IHE imilONAL SERIES OF SIANDIRO SCHOOL-BOOKS COMPRISES STANDARD WORKS In CTory department of instniction and of every grade. The teacher ia want of a book for any par» ticular purpose or class, will always find the best of ils kind in onr jalnloguo. >'o oth;T series even claims to be as complete as this. None is so extensive or so judiciously stlet'ed. Among so manj volumes a high standard of merit is maintained, as it is onr aim never to periail cur in.piiu't upon • poor or nnwiirthy book. It Is also our plan to make books not for a class or se^t, but •'or the whoI« country — unobjectionable to parlies and creeds, while inculcating the great principles cf p'-Iiticat freedom and Chrietlanity. upon which all right-minded persons are agreed. Hence, and frc-m Iheit almost universal circulation, the name — " National Series." Among the principal voltimeB are Parker Be Vi^atson's ISoadcrS— in two distinct series, each complete in itself 27c# national Headers, of full grade, in large, elegant volumes, adequate for every want oi the most thorough and highly graded schools. Tlie Independent Readers, in smaller Tolumes, for Common Schools. Low In price, but in no other respect Inferior to the compacion series. Spellers complete to accompany cither series. Davies' Ddathematics—.-l r(J' LITERATURE, G-ERIVIA-jST A^jSTD ENGLISH LEXICON". J. Tnv: GERMAN GltASLMAnS of ■Worman are widely preferred on ao- couut of their clear, explicit method (on the conversation plan), introducing a sj'stem of analogy and comparison with the learners' own language and others commonly studied. The arts of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, and of correct pronun- ciation, are treated with great success. The new classiticatious of nouns and of irregular verbs are of great value to the pupil. The use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes, is new. The Vocabu- lary is synonymical — also a new feature. II. WOUMAX'S OEIiMAX ItEADEIt contains progressive selections from a wide range of the very best German authors, including three complete p'^iySi which are usually purchased in separate form for advanced students who have com- pleted the ordinary Header. It has Biographies of eminent authors. Notes after the test, References to all Ger- man Grammars in common use, and a.i, aai^r-ate Vocabulary; also. Exercises for translation into the German. III. WOnMAX'S GEliMAy ECHO {Detitschfis Echo) is entirely a new thing in this country. It presents familiar colloquial exercises without translation, and will teach fluent conversation in a few months of diligent study. No other method will ever make the student at home in a foreign language. By thig he thinks in, as well as speaks it. For the time being he is a German through and through. The laborious process of translating his thoughts no longer impedes free auembarrassed utterance. fORIAN'S COMPLETE FRENCH COURSE IS INADGUr.ATED BY Ij'EOIEaiO IDE I>^A.I^IS, Or, "French Echo;" on a plan identical witli the German Echo described above. Tkis will be foUowed in due course by the other volumes of THE ERElSrCH SERIES, VIZ.: A COMPIETT^ GliASIWAR, {A FRENCH R E A D E li , Ay ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR, 1 ^ FRENCH EEXICON, A UISTORT OF FUENCH LITERATURE. WORMAN'S WORKS are adopted as fast as published by many of the best institutions of the country. Is completeness, adaptation, and homogeneity for consistent coursea of instruction, they are simply " A Well of English Undefiled." LITERATURE AND BELLES LETTRES. PROFESSOR CLEVELAN D'S WORKS. ^ WMOZE I^IBHARY IN FOJJIt VOZUMJES. COMPEl MslLIT EBATiniE. One Hundred and Twenty Thousand of these Volumes have been sold, and they are the acknowledged Standard wherever this refining study is pursued. PROF. JAMES R. BOYD'S WORKS. EMBRACINO COMPOSITION ZOGIC, ZITERATURE, jRMETOJtlC, CRITICISM, BIOGRATHT ;— POETRY, AND riiOSE. BOYD'S COMPOSITION AND RHETORIC. Eemarkable for the space and attention given to grammatical principles, to afford a substantial groundwork ; alBO for the admirable treatment of Bynonyms, figurative language, ,>nd the sources of argument and illustration, with notable exerciBes for pre- paring the way to poetic composition. BOYD'S ELEMENTS OF LOGIC. explains, first, the conditions and processes by which the mind receives ideas, and then unfolds the art of reasoning, with clear directions for the establishment and con- firmation of sound judgment. A thoroughly practical treatise, being a Bystematic and philosophical condensation of all that is known of the subject. BOYD'S KAMES' CRITICISM. This standard work, as is well known, treats of the faculty of perception, and the result of its exercise upon the tastes and emotions. It may therefore be termed a Com- pendium of Aesthetics and Natural Morals ; and its use La refining the mind and heart has made it a standard text-book. BOYD'S ANNOTATED ENGLISH CLASSICS. Milton's Paradise lost. Toutiff's NiffJit Thottghts. Coivper's Task, Table Talk, &e. TJiontsoii's Seasons. I'ollok's Coarse of Time, lord Sacon 's Essays. In six cheap volumes. The service done to literature, by Prof. Boyd's Annotations upon these standard writers, can with difficulty be estimated. Line by line their ex- pressions and ideas are analyzed and discussed, until the best comprehension of the vowerful use of language is obtained by the learaec THE TEACHER'S HAND-BOOK, FOR THE INSTITUTE AND THE CLASS ROOM. /"BY WM. F. PHELPS, M.A., PRINCIPAL OP THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, WINONA, MINN. NEW YORK: A. S. BARNES & COMPANY. / <- LQISSS ,?6> Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by WM. F. PHELPS, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PEEFAOE. In the preparation of this book it was no part of the author's aim to write merely that with which everybody would at once agree. In such a case there would be no necessity that it should be written. The world does not especially need to read the oft-told tale of that which it already believes. But free thought and free discussion are the soul of progress. Differences of opinion are the life of discussion, out of whose crucible must finally issue the pure gold of truth, the only Philosopher's Stone worthy of human seeking. If, therefore, what is here written shall serve to excite discussion, awaken interest, and quicken zeal in the great work of elevating the teachers of our country to that commanding position which they should ever be worthy to occupy in the public regard, its leading purpose will have been fully realized. There are two characters, one or the other of whom must in the future occupy a conspicuous place in public attention, the educator and the warrior. Either the ballot or the bullet, the pen or the sword, will eventually dominate the destinies of mankind. Which of these IV PREFACE. two points of steel shall win the victory ? " The pen is mightier than the sword " only when used to raise up those whom the sword would strike down. And the educator will be more powerfid than the soldier only when he rises to the full measure of his responsibilities and duties. Let him prove himself worthy of his voca- tion, and the people will respect him for his talents, honor him for his wisdom, and reward him for his fidelity to the highest of human trusts. It is proper to add that the Hand-Book is not aimed at the graded systems of the cities as its objective. With a perfection of organization and a combination of advan- tages unknown in the country, the problem of education with them is reduced to its simplest terms. It will be strange indeed if they do not afford us the highest ideals, wrought up into the best attainable actuals. But the cities, with their population, constitute only a small part of the republic, while they are unceasingly reinforced by an influx from the rural population, the bone and sinew of the nation. Is not the character of these re- cruits a question of serious import ? The country schools, on the other hand, demand our most earnest thought and our best efforts. This humble contribution is especially dedicated to the promotion of their interests. May it not altogether fail in its well- intended purpose. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In the preparation of the Second and Fifth Parts of the Hand-Book, the undersigned has been kindly favored by the following gentlemen, of whom he begs permission thus publicly to express his most grateful acknowledg- ments: Hon, J. W. Simonds, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Concord, New Hampshire ; Hon. Joseph White, Secretary, State Board of Education, Boston, Massachusetts ; Hon. J. G. Baird, Assistant Secretary, State Board of Education, New Haven, Connecticut; Hon. Neil Gilmour, State Superintendent Public Insti'uc- tion, Albany, New York ; Henry Houck, Esq., Deputy Superintendent Common Schools, Harrisburg, Penn- sylvania ; Hons. T. W. Harvey, State Commissioner, and E. E. White, Editor "National Teacher," Columbus, Ohio ; Hon. Newton Bateman of Illinois ; Hon. Edward Searing, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Madi- son, and President elect W. D. Parker, State Normal School, River Falls, Wisconsin ; Hon. A. Abernethy, State Superintendent Public Instruction, Des Moines, VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Iowa ; President Richard Edwards, LL, D., State Nor- mal University, Normal, Illinois ; E. L. Wells, and John Hull, Esqrs., County Superintendents respectively of Ogle and McLean counties, Illinois. William F. Phelps. State Nokmal School, Winona, Minnesota, December, 1874. CONTENTS. I^^RT I. CHAPTER I. PAGB Preliminary Considerations 11 CHAPTER n. Education and Statesmanship — Discussion op General Principles 15 CHAPTER in. Discussion of General Principles continued 20 CHAPTER IV. Discussion of General Principles continued 27 CHAPTER V. Discussion of General PRiNeiPLEs concluded 32 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE I'^HT II. CHAPTER VI. Objects of the Teachers' Institute 42 CHAPTER VJI. Origin and Brief History op Institutes 44 CHAPTER VIII. Objects of the Institute further considered 56 CHAPTER IX. Organization op Institutes 60 CHAPTER X. Organization continued 67 I^.i^RT III. CHAPTER XI. Course of Instruction 76 CHAPTER XII. Conducting Recitations 83 CHAPTER XIII. Methods in Reading 91 CONTENTS. IX FAGE CHAPTER XIV. Reading contintjed 99 CHAPTER XV. Methods in Spelling 103 CHAPTER XVI Methods in Drawing 110 CHAPTER XVII. Drawing continued — Writing 116 CHAPTER XVIII. Methods in Arithmetic 123 CHAPTER XIX. Primary Arithmetic 126 CHAPTER XX. More Advanced Arithmetic 129 CHAPTER XXI. Arithmetic continued 183 CHAPTER XXII. Sketches of Lessons in Addition and Multiplication. 139 CHAPTER XXIII. Sketches of Lessons in Subtraction and Division. . . . 145 X CONTENTS. ♦ PAGE CHAPTER XXIV. Fractions 149 CHAPTER XXV. Illustration of Several Points in the Last Abstract 156 CHAPTER XXVI. Methods in Geography 165 CHAPTER XXVII. Grammar— General Outline of the Course 173 CHAPTER XXVIII. Methods in Elementary Grammar — Syllabus of Topics 180 CHAPTER XXIX. Elementary Grammar continued — Illustrative Les- sons, 185 CHAPTER XXX. More Advanced Grammar — Abstract 189 CHAPTER XXXI. The Formation of Habits and Development of Char- acter AT School 198 CHAPTER XXXn. Formation of Habits and Development of Character, continued 206 CONTENTS. XI PAGE FA-RT IV. CHAPTER XXXIII. Management of the Institute 214 CHAPTER XXXIV. Management op the Institute continued 218 CHAPTER XXXV. Professional Questions 226 CHAPTER XXXVI. Professional Questions continued — The State and Education 234 CHAPTER XXXVII. Professional Questions continued — Mental Philos- ophy, &c 239 CHAPTER XXXVIII. Professional Questions continued 250 CHAPTER XXXIX. Professional Questions continued 255 Xii CONTENTS. FAOB CHAPTER XL. Programmes and Courses of Instruction 261 CHAPTER XLI. Programmes continued 287 CHAPTER XLII. Institute Legislation 300 CHAPTER XLHI, Institute Legislation continued 302 CHAPTER XLIV. Institute Legislation continued 306 CHAPTER XLV. Institute Legislation continued 311 CHAPTER XLVI. Normal Schools and Institutes in their Relation to the Common School System 325 THE TEACHER'S HAND-BOOK, P A. II T I. CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. 1. Objects stated. — The primary object of the following pages is to aid the teacher in his arduous work. Such a result is to be accomplished, first, by an eifort to improve one of the most important agencies for his professional instruction and, second, by furnishing a practical Hand-Book directly suited to his wants in the school-room. This double object is rendered practicable on the theory that an institute for the improvement of teachers should be organized and conducted, not only as a school, but so far as circumstances will allow, as a model school. It must be conceded that, in a general sense, nearly everything that is essential to a well-conducted and efii- cient school is equally essential to a well-conducted and efficient institute ; and that young teachers should them- selves be subjected to a regime similar to that which they would impose upon their oAvn pupils. Loose organization and a slipshod management will yield ade- quate results in neither case. 12 THE TEACHEB'S HAND-BOOK. 2. The Institute and the School. — The office of tlie institute and of the school, is to teach, and to a great extent, both should teach the same subjects in the same way. So far as the institute has special objects of its own, it must of course diverge from the work of an ordinary school. The divergence, however, must relate to a portion of the subject-matter, rather than to the method of instruction. It must relate to that which is more strictly professional. But one of the best methods of teaching how to teach, is by example. Hence, the branches required to be taught in the common schools, must also be taught more or less in the institutes, and a Hand-Book for the institute instructor will be equally serviceable to the common-school teacher. 3. Teachers should be -well-informed upon all subjects. — No profession has greater claims upon its members, for a high order of intelligence, than that of the teacher. " The days of a driveling instruction are departing." Ignorance, at the head either of a school or a school system, presents the preposterous j)aradox of the blind attempting to lead the blind. The time has arrived when education, and not the absence of it, must guide our educational forces. The teacher must not only be a scholar, but he must possess a rich fund of general intelligence. He cannot afford to be narrow- minded or short-sighted. He must be especially well versed in everything that pertains to his profession. Whether he ever attends an institute or not, he should know what it is. He should study the history, the objects, the methods of organization and management of an agency so potent as this in the promotion of his professional interests. If the profession is ever to be respected, it must make itself respectable. To be respectable, it must rise above mediocrity. To rise above PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS. 13 mediocrity, it must ascend the "hill of science;" it must enter and occupy the temple of learning ; it must know its rights ; it must faithfully recognize, and hon- estly discharge, its high and solemn duties. 4. A supply of educated teachers indispen- sable. — Upon the teachers of the nation, more than U2:»on any and all other classes combined, devolves the solution of the problem of a wise and generous education for the entire people. We may build grand school edi- fices on every quarter-section of our territory, we may hoard up huge school funds in every State, we may endow magnificent institutions with all the wealth of " Orraus and of Ind," and yet, without a full and con- stant supply of well-educated, skillful, and devoted teachers, our eiforts for universal education will be in vain. School buildings, school funds, and endowments are but inert machinery. The poioer resides in the faith- ful teaclier alone. He must breathe into these instru- ments, as into a perfected organism, the animating breath of life. The maxim " as is the teacher, so is the school," may be accepted as an educational axiom. The value of a school or of a system of schools depends entirely upon its quality. Vicious methods of teaching are as certain to produce bad citizens as the absence of all teaching. Hence, the great question is, What shall be the character and qualifications of our teachers, and how many of the right sort is it possible to produce ? 5. The Teacher's influence. — The influence of the teacher should be no less potent outside of the school- room than within that sacred sanctuary. He should be able to inform and guide public sentiment in all that relates to education. He should be the high priest of his profession, thoroughly informed in its history, nature, means, and ends. Tlierc in no question connected with 14 THE teacher's HAXD-BOOK. its principles, its methods, or its polity, wliich should not be as familiar to him as "household words." Since education is his business, he should comprehend it in all its beai-ings and relations better than any other persons comprehend it. His interests and his duty alike demand this thorough acquaintance with his specialty. The interests of society demand it ; and until the school- master thus becomes master of the lohole situation, he can neither receive the consideration due to his profes- sion, nor can the world experience the great benefits from his labors that it so sadly needs. In no one thing is the influence that springs from eminent attain- ments and high character on the part of teachers more necessary than in shaping the course of educational legislation. The great cause is constantly embarrassed and retarded by unwise and inadequate legal enact- ments. The representatives of the people, as well as the people themselves, are mainly absorbed in the con- sideration of questions more immediately affecting their material interests. As a general thing, they have neither the information nor the disposition requisite to wise and progressive legislation upon a subject so foreign to their usual course of thought, and demanding the most pro- found and careful study. Like other great interests, therefore, education needs leaders worthy to represent it, and competent to command the suj)port essential to the success of its measures. To whom should it be able to look for such leadership, if not to those who are especially set apart to promote and defend it ? To the teachers of this country, the great duty belongs. Will they rise with the emergency and prove themselves equal to its demands ? EDUCATION AND STATESMANSHIP. 15 CHAPTER 11. EDUCATION AND STATESMANSHIP.— DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 6. Dangers of the Nation. — Intelligence and vir- tue are tlie foundation and the corner stone of the Ameri- can Republic. Hence, it follows that ignorance and wi'ong are its most formidable foes. Its theory is that every citize'n must be intelligent enough clearly to com- prehend, and virtuous enough faithfully to discharge his duties. Accordingly, as far as any citizen or any num- ber of citizens may fall short of this standard of qualifi- cations, so far the practice of the republic contradicts its theory, and so far it must suffer the innumerable and costly evils flowing from the operation of forces utterly and irreconcilably hostile to its interests, its prosperity, its perpetuity. While " thinking bayonets," may be important in great emergencies, thinking ballots are immeasurably more important iji all em.ergencies. If the republic should j^erish, the calamity would arise from internal weakness rather than from external vio- lence. Ignorance generates poverty, pauperism, and crime among the masses, while demagogues, corruption- ists, and traitors feed and fatten upon its ignoble spoils. An intelligent, virtuous, and vigilant people can neither be deceived, corrupted, nor betrayed. But illiteracy is an insidious disease, preying upon the vitals of the body politic ; and unchecked, it can lead only to a fatal ter- mination. In the light of our fundamental theory, let us see how 16 TDE teacher's HAND-BOOK. the account of the great RejDublic now stands in this regard. By the census of 1870, the total population of the United States and its territories, exclusive of children under ten years of age, and omitting Chinese and Indians, was 29,686,864. With the same exclusions and omissions, the number of illiterates, or persons unable to read and write, was 5,643,534. The meaning of these figures is that nearly one-fifth of the population of this country, above the age of ten years, is illiterate. But since the ability to read and write indifierently does not constitute intelligence, since in the absence of the restraining virtues those slender attainments are turned to bad account, and since, in short, there are many grades of ignorance above the " reading and writing stage," the number of illiterates as given above must be largely increased, to represent the actual state of the case. It is to be remarked further, that as a rule, the child that reaches the age of ten years an illiterate, must remain so, since the great majority of the children in our public schools leave them at that age. If they have never been admitted pi-ior to that period, they are not likely to be, subsequent to it. The indications seem to be, moreover, that so far are we from making any headway against this fearful array of ignorance, it is actually on the increase. Certain it is, that with all our boasted educational activity, we are able to do no more than to hold it in check. With the most favorable interpretation that we can give to these facts, the aspect is appalling and well calculated to excite in the thought- ful mind the most lively apprehensions. Who can reflect without alarm upon the loss of mental and moral power, the waste of material resources, and the general deterioration of society, growing out of EDUCATION AND STATESMANSHIP. 17 the presence of so much ignorance in the very heart of the republic ? In view of its existence with all that the fact implies, how easy to account for the poverty, pauperism, crime, corruption, and other disorders that afflict the nation. And what shall be said of the statesmanship that either ignores the stern facts of the situation or contents itself with the most inadequate measures of relief and protection ? Contrast the policy of the United States, a republic, with that of United Germany, a monarchy, in respect to the education of the whole people, and you have a grand truth in a nut-shell : The real strength and glory oja nation are to be sought and found in its toii- versally educated citizens. Not that we want the power of education to consolidate despotism, but we do want it to conserve and promote the highest welfare and hap- piness of a free people. As we want no criminals, we must have no idlers. As we would have no idlers, we must tolerate no illiterates. A true statesmanship looks to causes and not alone to palliatives. The surest method of repressing the bad tendencies of human nature is to develop the good ones. " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." When will American states- manship recognize these palpable truths? Says Aris- totle, "That the education of youth ought to form the principal part of the legislator's attention cannot be a doubt, since education first moulds and afterwards sus- tains the vai'ious modes of government. The better and more perfect the systems of education, the better and more pei-fect the plan of government it is intended to introduce and uphold." 7. The Needs of the Nation. — It is legitimate to infer from what has already been stated, that what the nation needs more than all things else is universal 18 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. education. It needs this in fact as well as in form, in practice as well as in theory. It needs not only that stark ignorance should be totally exterminated, but that every child^ of whatever sex, cotidition, or nationality, should he thoroughly taught and trained. It needs that its " popular sovereigns," one and all, should be made intelligent enough to comprehend their rights, and vir- tuous enough to discharge their duties. It needs that every person who casts a ballot should be made compe- tent so to wield his own reason, judgment, and conscience as to cast it intelligently, honestly, fearlessly. It needs that the masses of the people, " the great conservative element," should free themselves from leading strings ; that they should be able wisely to discriminate between sense and sound, truth and error, wisdom and folly in the conduct of public affairs as well as of their own affairs. It needs above all, that the ultimate source of its power should be pure enough, wise enough, and cou- rageous enough rightly to select and rigorously to scruti- nize the instruments of its power — its public officei-s of every name and grade. When the people, and the whole people, are made capable of discerning and choosing between the patriot and the partisan, the statesman and the demagogue, then indeed will the nation be redeemed, regenerated, and disenthralled, and the great republic will be invincible in the might of its intelligence and in the rectitude of its intentions. There may be many who will pronounce such results impossible of attainment, and who will assert that the great mass of the people cannot thus be elevated to this high plane of intellectual and moral discennnent. Such persons claim that what we need is a highly educated class to lead the masses, and guide the affairs of state to wise and just conclusions. But such reasoning is sub- EDUCATION AND STATESMANSHIP. 