschatka. Manchuria. Georgia. 
 Chinese Empire. China. Thibet. East Turkestan. Soon- 
 garia Mongolia. Corea. Japanese Empire. The Indies. 
 British India. Indo China. Malacca. Malaysia. Tur- 
 kestan. Afghanistan. Beloochistan. Arabia. Persia. 
 Turkey. - - - - - . - - - 326 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 Africa. Barbary States. Morocco. Algeria. Tunis. 
 Tripoli. Sahara, or Great Desert. Egypt, Nubia. Ab- 
 yssinia. Soudan. Ethiopia. Zanguebar. Mozambique. 
 Region of the Zambesi. The Cape Countries. Guinea. 
 Siberia. Senegambia. Islands. . . - . 343 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 Australia. Polynesia, 359 
 
 I=^R.T III. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Western Continent Illustrated. - - - 361 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 Eastern Continent Illustrated. - - . 383 
 
ELEMENTS 
 
 F 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHAPTER I.— Geography. 
 
 Geography may be defined as a description of the Earth. It 
 has three departments — Mathematical, Physical and Political 
 Geography. 
 
 Mathematical Geography furnishes us with an idea of the 
 form, size and motion of the Earth, of its division by circles, 
 and representations on globes and maps. 
 
 Form of the Earth. The Earth is so nearly round that 
 it is called a Globe. It is like an orange, fl.attened on two of 
 its opposite sides, not nearly so much however, in proportion to 
 its size, as an orange. The amount that the form of the Earth 
 is affected by being thus flattened, is too small to be represented 
 on an ordinary globe. A grain of sand upon a globe or ball, 
 exhibits as great an irregularity of surface, as the loftiest moun- 
 tains create upon the surface of the earth. That the earth is 
 round, and not flat, as one would naturally infer, may easily be 
 proved. If the earth were flat, a person standing on the sea- 
 shore, watching a vessel as it approached the land, would see the 
 hull, or largest portion of the vessel, first. As the top-mast, 
 the highest and smallest portion of the ship, is first seen, follow- 
 ing which, in succession, as the vessel nears the land, appear the 
 rigging and lower sails, and then the body of the vessel, it is 
 
10 ELEMENTS OF 
 
 right to conclude that the ship is following a curve, and that 
 this curve forms a portion of a circumference of the earth. 
 
 MoTiOA^ or THE Earth. The Earth has two motions — a 
 daily and a yearly motion. The daily motion is the revolution 
 of the earth on its axis. The axis of the earth is an imagi- 
 nary line passing through its center, between the two opposite 
 fiajttened sides. The ends of this line are called the poles of the 
 earth. One is called the North Pole, and the other the South 
 PoJe. 
 
 The Earth revolves upon its axis once in every twenty-four 
 hours. As the Earth is round, only one-half of it, or that por- 
 tion turned toward the Sun, can receive light at the same time. 
 Tlie other half must be in darkness. In the light it is day ; in 
 the dark it is night. It appears to us that the Earth is station- 
 ary, and that the Sun rises in the East, reaches its highest point 
 about noon, and finally disappears in the West. This delusion 
 is caused by the fact that the earth revolves on its axis, bring- 
 ing first one portion and then another into the light, the first 
 portion and then the next disappearing beyond the Sun's rays. 
 Tlie motion of the earth is so gentle and uniform that it is not 
 perceptible. Like when a boat is gliding down a still river, the 
 banks appear to be moving past, and the boat to be stationary. 
 
 The Earth moves around the Sun in a nearly circular path, 
 oalled its orbit, in three hundred and sixty-five and one-fourth 
 days, or one year. This is called the yearly motion, and is the 
 cause of Summer and Winter. During this revolution in its 
 orbit, the Earth revolves on its axis three hundred and sixty-five 
 and one-fonrth times. 
 
 The velocity with which the earth revolves on its axis, varies 
 in. different places. At the poles the motion is very slow. Mid- 
 way between the poles the earth turns with a velocity of over 
 oi\e thousand miles an hour. 
 
 Circumference and Diameter of the Earth. The great- 
 est distance around the earth is called its circumference. The 
 distance through the earth between any two opposite points is 
 calj^ed its diameter. The circumference and diameter vary in 
 
GEOGRAPlff AND HISTORY. 11 
 
 different parts of the Globe. The greatest circumference of the 
 earth is about twenty-five thousand miles, and the greatest diam- 
 eter is eight thousand miles. 
 
 The Globe. A Globe is a sphere with the Continents, Is- 
 lands, Oceans and all forms of land and water drawn upon it in 
 their proper positions. The outline of these different features 
 corresponds with the outline of similar objects upon the earth's 
 surface, and shows the relative position which they hold with 
 respect to each other. These representations on the Globe are 
 called Maps. 
 
 Maps. Only one-half of the Globe can be seen at one time. 
 To see the whole we must divide the Globe into two equal parts, 
 and place the curved sides toward us. While in this position 
 an exact copy may be made of the different bodies of land and 
 water on a piece of paper, and an ordinary map of the World, 
 of flat surface, will be obtained. 
 
 Imaginary Circles. For convenience in finding the location 
 of places on the Globe, imaginary circles are drawn from pole 
 to pole, which are crossed at right angles by other circles. Each 
 of these circles which divide the Globe into two equal parts, are 
 called great circles ; those dividing it unequally are called small 
 circles. 
 
 The Equator. The Equator is an imaginary line encircling 
 the Earth equi-distant between the two poles. 
 
 Latitude. Latitude is the distance from the Equator, either 
 North or South. Parallels of Latitude are small circles, passing 
 round the Globe parallel with the Equator, between the Equator 
 and the poles. The distance between the poles is divided into 
 one hundred and eighty nearly equal parts called degrees of 
 Latitude. Ninety of these degrees are North of the Equator 
 and ninety South. Places North of the Equator are in North 
 Latitude ; South of the Equator in South Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. Longitude is the distance from any given merid- 
 ian either East or West. Meridians are imaginary lines encir- 
 cling the Earth from North to South passing through both poles. 
 Longitude is not reckoned from any fixed meridian. In Great 
 
12 ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Britain, Longitude is reckoned from the meridian of Greenwich, 
 in France, from that of Paris, and in the United States, from 
 both Greenwich and Washington. 
 
 Degrees of Longitude. The circumference of the Earth 
 is divided into three hundred and sixty equal parts, called degrees 
 of Longitude. There are, therefore, one hundred and eighty 
 degrees of East Longitude, and one hundred and eighty of West 
 Longitude. 
 
 Zones. The surface of the Earth is divided into five distinct 
 Zones. These Zones are classified according to temperature. 
 The Torrid Zone is the hottest part of the Earth, and extends 
 about 23|° on each side of the Equator. The Sun is here more 
 nearly over head, at all times of the year, than on any other 
 part of the Globe. The Frigid Zones cover a belt of 23J° of 
 Latitude, encircling each pole. One is the North Frigid and 
 one the South Frigid Zone. Between the North Frigid and 
 Torrid Zones, is the North Temperate Zone. Between the South 
 Frigid and Torrid is the South Temperate Zone. The North 
 Temperate and South Temperate Zones are each 43° wide. 
 Those parallels of Latitude that bound the Torrid Zone are 
 called the Tropical Circles. The Northern is the Tropic of 
 Cancer ; the Southern is the Tropic of Capricorn. The par- 
 allels that mark the boundaries of the Frigid Zones are called 
 Polar Circles. The Northern is the Arctic, and the Southern 
 the Antarctic Circle. 
 
 The Torrid Zone has two seasons — the wet and the dry. The 
 dry season, in the Northern half, lasts from October to April ; 
 in the Southern half from April to October. The wet season 
 continues, in the Southern half, from October to April ; and, 
 in the Northern, from April to October. 
 
 The Temperate Zones have each four seasons : Spring, Sum- 
 mer, Autumn and Winter. When it is Summer in the North 
 Temperate Zone, it is Winter in the South Temperate. When 
 it is Summer in the South Temperate Zone, it is Winter in the 
 North Temperate Zone. The Frigid Zones have two seasons : 
 a long cold Winter, and a short Summer. 
 
GE0GRA?5Y AND HISTORY. 13 
 
 Days and Nights. The length of the days and nights vary 
 in different parts of the World. At the Equator the days and 
 nights are each twelve hours long. In the Temperate Zones, in 
 Winter, the days are less and the nights more, and in Summer 
 the days more and the nights less than twelve hours. At the 
 Polar Circles the longest day ie twenty-four hours. At the Poles 
 the days and nights are each six months long. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Physical Geography is the science which treats of the land 
 and water of the surface of the Earth, the atmosphere which 
 surrounds it, and the animals and plants that live upon it. 
 Nearly three-fourths of the Earth's surface is water, and over 
 one-fourth land. 
 
 A Qontinent is a body of land of vast extent. 
 
 An Island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. 
 
 Land extending so far into the water as to be nearly sur- 
 rounded by it, is called a Peninsula. A Peninsula always ter- 
 minates with a point, called a Qape. When this point is elevated 
 it- is called a Promontory. Any point projecting from the land 
 into the water is called a Cape. 
 
 An Isthmus is a narrow strip of land, connecting Peninsulas 
 with main lands. The Isthmus of Panama connects the Penin- 
 sula and Continent of South America with North America. 
 The Isthmus of Suez connects the Peninsula and Continent of 
 Africa with the main land of Europe and Asia. 
 
 The Coast of a country is the land bordering on the Sea. 
 
 Continents. There are two great Continents or Worlds — 
 the Eastern Continent or Old World, and the Western Continent 
 or New World. The Eastern Continent is in the Eastern Hem- 
 isphere, and the Western Continent in the Western Hemisphere. 
 These Continents are sub-divided into six smaller Continents, 
 two of which are in the New World and four in the Old. In 
 the Western Continent, or New World, are the Northern and 
 Southern, or North American and South American Continents. 
 In the Old World are the Continent^ of Europe, Asia, Africa 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 and Australia. Australia is sometimes called an island, but is, 
 more properly, a Continent. 
 
 The Continents of the New World are triangular in for;m, 
 with their narrowest points turned Southward. The greatest 
 extent of country is from North to South. 
 
 In the Old World the greatest extent of country is from East 
 to West. Asia and Europe are really one great mass, extending 
 East and West. Africa is South of Europe and Asia ; and 
 Australia is South-east of Africa. 
 
 The lands of the Earth are crowded together around the 
 North Pole. Land, of any great extent, is not found near the 
 South Pole. Hence there is more land in the Northern part of 
 the Globe, and more water in the Southern. 
 
 Waters of the Earth. The waters of the Earth cover 
 nearly three-fourths of its surface, and are fixed in their places 
 by the land. Since there is more land around the North Pole, 
 there is more water around the South Pole ; and, because there 
 is more land in the Eastern Continent, there is more water in 
 the Western. 
 
 Oceans. There are five great water basins on the Globe, and 
 the Seas that fill these basins are called Oceans. The Pacific 
 Ocean is the largest, and is West of the New, World, and East 
 of the Old. The northern part of this Ocean is called the North 
 Pacific Ocean, and the southern part the South Pacific Ocean. 
 The Atlantic Ocean is East of the New World, and West of the 
 Old World. The northern part is called the North Atlantic 
 Ocean, and the southern part the South Atlantic Ocean. The 
 Indian Ocean is nearly triangular in form, and lies between 
 Africa and Australia. Inclosed by the Continents, and lying 
 around the North Pole, is the Arctic, or North Polar Ocean. 
 It is connected with the Atlantic by Baffin's Bay, and with the 
 Pacific by Behring's Strait. Around the South Pole is the 
 Antarctic, or South Polar Ocean, which is the great basin from 
 which the three larger Oceans proceed. It has no fixed limit, 
 as there is no land around it. * 
 
 When the Sea, or Ocean indents the land of a country it forps 
 
16 ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Sms, Crulfs and Bays. A narrow band of water connecting 
 siicii bodies of water with the main body, is called a Strcnt. A 
 Strait or Bay where the water is very shallow is called a Sound. 
 
 Lands of the Earth. A great diversity of surface is found 
 in different parts of the Earth. Some lands are higher, and 
 others lower than the Sea level, and others are rough and rocky. 
 
 A Plain is a large extent of low and level land. 
 
 A Valley is a long and narrow extent of low land, between 
 higher lands. 
 
 A Plateau is a large extent of level land much higher than 
 the level of the Sea. A Plateau differs from a Plain only in its 
 greater height. 
 
 A long and narrow ridge of country, rising abruptly to a 
 great hight, is called a Mountain Range or Chain. Several 
 Mjountain Chains running parallel with each other form a Moun- 
 tain System. Elevations rising above the main ridge, are called 
 3lQuntain Peaks. The depressions between the Mountain Peaks 
 are called Mountain Valleys ; and as they form the most con- 
 venient mode of crossing a Mountain Chain, they are sometimes 
 called Mountain Passes. 
 
 The Base is the lowest part of a Mountain, or that upon 
 which the Mountain appears to rest. 
 
 The Summit is the highest part of the Mountain ; and the 
 space between the summit and the base is called the Slope. 
 
 VoLCANOS. A Volcano is a Mountain that sends forth fire, 
 sm,oke and lava from the interior of the Earth. Yolcanos have 
 the form of a cone, and rise, sometimes from a Mountain ridge, 
 and sometimes from a level plain. Among the most noted Vol- 
 canos are Mount Vesuvius in Italy, Mount Etna in Sicily, and 
 Chimborazo and Cotopaxi in South America. 
 
 Rivers. Streams of water are often found flowing in nar- 
 row channels, through the midst of the land. These streams 
 are called Eivers, or, if very small, Brooks, and sometimes 
 Greeks. Tie place where a^ River is formed, and from where it 
 flows is called the source of a River. The moutli of a River is 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 17 
 
 the place where k empties its waters into some large body of 
 water. 
 
 The course of a River is governed by the slope of the land 
 through which it flows. The earth under a River is called its bed. 
 
 If the land has a very great slope, or if the River is much 
 lower at the mouth than at the source, the water moves very 
 rapidly. This movement of the water is called the current. 
 When the current of a River is very swift, like the Merrimac 
 and Mohawk, their chief value consists in their water-power. 
 Rivers, whose waters flow more gently, are useful for navigation. 
 
 "When a River has a great descent in a short distance, rapids 
 are formed, over which the water rushes with great velocity. 
 These rapids are so dangerous that canals have sometimes to 
 be cut around them to enable vessels to pass in safety. 
 
 Rivers have sometimes perpendicular descents. When Rivers 
 flow over such descents they form waterfalls and cataracts. 
 
 A Water-Shed is a ridge of country separating the waters of 
 one River from the waters of another. Sometimes the Water- 
 Shed is a ridge of Mountains, and in other cases, as that of the 
 Mississippi and the Great Lakes, it is nearly flat. 
 
 Rivers in their onward course are joined by other Rivers, 
 generally small. These Rivers are called branches or tributaries. 
 
 The Basin of a River is the whole extent of country drained 
 by that River. The Water-Shed surrounds the Basin of a River 
 on all sides except at its mouth. 
 
 Rivers are generally formed among the Mountains, hj springs 
 and melting snows. The water accumulates, and plunges rather 
 than flows into the valley. They are constantly joined by other 
 streams similarly formed. Other rivers flow from lakes, and 
 others have their sources in Glaciers. 
 
 Vast quantities of rock and earth are washed away by Rivers, 
 and, after being carried many hundred miles, are ground into 
 mud, and deposited at the mouth of a River, forming triangular 
 plains, called deltas. The Mississippi, Ganges and the Nile have 
 large deltas. 
 
18 ELEMENTS OF 
 
 Lakes. Lakes are bodies of water lying in depressions of 
 the land. Lakes may be divided into two classes — those that 
 have an outlet, and those that have none. Those that have no 
 outlet are generally salt, and the amount of water in their basins 
 is constantly decreasing. The principal Lakes that have no 
 outlet are Great Salt Lake, in Utah, Lake Titicaca, in South 
 America, and Lake Elton, in Europe. 
 
 Lakes that have outlets are fresh. The fresh water Lakes 
 are larger and more numerous in North America than in any 
 other country. 
 
 Wh^n a river is first formed, and begins to move towards the 
 Sea, where it is to discharge its waters, it frequently meets with 
 hollows or depressions in the land, which it has to fill before it 
 can continue its course. It is in this manner that Lakes are 
 formed. The salt Lakes that have no outlet, were formed differ- 
 ently. The basins of these Lakes once formed a part of the 
 bottom of the Sea that covered the whole Earth, and when the 
 land appeared they were shut in by higher lands. They gener- 
 ally have inlets, but the amount of water flowing into them, is 
 less than that evaporated. 
 
 Vegetation. Vegetation differs in various parts of the 
 World. It depends largely upon the climate, being most luxuri- 
 ant in warm and moist regions. Hence we find vegetation the 
 richest and most variegated within the Tropics, or within the 
 Torrid Zone, where the heat is very great. Here are found 
 gigantic forests of trees, climbing-plants in large numbers, and 
 flowers of the most beautiful colors. 
 
 Yams, Bananas, Plantains and Bread-fruit are produced in 
 the Tropics in large quantities. Pine-apples, Oranges, Lemons 
 and Citrons, also, flourish. 
 
 Passing from the Torrid to the Temperate Zone, the Tropical 
 plants and trees are succeeded by the Oak, Maple, Beech and 
 Pine. The most important vegetable productions — those upon 
 which we depend for life — flourish best in the Temperate Zone; 
 such as Wheat, Indian Corn, Rye, Barley and Oats. 
 
 Rice, Cotton, Coffee, Tobacco and Sugar Cane are Tropical 
 
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 19 
 
 ptants, but grow, also, in the warmer parts of the Temperate Zone . 
 
 Vegetation almost ceases in the Frigid Zone, the trees dwind- 
 ling down to mere shrubs. In the regions of perpetual snow, 
 with the exception of a few stunted plants, every trace of vege- 
 tation disappears. 
 
 It thus appears that vegetation decreases in amount and beauty 
 from the Tropics to the Polar regions. This transformation 
 from rich forests to icy wastes, may be witnessed in ascending a 
 mountain of the Torrid Zone. At the base will be found the 
 most luxuriant vegetation. At a hight of a few thousand feet 
 plants and trees of the Temperate Zone appear, and at the sum^ 
 mit, if it be a high mountain, ice and snow-, like that of the 
 Polar regions, is seen, every vestige of vegetation having dis- 
 appeared. 
 
 Animals. The Animals of the Earth, like the plants, vary 
 with the climate, and, also, with the vegetation. 
 
 The largest and most ferocious animals are in the Torrid Zone. 
 Here are the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Lion, Tiger, 
 Jackal, Leopard, Hyena, Giraffe and Camel. Birds of the most 
 brilliant and beautiful colors, and dangerous reptiles and insects 
 are, also, found in this Zone. 
 
 . In the Temperate Zone the animals are smaller and less 
 numerous than those in the Torrid Zone. The Buffalo, Bear, 
 Deer, Wolf and Fox are the most important. 
 
 The Polar regions are free from reptiles, and are little troubled 
 with insects. Reindeers, Bears, Wolves and Foxes are found 
 on the land, and Whales, Seals and Walruses inhabit the Polar 
 Seas in large numbers. 
 
 Animals are, by nature, adapted to the climate in which they 
 are found, and can not long exist elsewhere. The Reindeer and 
 Polar Bear would be unable to endure the heat of a tropical sun, 
 and the cold of the Arctic regions would be too severe to be sur- 
 vived by the Lion and Tiger. 
 
 Animals, in ascending high mountains, would encounter the 
 changes from heat to cold the same as in passing from the Trop- 
 ics to the Polar regions. Consequently a high mountain range 
 
20 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 forms an eflfectual barrier in preventing the animals on one side 
 from visiting the other. 
 
 The Horse, Ox, Sheep and Hog, and other useful domestic 
 animals, can survive in almost any part of the World. 
 
 Man. The readiness with which man can adapt his clothing 
 to suit any climate, from the burning heat of the tropics to the 
 intense cold of the polar countries, makes it the more easy for 
 him to inhabit any part of the world. 
 
 Man is found in every country, and in every climate. In the 
 Torrid Zone he subsists almost wholly on vegetable food, which 
 is more conducive to health, in a hot country, than animal food. 
 It is just the reverse in the Frigid Zone, animal food being best 
 suited to health in that region. 
 
 Man, in the Temperate Zone, is more civilized than elsewhere. 
 The oppressive heat of the Torrid Zone has a tendency to make 
 the people indolent and lazy. In the Frigid Zone, the weather 
 is so severe, and vegetation so scarce, that man can scarcely 
 derive necessary food. In the Temperate Zone, a mild and 
 genial climate, and rich and fertile soil, are the prominent 
 features. The people that live here are largely engaged in cul- 
 tivating the soil, and in conveying the products to different parts 
 of the country. 
 
 Different Races of Mankind. There are five distinct 
 races of mankind — Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, Malay 
 and American. 
 
 The Caucasian, or White Race, is the most intelligent. It 
 embraces most of the inhabitants of Europe and America. 
 
 The Chinese, Japanese, and other people of Asia, belong to 
 the Mongolian, or Yellow Race. 
 
 The Ethiopian, or Black Race, comprises the natives of Africa, 
 (excepting those in the northern part,) the natives of Australia 
 and adjacent islands, and the negroes of America. 
 
 The inhabitants of the Peninsula of Malacca, and neighboring 
 islands, belong to the Malay or Brown Race. 
 
 The Indians of the Western Continent, belong to the Ameri- 
 can, or Red Race. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 That brancii of Geography which treats of the different coun- 
 tries into which the world is divided, and the government, 
 religion and occupation of their inhabitants, is called Political 
 Geography. 
 
 Occupation of Man. Civilized people are very industrious. 
 They till the ground, and pay great attention to commerce and 
 manufacturing. Education is encouraged, and many school 
 houses are built for the benefit of the young. The Caucasian 
 race are mostly civilized. 
 
 The Mongolian race are half civilized. They are engaged, to 
 some extent, in agriculture and commerce, but are too jealous 
 of foreigners to advance to the highest state of civilization. 
 
 Barbarous people are of a still lower character. They are 
 chiefly engaged in grazing, their entire wealth consisting in herds 
 of horses and cattle, with which they wander over the country 
 in search of pasturage. They build no houses, tents being 
 better adapted to their wandering life. 
 
 The savages are the most degraded class of. beings in existence. 
 They have no occupation, and are constantly engaged in war. 
 They dress in the skins of animals, and, generally provide food 
 sufficient only to meet their immediate wants. The Indians of 
 America, the Negroes of Australia, and a part of those of 
 Africa, belong to the savage race. 
 
 Government. Every nation has a system of laws, which 
 the people are obliged to obey. The laws are made to prevent 
 murder and robbery, and it becomes the duty of certain persons 
 to see that the laws are not violated. The laws that such per- 
 
22 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 sons enforce, with the authority exercised to enforce them, consti- 
 tute the government of a country. 
 
 Among savages, law is not enforced. The chief is endowed 
 with unlimited power, and has the lives and property of his 
 people at his disposition. 
 
 When a nation is governed by a person holding power for life, 
 who is succeeded in authority by a son, or nearest relative, the 
 government is called a monarchy. 
 
 A government, which allows the ruler to exercise unlimited 
 power, is an absolute monarchy. A limited monarchy is a gov- 
 ernment in which the power of the ruler is abridged. 
 
 When a government is administered by persons, elected by 
 the people to make and enact laws, it is called a democracy^ or 
 a republic. The United States is the best example of a republic. 
 
 Religion. Among all nations, from the civilized to the 
 savage, one truth seems to prevail — the existence of an Invisible 
 Agent, a Supreme Being of infinite power. 
 
 The ignorant Pagan shows his reverence for such a being by 
 humbling himself before gods of wood and stone. 
 
 Christians worship the true God, and receive Jesus Christ as 
 the Saviour of mankind. Christian nations are intelligent and 
 enlightened. Roman Catholics, Protestants and the adherents 
 of the Greek Church, are the three great classes of Christians. 
 
 The Jews receive the principles established by the Old Testa- 
 ment, but reject the divinity of Christ. The Jews were " God's 
 chosen people," and once inhabited the Holy Land. They num- 
 ber, now, about four millions, and are scattered throughout all 
 parts of the World. 
 
 The Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, believe that 
 "there is one God, and Mohammed is his prophet." Moham- 
 med appeared about six hundred years after Christ. His follow- 
 ers are scattered over Turkey, Arabia and Persia, and other 
 parts of Asia. 
 
PART II. 
 
 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 NORTH AMERICA. 
 
 Outline. North America is the largest of the two grand 
 divisions of the Western Continent, and is nearly surrounded 
 by three great oceans, viz : Arctic on the north, Atlantic on 
 the east and south-east, and Pacific on the west and south-west. 
 
 North America is triangular in form. The shores of the 
 Atlantic and Pacific converge together from the north, till 
 they approach within a short distance of each other at the 
 Isthmus of Panama. 
 
 The coast line of North America is very irregular, especially 
 on the Atlantic and Arctic shores. The Arctic Ocean has the 
 great indentation of Hudson's Bay, and the projections of 
 Boothia and Melville peninsulas. 
 
 North America has about the same amount of coast on the 
 Atlantic, as on the Arctic. The Gulf of Mexico is the greatest 
 indentation on the Atlantic coast, and Florida and Yucatan the 
 largest peninsulas. The principal capes are Cape Sable in 
 Florida, Cape Hatteras, Cape Charles, Cape Henry and Cape 
 Cod, and Cape Sable in Nova Scotia. 
 
24 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Inclosed by the "West Indies and portions of North and South 
 America, is the Caribbean Sea. This Sea is not considered as 
 belonging to either division of the continent, but to the conti- 
 nent as a whole. 
 
 The Gulf of California is the most important indentation in 
 the Pacific coast. The Peninsula of California, which bounds 
 the Grulf of California on the west, Alaska and Kenai, are the 
 most important projections. 
 
 The islands of the Arctic Archipelago and the West Indies, 
 or Archipelago of the Antilles, are the most important in North 
 America. Greenland, Iceland and Baflfin Land are the most 
 important islands of the Arctic Archipelago ; and Cuba, Jamai- 
 ca and Hayti the most important of the West Indies. Van- 
 couver, Queen Charlotte, . Sitka and Kodiak are the principal 
 Islands on the Pacific coast of North^America. 
 
 BIouNTAiNS. "The Rocky Mountain system extends from the 
 Arctic Ocean to the southern part of Mexico. Skirting the 
 Pacific coast is another system of mountains, of which the most 
 important range is the Sierra Nevada. The Appalachian moun- 
 tain system follows the Atlantic coast from the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence to the northern limits of Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The Mississippi and its tributaries, St. 
 Lawrence, Mackenzie and Rio Grande del Norte, are the most 
 important rivers of North America . The chief branches of the 
 Mississippi are the Missouri, Arkansas and Ohio. The St. Law- 
 rence, in its course, drains Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, 
 Erie and Ontario — the five largest fresh water lakes upon the 
 globe. 
 
 Divisions. North America has six divisions, viz : Danish 
 America, British America, United States, Mexico, Central 
 America and West Indies. Russian America was formerly an 
 independent division, but it has recently been purchased by the 
 United States, and annexed as the territory of Alaska. 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 Outline. A very irregular outline distinguishes both the 
 "Atlantic and Pacific coast of the United States. The Atlantic 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 25 
 
 coast is particularly eminent in this respect, being deeply in- 
 dented by numerous gulfs and bays. Deep and capacious har- 
 bors are formed, which, in connection with an industrious people 
 and productive soil, are the means of building up the commer- 
 cial greatness, for which the United States is already noted. 
 
 This country is bounded on the north by British America, on 
 the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Gulf of 
 Mexico and Mexico, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The United States have two principal 
 mountain systems. The Appalachian Mountains commence at 
 the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and are continued, with various in- 
 terruptions, to the northern limits of Georgia and Florida. This 
 system is known by various local names ; such as White Moun- 
 tains, in New Hampshire, Green Mountains, in Vermont, and 
 Blue, Chestnut and Alleghany mountain^ , in Pennsylvania and 
 southward. 
 
 These mountains do not reach any great hight. Black Moun- 
 tain, an out-lying peak of the Blue Ridge in North Carolina, is 
 the highest summit of this system, reaching an elevation of six; 
 thousand four hundred and twenty-six feet. Mount Washing- 
 ton, of the White mountains, is next in hight, having an alti- 
 tude of six thousand two hundred and twenty-six feet. 
 
 This system follows the general direction of the Atlantic coast. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain System runs parallel with the Pacific 
 coast. This is the most important system, and contains the 
 highest elevations. It is a part of an unbroken chain, reaching 
 from the shores of the Arctic Ocean, to the southern extremity 
 of South America. 
 
 The chain of this system, lying nearest the Pacific, is some- 
 times broken, and its peaks do not generally reach an elevation 
 of over two thousand five hundred feet. Mount Olympus, in 
 Washington, however, reaches a hight of eight thousand one 
 hundred and ninety-seven feet ; and several others, in Califor- 
 nia, have nearly as great an elevation. 
 
 Passing eastward we reach the Sierra Nevada mountains, 
 which bear the name of Cascade Range in Washington Terri- 
 
26 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 torj aud Oregon. It is here that the land of the United States 
 culminates. The snoAvy peaks of Mount Shasta, Mount St. 
 Helen's, Mount Hood and Mount Rainier, -rear their lofty sum- 
 mits to hights varying from twelve thousand to fourteen thou- 
 sand feet. In the Sierra Nevada-Range are peaks said to' equal 
 in hight Mount Blanc, of Europe. 
 
 West of this range are irregular groups, but no continued 
 mountain chain. ' 
 
 The eastern base of the Rocky Mountains is a great plateau, 
 six thousand feet high, "which continues to descend, as we pass 
 eastward, for one thousand •miles. 
 
 The Appalachian and Rocky mountain systems form the great 
 water-sheds between those rivers which flow into the Atlantic 
 and Pacific oceans, and those which have their courses in the 
 interior. e 
 
 East of the Appalachian system, is the country drained by 
 those rivers passing into the Atlantic Ocean, which is called the 
 Atlantic Slope. West of the Rocky Mountains, the territory is 
 drained by those rivers passing into the Pacific Ocean, and is 
 called the Pacific Slope. 
 
 Between these mountain systems, is a vast extent of country, 
 veined with large and valuable rivers, called the Mississippi Val- 
 ley. A high table-land, embracing Minnesota and parts of 
 Wisconsin, Nebraska and Iowa, bounds this valley on the north. 
 On the shores of the Gulf of Mexico is an extensive marsh. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The United States is one of the best 
 watered regions in the World. The rivers are generally large 
 and navigable, thereby facilitating the growth and importance 
 of commerce. Others flow rapidly, and as a consequence, man- 
 ufactures are speedily developing. 
 
 The Mississippi River flows from Lake Itaska, in the northern 
 part of the country, to the Gulf of Mexico, on the south — pass- 
 i:ig through the heart of the great Mississippi Valley. Some of 
 the branches of this great river have their origin aAong the 
 mountains which mark the e'astern and western sides of the Val- 
 ley. The sources of the Ohio are among the western slopes of 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 27 
 
 the Alleglianies ; and the Missouri and Arkansas rivers rise in 
 the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Mississippi, in connection with the Missouri, has a length 
 of four thousand one hundred miles, being the longest river in 
 the world. 
 
 Beside the Mississippi, the Rio Grande is the largest river 
 flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The Rio Colorado, next to the Columbia, is the largest river 
 in the United States, west of the Rocky Mountains, but the 
 amount of water it discharges into the Gulf of California, dur- 
 ing the dry season, is comparatively small. 
 
 The Columbia River has a course of twelve hundred miles in 
 the north-western part of the United States, and pours a consid- 
 erable volume of water into the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The St. Lawrence river (see British America) touches the 
 northern frontier of the United States in New York. 
 
 There are numerous rivers which drain the Atlantic Slope, 
 whose waters are deep, and which are of the utmost commercial 
 importance. Among these the Hudson holds the most conspic- 
 uous place. 
 
 The fi.ve largest fresh water lakes upon the earth are within, 
 or upon the borders of the United States. They are lakes 
 Superior, Huron, Erie, Ontario and Michigan, only the latter of 
 which, however, is wholly within the limits of the United States. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The United States has a more favor- 
 able climate than any of the other divisions of North America. 
 
 The soil, throughout nearly the whole country, is exceedingly 
 rich ; and agriculture is carried to a higher state of perfection, 
 than in any other portion of the continent. 
 
 The products of the fertile prairies of the Mississippi Valley 
 are of immense importance. The slopes of the Appalachian 
 Mountains are fertile and productive. It is only in the western 
 part — in the region of the Rocky Mountains — that desert land 
 is found. 
 
 Productions. The staple productions are wheat and Indian 
 corn, which constitute the chief article of food. Potatoes and 
 
28 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 fruit are grown north of the Potomac ; and south of the Cape 
 Fear and Tennessee rivers, is the region of cotton and sweet 
 potatoes. Cotton and flax grow in the middle of the country, 
 and rice on the south-eastern coast. The wool product is large 
 in Ohio and many other of the western States. 
 
 The fur trade is important in the north-west, and lumbering 
 and fishing are extensively carried on in the north-east. 
 
 The mineral products of the United States are of great im- 
 portance. Gold and silver are being found in large quantities in 
 California, and among the Rocky Mountains ; and copper is 
 found on the shores of Lake Superior. Lead is found on the 
 upper Mississippi ; and among the Appalachian mountains and 
 westward, are rich deposits of coal. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufacturing interests are most ex- 
 tensive in the north-eastern part of the country, where the rivers 
 have rapid courses. The manufactures of flour and meal, cotton 
 and woolen goods, and boots and shoes, are important. 
 
 Commerce. The United States is eminent for commerce, 
 both foreign and domestic. The best harbors are found in the 
 northern Atlantic States ; consequently commerce is here the 
 most important. 
 
 Wheat, corn, rice, beef, pork, wool, cotton, tobacco and gold 
 are the chief exports of the United States. 
 
 Government. The country called the United States is so 
 named because it is composed of a large number of states, all 
 under the same general government. The chief person in au- 
 thority is called the President, who is chosen by the people. The 
 President is assisted in the discharge of his affairs in office, by 
 seven persons, chosen by himself, called the Cabinet. 
 
 Each State elects representatives to the general Congress, 
 varying in number according to population. The Capitol of the 
 United States is at Washington. Every year Congressmen, or 
 representatives of the different states, meet together to frame 
 laws, by which to govern the people. This assembly is called 
 the Congress. 
 
OF THE UNITED STATES. 29 
 
 Cities and Towns. New York is the largest city in the 
 United States. Philadelphia is next in size. Other important 
 cities are Brooklyn, Boston, Cincinnati, Chicago, St. Louis, 
 Buffalo, Baltimore and New Orleans. 
 
 States. The United States consist of thirty-seven States 
 and eleven Territories. The States are divided into New Eng- 
 land or Eastern, Middle, Southern and Western States. 
 
 Eastern States. Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Mass- 
 achusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut. 
 
 Middle States. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania 
 and Delaware. 
 
 Southern States. Maryland, Virginia, "West Virginia, 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
 Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. 
 
 Western States. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Ten- 
 nessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minne- 
 sota, California, Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska and Nevada. 
 
 Territories. Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakotah, Col- 
 orado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Indian Territory, Wyoming 
 and Alaska. 
 
 Alaska was formerly known as Russian America, but was 
 purchased by the United States in 1867, and annexed as a 
 territory. 
 
 The District of Columbia is a small territory set apart from 
 Maryland^ for governmental purposes. It contains Washington, 
 the capital of the United States. 
 
CHAPTER 11. 
 
 EASTERN STATES. 
 
 Outline. There are six New England States. Of these, all, 
 "with the exception of Vermont, are washed bj the Atlantic 
 ocean, or its branches. Only a small portion of New Hamp- 
 shire borders on the sea; but one of the finest harbors in New 
 England is found on her coast. The remaining four states are 
 indented with deep bays, forming good natural harbors. 
 
 These states are bounded on the north and north-west by 
 Canada East, on the east by New Brunswick, on the south, 
 south-east and east by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by 
 New York. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of New England is hilly 
 and mountainous. The land of these states is highest in New 
 Hampshire, where the "White Mountains rear the lofty summits 
 of Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Lafayette. (See New 
 Hampshire.) Isolated groups of these mountains are found in 
 Maine — Mars Hill, in the north-eastern part of the state, being 
 the first elevation of importance in this mountain chain. 
 
 The most important chain of the Green Mountains skirts a 
 portion of the north-western boundaries of Maine and New 
 Hampshire, and passes across the state of Vermont. The same 
 range crosses the western part of Massachusetts and enters Con- 
 necticut. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal river included within the 
 New England states, is the Connecticut. It rises in a small 
 sheet of water a short distance above Connecticut Lake, in the 
 northern part of New Hampshire, and, passing between the latter 
 state and Vermont, and crossing Massachusetts and Connecticut^. 
 
OF THE EASTERN STATES. 31 
 
 empties into Long Island Sound, after a course of over four 
 hundred miles. 
 
 The St. John River has several of its sources in the northern 
 part of Maine, and, after bounding the state for a considerable 
 distance, turns south, and enters New Brunswick. The other 
 rivers of prominence will be found in connection with the differ- 
 ent states. 
 
 The lakes of New England are numerous, and of considerable 
 interest. These will be noticed iji the regular description of 
 their respective states. 
 
 The lakes and rivers of the Eastern States belong to two 
 basins, viz : the Atlantic and St. Lawrence. The Green Moun- 
 tains form the water-shed between these basins. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Outline. Maine is the largest of the Eastern States, and the 
 most eastern of the United States. Its extreme length is two 
 hundred and fifty miles, and greatest breadth one hundred and 
 ninety miles. Area, thirty-one thousand seven hundred and 
 sixty-six miles. 
 
 Physical Features. The only important elevations in 
 Maine are the slopes of the White Mountains, which terminate 
 with Mars Hill, and reach their highest point at Mount Katah- 
 din. Another range of mountains separate Maine from Canada 
 East, having an altitude of from two thousand to four thousand 
 feet. On Mount Desert Island, in Frenchman's Bay, is a peak 
 of the same name, reaching a hight of over two thousand feet. 
 
 " If the scenery of Maine was not overshadowed by the grand- 
 eur and fame of the neighboring White mountains of New 
 Hampshire, it would be the resort of crowds of admiring tour- 
 ists. In addition to its picturesque lakes and water falls. Mount 
 Katahdin rears its bold summit to a hight but little inferior to 
 Mount Washington, and commands a panorama scarcely inferior 
 in extent or grandeur." Fifty mountains and seventeen lakes 
 are said to be over-looked from the summit of Sugar Loaf 
 Mountain. 
 
32 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The chief rivers of Maine are the 
 Penobscot and Kenebec. The Penobscot river is navigable for 
 sixty miles (to Bangor), and the Kennebec twelve miles (to Bath). 
 The St. John river separates Maine from Canada on the north- 
 east, and St. Croix river from New Brunswick on the east. 
 Maine has numerous smaller rivers which afford immense water 
 power to manufacturing villages. 
 
 The largest of the innumerable lakes of Maine is Moosehead, 
 thirty-five miles in length; and next in order is Chesuncook, 
 twenty-four miles in length. It is estimated that one-tenth of 
 the surface of Maine is covered with water. 
 
 The greater portion of the territory of Maine is unsettled, 
 and is covered with vast forests of pine, hemlock and spruce. 
 Maple, beech, birch and ash are plentiful. The oak is confined 
 to districts near the coast. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures of Maine are less im- 
 portant than those of the adjoining states. 
 
 Commerce. Maine has great facilities for commerce. On 
 her coast are Passamaquoddy, Machais, Frenchman's, Penobscot 
 and Casco bays. A greater number of good harbors are here 
 found than in any other state in the Union. The staple export 
 is lumber. The value of the lumber produced in the year 1860, 
 was six million five hundred and ninety-eight thousand five hun- 
 dred and sixty-five dollars. 
 
 In 1860 the population of Maine was six hundred and twen- 
 ty-six thousand nine hundred and forty-seven. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Augusta, the capital of Maine, has a 
 population of eight thousand. The state house at Augusta is 
 a noble structure of whitish granite, at the southern extremity 
 of the city. 
 
 Portland, the largest city, is actively engaged in commerce. 
 The other most important towns are Bangor, Bath and Lewiston. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Outline. New Hampshire is one of the original members of 
 the American Confederacy. It is triangular in form, being 
 widest at the south, and tapering towards the north. 
 
or THE EASTERN STATES. 33 
 
 Physical Features. The whole state is mountainous, hilly 
 or broken, except a small district in the south-east. It has the 
 most elevated land east of the Mississippi, with a single excep- 
 tion. The wild and picturesque scenery of the White Moun- 
 tains, has obtained for that region the title of the " Switzerland 
 of America." Mount Washington is the highest peak, and 
 reaches an elevation of six thousand two hundred and twenty- 
 six feet. Next in order are Mount Adams, five thousand seven 
 hundred and fifty-nine, and Mount Jefierson, five thousand six 
 hundred and fifty-seven feet high. The scenery in this vicinity 
 is highly interesting, and during the summer months is visited 
 by a multitude of pleasure seekers. Mount Lafayette is in 
 another group, twenty miles south of Mount Washington. 
 There are a great many isolated peaks in New Hampshire out- 
 lying the main group. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The chief rivers are the Connecticut 
 and Merrimac. The Connecticut rises a short distance north 
 of Connecticut Lake, and forms the western boundary. The 
 Merrimac rises in the White Mountains, and flows in a south- 
 east direction into Massachusetts. The Androscoggin River has 
 a short course in the north-eastern part of the state. 
 
 Lake Winnipiseogee is the largest lake in New Hampshire. 
 The water is pure and deep, and is surrounded by picturesque 
 scenery. This lake is thought by some to eclipse the beauties 
 of Loch Lomond, in Scotland. Umbago Lake is between Maine 
 and New Hampshire, and is the source of the Androscoggin. 
 Connecticut Lake is near the source of the Connecticut River. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of this state is not of a 
 highly fertile character, though New England industry and 
 economy have wrung valuable products from her stony bosom. 
 The river valleys, especially that of the Connecticut, are ex- 
 tremely fertile, and well adapted to cultivation. The hills afford 
 valuable pasturage for cattle and sheep. Wheat, rye, Indian 
 corn, barley and buckwheat are the chief products. 
 
 The lower slopes of the mountains are heavily timbered. Oak, 
 white pine, fir, hemlock, beech, maple and walnut abound in 
 
34 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 considerable quantities. Large quantities of sugar are made 
 from the rock maple. 
 
 New Hampshire has good water power, but her manufactures 
 are inconsiderable. The Merrimac and Cocheco are rapid rivers, 
 and afford valuable water power. 
 
 Her commerce is limited, though the harbor at Portsmouth is 
 one of the finest in the Union. 
 
 Concord is the capital. The State House at Concord is in the 
 center of a beautiful common, adorned with maple and elm. It 
 is built of hewn granite, is one hundred and twenty-six feet long 
 and forty-nine feet wide. 
 
 Manchester is the largest city. The Amoskeag Falls, and 
 a dam across the river at the head of the falls, • afford immense 
 hydraulic power to this rich manufacturing city. 
 
 Nashua is next to Manchester, and is extensively engaged in 
 manufactures. 
 
 Portsmouth is the commercial metropolis, and the only sea- 
 port in the state. 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 Outline. Vermont is one of the New England States. The 
 outline is somewhat similar to that of New Hampshire, with the 
 position reversed. 
 
 Physical Features. The Green Mountains extend entirely 
 across the state from north to south. The highest peak of these 
 mountains is Mount Mansfield, four thousand three hundred and 
 fifty -nine feet high. Near Montpelier, the capital of .the state, 
 the range branches. The group containing the highest peaks 
 extends towards the north, and is somewhat scattered. The 
 other branch, running in a north-east direction, is more contin- 
 uous, but the peaks are lower. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The rivers of Vermont are generally 
 small, and valuable on account of the water power they afford. 
 The Connecticut River is the largest in connection with the state, 
 and forms the eastern boundary. 
 
OF THE EASTERN STATES. 35 
 
 Vermont shares Lake'Champlain with New York. This lake 
 is of great interest, as being the place where many incidents of 
 the Revolutionary War transpired. Its shores are bold and pic- 
 turesque. It is the main line of travel from Montreal to New 
 York. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The climate of Vermont is severe, but 
 very healthy. The soil in the river valleys is fertile ; and the 
 mountains afford rich pasturage. 
 
 Manufactures. Vermont has water power enough to supply 
 the Union. Her manufactures, as yet, have developed but little, 
 but with guch immense natural resources in reserve, there can 
 be no doubt but that industry, a few years hence, will achieve, 
 in this state, great and lasting results. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Vermont is limited, and is 
 carried on by means of Lake Champlain. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Montpelier is the capital. The State 
 House is a noble structure, built in the form of a cross, and sur- 
 mounted by a dome, the top of which is one hundred feet above 
 the ground. 
 
 Burlington is the largest city, and is situated on the east side 
 of Lake Champlain. A light-house has been erected by the 
 United States government, on Juniper Island, in Burlington Bay. 
 The Vermont University, founded in 1791, and endowed by the 
 state with thirty thousand acres of land, is located at Burlington. 
 
 Rutland is a thriving town. Brattleborough contains the 
 Vermont Asylum for the Insane. 
 
 Bennington is memorable to Americans, as being the place of 
 a victory achieved by the " Green Mountain Boys," under Gen. 
 Stark, over the British, commanded by Col. Baume, of Bur- 
 goyne's army. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Outline. The outline of Massachusetts is very irregular, 
 the south-eastern portion projecting into the sea, forming nearly 
 a circle, inclosing the Bay of Cape Cod, It is one hundred 
 
36 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and forty-five miles long, forty-eight miles wide, and includes an 
 area of seven thousand eight hundred square miles. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of Massachusetts is, in 
 some parts, hilly and mountainous, and is generally uneven. 
 The western part is mountainous, though the peaks do not reach 
 a very great hight. Saddle Mountain is the highest, having an 
 elevation of three thousand five hundred and five feet. These 
 mountains are a continuation of the Green Mountains of Ver- 
 mont. 
 
 Mounts Tom, Holyoke and Wachusett Mountain, are isolated 
 peaks, or detachments of the great White Mountain Chain of 
 New Hampshire. The middle and north-east portions of Mass- 
 achusetts are mountainous, and the south-eastern portion low 
 and sandy. 
 
 R.IVERS and Bays. The Connecticut River enters Massa- 
 chusetts from between Vermont and New Hampshire, and 
 traverses its whole extent from north to south. It flows rapidly 
 in this state, and, therefore, is not navigable without the aid of 
 locks and canals. The Merrimac enters Massachusetts from 
 New Hampshire, and flows through the north-eastern part of 
 the state, into the Atlantic Ocean. The valuable water power 
 that it afibrds has given birth to the rich manufacturing cities 
 of Lowell and Lawrence. The Housatonic rises in the western 
 part of the state, and enters the state of Connecticut. 
 
 A huge gulf has thrust itself into the eastern part of the 
 state, between Cape Ann and Cape Cod. The northern part of 
 this is called Massachusetts Bay, and the southern part is called 
 Cape Cod Bay. On the south is Buzzard's Bay, inclosed between 
 Elizabeth's Island and the main land. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The winters of Massachusetts are gen- 
 erally severe ; and the coast is exposed to chilling north-east 
 winds, which make that part of the country unhealthy. 
 
 In the Connecticut and Housatonic valleys the soil is quite 
 rich, but otherwise than in the river bottoms, it is but moderately 
 :fertile. The most important agricultural products are Indian 
 corn, oats, potatoes, rye, barley and buckwheat. 
 
OP THE EASTERN STATES. 3T 
 
 Manufactures. In manufactures, as in most every thing 
 else, Massachusetts excels. The amount of grain raised is in- 
 sufficient for home consumption ; nevertheless, by her industry, 
 and consequent advancement in manufactures, she has readily 
 supported the densest population of any state in the Union, 
 with the greatest average amount of comfort. Cotton and 
 woolen goods are her chief manufactures. Over two hundred 
 factories are employed in the manufacture of cotton. 
 
 Commerce. Massachusetts stands next to New York in 
 extent of commerce. In proportion to her population she is 
 second to none. The chief exports are rocks, ice, and man^ 
 ufactures. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Boston is the capital and largest city. 
 It is one of the oldest towns in the United States, and is second 
 only to New York in commercial wealth. 
 
 It is divided into three parts, viz : Boston proper, South 
 Boston and East Boston. Old Boston, though limited in area, 
 contains one of the finest public parks in America — the Boston 
 Common. It was formerly a town cow-pasture, but is now en- 
 closed by a costly iron fence, and huge elms, some of which are 
 over a century old. West of the Common, and between the « 
 Common and the Charles River, is a fine Botanic garden, cover- 
 ing twenty-five'acres. 
 
 The State House is the most prominent building in the city, 
 and from its cupola is afibrded one of the finest prospects in 
 the world. The building is one hundred and seventy-three feet 
 long, and sixty-one feet wide, with a cupola fifty feet in diame- 
 ter, and thirty feet high. "Faneuil Hall, the 'Cradle of Liberty' 
 as it is called, is an object of much interest, as being the place 
 where the orators, in the days of Hancock and Adams, roused 
 the people to resist British oppression." 
 
 Lowell is next to Boston. The Merrimac River here has a 
 fall of thirty-three feet, forming the Pawtucket Falls. The 
 water power afibrded by these falls is immense, and has been 
 the means of making Lowell one of the richest manufacturing 
 cities in the Union. ,-. 
 
30 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cambridge, on the Chai'ks River, is next to Lowell in size. 
 Harvard University, founded in 1648, is located at Cambridge. 
 It is one of the earliest established schools in the country, and 
 has, at present, a fund of one million dollars. 
 
 Roxbury is connected with Boston by stage roads over the 
 " Boston Neck." It is engaged in manufacturing steam engines 
 and boilers. 
 
 Charlestown is on the opposite bank of the Charles River from 
 Boston. The Bunker Hill Monument is in Charlestown, on 
 Breeds' Hill. It is two hundred and twenty feet high, and was 
 erected to commemorate the first battle of the Revolution. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Outline. The outline of Connecticut is regular, except on 
 the south, where it is indented by Long Island Sound. Rhode 
 Island is on the east, Massachusetts on the north, and New 
 York on the west. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of Connecticut is hilly. 
 In the western part of the state the Green Mountains are con- 
 tinued by a range of hills. On the eastern side of the Connec- 
 ticut River terminate a ridge of hills, which appear to be a 
 continuation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Be- 
 tween the two are the Greenwoods Range and Middletown 
 Mountains. On the banks of the Connecticut are walls of trap 
 rock, through which the river flows. 
 
 Rivers, Bays, etc. The Connecticut is the largest river, 
 and crosses the state from north to south, dividing it into 
 two nearly equal parts. It is navigable for fifty miles for com- 
 mon vessels. The Housatonic crosses the state farther west, 
 and is navigable for twelve miles. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The springs of Connecticut are earlier 
 than in the other New England States; otherwise than this she 
 possesses all of their severity of weather. 
 
 The soil in the valleys of the Housatonic, Quinipiac, and 
 especially Connecticut, is fertile. Indian corn, oats, rye, tobac- 
 co, wool and potatoes are the chief products. 
 
OF THE EASTERN STATES. 39 
 
 Manufactures. Connecticut is among the first manufac- 
 turing states in the Union. In proportion to her size, she sur- 
 passes New York and Pennsylvania in the manufacture of cotton 
 and woolen goods. 
 
 Commerce. Connecticut carries on a considerable commerce 
 by means of Long Island Sound. She has a good trade with 
 the West Indies, and an extensive coast trade. Her foreign 
 commerce is carried on through New York and Boston. Her 
 exports are, chiefly, her manufactures. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Hartford and New Haven are the cap- 
 itals. Next to the capitals, Norwich and New London are the 
 largest cities. 
 
 New Haven has been styled the " City of Elms," from the 
 great abundance of those, trees. In Temple Street they are so 
 numerous, and so dense with branches, that the sun seldom pen- 
 etrates the foliage. Yale College, established in 1700, is at New 
 Haven. This is the most popular college in the Union. The 
 state house is a large stuccoed building, modeled after the 
 Parthenon. 
 
 Hartford is extensively engaged in commerce. The State 
 House was erected in 1792. It is of the Doric order, and is one 
 hundred and fourteen feet long by seventy-six feet wide, and the 
 walls are fifty-four feet high. 
 
 Norwich is noted for its manufactures. 
 
 New London has a good harbor and is extensively engaged 
 in commerce. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Outline. Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States. 
 Its greatest length is forty-seven miles, and its greatest breadth 
 is thirty-seven miles. Its area is one thousand three hundred 
 and six square miles. The outline on the south-east, where it 
 borders on the ocean, is very irregular, being indented by the 
 Narragansett Bay. 
 
 Physical Features. The country is hilly, but there are no 
 
40 OF THE EASTERN STATES. 
 
 mountains of any importance. On the Atlantic Ocean, and 
 Narragansett Bay, is considerable low land. 
 
 Islands. There are several islands on the coast of Rhode 
 Island, the largest of which, in the Narragansett Bay, gives its 
 name to the state. Canonicus and Prudence islands are in the 
 Narragansett Bay. Block Island is in the Atlantic Ocean, ten 
 miles from the coast. 
 
 Rivers and Bays. The Pawtucket and Pawtuxet are the 
 only streams of any importance, both of them emptying into 
 the Narragansett Bay. 
 
 The Narragansett Bay has protruded itself thirty miles into 
 Rhode Island. It is twelve miles wide, and is thickly dotted 
 with picturesque islands. Large vessels can sail on the bay as 
 far as Providence. 
 
 Climate and Soil. The whole of Rhode Island being so 
 near the sea, has the effect of making the climate more regular 
 than that of the other New England States. 
 
 The soil is moderately fertile. The islands are better adapted 
 to agriculture than the main land. More attentionJs given to 
 grazing, than tilling the soil. 
 
 Manufactures. Rhode Island has abundant water power, 
 and is rich in manufactures. The first cotton mill erected in 
 the United States, was in Rhode Island. 
 
 Commerce. Rhode Island has an active coast trade, and has 
 some foreign commerce. The chief exports are her manufac- 
 tures. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Providence and Newport are the capitals. 
 
 The State House at Providence is built of brick. Providence 
 contains a hospital for insane, and a university. The State House 
 at Newport is a commodious brick structure, adorned with an 
 octagonal cupola. Both Providence and Newport are actively 
 engaged in commerce. Newport has one of the finest harbors 
 in the Union. Smithfield, North Providence and Warwick are 
 the principal towns. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 Outline. There are four Middle States, viz : New York, 
 New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware. These states all have 
 a coast line, with the exception of Pennsylvania. The coast 
 line of New York is limited, but her north-western frontier is 
 washed by lakes Ontario and Erie. 
 
 The Middle States are bounded on the north-west by Canada 
 West, on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and 
 Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Maryland and Virginia, and on 
 the west by Maryland and Ohio. 
 
 Physical Features. The mountains of the Eastern States 
 enter the Middle States from Massachusetts and Connecticut, 
 and cross the Hudson River in the southern part of New York, 
 forming the celebrated Highlands of the Hudson. (See New 
 York.) Crossing the north-western part of New Jersey, they 
 traverse the state of Pennsylvania under the name of Blue 
 Mountains. West of these mountains are several other ranges 
 variously known as Alleghany Mountains, and Laurel and Chest- 
 nut ridges. 
 
 The region on both sides of the mountains is rough and hilly. 
 On the east the hilly district is succeeded by a low and sandy 
 tract, which borders on the coast. 
 
 The Adirondack and Catskill mountains of New York are 
 off-shoots from the main chain. These will be considered in 
 connection with the state in which they are found. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. There are numerous rivers in the Mid- 
 dle States, which are of great importance both to commerce and 
 manufactures. The most important of these are the Hudson, 
 
42 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 of New York, and Rappahannock, York and James, of Vir- 
 ginia. Beside these, there are several others of equal import- 
 ance, which have their courses in several states. The Delaw^are 
 has its sources in the southern part of New York, from which 
 it passes, between New Jersey, and Pennsylvania and Delaware, 
 into the Delaware Bay. The Susquehanna rises, also, in south- 
 ern New York, passes through the middle of western Pennsyl- 
 vania, and enters the Chesapeake Bay in the state of Maryland. 
 The Potomac rises in the northern part of Virginia, and flows 
 into the Chesapeake, forming the boundary line between Vir- 
 ginia and Maryland. 
 
 The only large lakes which are shared with the Middle States, 
 are Lakes Erie and Ontario. They are situated between New 
 York and Pennsylvania, and Canada West. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 New York is the richest and most populous state in the Union, 
 It is three hundred and thirty-five miles in extreme length, and 
 three hundred and eight in breadth. Its area is forty-seven 
 thousand square miles. 
 
 Outline. The outline of New York is very irregular. It 
 is bounded on the north and north-west by Canada, separated 
 by the St. Lawrence river and Lake Ontario ; on the west by 
 Canada, separated by the Niagara River, Pennsylvania and 
 Lake Erie ; on the south by Pennsylvania ; on the south-west 
 by Pennsylvania and New Jersey : on the south-east by Long 
 Island and Long Island Sound ; and on the east by Connecticut, 
 Massachusetts and Vermont. 
 
 Surface. The surface of New York is hilly and mountain- 
 ous. The far-famed Highlands of the Hudson, fifty miles from 
 the mouth of that river, are formed by a branch of the Appa- 
 lachian Mountains which traverse the south-eastern part of New 
 York,- from Pennsylvania. This range, after crossing the Hud- 
 son, pursues a northerly direction, and then enters the states of 
 Massachusetts and Connecticut, and joins the Green Mountains. 
 The grandest mountains of New York are the Adirondacks, 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 43 
 
 reaching their highest point at an elevation of five thousand 
 •four hundred and sixty-seven feet. The Catskill Mountains 
 follow the Hudson for twenty miles, and then, branching off in 
 a north-west direction to the Mohawk, are continued, in a broken 
 chain, through New York into Canada. The highest peak is 
 Round Top, on the Hudson. 
 
 Lakes, Rivees and Falls. New York abounds with highly 
 picturesque lakes. Lake Ontario, the most eastern of the five 
 great lakes, is divided between New York and Canada. It is 
 one hundred and ninety miles in length, and fifty-five miles in 
 breadth. Lake Erie, another of the great lakes, is drained by 
 the Niagara, and fed from Lake Huron, through the Lake and 
 River of St. Clair, and the Detroit River. It is fed by the Niag- 
 ara River, and drained by the St. Lawrence. New York shares 
 Lake Champlain with Vermont. 
 
 Lake George is in the western part of New York. The 
 scenery in the vicinity is grand and picturesque. The water is 
 transparent and deep. Three hundred islands dot the surface of 
 the lake which greatly enhance its beauty. One of these islands 
 is twelve miles from the southern extremity of the lake, and is 
 called Twelve Mile Island. 
 
 Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca and Chautauqua are important lakes 
 of New York. The former three are west of the central part 
 of the state, and Chautauqua is in the south-western part. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers of New York are deep, and, on an aver- 
 age, are better adapted to navigation than those of any other 
 state in the Union. 
 
 The Hudson River, having its source among the beautiful 
 mountain lakes of the Adirondacks, flows through a thickly 
 settled and highly picturesque country, and empties into the 
 New York Bay, and, from thence, into the Atlantic Ocean. It 
 is three hundred and fifty miles long, one hundred and twenty 
 miles of which are navigable for the largest ships. At its mouth 
 is New York City, the great metropolis of the United States. 
 The Palisades of the Hudson, commencing a few miles above 
 
44 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 New York, and continued by the still more elevated Hudson 
 Highlands, are eminently grand and imposing. 
 
 The St. Lawrence, on the north-western frontier, is navigable 
 for the largest vessels. Niagara River, on the western side, is 
 the channel through which the waters of Lake Erie are poured 
 into Lake Ontario. The sources of the Delaware are in the 
 south-eastern part of the state, and the Susquehanna flows from 
 the southern part into Pennsylvania. 
 
 The Grenesee River, crossing the western part, and flowing into 
 Lake Ontario, afibrds immense water power. The Mohawk is 
 an afiluent of the Hudson. 
 
 Falls. There are a large number of falls within the limits 
 of New York, but the first to be noticed is the stupendous cata- 
 ract of Niagara. This far-famed fall of water occurs in the 
 Niagara River, the boundary between New York and Canada. 
 
 The rapids of Niagara commence about twenty miles from 
 Lake Erie, where, for about three miles, the water is hurled 
 along with almost bewildering velocity. The last half mile is a 
 perfect sea of fury, and then, this volume of water, so immense 
 that it baffles the comprehension, makes a plunge of one hun- 
 dred and fifty and one hundred and sixty-five feet, into a fearful 
 chaos of spray and foam. 
 
 The wire Suspension Bridge is two miles further down. It is 
 eight hundred feet long, twenty-four feet wide, and is two hun- 
 dred and fifty feet above the river. The four cable wires that 
 support the bridge, are nine and one-fourth inches in diameter, 
 and are composed of smaller wires twisted together. A Suspen- 
 sion Bridge has recently been constructed between the Falls and 
 old Bridge, for the accommodation of visitors. 
 
 The surface of the river is calm and placid as far as the lower 
 bridge. At this point the channel narrows, and the water, now 
 flowing with renewed velocity, is dashed among rocks and break- 
 ers from ten to twenty feet high, and hurried on at the rate of 
 twenty-five miles an hour. At the terminus of these rapids is 
 a giant whirlpool, caused by a bend in the river, below which 
 the rapids are continued for one and one-half miles. 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 45 
 
 Goat Island separates the falls into two parts. The greater 
 volume of water is poured over on the Canada side, and is called 
 Horse Shoe Fall. This fall is one hundred and fifty feet high. 
 The fall on the American side is called the American Fall, and 
 is one hundred and sixty five feet high. On the American side 
 of Goat Island is the Central Fall. Although this fall is two 
 hundred and forty feet wide, it appears like a narrow ribbon 
 when seen in contrast with the main falls. 
 
 The Mohawk has a descent of about seventy feet, three miles 
 from where it empties into the Hudson, called Cohoes Falls. 
 
 On West Canada Creek, an afiiuent of the Mohawk, is a suc- 
 cession of beautiful cascades, called Trenton Falls. These cas- 
 cades, are from ten to one hundred feet in hight. The creek 
 passes for over two miles through a solid limestone gorge, which 
 is lined with wild and picturesque scenery. 
 
 The Genesee River, in the upper part of its course, has three 
 falls, sixty, ninety and one hundred and ten feet high. These 
 falls occur in the vicinity of Portage, where the Buffalo and 
 New York City Railroad crosses the river, by means of a mag- 
 nificent bridge, eight hundred feet in length and two hundred 
 and thirty-four feet in hight. Perpendicular walls of rock, four 
 hundred feet in hight, confine the river at this place. 
 
 A fall of ninety-seven feet in the Genesee, at Rochester, 
 supplies the mills and factories of that place with immense water 
 power. There are other falls below Rochester, making a total 
 descent, in this vicinity, of two hundred and twenty-six feet. 
 
 In the neighborhood of Ithaca are a large number of beauti- 
 ful falls and cascades, one of which has a perpendicular pitch 
 of one hundred and ten feet. 
 
 At Kauterskill Falls, three miles south-west of the Catskill 
 Mountain House, a small stream makes a leap of one hundred 
 and eighty feet in a wild and picturesque amphitheatre, and from 
 thence takes a second leap into another chasm. 
 
 Climate. In the northern part of New York the weather 
 is severe. The prevalence of lake and sea breezes in the wes- 
 tern and south-eastern parts of the state, have the efiect of 
 
46 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 making the climate more regular, in' these portions of New York. 
 
 Soil and Productions. New York, though fertile when 
 taken as a whole, has territory which is not adapted to cultiva- 
 tion. The soil in the north-eastern part of the state is poor. 
 The Hudson and Mohawk Valleys are rich and productive, and 
 in the western part of the state, the Genesee Flats offer great 
 inducements for farming. In a large number of the counties 
 the fertile river valleys are surrounded with large districts of 
 sterile land. In the production of live stock, oats, Irish pota- 
 toes, grass-seeds and orchard fruits. New York excels all the 
 other states. Indian corn, wheat, barley, buckwheat, beans and 
 peas are raised in large quantities. 
 
 Manufactures. New York does not maintain pre-feminence 
 in this respect. Her rivers abound with falls and rapids which 
 furnish* abundant water power, but her attention seems to be 
 chiefly engrossed with commerce and agriculture. 
 
 Commerce. Although but a small portion of New York is 
 washed by the sea, her commerce surpasses that of every other 
 state in the Union. New York city, situated at the mouth of 
 the Hudson River, has one of the finest harbors in the world. 
 Here is the outlet. of the vast agricultural districts of the west. 
 
 The Hudson E,iver is connected by the Erie Canal with the 
 Great Lakes; and by canal, also, with the St. Lawrence River, 
 thereby establishing a trade between New York and British 
 America. Erie and Ontario, two of the Great Lakes, wash 
 the frontiers of New York, by means of which her commerce 
 is largely extended. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Albany is the capital. It is situated 
 at the head of sloop navigation on the Hudson River, near the 
 eastern terminus of the Erie Canal. The State House is a 
 handsome and substantial stone building, with marble pilasters 
 and columns, and a brown freestone front. It is crowned with 
 a dome on which stands a statue of the goddess Themis, eleven 
 feet high, with a sword in her right hand, and a balance in her 
 left. On the opposite side of the State House square, are the 
 State Hall and City Hall, both rich marble buildings, the latter,, 
 of which, is surmounted with a gilded dome. 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 47 
 
 New York, the largest city, is the metropolis of the United 
 States. The chief street is Broadway, which is four miles long 
 and eighty feet wide. It might be compared to a river, the 
 streets that terminate in it and intersect it being its tributaries, 
 from which flow a constantly accumulating throng of men, and 
 wagons of every description. Rial to and Lombard Street is 
 lined with banking houses, and is the grand centre, from whence 
 vibrates the financial movements of North America. 
 
 New York is fast imitating the cities of the Old World in the 
 stateliness and grandeur of its buildings. The business houses 
 are innumerable, large and commodious, and in the newer parts 
 elegant and attractive. 
 
 Among the most noted public buildings, are the Custom 
 House, (on the site of Faneuil Hall where Washington delivered 
 his first inaugural address) Merchants' Exchange, (an imposing 
 building of Quincy Granite), and Trinity and Grace Churches. 
 
 Greenwood, the burying place of New York and Brooklyn, 
 is the finest cemetery in America. It is three miles south of 
 Fulton Ferry, Brooklyn. 
 
 The Central Park, on the northern side of the city, is laid 
 out in the finest style of landscape gardening. Fifteen millions 
 of dollars, expended by New York City, have made this the 
 finest public park in the United States. 
 
 The harbor of New York is unrivalled, and is always crowded 
 with vessels bearing aloft flags of every nation on the globe. 
 
 Brooklyn, next in size to New York, is also a great commer- 
 cial city. It is the place of residence of many of the retired 
 merchants of New York. A United States Navy Yard is erec- 
 ted here. It is built on Long Island, and has a good harbor. 
 
 Buffalo, at the eastern end of Lake Erie, has* a good Univer- 
 sity, founded in 1846. Its manufactures are important, and its 
 commerce more extensive than that of any other city of New 
 York on the lakes. Buffalo is the terminus of the Erie Canal. 
 
 Rochester is extensively engaged in the manufacture of flour. 
 The Erie Canal passes through Rochester, and crosses the Gen- 
 esee River by means of a cut stone aqueduct, which cost six 
 
48 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 hundred thousand dollars. The Rochester University was 
 organized in 1850. 
 
 Troy is favorably situated for commerce, and has a United 
 States Arsenal. Oswego is a great commercial city. 
 
 Syracuse is noted for its salt springs. At Newburg, on the 
 Hudson, was the headquarters of Washington during a critical 
 period of the Revolutionary War. 
 
 Saratoga is the most fashionable watering place on the Amer- 
 ican Continent. The Saratoga Springs are in considerable 
 repute, because of the medical properties of their waters. Near 
 here were fought the battles of Saratoga and Stillwater. 
 
 West Point is the seat of the United States Military Academy. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Outline. New Jersey has a very irregular outline. The 
 Atlantic Ocean washes the eastern and south-eastern, and the 
 Delaware Bay its south-western shore. ' On the west is Penn- 
 sylvania, and on the north and east is New York. New Jersey 
 is one of the thirteen original states. 
 
 Physical Features. There are several branches of the 
 Appalachian Mountains which cross the north-western part of 
 the state, and are known under the names of Blue, Schooley's, 
 Trowbridge and Ramapo Mountains. South of this the state 
 is level, and, on the coast, low and flat. 
 
 Bays, Rivers and Falls. The Delaware Bay forms the 
 south-western boundary of New Jersey. It is the outlet of the 
 Delaware River, which flows between New Jersey and Pennsyl- 
 vania. The Hudson River separates New Jersey from New 
 York on the ^ast. These are the only large rivers that are 
 connected with the state. The most important rivers flowing 
 through the state are the Passaic and Raritan. 
 
 The Passaic Falls, on the Passaic River, near Patterson, are 
 of great celebrity. The falls are seventy feet in perpendicular 
 hight, and furnish abundant water power for the town of Pat- 
 terson. 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 49 
 
 Climate. The climate in the northern part of the state 
 resembles that of southern New York. In the southern part it 
 is less severe and more regular. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of New Jersey is moder- 
 ately fertile. The northern part is adapted to tillage and pas- 
 turage. The soil, in the southern part, is mixed with sand, but 
 is of average fertility. 
 
 The staple products are wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, Irish 
 potatoes, butter, and orchard fruits. 
 
 Manufactures. ^ New Jersey enjoys great facilities for man- 
 ufactures. The water power afforded by her small rivers is 
 immense ; fuel is abundant, and she has the benefit of the great 
 markets of New York and Philadelphia. 
 
 Commerce. New Jersey is finely situated for commerce, but 
 the trade is all monopolized by her neighboring states. She has 
 several fine harbors, but the foreign trade is carried on through 
 the ports of New York and Philadelphia. She has considera- 
 ble domestic commerce. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Trenton, the capital, is at the head of 
 steamboat navigation on the Delaware River. The Delaware 
 is here crossed by a substantial covered bridge, one thousand 
 one hundred feet long. The State House is a fine building on 
 State Street, one hundred feet long and sixty feet wide. Tren- 
 ton contains the State Lunatic Asylum and the State Peni- 
 tentiary. 
 
 Newark, the largest city, is one of the finest in the United 
 States. Broad Street, the principal thoroughfare, is shaded 
 with majestic elms, and is the seat of business. Bordering on 
 Broad Street are two beautiful public squares, also shaded with 
 elms. Newark has a United States Custom House and Post 
 Office, and is largely engaged in manufacturing India rubber, 
 leather, machinery and watches. 
 
 Jersey City, next to Newark, has a good harbor, and is en- 
 gaged in commerce. It is on the opposite side of the Hudson 
 from New York. Th^ city is supplied with water from the 
 Passaic River, eight miles distant, by a reservoir on Bergen Hill. 
 
60 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Hoboken is two miles above Jersey City, and is chiefly re- 
 markable for its delightful pleasure-grounds, called "Elysian 
 Fields." It is much resorted to by the people of New York. 
 
 Other important towns are Camden, Elizabeth and 2sew 
 Brunswick. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Outline. The outline of Pennsylvania is regular, excepting 
 on the east where the winding channel of the Delaware forms 
 the boundary between this state and New Jersey. On the north 
 and north-east is New York, and on the north-west is Lake Erie. 
 Ohio and West Virginia are on the west, and West Virginia and 
 Maryland bound it on the south. 
 
 Physical Features. The Appalachian Mountain System 
 passes through the state in several parallel ranges, taking the 
 general direction of north-east and south-west. Commencing 
 near the mouth of the Delaware, and passing in a north-west 
 direction, intersecting the mountain system at right angles, the 
 first mountains to be met are the Blue or Kittatiny Mountains. 
 Crossing the Susquehanna River, on both sides of which are 
 the Broad Mountains, we approach the Sideling Hills, which, 
 in turn, are succeeded by tke Alleghany Bidge — the water shed 
 between the Atlantic Slope and the Mississippi Valley. West 
 of the Alleghany Mountains are the Chestnut and Laurel 
 ranges. The Appalachian Mountains attain a, greater breadth 
 in* this state than in any other. Towards the north they ter- 
 minate in rugged hills. The north-west and south-east districts 
 are generally hilly, though there is some level land. 
 
 BiVERS, Lakes and Falls. The Susquehanna is the largest 
 river of Pennsylvania. It enters the state from New York, 
 and, after a rapid course of four hundred miles, enters the 
 Chesapeake Bay. It is not navigable for vessels of any size, 
 and is not affected by the tide. The Delaware Biver rises in 
 New York, and forms the eastern boundary of Pennsylvania. 
 It is navigable for steamboats as far as. Trenton, one hundred 
 and twenty miles from its mouth. At the Delaware Water Gap 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 51 
 
 the river passes through a gorge two miles long, walled in by 
 abrupt precipices from twelve hundred to sixteen hundred feet 
 high. The Lehigh and the Schuylkill, each one hundred miles 
 long, flow into the Delaware. The passages of these rivers 
 through the Blue Kidge, are nearly as remarkable as that of 
 the Delaware. The Juniata is the main branch of the Susque- 
 hanna. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the 
 Alleghany and Monongahela in the western part of the state. 
 It has a course of about fifty miles in Pennsylvania, and is nav- 
 igable to its head waters at Pittsburg. The Alleghany is navi- 
 gable for two hundred miles, and the Monongahela for sixty 
 miles. 
 
 Tho only lake of any importance is Lake Erie, which washes 
 the north-eastern frontier for fifty miles. 
 
 The falls of Pennsylvania are numerous, but are of no great 
 hight or volume. The most interesting are those of Falling 
 Spring, near Pittston, Swatara, near Pottsville, and Wallenpau- 
 pack, in Wayne county. The Youghiogheny Rapids descend 
 sixty feet in a mile, in a wild niountain pass in Fayette county. 
 
 Climate. The eastern part of Pennsylvania is subject to 
 great extremes of heat and cold. The climate is the coldest in 
 the mountainous regions in the middle of the state. Li the 
 western part the climate is more regular. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of Pennsylvania, is of 
 average fertility. It has none of the rich prairies of the "West, 
 but is fully equal to any of the Eastern or Middle States. 
 
 The chief productions are wheat and Indian corn. Large 
 quantities of rye, barley, buckwheat, grass seeds and orchard 
 fruits are also produced. Pennsylvania has large deposits of 
 iron. The coal beds of this state are the most valuable in the 
 Union. 
 
 Manufactures. Pennsylvania has an abundant supply of 
 water power, and is thereby enabled to compete with the leading 
 manufacturing states. According to the census of 1850, over 
 one-half the pig iron produced in the United States was manu- 
 factured in Pennsylvania. The readiness with which iron and 
 
52 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 coal can be obtained, is another essential feature in her manu- 
 facturing ascendency. 
 
 Commerce. The foreign commerce of Pennsylvania is on 
 the decline. The coasting trade is important, and also the trade 
 carried on by means of the Ohio River, Railroads connect the 
 state directly with the great grain region of the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Harrisburg is the capital. The State 
 House, at Harrisburg, contains a valuable library. 
 
 Philadelphia is the largest city in the state. Next to New 
 York, it is the largest city in the United States. The State 
 House, of plain and venerable aspect, is perhaps the most inter- 
 esting building in the city, associated as it is with the freedom 
 of our country. It was in the east room of this building, that 
 the Congress convened, July 4th, 1776, and issued that great 
 American Magna Charta, the Declaration of Independence, 
 which has made this hall a national political shrine. Philadel- 
 phia contains the Girard College, which is the best specimen of 
 Grecian architecture in the United States. The city contains a 
 United States Navy Yard and a United States Naval Asylum. 
 
 Pittsburg is largely engaged in manufactures. It is situated 
 at the confluence of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. 
 
 Alleghany City is opposite the junction of the Alleghany 
 with the Ohio. It is properly a suburb of Pittsburg, and is also 
 engaged in manufactures. 
 
 Reading is next to Pittsburg in size, and is a great manufac- 
 turing city. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Surface. Excepting that portion of Delaware which is 
 washed by the sea, the outline is comparatively regular. It is 
 bounded on the north and north-west by Pennsylvania, on the 
 west and south by Maryland, and on the east by New Jersey, 
 Delaware Bay and Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The most important indentation is Rehoboth Bay. North 
 from this, where the shores of the Atla^ntic wash inland, is Cape 
 Henlopen. 
 
OF THE MIDDLE STATES. 53 
 
 Physical Features. As a general thing, the surface of 
 Delaware is level. This is particularly the case in the middle 
 and southern parts. The northern part is somewhat hilly. 
 There is an elevated swampy tract of land in the western part 
 of the state. 
 
 Rivers and Bays. The Delaware Bay washes the north- 
 eastern side of this state. The Delaware River bounds the 
 state for a short distance before it empties into the Delaware 
 Bay, but does not enter the state. The Brandywine and Christ- 
 iana unite near Wilmington, and pour their waters through one 
 channel into the Delaware. The former will be familiar as being 
 the scene of the battle of the Brandywine, which occurred on 
 this river just beyond the limits of Delaware. 
 
 Climate. The sea breezes have a tendency to regulate the 
 climate of southern Delaware. The north, however, is subject 
 to extremes, the winters being exceedingly severe. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The northern portion, notwith- 
 standing, is best adapted to cultivation. The soil on the banks 
 of the Delaware is fertile and productive. A mixture of sand 
 and clay characterizes the soil in the central part. Further 
 south the clay disappears, and a low sandy tract succeeds. 
 
 The staple productions are wheat, Indian corn and butter. 
 Large quantities of oats, wool, and Irish and sweet potatoes are 
 also produced. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures of Delaware are consid- 
 erable, though not of any great importance. There are over 
 six hundred manufacturing establishments in the state, produc- 
 ing goods to the value of nearly ten millions of dollars. Some 
 of the towns are engaged in ship buildibg. 
 
 Commerce. Delaware has considerable domestic commerce, 
 but her foreign trade is of little moment. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Dover is the capital. Wilmington is 
 the largest city, and is a port of entry. It is largely engaged 
 in the manufacture of steamboats, steam engines and railway 
 cars. The other most important places are New Castle, Mil- 
 ford, Smyrna and Delaware City. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 Outline. The. Southern States number eleven. They are 
 Maryland, Virginiaj West Virginia, North Carolina, South Car- 
 olina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and 
 Texas. These states are all washed by the Atlantic Ocean and 
 Gulf of Mexico, except "West Virginia. On the north and west 
 they are bounded by the Middle and Western states. 
 
 Physical Features. Those of the Southern States, bor- 
 dering on the Atlantic coast, belong to the Atlantic Slope ; 
 those on the Gulf of Mexico, to the Mississippi Valley. The 
 low portions of these states, lying next to the sea, embrace all 
 of Florida and Louisiana, and about one-half of South Caro- 
 lina, Georgia and Alabama. The hilly regions that succeed, 
 resemble the surface of the Middle States. 
 
 Several ranges of the Appalachian Mountains cross Virginia. 
 The Blue Ridge traverses the western parts of North and South 
 Carolina, and penetrates into Georgia. The Alleghany Range 
 forms the western boundary of North Carolina, and extends 
 into Georgia and Alabama. 
 
 The highest land in the Southern States is found in North 
 Carolina. (See North Carolina.) This state has, also, the 
 highest land east of the Mississippi River. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers of the Southern States are abundant. 
 The Mississippi enters the Gulf of Mexico in the state of Louis- 
 iana. (See United States and Louisiana.) The other rivers 
 will be noticed in the description of the states in which they 
 have their courses. 
 
■ , OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 55 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Outline. This state has a very irregular outline. The 
 Chesapeake Bay protrudes itself into the heart of the country, 
 dividing it into two unequal parts. The numerous bays that 
 indent the shores of this great body, give the coast a jagged 
 and irregular appearance, Maryland is bounded on the north 
 by Pennsylvania, on the south and south-west by Virginia, and 
 on the east by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The north-western part of the state, 
 between the Pennsylvania line and the Potomac river, is crossed 
 by several branches of the Appalachian Mountains, but none of 
 them reach any. great hight. The shores of the Chesapeake, 
 and land adjacent, are generally low and level. 
 
 EiVERS and Bays. The Susquehanna River has a short 
 course in the state before it reaches the Chesapeake Bay. The 
 Potomac River forms the boundary between Maryland and Vir- 
 ginia, throughout its whole extent. It is three hundred and 
 fifty miles long from its main source to its mouth. ' It is affec- 
 ted by the tide as far as Georgetown, in the District of Colum- 
 bia. It is navigable for the largest vessels as far as Washington. 
 This river has some interesting falls above Georgetown, and at 
 Harper's Ferry it bursts through the Blue Ridge, forming one 
 of the wildest and most enchanting scenes in that part of the 
 country. 
 
 The most important rivers not mentioned, are the Choptank, 
 Nanticoke and Pocomoke — all in the eastern part of the state, 
 and all flowing into the Chesapeake Bay. 
 
 The Chesapeake Bay extends into the state one hundred and 
 twenty miles. It varies in breadth from seven to twenty miles. 
 It is navigable throughout its whole extent. There are numer- 
 ous other bays in the state, such as Eastern, Herring and Poco- 
 moke bays, all of which, however, are arms of the Chesapeako 
 Bay. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of Mary- 
 land is more regular tha^i that enjoyed by other adjoining states, 
 being situated in a good position to avoid the extremes of both 
 
56 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 north and south. In some of the low lands the atmosphere is 
 unhealthy. 
 
 In some of the middle counties the soil is very rich and fruit- 
 ful. But as a general thing the soil consists of a mixture of 
 clay and sand. It has been much improved of late, and with 
 proper management, yields an abundant harvest. 
 
 Tobacco is the staple production. Wheat and Indian corn 
 are produced in large quantities. Oats, rye, buckwheat, flax 
 and Irish and sweet potatoes are also produced. 
 
 Manufactures. Maryland is largely engaged in manufac- 
 tures. There are over three thousand manufactories in the 
 state, annually producing goods to the amount of forty-tw© 
 millions of dollars. 
 
 Commerce. Maryland enjoys great facilities for commerce, 
 being penetrated nearly through by the Chesapeake Bay, and 
 sharing with Virginia the large and navigable Potomac River. 
 The chief exports are flour, wheat, pork and tobacco. 
 
 Cities and Towns. The capital is Annapolis. It is the 
 seat of St. John's College, incorporated in 1789. 
 
 Baltimore is the largest city. It has a fine harbor, and is 
 admirably situated for both foreign and domestic commerce. 
 
 Baltimore has been styled the " Monumental City," because 
 of the prominence of its monuments. The Washington Monu- 
 ment rises three hundred and twelve feet above the harbor, and 
 is ascended by means of a winding stairway within. It is sur- 
 mounted by a colossal statue of Washington. The Battle Mon- 
 ument is surmounted by a beautiful statue of the Goddess of 
 Liberty, seven and one-half feet high. Baltimore contains the 
 State Penitentiary. 
 
 Cumberland is a flourishing town, and is the western terminus 
 of the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 In 1790, a plat of land, ten miles square, on both sides of 
 the Potomac, was ceded to the United States by the states of 
 
. OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 57 
 
 Maryland and Virginia. This was intended as the site of the 
 United States capital. 
 
 The city was first laid out on the Virginia side of the river ; 
 hut after the destruction of the government buildings by the 
 British, in 1812, they were rebuilt on the Maryland side. The 
 Virginia portion of this district is again a part of that state. 
 The capital was named Washington. Georgetown is, also, in 
 the District of Columbia, and is separated from Washington by 
 Rock Creek. 
 
 Washington is the capital of the United States. Its site is 
 between the Potomac and one of its tributaries — the East Branch. 
 
 The Capitol and White House — or President's House — are 
 one mile and a half apart. The former is on an elevation of 
 seventy-two, and the latter forty-four feet. The Capitol con- 
 sists of the center Capitol and extensions. The corner stone of 
 the center building was laid in 1792, by George Washington. 
 The extensions were commenced during the administration of 
 President Fillmore. The original building is three hundred and 
 fifty-two feet long, and one hundred and twenty-one feet deep. 
 It is constructed of a light yellow freestone, painted white. 
 
 The extensions are each two hundred and thirty-eight by one 
 hundred and forty feet, and are connected with the main build- 
 ing by corridors, forty-four feet long. In the center of the main 
 building is the rotunda, and above it is the dome, which is sur- 
 mounted by Crawford's Bronze Statue of Liberty. The eastern 
 front has three grand porticoes of Corinthian columns. The 
 western front is not so rich, but commands the finest prospect. 
 In the northern extension is the Senate Chamber : in the south- 
 ern, the House of Representatives. 
 
 West of the Capitol a botanical garden has been laid out. 
 It is adorned with plants which were obtained by the South Sea 
 and Japanese Exploring Expeditions. 
 
 The President's House is built of free stone, painted white. 
 
 It is two stories high, has a front of one hundred and seventy 
 
 feet, and is eighty-six feet deep. The northern portico is 
 
 adorned by four Ionic columns; the southern with six. At each 
 
 5 
 
58 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 side are three columns. In Lafayette Square, on the opposite 
 side of Pennsylvania Avenue, is a bronze equestrian stattie of 
 General Jackson. In the north lawn of the President's House, 
 is a statue of Thomas Jefferson. 
 
 For elegance and architectural merit, the Patent Office ranks 
 next to the Capitol. It covers an entire block, being two hun- 
 dred and four feet long and one hundred and two deep. Every 
 invention, upon which a patent is granted, is placed in this build- 
 ins- It is built of white marble. 
 
 The Treasury building is an immense structure, six hundred 
 feet long and two hundred feet wide. The eastern front is 
 adorned with a colonnade of Ionic columns, three hundred feet 
 long. The Post Office is among the most prominent public 
 buildings. 
 