19 versive of the doctrine upon which the republic is based, and, followed to its legitimate results, would lead inevit- ably to the alternative that " a government of the peo- ple, for the people, and by the people must perish forever from the earth." Nevei'theless, it cannot have escaped the memories of such, that in our greatest emergencies, the men for the occasion have been the men of the people and from the people. Many of the most illustrious characters in our history have been those who have sprung from the bosom of the masses, and who, until the occasion called them forth, were to "fortune and to fame unknown." Nor should the fact be ignored that whatever may be the issue, whether it is to be decided by the ballot or the bullet, the people, either as citizens or as citizen soldiers, are the ultimate arbiters of the national destiny. Is it then of little im- portance that they be made capable of clearly discern- ing the merits of public questions and of acting in accordance with well-defined and just convictions of public duty ? This reasoning, it is needless to add, has not for its object the dispai-agement of a liberally edu- cated class. On the contrary, we can never be in danger from a surplus of such. It is not that w^e need highly cultured classes less, but well-taught and thoroughly trained masses more. No intelligent person needs to be reminded that the precise difference between civilization with its manifold blessings, and barbarism with its man- ifold curses, is that which a wise and generous culture creates. Wealth is not so much the product of muscle and machinery as of mind. It is the result of labor generated and guided by intelligence. Where there is no intelligence, there is no wealth-producing labor. Hence, tcealth is a child of the cultivated human brain. And so, too, the arts that adorn, the philosophies that 20 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. dignify, the humanities that ennoble, and the institutions that bless a civilized society, all await the advent of that high order of intelligence which a wise and gener- ous education alone can create. In a word, culture is the wealth-producing, comfort-promoting, refinement- inducing power of the world. Abandon it, and civiliza- tion must speedily relapse into barbarism, wealth into poverty, and refinement into brutality and degradation. Increase its quantity and improve its quality among the masses, and you as certainly multiply the sources of wealth, and advance the degree of civilization and refinement as causes are sure to produce their legitimate effects. This, briefly, is the nation's greatest want. It needs vastly to increase the source of its power and utterly to exterminate the cause of its weakness. CHAPTER III. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES (CONTINUED). 8. The kind of Culture needed. — The mere ability to read and write is not education. It may not be even the beginning of true culture. Whether it is or is not, depends upon the quality of the teaching and consequently upon the quality of the result. When words are habitually read or written in ignorance of their import and use, they are instruments of weakness rather than of powei'. They are dead weights upon the memory rather than lamps to the reason and lights to the understanding. The education of many a child has been forever spoiled by bad methods in the beginning. DISCUSSION OF GENEBAL PRINCIPLES. 21 The mechanical use of language not only evolves no power but actually stifles development and unfits the mind for rational culture. " Ideas before words, things before books," is tlie first principle of primary instruc- tion. The thought once developed, the desire for its expression creates a longing and a necessity for language. In a natural method of teaching, the appetite for lan- guage is as irresistible as the appetite for ideas or the craving for food. If the teacher be master of his busi- ness, he vnll take the words of his pupils as the ineasiire of thtir thoufjht and the test of its accuracy at every step. Their language thus become the index of their intellectual states and affords to the teacher the certain data for correcting all errors and supplying all deficien- cies in the working of the mental mechanism. A neglect carefully to cultivate the perceptive pow- ers during the golden opportunity of early childhood, renders accurate observation impossible, beclouds the mind with half-formed, distorted conceptions, weakens the judgment, paralyzes the reason, corrupts the imagi- nation, and saps the very foundation of a virtuous and useful life. The impressions received and the habits acquired during the first ten years of human existence are mora decisive either for good or evil, success or fail- ure, happiness or misery, than all the influences of the after period. And yet these fearful truths seem scarcely to have dawned upon the consciousness of mankind. In this connection the following impressive words of one of our most esteemed American savans,* will be read with interest : " The future character of a child, and that of the man also, is in most cases formed probably before the age of seven years. Previously to this time, impressions * Professor Joseph Henry. 22 THE teacher's hand-book. have been made wliich shall survive amid all the vicissi- tudes of life — amid all the influences to which the indi- vidual may be subjected, and which will outcrop as it were in the last stage of his earthly existence, when the additions to his character made in later years have been entirely swept away. I may mention one idea which has occurred to me, and which I have never seen advanced ; but which, if true, invests the subject of early impressions with a fearful interest. The science of statistics shows that certain crimes which are common in seasons of youth disappear comparatively with advancing age, and re-appear again toward the close of life ; or, in other words, that the tendencies to indul- gencies in disorders of the imagination, and habits which were acquired in the early life of a vicious youth, or one exposed to evil associations, though they may be masked and kept in subjection by the judgment and the influ- ences of position and reputation during early manhood, middle life, and first decline, resume their sway and close the career of the man who has perhaps for years sustained a spotless reputation, with ignominy and shame." It may be safely asserted that multitudes of children leave our common schools for the scenes of active life every year with their perceptive and observing powers thus undeveloped, their intellectual appetencies dormant, their sensibilities untouched by ennobling influences, their habits misshapen, and the very foundations of their success and happiness in the career of existence unset- tled if not utterly destroyed. This is especially true in many of the rural districts, where the schools are small, improperly classified, and meagrely supplied with the material aids to instruction ; where the teachers are young, inexperienced, untrained, poorly paid and inade- DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PraNCIPLES. 23 quately supported by an active and healthful public sentiment. The schools for our rural population present tlie knottiest problem connected with the entire work ot universal education, and they demand vastly more attention than they have yet received from the states- man, the educator, and the people. Deprived, as the inhabitants of the country districts are to a great extent, of the immediate influence of a high-toned daily press, popular lectures, libraries, museums, and other means of instruction accorded to the residents of cities, it becomes even more important that their schools should he thor- oughly taught and wisely managed. They are the prin- cipal sources of the intellectual and moral life of the community. They have to do with the child during the most critical because the most susceptible period of his existence, and when, if ever, he needs the guiding hand of a far-reaching intelligence and a matchless skill to secure liim from tlie disasters of false steps and per- vertei^ faculties in the beginning. Without exaggera- tion, this is the most supremely important question with which the statesman and the educator have to deal. " The child is father of the man." What the man is to be, the child, in all the elements of character, must first become. What the child is to become, must be determined by the quality of the teaching and the training he is to receiue. There is no accident, no chance connected with the question. It is a question of cause and eifect. It is a question between a far-sighted, whole-souled, compre- hensive system of thorough education and its opposite. The statesmanship which cannot discern the relations between the illiteracy, the bad teaching, the raalforming methods and influences of poor schools on the one hand, and the failures, the social inharmonies, the crimes and other disorders of society on the other, is scarcely equal to the needs of a free people. 24 THE teacher's hand-book. The bearing of a thorough and comprehensive system of teaching upon so much of the labor question as per- tains to the cultivation of the soil, deserves the most careful consideration also. Wealth-producing industry is simply another name for labor inspired and controlled by the intellactual and moral poioer that lies behind it. Vacant minds and exhausted soils, dilapidated machin- ery and careless, slothful habits, are almost correlative terms. But minds untrained to think, faculties unac- customed to feel and yield obedience to the power of truth, or to look beyond the demands of the present hour, can possess neither the energy, the skill, nor the disposition to conserve or increase the capacity of the earth for bringing forth its kindly fruits. Science has demonstrated, the press has reiterated, and the voice of history echoing through the ages has confirmed the truth that constant cropping^ in the absence of appro- priate restorative measures^ devitalizes the soil and 'ulti- mately impoverishes both its oicners and the community at large. Vast fertile areas, the former granaries of great empires, have, in this manner, been smitten with physical decrepitude. " Whole provinces, once cele- brated for the wealth and social advancement of their inhabitants, have either been deserted by civilized man and surrendered to hopeless desolation, or greatly reduced in both productiveness and population," * and still, even in our own favored land, the work of deple- tion goes steadily on. If we seek for an explanation of these and many other unwelcome facts, we shall find it, mainly, in the total inadequacy of our present means and methods of education to the work of raising up the whole people to a pjroper appreciation of their true interests and a comprehensive knowledge of their rights * Geori^e P. Marsh, in " Man and Nature." DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 25 and duties as individuals and as citizens. " Good com- mon schools," said Edward Evei'ett, when Governor of Massachusetts, "'are the basis of every wise system of education." But to a vast majority of the American people they are not only the basis, but the superstruc- ture and the apex of the only system within their grasp. More than nineteen-twentieths of our children derive their sole educational advantages in the common schools, and these privileges, s.uch as they may be, are limited principally to the school period below the age of ten or twelve years. This is especially true of our rural popu- lation, who compose the great mass of the people. When to these facts it is added that the country schools do not perhaps continue in session on an average of more than six months in a year, and that multitudes of the children fail to reap such slender advantages as may be afforded, for more than three or four months annually, we shall have some of the more prominent elements of the difficult problem clearly before us. What then do we need ? What ought to be done ? What can be done ? These are questions of vast import. They demand the most tlioughtful consideration. They ought to be ever present to the minds of our statesmen and educators ; for they will always be in order, and will constantly demand a satisfactory answer. The kind of culture required for the masses of the people has already been indicated in the discussion of that which we now give to too many of them. They need, in the few years allotted to their early education, the blessings of a thorough system of culture conforming to nature. The perceptive and observing powei-s should be developed by a rational application of appropriate means, instead of being stifled by false, mechanical methods. The imagination should be filled with pure 2 26 TUE teacher's hand-book, and beautiful images. The attention, the memory, and the power of association should be distinctly recognized and assiduously cultivated in all the exercises of tlie school. The wayward tendencies of childhood should be held in check by the restraints of a wholesome and efficient discipline. Habits of order, neatness, prompti- tude, obedience, industiy, and self-respect should be inculcated and enforced at every step, until they become a part of the daily life of the future citizen. Reason, judgment and conscience should be made to assert their sway over the instincts and the passions, guiding and controlling every outward act and inward emotion. In a word, the discipline of the school should prepare the child, so far as human agency can do it, for the disci- pline of life. It should inspire him with the love of knowledge, giving him the power to acquire and the disposition to use it in the intelligent and faithful dis- charge of every duty incumbent upon him as an indi- vidual and as a member of society. " I call a complete and generous education that which fits a man to perform justly, skillfully, and mag- nanimously all the offices, both public and private, of peace and war inflamed with a study of learning and the admiration of virtue, stirred up with high hopes of living to be brave men, and worthy patriots, dear to God and famous to all ages." * * John Miltou. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 27 CIIAPTEPv lY. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES (CONTINUED). 9. The duty of the Nation. It is manifestly the duty of the nation to plant the common school in every neighborhood, and within reach of every citizen whom its soil maintains. The jDossession of rational faculties implies an inalienable right to the means for their cultivation. Since educated mind is the source of all our wealth, education is clearly entitled to so much of our material resources as may bo necessary for the extension of its blessings to all who are entitled to receive them. Since the inalienable right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness is best secured hy educathig the irhole people^ since the safety of life and property is the best assured where there is culture, refinement, industry, and respect for laio, it is no less the interest than the duty of the nation thoroughly to educate itself. The common school, with its associated institutions and agencies, is the ordained instrument through which this universal education of the jDeople alone is possible. To encourage, perfect, and extend it until it reaches every home and performs its functions wisely and fully, is the great problem of all others that should engage the attention, and command the warmest sympathies and the best efforts of American statesmanship. To neglect this duty is to disregard the first instinct of national self- preservation and progress. No greater mistake can be committed than the adoption of measures characterized by false notions of 28 THE teacher's hand-book. economy in this direction. The great question is not, How little can we get along with, and exist ? but, How much can we judiciously and wisely expend in the edu- cation of the people ? No investments are so certain to yield an adequate return as those which are carefully made for the increase of intellectual and moral power ; for the rescue of the young from ignorance, degrada- tion, and crime. With all the faults that we so justly attribute to our systems of education in this country, it must be confessed that we get about all we are entitled to, because all we pay for. The way to obtain adequate results is to make adequate investments for education. We venture the bold suggestion that when we judi- ciously expend ten times the amount now annually expended for school purposes, we shall be better satisfied than we now are both with the returns and the invest- ments. The statesmanship which measures the value of an educational institution or system by the paucity of its expenditures rather than by the quality and quantity of the fruits which it brings forth, is totally incompe- tent to shape the destinies of a great nation. The ques- tion should be. How much can be profitably applied to the extinction of ignorance and the exaltation of intelli- gence and virtue ? Wlien this policy prevails, we shall have little occasion to deplore the inadequacy of our means or the poverty of our results in national education. This is no plea for extravagance or unnecessary expen- ditures. No investment can be extravagant which is necessary. But so long as education is the creator of wealth, it is necessary that wealth should be liberally and wisely em})loyed to advance education and extin- guish ignorance, the source of poverty. So long as civilization is the product of culture, civilization must pay the price necessary to render culture universal DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 29 through the extension and perfection of our system of education. There can be no surer sign of national degeneration and decay than a policy of retrenchment hei-e. The words of William Penn are full of truth and Avisdom. " That which makes a good constitution must keep it, namely, men of wisdom and virtue ; qualities that, because they descend not with worldly inheritance, must be carefully propagated by a virtuous education of youth, for which spare no cost • for by such parsi- mony all that is saved is lost.'''' But what is implied by the word nation as used in this connection ? Not the general government alone ; not the state and municipal governments merely, but both the governments and the jieople : the collective intelligence and power of the people as represented in and by the governments. Says Horace Mann : " In our country and in our times, no man is worthy the honored name of a statesman who does not include the highest practicable education of the people in all his plans of administration. " He may have eloquence, he may have a knowledge of all history, diplomacy, jurisprudence, and by these he may claim in other countries the elevated rank of a statesman ; but unless he speaks, plans, labors at all times and in all places for the culture and edification of the lohole people, he is not, he cannot be an American statesman." And again, one of our highest authorities in economic science, John Stuart Mill, justifies beyond dispute the in- terference of government in the promotion of education.* * Mr. Mill remarks that " The uncultivated cannot be judges of cultivation. Those who need most to be made wiser and bet- ter, usually desire it least, and if they desired it, would be incapa- 30 THE teacher's hand-book. Our national government, then, should not only rec- ognize its obligation to preserve the foundation upon vi^hich it rests, but it should exert itself actively and vigorously to extend the blessings of a wise and gener- ous education to the whole people. No specious pre- texts of a want of power should interfere with this plain ble of finding their way to it by their own lights. It will con- tinually happen on the voluntary system, that, the end not being desired, the means will not be provided at all, or that the persons requiring improvement having an imj^erfect or altogether erro- neous concei^tion of what they want, the supply called forth by the demand of the market will be anything but what is really required. Now any well-intentioned and tolerably civilized government may think without presumption, that it does or ought to possess a degree of cultivation above the average of the com- munity which it rules, and that it should therefore be capable of offering better education and better instruction to the people than the greater number of them would spontaneously select. " Education, therefore, is one of those things which it is ad- missible in principle that the government should provide for the people. The case is one to which the reasons of the non-interfer- ence principle do not necessarily or universally extend. " With regard to elementary education, the exception to ordi- nary rules may, I conceive, be carried still further. There are certain primary elements and means of knowledge which it is in the highest degree desirable that all human beings born into the community should acquire during childhood. If their parents, or those on whom they depend, have the power of obtaining for them this instruction and fail to do it, they commit a double breach of duty: toward the children themselves, and toward the members of the community generally, who are all liable to suffer seriously from the consequences of ignorance and want of educa- tion in their fellow-citizens. It is therefore an allowable exer- cise of government to impose on parents the legal obligation of giving elementary instruction to children. This however cannot fairly be done without taking measure to insure that such instruc- tion shall always be accessible to them either gratuitously or at a trifling expense." DISCUSSION OF GE]SrERAL rRINCIPLES. 31 duty. A government without the power to save and strengthen itself by the surest, cheapest, and best meth- ods, is a delusion and a snare. A government without the authority to elevate and promote the happiness of the people whose servant it is, by the use of the most certain and eftective means, has no object worthy of its existence, and should speedily give way to a worthier and better. When in 1867 our government established a Depart- ment of Education, it took a step in the right direction. Had it supplemented this action by wise measures for enlarging the scope of its powers and duties, until they became coequal with those of the other departments, it would have afforded additional proof of its advancing statesmanship, and commended itself to the confidence and approval of all right-minded citizens, if not to short- sighted and selfish politicians. But when in 18G9, it reduced this Department to a Bureau, and consigned it to the comparative seclusion of another department already surcharged with the burden of duty, it performed, an act unworthy of its dignity and discreditable to its intelligence. It should hasten to correct the mistake, and spare no effort of statesmanship, until it recognizes the interests of education as at least equal to those of its foreign relations, its finances, its postal service, and its enginery for the destruction of human life as repre- sented by its army and navy. Nothing could have a stronger tendency to nationalize education and give it that prominence in the minds of the great mass of the people, than this full recognition of its claims by that which represents the interests and the power of the na- tion. If despotism needs a ministr}^ of public instruc- tion to secure the universal education of the people, much more does freedom require it to aid in preserving 32 THE teacher's hand-book, and perfecting its beneficent institutions. The power to elevate and bless the peo2:)le should neither be feared, nor should it be restricted to State lines. It Avill require all the available power of the nation, the State, and the municipality, successfully to grapple with the combined evils resulting from ignorance and bad teaching which press so sorely upon us. There are appropriate avenues in which not only may each legitimately exercise its own proper influence, without hindrance or harm to the others, but by mutual cooj^eration all may labor with immeasurable advantage to the people. If there be any such thing as distinctively "American ideas " the com- mon school is certainly one of them, and the most im- portant one, and if the propagation of these ideas be a part of our mission, surely we should be in a position to discharge this function of our " Manifest Destiny." CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES (CONCLUDED). 10. The Teacher the leading Factor in the ■work of reform. — It remains to be stated that in all measures for the extension of education to destitute local- ities, or for the improvement of its quality wherever it may be needed, the Teacher and his improvement must be the central thought. For, wherever any portion of the race is to be raised from the degradation of ignorance it must.be done through the power of wise teaching dur- ing the period of childhood and youth. Hence, we must provide teachers alequate in numbers, in learning, in DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 33 capacity, and in skill, to the magnitude of the work to be performed. We must bear in mind that if " the uncul- tivated cannot be the judges of cultivation," they can- not surely be leaders of it. They cannot bring intelli- gence out of ignorance. Teachers of high intellectual, moral, and professional attainments, only, are equal to the emergency. Properly to conduct and control the humblest school, demands more wisdom than to rule a state. It is manifest therefore, that to build school- liouses, supply books and apparatus, and provide funds, alone, will not accomplish what is needed. Every school must be blessed loith the presence and inspiration of a teacher worthy of the high vocation of instructing the people. To stop short of this, is to neglect the one con- dition of all others the most necessary to the successful solution of the problem. This is the testimony of the best thinkers and ablest writers upon education in all parts of the world. It is the testimony of experience everywhere. Said that profound statesman, M. Guizot, after por- traying the character of a true teacher : " To rear masters approaching to such a model, is a difficult task, and yet we tnust succeed in it, or else we have done NOTHING for elementary instruction.'^^ The popi;lar estimate of the requisite qualifications of teachers is best attested by the starvation prices which in multitudes of cases are paid for their services. But their attainments and capabilities are too often as meagre as their compensation. The most attenuated acquisitions and the utter absence either of special train- ing or experience, seems to form no bar to their employ- ment by the people, simply because they are cheap ! The consequence is, that the schools of the rural districts especially are to a great extent in the hands of young 2* 34 TUE TEACUER's nAND-EOOK. masters and misses who are just in their "teens" and who have no clear conception of the nature of education, or of the means and appliances whereby the most impor- tant work of the most critical period in human existence is to he Avorthily performed. Slaves to the text-book, entangled in the harness of dull routine, strangers to the power and the pleasures of true knowledge, unskilled to teach, uninspired with a love for their special work, they can scarcely be trusted to guide the footsteps of confiding childhood into the ways of pleasantness and the paths of peace. Looking a little farther on, we shall discover that this vast army of professional incompetency and inexperience actually disbands on *an average of about once in each four or five years, and is succeeded by an- other multitude of undisciplined recruits who can only repeat the mistakes of their immediate predecessors and teachers. And thus error, inexperience and incompe- tency, are reproduced and proi)agated from year to year, and from decade to decade. While there is progress in the cities, there seems to be comparative fixedness, if not actual retrogression in the quality of the teaching in many of the rural districts. In the higher walks of education too, the best minds are being constantly allured from the service through the superior inducements offered by the other professions, callings, and industries of life, where talent readily commands an adequate re- ward, and where it is freed from the officious dictation and the narrow-minded intermeddling of mediocrity clothed in the habiliments of "a little brief authority.'' The flippant use of the words " pedagogue," " school- master," and the like, as terms of reproach even among many of the more cultivated classes, indicates a lament- able lack of appreciation of the real dignity and impor- tance of the ofl&ce of a teacher, by those who should ever DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PKIXCIPLES. 35 regard it with reverence and respect. Were the anxiety that each child of the republic should be properly edu- cated, as great and as general as that each man should vote and pay his share of the taxes, there would be no want of this true appi-eciation or of the means to extend and improve education to the utmost limit of the public necessity. It is not asserted, let it be understood, in this connec- tion, that these deplorable facts are universal. But cer- tain and undeniable it is, that they are by far too com- mon. We have too many poor schools, poor teachers, incompetent school officers, and indifferent citizens. It is indeed safe to affirm that we have a vast majority of such, and that the decadence of education^ even in some of the older States, is a truth attested by official figures. When superadded to such a state of facts it is discovered that, over extensive areas of thickly inhabited territory, there are absolutely no means of instruction for the masses, either good, bad, or indifferent, the aspect becomes startling, and it should arouse the intelligence and patriotism of the nation to a consideration of its dangers and its duties. 11. The special preparation of teachers an urgent necessity. — It is preposterous to suppo^^e that a great people can be created or sustained thi-ough the agency of poor schools, and an inadequate, faulty edu- cation. Only good schools, conducted by able teachers, can train up the successive generations of children to be worthy citizens, the strength and glory of a free commonwealth. All exjyerience shotcs that tec cannot obtain a supply of competent teachers unless toe create specicd affencies for their preparation. If, therefore, we are to have State scliools for the education of the chil- dren, it is equally important that we should provide State 3G THE teacher's hand-book. schools for tlie preparation of their teachers. The money expended to ^^ay incompetent instructors is as surely wasted as if used to pay unskilled mechanics who know just enough to Avaste their material and spoil their work. To build and furnish school-houses, and pay persons as teachers who are unfitted for their duties, is a species of prodigality that would be submitted to in none of the material concerns of life. The question as to what shall be taught iu our com- mon schools is yet to receive a definite solution. Next in importance to right methods of teaching, ranks the subject-matter of teaching. " What knowledge is of most worth ? What branches are the most useful, first, for dis- cipline, and second, for use or particular application?" Upon this subject we have no settled policy. As a conse- quence, many things infei-ior usurp the place of those of superior worth. The dry details of so-called geogra- phy, the abstract definitions, rules, and formulas of gram- mar, the comparatively valueless signs and symbols of algebraic notation, consume a vast amount of the time that sliould be devoted to the study of the earth, its climate and productions in their relations to man, and the coui'se of human history ; of the English langi;age as a means of communication, and of the living sciences which lie at the basis of all the arts and industries of life. But it is futile to attempt a revolution in subject-matter Avhile teachers, their attainments, and methods of work, are so inadequate to the public needs. It is idle to talk of the necessity of the elements of Phj'sics and Chemistry, Bot- any and Physiology, Natural History and Agriculture, so long as we have neither the knowledge nor the skill requi- site to their proper treatment. Of what value would these sciences be to the people when mechanically memorized from the printed page, as are most of the subjects now DISCUSSION OF GEXERAL TEIXCIPLES. 37 in our common school curriculum ? To be of use either for discipline or application, they must be properly taught by observation, experiment, and demonstration. In short, their objects must be seen, handled, analyzed, com- pared, and classified. These practical sciences must be investigated by methods and processes analogous to those by which they have been themselves developed, and thus far perfected. Can our children be expected to grope their way to these natural processes in spite of their teachers ? or, must the latter first be made capable of leading the way, inspiring the young by the fulness of their learning and the skill of their methods ? Until our children and youth learn the right use of their own powers, it is in vain to expect that they can master the powers of nature or accomplish any other important result. The " new education," therefore, so far as it refers to our elementary schools, must begin its work by revolutionizing the teacher and liis metliods in order that the way may be opened for effective instruction in the sciences related to the arts of life. This question of learning, skill, and personal power in the teacher is really " that before which all others pale," and when it is fully settled, the "knowledge which is of most worth" will find its way into the schools and the minds of the people as easily and naturally as the sunlight finds its way into every nook of the broad landscape. 12. Normal Schools.— Wherever, therefore, com- mon schools are planted, Teachers' Seminaries must be established, liberally supported, and efficiently con- ducted. Not only an intelligent forethought, but a true economy demands that this should be done. Viewed from a just stand-point, they constitute the foundation of an efficient system of common schools, because it is " the master that makes the school," and it is the careful, 38 THE teaciiek's hand-book. special training that makes the master. A vei-y small percentage of the amount expended upon a system of common schools, will support a system of Training schools, and thus secure to the- people an adequate return for the investments made in behalf of their children. The organization of such institutions sliould be broad in its scope, and far-reaching in its aims. Tliey should strive to establish a high standard of scliolarship and professional attainments, to the end that they may send forth men and women fitted to become leaders in the great work of educational reform. The best talent in the community sliould be encouraged to seek the advantages they afford, in order that it may be drawn into the service of public instruction. Special induce- ments should be held out to young persons of character and ability to enter upon a course of preparation here. When necessary, pecuniary aid should be extended to those who need and deserve it. The State should recog- nize the eminent fitness of those who graduate from these courses, by constituting their diplomas perpetual certifi- cates of qualification, and it should do all that an enlight- ened commonwealth can do, to elevate the profession to the highest rank in the public esteem. By such a ])olicy, it is perpetually elevating its own rank, renewing its intellectual and moral energies, and increasing its influ- ence and power in every direction. The vital relations which Normal schools and Teacli- ers' Institutes sustain to the Common school system, will be considered in the closing chapter of this volume, and we conclude the present discussion with a brief reference to the particular agency which it is a prominent object of the Hand Book to improve. 13. Teachers' Institutes. — In the ]n'csent condi- tion of education, the great mass of teiicliers who DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PKINCIPLES. 39 most need instruction cannot be reached by tlie Nor- mal schools. Until these j^erraanent institutions shall become more generally established, graded, and local-, ized, than now, their direct advantages will be enjoyed by only a small proportion of the teachers, although, indirectly, their influence will be felt more or less every- where. But by means of the Teachers' Institute, a tem- porary and "peripatetic" agency, capable of universal application, much may be done for the difi'usion of pro- fessional knowledge among the thousands of inexpe- rienced persons who from year to year are employed in the common schools. A brief sketch of the rise and progress of institutes is given in a subsequent part of this work. Wherever they have been established and efficiently conducted, they have done much to improve the qualifications of teachers, and to awaken in the com- munity a deeper sense of the importance of education. That which is now most needed is their general adop- tion, a more thorough and effective organization of their %oorJc, and a better sifpjyhj of instructors capable of bri^ig- ing out of them the highest practical results. Like the common schools, they fail in many cases from the lack of wise leaders and able teachers who can make the most of the brief opportunities afibrded for thorough instruc- tion. But the influence of rightly conducted Normal schools, aided by a high-toned educational literature, will gradually supply these deficiencies, and the Institute will become one of the most powerful instrumentalities in the elevation of the teacher and the advancement of popular education. As it is purely an " American idea," an outgi'owth of the necessities of the American com- mon school, it is becoming that as a people, we should aflibrd it an opportuntty for the most ample develop- ment, until the needs of our system for qualified in^ structors shall be fully supplied. 40 THE TEACHEk's HAND-BOOK. SUMMARY TO PART FIRST. CHAPTER I. (1) Objects stated, to aid the teaclier; (2) The Institute and the School, the office of both to teach ; (3) Teachers should be ■well informed upon all subjects; a few reasons given; (4) A sup- ply of educated teachers indispensable ; school funds and school- houses cannot accomplish all ; they are but the instruments ; the teacher the power ; (5) The teacher's influence should be potent without, as well as within the school-room ; he should, be a leader in educational reform. CHAPTER II. EELATIONS OP EBtTCATION AND STATESMANSHIP CONSIDERED, AND GENERAL, PRINCIPLES DISCUSSED. (6) Dangers of the nation ; intelligence and virtue the corner- stone of the Republic ; ignorance and wrong its most formidable enemies ; its dangers from internal weakness rather than from external violence ; lessons from the census ; deficiencies in our Statesmanship ; (7) The needs of the nation ; universal education of a high order ; illiteracy should be exterminated and every child should be taught and trained ; masses of the people should be able to judge wisely of public, as of private afEairs ; well educated masses as well as highly educated classes necessary. CHAPTER III. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES CONTINUED, (8) Kind of culture needed ; ability to read and write not education ; the .value of education dependent upon its quality, mechanical use of language stifles intellectual development ; teach- ing should conform to nature ; importance of early impressions; remarks of Prof. Henry ; defects of country schools and teachers ; influence of education upon the labor question ; vacant minds, and exhausted soils correlative terms : remarks of Geo. P. Marsh and SUMMARY TO PART FIRST. 41 Edward Everett ; tlaorougli teaching and careful discipline neces- sary ; Milton's definition of education. CHAPTER IV. DISCUSSION OP GENERAL PRINCIPLES — CONTINUED. (9) Duty of the nation, it should plant the common school in every neighborhood ; the possession of rational faculties implies an inalienable right to the means for their cultivation ; educated mind the source of all wealth ; the right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness best secured by educating the whole people ; fatal mistake of false notions of economy ; faulty statesmanship again ; ideas of William Penn and Horace Mann, remarks of John Stuart Mill ; a national department of education necessary ; propa- gation of " American ideas." CHAPTER V. DISCUSSION OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES — CONCLUDED. (10) The teacher the leading factor in the work of reform ; the race to be raised from ignorance by the power of teaching ; re- marks of M. Guizot; low popular estimate of a teacher's qualifi- cations ; meagre attainments and poor compensation the result ; qualifica,tions of district school teachers ; decadence of education in some States; (11) Special preparation of teachers an urgent necessity ; poor schools can neither create nor sustain a great nation ; a supply of competent teachers secured only by special agencies for their preparation ; waste of public funds on incom- petent instructors ; the demands of the " new education ; " (12) Normal Schools must be generally established, liberally sup- ported, and efliiciently conducted ; the true policy of States in this regard ; (13) Teachers' Institutes should be extended and per- fected ; must reach the great mass of teachers ; their history referred to, their effective organization emphasized. 42 TUE teachee's uand-book. P^A-HT II. CHAPTER YL OBJECTS OF THE TEACHERS' INSTITUTE. 1. Definition. — A Teachers' Institute is a tempo- rary assemblage of teacliers for special drill and mutual improvement in all that relates to their profession. When the sessions are continued for several Aveeks, these bod- ies are sometimes denominated ISTormal Institutes, and in some instances they have been called, with doubtful propriety, Training Schools. 2. A difference to be observed. — An Institute differs from an association or convention both in its objects and in the methods by which those objects are to be realized. An Institute is, or shoiild be, a school, and in its organization and management it should corre- spond with the latter, so far as its special objects and the circumstances under which it assembles will allow. 3. Objects of the Association and Conven- tion. — The Association and the Convention are, more strictly speaking, voluntary deliberative bodies, and must therefore be conducted according to the rules of parlia- mentary law. Their objects are of a more general nature than those of the institute. Their aim is to discuss those principles, and questions of policy which relate to the organization and administration of the system of Edu- cation. 4. Objects of the Institute. — The objects of OBJECTS OF THE TEACHEr's INSTITUTE. 43 the institute, on the other hand, are more specific and detailed in their character. In many States the Teacli- ers' institute is recognized by law as a factor in the pub- lic school system. In some cases it is aided, and in others it is entirely supported by legislative appro}iri- ations, and is placed under the supervision and control of school officers. Occasionally, attendance upon its sessions by teachers is made compulsory, and its oper- ations are in various ways regulated by statutory pro- visions. 5. Its aims more specifically stated. — Its specific aim is the hnproveineiit of the teacher in every- thimj that pertains to the discharge of Ids professional duties^ tchether trithin the school room or outside of it. It seeks, or should seek, to increase his scholarship by t\\Q piresentation and illustration of higher standards of attainmeid in the several branches of study. It should especially labor to ins})ire him with a clearer and more elevated conception of the nature and objects of educa- tion, and to acquaint him with those principles and meth- ods of teaching and management which lie at the basis of all real success in his important Avork. 6. Importance of this distinction, — This dis- tinction between the institute and a deliberative body should be carefully observed, since the former has many times proved to be a disastrous failure, in consequence of having assumed the organization and methods of man- agement, which more properly belong to the latter. 44 • THE teacher's hand-book. CHAPTEE YII. ORIGIN AND BRIEF HISTORY OP INSTITUTES. The first convocations of this kind of which we seem to have any reliable record, were held at Hartford, Con- necticut, in the years 1839 and 1840. They were organ- ized and conducted under the direction of Hon. Henry Barnard, then Secretary of the State Board of School Commissioners. In the autumn of 1889 a class of twenty six young men, and in the spring of the succeeding year another class of sixteen young women, were brought together, and were enabled without expense to themselves, to review and continue their studies under the recita- tions and practical lectures of experienced teachers, and to witness, in the public and jirivate schools of the city, other modes of school arrangement, instruction, and man- agement than those to which they had been accustomed. Every member of these classes was subsequently em- ployed in the common schools. It is but just to state here, that tlicse classes were not denominated Teachers' Institutes, although in reality they icere such. The ex- penses of the eiforts thus made were met by private contributions. 7. In the State of Ne-w York. — The first meet- ing of teachers for special drill, in the State of New York, was held at Ithaca, Tompkins County, in the spring of 1843. The second, assembled at Auburn in the autumn of the same year.* Both of these meetings were held * The following extract from a letter of Professor James B. Thomson of New York to the author, will be of interest in this connection. " You are right in your suggestion that I was ' a worker in OEIGIX AND BRIEF HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 45 under the auspices of the County Superintendents of Schools, for their respective counties. It was at this time that they first received the designation by which they the first Institute lield in this country.'" After the autumn of 1843, till 1855, I spent about six weeks every spring, and from ten to twelve weeks every fall, in attending Teachers' Institutes. During this period I attended more or less in nearly every Northern and Western State from Maine to the Mississippi River. But in answer to your inquiry respecting a Report or History of the earlier Insti- tutes, I am sorry to say that I know of no such report or publica- tion. A faithful history of these earlier efEorts for the improve- ment of our public schools would be an invaluable contribution to the great cause of Education ". . . . " The honor of their intro- duction into the Empire State is due to Mr. J. S. Denman, County Superintendent of Tompkins County, New York. He held the first at Ithaca, in the spring of 1843. The second was held at Auburn under the direction of E. G. Storke, Esq., County Superintendent of Cayuga. It commenced about the first of Oct. 1843, and con- tinued its sessions about two weeks. It was my privilege to have the charge of Arithmetic and Algebra on that occasion. " This Institute drew together more than two hundred teachers, some of whom, to my certain knowledge, walked over twenty miles to enjoy its advantages. It was a decided success. A report of it through the press, was circulated throughout the State, and no doubt did much to give the ball started by Mr. Denman an im pulse which soon sent the Institution throughout this and other States. " The third was held at Ithaca, Tompkins Co., commencing about the close of the one in Auburn. This I also had the pleasure of attending, and cheerfully bear testimony to the earnestness and scholarly enthusiasm of the teachers of both sexes who were in attendance. " The next year (1844) the number of Institutes in this State was largely increased. I cannot give the exact number, but my impres- sion is in the neighborhood of twenty. They soon found their way into New England, and were very popular. As early as 1846 I think, I attended one in the city of Providence, R. I., under the auspices of Hon. Henry Barnard, who was the Superintendent of Public Instruction in that State. This Institute numbered 46 THE teacher's hand-book. have since been known — Teachers' Institutes, Tlie num- ber in attendance at these two pioneer institutes was quite large, there being .over two hundred at the latter, some of whom are stated to have walked more than twenty- miles in order to enjoy its advantages. In some cases, not less than five hundi'ed teachers have been known to attend a single institute in the Empire State, which claims the credit of having originated this valuable edu- cational agency. 8. The moving cause. — These early eflorts to imjjrove the professional character of teachers were a result of the devoted zeal and industry of school offi- cers. The system of county su^jervision had previously been adopted, and the officers acting under it were pass- ing from school to school, and from town to town, dis- covering the deplorable defects prevalent in the schools. They were exerting their official influence to quicken the energies of teachers and pupils, and to arouse the people from their apathetic indiffi3rence toward the vital inter- ests of education. Tlie visitations .thus made, rendered it obvious to the Superintendents that the principal need of the schools was competent teachers, and that, until this want could be supplied, all other efibrts would be of lit- tle avail. 9. Normal Schools then in their infancy. — At the period referred to, no Normal schools had been established in this country, excepting in the State of Mas- sachusetts. The institutes, therefore, seemed to ofier for the time being, the only available means for improving the qualifications of the teacher. They were, thus, between three and four liundred members, and was continued one week. About this time tliey were introduced into Oliio and other Western States. But you are doubtU>ss more familiar with their history in that region than I am." ORIGIN AND BRIEF HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 47 clearly the outgroicth of a 2^CLrtiall>j-aicaken€d and grad- xially-advancing public sentiment^ and of the necessities of a school system in a state of progress. For some years they were purely voluntary, and were mainly sup- ported by contributions, or by fees levied upon the teachers in attendance. 10. Legal Recognition. — By act of the legisla- ture of New York, passed in 1847, institutes were recog- nized in the school code of that State, and appropria- tions were made for their support. By a strange inconsist- ency, however, the same dag witnessed the abolition of the office of County Superintendent of Common Schools. Thus, much of the good which might otiierwise have been derived from this legal recognition of the institutes Avas prevented, by striking down the very agency that had nursed them into being. But their establishment as a factor in the jncbllc school system of the State was a substantial victorg in the cause of progress. 11. Institutes in other States. — Massachu- setts. — The first teachers' institute in Massachusetts, as distinguished from county and district conventions, was held in 1845. At the next session of the legislature, on the recommendation of the Governor, an appropriation of $2500 was made for the maintainance of institutes, the expense of each not to exceed the sum of $200. From that time till the present, they have been held by the Secretary of the Board, and supported by annual appro- priations, which for many years were $3,000, with autho- rity to expend $350 on a single institute. They have been held in the towns that have asked for them, and given those attendnig them their board. In 1873 the an- nual appropriation for institutes was increased to $4,000. One week of five days, beginning on Monday at noon and closing on Friday night, is the time allotted to each. 48 THE teacher's haxd-book. 12. In New Hampshire. — The first institutes were organized here in 1846. They are recognized by the school laws of the State, and liberal appropriations are made for their support. They are in fact, wholly main- tained by the State, and are under the direct supervision of the supei'intendent of Public Instruction, Avho pre- scribes the order of exercises and takes. an active part in the instruction. Elsewhere, on page 74 .will be found two programmes used in dilFerent counties in the year IS'ZS. They will repay an attentive examination. 13. In Connecticut. — Institutes were established in Connecticut in 1 847. These are now supported wholly by the State. "In 1847 a resolution was passed direct- ing the Superintendent of Common Schools to employ four or more suitable persons to hold schools of teachers for the purpose of instruction in the best modes of gov- erning and teaching common schools, between the loth of September and 31st of October of that year. In 1848 this provision was slightly changed and made per- manent." The Secretary of the State Board of Educa- tion, in his report for 1874, thus remarks: "They are now regarded as an essential agency by the most ex- perienced educators of the country, and are organized in every State that maintains a good system of public schools." In the same connection, the secretary thus quotes from Hon. Henry Barnard : " During nearly a quarter of a century's study and observation of schools, school systems, and agencies, in different States and countries, I have tried, seen, or read of nothing so universally applicable or so efficient in awakening and directing rightly both professional and parental interest in the broad field of popular education, as a loell-attended and wisely -conducted Teachers' Institute. ORIGIN AND BEIEP HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 49 After an observation of twenty years in different States of our country, and an extended tour in Europe^ Secretary Northrop says : " Tlie plans and methods thus observed in America, with others learned abroad, have contributed to the efficiency of our institutes at home. Tliese observations discover mistakes to be avoided as well as excellences to be copied. The theories and experiments fully tried and failing elsewhere should give warning and wisdom to us." He then quotes and indorses the folloAving sentiments of ex-School Com- missioner White of Ohio, a gentleman of much experience in institute work, who gives his "testimony against the foolish idea that the work of an institute should be done by its members. An institute thus conducted is just about as efficient as a school in which the pupils succes- sively act the teacher. An institute should bring to experienced teachers the ripest experience, the best methods, and the soundest views of the profession." 