 A colossal statue of Washington is being erected on the banks 
 of the Potomac. The plan, as decided upon, was a white mar- 
 •ble obelisk, fifty-five feet square at the base, and diminishing in 
 size to twenty-five feet, at the hight of five hundred feet. Each 
 state was to furnish a block of native stone or copper, to be 
 used in its construction. Some dissatisfaction exists at present, 
 with regard to the project, and it is doubtful whether it will ever 
 be completed. 
 
 East of this monument, between it and the Capitol, stands 
 the Smithsonian Institute, one of the noblest buildings in Wash- 
 ington. It is four hundred and fifty feet long, and one hundred 
 and forty feet wide, and has nine towers from seventy five to 
 one hundred and fifty feet high. It was built with the interest 
 on a sum of money left the United States by James Smithson 
 " to found at Washington an establishment for the increase and 
 diffusion of knowledge among men." It has a library of over 
 forty thousand volumes. 
 
 The National Observatory has a commanding position on the 
 banks of the Potomac. The Navy Yard, which embraces twenty 
 acres, inclosed by a wall, is situated on the East Branch, about 
 one and one-fourth miles from the Capitol. 
 
 There are a large number of monuments and statues in Wash- 
 
OP THE SOUTHERN STATES. 59 
 
 ington, of which the equestrian statue of Jackson and statue of 
 Jefferson, and the unfinished Washington Monument have already 
 heen noticed. An equestrian statue of Washington has been 
 erected near Georgetown. In East Capitol Square is a bronze 
 statue of Washington, At the entrance to the Capitol are two 
 statues; one called Statue of Civilization, by Greenough, and 
 the other Columbus and the Indian Girl. 
 
 The Soldiers' Home, six miles north of the Capitol, is one of 
 the noblest institutions in the United States. All old and dis- 
 abled veterans, who have endured twenty years of honorable 
 service, are gathered here, and supported by money collected in 
 a variety of ways. Every soldier in service pays twelve and 
 one-half cents per month for this purpose. All unclaimed 
 property of deceased soldiers is turned into the fund ; also all 
 fines imposed by court martials. The money invested in the 
 building was part of a sum obtained from conquered towns in 
 Mexico ; and it owes its existence, to a' certain . extent, to the 
 advice of General Scott. The Soldiers' Cemetery is in this 
 vicinity, and is filled with many of the fallen patriots of the 
 rebellion. The National Cemetery is at Arlington Hights. 
 
 Arlington Hights are five miles south-west of Washington, in 
 Virginia, on the banks of the Potomac. Here was the estate 
 of the rebel general, Robert E, Lee, which was confiscated by 
 the United States Government. The National Cemetery, located 
 here, embraces a portion of this property. 
 
 Washington is well laid out, and, in respect to public build- 
 ings, is equal to any of the large cities. It has a good harbor, 
 but much of the trade is monopolized by older cities in the 
 vicinity.^ 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Outline. With the exception of the southern boundary, 
 Virginia presents a very irregular outline. The boundary on 
 the north-west, between Virginia and West Virginia, is angular 
 and winding; and the tortuous channel of the Potomac, and irreg- 
 ular shores of the Chesapeake, separate this state from Mary- 
 land on the north-east. Kentucky is on the north-west ; and 
 North Carolina and Tennessee are on the south. 
 
60 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Physical Features. East of the Blue Ridge the country 
 is, generally, level. When about half the extent is traversed 
 from the Chesapeake, the country has a slight increase in eleva- 
 tion, becoming more hilly, which is continued to the Blue Ridge. 
 The Blue Ridge traverses the whole length of the state from 
 south-west to north-east — entering the state of Maryland. Next 
 west is the main chain of the Appalachians, which forms the 
 boundary between the states of Virginia and West Virginia at 
 different places. It culminates at White Top, in the south- 
 western part of the state, which has an elevation of six thousand 
 feet. The Cumberland Mountains divide Virginia and Ken- 
 tucky, and extend into West Virginia. 
 
 Caves and Natural Bridge. Of the former, Virginia 
 has several of considerable importance. Wier's Cave, seven- 
 teen miles north-east of Staunton, is the most remarkable. It 
 extends twenty-five hundred feet beneath the surface of the 
 earth, and is hung with sparkling stalactites. Madison, in the 
 same neighborhood, and Blowing and Saltpetre caves, forty 
 miles distant, are of considerable notoriety. 
 
 The great Natural Bridge, over Cedar Creek, is one of the 
 most interesting objects in connection with the state. This 
 bridge has a natural arch, ninety feet wide and two hundred 
 feet above the water. High up, in this soft stone arch, is in- 
 scribed the name of Washington. 
 
 Rivers and Bays. The Chesapeake Bay, though lying 
 mostly in Maryland, has its outlet in Virginia. The rivers of 
 Virginia are large, and generally empty into the Chesapeake 
 Bay. The Potomac River is shared with Maryland. The Rap- 
 pahannock, York and James are large and valuable rivers. The 
 former is navigable to Fredericksburg and the latter to Rich- 
 mond. The Chowan and Roanoke have their sources in Virginia, 
 and flow south into North Carolina. 
 
 Climate. Virginia is exposed to a great variety of tempera- 
 ture. In the low counties on the coast, the winters are mild, 
 but the summers are hot and unhealthy. In the western, or 
 mountainous portion, the air is cool and salubrious. 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES, 61 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil varies in difierent parts 
 of the state. In the south-east it is sandy, but is favorable to the 
 growth of the peach, sweet potato and other fruits. The moun- 
 tains and river valleys cannot be surpassed in fertility, yielding 
 large quantities of wheat, Indian corn and tobacco. 
 
 Manufactures. Virginia has vast manufacturing resources, 
 both in water-power and coal, iron and copper, but as yet they 
 have been but poorly developed. Of late things have assumed 
 a different aspect, and the probabilities are that, in future, Vir- 
 ginia will rank among the first manufacturing states. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Virginia is small, when we 
 consider her vast natural advantages. Her foreign trade is 
 carried on chiefly through northern ports and shipping. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Richmond is the capital, and largest 
 city. The Capitol is the most conspicuous building. The Capi- 
 tol grounds embrace eight acres, in which is a marble statue of 
 Washington, taken from life. Richmond has good water-power, 
 and is engaged, to a considerable extent, in manufactures. 
 
 Petersburg and Norfolk are ports of entry, and have consid- 
 erable commerce. 
 
 Portsmouth is also a port of entry. In its suburbs is a Uni- 
 ted States Navy Yard. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 Outline. West' Virginia has a very irregular outline. On 
 the south-east is the irregular boundary between this state and 
 Virginia. On the north are Pennsylvania and Maryland, and on 
 the north-east is the tortuous course of the Ohio, separating 
 it from the state of the same name. Kentucky is on the 
 south-west. 
 
 Physical Features. The general aspect of the country is 
 hilly. The main ridge, of the Appalachians traverses the north- 
 eastern portion of the state. Farther south it forms the east- 
 ern boundary. West of this range are several parallel ranges. 
 The average altitude of the mountains in this state is twenty- 
 five hundred feet. 
 
62 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Rivers. West Virginia shares the Ohio River "with Ohio, 
 Flowing into this are the Guyandotte, Great Kanawha and Lit- 
 tle Kanawha. The sources of the Green River and Mononga- 
 hela are also in this state. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of West 
 Virginia is inferior to that of no other state in the South. The 
 soil is rich, and the land, in many sections, is heavily timhered. 
 Wheat, Indian corn, oats and potatoes are the staple pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Wheeling is the capital, and, also, the 
 largest city. The National . Railroad crosses the river at this 
 place by means of a beautiful wire suspension bridge. 
 
 Parkersburg is a thriving town, and has fine railroad facili- 
 ties. Martinsburg and Charleston are important towns. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Outline, North Carolina is bounded on the north by Vir- 
 ginia, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on tie south by South. 
 Carolina and Georgia, and on the west by Tennessee. 
 
 Physical Features. From the sea coast, for a distance of 
 sixty or eighty miles, the country is perfectly level, traversed 
 by sluggish streams, and abounding in swamps and marshes. 
 The soil, except along the banks of the streams, is sandy and 
 barren. The swamps cover about one-tenth of the area of the 
 state. The Great Dismal Swamp, which is situated partly in 
 this state and partly in Virginia, is thirty miles long and from 
 ten to twelve miles wide, extending over one hundred thousand 
 acres. Alligator Swamp, situated on the peninsula between 
 Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, is similar in character to the 
 one above described. 
 
 The land rises gradually as we advance towards the interior. 
 
 Between the Yadkin and Catawba rivers, is an elevated region 
 forming a part of the great central plateau, or table land of the 
 United States, from one thousand to two thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea. Black Mountain, the highest culmina- 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 63 
 
 tion east of the Rocky Mountains, and two hundred feet higher 
 than the loftiest summit of the White Mountains, has an eleva- 
 tion of six thousand four hundred and twenty-six feet. 
 
 Rivers. Cape Fear River, the most important stream, fol- 
 lows a course of ahout two hundred and fifty miles, and empties 
 into the Atlantic Ocean, near Cape Fear. The Neuse River 
 rises in the northern part of the state, flows in a south-easterly 
 direction, and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Chowan 
 rises in Virginia and empties into Albemarle Sound. Among 
 other rivers worthy of mention are the Yadkin and Catawba, 
 which rise in the western part of the state, and, flowing in a 
 southerly direction, reach the Atlantic Ocean through South 
 Carolina. 
 
 Climate. The climate is varied. In the low districts it is 
 hot and humid, while in the mountainous regions it is cool and 
 dry. The seasons throughout the state, however, are less sub- 
 ject to extremes than in the states north and south. 
 
 Soil and Productions. Between the mountains in the west 
 the soil is very productive. 
 
 The pine forests cover nearly the whole eastern section, and 
 contribute largely to the general wealth of the state, furnishing 
 not only lumber, but nearly all the resinous matter used in the 
 United States. Cotton, corn, tobacco, wheat and rice are, also, 
 important productions. Gold, copper, coal and iron are ob- 
 tained in considerable quantities. 
 
 Manufactures. North Carolina has not yet made any ex- 
 tensive application of her great manufacturing facilities. Pro- 
 fessor Emmons, in his remarks in the geological report of 1852, 
 says, with reference to North Carolina : " The water-power is 
 immense, and the improvements on Cape Fear and Deep rivers 
 will furnish water-power for several Lowells." When a proper 
 state of things shall have created an interest in this respect, we 
 may expect to see- North Carolina standing on a common basis 
 with the leading manufacturing states. 
 
 Commerce. Her commerce is comparatively limited. The 
 coasting and internal trade, however, are large, the former, 
 
64 descriptive' geography * 
 
 chiefly, with northern ports. The exports consist, principally, 
 of cotton, lumber and naval stores. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Raleigh is the capital. "Wilmington, 
 the principal seaport, and largest town, is situated on Cape 
 Fear River. 
 
 Beaufort has the best harbor in the state, and is extensively 
 engaged in the coasting trade. Fayetteville, Newbern, Oxford, 
 Edenton and Salisbury are, also, important towns. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Outline. South Carolina is bounded on the north by North 
 Carolina, on the east by North Carolina and the Atlantic Ocean, 
 on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and Georgia, and on the 
 west by Georgia — the Savannah River forming the boundary 
 between the two states. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast region, for about one hun- 
 dred miles from the ocean, is flat and sandy, with a light soil 
 covered with pine forests, and interspersed with numerous 
 swamps- Beyond this plain is a belt of low sand hills, called' 
 the "Middle Country," which is moderately productive. The 
 Middle Country is succeeded on the west by another belt, called 
 the " Ridge," where the land rises by an abrupt elevation, and, 
 afterwards, continues to ascend, gradually, till it terminates in 
 the Blue Ridge, in the extreme north-western part of the state. 
 The highest peak in this state is Table Mountain, having an 
 altitude of four thousand feet. 
 
 King's Mountain, situated on the line between North and 
 South Carolina, is an isolated mountain of considerable prom- 
 inence. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers of South Carolina rise in the 
 Blue Ridge. The Great Pedee, which bears the name of Yad- 
 kin, in North Carolina, rises in the Blue Ridge, flows through 
 the eastern portion of South Carolina, and empties into Win- 
 yaw Bay. The Santee, the largest river in the state, is formed 
 by the junction of the Congaree and Wateree ; and it reaches 
 
OF THE SOUTHEKN STATES. 65 
 
 the sea, without receiving any important tributary, through 
 two mouths. 
 
 The Edisto and Combahee rivers are smaller streams in the 
 southern part of the state. Some of these rivers are navigable, 
 but, as a general thing, their courses are shallow and obstructed 
 with sandbars. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. South Carolina is favor- 
 ably situated between the intense heat of the tropics and the 
 frigid temperature of the north; and while the state grows 
 nearly all the products of the North Temperate Zone, it also 
 produces, to some extent, the tropical fruits. 
 
 The soil is moderately fertile. The hilly region, beyond tTie 
 Ridge, is the most productive. 
 
 South Carolina yields about two-thirds of all the rice grown 
 in the United States, and is among the first in the amount of 
 cotton produced. These articles, with lumber and naval stores, 
 are the chief exports. Wheat, Indian corn, oats, rye, barley 
 and sweet potatoes are important articles of food. 
 
 Manufactures. The attention of South Carolina has but 
 recently been directed to the manufacturing interest, but cotton- 
 yarns, and coarse cotton stufis are already being exported to 
 the north. In 1850 there were one thousand two hundred and 
 fifty manufacturing establishments in the state, employing a cap- 
 ital of six million nine hundred and thirty-two thousand dollars. 
 
 Commerce. South Carolina ranks high as a commercial state. 
 Charleston is the principal port open to the foreign trade. The 
 coasting trade is very extensive ; and regular lines of steam- 
 ships ply between Charleston and the ports north and south. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Columbia, the capital, is situated in 
 the interior of the state, on the Congaree River. Charleston 
 is the principal port of the state, and one of the largest and 
 most flourishing cities of the south. It is situated on a tongue 
 of land, formed by the meeting of the Cooper and Ashley 
 rivers, in Charleston Harbor. The harbor is a large estuary, 
 Tvith an average width of two miles : and extends seven miles 
 
66 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 south-east from the Atlantic, which it enters between Sullivan's 
 and Morris' islands. It is well protected by fortifications- 
 Georgetown, Beaufort, Camden and Cheraw are the other most 
 important places. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Outline. Georgia is bounded on the north by Tennessee 
 and North Carolina, on the north and east by South Carolina, 
 from which it is separated by the Savannah River, on the east 
 by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by Florida, and on the west 
 by Alabama and the Chattahooche River. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast of Georgia extends in a 
 south and south-west direction for a distance of one hundred 
 and twenty-eight miles, with a shore line estimated at four hun- 
 dred and eighty miles. Numerous islands skirt the coast, which 
 have a light, sandy soil, well adapted to the cultivation of cotton. 
 The cotton grown here is called " Sea Island Cotton." In the 
 interior of the state the surface of the country is -more elevated ; 
 the hills increase in size towards the north, and the rivers de- 
 scend more swiftly as they are traced toward their sources. The 
 Blue Ridge forms the most elevated land, varying in hight from 
 twelve hundred to four thousand feet. The southern spurs of 
 the Appalachians are reached in the Etowah Valley, and the 
 Amicolola Hills and Blue Ridge, ranging with these, constitute 
 the great water shed that directs the rivers on one side toward 
 the Atlantic, and on the other towards the Mississippi. 
 
 Rivers and Swamps. Savannah, the largest river of Geor- 
 gia, has its origin in two small streams in North Carolina, flows 
 in a south-easterly direction,, and, after a. course of four hun- 
 dred and fifty miles, empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The 
 Chattahoochee River rises near the sources of the Savannah 
 River, flows, at first, in a south-westerly direction, and then 
 turns south and enters Florida under the name of Appalachicola 
 River. Its whole length, to the Gulf of Mexico, is five hundred 
 and fifty miles, and steamboats ascend it to the falls of Colum- 
 bus. Flint River rises south of the Chattahoochee, and joins 
 
OP THE SOUTHERN STATES. 67 
 
 that river in the south-western part of the state, after a course 
 of three hundred miles. 
 
 Next to the Savannah, the Altamaha is the largest river flow- 
 ing into the Atlantic. It is formed by the junction of the 
 Oconee and Ocmulgee rivers, which flow for about four hundred 
 and fifty miles nearly parallel to each other, when the latter 
 bends round and unites its waters with those of the former. The 
 Ogeechee drains the country between the Savannah and Alta- 
 maha, and has a south-easterly course of two hundred miles. 
 
 The Okefinoke Swamp is situated in the southern part of the 
 state, and extends over the borders of Florida. It compre- 
 hends, properly, a series of swamps, covered with a thick growth 
 of pine and underwood. In the wet season it presents the 
 appearance of a wide lake containing islands of rich highland. 
 Several streams are lost in its morasses, and others take their 
 rise within its limits. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate varies with 
 the latitude. While southern and middle Georgia are parched 
 with heat, the more northerly climate is moderate and even cold. 
 In the south are the tide swamps, productive of rice. The in- 
 land swamps, also, produce rice abundantly. The northern part 
 is peculiarly a grain country ; and, in the mountains, the lands 
 are well adapted to grazing. Georgia is second in the amount 
 of cotton and rice, and first in the production of sweet potatoes, 
 of all the states in the Union. 
 
 Manufactures. The great water power furnished by her 
 rapid rivers, as well as her facilities for transportation, enable 
 Georgia to rank high among the manufacturing states. In her 
 internal improvements she is second to none of the Southern 
 States. 
 
 Commerce. Georgia has an extensive foreign commerce. 
 Only a small portion of the commercial staples, however, are ex- 
 ported directly through shipping belonging to the state. The 
 great bulk is carried to northern ports by coasting vessels, and, 
 from thence, transmitted* to foreign ports. Cotton, rice and 
 lumber are the principal exports. 
 
68 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cities and Towns. Milledgeville is the capital. Savannah, 
 on the river- of the same name, is the chief commercial and 
 largest city of the state, and one of the principal ports for cot- 
 ton, rice and lumber on the south-east Atlantic coast. Darien, 
 Brunswick and St. Mary's are ports engaged in the coasting 
 trade. Augusta, Columbus and Macon are also important towns. 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 Outline. Florida is bounded on the north by Oeorgia and 
 Alabama, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south 
 by the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by 
 the Gulf of Mexico and Alabama, the boundary line between 
 it and the latter state being the Rio Perdido River. 
 
 Physical Features. Florida is the most southern of the 
 United States. The^ lower portion of the peninsula is an exten- 
 sive marsh, called the Everglades, which, during the rainy season, 
 between June and October, effectually prevents an overland 
 transit from one shore to the other. Noith of this tract to 
 Georgia the surface is generally level, but in some parts it is 
 undulating and even hilly. 
 
 The prairies, or Savannas, as they are called, are sometimes 
 very extensive, stretching several miles in length and breadth, and 
 forming natural pastures. The swamps, or morasses, the most 
 conspicuous feature in the state, are formed by the inundation 
 of the rivers, or are produced by the drainage of the surround- 
 ing country. 
 
 Florida has a greater extent of coast line than any other state, 
 having a length of four hundred and seventy-two miles on the 
 Atlantic, and six hundred and seventy-four miles on the Gulf 
 of Mexico ; but this immense sea line is almost inaccessible 
 on account of shallow soundings. There are few good har- 
 bors on the coast. 
 
 South of the main land, a chain of small, rock v islands, called 
 " Keys," extend towards the west, and terminate in a cluster of 
 rocks and sand banks, called the Tortugas. South of the bank 
 upon which the Keys rise, is a long, narrow coral reef, known 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 69 
 
 as the Florida Reef, which here constitutes the left bank of the 
 Gulf Stream. The most important of the Keys is Key "West. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers of Florida are numerous, and aiford 
 great facilities to internal navigation. St. John's River rises in 
 the great southern marsh, and reaches the ocean after a north- 
 erly course of three hundred miles. The Suwanee rises by two 
 branches in Georgia, and reaches the Gulf at Macasasa Bay. 
 The Appalachicola River, formed on the frontiers of Florida by 
 the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers, falls into 
 the bay of the same name after a navigable course of eighty 
 miles. St. Mary s River, forming the north-eastern boundary, 
 empties into the Atlantic, and affords, through a great portion 
 of its length, a fine navigable channel. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Florida is one of its chief attrac- 
 tions. Mild in winter, and not excessively hot in summer, the 
 temperature is more equable than that of any other state in the 
 Union. In the southern part, the temperature scarcely changes 
 the year round. Summer being distinguished only by the copious- 
 ness of its showers. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is generally sandy. The 
 central district is the most productive, but a large portion of 
 this is composed of poor pine barrens ; and farther west the 
 land is more generally poor. Therefore only a small portion of 
 the state can be said to be available for cultivation. Yet the 
 warmth and humidity of the climate compensate, in a great 
 measure, for the stubborn nature of the soil, and give it a vege- 
 tation of great variety and luxuriance. 
 
 The coffee plant, cocoa palm, sugar cane, tobacco, rice and 
 indigo are extensively cultivated. The fruits produced are 
 numerous, and of the most delicate description ; such as oranges, 
 lemons, pine apples, olives and grapes. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures are inconsiderable, em- 
 bracing only such articles as the immediate necessities of the 
 people demand. 
 
 Commerce. Florida, although possessing a long coast line, 
 
70 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 has, neveriheless, but few good harbors. The coasting trade is 
 very extensive, employing numerous steamers which carry im- 
 mense freights to Savannah, Charleston, Baltimore, Philadelphia 
 and New York. The chief exports are cotton and sugar, which 
 are mostly carried coastwise, the imports arriving by the same 
 course. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Tallahassee is the capital. Pensacola, 
 Appalachicola, San Augustine and Key West are the principal 
 ports. Pensacola, on the Pensacola Bay, has a considerable 
 coast trade. Appalachicola, situated on a river of the same 
 name, has a deep and safe harbor, and is considerably engaged 
 in the foreign trade. 
 
 San Augustine is the oldest town in the state. Key West, on 
 the island so called, is the key of the United States to the Flor- 
 ida pass and Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Outline. Alabama is bounded on the north by Tennessee, 
 on the east by Georgia and Florida, on the south by Florida 
 and the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Mississippi. 
 
 Physical Features. The eastern part of the state, being 
 traversed by several off-shoots of the Alleghanies, is very moun- 
 tainous, but presents nowhere any great elevation. South of 
 this mountain region, the land descends to the Gulf of Mexicoi 
 The southern half of the state consists of extensive prairies ; 
 and the lands in the middle and northern sections are covered, 
 in many instances, with a rich and fruitful soil. The valleys of 
 the Alabama and other great rivers, are equally fertile. 
 
 Rivers, Bays, etc. With the exception of the Tennessee 
 and its tributaries, all of the rivers of this state flow southward 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. The Mobile River, the great river of 
 the state, is formed by the junction of the Alabama and Tom- 
 bigbee rivers, fifty miles above Mobile Bay, into whicl\ it empties 
 at the city of Mobile. The Tombigbee, or the western branch 
 of the Mobile, rises in the north-eastern part of Mississippi, and 
 is navigable for steamers to Columbus, a distance of about three 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 71 
 
 hundred miles, and for jQat-boats one hundred and twenty-five 
 miles farther. 
 
 The Alabama, or eastern branch, is navigable for a distance 
 of about three hundred miles. The Coasa and Tallapoosa, trib- 
 utaries of the Alabama, both have their origin in Georgia. 
 
 The navigation of all these rivers, however, is interrupted 
 during the dry season, in the summer months, and, at best, 
 affords only a precarious means of transport for merchandise. 
 
 Alabama has a coast line of only about sixty miles ; but it 
 contains Mobile Bay, one of the largest and deepest basins of 
 the Gulf, and the great outlet of the navigable waters of the 
 state. This sheet of water is thirty miles long, and from three 
 to eighteen miles wide, with twenty-two feet of water at the 
 main entrance at low tide. 
 
 Climate. The climate is generally healthy. In the elevated 
 portion of the country the temperature is delightful, the heat 
 of summer being modified by the Gulf breezes. In the south the 
 climate is very warm, and the products of a tropical character. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil and productions vary with 
 the position and elevation of different parts of the state. In 
 the north, where the mountains predominate, the soil is mode- 
 rately fertile, and in the valleys, it cannot be excelled. 
 
 The central part of the state is extremely rich and. fruitful. 
 The chief productions of the state are cotton and Indian corn. 
 Tobacco, sugar cane and rice are cultivated to a limited extent. 
 
 Manufactures. Manufactures are carried on to a very 
 limited extent. 
 
 Commerce. Alabama has an extensive foreign and inland 
 , commerce. The coasting trade is as extensive and valuable as 
 the foreign commerce. Cotton is the staple export. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Montgomery, on the Alabama River, 
 is the capital. Mobile, on the river of the same name, is the 
 largest city, and chief mart of commerce. It is the only port 
 of Alabama open to foreign commerce. It is one of the best 
 on the Gulf of Mexico, and its harbor is the recipient of all the 
 navigable rivers in the southern portion of the state. 
 
72 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The other towns are Tuscaloosa, Wetumpka, Huntsville, 
 Marion and Florence. 
 
 , MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Outline. Mississippi is bounded on the north by Tennessee, 
 on the east by Alabama, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico 
 and Louisiana, and on the west by Mississippi and Pearl Rivers, 
 which separate it from Louisiana and Arkansas. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface slopes towards the south 
 and south-west, and the courses of the principal rivers follow 
 the same directions. 
 
 There are no mountains within the state, but there are numer- 
 ous ranges of hills of moderate elevation, which give to the 
 greater part of its surface an undulating .character. 
 
 Much of the surface is occupied by swamps and morasses, 
 through which the Yazoo River has its course. The' southern 
 part of the state, for about one hundred miles from the Gulf 
 of Mexico, is mostly a sandy, level country, covered with a pine 
 forest, and interspersed with cypress swamps, prairies and a few 
 hills of slight elevation. 
 
 Rivers. Every portion of the state is well watered. Yazoo 
 River is formed by the junction of the Tallabusha and Talla- 
 hatchee, which rise in the northern part of the state, near the 
 head waters of the Tombigbee, and flows into the Mississippi, 
 after a course of two hundred miles. 
 
 Pearl and Pascagoula Rivers, are the most important, flowing 
 into the Gulf of Mexico. There are many other rivers, in all 
 parts of the state, which though inferior in capacity to those 
 already noticed, are locally important, watering extensive dis- 
 tricts, and giving fertility to the soil. 
 
 Climate. The climate is remarkably uniform, which, taken 
 together with the fertility of the soil, gives to Mississippi emi- 
 nent advantages as an agricultural state. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is of a most productive 
 character. The great drawback to the land is its liability to 
 overflow from freshets in the Mississippi River. 
 
OP THE SOUTHERN STATES. 73 
 
 Sugar and cotton are the most important productions, cotton 
 forming the great staple of a large part of the state. Wheat 
 and other grains grow in the northern regions. All the fruits 
 of the temperate climate flourish here in perfection ; such as 
 plums, peaches and figs, and in the south, the orange. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures of Mississippi are of 
 little importance. 
 
 Commerce. The state has no direct foreign commerce. It 
 has, however, a large coast trade, and an active commerce is 
 carried on by means of the rivers. Most of the commercial 
 material is carried to the adjoining ports of Mobile and New 
 Orleans, for shipment ; and the wants of the people are gen- 
 erally supplied from the same source. Cotton and lumber are 
 the chief exports. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Jackson, on Pearl River, is the capital. 
 It contains the State House, Governor's residence. State Peni- 
 tentiary, Lunatic Asylum and an Institute for the Blind. 
 
 Natchez and Vicksburg, on the Mississippi, are the largest 
 and most important commercial towns. Columbus and Aber- 
 deen, on the Tombigbee River, are the most important interior 
 towns. 
 
 On the Gulf are Pearlington, Shieldsborough, Mississippi 
 City and Pascagoula. 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 Outline. Louisiana is bounded on the north by Arkansas, 
 on the east by Mississippi, from which it is divided by the Mis- 
 sissippi and Pearl Rivers, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and on the west by Texas, the Sabine River being the dividing 
 line for more than two-thirds of its length. 
 
 Physical Features, The surface of Louisiana is low and 
 generally level, with some hilly ranges of little elevation in the 
 western part. 
 
 The great delta of the Mississippi is included within the 
 Atchafalaya and Iberville Rivers, and amounts to one-fourth of 
 6 
 
74 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 the area of the state. It is seldom elevated more than ten feet 
 above the sea, and is annually inundated bj the spring floods. 
 
 The western margin of the Mississippi is, also, a low country, 
 intersected by numerous small rivers, and liable to inundation. 
 To the west and north of this, is an extensive region, compris- 
 ing one-half of the state, considerably broken, but nowhere 
 exceeding an elevation of two hundred feet. 
 
 The eastern corner of the state, lying between the Mississippi 
 and Pearl Rivers, and Lake Pontchartrain and the state of Mis- 
 sissippi, resembles the region last described, in general configu- 
 ration and forest growth. 
 
 Rivers. Louisiana is abundantly, supplied with large rivers. 
 The Mississippi forms the northern half of the eastern boundary 
 of the state, and then enters the state, crossing it in a south- 
 east direction to the Gulf of Mexico. About eight hundred 
 miles of its course belongs wholly, or in part, to Louisiana. 
 Its western bank is flooded at high water. It begins to send 
 out branches to the Gulf near the point where it enters the 
 state, and the whole south-eastern portion of tiie country, lying 
 on its right bank, may be said to belong to the great delta. 
 
 Its extreme length from its source, Lake Itasca, to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, is two thousand nine hundred miles. 
 
 The Red River is the most important, and with the exception 
 of two or three navigable streams on the eastern side, above 
 Baton Rouge, the only tributary in the state. It rises in the 
 Rocky Mountains, and flows in an easterly direction, along the 
 northern boundary of Texas, and into the state of Arkansas, 
 then turns to the south and passes into Louisiana. Its waters 
 reach the Mississippi after a course of two thousand miles, of 
 which fifteen hundred miles are open to steam navigation. 
 
 The Mississippi receives, on its northern bank, the Washita, 
 or Black River, and several smaller streams. The Sabine River 
 drains the south-western part of the state, and forms the boun- 
 dary with Texas. 
 
 On the south-east is the Pearl River, marking the frontier of 
 Mississippi. 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 75 
 
 Climate. The climate, in winter, owing to north winds, is 
 more severe than in corresponding latitudes on the Atlantic 
 coast. The summers are long and hot. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of the river valleys is very 
 fertile ; and the alluvial land is easily drained. Most of it is 
 heavily timbered and covered with an undergrowth of cane. 
 The prairies are n5t generally productive, and in some places 
 are barren. 
 
 The chief productions are sugar and cotton. Nearly all the 
 sugar made from sugar cane in the United States, is produced 
 in gLouisiana. Rice, maize and tobacco are, also, important 
 staples of agriculture. 
 
 The manufactures are limited, and are carried on principally 
 in the largest cities. 
 
 Commerce. New Orleans is the commercial depot, not only 
 of this state, but, also, of the whole Mississippi Valley, and the 
 south-west. The aggregate value of receipts from the interior, 
 at this port, is upward of one million dollars annually. A great 
 pprtion of the produce thus represented, is sent coastwise to 
 Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York and Boston. At these 
 places it is either held for home demand, or exported to foreign 
 ports. The principal exports are cotton, sugar, molasses and 
 tobacco. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Baton Rouge, the capital, is situated 
 on a gulf, on the left bank of the Mississippi, one hundred 
 and thirty miles above New Orleans. 
 
 New Orleans, the old capital, and the commercial emporium 
 of the south-west, is situated on the left bank of the Mississippi, 
 one hundred and five miles from its mouth. The river here 
 makes a bend, around which the city is built ; hence it is fre- 
 quently called the " Crescent City." 
 
 As a place of trade New Orleans has many advantages, being 
 the only site suitable for a town, anywhere on the lower course 
 of the Mississippi. The largest ships enter the harbor at this 
 place with perfect safety. The commerce, which is immense, is 
 
76 ■ DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 constantly increasing ; and notwithstanding its insalubrity, the 
 city has increased in population and general importance. 
 
 Alexandria is situated on the Red River, one hundred and 
 fifty miles from its junction with the Mississippi, and is the 
 shipping port of a fine cotton region. 
 
 Algiers, Gretna, Bayou Sara and St. Francisville are the 
 other important towns. 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 Outline. Texas is bounded on the north by New Mexico, 
 Indian Territory and Arkansas, on the east by Arkansas and 
 Louisiana, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, 
 and on the west by the Rio Grande, which separates it from 
 the Mexican states and the territory of New Mexico. 
 
 The Red River is the dividing line between Texas and Indian 
 Territory, and the Sabine River separates it from Louisiana. 
 
 Physical Features. Texas is divided into three physical 
 regions, each of which, in some respects, is entirely difi'erent 
 from the others. These are the level, the undulating and the 
 hilly and mountainous regions. 
 
 The level region occupies the entire coast, extending from 
 thirty to sixty miles into the interior. The undulating district 
 succeeds this, and embraces the whole of the interior and north, 
 and reaches westward to the mountainous tract. 
 
 The mountains and table lands are generally about two hun- 
 dred miles distant from the level regions, and cover the greater 
 portion of north-western Texas. Of these little, as yet, has 
 been ascertained, but they are represented as rivalling the table- 
 lands of Anahuac, in Mexico, and to be rich in soil, well-watered 
 and abounding in the precious metals. 
 
 The hills are first found between the Brazos and Colorado riv- 
 ers, but here they present a low, broken appearance. West of the 
 Colorado, and north of the sources of the Neuces and San An- 
 tonio, the country is traversed in various directions by outliers 
 of the great chain of the Rocky Mountains. None of them, 
 however, attain any great elevation. 
 
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 77 
 
 Rivers, Lakes and Bats. No part of the extensive coast 
 of the Gulf of Mexico presents a greater number of harbors, 
 bays and inlets, than that of Texas. The principal indenta- 
 tions in the coast are the bays of Galveston, Matagorda, Es- 
 piritu Santo and Corpus Christi. 
 
 Galveston Bay is the largest, and has the best entrance, its 
 inlet having twelve feet of water. It extends inland thirty-five 
 miles, from the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 The Red River may be considered, in part, as belonging to^ 
 Texas. It furnishes to the north-east section of the state a facile 
 outlet to the Mississippi, and the great mart of the south-west. 
 
 The chief rivers, navigable for steamboats, are the Sabine, 
 Nueces, San Antonio, Guadalupe, Colorado, Brazos, San Jacin- 
 to, Trinity and Neches. 
 
 The only lake of importance in this state is the Sabine, which 
 is more properly a bayou, formed by the expansion of the Sa- 
 bine River. 
 
 Climate. Though varying from tropical to temperate, the 
 climate is remarkably pleasant. During winter ice is seldom 
 seen, except in the north-western part of the state. Periodical 
 winds, from the north in winter, and from the south in summer, 
 pass over the country, which purify the atmosphere, and con- 
 tribute much to the healthfulness of the climate. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil varies like the climate. 
 The river valleys are rich and productive, but there are cheer- 
 less barren wastes in different parts of the country. Texas has 
 an abundant supply of rich and natural pasture land. 
 
 Cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco and rice are the chief produc- 
 tions. Cotton stands pre-eminent, forming the great staple of 
 the state. 
 
 Oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits are successfully 
 cultivated. 
 
 Manufactures. Texas has few manufactures, nor have 
 other distinctive branches of industry been introduced. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce, both foreign and domestic, is 
 extensive. New Orleans is the principal entrepot of the foreign 
 
78 OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 commerce of Texas, and between that port, and the ports of this 
 state, a large coasting trade is carried on. The direct foreign 
 commerce is comparitive small. Cotton, sugar and wool are the 
 principal exports. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Austin City, the capital, is situated on 
 the Colorado River, about two hundred miles from the Grulf of 
 Mexico. The river is navigable for steamboats to this point, 
 during high water. The city is a place of considerable business, 
 and, in time, must become a leading centre of trade. 
 
 Galveston is the principal sea port and largest city in the 
 state. It is situated on the island at the mouth of the Galves- 
 ton Bay, and has the best harbor on the coast. Nearly all the 
 foreign business is transacted here, and regular lines of steamers 
 communicate with New Orleans. 
 
 Houston is situated on BuJBfalo Bayou, about forty miles from 
 Galveston Bay, at the head of steamboat navigation. 
 
 San Antonio is the oldest town. It is situated on the river 
 of the same name, and is noted for its wealth and refinement. 
 This town is, also, famous for the massacre of the Texan 
 patriots, at the Alamo, on the 6th of March, 1836. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 WESTERN STATES AND TERRITORIES. 
 
 Physical Features. Most of the Western States lie in the 
 Mississippi Valley. The surface of this portion is gently roll- 
 ing, the land gradually rising from the Mississippi to the 
 Appalachian Mountain System on the east, and through the 
 great plains to the base of the Rocky Mountains on the west. 
 In this valley are found no mountains, except the Ozark, in 
 Missouri and Arkansas, and the Cumberland, in Kentucky and 
 Tennessee. The Territories and States, west of this valley, are 
 more mountainous and less fertile than any other section of the 
 United States. The Rocky Mountains commence in Mexico, 
 and extend north and north-west to the Arctic Ocean. This 
 range is a continuation of the Andes of South America, form- 
 ing the longest and most uniform range on the globe. The term 
 Rocky is applied to that part only within the United States. 
 These Mountains are more easily traversed than other ranges 
 of the same altitude, their base being more broad, and their 
 acclivities more gentle. The Pacific Railroad crosses them at 
 Bridgers' Pass, in Wyoming Territory. West of the Rocky 
 Mountains are the Sierra Nevada, Sierra Madrid and the Coast 
 Range, principally in California. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The Great Lakes are mostly in the 
 Western States. They form the largest collection of fresh water 
 on the globe. 
 
 The Mississippi, the largest river on the continent, takes its 
 rise in Itasca Lake, in Minnesota. When the river leaves this 
 lake it is from fifteen to twenty feet wide and* about two feet 
 deep. It flows in a southerly direction, and empties into the 
 
80 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Gulf of Mexico. Where the waters of the Missouri unite with 
 the Mississippi, it is about a mile in width. The entire length 
 of the river is two thousand six hundred miles. The Missouri 
 has its source six thousand eight hundred feet above the level of 
 the sea, or nearly a mile higher than the Mississippi. It has a 
 winding course of two thousand nine hundred miles. These 
 rivers are both noted for their beautiful scenery. The source of 
 the Ohio is in Pennsylvania ; it flows in a south-westerly direc- 
 tion, and empties into the Mississippi. This river is much 
 shorter than the Missouri, but the volume of water it deposits 
 into the Mississippi exceeds it by one-fourth. 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 Outline. Ohio is bounded on the north by Michigan and 
 Lake Erie, on the east by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on 
 the south by West Virginia and Kentucky, and on the west by 
 Indiana. 
 
 Physical Features. The face of the country, though 
 generally level, is broken by a ridge of highlands which traverse 
 the state, separating the rivers which empty into Lake Erie, from 
 those which flow south into the Ohio River. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Ohio borders on Lake Erie for about 
 one hundred and fifty miles. This lake, one of the smallest of 
 the Great Lakes, is connected with Lake Ontario by the Niagara 
 River. 
 
 The Ohio, the largest river, forms the entire southern bound- 
 ary of the state. During the greater part of the year, it is 
 navigable for steamboats from the Mississippi, into which it 
 empties, to Pittsburg, in Pennsylvania, a distance of nearly one 
 thousand miles. Its principal tributaries in Ohio are Musking- 
 um, Scioto and Miami, varying in length from one hundred and 
 ten to two hundred miles. The chief rivers flowing into Lake 
 Erie are the Maumee, Sandusky, Huron and Cuyahoga. 
 
 Climate. The climate, in the northern part of the state, 
 resembles that in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The 
 southern part is more mild, but is subject to severe drought. 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 81 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is fertile. In agricultural 
 products, Ohio stands among the first states of the Union ; and 
 is noted for its rapid growth in wealth and population. It pro- 
 duces large quantities of beef and pork. Coal is abundant. 
 
 Manufactures. Ohio is one of the first manufacturing states 
 in the Union. Large quantities of wine are made in the south- 
 ern part of the state. Flour, agricultural machinery and steam 
 engines are the other leading manufactures. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce is principally domestic. It con- 
 sists, chiefly, in the exchange of its agricultural products for 
 imported articles from the Atlantic States. This trade is exten- 
 sive, and is carried on by means of the lakes, canals and'rail- 
 roads, by which this central region is connected with the coast. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Cincinnati, on the Ohio, formerly called 
 the Queen of the West, is the largest city of the state. Its site 
 is a valley, surrounded by hills, from the summit of which may 
 be obtained good views of the city. Its growth is rapid. The 
 business part of the place is finely and compactly built, with large 
 warehouses and stores. There are one hundred and five 
 churches, five colleges — three of which are medical — eighteen 
 common schools, and two intermediate and three high schools. 
 A suspension bridge connects this city with Covington, Ken- 
 tucky. 
 
 Cleveland, the second city in the state in population and trade, 
 has a fine location on the southern shore of Lake Erie. It is 
 one of the most beautiful towns in the Union. In the center 
 of its public square stands the monument of Commodore Perry, 
 the hero of the battle of Lake Erie. Its public schools rank 
 among the first in the country. 
 
 Columbus, the capital, is situated on the east bank of the 
 Scioto River. It has a number of elegant public buildings, 
 among which are the new State House, State Penitentiary and 
 Asylums for the lunatic, blind, and deaf and dumb. 
 
 The other principal cities are Dayton, Zanesville, Chilicothe, 
 Steubenville, Springfield, Sandusky and Toledo. 
 
82 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 History. The first settlement made in Ohio, bj white people, 
 was in 1T88. It was admitted into the Union as a state, in 
 1802. 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Outline. Indiana is bounded on the north by Lake Mich- 
 igan and Michigan, on the east by Ohio, on the south by Ken- 
 tucky, and on the west by Illinois. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally level. South 
 of the White River is found some rather hilly and rugged 
 country. The rivers flow in a southerly course, indicating that 
 the surface has a general inclination in that direction. 
 
 Rivers. The Wabash and White are the largest rivers in 
 the state. Kankakee and St. Joseph Rivers are in the northern 
 part ; and the Ohio forms its entire southern boundary. 
 
 Climate. The climate resembles that of Ohio and most of 
 the central states, being more mild than in the same latitude in 
 the Atlantic States, but subject to more sudden changes. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is fertile, especially on the 
 river bottoms. The chief agricultural products are wheat, corn, 
 oats, potatoes, fruit, butter and live stock. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The principal manufac- 
 tures are steamboats and farming implements. This state has 
 no foreign commerce, but has considerable domestic trade. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Indianapolis, the capital and largest 
 city, is situated on the White River, near the center of the state. 
 It is regularly built, and has several fine public buildings. 
 Among these are the State House, Court House, Jail, and Asy- 
 lums for the blind, insane, and deaf and dumb. 
 
 New Albany, on the Ohio, is the largest town in southern 
 Indiana. It is actively engaged in commerce. More steam- 
 boats are manufactured at this place than in any other town on 
 the Ohio River. 
 
 Madison, Evansville and Lawrenceburg are flourishing towns, 
 on the same river. 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 83 
 
 Fort Wayne is remarkable for its rapid growth. The other 
 towns worthy of note, are Laporte, Crawfordsville, Lafayette, 
 Terre Haute and Vincennes. 
 
 History. Indiana was first settled by the French. It was 
 made a separate state in 1816. 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 Outline. Illinois is bounded on the north by Wisconsin, on 
 the east by Lake Michigan and Indiana, on the south by Ken- 
 tucky and Missouri, and on the west by Missouri and Iowa. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface, generally speaking, is 
 level, consisting mostly of prairie land. The rivers are skirted 
 with timber, and along some of them occur large bluffs. The 
 prairies are not flat, but gracefully undulating. 
 
 Rivers. The Mississippi forms the entire western, and the 
 Ohio the entire southern boundary of the state. The other im- 
 portant rivers are the Sangamon, Illinois and Rock. The San- 
 gamon River is about two hundred miles long, and empties into 
 the Illinois. The Illinois has a course of five hundred miles, 
 and empties into the Mississippi. It has a sluggish current, and 
 during" freshets, the waters of the Mississippi pass up into its 
 channel for seventy miles. It is navigable, for steamboats, for 
 a distance of two hundred and eighty-six miles. Rock River 
 rises in Wisconsin, It is obstructed by rapids in a number of 
 places, but, at moderate expense, might be made navigable. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Illinois resembles that of Ohio 
 and Indiana, but its great length gives it a greater variation. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The agricultural capabilities of 
 Illinois are unsurpassed by any state in the Union. The staple 
 productions are wheat, corn, oats, potatoes, hay, butter and 
 cheese. Lead is found near Galena. Iron and copper are 
 found in various parts, and coal is found in nearly every county 
 in the state. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. This state possesses every 
 facility desirable for manufactures; and its commercial advanta- 
 ges are unrivaled in the interior. 
 
84 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cities and Towxs. Chicago is the largest and most impor- 
 tant commercial city in the north-west. It is situated on Lake 
 Michigan. It is called the " Garden City," because of its 
 extensive grain market. The entire business portion of the 
 place has been raised from six to eight feet above its former level, 
 at a cost to the city of upwards of a million of dollars. 
 
 The river was originally a small creek, obstructed by a sand- 
 bar. In 1833, the United States expended $30,000 in improving 
 the harbor, making it accessible to the largest ships that sail 
 on the lake. Along the river are mammoth warehouses, capa- 
 ble of storing one and a half million of bushels of grain. Ex- 
 tensive lumber yards are found along one of the branches ; and 
 the harbor is filled with arriving and departing vessels. 
 
 The city is laid out in rectangular blocks ; and the streets 
 are nearly all eighty feet wide. The business portion was form- 
 erly built of brick, but the Athens marble is now chiefly used. 
 It has a light cream color ; and its general use gives the streets 
 a light and cheerful appearance. 
 
 The principal public buildings are the City Hall, built of 
 stone brought from New York, the Chamber of Commerce, 
 built of Athens stone, and the Custom House. There are also 
 many fine churches. The Tremont and Sherman houses are 
 among the first-class hotels. The Public Schools and Univer- 
 sity are among the best in the country. 
 
 For the purpose of providing the city with pure water, a tun- 
 nel has been constructed, which extends two miles under the 
 lake. The tunnel is five feet in diameter and thirty-five feet 
 below the bed of the lake. The railroad depots are immense 
 in size, and are admirably constructed. 
 
 Springfield, the capital, is three miles south of the Sangamon 
 River. A new State House is in process of erection. Spring- 
 field will ever be memorable as having been the residence of 
 Abraham Lincoln. The other principal cities are Peoria, Quincy, 
 Alton, Rockford, Galena, Belleville and Bloomington. 
 
 History. In 1809 Illinois was organized as a territory by 
 itself, but was not admitted into the Union, as an independent 
 state, until 1818. 
 
OF__^THE WESTERN STATES. 85 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 Outline. Kentucky is bounded on the north by Ohio, Indi- 
 ana and Illinois, on the east by Virginia, on the south by Ten- 
 nessee, and on the west by Illinois and Missouri. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally uneven. A 
 range of hills, parallel with the Ohio River, extends across the 
 northern part ; and the Cumberland Mountains form its south- 
 eastern boundary. 
 
 Kentucky is noted for its salt springs and caves. Of the lat- 
 'ter, Mammoth Cave is the largest and most noted. It has been 
 explored for a distance of ten miles. The entrance to this cave 
 is a ravine two hundred feet above Green River, and one hun- 
 dred feet below the table land above. The cave abounds with 
 interesting objects ; such as streams, mounds, stalactites, stalag- 
 mites, etc. One of the stalagmites occupies an area of two acres. 
 Of the streams, Echo River is the most remarkable. The water is 
 so transparent that sand and pebbles on the bottom may be as 
 plainly seen as in air. Near the shore of the river, the roof of 
 the cave descends within a few feet of the water, and appears 
 like an arch sprung from one side of the cave to the other. 
 About half way across the river the cavern expands into im- 
 mense proportions, and here is heard the remarkable echo which 
 gives its name to the river. The Salt Licks is a term applied to 
 a vicinity of salt springs, where the ground has been licked by 
 herds of wild cattle until it presents a bare appearance for some 
 distance round. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the Licking, Kentucky and 
 Green. The Cumberland and Tennessee, also, cross the state, 
 on their way to the Ohio. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of Kentucky 
 is mild, and the soil exceedingly fertile. More flax and hemp 
 are raised in the state than in any other in the Union. The 
 other staple productions are Indian corn and tobacco. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Kentucky is actively en- 
 gaged in commerce. Manufactures, as yet, are little developed ; 
 
86 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 although a considerable amount of capital is invested in that 
 branch of industry. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Louisville, on the Ohio, is the largest 
 city in the state. The site of the town is a plain about seventy 
 feet above low water, commanding a delightful view of the river 
 and rapids below. The city is well built, and regularly laid out. 
 The principal public buildings are the Court House, Medical 
 Institute and University. 
 
 Frankfort, on the Kentucky River, is the capital. The city 
 is regularly planned, and generally well built. The State House 
 is a handsome edifice, constructed of Kentucky marble. The 
 Governor's House is a plain brick building. The other public 
 buildings are the State Penitentiary and Court House. 
 
 Next to Louisville, Lexington is the largest city. It is famous 
 for the excellence of its literary and scientific establishments. 
 A monument has been erected in Lexington to commemorate 
 the name of Henry Clay. Ashland, near Lexington, is inter- 
 esting as having been the residence of this distinguished orator 
 and statesman. 
 
 The other important towns are Covington, Newport, Mays- 
 ville and Paducah. 
 
 History. Kentucky was admitted into the Union as a state 
 in 1792. It has been the scene of many bloody conflicts be- 
 tween the Indians and whites ; hence its name Kentucky, signi- 
 fying the "Dark and Bloody Ground." 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 
 Outline. Tennessee is bounded on the north by Kentucky 
 and West Virginia, on the east by North Carolina, on the south 
 by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, and on the west by Arkan- 
 sas and Missouri. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is gently undulating in 
 the western part, and, in the eastern part, it is hilly. The 
 Cumberland Mountains, which extend across this state, nowhere 
 attain a greater elevation than two thousand feet. 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 87 
 
 KlVERS. The principal rivers are the Holston, Clinch, Cum- 
 berland and Tennessee. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Tennessee is mild. The winters 
 are not severe, and the summers are free from the. intenscv heat 
 of the Gulf States. 
 
 Soil AND Productions. The soil in the valleys is fertile; 
 but most of the mountain land is better adapted to grazing than 
 cultivation. Corn, cotton and tobacco are the staple produc- 
 tions. Iron and coal are found in the region of the Cumber- 
 land Mountains. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Memphis is beautifully located on the 
 Mississippi. The site of the city is a bluff, about seventy feet 
 high. The appearance is fine, when viewed from the river. It 
 is the most populous and important city between St. Louis and 
 New Orleans. 
 
 Nashville, the capital, is a handsome and flourishing city, and 
 next to Memphis is the wealthiest and most populous in the 
 state. It contains many elegant private buildings, and its public 
 buildings are among the best in the Union. The State House 
 is one of the most handsome and costly structures in America. 
 It is estimated to have cost a million dollars. The city contains 
 the State Penitentiary, a University and several seminaries. 
 
 The other principal cities are Knoxville, Chattanooga, Colum- 
 bia, Murfreesboro, Jacksonville and Bolivar. 
 
 History. Tennessee originally formed a part of North 
 Carolina. It was ceded to the United States, and formed a 
 part of the South West Territory, until 1796, when it was 
 admitted into the Union as a state. 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 Outline. Arkansas is bounded on the north by Missouri, 
 on the east by Missouri, Tennessee and Mississippi, on the south 
 by Louisiana, and on the west by Texas and Indian Territory. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally low and level. 
 The central and northern parts are broken and undulating. The 
 
88 * DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 hot springs are'~regarded as a natural curiosity, and are mucli 
 resorted to by invalids. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the White, Arkansas and 
 Washita. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate, in the north- 
 ern part of the state, resembles that of Tennessee. The south- 
 ern part resembles that of the Gulf States. The soil is fertile 
 along the rivers. The staple productions are cotton and corn. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. Arkansas is not exten- 
 sively engaged in manufactures. It has no foreign commerce, 
 but has considerable steamboat trade with New Orleans, in the 
 export of its productions. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Little Rock, the capital and largest 
 city in the state, is situated on a rocky promontory, about fifty 
 feet high. The State House is a brick edifice. 
 
 The other principal towns are Camden, Fort Smith and Pine 
 Blufi". 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 Outline. Missouri is bounded on the north by Iowa, on 
 the east by Illinois, Kentucky and Tennessee, on the south by 
 Arkansas, and on the west by Indian Territory, Kansas and 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface north of the Missouri 
 River, is level and undulating ; but south of the river, a great 
 diversity of surface is represented. 
 
 Rivers. Missouri has the advantage of the navigation of 
 the two largest rivers in the United States. The Mississippi 
 forms its eastern boundary, and the Missouri crosses the state 
 from west to east. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productons. The climate is variable. 
 The winters are cold, and the summers exceedingly hot, but the 
 air is dry and pure. The soil, in most places, is good. The 
 great staple production is Indian corn. More hemp is raised 
 
OP THE AVESTERN STATES. 89 
 
 here than in any other state, except Kentucky. The other 
 chief productions are wheat and tobacco. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. This state has great com- 
 mercial facilities, having the advantage of the commerce of both 
 the Missouri and Mississippi rivers. The exports consist chiefly 
 of agricultural products and live stock. Missouri is not exten- 
 sively engaged in manufactures, although it has considerable 
 capital invested in cotton and woolen factories, and in the man- 
 ufacture of malt and spirituous liquors. 
 
 Cities and Towns. St. Louis is the largest city in the state, 
 and the great centre of internal commerce of the Missouri and 
 Mississippi rivers. The city is well laid out, the streets are wide, 
 and, for the most part, intersect each other at right angles. 
 Along the levee is a range of massive warehouses. Large expen- 
 ditures have been made for street improvements, but, as yet, slight 
 provisions have been made for parks. The Court House occu- 
 pies an entire square, and resembles somewhat the Capitol, at 
 Washington, and cost little short of half a million dollars. The 
 other public buildings are the Custom House and the center 
 market buildings. The United States Arsenal is in the south- 
 eastern part of the city. St. Louis contains many fine churches, 
 and a number of first class hotels. 
 
 Jefferson City, the capital, is pleasantly located on the Mis- 
 souri River. It contains the State House, the Governor's resi- 
 dence and the State Penitentiary. The other towns worthy of 
 mention are Potosi, noted for the rich lead mines in its vicinity, 
 Hannibal, on the Mississippi, and Independence, Lexington and 
 Weston, flourishing towns on the Missouri. 
 
 History. In 1803, after the purchase of Louisiana from 
 the French, Missouri was ceded to the United States, and in 
 1821, after a stormy debate in Congress as to the admission of 
 slavery, it was admitted into the Union as a state. 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 Outline. Iowa is bounded on the north by Minnesota, on 
 the east by Wisconsin and Illinois, on the south by Missouri, 
 and on the west by Nebraska and Dakota. 
 
 7 
 
90 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is composed of rolling 
 prairies. The highest elevations are in the north-western part. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the Des Moines, Skunk, 
 Iowa, Wapsipinicon, Makoqueta, Turkey and Upper Iowa. 
 These all empty into the Mississippi, which forms the eastern 
 boundary of the state. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate resembles 
 that of Illinois. The soil is fertile. The products are those 
 common to the western states. The prairies are almost desti- 
 tute of trees. The timber is chiefly along the rivers. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. Iowa has no foreign com- 
 merce, but is very favorably located for internal traffic. Large 
 rivers traverse the interior of the state. The Missouri washes its 
 western shore, and the Mississippi its eastern. Its manufactures 
 are limited, but on the increase. It has an abundance of water 
 power and coal, the two important elements, and this branch of 
 industry will doubtless be better developed in the future. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Dubuque, the largest city in the state, 
 is situated on the Mississippi River. The city is built partly on 
 a terrace, and partly on a bluflF two hundred feet higher. The 
 principal public buildings are the City Hall, Post Office and 
 a United States Custom House. Dubuque is the centre of trade 
 for northern Iowa, and is the principal lead mining region west 
 of the Mississippi. 
 
 Des Moines, the capital of Iowa, is a thriving town, at the 
 junction of the Des Moines and Raccoon rivers. Being a new 
 place, the public buildings are inferior. The town was formerly 
 called Fort Des Moines. The other important towns are Keo- 
 kuk, Muscatine, Davenport and Iowa City. 
 
 History. Iowa was organized as a state with a Governor 
 and Legislature in 1846. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 Outline. Michigan is bounded on the north by Lake Supe- 
 . rior and St. Marie River, on the east by Lakes Huron, St. Clair 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 91 
 
 and Erie, on the south by Indiana and Ohio, and on the west by 
 Lake Michigan and Wisconsin. 
 
 Physical Features. Michigan consists of two peninsulas, 
 one lying between Lake Superior and Lake Michigan, and the 
 other between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. The surface, 
 of the southern part, is mostly level, and the northern part is 
 ragged, and in some paris mountainous and picturesque. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Michigan may, with propriety, be called 
 the Lake State. It is nearly surrounded by several of the 
 largest fresh water lakes on the globe. There are, also, many 
 small lakes within the state which add to its general pictures- 
 queness. The rivers of Michigan are not large, and occur more 
 frequently in the southern than in the northern peninsula. 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate; in the south- 
 _ ern peninsula, being moderated by the proximity to the lakes, 
 is more mild than in the same latitude in the eastern states. In 
 this part of the state the soil is fertile and productive. The 
 northern part is a wild and rough region of mountains and for- 
 ests, and comprises abouf two-fifths of the state. The climate 
 is cold and bleak, but the soil is rich in minerals. Along the 
 shores of Lake Superior are some of the richest copper mines 
 in the world. Silver is also found in connection with copper ; 
 and iron abounds in this vicinity. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. The situation of Michigan 
 is most favorable to commerce. It has over a thousand miles of 
 lake coast, which is frequently indented by small bays, furnish- 
 ing valuable harbors. Michigan has not paid much attention to > 
 the development of its manufacturing resources. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Detroit, the largest city in the state, ia 
 beautifully situated on the Detroit river. The city is regularly 
 laid out, and the streets are well paved, and shaded with foreat 
 trees. The city was, formerly, the capital of the state. It con- 
 tains many large public buildings and elegant private residences. 
 
 Lansing, the capital, on Grand River, contains a large and 
 handsome State House. When this place was selected as the 
 seat of government, it was surrounded by an almost unbroken 
 
92 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 wilderness. The other important places are Grand Rapids, 
 Adrian, Ann Arbor, Kalamazoo, Monroe and Jackson. 
 
 History. Michigan was settled by the French in the latter 
 part of the seventeenth century. In 1763, with the other 
 French possessions in North America, it passed into the hands 
 of the English. It was admitted into the Union in 1837. 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 Outline. Wisconsin is bounded on the north by Lakes Su- 
 perior and Michigan, on the east by Lake Michigan, on the 
 south by Illinois, and on the west by Iowa and Minnesota. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of Wisconsin, generally 
 speaking, is an elevated rolling prairie. The mineral resources 
 of the state are not yet fully developed, although copper, iron 
 and lead are found in considerable quantities. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers of the state are the Wisconsin 
 and Chippewa. The courses of these rivers are rapid, and 
 hence they are of little importance to fiavigation. The scenery 
 along these rivers, and also the Mississippi, into which they 
 empty, is in many places remarkably picturesque. In the Wis- 
 consin River occur a number of falls ; and on its banks are the 
 Penterwell Peak and Pulpit Rock. Lake Pepin, an expansion 
 of the Mississippi River, is noted for its beautiful scenery. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is severe. 
 The winters are long, but free from the sudden changes com- 
 mon to the states further south. The soil, especially in the 
 southern part of the state, is fertile, and adapted to farming 
 and grazing. The staple productions are wheat, corn, potatoes 
 and live stock. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. Wisconsin possesses great 
 commercial facilities. The Mississippi forms a part of its wes- 
 tern boundary. This and the Great Lakes are the only means 
 of extending the commerce of Wisconsin, giving it the advantage 
 of the commerce of all the Mississippi Valley ; and by the Great 
 Lakes it has communication with British America. 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 93 
 
 Cities AND^.,Tow]srs. Milwaukee, the largest city of the 
 state, is situated on Lake Michigan, and both sides of the Mil- 
 waukee River. It is noted for its rapid growth. Its general 
 appearance is peculiar and striking, from the color and superior 
 quality of the brick which is used in the construction of its 
 principal buildings. 
 
 Madison, the capital, is situated on an isthmus between two 
 lakes. When this place was selected for the capital, in 1839, 
 it contained no buildings but a solitary log cabin. The Capitol 
 stands in a public square, seventy feet above the level of the 
 lakes. Racine and Janes ville are important towns. 
 
 History. Wisconsin was admitted into the Uunion in 1848. 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 . Outline. Minnesota is bounded on the north by British 
 America, on the east hy Lake Superior and Wisconsin,^on the 
 south by Iowa, and on the west by Dakota. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally uniform. 
 This state comprises the most elevated tract of land between the 
 Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's Bay. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Minnesota abounds in beautiful lakes, 
 many of which are noted for their beautiful scenery. Its rivers 
 abound in rapids and falls. Among the latter are the falls of 
 St. Anthony, so celebrated for their wild and picturesque scenery. 
 Near them is the cascade of Minnehaha, one of the small but 
 perfect works of nature. The scenery along the Mississippi is 
 grand. The river is filled with falls and rapids, and often bor- 
 dered with perpendicular bluffs or gracefully sloping hills, gently 
 receding from the water. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of this state 
 is severe in winter, especially in the northern part, where the 
 cold is intense enough to freeze quicksilver. The changes 
 here are not so sudden, however, as further south. The soil in 
 the valleys of the rivers, is excellent. The staple productions 
 are wheat, corn, oats and potatoes. 
 
94 DESCEIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. The principal export from, 
 Minnesota is lumber. The state has great capabilities for man- 
 ufacturing. This branch of industry is mostly limited to the 
 conversion of its forest trees into lumber. 
 
 Cities and Towns. St. Paul, the capital, is on the Missis- 
 sippi, eight miles below the Falls of St. Anthony. 
 
 The other important places are Minneapolis, St. Anthony, 
 Stillwater, Winona and Hastings. 
 
 History. The first permanent settlement in Minnesota, was 
 made in 1811. It became a territory in 1847, and a state in 
 1853. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Outline. California is bounded on the north by Oregon, on 
 the east by Nevada and Arizona, on the south by Arizona and 
 Lower California, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It is 
 about seven hundred and fifty miles long, and two hundred miles 
 wide, and covers an area of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 square miles. 
 
 Physical Features. The principal elevations are the Sierra 
 Nevada and Coast Mountains. The Sierra Nevada Mountains 
 are a part of the great range which, under difi"erent names, 
 extend from Lower California to Alaska Territory. The Coast 
 Mountains, reaching inland for about thirty miles, extend the 
 whole length of the state. Side ranges, parallel to these two 
 chains, mark the structure of the state, making California a 
 country of mountains and valleys. The most Remarkable of 
 these valleys is the far famed Yosemite, situated at the head of 
 one of the branches of the Merced River. This valley is ten 
 miles in length, and about two in width, and is shut in by steep 
 rocky sides, sometimes rising almost perpendicularly to the 
 height of four thousand feet. For varied beauty, grandeur and 
 sublimity, this valley has no rival the wide world over. 
 
 The Merced River is here about forty yards wide. On its 
 north fork is Mirror Lake, the waters of which are so transpar- 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 95 
 
 ent that objects from above are reflected so perfectly as almost 
 to resemble an inverted dome of blue sky, dotted "with moun- 
 tains, rocks and trees. In the valley are five great cascades : 
 Yosemite, Bridal Veil, Nevada, South Fork and Vernal Fall. 
 The highest of these is the Yosemite. It leaps one thousand 
 six hundred feet at one fall, then is broken by rapids descend- 
 ing four hundred and thirty-four feet, and concludes by a second 
 fall of six hundred feet. It has a total descent of two thousand 
 six hundred and thirty-four feet, making it the highest water 
 fall in the world. 
 
 Bridal Veil has an unbroken descent of nine hundred and 
 forty feet. Before reaching the bottom, the waters are almost 
 completely transformed to spray. Next in height, and greater 
 in volume, is Nevada Fall, having a descent of six hundred feet. 
 Its waiters are always snowy white, and characterized by a misty 
 softness, similar to that which forms the principal charm of 
 Bridal Veil. South Fork Fall is remarkable for beauty, but 
 difficult of access. 
 
 Vernal Fall is on the middle fork of Vernal Kiver. The 
 scenery of the valley, viewed from the summit of this fall, is 
 remarkably beautiful. Across the gorge, far in the distance, 
 snow streaked mountains loom up before the eye, while beneath 
 is the valley fringed with groves of pine and spreading oaks, 
 and shut in by measureless inclosing walls." 
 
 Grander even than the water falls of this valley, are the 
 Bock Mountains. Of these, South Dome, North Dome and 
 Tutoconuula are the most remarkable. South Dome is four 
 thousand nine hundred and sixty-seven, North Dome three 
 thousand seven hundred and twenty-nine, and Tutoconuula three 
 thousand and twenty-nine feet high. North and South Dome 
 are each covered with vegetation, but Tutoconuula is a polished 
 seamless wall, so smooth that it is impossible for even a vine to 
 fasten its clinging tendrils upon its weather beaten surface. 
 
 The United States authorities have taken measures to secure 
 this valley, and the groves of mammoth trees found in this state, 
 as national parks, r~,et apart from the general public domain. 
 
96 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 At the head waters of Kern River is another chasm, deeper 
 even than the Yosemite, but abounding less in romantic scenery, 
 and more difficult of access. 
 
 A low barren tract, seventy miles wide by one hundred and 
 forty long, called the Colorado Desert, is found in the south- 
 eastern part of the state. North of the Colorado Desert is 
 Mohave Basin, Most of this basin is four thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea, but one portion, called Death Valley, is 
 three hundred and seventy-five feet below. 
 
 Rivers and Bats. The principal rivers of California are 
 the Sacramento, San Joaquin and Colorado, the latter of which 
 forms the boundary line between the south-eastern part of the 
 state and Arizona. The Sacramento rises in the northern part 
 of the state, and the San Joaquin in the southern part, and 
 flowing in opposite directions, they drain almost the entire region 
 between the Sierra Nevada and the coast range, but finally 
 unite and discharge their mingled waters in a branch of San- 
 Francisco Bay« The Colorado River, forming the south-eastern 
 boundary of the state, is remarkable for the deep bed, or canon, 
 which it has cut for itself in the solid rock. Until within a short 
 time, very little has been known about this river, but recent ex- 
 plorations by Dr. Powell have developed a great many remark- 
 able facts concerning it. San Francisco Bay, in the western 
 part of the state, forms the best and most capacious harbor on 
 the Pacific coast. A Strait about six miles long and two wide, 
 called Golden Gate, connects it with the ocean. 
 
 Climate. The climate of California is mild and equable. 
 Snow never falls except in the mountain regions. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil, in the lowlands, is rich 
 and fertile, but in the mountain regions it is mostly barren and 
 unproductive. The climate of the valleys is well suited to the 
 growth of wheat, barley, rye and oats. Fruit of all kinds is 
 abundant. More grapes are cultivated here than in any other 
 state, except Ohio. A single cluster sometimes weighs as high 
 as seventeen pounds. 
 
 Vegetables attain a remarkable size. " At one of the agri- 
 cultural fairs there was exhibited a cabbage weighing fifty-three 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 97 
 
 pounds, a squash two hundred and sixty pounds, an onion forty- 
 seven pounds, a turnip twenty-six pounds, a watermelon sixty- 
 five pounds, a carrot ten pounds, and a beet five feet long by 
 one foot in diameter, weighing one hundred and eighteen pounds." 
 
 Some of the trees of California are of remarkable size. The 
 largest are found in the Sierra Nevada. Those in Calaveras 
 and Mariposa groves are the most celebrated, though there are 
 besides these about twenty smaller groves, the trees of which 
 attain considerable magnitude. In Calaveras Grove, there are 
 ten trees thirty feet in diameter, and eighty-two between fifteen 
 and thirty feet in diameter. Several of them are over three 
 hundred, and nearly all of them over "two hundred and fifty feet 
 in hight. In Mariposa Grove there are six trees more than 
 thirty, and over two hundred and fifty between twelve and thirty 
 feet in diameter, and several whose hight is between three and 
 four hundred feet. The largest of the trees, now lying pros- 
 trate on the ground, is supposed to have fallen at least one hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago. A portion of the trunk has been 
 consumed by fire, but enough still remains to show that, with 
 the bark on, it must have been forty feet in diameter. In the 
 trunk of one of the standing trees, there is a cavity large enough 
 to admit fifteen persons on horse back without crowding in the 
 least. The red wood pines are scattered among these trees, 
 many of which are over two hundred feet in hight, and else- 
 where would be considered remarkable trees, but here they 
 appear like mere shrubs. 
 
 The chief minerals of California are gold and quicksilver, 
 which are found in large quantities. The principal gold region 
 of California follows the line of the Sierra Nevada, and extends 
 over an area five hundred miles long and from forty to fifty 
 broad. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. A large part of the com- 
 merce, west of the Rocky Mountains, is carried on by Califor- 
 nia. Possessing the only commodious harbors on the Pacific 
 coast, it enjoys a monopoly of the commerce of the United 
 States on that ocean. It is connected by railway with the prin- 
 cipal cities of the Atlantic coast. 
 
98 DESCRIPTIVE aEOGRAPHY 
 
 The manufactures, compared with that of the other states, 
 are of but little importance. 
 
 ■ Cities and Towns. San Francisco, the largest city, is sit- 
 uated in the western part of the state, on San Francisco Bay. 
 It is the most important commercial city on the Pacific coast. It 
 contains a Custom House, a Branch Mint and a Marine Hospital. 
 
 Sacramento, the capital, is situated in the midst of a level 
 and fertile country, on the left bank of the Sacramento River. 
 It has daily communication by steamboat with San Francisco. 
 The other important places are San Jose, Marysville, Stockton, 
 Nevada and Grass Valley. 
 
 . History. California was first visited by white men in the 
 year 1542. It formed a part of the republic of Mexico until 
 the year 1848, when it- was ceded to the United States. At 
 that time the population numbered only thirty-three thousand, 
 but the following June, gold was discovered, and the tide of emi- 
 gration began to flow in from all parts of the United States 
 and Europe, and even from China. From that time her popu- 
 lation has rapidly increased. Hundreds of millions of dollars 
 worth of gold have been dug from the earth, and the precious 
 mineral is not yet exhausted. 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 Outline. Oregon is bounded on the north by Washington, 
 on the east by Idaho, on the south by Nevada and California, 
 and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. Oregon is truly a mountainous coun- 
 try. About half way between the Rocky Mountains and the 
 Pacific Ocean, are the Blue Mountains. The Cascade Range, 
 having the highest peaks of any mountains in the United States, 
 passes through this state. On the Pacific coast is the Callapooza 
 Mountains. The mineral resources of Oregon have not been 
 fully developed, although gold, copper and coal mines have been 
 worked with success. 
 
OF THE "WESTERN STATES. 99 
 
 Rivers. Columbia, the largest river on the Pacific coast, 
 forms part of the northern boundary. The chief rivers, en- 
 tirely within the state, are the Willamette and Umpqua. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is milder 
 than in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. The soil, in 
 most places, is not fertile. The river valleys are generally fer- 
 tile. The bottoms along the Columbia are so liable to be over- 
 flowed, that they are mostly used for pasture land. West of 
 the Cascade Range, wheat is the staple production. The 
 drought, in the latter part of the summer, is unfavorable to 
 the successful cultivation of corn. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. Oregon being compara- 
 tively a new state, has made little advancement in commerce 
 and manufactures. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Salem, the capital, is situated on the 
 Willamette River, and is growing rapidly. The other towns 
 worthy of note are Portland, Oregon City, Albany, Corvallis 
 and Jacksonville. 
 
 History. Oregon was organized as a territory in 1848, and 
 admitted into the Union in 1859. 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 Outline, Kansas is bounded on the north by Nebraska, on 
 the east by Missouri, on the south by Indian Territory, and on 
 the west by Colorado. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is gently undulating, with 
 no mountains or high elevations. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is mild, and 
 the winters are short. The soil is fertile. The principal pro- 
 ductions are wheat, corn, rye, oats, tobacco, cotton, hemp and 
 potatoes. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. These branches of indus- 
 try have not been developed, to any extent, in this state. 
 
100 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cities and Towns. Topeka, the capital, is situated on the 
 Kansas River. It is regularly laid out, and is being rapidly 
 built up. 
 
 Leavenworth, the largest city, is on the Missouri River. Its 
 population, like all of the "western cities, is rapidly increasing. 
 Atchison, on the Missouri, and Lawrence, on the Kansas River, 
 are the other principal towns. 
 
 History. Kansas was organized as a territory in 1854, and 
 admitted in the Union, as a state, in 1861. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 Outline. Nebraska is bounded on the north by Dakota, on 
 the east by lowa^ and Missouri, on the south by Kansas and 
 Colorado, and on the west by Colorado and Wyoming. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is a rolling prairie, but 
 little diversified except by the intersection of numerous streams. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the Missouri, Niobrarah 
 and Nebraska. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is mild. The 
 warmth of summer is generally relieved by cool winds from the 
 prairies. The soil, in the eastern part, is fertile, but in the 
 western part it is largely intermixed with sand, rendering it 
 almost unfit for ordinary agricultural purposes. The staple 
 productions are corn, wheat, rye and potatoes. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Omaha, the capital, is on the Missouri, 
 opposite Council Bluffs. It is a flourishing town, and is grow- 
 ing rapidly. The Union Pacific Railroad enters the state at 
 this place, and crosses it a little south of the central part. The 
 other important towns are Nebraska City and Brownsville. 
 
 History. Nebraska became a territory in 1854, and a sep- 
 arate state in 1867. 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 Outline. Nevada is bounded on the north by Oregon and 
 Idaho, on the east by Utah and Arizona, on the south by Ari- 
 zona and California, and on the west by California. 
 
OF THE WESTERN STATES. 101 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of Nevada is mountainous, 
 •with intervening valleys and sandy plains. It is rich in mineral 
 resources. Gold, silver, copper, lead and iron are abundant. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is dry and 
 the soil for the most part, sterile. The staple productions 
 resemble those of Utah. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Carson City, the capital, is situated at 
 the foot of Sierra Nevada, about four miles from Carson River. 
 The other places of importance are Nevada City and Gold Hill. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 WASHINGTOK 
 
 Outline. Washington is bounded on the north by British 
 America, on the east by Idaho, on the south by Oregon, and 
 on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The greater portion of the surface is mountainous, and 
 abounds in romantic scenery. This territory has a great coal 
 trade. Gold has been discovered on the east side of the Cas- 
 cade Mountains, and on the Columbia River. The white inhab- 
 itants live chiefly west of the Cascade Range ; and the Indians 
 inhabit the central and eastern parts. Steilacoom is one of the 
 most important places. Olympia, the capital, is situated on 
 Shote's River. This territory was organized in 1853. 
 
 [IDAHO. 
 
 Outline. Idaho is bounded on the north by British America 
 and Montana, on the east by Montana and Wyoming, on the 
 south by Utah and Nevada, and on the west by Oregon and 
 Washington, The surface, like that of Washington, is rugged 
 and mountainous, and the scenery is wild and grand. The 
 highest elevation in this territory, is Fremont's Peak, which is 
 the highest of the Rocky Mountains. The inhabitants are 
 actively engaged in mining. Gold and silver are abundant. 
 Boise City, on Big Wood River, is the capital. This territory 
 was organized in 1863. 
 
 MONTANA. 
 
 Outline. Montana is bounded on the north by British 
 America, on the east by Dakota, on the south by Wyoming and 
 Idaho, and on the west by Idaho. 
 
OF THE TERRITORIES. 103 
 
 Tlie surface is mountainous and shows signs of volcanic action 
 The minerals are gold, silver and iron. The chief towns are 
 Bannock City, Gallatin City, Lahorge City, and Virginia City, 
 the latter being the capital. Montana was organized as a terri- 
 tory in 1863. 
 
 DAKOTA. 
 
 Outline. Dakota is bounded on the north by British Amer- 
 ica, on the east by Minnesota and Iowa, on the south by Ne- 
 braska, and on the west by Wyoming and Montana. 
 
 In this territory is represented every variety of surface, such 
 as elevated table-land, plains, niountains, rugged hills and sand 
 hills. On the Missouri River, which traverses nearly the entire 
 length of the state, are built several United States forts. 
 Pembina is the oldest city. Yankton is the capital. 
 
 WYOMING. 
 
 Outline. Wyoming is bounded on the north by Montana, 
 on the east by Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Utah and 
 New Mexico, and on the west by Utah, Idaho, and Montana. 
 The greater part of this territory is mountainous. It originally 
 formed a part of Dakota, but has recently been made a separate 
 territory. 
 
 UTAH. 
 
 Outline, Utah is bounded on the north by Idaho and 
 Wyoming, on the east by Wyoming and Colorado, on the south 
 by Arizona, and on the west by Nevada. 
 
 It is mountainous, and less fertile and productive than any 
 other region in the United States. The climate is mild, but 
 subject to sudden changes. Great Salt Lake, in this territory, 
 is upwards of four thousand feet above the level of the sea, and 
 is so exceedingly salt that no animal life can exist in it. It has 
 no visible outlet, but has four inlets, one of which is the River 
 Jordan, by which it is connected with Utah Lake. The water 
 is so buoyant that the human body will float upon it without 
 
104 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 danger of sinking. During hot weather, solar evaporation 
 causes a thick incrustation of salt to form along its shores. 
 
 Salt Lake City, the capital, is near the Jordan River. It 
 was founded by the Mormons in 1847. Their President, Brig- 
 ham Young, rules the church. His dwellings, surrounded by 
 a wall eleven feet high, are in the heart of the city. A mag- 
 nificent temple is being erected in one of the public squares. 
 
 This territory was organized in 1850. 
 
 COLORADO. 
 
 Outline. Colorado is bounded on the north by Wyoming 
 and Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the 
 south by Indian Territory and New Mexico, and on the west by 
 Utah. 
 
 This territory, in common with the others, is mountainous. 
 Some of the most noted peaks of the Rocky Mountains are 
 within its borders, the principal of which are Long's Peak and 
 Pike's Peak. In the latter, the first gold of this territory was 
 discovered. 
 
 Denver, the capital, is the chief city in population and com- 
 mercial importance. This territory was organized in 1861. 
 
 ARIZONA. 
 
 Outline. Arizona is bounded on the^north by Utah, on the 
 east by New Mexico, on the south by Mexico, and on the west 
 by California and Nevada. 
 
 A great portion of the surface is supposed to be of volcanic 
 origin. Its mineral resources are extensive. Gold and silver 
 abound in almost every part. Preston is the capital. Tucson 
 and Tubac are the chief towns. Arizona was organized as a 
 territory in 1863. 
 
 NEW MEXICO. 
 
 Outline. New Mexico is bounded on the north by Colorado, 
 on the east by Indian Territory and Texas, on the south by 
 Texas and Mexico, and on the west by Arizona. 
 
OF TEE TERRITOKIES. 105 
 
 This territory is traversed by several mountain ranges, and 
 is, for the most part, an elevated table land. The inhabitants 
 are mostly Indians. The mines of this territory have not been 
 extensively worked, and the future may reveal rich treasures of 
 gold, silver and other metals. 
 
 Santa Fe is the capital. The other settlements, worthy of 
 note, are Albuquerque and Socorro. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 Outline. This territory is bounded on the north by Colo- 
 rado and Kansas, on the east by Missouri and Kansas, on the 
 south by Texas, and on the west by Texas and New Mexico. 
 
 This territory has been given to the Indians by the United 
 States Government for a permanent home. Some of the tribes 
 have made considerable progress in civilization, and are engaged 
 in the cultivation of the soil. Tahlequah, a city of the Chero- 
 kee tribe, is the largest town. 
 
 The Union Pacific Railroad being now completed, the former 
 mode of overland communication, between the eastern states and 
 the territories, will be abandoned. All along the railroad flour- 
 ishing towns are springing up, and the west is being rapidly 
 settled. This road crosses Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, 
 touching the northern part of Colorado, and terminates at Sac- 
 ramento, California. 
 
 ALASKA, OR RUSSIAN AMERICA. 
 
 Outline. This territory is bounded on the north by the 
 Arctic Ocean, on the east by British America, on the south by 
 the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by Behring's Sea, Behring's 
 Strait and Arctic Ocean. 
 
 The coast is mountainous. The inhabitants are Esquimaux 
 and Russians, who are chiefly engaged in trapping and fishing. 
 Along the coast is a group of volcanic islands. The climate is 
 cold. New Archangel, or Sitka, is the principal settlement. 
 The territory was purchased by the United States in 1867. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 DISCOVERY. 
 
 A few generations ago, the whole of North America, as well 
 as the Western Continent, was unknown to any, save the native 
 Red man. The wilds of America resounded to the constant 
 whoop of the Indian, but presented none of the results of intel- 
 ligence, now so wide-spread and universal. 
 
 Previous to the Fifteenth Century, during which America 
 was discovered, the established opinion among the people of the 
 Old World was, that the Earth was flat. That land existed 
 beyond the great waters which united around their continent, 
 was not for a moment entertained. 
 
 Christopher Columbus was the first to demonstrate to the 
 world that the earth was round, and that land existed in the 
 Western Hemisphere. He had become familiar with the prin- 
 ciples of Geometry, and had considerable experience in naviga- 
 tion, before his convictions of the rotundity of the earth resulted 
 in this great discovery. At the death of his father-in-law, an 
 eminent navigator, he became possessed of papers, which so far 
 strengthened his opinion, that finally he determined to present 
 his idea before his countrymen, with the hope of obtaining assist- 
 ance in preparing for a voyage of discovery. 
 
 In this, and several other instances, his plans were defeated. 
 Finally Isabella, of Spain, determined to aid him in his project. 
 She fitted out two vessels at her own expense, and Columbus, 
 with the aid of his friends, fitted out a third. On the 3d of 
 August, 1492, this little fleet left Palos, and directed its course 
 across the Atlantic. 
 
DISCOVERIES. 107 
 
 Spanish Discoveries. The voyage was attended with great 
 peril. The increasing discontent of his followers several times 
 endangered the life of the discoverer. But finally, on the morn- 
 ing of the 12th of October, green forests were seen stretching 
 along the horizon, and the cry of land was echoed from lip to lip. 
 
 The land first discovered by Columbus was named San Salva- 
 dor. It is one of the Bahamas, and is now known as Cat 
 Island. 
 
 Great honors were conferred upon Columbus for this discov- 
 ery. A coat of arms was granted him by the Sovereign of 
 Spain, bearing the inscription, " To Castile and Leon, Colum- 
 bus gave a New "World." But while Spain was endeavoring to 
 conceal the importance of this discovery from the world, Amer- 
 icus Vespucius, a Florentine, obtained the honor which justly 
 belonged to Columbus. He discovered the main land of South 
 America (see South America), north of the Orinoco, in 1499, 
 and, returning to Europe, published a description of his discov- 
 ery. As this was the first reliable account of the discovery, the 
 country was named in honor of Americus Vespucius. 
 
 The West Indies were settled by the Spaniards. Numerous 
 exploring expeditions were sent out from Cuba. In 1513, the 
 Pacific Ocean was discovered by Balboa. John Ponce de Leon 
 discovered "Florida in 1512, but it was not colonized until 1565. 
 Mexico was discovered by Cordova in 1517. 
 
 In 1539, De Soto, Governor of Cuba, received permission to 
 conquer Florida. Landing in that country, he passed westward, 
 and, in 1541, discovered the Mississippi River. 
 
 English Discoveries. The first English discovery made in 
 the "Western Hemisphere, was by Sebastian Cabot, in 1496. 
 During this year he discovered Labrador, and, the following year, 
 explored the coast from Newfoundland, as far south as the 
 Carolinas. 
 
 French Discoveries. The first French expedition was 
 made in 1523, under Verazzani. He reached the mouth of 
 Cape Fear River in January, 1524, and sailed along the coast 
 as far north as the harbor of Boston. This territory he named 
 New France. In 1584j James Carter commanded an expedi- 
 
108 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 tion, and discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The following 
 year he passed up the St. Lawrence River and landed on the 
 site of the city of Quebec. 
 
 Early Inhabitants. The country in which we now live 
 was formerly inhabited by a different race of people — the Red 
 men or the American Indians. They were a rude, barbarous peo- 
 ple, divided into a multitude of savage bands, and were constantly 
 engaged in war and the chase. Their education consisted chiefly 
 in such training as would enable them to endure hardships, 
 hunger, and fatigue. They spent but little time in the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil, but subsisted almost entirely on game, fish and 
 roots. But these people are fast passing away. The great 
 garden of the western world needed tillers, and across the wide 
 waters the white men came, and converted the Indian hunting 
 grounds into waving fields of wheat and corn, and their rude 
 villages into flourishing cities. • The poor Indian has relinquished 
 one hold after another, and constantly retreated before the 
 advance of the white man, until now only a few scattered tribes 
 remain on our western borders, and, doubtless, ere many gener- 
 ations shall pass away, no representatives of the Red men will 
 remain upon the earth. 
 
 Settlements. The first permanent settlement within the 
 present limits of the United States, was that of St. Augustine, 
 in Florida, founded by the Spaniards in the year 1565. Flor- 
 ida was not included ■ in the original territory of the Union, but 
 remained in the possession of Spain until the year 1820. 
 
 Jamestown. The first perinanent settlement made in the 
 original territory of the United States, was that of Jamestown, 
 in Virginia. This colony was sent out in the year 1607, by a 
 London company, under the patronage of King James I., of 
 England. It consisted of one hundred and five persons, mostly 
 adventurers in search of gold. 
 
 The government of the colony was administered by a council 
 of seven, selected by the company in England. The president 
 was to be chosen from this number. 
 
 Edward Wingfield was their first President, but the choice 
 was not a wise one. He was a selfish, unprincipled man, caring 
 
EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 109 
 
 little for the good of the colony, but desirous only of promoting 
 his own interests. It was soon discovered that he was living 
 bountifully on some private stores, while the colonists were re- 
 duced to almost starvation. He was deposed, and John Rat- 
 cliffe was chosen his successor, but he proved no better, and was 
 speedily dismissed. 
 
 Captain John Smith was next chosen. At last the council 
 had made a wise selection. Smith was, by far, the ablest man 
 in the colony, and by his wise government soon succeeded in 
 restoring tranquility. 
 
 In 1608, one hundred and twenty more emigrants were brought 
 over by Captain Newport, but these men were no better than 
 the former. What the colony required was hardy, enterprising 
 farmers, laborers and mechanics ; but gentlemen and goldsmiths 
 were worse than useless to them. 
 
 Some particles of glittering earth were mistaken for gold, 
 and the whole attention of the emigrants was turned to gold-dig- 
 ging. Smith remonstrated, but in vain. He wrote to the party 
 in England, and begged them to send over a different class of 
 men. " I intreat you," he said, "rather send over thirty car- 
 penters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths and 
 masons, than a hundred such as we now have," but his efforts 
 met with little success. At the end of two years, when the 
 colonists numbered two hundred strong able bodied men, there 
 were only forty acres of land under cultivation, and they were 
 obliged to depend chiefly on the Indians for food. 
 
 In the Autumn of the following year. Smith met with a severe 
 accident, and was obliged to return to England for surgical aid, 
 leaving the government, for the time, to George Percy. No 
 greater misfortune could have befallen the colonists, and, for a 
 time, no place ever went more rapidly to ruin. Every trace of 
 order and industry disappeared. The Indians began to assume 
 a hostile attitude, and the idleness and disorder of the colony 
 brought on a famine. 
 
 Six months after Smith's departure the number of the colon- 
 ists was reduced to sixty, and these resolved to abandon their 
 town and return to England. They intended to sail for New- 
 
110 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 foundland, and scatter themselves among the numerous vessels 
 engaged in fishing along that coast, and thus secure their pass- 
 age back to England. But just as they reached the mouth of 
 the river they were met by Lord Delaware, their new governor, 
 with a supply of provisions and more emigrants. This inspired 
 them with a little courage, and that night the whole party re- 
 turned to Jamestown. 
 
 Lord Delaware was a prudent and good man, and during his 
 administration the affairs of the colony began to assume a more 
 encouraging aspect, but unfortunately, his health soon failed, 
 and he was obliged to return to England. He was succeeded 
 soon after by Sir Thomas Dale. An important change was now 
 made in the condition of the colony. Previous to this time they 
 had all labored in common, and the products of their labor were 
 distributed for the good of the community. Governor Dale 
 gave to each man a few acres to cultivate as his own. This 
 regulation proved a powerful incentive to industry, and soon the 
 colonists were provided with an ample supply of food. From 
 this time the affairs of the colony began to assume a more pros- 
 perous condition. 
 
 In 1617, twelve years after the first settlement, the colony 
 numbered only six hundred persons, but during this year their 
 number was increased by one thousand two hundred and sixteen 
 emigrants. In the following year twenty negroes were sold as 
 slaves to the colonists. This was the commencement, in our 
 country, of the unhappy system of slavery. 
 
 There were a great many changes made in the affairs of the 
 government about this period, and some changes, also, in the 
 mode of administration. 
 
 In 1622 the colonists again suffered from the hostility of the 
 Indians, and not long after, by a distressing famine. 
 
 During the administration of Sir John Harvey, their trade 
 was restricted. In 1641, Sir William Berkeley was appointed 
 Governor, and during his administration, which lasted, except 
 during the protectorate of Cromwell, for nearly forty years, the 
 affairs of the colony were generally prosperous. 
 
EARLY SETTLEMENTS. Ill 
 
 Dutch Settlements. In tlie year 1609, Henry Hudson, 
 while exploring the noble river which bears his name, discovered 
 the Island of Manhattan. As he was at this time in the service 
 of the Dutch, all the country along the Hudson was claimed by 
 that people ; and in the year 1614, they erected two forts, one 
 at Albany and the other on Manhattan Island, where the city 
 of New York now stands. 
 
 The country remained in possession of the Dutch until the 
 year 1664, when Charles II., of England, with whom they were, 
 at that time, engaged in war, granted the country to his brother, 
 the Duke of York. The Dutch were compelled to surrender to 
 an English force under Colonel Nichols, and the country became 
 subject to the English crown. 
 
 Plymouth. In the year 1620, a settlement was commenced 
 at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, by the Puritans. These were 
 a class of dissenters from the Church of England. They were 
 desirous of a purer form of worship than that of the established 
 church, and for this reason had separated themselves from it, 
 and thus become exposed to persecution. Several years before 
 thi^ time they had escaped from England to Holland, and now 
 a small band of them determined to seek a home free from per- 
 secution in the wilds of America. 
 
 The colony consisterl of one hundred and five persons. They 
 set sail September 16, 1620, but the weather proving unfavora- 
 ble, they were more than two months in making the voyage. 
 They landed on the coast of Cape Cod on the 22d of December. 
 They immediately began building a town, which they called 
 Plymouth, from the place last visited in England. ' 
 
 The Puritans were men better fitted to found a colony in a 
 new country than those who, a number of years before, had 
 settled at Jamestown. They had not left their homes in search 
 of gold, but for what, to them, was a far greater treasure, the 
 freedom to worship God according to the dictates of their own 
 conscences. Persecution had driven them from England, but it 
 failed to teach them the true principles of religious toleration, 
 and they, in their turn, persecuted those who difi'ered from them 
 in belief. 
 
112 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Jolin Carver was chosen their first Governor, and at his death, 
 in 1621, he was" succeeded by William Bradford. A military 
 organization was formed to protect themselves against the In- 
 dians, and Miles Standish was chosen their captain. Through 
 the aid of Samoset, a friendly Indian, they were enabled to 
 enter into a treaty of peace with Massasoit, the most powerful 
 Indian chief in that region. This treaty was strictly observed 
 for a period of fifty-four years. 
 
 The colonists suffered greatly from privations and hardships, - 
 but still they were not disheartened. Through all, their trust 
 in God remained firm. Sufferings seemed to bind them closer 
 together, and increase their devotion and confidence in God. 
 
 Other Settlements. During the succeeding years, numer- 
 ous other settlements were made along the coast. In the year 
 1628, the Massachusetts Bay Colony formed a settlement at 
 what is now Salem, and in 1630, John Wmthrop, with a colony 
 of one thousand five hundred persons, arrived in Charlestown. 
 
 In 1623, settlements were made in New Hampshire, at Dover 
 and Portsmouth. These settlements were annexed to Massa- 
 chusetts in 1641, and remained as part of it until 1679, when 
 they were again placed under a separate government. . 
 
 In 1635, settlements were made in Connecticut, at Windsor 
 and Wethersfield. New Plaven was founded in 1638, and in 
 1665 these three colonies were united. 
 
 In 1636, a settlement was founded at Providence, Rhode 
 Island, by Roger Williams, who had been banished from Salem 
 on account of his liberal religious views. 
 
 Union of the Colonies. The Plymouth colony suffered 
 very little from the hostilities of the Indians, but the Connecti- 
 cut colony, two years after it was first planted, was involved in 
 a long and severe contest, generally known as the Pequod War. 
 The Pequods or Pequots were a war-like tribe, inhabiting the 
 south-eastern part of the state. The colonists succeeded, at last, 
 in entirely defeating them at their settlements, on Mystic River. 
 Soon after this, the colonists began to fear that arrangements 
 were being made among the Indians to unite their forces against 
 
EARLY SETTLEMENTS. 113 
 
 the white men, and, if possible, drive them from the country. 
 Their alarm was increased by suspicious movements among 
 the Dutch and French. After serious consideration it was 
 thought best to unite, for their mutual protection, the four col- 
 onies of Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut and New 
 Haven. This confederation was known by the name of the 
 United Colonies of New England. 1 he Union lasted for a little 
 more than forty years, and proved of great benefit to the colonies. 
 
 King James II. succeeded in destroying this union by depriv- 
 ing the colonists of their charters, but the germ of a grand con- 
 federacy had been planted, which, in after years, led to American 
 Independence. 
 
 King Philip's War. The most powerful enemy among the 
 Indians that the colonists ever had to contend with was King 
 Philip, son of Massasoit. Through his talent, courage and en- 
 ergy, he succeeded in uniting the difierent tribes in a general 
 war. They were determined to make one great effort to prevent 
 the loss of their hunting grounds. The war was carried on by 
 the Indians, through the secret and effective methods of treach- 
 ery, ambush and surprise. Men in their fields, families in their 
 beds at midnight, and congregations in houses of worship, were 
 surprised and massacred. Grreat spirit and vigor was manifested 
 on both sides. The colonists obtained a great victory in what is 
 known as the "swamp fight." The Indians never recovered from 
 the^effects of this defeat. In August, 1676, Philip was shot by 
 the treachery of an Indian. This event put an end to the war, 
 but the colonists had suffered greatly from the effects of it. They 
 had lost in all about six hundred men. Their houses had been 
 destroyed, their homes desolated and their villages burned. 
 
 Settlements in the South. While these events were going 
 on in the north, other settlements had been forming further 
 south. 
 
 In the year 1634, Leonard Calvert, with two hundred emi- 
 grants, formed the colony of St. Mary's, in Maryland. In 
 1664, the Dutch began the settlement of Elizabethtown, in New 
 Jersey. As early as the year 1638, a small settlement was 
 
114 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 made by the Swedes, in Delaware, and, after a number of unsuc- 
 cessful attempts, a permanent settlement was established in Car- 
 olina, at the mouth of Cape Fear River, and later, in the year 
 1682, William Penn founded a colony of Quakers at Philadelphia. 
 
 Loss OF Charters. James the II., of England, had for 
 some time been jealous of the growing power of the colonists, 
 and in the year 1685 he resolved to take their government into 
 his own hands. For this purpose Sir Edmund Andros was 
 appointed governor of all New England. He arrived at Boston 
 in 1686, and demanded their charters. That of Massachusetts 
 was given up, but the people of Connecticut managed to conceal 
 theirs in a hollow tree, and Andros was unable to obtain it. He, 
 however, assumed the reins of government, and the people, see- 
 ing no way of redress, were obliged to submit. 
 
 His reign of tyranny, however, was of short d.uration. In 
 1688, King James was driven from the throne, and was suc- 
 ceeded by William, Prince of Orange. This change brought 
 great relief to the oppressed colonists. Andros was immedi- 
 ately seized and sent back to England to answer for his mis- 
 deeds. Connecticut and Hhode Island resumed their charters, 
 and Massachusetts obtained a new one. 
 
 French and Indian Wars. The revolution in England 
 brought on a war with France, which extended to their respec- 
 tive colonies in the United States. This war lasted until the 
 year 1697, when the contest was ended by a treaty of peace 
 between France and England. 
 
 The five years immediately succeeding this war was a time of 
 comparative peace to the colonies, but at the end of this period, 
 Queen Anne, who was then on the throne of England, became 
 involved in a war with both France and Spain. This war sub- 
 jected the colonists to hostilities from the French settlements on 
 the north, and also from the Spanish settlements in the south. 
 These, together with their Indian allies, made numerous attacks 
 on the infant settlements, which were vigorously repelled by the 
 colonists. This war lasted for eleven years, but was finally 
 concluded in the year 1713, by the peace of Utrecht. The In- 
 
FRENCH AND INDIAN TVARS. 115 
 
 dians, however, continued their hostilities for two years longer. 
 
 With the exception of this Indian trouble, the colonists re- 
 mained in a state of comparative tranquility until the year 1744, 
 when war again broke out between France and England. The 
 most important event of this war, in America, was the taking 
 from the French the strong fortification of Louisburg. The 
 colonists were very much elated over this victory, and it was to 
 their no small mortification, that in 1748, when peace was de- 
 clared, Louisburg was given up to France. 
 
 Three successive times had the French and English colonies 
 in America been involved in warfare, and each time the trouble 
 had first arisen between the mother countries; but in 1755, a 
 war originated between the colonists themselves, concerning 
 territorial claims along the Mississippi. The French claimed 
 all the land watered by this river and its tributaries, because 
 they first discovered it. A grant of six thousand acres, along 
 the Ohio River, had been given by the King to an English com- 
 pany. They attempted to establish some trading posts along 
 the river. The French regarded them as intruders, and seized 
 and imprisoned some of the traders. The English complained 
 loudly of these aggressive measures. The Governor sent a let- 
 ter of remonstrance to the French, and demanded, in the name 
 of the King, that they should not interfere with the traders. 
 George Washington, then a young man of twenty -two years of 
 age, was chosen the bearer of this dispatch. The French com- 
 mander replied that he had acted according to orders. Wash- 
 ington returned with this unsatisfactory answer, but with a great 
 amount of valuable information in regard to the French fortifica- 
 tions. The colonists determined to resort to arms. A regiment 
 was immediately formed, over which Washington was appointed 
 colonel. Troops were raised throughout the colonies, and land 
 and naval forces were, sent from England. 
 
 Arrangements were immediately made for four separate expe- 
 ditions ; the first under General Winslow to be sent north for 
 the purpose of driving the French out of Nova Scotia ; the 
 second under General Braddock was to march against Fort du 
 Quesne; the third commanded by Governor Shirley against 
 
116 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Niagara and Frontenac ; and a fourth, under General Jolinson, 
 against Crown Point, on Lake Champlain. 
 
 The first expedition was successful. The French forts were 
 captured without difficulty, and the whole region was placed 
 under martial rule. 
 
 The second expedition was defeated with great loss. General 
 Braddock, every mounted officer under Washington, and about 
 half of the privates were slain. The expedition against Crown 
 Point was met by the enemy on the banks of Lake George. 
 The French were repulsed with the loss of about eight hundred 
 men, but the EngHshmade no further attempt towards the cap- 
 ture of Crown Point. 
 
 The expedition against Niagara was delayed until the season 
 had so far advanced that it was too late to effect anything. 
 
 In the meantime the French and Indian forces had captured 
 Oswego, with sixteen hundred of the colonial troops, and a large 
 quantity of cannon and military stores. The English repaired 
 this loss soon after by the capture of Louisburg, with five thou- 
 sand seven hundred men. This was the greatest blow the French 
 received during the war. It placed the whole country, from the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence to Nova Scotia in the hands of the English. 
 
 An attack was next made on Ticonderoga, but the English 
 were repulsed with a loss in killed and wounded of nearly two 
 thousand men. 
 
 Two expeditions were now sent out, one against Fort Fronte- 
 nac ; and another against Fort du Quesne. The former surren- 
 dered in two days time, and the latter was evacuated the night 
 before the arrival of the English. 
 
 The English now (1759) determined to invade the French pos- 
 sessions in Canada. Three expeditions were fitted out. The 
 first, under General Amherst, was to attack Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point; the second, under General Prideaux, was to attack 
 Niagara, and the third, under General Wolfe, was to march 
 against the stronghold of Quebec. 
 
" THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 117 
 
 Ticonderoga and Crown Point were taken with but little diffi- 
 culty. Niagara was taken after several days of severe fighting, 
 but with the loss of General Prideaux. 
 
 The whole attention of the colonists was now turned to the 
 capture of Quebec. General Wolfe, with eight thousand men, 
 left Louisburg in the month of June. He. landed on Orleans 
 Island, a few miles below Quebec. 
 
 For eight weeks Wolfe was occupied with unsuccessful at- 
 tempts to approach the city. At the end of that time he con- 
 ceived the bold plan of scaling the bights of Abraham, a steep 
 precipice on the north bank of the river, which was but weakly 
 defended. 
 
 I'he undertaking, though a difficult one, was accomplished 
 during a single night, and in the morning the astonished French 
 beheld the English troops drawn up in battle array on the Plains 
 of Abraham. The French, commanded by the hitherto success- 
 ful General Montcalm, marched immediately from their encamp- 
 ment, and by ten o'clock the two armies confronted each other. 
 A bloody battle now ensued, in which the French were entirely 
 defeated, with the loss of their four principal commanders and 
 one thousand five hundred men. The English lost their first 
 two officers, Wolfe and Monckton, and about five hundred men. 
 They felt deeply the loss of the brave Gemeral Wolfe. During 
 the battle he was twice severely wounded, but refused to leave 
 the field until he fell, near the close of the engagement. He 
 died with a smile upon his lips, just as his ears were greeted 
 with the shout of victory from his successful troops. 
 
 After the capture of Quebec, but two fortifications remained 
 in the hands of the French, one at Montreal, and the other a 
 land and naval force stationed a few miles above Quebec. These 
 were captured the following year (1760), and by the peace of 
 Paris, in 1763, the French possessions in this portion of North 
 America were confirmed to the English. 
 
 The Revolutionary War. After the close of the French 
 and Indian war the colonists anticipated a return of peace, but 
 troubles from a new quarter began to assail them. The mother 
 country began to interfere with their rights in a manner which 
 
118 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 caused the most serious alarm. They were not represented in 
 parliament, and yet they were by this body continually subjected 
 to commercial restrictions, prohibitions to manufacture, imports 
 upon exchanges, and direct taxation. 
 
 Early in the spring of the year 1765, the Stamp Act was 
 passed, requiring a duty on all papers used for instruments of 
 writing, as deeds, notes, etc., and declaring such writings on 
 unstamped paper, null and void. This act caused great indig- 
 nation throughout the colonies. In the hearts of these sturdy 
 emigrants the love of liberty burned strong, and to their minda 
 "taxation without representation" was absolute tyranny. 
 
 A Colonial Congress from the nine colonies met at New York, 
 and published an act declaring their rights and their grievances, 
 and insisting particularly on the right of exclusively taxing 
 themselves. 
 
 The stamp act met with such violent resistance, that in the 
 spring of the following year it was repealed, but Parliament 
 still maintained the right of taxation. 
 
 In June, of the year 1767, another act was passed, requiring 
 a duty on tea, glass, paper and colors ; and in the following 
 year two British regiments were stationed in Boston. These 
 aggressive acts met with even more violent resistance than the 
 former. 
 
 In the spring of 1771,, an act was passed repealing all the 
 duties except the one on tea, but the colonists were still dissat- 
 isfied. They refused to purchase tea, and those ships which 
 arrived in their harbors laden with this article, were obliged to 
 return to England without unloading their cargoes. 
 
 Aggressive acts on the part of Parliament, and resistance 
 from the colonists continued, until the exasperated mother 
 country determined to quell the rebellious spirit by force of arms. 
 The English army in Boston was increased to ten thousand. 
 The colonists were fully awake to their position. Troops were 
 rapidly raised ; men of strong, brave hearts, ready to die rather 
 than bow beneath the oppressor's rod. 
 
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 119 
 
 In the month of April, the British General Gage, secretly- 
 dispatched troops for the purpose seizing some military stores 
 stationed at Concord, but the colonists, ever on the alert, 
 discovered his movements, and when his troops arrived at Lex- 
 ington, a few miles from Concord, they found eighty minute-men 
 stationed on the green, to oppose them. A sharp contest ensued, 
 in which the militia were dispersed with the loss of eight killed 
 and several wounded. The first blood of the great Revolution- 
 ary War had been spilled, and peace was not again to dawn on 
 the land until the people of the United States were an inde- 
 pendent nation. 
 
 General Gage, with his men, pushed on to Concord, and suc- 
 ceeded in destroying the military stores ; but by noon, the now 
 thoroughly aroused populace came pouring in from all sides, 
 and on the way back to Charleston, the British troops were 
 assailed on every side. They lost in killed and wounded, two 
 hundred and seventy-three, while the loss of the colonists was 
 only one hundred and three. 
 
 Before the close of the month, an army of twenty thousand 
 men was collected around Boston. A detachment of Connecti- 
 cut and Vermont militia, under Colonel Ethan Allen and Bene- 
 dict Arnold, seized the strong fortresses of Ticonderoga and 
 Crown Point. 
 
 General Gage resolved to attack the force stationed around 
 Boston, and make his way into the interior of the country. 
 The colonial troops, who had fortified an eminence commanding 
 the harbor and an important part of the city, held out as long 
 as ammunition lasted, but were finally obliged to retreat. They 
 had lost in killed, wounded and prisoners, about four hundred 
 and fifty men ; while the loss of the British was more than 
 double that. 
 
 On the 10th of May the second Continental Congress assem- 
 bled at Philadelphia, and George Washington was appointed 
 Commander-in-Chief of the Army. 
 
 The first year of the war closed with an attack on Quebec, 
 commanded by General Arnold and General Montgomery. The 
 British troops surrounded them, Montgomery was shot and his 
 
120 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 division forced to surrender. Arnold, with the remainder of the 
 troops, effected, a retreat, and entrenched himself a few miles 
 below the town, on the opposite side of the river. 
 
 1776. General Wa,shing;ton, with about fifteen thousand men, 
 resolved to drive the British out of Boston. A severe cannonade 
 was opened on the city on the 2d of March, and on the night of the 
 4th a strong battery was erected on Dorchester Hights. Gen- 
 eral Howe, who had succeeded General Gage, being alarmed 
 for the safety of his army, resolved to evacuate the city. The 
 British left Boston on the 17th of March, and Washington im- 
 mediately took possession of the town.'^ 
 
 On the 28th of June, a combined attack, by land and water, 
 was made on Fort Moultrie and Sullivan's Island, with the design 
 of reducing Charleston. The colonial troops, under Colonel 
 Moultrie, vigorously defended their fort. The British were re- 
 pulsed with great damage to their ships, and a loss of two hun- 
 dred and twenty-five men, while of those within the fort, only 
 two were killed and twenty-two wounded. 
 
 England was becoming alarmed. Her rebellious subjects in 
 America were stronger than she had supposed. The British 
 army was increased to fifty thousand. 
 
 Congress, now permanently assembled at Philadelphia, was 
 discussing a question of great importance to both nations. On 
 the 7th of June, Richard Henry Lee offered the following reso- 
 lution to the consideration of that body : 
 
 " Resolved^ That these united colonies are, and of right 
 ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved 
 from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political 
 connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is, 
 and ought to be, totally dissolved.'' 
 
 The question was gravely considered until July 4th, when the 
 representatives of the thirteen colonies unanimously declared 
 themselves free and independent states, and assumed the title 
 of the United States of America. This declaration of Inde- 
 pendence was received with great joy by the people. They felt 
 that they were no longer subjects of England, but free citizens 
 
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 121 
 
 of the United States, and they determined to vindicate their 
 mutual rights to such a title. 
 
 Washington was aware that the occupation of New York 
 would give great advantages to the British army; he, therefore, 
 lost no time in fortifying that place. 
 
 Sir William Howe, with an army of thirty thousand men, 
 marched toward that city. 
 
 Washington had at his command only between eleven and 
 twelve thousand men. On the 27th of August a severe battle 
 took place in which the Americans were obliged to retreat with 
 a loss of upwards of one thousand men, while the British lost 
 only between three and four hundred. 
 
 On the 28th of October another engagement took place at 
 White Plains, in which the English were again victorious. 
 About this time Fort Washington and Fort Lee fell into the 
 hands of the British, and affairs began to assume a very dis- 
 couraging aspect for the Americans. 
 
 On the night of the 25th of December, Washington, with 
 twenty-four hundred men, crossed the Delaware and surprised a 
 party of Hessians, at Trenton. Colonel Rail, the Hessian com- 
 mander, and between forty and fifty of his men were killed, and 
 more than a thousand made prisoners. This bold and decisive 
 step on the part of Washington closed the second year of the war. 
 
 1777. On New Year's day, Cornwallis, with an army fresh 
 and strong, arrived on the bank of the Delaware River, just 
 opposite the American camp. Washington, fearing the next 
 day's encounter, determined to abandon his post. During the 
 night his army was secretly and silently marched from camp, 
 and the next day surprised and defeated the British troops at 
 Princeton. 
 
 Washington was closely pursued by Cornwallis, and on the 
 11th of September an engagement took place at Brandy wine, 
 in which the Americans were defeated. 
 
 Soon after, Washington attacked the British at Germantown, 
 but was repulsed, and obliged to retreat with considerable loss. 
 About this time the British took possession of Philadelphia. 
 9 
 
122 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Early in the spring the English determined to invade the 
 states through Canada. For this purpose. General Burgoyne, 
 with about seven thousand men, passed up Lake Champlain, and 
 compelled the Americans to abandon Ticonderoga. From this 
 place he proceeded to Skenesborough, and destroyed the Amer- 
 ican stores at that place. He dispatched Colonel Baum, with 
 about five hundred men, to destroy a collection of stores at Ben- 
 nington. General Stark, wuth about eight hundred men, suc- 
 ceeded in killing and taking prisoners the most of this detach- 
 ment. The next day a reinforcement of about five hundred 
 men was also met and defeated by General Stark. 
 
 General Burgoyne now crossed the Hudson and encamped at 
 Saratoga. General Gates, who had recently succeeded to the 
 chief command of the northern army, advanced to meet him. 
 A severe engagement took place at Stillwater, in which the 
 Americans lost about four hundred and the British six hundred. 
 
 Burgoyne's army was soon after confined in a narrow pass, 
 with the Hudson on one side, an impassable woods on the other, 
 and a large body of American troops in both front and rear. 
 After a number of inefiectual attempts to retreat, his whole army, 
 consisting of five thousand seven hundred and fifty-two men, sur- 
 rendered as prisoners of war. This event, which closed the year 
 1777, inspired new courage throughout the American army. 
 
 1778. At the opening of this year, France, who had all along 
 -sympathized with the United States, recognized her indepen- 
 dence, and decided to help her maintain it. A treaty of alliance 
 was accordingly entered into. The news of this alliance was 
 received with great joy by the people of the United States, and 
 it produced equally great consternation in England. 
 
 About this time Lord Howe returned to England, and was 
 succeeded by General Sir Henry Clinton. Hearing that a 
 French fle^t was expected to land in the Delaware, the English 
 determined to abandon Philadelphia, intending to concentrate 
 their forces at the city of New York. Washington pursued and 
 overtook the British, at Monmouth Court House, where an en- 
 o-aa:ement took place, in which the Americans were victorious. 
 
THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. 123 
 
 A French fleet arrived in July, but at the close of the season, 
 without having accomplished anything of importance, it sailed 
 to the West Indies. In December the Americans were defeated 
 at Savannah, and the British took possession of that city. 
 
 177^. The English now turned their attention toward the 
 south. Already Savannah was in their possession, and soon 
 after Sunbury and Augusta followed. During the early part 
 of this year almost all Greorgia was in their possession. 
 
 An important victory was gained by the Americans, under 
 General "Wayne, at Stony Point. The British were defeated, 
 and the whole garrison obliged to surrender. 
 
 About this time the French fleet returned, and the united 
 French and Americans attacked the British at Savannah, but 
 were repulsed with a loss of about one thousand men. The 
 French soon after left America. 
 
 1780. During this year the attention of the British was 
 chiefly directed to South Carolina. 
 
 In the month of April, General Clinton, with a large force, 
 appeared before Charleston, and demanded its surrender. Gen- 
 eral Lincoln, the American commander, refused. The city was 
 beseiged for one month, at _ the end of which ^ime. Lord Corn- 
 wallis arrived with large reinforcements. On the l7th of May 
 the garrison, consisting of two thousand five hundred men, were 
 surrendered as prisoners of war. 
 
 In August another engagement took place, in which the Amer- 
 icans were defeated with great loss. 
 
 About this time a plot was formed by General Benedict 
 Arnold for delivering into the hands of the British the import- 
 ant fortress of West Point. His treachery was discovered, but 
 he managed to escape to the enemy's lines, where he was ap- 
 pointed to the office of Brigadier General. Major Andre, the 
 British agent, was arrested, convicted as a spy, and condemned 
 to be hanged. 
 
 1781. At the opening of this year the traitor Arnold, with 
 about one thousand five hundred men, committed serious depre- 
 
124 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 dations upon lower Virginia. On the 17tli of January an en- 
 gagement took place between the British, under Tarleton, and 
 the Americans, under Morgan, in which the British were de- 
 feated with great loss. Another battle was fought in March, in 
 which the British remained masters of the field, but the loss on 
 both sides was nearly equal. In September the Americans, 
 under General Greene, obtained a decisive victory over the 
 English at Eutaw Springs. 
 
 Cornwallis had a large force stationed at Yorktown. Wash- 
 ington, with sixteen thousand men, determined to attack him at 
 this point. The city was beseiged on the 28th of Septem- 
 ber, and on the 19th of October, Cornwallis, with his army of 
 about seven thousand men, surrendered to General Washington. 
 
 This event caused great joy throughout the United States. 
 The British army in America was now virtually subdued, and 
 no battle of any importance was fought after this time. 
 
 Early in the spring, of the following year, negotiations for 
 peace were commenced. 
 
 A treaty of peace was agreed upon September 3d, 1783, by 
 which the independence of the United States was acknowledged, 
 and on the 3d of November the army was disbanded. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 During the war the United States had contracted a debt of 
 over forty millions of dollars, and no means of paying the debt 
 had been provided. The Articles of Confederation which the 
 people had agreed upon, empowered Congress to carry on the 
 war, but it had no power to provide for its expenses. 
 
 In* May, 1787, a convention assembled at Philadelphia for the 
 purpose of revising these articles. After long deliberation it 
 was agreed to cast them aside, and the Constitution, under which 
 we now live, was formed. This was to be carried into effect as 
 soon as it was ratified by nine of the states. , 
 
 During the following year it was ratified by eleven of the 
 thirteen states, and it was adopted on the 4th of March, 1789. 
 
 By the unanimous voice of the people, George Washington 
 was chosen, first President of the United States, and John 
 Adams was elected Vice Presideni,. 
 
 The condition of the country at this time was a very trying 
 one, but Washington governed wisely and well. At the end of 
 his first term of office he was again chosen chief magistrate. 
 At the close of his second term he refused to be re-elected, and 
 retired to his home at Mount Vernon. He died very suddenly 
 on the 4th of December, 1799, leaving a whole nation to mourn 
 his loss. 
 
 Since that time we have had seventeen different Presidents, 
 tIz : John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James 
 Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Martin Van 
 Buren, William Henry Harrison, John Tyler, James K. Polk, 
 Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, Franklin Pierce, James 
 Buchanan, Abraham Lincoln, Andrew Johnson and Ulysses S. 
 
126 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Grant. Of these Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Jackson and 
 Abraham Lincoln, at the close of their first term, were re- 
 elected. Harrison died just one month from the day of his 
 inauguration; Taylor within a year and a half; and Lincoln 
 was assassinated within about a month after his second election. 
 Their terms of office were filled out by their respective Vice 
 Presidents. The remaining Presidents served for only four 
 years. 
 
 During the first term of Jefferson's administration the terri- 
 tory of Louisiana was purchased from the French for fifteen 
 millions of dollars, and annexed to the United States. During 
 his second term of office the United States was again involved 
 in trouble with England. With regard to trouble between the 
 latter country and France, the United States had endeavored to 
 maintain a strict neutrality, but in 1805, the contending parties 
 in their desire to injure each other, adopted measures destruc- 
 tive to American commerce. These aggressions became so seri- 
 ous, especially on the part of the British, that during Madison's 
 Administration, in the year 1812, war was declared against 
 England. 
 
 This war was prosecuted for about two years, but not with 
 much energy or success. The European quarrel being at last 
 settled, a treaty of peace was concluded December 24th, 1814. 
 
 Two Indian wars occurred during Jackson's administration, 
 but the Indians, after severe fighting, were subdued and driven 
 beyond the Mississippi. 
 
 In 1828, a rebellion broke out in South Carolina, which grew 
 out of the discontent produced by the tariff laws. This difficulty 
 seemed for a time to threaten the dissolution of the Union, but 
 Jackson, by his vigorous and energetic policy, soon succeeded 
 in putting down the rebellion. 
 
 Mexican War. In 1845, during Mr. Polk's administration, 
 a war broke out between the United States and Mexico, occa- 
 sioned by the annexation of the republic of Texas to the United 
 States. This war was prosecuted with great vigor and success 
 on the part of the United States until the year 1848, when a 
 
EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 127 
 
 treaty of peace was concluded, by which Mexico ceded to the 
 United States, Texas, New Mexico and Upper California. The 
 United States agreed to pay fifteen millions of dollars to the 
 Mexican government, arid assume debts due from that govern- 
 ment amounting to three million five hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 The Slave Question. During Mr. Pierce's administration 
 the country became violently agitated on the subject of slavery. 
 According to the Missouri Compromise, agreed upon in 1821, 
 slavery was prohibited north of latitude 36° 30' N., but in 1854 
 this bill was repealed, and slavery was permitted to enter the 
 territories of Kansas and Nebraska. This act caused great 
 indignation among the anti-slavery or republican party, and led 
 to a conflict between the two contending parties which lasted for 
 a number of years. This conflict was at its hight when Abra- 
 ham Lincoln was elected President. He was elected by the 
 republicans, and met with strong opposition from the other party. 
 
 Rebellion in the South — Civil War. Immediately after 
 Lincoln's election, a rebellion broke out in the south, and seven 
 states, led by South Carolina, seceded from the Union. These 
 states organized themselves into a confederacy, and chose Jeffer- 
 son Davis for their President. They. immediately began raising 
 troops, and taking other measures for sustaining the rebellion. 
 
 The conspirators had managed, before the first outbreak, to 
 transfer nearly all the arms in the northern forts to those of the 
 south. 
 
 The National army consisted of only about sixteen thousand 
 men, and these were nearly all stationed on the western fron- 
 tier. The navy consisted of only ninety ships, and all but one 
 of these were in foreign waters. The United States was but little 
 prepared to carry on the destructive war which now broke out. 
 
 In April, 1861, an effort was made to send reinforcements to 
 the garrison stationed at Fort Sumter. The vessel conveying 
 these was fired upon by the rebels, and driven from the harbor 
 at Charleston. The rebels then demanded a surrender of the 
 fort, which was refused. A bombardment commenced on the 
 
128 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 12tli, and on the 14th, their provisions being exhausted, it was 
 evacuated by the Union troops. 
 
 This was the commencement of the great Civil War, which 
 lasted for about four years. 
 
 President Lincoln immediately issued an order for seventy- 
 five thousand volunteers, which was promptly met by the loyal 
 people of the north; and within twenty days over two hundred 
 thousand men were ready to take the field, and forty millions 
 of dollars had been contributed towards defraying the expen- 
 ses of the war. 
 
 The conspirators were anxious to obtain possession of Wash- 
 ington, and their troops were immediately set moving in that 
 direction. On the 14th of April, the navy yard at Gosport was 
 attacked, and on the 21st, the arsenal and armory at Harper's 
 Ferry. Both of these places were set on fire and evacuated by 
 the National forces. 
 
 The President perceiving the danger of the seizure of Wash- 
 ington, issued an order for sixty-four thousand more troops for 
 the army, and eighteen thousand for the navy. A large force", 
 under General Winfield Scott, was stationed for the defense of 
 the National Capital. The rebels finding themselves frustrated 
 in their designs, turned their attention to a new quarter. 
 
 On the 13th of May, Baltimore was seized by the Union 
 troops under Colonel Benjamin F. Butler. On the 24th of May, 
 the National troops seized Alexandria and Arlington Hights, 
 opposite Washington City. On the 3d of June, an engagement 
 took place at Phillippi, in Virginia, in which the Union troops 
 were victorious; and on the 10th, an unsuccessful attack was 
 made on the Confederate troops at Big Bethel. On the 11th, 
 the United States troops succeeded in driving the insurgents 
 from Harper's Ferry. 
 
 Congress, obedient to the summons of Lincoln, met on the 
 4th of July, and authorized the President to call for five hun- 
 dred thousand additional troops, and appropriated five hundred 
 millions of dollars towards defraying the expenses of the war. 
 
EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 129 
 
 The strongest Confederate force was stationed at Manassas 
 Junction, within about thirty miles'of Washington. A body of 
 Union troops, under General McDowell, numbering about fifty 
 thousand, marched towards that place, and a severe battle was 
 fought at Bull's Run. For a time the National troops had the 
 advantage, but just as the Confederates were, beginning to give 
 way, they received large reinforcements, and the Union troops 
 were obliged to retreat with a loss of about three thousand men. 
 On the following day General George B. McClellan was ap- 
 pointed to the. command of the army of the Potomac, General 
 Scott having resigned on account of his failing health. 
 
 The war had now extended as far west as Missouri, and on 
 the 5th of July a severe contest took place between the Union 
 forces, under Colonel Sigel, and the rebels, under C. F. Jack- 
 son, the disloyal Governor of Missouri. The Union forces were 
 obliged to retreat, but the loss of the rebels was about four 
 times that of their own. On the 10th, a battle was fought at 
 Wilson's Creek, which respited in great loss to both parties. 
 
 In August, an expedition was fitted out against forts Clark 
 and Hatteras, at the entrance of Pamlico Sound. At this place 
 an important victory was gained ; a large number of prisoners 
 were taken and considerable quantities of ammunition captured. 
 
 On the 11th of September, an engagement took place near 
 Summersville, in West Virginia, which lasted for three days, 
 and resulted in the defeat of the Confederates. 
 
 At about this time the rebels gained possession of Lexington, 
 Missouri, but it was retaken by the Federal troops on the 16th 
 of October. 
 
 On the 31st of October, an engagement took place at Ball's 
 Bluff, on the upper Potomac, in which the National troops were 
 defeated with great loss. Soon after this the National troops, 
 under General Ulysses S. Grant, were again defeated at Bel- 
 mont, Missouri, but the defeat was atoned for the same day by 
 the capture of forts Beauregard and Walker, guarding the 
 Port Royal entrance on the coast of South Carolina^. 
 
130 HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1862. The campaign of this year opened with the capture, 
 by the United States .troops, "of Roanoke Island, with two thou- 
 sand five hundred prisoners and a large quantity of arms. 
 
 On the 17th of January, a victory was obtained by the Na- 
 tional troops at Logan's Cross Roads, in Eastern Kentucky. 
 In February, the Federal troops, under Grant, and a naval 
 force under Commodore Foote, after a severe contest, succeeded 
 in gaining possession of forts Henry and Donelson. The lat- 
 ter sustained a seige for three days, when the fort, with over 
 thirteen thousand men and valuable military stores was sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 On the 5th of March, a battle was fought at Pea Ridge, in 
 Western Arkansas, in which the Union troops were victorious. 
 
 On the 6th of April, an engagement took place at Shiloh, in 
 Tennessee, between the Nationals, under General Grant, and 
 the Confederates, under General A. S. Johnson. On the first 
 day of 'the battle the Union troops were repulsed, with a loss of 
 twenty-five hundred, but during the night General Buell arrived 
 with large reinforcements, and the next day the contest was 
 renewed. The loss on both sides was severe, but the National 
 troops were victorious. On the same day, Island No. 10, in the 
 Mississippi River, was captured. Four days after, Fort Pulaski, 
 at the mouth of the Savannah River, and Huntsville, in North- 
 ern Alabama, were taken; and seven days after the Confederates 
 were driven out of Fredericksburg, Virginia. 
 
 On the 2Tth of April, the Confederates met with the most 
 severe blow they had yet experienced, in the loss of the import- 
 ant city of New Orleans. The Rebel troops, twenty thousand 
 strong, after destroying property to the amount of three millions 
 of dollars, evacuated the city, and General Butler took possession. 
 
 While these movements were going on in the south and west, 
 the army of the Potomac was not idle. On the 4th of April, 
 McClellan obtained possession of the military works of York- 
 ton, and on the 5th, an engagement took place at Williamsburg, 
 in which the Nationals were victorious. On the 9th, General 
 John E. Wool, commander of the army at Fortress Monroe, 
 
EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 131 
 
 succeeded in driving the rebels out of Norfolk. On the 15thj 
 General Banks was defeated near Winchester. On the 29th, 
 Hanover Court House was captured. On the 31st, a severe 
 engagement took place at Fair Oaks, in which the Nationals 
 lost about five thousand, and the Confederates about eight hun- 
 dred men. 
 
 On the 6th of June, the citj of Memphis, after a hard fought 
 battle, was surrendered to the Union troops. 
 
 On the 25th of June, General John Pope was placed in com- 
 mand of the forces under Generals Fremont, Banks and Mc- 
 Dowell. 
 
 The Confederates were again concentrating their forces around 
 Washington, and McClellan was recalled from Virginia to assist 
 Pope in the defense of the National Capital. On the 27th, a 
 second battle took place at Bull's Run, in which the National 
 troops were compelled to retreat to the fortifications around 
 Washington. Soon after McClellan was placed in command of 
 all the troops for the defense of that city. 
 
 The Confederates, under General Robert E. Lee, now crossed 
 the Potomac and advanced into Maryland, closely pursued by 
 McClellan. On the 15th of September, the Rebel troops cap- 
 tured Harper's Ferry, with eleven thousand men and large 
 quantities of arms and ammunition. On the 17tb, a severe 
 battle was fought between the forces of Lee and McClellan, in 
 which there were about one hundred thousand engaged on each 
 side. Lee was defeated and obliged to retreat to Richmond. 
 
 On the 5th of November, General McClellan was succeeded 
 jn command by General Burnside. 
 
 On the 13th of December, Burnside attacked the Rebel forces 
 stationed at Fredericksburg, but was repulsed with a loss of 
 about twelve thousand men. 
 
 The other divisions of the army were still at work. In Aug- 
 ust, General Kirby Smith defeated a Union force near Rich- 
 mond, Kentucky. Cincinnati was seriously threatened, but was 
 saved' from capture through the vigorous measures of General 
 Wallace. 
 
132 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Soon after General Bragg captured a Federal force of four 
 thousand five hundred men. On the 8th of October, an engage- 
 ment took place at Perryville, Kentucky, in which the Union 
 troops compelled Bragg to retreat into Tennessee. 
 
 On the 17th of September, General Price defeated a Confed- 
 erate force at luka, Mississippi, and took one thousand prisoners. 
 
 The year 1862 closed with the battle of Murfreesboro', Ten- 
 nessee, between Generals Rosecrans and Bragg. The contest 
 began December 31st, and continued until January 3d, 1863. 
 The Union troops were victorious, but with a loss of about 
 twelve thousand men. 
 
 While these events were going on in the army. Congress was 
 bending all its energies towards meeting the expenses, and pro- 
 viding men to carry on the war. On the 22d of December, the 
 President, authorized by Congress, issued his famous Emanci- 
 pation Proclamation, but even then the rebels were allowed a 
 hundred days of grace. Happily for us, as a nation, they did 
 not submit, or the terrible institution of slavery might have been 
 fastened on the country forever. 
 
 1863. On the 1st of January, the hundred days, of grace 
 having expired, the proclamation went into effect, and the Uni- 
 ted States became, what it was intended from the first to be, a 
 free Nation. Thousands of liberated slaves came into the lines 
 of the Union army, and, at the close of the year, over sixty 
 thousand colored troops were in the service of the government. 
 
 On the 26th of January, Burnside, at his own request, was 
 relieved from the command of the army, and General Joseph 
 Hooker was appointed in his place. 
 
 On the 3d of May, an engagement took place at Chancellor- 
 ville, in which Hooker was defeated with a loss of over eleven 
 thousand men. 
 
 Crossing Maryland, Lee now advanced into Pennsylvania, 
 taking the towns of Chambersburg and York, and pursuing his 
 course to within four miles of Harrisburg. The army of the 
 Potomac, commanded by General George G. Meade, who had 
 
EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 133 
 
 superseeded General Hooker, followed close upon his track. 
 Instead of attacking the Capital, Lee found it necessary to con- 
 centrate his forces at Gettysburg. Here the two armies met, 
 and a contest began which lasted for two days, and terminated 
 in the defeat of the Confederates, who were obliged to retreat 
 to the Potomac. 
 
 On the following day, another important victory was gained 
 by General Grant, who was now at the head of the army of the 
 Mississippi. This was the capture of Vicksburg, a port con- 
 sidered impregnable by the Rebels. General Grant laid seige 
 to the city on the 19th of May, and continued the assault until 
 the 4th of July, when the city was surrendered. 
 
 Besides the capture of Yicksburg, General Grant and his 
 army defeated the enemy in five battles outside that city, and 
 took possession of Jackson, the capital of Mississippi. 
 
 General J. G. Foster obtained a series of victories in North 
 Carolina; and farther south important victories were obtained 
 by General Banks. 
 
 Early in the year, General Sherman took possession of Arkan- 
 sas Post, on Arkansas River, together with five thousand prison- 
 ers, and large quantities of arms, ammunition and commissary 
 stores. 
 
 On the 23d of September, was fought the memorable battle 
 of Lookout Mountain and Chattanooga. The battle lasted 
 two days, and terminated in favor of the National army. 
 
 During the year 1863, the states of Missouri and Arkansas 
 had passed into the hands of the National troops. 
 
 1864. In February, of this year. General Sherman marched 
 through the state of Mississippi, and succeeded in capturing 
 large quantities of army stores, and liberating nearly six thou- 
 sand slaves. In the same month an expedition was fitted out, 
 under General Seymour, for the invasion of Florida. An en- 
 gagement took place at Jacksonville, in which the Rebels were 
 defeated ; and a second took place at Ohestee, in which Seymour 
 was defeated, and obliged to retreat. 
 
134 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In March, an invasion was made in Western Louisiana, along 
 the Red River. Fort De Russey was captured on the 13th, and 
 the Confederate troops were defeated at Cane River, on the 26th. 
 On the 8th of April, a battle commenced in which the Nationals 
 were driven from the field, but the conflict being renewed the 
 next day, they gained a decisive victory. 
 
 During the same month the Confederates, under General 
 Forrest, made a raid in Tennessee and Kentucky, destroying 
 Paducah, and capturing Union City and Fort Pillow. 
 
 In February, government, in gratitude for the services ren- 
 dered by General Grant, appointed him General-in-Chief of the 
 National army. 
 
 In May, Grant issued orders for Sherman's division of the 
 army to advance on Georgia, while he, with the army of the Poto- 
 mac, should attack the Confederate Capital. 
 
 A severe battle was fought between the armies of Grant and 
 Lee near Chancellorsville, on the 5th. The battle lasted for 
 three days, at the end of which time, the Confederates were 
 obliged to retreat. During the months of July and August, 
 Grant gained several important victories over Lee. 
 
 In obedience to orders, General Sherman advanced into Geor- 
 gia. He defeated the Rebel General Hood in three successive 
 battles, and on the 2d of September, succeeded in driving him 
 from Atlanta. 
 
 In July, Maryland was invaded by about fifteen thousand 
 Confederate soldiers, under General Early. Through the vig- 
 orous efforts of General Wallace, they were, prevented from 
 taking Baltimore and Washington. Some of the troops pene- 
 trated to within six miles of Baltimore, and then, turning south- 
 ward, advanced as far as the suburbs of Washington. Here 
 they were met by General Auger and compelled to retreat, 
 closely pursued by the Federal troops. On the 20th, they were 
 overtaken and defeated, at Winchester. On the 24th, another 
 engagement took place, in which the Union troops were defeated. 
 Soon after Early again crossed, the Potomac, and advanced into 
 Pennsylvania, where he burned the city of Chambersburg. 
 
EVENTS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 135 
 
 • 
 
 On the 19th of September, an engagement took place between 
 Sheridan and Earlj, at Winchester, in the Shenandoah valley, 
 in which Early was defeated with great loss. On the 19th of 
 October, another battle was fought, near Middletown, in which 
 the Union troops were, for a time, threatened with defeat. 
 Sheridan, at the time, was at Winchester, twenty miles distant, 
 but receiving news of the battle, he hastened to the field, and 
 by his courage and personal efforts succeeded in reviving the 
 drooping spirits of his troops, and the apparent defeat was turned 
 into victory. 
 
 In August, Admiral Farragut, after a terrible bombardment, 
 succeeded in taking Forts Morgan and Gaines, in Mobile Bay. 
 
 On the 15th of November, General Sherman set fire to the 
 public buildings of Atlanta, and with his army marched towards 
 the coast. He succeeded in capturing Milledgeville and Savan- 
 nah, besides liberating thousands of slaves. 
 
 On the 15th of December, an engagement took place three 
 miles south of Nashville, between the Confederate forces, under 
 General Hood, and the Nationals, under General Thomas. The 
 Rebels were defeated with great loss, and retreated into Alabama. 
 
 1865. The National forces were now concentrated against 
 Richmond. For nine months Grant and Lee had confronted 
 each other. They had been engaged in frequent contests, which 
 had almost always resulted favorably to the Federals. Railway 
 <3ommunications and supplies had been cut ofi" from Lee's army 
 in every direction, and perceiving the peril of his situation, he 
 resolved to abandon Richmond, but this Grant would not allow. 
 
 After several severe battles, in which the Confederates lost 
 over twenty thousand men, Lee, on the 10th of March, surrend- 
 ered the remainder of his army to Grant. 
 
 This event produced great joy among the patriots of the north. 
 Johnson's force, in North Carolina, was now the only Confed- 
 erate army, of any size, in the field, and on the 26th of April, 
 he surrendered his force to Sherman, on the same terms ac- 
 corded to Lee. 
 
136 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 • 
 
 After the surrender of Lee's army, the loyal heart of the 
 Nation was filled with joy, but this joy was turned to the deep- 
 est sorrow, when, on the morning of the 15th of April, tidings 
 spread throughout the land, that Abraham Lincoln was slain by 
 an assassin's hand. Just as a glimpse of clear sky was obtained, 
 the pilot who had so safely guided the National bark through 
 the fearful storm which had imperiled it, was brutally murdered. 
 
 It was suspected that the leading members of the rebellion, 
 foiled in their attempts to destroy the nation's life by open war- 
 fare, resorted to the hand of an assassin, with the hope that, in 
 the confusion that might ensue, their cause would gain some 
 advantage. A plot had been formed for the murder of the 
 President, Vice President, leading members of the Cabinet and 
 the General-in-Chief of the army. All but the President escaped. 
 
 The body of Mr. Lincoln was taken, by the way of the prin- 
 cipal cities of the United States, to his former residence in 
 Springfield, Illinois. Everywhere throngs of people gathered to 
 pay respect to the martyred remains of their chief, and the whole 
 journey was one great funeral procession. 
 
 The assassination of President Lincoln led to the succession 
 of Vice President Johnson to the chief magistracy of the Uni- 
 ted States. He adopted a policy in direct opposition to the 
 party which had elected him, and odious to the mass of the loyal 
 people of the North. 
 
 The greater part of his administration was one continual strug- 
 gle between the President and the National Legislature, in which 
 the latter, sustained by the people, was victorious. In 1867, 
 articles of impeachment were presented against him, which failed 
 of being carried by only one vote. 
 
 • In the year.1868, at the close of Mr. Johnson's term of office, 
 General Grant was chosen President. From that time the Na- 
 tion has prospered, and in spite of the terrible effects of the 
 war, the United States now stands foremost among the nations 
 of the earth. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 Outline. British America comprehends that portion of 
 North America bounded on the south by the United States, on 
 the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, on the north-east by Baffin's Bay, on the west by the 
 Pacific Ocean, and on the north-west by Alaska — a territory of 
 the United States. 
 
 Physical Features. Generally speaking, British America 
 is a level country. The Rocky Mountains are in the western 
 part of the country, but reach no great elevation. 
 
 The eastern provinces resemble, in surface, the adjacent por- 
 tions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountain System 
 extends into Canada, and terminates in low hills at the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence. 
 
 Lakes, Rivers, Bats, etc. The surface of British Amer- 
 ica is greatly diversified with rivers and lakes. The St. Law- 
 rence is one of the largest rivers in North America. It issues 
 from Lake Ontario, and forms, during a part of its course, the 
 boundary between New York and Canada, It falls into the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence by a broad estuary, after a course of 
 seven hundred and fifty miles. Including the chain of Great 
 Lakes, which is the most generally approved plan, its length is 
 two thousand one hundred miles. Its course is obstructed in 
 several instances by rapids. Canals have been constructed above 
 Montreal and elsewhere to overcome this natural interference 
 with navigation. Vessels of six hundred tons ascend to Montreal. 
 
 The Saskatchawan, signifying " swift current," rises among 
 the Rocky Mountains, and flows eastward into Lake Winnipeg, 
 10 
 
138 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 It has a course of nine hundred miles. This lake is drained by 
 the Nelson River, which passes into the Hudson Bay. 
 
 The Mackenzie River discharges its waters into the Arctic 
 Ocean, and is one of the largest rivers on the Grlobe. The water 
 system of this region, with its endless number of lakes commu- 
 nicating with each other, is so complicated, that it is almost 
 impossible to say what should be regarded as the source of this 
 river. Its length is two thousand five hundred miles. 
 
 British America shares Lake Superior, Lake Huron, Lake 
 Erie and Lake Ontario, four of the five great lakes, with the 
 United States. 
 
 Lake Winnipeg, Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake, are 
 the other lakes of greatest prominence, and are all included in 
 the Hudson Bay Territory. The two latter are frozen over 
 during six months of the year. The depth of the Great Bear 
 Lake has never been ascertained^ but, when tried, no bottom 
 has been found with a line two hundred and seventy feet long. 
 
 Nearly inclosed by the Hudson Bay Territory and portions 
 of the eastern provinces, is the Hudson Bay — a branch of the 
 Atlantic Ocean. This vast expanse of water is connected with 
 the sea by Hudson Strait. 
 
 Baffin's Bay is between Greenland and the north-eastern 
 islands of British America. Davis Strait is between this bay 
 and the Atlantic. 
 
 The Gulf of St. Lawrence is another large arm of the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean that protudes itself into the land of British America. 
 This gulf receives the waters of the St. Lawrence River and 
 Great Lakes. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. British America has the 
 extremes of the Frigid and Temperate zones. The prevailing 
 idea is that all of this vast region beyond the limits of the St. 
 Lawrence and Saskatchawan valleys, is exposed to such extreme 
 cold, that it will be forever destitute of population and industry. 
 But, according to good authority, while it is allowed that there 
 are immense districts in this country which must remain deso- 
 late, it is, also, apparent that there is a large territory east of 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 139 
 
 the Rocky Mountains, and south-west of Hudson's Bay, that 
 has a genial climate and fertile soil, and is capable of support- 
 ing a dense population. 
 
 In_^ the south wheat, corn and other products of the Tem- 
 perate Zone, are raised. 
 
 Divisions. Much of the interior of the country of British 
 America, between the Rocky Mountains and Hudson's Bay, is 
 comprehended in the Hudson Bay Territory. The western por- 
 tion of Labrador is, also, included in this territory. 
 
 The other divisions of British America are the Dominion of 
 Canada, Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, British Colum- 
 bia and Vancouver Island. The two latter named provinces 
 are west of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 The Dominion of Canada embraces the provinces of Ontario, 
 Quebec and New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia and Cape Breton 
 islands. Ontario was formerly known as Canada West, and 
 Quebec as Canada East. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 DOMINION OF CANADA. 
 
 ONTARIO. 
 
 Outline. Ontario is bounded on the north by che Hudson 
 Bay Territory, on the south-east by lakes Ontario and Erie, 
 and the United States, on the north-east by Quebec (formerly 
 Canada East), and on the south-west by Lake Huron, Lake 
 Erie and the United States. 
 
 Physical Features. The only land of any hight in Onta- 
 rio, is a table land stretching in a north-westerly direction. It 
 forms the water shed between Lake Huron and Lake Superior^ 
 The surface of the country is not so level as is sometimes repre- 
 sented, but is generally even. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Ontario 'shares lakes Superior, Mich- 
 igan, Huron and Erie with the^United States. Lake St. Clair 
 is an expansion of the channel between Lake Huron and Lake 
 Erie. Georgian Bay is a branch of Lake Huron. 
 
 The rivers that have their courses within- Ontario are gener- 
 ally small. The St. Lawrence (see British America) issues from 
 Lake Ontario, and, after forming the remainder of the south- 
 eastern boundary, enters Quebec. In this vicinity are the 
 Thousand Isles- — of world-wide celebrity on account of their 
 beautiful scenery. » 
 
 Climate. The climate of Ontario is more genial than that 
 of the other British provinces, the great lakes having a ten- 
 dency to mitigate the extremes of temperature. The winter, 
 near the lakes, is shorter, and less severe than in parts more 
 remote. In the eastern and northern parts, however, the cli- 
 mate resembles that of the other provinces. 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 141 
 
 Vegetation. Ontario is covered with, vast forests of "white 
 and red pine, the former being often two hundred feet high to 
 the lowest branches. Ash, beech, birch, elm and sugar maple 
 are also found in abundance. 
 
 All the vegetables of England thrive in Ontario. Peaches 
 and apples have been produced in such quantities that no market 
 could be found for their disposal. Wheat, Indian corn, rye, 
 oats and peas are largely produced. 
 
 Manufactures. Lumber, in the form of boards, planks, 
 staves, masts and spars, is extensively manufactured. Linen 
 and flannel are also fabricated. Ship building is an important 
 branch of industry. 
 
 Commerce. Situated as she is, on the Great Lakes and St. 
 Lawrence River, Ontario enjoys unbounded facilities for com- 
 merce. It is true, the St. Lawrence is obstructed with rapids ; 
 but such difficulties are overcome by numerous canals, which 
 make the passage safe and easy. Of these canals, the Rideau 
 and Welland are the most stupendous achievements. The 
 former, extending from Lake Ontario to the Ottawa River, at 
 Chaudiere, is one hundred and thirty-five miles long. The 
 Welland Canal is forty-five feet wide at the bottom, and ten feet 
 deep, and connects Lake Erie with Lake Ontario, being the 
 means of avoiding the rapids and cataract of Niagara. King- 
 ston, Toronto and Hamilton are the chief commercial towns. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Ottawa, in this province, is the capital 
 of the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa carries on a flourishing 
 business by means of the Ottawa River and Rideau Canal. 
 
 Toronto is the largest and most flourishing city. The harbor 
 is separated from the lake by a long narrow peninsula, called 
 Gibralter Point. The streets are regular, and the public build- 
 ings are of a prominent character. The Provincial Lunatic 
 Asylum, located here, is capable of receiving two hundred 
 patients. The commerce is large, and constantly increasing. 
 
 Hamilton is a commercial city. Its trade was greatly facili- 
 tated by the construction of the Burlington Bay Canal, in 1823 
 
142 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and 1824 ; but the crowning triumpli to the commercial pros- 
 perity of the city was the completion of the Great Western 
 Railway, giving Hamilton direct communication with the fertile 
 regions of the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 Kingston is on the St. Lawrence, where that river is dis- 
 charged from Lake Ontario. A small river enters the St. Law- 
 rence at this point, at the mouth of which the harbor is formed. 
 The western side of the harbor is deep, and shipping, of the 
 greatest size, can anchor here with perfect safety. Kingston 
 has a royal dock-yard, and is the military and naval headquar- 
 ters of the province. 
 
 London is the finest inland town of Ontario. It is in the 
 center of one of the finest agricultural regions in British Amer- 
 ica. Its prosperity has bean greatly increased by the construc- 
 tion of the Great Western Railway. 
 
 Brantford is a thriving town of Ontario, between Hamilton 
 and Lake Erie. It is engaged in the manufacture of brass and 
 iron castings, tin ware, and agricultural implements and stone 
 ware. 
 
 QUEBEC. 
 
 Outline. This province is exposed to the sea for a consid- 
 erable distance, where the Gulf of St. Lawrence protrudes itself 
 into the land. The mouth of the great St. Lawrence River 
 embraces over one-half of the sea boundary. 
 
 This country is bounded on the north-east by Labrador, on 
 the north-west by the Hudson Bay Territory, on the south-west 
 by Ontario, and on the south-east by the United States, New 
 Brunswick and Gulf of St. Lawrence. Quebec was formerly 
 known as Canada East. 
 
 Physical Features. The Green Mountains enter Quebec 
 from the New England States, and, following the general course 
 of the St. Lawrence, are lost in the vicinity of the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence. 
 
 The Wotchish Mountains are on the north-western boundary. 
 Quebec is famous for its wild and rugged scenery. 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 143 
 
 Rivers, Falls and Lakes. The St. Lawrence River in- 
 tersects this province. (See British America.) 
 
 Between Quebec and Ontario winds the course of the Ottawa 
 River, which brings to the St. Lawrence a volume of water 
 scarcely inferior to its own. 
 
 The banks of this river are studded with scenery of the 
 wildest description. It abounds with falls and rapids from its 
 source to its mouth, which greatly impede navigation. At 
 Ottawa are falls of fifty feet ; and, in the same vicinity, are the 
 falls of Chaudiere — a series of rapids, nowhere exceeding forty 
 feet in hight, but surging and dashing among rocks, presenting 
 the appearance of a multitude of streams strugling for an out- 
 let. The river is heavily timbered, vast quantities of which is 
 floated down the river in rafts. This river flows eight hundred 
 miles. 
 
 Passing down the St. Lawrence, the waters of the St. Mau- 
 rice, Saguenay and Bustard are successively discharged. 
 The scenery of the Saguenay is unrivalled. During the latter 
 part of its course it is inclosed between walls of rock, which rise 
 perpendicular from five hundred to fifteen hundred feet. In 
 many instances these immense walls actually overarch the river, 
 "as if to gaze upon its own rugged features." 
 
 The Montmorenci Falls, two hundred and forty feet high, 
 occur in a small river which enters the St. Lawrence near the 
 city of Quebec. 
 
 The Saguenay River drains a chain of lakes, the most im- 
 portant of >vhich is Lake St. John, twenty-five miles in diameter. 
 
 There are several other lakes in the eastern part of the prov- 
 ince, among which Lake Manicouagan is the most prominent. 
 
 Climate. Though occupying a more southern latitude, the 
 climate is about the same as that of Norway and adjacent coun- 
 tries in Europe. The Grulf Stream — a great ocean current 
 eminating from the tropical waters of the American Continent — ■ 
 has a tendency to impart warmth to Norway ; while the Arctic 
 Current, from the cold region of the Frigid Zone, increases the 
 severity of the climate in Quebec and other eastern provinces. 
 
144 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Vegetation. As in other cold countries, vegetation unfolds 
 rapidly, a fortnight often being sufficient to develop foliage of 
 great luxuriance. 
 
 Productions. The productions of Quebec are of little sig- 
 nificance. Wheat, Indian corn, oats and peas are produced in 
 limited quantities. The forest growth is large, and of great 
 importance. 
 
 Commerce. Quebec is actively engaged in commerce. Que- 
 bec and Montreal are the chief commercial cities. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Montreal, Quebec and Three Rivers 
 are the most important towns. 
 
 Montreal is the largest, and is the second commercial city of 
 British America. It has valuable water communication, being 
 at the foot of the great chain of canals, connecting the lakes 
 with the St. Lawrence River and the Atlantic Ocean. Its site 
 is on the island of Montreal, formed by the confluence of the 
 Ottawa with the St. Lawrence. The Grand Trunk Railway 
 crosses the St. Lawrence at this place by a magnificent tubular 
 bridge, estimated to have cost nearly two millions of dollars. 
 
 Quebec, next to Montreal, is the largest city. It has a pic- 
 turesque situation on a narrow and elevated table-land ; and is 
 divided into Upper and Lower Quebec. The extremity of this 
 table-land is called Cape Diamond, and presents an almost per- 
 pendicular face to the river. The citadel, which is erected on 
 the summit of Cape Diamond, covers a space of forty acres, 
 and is entered by five gates. One of these gates (St. Louis) 
 leads to the Plains of Abraham, famous as being the scene of 
 Wolfe's victory and death. (See page 117.) A monument forty 
 feet high marks the spot where he fell. Quebec is the oldest 
 and most important port in British America. 
 
 Three Rivers is one of the oldest towns in the province. Its 
 growth was slow till recently, when the lumber trade, furnished 
 by the St. Maurice River, became important. 
 
 The other towns of greatest prominence are Hyacinthe and 
 Sherbrooke. 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 145 . 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK. 
 
 Outline. New Brunswick forms a part of the Dominion of 
 Canada. It is bounded on the north by Quebec and Chaleur 
 Bay, on the north-west by Quebec, on the east by the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence and Northumberland Strait, on the south-east by 
 the Bay of Fundy, whiclt nearly divides it from Nova Scotia, 
 and on the south-west and west by Maine. 
 
 The isthmus which connects New Brunswick with Nova Scotia, 
 is only ten miles wide ; and, with this exception, the coast line 
 of five hundred miles is not interrupted. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast land is low, and abounds 
 in marshes. The interior is rough and uneven, sometimes rising 
 into mountains, and often forming continuous ranges of hills. 
 The abrupt ascent of these elevations, with their angular out- 
 lines, and the deep valleys, give to the interior a wild and pic- 
 turesque appearance. 
 
 Rivers. Every portion of New Brunswick is well watered. 
 The St. John's is the most important river. It rises among the 
 highlands between eastern Maine and Ontario. It flows 
 between these countries for a considerable distance, and then 
 crosses the north-western part of Maine, when it again becomes 
 the boundary. Entering New Brunswick from the north-west, 
 it falls over a precipice seventy-five feet high, in a wild and pic- 
 turesque region. After flowing four hundred and fifty miles, it 
 empties into the Bay of Fundy through a rocky channel, eighty 
 feet wide and four hundred feet long. Here are falls of a re- 
 markable character. At low tide the river is twenty feet higher 
 than the harbor, and, at high tide, the harbor is five feet higher 
 than the river ; consequently there is a fall both up and down 
 the river. 
 
 The other rivers of New Brunswick are small, but their chan- 
 nels are deep, and they are of great importance to navigation. 
 
 Climate. The climate is subject to great extremes. In the 
 interior the cold has been greatly lessened by clearing away the 
 timber. The autumn is a season of great beauty. The atmos- 
 
146 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 phere is clear and dry ; and the woods glow with innumerable 
 tints of the richest and most beautiful colors. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of New Brunswick is very 
 rich, but is little cultivated. A large portion of the people are 
 engaged in the lumbering trade, and, as a result of the great 
 inducements in this direction, agriculture is almost wholly neg- 
 lected. It is estimated that only one-twenty-eighth of the lands, 
 included in this province, have been made available to agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Indian corn grows well in the southern districts. Fruits that 
 flourish in the Northern United States, are here produced. 
 Oats, rye, barley and wheat, of excellent quality, ripen during 
 the summer season. Great attention is given to the growth of 
 grass, for which there is great demand, and which forms an 
 article of export. 
 
 Fisheries. The rivers of New Brunswick, and the bays of 
 Chaleur and Fundy, abound with fish of every description. 
 The Chaleur Bay, especially, is eminent in this • respect, vast 
 shoals of fish swarming its waters. These are taken, not by 
 the population of New Brunswick alone, but also by expedi- 
 tions from the United States, and neighboring provinces. 
 
 Commerce. New Brunswick has a prominent situation for 
 commerce. The staple exports are fish and lumber. Iron, coal, 
 potatoes, oats and hay are also exported. The imports are 
 wheat, corn and other grains, coffee, sugarj'^molasses, tobacco, 
 and cotton and woolen goods. 
 
 Cities and Towns. St. Johns is the largest city of New 
 Brunswick. It is situated at the mouth of the St. Johns River^ 
 has a fine harbor, and is actively engaged in commerce. 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA. 
 
 Outline. Nova Scotia forms a part of the Dominion of 
 Canada. It is bounded on the north by the Strait of Northum- 
 berland, on the north-east by the Strait of Canso, beyond which 
 is Cape Breton Island, on the south-east and south-west by 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 147 
 
 the Atlantic Ocean, and on the north-west by the Bay of Fundy 
 and New Brunswick. 
 
 Physical Features. A broad belt of high and broken land 
 extends along the south-eastern coast, from Cape Canso to Cape 
 Sable. Similar formations of land are found over the larger 
 portion of the country, with an average elevation of four hun- 
 dred feet. The land culminates at a hight of eight hundred and 
 ten feet. There are no mountains of any importance. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. ISTova Scotia is beautifully diversified 
 with lakes. These, though numerous, are of limited extent. 
 
 The most remarkable body of water is Miner's Bay — the 
 eastern arm of the Bay of Fundy. Here the tide rises from 
 sixty to seventy feet ; and so rapid is the movement, that ani- 
 mals are frequently overtaken and drowned. 
 
 Nova Scotia is well supplied with rivers, but owing to the 
 narrowness of the country, they are necessarily small. 
 
 Climate. The climate is remarkably uniform for a country 
 in so cold a latitude. The autumns are mild and salubrious. 
 The excessive heat of summer tends to unfold vegetation with 
 great rapidity. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The agricultural resources of the 
 country are great. Some of the hills are fertile and others are 
 barren and sandy. The north-eastern part is very productive. 
 The remarkable tide movements of the Bay of Fundy, cause 
 extensive deposits of rich alluvial matter. These deposits are 
 gathered by means of dikes, and are of great value in fertilizing 
 the soil. The "dike marshes " are the most fertile districts of 
 North America. 
 
 Wheat, rye, oats, buckwheat and barley are produced in large 
 quantities. In many instances they equal, and even exceed the 
 product in the United States. Apples are produced in large 
 quantities in the western part, the roads here being literally 
 lined with apple trees for thirty miles. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures, as yet, are limited. 
 Coarse cloths and flannels are manufactured by the peasantry. 
 
148 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Lumbering ard ship building are important branches of industry. 
 
 Fisheries. Next to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia is more 
 extensively engaged in the fisheries than any of the adjoining 
 provinces or states. They consist principally of cod, salmon, 
 mackerel, shad and herring. The fisheries in this province 
 alone, have been made to yield nearly one million of dollars 
 annually. 
 
 Commerce. Nova Scotia has forty-three ports of entry. 
 Being nearly surrounded by the sea, and everywhere abounding 
 with deep and capacious bays, she presents a commercial posi- 
 tion, second to no other country on the earth. She has consid- 
 erable foreign and domestic commerce, and enters largely into 
 the carrying trade, competing successfully, on this extended 
 field of rivalry, with both Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Halifax, the capital and largest city, 
 has one of the finest harbors in the world. It Ib largely engaged 
 in commerce. One of the largest dock-yards in British America 
 is located here. 
 
 The other important towns are Pictou, Antigonish, Annapolis 
 and Liverpool. 
 
 CAPE BRETON ISLAND. 
 
 Outline. From its position, Cape Breton Island is gener 
 ally considered in connection with Nova Scotia, from which it 
 is separated by the Strait of Canso. This forms its south- 
 western boundary. On its other sides it is washed by the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean and Gulf of St. Lawrence. North-west of this 
 province are the Magdalen Islands, which belong to the Domin- 
 ion of Canada, Cape Breton is the last of the divisions of the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Physical Features. An arm of the sea penetrates into 
 the north-eastern coast of Cape Breton, which nearly divides 
 the province. The northern division of this is distinguished by 
 a bold and rugged appearance. The land here reaches an ele- 
 vation of eighteen hundred feet. The features of the southern 
 part are directly opposite. The land is generallv level, but in- 
 
OF BEITISH AMERICA. 149 
 
 creases in elevation from the interior till it presents bold cliffs 
 on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Bats. Bras d' Or is the baj that penetrates so far into the 
 land. It is fifty miles long and twentj miles wide. It is deep 
 and navigable, and affords a large number of harbors. 
 
 The lakes and rivers are small,- and of little use to navigation. 
 
 Climate. The climate is not very regular, but is less rigor- 
 ous than that of New Brunswick or Quebec. The Gralf Stream 
 approaches so near both Cape Breton and Nova Scotia that it 
 exerts an influence on their temperatures. 
 
 Productions. Vegetation develops rapidly. Indian corn is 
 •raised, though in limited quantities. Large quantities of coal, of 
 superior quality, are found. Iron, arranite, limestone, gypsum 
 and salt are found. 
 
 ^.The fisheries of Cape Breton are larare and valuable. 
 
 Commerce. Commerce is developing rapidly. The trade 
 with the British Colonies is the most important. Cape Breton 
 is, also, engaged in commerce with Great Britain and the Uni- 
 ted States. 
 
 The towns of Cape Breton are of little importance. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. 
 
 Outline. Prince Edward's Island is a large island in the 
 southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, separated from the 
 mainland of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia by the Strait of 
 Northumberland. This forms its south-east, south and south- 
 west boundary. On the north is the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 The outline is very irregular, the coast presenting a remarkable 
 series of deep bays, and intervening capes. 
 
 ■ Physical Features. The surface is comparatively even. 
 It is gently undulating, sometimes rising into hills, but never 
 reaching the hight of mountains. 
 
 Bays. The most important bays are those of Richmond, 
 Egmont and Hillsborough. The bays penetrate into the land 
 in opposite directions, dividing the island into three peninsulas. 
 No rivers of prominence are found. 
 
 Climate. The climate, like that of Nova Scotia, is less 
 severe than adjoining portions of the continent. The summer 
 is mild and salubrious. The winter is long and cold. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is eminently fitted for 
 agriculture, which is an important branch of industry. Wheat, 
 barley, oats, beans, potatoes and turnips are the most important 
 productions. 
 
 Manufactures. Manufactures have developed considerably. 
 The manufacture of linen and flannels, and also of flour and 
 lumber is important. Ship building is pursued to a considera- 
 ble extent. 
 
 The fisheries of Prince Edward's Island are of great import- 
 ance. 
 
or BRITISH AMERICA. 151 
 
 Commerce. The domestic commerce of Prince Edward's Is- 
 land is the most important. It is also largely engaged in com- 
 merce with the United States, West Indies and Great Britain. 
 Telegraph communications exist between Prince Edward's Island 
 and New Brunswick, by means of a submarine cable. 
 
 Towns. Charlottetown is the capital and principal city. 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND. 
 
 Outline. Newfoundland is a large island belonging to Brit- 
 ish America. It is bounded on the north and north-west by the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence and Strait of Belleisle, and on the east, 
 north-east and south by the Atlantic Ocean. It is deeply 
 indented with bays, which furnish a succession of projecting 
 headlands. 
 
 Physical Features. The interior is bold and rocky. There 
 is a constant'' succession of hills and valleys ; but no elevations 
 present themselves, of sufficient hight to be called mountains. 
 The highest land is fifteen hundred feet above the sea. Huge 
 boulders are scattered over the country, which greatly increase 
 the rugged appearance of the surface. Some of the summits 
 of the hills are barren and sandy. 
 
 Lakes, Rivers and Bays. The rivers of Newfoundland 
 have their origin in lakes, with which the surface of the country 
 is greatly diversified. The Humber River and river of Exploits 
 are the most important. The chief lakes are lakes Victoria 
 and Lambert. 
 
 Many of the bays and inlets are deep and commodious, and 
 abound with good harbors. The most conspicuous are St. 
 George Bay on the west, Placentia on the south, and Concep- 
 tion, Trinity, Bay of Exploits, Notre Dame and White Bays. 
 
 Climate. The climate is healthy, though severe. The win- 
 ters last from December till the middle of April, becoming 
 coldest during January and February. Dense fogs hang over 
 the Newfoundland banks, which are an obstacle to safe navigation. 
 
 Soil , and Productions. Agriculture is being extended. 
 The soil is more favorable for pasturage than for the cultivation 
 
152 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 of small grain. The potato crop is abundant ; and wheat and 
 other kinds of grain are produced in considerable quantities. 
 
 Fisheries. The shores of Newfoundland abound with fish. 
 The most extensive fisheries, however, are at the Grand Banks, 
 which form the greatest submarine elevation on the globe. 
 They are seven hundred miles long,, with an average depth of 
 water of forty fathoms — the'greatest depth being one hundred 
 and sixty fathoms. This is the greatest fishing region on the 
 earth. 
 
 Cities and Towns. ; St. Johns is the capital ^and ^largest 
 city. It is the most eastern seaport^ of North America. The 
 famous Atlantic cable extends from St. Johns to Yalentia, Ireland. 
 
 Placentia is a seaport town of some importance. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA. 
 
 Outline. British Columbia is a colony established by the 
 Crown, in 1858, out of territory resumed from the Hudson Bay 
 Company. It has been known by a variety of names, such as 
 New Caledonia, New Georgia, I^ew Norfolk, New Coi3\wall, etc. 
 It is bounded on the north by Simpson's River, and a branch of 
 the Peace River ; on the south by Washington Territory, on the 
 east by the Rocky Mountains, and on the west by the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 It is separated from Vancouver Island bv the Gulf of Georgia. 
 The northern entrance to this gulf is called Johnson's Strait; 
 and the southern entrance is the strait of Juan de Fuca. The 
 latter entrance is between the southern shore of Vancouver Is- 
 land and Washington Territory. Queen Charlotte Island, which 
 is comprehended in this colony, ij3 separated from it by Queen 
 Charlotte Sound. The discovery of gold, and a consequent 
 increase in population, was the cause of the formation of this 
 colony.."^ 
 
 Physical Features. On the eastern boundary rise the 
 Rocky Mountains, with the lofty summits of mounts Brown and 
 Hooker. The former reaches an elevation of sixteen thousand, 
 and the latter fifteen thousand seven hundred feet. 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 153 
 
 Midway between these mountains and the coast, is a continua- 
 tion of the range known as Cascade Range in the United States. 
 Skirting the coast is another range, which extends north into 
 the territory of Alaska. 
 
 Rivers. The chief river is the Eraser, which, next to the 
 Columbia, is the largest river on the Pacific coast. Gold is 
 found both on this river, and its principal eastern branch the 
 Thompson. Several important branches join this river, flowing 
 from the west. On its banks the Hudson Bay Company has 
 erected several forts. 
 
 The Columbia River has its origin in this colony, and flows 
 southward into the United States. 
 
 Climate, The climate is milder than that of the eastern 
 portions of British America. The eastern districts of British 
 Columbia, from their elevation, have a severer climate. 
 
 Soil and Productions. Between the Thompson River and 
 the Rocky Mountains, the soil is well-adapted to agriculture. 
 Wheat, barley, turnips and potatoes are produced ; and apples, 
 pears and other fruits are successfully cultivated. Coal is 
 found in abundance in nearly every part of the colony. 
 
 HISTORY OF BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 The first land discovered in British America was on the 
 northern side of Labrador. This discovery was made in 1496 
 by John Cabot, in company with his three sons. The following 
 year, Mr. Cabot, in connection with his son Sebastian, discov- 
 ered Cape Bonavista, on the north-east side of Newfoundland. 
 Sebastian Cabot is the renowned navigator, who made discov- 
 eries of prominence in both North and South America. 
 
 Nova Scotia was also discovered by Oabot, in 1497 ; and it 
 is supposed that Prince Edward's Island was first discovered 
 during the same voyage. 
 
 Newfoundland was first settled by the Portuguese. They 
 were expelled by Sir Francis Drake during the reign of Eliza- 
 beth, and numerous English and French settlements were subse- 
 11 
 
154 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 quently made. Finally, in 1713, it was declared to be a posses- 
 sion of Great Britain. But here, as elsewhere in the British 
 Provinces, the French continued to increase in number ; and 
 we find them at various times, as late as 1759 and 1760, in 
 arms contesting the right of territory with Britain. 
 
 In Nova Scotia, also, the characteristic hostile spirit existing 
 between France and England, was manifested by their colonists. 
 Numerous attempts were made by French colonists to populate 
 the country ; but they were driven out by the English, who 
 claimed the country by right of the discovery of Cabot. It was 
 ceded to France, however, in 1667, by the treaty of Bredna, 
 but was resumed by the British, in 1713. 
 
 James Cartier, a French navigator, discovered Quebec, or 
 what is more familiarly known as Canada East^ in 1535. On 
 a voyage the year previous, he discovered and named the Gulf 
 and River of St. Lawrence. Cartier made the first settlement 
 in Quebec, in 1541. In 1603, the name of Aeadia, or New 
 Finance, was given to all the territory, in North America, between 
 the 40th and 46th parallel. 
 
 In 1608, a permanent settlement was effected on the present 
 site of the city of Quebec. The population began to increase, 
 and settlements were rapidly extended into Ontario. 
 
 The jealousies existing between the French colonists of these 
 provinces, and the British colonists farther south, resulted in 
 several disastrous wars. The contest was stubbornly prolonged 
 till 1759, when, after the fall of Quebec, French power, in this 
 portion of the United States, was destroyed. (For the details 
 of these wars, see United States.) The peace of Paris, m 1763, 
 confirmed the English in the possession of the provinces. Ever 
 since the main land of North America, north of the United 
 States, has been in the possession of Great Britain. 
 
 Of late years Great Britain has manifested a desire to dis- 
 solve the existing connection between the British Provinces and 
 the mother country. To found a new empire, stretching from 
 the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River to the Pacific Ocean, 
 appears to be the basis of her project. 
 
OF BRITISH AMERICA. 155 
 
 As a first movement in this direction, the Dominion of Can- 
 ada was formed in the middle of 1867. The idea is distasteful 
 to a large portion of the population, and it is believed that if 
 the old connection is to be severed, some provinces would prefer 
 to join the United States. 
 
CHAPTER XII. . 
 
 DANISH AMERICA: 
 
 Danisli America includes two large islands, Ijin^ north-east 
 of British America. 
 
 GEEENLAND. 
 
 Greenland, the larger of the two, is an extensive barren re- 
 gion, stretching as far north as latitude 80° 15'. 
 
 Physical Features. Along the coast the surface is gener- 
 ally bold and rocky. The interior has never been explored. 
 
 Climate. The climate is very severe. Snow falls during 
 every month in the year, excepting July. The elevated por- 
 tions are covered with eternal snows and glaciers. Some of the 
 glaciers are of immense size. One discovered by the United 
 States Exploring Party, in 1854, was found to be over eighty 
 miles in length, and three hundred feet in perpendicular hight. 
 These glaciers are the sources of the icebergs which are fre- 
 quently found in the northern Atlantic. Huge masses of ice 
 are broken from the glaciers by the waves, and aye carried south- 
 ward by the wind and ocean currents, sometimes as far as 40° 
 north latitude. They have the appearance of glittering chalk 
 cliffs, towering in the air, sometimes to the hight of three hun- 
 dred feet above the water, and varying from a few yards to 
 miles in circumference. 
 
 Proditctiok'S. Small quantities of corn and potatoes are 
 raised in the southern part of the island. A few shrubs are 
 found growing wild, but the country is generally destitute of 
 vegetation. 
 
 Inhabitaistts. The inhabitants are Esquimaux, and are en- 
 gaged principally in hunting and fishing. 
 
OF DANISH AMERICA. 15T 
 
 Cities and Towns. Lichtenfels, the capital and residence 
 of the Danish Governor, is situated on the south western coast. 
 New Herrahut is the largest city. Upernavik is the most north- 
 ern civilized settlement upon the globe. 
 
 Hisi'ORY. Greenland was first discovered in the year 981. 
 It was named Greenland by Eric, the Red Chief, who had been - 
 obliged to flee from Iceland, on account of the murder of another 
 powerful chief. He escaped to this island, and in order to in- 
 duce some of his countrymen to follow, he called it Greenland, 
 boasting of the fertility of the country, and representing it as 
 greatly superior to Iceland. 
 
 During the seventeenth century the Danes established colon- 
 ies along the coast. The western coast was explored by the 
 United States Expedition, under Dr. Kane, in the year 1854. 
 
 ICELAND. 
 
 Iceland is situated one hundred and thirty miles distant from 
 the south-east coast of Greenland. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast is bordered by high moun- 
 tain ranges, terminating in steep promontories. There are thirty 
 volcanic peaks on the island, eight of which have been active 
 during the last century. The most noted of these is Mount 
 Hecla. The last eruption of this volcano commenced Septem- 
 ber 2d, 1845, and lasted until April 6, 1846. Two months 
 after the commencement of the eruption, the stream of lava, 
 two miles from the crater, was one mile in width and from forty 
 to fifty feet in depth. Ashes from this eruption reached the 
 Orkney Islands, on the northern coast of Scotland. There is 
 now in Iceland a cooled stream of lava, one hundred miles long 
 and from twenty to. twenty-five miles wide. 
 
 The island also contains numerous boiling springs called Gey- 
 sers. The principal of these is the Great Geyser. The water 
 in this spring is 30° above the boiling point at a depth of sev- 
 enty feet. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Iceland is not so cold as that of 
 Greenland. The southern coast, owing in a great measure to 
 
158 OF DANISH AMERICA. 
 
 the vicinity of the Gulf Stream, is much milder than the north- 
 ern regions. 
 
 Productions. Small quantities of potatoes and garden veg-« 
 etables are raised. The island is destitute of timber, and the 
 "want of fuel is severely felt. The inhabitants are obliged to 
 depend on the driftwood borne to their shores, and a 'fine turf 
 found on the island, which is sometimes used for fuel. 
 
 Inhabitants. The people are of European descent, though 
 speaking a language peculiar to the island. They pay consid- 
 erable attention to education, and are generally strict in their 
 morals. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Riekiavik is the capital and principal 
 city. Skalholt is next in importance. 
 
 History. Iceland was discovered in 870, by a Norwegian 
 pirate. He called the country Iceland, on account of a large 
 bay which he found filled with ice. 
 
 No permanent settlements were established until nearly one 
 hundred years after this time. 
 
 In the early part of the thirteenth century it became subject 
 to Norway, and in the year 1380 it passed into the hands of 
 Denmark, 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA AND WEST INDIES. 
 
 lEXICO. 
 