14. In Ohio. — The first Teachers' Institute held in Ohio was conducted at Sandusky, in September, 1845, by Hon. Salem Town of New York, M. F. Cowdery, and Dr, A. D. Lord. Another was held during the same autumn at Chardon. In 184G nine institutes were held, chiefly in the northern part of the State. They are now recog- nized under the school laws, although no appropriations are made either by the State or county authorities for their maintenance. They are sustained entirely by the examination fees paid by teachers, supplemented by tui- tion charges when necessary. The majority of the county institutes in Ohio continue only five days, while a few remain in session two weeks, and fewer "still three Avceks. The private Normal Institutes generally continue from four to five weeks. These agencies are usually managed by a committee, by whom the programme of exercises for 3 50 THE teacher's hand-book. each session is arranged. The programme varies each day, and the same work is rarely attempted to be done in any two counties. It is not usual, according to the State Commissioner, Hon. T. W. Harvey, to prepare and print beforehand any detailed programme of the tvork to he done. It is the judgment of the commissioner that the institutes are doing a good work, hut they need sys- tematizing, and he trusts that means will ere long be furnished to the Department of Common Schools, by the judicious use of which these agencies may be made more eifective. 15. In Illinois. — The first institutes were held in 1854. While tliey are recognized by the present school laws of the State as an element in the common school Bystem, no appropriations are made by the legislature for their support. County Boards are, however, author- ized to make provision for their maintenance, and a large number are held annually. The courses of instruction heretofore adoj^ted in some of the most successful insti- tutes are presented, as a matter of information and com- parison, in another part of this manual. See page — For several years a series of very successful State Teach- ers' Institutes has been held at the Normal University near Bloomington, under the direction of the faculty of that institution. The first session was held in 1863, commencing on the 14th of September and continuing nearly four weeks. 16. In Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania reports the establishment of "Teac;hers' Associations, meetings of sevei'al days duration," in different parts of the State as early as 1854, with the statement, tliat "a few may have been held before that time." The ollice of County Super- intendent was established in that year, and 'Soon after came the "Teachers' Associations." Since 1867 they OKIGI>r AND BRIEF HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 51 have been recognized under the scliool laws. Every count}/ must hold an Institute of not less than live days. An aiDpropriation not exceeding two hundred dolhirs annually, is allowed, the precise amount dejyends iipon the attendance of teachers. 17. In Wisconsin. — Wisconsin occupies a promi- nent jDOsition in the liberal provision made for the sup- port of institutes. The first ever held in the State were organized in 1859. There is probably no State in the Union where this work is so thoroughly organized, or where it is more efficiently conducted. The institutes are under the supervision and general management of the Board of Normal School Regents. They are supported by appropriations from the income of the Normal School fund, the principal of which amounts to more than a million dollars. Thus the Normal Schools and the Institutes are tender one harmonious system of managemeyit and they mutually aid and sup- port each other. There are two classes of institutes, some continuing but one or two weeks, and others from four to six weeks. The instruction is largely imparted by the Professors of the Normal Schools, and the benefits of those institutions are in this manner widely diffused among the great mass of teachers throughout the State. The advantages of a comprehensive plan like this are obvious. A syllabus of the course of instruction, with some of the details of management, will be found else- where in this volume. 18. In Minnesota. — Minnesota was admitted into the Union in 1858. The first institute was organized at Winona, in 1860, as a preliminary step to the opening of her first State Normal School. The second was held in Saint Paul, in October 1804, continuing one week. Lib- eral j)rovisions are now made for annual sessions through- 52 THE teacher's hand-book. out the State. They are recognized under the sdiool laws, and generous appropriations are made for their support by the legislature. The annual allowance for this purpose varies somewhat, but is usually from thi'ee to four thousand dollars. The length of the sessions also varies from one to four weeks. More than one thousand teachers, or about one-third of the whole number employed in the schools, were reached by this agency during the year 1873. 19. In lovra. — Teachers' Institutes were appointed by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and held in twenty different counties in Iowa, in the year 1858, un- der a law passed by the legislature on the 12th of March of that year, authorizing their establishment, and appropriating $1,000 per annum from the State treas- ury to defray the expenses of teachers and lecturers in the same. The law required the application of not less than twenty teachers, through the county superintend- ent, to secure the ai:>pointment and the state appropri- ation. The number of applications increased from year to year until 1873, when eighty-five were held. From January 1, 1870, to December 31, 1871, one hundred and fifty-two institutes were held, upon which more than twelve thousand teachers were in attendance. Many of the ablest men from the colleges and the State University were teachers and lecturers before these bodies, and in some instances distinguished educators from abroad took part in the exercises. In 1874, by legislative provision, the Normal Institutes replaced the others. They have awakened great enthusiasm among the teachers, anil, to quote the words of the State superintendent, "have given a grand impetus to school work in the State." Under the new law, the term of a Normal Institute may be lengthened to four OKIGIN AND BRIEF HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 53 or six weeks. The fund for tlieir support is derived chiefly from a fee of one dollar charged for each certifi- cate issued by county superintendents to teachers, and a registration fee of the same amount assessed \\])on each person attending the Normal Institute. An appro- priation of fifty dollars to each county is made by the State, in aid of the Normal Institutes. This may be secured on application to the State sujo^erintendent, according to the forms prescribed in the school code. The county boards of supervisors may also appropriate such additional sum as may by them be deemed neces- sary for the further support of such institutes. A sylla- bus of the course of study to be pursued, and a pro- gramme of exercises, are prepared by the Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, and issued for the guidance of county superintendents and institute conductors. It is similar in character and scope to that used in Wiscon- sin, which will be found elsewhere. This practice of providing heforehand a carefully considered, detailed 2)lan, embracing the course of study and order of exercises, is one loldcli cannot he too highly commended. It gives point and definiteness to the work, and prevents a waste of time and efibrt on worthless hobbies. It is next in importance to the employment of able and accomplished instructors. 20. Early methods of conducting Institutes. — The teachers, having been called togetlier by the usual methods of notification, were generally organized as a sin- gle class, or arbitrarily divided into two or more classes, according to the accommodations and the number of instructors. In many cases, the first day was almost en- tirely consumed in the election of Presidents, Vice-Presi- dents, Secretaries, Treasurers, Councillors, and Commit- tees, and in profitless wrangling over unimportant matters 54 THE teacher's hand-book. connected witli this inefficient and complicated naachin' eiy. The result was that the whole session was given over to divided councils and useless discussions upon ques- tions of little moment. Where the County Superintend- cncy existed, and the office was filled by an educated and efficient man, he generally assumed the direction of affiurs, and, assisted by the ablest instructors at his command, conducted the exercises somewhat in the style of the best schools of the period. The tojiics discussed, in addition to the usual common school studies, were those relating to methods of teaching, governing, and management. The relations of parents and teachers, improvements in the school law, and school architecture, received a reason- able share of attention, particularly during the evening sessions. Too often, however, mere arithmetical [)uzzles and the hobbies of im])racticable schemers, engrossed a large share of the time and attention of the teachers. Experience was required to correct these defects and impart the skill and tact necessary to direct the energies of the members into the right channels. 21. Length of the session. — In the early history of institutes they were usually continued in session but tsvo weeks. In rare instances they were prolonged to four and even six Aveeks, the interest being fully sustained to the end. Where no Normal Schools exist, these long sessions, whe7i conducted hy able instructors, are especially desirable, since they alFord an opportunity for a com- prehensive review of the best methods of teaching the common branches, and a discussion of the principles of school management, not allowable during a brief period of one or two weeks. 22. The true test. — But it was soon found to be advisable in no case to prolong the session beyond the time to ichich it is possible to sustain an active interest in ORIGIN AND BRIEF HISTORY OF INSTITUTES. 55 the exercises. It is safe to affirm that more evil than good will result from a contrary policy. When the interest ceases, the profit ceases, and the institute degenerates, and finally dies out, bringing reproach upon the cause it is so well calculated to subserve. 23. What experience has taught. — The plan upon which the better class of institutes was conducted does not materially differ from the best methods now in operation. Experience has taught us many improvements in details. The progress of education, too, has led to an increase in the studi.es brought under review, and to a widening of the scope of professional work attempted. It cannot be too often observed, perhaps, that the chief object of the institute is to arouse a professional spirit and promote professional skill, in the assembled teach- ers. This truth should be the key to its organization and management, and give tone to all its exercises. The esprit de corps of a body of teachers once awakened, they will be stimulated by it to labor earnestly for a higher grade of scholarship, and the attainment of what- ever may be necessary to a thorough and careful prepara- tion for their work. 24. Limits of Institute work. — It should not be assumed that these temporary agencies are all that are needed for the proper preparation of teachers. To do so is practically to affirm that education is less important than the most ordinary mechanical pursuits. " There is nothing on earth so precious," says Dr. Channing, "as the mind, soul, and character of a child."- As a corollary to this proposition, it may be safely asserted that there is no calling or profession so important as that which under- takes to form that character. The knowledge and skill requisite for this work, cannot be acquired in a few brief sessions of an institute, however ably conducted. 56 THE teacher's nAISTD-BOOK. Such attainments can be the result only of years devoted to special preparation in permanent seminaries organ- ized and conducted with reference to this particular object. The occupation of the teacher must not only eventually take rank with the so-called learned profes- sions, but those who embrace it must possess a p?*o- found cojivictloyi of its importance, and he insjyh'ed with an ardent love for its duties. CHAPTER YIII. OBJECTS OF THE INSTITUTE FURTHER CONSIDERED. 25. Its primary purpose. — The leading object of this agency, then, is to alFord the best attainable profes- sional advantages to those who are unable, from various causes, to partake of the benefits of the more permanent agencies like the Normal schools. And since, in the pres- ent condition of education this class Constitutes a great majority of the teachers employed in the common schools, the institutes must form, for some time to come, the chief reliance for such special preparation as it is practicable to give them. 26. A needful caution. — It is not wise to assume, however, that it is no part of the object of an institute to .give instruction in the elements of the sciences. It is the simple truth to assert that thousands of teachers throughout our country are nearly as deficient in a knowledge of the branches to be taught as of the art of teaching, of school organization and government, and of the principles which underlie this art. A care- THE INSTITUTE FURTHER CONSIDERED, 57 ful investigation will show that tlieir knowledge of the most simple subjects is inaccurate, vague, and discon- nected. It will prove that they have groped their way among words instead of comnuming with vitalizing truths which alone have jDOwer to invigorate and inspire the mind. It will be seen further, that they have formed no true habits of study, that they have never learned to think, or to embody clear thought in concise and expres- sive language. Under such a state of facts it is clear that there is no solid foundation for that superstructure of professional knowledge so necessary to the successful management of a schcjol, 27. Improvement in Scholarship. — It is indis- pensable, then, that something sliould be done at the insti- tute, to inspire a higher ideal of scholarship and create a longing for greater proficiency in the branches to be taught. When able scholars are employed to give Instruction, and especially where the sessions arc ex- tended to several weeks, much may be done in this direction. Example is contagious. There can scarcely be a more powerful incentive to study than the presence and labors of a scholarly and accomplished instructor. 28. Elevation of public sentiment. — No great public undertaking can long prosper in this country without the sympathy and support of the people. The cause of education is preeminently their cause. It is the life and glory of the republic. It ministers directly to the welfare of every citizen. Hence, the citizen as well as the government, has a vital interest in the success of all measures necessary to its 2:)romotion. Without competent teachers, no system of education can subserve its purpose. In the absence of Normal schools, institutes, and similar agencies for professional training, it is impossible to create and maintain a supply 3*. 58 THE teacher's hand-book. of " able masters worthy of the higli vocation of instruct- ing the people." Hence, it follows that the people 7mist be enlisted in the loork. Upon them devolves the nltimate decision of the question of an adequate support of all necessary educational measures.. They are the princi- pal parties interested. The children of the people are the persons to be educated. Therefore the people must be informed as to the condition and wants of the cause so emphatically their own. The institute aifords one of the best means of presenting to them the claitns which education shoidd ever possess upon their attention and their earnest efforts. The evening sessions ought to be liberally devoted to the consideration of questions which more immediately concern the people in their relations to this important work. 29. Professional and social intercourse. — The last object which will be named in this connection is the advantage which the institute presents to the teachers for professional and social intercourse. It enables them to form _ agreeable acquaintances, to compare views, and give to each other the benefit of their individual experiences in school work. It serves to unite them in the ties of a common interest and a fraternal sympathy. It leads to that harmony of purpose and unity of action Avhich enable them as a class the more powerfully to influence public sentiment and con- centrate it upon those measures of reform and progress which are a standing need of a system of public educa- tion. The ultimate result of this organization of influence and effort must be that our entire educational policy will be guided and controlled, as it ever should be, by those Avho are the most convei'sant with its actual condition and wants, instead of being left to the tender mercies of selfish and unscrupulous politicians. No occupation is THE INSTITL'TE FURTHER CONSIDERED. 59 entitled to the rank of a profession, unless it can thus guide that course of public action uj^on which its final success so preeminently depends. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS VI., VII., AND VIII. The aim of the preceding discussion is to show ; (1) What is the true idea of a Teachers' Institute ; (2) To explain the difference between such an organization and a voluntary deliberative body like an association or convention ; (3) To define the general objects of an Association ; (4) To state the general objects of an institute ; (5) To point out more specifically its true aims ; (6) To urge the importance of the distinction. In tracing out the origin of the Institute, reference has been made to the meetings of teachers which were held at Hartford, Connecticut, in the years 1839 and 1840, with objects similar to those of the institute, although they did not take its distinctive name. (7) The history of the organization in the State of New York has been narrated briefly. (8) Its moving cause has been shown, with a brief reference to, (9) The infancy of Normal Schools, and, (10) To the legal recognition of institutes as a factor in the common school system. We have next considered the history of institutes (11) In Massachusetts; (12) In New Hampshire; (13) In Connecticut; (14) In Ohio; (15) In Illinois; (16) In Pennsyl- vania ; (17) In Wisconsin ; (18) In Minnesota ; (19) In Iowa. (20) The early methods of conducting the institutes have been referred to ; (21) The length of the sessions is discussed ; (22) The true test as to this matter is stated ; (23) The lessons of experience, as taught by history ; (24) The limits of institute work pointed out; (25) The primary purpose, emphasized ; (26) A needful cau- tion given ; (27) Improvement in scholarship reaffirmed as a legit- imate object, and the reasons stated ; (28) Elevation of public sentiment another and important object — the doctrine enforced ; (29) Professional and social intercourse promoted as a final object. 60 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. CHAPTER IX. ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES. 1. General Remarks. — By some persons, many of the detailed suggestions enibodied in the following para- graphs may be deemed superfluous. It may be thought that they will readily occur even to those who are inexperienced in the Avork of an institute. But the observation of the author has confirmed the belief that in many cases there has been a great lack of previotcs preparation, and of proper organization even v^liere experience should have Jjrought loisdom. An undertak- ing well organized is well begun, and "a work well begun is half done." A little time judiciously spent in getting ready will generally prove to be time and labor saved. Many an institute has been spoiled by a bad beginning. Since this agency is being rapidly extended to localities where it has heretofore been nnknown, it is believed that these details will not be unacceptable. And since it is becoming common to lengthen the sessions from four to six weeks, it is felt that a careful attention to all the needful details of preparation and organization will lead to better results in the work, and at the same time serve as a suggestive lesson to young teachers in opening their own schools. AYe begin by considering the preliminary steps. 2. "When should the institute be held? — This question deserves some deliberation. The time may vary somewhat in different sections of the country. That which will suit the convenience of the greater ORGANIZATIOX OF IKSTITCTES. 61 number is the best. The few weeks immediately pre- ceding the opening of the schools in the spring and fall are probably the most favorable for effective work. The thoughts of teachers are then very naturally turned toward their approaching school duties. They are thus in a frame of mind to profit by the instructions of an institute, and they will participate in its exercises with a zest which will promise the best results. At its close, they will enter their schools with faculties sharpened, and views expanded by the thorougli drill to Avhich they have been subjected. It is to be presumed, also, that they will in this manner, receive an impulse toward professional improvement which will stimulate them still further to pursue the subjects that have engaged their attention at the institute. 3. Where should it be held? — Since it is one of the objects of the institute to axcalceyx the peoj^le to a sense of their duties to the cause of education, it is desir- able that the sessions should be held at a different point each year. The localities should of course be selected somewhat with reference to accessibility, to the accom- modations they may be able to afford the teachers, and the educational needs of the surrounding country. The cities and larger villages are not necessarily the most desirable places for gatherings of this kind. Their opportunities for public" lectures and other entertainments are so fre- quent, that the people are less likely to become inter- ested in the practical work of an institute. It may be added that the excitements of a city are unfavorable also for securing that devotion to duty, on the part of teach- ers, so indispensable to complete success. 4. An active local committee to be selected. — The question of time and place being settled, it is impor- tant that there should be one or two persons selected at 62 THE TEACHER S HAND-BOOK. the chosen spot to make thorough local preparations for the proposed meeting. To them should be assigned the duty of awakening such a degree of interest in the com- munity as will secure for the members of the institute a pleasant and hospitable reception. 5. Public Notice. — Thorough and judicious adver- tising in the public press is indispensable. There are but few persons of any degree of intelligence who do not take and read a newspaper. Hence, let advertisements and notices in the editorial columns of the county papers be freely employed to give the necessary information. Care- fully-prepared circulars addressed to individuals will sometimes effect more than the newspapers. These lat- ter should give full and precise information upon all im- portant points and should be addressed to every teacher and prominent citizen in the county. Much will depend upon the character of tliese public appeals. They should be vigorous in style, and as full as possible in the com- munication of details. They may justly urge the attend- ance of teachers as a debt due to their profession which they cannot without discredit refuse to discharge. 6. Personal solicitation and direct corre- spondence. — The most effective method of securing a full attendance is, doubtless, personal solicitation. The visitations of the schools by the superintendents will afford the best opportunity for the exercise of this influ- ence, and they should not fail to exert it to the fullest extent. Whenever this is impracticable, direct corre- spondence may be freely employed. It will be effectual with those who occupy influential positions, whether in the profession or outside of it. Special invitations thus addressed, will secure the presence of many who may overlook or disregard the public notices. 7. Promises and performances. — Whatever in- ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES. 63 ducements may beheld out to secure the prompt and gen- eral attendance of teachers and people, should be strictly fulfilled in the actual performance of the institute. The circulars and other means employed to give information, should be so worded as to create the impression that a full measure of practical woi'k is to be done, and if the promise thus made can be equaled in the performance, the greater will be the assurance of success in all similar eiForts in the future. 8. Instructors and Lecturers. — Only persons of experience, ability, and scholarship should be employed to impart instruction. Whatever is stale and common- place, whether in matter or manner, should be avoided. Teachers of skill and of high attainments will be able to invest the j^lainest truths with a freshness and interest that will command both attention and respect. If local talent be available, let it be secured. There are few communities without persons possessing special gifts in one direction or another. Whenever the services of such promise to be valuable, let them be secured and made available in the work of the session. This course will encourage the worthy and the gifted to persevere in the special field of study to which they may have been attracted, and make them the more useful in future eiforts. 