 Outline. Mexico is bounded on the north by the United 
 States, on the east by the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by 
 Central America and the Pacific Ocean, ajid on the west by the 
 Pacific Ocean, 
 
 Physical Features. The coast along the Gulf is low and 
 sandy, furnish/ng no good harbors. The western shore is the 
 reverse, abounding in excellent harbors. The interior is a vast 
 table-land about six thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 This great plateau is usually divided into the Chihuahua and 
 Anahuac table-lands. The former is a bleak, barren and des- 
 olate region. The latter is" a rich and fertile tract, flourishing 
 with vegetation. The mountains of Mexico are' a continuation 
 of. the Ancles of South America. The largest chain is called 
 the Sierra Madre. In these mountains are rich silver mines. 
 Some of the loftiest summits are the volcano of Popocatapelt, 
 nearly eighteen thousand feet high ; Istaccihuatl, nearly sixteen 
 thousand feet ; Orizaba, upwards of seventeen thousand feet ; 
 Coffre de Perote, thirteen thousand four hundred feet, and 
 Jurullo, which rose from a level plain to the hight of four thous- 
 and two hundred and sixty-five feet. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers are small and obstructed by rapids. 
 The largest is the Rio Grande del Norte, forming part of the 
 boundary between the United States and Mexico. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. Mexico has two reasons, 
 the wet and dry. The cHmate varies as in all tropical moun- 
 tainous countries, the summit of the mountains being cold 
 
160 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 and desolate, the lowlands hot, and between the two the tem- 
 perate climate. Vegetation varies with the climate, yielding 
 productions common to the Frigid, Temperate and Torrid Zones. 
 Th*e animals, as in all tropical countries, are numerous. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The manufactures are 
 earthenware, silk, paper, aloes', wine, glass and sugar. The 
 commercial standing of Mexico is not so good since her inde- 
 pendence of Spain was recognized. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Mexico, the Capital, is seven thousand 
 four hundred and thirty feet above the sea, surrounded by lofty 
 peaks. The iprincipal'streets are wide, well paved and lighted 
 with gas. Mexico is the largest city of the Republic, and the 
 great focus of the internal trade. 
 
 The other important cities of Mexico are La Puebla, Guada- 
 lajara, Guanajuato and Merada, 
 
 History. Mexico was discovered in 1517 by Francisco Her- 
 nandez Cordova. At this time the Aztecs occupied a great 
 extent of the country. They were further advanced in civili- 
 zation than the majority of the native inhabitants of the conti- 
 nent. The ruins of sculptured columns, temples and cities, still 
 remain as monuments of their skill in architecture. The year 
 following the discovery of Mexico, a second expedition was 
 made, commanded by Grijalva, who, on his return, confirmed 
 the glowing accounts of Cordova. The knowledge of the min- 
 eral wealth of the newly discovered country induced the Gover- 
 nor of Cuba to send Cortez, a Spanish adventurer, with an armed 
 force, to conquer the natives and possess himself of their wealth. 
 After two years of almost incessant warfare, the powerful 
 Aztecs were subjugated, and the others were conquered almost 
 without a struggle. Subsequently many Spaniards emigrated 
 annually to Mexico. The country remained in this condition 
 for about three centuries when it began to assume a revolution- 
 ary aspect. The first revolt was made in 1810. The revolu- 
 tionists being unsuccessful, quiet was for a time restored. In 
 1820 success crowned their efforts, and after a number of severe 
 battles the independence of Mexico was acknowledged. Don 
 
OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 161 
 
 Augustin Iturbide was proclaimed King, under the title of 
 Augustin I. Since this period the country has been harrassed 
 by no less than seventy revolutions and different forms of gov- 
 ernment. Her King was deposed, and a Republican form of 
 government established resembling in part that of the United 
 States. In 1835 Texas declared herself independent of Mexico, 
 and in 1845 became one of the United States. Diificulties 
 arising concerning the boundary between the two countries, 
 occasioned a war. (See U. S. History.) At the close of this 
 war, Santa Anna was President. Herrera, his successor, 
 was deposed and his place filled by General Cevallos. The 
 people were dissatisfied with him, and he was succeeded by a 
 number of others. In 1859 Benito Juarez was elected; his 
 claims being contested by General Miramon, the country was 
 plunged into a civil war. About this time the government of 
 Mexico had taken measures adverse to the interests of foreign 
 nations, and the English, French and Spanish, in a combined 
 fleet, entered the Gulf of Mexico to obtain redress. A treaty 
 was negotiated and ratified by the English and Spanish, but the 
 French, after the departure of the other contending powers, 
 declared war with President Juarez, After several successful 
 encounters they entered the capital in June, 1863. Owing to 
 the horrors of the civil war then raging, the feelings of the mass 
 of the people were in sympathy with the invaders, and a new 
 government was organized under the protection of the French 
 troops, and Archduke Maximilian, brother of the Emperor of 
 Austria, was invited to accept the throne. .He accepted and 
 became Emperor. The French finding the United States did 
 not approve of their movement, fearing they might incur war 
 with that power, withdrew their forces and Maximilian was left 
 to establish his empire with his own slender resources. He was 
 repulsed in several battles, and finally defeated, taken prisoner 
 and executed with his two chief Generals, Miramon and Mejia. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA. 
 
 Outline. Central America is bounded on the north by 
 Mexico, Bay of Honduras and Carribean Sea, on the east by 
 
162 DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Carribean sea, on the south by South America and' Pacific 
 Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface resembles that of Mexico ; 
 the interior being on an elevated table-land, decreasing in hight 
 from north to south. On the western verge of the plateau is a 
 chain of volcanoes of which Volcan de Agua, having an altitude 
 of fifteen thousand feet, is the culminating point. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. There are but two lakes worthy of note, 
 viz : Lake Nicaragua and Lake Atitlan. The principal rivers 
 are the Lempa and San Juan. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate greatlj 
 resembles that of Mexico. The productions in the lowlands aie 
 tropical, and in the more elevated regions flourish the products 
 of the Temperate Zone. 
 
 Cities and Towns. New Guatemala, the capital of the state 
 of Guatemala and the largest city in Central America, is five 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea. It contains a number 
 of public buildings and several governmen1> offices. Leon and 
 San Jose are two important cities. 
 
 History.' Central' America was discovered by Columbus in 
 1502. Li 1528, Cortez sent Pedro Alvarado to make a con- 
 quest of Central America. This he accomplished in two years, 
 and the country remained subject to Spain until 1828, when it 
 declared its independence and established a federal form of gov- 
 ernment. This Republic lasted sixteen years. Since 1839 the 
 country ha? been in a continual state of disturbance. The in- 
 habitants are whites, Creoles, mestizoes and aboriginal natives. 
 The condition of the Creoles and white inhabitants is, morally 
 speaking, very low. Ignorance and superstition pervade all 
 classes, and many of the Indians are idolators. 
 
 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 The West Indies comprise the Greater Antilles, the Liesser 
 Antilles, and the Bahamas. 
 
 The Greater Antilles are Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica and Porto 
 Rico. The Lesser Antilles are a chain of islands, extending 
 
OF WEST INDIES. 163 
 
 from Porto Rico to South America, The Bahamas are low, 
 coral islands. 
 
 CUBA. 
 
 Cuba, the largest and most populous of the West Indies, be- 
 longs to Spain. The surface is generally level. The only ele- 
 vations are the Copper Mountains, which extend from one 
 extremity of the island to the other, and reach their culminating 
 point at an altitude of seven thousand feet. The climate -is 
 tropical and generally healthy, except during the rainy season. 
 The staple productions are sugar, coffee, tobicco, cotton, cocoa, 
 and indigo. 
 
 Havana was formerly the capital. Guaimaro has been the 
 capital since the breaking out of the revolution. Havana is the 
 largest and most important city on the island. Viewed from a 
 distance, the city presents a picturesque appearance, but on 
 nearer approach, if it were not for its public squares, parks, 
 fountains, and the Bishop's garden, it would have but few 
 attractions. 
 
 HAYTI.^ 
 
 Hayti is a rich and beautiful island. Crossing this island are 
 three mountain chains with intervening valleys. Vegetation is 
 luxuriant, and all the tropical fruits are abundant. There are 
 several lakes and rivers on the island ; they are, however, small. 
 
 Jamaica is traversed in all directions by mountains, and 
 abounds in -picturesque and romantic scenery. The soil in the 
 valleys is fertile, and the mountains are covered with stately 
 forests. The Minho, Black and Cobre are the largest rivers. 
 
 PORTO RICO. 
 
 rorto Rico is tne smallest of the Greater Antilles. The cli- 
 mate is mild. The productions are similar to those of the other 
 islands 
 
 The Lesser Antilles are mountainous, and are supposed to be 
 the remains of a mountain chain, which at some former time 
 connected North and South America. The Bahama Islands are 
 
164 OF WEST INDIES. 
 
 loAV, coral reefs. Guarrahani was the first land of the New 
 World discovered by Columbus. 
 
 History. Most of these Islands belong to European nations. 
 Cuba and Porto Rico are Spanish possession. Jamaica, the 
 Bahama and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to Great Britain. 
 Hayti is independent. The remaining islands are owned by 
 Denmark, Holland, Sweden, France and Venezuela. 
 
CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 Outline. South x\merica is bounded on the north by the 
 Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea, on the east by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and on 
 the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. South America is in the form of a 
 triangle. The most northerly projection is Cape Gallinas, the 
 most easterly, Cape St. Roque, and the most southerly. Cape 
 Horn. The coast is very uniform, being comparatively un- 
 broken. It has no peninsulas ; and a few small gulfs comprise 
 the coast water. There is a chain of islands off the western 
 and southern coasts of Patagonia that belong to this continent. 
 The southern extremity of this chain is separated from the main 
 land by the Straits of Magellan. Of these islands Terra del 
 Fuego is the largest. Horn Island, on Avhich is Cape Horn, is 
 the southern extremity of South America. West of Chili is 
 the island of Juan Fernandez, on which was shipwrecked Alex- 
 ander Selkirk, whose adventures gave rise to the, story of Rob- 
 inson Crusoe. West of Ecuador are the Gallapagos Islands. 
 The island of Trinidad is north of Venezuela. The Falkland 
 Islands are south-east of Patagonia. The other islands _are 
 small and unimportant. 
 
 This continent resembles North Ataerica in its greater moun- 
 tain chain in the western and its smaller one in the eastern part, 
 with an extensive plain between the two. Its western system, 
 called the Andes Mountains, extends north and south to each 
 extremity of the continent. In these mountains are deep chasms 
 and gorges which render traveling through them dangerous. 
 
 The volcanoes of this system are most numerous in Ecuador. 
 The highest and most noted peaks and volcanoes of the Andes 
 
166 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 are Sahama, Aconcagua, Tupungato, Gualateiri, Chimborazo, 
 Cotopaxi, Pichincba, Tuiiguragua and Arequipa. Cotopaxi is 
 an active volcano with an altitude of eighteen thousand eight 
 tundred and eight j-sev en feet above the sea. The lava and 
 stones ejested from this volcano cover an area of sixty square 
 miles. Pichincha is about eleven miles from Quito. It has an 
 altitude of fifteen thousand nine hundred and twenty-four feet, 
 and is ice shod throughout the year. The Tunguragua has an 
 altitude of sixteen thousand four hundred and twenty-four feet. 
 The eastern highland region lies principally in Brazil and Guiana. 
 This, unlike the eastern range of North America in parallel 
 ranges, is a broad plateau, the highest mountains occurring in 
 its eastern border. The plateau of Guiana is not so extensive 
 as that of Brazil, but has higher peaks. The great plain lying 
 between the eastern and western mountain system is remarka- 
 bly level. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The Amazon is the largest and longest 
 river in the world. It has its source in the Andes, and flowing 
 across the continent in an easterly direction empties into the 
 Atlantic Ocean. Its waters are filled with a sediment so dark 
 that it may be distinguished in the ocean a hundred miles from 
 the mouth of the river. 
 
 The other chief rivers are the La Plata and the Orinoco, with 
 their tributaries. There are but two lakes worthy of mention, 
 Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia, and Lake Maracaibo, in Venezuela, 
 which, taken together, are about the size of Lake Erie, in North 
 America. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The temperature of the 
 climate is about the same throughout the year, being hot, except 
 among the mountains and table-lands, which have a temperate 
 climate, and the extreme south which is quite cold. Its atmos- 
 phere is more moist than that of either of the other continents. 
 In some localities it falls in the form of dew and there is no 
 rain. There are but two seasons, the wet and the dry. Vege- 
 tation is luxuriant. The plains of the Amazon, called selvaSy 
 are covered with so dense a forest of tropical vegetation that 
 they are almost impenetrable. The most common trees are 
 
' OF SOUTH AMERICA. 167 
 
 palm, a greater variety of which is found in this than any other 
 country, and the caoutchouc, from the sap of which India rub- 
 Iber is made. 
 
 Here, as in other tropical countries, are found numerous rep- 
 tiles, among which are the alligator and the monstrous boa con- 
 strictor. The air is filled with poisonous insects and birds of 
 beautiful plumage. The native inhabitants are Indians, who 
 occupy a great extent of the continent. The white inhabitants 
 are mainly Portuguese, Spaniards, French, Dutch and English. 
 
 ■ Manufactures AND Commerce. The manufactures of South 
 America are limited. Among the principal commercial exports 
 are diamonds, precious stones and minerals, the most delicious 
 fruits, useful grains, [coffee, sugar, oranges and other tropical 
 productions. 
 
 UNITED STATES OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 Outline. The United States of Columbia is bounded on the 
 north by the Caribbean Sea and Venezuela, on Ithe east by 
 Venezuela and Brazil, on the south by Brazil and ^|;Ecuador, 
 and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The face of the country is so equally 
 divided into mountains and valleys that neither can be said to 
 predominate. The Andes in this state separate into two chains, 
 alternating with which, are luxuriant valleys, varying in char- 
 acter according to circumstances. Some are covered with in- 
 penetrable forests, and are imperfectly known. 
 
 Rivers. The chief rivers are the Magdalena and Cauca, 
 both of which have*their source in the mountains. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of the. United 
 States of Columbia presents the greatest variety and the most 
 remarkable contrasts. The heat in some places is intense, 
 other parts are covered with perpetual snow, and the more tem- 
 perate climate varies between the two extremes. The soil in the 
 eastern part is barren, while in the western and northern parts 
 it is fertile, and vegetation is luxuriant. 
 
168 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Manufactures can hardlj 
 he said to exist. Nearly all the manufactured articles in use 
 are imported. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Bogota, the capital, is in the eastern 
 part on a high table-land at the foot of two lofty mountains. 
 The streets are narrow, but regular, and being subject to earth- 
 quakes, the houses are low. The other chief cifcies are Popayaii, 
 in the western part, and Carthagena, the only important sea- 
 port. 
 
 VENEZUELA. 
 
 Outline. Venezuela is bounded on the north by the Car- 
 ibbean Sea, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, and British 
 Guiana, on the south by Brazil, and on the west byjUnited 
 States of Columbia. 
 
 Physical Features. This province lies wholly north of the 
 equator. The mountains occupy about a third of the whole 
 territory. ^In the southern part of the state rise an isolated 
 group of mountains covered with forests which have not been 
 explored. Their summits, which no where exceed twelve thous- 
 and feet, when cleared of trees, will be capable of yielding 
 the grains of Europe. 
 
 Lakes ^^nd Rivers. The principal river of Venezuela is 
 the Orinoco. There are sixty rivers in this state which have a 
 course of one hundred miles. The principal ores are in the val- 
 ley of the Orinoco. Lake Maracaibo is the only lake worthy 
 of note for extent or beauty. 
 
 CliMjAte Soil and Productions. The climate, soil and 
 productions of Venezuela are in the highest degree equatorial. 
 Vegetation flourishes perpetually throughout the year. The 
 change of seasons is so gradual as to be almost imperceptible. 
 The different varieties of the palm, the cocoa and milk tree grow 
 without cultivation. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. These branches of indus- 
 try do not receive the attention here that they do in the more 
 temperate climate of North America. The chief articles of 
 export are sugar, cotton, coffee, indigo and cocoa. 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 169 
 
 Cities and Towns. Caracas, near the Caribbean Sea 
 coast, is the capital and chief city. It has been frequently 
 destroyed by earthquakes. The city is well built, and regularly 
 laid out. The streets are narrow but well paved. It is one of 
 the wealthiest and most prosperous cities of the northern part of 
 South America. La Guayra is the principal seaport town. 
 The streets of some of the cities and towns of this state are beau- 
 tifully shaded with magnificent palms and cocoa trees. 
 
 GUIANA. 
 
 Outline. Guiana is bounded on the north by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, on the east and south by Brazil, and on the west by 
 Brazil and Venezuela. 
 
 Physical Features. Guiana is divided into British, Dutch 
 French Guiana. Along the coast the country is sandy and 
 marshy. In the interior are mountain chains and highlands. 
 They are densely wooded, but do not attain a greater elevation 
 than four thousand feet. The scenery among these mountains 
 is picturesque in the highest degree. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The principal rivers are the Essequibo, 
 Demerara, Berbice, Surinam and Mana. There are no lakes 
 worthy of mention. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is warm, 
 and the soil rich. The staple productions are pepper, cloves, 
 cinnamon and nutmegs. 
 
 Commerce. The principal articles of export are sugar, rum, 
 coffee, molasses and hardwood. 
 
 Cities and Towns. The chief cities of British Guiana are 
 Georgetown, the capital. New Amsterdam and Bernice. The 
 principal city and capital of Dutch Guiana is Paramaribo, on 
 the Surinam River. Cayenne, on Cayenne Island^ is the capi- 
 tal of French Guiana. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 Outline. Brazil is bounded on the north by Venezuela, 
 Guiana and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Atlantic 
 12 
 
170 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Ocean, on the south bj the Atlantic Ocean and Uruguay, and 
 on the west by Argentine Republic, Paraguay, Bolivia, Peru, 
 Ecuador and the United States of Columbia. 
 
 Physical Features. Brazil includes nearly all of the im- 
 mense plains watered by the Amazon and its tributaries. It, in 
 contrast with the countries on the west side of the continent, has 
 no mountains of great elevation, although numerous inferior 
 ranges traverse it in various directions. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Brazil has few lakes of any consider- 
 able size, and they are more properly lagoons. The Amazon, 
 the largest river, after a course of eight hundred miles across 
 the empire, empties into the Atlantic Ocean near the Equator. 
 The other principal rivers are the Rio Sanfrancisco, Rio Negro, 
 Madeira, Araguay, Tocantins, Maranhao and Parana. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is more cool 
 and moist than in the same latitude in the northern hemisphere. 
 The northern part is subject to violent storms, while in the south- 
 ern part the climate is mild and salubrious. The soil is highly 
 fertile. Vegetation is nowhere so varied and luxuriant as in the 
 Brazilian forests. Among the trees of the forest are rosewood 
 and mahogany. Its minerals are valuable, including gold, sil- 
 ver, iron, diamonds and topaz. The staple productions are 
 sugar, coffee, cotton and fruits of the forest. 
 
 Commerce. Brazil has every advantage for commerce, with 
 its fine harbors on the coast and large rivers in the interior. 
 The principal articles of export are coffee, sugar, cotton, cabinet 
 and dye woods, drugs, diamonds and precious stones. 
 
 Cities and Towns. The largest city and capital of Brazil 
 is Rio Janeiro. It has one of the finest harbors in the world, 
 and is a great commercial city. The site of the city is partly 
 on a level plain, and partly on and between a range of hills. 
 The streets are so narrow as to admit the passage of but one 
 vehicle at a time. This is not without advantages, however, in 
 so hot a climate, by the shelter it affords from the rays of the 
 sun. Its public buildings and institutions are many of them 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 171 
 
 on a magnificent scale. The manufactures of the city are few 
 and unimportant. 
 
 Bahia, an important seaport city of Brazil, occupied an ele- 
 vated site at the entrance of the bay of Bahia, or ha^j of All 
 Saints. The public buildings of the city are good. The other 
 important places are Pernambuco, Maranhao and Para. The 
 interior towns are small. 
 
 URUGUAY. 
 
 Outline. Uruguay is bounded on the north by the Argen- 
 tine E-epublic and Brazil, on the east by Brazil and the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west 
 by the Argentine Republic. 
 
 Physical Features. The face of the country, generally 
 speaking, is a vast undulating plain, broken in the interior by 
 several ridges of moderate elevation. 
 
 Rivers. The chief river is the Uruguay, which rises in the 
 mountains in the southern part of Brazil. 
 
 Climate,. Soil and Productions. The climate is temperate 
 and generally healthy, and the soil fertile. Heavy pastures 
 cover the extensive plains, which for the most part remain in a 
 state of nature. Over these roam herds of wild horses and 
 cattle. Wheat, maize, beans and melons are the chief products. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of this province consists chiefly 
 in the export of hides, horns, hair, jerked beef and tallow. The 
 inhabitants are not largely engaged in agricultural industry, 
 and the products of the soil are not exported. It possesses 
 every advantage for commerce, but the wars which it has carried 
 on with Buenos Ayres have checked every branch of- industry. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Montevideo, the capital, is situated on 
 a gentle elevation on a peninsula in the Rio de la Plata River, 
 It is generally well built, and surrounded by a strong wall 
 mounted with guns. Its Cathedral, Castle, and the Governor's 
 residence are the only buildings of importance. The other 
 principal towns are Maldonado, Colonia, Santa Lucia and 
 San Jose. 
 
172 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 •ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 
 
 Outline. The Argentine Republic is bounded on the norm 
 by Bolivia, on the east bj Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the 
 Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and Pata- 
 gonia, and on the west by Chili and Bolivia. 
 
 Physical Features. The west side of this vast territory is 
 bounded for thirteen hundred miles by the Andes, in which 
 snowy bights and volcanic peaks are prominent. Branches fron> 
 this chain extend into the state from one hundred and fifty to 
 two hundred miles, but the greater part of the surface is divided 
 into extensive plains, called Pampas, over which roam herds of 
 wild horses and cattle. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The waters from the Andes and Bra- 
 zilian Mountains uniting, form large rivers, which cross this state 
 and are carried into the ocean through a common outlet called 
 the Rio De La Plata River, which is in reality an estuary, 
 receiving great rivers. The La Plata is formed by the union of 
 the Uruguay and Parana Rivers. The former has a course of 
 eight hundred miles, and the latter upwards of fifteen hundred 
 miles. The lakes or lagoons and marshes are temporary, and 
 in the eastern part are generally fresh, while in the western 
 part they are salt, with few exceptions. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. This Republic, extend- 
 ing over so great a territory, has of a necessity a variety of 
 climate. The soil is good, but agriculture has been sadly neg- 
 lected. The chief wealth of the inhabitants consist in their 
 herds and flocks. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Manufactures have rec.eived 
 but little attention. Commerce consists chiefly in the export of 
 hides, horns, tallow and wool, and the exichange of raw material 
 for imported manufactured articles. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Buenos Ayres, the capital of the Re- 
 public, is on the La Plata, about one hundred and fifty miles 
 from the sea. It is regularly laid out, the streets for the most 
 
OP SOUTH AMERICA. 173 
 
 part, cross each otlier at right angles, and are paved with granite. 
 The city is poorly supplied with wood and' good water. 
 The other towns are small and of little note. 
 
 PARAGUAY. 
 
 Outline. Paraguay is bounded on the north by Brazil, on 
 the east by Brazil and the Argentine Republic, and on the south 
 and west by the Argentine Republic. 
 
 Physical Features. The face of the country is broken by 
 a mountain chain, which extends through the center of the coun- 
 try. Surrounding these mountains are lower bights which 
 gradually stretch out into alluvial plains. 
 
 Rivers. The Paraguay River forms its entire western, and 
 the Parana the southern and south-eastern boundaries. The 
 rivers immediately in Paraguay are small, having courses of 
 about one hundred miles 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate, though 
 tropical, is modified by the inequality of the surface. The soil 
 is exceedingly fertile, and vegetation is unrivalled, except in the 
 Brazilian forests. One of the principal products is the mate or 
 Paraguay tea. It is an evergreen growing about a foot and a 
 half high. It takes the place of Chinese tea in this and adjoin- 
 ing countries of South America. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of this country consists in the 
 export of its tea, sugar, honey, wax, cotton, tobacco, hides, 
 tallow,, etc. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Asuncion, the capital, is on the Para- 
 guay River. It was originally a small fort, but from its advan- 
 tageous position it has become a city of some importance. 
 
 PATAGONIA; 
 
 Outline: Patagonia is bounded on the north by Chili and 
 the Argentine Republic, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on 
 the south by the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and on the west 
 'h^ the Pacific Ocean and Chili. 
 
174 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Physical Features. The Andes extend througli the wes- 
 tern part, decreasing in hight as they near its southern shore. 
 The remainder of the country is a succession of barren plains. 
 These plains are for hundreds of miles one mass of peble stones, 
 and huge bowlders. 
 
 The native inhabitants are tall and extremely stout. They 
 belong to the Indian family, and subsist on fish and wild game. 
 The climate is very cold. 
 
 CHILI. 
 
 Outline. Chili is bounded on the north by Bolivia, on the 
 east by the Argentine Republic and Patagonia, on the south by 
 Patagonia and the Pacific Ocean, and on the west by the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. Chili is the on]y country of South 
 America entirely west of the Andes. The surface is generally 
 mountainous. Between the mountain ridges are fertile valleys, 
 occurring most frequently in the southern part. The scenery 
 is pleasant and picturesque. Proceeding north from Valparaiso, 
 the surface is thinly clad with an underbrush, and further north 
 it is barren and desolate. The mountains have an abrupt ascent 
 from the base, with a mean elevation of from thirteen thousand 
 to fourteen thousand feet, Aconcagua is the hiahest peak of 
 South America, being twenty-three thousand two hundred feet 
 above the sea. The volcanoes of Chili are numerous, seven 
 occurring within a space of two hundred and fifty miles. Only a 
 few of these are in a state of activity, and, as a result, earth- 
 quakes are frequent. The passes through the mountains are 
 very dangerous. The minerals of Chili are numerous and im- 
 portant, the principal of which are silver, copper, lead, iron, 
 bismuth, cobalt, antimony, and quicksilver. Great difBculfcies 
 attend mining, the desert nature of the countrv produces a 
 great lack of water, and the means of transportation have been 
 expensive and difficult. But these difficulties have been partially 
 removed by the construction of a railroad between Caldera and 
 Copiapo. 
 
OF SOUTH AMEEICA. 175 
 
 Rivers. Chili being so narrow and separated from the east- 
 ern part by a range of high mountains, must of necessity have 
 no large rivers. They have their source in the mountains, and 
 are mere mountain torrents. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is healthy 
 and not so variable as that in the interior. The warmest 
 veather is during the months of January and February. Snow 
 never falls except among the mountains. In the northern part 
 no rain falls sometimes for years in succession. In the other 
 localities, rains are abundant from June to September. At times 
 :hey are so heavy as to cause a suspension of business. The 
 soil in the valleys, excepting the northern part, is fertile and 
 covered with thick verdure during the rainy season. Fruits of 
 the temperate and tropical climates are abundant during their 
 season. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. The manufactures are not 
 extensive. The chief exports are the precious and other metals, 
 wheat, hides, wool and hemp. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Santiago, the capital, and most popu- 
 lous city of Chili, is situated on a fertile and large plain at the 
 foot of the Andes Mountains. It is regularly laid out, and the 
 streets intersect each other at right angles. On account of the 
 prevalence of earthquakes the houses are only one story, and 
 occupy a large space of ground. Valparaiso, the second city of 
 Chili, is situated on a bay in the Pacific Ocean. It derives its 
 name, meaning Yale of Paradise, from its delightful situation. It 
 is the most important commercial town on the Pacific shore of 
 the South American Continent. 
 
 BOLIVIA. 
 
 Outline. Bolivia is bounded on the north and east by Brazil, 
 on the south by the Argentine Republic and Chili, and on the 
 west by the Pacific Ocean and Peru. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is divided into mountains, 
 plateaus and plains. The two ranges of the Andes, called the 
 
176 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cordilleras, are separated bj a plateau one hundred miles in 
 ■width. In this plateau is Lake Titicaca. The East Cordillera 
 sends off branches into the interior, making the Bolivian Moun- 
 tain System three hundred and jSfty miles in breadth. Imme- 
 diately east of the mountain system is a level plain exceeding 
 Great Britain in extent. This plain is annually flooded over by 
 the numerous rivers which flow through it. Between this plain 
 and the Paraguay River, the surface rises above the reach of 
 inundation. The highest peaks of the West Cordillera are Par- 
 inacota, twenty-two thousand and thirty feet, and Pomarape, 
 twenty-one thousand seven hundred feet above the sea. The 
 highest peaks of the East Cordillera are Ancohuma, twenty-olie 
 thousand two hundred and eighty-six feet, and Illimani, twenty- 
 one thousand one hundred and forty-nine feet above the sea. 
 These were long supposed to be the highest peaks of the Andes. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The rivers east of the mountains are 
 numerous, and unite their waters with those of the Amazon and 
 Paraguay. There are numerous small lakes, of which Lake 
 Titicaca is. the most important. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. From the great diversity 
 of the surface, a great variety of climate is produced, from the 
 heat of the Torrid to the perpetual frosts of the Frigid Zone. 
 The soil in some parts is sterile. No rain has fallen along the 
 coast, between Copiapo, in Chili, and Payta, in Peru, since the 
 discovery of the continent. In other places rain falls every day 
 in the year. The principal productions in the temperate climate 
 era the fruits and grains of Europe. The vine is also being cul- 
 tivated to some extent. In the warmer districts tropical fruits 
 are grown. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Bolivia is chiefly internal, and 
 is quite limited. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Chuquisaca or Sucre, the capital, is 
 situated on a small affluent of the Cachimayo. The city is 
 generally well built, the streets are regular, broad and clean. 
 The principal buildings are the Cathedral, President's Palace, 
 Theatre and several fine churches. The main part of the inhab- 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 177 
 
 itants are Indians. La Paz is the most w.ealthy and populous 
 city of Bolivia, and Potosi the principal mining city. 
 
 PERU. 
 
 Outline. Peru is bounded on the north by Ecuador, on the 
 east by Brazil and Bolivia, on the south by Bolivia and the 
 Pacific O^cean, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The double Cordilleras of the Andes 
 traverse this state, seperating it into three distinct regions, each 
 possessing its characteristic climate, soil and vegetation. The 
 coast region is for the most part sterile and rainless. It is only 
 where an occasional stream forces its way across this tract, that 
 any vegetation appears. The atmosphere between the Cordil- 
 leras is disagreeable, but being a valuable mining region, is 
 comparatively densely populated. East of the mountains the 
 country is one vast plain, watered by numerous rivers, and 
 covered to some extent by impenetrable forests. The mountains 
 in Peru are estimated to cover an area of two hundred thou- 
 sand miles. Their culminating point is Chuquibamba, having 
 an elevation of twenty-one thousand feet. Arequipa, a noted but 
 now nearly extinct volcano, is upwards of twenty thousand feet 
 above the sea. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Lake Titicaca, next to Lake Mara- 
 caybo, the largest lake of South America, is partly in Peru and 
 partly in Bolivia. There are other smaller lakes not, however, 
 worthy of mention. The rivers east of the Andes all flow into 
 the Amazon or its tributaries. This great river has its source 
 among the Peruvian Andes. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. West of the mountains, 
 from November to April, the sky is cloudless, and the rays of 
 -the sun would convert the surface into dust and bare rocks, if it 
 were not for the rainy season among the highlands, causing 
 streams which fertilize the scorched valleys below. When the 
 rainy season ceases among the mountains the sky is overcast, 
 and the rays of the sun are obstructed by a thick mist, which 
 falls in the form of dew, invigorating vegetation and cooling the 
 
178 DESCMPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 atmosphere. East of the mountains the prevailing vdnds are 
 from the south-east, filling the atmosphere with moisture, which 
 being condensed by the cool breezes from the mountains, causes 
 copious showers to fall, and in some localities perpetual rain. 
 The soil in this region is fertile. Fruits, vegetables and grains 
 are abundant, sugar is produced in large quantities, and the 
 vine is cultivated for the manufacture of brandy. 
 
 Commerce. The want of roads are a great obstacle to inter- 
 nal traffic. The chief exports are brandy, sugar, precious 
 metals, nitrate of soda, and alpaca and sheep's wool. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Lima, the capital, is about seven miles 
 from its port, Callao, on the Pacific. It is located on both sides 
 of the Rimac River, which is spanned by a handsome stone 
 bridge. The streets are not very wide, but intersect each other 
 at right angles. It has a number of fine public buildings, and 
 manufactories of gold lace and fringe. In this city is the Cathe- 
 dral founded by Pizarro, and which contains his remains. Are- 
 quipa, a city of Peru, has a fine location seven thousand eight 
 hundred and fifty feet above the sea. It is one of the most 
 beautiful and best built cities of South America. Cuzco is 
 eleven thousand three hundred feet above the sea. 
 
 ECUADOR. 
 
 Outline. Ecuador is bounded on the north by the United 
 States of Columbia, on the east by Brazil, on the south by Peru, 
 and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is mountainous ; and vol- 
 canoes are more numerous in this than in any other state of the 
 continent. Within a distance of two hundred miles, there are 
 a dozen peaks which surpass Mount Blanc in elevation, and 
 many others which reach the line of perpetual snow. Among 
 the mountains of this state are Chimborazo, the highest peak, 
 and Cotopaxi, the most celebrated volcano of the Andes. Its 
 eruptions are terrific, and during the last century have been 
 frequent, overturning towns or burying them in ashes. The 
 eruption of Tunguragua dammed up the rivers with masses of 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 179 
 
 rock, and completely destroyed Rio Bamba. Pichinclia was 
 formerly an active volcano. Its crater is three miles in cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers are for the most part mountain torrents. 
 The Maranon is navigable to Chuchunga. The other rivers are 
 not navigable. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. From the geographical 
 position of the state, an equatorial climate might be expected. 
 But its position and double range of snow-clad mountains give 
 it a great variety of climate so far as temperature is concerned. 
 The soil in the plains is good. The productions in the warmer 
 localities are tropical, and higher up wheat, maize and barley 
 flourish. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Ecuador is limited, being 
 carried on with adjoining ports of the United States of Colum- 
 bia and Peru. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Quito, the capital and most populous 
 city, is situated at the base of eleven snow-clad mountains. The 
 city is well built, and contains several handsome squares, and 
 many fine public buildings. It has suifered several times from 
 the effects of earthquakes, to which the country is subject. 
 Cuenca is next to Quito, the most populous city of Ecuador. 
 
 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 The main land of South America was discovered hj Colum- 
 bus in 1498, during his third voyage. He landed near the mouth 
 of the Orinoco River ; and in 1502 he visited the Gulf of Darien. 
 In 1516 Magellan discovered and sailed through the straits 
 which now bear his name, and^crossing the Pacific, was first to 
 circumnavigate the globe. At the time of the discovery of the 
 new world, Peru was by far the most populous and wealthy 
 state of the continent. In 1511, Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed 
 the Isthmus of Darien, took possession of the Pacific in the 
 naree of the King of Castile, and opened the way for the cruel 
 Pizarro, who followed in 1532. Pizarro had accompanied Balboa 
 in the previous expeditioM, aud on his return to Spain was sent 
 
180J OF SOUTH AMEKICA. 
 
 ont by the government to make a conquest of tlie new country. 
 After landing in Peru, in 1532, he founded a garrisoned town 
 called San Miguel. He then marched boldly through the 
 country refraining from all acts of hostility. He was kindly 
 received by the natives, and an envoy with presents was sent 
 from the Inca, inviting the Spanish chief to an interview. At 
 the time of their meeting, as the Inca with his nobles, attend- 
 ants and soldiers was approaching, the Spaniards, from behind 
 buildings and walls, where they had secreted themselves, poured 
 a volley of artillery and musketry upon their terror stricken 
 and unresisting victims. The Inca was taken prisoner. Im- 
 mense sums of gold and silver were offered for his ranson, which 
 Pizarro accepted, and then, after a mock trial, inhumanly put 
 him to death. The perfidy and cruelty of Pizarro is without 
 parallel in the annals of crime. In his march to the capital he 
 met with great resistance, but with the aid of firearms, which 
 were unknown to the inhabitants, he was victorious. The whole 
 country soon after submitted. Other Spanish adventurers took 
 possession of the remainder of South America, excepting Bra- 
 zil and Guiana, and it remained in their possession until within 
 the present century, when they threw off the Spanish yoke, and 
 declared themselves independent republics. 
 
 Brazil remained in the possession of Portugal until 1822, 
 when a peaceful separation was effected. ■ Guiana is in posses" 
 sion of the British, Dutch and French. 
 
 Within the last ten years the condition of South America, as 
 a whole, has been greatly improved. Chili and Peru have made 
 rapid advances in industry and morals. Spain has been waging 
 war with some of the Pacific States but without success. Bra- 
 zil is increasing in population and wealth under the rule of 
 Don Pedro II. 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 EASTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 EUROPE. 
 
 Outline. Europe is the least of the four continents of the 
 Old World, or, perhaps more properly, the smallest of the four 
 divisions of the Eastern Continent, witJi the exception of Aus- 
 tralia. It is also inferior in size to either of the two divisions 
 of the Western Continent. 
 
 The outline is extremely irregular. It is everywhere pene- 
 trated by extensive seas and bays, which form large peninsulas 
 and headlands. On the south-west, nearly inclosed by the Med- 
 iterranean Sea, Atlantic Ocean and Bay of Biscay, is the penin- 
 sula of Spain. The Baltic Sea and Gulf of Bothnia, protrude 
 themselves into the northwestern part of Europe, forming the 
 Scandinavian Peninsula, which comprehends the countries of 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 The British Isles are separated from the main land, on the 
 south east b"v a deep channel. The physical character of this 
 channel is such, as to give rise to the opinion that Britain was 
 once united with the continent, from which it has been separated 
 by some great convulsion of nature. Southern Europe is made 
 even more irregular by the branching inland of the Adriatic 
 and Black seas. 
 
 Europe is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the 
 south by the Mediterranean and Black seas, and the most east- 
 
182 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ern portion of Asia, on the west and north-west by the Atlantic 
 Ocean, and on the east by the Caspian Sea and Asia. The 
 Ural Mountains, and a line passing southward to the northern 
 shore of the Caspian Sea, are generally reckoned as the eastern 
 boundary of Europe, though different authorities draw other 
 lines. 
 
 Physical Features. These are various and interesting. 
 An unbroken range of mountains extend from the western coast 
 of Spain, to the farther limits of European Turkey, and, from 
 thence, are continued across the vast continent of Asia. Trav- 
 ersing the northern part of Spain, they are first known as Can- 
 tabrian Mountains, and afterward as the Pyrenees. The latter 
 division of these mountains extends to the Mediterranean Sea, 
 and branching north into France, are distinguished by the name 
 of Cevennes. 
 
 Reaching the western frontier of Switzerland, an off-shoot 
 from the main chain is known as the Jura. The main branch 
 is known as the Alps, and extends to the eastern shore of the 
 Adriatic. In these mountains are the loftiest summits of Europe, 
 and there, also, appear those boundless fields of ice and snow, 
 for which the Alpine regions are remarkable. 
 
 The Illyrian Alps follow the north-eastern co^t of the Adri- 
 atic Sea, and finally merge into the Balkan Mountains of Tur- 
 key. These are concluded at the Sea of Marmora, where the 
 chain passes into Asia. "* 
 
 There are out-lying groups and ranges from this great chain, 
 which will be considered in connection with the different coun- 
 tries of Europe, and also, the Scandinavian Mountains of Sweden 
 and Norway, and the Ural Mountains, on the eastern side of 
 Europe. 
 
 Two-thirds of Europe consists of a vast plain, which compre- 
 hends western France, portions of Belgium, Holland and Den- 
 mark, the northern provinces of Germany, and nearly all of 
 Russia. The other parts of Europe consist chiefly ^of high- 
 lands and mountains. 
 
/ OF EUROPE. 183 
 
 The climate, productions, etc., will be considered in connection 
 with the different countries. 
 
 Divisions. The countries of Europe will be described in the 
 following order : Great Britain and Ireland, Holland, Belgium, 
 France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Switzerland, Grermany, Denmark, 
 Norway, Sweden, Russia, Austria, Turkey and Greece. 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 The Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland comprises an 
 irregular archipelago, lying west of the main land of Europe. 
 England and Ireland are the only prominent islands — the former 
 comprehending on the north the division of Scotland, and on the 
 west that of Wales. The other islands are generally small and 
 isolated, or scattered throughout the seas in groups, at no great 
 distance from the main islands. Great Britain has possessions 
 in every quarter of the globe. These, however, will not be 
 noticed in this chapter, but in connection with the countries 
 where they are^found. 
 
 The main land on the south-east is divided i)etween France 
 and Germany. The whole country is surrounded by the Atlan- 
 tic or its branches. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 Outline. England is the largest divisionjof Great Britain. 
 
 It is bounded on the north-west by Scotland, on the south-east 
 
 ' by the English Channel and Dover Strait, on the north-east by 
 
 the North Sea, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, Bristol 
 
 Channel, Wales and Irish Sea. 
 
 Physical Features, The surface of England consists of 
 mountains in the west, highlands in the interior and fertile plains 
 in the east. A large portion of the western mountains, how- 
 ever, are embraced within the limits of Wales. 
 
 Rivers. The Severn is the only river, of any extent, that 
 empties into the sea west of the mountains. The mountains, 
 which form the water-shed, directing the rivers in easterly and 
 westerly directions, are generally near the western coast, and, 
 as a consequence, the rivers are small. 
 
GEEAT BEITAIN AND IRELAND. 185 
 
 On the eastern side, beginning at tlie north, are the Tees, Hum 
 her, Ouse and Thames rivers. On the latter river is London, 
 the largest city in the world. 
 
 The estuary of the Humber is formed by the confluence of 
 the Frient and Ouse rivers. The Ouse first mentioned, is known 
 as the Great Ouse. 
 
 Climate. England enjoys an excellent climate. The even 
 temperature of tlie country is favorable to a healthy develop- 
 ment of both animal and vegetable life. No other country in 
 Europe, in the same latitude, has so genial a climate. On the 
 same line, in Asia, there is the marked difference of 10° in the 
 temperature. 
 
 Soil and Productions, England is a great agricultural 
 country. According to reliable sources, seven-ninths of the 
 land of Great Britain is adapted to cultivation. A systematic 
 plan of improving the soil of England is pursued with great 
 success. 
 
 Wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, beans, grass-seeds and hay are 
 among the important productions. 
 
 Manufactures. In manufactures, as well as commerce, 
 England is pre-eminent among the nations of the earth. The 
 chief manufactures are cotton, woolen, Knen, silk and hardware. 
 
 Commerce. The geographical position of England is such 
 as to afford unsurpassed facilities for commerce. It is sur- 
 rounded on all sides by the sea, excepting a narrow strip on the 
 north, where it borders on Scotland. The shore is indented 
 with numerous bays. Deep and commodious harbors, and 
 large commercial cities are found in greater numbers than in 
 any other country, of the same extent, in the world. 
 
 The magnitude of her commerce is so great, and the strides 
 with which she continues to advance are so rapid, that it is im- 
 possible to contemplate it without a feeling of wonder and amaze- 
 ment. Over eighteen thousand vessels are engaged in the 
 English trade, nearly one-half, of which are in the pursuit of 
 domestic, and the other half of foreign commerce. 
 13 
 
186 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 Her exports consist chiefly of her manufactures and minerals. 
 She imports raw material for manufacture, and some articles 
 of food. 
 
 Cities. London, the capital, is the largest city in the world. 
 It has a population exceeding three millions. It is built princi- 
 pally on the north bank of the river Thames, about forty miles 
 from the mouth of that river. 
 
 The public buildings of London are large and numerous. The 
 new building of the Houses of Parliament, is a noble edifice, 
 built in the Tudor Gothic style on the left bank of the Thames. 
 It is nine hundred feet long in front, and covers an area of eight 
 acres. It is panneled with rich tracery, and is profusely decor- 
 ated with statues and shields of arms of the kings and queens 
 of England. It contains the House of Peers and House of 
 Commons. 
 
 The celebrated London Tower occupies an area of twelve 
 acres, on the river Thames. It was commenced by William, the 
 Conqueror, who' is supposed to have built the White Tower, the 
 most central part of the building. This prison is surrounded 
 by a wall, within which is a ditch. In this tower have "been 
 confined many of the English kings and queens, and, also, noted 
 statesmen and philosophers. • 
 
 The St. Paul's Cathedral holds a prominent position among 
 the places of worship. It occupies the summit of Ludgate Hill ; 
 is five hundred and ten feet in length, and two hundred and fifty 
 feet in width. This magnificent temple is crowned by a massive 
 dome. The hight of the ball and cross, which surmount the 
 dome, is four hundred and four feet. 
 
 Westminster Abbey is the finest ecclesiastical building in 
 London, after St. Paul. In this noble edifice have been crowned 
 the kings and queens of England, from Edward, the Confessor, 
 to Queen Victoria. 
 
 The year 1851, witnessed in London, the first world's fair. 
 The magnificent Crystal Palace was erected in Hyde Park, and 
 in it were gathered articles of manufacture, and products, from 
 every quarter of the world. The building was about eighteen 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 187 
 
 hundred feet long, and four hundred and eight feet wide. It 
 was built of glass and iron ; and covered eighteen acres of 
 ground. During the years 1852 and 1853, it was removed to 
 Sydenham, one of the suburbs of London, and rebuilt on' a 
 grander scale. Surrounded as it now is, with the finest style 
 of landscape gardening, and filled, in every apartment, with 
 objects of the choicest interest and instruction, it forms one of 
 the chief attractions of London. 
 
 Next to London, Manchester is the most populous city of Eng- 
 land. It is the first manufacturing city on the globe ; and is 
 situated in the heart of a rich coal region. 
 
 Birmingham is famous for its iron manufactures ; and Leeds 
 for the manufacture of woolen. Sheffield is engaged in the 
 manufacture of cutlery. 
 
 Liverpool, one of the greatest foreign ports of England, is 
 next in size to Manchester. It is the outlet of the great manu- 
 facturing region, in which the above towns are located, and is 
 the port from which the manufactures are shipped to foreign 
 countries. , 
 
 Oxford is famous as being the seat of Oxford University, sup- 
 posed to have been founded by Alfred. 
 
 The other large towns are Southampton, Bath, Bristol, Bead- 
 ing, Gloucester. Cambridge, Leicester, Nottingham, Derby and 
 York. 
 
 Cathedrals and Castles. Large numbers of the towns of 
 England are eminent for their cathedrals. The most prominent 
 of these are at Exeter, Wells, Durham, Ely and Petersborough. 
 
 At Dartsmouth, Warwick and Windsor are castles, which are 
 interesting because of their ancient origin. 
 
 Eight miles north of Salisbury is the remains of a gigantic 
 Druidic temple, called Stonehenge. It consists of two circles 
 of vast stones, partially remaining upright, and partially lying 
 prostrate, which average fourteen feet in elevation. Two of the 
 largest of these stones are estimated to weigh seventy tons each. 
 
188 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OP 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Early History. The history of England begins with King 
 Egbert. Prior to the rule of this prince, English history is in- 
 volved in mystery and doubt. 
 
 The Britons, or original inhabitants of the country, comprised 
 a number of savage and warlike tribes. They belonged to the 
 Celtic race, which inhabited beside Britain, Gaul and Germany. 
 
 Roman Conquest. Julius Caesar is said to have invaded 
 Britain fifty-five years before the Christian era. The Roman 
 conquest, however, was not completed till A. D. 78, In that 
 year Agricola fully established the Roman rule. The Britons 
 were subject to the Romans till A. D. 410, when the latter de- 
 serted the country. 
 
 Saxon Conquest. Not long afterward, the Saxons of Ger- 
 many, becoming acquainted with the superiority of Britain, 
 determined to establish themselves in that country. In pursu- 
 ance of this determination, they raised an army of five thousand 
 men, and invaded the country. The war that followed, lasted 
 over a century, and the Britons are ^reputed to have made a 
 brave resistance. It finally resulted in the triumph of the Sax- 
 ons, and the establishment of the Heptarchy, or Seven King- 
 doms. The variance existing between these kingdoms was the 
 cause of numerous conflicts, but peace was finally restored in 
 827, by their union, under the common name of England. 
 Egbert, who, as before remarked, was the first King of England, 
 was engaged, during a part of his reign, in a war with the 
 Danes. 
 
 Prior to the Norman conquest, Alfred, surnamed the Great, 
 was the only distinguished king. He not only possessed great 
 military talents, but was a good and able sovereign. After 
 eflFectually repelling the invasions of the Danes, he succeeded, 
 in the latter part of his reign, in preserving tranquility in his 
 Kingdom. He was a great scholar, and did much in advancing 
 literature. One of the great events of his reign was the found- 
 ing of Oxford College. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 189 
 
 In the reign of Athehtan, the Scripture was translated into 
 the Saxon language. England was distracted with invasions by 
 the Scots, Welsh, Danes and Northumbrians, as late as the 
 Norman conquest. At one time it was subject to the Danish 
 King, Canute, who was a powerful sovereign. His successors, 
 Sarold and Canute IL , however, were weak, and their reigns of 
 little importance. 
 
 On the death of Canute IL, the Saxon line was restored in 
 the person of Edward, surnamed the Confessor. He was the 
 last, however, of the Saxon Kings. On his death he left the 
 English Crown to William of Normandy. Harold, however, 
 was proclaimed King by the English. William resolved to 
 maintain his claim by force of arms. He lauded in England 
 with an army of sixty thousand men, and met an equal number 
 under Harold, at Hastings, where was fought one of the fiercest 
 battles that ever occurred on English soil. It resulted in a 
 decisive victory for the Normans ; and William, hence surnamed 
 the Conqueror, became King of England, in 1066. The race 
 of kings and queens that have since filled the English throne, 
 a,re descendants of William. Towards the Normans, the Saxons 
 cherished a bitter animosity for centuries. 
 
 The Norman Family. — From 1066 to 1154. The only 
 useful act recorded in the reign of William, was producing the 
 Doomsday Book, in which all the difierent estates in the king- 
 dom were registered. He introduced the feudal system into 
 England, by which the right of persons to hold property was 
 limited according to their military standing. One of the most 
 odious laws introduced by him was that which denied the people 
 the right of killing game throughout the kingdom, reserving 
 to himself, however, that privilege. 
 
 No other events of importance transpired during the period 
 in which the Norman family occupied the throne. William IL, 
 who- succeeded his father, was accidentally shot by an arrow in 
 the New Forest. Robert, the elder brother of William II., was 
 now the rightful heir to the throne. Henry JT., however, a 
 
190 joescriptive geography of 
 
 younger brother, usui-ped the throne during his brother's absence, 
 and on his return caused him to be imprisoned. 
 
 The next reign was usurped by Stephen, Maud, daughter of 
 Henry, being the rightful heir. Henry, the eldest son of Maud, 
 raised an army, and contested with Stephen his right to the 
 throne. A compromise was finally arranged, by which Henry 
 was to succeed to the throne on the death of Stephen. 
 
 The Plantagenet Family. — From 1154 to 1399. Henry 
 If., the first of the family of Plantagenet, was an able and 
 popular sovereign. He extended the territory of England, by 
 marriage with Eleanor, over the Duchy of Guienne, lying within 
 the limits of France. 
 
 Henry devoted himself to the welfare of his kingdom. The 
 struggle between ecclesiastical and civil authority, for a long 
 time violent, became so odious in England during this reign, 
 that the king determined to introduce reforms in the clergy. 
 Sixteen propositions submitted to the council, called by Henry, 
 were confirmed, but not until matters became so turbulent that 
 much opposition, on the part of the clergy, resulted in the crim- 
 inal death of Thomas a Becket. 
 
 The latter years of Henry's life were imbittered by the rebell- 
 ious conduct of his sons. He had out-lived their affections, and 
 they, in concert with his wife and the King of France, resolved 
 to complete his overthrow. He died of a broken heart, and 
 was succeeded by his second son. 
 
 Richard I. manifested his cruelty, in the early part of his 
 reign, by persecuting the Jews. His reign was signalized by a 
 crusade to the Holy Land. He was successful in several engage- 
 ments with the Saracens, but effected little of any moment to 
 his kingdom. While engaged in war with France, he received 
 a wound, the effects of which proved fatal, Arthur, the son of 
 an elder brother of Richard, the rightful heir, was now heir to 
 the throne. 
 
 John, who received the crown, is supposed to have murdered 
 Arthur, in order to secure the throne to himself. He was one 
 
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 191 
 
 • of the weakest sovereigns that ever occupied the English throne; 
 nevertheless his reign is memorable as being the dawn of English 
 liberty. 
 
 John became the dupe of Pope Innocent III. That pontiff so 
 preyed upon his superstitious nature, that he was finally induced 
 to hold both himself and his kingdom subject to the decrees of 
 the Pope. These movements so incensed the noblemen of the 
 kingdom, that they proceeded to open rebellion, and finally, 
 obliged the king to confirm a charter of privileges, which they 
 presented. This great charter, or Magna Cliarta, is regarded 
 as the greatest step towards freedom in England. 
 
 John was also compelled to grant the Charter of the Forest, 
 which restored to the people the rights which were sacrificed by 
 William, the Conqueror. He was surnamed Lackland, because 
 of the territory wrested from him in the northern part of France. 
 He added to his weak qualities a tyrannical and cruel disposition. 
 
 Senry III , who succeeded to the throne, was possessed of 
 all the weakness that characterized the former king. During 
 this reign, which lasted fifty-six years, the kingdom was torn by 
 violent civil commotions. The barons, or noblemen, rebelled 
 against the authority of the king, in the latter part of his reign, 
 and endeavored to place the royal power in their hands. At one 
 time the King, and his son Edward, were imprisoned by the 
 Earl of Leicester, who was the leader of the barons. The 
 young prince, however, managed to free himself, and in a great 
 battle, defeated Leicester, who was slain. The House of Com- 
 mons dates from the reign of Henry III. 
 
 Edward I. was eminent as a warrior and a statesman, and is 
 regarded as one of England's greatest Kings. These, however, 
 were his redeeming traits. In disposition he was cruel and un- 
 relenting. He is said, on a certain occasion to have required 
 the execution of nearly three hundred Jews. He was constantly 
 at war with the Scots and French ; and began a series of con- 
 tests with the former people, which were continued, with disas- 
 trous effect, for seventy years. He conquered Wales, over 
 which he placed his son, and, ever since, the oldest son of the 
 
192 DESCRIPTIVE aEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 English Kings and Queens has borne the title of Prince of "Wales. 
 
 Edward II. inherited little of his father's ambition, and while 
 prosecuting the war with the Scots, sustained a great defeat, in 
 the famous battle of Bannockburn. 
 
 Edward III.^ unlike his father, was talented and ambitious. 
 His reign was signalized by numerous victories in France and 
 Scotland. His son, Edward, the Black Prince, who assisted 
 him in prosecuting his wars in France, was distinguished for his 
 noble traits of character. He was the pride of the nation ; and 
 his death, which occurred a year before that of his father, left 
 the throne vacant to his son, then only eleven years of age. 
 
 The young King, Richard II., inherited neither the talent 
 nor virtue of his father. Wars, of both civil and foreign nature, 
 were in constant succession, during his reign. A spirit of dis- 
 content was- created by a poll-tax, enjoined upon every person 
 above the age of fifteen. The discontent increased, and the 
 people finally rose in open rebellion, and a formidable army of 
 insurgents, with Wat Tyler at their head, met the royal army, 
 and, after a fierce struggle, were defeated, and finally subdued. 
 
 Henry was the last of the family of Plantagenet. He is 
 charged with having unjustly deprived his cousin Henry, Duke 
 of Lancaster, of his estate. That Duke organized an army, 
 while Richard was engaged in a war with Ireland, and, on his 
 return, succeeded in completing his overthrow. Richard was 
 imprisoned, and finally assassinated. 
 
 The crown now lawfully belonged to Edmund Mortimer, 
 Duke of York, but his claims were rejected, and the Duke of 
 Lancaster was elected King. 
 
 House of Lancaster. — From 1399 to 1461. Henry IV., 
 the first King of the House of Lancaster, ascended the throne 
 in 1399. He was an able sovereign, and, though in a measure 
 unpopular, his reign was productive of much good to his king- 
 dom. His title to the throne was contested, but his assailants, 
 both of his own domains, and their Scotch and Welsh allies, 
 were defeated and scattered. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 193 
 
 His soiij Henry F"., was successful in Ms wars in France, and 
 before his death, had annexed all Normandy to his kingdom. 
 In the early part of his career he was wild and dissipated, but 
 reformed on his accession to the throne, and devoted himself to 
 the welfare of his people. In this reign, numbers engaged in 
 the Reformation, were sacrificed. 
 
 Henry VI. became King when only nine months old. During 
 his minority, the French, under the leadership of the distin- 
 guished Joan of Are, regained all the English possessions- in 
 France, with the exceptions of Guienne and Calais. 
 
 Henry was a' weak King, and his reign was signdized by 
 civil commotions. With him closed, for a time, the rule of the 
 , representatives of the House of Lancaster. 
 
 The Duke of York, taking advantage of the turmoil, and the 
 incapacity of the King, determined to assert his rightful claims. 
 The army of the King, and that of his competitor, met in bat- 
 tle, and the former was twice defeated with great slaughter, the 
 King being made prisoner in the last engagement. Before the 
 Duke reached the throne, however, he was defeated by Henry's 
 heroic Queen, and slain. His son was then proclaimed King, 
 and, in him, the legitimate line of English monarchs was restored. 
 
 House of York. — From 1461 to 1485. Edward IV. 
 experienced some difficulty in regulating his kingdom, and secur- 
 ing his title to the crown. After a variety of engagements, in 
 which he was successful, he was finally deposed, as a result 
 of the desertion of his chief general, the Earl of Warwick. He 
 soon regained his position, however, previous to which, Warwick 
 was slain in battle. Edward, though able and talented, was not 
 a good king. He was cruel, and fond of pleasure, and did very 
 little to improve his kingdom, or benefit his subjects. In 1471, 
 during Edward's reign, printing was first introduced into 
 England. 
 
 The reign of Ediuard V. was of short duration. His infa- 
 mous uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, usurped the crown, after 
 having caused the King, and his younger brother, to be mur- 
 dered. 
 
194 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OV^ 
 
 Richard III., the usurper, lias little connected with his career, 
 •worthy of commendation. A short reign, of two years, resulted 
 in his overthrow, at the hands of the Earl of Richmond. Thus 
 ended the violent struggle between the Houses of York arid 
 Lancaster. 
 
 House of Tudor. — From 1485 to 1603. Henry VIL, 
 the Earl of Richmond, had no legitimate title to the crown, as 
 he belonged to the House of Lancaster. He married the niece 
 of the late King, and daughter of Edward IV., who belonged 
 to the House of York, and in this way the two houses were 
 united. 
 
 Henry is classed among the greatest of the English sover- 
 eigns. His reign was prosperous and much respected, though, 
 personally, the King was little liked. The feudal system, intro- 
 duced by William, the Conqueror, was destroyed by Henry, 
 thus tending to equalize the rights of the people. By his 
 avarice he accumulated a vast fortune, which, upon his death, 
 fell to his son. 
 
 The reign of Henry VIII. was signalized by events of a 
 remarkable nature. During his reign of thirty-eight years, he 
 had six wives, four of whom were either divorced, or suifered 
 death through his instrumentality. His third wife died a natu- 
 ral death, and the last was fortunate enough to survive nim. 
 DiflBculties, arising between Henry and the Papal authorities, 
 with regard to his matrimonial affairs, induced him to dissolve 
 the relation between the Pope and the English throne, and pro- 
 claim himself " Supreme Head" of the Church of England. 
 He enacted six articles of religion, and persecuted to the fullest 
 extent of his power, all those who ventured to oppose them. 
 Many of the most noble men in his kingdom were sacrificed, 
 because they would not renounce their former belief. 
 
 The gulf, thus thrown between Rome and England, is regard- 
 ed as the commencement of the Reformation. But while the 
 event, in itself, is momentous, no credit for its dawn can justly 
 be given to Henry. While seeking a channel, in which to gratify 
 
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 195 
 
 his passions, he innocently opened the way to religious freedom, 
 and from this time, the Papal power in England began to decline. 
 During a portion of this reign, England was engaged in war 
 with France and Scotland. 
 
 Henry was cruel, treacherous and a slave to pleasure. His 
 rule was despotic. The immense treasures that wei'e handed 
 down from his father, were recklessly squandered ; and no event 
 is recorded during his reign, with which he was directly connec- 
 ted, worthy of honor or distinction. 
 
 His son Edward VI., was the last male representative of the 
 House of Tudor. Under this reign, the Church of England 
 assumed its present form, and the Book of Common Prayer, 
 was composed nearly as it now exists. The Duke of Northum- 
 berland, who was Edward's chief minister, during the latter 
 part of his reign, induced the King, at his death, to bequeath 
 the crown to Lady Jane Grey, assuming that Mary, the daugh- 
 ter of Henry VIIT, by his first wife, was illegitimate. 
 
 Ladi/ Jane Grey, however, was not destined to occupy this 
 position for any length of time. The Catholics succeeded in 
 removing her in eight days, and Mary "Was placed upon the 
 throne. 
 
 Mary immediately took steps towards restoring the Catholic 
 religion. In these efforts she was more determined, because of 
 the treatment of her mother — the separation between the Pope 
 and Henry having had its origin in the efibrts of the latter to 
 obtain a divorce from her. She caused the Lady Jane and her 
 husband to be executed, and then commenced the career of per- 
 secution, which has rendered her reign so infamous. Rogers 
 was the first victim of her cruelt;; . Hooper and Ferrar followed, 
 and expired at the stake. Latimer and Ridley, two venerable 
 and learned prelates, were consumed in the same fire. Latimer, 
 when tied to the stake, called to his companion, "Be of good 
 cheer, my brother ! we shall this day kindle such a flame in 
 England, as I trust in God, will never be extinguished.". Cran- 
 mcr and Landers were also sacrificed. In the first rage of the 
 
196 DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OP 
 
 persecution, over three hundred persons were brought to the 
 stake. 
 
 The multiplied and detestable crimes of Marj became so 
 odious to the people, that they regarded her with feelings of 
 unmingled dislike, and at her death, there was scarcely a man- 
 ifestation of sorrow. 
 
 When the news of Queen Mary's death was announced to 
 Parliament, which happened to be in session at the time, the 
 members all sprang from their seats, and shouts of joy, and 
 " God save Queen Elizabeth," were heard to resound on every 
 side. Her reign was prosperous, and respected at home and 
 abroad. One of the first acts of the Queen was to restore the 
 religion in the same form that it had been at Edward's death. 
 
 She then devoted herself to the improvement of her king- 
 dom. She replaced the old coin, which had been shamefully 
 debased, by a coinage of the standard weight. She introduced 
 the manufacture of gunpowder, filled the arsenals with arms, 
 and so extended the English navy, that she has been styled 
 " the Queen of the Northern Seas." 
 
 During her reign, the great Spanish Armada, which was 
 designed to conquer England, was defeated in the English Chan- 
 nel, and afterwards nearly destroyed by a storm. 
 
 In the latter part of her reign, Elizabeth did not display as 
 much firmness and stoicism, as characterized her early career. 
 She had unworthy favorites, among whom were the earls of 
 Leicester and Essex. In granting the execution of the latter, 
 she sacrificed her feelings to the interests of her subjects, and 
 from this time, became reserved and melancholy. At her death, 
 which occurred soon after, she manifested a desire to be succeeded 
 by her nearest kinsman, James VI., of Scotland. As the title 
 of James to the throne was unquestionable, he was immediately 
 proclaimed King ; and thus the crown of England passed from 
 the Tudor to the Stuart family, with as much tranquility aS ever 
 it was transmitted frem father to son, and the kingdoms of Scot, 
 land and England were united, under one King. By this union 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 197 
 
 of its whole collective force, Great Britain has risen to a degree 
 of power- and consequence in Europe, which Scotland and Eng- 
 land, destined by their position to form one vigorous monarchy, 
 could never have attained, as separate and hostile kingdoms. 
 From this point, the history of England merges into that of 
 Great Britain. 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 Outline. Scotland is north of England. It is bounded on 
 the east by the North Sea, and on the north and west by the 
 Atlantic Ocean. The Rivers Tweed and Solway Frith, with 
 the Cheviot Hills, bound it on the south, and separate it from , 
 England. The coast is lined with islands, which comprehend 
 a large part of the area. The Shetland and Orkney islands are 
 beyond the northern coast ; and skirting the western coast, are 
 the Hebrides, or Western Islands. Broad estuaries and bays 
 penetrate into the coast of Scotland, which make the outline 
 very irregular. 
 
 Physical Features. Only a small portion of Scotland is 
 level. The surface consists chiefly of mountains and valleys. 
 The Cheviot Hills, on the south, have many peaks which reach 
 a hight of over two thousand feet. These are generally covered, 
 to their summits, with verdure. They are divided by deep and 
 fertile valleys, which receive the names of the rivers which drain 
 them. These Dales, as they are called, are prominent among 
 the scenery of Scotland. 
 
 North of this region, and south of the Grampian Mountains, 
 is the only level country, of any extent, in Scotland. Even 
 this is traversed, from north to south, by several ranges of 
 mountains. It is drained by the Clyde, Forth and Tay rivers, 
 and contains the largest cities of Scotland. It is a highly fer- 
 tile region, and is extensively cultivated. Its chief superiority, 
 however, is owing to its mineral treasures. 
 
 North of this level tract, is the grand combination of rugged 
 mountains and picturesque lakes, which has made the highland 
 scenery of Scotland so famous. The Grampian Hills, which 
 
198 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 contain the loftiest summits of Great Britain, is the most import- 
 ant group. The most noted peaks of this are Ben Nevis, Ben 
 Macdhui, Cairngorm and Ben Avon ; also Ben Cruachan, Ben 
 Lomond and Ben Lawers. Of these, Ben Nevis has long been 
 regarded as the crowning summit, but recent geographers claim 
 a difference in favor of Ben Macdhui. 
 
 The mountains in the southern part of Scotland, are remark- 
 able for rounded summits, and for the green foliage and vegeta- 
 tion which prevails. The Grampian Hills are signalized by 
 abrupt precipices, and bare summits. On the summit of Ben 
 Nevis there is a perpendicular precipice fifteen hundred feet 
 high ; and one on Ben Macdhui is one thousand feet high. The 
 slopes of the mountains are covered with a low heath, and this 
 is the only form of vegetation found on the mountains. 
 
 North of the Grampian Hills, is another group of mountains, 
 called Ben More Hills. The mean elevation of these mountains 
 is not so great as of the group lying south. The chief summits 
 are Ben Wyvis, Bendearg, Ben More and Ben Clibbrick. These 
 mountains are generally in the interior; and towards the sea, 
 on all sides, the country spreads out in undulating plains, which 
 are generally covered with a stunted heath. 
 
 BiVERs AND Lakes. The rivers of Scotland are numerous, 
 and of considerable magnitude, for a country of so limited^ an 
 extent. The most important, with a single exception, are on 
 the eastern side, and pour their waters through the broad estua- 
 ries, for which Scotland is remarkable, into the North Sea. 
 
 The Clyde is the only river of prominence which flows into 
 sea on the western side. This is the most important commer- 
 cial river in Scotland. It rises in the mountains in the southern 
 part of the country, and, in the upper part of its course, dashes 
 along with all the impetuosity of a mountain torrent. In the 
 vicinity of Lanark, it forms a series of magnificent falls. Soon 
 after, it expands into a broad and noble river, and, before it 
 reaches Glasgow, is capable of receiving the largest vessek. 
 
 On the eastern side of Scotland, beginning on the north, are 
 the Spey, Don, Dee, Tay, Forth and Tweed rivers. The Spey 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 199 
 
 and Tweed have not the broad estuaries that signalize the Scot- 
 tish rivers. The latter, though generally named among the 
 rivers of Scotland, has the most important part of its course in 
 England, and resembles those of that country in form and 
 general appearance. The length of the Scottish rivers, which 
 flow into the North Sea, has an average of about one hun- 
 dred miles. These lengths are estimated without considering 
 the friths, as the estuaries, which receive the rivers, are called. 
 
 These rivers are valuable on account of their Salmon fisheries. 
 
 • 
 
 The lakes of Scotland are numerous, and of a highly inter- 
 esting nature. They lie chiefly among the highlands, and are 
 walled in by frowning mountain ramparts. As a general thing, 
 their length is many times greater than their breadth, the only 
 exception to this rule being Loch Leven. This is, also, the 
 only lowland lake of any importance. 
 
 The principal lakes are among the Grampian Mountains. 
 Loch Lomond is in a beautiful mountain glen, terminated on the 
 north by the misty brow of Ben Lomond. This is the largest 
 and most interesting lake in Great Britain. Its waters are dis- 
 charged into the Frith of Clyde, through the Leven River. 
 Several fine ruins are found on the shores of this '- Queen of the 
 Scottish Lakes ;" and steamers are in constant demand for the 
 accommodation of tourists. Lochs Ness, Oich and Lochy, have 
 been made useful in the construction of the Caledonian Canal, 
 which reaches entirely across Scotland, connecting the Atlantic 
 Ocean with the North Sea, 
 
 Another series of lakes embraces lochs Tay, Earn, Rannoch, 
 Katrine and Archray. Of these. Loch Katrine is the most 
 famous. It is inclosed by lofty mountains, and wooded ravines ; 
 and is fed by mountain torrents. Sir Walter Scott's description 
 of this loch in " The Lady of the Lake," first drew public atten- 
 tion to this region. 
 
 Loch Leven, as before mentioned, is the only lowland lake of 
 any prominence. Its surface is dotted with numerous pictur- 
 esque islands, one of which has rendered the lake famous^ It 
 contains Loch Leven Castle, in which Mary, Queen of Scotts, 
 
200 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 was confined and compelled to sign her abdication of the Scot- 
 tish throne. (See History of Scotland.) Loch Leven dis- 
 charges its waters into the Frith of the Forth, through the 
 Leven River. 
 
 The name Loch Leven is also applied to a highland lake, 
 which lies at the foot of Ben Nevis, and discharges its waters 
 into the inlet of the Atlantic Ocean, called Loch Linnhe. Its 
 scenery is wild and picturesque. South of this lake, is the Vale 
 of Glencoe. A scene of gloomy sublimity prevades this portion 
 of the highlands. It is swept by Ossian's ■ " dark torrent of 
 Cona ;" and is memorable as having been the scene of the 
 massacre of the McDonalds, in 1692. 
 
 Climate. The temperature of Scotland is favorable to a 
 vigorous development of animal life. The atmosphere is soft 
 and mild in the south and west. Among the Highlands, the 
 climate is severe, but healthy. The eastern coast is exposed 
 to chilling winds, which pass across the North Sea from the 
 continent. 
 
 Soil and Productions. Only about one-third of the surface 
 of Scotland can be made available for agricultural purposes. 
 The cultivated lands are confined almost exclusively to the low- 
 land region, already described. Crops of oats and turnips are 
 produced in the borders of the highlands, and even in the heart 
 of this mountainous district, and are used in fattening live stock. 
 Portions of the highlands are also converted into deer forests, 
 which remunerate the proprietors most liberally. In the fertile 
 districts of Scotland, the art of farming is carried to the highest 
 degree of perfection. 
 
 Manufactures. Scotland is largely engaged in manufac- 
 tures. The narrowness of the country, and the high mountains 
 which pass through it, have a tendency to cause the rivers to 
 flow rapidly, especially in the upper part of their courses. The 
 chief seats of manufacture are Aberdeen, Stirling, Kilmarnock, 
 Dundee and Dumfermline. The principal articles of manufac- 
 ture are' cotton and woolen goods. Beside these, there are 
 
GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 201 
 
 others which are separately of little importance, but which, 
 when taken together, absorb vast sums of capital. 
 
 Commerce. The commerce of Scotland is of considerable 
 importance. Glasgow is the great commercial emporium, and 
 exports a large portion of the products, not only of Scotland, 
 but also, of Northern Ireland. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Edinburg is the capital. It is pictur- 
 esquely built on the south side of the Frith of the Forth. Three 
 ridges of land run parallel with the water, and on the crest of 
 these ridges, the city is built. The ridges are crossed at right 
 angles by a valley, or hollow, which divides the city into two 
 parts ; one part is called the Old Town, and the other the iSTew 
 Town. 
 
 The principal street in the Old Town, begins at the Holyrood 
 Palace, and rises gradually for a distance of one mile, termina- 
 ting at the massive rock, on which the Edinburg Castle is built. 
 The Holyrood Palace is, the most interesting building. It is 
 comparatively a modern building, no portion of it having been 
 constructed prior to the first quarter of the sixteenth century. 
 Its noble front is flanked by ,circular towers, between which, in 
 the center of the building, is the entrance gate. Mary, Queen of 
 Scots occupied apartments in this palace, previous to her ban- 
 ishment from the throne. The space in front of the palace, is 
 now graced with a statue of Queen Victoria. 
 
 The Edinburg Castle, at the eastern extremity of the street 
 already noticed, has a stern and venerable aspect. It is sur- 
 rounded on all sides by high walls, except on the south, where 
 an antique building rises above the edge of the perpendicular 
 rock. One of the apartments of the Castle contains the Scot- 
 tish Regalia, or ensigns of royalty, which were discovered in 
 1818. On the slope of the elevation, on which the Castle is 
 ■ built, is the building formerly occupied by Ramsay, the poet. 
 
 The General Register House of Scotland, forms a square of 
 two hundred feet, crowned by a dome, fifty feet in diameter. In 
 the area in front oi the building, is an elevated platform sup- 
 porting a Bronze Equestrian Statue of the Duke of Wellington. 
 14 
 
202 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHI OF 
 
 Of the numerous monuments in the citj, that erected to com- 
 memorate the name of Sir Walter Scott, is the most prominent. 
 It is two hundred feet high, and is built in the form of a Greek 
 cross, A statue of Sir Walter, in a sitting posture, is on the 
 platform of the monument, above which the arches cross each 
 other, and form a canopy. 
 
 Next to London, Edinburg has the most excellent literary 
 establishments in Great Britain. 
 
 Glasgow is the largest city, and greatest commercial emporium 
 of Scotland. It is situated in the heart of the lowland region, 
 about midway on the course of the river Clyde. The suburbs 
 of Glasgow extend along the banks of the Clyde for a consid- 
 erable distance. 
 
 The Royal Exchange, built in the Corinthian style, is the 
 finest public building. Its sides are adorned with columns, par- 
 tially embedded in the walls, which give the building a peculiarly 
 rich expression- In front of this building is an Equestrian 
 Statue of the Duke of Wellington. 
 
 The Botanic Garden, covering an area of twenty acres, is 
 partially bounded by the wooded banks of the Kelvin. It id 
 tastily laid out, and is filled with plants and shrubs of every 
 description. It is visited by hundreds for the purpose of recre- 
 ation. The Green is the finest park, and comprises one hun- 
 dred and forty acres of smooth verdant lawn. 
 
 Glasgow is eminently a manufacturing city. Its first appear- 
 ance is impaired by dense columns of smoke, and other mani- 
 festations of manufacturing industry. Cotton, woolen, silk and 
 linen are the chief manufactures. The towns of Blantyre, 
 Lanark, Catrine, and many others for miles around, have com- 
 panies engaged in spinning and weaving, which are employed 
 by Glasgow houses. 
 
 Glasgow is largely engaged in commerce. Its harbor is the 
 recipient of vessels from every part of the world. 
 
 Dundee is a large city, and is celebrated as the birth place of 
 Hector Boece, the historian. It was styled " The Second 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 203 
 
 Geneva"|^cluring the Reformation, for its zeal in behalf of the 
 new faith. 
 
 The other important towns are Paisly, Aberdeen, Perth, 
 Montrose, Dumfries and Stirling. 
 
 Castles and Seats of the Nobility. Scotland, like most 
 other European nations, abounds with castles, replete with the 
 history of former times. Of these, the one at Edinburg has 
 already been noticed. 
 
 But perhaps the first one, in point of interest, is that occupied 
 by Queen Victoria, of Great Britain, as a summer residence. 
 It is known as Balmoral Castle, and is built on the River Dee, 
 in a picturesque highknd region, near the city of Aberdeen. The 
 old castle has recently been extended, and finished in a Scottish 
 style of architecture, by Prince Albert. The main tower of the 
 building is thirty five feet square, and crowned with a turret 
 twenty feet high. 
 
 Stirling contains a castle, the origin of which is unknown. 
 Drummond Castle, now occupied by Lord Willoughby, and 
 Taymouth Castle are of much interest. The latter is in a deep 
 highland valley, drained by the River Tay. 
 
 Ahbotsford, formerly the seat of the celebrated poet and nov- 
 elist. Sir Walter Scott, is in the south-western part of Scotland, 
 on the Tweed. 
 
 ^HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 The authentic history of Scotland begins with Malcolm Ih 
 Prior to the sovereignty of this King, the country is said to have 
 been invaded, and partially subdued by the Norwegians. A 
 combination of Scottish chieftains was finally formed, and the 
 command of their united forces was given to Malcolm. After 
 expelling the invaders, the victor laid claim to the throne of 
 Scotland, and ascended to this position under the title of Mal- 
 colm IL He continued to hold possession of the throne, and 
 at his death, was succeeded by his son, who became King under 
 the title of Malcom III. 
 
204 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 Duncan succeeded his father to the throne. According to 
 various legends, this King was destroyed by iHfacSgiA, Maormor 
 of Moray, one of his subjects, in whose presence he was being 
 entertained. Shakspeare's tragedy of Macbeth, is founded on 
 the strenffth of these traditionary opinions. 
 
 History, however, fails to confirm these traditions. It claims 
 that Macbeth, who was a person of distinction, placed himself 
 at the head of an army of Celts, met Duncan in battle, and, 
 having slain him in fair fight, caused himself to be proclaimed 
 King. Macbeth^ in turn, was defeated and slain by Malcom, 
 son of Duncan, 
 
 Malcom IV. extended his kingdom over the whole of the 
 mainland of Scotland, except a small portion in the north, which 
 was held by the Norwegians. From this period (about 1075) 
 until 1290, little of importance occurred in the history of 
 Scotland. 
 
 At about this time, the direct line of the Scottish Kings was 
 extinguished, and Bruce and Baliol became competitors for the 
 throne. Edward I., of England, was elected by the rival par- 
 ties to adjust the contest. Baliol, being the favored party, was 
 raised to the throne, and proclaimed King. Edward assisted 
 him in establishing his claim, and to him, Baliol consented to 
 hold his kingdom as a vassal. 
 
 Being finally induced to disclaim the authority of Edward, 
 he incurred the displeasure of that monarch, who immediately 
 took measures to regain his power in Scotland. This was the 
 commencement of a series of wars which distracted several of 
 the following reigns. 
 
 Edward invaded Scotland, and in the great battle of Dunbar, 
 defeated Baliol, and carried him captive to England. After 
 this, the troops of Edward were defeated in a series of contests, 
 by the Scotch army, under the command of Sir William Wal- 
 lace. This renowned hero was finally captured, and suffered 
 death at the hands of Edward. 
 
 Robert Bruce, grandson of the rival of Baliol, was success- 
 ful in his wars with Edward, and succeeded in driving the Eng- 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 205 
 
 lish army from the country. After the death of Edward, Bruce 
 defeated the English, under Edward II,, in the famous battle of 
 Bannoclchurn. The reign of Bruce is the most brilliant in the 
 annals of Scottish history. His son, David II., was the last 
 King of Scotland, prior to the rule of the Stuart Family. 
 
 Stuart Family. — From- A. D., 1371, to 1603. Misfortune 
 seems to have marked the family of Stuart as a devoted race. 
 
 James I. was an able and taleted sovereign, and did much to 
 strengthen his kingdom. He was assassinated, however, before 
 his plans for reform were fully established. 
 
 James II., while prolonging the siege of Roxburgh Castle, 
 was killed by the bursting of a cannon ; and James III. was 
 murdered in a hovel. 
 
 James IV. was engaged, during part of his reign, in a war 
 with Henry VIII., of England. His career was terminated at 
 the battle of Flodden, where he was defeated, and perished 
 amid such fearful slaughter, that his body was never after 
 recognized. ■ , 
 
 James V. was distinguished for his talents. During his 
 minority, the regency was administered by his mother. In his 
 seventeenth year, he freed himself from her restraints, and from 
 that of Douglas, Earl of Angus, whom his mother had married, 
 and assumed the responsibility of the King of England. Douglas 
 determined to oppose the right of the King, and for that pur- 
 po-^e obtained assistance from England. James prevailed, how- 
 ever, and banished both Douglas and his mother from the 
 country. 
 
 The reign of James was signalized by the advancement of the 
 cause of Protestantism. It was zealously opposed by Cardinal 
 Beaton, but finally triumphed, and Presbyterianism became the 
 established religion. 
 
 James became involved in a war with England ; and, after 
 a disgraceful defeat of his army, through the mutinous conduct 
 of his noblemen, is said to have died of a broken heart. 
 
206 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 Mary, Queen of Scots, tlien ascended the throne. Her whole 
 life was a tragedy. Prior to her accession to the throne, she 
 had ma^rried the dauphin, who afterward became Francis II., of 
 France. She thus became Queen, for a short time of the most 
 splendid court of Europe, in all the dissipations of which, she 
 had eagerly participated. On her return to Scotland, the con- 
 trast between the rude habits of her native people, and the 
 polish and refinement that she had left behind her, filled her 
 with melancholy ; and she looked upon the Scots with feeUngs 
 of disgust. 
 
 This dislike was heartily reciprocated. In religion, Mary 
 was a bigoted Catholic ; and the Reformation which had now 
 made great progress in Scotland, was not eminent for a mild 
 and peaceable spirit. The Scotch reformers were men of rigid 
 zeal, and condemned all gayety and amusement as sinful. They 
 were as much shocked with the Queen's levities as she was dis- 
 pleased by their austerity. 
 
 After her return to Scotland, she married her cousin, Henry 
 Stuart. He was shortly after murdered, and Mary married the 
 Earl of Bothwell, who is charged with having been guilty of 
 the death of Henry. This excited against her the hatred of the 
 people, and she was, for a long time, imprisoned in Lochleven 
 Castle. She efi"ected her escape from this place, and, going to 
 England, threw herself upon the clemency of Elizabeth. The 
 hatred of Elizabeth towards Mary had been previously aroused, 
 by the latter laying claim to the English throne ; therefore, 
 instead of complying with her petitions, she placed her in con- 
 finement, and finally consigned her to execution. 
 
 James VI. ascended the throne with the Earl of Murray 
 for regent, during his minority. Elizabeth, on the approach of 
 death, nominated James as her successor to the English throne. 
 From the accession of James VI. to the throne of England, in 
 1603, the annals of the two countries become identified, though 
 each retained its independence. The history of Scotland, from 
 this time, will be found upon the pages devoted to the history 
 of Great Britain. 
 
GREAI BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 207 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Outline. Wales is on the western side of England. The 
 Irish Sea is on the north, St. Georges Channel on the west, and 
 Bristol Channel on the South. Wales comprises, besides the 
 main land, the large island of Anglesey, and a number of smaller 
 islands, on the north-western shore. It is divided into North 
 Wales and South Wales, each of which comprise six counties. 
 
 Physical Features. Wales is generally considered in con- 
 nection with England, but its physical character is such as to 
 demand a separate description. The surface is mountainous, 
 especially in North Wales, where Snowdon, the loftiest summit 
 reaches a hight of three thousand five hundred and seventy-one 
 feet. It is traversed by deep valleys, which form the courses of 
 mountain streams. The principal charm of the scenery of Wales 
 is owing to this diversity. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers of Wales are numerous, but small. The 
 Severn has its origin in Wales, but soon passes into England. 
 The Dee has a length of seventy miles, and pours its waters 
 into the broad estuary of the Dee, which communicates with the 
 Irish Sea. Sand bars obstruct the estuary, but the river has 
 important inland communication. 
 
 The other important rivers are the Dovey and Teivy, which 
 empty into St. George's Channel, and Towy, flowing into the 
 Bristol Channel. 
 
 Climate. The climate is severe in the highland districts. 
 On the coast, the air is humid in the extreme. Taken as a 
 whole, the climate is moderate and equable. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil, as a general thing, is 
 below the average fertility. In the vales, or river valleys, how- 
 ever, the land is celebrated for its fertility, particularly in the 
 valleys of the Clwyd and Glamorgan. The latter produces 
 excellent wheat. 
 
 The mineral productions are of great value. Wales has some 
 of the largest coal and iron works in the country. 
 
 Manufactures. The manufactures of Wales are considera- 
 ble for a country of so limited an extent. The manufacture of 
 
208 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 woolen fabrics is generally pursued in the cottages of the peas- 
 antry; The manufacture of cotton employs considerable capi- 
 tal in North Wales. Cotton, linen and silk are also manufac- 
 tured. 
 
 Commerce. The coast of "Wales is dotted with numerous 
 seaports, which are engaged in the export of the mineral pro- 
 ducts, cattle and woolen goods. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Swansea, a large city of South Wales, 
 is extensively engaged in commerce and manufactures. Car- 
 diff, on the estuary of the Severn, is next in size. The other 
 important towns are Pembroke, Carmarthen and Beacon. Car- 
 narvon and Bangor are the largest towns in North Wales. 
 ' Pembroke is engaged in commerce. On a rocky eminence in 
 the vicinity, stands the remains pf a castle of remarkable strength 
 and grandeur. It was founded in the middle of the eleventh 
 century, and was dismantled, after a brave resistance by the 
 Royalists, in 1649. Pembroke is famous as being the birth- 
 place of Henry VII. Aberystwith contains the ruins of an 
 ancient castle, and is a fashionable watering place. 
 
 Harleck is famous for its fine surrounding mountain scenery, 
 and also, for its stately castle, built by Edward I. It was the 
 last fortress in North Wales that held out for Charles I., at the 
 time of the establishment of the commonwealth. 
 
 At Conway (North Wales), the estuary of the Conway River 
 is crossed by a noble tubular suspension bridge, three hundred 
 and twenty-seven feet long. The castle, built by Edward I., is 
 one of the finest feudal fortresses remaining in Britain. 
 
 HISTORY OF WALES. 
 
 Wales was conquered by the Romans, about the same time 
 that the latter subdued the English. The Romans called Wales 
 Britannia Secunda, and did much to improve the appearance of 
 the country. 
 
 After the evacuation by the Romans, the Anglo Saxons, or 
 English, invaded the country. The Welsh struggled bravely 
 against the incursions of their neighbors ; and hostilities were 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 209 
 
 continued between the two countries as late as the reign of Ed- 
 ward^I., of England. That monarch succeeded in subduing the 
 country, and created his oldest son the Prince of Wales. 
 
 Their attempts from this time to throw off the English yoke, 
 only riveted it the more firmly; and Henry VII. completed the 
 incorporation of their country with the English monarchy. 
 
 IRELAND. 
 
 Outline. Ireland is the smallest division of the United 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It is an island, 
 bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean and North Chan- 
 nel, aiid on the east by the North Channel, Irish Sea and St. 
 George's Channel, which separate it from Scotland, England 
 and Wales. On its remaining sides, it is bordered by the Atlan- 
 tic Ocean. It is divided into the four provinces of Ulster, Con- 
 naught, Leinster and Munster. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast is bold and rocky. Ireland 
 is walled in by high mountains, which rise abruptly from the 
 sea, and decrease in elevation towards the interior. The inte- 
 rior is a vast plain, the only mountains which diversify its sur- 
 face, being the Devil's Bit and Shebhbloom Mountains. 
 
 The highest summit of Ireland is Carn Tual, in the south- 
 western part of the province of Munster. It reaches an eleva- 
 tion of three thousand four hundred and four feet. The most 
 important mountains on the coast, are Donegal Mountains, in 
 the north-west, Brandon, in the south-west, Wicklow, in the east 
 and Antrim, in the north. 
 
 The coast beyond the Antrim Mountains, is distinguished' by 
 curious and magnificent basaltic cliffs and caves. The most re- 
 markable rock formation is the celebrated Giant's Causway. It 
 consists of a platform seven hundred feet long and three hundred 
 feet broad, which projects into the sea from the base of a cliff 
 four hundred feet high. The platform contains forty thousand 
 perfectly formed columns, which rise about forty feet above the 
 beach, or strand. Their depth below the water has never been 
 a.scertained, " Popular legend ascribes this stupendous forma- 
 
210 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 tion to the labor of giants, seeking to construct a road across 
 the sea to Scotland." 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The Shannon is the largest river of 
 Ireland, and is scarcely inferior in size to any of Great Britain. 
 It has its origin in a small pond at the base of Cuilcagh Moun- 
 tain, in Ulster. It flows south between Connaught and Lein- 
 ster, and then west through a broad estuary in the north-western 
 part of Munster, into the Atlantic Ocean. Sand bars and rapids 
 obstruct its passage. Yast sums of money have been expended 
 in improving its channel, and in the construction of two canals, 
 which connect the river with the sea at Dublin. The river is 
 navigable for the largest vessels as far as Limerick, and for 
 smaller ships, nearly to its headwaters. The Suck River is its 
 principal western branch. 
 
 The principal rivers flowing into the sea on the south-east are 
 the Blackwater, Suir, Noire and Barrow, the last three pouring 
 their waters through the same outlet into Waterford Harbor. 
 The Boyne is the largest river flowing into the sea on the eastern 
 side of Ireland. 
 
 Ireland contains the largest lake within the United Kingdom. 
 It is called Lough Neagh, and is situated in the north-eastern 
 part of Ulster. Its waters are forty feet deep, and it is drained 
 by the river Bann. The other important lakes are Lough Erne, 
 Lough Corrib and Lough Mask. Lough Ree and Lough Derg 
 are broad expansions of the Shannon River. 
 
 The Lakes of Killarney have not as great areas as those just 
 described, but surpass them in natural scenery. The lower of 
 the three lakes is separated from the middle one by a projecting 
 peninsula, which contains the picturesque remains of Muckruss 
 Abbey. On the southern side of these lakes rise the loftiest 
 mountains, wildest ravines, finest woods and boldest cascades to 
 be found in Ireland. 
 
 Climate. The geographical position of Ireland is favorable 
 for a mild and uniform climate. Deep bays penetrate into the 
 interior, "bringing the whole country into the vicinity of the sea. 
 Western winds pass over the island, abundantly charged with 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 211 
 
 moisture. This is either discharged in rain, or is gathered about 
 the coast in the form of fog. The excessive moisture during 
 the Autumn season, becomes a serious impediment in the opera- 
 tions of harvest. 
 
 Soil and Productions; The soil of Ireland is better 
 adapted to grazing than agriculture. The verdure of the pas- 
 tures is exceedingly rich, and retains its luxuriance to a late 
 period of the year. The broad-leaved myrtle grows luxuriantly 
 in the south ; and plants of southern Earope flourish in different 
 parts of the country. Alpine plants are found among the 
 mountains. 
 
 Manufactures. The rural population of the province of 
 Ulster are engaged in the manufacture of linen, which is dis- 
 posed of at Belfast and other large cities. The value of the 
 linen manufacture, in this province alone, is four million pounds, 
 annually. Three hundred thousand females are employed in 
 working patterns on muslin with the needle. Flour, paper and 
 glass are also manufactured. 
 
 Commerce. The foreign commerce of Ireland is confined to 
 England. It exports live stock, meat, some of its manufactures, 
 and a few of the agricultural products, and receives in return 
 cotton and woolen goods, and groceries. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Dublin is the capital and largest city 
 of Ireland. It is the seat of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland ; 
 and is the centre of all the political, ecclesiastical and educa- 
 tional institutions in the kingdom. 
 
 It is situated on both sides of the Liffey River, and also, on 
 Dublin Bay. It contains Richmond Penitentiary, and the new 
 Courts of Law, erected at a cost of two hundred thousand pounds. 
 The University was founded in 1591, and is attended by two 
 thousand students. 
 
 The Nelson Pillar is a fine Doric column, one hundred and 
 thirty- four feet high, situated in the wealthiest part of the city. 
 In St. Stephen's Green are the Equestrian Statue of George 
 II., and Bronze Statue of William III. 
 
212 ;)ESCRIPTIVE GEOGEAPHY OF 
 
 The Phoenix Park is a fine open space at the western extrem- 
 ity of the city. It contains the Wellington Testimonial, an 
 immense obelisk erected at a cost of twenty thousand pounds, 
 and a fine Zoological Garden. 
 
 The Dubliri Castle is an edifice of difi'erent ages, containing, 
 among other apartments, those devoted to the Lord Lieutenant 
 of Ireland. Dublin is largely engaged in commerce, and has 
 considerable capital invested in manufactures. 
 
 Next to Dublin, Drogheda is the largest city of Leinster. It 
 was stormed by Cromwell in 1649, and its garrison were put to 
 the sword. In 1690, it resisted the invasion of King William's 
 army. Near the city was fought the famous " Battle of the 
 Boyne." Drogheda is rich in manufactures. 
 
 Kilkenny is, also, in Leinster, and is next in size to Drogheda. 
 The chief building is the Cathedral of St. Canice or Kenny, one 
 of the oldest pieces of architecture in the city. The Kilkenny 
 College is rendered famous for having been frequented by such 
 distinguished characters as Swift, Congreve, Farquhar and 
 Bishop Berkeley. Near the College, and situated on the banks 
 of the Noire, is the Kilkenny Castle, an antique building, over- 
 run with ivy. Kilkenny holds a conspicuous place in Irish his- 
 tory. It was here that the Irish Parliament assembled, prior to 
 the English conquest- 
 Belfast is the largest city in Ulster. It is second in popula- 
 tion in Ireland, and is reputed to be first in commercial pros- 
 perity. Londonderry and Dundalk are the other important 
 towns of Ulster. 
 
 Cork is the largest city of Munster, and is third in Ireland. 
 The population are chiefly Roman Catholics. The other im- 
 portant towns are Limerick and Waterford. 
 
 Galway and Sligo are the most importar.t towns of Connaught. 
 
 HISTORY OF IRELAND. 
 
 No portion of Irish history appears to be authentic until the 
 middle of the fifth century, when Christianity was introduced 
 bj; St. Patrick. A very remote antiquity is claimed by difi"er- 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 213 
 
 ent Irish writers. A species of Parliament was organized about 
 900 B. C, by Ollav Fola, who was then king. Another attempt 
 was made to enrich the civil interests of the kingdom by Kim- 
 lath, who reigned in 460 B. C. ^ 
 
 Sugony the G-reat divided Ireland into twenty-five provinces, 
 distributing one to each of his twenty-five sons, Crimthan, a 
 subsequent king, united with the Picts in a war against the 
 Romans. 
 
 Till the time of the conquest by Henry II., of England, Ire- 
 land was a scene of conflicts between petty kings and 'chiefs. 
 That monarch portioned the kingdom out among his Anglo- 
 Norman followers ; and the English customs were more fully 
 introduced by John. But the rule of the English sovereigns 
 was fiercely contested as late as the accession of James 1. At 
 length, a few weeks before the death of Elizabeth, the conquest, 
 which had been begun more than four hundred years before by 
 Strongbow, was completed by Mountjoy. "Scarcely had James 
 the First mounted the English throne, when the last O'Donnell 
 and O'Neill who have held the rank of independent princes 
 kissed his hand at Whitehall. Thenceforward his writs ran and 
 his judges held assizes in every part of Ireland; and the Eng- 
 lish law superseded the customs which had prevailed among the 
 aboriginal tribes." 
 
 Prior to the complete triumph of the English (1315), Edward 
 Bruce, of Scotland, invaded the country, and assumed the title 
 of king. He was defeated by the English, however, and with 
 six thousand of his Scots, was slain. The insurrections that 
 followed in Ireland, will be considered in connection with the 
 history of Great Britain. 
 
 THE SMALLER BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 The most important of the smaller islands included within the 
 Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, are the Isle of Wight, 
 on the southern coast of England, Anglesey Island, on the north- 
 western coast of Wales, and the Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea. 
 The western and northern coasts of Scotland are lined by a 
 
214 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 multitude of islands, of which the Orkney, Shetland and Heb- 
 rides groups are the most important. 
 
 The Orhney Islands were visited by the Romans at about the 
 time when England was subdued by Agricola. They were in the 
 possession of Norway during the Middle Ages, but were annexed 
 to the Scottish crown in the latter part of the sixteenth century. 
 
 The shores of the islands are sometimes low and sandy, and 
 in other cases rise in perpendicular cliffs. The greatest eleva- 
 tion is in the Isle of Hoy, where the land reaches a hight of 
 sixteen hundred feet. This is the only island that is mountain- 
 ous. Many of the others have ranges of hills, but these are 
 comparatively low. 
 
 Twenty-seven of the islands are inhabited, and the population 
 are engaged in farming, fishing and hunting. One hundred 
 thousand lobsters are annually shipped to the London market ; 
 and fifty thousand sheep find pasturage on the hills and common 
 moors. Kirkwall is the chief town. 
 
 The Shetland Islands, with the Orkneys, from which they are 
 fifty miles north-east, form a county. They are generally bold 
 and high on the coast, and low in the interior. The highest 
 elevation in the interior is in the northern part of Mainland, 
 reaching a hight of fourteen hundred feet. The surface, how- 
 ever, is wild and rugged, and but for the absence of trees, would 
 present scenery of the grandest description. The shores present 
 clifis broken in rough and fantastic forms. During the frosts 
 and snows of winter, the Aurora Borealis is brilliant beyond 
 description. This season, however, is of short duration. 
 
 The people are chiefly of Norwegian descent, and, in condition 
 and education, surpass the inhabitants of the northern parts of 
 Scotland. Agriculture has been but little extended, though 
 oats, potatoes and turnips are successfully cultivated. Articles 
 of a domestic nature are manufactured. The cod fisheries are 
 highly important, employing large numbers of the population. 
 
 The Hebrides Islands are on the western coast of Scotland. 
 This is the most extensive continuous group of the smaller 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ' 215 
 
 "British Isles, and is commonly divided into Outer and Inner 
 Hebrides., 
 
 Only a small part of the area of these islands is available for 
 agriculture. A large portion of the islands affords rich pastur- 
 age. Of the one hundred and fifty islands in the group, fifty 
 are inhabited. 
 
 In remote times the Hebrides belonged to Norway. In 1264, 
 the fell to the crown of Scotland, and were held as vassals by 
 native chieftains. In 1346, they fell into the hands of a single 
 chief, who assumed the title of the " Lord of the Isles," and 
 ignored the authority of his sovereign. In 1748, hereditary 
 jurisdiction was abolished, and these islands thereby secured the 
 peace and safety insured by a wise and powerful government. 
 
 The Isle of Staff a is less remarkable for extent than for its 
 curious construction. It is one of the Hebrides group, and is 
 celebrated for its caves, which have the appearance of artificial 
 designs. Of these, the most renowned is Fingal's Cave. The 
 sides of this cave, at the entrance, consist of columns of rock, 
 which support a lofty arched roof, sixty feet high. Other objects 
 of interest in this island are the Clam Shell Cave and Bending 
 Pillars. 
 
 The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. It is traversed through 
 its entire length by mountains. The highest peak is Snowfield, 
 which reaches an elevation of two thousand feet. It contains 
 lead mines, and veins of iron, copper and zinc. The valleys 
 are fertile, and some grain is produced. 
 
 The original inhabitants of the Isle of Man formed a tribe of 
 the Celtic race. Previous to its purchase by the British crown, 
 it was held as a feudal sovereignty to the Earls of Derby, and 
 later to the Dukes of Athol. 
 
 Anglesey's Island is in the Irish Sea. It is separated from 
 Wales, on the north-west, by Menai Strait. The land is gener- 
 ally level, and supports but a scanty growth of timber. The 
 Menai Strait is crossed by a magnificent suspension bridge, one 
 hundred feet high. The copper mines of this island, until 
 
216 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 about the year 1809, were the most productive in the kingdom, 
 but since that period have steadily declined. 
 
 The Isle of Wight is one of the most beautiful portions of 
 Great Britain. It is south of England, from which it is sepa- 
 rated by a narrow channel. Some parts of it are extremely 
 fertile ; and the amount of grain produced exceeds the home 
 demand. 
 
 The southern shore of the island contains abrupt cliffs, and 
 deep ravines, forming scenery of the finest description. The 
 highest land is eight hundred and thirty feet above the sea. 
 Forty thousand fine-fleeced sheep are reared in the higher por- 
 tions of the island. 
 
 Newport is the capital. Yarmouth, Cowes, Ryde and Vent- 
 nor are the most important towns. Ventnor is a fashionable 
 summer resort. Near Cowes is the Osborn House, which is a 
 favorite residence of the royal family. 
 
 HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 The history of Great Britain as a United Kingdom, commen- 
 ces with the accession of James YI., of Scotland, to the throne 
 of England, under the title of James I. Prior to this time, 
 Scotland had its own king and parliament, and was entirely free 
 and independent of England. The numerous attempts to secure 
 the crowD of Scotland by force ,of arms, were bravely resisted. 
 The Scots were renowned for heroism, and in their wars with the 
 English, they fully displayed their heroic qualities. 
 
 The Scots were, also, noted for intelligence. Their country 
 was rugged and one of the most unfavored in Christentlom, and 
 their manners were coarse and rude, but the genius of the popu- 
 lation was displayed in the advancement of science, in persever- 
 ance, forethought and self-command. And when the crowns of 
 England and Scotland were united, instead of bowing to the 
 force of the English arms, Scotland furnished the king, which 
 was to rule the common nation. 
 
 The Irish, on the contrary, though endowed with intelligence, 
 were wanting in the energy and heroism which characterized the 
 
aREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 217 
 
 Scots. They fought stubbornly with the English soldiers for 
 centuries, but do not seem to have entered fully into the spirit 
 of the contest. And while Scotland held independent tribunals 
 and parliaments, and retained her chosen constitution and laws, 
 Ireland was governed with all the vigor of a rebellious vassal, 
 subdued by the power of the sword. 
 
 But in another respect of a more prominent nature, there was 
 a wide difference between the annexed kingdoms. Scotland, as 
 a result of her superior intelligence, had more readily imbibed 
 the principles of the Reformation, and outstripped even Eng- 
 land in its enthusiasm for the new religion. The Irish received 
 Protestantism only as it was forced upon them. They, of all 
 the nations of Northern Europe, remained faithful to the religion 
 of Rome ; and no legitimate means were adopted by England to 
 establish the new doctrine. This difference in religion was the 
 prime cause of the last Irish struggle, which resulted in their 
 final subjugation. By Elizabeth the Protestant religion was 
 established on a basis, from which it could never afterwards be 
 shaken. 
 
 The Stuart Family. — From 1603 to 1714. The accession 
 of James I. was hailed with acclamation by all classes of Great 
 Britain. The Catholics, who expected favor from the king, 
 were so enraged because he determined to enforce the laws 
 enacted against them, that they resolved to accomplish his de- 
 struction. A bold and atrocious plot was conceived, by which 
 it was hoped to involve both king and parliament in a common 
 ruin. Thirty-six barrels of gun powder were placed in a vault 
 beneath the House of Lords, and Cfuido Fawkes, a Spanish 
 fanatic, was elected to fire the train. But, happily, the plot was 
 discovered before its accomplishment, and the conspirators were 
 secured and executed. 
 
 The Puritans were a class of people who advocated greater 
 reforms in religion, and greater freedom in the state. In the 
 reign of Mary, they had been persecuted, and driven to the Con- 
 tinent. They returned in the reign of James, but being disap- 
 . 15 
 
218 DESCRIPTIVE aEOGRAPHT OF 
 
 pointed in receiving protection from him, they resolved to embark 
 for America. It was thus that the band of Pilgrims, whc 
 founded the Plymouth Colony (Massachusetts), were induced tc 
 brave the perils of the ocean, and the dangers of an unknown 
 land, and who were destined, in the good providence of God, to 
 germinate into a mighty nation. 
 
 Oharles I. ascended the throne in his twenty-fifth year. Like 
 his father, he was governed by unworthy favorites, and surren- 
 dered himself to the control of the Duke of Buckingham. The 
 imperative and grasping disposition of the latter had made him 
 an object of universal dislike; consequently, Charles became 
 unpopular in making Buckingham his counsellor. Through his 
 influence, Charles was plunged into a war with France, the 
 results of which were very unfortunate. Buckingham, who had 
 the command of the English army, was assassinated ; and the 
 expedition, which was ill-planned and unskilfully managed, 
 failed in the accomplishment of its object. 
 
 And now a fierce struggle between the king and the House of 
 Commons drew on ; a struggle which was not only to exhaust 
 the resources of the country, and drench the kingdom in blood, 
 but which was, also, to interrupt the legitimate line of kings, 
 and subject Great Britain to usurped authority. Strafi"ord and 
 Laud were received into the confidence of Charles after the fall 
 of Buckingham. These were men of great talents, but, like the 
 king himself, their political opinions were better adapted for the 
 early condition of England, than for the dictation of a kingdom 
 upon which the light of freedom was dawning. 
 
 The first year of Charles' reign was spent in endeavoring to 
 extend his authority, and by the Commons in trying to curb it. 
 Angered by opposition, Charles dissolved the parliament, and 
 summoned a ne^v one. This was the beginning of hostilities 
 between the king and the House of Commons. 
 
 A war -with Scotland finally ensued, in which the English 
 army again was unsuccessful. The resources of the king had 
 all along been on the decline, and, for the fourth time, he was 
 again compelled to call a new parliament. The defeat of Charles 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 219 
 
 in Scotland had in no way tended to soften the resentment of 
 the Commons, and their first measure on assembling was to im- 
 peach Strafford. Attached as strongly as Charles was to his 
 first counsellor, he dared not act in opposition, and finally, after 
 an injunction from Strafford to no longer defer his assent, he 
 made the sacrifice to the public outcry, although his conscience 
 could not commend the act. 
 
 Matters now became so turbulent that the king, with his sons 
 Charles and James, retired to York, whither he was followed by 
 the nobility of the kingdom. 
 
 The Puritans joined the followers of Parliament, and, out of 
 contempt, the whole were styled roundheads, by the E,oyalists. 
 The latter in turn were called cavaliers and malignants. Each 
 party was anxious for the other to strike the first blow. Finally, 
 Sir John Hotham having refused the king entrance to the town 
 of Hull, the latter was constrained to assert his authority, and 
 the royal standard was erected on August 20th, 1642, at Not- 
 tingham. 
 
 The war was now prosecuted with vigor. In the :6rst engage 
 ment the royal troops, headed by Prince Rupert, bore down all 
 opposition, but the forces of parliament rallied, and victory was 
 pronounced in their favor. Charles lost one stronghold after 
 another, and finally abandoned his shattered army and fled to 
 Wales, and afterwards to Oxford. Finding his - authority as 
 king hopelessly destroyed, and dreading the triumph of parlia- 
 ment, he resolved to go to Scotland, and throw himself upon the 
 clemency of his native people. 
 
 This unfortunate step accomplished his ruin. Charles had 
 previously tried to introduce the liturgy of the English Church 
 into the Scottish form of worship, an act which inflamed the 
 Scots against him, and led to the spirited contest already men- 
 tioned. The Scots, therefore, instead of granting the protec- 
 tion which he craved, delivered him up to the parliament for the 
 sum of four hundred thousand pounds, and Charles was con- 
 veyed to one of his royal residences at Holmby. 
 
 Cromwell, who had acted an important part in the ranks of 
 Parliament, sent a body of soldiers to Holmby, and had the king 
 
220 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 brought by force to the headquarters of the army. Charles was 
 now impeached for high treason for daring to appear in arms 
 against the Parliament, and sentenced to execution. This was 
 the work of a comparatively few men, the mass of the people 
 condemning the violence of Parliament. 
 
 Charles spent his last few days in solemn preparation for 
 death. Calmly mounting the scaffold, he declared himself inno- 
 cent towards his people, but felt himself guilty in the sight of 
 God. A masked executioner struck off his head with an axe, 
 but his exclamation, " This is the head of a traitor !" did not 
 meet with an answering response in the feelings of the mass of 
 spectators. 
 
 The affairs of Great Britain were now, for a time, to be con- 
 trolled by Parliament. The House of Peers was disorganized 
 because it was found dangerous to the prosperity of the new 
 form of government. 
 
 The Scots were opposed to the dethronement of monarchy, 
 and now invited Prince Charles, the late king's son, to be their 
 sovereign. Parliament immediately formed a combination 
 against him, and sent Cromwell into Scotland at the head of an 
 army. Charles was defeated, and for several weeks was obliged 
 to hide himself in the woods, before he found an opportunity of 
 escaping to France. 
 
 Difficulties arising in Ireland, Cromwell was despatched as 
 Lord Lieutenant to that country. He soon restored tranquility, 
 and returning to England, left General Ireton, his son in-law, 
 as deputy. Great Britain also carried on a successful naval 
 warfare with Holland. 
 
 But now the era of CromwelVs power began to dawn. Since 
 the execution of the King, and even previously, Cromwell had 
 been growing in power, and now he felt it high time that the 
 Parliament was dissolved, and that he was more fully invested 
 with governmental authority. Accordingly, when Parliament 
 was in session, he approached the place of their assembly, and, 
 leaving his soldiers without, entered alone in their midst. "You 
 are no longer a Parliament," said he, " the Lord has done with 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 221 
 
 you." The soldiers tlien entered, the members were all driven 
 out, and the doors were locked. 
 
 The Parliament thus dissolved, was called the Long Parlia- 
 ment. Cromwell summoned a new Parliament, composed of 
 men deeply imbued with the fanaticism of the times. It was 
 called the Little Parliament, and sometimes Barhones Parlia- 
 ment, from one of the chief orators, who was generally known 
 as Praise Crod Barehone. 
 
 Cromwell's administration was respected at home and abroad. 
 He obtained the title of Protector, and the protectorship was 
 not only confirmed to him for life, but he also obtained the priv- 
 ilege of choosing his successor. Jamaica, which is still in 
 possession of the British, was wrested from the Spaniards, 
 because they endeaved to interrupt the commerce of England 
 with Spanish America. Ireland was ruled with vigor, and 
 Henry, Cromwell's son, superseded Ireton as deputy of that 
 country. Henry was a good man, and was possessed of great 
 talent and ability. Sympathy for the condition of the Irish, 
 induced him to devote himself to the improvement of their 
 country, and he was by them loved and respected. 
 
 Cromwell left his son Richard as his successor, Henry being 
 too virtuous to follow in his father's footsteps. But the differ- 
 ence between the strong arm of Oliver Cromwell and the inability 
 of his son, was so marked that the nation was not disposed to 
 acknowledge his authority, and Richard quietly retired from a 
 position which he felt unable to fill. 
 
 The Stuarts were restored in Charles LI., who had fled to 
 France after his defeat by Cromwell. On his accession to the 
 throne, he caused the chief enemies of his father, who were yet 
 alive, to be executed. At first he chose wise and able counselors 
 and the nation was well-pleased with their King. But he was 
 naturally indolent and prodigal, and his chief men being a con- 
 stant reproof to his dissolute conduct, were gradually superseded 
 by his vicious associates. 
 
 Charles became involved in a war with Holland. The fiercest 
 part of the contest took place on the sea, where the English had 
 
222 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OB 
 
 to contend with Be Ruyter and Van Tromp, son of the great 
 Van Tromp * In one of the hottest of these encounters, where 
 the English were victorious, De Ruyter, mortified in being 
 obliged to fly, was heard a number of times to exclaim, " 
 God, among so many thousand bullets, is there not one to put 
 an end to my miserable life !" The English were commanded 
 by James, Duke of York, Prince Rupert and Monk, and soon 
 made themselves masters of the sea. 
 
 The great London Plague occurred during the reign of Charles, 
 Ninety thousand persons were victims of this dreadful malady, 
 and before the people had recovered from this shock, a fire broke 
 out which consumed thirteen thousand buildings. 
 
 The Duke of York succeeded his brother to the throne, in 
 1685, under the title of James II. His reign consisted of a 
 disgusting series of attempts to abolish the Protestant religion, 
 and introduce the Catholic faith in England. After a short 
 reign of four years he was compelled to abdicate, ]and William, 
 Prince of Orange, who had married Mary, the eldest daughter 
 of James, was raised to the throne. 
 
 William III, on ascending the throne, was immediately 
 involved in a war with Ireland. After James was banished from 
 the throne, he embarked for France, and, from thence proceeded 
 to Ireland, where he was greeted with the acclamations of the 
 people. He soon found himself at the head of a numerous army, 
 with which he advanced upon Londonderry. Failing in his 
 attempt to dismantle this stronghold, he withdrew his troops, 
 and on the banks of the Boyne, met the army of King "William. 
 Both parties were inflamed with all the violence caused by a dif- 
 ference in religion, animosity and revenge. The battle that 
 ensued (" Battle of Boyne") was fought with unusual vigor, and 
 resulted in a severe defeat for James. The last stand made by 
 the Catholics was at Limerick, and here they were obhged to 
 yield to the sceptre of William. 
 
 * Van Tromp was a celebrated Dutch Admiral, who rose from obscurity 
 and became Lieutenaut-Admiral of the Dutch fleet. He was born in 1597, and 
 was killed during an engagement with the British, in 1653. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 223 
 
 William was constantly at war with France, and to sustain 
 these wars, Great Britain incurred debts, which she has never 
 been able to discharge. 
 
 Queen AnJie, second daughter of James II., was the last rep- 
 resentative of the Stuart family. She ascended the throne, on 
 the death of William, to the general satisfaction of the nation. 
 She immediately declared war against France, and the Dutch 
 and German Kings did likewise on the same day. The object 
 of this combination was to check the rising power of Louis XIY. 
 The allied armies, under the command of the Duke of Marl- 
 borough, were successful, and the fortunes of Louis were changed. 
 The memorable victories of this war, however, . were of little 
 consequence to Great Britain. 
 
 An important event of this reign was the capture of Gibralter^ 
 by Sir George Rooke. The full value of this conquest was not 
 appreciated at the time, and little honor was attached to Sir 
 George for this acquisition. Succeeding years, however, have 
 discovered its importance. The British have ever since retained 
 possession of Gibralter, and it has proved of the utmost use in 
 protecting their commerce in the Mediterranean, and in refitting 
 that part of their navy employed to annoy an enemy. In this 
 reign occurred the constitutional union between England and 
 Scotland. 
 
 House of Brunswick. George, Elector of Hanover, ascended 
 the throne of England in 1714, under the title of George L The 
 principal events of his reign were the strife between the Tories 
 and Whigs, and the South Sea Scheme. The Tories were in 
 favor of passive submission to royal authority. The Whigs 
 were advocates of greater freedom among the people. In the 
 reign of Anne, the Tories were in favor, but George supported 
 the Whigs. He was so severe in his measures against the Tories, 
 that they united with the Jacobites, of Scotland, and proclaimed 
 Prince James, the Pretender, son of James II., king of Great 
 Britain. The Pretender landed in Scotland, placed himself at 
 the head of what force he could command, and appointed the 
 day that should witness his coronation. But his movements 
 
224 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY OF 
 
 ■were premature, for, before the day arrived, he was so closely 
 pursued by the Duke of Argyle, who had been appointed to the 
 command of the royal troops in Scotland, that he was glad of 
 an opportunity to escape to France. 
 
 The South Sea Scheme was formed by a combination of per- 
 sons, called the South Sea Company, whose professed object was 
 to buy the national debts, and include them in one fund. Hun- 
 dreds advanced large sums of money at a high rate of interest, 
 before the operation was discovered to be fraudulent. 
 
 Greorge II. was distinguished for his military genius. During 
 his reign. Great Britain was involved in the war of the Austrian 
 Succession^ the object of which was to confirm the claims of 
 Maria Theresa to the throne of France. 
 
 The Stuart family now made a last effort to regain the throne 
 of their ancestors. During the absence of the king on the con- 
 tinent, Oharles^ son of the Pretender, after an ineffectual attempt 
 to invade England from the south, landed in Scotland, and was 
 soon joined by a numerous army of Scotch Highlanders, and 
 other friends of the Stuarts. He soon subdued nearly all of 
 Scotland, and then marched into England. 
 
 The consternation in England at this time was great. The 
 king was absent, and the young Pretender was within a few 
 days march of London. People in the city fled to the country, 
 and those in the country fled to the city, all thinking the place 
 they were in the place of danger. But the fate of the Stuarts 
 was decided at Qulloden, in Scotland, where Charles was de- 
 feated. A-fter a variety of adventures in the highlands, the 
 Pretender escaped to France. 
 
 The French and Indian War, between the English and French 
 in America, now in progress, was terminated by the capture of 
 Quebec by the British General Wolfe, 
 
 Greorge III, who was grandson of the late king, had the 
 longest reign in English history. During all this time Great 
 Britain was engaged in wars of a most eventful nature. Oppres- 
 sion had induced the British American colonists to declare their 
 
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 225 
 
 independence, and this was finally achieved, after a determined 
 struggle with the British arms. 
 
 England was now involved in the French Revolution. During 
 a portion of this period (25 years), Great Britain was opposed 
 by all Europe. Finally a combination was formed, including 
 Crreat Britain, the object of which was to restrain the growth of 
 democratic principles, and prevent the extension of French au- 
 thority. In this object the allies were finally successful, and 
 Napoleon Bonaparte was obliged to yield to the sword of the 
 renowned English hero, Wellington. 
 
 G-eorge IV. succeeded his father to the throne, in 1820. 
 During this reign a combination of the powers of England, 
 France and Russia was formed, the object of which was to estab- 
 lish the independence of the Greeks. For this, Greece had long 
 been struggling with Turkey, and through the assistance of this 
 combination, her freedom was confirmed. 
 
 After the triumph of Protestantism in England, an edict, 
 called the Corporation or Test Act, denied to Catholics the right 
 to fill corporate offices. This act was now repealed ; and the 
 Catholic Emancipation which followed, renewed the Catholics 
 in that freedom which the Reformation had destroyed. 
 
 William IV., Duke of Clarence, succeeded his brother to the 
 throne. The first part of this reign was occupied in attempts 
 to introduce reforms in the House of Commons, with respect to 
 the representation of the people in that body. Two reform bills 
 were rejected, but a third, after a violent debate, was carried 
 through both houses, and became an established law. The 
 House of Commons was now enabled to represent the people 
 more directly. The first Parliament that assembled after the 
 enaction of the Reform Bill, declared slavery henceforth abol- 
 ished in Great Britain. Twenty million pounds were paid the 
 slave owners for the ransom of the slaves. 
 
 Victoria, the present incumbent of the throne, was crowned 
 in 1837. The chief wars that have disturbed this reign, are 
 those with China, India and Russia. During this reign, Scotland 
 has undergone a religious contest. A portion of the population 
 
226 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
 demanded the right to choose their own ministers, and^^meeting 
 with much opposition, large numbers of the clergy withdrew 
 themselves from the Established Church, and now form the Free 
 Church of Scotland. 
 
 Although, according to Sir Henry Hardinge, five-sixths of 
 the property of Ireland was Protestant, and five-sixths of the 
 population were Catholic, yet the established Church of Eng- 
 land was still fastened upon that country. The Catholic clergy 
 were obliged by law to observe the forms and ceremonies of the 
 English Church, but in 1868, Gladstone, high minister of Eng- 
 land, caused this law to be repealed. Subsequently the passage 
 of the Irish Land Reform Bill was secured. 
 
CHAPTEK XVII. 
 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 Outline. Holland is a small but powerful kingdom, border- 
 ing on tbe North Sea, wbich forms its northern and western 
 boundary. It is bounded on the east by Prussia and Germany, 
 and on the south by Belgium. Its form is rendered irregular 
 by numerous seas and bays which indent its coast. The most 
 important of these is the Zuyder Zee, which was formed by an 
 irruption of the sea in the early part of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Physical Features. Holland is an extremely low country. 
 In some places the land is so low that embankments, or dykes, 
 are formed to prevent the waters of the sea from overflowing the 
 land. The lowest portions are those which spread out on both 
 sides of the Rhine, and it is supposed that this region has more 
 recently emerged from the sea, than the surrounding country. 
 
 There are no rocks or mountains in Holland to relieve the 
 monotony of the lowlands. In the province of Utrecht and 
 northward, is a range of low, sandy hills ; and on the coast are 
 similar elevations. 
 
 Rivers, Bays and Canals. The Rhine enters Holland and 
 Prussia, and, crossing the southern part of the country, empties 
 into the North Sea through several mouths. Little of the beauty 
 which marks the early course of the Rhine, is manifested in Hol- 
 land. Its channels are sluggish and winding, and represent 
 but poorly the magnitude of the river above. The other most 
 important river is the Meuse, which unites with the main branch 
 of the Rhine. 
 
 Of the border seas, or bays, Zuyder Zee has already been 
 represented as having been formed by the breaking inland of 
 the sea. The Bollart Zee, on the northern side of Holland, pen- 
 
228 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY^! 
 
 etrates inland two miles, and was formed by a destructive inun- 
 dation in 1276. The Lauwer Zee also owes its existence to an 
 irruption of tlie ocean. 
 
 Those portions of the surface of Holland which are not sandy 
 wastes, or dykes, are either marsh, river or canal. The work 
 of reclaiming waste land is constantly going on, ninety lakes 
 having been drained in South Holland alone. The drainage of 
 the Sea of Haarlem consumed thirteen years. 
 
 The canals of Holland form a perfect network, many of the 
 cities being literally lined with them. They cross the country 
 in every direction, and are used instead of roads as routes of 
 travel. In winter, when they are frozen over, the people travel 
 on them, from one place to another, in sleighs and on skates. 
 The North Holland Canal was four years in being constructed, 
 and receives vessels of the largest size from Amsterdam to 
 H elder. 
 
 Climate. The climate is disagreeable. This is owing to its 
 vicinity to the sea, and the swampy lowlands, which form a 
 conspicuous feature of the surface. Dense fogs hang over the 
 coast, which render the air excessively humid ; and disagreeable 
 winds sweep over the country from the north-west and south- 
 west. There are scarcely more than forty days of the year when 
 the sky is not overcast or troubled. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is moderately fertile. 
 Wheat thrives in some parts of South Holland. Rye, oats, 
 buckwheat and flax are common products. Much time and 
 ^ attention is devoted to gardening. The garden seeds of Holland 
 form an article of export, being generally preferred to those of 
 any other country. Large numbers of horses and cattle are 
 raised ; and butter and cheese of the best quality are produced. 
 
 Manufactures. Holland is famous for its industry. Less 
 attention is devoted to manufactures than commerce; neverthe- 
 less the former is successfully pursued. Haarlem is noted for its 
 linen manufactures, and Zaardam for its paper-mills. Leyden 
 and Uetrecht are engaged in the manufacture of woolen goods, 
 and the latter city has manufactures of silk velvet. 
 
OF HOLLAND. 229 
 
 Commerce. Holland is second to no other country, of the 
 same size, in the growth and importance of commerce. The 
 occupations of the Dutch were early directed to commercial 
 pursuits, the natural position of the country favoring this branch 
 of industry. The foreign commerce of Holland extends over all 
 the world' — to the United States, Brazil and East Indies. The 
 value of the manufactured goods which are exported, amounts to 
 fifty millions of dollars annually. The internal trade carried 
 on by means of canals, is also of great importance. 
 
 Cities and Towns. The Hague, one of the finest cities in 
 Europe, is the capital. It is surrounded by a moat, which is 
 crossed by drawbridges, and is intersected by a number of canals. 
 It contains the Castle of Ryswick, where the memorable treaty 
 of 1697 was signed. The Hague was the birthplace of William 
 III., of England, and contains a fine monument which has been 
 erected to his memory. 
 
 Amsterdam is the largest city. The land upon which it is 
 built is soft and wet, and the buildings have their foundations 
 VL^on piles, which are imbedded in a layer of sand at a depth of 
 fifty feet. Amsterdam is largely engaged in commerce and 
 manufactures. It has excellent water communication with every 
 portion of Holland. 
 
 The other important towns are Rotterdam, Utrecht, Leyden 
 and Groningen. 
 
 History. In the sixth century the early inhabitants of Hol- 
 land were subdued by the Franks, and during the ninth century, 
 their country was included in the great empire of Charlemagne. 
 In harmony with the feudal spirit of' the age, the country was 
 soon after divided into numerous sovereignties, and the authority 
 was invested in as many rulers. 
 
 Flanders "Was the most noted of these principalities, and when 
 its estates passed, by matrimonial alliance, to the House of Bur- 
 gundy, the chief authority of the other divisions passed in like 
 manner. This authority was finally transferred to the House 
 of Austria, and the chief sovereignty was inherited by Charles 
 Y. Enraged at the attempt of Philip 11., sop of Charles, to 
 
230 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 introduce the Inquisition among them, a number of the states 
 banded together, achieved their independence, and now compre- 
 hend the Kingdom of Holland. 
 
 A period of commercial prosperity followed. William of 
 Nassau^ Prince of Orange, was made king. The Molucca 
 Islands were secured; and the spice trade was monopolized. 
 Nearly half the shipping of Europe was in the possession of the 
 Butch at the opening of the 18th century. 
 
 Louis XIV., of France, invaded Holland with one hundred 
 thousand men, in 1672. For a long time his army was success- 
 ful, and Grotius, at the head of a Dutch deputation, offered 
 generous terms of peace. But Louis, whose hatred against the 
 Dutch had been aroused a few years previous, when Holland, 
 Sweden and Great Britain had combined together to check his 
 victorious career, refused to accept the offered terms, and de- 
 manded the restoration of the Catholic religion, the use of the 
 temples for Catholic worship, and an immense tribute towards 
 defraying the expenses of the war. These actions so inflamed 
 the indignation of the Dutch, that all thoughts of peace were 
 abandoned. Despair nerved the beseiged to new exertions, and 
 with patriotic devotion they bored their dykes, and flooded the 
 country with water, thus compelling the French to evacuate the 
 posts which they had secured. De Ruyter fought gallantly with 
 the combined French and English fleets, and after the battle of 
 Saultsbay, the coast was secured against all danger of further 
 insult. 
 
 Soon after the Dutch entered into another combination with 
 Germany and Great Britain, against France. Louis could not 
 repress his anger at this alliance ; but the force of his resent- 
 ment fell upon Holland. He declared with great emotion, that 
 as for those gentlemen peddlers, the Dutch, they should one day 
 have cause to respect the authority of one whom they had but 
 recently learned to fear. 
 
 The French, however, succeeded in conquering Holland at 
 the opening of the French Revolution, and, in 1795, it formed 
 the Batavian Republic. In 1810, it was incorporated with the 
 
OF HOLLAND. 231 
 
 Frencli Empire, but the Prince of Orange resumed Ms authority 
 in 1814. The Kingdom of Belgium was included in his domain 
 bj an act of the Allied Powers in 1816. In 1830, Belgium re- 
 volted, and achieved its independence, and the present limits of 
 Holland were defined. 
 
 Of late years it has been generally believed that both France 
 and Grermany were desirous of subduing Holland, as well as 
 Belgium. No fears exist at present in the direction of France, 
 but it is less certain that they are safe on the side of Germany, 
 whose ambition may at any time induce it to complete a work of 
 unity, by uniting itself with the sea. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 BELGIUM. 
 
 Outline. Belgium is a small kingdom of Europe, of about 
 the size of Holland, which forms its northern boundary. It is 
 bounded on the east by Prussia, on the south-west by France, 
 and on the north-west by the North Sea. Belgium is divided 
 into nine provinces, which cover about the same area. 
 
 Physical Features, The surface of Belgium is more varied 
 than that of Holland. The land inclines from south to north. 
 The south-eastern parts are rugged and hilly, and even moun- 
 tainous, the highest land being over two thousand feet high. 
 Here are found dense forests, mountain torrents, and streams 
 confined by rocks, which combine into landscapes of the grandest 
 description. 
 
 The land decreases in hight towards the north-west and north, 
 and stretches out into level plains near the sea. The mountains 
 in the south are branches of the Ardennes, which enter Belgium 
 from France. 
 
 Rivers, The Meuse and Scheldt are the only large rivers of 
 Belgium, but they, in themselves, are of vast importance. So 
 numerous are their branches that no other country in Europe 
 can boast of a better water system. The Meuse River rises in 
 the Cote d' Or Mountains, France, and flowing north through 
 the eastern part of Belgium, enters Holland, and joins its waters 
 with those of the Rhine. 
 
 Climate, In some of the lowlands, and especially in the rich 
 bottom districts on the rivers, the climate is very unhealthy. 
 But as a general thing the temperature is even, resembling in 
 part that of England. 
 
OF BELGIUM. 233 
 
 Soil and Productions. Among the Ardennes Mountains 
 the soil is sterile, and is not easily made available for agricul- 
 tural purposes. The natural industry of the people, however, 
 has readily transformed this country into rich pasture lands, and 
 large herds of horses and swine are reared at trifling expense. 
 The horses are of the largest and fleetest kind, and large num- 
 bers of them are conveyed to France, where they are purchased 
 for French cavalry. 
 
 The Campine is a large moorland waste, lying chiefly in the 
 province of Antwerp, which seemed destined to remain in its 
 natural state forever. Its condition, however, has been greatly 
 improved by the efibrts of agricultural societies. Some of the 
 finest cattle in the country now find pasture in the Campine, and 
 even cornfields are not unfrequent. Wheat, corn and flax are 
 important productions of Belgium. 
 
 The remaining portions of the country are fertile and pro- 
 ductive; and the inhabitants in their system of .agriculture, set 
 a pattern for all Europe. The basin of the Scheldt has the 
 appearance of a vast garden, and presents the finest rural land- 
 scapes in the world. 
 
 Unlike Holland, Belgium is heavily timbered. It is estima- 
 ted that one-fifth of the entire surface is covered with forests. 
 " These woods are the remains of the ancient forest of Ardennes, 
 which Caesar describes as. stretching far out into France from 
 the banks of the Rhine." The distribution of the timber is very 
 unequal, some provinces being dense with forests, and others 
 almost destitute of natural foliage. 
 
 The product of the mines of Belgium is of vast importance^ 
 Lead, zinc and manganese are produced in considerable quanti- 
 ties. Large mines of iron are found in the southern part of 
 Belgium, west of the Mouse. Coal, however, is the chief min- 
 eral product. The coal fields cover an area of five hundred 
 square miles. Three millions of tons are annually produced, 
 and exported to different countries. 
 
 Manufactures. Belgium is rich in manufactures. In pro- 
 portion to its size, it takes the lead among all the nations of 
 16 
 
234 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Europe in this brancli of industry. The chief manufactures are 
 iron, cotton, carpets, fine linen and lace. 
 
 Commerce. The excellent commercial position of Belgium, 
 combined with the great industry of its inhabitants, early gained 
 for this country a high commercial standing, and at one time it 
 led the nations of Europe in this pursuit. It soon lost its pre- 
 eminence, however, by the gradual rise of neighboring nations 
 of greater resources. The chief exports are the mineral pro- 
 ducts. Flax, and the grazing products, and also, manufactures 
 are largely exported. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Brussels is the capital and largest city. 
 It is surrounded by a wall, which is pierced by fourteen gates. 
 Within the walls are nine public promenades and drives, shaded 
 with double rows of lime trees, and covering the site of the 
 ancient ramparts or boulevards. 
 
 Prominent among the buildings is the Hotel de Ville, in the 
 Orand Hall of which, Charles V. was compelled to abdicate the 
 throne, in 1555. Brussels is one of the most elegant cities in 
 Europe. It is famous for the manufacture of Brussels carpet. 
 
 Ghent, the second city in size, is remarkable for the numerous 
 canals that intersect the city. These canals divide the city into 
 twenty-six islands, and are crossed by forty large bridges, and 
 a great many others of smaller size. In some parts of the town 
 the streets are dark, and so narrow that carriages can scarcely 
 pass. But the streets are generally spacious and uniform, and 
 are lined with handsome buildings. Ghent is noted for its cot- 
 ton manufactures. 
 
 Antwerp is a strongly fortifiei town. The Citadel, built by 
 the Duke of Alva, in the middle of the sixteenth century, is 
 one of the strongest fortresses in the world Antwerp is noted 
 for the manufacture of silk and velvet. 
 
 Liege is noted for the manufacture of iron, and Namur for 
 the manufacture of cutlery. 
 
 Waterloo is famous for the victory of the allied armies, com- 
 manded by Wellington, over the French, led by General Bona- 
 parte. On the field of battle a huge mound, one hundred and 
 
OP BELGIUM. 235 
 
 fifty feet High, has been raised, which is crowned by an iron 
 figure of a lion. Near this mound are two monuments, one 
 erected to the memory of Colonel Gordon, and the other to com- 
 memorate the heroism of the officers of Hanover, who fell on 
 the spot. 
 
 History. The Romans conquered the inhabitants of Bel- 
 gium, and held possession of the country until A. D. 409. At 
 about that time, it passed, with Holland, into the hands of the 
 Franks. Clovis divided it into four kingdoms, and distributed 
 it among his sons. It afterwards became a part of the empire 
 of Charlemagne, and, at his death, fell to his son, Lothaire. 
 
 It was afterward divided into several duchies, which were 
 finally annexed to the House of Burgundy. In 1477, Belgium 
 was united with Austria ; and shortly after was included in the 
 domains of Charles V., of Germany. The latter united it with 
 the Spanish monarchy. At the breaking out of the French 
 Revolution, Belgium was conquered by France, and annexed to 
 that country. After the downfall of Napoleon, Belgium, by an 
 act of the Allied Powers, was united to Holland, in 1814. In 
 1830, it rebelled against Dutch authority, and formed it«<^lf into 
 an independent kingdom. 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 Outline. France is a powerful empire in the south-western 
 part of Europe. Its form, like all the countries of Europe, is 
 very uneven. The coast line is indented by deep gulfs and bays; 
 and itd eastern boundary is determined by small kingdoms and 
 states, or dependencies of every conceivable shape. 
 
 On the north west are the British Isles, which lie beyond the 
 English Channel and Dover Strait, on the north-east are Belgium 
 and Germany, on the west are Germany, Switzerland and Italy, 
 on the south are the Gulf of Lyons and Spain, and on the west 
 are the Bay of Biscay and Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Physical Features. The southern and eastern portions of 
 France are extremely mountainous. The Pyrenees Mountains 
 are on the south, where they form a natural barrier between 
 this monarchy and the Kingdom of Spain. The highest peak 
 of these mountains (Maladetta,.see Spain), is in Spain, but its 
 neighboring peak of Nethou, in France, is nearly as high. This 
 range throws out numerous branches, but they rapidly merge 
 into the level districts of France, which are embraced in the 
 limits of the great plain of Europe. 
 
 Tha main branch of these mountains bends north before they 
 reach the Mediterranean Sea. This branch is called the Ceven- 
 nes, and for a considerable distance follows the direction of the 
 coast of the Gulf of Lyons. The main chain of the Cevennes 
 has no elevations of any great hight, the Auvergne Mountains, 
 branching off into the heart of France, containing the most im- 
 portant peaks. In this branch the highest point occurs at 
 Mount d' Or, at an elevation of six thousand one hundred and 
 eighty-eight feet. 
 
OF FRANCE. 237 
 
 The Cote d' Or Mountains begin to take an easterly direction. 
 This chain gradually merges into an elevated plain, and finally 
 into the range of mountains, known as the Vosges, by which it 
 is continued into Germany. On the border line between the 
 two countries, a range branches southward, which is known as 
 the Jura Mountains. These mountains pass south to Lake 
 Geneva, forming the boundary between France and Switzerland. 
 
 France now shares with Switzerland the rugged scenery of 
 the Alps. By the incorporation of Savoy with France, in 1860, 
 Mont Blanc, the highest point of Europe, was brought within 
 the limits of this empire. This peak may be regarded as the 
 northern terminus of the French Alps (or that branch of the 
 Alps which is shared with France) and the Mediterranean Sea, 
 the southern. These mountains separate France from Italy 
 and Switzerland. 
 
 Mont Blanc, the crowning summit of the Alps, and the 
 highest point of Europe, is in the eastern part of France, in 
 the department of Savoy. Its elevation, as generally given, is 
 fifteen thousand eight hundred and ten feet, but this hight varies 
 according to the amount of snow on its summit. With its glit- 
 tering summit, capped with eternal snow, its magnificent crystal 
 glaciers, and its forests and meadows which distinctly mark the 
 snow line, Mont Blanc presents the most imposing spectacle in 
 Europe. This mountain was first ascended in 1496. 
 
 Grlaciers. As a key to the description of glaciers, which will 
 1)6 found in large numbers among the Alps, a short sketch on 
 their origin will here be introduced. 
 
 The influence of solar heat causes the snow which covers the 
 mountains to melt. The water thus formed is accumulated in 
 depressions, and subject to alternate freezing and thawing, till 
 finally, the body assumes a glacial formation. The valley be- 
 coming filled with ice, it begins its descent down the mountain ; 
 and its source is constantly supplied with material by melting 
 snow and ice. Masses of rock and ice are detached, and hurled 
 over steep abysses, and becoming imbedded in the glaciers, are 
 borne by them to the valleys. 
 
238 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Glaciers are traversed by deep rents or crevasses. These 
 crevasses are frequently many feet in depth, and to the traveler 
 who is disposed to explore the glaciers, they present a consider- 
 able amount of danger. The instances are many where persons 
 have lost their lives by a single mis-step; and others have fallen 
 into these chasms, and escaped by means of ice caverns which 
 form the sources of rivers. 
 
 When the glacier stream overflows the verge of a precipice, 
 its solid mass is rent by numerous fractures, which, by exposure 
 to the sun and air, give rise to the Ice-needles and Ice Pyramids. 
 These are numerous and interesting in the Glacier des Bossons. 
 No aspect in Switzerland is so strikingly, and at the same time 
 so strangely beautiful, as when, in some fertile and wooded val- 
 ley, we have suddenly presented to our astonished gaze the 
 glittering pinnacles of a glacier in immediate contact with corn- 
 fields, fruit-trees, smiling meadows and human habitations. 
 
 The most important glaciers in France are those which bound 
 Mont Blanc.^ The Mer de Gflace is formed by the union of 
 Crlacier du Greanf, Glacier de Lechaud and Gflacier du Talefre, 
 which fill the highest gorges of Mont Blanc. The surface of 
 the Mer de Glace resembles that of an angry sea which has 
 become suddenly frozen, and these "motionless billows " can be 
 seen for six miles. The lower portion of the Mer de Glace is 
 called the Glacier des Bois, where immense pinnacles and pyra- 
 mids may be viewed from between the foliage that lines its brink. 
 It descends into the Valley of Chamouni, where it discharges 
 the Arveiron River, through a lofty arch of ice. 
 
 The Crlacier des Bossons, also on Mont Blanc, descends far 
 into the Valley of Chamouni, and with its lofty pyramids of 
 blue ice, contrasts finely with the green verdure of the valley. 
 
 Rivers. France has an excellent system of rivers. It has 
 five principal river basins, four o£ which are on the western side 
 of the mountains. The first, that of the Rhine, has only a 
 small part of its basin in France, the river itself not approach- 
 ing farther than the eastern boundary. The basin of the Seine 
 has its outlet in the English Channel, and those of the Loire 
 
OF FRANCE. 239 
 
 and Garonne in the Bay of Biscay. The basin of the Rhone is 
 east of the mountains, and has its outlet in the Gulf of Lyons. 
 
 The Rhone River rises in the Rhone Glacier, on the west side 
 of Mount St. Gothard, Switzerland. Its course is marked by 
 the wildest of Swiss scenery, and before it passes through the 
 dark wall of the Jura into France, it expands into the broad 
 and beautiful Lake Geneva. At Lyons it receives the import- 
 ant branch of the Saone, and before it reaches the Gulf of 
 Lyons its waters are mingled with those of several other tribu- 
 taries of considerable extent. At its mouth, its channel branches, 
 and forms a large delta. 
 
 The fall of the Rhone River is so great that its course is 
 rendered rapid, and therefore, for navigable purposes it is not 
 so important as the Rhine. The sources of the Seine, Loire and 
 Garonne are, also, so much higher than their mouths, that they 
 are of less importance than they otherwise would be. The 
 Rhone is united with the Seine and Rhine by canals. A canal, 
 also, joins the Seine and Rhine. 
 
 Climate. The climate of France is not surpassed in any 
 other country of Europe. Nearly all the country lies within 
 the moderate portions of the Temperate Zone, and nearly all of 
 it is exposed to the regulating influence of the sea. Still, in a 
 country presenting so wide a latitude, there must be a greater 
 variety of temperature than would be obtained by local observa- 
 tion. The whole country might properly be divided into four 
 districts, according to the development of vegetation. 
 
 The first district is in the south-eastern part of the country, 
 and is productive of the olive. North of this is the second dis- 
 trict, where Indian corn is cultivated. The third region is still 
 further north, extending as far as the vine can be successfully 
 cultivated, and the fourth district embraces all of the country 
 north of this limit. In the northern district the winters are 
 generally rigorous. 
 
 Soil and Productions. It is estimated that about one- 
 seventh of the territory of France is composed of waste, or 
 rugged, moorish and sandy soil. Another seventh of the land 
 
240 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 is covered with artificial and natural forests. These generally 
 occupy soil that could not be turned to good advantage in any 
 other way. One of these artificial forests, one hundred miles 
 long and seven miles wide, protects a large territory on the Bay 
 of Biscay, from the sand whirlwinds which rise from the Landes. 
 
 The remainder of the soil is available for agricultural purpo- 
 ses. One-half of the country is under the plow, one-seventh is 
 composed of permanent meadow, and one-twenty-fifth is devoted 
 to the culture of the grape. Wheat, oats, rye and barley are 
 important productions. The olive has been successfully culti- 
 vated. This still continues to be a leading pursuit, although its 
 importance was considerably affected by a severe winter in 1789, 
 by reason of which a large number of the trees were damaged. 
 The cultivation of the mulberry tree forms an important branch 
 of the national industry. 
 
 The chief mineral productions are coal and lead. Besides 
 these, there are mines of zinc, copper, nickel and cobalt. 
 
 Manufactures. Only a small proportion of the population 
 of France is engaged in this branch of industry, nevertheless, 
 in the manufacture of certain articles, she holds a conspicuous 
 place among European nations. Silk is first in order of the 
 manufactures, and has its principal seat at Lyons. Cotton is 
 manufactured at Rouen, and woolen goods at Louviers. 
 
 Commerce. The domestic commerce of France is the most 
 important. Large numbers of canals have been constructed, 
 which greatly facilitate the inland trade. The foreign commerce, 
 though less important, is second only to Great Britain and the 
 United States. The principal exports are silk, cotton and woolen 
 goods, manufactures, olive oil, wine and brandy. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Paris is the capital and largest city of 
 France, and is also the largest city on the mainland of Europe. 
 It is inclosed by a line of fortifications, which include a large 
 , portion of the suburbs, and much of the surrounding country. 
 Within these fortifications, is a wall of simpler construction, 
 which incloses the city proper. The Boulevards of Paris are 
 on both sides of this wall. 
 
OF FRANCE. 241 
 
 The inner wall is pierced by fifty gates, or harriers. The 
 most important of these is the Barriere de Neuilly, which is 
 faced by the splendid Triumphal Arch de I'Etoile. This arch 
 surpasses anything of the kind ever erected, either in ancient or 
 modern times. In the Place du Carrousal is another beautiful 
 arch, designed after that of Septimius Severus, at Rome. The 
 Seine passes through the city, and is crossed by twenty-seven 
 bridges. The most important of these is Pont Neuf, which 
 forms one of the chief thoroughfares of the city. 
 
 Paris is noted for its elegance and refinement. . Its public 
 buildings are unrivalled in Europe. Vast sums of money have 
 been expended in adorning squares and parks of great extent ; 
 and many of these are furnished with means of illumination, and 
 in the evening present scenes of gaiety and animation. 
 
 The Tuileries, situated on the right bank qf the Seine, has 
 continued for centuries to be the chief Parisian residence of the 
 royal family. The Louvre, situated east of the Tuileries, has 
 ceased to be a state residence, and is now occupied as the great 
 national repository of works of art. Another fine palace is the 
 Luxembourg, situated in the midst of spacious pleasure grounds. 
 This palace was the place of meeting of the Chamber of Peers, 
 prior to the dissolution of that body. 
 
 The Royal Palace is not far from the Tuileries, and is sur- 
 rounded by beautiful gardens. The Champ de Mars is a large 
 sandy plain, where military displays are held. 
 
 The great world's fair held in Paris in the year 1861, was one 
 of the grandest displays the world has ever witnessed. It was 
 called the Paris Exposition, and occupied a building on the 
 Champ de Mars, covering an area of thirty seven acres. The 
 building is oval in form, and consists of twelve circles around a 
 common center, having an open central garden. This exhibition 
 was visited by the principal monarchs and rulers of the world, 
 and by a vast concourse of people from all nations. 
 
 St. Cloud is in the suburbs of Paris. The Chateau of St. 
 Cloud was for a long time the favorite residence of the kings of 
 France. It was here that Henry IV. was assassinated ; and it 
 
242 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 was here, also, that Bonaparte appeared with his grenadiers, 
 and after dispersing the assembly of the Five Hundred, caused 
 himself to be proclaimed First Consul. (See History.) 
 
 Lyons is next in size to Paris, and is noted for the manufac- 
 ture of silk. Marseilles is the most important port, and is 
 situated on the Gulf of Lyons, near the mouth of the Rhone. 
 
 Havre is the principal port on the Atlantic. Bordeaux is, 
 also, a commercial town ; and Toulon and Brest are military 
 ports. Versailles is an important town, and is noted for its 
 magnificent palace. Connected with this palace are spacious 
 flower gardens, and a park containing statues, and fountains 
 supplied with water by the machine of Marly.* At the extrem- 
 ity of this park are the palaces of the Great and Little Trianon. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 
 
 No country in the world has been more generally harassed 
 by civil and foreign wars, than France. From the earliest in- 
 fancy of this empire to its latest date, its annals present a per- 
 petual record of domestic strife, and bloody wars with competing 
 nations. 
 
 Early History. 'The early history of France is the same 
 as that of Gaul. The Grauls belonged to the race of Celts, and 
 inhabited the territory now embraced in France, Holland and 
 parts of Germany. Gaul was conquered in 51 B. C, by Julius 
 Caesar, and was by him incorporated with the 'Roman Empire. 
 The Franks, or Freemen were a race of people inhabiting the 
 countries on the Lower Rhine. 
 
 Conquest by the Franks. A combination was formed by 
 the Franks in 420 A. D., having for its object the expulsion of 
 the Romans from the country. The conquest of France was 
 completed by Clovis, who became king, and made Paris his cap- 
 ital. The /Salic Laws, which excluded women from the throne, 
 were enacted by Clovis. Merovoeus, the grandfather of Clovis, 
 
 * Marly is a village of France, four miles north of Versailles, celebrated as 
 having been the residence of Louis XIV. Its hydraulic works, planned by 
 Louis, convey water to Versailles. ^ 
 
OF FRANCE. 243 
 
 also obtained important victories over the Romans, and is re- 
 garded as the founder of the Merovingian race of kings. 
 
 The Carlovingian race of kings was founded by Pepin le Bref, 
 Pepin was not a legitimate king. Childeric III. was the legal 
 representative of the crown, but he was weak and incapable, and 
 Pepin, by the aid of Pope Zacliary, whom he managed to enlist 
 in iis favor, caused the regal power to be transferred to himself. 
 In return for the services rendered by Zachary, Pepin devoted 
 himself to the interests of the Pope, and after several grants of 
 land to the See of Rome, caused Stephen II., the successor of 
 Zachary, to be raised to the rank of temporal prince. 
 
 On the death of Pepin the crown fell to his two sons, Charles 
 and Carloman. The latter did not long survive his father, and 
 Charles, surnamed the Cfreat, or Charlemagne, became sole 
 monarch. He was one of the greatest warriors that ever lived, 
 and before hi? death had extended the domains of France over 
 Switzerland, Germany and Holland, and 'also portions of Spain 
 and Italy. Charlemagne encouraged literature, and was so 
 zealous in his efforts to extend Christianity, that he compelled 
 his conquered subjects to receive Christian baptism. 
 
 After the death of Charlemagne (1814), the empire was por- 
 tioned out to his sons, and hence arose a series of domestic feuds, 
 which were continued with disastrous dfect till the final contest 
 at Fontenay. The civil war was then ended, and Charles the 
 Bald received the greater portion of France. 
 
 Charles was succeeded by his son, Louis the Stammerer, the 
 brothers Louis III. and Carloman, who held the kingdom 
 jointly ; and Charles the Fat. The latter was deposed, and the 
 crown transferred to Charles the Simple. Robert, son of Eudes, 
 who had administered the government during the minority of 
 Charles the Simple, usurped the crown, and was succeeded by 
 Rodolph. During the reign of Charles the Fat, the Normans 
 invaded France, and established themselves in the northern part 
 of that country. The country which they conquered was called 
 Normandy. 
 
244 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Capetian Kings. — From 987 to 1328. The reign of all 
 the kings after Charlemagne, was weak and inglorious. But 
 finally the reins of government came into the hands of Hugh 
 Capet, who was an able and talented man. France, at this 
 time, was no nation, but was composed of a group of feudal 
 states ; but there was already a distinctly developed nationality. 
 
 Little beside a constant succession of civil and foreign wars 
 occurred to mark the history of France, till the accession of 
 I*hilip II., who was the seventh of the Capetian kings. Philip 
 was gifted with great military talents, and ruled France with 
 more firmness than had any other king since the time of Char- 
 lemagne. He joined Richard I. in a crusade to the holy land. 
 Previous to this he had banished the Jews from his kingdom, 
 and confiscated their property — an act which leaves an inefi'ace- 
 able stain upon his memory. 
 
 John, who now filled the throne of England, was charged 
 with the death of his nephew, Arthur. Refusing to listen to 
 the summons of Philip, who demanded his trial, the French king 
 stripped him of all his possessions in France, with the exception 
 of Guienne. 
 
 Louis VIII. was a heroic king, but his reign was short and 
 of little importance. Louis IX. was distinguished for his vir- 
 tues, and had a long and auspicious reign. "But notwithstanding 
 his many redeeming traits he was a slave to superstition, 
 and finally perished while engaged in a crusade to the Holy Land. 
 
 During the reign of Philip III. occurred the massacre of the 
 Sicilian Vespers. Philip's uncle, Charles of Anjou, was king 
 of Sicily at this time, and his tyrannical conduct incited an 
 insurrection, which resulted in the massacre of ten thousand 
 Frenchmen, on the eve of Easter-day. 
 
 Philip IV. became involved in a quarrel with Pope Boniface 
 VIII, because that pontifi" would not sanction a measure in- 
 tended to exact money from the clergy as well as the common 
 people. Boniface died before the contest was ended, and Philip 
 managed to enlist his successor, Clement V., in his favor, and 
 the residence of the Pope was removed from Home (Italy) to 
 
OF FRANCE. 245 
 
 Avignon (France.) The Italians were greatly incensed at this 
 movement, and contemptuously styled the residence of the Pope 
 at Avignon, " The Babylonish captivity of the Holy See." 
 
 Philip IV. was succeeded by Louis X., John I., Philip V. 
 and Charles IV., whose reigns were all short and of little con- 
 sequence. Charles IV., was the last representative of the 
 Capetian race. 
 
 Family of Valois. — From 1328 to 1589. The crown of 
 France was now without a direct heir. Charles IV. was the last 
 of three brothers, 3,11 of whom died without leaving any male 
 heirs. Isabella of England, the Queen of Edward II., was the 
 daughter of Philip IV., and sister of Charles IV,; consequently 
 she was the most nearly related to the crown. Therefore Ed- 
 ward III. of England, on the death of the last of the Capetian 
 race, laid claim to the French throne, by right of his mother. 
 But the French people raised Philip of Valois to the throne, 
 whom they crowned as Philip VI. This was the signal for war 
 on the part of the English, and the victory of Qressy was given 
 to their arms. Qalais was wrested from Philip, and was an- 
 nexed to the domains of Edward. 
 
 John II., who succeeded his father to the throne, ipet the 
 English army under the Black Prince, at Poictiers, where he 
 sustained a great defeat, and was taken captive to London. 
 
 Qharles V. now ascended the throne, and immediately affairs 
 in France began to assume a more encouraging aspect. The 
 excitement and tumult that had grown out of the defeat and 
 capture of the preceeding king, was speedily quelled by the 
 prospect of a wise administration. He drove the English out 
 of a large part of the territory which they had acquired in 
 France, and compelled them to maintain peace, and delivered 
 the country of the banditti which had been the scourge of the 
 frontiers in the direction of Spain. 
 
 France is noted for the excellence of its literary attainments 
 during the reign of Charles. The king acquired a library of 
 nine hundred volumes, in addition to that left by his father; and 
 laid the foundation of the great B-oyal Library at Paris. 
 
246 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 But all the advantage gained by Charles was doomed to be 
 lost. His son, Charles VI., was one of the weakest sovereigns 
 that ever occupied a throne. His Queen was noted for her 
 vices, and his court was profligate in the extreme. The chief 
 power passed from one regent to another, and during this turbu- 
 lent state of affairs, the English invaded the country and gained 
 the memorable battle of Agincourt. 
 
 Matters were brought to a crisis by the accession of Charles 
 VII. The English, under the Duke of Bedford, invaded France, 
 determined to obtain the crown of that country for their young 
 king, Henry VI., by force of arms. The French were reduced 
 to the last extremity, when they were rescued from apparent 
 defeat by the efforts of that extraordinary heroine, Joan of Arc. 
 
 Charles had not yet been crowned king. The ceremony of 
 crowning the French kings was always conducted at Rheims, 
 but that place was now in the possession of the English. 
 
 Joan professed to be divinely appointed to deliver the French 
 army, and conduct Charles to Rheims to be crowned. She was 
 finally commissioned to lead the French against Orleans. The 
 tide of victory was immediately reversed, and the French arms 
 were everywhere successful. Orleans was reduced, and, agree- 
 able to her promise, Joan opened the way for Charles to receive 
 the crown at Rheims. Joan now desired to return to her home, 
 but she was detained by the French, who thought her presence 
 insured safety. Finally, through the treachery of a French 
 officer, who was jealous of the fame she had acquired, she fell 
 into the hands of the English, by whom she was tried for witch- 
 craft, and consigned to the stake. The French arms continued 
 to be successful, and all the English possessions in France were 
 reduced with the exception of Calais. 
 
 Few important events transpired during the reigns of Louts 
 XL and Charles VLLL. The former was noted for perfidy and 
 cruelty, and obtained the title of the Tiberius of France ; and 
 the latter annexed the kingdom of Naples to that of France. 
 
 The Duke of Orleans now ascended the throne under the title 
 of Louis XIL, Charles VIII. being the last direct king of the 
 
OP FRANCE. 247 
 
 House of Valois. Louis was an able sovereign, and was much, 
 beloved by his people. In his military operations he was at first 
 successful, and added Milan and Genoa, of Italy, to the crown 
 of France. But while pressing his claim to Naples, he became 
 the dupe of Ferdinand, and had the mortification of seeing the 
 kingdom for which he was contending, annexed to Spain. 
 
 Louis unwisely joined with the Pope, the Emperor of Ger- 
 many, and the Kings of England and Spain, in the League of 
 Canibray. The object of this combination was to reduce the 
 Kingdom of Venice. The French army was at first victorious, 
 but before they had achieved anything of importance, Louis was 
 obliged to face a combination of the remaining members of the 
 League, who had in turn united against him. All of his posses- 
 sions in Italy were taken from him, and these losses were soon 
 followed by his death. 
 
 Louis XLL. was succeeded by his son-in-law, who ascended 
 the throne under the title of Francis L. His reign forms an 
 important epoch in the history of France. Young, brave, am- 
 bitious and enterprising, he immediately turned his eyes toward 
 Italy, as the scene of glory and of conquest. He marched 
 towards Milan at the head of his army, and while passing through 
 the Alps into Piedmont he encountered a large body of Swiss at 
 Mariynan, and fought one of the most furious battles mentioned 
 in modern times. The highlanders met the French army undis- 
 mayed, and it required all of the heroic valor of Francis to 
 inspire his soldiers with sufficient courage to resist the shock. 
 The Swiss maintained the contest till they had lost one-half of 
 their army, when they were compelled to retire. This victory 
 opened the way for the French in Italy, and the conquest of 
 Milan was speedily accomplished. 
 
 The death of Maximilian, Emperor of Germany, left the throne 
 of that country vacant, and Francis and Charles I. of Spain, 
 became candidates for the crown. Germany was now in danger 
 of being invaded by the Turks, who, under the victorious Selim 
 Z, threatened the liberties of Europe ; therefore it was sadly in 
 need of foreign assistance. Francis and Charles were both able 
 sovereigns, and fond of war and conquest. Francis urged that 
 
248 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 his superior skill in arms, would set limits to the ambition of 
 Selim, and be effectual in breaking the Ottoman power. 
 
 Both parties were so eager for the prize, and had acquired so 
 great a reputation in arms, that the electors becoming alarmed 
 with regard to the probable limitation of their power, rejected 
 the claims of both, and offered to settle the crown upon Frederic^ 
 surnamed the Wise, Duke of Saxony. But he, undazzled by 
 the splendor of an object courted with so much eagerness by two 
 mighty monarchs, rejected it with a magnanimity no less singu- 
 lar than great. But through his influence, Charles was elected 
 to fill the vacancy. 
 
 Hitherto, Francis had manifested a spirit of emulation, but 
 not of hatred or strife. He had declared, with peculiar vivacity, 
 that he and Charles were suitors to the same mistress ; and 
 added, the more fortunate will win her, " and the other must 
 rebt contented." But now that he beheld the prize slipping 
 from his grasp, his disappointment was greater than his generos- 
 ity, and he could not repress his chagrin and indignation. He 
 had been rejected in the face of all Europe, and the throne given 
 to a youth as yet unknown to fame. Charles was too high 
 spirited to bear in silence the contempt that Francis did not fail 
 to cast upon his name, and henceforth the rivals became ac- 
 knowledged enemies. 
 
 The French arms were now doomed to suffer defeat. Charles 
 was unquestionably the mightiest monarch of his time in Europe, 
 and he was to be in future pitted against Francis. Added to 
 this, the Constable of Bourbon, who was one of the best gener- 
 als of the age, deserted the French standard for having been 
 unjustly deprived of his estates, and united himself with Charles. 
 Francis begun hostilities by invading the kingdom of Navarre,* 
 which he subdued, but soon lost. 
 
 Francis dispatched Admiral Bonnivet with an army to subdue 
 Milan. Bonnivet was an unskillful commander, and was de- 
 feated with great loss by the imperialists under Bourbon and 
 Lannoy. The French were still less successful in their opera- 
 
 * Navarre is a province in the northern part of Spain. 
 
OF FRANCE. 249 
 
 tions on the frontiers of France. Francis now led his army in 
 person against Milan, drove the enemy from that city, and gave 
 them battle "at Pavia. At first the French arms were success- 
 ful. Francis fought desperately, and struck down seven men 
 with his own sword, but being deserted by the Swiss troops, who 
 were in the service of France, the fortunes of the day were 
 changed, and Francis was defeated and captured. 
 
 Peace for a time followed the liberation of the French mon- 
 arch, but war was soon renewed in Italy, and the issue, as usual, 
 was unfavorable to Francis. 
 
 Francis was one of the greatest of the French sovereigns, 
 and could he have moderated his military ardor, he might have 
 enjoyed the glory of having defended his native kingdom against 
 one-half of Europe. But his wars in Italy were unworthy in 
 object, and disastrous in effect. 
 
 Henry II, succeeded his father to the throne of France. The 
 chief military events recorded in his reign were the battle of St, 
 Quentin.) in which Philip II., of Spain, inflicted the severest 
 defeat that the French had sustained since the battle of Poictiers; 
 and the capture of Calais from the English. 
 
 In the reign of Francis 11^ the famous league of Amhoise 
 was formed, which had for its object the destruction of the (juise 
 family and other leading Catholics, whose intolerance and cruel- 
 ty became unbearable. The conspirators were discovered, and 
 their principal actor, the Prince of Qonde^ was condemned to be 
 executed. His life was saved, however, by the accession of 
 Oharles IX* 
 
 The civil war between the Catholics and Protestants was now 
 commenced in earnest. Several Huguenots, f who were engaged 
 in religious devotions in a barn at Vassy, were slain by the ser- 
 vants of the Duke of Guise. This was regarded as a signal for 
 war, and the Prince of Conde called to his assistance all the 
 
 *Hi8 mother, Catherine de MecUcis, interceded for bis life. Her motives 
 were not pure, however. She wished to oppose the influence of the Prince to 
 that of the Guise's, hoping thus to gratify her own ambition by an increase of 
 power. 
 
 tThe French Protestants were called Huguenots. 
 
 17 
 
250 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Protestants who could be induced to join in tlie contest, and 
 seized upon the town of Orleans. Several fierce battles were 
 fought, in which the Catholics were generally victorious. At 
 length, while prosecuting the siege of Orleans, the Duke of 
 Guise was assassinated. He Kved only six days after he was 
 wounded ; but before he died he exhorted Catherine, the mother 
 of the king, to make peace with the Huguenots. Catherine 
 complied with his dying advice, and granted the Protestants 
 many favorable conditions. The only result, however, was a 
 lull in the tempest, for the conditions were never fulfilled. 
 
 The Huguenots again took up arms, and fought the battles 
 Jarnac and Montcontour, in the first of which, the Prince of 
 Conde was killed. Admiral Qoligny superseded him in the com- 
 mand of the Protestant forces. 
 
 Hostilities were now ended for a time, and Coligny was sum- 
 moned by the king to Paris. He went reluctantly, and with 
 hesitation, but the apparently cordial and sincere manner of the 
 king soon dissipated all unpleasant suspicions, and lulled him 
 into security. This was a short time previous to the Massacre 
 of St. Barthohmetu. Difierent authors are divided in opinion 
 with regard to Charles' real object when he summoned Coligny. 
 Some assert that he was innocent of any design upon the life of 
 the Protestant leader, but the most palpable inference is that 
 the whole was a deep laid plot, designed by his mother Catherine. 
 
 But no manifestations of the plot were allowed to reach Col- 
 igny or his followers. The Huguenots were treated with the 
 greatest attention. The friends of Coligny, at Rochelle, fre- 
 quently warned him "not to trust himself in the power of a king 
 whose passions were uncontrollable, and of an Italian woman 
 whose dissimulation was unfathomable," but Coligny generously 
 declined to excite the feelings of those whom he believed to be 
 sincere, and thus plunge the country into another civil war. 
 
 But these professions of friendship were like the calm before 
 the tempest. Early in the morning of St. Bartholomew's Day, 
 1572, the fatal signal was given, and Coligny was almost imme- 
 
OF FRANCE. 251 
 
 diately murdered by a servant of the Duke of Guise.* The 
 Swiss guards and city militia joined with the Catholic popula- 
 tion, and Huguenots of all ages and conditions perished in the 
 fearful slaughter that ensued. The massacre was not confined 
 to Paris. By orders of the king it was extended to the remotest 
 parts of France,' and seventy thousand persons are represented 
 by some authors to have been slain. In most cases the orders 
 of the king were obeyed, but it is said that the Governor of 
 Bayonne answered, in reply to the mandate of the king : " Your 
 Majesty has many faithful servants in Bayonne, but not one exe- 
 cutioner." 
 
 But this plan for destroying the power of the Protestants did 
 not meet with success, and the Catholics soon found that, instead 
 of reducing heresy, they had rendered the heretics desperate. 
 Soon after this massacre, which is without a parallel in history, 
 Charles died, bewailing to the last the crime into which he had 
 been beguiled by his crafty mother, with bitter tears and groans. 
 
 Charles was succeeded by his brother, Henry III. Henry 
 had early displayed considerable talent, but as a king he was 
 weak and vicious. The principal event of this reign was the 
 formation of the Holy League, intended to unite the Catholics 
 more firmly against the Protestants. The Protestants now 
 formed a powerful body, and were lead by the Prince of Conde 
 and Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France. But 
 the formation and growth of the League was dangerous to the 
 power of Henry ; he therefore found it convenient to declare 
 himself the head of that body. 
 
 But the chief object of the League was to usurp the reins of 
 Government. The Duke of Guise, who was the favorite of the 
 Catholics, aspired to the throne. By many acts of perfidy he 
 reduced the power of the king, and finally Henry was obliged 
 to leave Paris. Now thoroughly aroused as to his danger, the 
 king determined to make a desperate efibrt to regain his power. 
 He resolved to destroy the Duke of Guise, and a letter from 
 Pope Sextus V., who was hostile to the Duke, confirmed him in 
 
 * The Luke of Guise, now acting an important part in the Civil War, was 
 Henry, son of the Duke of Guise who was assassinated at the siege of Orleans. 
 
252 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 his resolution. He called nine of his most trusty followers, and 
 summoned the Duke to meet him as he desired to transact im- 
 portant business. The Duke hastily complied with the summons, 
 but on entering the house appointed by Henry, he was assailed 
 by his assassins and instantly slain. Henry now joined himself 
 with his cousin, the king of Navarre, and with an army vastly 
 superior to that of his enemies, approached Paris. But before 
 he had regained possession of that city, he was assassinated by 
 a Catholic fanatic named James Olement. The news of his 
 death was received by the Catholics with odious joy, and Cle- 
 ment was canonized as a saint in different pulpits of Paris. 
 
 House or Bourbon. — From 1589 to 1774. The House 
 of Valois was now extinct, and the throne passed to the king of 
 Navarre, who received the title of Henry IV. of France. He 
 was surnamed the Cfreat on account of his able administration. 
 No king of France nas ever devoted himself more earnestly to 
 the welfare of his people than did Henry. The country was 
 now in a most deplorable condition, the civil war which had 
 raged for thirteen years having reduced the people to poverty, 
 and loaded the crown with debt. Henry endeavored to relieve 
 the condition of the people, and was regarded by his subjects 
 with love amounting almost to veneration. 
 
 Henry experienced great difficulty in gaining th« crown. He 
 met the army of the League commanded by the Duke of May- 
 enne, at Ivry, and though greatly inferior in strength, he routed 
 and nearly destroyed the enemy. But the Catholics so vehe- 
 mently opposed his accession, that he was finally induced by the 
 urgent advice of both Catholic and Protestant friends, to re- 
 nounce his religion ; but when he ascended the throne he issued 
 the famous Udict of JVantes, which secured to Protestants per- 
 fect liberty and freedom. 
 
 Henry's project of forming a Ohristian Republic, and of 
 dividing Europe between fifteen sovereigns was of question- 
 able utility, and was never realized. While making preparations 
 for a war in Germany, the object of which was to establish the 
 
OF FRANCE. 253 
 
 civil and religious freedom of the Protestants of that country, 
 he was assassinated in his coach by a desperate Catholic, named 
 Ravaillac.'^ 
 
 Henry was succeeded by his son, who became Louis XIII. 
 His chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, was invested with almost 
 complete authority, and ruled France with vigor. The Protes- 
 tants, rendered desperate by persecution, determined to establish 
 themselves at Rochelle, and found a separate state. Rochelle 
 was besieged and taken, and Protestant power in France was 
 broken. 
 
 Louis XIV. was able and talented, but was cruel in the ex- 
 treme. In the early part of his reign his army, under Oonde 
 and Turenne, was successful, and made extensive conquests. 
 Among his conquests was that of Palatinate, many of the inhab- 
 itants of which were put to the sword, and the cities and towns 
 consumed by fire. 
 
 The rapid progress of Louis alarmed the monarchs of Europe, 
 and measures were immediately taken to set limits to his ambi- 
 tion. In 1701, England, Holland and Germany united their 
 forces against him, and with Prince Eugene and the Buke of 
 Marlborough at their head, gained the famous battles of Blen- 
 heim, Ramillies, Oudenarde and Malplaquet. 
 
 Louis caused the Edict of Nantes to be repealed, and as a 
 consequence, persecution was vigorously renewed. The Protes- 
 tant power had been broken in the preceeding reign, and now 
 over five hundred thousand of them retired or were driven from 
 the country. Consequently the French arts and manufactures, 
 which were vastly superior to those of other nations, were dissem- 
 inated over Europe. 
 
 Louis XV. was great grandson of the last king. He as- 
 cended the throne under the regency of the Duke of Orleans, 
 in 1715. The most prominent event that transpired during this 
 
 * Mavaillac was put to death in a mo&t horrible maimer. His right hand 
 was burned from his body by sulphur ; his limbs were torn with pincers, and 
 melted lead and boiling oil were poured into the wounds. He was finally 
 attached. to four horses, which pulling in opposite directions, tore his body in 
 pieces, thus terminating his existence. 
 
254 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 regency, were the fraudulent operations of Law, who proposed 
 to discharge the national debt by the introduction of paper cur- 
 rency. This almost unparalleled fraud is known as the Missis- 
 sippi Scheme, and involved thousands in ruin. 
 
 The Duke of Orleans was succeeded in the office of regent 
 by Cardinal Fleury, whose policy was pacific, and under his ad- 
 ministration France enjoyed peace and prosperity. Soon after 
 the death of this minister, the war of the Austrian Succession 
 broke out. Maria Theresa and Charles, Elector of Bavai'ia, 
 were claimants for the throne of Austria. England supported 
 Maria Theresa, and France declared in favor of Charles. The 
 two countries were involved in war, which resulted in establish- 
 ing the claims of Maria Theresa. France was also involved in 
 a war in America, which was terminated by the peace of i^am, 
 in 1763, when Canada and other French provinces in North 
 America were ceded to Great Britain. 
 
 The Revolution. — From 1774 to 1815. The position 
 which Louis XVL. was called upon to fill as king was an ex- 
 tremely trying one. The finances of the country were in an 
 embarassed condition ; and a short time after his accession the 
 struggle for Independence in America began, and feelings of 
 liberty and freedom were rapidly dissipated throughout France. 
 The tyranny of the late kings had disgusted all classes in France, 
 and on the accession of Louis, the people were determined to be 
 vigilant and alive to their privileges. 
 
 Louis was possessed of considerable talent, and was noted 
 for his integrity. With regard to the purity of his intentions 
 there can be no question, and had he used more firmness and 
 decision, much of the evil that followed might have been avoided. 
 He chose able ministers ; and gave the enlightened statesman, 
 Turgot, the chief control of the finances. All the plans of 
 reform which were introduced by the ministry, were opposed by 
 the nobles, and finally Turgot and others resigned their positions. 
 
 Turgot was g'ucceeded by Necher, but he was speedily dis- 
 charged, and Calonne was called to power. Like Turgot, 
 
OF FRANCE. 255 
 
 Calonne resigned, finding it impossible to maintain his position in 
 the present condition of affairs. 
 
 In May, 1789, the members of the body of States-General 
 were summoned to meet at Versailles. This body, which had 
 not assembled for nearly two hundred years, was composed of 
 three orders, or estates. The lowest estate {tiers etat), or order 
 of the commons, had been in the habit of bowing on their knees 
 in the presence of the other orders, and with bared heads ac- 
 knowledging their degrading inferiority. But contrary to the 
 usual custom they now refused to submit to this practice, but 
 imitated the manners of the king and the deputies of the two 
 higher orders. 
 
 At length a number of the members of the higher orders 
 attached themselves to the commons, and that body immediately 
 declared itself the National Assembly, and proclaimed the indi- 
 visibility of its power. The king and his courtiers now found 
 their authority disregarded. Alarmed at the growing power of 
 the Assembly, the king announced a royal sitting, and ordered 
 the hall of the states to be closed. Bailly, the chief deputy of 
 Paris, with a number of his associates presented himself at the 
 door. Being refused admittance, and perceiving the hostile de- 
 signs of the court, the deputies vowed with uplifted hands never 
 to separate till they had given France a constitution. 
 
 The National Assembly met a few days afterward, and the 
 king, appearing in its midst, commanded it to dissolve. After 
 his departure the grand master of the ceremonies entered, and 
 reminded the Assembly of the king's orders. Ifirabeau, a man 
 of brilliant talents, who held a prominent place in the Rev- 
 olution, addressed himself to the speaker, and said : " Tell 
 your master that we are here by order of the people, and will be 
 driven hence only by the bayonet," 
 
 The king now dismissed Necker a second time from ofiice. 
 Necker was a partisan of the Assembly; and his dismissal was a 
 signal for action. The Bastile, a huge state prison, was de- 
 stroyed by the people ; and the streets were filled with mobs of 
 frantic men and women. And now were begun the most dread- 
 ful convulsions by which an empire was ever desolated, and 
 
256 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 France for fifteen years was an object hj turns of pity, admira- 
 tion and terror to the gazing universe. 
 