9. Special inducements to attend. — It is some times the custom of superintendents to appoint the last day of the session for the examination of teachers. This practice may be made the means of inducing many to be present who would otlierwise remain at home. If tlie general rule could be adopted of making this the exclu- sive occasion for granting certificates, it would clo much toward compelling a general attendance of the teachers in the county. Prompt and regular attendance during 04 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. the entire session might indeed he made one of the condi- tions for granting licenses to teach. Exceptions, under carefully guarded conditions, might sometimes be neces- sary. Yixxt such a gentle and just compulsory regulation, if faithfully and wisely enforced, would soon fill the in- stitutes, and its beneficial efiect would be plainly evident in the improvement of the schools, 10. Personal attention to details. — Nothing can compensate for any neglect of the superintendent, or other official in charge, to looh carefidly after all the de- tails of this preliminary icork. He should be absolutely certain that all the preparations are comi:>lete, and that everything needful has been done to ensure success. To this end, a visit to the place of meeting should be made just prior to the organization. Let it made certain that suitable rooms have been engaged ; that blackboards, maps, globes, and other useful apparatus have been pro- vided. Let it be seen that arrangements have been fully perfected for the care of the rooms ; for boarding the members; for music during the session; for the evening meetings ; and for the attendance of the people. It should be remembered that these preparations cannot make themselves, and that those only who take a deep personal interest in the matter will be likely to effect them. They are small things in themselves, and yet, it is safe to affirm that more failures have occured from a lack in the preliminary preparations than from the real indifference of teachers to the claims of their profession. 11. Committee of reception. — At the opening of the institute the local committee should perform the duty of receiving the teachers, and assigning them to their respective boarding places for the session. Some care should be exercised in distributing the members among the families whose hospitalities they are to receive. There ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES, 65 is such a thing as an adaptation of tastes and of social qualities between the parties thus to be brought together, which should not be overlooked. It is of much impor- tance that the people of the vicinity and the members of the institute should he mutually pleased and profited hi their intercourse with each other. Hence the exercise of a little tact and good sense in these social adjustments Avill be a judicious and profitable investment. 12. Competent instructors. — Allusion has al- ready been made to the necessity of able and skillful teachers and lecturers for the institute. The remarks made will bear emphasizing, even at the risk of some repetition. Nothing can compensate for a failure here. Let it not be supposed that either the teachers or the people who may attend will be satisfied with the husks of knowledge. They need, and have a right to expect, accurate, useful information, presented in a concise and attractive form. The maxim, " as is the teacher so is the school," applies in all its force to the institute. 13. Introductory Exercises. — The first regular business looking to the organization on the first day, will be a brief address by the conductor, welcoming the teachers and setting forth the objects of the meeting and the nature of the w-ork to be accomplished, with a cordial invitation for all to enter heartily upon their duties. Immediately thereafter, two or three competent ])ersons may be selected to act as secretaries during the session, since it is desirable that a continuous and accur- ate record of the proceedings should be kept for future use. 14. Enrollment of members. — The next step is the careful enrollment of the members. The name and post-oflice address should be neatly written in a suitable book, so arranged that it may serve as a record of daily attendance for each of the three sessions. The aere of 66 THE teacher's hand-book. each person and the number of months he hns tauglit, Avill, if recorded, prove useful to the superintendent in making up his estimate of quahfications. To facilitate this work, a form properly ruled and appropriately headed should be prepared in advance. 15. Classification. — If the number in attendance, the number of instructors, and the accommodations be such as to warrant a division of the institute into classes, that step will now be in order. It is scarcely to be ex- pected that the classification will be based upon any accurate estimate of the scholarship or abilities of the members. If the session is to be extended to four oi', six weeks something of this kind might be attempted. A day spent in a preliminary examination with this object in view might prove to be time saved in the end. But if one or two weeks only are to be occupied, the utility of an examination for such a purpose is doubtful. The chief object of the classification should be to indi- vidtcalize the instruction hy diminishing thenumber in the classes and dividing the labors of the instructors in order to secure the highest degree of efficiency. In a small institute, convened for a brief period, a division into classes may not be desirable. There is" said to be a magic in numbers, and the number in each class ought to be sufficiently great to afford all the stimulus necessary for profitable work. In some States, as Illi- nois, where the higlier branches are required in the common schools, provision must be made for instruction in these departments at the institutes. In such cases a classification, based upon a predetermination of attain- ments, and previous studies, would be necessary, for obvi- ous reasons. ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES. 67 CHAPTEE X. ORGANIZATION CONTINUED. 16. Roll Call. — So far as possible an institute for teachers should he a model scJiool to every person iii attendance. It should^ therefore, be systematically or- ganized and conducted, and the system thus illustrated in its operations should be so clearly marked as to itji^wess itself upo7i the mind of every teacher p>resent. Otlierwise, the most valuable lessons which it is capable of giving, will be lost. A loosely administered system is no better than downright disorder, so far as its influence upon the teachers is ctmcerned. Hence, to be eflective, it must be precise, and, to a certain extent, exacting. It must secure prompt obedience, which is but another name for self-denial. As a majority of the persons attending the institute are young teacliers, the examples of wise organ- ization and effective discipline which it may present, will be of inestimable value, and should not be omitted. In no respects are our schools more deficient than in these, and it is our duty to do everything in our power to reform them. The roll should be called precisely at the time appointed for each of tiie three daily sessions. It should be done by the same individual, if convenient, through- out the entire period of the institute in order to secure that promptness and accuracy which result from famil- iarity with a duty. The following method has been found convenient. 17. A plan suggested. — Let each member, at the time of enrollment, or if tlie institute be classified, at 68 THE TEACIIEK S UaXD-BOOK.. the time of classification, be assigned a number by which he shall be known during the session, both at roll call and in the class exercises. As the names of so many strangers cannot be readily learned by the instruc- tors, this or some similar arrangement will be found of great convenience. At the hour appointed, the "roll master " commands, " Attention to roll call. Class A." The members of that class, in rapid succession, announce their numbers. If there be absentees, their numbers are called by the roll master in the regular order and an appropriate mark to denote tardiness is entered in each case. Tins mark may be changed, when necessary, to denote absence. As soon as one class has completed its work, the roll master instantly commences the next class; as, "Class B," and so on through the list. The plan here indicated is a good one for large schools. It saves time. It secures attention and inspires prompt habits. If adopted and faithfully carried out at the institute, it will be imitated by the teachers in their schools. 18. Basis of classification. — Unless it is deemed best to classify the members according to their attain- ments, as licretofore suggested, they may be arbitrarily separated into groups on the basis of a continuous series of numbers assigned during the enrollment, so that the same individual would be known by the same number both at roll call and in class exercises, and no two per- sons would receive the same number. To illustrate ; in an. institute of one hundred members and four instructors, the first, or "A" class would embrace the first twenty- five persons, the second, or "B" class all those from twenty-six to fifty inclusive, &c. This plan, besides being a saving of time, tends to promote animation in the exercises, enabling the instructor to put his questions in rapid succession and stimulating the pupils to give OEGANIZATIOJsE OF INSTITUTES. 69 the closest attention. In class exercises the members should be seated in the order of tlieir numbers so that the teachers may be able to detect at a glance, any ten- dency to shrink from duty by " dodghig his questions." iVb detail of organization ought to he omitted which may be necessary to make the most of the hrief period allotted to the icorh of the session. 19. Subjects to he taught and discussed. — This must depend somewhat upon the locality to be bene- fited. In the newer States, where education is less ad- vanced, where the schools are more backward, and where, perhaps, the people are less interested, it is obvious that the subjects to be considered must be of a more elemen- tary character and the discussions less recondite than in the more advanced communities. In the latter, insti- tutes, conventions, and associations are of long standing, and the schools have had sufficient time to bring forth the ripe fruits of culture among tlie inhabitants. In such places, some of the higher studies may be in order. 20. The " Common branches." — Nevertheless, it is safe to say that the discussion of the elementary studies, their underlying principles, and the best methods of teaching them, together with the subjects of school organization and management, and kindred topics, should form the chief staple of institute work everywhere. In the older 'communities, subjects of a more advanced grade may be introduced according to the demands of the schools. As it is the function of the common schools to lay the foundation, and of the institute to improve the common schools, it is surely the part of wisdom to confine the former chiefly to the treatment of the elemen- tary and the simpler professional subjects. If our com- mon schools as a whole can ever be raised to such a degree of efficiency as to teach their appropriate subjects ^0 THE teacher's hand-book. accurately and tborouglily to all our children and youth, they will accomplish all that can be reasonably expected of them, and more than they ever yet have done. There is a tendency to allow them to spread over too much surface, to attempt more than they can do v^ell. Would it not be wise to place some limitation upon their work, and then insist that it shall be thoroughly done ? The institutes, iinder good management, may do much to disseminate correct views upon this subject. Nor should it be forgotten that the most difficult problems in educa- tion are those connected with its elementary stages. Tiie primary and intermediate schools demand more skill and ingenuity in their management than the high schools and colleges, because the advanced student is much bet- ter able to help himself than the little child. 21. Programme of daily exercises. — Xo im- portant work of any description can be successfully pro- secuted without a well-conceived and well-executed plan. Hence, an institute and a school must be wisely planned. The work proposed must be clearly mapped out before- hand. Nothing should be left to chance or the impulse of the moment. So far as possible, all contingencies should be foreseen and provided for. This result is best accomplished by means of a Programme of Daily Exer- cises. In the case of an institute, whose daily work must vary to some extent, the programme should embrace the details of the proceedings of each day with all their modifications. It will he v:ell, too, if this scheme can h( printed and distributed in advance, as it will indicate to the teachers the direction which their preparations shoidd take. If the programme be an attractive one, it will aid in securing a large attendance. The plan which follows, -S designed for a session of five days. It may be re^ virded as, in a certain sense, a model for study and com ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES. 71 pavison. It shows the various topics to be considered, and the precise time allotted to each. For a session of two or more Aveeks, it will only be necessary to extend the scope of the subjects here indicated sufficiently to occupy the addtional time assigned. Or if it be deemed advisable to add some of the higher studies, it can be easily done. If any of the periods in the time-table are either too long or too short, they can be changed to suit differing views and circumstances. The programme submitted has been subjected to actual trial with perfect success. To afford an opportunity for examination and compai'ison, several programmes of institute Avork in different States, kindly furnished by school officers, are presented in another part of this work. 22. Importance of Programmes. — These schemes of work should be prepared with much care, and in view of the special needs of the teachers to be affected by them. They may be modified from year to year, to correspond with the progressive improve- ments of the schools. A programme once adopted should, as a general rule, be faithfully adhered to. Each exercise should be closed promptly at the expiration of the time appointed. To enable the instructors to termi- nate the lessons in a proper manner, some member of the institute may be designated each day to take charge of the time-table and give some suitable signal for closing the exercises. The use of a programme clock for such purposes is to be commended. This ingenious time-piece is so contrived that it can be set to strike to the time of any programme, however irregular its periods. Faithful attention to these little details will add greatly to the efficiency of the institute, and at the same time afford valuable hints to the assembled teach- ers in the management of their own schools. Let it he 12 THE teacher's HAXD-BOOK. " again repeated, that as far as possible, the institute should be made a mo'Jd schoijlbi all respects. 23. Topical reviews. — Sub-Lectures. Every reasonable etibrt should be made to develop the power of clear and concise exjyression in teachers. A teacher who cannot talk readily and to the point is radically deficient in his qualifications, and has mistaken his calling unless the defect be speedily remedied. The power of ready expression can he attained only hy patient and persist- ent p)ractice. Precept and example alone will not suf- fice. Occasional drill exercises in expression may be resorted to, either at tlie institute or in the school, by assigning topics beforehand to some of the more intelli- gent members at first, and then setting apart a time when, in the presence of tbe whole body, the results of the previous preparation may be given in the form of Sub-Lectures of five or ten minutes each. The lectures may be followed by such encouraging criticisms and suggestions as the occasion may require. During all the exercises, every efibrt should be made to secure accuracy and precision in the use of language. To speak and write with ease, the pupil must he trained to use language as the medium of his ideas, and not me- chanically, in connection with every study he pursues from the heginning to the end of his course. Every lesson sliould, to a certain extent, be a language lesson. Since the power of a teacher depends greatly upon the skillful use of words, he should neglect no opportunity to perfect himself in that department of culture. ORGANIZATION OF INSTITUTES. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS IX. AND X. (]) General remarks — previous preparation and thorougii organization, indispensable. (2) When should the institute be held? Previous to opening of the schools in spring or fall. (8) Where should they be held ? Generally at different jooints in successive jtmvs ; reasons stated. (4) Necessity of an active local committee. (5) Public Notices, use of public press, edito- rial notices ; Circulars carefully prepared ; (6) Personal solicita- tion and direct correspondence the most useful in certain cases ; (7) Promises and their performances — the former should be lib- eral and the latter faithful ; (8) Instructors and lecturers should be skillful and scholarly ; (9) What special inducements may be offered — examinations and certificates — a gentle compulsory provision ; (10) Necessity of personal attention to details — prep- arations cannot make themselves. (11) The committee of arrange- ments to act as committee of reception ; importance of proper social adjustments. (12) Necessity of competent instructors emphasized — a failure here, a failure altogether; (13) Introduc- tory exercises — a brief address recommended, appointment of secretaries ; (14) Enrollment of members, collection of certain sta- tistics ; (15) Classification, when desirable and how to be effected. (16) Roll call — the institutes as far as possible to be a model. How to call the roll rapidly — at the precise time ; (17) Apian suggested and recommended. (18) Basis of classification ; another suggestion ; (19) Subjects to be taught and discussed — principally elementary and professional ; (20) The common branches the most important; they are fundamental; (21) Necessity of a Programme of daily exercises — no successful work without a wise plan— the school no exception ; (22) Importance of a pro- gramme — should be carefully adhered to ; (23) Topical reviews and Sub-lectures ; Cultivation of language. (24) A programme submitted for study and comparison. 4 V4 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. PROGRAMME OF EXERCISES FOR A COUNTY Commencing Monday, April 13, 187 . Sessions will begin promptly on MORNING SESSION. 9 to 9:03 Roll Call. 9:02 to 9:10 Devotional Ex- ercises. 9:10 to 9:15 9:15 to 9:40 9:40 to 9:55 9:55 to 10:25 Method Lessons. 10:25 to 10:40 Method Lessons. 10:40 to 10:45 Essays 10:45 to 10:55 Recess. 10:55 to 11:20 Method Lessons. 11:20 to 11:35 11.35 to 12 AFTERNOON SESSION. 3 to 2:02 Roll Call. 2-02 to 2:05 Singing. 2:05 to 2:10 Reading Minutes. 2:10 to 2:;B5 Method Lessons. 2:35 to 2:50 Methods, etc. 2:.50 to 3:20 Method Lessons. 3:20 to 3:35 Essays. 3:25 to 3:35 Recess. 3:35 to 4:05 Method Lessons. 4:05 to 4:20 Methods, etc. 4:20 to 4:25 4:25 to 4:55 Methods, etc. 4:55 to 5 EVENING SESSION. 7:30 to 7:32 Roll Call. 7:.32 to 7:38 Reading Minutes. 7:38 to 7:45 Music. 7:45 to 7:55 7:55 to 8 Music. 8 Lectures, etc. Music. MONDAY. Roll Call. Devotional Exer- cises. Singing. Opening Remarks and Organization. " Aims and Duties of the Teacher." Scliool Organizat'n. Illustrative — "The Least Common Multiple." " System." Recess. Physical Culture. The School Laws. School Offlcers'Meet- ing. Roll Call. Singing. Reading of Minutes. Theory and Practice. In Composition. Penmanship. " Punctuality " Recess. Language. •' Criticism." Calisthenics. Methods in Spelling — Discussion. Query Box. Roll Call. Reading of Minutes Quartette. Essay. Solo— " Languid SuTnmer. ' "Self Culture." Jubilee Chorus. TUESDAY. Roll Call. Devotional Exer- cises. Reading of Minutes. Lesson— School Or- ganization. Number Lesson. Arithmetic. Primary Reading. " Habits of the Teacher." Recess. Elocution. The Order of Mental Development. Methods in History. Roll Call. Singing. Reading of Minutes. Geography. Objects. Penmanship. "Teaching the Al- phabet." Recess. Lanraage. Reading of Notes — Drawn by Lot. Calisthenics. Theory and Practice of Teaching. Query Box. Roll Call. Reading of Minutes. Solo and Chorus. Selected Reading. Solo— "Three Angel Visitants." "Higher Educa- tion." Chorus. School Officers, Parents, and all who are interested in the cause of Educa- April 18, May 2d. and 23d, at the School House in A . PEOGKAMME OF EXEKCISES. TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, OF ONE WEEK. time ; twenty minutes'' notice will be given by the ringing of the bell. WEDIiESDAY. Roll Call. Devotional Exercises. Reading of Minutes. Lesson— School Organi- zation. Illustrative Lesson— " The Greatest Com- mon Divisor." Arithmetic. Primary Keading. " Map Drawing." Eecess. The Natural Sciences. The Order of Mental De- velopment. Methods in Higher Ma- thematics. Roll Call. Singing. Reading of Minutes. Geography. Illustrative — Mathema- tical Geography. Penmanship. " Lessons." Recess. Language. Form. Gymnastic Song. Theory and Practice of Teaching. Object Lesson — " The Knife." Roll Call. Reading of Minutes. Duett — " Beware." ■'The Faculties of the Mind." Solo — " Little Sweet- heart." Addresses — County Su- jjerintendeuts. Quartette. THURSDAY. Roll Call. Devotional Exercises. Reading of Minutes. Lesson — School Organi- zation. Number Lesson. Arithmetic. Primary Reading. "Composition Writing." Recess. Elocution. Methods in Drawing. M-ethods in U. S. History and Constitution. Roll Call. Singing. Reading of Minutes. Map Drawing. Illustrative-"The Verb." Penmanship. •'The Example of the Teacher." Recess. Language. Methods in Music. Essay—" Value of Expe- rience." Criticism and Disens'n — "Correct'n of Lang'e." Query Box. Roll Call. Reading of Minutes. Duet — " Footsteps on the Stairs." Address — "A School- room Fifty Years Ago . " Solo. "Elocution in the Schools." Trio. FRIDAY. Roll Call. Devotional Exercises. Reading of Minutes. Les8on--School Organi- zation. Number Lesson. Arithmetic. Discus'n — "Our School? at the Centennial Ex- position." " Studying a Lesson." Recess. Elocution. Methods in Drawing. Methods in Physiology and Hygiene. Roll Call. Singing. Reading of Minutes. Physical Geography. Discussion — " How to conduct Recitations.' Penmanship. "Ability to Govern." Recess. Language. Essay — ''The Model School-room." Calisthenics. Review. Closing Exercises. Roll Call. Reading of Minutes. Solo — " Disowned." Address — "Our School? Seen by a Foreigner." Song. Address—" Effective Work." Chorus. tion, are invited to be present at all the sessions. Teachers' Examinations, , County Superintendent. 76 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. :P J^ JR T III. CHAPTER XL COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 1. Preliminary Observations. — The programme at the close of Part Second, details an order of Exercises for an institute of one week. The subjects presented in this order, embrace a wide range of topics both general and professional. The scheme has been practically tested under circumstances of no little difficulty. It is, in fact, a word picture of the work accomplished at the first in- stitute held in a frontier county of one of our frontier States. In some of its details it may not be suitable for other places, yet it will be useful as a suggestive guide everywhere. No plan can be proposed which in all par- ticulars will meet the wants of every locality. But with minor modifications as to time, subject-matter, and order of arrangement, it is believed that the programme re- ferred to will serve a gobJ^purpose in any institute for the promotion of elementary instruction. So far as the division of time, the subject-matter, and order of the vari- ous exercises, are concerned, the plan needs no elucida- tion. It explains itself. Our next step, therefore, will be to present an analysis of some of the leading subjects embraced in the jDrogramme, with sketches of a few typical lessons, as suggestions of the best methods of treating; them before a class. COURSE OF INSTRUCT10>r, 77 2. School organization. — It will be observed that tliis is the first important topic embraced in the oi*der of exercises, and that it occupies its place during each day of the session. Its importance cannot be easily ex- aggerated. A radical defect that embarrasses a great proportion of our district schools, especially those taught by young teachers, is found to be their lack of thorough organization. Few of tliis class of teachers, and they constitute a vast majority, seem to have any well-defined ideas upon the subject. For this reason, we see them menaced with failure in the very outset of their profes- sional career. Their schools are but little better than juvenile mass meetings, without a definite plan or pur- pose. They do not seem to know that without organi- zation there can be no really successful work in the school-room. Whereas, they should be taught as a first lesson, that to secure victory on any field it must be organized. The subject should therefore receive system- atic and careful attention wherever teachers are trained for their high vocation, at the institute and the Normal school. When it is remembered that probably nine- tenths or more of our common-school teachers are young and inexperienced, with very vague conceptions of the real nature of their duties, the necessity of increased attention to this subject will be readily apparent. The subjoined analysis must necessarilly be brief and somewhat imperfect. But it will enable the thought- ful teacher to gather useful hints respecting the steps essential to the organization of a country school and its preparation for effective work. At an institute these suggestions thus summarily presented may be taken up successively, accompanied with such explanations and comments as the circumstances may demand. 3. Analysis and definition of the term. — 18 THE TEACUEIi's IIAXD-BOOK. Etymology of the word Organization ; What is an or- gan ? Illustrate the meaning by several examples ; What is implied by the organization of a public meet- ing ? Of an insurance company ? Of a church ? Of an army ? Apply these principles to the organization of a school. 4. Importance of Organization. — Give illus- trations in the case of an army; of a government; of a railway company. Show that disaster must follow the absence of it in any great undertaking ; No valuable results to be achieved in any direction without organi- zation; Results usually commensurate with perfection of organization ; It is the instrumentality through which poxcer is successfnlly applied ; The school, no exception to the rule ; Emphasize this point. 5. Work preliminary to organization of school. — («) Selecting or " engaging " a school ; The young teacher to consider well his adaptation to a par- ticular school before engaging it; He should know something of its peculiar difficulties, then weigh the question of his fitness to coj^e with them; An omission to do this a fatal mistake with many ; " Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." Success in the first attempt a primary consideration with young teachers ; Pecuni- ary reward a secondary matter ; Avoid difficult schools in the first trials. School officers should also carefully study the adap- tation of the teacher to their special wants before employing him ; This the great question; The teacher a failure, the school a failure and the money squandered; Avarice not to supplant common sense and business principles in this connection; Cheap teachers not the summwin honwn y A poor teacher dear at any price; A good one cheap at any price ; With an unwise selection, COURSE OF IK^STEUCTION. 79 failure is courted in advance. The study of fitness and adaptation a mutual duty with teachers and school ofiicers. [h) The teacher should make known his Anews and plans of teaching and management to school officers while negotiating. The acquiescence of the latter to be a condition in the contract ; The contract should always be in writing ; It should bind the officers to the support of the teacher in all just measures ; Should be signed in duplicate ; Teacher should visit district and make acquaintances of parents before opening of school. Why? 6. The first day of school. — School officers should be present and introduce teacher the first day ; Reasons for this; Gives appeai'ance of moral support to teacher; Produces salutary eflTect upon pupils; A lesson in official courtesy ; Teacher should make brief, familiar, and appropriate address to pupils ; Should explain his relations to them, and theirs to him ; lie must strive to make the j^rs^ 2mjoremo?is pleasant. Why? Special pi'eparation for first day indispensable ; Go to Avork with a carefully prepared plan. Leave nothing to the impulse of the moment. 7. Second step. General Exercise sug- gested. — To dispel embarrassment and secure confi- dence of children, introduce some appropriate and pleas- ant general exercise. This may be a familiar song ; . some vocal exercise, or a responsive reading of the Scriptures; If the first efibrt fails, try again with encouraging words ; Be sure and select some exercise in which all can be induced to join ; This breaks the ice. Careful forethought and preparation needful here, too, 8. TemDorary classification. Third step.— 80 THE TEACHER S HAND-BOOK. Confidence having been secured, the teacher may ndxt proceed to ascertain the former classification of the school ; He may enroll the pupils ; May adopt, tempora- rily, classification of predecessor, if deemed advisable; But reserve the right to modify it, if necessary ; Should avoid sudden and radical changes which may arouse prejudice and excite opposition; May change gradually as experi- ence renders it necessary ; Register names and ages of pupils according to classification ; May assign lessons under old classification ; Make recitations the means of carefully scrutinizing the attainments and abilities of pupils; Make careful record of the results of this indirect examination of each pupil ; Pursue this plan until familiar with the standing of each pupil ; Modify classification gradually according to these results ; Be sure you are right, then go ahead. 9. Direct preliminary examination. Third step continued. — But if circumstances are favorable, the foregoing indirect method may be omitted, and a direct, thorough examination, preliminary to classifica- tion, may at once be entered upon. Value of written ex- amination, when practicable; Oral examinations should supplement the former ; Questions should be clear and comprehensive ; No leading or direct tpiestions ; Should be adapted to age of pupils. 10. Formation of classes. Fourth step. — Standing or grade of pupils carefully determined, on the basis of the foregoing examination; Number of classes or grades not to exceed three or four ; By exercise of tact and skill, teacher can limit the number to the above ; Multiplication of classes a great evil; Studies pursued to be determined by attainment of classes ; Avoid too many studies ; Should not exceed three or four ; Allow no overlajjping of grades ; Make each distinct in the COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 81 studies piirsued ; The great problem to reduce the num- ber of recitations to minimum limits ; A few things well done better than many things poorly done ; Mental and physical capacity, and not attainments only, an element in gradation ; Classification should conform to laws of mental evolution and true order of studies. 11. Assigning lessons. Fifth step. — After classification, lessons to bu assigned ; Avoid too long les- sons ; Measure carefully the abilities of pupils ; " Not how much but how well," the true aim ; Make allow- ance for general exercises ; Provide for interruptions ; Devotional exercises ; Vocal music ; Physical training ; Recesses. 12. Programme of daily work. Sixth step. — System or order a law of intellectual and moral, as well as material progress ; Hence it should be made a hahit of the mind and of the daily life ; In preparing a pi-ogramme, consider that there must be a time for everything, and that everything must be limited to its time ; Teacher must look over the whole field of school duty and embrace his entire work in arrangement of programme ; Provide for study hours as well as for recitations of each class ; As- sign to each duty its proper share of time and attention. 13. Principles to Ibe regarded. — {a) Classes in lower grades require less time for each recitation, but greater frequency ; {h) Primary classes to be attended to once in each of the iwo daiiy sessions in each study, if time permit ; (c) Recitations in Grammar and Geog- raphy require more time than Reading, Spelling, and Arithmatic, generally ; Why ? ((?) Primary classes to be attended to in early part of session; Why? (e) Classes in more advanced studies may, if necessary, be heard only on alternate days. 14. Plan of study and recitation. — In arrau- 4* 82 TUB teachek's hand-book. ging daily programme, provide study hours and specify the subjects to he studied throughout the day. This pro- motes methodical habits. It aids in the preservation of order, by providing constant and useful occupation to the pupils. 15. School Regulations. — Make but few regula- tions, and only as occasion requires ; Once made, let them be faithfully executed ; Pupils should be seated accord- ing to classification, as far as practicable, each class by itself ; Teacher should control this matter, and all others of a similar nature, in his school ; Class movements to be made regularly, quietly, and Avith precision ; No disorder to be allowed, either in class or mass movements, under any circumstances ; Recesses and intermissions no exception to the rule ; Prompt and cheerful obedi- ence the first lesson of life; Disorder in school, the pre- cursor of violated law in the State ; Thorough discipline indispensable ; Extremes to be avoided. 16. School Registers. — Registers of attendance should be carefully kept ; Make regular and accurate reports to parents concerning attendance, deportment, etc. ; When practicable, publish monthly reports in local paper; Superintendents should require monthly reports of teachers according to prescribed forms ; Class records, especially in large schools with large classes, not advis- able ; They involve too much labor, and detract from efficiency of recitation ; They dissipate the power of teacher ; Monthly written examinations better tests of progress than impromptu markings at recitations ; Re- cords to be in permanent form ; To be transmitted to successor in office ; They form basis of official reports of most important statistics ; Should be uniform through- out the cotmtry ; Should be accurately and neatly hept ; No excuse for carelessness here. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 83 17. Visitation of Parents. — Teachers should not neglect this duty; Such visits promote good under- standing and mutual co-operation ; They cultivate agree- able social relations and increase the teacher's influence ; They tend to educate parents to an appreciation of their duties and responsibilities in the education of their chil- dren ; Visitation of parents the best method of stimula- tino; the visitation of the school. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER XI. (1) Preliminary Observations ; The Programme ; (2) School Organization ; (3) Analysis and definition of the term ; illustra- tions of meaning; a public meeting ; an insurance company, etc ; (4) Importance of organization ; (5) Work preliminary to oi'gani- zation ; conditions of success ; (G) First day of school ; (7) Gen- eral exercises recommended; (8) Temporary classification, how effected ; (9) Direct preliminary examination ; (10) The forma- tion of classes based upon examination ; (11) Assigning lessons; a caution ; (13) Programme of daily exercises ; (13) Principles to be regarded ; (14) Plan of study and recitation ; (15) School regu- lations ; (16) School Registers ; (17) Visitation of Parents. CHAPTER XII. CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 1. General Remarks. — This subject is one of great importance, and should receive careful attention, both at the institute and the Normal school. The work of the school may be said to concentrate chiefly in the recitation. Its manifold influences comminofle here in 84 THE teacher's hand-book. their greatest intensity. It is, so to speak, the focal point of the teacher's labors: he should, therefore, study- to compix'hend its objects and strive earnestly so to pre- pare ])iinself as to be able fully to realize those objects. 2. A failure here, a failure altogether. — Is the teacher " apt to teach ? " Is lie a ready, accurate, and thorough scholar? Has he a large heart, broad sympathies, noble impulses, and a loving disposition? Or is lie ignorant of his duties, ill-informed in his studies, cold-hearted and unfeeling, or passionate and severe ? Then here, if anywhere, and more than else- where, will his true character be revealed to observing eyes and carried home to susceptible hearts. On the other hand, a full and ready mind will always challenge the respect ; a generous and kindly heart will inspire the love of pupils for their teacher. And again, ignorance, incapacity, an unfeeling disposition and a bad temper, can never fail to dishearten and disgust the child, and make a most imfavorable impression upon his character, which the flight of years will be scarcely able to obliterate. 3. Spirit of the school. — Moral uses of the Hecitation. — The spirit of the school, as a whole, will ever be largely determined by the spirit that is infused into its pupils in the sharp encounter of the class-room. The ability of the teacher to do and to bear, as well as forbear, is here brought to the decisive test, and his power to shape the character of liis precious charge will be made so manifest that each shall see and feel it either to his lasting benefit or irreparable injury. That the recitation has thus its moral as v:ell as intellectual uses, is a truth which every teacher should lay well to heart. That it is not to be regarded and treated as a mere mechanical routine, a repetition of words Avithout CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 86 import, memorized from a text-book, but that it has definite and rational aims to he carefxdly sought and earnestly pursued, is a proposition too eA'ident to require demonstration. In presenting a brief outline of the subject, therefore, it may be assumed that the highest success at the recitation must presuppose on the part of the instructor a knowledge of its true theory, witli the intelligence, skill, and industry to realize it in practice. SYLLABUS. I. The objects of the Recitation. — These are dependent upon tlie objects of education, which are : 1, The development of the faculties ; 2, The acquisition of knowledge; 3, Its wise application to the uses of life. The recitation must embrace these objects. Hence, the ends of the recitation may be summarily stated to be: {a) To develop tlie power of quick and accurate perception^ of close observation, and generally, of clear and exact thought. This object would lead to the consideration of the following topics having a direct bearing upon it : For- mative state of the mind in early childhood ; Crudeness of its perceptions ; Necessity of guiding its activities ; Must be taught how to use its powers; Must be led to form right habits of thought, study, and expression; Early instruction should be mainly oral: Why? The nature and order of studies for children; The transition to text-books ; How made, and under what guidance ; Mechanical habits to be carefully avoided ; The power of association to be carefully cultivated; The teacher a fashioner of habits of thought, feeling, and to a cer- tain extent of action ; The recitation the place to direct and correct errors in modes of activity, (d) Another 86 THE teacher's hand-book. object of the Recitation is to cultivate tJie 2^oioer of con- cise and ready expression. The power of expression the decisive test of know- ing; No subject properly mastered that cannot be well expressed or communicated ; Clear language the best test of clear thought ; Accurate expression should go hand in hand with acquisition, from the primary stages, onward ; The power of expressing thought the best standard of mental admeasurement ; It teaches the pupil to knoAV when he knows, and to know when he is ignorant ; It generates a modest self-reliance and intellectual independence, (c) A third object of the Recitation is to determine the extent a)id accuracy of the learner'' s attai)ime)ds. Each recitation should aiford some proof of new at- tainments, clearer conceptions ; In the absence of this, the recitation a failure ; All true progress necessarily slow ; Neither royal road nor railroad to temple of learning ; But definite results should be aimed at in each recitation. {d) Another object of the Recitation, to increase the attainments of the class, to add to the hnotdedge that its members have acquired in their study hours. The teacher, whose knowledge is limited to the text, books he uses, will fail at the Recitation. A good teacher m.ust know much more than he is expected to teach ; Why ? Inspiration imparted by a scholarly teacher more valuable to the pupils than the studying they do ; Why ? The teacher's high attainments, the pupil's great- est incentive; Thorough preparation, both general and special, the first duty. (e) An object of the Recitation to determine ihepju- piW habits and methods of study, and to correct ichat- ever is faidty either iri manner or 'matter. Man is a " bundle of habits; " Education the forma- CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 87 tion of habits and the development of cliaracter ; The pupil to be taught how to study — how to think and act ; To correct errors in methods of using the faculties the best AA'ay to prevent errors in mental acquisition ; To secure precision and accuracy in exercise and acquisition is of prime importance. {f) The moral objects of tJie liecitation are to culti- vate sentiments of justice, kindness, forbearance, and courtesy. The sharp rivalries and keen competition that arise, call for the exercise of the highest moral virtues. Let gen- erosity, charity, and love, be the ruling sjiirit ; The ex- ample of the teacher here almost supreme ; His manners should be winning, his temper even, his judgment cool, and his decisions prompt and just ; His influence thus rendered controlling, and the recitation a moral as well as intellectual power. II. The preparations necessary for the Reci- tation, — 1. By the Teacher. Preparations of two kinds, general and special ; General preparation implies a thor- ough knowledge of subject-matter. The lawyer must know the law ; the physician the science upon which his profession is based ; both must superadd general intelli- gence to their attainments. So, the Preacher and the Teacher; The teacher should be more learned than other professional men ; Why ? Special preparation. In the lawyer, the careful study of each case in the light of the legal principles involved ; In the physician, a thorough diagnosis of the disease of each patient as a basis of successful treatment ; In tlie teacher, a knowledge of his classes, of each individual, and the principles aud methods of teaching most appli- cable to each case. A knowledge of education as a science, and of its 88 THE teacher's hand-book. methods as an art, essential. A knowledge of human nature and especially of the child's nature, iudispensable. Principles the foundation of all true methods ; Methods changeable, principles eternal ; A thorough knowledge of principles will suggest methods best adapted to cir- cumstances of time, place, etc., A general and special j)reparation for each recitation necessary to the highest success ; A fresh examination of subject-matter and a loell-digested plan for each recita- tion ; Teacher should strive to put himself in the place of his pupils ; Should anticipate their difficulties ; Should be prepared to guide.them through ; This duty too gen- erally neglected ; Failure its legitimate result. Careful special preparation by each teacher would revolutionize and vitalize the schools of the country. 2. Preparation of the pujnl. — The pupil an important factor in the work of the school ; He must be taught hov) to use his faculties — how to study; Oral training the first step in the process; Use of perceptive and observ- ing powers the foundation ; The "expressive faculties;" Association, understanding, memory, imagination, reason, etc. The right use and the abuse of text-books. The mas- tery of ideas rather than w^ords ; As a guide to the pupils, the teacher should occupy a portion of the recita- tion period, when necessary, in a general survey of the succeeding lesson ; Anticipating its difticulties, he should indicate to the pupils how they may surmount them ; Teacher not to remove difficulties, so much as to teach and encourage the pxipiU to help themselves ; No excel- lence without labor; No great excellence without severe labor; The teacher's help to he indirect ; Self-reliance and perseverance to be inculcated at every step ; The lessons of to-day to be associated with those previously given ; Evils of fragmentary teaching ; Association and CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 89 attention the basis of good memory ; Discourage mere verbal memorizing ; The habit almost universal ; Its rem- edy with the teacher, to be effected mainly by a proper supervision of the preparatory work of each pujoil, and by a rational plan of conducting the exercises of the class-room ; In going over a new lesson in advance, the teacher should question his classes, draw out the lead- ing ideas, and thus assist their private study by an intel- ligent preliminary survey. Pupils trained to appeal* at the recitation in a docile spirit ; Egotism and for- wardness to be discouraged, if need be, rebuked; Mod- esty the crowning excellence of the true scholar. III. Management of the Recitation, — Move- ments of classes ; Signals ; Tlie arrangement of classes ; When to be seated ; When to be standing ; Arrange- ment and methods of management must vary somewhat with ages and grades of pupils ; Length of recitations ; variations as above noted ; Exercises of younger pupils to be short, the children to stand ; In advanced grades the recitations to be longer, the pupils to sit, but to stand while speaking; Attention and order indispensable; Preliminary preparations ; Brief review of preceding lesson ; Critical examination of regular lesson ; Give each pupil a chance ; Individualize the teaching ; Ride no hobbies; Avoid wandering; Do not talk too much ; Speak on medium key ; Let your j^upils do the work ; Beware of leading and direct questions ; Be cheerful, prompt, active ; Be critical, and encourage your pupils to be so ; Keep the objects of the lesson before you ; En- courage your j)upils; Thoroughly master your subject ; Avoid leaning on the text-book ; Cultivate in your pupils the right use of language ; Permit no inaccurate expres- sion to pass uncorrected ; Beware of indistinct and in- accurate pronunciation ; Enco;irage natural expression; 90 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. No unnatural tones ; Topical reviews ; Written abstracts and summaries ; Practical ai^plications ; Apt illustra- tions ; Use apparatus and other material aids ; The blackboard. Assignment of new lessons; Good judg- ment necessary here ; VYeigh well the capacities of yo\xv pupils ; Provide for an adequate preparation of the suc- ceeding lesson. Prompt closing of recitations ; Dismiss classes in perfect order. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER XII. 1. General Bemarks. — The recitation the focal point of the teacher's work. 3. A failure at the recitation equivalent to a total failure ; value of scholarship and professional skill. 3. Spirit of the school — Moral uses of the recitation. Objects of the Recitation Specified — dependent upon the objects of education. These are : 1. The development of the faculties. 3. The acquisition of knowledge ; 3. Its wise application. The Objects of the Recitation. — The development of thought ; Its expression in clear language ; To test extent and accuracy of the pupils' attainments ; To increase these attainments ; To form right habits of study in the pupil, and to cultivate his moral powers. The Preparation for the Recitation. — 1. By the teacher; 3. By the pupil. The fir.-^t of two kinds, general and special. Both defined and illustrated. The preparations of the pupil par- ticularized. The Management of the Recitation. — Indicated in detail ; Move- ments of classes, Arrangement, when seated, and when standing; Use of signals ; Length of recitations ; When varied ; Attention and order indispensable ; Brief review ; Critical examination of subjects, Individualizing instruction; Pupils to do the work; Wrong questioning to be avoided ; Objects of the lesson to be kept in view ; Thorough mastery of the subject necessary ; Abuse of text-books ; Distinct enunciation ; Natural expression ; Re- views, use of apparatus, etc. METHODS IN READING. 91 CHAP.TEE XIII. METHODS IN READING. 1. Importance of the Subject. — Keading is the most important subject tanglit at school. It is espe- cially important that it be thoroughly taught in the primary classes. It is first in the order of time. It tends quite as much as any other branch to awaken the young mind and give to its powers their earliest impulse in the pathway of knowledge and in their career of progi'es- sive development. No subject can afford a child more pleasure and pro- fit than this, if rightly taught, with an intelligent appre- ciation by the pupil of all that he reads. There must be no mere machine-work in the process. This is especially true in this " age of reading," when almost every child of five years or more is furnislied with a " Children's Paper" or igagazine, to say nothing of the multitude of juvenile books issued from the American press. 2. A stronger reason. — But there is a still stronger reason why the best methods of teaching read- ing should be j^racticed in the priniaiy school. A large majority of the children of this country obtain all the instruction they ever receive at school, in the primary grade. Statistics prove that nineteen-twentieths of our juvenile population leave the schools prior to the age of ten or eleven years. It is therefore a most serious ques- tion Avith every conscientious teacher: "How can I do the most for these citizens in embryo, during the brief period allotted to their school training?" 92 THE TEACHEE S HAND-BOOK. 3. Ideas from the beginning.— Every effort ought to be directed from the outset to shaping the tnind of the child, so tliat when no longer under the teacher's care, lie may be able to help himself. He should be assisted and encouraged to become an inter- ested and self-reliant worker, instead of a mei-e mechan- ical imitator. Thus, in tlie end, he will possess au awakened and disciplined mind. 4. Development and discipline. — The work of the primary teacher is especially to draw out, to foryn, and strengthen, and not merely to impart. Let every les- son in reading given to a primary class be such as to in- terest the children, exercise tlieir perceptive faculties, and form mental pletures of the subjects presented. In this way the lesson will be rendered both pleasing and profitable. 5. Special Preparation. — Years are usually spent in teaching reading, to little purpose, simply because no thought and interest are awakened in the subject. Every lesson should be carefully considered and prepared be- forehand by the teacher. It matters not how simple the lesson may be, previous preparation is indispensable. This will add new power, and generate better methods by means of which success will be assured. The teacher will become independent, self-reliant, and a laio unto himself. 6. Different systems noticed. — There are four different methods of teaching reading that have received a distinct i-ecognition ; the Alphabetic, the Word, the Phonic, and the Sentence method. The latter is not generally known. It will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Neither of the four, Avhen taken by itself,can be said to form a perfect system. Each has its special office to perform. Each may be said to constitute a part of a complete plan, by means of which pupils in a METHODS IN READING. 