 Louis became alarmed concerning the probability of his own 
 safety, and that of his family, and finally escaped from Paris in 
 disguise. He was arrested on the frontiers, and on his way back 
 was met by three members of the Assembly, who had been dis- 
 patched to insure his safe return. The enemies of the new 
 government now gathering on the frontier, were composed of 
 loyal Frenchmen who had deserted France, and their Prussian 
 and Austrian allies. These demanded the restoration of Louis 
 to the French throne, denouncing the most fearful calamities 
 against France, in case their demand should be refused. The 
 only response which they received from the National Assembly 
 was the levy of a hundred thousand national guards." 
 
 The National Assembly was soon after dissolved, and by their 
 own act, its members were prohibited from holding seats in the 
 new or Legislative Assemble/. Thus the afi'airs of the nation 
 were passed into the hands of men whose only ambition was to 
 build up their own names and fortunes. Insurrections were now 
 frequent, and Lafayette, who had been appointed to the com- 
 mand of the army, finding all hopes of quelling the outbreak 
 vain, deserted his post and fled to the frontier. 
 
 The Legislative Assembly was soon disorganized, and the new 
 assembly, which assumed the title of the National Convention, 
 immediately declared regal power abolished. This assembly 
 was soon divided into two violent parties. One was named 
 G-irondists, and the other the Mountain Party. These factions 
 began a furious contest in which the Mountain Party, headed by 
 Robespierre, Danton and Marat triumphed. 
 
 The Mountain Party were now loud in their demands for the 
 life of the king; and Louis XVI., with a firm and noble coun- 
 tenance, appeared before the Convention to answer to various 
 charges. M. de Seze, one of his defenders, after recounting 
 the virtues of Louis, closed his speech with the following words : 
 " The glory cannot be denied to Louis of having even antici- 
 pated the wishes of his people in his sacrifices, and yet he it is 
 whom you are asked to . Citizens, I dare not speak it ! 
 
OF FRANCE. 257 
 
 I pause before the majesty of History: remember that history 
 shall hereafter judge your judgment of to-day, and that the 
 judgment of History will be that of ages." But the Assembly 
 would not hear to reason, and the sentence of execution was 
 pronounced. He ascended the scaffold with a firm tread, and 
 turning to the assemblage he said, " I die innocent ; I forgive 
 
 my enemies ; and for you, oh ! wretched people " ! At 
 
 this moment his voice was lost in the roll of drums, his execu- 
 tioners seized him, and in an instant he was lifeless. 
 
 The moderate counsels of the Girondists were now disregarded, 
 and their leaders, Brissot and Vergniaud, and twenty others, 
 were guillotined. 
 
 The Mountain Party was shortly after divided into two violent 
 bodies, one of which was headed by Robespierre, and the other 
 by Danton. Robespierre triumphed, and Danton and many of 
 his colleagues were guillotined. But the fate of Robespierre 
 was soon decided, and he was consigned to execution. Thus 
 perished two of the most infamous men that France has ever 
 produced. 
 
 In the meantime the First Coalition was formed, the object of 
 which was to restrain the growth of democratic principles in 
 France, as well as Europe. Prussia and Austria were the most 
 prominent members of the Coalition at first; and Great Britain, 
 Holland, Russia and Spain were also pitted against the revo- 
 lutionists. 
 
 The Allies were defeated, however, by Bumouriez, who was 
 sent to meet them at the head of the French army. The French 
 army was then sent into Italy, and the command given to JS/'a- 
 poleon Bonaparte. At this time he was but twenty-six years 
 of age, and his career of glory, which was begun at Toulon, 
 was continued in the present campaign. The Austrians were 
 compelled to sign the treaty of Oampo Formio^ by which the 
 French territory was greatly extended. Bonaparte then led his 
 army into Egypt, and gained the famous battle of the Pyramids. 
 
 The Second Coalition was formed while Bonaparte was in 
 Egypt, and the French soon had cause to regret the absence of 
 
258 DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 their skillful commander. The French army was driven back 
 into France, and the frontiers of that country were threatened. 
 In this condition of affairs, Bonaparte returned to Paris, and 
 taking advantage of the disorder that there reigned, caused him- 
 self to be proclaimed First Consul,*" in 1799. Having restored 
 order, he took the command of the army, and having made the 
 famous passage of the Alps, gained the battle of Marengo. 
 Peace was now made with Austria and Great Britain. 
 
 Bonaparte returned to Paris, and was made Mrst Consul for 
 life. A conspiracy was immediately formed against him, includ- 
 ing in its numbers Moreau, one of the greatest generals of the 
 age. The conspirators were discovered, and a large number of 
 them were guillotined. Moreau was banished to America. 
 Bonaparte was then crowned Emperor of France. 
 
 The Third Coalition was formed in 1805 by Great Britain, 
 Prussia, Sweden, Austria and Russia. The allies were defeated 
 again, and the victories of Ulm and Austerlitz were added to 
 the fame of Bonaparte. Holland and Naples were compelled to 
 receive the brothers of Bonaparte as kings. A Confederation 
 was formed of some of the German States, of which Bonaparte 
 assumed the title of protector. 
 
 The rapid increase in power which Bonaparte was making 
 was the immediate cause of the Fourth Coalition. In this cam- 
 paign, Bonaparte, as usual, was victorious, and defeated the 
 allies in the battles of Jena, Auerstadt and Puliush. In 1807, 
 Bonaparte fought with the Russians, and gained the battle of 
 Friedland. The Kingdom of Westphalia was created by Bona- 
 parte out of territory wrested from Prussia, and Jerome Bojia- 
 parte was raised to the office of king. Joseph Bonaparte was 
 raised to the throne of Spain, and the Emperor then caused 
 Murat, his brother-in-law, to succeed Joseph to the throne of 
 Naples. 
 
 England now joined with Spain in the efforts of the latter 
 country to deliver itself from the power of Bonaparte. The 
 allies under Wellington gained the famous battles of Talavera 
 
 * Bonaparte had formerly been one of three consuls elected in 1799, in which 
 the executive power was vested. 
 
OF FRANCE. 259 
 
 and Salamanca. During this time Bonaparte was fighting again 
 with Austria, and gained several important victories. Bona- 
 parte now divorced the Empress Josephine, and married 3Iaria 
 Louisa, daughter of Francis II., of Austria. From this time 
 the tide of victory was turned against him. 
 
 In 1812, Bonaparte gathered an army of nearly five hundred 
 thousand men, and invaded Russia. At first he was successful; 
 but winter coming on, and his troops being short of provisions, 
 he was obliged to abandon his design. On his way back his 
 army was harassed by the Russians, and exposed to all the 
 severity of a Russian winter. The amount of sufi'ering that 
 ensued is without a parallel in history. After the remnant of 
 his army (30,000) had crossed the river Berezina, Bonaparte 
 fled in disguise to Paris, where he collected an army of three 
 hundred and fifty thousand men, with which he determined to 
 attempt another campaign. But he found he needed his forces 
 at home to face the new Coalition (Fifth) of Sweden, Prussia, 
 Austria and Russia. In this combination Great Britain did not 
 personally join, but engaged one of the German States to act in 
 her place. 
 
 Bonaparte led his troops against the allied army, and achieved 
 the victories of Lutzen, Bautzen and Dresden. But in the 
 bloody battle of Leipsic he was defeated with great loss, forty 
 thousand of his troops being either killed, wounded or made 
 prisoners. 
 
 This battle sealed the fate of Bonaparte. He immediately 
 abdicated the throne; and the allied army entered Paris, and 
 restored the House of Bourbon in the person of Louis XVIII. 
 Bonaparte was banished to the Island of Elba, and his mighty 
 empire which had been a task of years, was suddenly destroyed. 
 But this sudden transition from fame to neglect was too much 
 for the man who once ruled the destinies of Europe, and he was 
 not destined to resign his high rank without another struggle 
 for glory and for power. He succeeded in making his escape 
 from Elba, and, landing in France near the small town of Can- 
 nes, proceeded without opposition to Paris. Louis fled on his 
 appro ich; and the army received their former leader with loud 
 
260 DESCRIPTIVE GEOaRAPHT 
 
 acclamations. Bonaparte soon found himself quietly seated on 
 the throne which he had shortly before abdicated, and the peo- 
 ple rejoiced in the presence of a ruler who promised them many 
 useful reforms. 
 
 But his promises were premature ; for the former conquerors 
 of Bonaparte, who were i^ow assembled in a Greneral Congress, 
 were opposed to his bold usurpation, and another coalition was 
 formed against him, in which Great Britain bore an important 
 part. The command of the allies was given to Wellington. 
 Bonaparte with his usual decision marched against Wellington, 
 He was at first successful, but on the memorable _^g?c?o/ Water- 
 loo, his army was routed with a loss of forty thousand men, and 
 Bonaparte became a fugitive. He endeavored to fly to Amer- 
 ica, but being frustrated in this design, he surrendered himself 
 to Oaptain Maitland, On the 17th of October, 181f>, he was 
 sent to the Island of St. Helena, where he resided till his death. 
 
 In 1815, Louis XVIII. was restored to the throne from which 
 he had fled on the return of Bonaparte from Elbaj France was 
 now compelled to pay the enormous sum of twenty eight million 
 pounds sterling towards defraying the expenses of the late wars, 
 and submit to many humiliating conditions. Marshal Ney, and 
 many others who had united with Bonaparte in his last cam- 
 paign, and who had previously sworn fidelity to the crown, were 
 convicted of treason and shot. 
 
 Charles X., brother of the late king, next ascended the throne. 
 He was a weak king, and the consequences of his reign were 
 fatal to the peace which France had begun to enjoy. His deter- 
 mined inclination to subdue the rising spirit of Liberty awakened 
 the indignation of the people. In 1830, the Chamber of Depu- 
 ties rose in opposition to the king and ministry, and for this 
 cause the Chamber was disorganized. An insurrection imme- 
 diately ensued, and Charles was compelled to fly from France. 
 
 Louis Philippe was immediately placed upon the throne. 
 During this reign France, Russia, England and Greece united 
 their eff"orts to achieve the independence of the latter. France 
 also efi'ected the conquest of Algiers. 
 
OF FRANCE. 261 
 
 Louis imitated the example of Charles in his efforts to restrain 
 the liberty of the people. The people became dissatisfied, and 
 meetings of a seditious nature were organized, in which the con- 
 duct of the king and ministry was severely condemned. 
 
 Another insurrection broke out, and the king hastened from 
 the country to England. A provisional government was imme- 
 diately established, and France was proclaimed a repuhlie. The 
 organization of the government was begun on the fourth of May, 
 1848. The Constitution framed was of a liberal nature, in part 
 resembling that of the United States. The President was to be 
 elected for four years; and a legislative body was to be chosen, 
 composed of seven hundred and fifty members, called the Na- 
 tional Assembly. 
 
 Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was chosen President for 
 the first term by a large majority. The only military act of 
 prominence that occurred during the presidency of Napoleon, 
 was the restoration of Pope Pius IX. to temporal power by the 
 French army, of which he had been deprived by an insurrection 
 in Rome. 
 
 As the term of his presidency was drawing to a close, Louis 
 determined to secure the extention of his time. But this was 
 contrary to the Constitution, which provided that the President 
 could not be re-elected. He was violently opposed by the Na- 
 tional Assembly — in fact that body had opposed the king in 
 most of his measures. Resolved to accomplish his design, he 
 dissolved the Assembly, and called upon the people to decide 
 whether he should be President for ten years. The response 
 gratified his hopes, and in return for the confidence of the peo- 
 ple, he introduced a form of government, the most arbitrary in 
 Europe. One year after his re-election the imperial government 
 was re-established, and Napoleon ascended the throne as Na- 
 poleon III. 
 
 At first the Emperor wielded his power with such energy and 
 ability, that he was considered the leading spirit of Europe, and 
 France resumed the rank that she had held during the reign of 
 'Louis XIV. and Napoleon Bonaparte. The war against Russia, 
 
262 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 in 1854 and 1855, for the protection of the Ottoman Empire, 
 freed Europe from that odious Russian supremacy which had 
 weighed upon its mind for forty years. The war in Italy against 
 Austria, in 1859, was also a proof that France still maintained 
 her military superiority ; and though the Emperor's Italian 
 policy had hy no means pleased his subjects, it raised him in the 
 estimation of the world at large. 
 
 At the breaking out of the great Civil War in America, 
 France assumed an attitude of hostility towards the United 
 States. In 1863, Napoleon endeavored to place Archduke Max- 
 imilian, brother of the Emperor of Austria, upon the throne of 
 Mexico. Finding himself opposed by the United States, he 
 withdrew his troops from Mexico, and abandoned Maximilian to 
 his fate. The influence of the Emperor was now on the decline, 
 and his power in Europe was soon to be annihilated. 
 
 Ever since the dethronement of Napoleon Bonaparte^ the 
 French had cherished a bitter animosity towards the Prussians. 
 For a number of years, although continually at war, there had 
 been a growing intimacy between France and Spain. When, 
 therefore, in July, 1870, the crown of Spain was offered to 
 Prince Leopold, of SoJien-Zollern-Sigmaringen^, France insisted 
 that such a course would be injurious to the honor and influence 
 of the French nation, and demanded the withdrawal of the 
 Prince from that position. The demand was made of King 
 William^ of Prussia, who replied that the Prince was of age, 
 and that he had no authority to oppose his wishes. Matters 
 were hushed for a time by the voluntary withdrawal of the 
 Prince ; but France was not yet satisfied. She demanded that 
 King William, in a letter to Napoleon, should guarantee that 
 no Prince of Hohenzollern could in future become a candidate 
 for the Spanish throne. 
 
 These unjust demands were slighted by William, and imme- 
 diately France declared war against Prussia. Never was war 
 proclaimed on a more groundless pretext. The circumstances 
 deduced show plainly that France was anxious to enter into this 
 
 * A principality of Germaay. 
 
OF FRANCE. 263 
 
 contest, and she entered into it because she feared the further 
 increase of Prussian power, and because she desired to secure 
 again the leadership of Europe. And Prussia, conscious at the 
 time of her superiority, was as ready to accept the challenge as 
 Prance was to give it. The French army was in a feeble con- 
 dition in consequence of bad government. 
 
 Active preparations were immediately made for the contest by 
 the Prussians. The South German States, contrary to the ex- 
 pectations of France, and the North German Confederation, 
 applauded the conduct of William, and all agreed that some- 
 thing must be done to repel the arrogance of France. Their 
 united armies were soon upon the frontiers of that country, 
 under the chief^^command of King| William. 
 
 The weapons used by the French army were far superior to 
 those used by the Prussians, but they were not well-skilled in 
 their use ; consequently the Prussians, with inferior arms, were 
 able to accomplish more, and their efforts met with great suc- 
 cess on the event of almost every battle. But, notwithstanding 
 all this, had Napoleon, who insisted upon commanding the army, 
 united in his character any of the decision which signalized his 
 uncle Bonaparte- much of the impending calamity might have 
 been avoided. 
 
 But before his armies were organized and ready to enter the 
 field, the Prussians were awaiting his approach ; and while the 
 world was wondering at his forbearance, the Prussians begun 
 that extraordinary series of movements which resulted one 
 month after in the capture of Napoleon, at Sedan, with the 
 largest army that he had brought against his enemies. 
 
 The news of this capture created the greatest consternation 
 in Paris. A Provisional Crovernment was immediately formed, 
 and G-eneral TrocTiu was elected President. France now deter- 
 mined to place two new armies in the field, one of which was to 
 be stationed at Lyons, and> the other on the banks of the Loire — 
 both in the heart of France. These plans were defeated, and 
 the few troops already stationed there were dispersed. 
 
264 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 After the capture of the army at Sedan, the Prussians pushed 
 forward and invested Paris. The strong fortress of Toul^ con- 
 sidered impregnable, was soon after captured. Strasbourg^ the 
 capital of Alsace, surrendered four days later (Sept. 27th), and 
 already the German people began to anticipate the annexation 
 , of that country to Germany. On October 27th, Metz was cap- 
 tured, with one hundred and fifty thousand troops and a large 
 amount of implements of war. 
 
 The Prussian arms continued to be victorious. Paris held out 
 till Ja.nuary 28th, 1871, when it was surrendered to the con- 
 querors. The inhabitants were nearly reduced to starvation, 
 and large quantities of provisions were forwarded from the 
 Prussian headquarters. The war was now virtually ended, and 
 hostilities ceased altogether towards the last of February. 
 
 The National Assembly was elected February 8th, and was 
 strongly represented by the democrats. M. Crrevy was elected 
 President of the Assembly, only nineteen out of five hundred 
 and thirty-eight members dissenting. M. Adolphe Thiers was 
 elected by the Assembly Chief Executive of the French Repub- 
 lic, and was empowered to choose his own cabinet. He chose 
 men well advanced in years, who were distinguished opposers of 
 the Empire. He made a speech to the Assembly, in which he 
 declared himself in favor of peace, but insisted that no terms 
 should be discussed which were not agreeable with the honor of 
 France. 
 
 On the 26th of February, terms of peace were accepted by 
 M. Thiers and the Consultative Commission of the National 
 Assembly. France was obliged to cede the whole of Alsace, 
 with the exception of Belfort, and important territory in Lor- 
 raine, to the Germans, besides paying a war indemnity of $1,000,- 
 000,000. The territory ceded was mostly agricultural, and 
 contained the important cities of Strasbourg and Mulhouse. 
 Another treaty of peace between France and Germany was 
 signed at Frankfort, May 10th, in which Germany, by obtaining 
 control of the railways in the ceded territory, deducted 320,- 
 000,000 francs* from the war indemnity. 
 
 * Equivalent to nearly $60,000,000. 
 
OF FRANCE. 265 
 
 After the capitulation of Paris, an insurrection broke out 
 among the people, during which a large number of public build- 
 ings, including the Tuileries and part of the Royal Palace, were 
 destroyed. 
 
 18 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SPAIN. 
 
 Outline. Spain is bounded on the north by the Bay of 
 Biscay and the Pyrenees Mountains, on the east by the Medi- 
 terranean Sea, on the south by the Mediterranean, the Straits 
 of Gibraltar and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west by the 
 Atlantic Ocean and Portugal. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast line of Spain is about thir- 
 teen hundred and seventy miles in length, of which about six 
 hundred miles belong to the Bay of Biscay and the Atlantic, 
 and seven hundred and seventy miles to the Mediterranean. 
 The interior may be considered as one vast table-land, traversed 
 by numerous mountains, and intersected by a succession of fer- 
 tile valleys, from eighteen hundred to twenty-six hundred feet 
 above the level of the ocean. Along the coast extends a narrow 
 belt of low-land, which rises gradually from the margin of the 
 sea. This low-land is broken by alternations of hill and dale, 
 which present a pleasing contrast to the bleak and barren same- 
 ness by which the central region is characterized. 
 
 The mountains may be considered as a part of the great range 
 that crosses Europe from the Black Sea to the Atlantic. The 
 Pyrenees Mountains, common to France and Spain, form a long, 
 continuous line of summits, the most central and elevated of 
 which is Mount Maladetta, eleven thousand four hundred and 
 fourteen feet in hight. Toward the seas the elevation decreases. 
 The Iberian Chain extends from the western Pyrenees almost 
 directly south, and forms the boundary of the plains of Aragon 
 and Valencia. All the other ranges have an east and west 
 direction. 
 
OF SPAIN. 267 
 
 The Cantabrian Mountains extend across the entire north. 
 Parallel to this, on the opposite side of a vast plain (the valley 
 of the Douro), is another transverse range, the highest point of 
 which is Mount Guadarrama. On the opposite side of the Ta- 
 gus River, and the plains of Madrid, is the Sierra de Toledo. 
 It borders the elevated plain of La Mancha, on the southern 
 side of which is the Sierra Moreno ; and farther south is the 
 Sierra Nevada, lofty, bold, and covered with eternal snows. 
 Between this and the Mediterranean, only a narrow plain inter- 
 venes. These long and lofty ranges are separated by extensive 
 plains, which, in the interior, are of great elevation. Madrid, 
 situated on one of these plains, is two thousand one hundred and 
 seventy feet above the sea level. The southern plains are very 
 fertile. 
 
 Rivers, Bays, etc. The rivers of Spain form as important 
 a feature as its mountains. The Tagus and Douro rivers rise 
 in the Iberian Chain, and pass through Portugal to the sea. 
 The Guadiana rises in New Castile, and, on its approach to the 
 sea, forms the boundary between Spain and Portugal. The 
 Guadalquivir is wholly within Spain. Though impeded, and 
 approachable for large vessels only to Seville, it is the only river 
 of Spain of much commercial importance. The Ebro, rising in 
 the Cantabrian Mountains in the north, nearly crosses the 
 breadth of north-eastern Spain, and empties into the Mediter- 
 ranean. The Guadalaviar and Jucar, in Valencia, and the 
 Minho, in Galicia, are also rivers of some importance. 
 
 The indentations of the Spanish coast are inconsiderable. The 
 Bay of Rosas and the Gulf of Ampola, in Catalonia, are the 
 greatest indentations on the east, and the Gulf of Almeria, on 
 the coast of Granada, Gibraltar Bay and Strait, and the Bay of 
 Cadiz on the south. On the Atlantic coast the outline is irreg- 
 ular, but not so deeply penetrated, and, with the exception of 
 the estuary of the Tagus, no bays or gulfs of any size occur. 
 The most important capes are those of Creux, St. Sebastian, 
 St. Martin and Palos, on the east, Gata and Trafalgar 
 on the south. Cape Finisterre on the west and capes Orte- 
 gal, Penas and Machichaco on the north. There are few islands 
 
268 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 near the Spanish coast, the most important of which are the 
 Balearic, a group consisting of two larger and a number of 
 smaller islands. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Spain is divided into three zones. 
 The northern zone comprises Galicia, Asturias, the Basque 
 provinces, Navarre, Catalonia, and the northern part of Old 
 Castile and Aragon. The mountains which cover this zone, the 
 glaciers and perpetual snows of the Pyrenees Mountains, together 
 with the north and north-east winds, lower the temperature, and 
 increase the number and supply of rivers. 
 
 Vegetation is, consequently, greatly increased ; and agricul- 
 ture forms the principal occupation of the inhabitants. The 
 winters in this zone are generally cold, and the springs moist ; 
 but the climate is, on the whole, temperate. The middle zone, 
 which embraces northern Valencia, New Castile, southern Old 
 Castile and Aragon, Leon and Estremadura, is composed of 
 elevated plateaux, whose uniform and monotonous surface is 
 swept by the winds and burned by the rays of the sun. This 
 zone has but few rivers, and their waters are not sufficient to 
 fertilize it. 
 
 The temperature is subject to extremes ; the winters are cold 
 and the summers burning, but the spring and autumn are pleas- 
 ant. The southern zone, which comprises Andalusia, Murcia, 
 and the province of southern Valencia, is exposed to the burn- 
 ing winds that blow from the deserts of Africa. The valleys 
 in this zone are deeper, and the plateaux better supplied with 
 water than in the middle zone. The soil is more diversified and 
 better adapted for agriculture. The temperature, delightful in 
 autumn and spring, is tropical in summer, and more rainy than 
 cold in winter. 
 
 Productions. Spain is one of the most fruitful countries of 
 Europe. Wheat, maize, barley, hemp and flax are extensively 
 cultivated, especially in the eastern and northern provinces. 
 Mulberry trees are largely cultivated for raising silkworms in 
 Valencia, Murcia and Granada. In the south of Spain there 
 is a great variety of the finer fruits, including the almond, date, 
 fig, orange, citron, pomegranate, pine-apple and banana. 
 
OF SPAIN. 269 
 
 Commerce. Spain is, principally, an agricultural state. It 
 has, however, a respectable commerce. The commerce, at the 
 present day, consists principally in the export of wines, brand- 
 ies, fruits, wool, silk, lead and quicksilver. The imports are 
 sugar, cocoa, salt fish, spices, rice and manufactured goods. 
 Domestic trade is comparatively limited, more on account of the 
 want of good roads than of commercial material. The country, 
 however, has several canals; and numerous railroads diverging 
 from the principal towns have been lately opened. 
 
 Manufactures. Manufacturing industry in former centuries 
 was very prosperous. In the middle ages, the wool and silk 
 tissues of Seville, Granada and Baeza, the cloths of Murcia and 
 the arms of Toledo, enjoyed a high reputation. The expulsion 
 of the Moors, however, greatly undermined this prosperity. Of 
 late, industry has been greatly improved by the influx of foreign 
 capital ; considerable portions of the former property of the 
 clergy having passed into the hands of French and English cap- 
 italists. Paper is made in Segovia, and tapestry at Madrid. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Madrid is the seat of government. 
 Cadiz forms the chief commercial emporium of the kingdom. 
 
 Gibraltar, in the south of Spain, is the strongest fortress in 
 the world, and rises from the sea to the elevation of one thous- 
 and four hundred and thirty-nine feet. It derives its present 
 name from Tarek, a Moorish general, who filrst built a fort here 
 in the eighth century. The north and east sides form a line of 
 almost perpendicular precipices, and the place is now so strongly 
 fortified as to be deemed impregnable. 
 
 Palos is the port from which Columbus sailed on his first 
 voyage to America. The other important cities are Barcelona, 
 Seville, Valencia, Malaga, Murcia, Granada and Saragossa. 
 
 HISTORY OF SPAIN. 
 
 The primitive inhabitants of Spain were the Iberians. They 
 mingled in remote antiquity with the Celts, who had immigrated 
 from France, and from this mixture arose the Celtiherians. 
 About one thousand years before Christ the Phoenicians came 
 
270 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 to Spain, took possession of the coast on the Mediterranean, in 
 the modern provinces of Granada, Murcia and Valencia, and 
 founded several colonies. They were soon followed by the 
 G-reehs, among whose colonies were Ampurias, on the coast of 
 Calatonia and Murviedro, on the coast of Valencia. 
 
 After the first Punic War, the Carthagenians began to estab- 
 lish themselves in Spain, and subdued a number of tribes on 
 the south and east coast. Among the cities founded by them 
 was New Carthage (now Carthagenia) which soon became a cel- 
 ebrated emporium. The siege and subsequent destruction of 
 Murviedro by Hannibal, 219 B, C, led to the second Punic 
 War, which was mostly carried on in Spain, and after many- 
 vicissitudes ended in the total expulsion of the Carthagenians. 
 
 The Romans now undertook the subjugation of the entire 
 peninsula, but did not fully succeed until after a war of about 
 two hundred years. Finally, after this long contest, the whole 
 of Spain, with the exception of the Basque countries, was 
 annexed to the Roman Empire. The country was then made a 
 E-oman province, and became so thoroughly Romanized, that it 
 was one of the principal seats of Roman civilization and litera- 
 ture. Christianity was early introduced, and in the time of 
 Constantine, the Christianization of the entire country was com- 
 pleted. 
 
 On the decline of the Roman Empire, the country was over- 
 run by the Vandals, the Alans and the Suevi. It was soon 
 subdued by the Visigoths, who laid the foundation of the present 
 monarchy. One of the greatest kings of the Visigoths was 
 Euric, who, in 471, put an end to the dominion of the Romans, 
 and gave to Spain the first written laws. The constitution of 
 the Visigoths was an elective monarchy, which proved to be a 
 prolific source of violence, assassinations and civil wars, and 
 finally led to the destruction of the Empire. 
 
 The Moors completed within five years the subjugation of the 
 country, with the exception of the mountainous districts of 
 Asturias, Cantabria and Navarre, where Pelagius, a Gothic 
 prince, was elected king, and maintained himself successfully 
 against the invasion of the Moors. 
 
OF SPAIN. 271 
 
 Pelagius was succeeded by Alfonso J., the Catholic^ who con- 
 quered Galicia, with a part of Leon and Castile, and assumed 
 the title of king of Asturias. The whole of Leon was con- 
 quered by Alfonso III., the Cfreat, who was compelled to 
 abdicate the throne in 910. His son Ordono II., transferred 
 his residence to the city of Leon, and called his dominion the 
 kingdom of Leon. North-east Spain was conquered by Charle- 
 magne, and from this arose, in the course of time, the kingdoms 
 of Navarre and Catalonia. Near the source of the Ebro arose 
 the kingdom of Castile. It was at first a small republic, but its 
 territory was soon enlarged, and the princes for a time became 
 vassals of the kings of Asturias; but in 961 they recovered 
 their independence. They soon assumed the title of king, and 
 after the death of the last sovereign of Leon, in 1037, Ferdi- 
 nand I, the Cfreat, united that kingdom with Castile, which 
 was henceforth the most powerful Spanish state. 
 
 Aragon, Galicia, Portugal, Murcia and other states ®wed their 
 origin to the prevailing custom of dividing a kingdom among 
 the sons of a deceased monarch. Among the Christian states 
 of Spain, Aragon and Castile became the most powerful, and 
 in the course of time absorbed all the others. Aragon, which 
 in 1131 fell by inheritance to the counts of Catalonia, extended 
 itself especially on the eastern coast. Pedro I. conquered the 
 principality of Huesca ; Alfonso I. Saragossa, which he made 
 his capital ; Alfonso II., and Pedro, the Catholic, likewise 
 enlarged the Empire. James I, the Conqueror, seized the 
 island of Majorca in 1220, and wrested from the Moors^the 
 kingdom of Valencia. Pedro III occupied Sicily in 1282, and 
 expelled the Moors from the Balearic and Pityusan islands ; and 
 Alfonso V. united Naples with his kingdom. 
 
 When the Catalonian line of princes became extinct the 
 Cortes,* in 1412, elected Ferdinand, infante of Castile, their 
 king. His descendants ruled over Aragon until the close of the 
 fifteenth century, when the marriage of Ferdinand V., the 
 Catholic, of Aragon, with Isabella of Castile, consolidated all 
 Christian Spain into one kingdom. In the fifteenth century, 
 *The States of the kingdom of Spaiu. 
 
272 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 during the reign of minor princes, the clergy and nobility 
 usurped so much of the royal prerogatives that when Isabella 
 ascended the throne, royalty was almost powerless. The mar- 
 riage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, did not 
 lead at once to an entire coalescence of the two kingdoms, for 
 they retained the separate administration of their respective 
 native dominions. The subjugation of the kingdom of Granada, 
 the last Moorish possession in Spain, completed the political 
 consolidation of the kingdom ; while the conquest of Naples by 
 Gronsalvo de Cordova, and still more the discovery of America 
 by Columbus, in 1492, soon raised the new kingdom of Spain 
 to a front rank among the powers of the earth. 
 
 Ferdinand was succeeded in 1516 by hiis grandson, Charles 
 I., who permanently united Castile and Aragon. At the begin- 
 ning of his reign, serious insurrections broke out in Valencia 
 and Castile, where the people demanded a more liberal constitu- 
 tion. These were soon quelled, however, and resulted in the 
 restriction of the powers of the Cortes, and a stronger attach- 
 ment of the clergy and nobility to the crown. 
 
 Charles I. was succeeded by his son Philip II., under whose 
 reign the vast monarchy began to decay. Philip conquered 
 Portugal, which from 1581 to 1640 remained united with Spain; 
 but this conquest exhausted the strength of the country. The 
 despotic measures adopted by the Inquisition for crushing out 
 Protestantism, and by the king for destroying more thoroughly 
 the ancient privileges of the people had the desired effect, and 
 also completed the ruin of Spanish commerce, agriculture and 
 industry. 
 
 Under Philip IV. Portugal recovered its independence ; in- 
 surrections broke out in Naples and Sicily, and the enmity 
 between Olivarez, the Spanish minister, and Richelieu, involved 
 Spain in a war with France, by which the former lost Roussillon. 
 
 Still more unfortunate was the reign of Charles II., under 
 whom another disastrous war was waged against France, and the 
 population of Spain decreased to eight millions. The death of 
 Charles occasioned a war for the succession to the Spanish 
 
OF SPAIN. 273 
 
 throne, whicli bcth the brothers-in-law of Charles, Louis XIV. 
 of Trance and Leopold I. of Austria, tried to secure for a prince 
 of their respective families. 
 
 In his will Charles appointed Philip of Anjou, grandson of 
 his sister Maria Theresa, sole heir to the Spanish monarchy. 
 Louis XIV. knew that to accept this would be to involve France 
 in a new war. He could not, however, resist the temptation of 
 placing so brilliant a crown on the head of his grandson ; and 
 after some hesitation, he accepted, and acknowledged him as 
 king by the title of Philip V. Under his reign Aragon, Valen- 
 cia and Catalonia werQ deprived of the last of their constitu- 
 tional rights. The great alFairs of the state were managed by 
 the queen, Elizabeth Parnese, and her minister, Cardinal Al- 
 heroni. Philip's son, Ferdinand VI., was disabled from taking 
 any active part in the government. 
 
 His step-brother, Charles III, succeeded next to the throne, 
 and with his reign a better era began to dawn. The internal 
 prosperity of the country was greatly promoted by the wise 
 administration of this king, and agriculture, commerce and trade 
 were greatly strengthened. The population during his reign 
 showed a considerable increase. The power of the Inquisition 
 was also greatly restricted. 
 
 He was followed by his son, Charles IV. For a time Spain 
 joined the alliance against the French republic, but was soon 
 obliged to conclude the inglorious peace of Basle (1795), by 
 which St. Dofningo was ceded to France. This treaty was 
 signed by Qodoy, the prime minister, who then assumed the title 
 of " Prince of the Peace'' In consequence of this alliance 
 with France, Charles became involved in a war with Portugal 
 and England. The hostilities against the former country did 
 not last long, but in the contest with the latter, the Spanish navy 
 received a deadly blow at the battle of Trafalgar (1805), while 
 Spain lost at the same time its richest colonies in America. 
 
 The misery which these wars brought upon Spain created a 
 powerful opposition to Godoy, who now made some feeble and 
 fruitless efforts to extricate his country from the alliance. The 
 growing opposition in which the Prince of A%turias now took 
 
274 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 part, led to an estrangement between the king and the prince. 
 Godoy attempted to fly with the royal family to Mexico, but 
 his departure was prevented ; and the people, now greatly in- 
 censed, stormed his palace, seized, wounded, and would have 
 murdered him, had not the prince of Asturias used his influence 
 over the mob to save his life. The king was so much frightened 
 that he abdicated the next day in favor of his son. Two days 
 later he attempted a retraction, but the prince assumed the title 
 of king and ascended the throne as Ferdinand VII. 
 
 Spain was already invaded by French troops, and Murat soon 
 marched into the capital, Ferdinand hoped to conciliate Napo- 
 leon by submission, and went as far as Bayonne to meet him. 
 Notwithstanding the empty honors that were paid him at that 
 place, he found himself a prisoner, and was made to understand 
 that he must restore the crown to his father. He was unable 
 to resist, and assented to the surrender of his royal title. Charles 
 gave this title and all the rights it conferred to Napoleon, who 
 then placed his brother Joseph on the throne. Ferdinand was 
 transferred to the Castle of Valencia, the property of Talleyrand. 
 
 In the meantime, the Spanish nation rose in arms, and Napo- 
 leon, hoping to divert Spain from the coalition against him, 
 released Ferdinand from captivity. He restored to him the 
 Spanish crown, on condition that he would compel the English 
 to evacuate the peninsula, and keep in their ofiices all the Span- 
 iards who had been in the service of King Joseph. Ferdinand 
 left his prison, and on his arrival in Spain was welcomed by 
 popular acclamations. His progress to Madrid was a triumph^ 
 but his return became the signal of the most dreadful reaction. 
 He did not abide by the terms of his treaty with Napoleon. The 
 old despotism, with all its abuses, was re-established, and perse- 
 cution was directed against the very men who had most strenu- 
 ously resisted the French invasion. All the members of the 
 Cortes, and all those who had participated in the framing of the 
 constitution of 1812, or had faithfully adhered to it, were tried 
 and sentenced. A number perished on the scaflbld ; hundreds 
 of the most illustrious were sent to dungeons in Africa, and the 
 most fortunate were exiled. For six years Spain was subject 
 
OF SPAIN. 275 
 
 to the unrelenting cruelty of a revengeful tyrant. At last dis- 
 content ripened into insurrection. Ferdinand summoned the 
 Cortes and swore faithfully to observe the instrument he had 
 formerly annulled. He abolished the Inquisition, and re-estab- 
 lished the freedom of the press ; but, at the same time, he was 
 laying plots to defeat the plans of his own cabinet, and encour- 
 age the intrigues of the opposite party. This soon brought 
 about bloody riots, and finally civil war, and Ferdinand was 
 held in a kind of imprisonment, scarcely disguised under court 
 ceremonial. , 
 
 At length the French received orders from the congress of 
 Verona to march into Spain for the purpose of restoring Ferdi- 
 nand's authority. The king was immediately removed to Seville, 
 where he was declared, to be insane, and was suspended from 
 power. He was again re-established, however, and made his 
 solemn entrance into Madrid amidst great applause, and the 
 work of vengeance commenced, and was continued for years. 
 The noblest victims fell under the sword of the executioner, and 
 terror reigned throughout Spain. 
 
 Ferdinand died September 29th, 1832, and was succeeded by 
 his daughter Isabella, who was then only two years of age. Her 
 mother, Maria Christina, was appointed Regent, during her 
 minority, after which she ascended the throne as Isabella II. 
 She reigned until September, 1868, when a successful revolu- 
 tion overthrew the throne of the Queen, and the country has 
 been, up to the present time, under the provisional government 
 of the Regent, Marshal, F. Serrano, appointed June 18th, 1869. 
 These foreign wars have led to a considerable increase in the 
 army and navy, promoted peace at home, and have greatly raised 
 the reputation and influence of Spain abroad. 
 
CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 PORTUGAL. 
 
 Outline. This portion of the Spanish Peninsula is bounded 
 on the north and east by Spain, and on the south and west by 
 the Atlantic Ocean. K has an almost unbroken coast Kne of 
 about five hundred miles in extent. The only projection of any 
 size consists of a promontory between the mouth of the river 
 Tagus and the bay of St. Ubes. The coast is generally low 
 and marshy, and presents few good harbors. Navigation is also 
 rendered hazardous by the sand bars and reefs, which in many 
 places line the shores. 
 
 Physical Features. The interior of Portugal is generally 
 mountainous. Three large mountain ranges extend across the 
 €ountry from north-east to south-west. The most important of 
 these are the Sierra Estrella, a continuation of the Castile 
 Mountain Range of Spain. This chain soon after its entrance 
 into Portugal sends out two smaller branches, one extending 
 north and the other south, while the main chain continues its 
 course across the country in a south-westerly direction, until it 
 terminates in the lofty clifis of Cabo da Roca. The Sierra 
 Monchique extends along the southern boundary of the country, 
 and terminates in Mount Foria, at the western extremity. Mount 
 Gaviarra, uituated in the Penagache Chain, in the north-western 
 part of the country, is the highest elevation. The natural 
 scenery of Portugal, especially among the mountain valleys is 
 remarkably beautiful. Some of the most noted of these valleys 
 are the Chaves, Villarica and Besteiros. 
 
 Climate. Portugal possesses a delightful climate. The 
 winters are short and the heat of the summer is tempered by 
 cooling sea breezes. 
 
OF PORTUGAL. • 277 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is very fertile. Wheat, 
 barley, oats, flax, hemp and rice are raised in considerable quan- 
 tities, but the attention of the people is turned principally to the 
 cultivation of the grape, mulberry and olive. Fruit of an excellent 
 quality is abundant. The orange and lemon are successfully 
 grown in the warm mountain valleys. 
 
 Manufactures. Large quantities of armor are manufac- 
 tured at Lisbon. The other important manufactures are silk 
 and cotton goods, porcelain, earthen, copper and tinware, jew- 
 elry, glass and paper. 
 
 Commerce. Portugal is quite extensively engaged in com- 
 merce. The principal exports are wine, brandy, salt, oil, pork 
 and fruit. 
 
 Rivers. Few countries, in proportion to their size, are better 
 supplied with navigable streams than Portugal. It is separated 
 on the north from Spain by the Minho. The Douro skirts its 
 north-eastern frontier for about fifty miles, and then turning in 
 a westerly direction, traverses the country from east to west. 
 The Tagus also crosses the country in a south-westerly direction, 
 and the Guadiana flowing south, separates it for some distance 
 from Spain. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Lisbon, the capital, and the principal 
 commercial city, is situated at the mouth of the Tagus River. 
 The city was nearly destroyed in the year 1755 by an earth- 
 quake. Nearly all of the buildings of the city were thrown 
 down, and -about sixty thousand people killed. Traces of this 
 earthquake are still to be found about the city. Oporto, near 
 the mouth of the Douro, is also extensively engaged in com- 
 merce, besides being the chief manufacturing city of Portugal. 
 Coimbra and Setubal are also important places. 
 
 History. The Romans obtained possession of Portugal 
 about two hundred years before the commencement of the Chris- 
 tian era. It remained in their possession until some time during 
 the fifth century, when it was conquered by the Suevi, Vandals 
 and Visigoths. In the early part of the eighth century it was 
 overrun by the Moors, and the former inhabitants were obliged 
 
278 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 to retreat to the mountains. After many hard fought battles, 
 they succeeded, in the year 1143 in driving the Moors from the 
 country, and establishing their own independence. 
 
 Ferdinand at his death, in 1383, left no male heir, and in con- 
 sequence a dispute arose in regard to his successor. The crown 
 was claimed by his son-in-law, John of Castile, but the Portu- 
 guese would not consent to receive him as their ruler. For 
 eighteen months they were without a king. At the end of that 
 time the crown was bestowed upon Ferdinand's brother John, 
 who was at that time regent of the kingdom. During his reign, 
 important acquisitions were made to the Portuguese Territory 
 by means of conquest and discovery. He personally undertook 
 an expedition to the coast of Africa, and succeeded in taking 
 Ceuta from the Moors. During his whole reign he was the con- 
 stant terror of the Barbary states. 
 
 His navy was superior in force to that of any other European 
 power, and his pilots, under the care of his gifted son, Don 
 Henry, received important instruction in astronomy and the art 
 of navigation. 
 
 In 1418 an exploring expedition advanced as far south as 
 Cape Bojador, and on the return voyage discovered the Island 
 of Madeira. The Azores Islands were discovered by another 
 expedition in the year 1432. In 1463, a third expedition ad- 
 vanced as far south as Cape Sierra Leone, within eight degrees 
 of the equator. 
 
 During the reign of John II., an expedition advanced as far 
 south as the Congo River, and sailing up this stream, entered 
 the kingdom of Congo, where they established a valuable com- 
 merce. In 1486, Captain Diaz explored the whole of the west- 
 ern coast of Africa, and advanced as far as the Cape of Good 
 Hope. In 1497, during the reign of Manuel I., Vasco de 
 Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and pursuing his course 
 eastward reached the shores of Malabar, in British India. He 
 landed at Calicut, which was at that time the principal commer- 
 cial city of Hindostan. Here he found a native of Barbary who 
 understood the Portuguese language. Through his influence 
 
OE PORTUGAL. 279 
 
 Oama procured an audiance with the emperor. In the name of 
 his king he immediately presented articles requesting a treaty 
 of commerce between the two nations. These negotiations were 
 favorably received, but before they were completed they were 
 broken off through the influence of the Arabs. This nation had 
 long been engaged in a lucrative trade with India, and fearing 
 that the treaty with Portugal would be in opposition to their 
 interests, they represented to the emperor the danger of such an 
 alliance in such strong terms, that he not only refused to enter 
 into one, but even threatened to put the Portuguese navigator 
 to death. This threat, however, was not put into execution, and 
 Gama returned to his king with the news of having discovered a 
 passage for Portugal to India. 
 
 In the year 1500, the J*ope granted to the Portuguese all the 
 countries they should discover, on condition that they should 
 there establish the Catholic religion. 
 
 A fleet of eleven vessels set sail for India under the command 
 of Alvarez de Cabral. This fleet in order to avoid the calms on 
 the coast of Africa, kept some distance out at sea, and on their 
 passage discovered the country of Brazil, in South America. 
 They took possession in the name of their king, and gave it the 
 name of the Land of the Holy Oross. 
 
 Proceeding on their voyage the fleet arrived at Calicut. Cab- 
 ral was met by the emperor with offers of friendship, and a treaty 
 of commerce was concluded. This treaty was again broken off 
 through the insinuations of the Arabs, and the people of Cali- 
 cut, roused by the Arabs, murdered fifty of the Portuguese. 
 The Portuguese in return destroyed all the Arabian vessels in 
 the port, and burned down the larger part of the city. 
 
 The Portuguese, failing in their attempts to establish a peace- 
 ful relation with India, determined to resort to different measures, 
 and commerce was established by the sword. In a short time 
 Lisbon became the great centre to which all European merchants 
 resorted for Indian commodities. 
 
 In order to render the Portuguese power perpetual, the chief 
 command in India was given to AlpJionso Albuquerque, a man 
 
280 OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 distinguished for his ambition and military talents. Albuquer- 
 que burned the citj of Calicut, and established the Portuguese 
 capital at the city of Goa, situated on an island on the coast of 
 Malabar. He took possession of Malacca, the principal centre 
 of commerce between China, Japan and the Spice Islands. He 
 destroyed the Arabian commerce by his conquests along the 
 shores of the Red Sea, and obtained possession of the Persian 
 trade by the conquest of Ormus, at the mouth of the Persian 
 Gulf. Portugal was now at the hight of prosperity, but in the 
 year 1580, a disputed succession brought her almost to the verge 
 of ruin. For sixty years she was under the dominion of Philip 
 II., of Spain. At the end of this time the people, headed by 
 the Buke of Braganza, rose and expelled the usurper from the 
 throne. The Duke of Braganza was made king, under the title 
 of John IV. 
 
 The country was invaded in 1807 by the French, and the 
 royal family were obliged to flee to Brazil, They returned to 
 Portugal in the year 1820. Two years later the people of Bra- 
 zil declared their state to be free and independent of Portuguese 
 authority. The king of Portugal, after some inefiectual attempts 
 to establish the former relation between the two countries, was 
 obliged to acknowledge their independence. This was a severe 
 blow to Portugal. She had given up her richest jewel and was 
 left with scarcely a show of her former greatness. In 1836 sev- 
 eral important changes in the government were made, and the 
 present constitution was established. During the last ten years 
 the country has been considerably agitated by internal difficul- 
 ties. Of late, a number of attempts have been made to establish 
 a union between this country and Spain, but as yet these at- 
 tempts have not been successful. 
 
CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 Outline. Italy is a kingdom of Southern Europe, project- 
 ing in a large peninsula between the Adriatic and Mediterranean 
 seas. It is bounded on the west by France, and on the north 
 by Switzerland and that portion of Austria known as Tyrol. 
 The islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Elba belong to Italy. 
 
 PhysiCj4L Features, The Alps stretch around the northern 
 side of Italy in a vast semi-circular barrier, and form a natural 
 boundary between this country and France, Switzerland and 
 Austria. On the Switzerland portion of this boundary are many 
 of the snowy peaks of the Alps, and many celebrated mountain 
 passes. Among the latter is the Great St. Bernard Pass,* 
 where the snow accumulates to a depth of from ten to forty feet. 
 The Hospice, situated on the summit of this pass, is inhabited 
 by a number of benevolent monks, who send out dogs to rescue 
 travelers who are lost in the snow. One of the principal peaks 
 in this vicinity is Monte Rosa, inferior in hight only to Mont 
 Blanc. (Hight 15,208 feet.) Between Savoy and Piedmont is 
 the peak of Mont Cenis, one of the most famous in the Alps. 
 The new tunnel, recently cut through Mont Cenis, is one of the 
 most remarkable works of modern times. (Hight of mountaiuj 
 6,775 feet.) 
 
 The Maritime Alps pass between France and Italy, and pass- 
 ing eastward, merge into the Apennines. These wind through 
 the whole length of the country, and terminate at the Strait of 
 Messina. Numerous branches of these mountains spread over 
 the country, forming a succession of fertile valleys, which are 
 filled with immense forests. 
 
 * This pass is chiefly celebrated for the passage of Napoleon at the head of 
 the French Army, in 1800. (See page 258.) 
 
 19 
 
282 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The island of Sicily is crossed by the Neptunian Mountains. 
 These mountains greatly resemble those on the mainland, and 
 it is a generally believed that they were once united, and have 
 been divided by an earthquake, or some other convulsion of 
 nature. 
 
 The eastern coast of Italy is low, and abounds in pestilential 
 marshes, lagoons and sandy islands. On the western coast, the 
 land is sometimes low, but as a general thing is elevated, many 
 of the branches of the Apennines terminating in abrupt preci- 
 pices. In the northern part of Italy, inclosed by the Alps and 
 Apennines, and the Adriatic Sea, is the most fertile plain in 
 Europe. The peculiar clearness of the atmosphere sets off the 
 landscape beauties of Italy with brilliant effect, giving a bright- 
 ness of color and distinctness of outline rarely found in other 
 countries. 
 
 VoLCANOS. Italy contains the famous volcanos of Vesuvius 
 and Etna. Mount Vesuvius is the only active volcano of any 
 prominence in Europe. Its early eruptions are lost in remote 
 antiquity, no symptoms of activity having been evinced as late 
 as 63 A. D., when an earthquake in the vicinity destroyed many 
 of the surrounding cities. In 79 occurred the fearful eruption 
 which buried the cities of Herculaneum, Poonpeii and Stahioe. 
 A succession of eruptions followed, but none were attended with 
 any flow of lava till 1036. Since then have occurred many vio- 
 lent eruptions, of which those of 1779, 1834, 1847 and 1850 
 are the most important. Mount Vesuvius forms a perfect cone, 
 three thousand nine hundred and forty-eight feet high, and has 
 a crater fifteen hundred feet in diameter. 
 
 Mount Etna is on the eastern coast of Sicily, near the 
 city of Catania. It consists of a main cone (10,847 feet high), 
 studded on its side with numerous other cones, the highest of 
 which is seven hundred feet high. These minor cones number 
 about eighty, and are arranged in picturesque groups around 
 the crowning summit. Etna has been .the scene of many vio- 
 lent eruptions. Xhat of 1792 lasted a whole year, and the 
 streams of lava ejected were often thirty feet high, while in a 
 Jiuid state. During that of 1832, numerous fiery mouths opened 
 
OF ITALY. 283 
 
 in the side of the mountain, from which in the midst of violent 
 explosions, accompanied bj tremendous discharges of ashes and 
 binders, streams of lava poured forth and overran the fields, 
 and threatened with destruction the town of Bronte. A river 
 of lava sixty feet high was ejected from this volcano in 1669, 
 and this mass, in. a hardened condition, may still be seen curling 
 over the ramparts of Catania. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Some of the largest mountain lakes of 
 Europe are in Italy. Of these. Lake of Garda, Maggiore and 
 Lugano are the most important, and have portions of their areas, 
 in Switzerland and Austria. Como and Iseo are entirely Italian. 
 
 The Po is the largest river in Italy. It flows through the 
 northern part of the country, and waters, with its numerous 
 branches, the fertile plains of Lombardy and Piedmont. In 
 many parts of Lombardy the Po is above the level of the sur- 
 rounding territory, and inundations are prevented by means of 
 high embankments. North of this river is the Adige, having 
 its origm among the Austrian Alps, and flowing into the north- 
 ern part of the Adriatic Sea. The chief rivers of Italy flow- 
 ing into the Mediterranean Sea, are the Arno and Tiber. 
 
 Climate. Italy enjoys an excellent climate. From its posi- 
 tion and form, the plants of both Temperate and Torrid Zone 
 are allowed to mingle on its surface. Snow is found during the 
 whole year, only among the Alps at a great elevation. South 
 of the valley of the Po, snow falls only On the mountains, and 
 the olive, orange and citron ripen in the open air. The climate 
 in the southern part of Italy, and in the island of Sicily, is 
 tropical, and admits of the culture of tropical plants. Pesti- 
 lential winds from the deserts of Northern Africa, blow over 
 this portion of the country during certain periods of the year, 
 which arrest vegetation, and impart languidness to the human 
 frame. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is fertile, especially in the 
 north, where the garden-like plains of Lombardy stretch out on 
 both sides of the Po. In this region, as well as in Sicily, corn 
 is largely produced. The only large rice fields in Europe are 
 
284 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 in the basin of the Po. The mulberry thrives luxuriantly at 
 the foot of the Alps, furnishing endless means of obtaining the 
 finest silk ; and the olive and grape are also produced in this 
 vicinity. The plains of the Po are also noted for their rich 
 pasture lands. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The manufactures of Italy 
 are not of much importance. Silk is manufactured in Lombardy 
 and Piedmont ; and woolen, porcelain and paper are also man- 
 ufactured The commerce, also, is limited. The principal 
 exports are silk, wool, oil and honey. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Rome, the capital,* is the most cele- 
 brated city in Europe, It contains the greatest and grandest 
 cathedrals and churches in the world. It is the great center of 
 the Catholic religion, and has always been the seat of the Ro- 
 man Popes. But the Pope has recently been deprived of 
 temporal power, and Victor Emmanuel resides at Rome as king 
 of Italy. 
 
 St. Peters Church, at Rome, is the largest building in the 
 world. Its exterior has the form of an immense Greek cross. 
 The dome which crowns the building, is borne upon four colossal 
 piers, and may be regarded as the most astonishing result of 
 human architecture. Adjoining St. Peters Church, and con- 
 nected with it in one place, is the magnificent palace of the Vat- 
 ican, which has been occupied as the residence of the popes 
 since 1377. This immense building contains nearly four thou- 
 sand five hundred apartments. 
 
 Modern Rome is inclosed by a wall fifteen miles in circum- 
 ference, which is pierced by eighteen gates. Only about one- 
 third of the area within the wall is occupied by the city. The 
 Tiber has three miles of its course in the space inclosed. 
 
 Ancient Rome occupied about the same position as the mod- 
 ern city. It was founded by Romulus ;t and in the reign of 
 Vespasian covered an area of thirteen square miles. Previous 
 
 * The capital of Italy has lately been transferred from Florence to Rome, 
 t JSomulus was the founder of the Roman Empire, and was also, first king 
 of the Romans. 
 
OF ITALY. 285 
 
 to his reign it had twice been destroyed by fire, the latter time 
 to gratify the curiosity of iV^ero. The Flavian Amphitheatre,, 
 or Colliseum, was an important building of ancient Rome, and 
 the ruins are still to be seen in the modern city. This great 
 structure was completed by the Eoma^ king Titus, and was 
 built as a place in which to celebrate sports and games peculiar 
 to the early Romans. Ancient Rome contained four hundred 
 temples, of which the oldest was built by Romulus. 
 
 Naples, the largest city of Italy, is picturesquely located on 
 the north side of the Bay of Naples. It extends along the 
 coast, and up the slopes of the mountains which rise in the 
 background, and is bounded on the east by the lofty summits of 
 Vesuvius. The streets of Naples are generally narrow, but are 
 clean and well-paved. Among the finest buildings are the Cathe- 
 dral and Royal Palace. Naples has a museum filled with curi- 
 osities, obtained chiefly from excava;tions at Herculaneum and 
 Pompeii. 
 
 Milan is next in size to Naples and Rome. It is situated in 
 the midst of a fertile plain between the Adda and Ticino rivers. 
 It is chiefly remarkable for its cathedral, a vast and magnificent 
 structure, inferior only to St. Peters Church, Rome. It is built 
 of white marble, and is noted for its light and graceful archi- 
 tecture. Around its sides are over four thousand niches, nearly 
 all of which are filled with statues. 
 
 Turin is situated in a fertile plain of Piedmont, on the river 
 Po. It was formerly surrounded by walls and fortifications, 
 but these have been removed, and their site is now occupied by 
 finely planted walks. The most important buildings of Turin 
 are of modern architecture. 
 
 Genoa is the principal port for the fertile districts on the 
 north. It is celebrated as having been the birth-place of Qhris- 
 toplier Columbus. 
 
 Venice was early the first commercial city in Europe. But the 
 progress of discovery having opened new channels, Venice lost 
 its superiority, and its trade at the present time is of trifling 
 importance. 
 
286 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Cathedral of Florence is one of the finest buildings in 
 Europe. Florence is the center of the fine arts, heing frequented 
 by painters and artists from every quarter of the world. 
 
 Hercvflaneum and Pompeii. Herculaneum and Pompeii were 
 ancient cities of Italy, situated near Naples. In 19 A. D. they 
 were overwhelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, and buried in 
 ashes to a great depth. For more than sixteen centuries the 
 location of these cities was unknown, but in 1748 the ruins of 
 Pompeii were discovered. Since that time excavations have 
 been vigorously prosecuted, and a large portion of the cities 
 have been uncovered. Pompeii appears to have been surrounded 
 by a wall, entered by several gates ; and its streets were paved 
 with lava. Excavations at Herculaneum are less satisfactory, 
 only a small portion of this ancient city having been discovered 
 
 HISTORY OF ITALY. 
 
 The Roman annals of Italy extends back to 752 B. C. Greek 
 colonies first established themselves in the south, and the coun- 
 try which they occupied was called Magna- Grroecia. Sardinia, 
 and a number of the countries in the interior of Italy and the 
 Island of Corsica were colonized by the l]trurians, who appear 
 to have been more forward than other tribes in the vicinity. 
 
 The Romans carried their arms into Sicily, and ruled the des- 
 tinies of all Italy for about eight hundred years. Towards the 
 close of the Fifth Century the Croths first crossed the Alps, and 
 overran Italy ; and in the latter part of the sixth century the 
 Lombards established a monarchical government in the northern 
 part of the country. This government yielded to the formida- 
 ble power of Charlemagne, and was ruled by him till his death. 
 From this time Italy was harassed by a constant succession of 
 wars and insurrections till 960, when Otlio the Grreat succeeded 
 in restoring tranquility. 
 
 Peace however, was of short duration; and the long series of 
 tumults which now ensued were occasioned by differences in 
 ecclesiastical and civil parties. These contests were at their 
 bight in the Twelfth Century; and it was about this time that 
 
OF ITALY. 287 
 
 some adventurers from Normandy secured Sicily and Naples, 
 and incorporated them into a kingdom. The famous League of 
 Camhray was formed against Venice in 1508. (See page 247.) 
 In 1830, Italy became the scene of the war between Francis I., 
 of France, and Charles V., of Germany, and from this time 
 Italy became a prey to the rapacity of neighboring powers. 
 
 During the time of Napoleon Bonaparte, the largest portion 
 of Italy was incorporated in the French Empire ; and in 1808 
 the Papal States were overturned, and also annexed to the Em- 
 pire. In 1814, all the Italian territory was restored to its 
 former rulers, with the exception of Milan and Venice, which 
 were ceded to Austria, and formed into the Lombardo- Venetian 
 kingdom. By the revolution of 1859 and 1860, Milan and 
 Venice were released from Austrian rule, and all Italy, with the 
 exception of Venetia and part of the Papal States, was consoli- 
 dated into one kingdom. 
 
 In 1866, Italy and Prussia united together in a war against 
 Austria. The object of Italy in engaging in this war was to 
 obtain possession of Venetia. Before hostilities terminated, 
 Austria made over to Napoleon the territory of Venetia, who 
 immediately conveyed it to the Italian king. This addition to 
 the kingdom of Italy rounded and completed its form; and in 
 1867, G-arihaldi made a movement against the Pope, the object 
 of which was to gain possession of the small remnant of the 
 Pope's temporalities. The French came to the assistance of the 
 Papal government, and Garibaldi was defeated. In 1868, Pajpe 
 Pius IX. called a general council, similar in nature to the 
 famous Council of Trent., which met in 1563. After a delibera- 
 tion of seven months, the council adjourned, and the infallibility 
 of the Pope was proclaimed. 
 
 The Catholic governments of Europe paid little attention to 
 this dogma of the Pope at the time, for immediately thereafter 
 the Franco-German War broke out, and this event was calcu- 
 lated to absorb their undivided interest. The French forces 
 which had been stationed in Rome in 1867 were withdrawn, and 
 the Papal authorities were left unprotected. When Napoleon 
 IIP laid down his sword at Sedan, Italy lost all fear of French 
 
288 OF ITALY. 
 
 interference, and within ten days after that event the Italian 
 government announced its intention to march against Rome. 
 The city was entered by the Italians, and on Sunday, October 
 2nd, a vote was taken on the question of adding the Papal States 
 to the Italian dominions, which was carried almost unanimously 
 in favor of union. The fall of the Pope as a temporal ruler 
 was now secured, acd his authority was transferred to Victor 
 Emmanuel. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Outline. Switzerland is a small republic of Central Europe, 
 comprising twenty-two cantons or states. It is bounded on the 
 north bj Germany, on the south by Italy, on the east by Aus- 
 tria, and on the west by France. Its outline is very irregular. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of Switzerland is com- 
 posed of mountains and valleys. The snowy peaks of the Alps 
 are crowded in this little country in greater numbers* and reach 
 a greater hight than in any other country where they are found. 
 The highest peak of the Alps, Mont Blanc, is generally regarded 
 as a Swiss mountain, but it has been included in the limits of 
 France since 1860. (See France.) The great mass of Mount 
 St. Gothard forms the centre or nucleus of the system of Swiss 
 Alps, the peaks of which are from nine thousand to fourteen 
 thousand feet above the sea. This mountain is bounded by 
 immense glaciers ; and on its south side occur fearful avalanches 
 a;nd snow-storms. 
 
 Monte Rosa, next in hight to Mont Blanc, is on the southern 
 border of Switzerland. (See Italy.) The view of Monte Rosa 
 from the Swiss side (snow-white from base to summit) often dis- 
 appoints the expectations of the traveler, only two of its peaks 
 being visible; and altogether the best view can be obtained from 
 the Italian side. But the most striking object in the whole 
 panorama in this region is the Matterhorn,* or Mont Cervin, 
 
 *"The Matterhorn was ascended for the first time on July 14th, 1864, by the 
 Rev. Mr. Hudson, Lord Francis Douglas, Messrs. Whymper and Haddo, with 
 the guides Michael Croz and two Taugwalders. In descending Mr. Haddo lost 
 his footing not far from the summit and was precipitated along with Mr. Hud- 
 son, Lord Douglas and Croz to a depth of 4000 feet to the Matterhorn Glacier. 
 Mr. Whymper and the two other guides escaped by the breaking of the rope. 
 Three days later the ascent was again accomplished by four guides from Breuil.' 
 
290 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ■which lifts it gigantic, pillar-like mass thirteen thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety-eight feet high. Its ascent is remarkably 
 abrupt, and is accomplished with great difficulty. 
 
 In the center of Switzerland, inclosing some of the richest 
 valleys of this country, are a number of important peaks. Of 
 these the Jungfrau, Monch, Wetterhorn, Schrekhorn, Finster- 
 aarhorn and Grosshorn are the most noted. The Jungfrau is 
 noted for the puritj and dazzling brightness of the snow and ice 
 with which it is covered ; and the Wetterhorn is noted for its 
 glaciers. The Monch is in the immediate vicinity of the Jung- 
 frau, and is sometimes known as the Jnnere Eiger. These moun- 
 tains belong to the Bernese Oberland, 
 
 On the north-western borders of Switzerland are the Jura 
 Mountains, the highest peaks of which are the Dole and Mont 
 
 Tendre. 
 
 • 
 
 Yalleys and Gorges. The Alps of Switzerland are filled 
 with numerous valleys, many of which are of considerable ex- 
 tent. In the Bernese Oberland are the valleys of Lauterbrun- 
 nen and Grindelwald, which become the annual retreat of hun- 
 dreds, who go thither to visit the famous mountains which 
 surround them (Jungfrau, Wetterhorn, etc.) In the Lauter- 
 brunnen Valley these mountains are so high and so abrupt that 
 in winter the sun does not make its appearance till noon. It 
 contains the village of Lauterbrunnen, and is drained by the 
 Lutschine. The Staubbach Fall which occurs in this valley is 
 the highest in Europe, having an unbroken descent of nine hun- 
 dred and twenty-three feet. 
 
 The Gorge of Viamala, in the Canton of Grisons, forms the 
 pass between Chur and Splugen. This wonderful defile is four 
 miles long, and is walled in by abrupt precipices sixteen hundred 
 feet high. These walls frequently approach within a few feet of 
 each other at the top and diverge towards the bottom, where the 
 Hinter* Rhine is dashed among rocks and hurled along with 
 savage velocity. This gorge was long thought to be inaccessa- 
 ble, and at one time was signalized as the " lost gulf," but mod- 
 
 * The Rhine is formed by the junction of two small streams in Switzerland* 
 k -own as the Hinter and Vorder Rhine. 
 
OF SWITZERLAND. 291 
 
 ern ingenuity has overcome natural inconvenience, aud a cora- 
 parativelj safe road has been constructed. This road 'i-ro.^sefj 
 the chasm three times by means of as many hriilges. 
 
 Glaciers. The glaciers of Switzerland are numerous and 
 interesting. The glaciers of the Alps cover an area of fifteexi 
 hundred square miles. The Canton of Grisons alone, contains 
 two hundred and forty glaciers, and it is in one of these (Rhein- 
 wald) that the Hinter Rhine has its origui. The glaciers in the 
 vicinity of Mont Cerviu and Zermatt,* attract greater attention 
 of late than those in any other part of the Alps. The Cforner 
 Crlacier, which is more extensive than the Mer de Glace at Cha- 
 mouni (see France), winds around the Riffelbergf like a huge 
 serpent, and is joined in its course by no less than ten other 
 glaciers. This glacier annually descends from twenty to thirty 
 feet. 
 
 The G-lacier of the Rhone, imbedded between the Gersthorn 
 and Galenstock,J is eighteen miles long, and resembles a gigan- 
 tic waterfall suddenly arrested in its career by the icy hand of 
 some Alpine enchanter. From an icy cave in this glacier issues 
 a small stream, which ultimatelj becomes a mighty river. This 
 is the Rhone, said to flow " from the gates of eternal night, at 
 the foot of the pillar of the Sun." 
 
 The G-rindehoald Grlaciers are in the Bernese Oberland, and 
 flow into the Valley of Grindelwald, approaching almost to the 
 houses. They are inferior in interest to the Rhone and Gorner 
 glaciers, but are more easily explored, and are found in a region 
 more frequented than the others. They are imbedded between 
 the Schreckhorn and Wetterhorn mountains, and form the source 
 of the Black Lutschine. These glaciers are divided into the 
 Upper and Lower Glacier. The Upper Glacier is noted for tht 
 
 * Zermatt is a small villag-e with 425 inhabitants, situated in a green valley 
 into which three glaciers descend. Zermatt of late has become a formidable 
 rival of the Bernese Oberland. In no other locality is the traveler so com- 
 pletely admitted into the heart of the Alpine world as at Zermatt. He here 
 finds himself, as it were, in the very sanctuary of the spirit of the Alps. 
 
 t The Riffelberg is a mountain peak near Zermatt and the Matterhorn. 
 
 J The Oalenstock a,u&. Gersthorn are peaks of the Alps. Height of the former, 
 11,0T3 feet ; of the latter, 9757 feet. 
 
292 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 purity of its ice, the beauty of its crevasses, and the Alpine 
 flowers which grow on its borders. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. Switzerland abounds in beautiful moun- 
 tain lakes. Of these Lake Geneva is the most interesting. It 
 is fifty five miles long, and between Rolle and Thonon is nine 
 and one-half miles wide. At Chillon* it is five hundred feet 
 deep. The other most important mountain lakes are those of 
 Brienz, Thun, Lucerne, Zug, Wallenstadt, Zurich and Constance. 
 In the range of Jura are the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne. 
 
 The Rhine and the Rhone rivers have their sources in Swit- 
 zerland. The Rhine has but little of its course directly within 
 the country, but forms its northern boundary. The Rhone 
 passes through the Canton of Valais, and on the western side of 
 Switzerland expands into Lake Geneva. After being discharged 
 from that body it receives the Arve, ten miles from the mouth 
 of which it leaves the Swiss frontier. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Switzerland is subject to violent 
 extremes. While winter is reigning in all its severity on the 
 mountains, and on the higher slopes, it is only necessary to de- 
 scend into the valleys to find the spring far advanced. In the 
 upper valleys of the Jura winter lasts during six months of the 
 year, and in the Alps the winters are even longer. Snow falls 
 at least once a month in summer on Mount St. Gothard. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The vegetation of Switzerland is 
 extremely varied. The valleys are productive of wheat, spelt,t 
 rye and summer and winter barley. Tobacco is produced in the 
 level districts of Ticino and Vaud. 
 
 * The Castle of Chillon, famous as having been the place where Francis Bori' 
 nivard (an earnefct partisan of the republicans of Geneva,") was imprisoned for a 
 great many jears, is at the eastern extremity of Lake Geneva. 
 
 "Chillon ! thy prison is a holy place, 
 And thy sad floor an altar — for 'twas trod, 
 Until his very steps have lelt a trace, 
 Worn, as if the cold pavement were a sod. 
 By Bonnivard !— may none those marks efface, 
 For they appeal from Tyranny to God." 
 
 t Spelt is a species of grain much cultivated in Germany. It is also called 
 German Wheat. 
 
OP SWITZERLAND. 293 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The manufacture of vari- 
 ous kinds of tissues is carried on by the Swiss peasantry during 
 the evening after the day's work is done. The quantity of goods 
 thus fabricated is great, but the amount is not easily ascertained. 
 Cotton, linen and cutlery are largely manufactured. The man- 
 ufacture of watches and jewelry also, forms an important branch 
 of industry. 
 
 The chief exports are the manufactures. Corn, rice, salt, 
 salt fish, woolens and articles of iron and copper are the chief 
 imports. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Berne is the capital, and is situated on 
 the Aar. It is the finest town in Switzerland, and is one of the 
 finest in Europe. 
 
 Geneva, the most important city, is situated at the head of 
 Lake Geneva where that body discharges the Rhone. It is sit- 
 uated on both sides of the river, and has a very imposing appear- 
 ance when approached from this direction. Geneva is noted for 
 the manufacture of watches. Other large towns are Basle, 
 Lausanne, Zurich, St. Gall and Lucerne. St. Gall is noted for 
 its Cathedral. 
 
 Glarus, beneath the precipitous and imposing Vorder-Glar- 
 nisch, was reduced to ashes in 1861, and three thousand persons 
 were rendered destitute. 
 
 Pfaffers (in St. Gall) is noted for its Bath establishments, and 
 is the annual resort of a multitude of foreigners. The Baths are 
 under the control of the government of St. Gall. The Gorge 
 of the Pfaffers is one of the most remarkable spots in Switzer- 
 land. The walls which inclose the gorge are six hundred feet 
 high, and in the bottom the impetuous Tamina leaves scarcely 
 room for a road. 
 
 History. The Swiss people are noted above all others for 
 the spirit of freedom and independence by which they are actu- 
 ated. Though exceedingly limited in area, this country has 
 persistently maintained its independence, and fought successfully 
 for liberty with the mightiest nations of Europe. The early 
 
294 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 inhabitants of Switzerland 'were subdued bj the Roman legions, 
 and for a long time subject to Roman dominion. 
 
 A great irruption of barbarians, however, was destined to 
 sweep through the peaceful valleys of the Alps, before which 
 JRomau civilization fled, and the Burgundians, Allemanni and 
 Ostrogoths settled themselves in different parts of the country. 
 The country was soon after incorporated in the Frayikish Empire. 
 On the division of this Empire, Switzerland was divided into two 
 parts, but was reunited under Pepin. Under Qharlemagne the 
 country prospered and made great progress in the arts and 
 sciences. In process of time the counts became independent of 
 the royal authority, and exacted vassalage from the people un- 
 der their respective governments. 
 
 The most powerful of these feudal families was that of Maps- 
 burg. Rudolph of Hapsburg was king and emperor of Ger- 
 many, and also held a court in Switzerland. His rule was wise 
 and salutary, but his sons Rudolph and Albert were tyrannical 
 in disposition, and were greatly disliked by the Swiss people. 
 The latter encroached so much upon the rights of the people 
 that the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden rose in re- 
 bellion, and deposed the odious governors whose rule had been 
 marked by the greatest oppression and cruelty, and destroyed 
 the power which had so long overawed the country. 
 
 Senry VII ., who succeeded Albert, endeavored to conciliate 
 the rebels, but their war-like spirit had been aroused, and for a 
 long time Switzerland was harassed with civil war. At length 
 the House of Austria determined to regain the rule of the Swiss 
 people. Frederick III. called the French to his assistance ; 
 and at St. Jacob sixteen hundred Swiss withstood twenty thou- 
 sand French under the Dauphin., Louis. The country was inva- 
 ded by Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy in 1476 and 1477, 
 when the Swiss gained the battles of Grandson and Nancy. 
 Foreign countries now acknowledged the confederated cantons 
 as the Swiss League ; and in 1481 Freiburg and Soleure were 
 united with them; Bale, Schaffhausen and Appenzell were next 
 admitted into the Confederacy ; and in 1512, the Swiss obtained 
 
OF SWITZERLAND. 295 
 
 from Milan, in Italy, the territory now forming the Canton of 
 Tessin. 
 
 About this time the work of the Reformation began in Switz- 
 erland. During the series of religious wars which followed 
 the Confederacy maintained a strict neutrality. The first re- 
 ligious peace was concluded in lf^29. In 1648, the complete 
 separation of Switzerland from the German Empire was 
 acknowledged by the Peace of Westphalia. In 1790, trouble 
 arose between Switzerland and France, and the Swiss were de- 
 prived of their constitution, and their country converted into 
 the Helvetic Republic. Bonap)arte, however, restored the canton 
 system in 1803. At this time the cantons, nineteen in number, 
 were Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, Berne, Zurich, Lucerne, 
 Glarus, Zug, Appenzell, Schaffhausen, Freidburg, Soleure, Bale, 
 Grisons, Vaud, Tessin, St. Gall, Thurgau and Aargau. In 
 1814, Neufchatel, Geneva and Valais were incorporated in the 
 confederacy, making the total number of the cantons twenty-two. 
 
 In 1830, a universal desire for reform began to pervade the 
 cantons, and eventually wise concessions were made to the pop- 
 ular demand. These were not willingly made in all of the can- 
 tons, and the opposition manifested led to the war of 1847. 
 This, however, was of short duration ; and in 1848 a new federal 
 constitution was inaugurated, which is highly conducive to the 
 welfare of the country. 
 
 On the outbreak of the Franco-German War, notwithstand- 
 ing the friendly assurances of both France and Germany, that 
 the Swiss neutrality would be maintained, the Federal Govern- 
 ment deemed it advisable to organize an army with which to 
 defend the Swiss frontier. ' 
 
 Fifty thousand troops were immediately on the threatened 
 territory, but they were subsequently withdrawn in accordance 
 with the advice of Greneral Herzog. The Federal Assembly, 
 which had been summoned when the war commenced, was ad- 
 journed after transacting some business of minor importance. 
 
CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Outline. This empire, formed by the union of Prussia, 
 Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemberg, Baden, and a number of smaller 
 states, is bounded on the north by the North Sea, Denmark, 
 and the Baltic Sea, on the east by Russia and Austria, on the 
 south by Prussia, Austria and Switzerland, on the west" by 
 France, Belgium and Holland. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface of the eastern and north- 
 ern part is generally level, but the western and southern part 
 consists of a succession of mountains, valleys, table lands and 
 plains. 
 
 The Alps enter Germany from Switzerland on the south-westj 
 and sending out a large branch extend along^ the southern 
 boundary of the country until they are joined to the West Car- 
 pathians. 
 
 North of this range is another system, consisting of a great 
 number of separate chains crossing the country in all directions, 
 and becoming so interlaced with each other that it is difficult to 
 determine the limits assigned to the different ranges. These 
 mountains are crossed by numerous valleys wnich abound in 
 beautiful and romantic scenery. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The Drincipal rivers are the Rhine, 
 Elbe, Oder, and Vistula. 
 
 The Rhine enters the country from Switzerland, and travers- 
 ing it in a north-westerly direction leaves it on the borders of 
 Holland. The valley of this river equals, if not surpasses in the 
 beauty of its natural scenery, that of any other portion of 
 Europe. In the upper part of its course it flows through a wide 
 
OF GERMANY. 297 
 
 vallej, but it gradually changes its character, until it rushes 
 impetuously on between almost perpendicular rocks, broken 
 occasionally by romantic valleys which form beds to the tribu- 
 taries of the parent stream. Pleasant villages are cosily nestled 
 at the foot of lofty hills and almost inaccessible peaks, 
 crowned with castles and other relics of feudal times. The 
 scenery is also varied by the constant recurrence of picturesque 
 islands. Fish abound in the waters of the river and wild fowl 
 on its banks. Its total length is nine hundred and sixty miles, 
 and its basin includes an area of upwards of sixty-five thousand 
 square miles. 
 
 The Elbe enters the country from Austria, crosses it in a 
 north-westerly direction and empties into the North Sea. Its 
 length, including its windings, is five hundred and fifty miles. 
 Its navigation is somewhat impeded by the lowness of its bed, 
 which is only from one hundred and fifty to three hundred feet 
 above sea level. 
 
 The Oder enters the country from the south-east, and crossing 
 it in a north-westerly direction empties into the Baltic Sea. 
 This river is of great commercial importance. It is navigable 
 for large ships for the greater part of its course, and connected 
 by canal with the Elbe and Vistula. Its total length is about 
 five hundred and fifty miles. 
 
 The Vistula is about five hundred and thirty miles in length. 
 Only the lower part of its course is included in Germany. It 
 forms the main channel of trade for the eastern part of this 
 country. 
 
 Germany contains a large number of lakes, but they are gener- 
 erally small and of but little importance. The most remarkable 
 is Lake Laachersee in the western part. It is situated, appar- 
 ently, in the crater of an extinct volcano, and though small in 
 size has a depth of over two hundred feet. 
 
 Climate. The climate of the western portion of Germany is 
 
 milder than that of the eastern. The former, though extending 
 
 over nearly ten degrees of latitude, has a remarkably uniform 
 
 climate. This is owing mainly to the southern portion being 
 
 20 
 
298 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 more elevated than the northern. In the eastern part the cli- 
 mate is quite severe. The winters are long and cold. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is generally fertile. The 
 western portion is remarkably so ; in the east there is consider- 
 able marsh land. Wheat, rye, oats, barley and tobacco are 
 raised in large quantities. The grape is extensively cultivated 
 along the Rhine. Large quantities of lumber are obtained from 
 the valley of the Vistula River. 
 
 Minerals are abundant. The most important are zinc, coal, 
 iron, copper, lead and salt. It is estimated that one-half the 
 zinc manufactured in the world is obtained from Germany. 
 
 Manufactures. The woolen manufactures of Germany are 
 next in importance to those of England. The other important 
 manufactures are linen, porcelain, and articles made from iron, 
 steel and brass. 
 
 Commerce. Germany is largely engaged in commerce. The 
 principal exports are lumber, grain, linen, wool and zinc. The 
 imports are sugar, tea, coffee, cotton and silks. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Berlin the capital and the principal 
 city is situated on the River Spree, one hundred and fifty-six 
 miles south-east of Hamburg. This city is one of the most im- 
 portant of Central Europe. It is the center of an extensive 
 system of railroads, and connected by canals with the Elbe, 
 Oder and Vistula rivers. 
 
 Germany contains many large and important cities, the prin- 
 cipal of which are Munich, Hamburg, Bremen, Breslau, Cologne, 
 Konigsburg and Dantzic. 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 The early history of Germany is lost in remote antiquity. 
 The Romans knew nothing of the Germans as late as the time 
 of Julius Caesar. When the Romans conquered France, or 
 Gaul, they first learned of a people living north of the Danube 
 and east of the Rhine, who had fixed settlements and made con- 
 siderable progress in agriculture. These people (the Germans) 
 
OF GERMANY. 299 
 
 i^ere tall, light-haired, and fond of war. They had gods, demi- 
 gods and giants, whom they worshipped and feared. They 
 sometimes offered human beings for sacrifices, but as a general 
 thing their offerings consisted of domestic animals. 
 
 The Germanic Empire was founded by Charlemagne in the 
 latter part of the eight century. His dominions included Italy, 
 France and Germany. The feeble successor was unable to keep 
 this vast empire together, and it was divided among the three 
 sons of the king. Germany fell to the share of Louis. The 
 sons of Louis subdivided Germany into three lesser kingdoms, 
 but these were reunited under King Qharles. In the year 911, 
 Conrad I. was elected emperor, and from that time until the 
 year 1806, the crown of Germany remained elective. At this 
 time a number of German states formed what was called the 
 Rhenish Confederation, under the protectorate of Napoleon, 
 The emperor Francis II. abdicated the throne and the German 
 Empire was dissolved. 
 
 With the exception of Austria and Prussia, nearly the whole 
 of Germany became subject to France. In the year 1812, a 
 coalition was formed between the countries of Austria, Russia^ 
 Prussia, Sweden and Gf-reat Britain, which resulted in the re- 
 establishment of the independence of Germany. 
 
 In May, 1848, a convention assembled for the purpose of 
 forming a constitution, A bill of rights was agreed upon the 
 following December, but it soon became evident that Prussia and 
 Austria would not submit to the popular constitution. It was 
 then decided to exclude Austria from the new empire ; and the 
 German crown was offered to the king of Prusia, who declined 
 to accept the proffered honor. 
 
 The self-constituted parliament despairing of success, endeav- 
 ored to raise a popular revolution in favor of the new constitu- 
 tion. Saxony, Bavaria, Baden and a small part of Wurtem- 
 herg joined in the revolution, but the insurrection was speedily 
 put down by the Prussian army, and the parliament was forcibly 
 dissolved by the government of Wurtemberg. 
 
300 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Prussia having succeeded in subduing the revolutionists, now 
 attempted to place herself at the head of German affairs. Aus- 
 tria^in order to prevent her so doing, convened the old assembly 
 or diet, which had been dissolved in 1848. Prussia refused to 
 recognize the authority of this diet, and for a time these two 
 great powers were placed in a hostile attitude. Both armies 
 were summoned to the field, and a slight skirmish had already 
 taken place, when Prussia, suddenly losing all her courage, sub- 
 mitted to the demands of Austria. 
 
 The strife between these two countries, however, was not 
 ended. Each was striving to place itself at the head of Ger- 
 many at the expense of the other. This position was at last 
 secured by Prussia through the genius and labors of Count Von 
 Bismarck. Through some means this statesman had succeeded 
 in obtaining an alliance with Italy, and secured the neutrality 
 of France. Austria was supported by most of the German 
 states. 
 
 The war broke out in June, 1866. Austria gained some 
 useless victories in Italy, but in Germany she totally failed. 
 The Prussians were victorious in every battle fought both against 
 the Austrians and her German allies. The contest began the 
 middle of June, and on the 24th of July a treaty of peace was 
 set on foot, which was concluded by the 30tb of the same month. 
 According to this treaty Austria agreed to pay a war contribu- 
 tion, to recognize the dissolution of the Germanic Confederation, 
 to abstain from all interference in the reconstruction of Ger- 
 many, to assent to all territorial changes that Prussia might make, 
 and ceded all her pretentions in the Danish duchies. Prussia 
 had at last succeeded in placing herself at the head of Germany, 
 while Austria ceased to have any thing to do with that country. 
 
 In 1870, the different states were united into one empire, and 
 the king of Prussia was made emperor, and in case of war the 
 whole military force of each state was placed under his orders. 
 " The German Confederation is Prussia in everything but name, 
 the king of Prussia being its head, and Count Von Bismarck its 
 chancellor." 
 
OF GERMANY. 301 
 
 The result of the Franco-German "War of 1870 and 1871 
 (see France), was favorable in every respect to Germany. Im- 
 portant territory in the north of France was annexed to her 
 dominions, and a complete ascendancy was gained over the 
 French nation. 
 
CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 Outline. Denmark is bounded on the north by Skager Rack, 
 on the east by Cattegat, on the south by Germany, and on the 
 west by the North Sea. 
 
 This kingdom formerly included the duchies of Schleswig, Hoi- 
 stein and Lauenburg. They were annexed to the Prussian pos- 
 sessions in 1866. Denmark now comprises the peninsula of 
 Jutland, a number of islands in the Baltic Sea, the Mcobar and 
 Faroe Islands and three small islands of the West Indies. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is low and perfectly flat. 
 Some portions of the northern sea coast are so low that they are 
 defended by dikes. The outline is quite irregular. 
 
 Lakes, Rivers and ijulfs. Lake Arre, on the island of 
 Seeland, is the largest and most important lake of the kingdom. 
 Numerous and extensive marshes occur on the peninsula and 
 islands. The rivers are small and unimportant. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The islands, having a 
 mild climate and fertile soil, are well adapted to agriculture. 
 The peninsula being sandy is better adapted to grazing. The 
 staple productions are barley, rye, wheat and oats. 
 
 Commerce and Manufactures. The commerce though 
 considerable is not so important as formerly. It consists in the 
 export of its agricultural and grazing products. The imports 
 are sugar, tea, coflee, iron, lumber and coal. Among the arti- 
 cles of manufacture are carriages, musical instruments, woolen 
 and linen cloths, paper and soap. Denmark has an inferior 
 quality of coal and an absence of water power, hence this branch 
 of industry has not been extensively engaged in. 
 
OP DENMARK. 303 
 
 Cities and Towns. Copenhagen, the capital, is one of the 
 finest cities in all northern Europe. It is situated on the island 
 of Seeland. On the land side is built a strong wall, surround- 
 ing which is a deep ditch filled with water from the Baltic. 
 Toward the sea are erected formidable batteries, making it a 
 strongly fortified town. It contains a university, numerous hos- 
 pitals and asylums, and many noble public buildings. The har- 
 bor is excellent, being deep, spacious and secure. 
 
 Aarhuus is a seaport town in the eastern part of Denmark. 
 
 Aalborg is a seaport on the southern shore of Lymford. 
 
 History. Denmark, with Norway and Sweden was originally 
 called Scandinavia. 
 
 On the decline of the Romans, the Danes, under the name of 
 Normans, invaded and plundered the territories of the more 
 southern nations. In 882 they invaded England, and estab- 
 lished two kingdoms. About two centuries after, the king of 
 Denmark completed the conquest of England and invaded Scot- 
 land. About this time the christian religion was introduced 
 into the dominions of Denmark. In 1448, Count Oldenburg, 
 under the title of Christian I., was placed upon the throne, and 
 his descendants have held possession of it since that time. 
 