93 brief period may be taught to read with fluency, ease, and correct expression. The drudgery of the Alphabetic method, by which the children of a past generation, standing at the teach- er's knee, slowly and mechanically memorized the twenty- six letters, and as slowly conquered the difficulties of a-h, ah, and h-a, ba, is partially superseded .by the pleasanter and more profitable Word method which is coming into general use in the better class of schools. But however satisfactory this system may be for beginnei^, in a short time the need of something more is felt. The teacher cannot always stand at the side of a child, to present objects and illustrate quality and action words. Some means must be devised by which the pupil may become independent of the teacher, and made able to help him- self The Phonic method aflbrds a key to the solution of the difficulty. If used exclusively at first, it is a mere jargon of unmeaning sounds, conveying but little signifi- cance to the child's mind. When employed, however, in conjunction with the word method, it gives to the pupil the aid he needs in learning new words for him- self. The Phonic method thus enlarges the field which is opened to the learner by the Word method. 7. The "Word Method explained. — For begin- ners the teacher should select words that are the names of objects familiar to the pupils, as cat, dog, coi.c, etc. " Quality words " may also be employed, as white, black, large, small, etc. Let the teacher talk to the class about some familiar object, as a cat. Show the picture of a cat. Ask ques- tions to draw out what the children know of the object. Tell a short story about the cat. Having in this manner excited an interest, show the class the word cat, requir- ing the children to pronounce it several times, separately 94 THE teacher's hand-book, and in concert. Call for volunteers to tell something that a cat can do, and to name some part of its body. Next point to the word cat written upon the board with several other words, and call upon different pupils to point to and name it. Let some members of the class take a pointer and find the word on the reading chart or card. In like manner teach the word " black " showing something black, and thus gradually developing the idea. Print the words a, black, and cat upon the board. Call upon a pupil to sjieak the words in succession, and at once you have a phrase conveying a distinct idea. Then ask a number of questions about a black cat, and change the order of the words, placing one above the other. Now let the class name the words. Erase and again arrange them in a phrase, writing instead of printing them, and calling the attention of the children to the fact that words have two forms, Avritten and printed. 8. Children write the words. — If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, lessons in writing, in "a very short time they will be able to copy the sen- tences from the board on their slates, whicli should be carefully ruled for the purpose. This is a very important exercise, not only on account of the p'^^ac- tice in writing which it affords, but it gives the chil- dren something attractive and useful to do, and prevents viischievous habits, greatly liglitening the burden of disciplining them. In this or some similar manner, fifty or sixty words may be taught and combined into phrases, sentences, and brief stories. This work can be accomplished easily in some six or eight weeks. Up to this time, perhaps only the cards and the blackboard have been used. The primers may now be gradually introduced, in con- nection with the other aids, and finally the transition may METHODS IN EEADIXG. 95 be made to books, by stages so easy as to be nearly im- perceptible. The children should be required to study their reading lessons carefully. 9. The Phonic Method Explained.— The pu- pils having accomplished the work indicated under the word method, and having been taught incidentally the names of some of the more important letters, are now prepared to learn the simple elementary sounds. To do this, the following or some similar plan may be adopted : Let the teacher pronounce slowly and distinctly some word with which the children are familiar, as the word cat. Require the learners to speak the same word, imita- ting the teachers manner of enunciating it. Now ask the children to utter the sound first heard in the word. Let it be simultaneously repeated by the entire class sevei'al times. The teacher now writes the letter c upon the board where all can see it. Pointing to the letter she utters its sound distinctly, requiring the class to repeat it while looking at the letter. The sound of each of the other letters in the word is given, and is repeated by the children in a similar manner. The separate sounds having been mastered, the class are taught to repeat them in rapid succession until they at once see that the united sounds produce the word cat. Several other words, containing the short sound of a, as rat^ hat, hat, sad, mat, fat, etc., should be treated in a similar manner to the foregoing, the teacher being par- ticular each day to review the sounds previously learned. Monosyllables containing short e may now be introduced, as red, bed, met, etc. Subsequently, simple words con- taining other elements should be selected, until the sounds of the language are mastered and their combina- tions to form words are quite familiar. After the sounds of several consonants have been learned, the teacher may 96 THE teacher's hand-book. occasionally select a word, as red, and giving the sound of the first letter, ask the class what letter stands for the sound. The children having named the letter, it is writ- ten upon the board. Next place some new vowel to the right of the ?*, as e short. Pointing to the vowel the teacher gives its sound, the class repeating it several times. The sound of f?is then given, the children being already acquainted with it, and the letter is also written upon the board. The pupils now give all the sounds in rapid succession, and without difficulty pronounce the word red. Similar exercises with the remaining vowels are given, avoiding for the present all double vowels and silent let- ters, these difficulties being ijitroduced at a later period when the children have mastered the simplest elemen- tary sounds. As the pupils become familiar with the sounds of the letters, the teacher gradually places before them new words, and requires them to give the sounds and pro- nounce the words without assistance. To introduce va- riety, tlie teacher may sometimes pronounce words, the pupils giving the sounds. S'pelling hy ^e^ifer should not be neglected, but should accompany every exercise in phonics. Spelling hy sound is a most useful vocal drill for pupils of any age, and for an entire school. It may be introduced in the intervals between recitations, before the close of the session, or whenever the pupils become listless or Aveary of the ordinary exercises of the school. 10. Farther Suggestions. — It is best to con- tinue the word method until the pupils can read a number of sentences Avith fluency and an easy, natural expression. Having accomplished this, the children may well feel that jnuch has been done, and they are pre- pared and encouraged to learn new words by the pho- METHODS TN EEADING. 97 nic method. They are taught, of course, to recog- nize the word as a whole, precisely as they do an object. Whenever they are able to name words at sight quickly, there arises a desire to know their parts, the letters, and this is the proper time to resort to the use of the sounds ' represented by the letters. By the methods suggested, children are enabled to read with more interest and expression in a far shorter time than by the plans heretofore generally piii'sued. 11. The " Sentence Method." *— By this meth- od the teacher does not begin with the letters, nor with separate words, but with words in combination^ as the simplest expression of the simplest mental ele- ment—a thought. From this combination of words as the unit, the separate words are learned, as the let- ters are learned by the Word Method, that is to saj^, without special effort and almost if not qiiite uncon- sciously. In teaching by the Word Method the child's atten- tion is first called to the meaning of the word and then to the form and pronunciation. In the Sen- tence Method the attention is first directed to the idea. To this end, real objects and facts are at first employed to appeal to the senses and to demand of the child words to give the idea oral expression, precisely as they were appealed to when he learned to talk. The eye and the mind are taught to recognize and regard a representation to the eye, (written words) of the oral language, as the simplest representation of the idea. Language is used to express ideas. In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from objects, and then seek language to express them. In seeking the language, they do not so much regard the separate meaning of * See the Reading Book entitled " Sentence Metliod," by Jolin R. Webb. 98 THE teacher's hand-book. the words they use, as the combined meaning, because the idea which they wish to express cannot be embodied in the separate words. It requires a combination of words, " because it takes the combination of words to give birth to the idea." This principle, which applies with equal force to written language, is said to have suggested the idea of the " Sentence Method." In teaching reading it should, according to the author of the system, be the aim of the teacher not so much to teach separate sounds, letters, and words, as to develop and sec'ui-e the proper expression of thought. Of course, the letters and words must be known, but as they will necessarily besome known by this method, without much special teach- ing, they are regarded and treated as of secondary importance for the time being. The advantages claimed for this method over others, are thus stated : (a) It inspires and develops ideas in the mind of the child in a perfectly natural way — through objects. (5) The ideas thus becoming the child's property are expressed almost necessarily in a proper manner. (c) It trains the eye to ''take in" aud the mind to comprehend both words and ideas in advance of the voice, each of which is necessary to natural reading. ((?) It trains the child to look through the words to the thoughts, by directing his attention, not to the me- dium of expression, word-forms, but to the ideas beyond. It thus makes easy, natui-al, and intelligent readers, and not awkward, unnatural, and thoughtless ones. (e) While doing this work, it is further claimed, that it accomplishes all that the other methods do, without additional time. METHODS IN KEADING. 99 CHAPTEE XIY. READING CONTINUED. 12. The more advanced Primary Lessons. — Having conducted tlie class througli so much of the " Word and Phonic Methods " as may be deemed profita- ble, lessons may be assigned upon pages containing pic- tures, with numerous familiar words. A conversation may be carried on between the teacher and the class, and the meaning of each lesson may be drawn from the chil- dren. A number, of words may be written upon the board and the learners may be exercised in finding the same wt)rds in their books. The teacher may next write sentences on the board, leading the class to comprehend the meaning intended by each word. Now let each word be pronounced accurately, and each pupil led to know and ai^preciate the power of emphasis in bringing out the sense of a passage. The other graces of good reading maybe gradually taught by example and judi- cious questioning in a similar manner. 13. An Important Caution. — Never alloio a class to read a lesson, until you have develojyed the meaning in a manner suited to the understanding of the children. Let words frequently be spelled, both by letter and sonnd. Let miscalled and mispronounced words be carefully corrected, as far as possible by the pupils themselves, thus cultivating the ear and stimulating the attention. At each lesson, the teacher and the members of the class may alternately read word by word as rapidly as may bo compatible with accuracy. This is an excellent practice, 100 THE TEACHEe's HAND-BOOK. cultivating attention, and enabling the j^upils rapidly to recognize words at sight. The teacher should ques- tion constantly and closely concerning the meaning of Avords and sentences. Require a portion of each reading lesson to be written on the slates. The class should stand in line, erect, square to the front, on both feet, with hands and books in an easy position, so as to allow a free play of the vocal organs. Finally, let it be remembered that good reading is the result .only of careful, earnest, thorough work on the part of teacher and pupils. INTERMEDIATE READING. 14. Preliminary Remarks. — " Just as the twig is bent the tree is inclined," is an old proverb as true to-day as when first uttered ; and no study can claim its application with more force than Reading. If, from the time the pupil begins to read until he passes the Third Reader grade, no care is taken respect- ing emphasis, accent, and enunciation; if he is allowed to read the thoughts of others, without thinking them ; to pronounce words carelessly and without knowing their meaning ; difficult indeed will be the task of mak- ing that pupil a good reader or a careful thinker. 15. Practical Suggestions. — From the time the child enters the lowest primary class, and begins to learn the simple words cat, dog, man, hoy, etc., he should never be allowed to pronounce one word indistinctly. The teacher should insist that the thought embodied in every sentence should be accurately rendered by the pu- pil. If the thought be joyous, let joy be expressed ; if sad, let sorrow characterize the style of reading. No word shoidd he passed over, with the meaning of which the pupils are not thoroughly conversant. No study can be taught better incidentally, than METHODS IN BEADIXG. 101 reading. In every recitation, whether it be geography, arithmetic, language, or any other, the teacher should insist upon a distinct utterance of every word, and an easy natural expression. Let the "singsong drawl" and the '-nasal twang," which so often prevail in the scbool-room, be avoided. If the pupil be required to de- scribe a river, a mountain system, or a race of people, the lesson ought not to be pronounced good unless given in a vivacious and intelligible manner. Each recitatiou of the right kind, while answering its special purpose, will make a better speaker and reader. 16. The IVIethod. — Xo cast-iron model for con- ducting a class in reading can be constructed. The method should vary. If the teacher be blessed with a reasonable amount of originality, he will be able to in- vent many exercises which will be both pleasant and profitable. Three or four minutes at the beginning of each lesson may be spent in vocal drill. A short exei*- cise in breathing is always useful. It maybe conducted somewhat in the following style : Let the members of the class inhale slowly, drawing in the breath as fully as l^osslble ; then exhale in the same manner. Again, inhale slowly, exhale_ rapidly, and. occasionally in a forcible style. Or, while exhaling, let them count audibly as long as they can do so without injuring the lungs. After a deep inhalation, let the pupils slowly utter one of the long vowel sounds, as " a," and thus determine who can give it unbroken the longest. This exercise is very valuable, as it trains the picpil to an economical use of the breath in reading and speaking. It also gives strength and clearness to the voice. A shorP drill in phonic spelling, and the pronuncia- tion of words which involve somewhat difficult combi- nations of the sub-vocal and aspirate sounds, will greatly aid the articulation and accent. ]02 THE teacher's hand-book. A brief exercise of this kind always brightens up a class, and places it in a better condition for good reading. Before books are opened, the subject matter of the les- son should be thoroughly examined and the class required to spell and carefully pronounce the more difficult words. Concert of action should be required in raising and opening the books, and perfect attention secured during the entire lesson. An alternation in the pronunciation of the words of the lesson, between the teacher and the class in regular order, is a valuable exercise. It holds the attention of the class, and tests the ability of the pupils to pronounce the words correctly and readily. One sentence is all that the teacher should require to be read at a time. This should be criticised and re-read until it has been rendered correctly by several members of the class. After the entire paragraph has been finished by sen- tences, it may be read by individual members, and in concert by the class. If the teacher be enthusiastic and earnest he will be likely to infuse into his pupils the same spirit, and, even a reading lesson will be rendered enjoyable as well as profitable. SUMMAET OF CHAPTERS XIII. AND XIV. (1) Importance of primary reading being well taught ; should be taught intelligently, not mechanically; (2) A stronger reason urged ; (3) Ideas from the beginning : self-reliance inculcated ; (4) Development and Discipline ; (5) Special preparation necessary by the teacher ; (6) Different systems of teaching referred to ; the Alphabetic; Word; Phonic ;" Thought and Sentence"; (7) Word Method explained ; (8) Children to write words, words combined into phrases and sentences ; (9) Phonic method explained ; short monosyllables at first ; Examples given ; (10) Further suggestions METHODS IN SPELLING. 103 on tlie Word and Phonic methods; (11) The "Thought and Sen- tence Method " referred to ; (12) The more advanced primary lessons ; (13) Important caution ; make the subject matter under- stood before reading. INTERMEDIATE READINa. (14) Preliminary Remarks ; value of correct primary lessons; (15) Practical suggestions ; distinct pronunciation insisted upon at every step ; the meaning of every word to be made familiar to the pupil; value of incidental teaching of reading, in connection with other studies ; (16) Mode of teaching intermediate reading explained ; it must vary ; vocal drill ; inhalation and exhalation ; economical use of breath ; phonic spelling ; concert of action ; alternate pronunciation of the words of the lesson by teacher and class ; one sentence at a time ; then the paragraph ; indi- vidual and simultaneous reading ; enthusiasm of the teacher. CHAPTER XY. METHODS IN SPELLING. 1. Oral Spelling not a test of accuracy. — A good speller is not necessarily the person who is able orally to name every letter in the words of a prescribed list. But he is one who habitually gives the correct form to every word in his written exercises. It is only in %critten language^ that correct spelling possesses any value. 2. Rules for Spelling of little use. — It has also been found by repeated experiments that rules for spell- ing are practically of little avail. It is, moreover, quite impossible to niemoTize by their letters all the words in our language. Hence, there seems to be but one gen- eral course leffto us, and that is so to cultivate the poxo- 104 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. ers of ohservation and memory, that the mind may re- ceive and, retain the correct/on/i of every word which falls under the eye, and which it becomes necessary to use in written discourse. 3. Ideas of form, position, etc. — Whatever tends, therefore, to develop ideas of form, i^osition, distance, direction, and size, cultivates the powers requisite in a good speller. Reading, Writing, Botany, Drawing, and Geometry, are especially adapted to develop and culti- vate these powers. Writing, Botany, Drawing, and Geometry have also a direct tendency to strengthen the memory. 4. Perceptive powers in early life. — Since the perceptive powers are more keenly active in early life than at any other period, these and similar subjects, should then be taught in their elements. If no careless work be allowed, but accuracy and neatness in every particular be required, habits of careful attention will be formed during the first ten years of the child's life, which will go far toward securing tlie ability to spell correctly. JBut If habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are allowed to he form,ed in childhood, no ordinary efforts in after life can overcome the defects, or sup2oly the deficiencies that result from such habits. -Poor sjMlliny will be one of the natural results of such a course. A bad speller at sixteen years of age will usually remain so through life. 5. When and how to begin to teach spell- ing. — As soon as the pupils can write, which, in a well- conducted school, is about as soon as they can read, special instruction in spelling in the form of written ex- ercises should be introduced, and the children should be required both to write and spell orally every word in their reading and all other lessons. Each word should be regarded as a picture which they are to copy. The METHODS IN SPELLING. 105 study of its/brm gives them a mental image, which they should afterwards strive accurately to reproduce frora memory. 6. Children should see no misspelled -words, — No misspelled words should be placed before young- children, in the early stages of their course especially. They should see only correct forms, if we wish them to receive accurate mental impressions. 7. Pronunciation and meaning of words to be associated with form. — In connection with the form, should be learned the correct pronunciation and meaning of the Avords. If the three be associated in tlie child's mind, he can the more easily remember them all, than he can otherwise retain either one or two of them. Correct ideas of the meaning of words can be. given by the objective method, which will be explained hereafter, and by their use in sentences and in common conversation. Correct ideas of the /brms of words can be impressed only by written or printed exercises. Correct ideas of the enunciation of words, and of the powers of letters developing the organs of speech, can be given by orcd exercises carefully conducted. In the primarj^ school, the meaning of words should be developed according to methods similar to those which are employed in teaching reading. 8. Constructive Method. — If block-letters can be obtained, young children can be profitably employed in co7istructing words which the teacher has previously placed on the blackboard for their imitation. As soon as the pupils can write, the words should be written, afterwards spelled orally, then introduced into sentences and the sentences written. Thus far we have assumed that the children need spell only those icords which they empjloy in other lessons or in ordinary conversation. 5* 106 ■ THE teacher's hand-book. 9. Objective Method. — With the Second reader can be introduced object spelling lessons similar to the following : Suppose a leaf to be selected as the object. The pupils find by careful examination the dif- ferent parts, as the surfaces, upper and under, the margin, base, apex, mid-rib, and veins. Their uses are tlien talked about and the words carefully written by the teacher on the blackboard. The pupils are required to copy, and afterwards orally to spell and introduce them into sentences. In due time the properties of the objects should be considered in a similar manner, and short compositions containing the words learned may be required. Such a lesson forms a very pleasing and an exceed- ingly profitable exercise. It leads the children carefully to examine everything they see, and adds materially to their stock of words. 10. Extension of this Method. — Exercises sim- ilar to these can be extended indefinitely, and made to include the elements of Geography, Geometry, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, and Geology, and in fact the elements of almost every science, forming the basis of their future study and saving much time and labor, when, if ever, these subjects shall be introduced into their course of instruction. 11. Spelling and Definition — Use of Diction- ary. — If the pupils are so far advanced as to be able to use the dictionary, they may be required to bring to the recitation a certain number of words, with their meanings, which shall indicate the parts, qualities, uses, etc, of an object previously assigned by the teacher. From these lists a selection may be made for the next lesson, and each child will not only spell and define his METHODS IN SPELLING. 107 own list, but all the words presented by the other mem- bers of the class. 12. Another plan proposed. — The following method may be profitably pursued. The teacher places a certain number of words on tlie blackboard, requiring the children to copy, learn to define, and use them in the composition of sentences. If habits of close observation have been formed in childhood, advanced classes will need but little drill in spelling as such. The incidental practice Avhich they will obtain in the written exercises, in connection with their recitations in other subjects, will be sufficient. A variety of other methods of conducting si^eHing lessons may easily be introduced, among which the following are suggested : 13. First Method. — Suppose the lesson to have been assigned, and the words carefully examined by the pupils. With slates and pencils, paper and pencils, or upon the blackboard, the pupils write as the teacher pronounces, either the words, or sentences containing the words to be spelled. 14.. Second Method. — Or the pupils may be re- quired to write the tcords and their definitions, after which each one may compose a sentence containing a part or all of the words, as the case may be. Or, a short composition may be prepared containing all the words. 15. Third Method. — Sentence writing as a test summary is exceedlnghj valuai>le, as the attention is then given more especially to the thought exjyi'essed than to the forms of the loords, and if the pupils have not pre- viously become perfectly familiar with the words they will be likely to omit or misplace some of the letters. After the exercise is written, the pupils may exchange 108 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. tlieir toorJc and correct the errors in each other'' s exercises. Each pupil may read one word, or one pupil may read several, or all of the words, according to the judgment of the teacher. Or, if preferred, monitors or section officers may be appointed to examine the work, and report to the teacher. Every misspelled word should lower the standing of the pupil, and lie should be required to learn and after- wards to iprite it several times. 16. Oral Methods. — Oral exercises are far less valuable than written, for reasons already assigned ; but they may be introduced to give interest and variety to the lessons. In these lessons the pupils may spell by turns, spell for places, spell down, or choose sides for a spirited contest in spelling. One person may s^dcU a portion or all of the words, the other members of the class pronouncing from memory. 