 During the Continental War, Denmark, siding with Napoleon, 
 caused trouble between her and the British, and other northern 
 powers who were united against France. To negotiate peace 
 with offended parties, Denmark was obliged to cede Heligoland 
 to Great Britain, and Norway to Sweden. During the same 
 year (1814), peace was concluded with Russia, to which it ceded 
 Swedish Pomerania, for which she received Lauenburg and pecu- 
 niary compensation. In 1848, the Duchies of Schleswig and Hol- 
 stein revolted, and remained hostile to the government until they 
 were subjugated in 1850. 
 
 In 1866, they with Lauenburg were ceded to Prussia. The 
 Danes are believed to have discovered America about the time 
 of the settlement of Iceland, five hundred years before the dis- 
 covery of the new world by Columbus. Greenland and Iceland 
 still belong to Denmark. 
 
CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 SWEDEN. 
 
 Outline. Sweden is a country of Northern Europe, politi- 
 cally united witli Norway, which forms its north-eastern bound- 
 ary. The Gulf of Bothnia and Baltic Sea bound the country 
 on the south-east, and separate it from Russia and Germany. 
 Russia is also on the east. Sweden, together with Norway, 
 forms the Scandinavian Peninsula. 
 
 Sweden is divided into three provinces : Gottland, Svealand 
 and Norrland. Gottland is the original country of the Croths, 
 many of whom settled in the countries of southern Europe. 
 Svealand is the original country of the Svenskar or Swedes. 
 
 Physical Features. As a general thing, Sweden is a low 
 country. The Scandinavian Mountains extend along the bound- 
 ary between this country and Norway in isolated groups rather 
 than a connected mountain chain. The highest peaks, both 
 partly in Norway, are Sulitelma and Sylfjellen, which, as a 
 consequence of their high latitude, are covered with eternal 
 snows. These mountains slope towards the east, and down these 
 slopes flow numerous torrents, which finally expand into lakes 
 and swamps. There is also, a southern slope which terminates 
 at the commencement of the chain of great lakes found in South- 
 ern Sweden. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The lakes of Sweden, which are of 
 great celebrity, give to the country many of its grandest fea- 
 tures. These lakes are important on account of the vast quan- 
 tities of fish which they yield, and also, for the readiness with 
 which they can be made navigable. Lake Wener, next to La- 
 doga (in Russia), is the largest laLe in Europe. Lake Wetter 
 
 I 
 
OF SWEDEN. 305 
 
 is next in size in Sweden. Lake Maelar contains thirteen hun- 
 dred islands ; and on its banks is the city of Stockholm, the 
 capital of Sweden. 
 
 As a consequence of the slope of the land, the courses of the 
 rivers of Sweden are east, or south-east. The greater part of 
 them belong to the basins of the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Both- 
 nia. The Tornea River rises in the Scandinavian Mountains 
 in the extreme northern part of the country, and forms during 
 the whole of its course the boundary between Sweden and Rus- 
 sia. Passing south the waters of the Pitea, united Win del and 
 Umea, Angermann and Dal are successively discharged into the 
 Gulf of Bothnia. The Gota is the only river of any extent 
 flowing into the basin of the North Sea. The bed of this river 
 is rocky, and below Lake Wener, which it drains, it is precipi- 
 tated over a high precipice. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Sweden is severe, and subject to 
 great extremes. The thermometer frequently ranges as low as 
 26° below zero in the latitude of Stockholm. Notwithstanding, 
 Sweden is an extremely healthy country, its inhabitants being 
 noted for health and vigor. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of Sweden is extremely 
 poor, and has not been made to produce sufficient grain for home 
 demand. The system of agriculture is in a backward state, 
 though somewhat improved of late years. Wheat is produced 
 in limited quantities. The most important productions are rye, 
 barley, oats and potatoes. One-fourth of the country is com- 
 posed of vast forests, which sometimes cover three thousand 
 square miles without interruption. The greater portion of the 
 territory not included in the forest regions is occupied by native 
 prairie lands and artificial meadows. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Li Sweden, little progress 
 has been made in either of these branches of industry. Woolen, 
 cotton, linen and silk goods are manufactured to a limited extent. 
 The trade is confined almost entirely to articles of raw produce, 
 among which iron and timber hold a conspicuous place. 
 
306 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cities and Towns. Stockliolm, the capital, is also the 
 largest city. It is situated on a strait which joins Lake Mselar 
 with the Baltic Sea. Several islands in the strait are covered 
 by the city, and are connected with the main land by a number 
 of bridges. The public buildings of Stockholm are numerous, 
 but of little interest. It is noted for its promenades. 
 
 Other important towns are Gottenburg, Carlscrona and 
 Nordkoping. 
 
 History. Christianity was first introduced into Sweden 
 during the ninth century. Prior to this time, like other coun- 
 tries in the Old World, the annals of Swedish history are greatly 
 confused. Until 1056 the Croths and Swedes had separate forms 
 of government, but they were united at that time under the rule 
 of Stenkill. In 1397, through the efibrts of Margaret, Queen 
 of Norway and Denmark, the kingdom of Sweden was incor- 
 porated with those countries. But Margaret's successor was not 
 able to retain the conquered country, and its independence was 
 soon achieved. 
 
 Cfustavus Vasa having freed Sweden from the tyranny of the 
 Danish king, Qhristian II., was raised to the Swedish throne in 
 1523. The country was greatly improved by his able adminis- 
 tration ; and the Protestant religion was introduced. Gustavus 
 Adolphus, surnamed the Great, was eminent as a warrior and 
 statesman. He was early engaged in wars with Denmark and 
 Poland, in which his military career was successfully com- 
 menced. Having compelled those countries to agree to an hon- 
 orable peace, he turned his eyes towards Germany, where the 
 persecution of his Protestant bretheren excited his sympathy in 
 their behalf. Leaving directions with regard to the government 
 of his kingdom during his absence, he embarked for Germany 
 with sixteen thousand troops. The cruel Till^, who had never 
 yet been worsted in battle, met Gustavus at Leipzio, where was 
 fought one of the most furious battles mentioned in History. 
 Gustavus was successful, and the army of Tilly was completely 
 routed. 
 
OF SWEDEN. 307 
 
 A series of battles now took place in wbieh Gustavus was 
 always victorious, and in one of which. Tillj was slain. Wall- 
 enstein succeeded him in command, and again the two armies 
 were drawn up in battle array on the field of Leipzic. The bat- 
 tle that ensued was more furious than any before fought. Gus- 
 tavus Adolphus was slain in the early part of the action ; and 
 the Swedish troops, infuriated at the death of their beloved 
 king, fought with a fury which nothing could resist. Night 
 closed the action, and in the morning Wallenstein had withdrawn 
 from the field. This war in Germany is commonly known as 
 the " Thirty Years' War," and resulted in bringing both Catho- 
 lics and Protestants on a common basis. 
 
 Charles XII., Madman of the North, was at first successful 
 in his wars with the Danes, Poles and Russians, but in 1709 he 
 was defeated by the Russians under Peter the Cheat, in the bat- 
 tle of Poltava. Since that time the territory of Sweden has 
 been considerably reduced by the Russians. 
 
 Gustavus IV. was unfortunate in his operations ; and was 
 finally deposed, and Bernadotte^ was elected crown prince. In 
 1817, Bernadotte was given the title of Charles XIV. of Swe- 
 den ; and in 1844 was succeeded by his son Oscar I., under 
 whose reign Sweden prospered greatly. In 1859, Oscar was 
 succeeded by his son Charles XV., who wears the Swedish crown 
 at the present time. 
 
 * Bernadotte had been a marshal in the French Army under Napoleon Bon- 
 aparte. 
 
CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 NORWAY. 
 
 Outline. Norway is the western division of the Scandina- 
 vian Peninsula. It is washed on all sides by the sea, except on 
 the south-east where it borders on Russia and Sweden. 
 
 Physical Features. Norway is eminently a mountainous 
 country. There is no continuous mountain chain, the peaks 
 being generally isolated. Many of the peaks in the northern 
 part of the country rise abruptly from the surrounding plains. 
 But as a general thing the mountains rise from elevated plat- 
 eaus, and are thrown together in the greatest irregularity. 
 Skagtols-tind (^8,390 feet high) was supposed to be the highest 
 mountain in Norway, but, according to De La Roquette, the 
 Galdhoppigen is nearly four hundred feet higher. The Kilhorn 
 is noted more for its peculiar form than its hight. It shoots up 
 from the plateau in which it is situated in a bare and rugged 
 peak ; and near the top is a large perforation which produces a 
 singular effect when the Sun is seen streaming through. In the 
 southern part of Norway large glaciers are found. The only 
 important valleys are on the eastern side of the country. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The Glommen is the most important 
 river in Norway. Many of the rivers that flow through Sweden 
 into the Baltic Sea, have their origin in Norway, but soon pass 
 beyond the frontiers of that country. None of these rivers are 
 navigable for any distance. Rapids, and cataracts of great 
 magnitude are of frequent occurrence. Of the latter the most 
 remarkable are the Sarpenfos on the Glommen, and the Rukau- 
 fos in the district of Tellemarken, which have a perpendicular 
 descent of five hundred and thirteen feet. In the district of 
 
OF NORWAY. 309 
 
 Hardanger are falls eight hundred and seventy and nine hun- 
 dred and twenty feet high. 
 
 The lakes of Norway are numerous. Among the most im- 
 portant of these are the Rys Vand, Snaassen Vand and Miosen 
 Vand. 
 
 Climate. Much of Norway is within the frozen zone, and 
 the northern part is within the limit of perpetual snow. The 
 year is nearly divided between Summer and Winter. Spring 
 does not appear at all, and Autumn is short and severe. Intense 
 cold on the western coast is prevented by the iniiuence of the 
 Gulf Stream. Moist winds blow over the country from the 
 Atlantic, which are arrested by the mountains, and their moist- 
 ure is deposited in the form of rain on the eastern coast. This 
 makes the eastern part of Norway excessively humid. 
 
 Soil and Productions. A large portion of the soil of Nor- 
 way is rugged and sterile, and a large extent is also included in 
 the region of perpetual snow ; consequently in this country 
 agriculture does not hold a very high rank. Pine and fir trees 
 clothe the mountains with magpificent forests ; and forests of 
 oak are also found. In the southern part of Norway mosses 
 take the place of grass, and give sustenance to herds of rein- 
 deer. The chief productions are rye, barley, potatoes, hemp 
 and flax. 
 
 The manufactures of Norway are of little consequence. 
 
 Commerce, in like manner, is of little importance. The chief 
 exports are fish and timber. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Christiana is the capital. It is beau- 
 tifully located at the head of the Christiana Fiord,* which is 
 frozen during a portion of the year. Bergen, the largest city, 
 is at the extremity of a deep fiord on the Atlantic coast, and is 
 inclosed on the land side by mountains two thousand feet high. 
 It is the most important commercial city of Norway. 
 
 History. The authentic history of Norway begins with Eric, 
 surnamed Blodoxe (Bloody Axe), because of the cruelties which 
 he practiced. His tyranny finally became unbearable, and he 
 * A Mord is a bay, or inlet of the sea. 
 
310 OF NORWAY. 
 
 was deposed. His brother, Kaho /., was raised to the throne, 
 and matters immediately assumed a new aspect. He had been 
 brought up in England during the time of Athelestan, and had 
 there embraced the Christian religion. His reign was peaceful; 
 and he enacted many wise and valuable laws. His efforts to 
 destroy Paganism were comparatively unsuccessful, though he 
 undoubtedly paved the way for the dawn of Christianity. 
 
 Magnus I., surnamed Den Crode (The Good), ascended the 
 throne by election in 1036 ; and in 1042, having succeeded to 
 the throne of Denmark, united the two countries under a com- 
 mon government. Magnus was able and talented, and devoted 
 himself to the welfare of his subjects. The connection between 
 Norway and Denmark was severed at his death. 
 
 Before the twelfth century the Norwegian arms had been 
 carried to foreign countries. The Orkney and Hebrides islands 
 had been reduced, and many parts of Britain were under its 
 authority. At the close of the thirteenth century, during the 
 reign of Magnus IV., the Hebrides, and also the Isle of Man 
 which had been conquered by the Norwegians, were ceded to the 
 crown of Scotland. During the reign of Magnus V. (in 1319) 
 Norway was united with Sweden, but soon resumed its former 
 position. 
 
 Erick of Pomerania was successively king of Norway, Swe- 
 den and Denmark, and finally, in 1387, was crowned king over 
 their united kingdoms. Sweden freed itself from this union; 
 and Denmark degraded Norway from her former position, and 
 reduced that country to the condition of a dependency. 
 
 When the combination of European powers was formed against 
 Napoleon Bonaparte, Sweden joined the coalition on condition 
 that if success attended the efforts of the Allies, the crown of 
 Norway should be given to Sweden. In accordance with the 
 stipulation, Norway was given to Sweden in 1814. Some feeble 
 attempts were made by Norway toresist this invasion of her 
 rights, but matters were satisfactorily settled, and Bernadotte 
 became king of both countries. (See Sweden.) 
 
CHAPTEK XXVIII. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Outline. The Empire of Russia is the largest in the world. 
 Fully one-half of Europe and one-third of Asia is comprised in 
 this great division. It is bounded on the north by the Arctic 
 Ocean, on the south by Austria, Turkey, Black Sea and por- 
 tions of Asia, on the east by Russia in Asia, and on the west 
 by Germany, Baltic Sea, Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Physical Featukes. European and Asiatic Russia are for 
 the most part separated by the Ural Mountains. These moun- 
 tains do not reach an elevation exceeding seven thousand feet, 
 but, as a consequence of their high latitude, they are covered 
 with eternal snow. The main peaks of the Caucasus Mountains, 
 which lie between the Black and Caspian seas, are in Asia. 
 The Valdia Hills, in the west part of the country, do not attain 
 the dignity of mountains, the loftiest summit being only eleven 
 hundred feet high. These rapidly subside towards the south and 
 are lost in the marshes which are found in this part of the coun- 
 try. With the exceptions of these mountains Russia may be 
 considered as one vast plain. 
 
 Lakes and Rivers. The Valdia Hills are continued in an 
 irregular line to the north-eastern part of Russia. This low 
 ridge of country forms the great water-shed of Russia, directing 
 the rivers on the northern side of the country to the Arctic 
 Ocean and Baltic Sea, and those in the south to the Black and 
 Caspian seas. Russia is remarkable for the number and the 
 magnitude of its rivers. The Ural and the Volga flow into the 
 Caspian Sea. The latter is the largest river of Russia, and also 
 of Europe. The Black Sea receives the Don, Dnieper and 
 Dniester rivers. 
 
312 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Vistula and Niemen have their sources in Russia, but 
 flow into the Baltic through Germany. The Duna is the other 
 most important river flowing into the basin of the Baltic Sea. 
 There are a great many other rivers which belong to this basin, 
 but their courses are generally lost in the multitude of lakes 
 that diversify Western Russia. The basin of the Arctic Ocean 
 receives the rivers of Onega, Dwina, Mezene and Petchora. 
 
 Russia contains Lake Ladoga, the largest lake in Europe. 
 It receives about sixty rivers, and discharges its surplus waters 
 into the Gulf of Finland through the Neva River. Lakes Onega 
 and Saima are also of great extent. 
 
 Climate. Russia has a great diversity of climate. The 
 northern part is in the cold Arctic region, and the southern part 
 is in a latitude where the olive and sugar cane are readily pro- 
 duced. Russia is commonly divided by latitude into four regions 
 or zones. These are, commencing at the north, the polar zone, 
 cold zone, temperate zone and warm zone. The extreme north 
 is the region of ice (north of the 67th parallel) where vegetation 
 is rarely found. Passing south the tundrus, or moorland steppes 
 appear, and they in turn are succeeded by forests and pasture 
 lands. The region of barley, rye, flax and orchard fruits, wheat, 
 maize and the vine then appear, and last the region of the olive 
 and sugar cane. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The agricultural resources of Rus- 
 sia are great. There is perhaps no country in Europe which 
 produces so great an amount of grain with so little labor. Rye 
 is the staple production, and is the main article of food. The 
 value of the rye produced is estimated at one hundred and seven- 
 teen millions of dollars. Wheat, barley, oats, maize, buckwheat, 
 potatoes, hemp and flax are also produced. In Archangel the 
 peasants grind the oat? into meal, which they export to Norway. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Although agriculture is 
 the leading branch of industry in Russia, nevertheless consider- 
 able capital and attention is devoted to manufactures and com- 
 merce. The chief manufactures are leather, cotton and woolen 
 goods, linen, fine carpets and various kinds of metal. The 
 
OP RUSSIA. 313 
 
 commerce of Russia is carried ob chiefly with great Britain, and 
 also with most other nations of Europe. 
 
 Cities and Towns. St. Petersburg is the capital and larg- 
 est city of Russia. It is built on a peninsula and several islands 
 formed by the Neva River. These islands are low, and during 
 high water are liable to be flooded by the sea. Notwithstanding 
 its poor location on these marshy islands, St. Petersburg is one 
 of the finest cities in Europe. Its public buildings are splendid, 
 and its palaces are remarkable for their colossal dimensions. 
 
 Moscow was planned and built in a very irregular manner. 
 On the approach of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1812, the city was 
 destroyed by the Russians. It has now revived from its ashes, 
 and presents the same irregular appearance that it did before it 
 was burned. The most important buildings are on an elevation 
 in the center of the city. The Kremlin, situated on this emin- 
 ence, is composed of a large number of buildings of both ancient 
 and modern architecture. It is triangular in shape, and is sur- 
 rounded by a wall six feet high. 
 
 Near the Kremlin is the Cathedral of St. Basil, which is one 
 of the strangest specimens of architecture to be found in Europe. 
 The building has twenty towers and domes which are thrown 
 together in every conceivable form, and is adorned with an end- 
 less variety of colors. Tradition says that Ivan the Terrible 
 planned this awkward building, his object being to see how many 
 chapels he could crowd under the same roof. The architect 
 employed so pleased this savage despot that he caused his eyes 
 to be put out in order that he might never again accomplish a 
 similar design. 
 
 Riga, at the head of the Gulf of Riga, is the most important 
 port. Archangel was early an important port of Russia, but 
 its importance has been on the decline since St. Petersburg was 
 founded. It is situated near the mouth of the Dwina on the 
 White Sea. Astrachan is the principal port on the Caspian Sea. 
 
 History. The history of Russia is founded on tradition as 
 late as the ninth century. About the middle of the ninth cen- 
 tury, iluriJc, whose origin is doubtful, succeeded in making 
 21 
 
314 DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 himself master of a large portion of the country. He was slain 
 in 883 by Oleg^ who succeeded him in authority, and made Kiev* 
 the seat of government. Oleg fitted out a fleet of two thousand 
 boats, in which he embarked eighty thousand men, intending to 
 attack Constantinople (Turkey). His designs were frustrated 
 by a. storm; and a similar expedition, undertaken by Igor (son 
 of Rurik), was defeated. 
 
 In 980, St. Vladimeer the Great became sovereign of Russia, 
 and assumed the title of G-rand Duke. The affairs of Russia 
 now began to assume a new aspect. Vladimeer married the 
 sister of the Greek Emperor, and immediately thereafter em- 
 braced Christianity. His subjects readily followed his example, 
 and an important step towards civilization was made. 
 
 But the death of Vladimeer left the country exposed to violent 
 internal feuds. His sons quarreled in dividing his dominions, 
 and for two centuries the country was harassed by civil war. 
 Union was finally effected by the appearance of a formidable 
 enemy. Five hundred thousand Tartars invaded the country 
 under ToosM, and near the Sea of Azov gained a great victory 
 over the united Russians. In 1236, Batoo, son of Tooshi, over- 
 ran the country with fire and sword, and reduced Russia to the 
 condition of a dependency. For more than two centuries the 
 yoke of Tarfcary was riveted upon the unhappy Russians. At 
 length the Tartar power was broken by the invasion of Tomor ; 
 and the Russians, after completing the subjugation of the Tar- 
 tars, succeeded in gaining their independence.. 
 
 Ivan^ or Jolin III. was raised to the throne of Russia. He 
 soon defeated the Poles and Lithuanians, and extended the fame 
 of Russia to the western nations of Europe, and the courts of 
 Russia were soon frequented by ambassadors from European 
 powers. His son Ivan IV., surnamed the Terrible, succeeded 
 to the throne when only four years old. In disposition he was 
 cruel, but his rule was energetic, and the country prospered 
 greatly during his reign. He added Siberia to the dominions 
 
 * Kiev is a fortified city of Eussia, on the right bank of the Dnieper, 670 
 miles south of St. Petershurg. A fine Suspension Bridge crosses the Dnieqer at 
 this place. 
 
OF RUSSIA 315 
 
 of Russia ; and in 1584 was succeeded by bis son Feodor. 
 Feodor was tbe last male representative of tbe race of kings 
 beginning with Rurik, which had furnished fifty-six sovereigns. 
 
 For the next fifteen years the country was in a turbulent 
 condition. It had no recognized ruler, and was agitated by the 
 contests of numerous claimants to the throne. At lengtb, in 
 1613, a national flame was kindled, and Michael Romanof, who 
 represented the family of Rurik in the female line, was raised 
 to the throne. Romanof is the founder of the present race of 
 sovereigns. 
 
 Romanof was succeeded by his son, Alexis, who was twice 
 married, and left three sons — Feodor and Ivan by his first wife, 
 and Peter by his second. Feodor was succeeded by Ivan and 
 Peter, who reigned together. Ivan soon abdicated, and Peter, 
 surnamed the Grreat, became sole ruler or czar.'^ Russia made 
 greater progress during the reign of Peter than it ever has 
 during the reign of any other sovereign Peter went to, war 
 (vith Sweden, and gained the famous battle of Poltava, in 1799. 
 
 Catherine I., wife of Peter, next ascended the throne, but 
 after a short reign of two years was succeeded by the grandson 
 of Peter, who obtained the title of Peter II. Anne, half-sister 
 of Peter the Great, who next occupied the throne, was succeeded 
 by Elizabeth, daughter of Peter, the Great. During her reign 
 Russia first began to share in European politics, and the Russian 
 arms were carried into foreign countries- Peter III, after a 
 short reign, became the victim of a conspiracy, and his wife who 
 has been charged of being guilty with his death, ascended the 
 throne as Catherine II. Though licentious and cruel in the 
 extreme, yet she proved herself an able and efficient ruler. She 
 carried on the system of improvement as begun by Peter, the 
 Great ; and her armies were victorious in Turkey. 
 
 Paul, who succeeded his mother Catherine, was incapable of 
 
 governing so great a country, and, in 1801, was assassinated. 
 
 Alexander, son bf Paul, was a virtuous and talented sovereign, 
 
 and was much beloved by his people. During his reign, Russia 
 
 * The title of czar was first assumed by Ivan IV. 
 
316 OF RUSSIA. 
 
 was invaded by Napoleon Bonaparte. (See France.) Alexan- 
 der was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. During this reign, 
 Russia was engaged in a succession of wars with Turkey, Persia, 
 Poland and Hungary, in which its arms were generally success- 
 ful. In 1854 j France, England and Russia united with Turkey, 
 for the purpose of checking the aggressions of Russia. Nicho- 
 las did not live to see the end of this war. It was carried on by 
 his son, Alexander II., and at its close, Russia lost a small strip 
 of land in Bessarabia, and her naval superiority on the Black 
 Sea. One of the greatest events in the recent history of Russia 
 is the emancipation of her serfs, which occurred in 1861. In 
 1867, Russia sold her possessions in North America to the 
 United States government, for which she received seven millions 
 of dollars. 
 
CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Outline. Austria is bounded on the north by Germany and 
 Russia, on the east by Russia and Turkey, on the south by Tur- 
 key, Adriatic Sea and Italy, and on the west by Italy, Switz- 
 erland and Germany. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally mountainous, 
 though some of the river basins consist of extensive plains. 
 The largest plains are found in the valleys of the Danube and 
 March. The principal mountain systems are the Carpathian, 
 the Dinaric and Noric Alps, the Bohmerwald and Sudetic, the 
 last two of which separate this country from Germany. The 
 mountainous portion of Austria is remarkable for the beauty of 
 its natural scenery, which in some places almost rivals that of 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The Danube is the principal river of 
 Austria. This river with its affluents drains almost the entire 
 surface of Austria. The direct distance from its source to its 
 mouth is about one thousand miles, but including all its wind- 
 ings it has a course of upwards of two thousand four hundred 
 miles. It is navigable for vessels of large size for about three 
 hundred miles within the Austrian territory, and a number of 
 its tributaries are navigable for smaller vessels. The principal 
 lakes of Austria are the Attersee Mondsee and Traunsee, situa- 
 ted in the northern part. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is mild. The 
 soil is fertile, and in most parts well adapted to agriculture. 
 East of the Danube is a tract of land so marshy as to be of but 
 
318 OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 little importance for agricultural purposes, but affording excel- 
 lent pasturage. 
 
 Grain, the mulberry, and the grape are the principal produc- 
 tions. The most important minerals are silver, iron, coal and 
 salt. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The principal manufac- 
 tures are silk, woolen, cotton and linen goods, sugar, glass and 
 wine. 
 
 Though possessing few good sea ports, Austria is quite exten- 
 sively engaged in commerce. The principal exports are grains, 
 minerals, lumber, and the products of the manufactures. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Vienna, the capital, and the largest 
 city of the empire, is situated on the Danube, in a beautiful 
 plain, at the east end of the Noric Alps. It is the center of a 
 large system of railroads, and has an extensive domestic com- 
 merce. Trieste, Prague and Pesth are also important places. 
 
 History. At the time of the erection of the German Em- 
 pire by Charlemagne, Austria was converted into a military 
 frontier, and governed by a margrave, who was appointed by the 
 Emperor of Germany and subject to that monarch. During 
 the twelfth century, at the time of the union of Upper and Lower 
 Austria, the title of margrave was changed to that of duke. 
 
 Until the year 1246, Austria was ruled by .dukes of the house 
 of Bamberg, but at this time the succession was changed to the 
 house of Hapsburg, and in 1438, Duke Albert II. was made 
 Emperor of Germany. Since that time the Hapsburg family 
 have retained possession of the imperial crown. 
 
 Since the defeat of the Austrian armies in 1866 (see Ger- 
 many), the empire has not been in a very prosperous condition. 
 It is divided into a number of states, with conflicting interests, 
 the principal power of which is possessed by the non-German 
 part of the empire. Ecclesiastical ascendency has, however, 
 given place to civil rule, and the nation has thus succeeded in 
 ridding itself of one of the greatest evils from which it has ever 
 Buffered. 
 
CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 Outline. Turkey in Europe is bounded on the north by 
 Austria and Russia, on the south by Greece and the Aegean 
 Sea, on the east by the Black Sea, on the south-east by Turkey 
 in Asia, and on the south-west by the Adriatic Sea. European 
 Turkey comprises only a small part of this great Empire, which 
 extends over large territory in Asia and Africa. It is, however, 
 the seat of government, and is by far the most important. 
 
 Physical Features. Turkey has sometimes been compared 
 to a pyramid which terminates at the Plateau of Moesia. The 
 base of this pyramid is traversed in every direction by lofty 
 mountain chains, which diverge from the central plateau. One 
 range extends north and joins the mountains of Turkey with 
 the Alpine system. Another, branching south, takes the name 
 of Pindus, and passes into Greece. The Balkan Mountains ex- 
 tend east to the Black Sea. Beside these main mountains, there 
 are numerous other branches which descend from the central 
 axis in terraces. Other mountains are succeeded by hills, and 
 finally by plains which spread out at their base. The most ex- 
 tensive of these plains is that of the Danube. 
 
 Rivers. The Danube, which has the most important part of 
 its course in Turkey, is the only prominent river of that country. 
 The Sereth and Pruth are its principal branches. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Turkey is generally severe. Snow 
 lies among the high mountains throughout the year ; and the 
 Danube is annually frozen. The sledge is used in Wallachia 
 and Moldavia, as in Russian countries. The olive will not grow 
 in Turkey in the same latitude where it thrives luxuriantly in 
 
320 DESCRIPTIVE &EOGRAPHT 
 
 Italy and France. On the ottier hand there are parts of Tur- 
 key that enjoy an excellent climate. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil of Turkey is capable of 
 producing large crops of grain. But such is the state of the 
 people that little has been done in the way of agriculture. The 
 people are naturally indolent, consequently almost every branch 
 of industry is neglected. Notwithstanding, in many places the 
 productive soil has been made to yield large quantities of cotton, 
 tobacco, olives, rice, maize, wheat, etc. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Like agriculture, manu- 
 factures have been but poorly developed. The domestic manu- 
 factures are the most important. Silks, cottons and carpets are 
 manufactured, and also swords and fire arms. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Grreece is almost exclusively carried 
 on by Greeks, Jews and Armenians. The means of internal 
 traffic are in a backward condition. The chief imports are man- 
 ufactured goods ; and the exports consist of the agricultural 
 products. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Constantinople is the capital and larg- 
 est city. Next to Paris, it is the largest city on the continent 
 of Europe. Most of the inhabitants are Mohammedans, and 
 the ChristiaDS are compelled to live in the suburbs. The houses 
 are peculiarly constructed, many of them having no windows in 
 front, and only one long dingy looking door. 
 
 Adrianople is next in size to Constantinople. 
 
 History. In early times, the Turks appear to have been 
 scattered oyer a large tract of country in Asia. Among the 
 many tribes that were settled in this country, the Osmanlees 
 hold a conspicuous place. At one time they were threatened 
 with extermination, but they finally took the lead of the other 
 tribes, and obtained the honor of founding the Ottoman Empire.^ 
 They formed a part of a body that emigrated westward in 12- 
 24, under the leadership of Soliman Shah. This body was 
 scattered after the death of Soliman, but a small band of them 
 
 *The Ottoman Empire consists of Turkey in Europe, Turkey in Asia and 
 Turkey in Africa. 
 
OF TURKEY. 321 
 
 having obtained the favor of Aladdin* by important services 
 rendered against the Mongols and Byzantine Greeks, were given 
 a large part of Phrygia. This they were required to hold in 
 vassalage, but towards the close of the thirteenth century they 
 succeeded in throwing off the yoke that had been imposed upon 
 them, and by brilliant victories over the Greeks, succeeded in 
 greatly extending their territory. 
 
 Othman, who had been the principal actor in this splendid 
 succession of triumphs, was succeeded by Orchan. Orchan was 
 renowned for his exploits. He reduced Brusa, which he made 
 his capital, and also, took the strong fortresses of Nicomedia 
 (Ismeed) and Niccea. He called the gate to his palace the 
 " High or Sublime Porte." The title " Sublime Porte" is now 
 applied to Turkish rulers. 
 
 Murad /., who succeeded his father to the throne, made 
 Adrianople his capital, and soon carried the Turkish arms into 
 European Turkey which was rapidly reduced. In 1389, Murad 
 was slain in battle, and his son Bayazeed was raised to the throne. 
 This ruler led his army successfully against the Greeks, and so 
 degraded the Greek Emperor that he was compelled to pay 
 tribute to the Turkish King. But Bayazeed was completely 
 routed in the great battle of Angora,m 1402, and the victorious 
 Timur held him prisoner during the remainder of his life. 
 
 The Turkish country was now divided among the sons of 
 Bayazeed, but it was soon united under Mohammed I, By 
 him the empire was greatly extended, and at his death was in- 
 herited by his son, Murad II. Constantinople was taken by 
 Mohammed II., in 1453. The Persians were badly defeated 
 by Selim I, grandson of the late king, and Egypt, Syria and 
 Palestine were added to the Turkish Empire. He was succeed- 
 ed by his son, Soliman Z, surnamed the Magnificent, who re- 
 sembled his father in the vigor of his administration. The 
 Turkish Empire had now reached the summit of its power, and 
 from this time its decline was rapid. The only important at- 
 tempts to interrupt its downfall were made by Selim III. and 
 * Aladdin was sultan of the pashalic of Konieli, in Asia Minor. 
 
322 OP TURKEY. 
 
 Mohammed III. The former introduced the European system 
 into his army, and the latter earnestly endeavored to carry on 
 the work of reform, but disease was too firmly established in its 
 seat to be readily shaken from its power, and all. attempts to 
 difiuse new life and energy through the country were futile. 
 
 In 1839, Mohammed III. was succeeded by Abdul Medjid, 
 who was obliged to obtain foreign aid to hold his Empire. The 
 Empire was about to be dismembered by the Pasha of Eg^pt, 
 but was saved by a foreign combination. The hostile designs 
 of Russia against Turkey were likewise defeated. Death ter- 
 minated the career of Abdul Medjid in 1861, and his, brother 
 Abdul Aziz was raised to the throne. 
 
CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 Outline. Greece, together with Turkey, forms the Hellenic 
 Peninsula. The Kingdom of Greece is small, including only the 
 extremity of the narrow portion of this peninsula, and the adja- 
 cent islands. It is bounded on the north by Turkey, and else- 
 where is washed by the sea. On the east and south-east is the 
 Archipelago, consisting of a multitude of islands in the Aegean 
 Sea. 
 
 Physical Features. Two striking features to be observed 
 in Greece are the irregularity of its coast line, and the extent 
 (considering its size) of its mountains. In one place the sea 
 nearly divides the country into two parts, torming the peninsula 
 of Morea. The Pindus Mountains from Turkey reach the north- 
 ern frontier, where they branch and send their ramifications 
 GTer all the country. These mountains are crowded so thickly 
 into this small country that there is scarcely any anace for plains 
 and valleys. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. Greece is filled with rivers and lakes, 
 but they are interesting only with regard to numbers. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Greece is mild, but is subject to 
 sudden changes. Winter does not fasten its severity upon the 
 country for over two months of the year. During Summer the 
 thermometer frequently rise above 100° ; and were it not for the 
 cool sea breezes with which the country is favored the heat 
 could hardly be endured. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The amount of cultivated land in 
 Greece is small. Much of the soil is thin, and consequently is 
 
324 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 poorly adapted to agriculture. The lower slopes of the moun- 
 tains are covered with magnificent forests. In some of the lower 
 districts all of the fruits of the latitude are produced, and vege- 
 tation displays the greatest luxuriance and variety. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Ship building is the most 
 important branch of industry with the Greeks. Many of the 
 inhabitants of the larger towns are employed in the manufac- 
 ture of cotton, woolen and silk tissues, but as a general thing 
 manufacturing is in a backward state. 
 
 The foreign commerce of Greece is large, and is carried on 
 with the principal nations of Europe and the United States. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Athens, the capital and largest city, 
 was the renowned seat of literature among the early Greeks. 
 The city is built on a plain and also on several hills, the highest 
 of which (Acropolis) contains the citadel. Mars' Hill, where 
 Paul preached to the Athenians, is in the suburbs of Athens. 
 Athens is replete with temples and other relics of ancient times. 
 
 History. The annals of civilization extend farther back in 
 Greece than in any other nation. The Greeks were noted for 
 their early attainments in literature and the arts ; and the ruins 
 of temples still attest their skill in architecture. The original 
 inhabitants of Greece were almost annihilated by the Hellenes^ 
 who came from the east about the last of the 14th century. A 
 few centuries later Greece consisted of a number of republican 
 states, Sparta being the only exception to this form of govern- 
 ment. These states were jealous of each other, and were con- 
 stantly at war. At length, on the appearance of an immense 
 Persian Army, under their king Darius, Athens and Laced(35- 
 mon (Sparta) united in order to more effectually repel the inva- 
 ders. • In the bloody battles of Marathon and Platcea, the 
 Greeks, under Miltiades and Themistoeles, were victorious and 
 the invaders were compelled to evacuate the country. 
 
 The period from 480 B. C. to 324 B. C. is the most illustrious 
 in Grecian history. During this period the arms of Greece were 
 carried to foreign countries, and her treasury was filled with the 
 plunder obtained in her conquests. Philip of Macedon planned 
 
OF GREECE. 325 
 
 a marvelous system of military operations, and his plans were 
 fully consummated by his son, Alexander the (JreaL The Gre- 
 cian conquests were extended to distant parts of Asia ; and the 
 ascendency of Macedon was gained at home. During this period 
 also, Greece produced her greatest sculptors, architects, writers 
 and orators. 
 
 In 146 B. C. the Eomans conquered Greece and incorporated 
 it with the Roman Empire. On the decline of this Empire the 
 Turks began to invade the country, and obtained a partial ascen- 
 dency in 1438 A. D. The Turks and Venetians successively 
 contended for the mastery of Greece, and the former seemed 
 likely to triumph. The Greeks, however, now threw off their 
 lethargy, and declared their intention to be free. The issue of 
 contest was doubtful when, in 1829, foreign interference led to 
 the establishment of Greece as an independent kingdom. , 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 ASIA. 
 
 Outline. Asia, the largest of the grand divisions of the 
 earth, is bounded on the north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east 
 by the Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Indian Ocean, and on 
 the west by Europe and the Mediterranean Sea. It is separa- 
 ted from Europe by the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the 
 Caspian Sea, the Caucasus Mountains and the Black Sea. It 
 is connected with Africa by the Isthmus of Suez. On the 
 north-east it approaches to within thirty-six miles of the Amer- 
 ican Continent, being separated from it only by the Behring 
 Strait. 
 
 The outline, particularly along the southern coast, is very 
 irregular. It is indented by a number of large gulfs and bays, 
 forming projections of corresponding size. 
 
 Physical Features. The mountains of Asia are among 
 the most stupendous upon the globe. The principal chains are 
 the Taurus, Elborz, Hindoo Koosh, Belor, Himalaya, Kuenlun, 
 Thinan Shan and Altai. 
 
 The table lands are also of great size. The largest are Thibet 
 and Iran. The former has an elevation of eleven thousand six 
 hundred feet, and covers an area of seven hundred and sixty 
 thousand square miles. The latter occupies an area of one 
 hundred and seventy thousand square miles, with an elevation 
 of from four to seven thousand feet. 
 
 About three-tenths of the surface of Asia is covered by waste 
 land. The great desert of Gobi or Shamo, extends across the 
 country from east to west for a distance of one thousand two 
 hundred miles. The north-western part of Asia is a vast plain 
 covering an area of seven millions of square miles. 
 
OF ASIA. 327 
 
 Seas, Lakes and Rivees. The projections and islands 
 along the eastern coast enclose a chain of seas extending from 
 the northern to the southern portion of Asia. These are Beh- 
 ring, Okhotsk, Japan, Yellow, and North and South China Seas. 
 
 Lake Baikal and Balkhash are the only fresh water lakes of 
 any size. In the highlands there are a number of salt lakes, 
 some them being of considerable extent. The most remarkable 
 of these are the Dead Sea, or Lake, situated near the Mediter- 
 ranean, in the bottom of a great depression on the borders of 
 Arabia. 
 
 The rivers of Asia are remarkable for their great size. They 
 may be divided into three systems : those which flow into the 
 Arctic Ocean, those which flow into the Pacific Ocean and those 
 which flow into the Indian Ocean. The most important belong- 
 ing to the first class are the Obi, Yenesei and Lena. Of those 
 flowing in the Pacific, the Amoor, Hoang Ho, and Yangtese- 
 Kiang are the largest. Of the southern slope the Tigris, Eu- 
 phrates, and Ganges are the most noted. 
 
 Climate. Asia lies wholly within the northern hemisphere, 
 and represents the three varieties of climate, the country north 
 the Altai Mountains being cold, between the Altai and Himalaya 
 temperate, and the peninsula south of the Himalayas tropical. 
 
 Inhabitants. The inhabitants of Asia belong to three dif- 
 ferent racfes, the Caucasian, Mongolian and Malay. The 
 Georgians, Armenians, Arabs, Persians, Afghans and Hindoos 
 belong to the Caucasian race. The country north of the Him- 
 alaya Mountains, Farther India and the Japan Islands are occu- 
 pied by the Mongolian race, and Malaysia by the Malay, or 
 brown race. 
 
 Countries. The principal divisions of Asia are the Russian 
 Empire, the Chinese Empire, the Japanese Empire, the Indias, 
 Turkestan, Afghanistan, Belochistan, Arabia, Persia and Turkey. 
 
 The Russian Empne consists of Siberia, the Peninsula of 
 Kamtschatka, the northern and eastern part of Manchuria and 
 Georgia. 
 
328 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 SIBERIA. 
 
 Outline. Siberia, the largest province of Asiatic Russia, 
 occupies the whole of the northern part of Asia, and covers an 
 area of over five millions of square miles. It is bounded on the 
 north by the Arctic Ocean, on the east bj the sea of Behring 
 and the North Pacific Ocean, on the south by the Chinese Em- 
 pire and Turkestan, and on the west by Russia in Europe. 
 
 Physical Features. The eastern portion of Siberia is 
 somewhat hilly, but the western part consists of low steppes or 
 marshes. The whole may be considered as one vast plain sloping 
 towards the north. The Ural Mountains on the west separate 
 it from Europe. In the eastern part are the Stanovoi Moun- 
 tains which, extending southward under the name of Yablonoi 
 Mountains separate it from the Chinese Empire. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers of Siberia are the Obi, Yeni- 
 sei, and Lena. The Obi is two thousand four hundred miles in 
 length. The country through which it flows is level, and the 
 volume of water very great, but on account of the extreme rigor 
 of the climate it is frozen over during a considerable portion of 
 the year, so that its otherwise important facilities for navigation 
 are somewhat diminished. 
 
 The Yenisei is two thousand five hundred miles in length, and 
 the Lena about two thousand four hundred miles; neither of 
 these rivers are of much importance for navigation on account 
 of the frozen desert through which they flow. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate of Siberia 
 is very severe. The ground is frozen during the larger part of 
 the year. The soil in some portions is very fertile, and well 
 adapted to agriculture, but a large part of the country is a barren, 
 sterile region, often encrusted with salt, but occasionally covered 
 •with a scanty vegetation. The inhabitants are principally en- 
 gaged in grazing, hunting, fishing and the fur trade. Minerals 
 are abundant. Gold is found in large quantities. 
 
 Population. About three-fourths of the inhabitants are 
 Russians. The remainder consists of native tribes. A large 
 
OF ASIA. 329 
 
 number of the Russians are exiles transported thither, on account 
 of crimes committed in their native country. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Tobolsk, on the Obi, is the largest city. 
 Irkoutsk, on the Yenisei, is next in size. Kiachta is the princi- 
 pal port of trade. 
 
 KAMTSCHATKA. 
 
 This peninsula of Northern Asia was discovered and con- 
 quered by the Russians between the years 1696 and 1706. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Siberia and the 
 Behring Sea, on the east by the Behring Sea and the Pacific 
 Ocean, on the south by the Pacific Ocean and Sea Ochotsk, and 
 on the west by the Sea of Ochotsk and Siberia. Along the 
 eastern coast there are numerous indentations : the southern 
 coast is bold and rocky. 
 
 Surface. A low range of mountains extends along the entire 
 length of the peninsula. In the southern part are found a num- 
 ber of volcanos, the most noted of which is Kliutchevskaia. 
 
 Rivers. The only river of any importance is the Kamtsch- 
 atka, about two hundred and fifty miles in length. 
 
 Climate. The climate is very severe. The winters are 
 usually about nine months in length. The inhabitants are en- 
 gaged chiefly in hunting and fishing. Small quantities of bar- 
 ley and rye are raised in the interior. 
 
 Petropaulovski, on the eastern coast is the capital. 
 
 MANCHURIA. 
 
 This province of Eastern Asia belongs partly to the Russian 
 Empire and partly to the Chinese Empire. Only that portion 
 north of the Amoor river belongs to the Russian. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Siberia and the 
 Ochotsk Sea, on the east by the Sea of Japan, on the south by 
 Corea, the Yellow Sea and China, and on the east by Mongolia, 
 
 Manchuria covers an area of about seven hundred thousand 
 square miles. Mountains are found along its northern and 
 western boundary. 
 22 
 
330 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The Amoor, wliicli is the only river of anji importance, trav- 
 erses its center. 
 
 The climate is milder than that of the other Russian Provin- 
 ces. The principal productions are corn, ginseng, rhubarb, 
 timber and live stock. 
 
 Mookden and Kirin Oola are the principal towns. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia is situated near the centre of the Russian possessions, 
 on the south side of the Caucasus Mountains. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Russia, on the east 
 by Russia and che Caspian Sea, on the south by Persia and 
 Turkey, and on the west by Turkey and the Black Sea. 
 
 Physical Features. The Caucasus Mountains form the 
 northern, and the Armenian Range the southern boundary of 
 the Province. The interior consists of a level plain. 
 
 Soil, Climate and Productions. The soil is exceedingly 
 fertile. The climate is mild and dvelightful. The staple produc- 
 tions are maize, hemp, flax and cotton. Fruit is raised in great 
 abundance. 
 
 Inhabitants. The native inhabitants belong to the Caucas- 
 ian race, and are celebrated for their great beauty. The Geor- 
 gian women are considered the most perfect and beautiful speci- 
 mens of the human family. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Tiflis, at the foot of the Caucasus 
 Mountains, is the capital and most important city. 
 
 History. Geo'gia was formerly under the dominion of Per- 
 sia. The Russians obtained possession of it in the year 1800. 
 
 CHINESE EMPIRE. 
 
 The Chinese Empire consists of China Proper, part of Man- 
 churia, Thibet, East Turkestan, Soongaria, Mongolia and Corea. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 Outline. China is bounded on the north by Mongolia, 
 Manchuria and the Yellow Sea, on the east by Yellow Sea 
 
OF ASIA. 331 
 
 and China Sea, on the south hj South China Sea, Anam, 
 Siam and Burmah, and on the west by Burmah, Thibet and 
 Mongolia. 
 
 Physical Features. The western part of the country is 
 quite mountainous, but it slopes gradually towards the coast 
 where it descends into level plains of vast extent. These plains 
 are exceedingly fertile, and sustain a dense population. The 
 Great Plain, a tract of land about seven hundred miles in length, 
 and from one hundred and fifty to five hundred in width, is 
 probably the most thickly settled portion of the globe. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers of China are the Yang-tse- 
 kiang and the Hoang Ho. The former is about two thousand 
 five hundred miles in length, and is navigable for ships of the 
 largest size for about two hundred miles from its month. The 
 Hoang Ho is about two thousand miles in length. These two 
 rivers are connected with each other by the Imperial Canal, and 
 by means of smaller canals with most parts of China. 
 
 Climate. China is almost wholly in the Temperate Zone, 
 only a smaller portion lying south of the tropics ; it has there- 
 fore a warm temperate climate. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil, especially in the plams, 
 is very fertile. The principal productions are rice, sweet pota- 
 toes, sugar cane, indigo, tea, the mulberry for raising the silk 
 worm, and cotton. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The most important man- 
 ufactures are silk, crape and porcelain. The domestic commerce 
 is very important, but until recently no port, excepting Canton, 
 has been open to foreigners. Within the last few years how- 
 ever, a number of others have been opened. The principal arti- 
 cles exported are raw silk and tea. 
 
 Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong to the Mongolian race. 
 They are of a brownish yeHow color, low stature, black eyes, 
 straight black hair and wide foreheads. 
 
 The Chinese were the earliest civilized among nations. They 
 discovered the use of the compass, the art of printing, the man- 
 
332 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ufacture of gunpowder, silk and porcelain, long before they were 
 known to European nations, but for the last two thousand years 
 they have made little if any progress, and the nations of Europe 
 'and America are now far in advance of them. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Pekin, the capital and the principal 
 city, is estimated to contain about two million inhabitants. The 
 city is encircled by a lofty wall, which is entered by seventeen 
 different gates. An inner inclosure, two miles in circumference, 
 called the " Forbidden City," is appropriated as the public 
 and private palaces of the emperor and empress. It contains a 
 magnificent temple, pavilions, gardens, a lake, and artificial 
 mountains. 
 
 Canton, the city best known to Europeans, is situated on the 
 left bank of Canton or Pearl river, about seventy miles above its 
 mouth. A great many of the inhabitants reside upon the water. 
 Gardens and houses are constructed on rafts, and thousands of 
 people live and die upon these floating habitations with rarely if 
 ever having set foot upon land. 
 
 Canton contains one hundred and twenty temples, the most 
 remarkable of which is the temple of Honan. It also^contains 
 a Mohammedan mosque and a lofty pagoda. Wheeled carriages 
 are not used, but the wealthier classes of people are borne about 
 in sedan chairs, carried by servants or bearers. 
 
 History. The early history of China is involved in obscur- 
 ity. The famous Chinese wall was built in the year 214 B. C. 
 This wall is about one thousand five hundred miles in length, 
 and from twenty to twenty-five feet in hight, and wide enough 
 to allow six horses to ride abreast on its summit. Ten years 
 were occupied in building it, several millions of men being em- 
 ployed at the same time. "It is estimated that the material 
 employed in this immense construction would be sufficient for 
 constructing a wall six feet high and two feet thick twice around 
 the world." 
 
 China was first visited by the Europeans during the thirteenth 
 century. No direct intercourse took place with England until 
 the year 1792. In 1842, a war occurred between these two 
 
OF ASIA. 333 
 
 nations, in consequence of wliicli China was virtually thrown 
 open to intercourse with other nations. 
 
 THIBET. 
 
 Outline. Thibet is bounded on the north by East Turke- 
 stan and Mongolia, on the east by Mongolia and China, on the 
 south by Burmah and Hindostan, and on the west by Hindo- 
 Btan and Afghanistan. 
 
 Physical Features. Thibet is almost entirely encircled by 
 high mountains, having the Kuen Lun range on the north and the 
 Himalaya on the south, and a partial connection established 
 between these two by branch chains. A number of mountain 
 chains extend parallel to the Himalayas which are crossed by 
 numerous deep valleys. 
 
 The plains of Thibet are elevated about ten thousand feet 
 above sea level, and some of the mountains rise to more than 
 twenty thousand feet. 
 
 KiVBRS AND Lakes. Thibet is not crossed by any large 
 river, though nearly all of the principal rivers of the south of 
 Asia rise within its boundaries. 
 
 Lakes are numerous, and some of them remarkable for their 
 size. Manasarowar and Eavanahrada, situated about fifteen 
 thousand feet above the level of the sea, are regarded as sacred 
 lakes. Lake Palte forms a belt around an island of its own shape. 
 
 Climate. Owing to the great elevation of the country the 
 climate is quite severe. Heavy rains prevail from March to 
 October, but the remainder of the season is remarkable for the 
 extreme dryness and clearness of the atmosphere. 
 
 Soil and Productions. Li the valleys the soil is quite 
 fertile. Agriculture is carried on to a limited extent. Black 
 barley, wheat, corn and buckwheat are raised in small quanti- 
 ties. The principal vegetables are beans, turnips, radishes and 
 <cabbages. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. Li the manufacturing arts 
 the people of Thibet have made but little progress. Gonsidera- 
 
534 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 ble quantities of woolen and velvet gooda are manufactured at 
 Lassa. Most of the trade is carried on with China. 
 
 Inhabitants. The inhabitants belong to the Mongolian race, 
 but people as white as Europeans are found among some of the 
 upper classes. They are, in general, of about middle stature, 
 with a swarthy complexion, flat face, black hair and eyes, and 
 a short nose. They have very little intercouse with foreigners 
 and seldom pass the high mountain walls which surround their 
 own country. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Lassa, the capital and principal city, 
 is situated in the southern part, on the Mourau River. It is the 
 residence of the Grand Lama, the pontifical sovereign of Thibet 
 and East Asia. The other towns are not of much importance. 
 
 EAST TURKESTAN. 
 
 Outline. This province includes the country between the 
 Thian Shan and the Kuen Lun mountains. It is bounded on 
 the north by Soongaria, on the east by Mongolia, on the south 
 by Thibet, and on the west by Independent Turkestan. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface consists of an elevated 
 plateau. The Thian Shan Mountains extend along the entire 
 northern and western boundary, and the Kuen Lun along its 
 southern. 
 
 Climate. Turkestan has a warm climate. The heat of the 
 summer is intense. In the western part, owing to the greater 
 elevation, frost and^snow occur quite frequently, but they are 
 rarely seen in the eastern part. 
 
 Soil and Productions. About three-fourths of the surface 
 consists of desert land. The soil along the foot of the moun- 
 tains is exceedingly fertile, and agriculture is carried on to a 
 considerable extent. 
 
 Inhabitants. The larger part of the people belong to the 
 Mongolian race, though quite a number of whites are found. 
 The latter are principally from West Turkestan, and are quite 
 extensively engaged in trade with the other countries of Asia.^] 
 
OF ASIA. 335 
 
 Cities and Towns. Yarkand, tlie capital and principal city, 
 is situated in the western part, on the Yarkand River, It is 
 the chief center of commerce between the Chinese and the coun- 
 try west of it. 
 
 Cashgar, the former capital, and next to Yarkand in commer- 
 cial importance, is situated in the extreme western part of the 
 province, one hundred and forty miles north-west of Yarkand. 
 
 Outline. Soongaria lies between the Altai and Thian Shan 
 mountains. It is bounded on the north by Siberia, on the east 
 by Mongolia, on the south by East Turkestan, and on the west 
 by Siberia. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface consists of an elevated 
 plateau. Mountains are found along its entire northern and 
 southern boundary. On account of its unbroken surface on its 
 western borders it forms the principal route of the caravan trade 
 between China and Western Asia. The plateau consists for the 
 most part of desert land, but some of the valleys are exceedingly 
 fertile, and agriculture is carried on to a considerable extent. 
 
 Soongaria has been under the dominion of China since the 
 year 1754. 
 
 MONGOLIA. 
 
 Outline. Mongolia is bounded on the north by Siberia, on 
 the east by Manchuria and China, on the south by China and East 
 Turkestan, and on the west by East Turkestan and Soongaria. 
 
 Physical Features. Mongolia consists for the most part 
 of a desert plateau, interspersed with a few fertile tracts in which 
 small quantities of wheat, barley and millet are raised. 
 
 The inhabitants are principally wandering tribes, whose wealth 
 consists in their flocks and herds. 
 
 Ourga, the principal city, is situaied in the northern part, 
 on a branch of the Amoor River. 
 
336 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 COREA. 
 
 The province of Corea does not properly belong to the Chin- 
 ese Empire, as it has an independent government of itself, but 
 it pays a yearly tribute of eight hundred ounces of silver to the 
 emperor of China. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Manchuria and the 
 Sea of Japan, on the east by the sea of Japan, on the south by the 
 Yellow Sea, and on the west by the Yellow Sea and Manchuria, 
 
 Physical Features. The coasts are for the most part bold 
 and rocky, and the land has a gradual slope towards the west. 
 
 Climate. The climate is very cold. Great quantities of 
 rain fall during the summer season. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil in the southern part of 
 the peninsula is very fertile, and large quantities of wheat, cot- 
 ton, rice and millet are raised. The northern part is covered 
 with exte isive forests. 
 
 The people are extremely jealous of foreigners, and very little 
 intercourse is carried on with other nations. 
 
 JAPANESE EMPIRE. 
 
 The Empire of Japan consists of a number of islands lying 
 east of the sea of Japan. Including all of its dependencies it 
 covers an area of one hundred and sixty-three thousand six hun- 
 dred and forty-six miles. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast is very irregular, and has 
 few good harbors. A number of plains of considerable extent 
 are found, but the islands are generally mountainous, and con- 
 tain numerous volcanoes. 
 
 Climate. The climate of Japan is extremely various, being 
 much colder in the northern and western than m the southern 
 and eastern parts. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is very fertile. The prin- 
 cipal productions are rice, wheat, barley, tobacco, tea and cam- 
 phor. Gold, silver, copper and iron are found in large quantities. 
 
OF ASIA. , 837 
 
 Rivers. The rivers of Japan are small, and so rapid as to 
 be of but little use for navigation. Some of them have, however, 
 been rendered navigable by artificial means, and a number of 
 canals have been constructed throughout the country. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Yeddo, the capital and the largest city, 
 is situated on the south-eastern coast of the island of Niphon, on 
 the gulf of Yeddo. The population is estimated to be about two 
 millions. Miako, the ecclesiastical capital and principal com- 
 mercial city, is situated south -west of Yeddo, on the Yedogawa 
 River. Nagasaki, an important commercial city, is situated on 
 the south-western side of the island of Kioo Sioo. Until the 
 recent treaty with the United States, this was the only port of 
 Japan open to foreign trade. 
 
 Inhabitants. Japan, like Chia, is very thickly settled. The 
 people are in advance of all other nations of the Mongolian race 
 in education, intelligence and civilization. 
 
 THE INDIAS. 
 
 The Indias consist of British India, Indo China, Malacca, 
 Malaysia, and a number of smaller islands. 
 
 BRITISH INDIA. 
 
 This division includes Hindostan, the Deccan, the island, of 
 Ceylon, and the western coast of ladoo China. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Thibet, on the east 
 by Thibet, Indoo China and the Gulf of Bengal, on the south 
 by the Gulf of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian Sea, and 
 on the west by the Arabian Sea, Beloochistan and Afghanistan. 
 
 Physical Features. The Himalayas, one of the loftiest 
 and grandest mountain chains of the globe, forms the northern 
 boundary of the country. The mean elevation of this range is 
 from sixteen to twenty thousand feet. The highest peak 
 attains an elevation of twenty-eight thousand feet. A range 
 of mountains, called the East Ghauts, separates Hindostan from 
 the Plateau of the Deccan. The southern part of the island of 
 
338 DESCIllPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cejlori is quite mountainous, but the northern is mostly level. 
 Adam's Peakj in the southern part, is remarkable for its conical 
 shape, and for the great distance from which it can be viewed 
 from the sea. 
 
 Climate ,Soil and Productions. The climate is tropical, 
 a large portion of the country lying within the limits of the 
 Torrid Zone. The soil is very fertile. The principal produc- 
 tions are cotton, rice, indigo, wheat, opium and silk. In the 
 island of Ceylon large quantities of coffee, cinnamon and pepper 
 are produced. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The people are largely en- 
 gaged in the manufacture of cotton and silk. The embroidered 
 shawls of the province of Cashmere are superior to those of any 
 other country. India has been from a very early date the center 
 of an extensive commerce. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the Indus, Ganges and 
 Brahmapootra. The Indus is about one thousand six hundred 
 and fifty miles in length, and is navigable for flat bottomed boats 
 for about one thousand two hundred miles- 
 
 The Ganges, the second river of the Hindoos, is one thousand 
 nine hundred and sixty miles in length, and navigable for about 
 one thousand five hundred miles from its mouth. It enters the 
 sea by eight large mouths, forming a delta double the size^of 
 that of the Nile. 
 
 The Brahmapootra is about one thousand five hundred miles 
 in length. It is connected with the Ganges by the Jena River. 
 At its mouth it is ten miles in width, and for about thirty miles 
 above, it is from four to five miles in width. 
 
 Cities and Towns. British India contains a large number 
 of cities of great size. Those of the valley of the Ganges are 
 the most important. Calcutta, the capital, is, next to Canton, 
 the most important commercial city of Asia. Bombay and 
 Madras are also the seat of an immense trade. 
 
 Benares, situated on the left bank of the Ganges, about three 
 hundred and ninety miles north-west of Calcutta, is the holy city 
 
OF ASIA. 339 
 
 of the Hindoos. It contains over one thousand temples, and is 
 the resort of many pilgrims. The Hindoos esteem it a great 
 privilege to die in this city, believing that the holiness of the 
 place will save their souls. The city is also famous for its trade 
 in diamonds. 
 
 Inhabitants. The people are of a considerable darker color 
 than the other nations belonging to the Caucasian race, still they 
 are considered a branch of this great division of the human fam- 
 ily. Their religion is the worship of a false god called Brahma. 
 
 History. The Hindoos were among the earliest civilized of 
 the nations of the earth, and from a very early period the nations 
 of the western world derived their merchandise from India. The 
 Portuguese were the first European people who established them- 
 selves in this country. Their invasion took place in 1498. The 
 British obtained their first possession in the year 1639, and after 
 a long series of wars they obtained final possession of what is 
 now known as British India. 
 
 INDO CHINA. 
 
 This country comprises the Empire of Burmah and the king- 
 doms of Siam and Anam. 
 
 Outline. It is bounded on the north by Thibet and China, 
 on the east by China and South China Sea, on the south by 
 South China Sea and gulf of Siam, and on the west by the Bay 
 of Bengal and British India. 
 
 Physical Featukes. The surface is generally mountainous, 
 and abounds in valleys ricli in vegetable and mineral productions. 
 
 Inhabitants. The people of this country are far behind 
 those of British India in civilization. They belong to the Mon- 
 golian race, and bear a strong resemblance to the Chinese. They 
 pay but little attention to commerce and the arts. Agriculture 
 is carried on to a limited extent.- 
 
 Cities and Towns. Bangkok, the capital of Siam, is the 
 largest city. Ava is the capital of Burmah, and Hue of Ana.m. 
 
340 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 MALACCA. 
 
 Outline. This peninsula extends southward from Indo-China, 
 forming the most southern portion of Continental Asia. It is 
 connected with the main land by the isthmus of Kraw. It lies 
 west of the Gulf of Siam and China Sea, and north and east of 
 the strait of Malacca. The surface is generally mountainous. 
 It is well watered, and contains large quantities of timber 
 
 Cities and Towns. Malacca, the principal city, is situated 
 in the southern part, on both sides of the Malacca River. It 
 contains an Anglo Chinese College, also Hindoo and Malay 
 schools. Quedah, Salangore and Johore are also important 
 places. 
 
 MALAYSIA. 
 
 Outline, Malaysia consists of a large and important group 
 of islands lying south-east of the Continent of Asia. It belongs 
 principally to Holland and Spain. A few of the islands possess 
 an independent government. Great Britain has a small posses- 
 sion on the western coast of Borneo. 
 
 Physical Features. The islands are generally mountain- 
 ous, and contain many active volcanoes. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is tropical. 
 The soil is fertile. Rice, maize, sugar and cotton are the staple 
 productions. 
 
 Inhabitants. The people belong to the Malay or brown 
 race. They are rude and uncivilized, and are engaged princi- 
 pally in a seafaring life. Their houses are made large enough 
 to lodge a great many people, often an entire village is sheltered 
 beneath a single roof. In some instances large towns have been 
 built upon the water. The houses are constructed principally 
 of bamboo, and supported on stakes. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Luzon, Borneo and Sarawak are the 
 principal cities. 
 
 TURKESTAN. 
 
 Outline. Turkestan is bounded on the north by Siberia, on 
 the east by Siberia, Soongaria and East Turkestan, on the south 
 
OF ASIA. 341 
 
 by Afghanistan and Persia, and on the west by the Caspian Sea. 
 
 Physical Features. The Belor Mountains form the eastern 
 boundary of Turkestan ; from the base of these mountains the 
 land has a gradual slope towards the west. The greater part of 
 the northern portion of the country consists of barren steppes. 
 South and west of Lake Aral is a desert of considerable extent. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil in the eastern part is very 
 fertile. In the desert land of the west occur a number of oases 
 of considerable extent, which are well adapted for farming. 
 The inhabitants are extensively engaged in agricultural pursuits, 
 and have made considerable advance in manufactures. The 
 principal exports are cotton, wool, silk and morocco. 
 
 Rivers. The principal rivers are the Sihoon and Jihoon. 
 The Jihoon is about one thousand three hundred miles in length. 
 It flows in a north-westerly direction, and empties into the Sea 
 of Aral. The Sihoon is about nine hundred miles in length. 
 It is broad and deep, and usually overflows its banks iu summer. 
 
 Inhabitants. The people are for the most part of Turkish 
 descent. They are an active, enterprising class of inhabitants. 
 The barren steppes of the northern part are occupied by wan- 
 dering tribes, principally engaged in grazing. They are a rude, 
 war-like people, and are the constant terror of some of the 
 smaller provinces. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Bokhara, Kohan and Khiva are the 
 most important places. 
 
 AFGHANISTAN, 
 
 Outline, This country is bounded on the north by Turke- 
 stan, on the east by Hindostan, on the south by Beloochistan, 
 and on the west by Persia. 
 
 PHTSiCiiL Features. The surface is generally mountainous, 
 and consists for the most part of barren desert land. There are, 
 however, a number of fertile valleys, which are well watered, 
 and remarkable for the great beauty of their natural scenery. 
 
342 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Climate. The climate is extremely variable. On the plains 
 the heat is intense, while in the mountain regions the cold is 
 very severe. 
 
 Productions. In the fertile valleys grain is produced in great 
 abundance. Tropical fruits are also raised in large quantities. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Cabool and Herat are the most im- 
 portant places. The former is celebrated as a fruit market, the 
 latter as a military post. 
 
 BELOOCHISTAN. 
 
 Outline. This country is bounded on the north by Persia 
 and Afghanistan, on the east by Hindostan, on the south by the 
 Arabian Sea and Gulf of Oman, and on the west by Persia. 
 
 Physical Features. With the exception of some level 
 tracts on the north-west, and along the coast, the surface is 
 yu 3fged and mountainous, and deficient in a supply of water. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate resembles 
 that of Afghanistan. On the plains the heat is intense, while 
 the elevated portion of the country is excessively cold. The 
 soil on the plains is fertile. The principal productions are wheat, 
 barley, rice, sugar and tobacco. 
 
 Rivers. The rivers are small and insignificant. The largest, 
 the Doostee, has a course of about one thousand miles, but at 
 its mouth it is not more than two feet deep. 
 
 Inhabitants. The inhabitants are principally wandering 
 tribes engaged in pasturing sheep and goats. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Kelat, the capital, is the largest and 
 most important city. The population is estimated to be about 
 two millions. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 Outline. Arabia is bounded on the north by the Isthmus 
 of Suez and Turkey, on the east by Turkey, Persian Gulf, Gulf 
 of Oman, and the Arabian Sea, on the south by the Arabian 
 
OF ASIA. 343 
 
 Sea, Indian Ocean, and Gulf of Aden, find on tlie west by the 
 Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 Arabia is commonly separated into three divisions, — Arabia 
 Felix, or happy ; Petr?ea, or stony ; and Deserta, or deserf, A 
 division along the western coast, called Hedjaz, or the land of 
 Pilgrimage, belongs to Turkey. Sinai, a peninsula in the north- 
 western part, is celebrated as the scene of the wanderings of the 
 Israelites in the desert. Mount Sinai in the western part is 
 generally identified with Jebel Moosa, or " Mount of Moses," 
 the supposed site of the burning bush. 
 
 Physical Features. The greater part of Arabia consists 
 of a desert plateau, A chain of Mountains extends along the 
 entire coast, at a distance of from twelve to sixty miles inland. 
 The northern and southern part of the country consists of 
 barren desert land. The only fertile portions are the mountain 
 valleys, and the Oases found in the desert land. 
 
 Climate akd Productions. Arabia is subject to frequent 
 and violent changes of temperature. In the northern portion, 
 the hottest part of the year occurs during the rainy season, 
 while in the southern part the hottest months of the year are 
 comparatively dry and cloudless. 
 
 Small quantities of wheat, rice and barley are raised for food. 
 Fruit is grown in great abundance. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. Arabia has no permanent rivers and 
 lakes. The rivers are consumed in crossing the sandy deserts, 
 and the lakes evaporate during the dry season. 
 
 Inhabitants. The greater part of the population consists 
 of wandering tribes, engaged principally in the care of their 
 camels, horses, donkeys, sheep, and goats. 
 
 The camel which forms almost the only means of conveyance 
 for goods and passengers across the desert country, is the most 
 important animal of Arabia. Nearly all the camels used in 
 the great caravan trade across the continent are raised here. 
 The Arabian horses are celebrated for their beauty and fleet- 
 ness, and are regarded by their owners with the greatest affec- 
 tion. 
 
344 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Cities and Towns, f Mecca and Medina, situated in the land 
 of the Pilgrimage, are celebrated, the former as the birth-place, 
 and the latter as the burial place of the false prophet, Moham- 
 med.! No good Mohommedan is content to die without having 
 made at least one pilgrimage to these holy places. Muscat, on 
 the south-eastern coast, is the largest city. It is extensively en- 
 gaged in commerce, and is celebrated as being the principal port 
 for the exportation of the Arab horses. Mocha, on the south- 
 western, is an important commercial city. The coffee exported 
 from this place is said to be the best of the world. 
 
 PERSIA. 
 
 Outline. Persia is bounded on the north by Georgia, the 
 Caspian and Turkestan, on the east by Turkestan, Afghanistan 
 and Beloochistan, on the south by the Gulf of Oman and the 
 Persian Gulf, and on the west by the Persian Gulf and Turkey. 
 
 Physical Features. The centre of the country is one ex- 
 tensive plateau. Encircling this plateau on all sides except on 
 the coast, are a series of mountain chains. Outside of these 
 chains is a narrow belt of land, consisting for the most part of 
 valleys, plains, and gentle slopes. 
 
 Climate. The climate is extremely variable. Sudden 
 changes of temperature are frequent, even during the summer 
 season. As a rule, the climate is characterized by severe cold 
 in winter, and excessive heat in summer. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The central plateau is barren and 
 unproductive, but the mountain valleys and the plains along the 
 coast are exceedingly fertile. The principal productions are 
 fruits, grain and cotton. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The rivers are small and of but little 
 importance. Numerous salt and fresh water lakes are found 
 throughout the country, but they are generally of limited 
 extent. 
 
 Manufactures and Commerce. The Persians are celebra- 
 ted for their manufactures of silk, cotton, shawls and perfumery. 
 They are also quite extensively engaged in commerce. 
 
OF ASIA. 345 
 
 Inhabitants. The interior is peopled bj wandei'ing tribes, 
 principally Arabs and Turks. The Persians live in the moun- 
 tain valley and on the plains. They are celebrated for their 
 beauty and agreeable manners. 
 
 Cities AND Towns. Teheran, the capital, is situated in the 
 mountainous regions, south of the Caspian. Ispahan is the 
 largest and most important city. 
 
 History. At a very early date, Persia occupied a prominent 
 position among the nations of the earth. During the reign of 
 Cyrus, the G-reat, 560 B. C, the dominions of Persia extended 
 over almost the whole of western Asia. Her power began to 
 decline in the year 490 B, C, at the time of Xerxes invasion 
 into Greece, and her downfall was completed by Alexander the 
 Great, 333 B. U. 
 
 Persia became subject to the Parthians in the year 164 B. C. 
 and remained under their dominion until some time in the early 
 part of the third century, when the oppressive yoke was shaken 
 off, and Persia- once more became a separate nation. 
 
 During the sixth century her dominions were scarcely less 
 extensive than her ancient realms. During the following cen- 
 tury she was overran by the armies of Mohammed ; her ancient 
 religion was exterminated and Mohammedanism substituted in its 
 stead. Since that time her government has undergone continual 
 change, but her prosperity has not increased, and she probably 
 will never again resume her former high position among the 
 nations of the earth. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 Outline. Turkey, in Asia, is bounded on the north by the 
 sea of Marmora, the Black Sea and Georgia, on the east by 
 Georgia, Persia and Arabia, on the south by Arabia and the 
 Mediterranean Sea, and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea. 
 
 Physical Features. Asia Minor and Armenia occupy the 
 
 northern part of the country, and together form an extensive 
 
 plateau. They are crossed by several mountain chains, the 
 
 most important of which is the Taurus. Mesopotamia, lying 
 
 23 
 
346 DESCRIPTIVE aEOGRAPHT 
 
 south-east of this plateau, consists of an extensive plain, drained 
 by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Syria, occupying the 
 south-western part, consists of an extensive plateau, crossed by 
 the Lebanon and the Anti Lebanon mountains. These moun- 
 tains were formerly celebrated for their lofty cedars. At the 
 present time the cedars are confined to a single grove, about 
 three fourths of a mile in circumference, lying at the upper 
 extremity of the valley of the Kedisha River. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal rivers are the Tigris and 
 Euphrates. The Tigris is -about one thousand one hundred 
 miles in length. The ancient city of Ninevah was situated on 
 the bank of this river. The Euphrates, including its longest 
 tributary, is one thousand seven hundred and eighty miles in 
 length. This river is celebrated in history for the many remark- 
 able events which have taken place along its banks; also for 
 being the site of the ancient city of Babylon. The Jordan, a 
 small river in Syria, is celebrated as being the scene of many 
 events in Bible times. 
 
 Lake Van has an area of about two thousand square miles. 
 The Dead Sea, into which the Jordan flows, is one thousand 
 three hundred and twelve feet below the level of the sea. Lake 
 Gennessaret is celebrated as being the scene of the greater por- 
 tion of the public life of Christ. 
 
 Climate. The mountainous portion possesses every variety 
 of climate. That of the lowlands is warm-temperate. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil is very fertile. In 
 former years the country was rich in agricultural products, but 
 at the present time the ground is scarcely cultivated at all, and 
 the country presents a desolate appearance. 
 
 Inhabitants. The inhabitants are wandering tribes, engaged 
 principally in traffic with other nations. 
 
 Manufactures. The most important manufactures are wool 
 and morocco. The carpets and shawls of Turkish manufacture 
 are celebrated for their great beauty. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Smyrna, on the western coast of Asia 
 Minor, is the most important city. Bassorah, Trebizond and 
 
OF ASIA. ■ 347 
 
 Bagdad are also important places. Damascus, the capital of 
 Syria, is the oldest citj in existence. Jerusalem, the celebrated 
 city of the Jews, is situated in the province of Syria, between 
 the Mediterranean and Dead seas. This city contains many 
 points of interest connected with Bible times. Among the most 
 importa.nt are the Pools of Hezekiah, Gihon, Siloam and Beth- 
 esda ; the garden of Gethsemane, behind which rises the Mount 
 of Olives ; the valleys of Jehosaphat and Gihon; the Via Dolo- 
 rosa ("or grievous way "); the Holy Sepulchre, and the birth 
 place of the Virgin. The claims of the last two to the titles 
 given them by the Monks is rather doubtful. 
 
 Among the most prominent buildings are the Mosque of Omar, 
 built on the site of Solomon's temple ; the Mosque of Aksa, on 
 the south side of Mount Moriah ; the church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, built upon the reputed site of the grave of Christ ; the 
 Armenian convent, standing where the house of Caiaphas form- 
 erly stood ; and the churches of St. James and of St. Anna.. 
 
 Modern Jerusalem is only about half the size of the ancient 
 city, and some of these places are situated outside the limits of 
 the present city. The modern city is about two and one -half 
 miles in circumference. It is inclosed on all sides by walls of 
 hewn stone, and entered by four different gates. There was 
 formerly a large number of gates, but of late several of the gates 
 have been closed up. ,, -'^±MMSi'^mS 
 
 Shechem, a city of Syria, is situated in the province of Pales- 
 tine, in a pleasant valley lying between Mounts Ebal and Geri- 
 zim. Travelers describe it as one of the most beautiful cities of 
 the Holy Land. It contains several remains of antiquity, among 
 which are the Well of Jacob and the Tomb of Joseph. 
 
 Nazareth, Bethlehem and Bethany are small cities of Pales- 
 tine, celebrated for their connection with the life of Christ. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII. 
 
 AFRICA. 
 
 Africa, the second continent in size lies south of Europe and 
 south-west of Asia. It is connected with Asia by a neck of 
 land called the Isthmus of Suez. 
 
 Outline. The outline of Africa is very regular. It has 
 few projections or indentations of any size. There are few large 
 islands along the coast, and as a consequence, no border seas. 
 
 Physical Features. Africa contains more desert land than 
 any other grand division of the globe. The Desert of Sahara 
 stretches across the northern part of the country, from east to 
 west, and covers and area of two million square miles. Africa 
 contains besides the desert of Sahara, several smaller deserts. 
 
 The mountains of Africa are not on so grand a scale as those 
 of the other continents. The principal systems are the Atlas, 
 the Kong, the Mountains of the Moon, the Snow Mountains, 
 the Crystal and the Cameroon Mountains. 
 
 The Atlas Mountains extend across the country in a north- 
 easterly direction, traversing the provinces of Morocco, Algeria 
 and Tunis, and terminating on the shores of the Mediterranean. 
 They consist of two principal ranges called the Greater and the 
 Lesser Atlas, and a number of smaller ranges, extending across 
 the country in different directions. The lengths of the princi- 
 pal chain is about one thousand five hundred miles. The Kong 
 Mountains are of about the same length as the Atlas. They 
 extend along the northern boundary of Guinea, parallel to the 
 Atlantic coast. 
 
 The Mountains of the Moon, and the Snow Mountains extend 
 along the eastern coast. But very little is known in regard to 
 these mountains. Until within a short time the Mountains of 
 
OP AFRICA. 349 
 
 the Moon^were thought to extend across the continent from east 
 to west, but recent explorations have proved that this is not the 
 
 ■case. 
 
 The Crystal and Cameroon Mountains extend along th^ east- 
 ern boundary of Guinea, parallel to the Atlantic coast. 
 
 Africa contains three extensive plateaus, that of Abyssiniaj 
 the Sahara, or great desert, and the region south of the Snow 
 Mountains. Egypt and Southern Africa consists for the most 
 part of extensive plains. Very little is known of the interior of 
 Africa ; a large portion of it has never been visited by white 
 men. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The principal rivers of Africa are the 
 Nile, Niger, Zambesi, Congo and Orange. The Nile rises in 
 Lake Nyanza in the eastern part of Africa and flowing north- 
 westerly, empties into the Mediterranean Sea. It receives no 
 tributaries for the last one thousand three hundred miles of its 
 course. All of its waters are received from the mountainous 
 region in which it rises. The Nile is remarkable for its period- 
 ical inundations. About the middle of June the water begins 
 to rise, and continues rising for about three months, and then 
 subsides as gradually as it rose. The northern portion of its 
 valley, in which rain rarely ever falls is fertilized by this means. 
 The source of this river was discovered in 1862, by an English 
 officer. i:,T^h.e boundary of the lake which forms its source is not 
 yet known. The Niger River, next in size to the Nile, rises in 
 the western part of Africa in the Kong Mountains, and flows 
 in a north-easterly direction until it reaches the northern boun- 
 dary of the province of Soudan, when it changes its course and 
 flows in a south-easterly direction until it enters the Atlantic 
 Ocean. Both the Nile and the Niger enter the sea by large 
 deltas. The Zambesi and Congo rivers rise in the interior of 
 Southern Africa. The former flows in a south-easterly direction. 
 and empties into Sofaia Bay ; the latter in a north-westerly 
 direction and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. The Orange 
 rises in the mountainous region in the eastern part of Southern 
 Africa, and flowing directly west empties info the Atlantic. 
 
350 DESCRIPTIVE QEOGEAPHY 
 
 The largest lakes of Africa are Nyanza, Tanganyika, Tchad, 
 and Nouner. 
 
 Climate. Africa is the warmest continent on the globe. All 
 but its northern and southern extremities lie within the tropics 
 and in the greater portion of the country the heat is intense. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The northern portion of Africa is 
 almost entirely rainless and consists for the most part of desert 
 land. In the watered portion, the soil is fertile, and the vege- 
 tation of tropical countries abounds. 
 
 Animals. The animals of Africa are larger and more fero- 
 cious than those of any other portion of the globe. Many of 
 the varieties are not found in any other country. Reptiles of 
 great size and birds of the richest plumage abound. 
 
 Countries. The countries of Africa are Morocco, Algeria, 
 Tunis, Tripoli, the Sahara — or Great Desert, Egypt, Nubia, 
 Abyssinia, Soudan, Ethiopia, Zanguebar, Mozambique, Region 
 of the Zambesi, the Cape Countries, Guinea, Liberia and Sen- 
 egambia. 
 
 BARBARY STATES. 
 
 The Barbary States comprise Morocco, x\.lgeria, Tunis, Tripoli 
 and the districts of Barca and Beled-el-Jereed. Barbary is 
 bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by 
 Egypt, on the south by the Great Desert, and on the west by 
 the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Morocco, Algeria and Tunis are traversed by the Atlas Moun- 
 tains. An offset from this range, called the Black Mountains, 
 extend across the southern part of Tripoli. The western part is 
 crossed by two parallel ranges of mountains. The interior is 
 imperfectly known. The region east of the interior contains 
 tracts of barren sands. 
 
 MOROCCO. 
 
 Morocco, the largest and most westerly of the Barbary States 
 is an independent empire. It is divided by the Atlas Moun- 
 tains. In the northern part great quantities of grain and olives 
 
OF APRICA. 351 
 
 are produced, while south of the mountains dates are the greac 
 staple. This empire possesses, with the exception of the Nile, 
 the largest rivers in northern Africa. The Molweeyah. the 
 largest and most important river, has a course of three hurdred 
 and fifty miles. 
 
 The chief manufactures are fine morocco, leather, and Turkey 
 carpets. The commerce is more extensive and important than 
 the manufactures. Copper, iron and lead are the mineral trea- 
 sures of Morocco. Amethysts of great size and beauty have 
 been found among the mountains. 
 
 Morocco, the capital, is surrounded by a strong wall thirty 
 feet high. The streets are narrow, unpaved and irregular. 
 The buildings are but one story and flat-roofed. The city was 
 founded in 1072, and derives its name from the manufacture of 
 morocco Lather. 
 
 ALGERIA. 
 
 Algeria is a mountainous country. The climate, soil, produc- 
 tions and minerals resemble those of Morocco. The rivers are 
 small, many of them disappearing altogether during the dry 
 season. 
 
 Algiers, the capital, is surrounded by a wall twelve feet thick 
 and thirty feet high. 
 
 TUNIS. 
 
 Tunis, like all the Barbary states, is mountainous. Ofiisets 
 from the Atlas range enter this state on the west, and spread 
 over almost the entire state. In these mountains are found 
 valuable veins of lead. The slopes of the mountains are clothed 
 with heavy timber. The plains are fertile, but in many places 
 are in a state of nature. 
 
 Tunis, the capital, is surrounded by- a double wail. The city 
 contains many handsome public buildings. It is about three 
 miles from the site of ancient Carthage, and is itself a place of 
 great antiquity. 
 
352 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGEAPHY 
 
 TRIPOLI. 
 
 The surface of Tripoli is diversified bj mountains, tablelands 
 and fertile plains. The grains and fruits of southern Europe 
 are produced in great quantities. 
 
 Tripoli, the capital, is a fortified town on the Mediterranean 
 Sea. The city contains several mosques, one of which is a hand- 
 some and majestic structure. 
 
 History. Barbary was wrested from the ancient inhabitants 
 by the Vandals. The country was taken by the Arabs about 
 the year 697. They introduced piracy, which continued for 
 more than three centuries. About the year 1700 they were 
 compelled, by the British, to submit to humiliating terms. Christ- 
 ians were reduced to the most abject slavery until 1816, when 
 a combined force of English and Dutch effected the liberation 
 of one thousand and eight of the captives, and compelled the 
 Algerias to sign a treaty by which Christian slavery was 
 abolished. The French took final possession of Algeria in 1847. 
 
 SAHARA, OR GREAT DESERT. 
 
 This barren region covers an area nearly as great as that of 
 the United States. Its surface consists of a mass of rocks and 
 sand. Throughout its whole extent there are but few oases, or 
 fertile spots. The Sahara is crossed in several directions by 
 caravan routes. The only way of crossing it is by means of 
 camels and dromedaries, and travelers often undergo the most 
 intense sufferirg from thirst, and from the intense heat. 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Outline. Egypt is bounded on the north by the Mediter- 
 ranean, on the east by the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, 
 on the south by Nubia, and on the west by the Great Desert. 
 
 Physical Features. The region between the valley of the 
 Nile and the Red Sea is- intersected by several mountain chains, 
 but these mountains in no place .reach an elevation exceeding 
 six thousand feet. West of the valley of the Nile the surface is 
 somewhat hilly. 
 
OP AFRICA. 353 
 
 RiVBES. The Nile is the only river of Egypt. Canals are 
 cut from this river in all directions, and the extent of country 
 watered by its yearly overflow is thus greatly increased. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is tropical. 
 The country watered by the Nile is extremely fertile. The 
 remainder is mostly desert land. The principal productions are 
 rice, wheat and cotton. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Cairo, the capital, is situated in the 
 northern part, on the right bank of the Nile. It is surrounded 
 on all sides by a low wall, and entered by several different gate- 
 ways. The modern buildings are of but little importance, but 
 the city contains some remarkable remains of ancient architec- 
 ture. It contains several elegant mosques, the largest of which 
 are those of Mohammed Ali and Sultan Hassan. In the en- 
 virons of the city are situated the celebrated tombs of the Cal- 
 iphs and Mamelukes. 
 
 Alexandria, situated in the northern part, on the Mediterran- 
 ean, is the most important commercial city. 
 
 History. Very little is known of the ancient history of 
 Egypt, but scattered throughout the country are remains of 
 ancient architucture, which show that, at a very early period, 
 she had reached a high degree of civilization. Among the most 
 celebrated of these works of art are Lake Mseris, an immense 
 artificial reservoir ; the Catacombs, large subterraneous galle- 
 ries, used for the reception of the dead ; the Great Sphinx at 
 Gizeh, a colossal form hewn out of the solid rock ; the Labyrinth, 
 an enormous structure of marble built underground, , and the 
 Pyramids. The Pyramids are solid mounds, raised over the 
 graves of the different kings who flourished from the fourth to 
 the twelfth dynasty. One hundred thousand men are said to 
 have. been employed for upwards of thirty years in the construc- 
 tion of the largest pyramid. 
 
 The Arabs conquered Egypt in the year 639. In the year 
 1250, the government was seized by the Mamelukes or slaves. 
 They were conquered by the Turks in the year 1517, but they 
 succeeded in defeating their conquerors in the early part of the 
 
354 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 eighteenth century, and retained their power until the year 1798, 
 when the government passed into the hands of the Turks. 
 
 NUBIA. _ 
 
 This country is bounded on the north by Egypt, on the east 
 by the Red Sea and Abyssinia, on the south by Abyssinia and 
 Soudan, and on the west by Soudan and the Great Desert. 
 
 Nubia shares with Egypt in the advantages derived from the 
 yearly overflow of the Nile, -but the valley of this river is here 
 much narrower than in Egypt, and consequently a less extent 
 of country is rendered fertile by the overflow of its waters. 
 
 The principal productions are barley, cotton, indigo, tobacco 
 and coffee. 
 
 The inhabitants are principally engaged in agriculture. Man- 
 ufacturing is carried on to a limited extent. 
 
 ABYSSINIA, 
 
 Outline. Abyssinia is bounded on the north by Egypt and 
 the Red Sea, on the east by the Red Sea, Gulf of Aden and 
 Ethiopia, on the south by Ethiopia, and on the west by Soudan 
 and Nubia. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally mountainous. 
 It contains several mountain peaks rising considerably above 
 the snow limit. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. Abyssinia is watered by numerous 
 rivers, the most important of which are the Atbara and the Blue 
 Nile. Lake Dembea, the source of the Blue Nile, is the largest 
 lake. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. Owing to the elevated 
 nature of the country, the heat is not so extreme as in the coun- 
 tries further north. The soil is fertile. The principal produc- 
 tions are wheat, barley, oats, maize, rice and millet. 
 
 Gondar is the capital. Ankober is the principal city. 
 
OF AFRICA. 355 
 
 SOUDAK 
 
 Outline. Soudan is bounded on the north by the Great 
 Desert, on the east by Nubia and Abyssinia, on the south by 
 Ethiopia and Guinea, and on the west by Senegambia. 
 
 Physical Features. The surface is generally level. The 
 Kong Mountains on the south separate it from Guinea. 
 
 Rivers and Lakes. The Niger is the most important river. 
 Lake Tchad and Lake Nouner are the largest lakes. 
 
 Climate, Soil and Productions. The climate is tropical, 
 and the soil is very fertile. Nearly all the productions of the 
 tropical climate are grown in great abundance. 
 
 Manufactures. Manufacturing is carried on to a limited 
 extent. The principal articles are cotton cloth, farming tools, 
 weapons and leather goods. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Sokoto, Kashna, Kano, Sego and 
 Wurno are the most important places. 
 
 ETHIOPIA. 
 
 This country is bounded on the north by Soudan, Abyssinia 
 and the Gulf of Aden, on the east by the Gulf of Aden, the 
 Indian Ocean and Zanguebar and the region of the Zambesi, 
 and on the west by Guinea. 
 
 Very little is known in regard to the western part of Ethiopia. 
 The eastern part has recently been quite extensively explored. 
 These explorations have resulted in the discovery of several 
 large lakes. The surface, so far as can be determined from the 
 limited knowledge possessed of the country is generally moun- 
 tainous. The Nile and Congo are the most important rivers. 
 
 ZANGUEBAR. 
 
 Zanguebar is bounded on the north by Ethiopia, on the east 
 by the Indian Ocean, on the south by Mozambique and the 
 region of the Zambesi, and on the west by the region of the 
 Zambesi and Ethiopia. 
 
356 DESCKIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The surface in the -western and southern part is mountainous. 
 It is watered by numerous rivers, but they are generally small 
 in size. 
 
 The climate is tropical. Spices and tropical fruits are pro- 
 duced in great abundance. 
 
 Zanzibar, on Zanzibar Island, is the capital. 
 
 MOZAMBIQUE. 
 
 Mozambique is bounded on the north by the region of the 
 Zambesi and Zanguebar, on the east by Mozambique Channel, 
 on the south by Zooloos, and on the west by the region of the 
 Zambesi. 
 
 This country belongs to the Portuguese. It contains several 
 Portuguese trading towns. Ivory is the most important export. 
 Grain and tropical fruits are produced in great abundance. 
 
 REGION OF THE ZAMBESI. 
 
 This country is bounded on the north byEthiopia and Zan- 
 guebar, on the east by Zanguebar, Mozambique and the Trans 
 Vale Republic, on the south by the Trans Vale Republic, 
 Orange River, Free State and Cape Colony, and on the west by 
 Namaqua and Damara Land and Guinea. 
 
 This country has recently been explored by Dr. Livingston. 
 According to his report it is low and sandy, and watered by 
 numerous rivers, which, during the rainy season, overflow a large 
 portion of the country. The soil is fertile, and tropical produc- 
 tions are abundant. 
 
 The principal river is the Zambesi. Lake Nyassa, discovered 
 in 1859, is the largest lake. 
 
 THE CAPE COUNTRIES. 
 
 These countries are in the possession of England. Cape 
 Colony is the most important division of this section. Cape 
 Town is the capital. 
 
 North of the Cape Countries are several independent states 
 occupied by the Negroes and Dutch. 
 
OF AFRICA. 357 
 
 GUINEA. 
 
 Guinea is bounded on the north by Senegambia and Soudan, 
 on the east by Ethiopia and the region of the Zambesi, on the 
 south by Damara Land and the Atlantic Ocean, and on the west 
 by tho Atlantic Ocean and Liberia. 
 
 The Kong Mountains form the northern boundary, and the 
 Crystal and Mocambe mountains the eastern boundary of the 
 country. The coast is generally low and unhealthy. The soil 
 is fertile. The principal productions are indigo, pepper, cot- 
 ton and the sugar cane. Gold dust is found in considerable 
 quantities. 
 
 LIBERIA. 
 
 Liberia is bounded on the north and east by Senegambia and 
 Guniea, and on the south and west by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 This country is a negro republic, with a government similar 
 to that of the United States. It was founded in the year 1820 
 by the American Colonization Society, as a home for the lib- 
 erated slaves of the United States. The experiment has proved 
 eminently successful, and it is also thought that it will aid mate- 
 rially in the civilization of Africa. A number of schools and 
 churches have been founded, and a large number of pupils f-om 
 the surrounding savage tribes are sent to Liberia to be educated. 
 
 Monrovia is the capital, and the most important city. 
 
 SENEGAMBIA. 
 
 Senegambia is bounded on the north by the Great Desert, on 
 the east by Soudan and Guinea, on the south hy Guinea and 
 Liberia, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 The surface is generally level. The principal rivers are the 
 Senegal and Gambia. Gold is found in considerable quantities 
 along the river bottoms. The soil is fertile. The inhabitants 
 are mostly engaged in agricultural pursuits. The principal pro- 
 ductions are rice, ginger, palm oil, cotton and tropical fruits. 
 
 ISLANDS. 
 
 Madagascar, a large island lying east of southern Africa , 
 covers an area of two hundred and forty thousand square miles . 
 
358 OF AFRICA. 
 
 The surface is generally mountainous. The climate and pro- 
 ductions are similar to those of Southern Africa. The inhabi- 
 tants are a mixed race. 
 
 The Azores, Maderia and Cape Verd islands belong to Portu- 
 gal, the Canaries to Spain, Bourbon to France, and the Mauri- 
 tius, St. Helena and Ascension islands to Great Britain. St. 
 Helena is noted for having been the place of exile of the Em- 
 peror Napoleon. 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV. 
 
 AUSTBALIA. 
 
 This country is by some geographers classed as an island, and 
 by others as a continent, bat on account of its great size it more 
 properly belongs to the latter class. It is situated in the Indian 
 Ocean, south-east of Asia. 
 
 Physical Features. The coast is bordered by mountain 
 ranges rising to a moderate elevation. The highest peak, Mount 
 Hotham, is about seven thousand feet above sea-level. The inte- 
 rior, so far as is known, consists of a low, barren plain, with 
 occasional small ranges of hills. The inhabited regions are the 
 mountain valleys, the slopes towards the interior, and the sections 
 between the mountains and the coast. 
 
 Rivers. The Murray, with its branchas, is the only river of 
 any importance. This river, together with its longest branches, 
 is navigable for a distance of about one thousand eight hundred 
 miles. 
 
 Climate. Australia has in general, a very warm climate. — 
 That portion lying within the tropics is extremely warm, The 
 climate of the soiithern portion is similar to that of South 
 Africa. 
 
 Soil and Productions. The soil along the coast is fertile. 
 The principal productions are wheat, corn, wool, and tobacco. 
 Oold was discovered in 1851, and since that time the mines of 
 Australia have yielded more than those of any other country in 
 the world, except California. Copper, iron, and other metals 
 are found in considerable quantities. 
 
 Australia is at the present time inhabited mostly hj Euro- 
 peans and their descendants. The native inhabitants are a 
 degraded race of negroes. The principal occupation of the white 
 inhabitants is mining and grazing. 
 
360 OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Countries of Australia. The political divisions of 
 Australia are New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, 
 West Australia, and Queensland. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Melbourne, on the southern coast, and 
 Syndey on the eastern coast, are the most important commer- 
 cial cities. Adelaide and Perth are also important places. 
 
 Australia and the adjacent islands of Tasmania, New Zealand, 
 Norfolk and Chatham, belong to Great Britain. 
 
 POLYNESIA. 
 
 Polynesia includes a large number of islands, of volcanic and 
 coral formation, scattered throughout the Pacific Ocean. The 
 volcanic islands are generally mountainous, while those of coral 
 formation have scarcely any elevation above the surface of the 
 water. The principal groups are the Sandwich, Ladrone, Caro- 
 line, Society, and Friendly Islands. Nearly the whole of 
 Polynesia lies within the Torrid Zone ; but owing to the coun- 
 teracting infl-uence of the ocean, the heat is not so intense as 
 might be expected, from the latitude. The climate is mild and 
 delightful. 
 
 Bread fruit, plantain, and cocoanut are the most important 
 native trees, but the vegetation of other tropical countries has 
 been introduced, and grows in great luxuriance. 
 
 Hogs, dogs, and rats are the only native animals. Some of 
 the domestic animals from other countries have, however, been 
 introduced, and thrive well. When first discovered these islands 
 had neither insects or reptiles. Reptiles ard at the present 
 time confined to Navigators Group. 
 
 Inhabitants. The natives of Polynesia are of two distinct 
 races, the larger class apparently of Malay origin, and the other 
 a branch of the Negro race. The Malays are by far the most 
 intelligent class of people. Many of them through the labors 
 of missionaries, have been converted to Christianity. The 
 native inhabitants are fast giving place to the white men, and 
 at no distant day they will become extinct. 
 
 Cities and Towns. Honolulu, a city of Oahu, one of the 
 Sandwich Islands, is the most important city. 
 
PART III, 
 
 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 CHAPTER, L 
 V^ESTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 We have now accomplislied an important part of this work. 
 In Part I. the first principles of Geography — Mathamatical, 
 Physical and Political — have been briefly illustrated. Part II. 
 surveys in order the principal works of Nature and Art. Moun- 
 tains, PASSES, GORGES, VALLEYS, LAKES and RIVERS,— and CITIES, 
 PALACES, TEMPLES, CHURCHES, and RUINS and RELICS of ancient 
 times, have been noticed in the order in which they occur, both 
 physically and politically. And in connection with these moun- 
 tains and rivers, and cities, temples and ruins we have appended 
 their history, and also the origin and history of the people who 
 live in the country where they are found. We might have 
 omitted the historical part of this work, and by so doing effected 
 a saving of time and space. But we are fully convinced that 
 when a student has acquired an interest in the geography of any 
 country, it is then the fitting time in which to present him with 
 the history of that country. For instance, supposing we 
 are pursuing the geography of Great Britain and Ireland. We 
 there learn of many of the largest cities in the world crowded 
 in the little country of England, and also of the existence of 
 ruins of ancient castles and Druidic temples. The questions 
 then naturally present themselves to our mind ;— who were the 
 24 
 
362 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 original inhabitants of this country ? what people built these old 
 castles of which we now read ? and what people is it who are 
 now building up these large cities, who are so earnestly engaged 
 in commerce, manufactures and agriculture, and are developing 
 other proofs of energy and national genius ? After pondering 
 the matter carefully, and referring it to the consideration of 
 maturer minds, wo have concluded that history and geography 
 should go hand in hand, and that, in our work, where one was 
 essential to give life and truth to our illustrations, the other 
 was necessary to complete the desired range of information. 
 
 We have been advised by some to produce a work in which all 
 the prominent features of the world, both natural and artificial, 
 should be displayed without respect to political boundaries. We 
 might, indeed, readily describe our illustrations in this manner, 
 but the chain of geography and history would be broken. Such 
 a course could only generate confusion, and will never be em- 
 ployed where the proper work can be obtained. 
 
 It now remains to make a successful application of the views 
 to be furnished in connection with this work. In Part III. we 
 shall endeavor to answer all questions that will naturally arise 
 from examining the illustrations of any country in the order which 
 they may occur. The catalogue with explanations will now be 
 arranged in the order of the foregoing pages. It must not be 
 inferred that, in producing this part of the work, it is essential 
 that a view has been previously described in order to apply it to 
 the country that it represents. In our description of Austria 
 we speak of the different mountain ranges which diversify that 
 country, and also, of the grandeur of the scenery here displayed. 
 Our view of the Brenner Pass is the most striking illustration 
 0^ Austrian scenery published, and forms an object lesson rarely 
 excelled. But there are many other features in connection with 
 the mountains of Austria of equal prominence ; consequently 
 the proper use of this view is to illustrate the Austrian moun- 
 tains, valleys and passes as a whole; and the same is true of 
 other countries. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 3bo 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 No, 1. — G-eneral View of the White Mountains, showing 
 Mi. Washington, the highest summit. Mount Washington is 
 the most prominent peak to be seen in this view. Page 33. 
 
 No. 2. — View of Qannon Mountain. This is one of the 
 minor peaks of the White Mountains. The view shows its east- 
 ern side and summit. Page 33. 
 
 No. 3. — mils and Bales in Neiv England. This view, 
 taken near the village of Plymouth, affords a fine illustration of 
 the rugged scenery in central and southern Vermont. Page 34. 
 
 No. 4. — View of Boston, from Bunher Hill Monument. 
 
 No. 5. — View of the Boston Qommon. This view will be 
 amply noticed on page 37. 
 
 No. 15. — Botanical Gardens at Boston. This view affords a 
 fine illustration of landscape gardening. In the background is 
 the city of Boston. Page 37. 
 
 No. 16. — Vieiv of the State House at Boston. Page 37. 
 
 No. 17. — Faneuil Hall at Boston. This building is interest- 
 ing because of its connection with the history of our country 
 during the Revolutionary War. See page 37. 
 
 No„ 18. — -View of Bunker Hill Monument, Oharlestown, 
 Mass. Within this monument is a winding staircase by which 
 it is ascended to a chamber immediately under its apex. In 
 this chamber are two of the four cannon which constituted the 
 whole train of field artillery possessed by the Americans at the 
 opening of the Revolutionary War. 
 
 No. 19.— Monument to Ladd and Whitney, and attendant 
 Statue of Victory, Lowell, Mass. Ladd and Whiincy, the first 
 two martyrs of the late rebellion, were killed by a mob while 
 passing with their regiment through the city of Baltimore. A 
 monument has been erected to their memory by their patriotic 
 fellow-citizens, at Lowell, Mass. 
 
364 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 20. — Falls in the Housatonic River, Conn. The sources 
 of the Housatonic are 1,000 feet above the sea, consequently its 
 descent is attended with falls and rapids. Page 38. 
 
 No. 21. — New Haven, from Depot Tower, Qonn. PageJ 39. 
 
 No. 22. — Temple St., New Raven. Page 39. 
 
 MIDDLE STATES ILLUSTRATED, 
 
 Nos. 1, and 2. — Views looking towards the OatskiU Moun- 
 tain House, N. Y, These views furnish good illustrations of 
 the wild chasms and gorges which are thrown between the Cats- 
 kill Mountains. Page 42. 
 
 No. 3. — Vieiv of Round Top, N. Y. This mountain is the 
 highest peak of the Catskills. It has a hotel on its summit 
 which is constantly thronged with visitors- 
 No. 4, — Williams' Monument, near Lake G-eorge, N. Y. 
 The monument to be seen in this picture was erected to the 
 memory of Col. Ephraim Williams, a native of Newton, Mass. 
 After gallantly defending the frontiers of his native state, he 
 served under General Johnson against the French and Indians, 
 and fell near the spot indicated in the view. Page 43. 
 
 No. 5. — Qayuga Lake. In this view the outlet of Taughan- 
 nock Ravine is shown in the foreground. The scenery which 
 lines this ravine is of the finest description. A short distance 
 above, it forms some of the magnificent cascades which have 
 been noticed on page 45, as situated near Ithaca. Page 43. 
 
 No. 6. — View on the Hudson River. — This view is looking 
 north near the northern terminus of the Highlands. The emi- 
 nence at the right, is Breakneck Hill, which is 1,187 feet high, 
 and terminates in the bold promontory of St. Anthony's Nose. 
 Page 42, and also 43. 
 
 No. l.— View of the Hudson and Highlands. This view 
 represents the beginning of the Highlands. The Highlands are 
 tere known as Palisades, and are composed of perpendicular 
 masses of trap rock. Page 42, and also 43. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 365 
 
 No. 8. — Scene in the Eudson Highlands. This view is in 
 the vicinity of Cold Spring, one mile above West Point. The 
 Hudson River Railroad holds a conspicuous place in this illus- 
 tration.^Page 42, and also 43. 
 
 No. 9. — View of the Eudson River, and West Point A 
 finer illustration of the position of our National Military Acad- 
 emy could hardly be produced. "West Point is in the midst of 
 the Highland scenery. Page 43 and also, 48. 
 
 Nos. 10 and 11. — Interior views of Eudson River Steamers. 
 The Hudson River Steamers are of world wide celebrity. The 
 views above mentioned will illustrate the elegance with which 
 they are furnished. Page 43. 
 
 No. 4. — Moonlight view of Niagara Falls from the American 
 side, N. Y. The Horse Shoe Falls, Goat Island and Terrapin 
 Tower are in the distance, and at the left is the American Eall. 
 This is one of the most striking illustrations of the Niagara 
 series. Page 44. 
 
 No. 23. — Niagara Falls from neiv Suspension Bridge. — The 
 objects in this view are similar to those in the proceeding one. 
 Page 44, 
 
 No. 1. — Vietv of Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge. — 
 This view exhibits nearly the same outline as No. 23 with the 
 exception of being taken from a more distant point. Page 44. 
 
 No. 17. — Greneral vietv of the Falls from Canada. — This 
 view was taken before the new Suspension Bridge was built. A 
 more impressive illustration of the sublimity of iNiagara could 
 not be furnished. The outline of the falls, the position of Goat 
 Island and the bend in the river are witnessed as plainly as 
 though the student was in the immediate vicinity. Page 44. 
 
 No, 24. — The new Suspension Bridge and Falls. — This 
 number gives a better view of the new bridge than number one. 
 Page 44. 
 
 Nos. 14 and 15. — Niagara Suspension Bridge and Falls. — 
 The falls are shown only in the distance in these views, but the 
 
366 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 windings cf the river channel between the Falls and Bridge is 
 distinctly outlined. It must be remembered that the Niagara 
 Suspension Bridge is two miles below the falls. Page 44. 
 
 Nos. 20 AND 26. — G-eneral views of the American Falls from 
 the Canada side. — No. 20 shows the Central Fall betwen Luna 
 , and Goat Island, which, though of considerable volume, has a 
 very inferior appearance when placed by the mighty cataract at 
 its side. ■ It also furnishes a distant view of the village of Niag- 
 ara. No. 26 is not so comprehensive, but is on a more magnifi- 
 cent scale. Page 45. 
 
 No. 6. — The American Fall from Croat Island. — In the 
 immediate foreground of this illustration the Central Fall will 
 appear in greater volume than in No. 20. Beyond the Ameri- 
 can Fall is the new Suspension Bridge. Page 45. 
 
 No. 21. — American Fall from Below. — This view is taken 
 immediately at the foot of the Fall on the American side, and. 
 furnishes a most perfect illustration of its surpassing grandeur. 
 Page 45. 
 
 Nos, 19 AND 27. — The Horse Shoe Fallfromthe Canada side. 
 No. 19 gives a full view of Horse Shoe Fall and Terrapin Tow- 
 er. No. 27, taken from a different point, shows less of the fall, 
 but is remarkable for its rich surroundings. Page 45. 
 
 No. 11. — Terrapin Tower and FLorse Shoe Fall from Croat 
 Island. This view, looking towards the Canada shore, is com- 
 pletely enveloped in the mist and spray which rises from the falls. 
 The Terrapin Tower is distinctly outlined. Page 45. 
 
 Nos. 28 AND 29. — Views of the Rapids, Niagara. No. 28 
 shows the Rapids above the American Fall. No. 29 is a view 
 of the rapids from Third Sister Island, also above the falls. 
 These illustrations will furnish the student with a correct idea 
 of the turbulent condition of Niagara before it is forced over 
 the fearful precipice below. Page 44. 
 
 Nos. 30 AND 31. — View of Whirlpool Rapids. The Whirl- 
 pool and Rapids as shown in these pictures are two miles below 
 the Falls, and immediately below the Suspension Bridge, one 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 367 
 
 half of which is shown. They do not inagnify in the least the 
 awful countenance which the river wears at this place. Page 44. 
 
 Nos. 9 and 32. — Niagara Falls in Winter and new Sus^i^en- 
 sion Bridge. Both these illustrations afford a general view of 
 the Falls, with intervening ice mounds and pyramids. Page 44. 
 
 Is^o. 22. — Winter scene and neto Suspension Bridge, Just 
 below Niagara Falls. In this view Niagara River has a perfect 
 coating of ice, which is traversed by rents not unlike the crev- 
 asses of glaciers. Page 44. 
 
 No. 33. — American Fall and Rainbow through Ice Archj — 
 This view is taken from Goat Island ; and is looking through a 
 snowy arched tree across the angry torrent and crest of Cen- 
 tral Fall to the American Fall; A rainbow is perfectly repre- 
 sented in this picture. Page 44. 
 
 No. 18. — American Fall showing Ice Mounds. — This is a 
 front view of American Falls, with the village of Niagara in the 
 background. The Ice Mounds are piled nearly to the crest of 
 the falls. V/hen the hight of , these is remembered, a good idea 
 can be formed of the magnitude of the mounds. Page 44. * 
 
 No. 34. — Winter scene on the Luna Island Bridge, Beneath 
 this bridge may be seen the torrent which forms the Central 
 Fall. Page 44. 
 
 Nos. 16 AND 35. — Views of the new Suspension Bridge and 
 Clifton House. The new Suspension Bridge has been recently 
 erected for the accommodation of foot passengers. The Clifton 
 House, on the Canada side of the river, is a hotel where tourists 
 are received. The surface of the water in these views is almost 
 as smooth as glass. This is immediately below the falls. Page 
 44. 
 
 No. 36. — General view of Niagara Suspension Bridge. A 
 full view of this stupendous monument of human genius, show- 
 ing entrance to carriage way. Page 44. 
 
 No. 37. — Interior of the Niagara Suspension Bridge. 
 Page 44. 
 
368 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 38. — Vietv of RaiJroad Track and Suspension Bridge. 
 This view is not so general as No. 36, but is perhaps a better 
 object lesson. Page 44. 
 
 No. 39.— Fm^ of Cohoes Falls, N. Y. These falls are in 
 the Mohawk, three miles from wh^re that river joins the Hud- 
 son. See page 45. 
 
 No. 40.— View of Trenton Falls, N, Y. Page 45. 
 
 No. 41. — View of the (Jenesee Falls,^ below Rochester. 
 Page 45. 
 
 No. 42. — View of G-enesee Falls at Rochester, iV. Y. This 
 view shows the well known falls which serve as a means of 
 furnishing water power to Rochester. It shows also, a good 
 view of the city of Rochester. Page 45. 
 
 No, 43. — View of the G-enesee Falls near Portage. In this 
 view may be seen the immense High Bridge of the Genesee, 
 which is crossed at this place by the Buffalo branch of the Erie 
 Railroad. Page 45. 
 
 No. 44. — Distant view of the High Bridge over the Genesee, 
 K Y. Page 45. 
 
 No. 45. — View of the Genesee Falls at Portage from Sigh 
 Bank. This view shows the perpendicular walls of rock 
 through which the Genesee flows in this vicinity. Through this 
 gorge in the foreground may be seen the Middle Falls as shown 
 in No. 43. Farther back, in the immediate vicinity of the 
 Bridge is the Horse Shoe Falls, and in the background ri?e the 
 huge proportions of the High Bridge. These objects have the 
 wildest surroundings, and cannot fail to create a lasting impres- 
 sion. 
 
 No. 46. — Interior vieiv of the Sigh Bridge. As far as the 
 eye can reach above and below may be seen the complicated 
 structure of this great bridge. Page 45. 
 
 Nos. 47 AND 48. — Views of Ithaca Falls, N. Y. These 
 Falls occur in a small tributary of Cayuga Lake. They are 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 369 
 
 not perpendicular in descent, but fall one liundred and sixty 
 feet'^in terraces. Page 45. 
 
 ]^o.4:9.— Viewof TaughannocJc %U, iV". Y. This fall is 
 small in volume, but has a perpendicular pitch of 215 feet. 
 The Taughannock Ravine is also discharged into Cayuga 
 Lake. See view of Cayuga Lake, No. 5, Page 45. 
 
 No, 1. — KautersMll Fall from under ^he Bluff. This view 
 is in one of the wildest regions of the Catskill Mountains, 
 N. Y. Page 45. 
 
 No. 5. — Tlie KautersMll Falls and Laurel House; Glens of 
 the Catskills, iV. Y. — This view shows the deep gulfs and wood- 
 ed slopes of the Catskills. Page 45. 
 
 No. 6. — The KautersMll Fall; Glens of the CatsMlls. This 
 affords a general view of the first fall and its surroundings. 
 See page 45. 
 
 No. 1. — New York City from Trinity Spire. This affords a 
 general view of the city. The street to be seen is Broadway 
 over which the Broadway Bridge is distinctly outlined. The 
 most prominent spire represented is that of St. Paul's Church, 
 immediately beyond which, facing on Broadway, is the Astor 
 House. Page 47. 
 
 No. 2, — Scene in Broadway. This view is looking up Broad- 
 way from the corner of Broome St. Page 47. 
 
 Nos. 3 AND 4 — Scenes in the Rarhor at N. Y. Qity. These 
 views will convey a large amount of interest and instruction to 
 students who have never witnessed a harbor swarmed with ves - 
 sels. 
 
 No- 5- — The Terrace, Central Park, H. Y. Page 47. 
 
 No. 6. — Esplanade and Fountain, Central Park, N. Y. 
 Page 47. 
 
 No. l.—The Mall, Central Park. Page 47. 
 
 No. 8. — View of New York City from EofSt River. Page 47. 
 
870 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 9' — Qeneral view of Neiv York Qity from Trinity Spire. 
 This view is looking down Wall Street, which intersects Broad • 
 way at right angles. Trtnity Church is at this junction. At 
 the terminus of Wall Street is Wall Street Ferry, where vie;^ 
 No. 4 was taken. Page 47. 
 
 No. 10. — Junction of Chatham and Center Street^ New York. 
 This view shows the Tryon Row Buildings at the junction, 
 which have recently been moved to give place to a new railroad 
 depot. 
 
 No. 11. — View in Broadway showing St. PauTs Church and 
 the Astor House, This view also shows the Broadway Bridge, 
 which was built for the accommodation of foot passengers, who 
 found it difficult to effect a passage through the constant throng 
 of teams in Broadway. It was found, however, that it consumed 
 more time to cross the street by means of the bridge than other- 
 wise, and recently the plan has been condemned and the bridge 
 removed. The spire of St. Paul's Church (referred to in No. 1, 
 General view of New York from Trinity spire), is on the rear 
 end of the building, and cannot be seen in the view. The Astor 
 House was once one of the most elegant structures in New York 
 City, but it is now surpassed by many buildings. 
 
 No. 12. — Funeral of President Lincoln, N. Y. Page 47. 
 
 No. 1. — Main entrance to Grreenwood Cemetery looking out, 
 Brooklyn, N. Y. Page 136. 
 
 No. 2. — Cfeneral view in Grreenwood Ceii^etery, Brooklyn, 
 N. Y. Page 47. 
 
 Nos. 3, 4 AND 5. — Scenes in Grreenwood Cemetery. Page 47. 
 
 The above views will illustrate the richness which surrounds 
 Greenwood. 
 
 No. 6. — Monument of Miss Charlotte Canda, G-reenwood 
 Cemetery. This is one of the most elegant monuments in the 
 Cemetery. Miss Canda was killed on the evening of her seven- 
 teenth birthday by a fall from her carriage. A vast sum of 
 money was expended in erecting this monument to her memory. 
 Page 47. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRiiTIONS. 371 
 
 Nos. 7, 8 AND 9. — Pyramids of Shot and Shell, Brooklyn 
 Navy Yard, N. Y. These views will greatly assist the student 
 in acquiring correct ideas of the extensive scale on which these 
 implements of war are manufactured. 
 
 No. 10. — Distant view of Newhurg, N. Y. This is an ex- 
 ceedingly picturesque view. In the immediate foreground may 
 be seen Fishkill Landing, and across the beautiful Hudson 
 stretches out the city of Newburg. The eminence at the left is 
 Snake Hill. 
 
 Nos. 1 AND 2. — Vieivs of Passaic Falls, New Jersey. The 
 Passaic Falls are among the most interesting in the country, and 
 the views representing them will furnish valuable object lessons 
 to the student. 
 
 Nos. 2 AND 3. — Falls of the WallenpaupaeJc, Pennsylvania. 
 Page 51. 
 
 No. 3. — Jersey Qity and Sohohen from New York. Page 
 49, and also 50. 
 
 Nos. 1 AND 4.- — Scenes in the Delaivare Gap, Penn. Page 50. 
 
 No .5. — State House, Philadelphia, Page 52. 
 
 No. 6. — Crirard College, Philadelphia. Page 52. 
 
 No. 7. — Scene in Pittsburg, Penn. Page 52. 
 
 SOUTHEEN STATES ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 7. — View of Harper's Ferry, Maryland and Virginia. 
 Page 55. 
 
 No. 1. — Scene in the City of Baltimore, Maryland. This 
 view is comprehensive, and will furnish a fine object lesson. 
 Page 56. 
 
 No, 2. — Shipping and Harbor, Baltimore, Maryland. This 
 is also a striking illustration. Page 56. 
 
 No. 3. — View of the Washington Monument, Baltimore, 
 Maryland. 'Page 56. 
 
372 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 4. — View of Battle Monument, Baltimore, Maryland. 
 Page 56. 
 
 No. 1. — General view of Washington, D. C. This view is 
 from the east of the Capitol, looking west. The immense pro- 
 portions of the United States Capitol are spread out in the fore- 
 ground, and behind it are the Circle Capital Grounds. At the 
 left is the Maryland Avenue leading down to the Long Bridge 
 that crosses the Potomac to Arlington Hights. At the right 
 may be seen Pennsylvania Avenue. The long building at the 
 terminus of this Avenue is the Treasury building, beyond which 
 may be seen the White House. Nearer the Capitol, and to the 
 right of Pennsylvania Avenue, are the Post Office and Patent 
 Office. At the left of the Canal is the Smithsonian Institute, 
 and on the bank of the Potomac the lofty Washington Monu- 
 ment is distinctly outlined. For an object lesson this view is 
 unsurpassed, including in its area every prominent building in 
 Washington. Page 57. 
 
 No. 2. — View of the Capitol from the north-east. In the 
 north wing of the Capitol, or in the wing nearest the student in - 
 this picture is the United States Senate Chamber. Page 51. ^ 
 
 No. 25. — View in the Senate Chamber. An interesting illus- 
 tration to all Americans. Page 57. 
 
 No. 17. — East Front of the Capitol from the south east. 
 The south wing is nearest the student in this picture, and con- 
 tains the House of Representatives. Nos. 2 and 17 show how 
 the sides of the north and south wings are formed. Page 57. 
 
 No. 24. View in the House of Representatives. Another 
 valuable illustration, replete with interest to Americans. Page 51. 
 
 No, 14. — East Front of the Capitol. In this view the wings 
 are excluded, but the main building and the Dome which rises 
 obove it are shown on a larger scale. Page 57. 
 
 No. 15. — East Front of the Capitol. This is more of a side 
 view than No. 14, and the whole building is shown. Page 57. 
 
 No. 7. — Main Entrance to the United States Capitol. The 
 Main Entrance to the Capitol is on the eastern front, and is one 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 373 
 
 of the richest views in the Wasnington series. At the right as 
 you enter is the Statue of Civilization, by Grreenough, and at the 
 left is that of Columbus and the Indian Girl. Page 57. 
 
 No. 19. — Statue o^" Civilization, by Greenough, East Front 
 of the Capitol. This Statue is intended to illustrate the ascen- 
 dency of the white man over the American Indian. Page]59. 
 
 No. 3. — Bronze Statue of Washington in East Capitol Square. 
 The Dome of the Capitol is the most prominent object in the 
 background of this picture. Page 59. 
 
 No. 30. — Walk in East Capitol Square. Page 57- 
 
 The foregoing views have all been on the east side of the Cap- 
 itol. We will now include a number of illustrations from the 
 opposite side. If care is taken, every view around the Capitol 
 can be located in the " General view of Washington," No. 1. 
 
 No. 28. — Viewjof the Capitol from Pennsylvania Avenue. 
 This view is directed towards the Capitol through the Avenue 
 leading to the Treasury Building, as noticed in view No. 1. 
 ■Page 57. 
 
 No. 13. — View in the West Capitol Grounds. This view is 
 obscured by the foliage, only the Dome of the Capitol being 
 visible. 'Page 57. ^ 
 
 No, 29. — The Capitol at Washington from the Botanical Gar- 
 dens. This is from the west, and affords a general view of the 
 Capitol, and also of the Summer Houses belonging to the Botan- 
 ical Gardens. Page 57. 
 
 No. 22. — Bermuda's Allegorical Painting in the Dome of the 
 Capitol. Page 57. 
 
 No, 12. — The Botanical Gardens and City of Washington. 
 Page 57, 
 
 No, 6. — Equestrian Statue of Jackson, North Front of the 
 White House (President's Mansion). This is one of the most 
 splendid views in Washington. Page 67. 
 
 No. 21 —East Front of the White House. Page 57. 
 
374 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Nos. 8 AND 9. — The Great East Room in the White House. 
 This is the appartment in which the guests of the President are 
 received. Page 57. 
 
 No. 18. — View of the Patent OflBce, Washington. The Pa- 
 tent Office as shown in this picture is a most imposing spectacle. 
 The figures in the foreground present a scene of life and anima- 
 tion. Page 58. 
 
 No. 5.-— Blue Corridor in the United States Patent Office. 
 A view of unsurpassed richness, and of a most impressive nature. 
 Page 58. 
 
 No. 16. — View of the United States Treasury Building. In 
 front of this magnificent structure is an inclosed lawn, and in 
 the background rise the buildings of Washington City. Page 58, 
 
 No. 9. — View of the Smithsonian Institute. This is one of 
 the most wonderful buildings in the world. Its exterior pre- 
 sents a succession of magnificent towers, and its interior is filled 
 with specimens from every part of the world. 
 
 No. 20. — Equestrian Statue of Washington^ near Georgetown. 
 
 No. 10. — The Soldiers' Home. This is a splendid building, 
 and was built for a most worthy purpose. It is erected in the 
 suburbs of Washington, and presents in the picture its noble 
 front and tower. Page 59. 
 
 No. 26. — National Cemetery at Arlington Hights. Page 59. 
 
 No. 1.- -The Great Natural Bridge, Virginia. This forms a 
 most interesting study. 
 
 No. 2, — Panoramic view of Richmond, Virginia. This is a 
 very comprehensive view, and is taken from Libby Hill, the site 
 of the infamous Libby Prison. Page 61. 
 
 No. 3. — View of the Washington Monument, Richmond, Vir- 
 ginia. The smaller statues to be seen in this picture, stationed 
 on the corners of the center base, are those of Patrick Henry, 
 Thomas Jefi'erson and Mason. Page. 61. 
 
 No. 4. — Mount Vernon, the home of Washington, Virginia. 
 Mount Vernon is on the Potomac River, eight miles below 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 875 
 
 Alexandria. It has a plain and venerable appearance, and is 
 worthy of honor and distinction. 
 
 No. 5. — View of Live Oak trees in Florida. A fine illustra- 
 tion of southern scenery. 
 
 WESTERN STATES ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 1. — Fourth Street, Cincinnati, Ohio. This street is 
 lined with buildings of the richest architecture, but does not 
 present the life and animation which signalizes Broadway, New 
 York. It will be interesting for the student to mark the 
 contrast. Page 81. 
 
 No. 2. — General view in Cincinnati, Ohio. Page 81. 
 
 No. 3. — View of the Suspension Bridge over the Ohio at 
 Cincinnati, Ohio. This view is taken from the Cincinnati side 
 of the river, and shows Covington, Kentucky, in the distance. 
 The Bridge is an interesting specimen of architecture, and is 
 shown in its whole extent. Page 81. 
 
 No. 4, — View of a Steamer on the Ohio. This view is taken 
 from Cincinnati, aud shows Covington, Kentucky, on the oppo- 
 site bank of the river. The Steamer is at the landing, and will 
 furnish a fine object lesson to those unacquainted with river 
 navigation. Page 81. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3 AND 4. — Views of Chicago, 111., from the Court 
 House. These views, taken a short time before the great fire 
 in Chicago occurred, are looking in opposite directions. They 
 show the richest portion of the city, and in the richness of the 
 buildings presented will furnish a good idea of the immense loss 
 that has been sustained. Page 84. 
 
 No. 5. — View of the Court House, Chicago, 111. Nothing of 
 this fine building now remains, save its barren walls- Page 84. 
 
 No. 6. — View of Chicago University. Page 84. 
 
 No. 7.— View of Potter Palmer's Marble Building. This 
 was perhaps the most elegant building in Chicago. It is now 
 involved in the common ruin. 
 
376 ' INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 8, — Scene in Lake Street, Chicago. The noble buildings 
 which lined this street were leveled by the fire. Page 84. 
 
 No. 9. — View of the Chicago Water Works. This is one of 
 the finest views ever made in Chicago. The fine building of the 
 Water Works, with its immense tower is shown with as good 
 effect as though the student were on the spot. Nothing but its 
 shell now remains. 
 
 No. 10. — View from the Tower of the Water Works. This 
 view is looking out upon Lake Michigan, which is dotted with 
 steamers and sailing craft. Page 84. 
 
 No. 11. — View in the Chicago Stock Yard. Page 84. 
 
 No. 12. — Scene on the Chicago River, Chicago. Page^84. 
 
 The Fire which has recently swept over Chicago, is the most 
 fearful that ever desolated any city. It began Saturday evening, 
 October 7th (1871), and before its force was broken, the very 
 heart of the city had been consumed. Everything of any con- 
 sequence represented in the foregoing views, is now a mass of 
 shapeless ruins. The new series of views which we shall soon 
 publish will represent the present condition of Chicago. 
 
 Nos. 15 AND 16.— Views in Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. 
 These are unquestionably the finest, views ever published of this 
 famous subterranean cavern. The roof is hung with glittering 
 stalactites; and, in No. 16, the stalagmites rise from the surface 
 of Echo River, and form numerous pyramids. Page 85. 
 
 No. 13.— Henry Clay's Favorite Walk, Ashland, Kentucky. 
 Page 89. 
 
 No. 17.— Park view in St. Louis, Missouri. Page 89. 
 
 Nos. 18, 19 AND 20.— Views of Pictured Rocks, Michigan. 
 The Pictured Rocks are on the southern shore of Lake Superior, 
 near the eastern end. At this place is a line of promontories, 
 which, at a distance, present a terrible array of dilapidated 
 battlements and desolate towns. Overhanging precipices, tower- 
 ing walls, caverns, water-falls and prostrate ruins are here 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 377 
 
 grouped togerher ia a most wonderful manner. The perpendic- 
 ular wall of rock, which has been drawn along this portion of 
 the Superior shore for twelve miles, has been exposed to the 
 fury of the waves that blow across the lake, and broken into the 
 fantastic forms just mentioned. 
 
 ,Nos. 21 AND 22.-- Dales of the Wisconsin River, Wisconsin. 
 These views are highly picturesque, and are illustrative of the 
 rugged scenery which follows this portion of the Wisconsin 
 River. Page 92. 
 
 No. 23.— View of the Falls in the Black River, Wisconsin. 
 These Falls occur about fifty miles from its mouth at the Mis- 
 sissippi, and are of considerable repute on account of the rich 
 scenery which they afford. The river is navigvable for boats to 
 this point. Page 92. 
 
 No, 24.--View of Devil's Lake, Wisconsin. This lake is not 
 generally placed upon the map of Wisconsin, its small extent 
 refusing it a place among the more prominent ones. But for 
 striking scenes and object lessons it has not a rival in the state- 
 To both tourist and Geologist it offers a prolific source of enter- 
 tainment. It has a nearly central position in the southern half 
 of Wisconsin, in the county of Sauk. 
 
 No. 25. "View of Devil's Lake from Wonder Notch. In this 
 view the rugged bights which inelose Devil's Lake are shown on 
 a magnificent scale. The huge pile of rocks in the foreground, 
 which rise in terraces, and decrease in magnitude as they culmi- 
 nate, until they present the appearance of a rugged pyramid, is 
 called Clepatra's Needle. 
 
 No. 26.— General view of Dubuque, Iowa. In the back- 
 ground of this view may be seen the winding course of the Mis- 
 sissippi River. Page 90. 
 
 No. 27.™View of the Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota. 
 These falls are in the Mississippi at St. Paul. Page 93. 
 
 Nos. 28 AND 29.— Views of Minnehaha Falls, Minnesota. 
 Page 93. 
 
 No. 30."- View of St, Paul, Minnesota. Page 94. 
 25 
 
378 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 5. — Yosemite Fall, two thousand six hundred and thirty- 
 four feet high, California. This is the highest fall in the world, 
 The perpendicular wall of rock over which it leaps is the Yose« 
 mite Mountain. During certain portions of the year the water 
 which forms this fall, and that which forms the others also, is 
 greatly reduced, and even ceases to flow. Page 95. 
 
 Nos. 4 AND 11.— View of the Bridal Veil Fall, Yosemite Val- 
 ley, California. Page 95. 
 
 No. 6.— View of Nevada Fall, California. Page 95. 
 
 No. 38.— View of the Fall on the South Fork, California. 
 Page 95. 
 
 No. 8. "-View of Vernal Fall. In the foreground are the 
 rapids which proceed from the foot of these falls. Page 95. 
 
 The above falls are all in the Yosemite Valley, the glories of 
 which will now be further revealed to the student. 
 
 No. 8. — General view of the Yosemite Valley and Mountains, 
 €alifornia. An adequate description of this view could scarcely 
 be given. A wild and deep valley is stretched out in the imme- 
 diate foreground, beyond rise the perpendicular rock mountains 
 which inclose the valley, and in the background are still higher 
 peaks, snow-capped and glittering. To the right, and near the 
 foot of the mountains, the Bridal Veil is distinctly seen. Page 
 94 and also 95. 
 
 No. 25. — View from the top of Vernal Fall, Yosemite Valley, 
 California. This is a most impressive view. The summit in the 
 background is called Glacier Point, and is three thousand seven 
 hundred and five feet high. In the immediate foreground the 
 dark waters of the Vernal are seen till they are lost over the 
 verge of the precipice. Page 95. 
 
 No. 26.-- View of South Dome, Yosemite Valley, California. 
 The immense bowlders of the Yosemite are strewn in the fore- 
 ground, and beyond these rises the perpendicular face of the 
 South Dome. Page 95. 
 
 No. 27,— Canyon of South Dome, Yosemite Valley, Califor- 
 nia, The bowlders in the foreground of this picture are more 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 379 
 
 extensive than those mentioned in No, 26, The mountain in the 
 distance is called Clouds' Rest, Page 95. 
 
 No, 28. — View of Noi'th Dome, Yosemite Valley, California, 
 The rounded summit to be seen in this view is North Dome. 
 The perpendicular rounded rock on the right is Washington 
 Tower, At th'eir base is the Merced River, in which objects are 
 reflected with peculiar clearness. Page 95, 
 
 No, 29,— View on the Merced River, Yosemite Valley, Cali- 
 fornia, This is one of the most picturesque views in the Cali- 
 fornia series. In the distance, rising abruptly from the river, 
 are the Cathedral Rocks, two thousand six hundred and seventy 
 feet high. Page 95, 
 
 No. 80. — View of El Capitain, Yosemite Valley, California. 
 The El Capitain is three thousand three hundred feet high. At 
 its base is the Merced River. Page 95. 
 
 No. 31. — Mirror Lake, with reflections, Yosemite Valley, Cal- 
 ifornia. The mountains reflected are Watkins' at the left, and 
 Clouds' Rest at the right and in the distance. Page 95. 
 
 No. 32. — View of the Geysers or Hot Springs, California. 
 These are one of the greatest curiosities in the state. Jets of 
 steam issue from over one hundred diflerent openings; and boil- 
 ing water is thrown as high as twenty or thirty feet. 
 
 No. 33. — View in the Canyon of the American River, Cali- 
 fornia. The American River flows through Central California 
 into the Sacramento River, near Sacramento. At the point 
 shown in the picture the river is two thousand feet above the sea. 
 In the foreground is a section of the Union Pacific Railroad. 
 The stupendous nature of this road is well illustrated in this view. 
 
 No. 9. — Entrance to the Mariposa Tree Grove, California. 
 The two large trees in the foreground are called the " Two Sen- 
 tinels." The one at the right is seventy feet in circumference. 
 Page 97. 
 
 No. 34.— View of the Grizzled Giant, Mariposa Grove, Cali- 
 fornia. The Grizzled Giant is thirty feet in diameter, or about 
 ninety feet in circumference. Page 97. 
 
380 INDEX TO ILLUSTKATIONS. 
 
 No. 10. --View of the Grizzled Giant, Mariposa Grove, Cali- 
 fornia. A full view is afforded of both trunk and branches in 
 this view. Page 97. 
 
 No. 35, — View of the Mother of the Forest, Mariposa Grove, 
 California. This tree is three hundred and twenty-seven feet 
 high and eighty feet in circumference. Page '^1. 
 
 No. 36.- -View of Uncle Tom's Cabin, Mariposa Grove, Cal- 
 ifornia. Page 87. 
 
 No. 37. — View of George Washington, Mariposa Grove, Cal- 
 ifornia, This tree is eighty-seven feet in circumference. Page 97 . 
 
 No. 12. — The Prostrate Monarch, Mariposa Grove, Califor- 
 nia. This view represents a tree three hundred and twenty-five 
 feet long and ninety-seven feet in circumference, lying at full 
 length upon the ground. This is one of the best illustrations of 
 the magnitude of the Mariposa Trees that can be furnished. 
 Page 97. 
 
 No. 13.— View of the Father of the Forest, Mariposa Grove, 
 California. This tree is also in a prostrate condition, and is 
 four hundred and fifty feet long and one hundred and twelve 
 feet in circumference. Page 97, 
 
 No. 4. — Section of the Original Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, 
 California. This section is ninety-two feet in diameter. Page 97. 
 
 No. 2.— Augur holes through Original Big Tree showing 
 means by which it was felled. Page 97. 
 
 No. 39.— Gateway for Equestrians through the Father of the 
 Forest, Mariposa Grove, California. Page 97. 
 
 No. I. — View of the Golden Gate, San Francisco, California, 
 This is a very picturesque view. Page 96. 
 
 No, 40. — View of San Francisco, California. Page 98. 
 
 No. 41. — View, of the Pacific Ocean at San Francisco. 
 Page 98. 
 
 No. 42. — View among the Chinese on Sacramento Street, 
 San Francisco, California. Page 98, 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 381 
 
 No. 43.— View of. Sacramento, California. Page 98. 
 
 No. 1.— -Yiew in a Canyon in northern Utali^ Tliis view is 
 taken in Weber County, Utah, and shows some of the most 
 rugged scenery to be met with m any country. Page 103. 
 
 No. 14. — View of Mount Anthony, the crowning summit of 
 the Wasatch Mountains, Utah, Page 103. 
 
 No, 2.— Palisades ot the Green River, Utah. The Green 
 River unites with the Grand River in Utah to form the Colorado 
 River, In some portions of this territory it flows through deep 
 gorges and canyons, 
 
 Nos. 3 AND 4.— Views of Salt Lake City, Utah. In the 
 background of both of these views rise the snowy peaks of the 
 Wasatch Mountains. Page 104, 
 
 No. 5.-- View in East Temple Street, Salt Lake City, The 
 Wasatch Mountains present an imposing spectacle in the back- 
 ground. Page 104. 
 
 Nos, 6 AND 7. --Views of the Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, 
 Utah. No. 6 represents the building in process of erection, and 
 No. 7 shows it after completion, and also the foundation of the 
 new temple. Page 104. 
 
 No. 8. — Plan of the new Temple at Salt Lake City, Utah. 
 It is doubtful whether this building will ever be completed. 
 Page 104. 
 
 No, 9,— View from the summit of Sierra Nevada Mountains. 
 This view is on the line of the Union Pacific Pailroad, and shows 
 Donner Lake in the distance. Page 25, and also 79. 
 
 No. 10. — Snow Sheds on the line of the Union Pacific Rail- 
 road. The snow sheds are built to protect the Railroad track 
 from falling snow. This view is also in the Sierra Nevadas. 
 Page 25. 
 
 No. 11.- — Interior of a Snow Shed ; line of the Union Pacific 
 Railroad. 
 
 No. 12. — View on the Plains. 
 
882 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 BRITISH AMERICA AND WEST INDIES ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 1. — In the Thousand Isles, St. Lawrence River. Page 140» 
 
 Nos. 2, 3 AND 4. — Views in Montreal, Qaebec. Page 144. 
 
 No. 5. — Bird's Eye view of Havana, looking across the Har- 
 bor. Page 163. 
 
 No. 6. — Panoramic view of the Church of San Domingo, 
 Havana. Page 163. 
 
 No. 7. — ^View of Moro Castle, Havana. Moro Castle is at 
 the entrance to the Harbor. It contains a fixed light, 144 feet 
 high. Page 163. 
 
 No. 3. — View of the Harbor of Havana. Page 163. 
 
 No. 9. — Large Cactus in the Bishop's Garden, Havana, Cuba. 
 Page 163. 
 
 No. 10.— Cocoanut Trees in the Bishop's Garden, Havana,^ 
 Cuba. Page 163. ^ 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA ILLUSTRATED.' 
 
 No. 1. — View of the Volcano of Cotopaxi, South America. 
 This is one of the most noted volcanos on the American Conti- 
 nent. Page 166. 
 
 Nos. 2 AND 3, — Cocoa and Palm trees in South America. 
 These views were taken in Venezuela, and furnish striking 
 scenes of tropical vegetation. 
 
 No. 4. — View of Peach Orchards of Ambato. Ambato is 
 the most fertile valley in Ecuador. 
 
 Nos. 5 AND 6. — Views of Quito, South America. 
 
CHAPTER 11, 
 
 EASTERN CONTINENT. 
 
 ENGLAND ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 279. — View on the Thames. This view was taken in 
 Berks County. The bridge which crosses the Thames at this place 
 is called the Shillingford Bridge from the adjoining parish. 
 The scene is highly picturesque. 
 
 No. 278.— General view of London, England. This is a very 
 comprehensive view. In the immediate foreground are the 
 Houses of Parliament, beyond which the windings of the Thames, 
 and the bridges that cross it are distinctly outlined. In the dis- 
 tance, on the left bank of the Thames is St. Paul's Cathedral. 
 In these general views of cities we have one great advantage. 
 We might be told the distance between the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment and St. Paul's Church, but the knowledge given would not 
 probably be retained for any length of time. In the view, we 
 have the distance measured out before the eye, and the exact 
 position which these buildings hold with respect to one another 
 is fully ascertained. The impression thus made upon the mind 
 is not liable to be effaced. Page 186. 
 
 No. 280.— View in Oxford Street, London, England. This 
 Bcene is illustrative of London style and life. To the careful 
 observer there is a manifest difference between a street scene in 
 London and a street scene in New York, or any other city of 
 different nationality. By proper application to the study of 
 Stereoscopic views the student will not only become acquainted 
 with the history of the views, but will be enabled at a glance to 
 determine tne country represented, and this without reference 
 to name or title. Page 186. 
 
384 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 281.- -View of the Houses of Parliament, LonJui-. la 
 this view the magnificent proportions of these new buildings are 
 shown from a point in the immediate vicinity. Page 186. 
 
 View 2T6.-~View of the London Tower. Page 18G. 
 
 No. 282.— View of St. Paul's Church, London. Page 186. 
 
 No. 283. — View in Cannon Street, London. The immense 
 Dome of St. Paul's Cathedral rises in thfe background. Page 186. 
 
 No. 308. — View from the south end of the Waterloo Place. 
 The fiae monument in the foreground is surmounted by a statue 
 of the Duke of York. 
 
 No. 291. — View in Trafalgar Sjuare, London. This is one 
 of the. finest views in London. At the right is the Monument 
 of Lord Nelson, a fluted Corinthian column one hundred and 
 seventy-six and one-half feet high, surmounted by a bronze 
 statue of the hero. 
 
 No. 306. — General view of the grounds attached to the Crys- 
 tal Palace, London. This view was taken from the Palace, and 
 shows a most picturesque collection of artificial scenery. 
 Page 186. 
 
 No. 397. — View of Crystal Palace, showing foundation and 
 park. Page 186. 
 
 No. 300. — View of Crystal Palace. In the foreground of 
 this picture innumerable jets of water are thrown high into the 
 air, and add greatly to the interest of the view. Page 186. 
 
 Nos. 302, 307 and 308. — Views of Crystal Palace and park, 
 London. Page 186. 
 
 Nos. 301 AND 302 — The Nave, Crystal Palace, looking 
 north. These views represent the Floral Department at Crys- 
 tal Palace, and furnish scenes of great beauty. Page 186, 
 
 Nos. 304 AND 305. — Petrified bodies of Antediluvian ani- 
 mals. These, on the grounds of the Ci'ystal Palace, London, 
 are among the many wonders here displayed. Page 186. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 385 
 
 No. 284. — Interior of the New Conservatory, Kew Gardens. 
 Kew is in the suburbs of London, The Botanical Gardens loca- 
 ted here are supported at the national expense. 
 
 No. 285. — Yiew of Chinese Pagoda, Kew Gardens. This 
 Pagoda is one hundred and sixty. three feet in hight. 
 
 No. 286. — View of the City of Oxford, England. A multi- 
 tude of spires, domes and towers are here presented to the view. 
 Page 187. 
 
 ^ No. 287.— View of Exeter Cathedral. This Cathedral is in- 
 teresting for its high antiquity. Exeter is in Devon County. 
 Page 187. 
 
 No. 288. — 'View of Peterborough Cathedral, England. 
 Page 187. 
 
 Nos. 289 AND 290. — Views of Windsor Castle, England. 
 Page 187. 
 
 No. 293. — General view of Stonehenge, England. This is a 
 view of surpassing beauty. Page 187. 
 
 No. 294. — View of Stonehenge, England, This view-is taken 
 from a nearer point, and shows these giant stones in greater 
 magnitude. 
 
 No. 295. — View of Dartmouth, England. Dartmouth is in 
 Devon County, on the isilet of the Dart, which flows into the 
 English Channel. 1 he entrance to the iniet is guarded by a 
 strong fortress. The Dart can be traced in the view to where 
 it passes into the Channel, 
 
 No. 298.— View of Eton College on the Thames. This build- 
 ing is opposite Windsor Castle in Bucks County. It was 
 founded in 1446, by Henry IV. Among the illustrii;us per- 
 sons edacated at Eton College, whose names figure in English 
 History, are Chatham, Lord Grey, Canning and Wellington. 
 
 No. 299. — ^View of Ashburton, England. The surroundings 
 of this town are highly picturesque. It is in the county of 
 Devon, and is the birth-place of the celebrated lawyei', Dun- 
 ning ^ who afterwards, became Lord Ashburton. 
 
386 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 307. — View of Lynton, England. This view is also taken 
 in Devon County, and is interesting because of the fine illustra- 
 tion it affords of this portion of England. 
 
 [SCOTLAND ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 265. — Ben Nevis, Grampian Hills, Scotland. This is. 
 the most important mountain peak of Scotland. Page 198. 
 
 No. 245. — Scene on Loch Lomond. Page 199. 
 
 No. 246.— Loch Katrine. Page 199. 
 
 No. 249. — Loch Archray and Ben Venue. Page 199. 
 
 No. 250. — General view of Edinburg. Page 201. 
 
 No. 239. — General view in Edinburg. The most prominent 
 building to be seen in this picture is the Holyrood Palace. 
 Page 201. 
 
 No. 237. — Holyrood Palace, Edinburg. The Holyrood Pal- 
 ace is shown from a nearer noint|fin this view than in No. 239. 
 Page 201. 
 
 No. 251. — Monument to Sir Walter Scott, Edinburg. Thi& 
 is one of the most noted monuments in the world. A portion 
 of the city is also shown in this view. Page 202. 
 
 No. 253.— Monument to Sir Walter Scott, Edinburg. This 
 is a more general view than No. 251. On the elevation in the 
 background is Edinburg^Castle. Page 202, and also 201. 
 
 No. 254. — Monument to Sir Walter Scott, Edinburg. This 
 number, and also No. 253, shows the sitting statue of Sir Wal- 
 ter, alluded to on Page 202. In the background may be seen 
 the Nelson Monument. 
 
 No. 255. — General View of the Nelson Monument, Edinburg. 
 This monument is on Caltcn Hill, and is one of the finest ^in 
 the city. 
 
 No. 256. — General view in Glasgow. The fine bridge in the 
 foreground is the Glasgow Bridge ; the river which it spans is 
 the Clyde. Page 202. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 387 
 
 No. 257. — Yiew in the Trongate, Glasgow. The Trongate 
 is the main street in Glasgow. Page 202, 
 
 No. 258. — View of the Harbor at Glasgow. This view is 
 taken below the Glasgow Bridge. The structures built along 
 the river at this place, where cargoes are received and unloaded 
 are called the Broomielaw. 
 
 No. 259. — George Square, Glasgow, The high column in 
 this picture is to Sir Walter Scott, and is surmounted by his 
 figure in freestone. The other statues in the picture are to Sir- 
 John Moore and James Watt. This view forms a fine object 
 lesson. 
 
 No 260. — West End Park, Glasgow. An avenue of majes- 
 tic beeches forms the most conspicuous feature in this view. 
 
 No, 261. — The Necropolis, Glasgow. This is the finest cem- 
 etery view published. The student will find in this an object 
 lesson rarely excelled. 
 
 No. 262. — Edinburg Castle from Princess Street. Page 201. 
 
 No. 263,— View of the Stirling Castle, Stirling. Page 203. 
 
 No. 264. — View from the suburbs of Stirling, This is one 
 of the most picturesque views furnished in connection with Scot- 
 land. The Forth winds through a beautiful plain in the fore- 
 ground. Wallace's Monument may be seen on the rocky emi- 
 nence beyond. 
 
 No. 266. — Distant view of Balmoral Castle. Page 203.' 
 Nos. 267 AND 268. — Balmoral Castle from the south-east. 
 Page 203. 
 
 No. 271. — Balmoral Castle from the north-west. Page 203. 
 
 No. 273.— ^Balmoral Castle from the River. The Castle is 
 here displayed with fine effect. Page 203. 
 
 No. 269.— Drummond Castle, Scotland. Page 203. 
 
 No. 270. — Garden of the Drummond Castle. Page 203. 
 
 Ni' 244. — Taymouth Castle from the Fort. Page 203. 
 
388 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 No. 2T2.~Abbotsforcl, seat of Sir Walter Scott. In the 
 foreground of this picture is the River Tweed. Page 203. 
 
 No. 252.— Albotsford, the Garden Front. Page 203. 
 
 No. 274 — Inverary Castle, the seat of the Duke of Argyle. 
 Inverary Castle is in the County of Argyle, a short distance 
 west of the town of Inverary. 
 
 No. 276. — Birnam from Birnam Hill, Scotland. Birnam is 
 a small village at the foot of Birnam Hill, or Mountain. This 
 mountain was once included in a royal forest which Shakespeare 
 has immortalized in his tragedy of Macbeth, as "Birnam Wood." 
 
 No. 242. — Tbe Pass of Killiecrankie, Scotland. This is in the 
 county of Perth; and is famous for the fierce battle which was 
 fought at its north-east extremity in 1689, in which John C- 
 Graham, of Claverhouse, was killed. The river Garry here 
 flows through a deep rocky ravine, which is frequently walled in 
 by fearful precipices. 
 
 No. 243.^— In the Pass of Killiecrankie, Scotland. The build- 
 ing at the right is called the Faskally House. 
 
 WALES, IRELAND AND SMALLER ISLANDS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 277.— Conway Castle, Wales. The Conway Suspension 
 Bridge and esti ary of the Conway River are here illustrated as 
 described on Page 208. 
 
 No. 278. — North Wales Illustrated. The mountain in the 
 background of this view is called PenmaenmaWr, and has an 
 elevation of fourteen hundred feet. 
 
 No. 279. — Pleaskin Head,, Giant's Causeway, Ireland. This 
 is the cliff from the base of which projects the Causeway, de- 
 scribed on Page 209. 
 
 No. 280. — The Giant's Causeway, Ireland. Page 209. 
 
 Nos. 281, 282 and 283.— Giant's Causeway, Ireland. That 
 portion of the Causeway shown in the last three numbers is 
 called the Honey Comb. Page 209. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 389 
 
 No. 284. — Near view of the Giant's Causeway. Only a small 
 portion of the Causeway is brought within the limits of this 
 view, but the scale on which it is constructed is better shown 
 than in any of the preceding numbers. Page 209. 
 
 No. 275.— End of the Giant's Causeway, Ireland. This is a 
 more general illustration than any of the preceding numbers, 
 
 Nos. 336, 337 and 338.— Views of Kilkenny Castle, Ireland. 
 Page 212. 
 
 No. 248. — Fingal's Cave, Stafl'a. This is the most interest- 
 ing cave in Europe. Page 215. 
 
 No. 247.— Clam Shell Cave, Stafia. Page 215. 
 
 No. 385.— The Bending Pillars, Stafia. Many of the rocky 
 formations of Stafia resemble architectural designs. Page 215. 
 
 No. 386. — Basaltic Colonnade, Stafia. Staffa "is composed 
 of a ledge of rocks of conglomerated trap, to which succeeds a 
 grayish-black, hard and compact columnar basalt, which is 
 covered by a mass of shapeless basalt of the same description, 
 with small columns interspersed through it." 
 
 No. 387. — ^Ventnor from the west, Isle of Wight. Page 216. 
 
 No. 388. — SceneryPin the Isle of Wight. The house in the 
 foreground is in the suburbs of the village of Bonchurch. 
 
 FRANCE ILLUSTRATED*. 
 
 No. 30.- — Mont Blanc from Geneva. In this view the snowy 
 mass of Mont Blanc is lifted above intervening bights. A por- 
 tion of Geneva is in the foreground, which belongs to Switzer- 
 land. Page 237. 
 
 No. 1. — -Mont Blanc from Salanches. Mont Blanc is the 
 most imposing spectacle in Europe, and this is perhaps its most 
 practical illustration. Page 237o 
 
 Nos. 2 AND 20. — The summit of Mont Blanc and Valley of 
 Servoz, Savoy. Page 237. 
 
390 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIOXS. 
 
 No. 33. — Mont Blanc, Savoy. — At the foot of the mountain 
 may be seen the village of Chamouni. Page 237. 
 
 Nos. 34, 35, 36 and 37.— Ascent of Mont Blanc, Savoy. 
 These are fine illustrations of the dangers to be encountered in 
 traversing the mountains of the Alps. Page 237. 
 
 No. 5. — General view of the Mer de Glace. The Mer de 
 Glace is sixteen miles in length. Page 238. 
 
 No. 7. — Grand Crevasses of the Mer de Glace. This view 
 was taken near Chamouni, and forms a most interesting object 
 lesson. Page 238. 
 
 No. 38. — The Glacier des Bois, Savoy. The Glacier des 
 Bois is the name applied to the lower end of the Mer de Glace. 
 The multitude of needles which surround Mont Blanc are 
 frequently called Aguilles by the Swiss. The peak shown in 
 this view is called Aguille Du Dru. Page 238. 
 
 No. 38. — The Glacier des Bossons, Savoy. Page 238. 
 
 No. 16. — Grand Pyramidsfof Ice, Glacier des Bossons. The 
 Pyramids and crevasses displayed in Nob. 38 and 15 are not sur- 
 passed in any other view. Page 238. 
 
 No. 38. — Cavern of Ice in the Glacier des Bossons. Page 238. 
 
 No. 6. — The Glacier du Geant, Savoy. Here huge crevas- 
 ses are drawn out in the foreground, and above, among the snowy 
 Aguilles, the sources of the glacier may be seen. The Glacier 
 Du Geant is one of the branches of the Mer de Glace. Page 238. 
 
 Nos. 39 AND 40. — The Grand Chartreuse, France. The 
 Grand Chartreuse is a convent in the French Alps surrounded 
 by mountains three thousand tliree hundred feet high. The 
 present building was erected in 1676, and is occupied by Car- 
 thusian monkrf. 
 
 Nos. 41 AND 42. — Near the Grand Chartreuse, France. 
 Owing to its situation among the mountains, the Grand Char- 
 treuse is very diflBcult of access. In No. 41, the road borders 
 on a yawning gulf which is inclosed by immense mountain 
 masses, and passes through a tunnel which has been cut through 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 891 
 
 an overhanging precipice. In No. 42, the abrupt pillar-like 
 mass at the left of the road is called Aguille del Oeillette. 
 
 No, 25. — The Village of Luz, France. Luz is in a pictur- 
 esque valley of Hautes Pyrennees, at the foot of the lofty Pic 
 de Berzons. 
 
 No. 203. — View in the Boulevards at Paris. This is a scene 
 of great life and animation. Page 240. 
 
 No. 212. — View in the Rue de Rivoli, Paris. The Rue de 
 Hivoli, after the Boulevards the finest street in Paris, is on the 
 north bank of the Seine. Page 240, 
 
 No. 213, — Place du Carrousal, Paris. In the foreground of 
 this picture is the arch mentioned on Page 241 . 
 
 No. 214, — Bridges over the Seine at Paris. Seven of the 
 twenty-seven bridges which cross the Seine are brought within 
 the limits of this view. The adjoining portions of Paris are dis- 
 tinctly shown. Page 241. 
 
 No. 215.— The Bridge, Pont Neuf, Paris. This is the most 
 ancient, and also the longest bridge that crosses the Seine. The 
 fine Equestrian Statue in the foreground at the left is to the 
 memory of Henry IV, Page 241. 
 
 Nos. 217 AND 218.— Church of Notre Dame, Paris. This 
 Church is on the Isle de la Cite in the Seine River. It is built 
 ni an early and pure style of architecture, and its ornaments are 
 remarkable for their high finish and delicacy. No. 217 is taken 
 in front of the building, and shows the entrance doors, its statues 
 and massive domes. No. 218 shows the water on one side, and 
 affords a more general view of the building. 
 
 Nos. 205, 207, 208 and 209.— Views in the Parks at Paris. 
 These views will apply to the paragraph on Page 241, relative 
 to the elegance and refinement displayed in Paris. The name 
 of the Park thus illustrated is Mabile, and No. 205 shows its 
 entrance gate. Locally, however, they are of little importance. 
 
 Nos. 216 AND 219.— Interior of the Palace of the Tuileries. 
 These are views of great magnificence. The Tuileries were de- 
 
392 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 stroyed on thceutraitce of the Germans into Paris. (See History.) 
 
 Nos. 220 AND 221. The Louvre, Paris. The Palace of the 
 Louvre is east of the Tuileries, from which it is separated bj 
 the Place (iu Carrousal, already illustrated. Page -41. 
 
 No. 222. — Fountain of the Louvre. Page 241. 
 
 No. 223. — Luxembourg Palace, Paris. Page 241. 
 
 Nos. 227, 236 and 237. — Park attached to the Luxembourg 
 Palace. This park is finely ornamented. The views show Paris 
 in the background. Page 241. 
 
 No. 228. — The Royal Palace, Paris. This elegant building 
 was also partly demolished at the close of the Franco-German 
 War. Page 241. 
 
 No. 204. — Reception Parlor in the Royal Palace. Paris. 
 Page 241. 
 
 No. 229. — The Place Vend6me, Paris. The high column in 
 the center of the square was erected by NaDoleon, and modeled 
 from that of Trajan at Rome. It is adorned with bas-reliefs 
 cast from two hundred cannon, taken in war. 
 
 No. 280. — View of the Ecole Militaire. The Ecole Militaire, 
 situated near the Paris Exposition Building, is a military school. 
 
 No-^ 231. — General view of the Exposition Building, Paris. 
 Page '241. 
 
 No. 200. — Palace of Awards, Paris Exposition.!^' Page 241, 
 
 Nos. 232 AND 233.— In the Paris Exposition. Page 241. 
 
 No, 234.— Chateau of St, Cloud, France. Page 241. 
 
 No. 226. — Avenue in the Park connected with the Chateau 
 of St. Cloud. Page 241, 
 
 No. 210. — Fountain in the park connected with the Palace 
 of Versailles. Page 242. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 393 
 
 SPAIN AND ITALY ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No3« 1 AND 2. — The City and Bay of Gibraltar, Gibraltar 
 is the strongest fortress in the world. It has for a long time 
 been in the possession of Great Britain. 
 
 No. 20. — Grand Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Italy. This 
 illustration is not surpassed in the whole list of views. When 
 we' write of volcanos sending forth sheets of flame, and of 
 cities overwhelmed in lava and ashes, we create an interest, but 
 not until we address these facts to the eye, is the range of 
 knowledge completed. Page 282. 
 
 No. 21. — Grand Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1865. 
 Page 282. 
 
 No. 102. — Biver of Cold Lava thrown from Mount Vesuvius, 
 Page 282. 
 
 No. 103. — River of Cold Lava which flowed from Mount Ve- 
 suvius, The building on the summit of the eminence at the 
 left is called Vesuvius Observatory^ Page 282. 
 
 No. 110. Garden of the Vatican and Cupola of St. Peter's 
 Church, Rome, Page 284, 
 
 No. 111.- — General View of St. Peter's Church, Borne. 
 
 Page 284. 
 
 No. 108. — Ceremony of the Papal Benediction, St. Peter's 
 Church, Bome. Page 284. 
 
 No. 118. — Library of the Vatican, Rome. Page 284. 
 
 No". 113. — View of the Church of Santa Agnese, Rome. 
 This is one of the purest and most elegant specimens of the 
 Greek Cross. 
 
 No. 106. — Street view, showing the walls of Ancient Rome. 
 Page 284. 
 
 No. 105. — The Coliseum at Rome. Page 285. 
 
 No. 114. — View from the top of the Coliseum at Rome. 
 Page 285, 
 
 No. 115. — View of the Forum, Bome. The Coliseum is in 
 
 26 
 
394 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 the background. Nos. 114 and 115 admit tlie student into 
 Ancient Rome. 
 
 No. 142. — General view of Naples, with. Mount Vesuvius in 
 the distance. Page 285. 
 
 No. 109. Petrified Human Body. This body was excava- 
 ted from Pompeii, and is now in the Museum at Naples. 
 Page 285. 
 
 No. 116. Interior of the Amphitheatre of Ancient Capua. 
 Modern Capua is twenty miles north of Naples, and contains the 
 only fortress that covers the approach to that city. Ancient 
 Capua was of such extent as to be compared to Rome and Car- 
 thage. Nothing of prominence remains to mark the existence 
 of the ancient city but a gate, and the amphitheatre noticed 
 above. 
 
 No. 117. Ruins of the Amphitheatre at Pozuoli. Pozuoli is 
 seven miles south of Naples. In ancient times it was an impor- 
 tant city, and its environs were crowded with the seats of weal- 
 thy Romans. The ruins of an amphitheatre are still shown in 
 the suburbs of the modern city. 
 
 No. 119. General View of Milan. The Cathedral of Milan 
 is the most striking object in this view. Page 285. 
 
 No. 120. View of the Cathedral of Milan. Page 285. 
 
 No. 121. Dome of the Cathedral at Milan. Page 285. 
 
 Nos. 122 AND 133. — Views of Venice from the roof of St. 
 Mark's. The Harbor is in the background. Page 285. 
 
 No, 124. — General view of Palermo, Sicily. Palermo is in a 
 rich valley in the western part of Sicily. It is an ancient city, 
 and is one of the finest in the Italian kingdom. It was the scene 
 of the massacre of the " Sicilian Vespers " mentioned in the his- 
 tory of France. Page 244. 
 
 No. 125. — ^Excavations at Herculaneum. Page 286. 
 No. 126.— -Excavations at Pompeii. Page 286. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 395 
 
 SWITZEKLAND ILLUSTEATED. 
 
 No. 12. — Monte Rosa, Switzerland. Page 289. 
 
 No. 1.— View of the Matterhorn, or Mont Cervin. In the 
 foreground is tlie immense G-orner Glacier. Pages 289 and 281. 
 
 No. 2. — -The Lyskamm, near the Gorner Gratt. The Lys- 
 kamm is a snowy peak belonging to the Monte Rosa mass. The 
 Gorner Gratt is another peak of this mass, the summit of which 
 commands a magnificent prospect. 
 
 No. 3. — Castor and Pollux, near the Gorner Gratt. The 
 peak of this snow-clad mountain at the right is Castor (13,022 
 feet high), and the one at the left is Pollus (12,603 feet high). 
 
 Nos. 13, 4 AND 5. — The Jungfrau, in the Bernese Oberland. 
 The Jungfrau is called the "Maiden," and undoubtedly obtained 
 its name from the daasling purity of the snow with which it is 
 always covered. Page 290. 
 
 Nos, 29 AND 6. — -Views of the Bionch. The eternal snows 
 and glaciers of the Alps are here illustrated. Page 290. 
 
 Nos. 9 AND 22.— Peak of the Wetterhorn. In No. 22 the 
 Valley of Grindelwald is spread out in the foreground. Page 290. 
 
 No. 7. — Lauterbrunnen Valley. The Valley is her© spread 
 out in the foreground, and in the distance rise its measureless 
 inclosing walls. Page 290. 
 
 No. 72. — Staubbach Fall, Valley of Lauterbrunnen. Page 290. 
 
 No. 142, — Gorge of the Viamala, Switzerland. Page 290. 
 
 No. 80. — First Bridge in the Chur and Splugen Pass, Gorge 
 of Viamala. Page 290. 
 
 No. 81. — Second Bridge in the Chur and Splugen Pass, 
 Gorge of Viamala. Page 290. 
 
 No. 82. —Third Bridge in the Chur and Splugen Pass, Gorge 
 of Viamala. Page 290. 
 
 The above views follow the road through Viamala in its wind- 
 ings, and reveal the fearful precipices, which, in many places 
 overarch the gorge. 
 
396 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Nos. 87, 83 AND 89. — Grorge of the Pfaffers, Switzerland. 
 Page 293. 
 
 No. 15. — Looking out of the Gorge of the Tamina. The 
 Tamina River is in the bottom of the gorge. At the Outlet of 
 the gorge is the village of Eagatz, and also the Rhine, In the 
 distance is the gray pyramid of Falknis. Farther up, the Ta- 
 mina drains the Pfaffers. Page 293. 
 
 No. 20. In the Gorge of the Trient. The view in this gorge 
 is very imposing. The sun light never enters it, and the trav- 
 eler is continually in expectation of finding himself in a mighty 
 vaulted cavern. The discharge of a small cannon produces a 
 most deafening: reverberation. The stream at the bottom is in 
 some places 40 feet deep, and in a single instance has a fall 
 of 30 feet. The mouth of the gorge is in the Valley of the 
 Rhone. 
 
 No. 26. — Glacier of the Rhone, Switzerland. Page 291. 
 
 No. 10. — General view of the Lower Glacier of Grindewald, 
 Switzerland. Page 291. 
 
 No. 30. — General view of the Upper Glacier of Grindewald, 
 Switzerland. Page 291. 
 
 No. 33. View on the Lower Glacier of Grindewald. Page 291. 
 
 No. 27. — Crevasses of Ice in the Upper Glacier of Grindel- 
 wald. The Upper Glacier is but one fourth the size of the 
 Lower Glacier. Page 291. 
 
 Nos. 11 AND 28. — Interior of the Grindewald Glacier. 
 Page 291. 
 
 No. 32. — Cavern of Ice in the Lower Grindewald Glacier. 
 This number, and also No. 11, are striking illu'strations, show- 
 ing the glacier at points where it discharges streams of water. 
 Page 291. 
 
 No. 34.— View oi the Glacier of Rosenlaui, Switzerland. 
 This glacier is not so extensive as the Grindelwald, but is re- 
 markable for the crystalline purity of its ice, and the transpar- 
 ent azure of its crevasses. The purity of the glacier is not 
 destroyed by rocks from the mountains. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 397 
 
 No. 35. — Chateau of Chiiloii, at the head of Lake Geneva. 
 Page 292. 
 
 No. 36. — View on Lake Thun. The building in the picture 
 is the Chateau of Ober-Ofen. Page 292. 
 
 No. 37. — View of the City of Geneva, Switzerland. Li the 
 foreground is the River Rhone. 
 
 No. 38. — View of the city of St. Gall, Switzerland. The 
 most prominent huilding in this picture is the Cathedral. 
 
 No. 19,— Cathedral at St. Gall, Switzerland. Page 293. 
 
 No. 18. — Interior of the Cathedral of St. Gall, Switzerland 
 Page 293. 
 
 No. 39.— Statue of William Tell, Canton of Uri. This 
 statue is in the town of Altorf, and is said to occupy the spot 
 where Tell aimed his arrow at his son. 
 
 No. 40.- — View of Stachelberg, Switzerland. The Baths of 
 Stachelberg are finely situated on the left bank of the Linth. 
 The powerful sulphurous alkaline water is obtained from a cleft 
 in a mountain, one and one-half miles distant. The supply is so 
 limited that only one bottle can be filled per minute. 
 
 No. 41. — The Village of Zermatt, Switzerland. (See note 
 on Page 91.) 
 
 GERMANY, AUSTRIA, TURKEY AND GREECE ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 1. — Scene on the Rhine, Germany. Page 296. 
 
 No. 2. — View of the Fortress of Ehrenbreitstein on the Rhine, 
 Germany. The strong Fortress of Ehrenbreitstein is opposite 
 the influx of the Moselle, and is justly termed " the Gibralter of 
 the Rhine." 
 
 No. 3.— View in the Schillerplatz, Mayence, Germany. The 
 Schillerplatz is a rectangle planted with lime trees, and contain- 
 ing a Statue of Schiller, which forms the most prominent object 
 in the illustration. 
 
 No. 1.— Brenner Pass, Austria. This view is taken in the 
 department of Austria, called Tyrol. The Alps are here 
 
398 INDEX TO ILLDSTliATIONS. 
 
 found in all the grandeur by which thej are signalized in Swit- 
 zerland. Page 317. 
 
 No. 2. — View of the Ramoljoch, Austria. Page 317. 
 
 No. 3. — The Zugspitze. ViewofLermos, Austria. Page 317. 
 
 No. 4. — The Fenderthal and the Thalbeit, Austria. Page 317. 
 
 The above numbers of Austrian views are in Tyrol, and are 
 all of surpassing interest. 
 
 No. 5. — Chateau of Neuburg on the Danube. Neuburg is 
 twenty-nine miles north-east of Augsburg. 
 
 No. 6. — View of the city of Linz from across the Danube, 
 The wooden bridge in the foreground is eight hundred and forty 
 feet long. 
 
 No. 7.~View of Saltzburg, Austria. The important city of 
 Saltzburg is in Tyrol, and is nearly encircled by the Noric Alps. 
 The elevation shown in the picture is crowned by a Capuchin 
 Convent. 
 
 Nos. 283, 284 and 285.— Views of Constantinople, Turkey. 
 Page 320. 
 
 No. 1. — General view of the city of Athens, Greece. In the 
 background of this view is Mars' Hill, where Paul preached to 
 the Athenians. Page 324. 
 
 CHINA AND JAPAN ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 No. 276. — Entrance to the Temple, Canton, China. In the 
 foreground is a Chinese Officer of distinction (Mandarin), and 
 his attendants ; also a Sedan Chair in which the master is borne 
 by his servants. Page 331. 
 
 No. 277. — Missionary and Native Chinamen, Canton. This 
 view was taken on the Parade Ground. Behind the group re- 
 ferred to are several Sedan Chairs, and in the background at 
 the left is a portion of the City wall. Page 331. 
 
 No. 278. — ^View of Macao, China. Macao is on an island at 
 the entrance to the Canton River. It is illustrative of Chinese 
 style of architecture. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 399 
 
 No. 279.— View in Macao, China. The Harbor of Macao is 
 defended by six forts. One of the fortresses is shown in this view. 
 
 No. 280. — Foreign Settlement at Nagasaki, Japan. Nagas- 
 aki was once the only port open to commerce in Japan, 
 
 No. 281. — View of Simonoseki, Japan. Situated on the 
 Island of Niphon in the Strait Kioo Sioo. 
 
 No. 1 — Jerusalem, from the Mount of Olives. The city of 
 Jerusalem lies to the west of the Mount of Olives. It was 
 from this Mount that Christ beheld the city when he wept over 
 it. (Luke xix, 41.) Page 34T, 
 
 No. 2. — G-arden of Gethsemane. This garden lies at the 
 foot of the Mount of Olives. It was the scene of the agony of 
 Christ on the night preceding his crucifixion. Eight large 
 olive trees still mark the spot. Page §47. 
 
 No. 3. Jerusalem, from Mount Zion, The city of Jerusa- 
 lem lies to the east of Mount Zion. From this eminence one of 
 the best views of the modern city is obtamed. Page 347. 
 
 No. 4. — Jerusalem, Mosque of Omar. On Mount Moriah, in 
 the eastern part of the city, on the site of Solomon's temple, the 
 Mohammedans have erected a magnificent structure, called the 
 Mosque of Omar. This Mosque is walled in on all sides, and 
 none but Mohammedans are permitted to enter its sacred pre- 
 cincts on pain of death. Page 347. 
 
 No. 5. — Bethlehem. A city of Palestine lying about six 
 miles from Jerusalem, celebrated as being the birth place of the 
 Savior. Page 347. 
 
 No. 6. — Bethany. A village of Palestine lying on the east- 
 ern slope of the Mount of Olives, celebrated for its connection 
 with the life of Christ. Page 347. 
 
 No, 7.— -Shechem. An important city of Central Palestine, 
 remarkable for its beautiful scenery. Dr. Robinson sajs there 
 is nothing in all Palestine to compare with the scenery around 
 this place. Page 347. 
 
 No. 8. — Baalbek. A general view of the Temples and the 
 Range of Lebanon. Baalbek was formerly an important city of 
 
400 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Syria. It is now in ruins. Its remains comprise three temples, 
 numerous columns, altars, and the vestiges of the former city 
 walls. The Lebanon Range seen in the background are the 
 most important mountains of Syria. Page 346. 
 
 No. 9. — Cedars of Lebanon. The Lebanon Mountains have 
 been celebrated in all ages for the noble cedars which crown 
 their summits. But few of these cedars now remain. Page 346, 
 
 No. 10. — Damascus. A view from a House Top. This is 
 the most ancient city in existence, and is regarded by the Arabs 
 as one of their four terrestrial paradises. It is situated at the 
 foot of the Anti Lebanon Mountains. Page 347. 
 
 No. 11. — Smyrna. This is the most important commercial 
 city of Asia Minor. The general appearance of the city from 
 the sea is remarkably beautiful, but within the houses are low 
 and the streets narrow and filthy. Pages 346. 
 
 No. 1. — Travelers on Dromedaries. The only way of cross- 
 ing the Great Desert of Africa is by means of .camels and drom- 
 edaries. Page 352. 
 
 EGYPT ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Nos. 2 AND 3. — General view of Cairo. Cairo, the capital 
 of Egypt, is celebrated for its remarkable remains of ancient 
 architecture. Page 353. 
 
 No. 4. — Cairo. Mosque of Sultan Hassan. Page 353. 
 
 No. 6. — Cairo. Mosque of Mohammed Ali. The celebrated 
 Mosques of Cairo are frequently used as fortresses by the Mame- 
 luke Kings. Page 253. 
 
 No- 7. — Cairo. Tombs of the Mamelukes. Page 253. 
 
 No. 8. — Cairo. Tombs of the Caliphs. These Tombs are in 
 the environs of the city. The Tombs of the Mamelukes are 
 adjacent to the Mosque of Mohammed Ali. Page 353. 
 
 No. 7. — Cairo ; Tombs of the Caliphs. Page 353. 
 
 No. 8. — Cairo ; Tombs of the Mamelukes. Page 353. 
 
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS. 401 
 
 -^Q, 9. Cleopatra's Needle ; and No. 10, Pompey's Pillar. 
 
 These too-ether with the catacombs, form the most interesting 
 remains of the ancient city of Alexandria. Page 353. 
 
 No. 5. The Great Pyramid and Sphinx. Page 353. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 j^o, 7 — Entrance to the Bay of Marquette, Lake Superior. 
 The Bay of Marquette is on the southern side of Lake Supe- 
 rior, in the State of Michigan. 
 
 No» 2. Scene on the Upper Mississippi. The river is here 
 inclosed between beautiful green banks. 
 
 iq'o. 3. — Scenery in the Great West ; Indian Graves on the 
 Pawnee Reservation. This scene is replete with interest and 
 History. 
 
 No. 4,. Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga, N. Y. 
 No. 5. — Surrender of General Cornwallis at Yorktown, Vir- 
 ginia. The last two pictures, taken from the Original Paintings 
 in the Dome of the United States Capital, they are illustra- 
 tions of surpassing interest. 
 
 No. 6. — Horrors of Andersonville. This view fully illus- 
 trates the cruel and inhuman treatment to which the Union pris- 
 oners were exposed during the late war. 
 
 No. 17. Triumphal Car Vase, Skeleton Leaves. Dedicated 
 to the honor and memory of Abraham Lincoln. Page 136, 
 
 No. 16. — Storm Scene on the New England Coast. A ves- 
 sel is here exposed to the fury of the waves, and its imperiled 
 crew are endeavoring to escape in boats. 
 
 No. 18. Crossing the Atlantic Ocean. In this view the 
 wreck of a vessel is seen, and the water is strewn with casks 
 and other means of preservation. 
 
 No. 1. — Icebergs,— North Atlantic Ocean. In crossing the 
 
 Atlantic, vessels frequently encounter these huge blocks of ice, 
 
 ■ which drift from the Arctic Ocean. No. 1 affords a striking 
 
 illustration of their magnitude, and will be apt to make a clear 
 
 and lasting impression upon the mind of the student. Page 156. 
 

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