17. Mixed Method. — An exercise like the follow- ing may be introduced as a review in advanced classes. It may be either Avritten or oral, or both. Assign for the lesson the names of classes of objects, as animals, flowers, minerals, fruits, or qualities, places, acts, etc. Suppose animals form the subject of the lesson. Each pupil in turn will pronounce and spell a name which begins with the final letter of the preceding one. For instance, one pupil spells the word elephant. Another must select the name of an animal that begins with " t," as tiger, while a third chooses one commencing with the letter " r," as rhinoceros, and a fourth with " s," as seal, etc. This exercise classifies the words according to sub- jects, and assists the memory in retaining both the forms of the words and their meaning. METHODS IX SPELLIXG. 109 18. Classification according to Orthography. ■^^— When the pupil has acquired a fair knowledge of words, he may be led to classify them according to their orthography, and to construct rules based upon their affinities, differences, etc., if deemed expedient. It is far better that the rules for spelling be deduced hy the pupils from examples of particular words, than that they should be arbitrarily 'committed to memory. But after all, the ability to spell correctly must depend 'mainly upon the learner^s habits of observation. If careless and inaccurate in everything else, his want of exactness will be clearly manifested in his efforts to spell the words of his lanouaare. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER XV. (1) Oral spelling not a test of accuracy ; (2) Rules for spelling of little use ; (3) Ideas of form, position, etc., to be cultivated ; (4) Perceptive Powers to be trained in early life ; (5) When and how to begin to teach spelling ; (6) Children should see no mis- spelled words ; (7) Pronunciation and meaning of words to be associated with form ; (8) The Constructive method ; (9) The Objective method ; (10) Extension of the latter method to the terms employed in the different sciences; (11) Spelling and definition, use of Dictionary; (12) Another plan proposed; (13) First method, use of slates, etc. ; (14) Second method, writing words and their definitions ; (15) Third method, writing of sen- tences as a test summary ; (16) Oral methods suggested ; (17) The Mixed method — Classes of objects and their names ; (18) Classi- fication according to orthography — Construction of rules by the pupil, from examples of- particular words. 110 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. CHAPTER XYI. METHODS IN DRAWING. 1. General Remarks.— So much has recently been said and written upon tlie subject of Drawing, it has so long held such a prominent position in the schools of Europe, and is now being so generally introduced into the best schools of our own country, that an elaborate essay on its importance is scarcely necessary in this place, A few suggestions only, will be made respecting its ob- jects and the methods to be employed in attaining them. 2. The powers of perception and observa- tion. — Knowledge depends to a considerable extent upon the powers of perception, and whatever cultivates these powers tends to develop the mind. Drawing is especially adapted to strengthen the powers of observa- tion. That eminent painter and scholar, Rubens, once said : " To see, to understand, to remember, is to know." The practice of carefully looJcing at objects begets keen- ness of perception. That of fait/fully delineating them^ accuracy of observation. 3. Understanding and Memory. — The repre- sentation of an object is a problem, the correct solution of which depends upon fixed principles just as surely as does the solution of problems in mathematics. In neither case can the desired result be attained until the laws relating to it are thoroughly investigated, under- stood, and applied. A thoughtful study of objects de- velops the power of understanding. Picturing things from memory, tlioroughly tests and strengthens this faculty. METHODS IN DEAWING. Ill 4. Drawing trains the knowing and the exec- utive faculties. — Practice in drawing imparts such a control of the hand, as will enable it readily to obey the dictates of the mind. Hence, it follows that he who is learning to draw is learning " to see, to understand, to remember," and to do. With these ideas before ns we can easily comprehend that drawing must be an intel- lectual befoi'e it can become a successful physical exer- cise. The enjoyment of beautiful things, j)icture making, and the like, though valuable in themselves, are not the important ends to be attained in drawing. They are means rather than ends. As means they may develop the individual by cultivating perception, judgment, memory, and taste, as well as manual dexterity and skill — powers whose }>i'oper exercise opens the way to the accomplishment of any object. 5. Suggestions of Methods. — One person sug- gests a landscape, another a building in ruins, or a dilap- idated fence, confidently expecting to cultivate the eye, the hand, the perceptive faculties, the esthetic nature, and at the same time become j^ossessor of a fine picture. 6. A Radical Error. — Such drawing in the early part of the course is a positive injury, inasmuch as the pupil is constantly tempted to " improve upon nature " by changing an outline here, and varying the light there ; or, if a slight mistake is made, covering it with an addi- tional vine or fence-post. Although these changes may not in the least affect the beauty of the drawing, or its general likeness to the original, it cannot be too strongly impressed upon the teacher that such loorJc defeats its own object, since the eye is thxcs accustomed to took care- lessly at everything. It is confidently believed that the desired result can be attained only by a careful and long-continued study 112 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK, of example aud object, presenting decided outlines, and at the same time, clearly and pointedly illustrating the great laios of dratcing. The following sketch of the plans which may be pursued, beginning in the primary school, is presented as a basis of the work that may be attempted at an insti- tute. The first lessons will appear very simple, and of little value. But to the beginner, ichether young or old, they will prove both diflieult and highly im- portant. Let it be remembered that " he who can learn to write can learn to draw," and that application and persever- ance will soon make the most obstinate doubter a con- vert to this doctrine. o o o o •+• •+• 4- •+• •X X -x -^ .A. .A. .A. .A. '6- -O- -O- -o- + + + + The object of the above lessons is to train the mind to judge promptly and accurately of position, size, form, distance, and direction. It will soon be learned that it is not an easy task to draw a straight line. Hence, lines may be omitted at tii'st METHODS IN DRAWING. 113 and the class may be exercised in the use of dots, short marks, squares, and other small figures, as in the fore- going group. These dififerent characters should not, of course, all be introduced at once, but gradually. Chil- dren like variety,. and the ingenious, watchful teacher- will not allow them to become weary of any lesson. 7. Combinations of these simple figures. — If a little encouragement be given, some very pleasing groups, combining the different mai'ks and figures may be produced, thus developing the inventive faculties^ and cultivating the tastes of the pupils. 8. Direction, Length, Form. — Thus far the lessons have had a direct bearing upon position, size, and distance. At the end of two to four weeks, with straight lines and their combinations, ideas of direction, length, and form, should be presented, introducing lines in the following order: horizontal; vertical; right oblique; left oblique, as in the Second group. As soon as the learners are able to draw tolerably straight lines in dif- ferent directions, it will be advisable to give them the exact measure of an inch, I'equiring them to draw lines of different given lengths and directions, subdividing them into halves, thirds, etc., as in the Second group. 9. Ideas of Form. — The idea of form can now be introduced by combining these lines into angles, squares, rectangles, and similar figures, as in the Third group. Care must be taken to teach the name and definition of each, and lead the pupils to classify the different forms. 114 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. 10. Use of Curves. — Curves and tlieir combina- tions sliould next follow, selecting the easiest first ; as, horizontal above, horizontal heloio / vertical left ; vertical right, etc. ; as given in the Fourth group. 11. Outlines of Common Objects. — During the METHODS IN DBA WING. 115 preceding lessons the attention Las been given exclu- sively to surface work. In order that the pupils may be constantly applying their knowledge in practical life, the teacher should often present different forms of paper, or pasteboard, so cut as to represent the outlines of com- mon objects, and require \}i(i. learners to picture these forms. Leaves of plants may also be freely used as patterns, and the drawing lessons will thus become inti- mately associated with real things. These exercises can be varied and multiplied to an indefinite extent, so that from one to three terms can be profitably occupied in similar lessons. The subject of Drawing has become, during late years, so thoroughly systematized and simplified, its principles and methods have been so clearly elucidated and useful works so greatly multiplied, that there is now really but one obstacle to its universal and successful introduction as a branch of common education. That obstacle, let it sufiice to say, is the indifference, or the lack of jjerseverinff industry on the part of teachers. Where there is a will in respect to this matter there is emphatically a way. Let such works as those of Walter Smith, Chapman, and others, be studied, and their valua- ble lessons practically and persistently applied, and drawing will become an attainment as common as read- ing or writing, to which it can scarcely be said to rank second in importance. 12. Developing Lessons. — Our object in teaching this useful branch is to cultivate certain powers. These powers can be developed only by vigorous exercise. This exercise cannot be secured by communicating facts to the pupil. He must be led by judicious questioning and gi-adual approaches to perceive those facts for him- self. This is really true in regard to every subject 116 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. to be taught to beginners, and it is especially so with drawing. When we speak of teaching a fact or principle, it should not be understood that the words in wliicli it is embodied are in some direct manner to be put into the pupil's mouth, but rather by a judicious course of logical ques- tioning he is to be led from the known to the unknown, and aided to the discover^/ of the truth that should find a lodgment in his understanding and memory. CHAPTER XVII. DRAWING CONTINUED— WRITING. 13, Advanced Lessons — Solids. — The most diffi- cult steps in drawing now present themselves for consid- eration — the representation of solids. Just here let it be remarked that much depends upon the care with which the preceding steps have been taken. If the pre- vious lessons have been tliorougldy mastered, the succeed- ing ones will be comparatively easy. The true plan now is to present to the class both the object and its picture, beginning witli the simple straiglit-line objects, and grad- ually developing and introducing the principles and their difficult applications. The cube is an excellent subject for the beginning. The learners have previously represented its surfiices as squares, and they immedi- ately perceive these forms. With a little judicious questioning they will soon perceive that, although the surface of a cube is made \ip of squares, yet no two faces appear at the same time to be square. Objects must therefore liave two forms, the real and the appare7it. Each form is the basis of a particular kind of drawing. METHODS IN" DRAWTXG. 117 The representation of the real form is industrial, or •mechanical drawing, which is especially important in the mechanic arts. The representation of the ajypareiU form is 2yei'spective drawing. It is less important in mechanics, but it leads more directly to the fine arts. A knowledge of one branch does not necessarily in- sure a knowledge of the principles of the other. But the ability to perceive and represent one class of forms gi'eatly aids in picturing the other. 14. Principles of Perspective. — The represen- tation of the apparent forms involves the principles of perspective, which shonld be developed only as the mind is pt^epared by a careful study of the object and its picture to receive them. With the cube in parallel perspective^ a little below and to the left of the eye, by proper questioning and measurements, the learners can be led to perceive that only one face appears square, and of that he is taking a front view. The others appear narrower, and of them he has an oblique view. Hence, a surface which presents an oblique view appears more narrow than it really is, or it is foreshortened. He will also discover that the j^arallel edges, which bound the upper and right surfaces, appear to incline upward and toward one common point. Hence, lines below the eye appear to incline upward, and parallel receding lines appear to approach each other. This principle is clearly illustrated by the rails of a railway track on an air line. 15. Perspective Plane. — A pane of glass placed before the object, and upon which can be traced its apparent form, will often prove of great value, enabling the learner to perceive the apparent form as it should be represented on the perspective plane, when nothing 118 THE teacher's hand-book. else could give the idea correctly. This pane of glass may be said to represent the perspective plane. The student has now mastered some of the most important principles that enter into the representation of objects bounded by straight lines. Though he understands the principles, and has traced the Outline of the apparent form upon the glass, he has not yet a clear conception of it, nor a thorough understanding of the method of pic- turing the appearance of the object. To give him a complete ideal, he must now see a perfect picture of the object. This is indispensable. It is always pref- erable in the early part of the course to use botli object and picture. But if either must be dispensed with, let it be the object, as the most difficult part in drawing is Xo perceive the apparent form on the perspective plane. As the pupil becomes more familiar with the laws of nature and art, the pictures should gradually be ex- cluded and his attention given 'entirely to the objects. During the entire course,, no j^art of the picture should be drav^n unless the pupils can give a reason why it should be drawn in that manner. It is well to require every exercise to be reproduced from memory, and drawn on diflerent scales. The pupils should be encouraged to make copies of objects at home, and bring them to school for inspection and criticism. Only in rare instances should the use of straight edges or measurements be allowed. METHODS IN DRAWING. 119 I PERSPECTIVE DRAWING. SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES. The subjoined statement of principles will be found useful in teaching perspective drawing. 16. "Straight-line Objects." — The perspective of an object is a representation of its appearance. Linear perspective is that branch of drawing, which treats of the effect produced upon the appearance of an object by position and distance. The ground ptlane is the plane upon which the object rests. It is always horizontal. The perspective plane is an imaginary transparent plane between the observer and the object. It is per- pendicular to the ground plane, and is represented by the surface upon which the picture is dravvu, called the picture plane. The base or ground line is formed by the intersection of the ground and perspective planes. The horizontcd line is the line that represents the horizon, the latter being always on a level with the eye. The point of vieio is the point where the eye is sup- posed to be i^laced when viewing the object. The center ofvieio is that point in the picture plane wdiich is directly opposite the eye. Vanishing p)oints are points in a picture toward which all lines converge that in the object are parallel with each other. An object is in parallel perspective when one of its sides is parallel with the perspective plane. An object is in oblique perspective when none of its sides are parallel with the perspective plane. 120 THE teacher's HAXD-BOOK. When picturing an object, we are to consider its form and tlie view which it presents. An object has two forms, the real and apparent. The apparent form is that which we see and which is represented by its perspective. An object must present two of four different views : viz., near, distant, front, and oblique. Near objects appear larger than distant ones. Near lines appear longer than those at a distance. A surface presents a front vieio when all the corre- sponding points are equally distant from the eye. When a surface presents a front view, it appears to be of its actual form. When a line presents a front view, it appears to be of its actual length. A surface presents an oblique view, when its corre- sponding points are not equally distant from the eye. Surfaces and lines seen obliquely are foreshortened, and the more oblique, the more foreshortened they appear. Parallel receding lines, appear to approach each other as they recede, and if sufficiently prolonged they appear to meet. A horizontal receding line, if above the eye, appears to incline downward; \i beloio the eye, it appears to incline xipvKird • if lo the right, it appears to incline to the left ; if to the left, it appears to incline to the rigid ; if directly \n front, on a level with the eye, it appears to be a mere dot. 17. Cylindrical Objects. — A cylinder is a cir- cular solid of the same diameter throughout its whole extent. The bases of a cylinder are the circles formed by its extremities. METHODS IN DRAWING. 121 The axis of a cylinder is a line joining the centers of the bases. When a circle presents a front vietc, it still appears to be a circle. When a circle presents an oblique view, it appears to be foreshortened, and the nearest half appears larger than the more distant half. When a circle is directly in front of the eye, and is either horizontal or vertical, it appears to be a straight line. When a circle is to the left of the eye, it appears to be an ellipse with the more distant part inclined to the right ; when to the rigJit of the eye, the ellipse seems to incline to the left ; when ahove, to incline downward j when below, to incline iqncard. 18. Light, Shade and Shadow. — A surface may be in light, shade, or shadow. When a surface is in liyhf, the nearest part is the lightest. When a surface is in shade, the nearest part is the darkest. When a surface is in shadotc, the part nearest the ob- ject casting the shadow is the darkest. Pictures of wood should usually be shaded lengthwise of the grain. Horizontal surfaces and shadows should usually be shaded horizontally. Curved surfaces may be shaded with different lines, according to the curve and direction of the surface. Sometimes the shade must be given by various lines on the same surface. The details of an object are the most clearly defined where the light and shade bleud. 6 122 THE teacher's hand-book. SUMMARY OP CHAPTERS XVI. AND XVII. (1) Importance of Drawing ; (2) Cultivation of perception and observation ; (3) Understanding and memory; (4) .Training of tlie knowing and doing faculties ; (5) Crude suggestions of methods referred to ; (6) A radical error exposed ; outline of plan proposed ; lessons presented ; straight lines ; simple figures ; (7) Combina- tion of simple figures; (8) Direction, length, form ; (9) Ideas of form ; lessons suggested ; (10) Uses of curve's, their combina- tions ; (11) Outlines of common objects ; leaves of plants ; forms in paper and pasteboard ; industry and perseverance urged ; (12) "Developing lessons," exercise of the faculties; judicious questioning ; (13) Advanced lessons ; use of solids ; thorough mastery of preceding lessons insisted upon ; real and apparent forms; perspective ; (14) Principles of persjiective ; (15) Perspec- tive plane, illustrated and defined ; use both of objects and pic- tures ; (16) Summary of principles in the perspective of " straight line objects ; " the perspective of an object ; linear perspec- tive defined ; the ground plane ; perspective plane ; ground line ; the horizontal line; point of view; center of view; vanishing points ; parallel perspective ; oblique perspective ; " picturing au object ; " real and apparent forms defined ; near, distant, front, and oblique views defined ; actual form ; actual length ; an oblique view ; foreslioi-tening ; parallel receding lines ; horizontal reced- ing lines ; (17) Cylindrical objects ; cylinder defined ; bases, axis ; circle, front view ; circle, oblique view ; perspective of the circle in different positions ; (IS) Light, shade, and shadow.; a surface in the light ; a surface in the shade ; a surface in the shadow ; pic- tures of wood; shading of horizontal surfaces ; shading of curved surfaces ; blending of light and shade. The subject of writing in our public schools has for many years occupied a large share of attention, and numerous systems have been published and are being widely distributed throughout the country. A good series of writing books is within reach of every teacher and pupil in the land, at a merely nominal cost. These series, usually accompanied with charts of a large size, so METHODS IN^ ARITHMETIC. 123 thoroughly ehicidate the theory and practice of penmanship that no teacher need be destitute of the aids requisite to a thorough and practical exposition of the whole subject. A trifling expendi- ture will put him in possession of any and all of the different systems, and consequently of all that the best minds devoted to the subject as a specialty, have been able to produce. It has therefore not been deemed necessary to offer any sug- gestions upon methods of teaching writing in the Hand-Book. The importance of a good, legible hand-writing is too well appre- ciated to require any argument. Writing should be taught from the beginning of tjie school course. Children that are of sufficient age to learn to read are prepared to learn writing. To this end, slates properly ruled should be provided, and systematic daily lessons should be given in the primary school. The directions for giving the lessons, as well as a graduated course suited to each grade, will be found in several of the published series, and teachers are referred to them for such full information as may be necessary for use. CHAPTER XYIII. METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. Importance of abstracts or outlines. — One great reason for so much poor teaching is, tliat many instructors have no adequate idea of that which they are to teach, as a ichole. This is as true of Arith- metic as of any other branch of study. The subject to be taught should be before the mind of the teacher in its entirety before any separate part is presented to a class, for its consideration. This should be so, not only that the relation of one part to another, and of each to the whole may be more clearly discerned ; but also, that 124 THE teacher's hand-book. seeing these relations, the subject may be so divided as to simplicity and time, as to permit the piapil to master it at the least expense of time and labor. For this pur- pose, nothing is better than an abstract of the subject to be taught — a map, as it were, placing before the mind at a glance all the most prominent points to be considered, in their proper relations to each other and to the whole. Witli this idea in view, we here present a general abstract of the subject before us, Arithmetic, which should be carefully studied until thoroughly understood. Not that this particular analysis is to be considered infallible, or the only one possible, but that some idea may be obtained of the manner of mapping out the sub- ject in such a way as to present a bird's eye view of it from the beginning to the end. 2. Abstracts compared to a map of the world. — This outline may be comjDared to the map of the world. As, from that we, get the general features of land and water, their forms, relative sizes and posi- tions both in respect to one another and to the whole, without many of' the minuter features, — rivers, cities, towns, countries, etc., of its several component parts; so in, this we see the great divisions of the subject, their general character; and their relative importance as regards each other and the whole subject, without ob- serving the^ numerous subdivisions of each. In each case the idea obtained is much clearer than if an attempt were made to delineate everj^thing at once. But, as after studying the INIap of the World it is neces- sary to study separate maps of the different divisions in the same manner, so, after this general outline it Avill be necessary for the teacher to make similar outlines of each distinct subject indicated m the first. METHODS IX ARITHMETIC. 125 GENERAL OUTLINE OF TOPICS TO BE CONSIDERED IN ARITHMETIC. Introduction. — Number Lessons. I. General idea of number. — 1. Distinguishing the number of objects. a. Indefinitely, as one or more than one. b. Definitely, as one, two, three, four, etc. 2. Counting. a. Concretely. h. Abstractly. II. Methods of expressing numbers. 1. By Words; as one, two, three, four, etc. 2. By Letters ; as L, II., III., IV., etc. 3. By Figures; as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. III. Combining Numbers. — 1. By Addition. 2. By Multiplication. IV. Separating Numbers. 1. By Subtraction. 2. By Division. Notes — 1. In the preceding lessons, objects should be freely used until the class can count readily, ten, twenty, and even one hundred. And they should, be referred to throughout the course, as helps in solving problems and to correct mistakes. 2. No text-book should be used by the class at first, but toward the close of the course, a primary book might be introduced at the discretion of the teacher, although even then unnecessary. 3. After comiDleting this course, the pupils should be able to count one hundred, or even a greater number; 12G THE teacher's hand-book. to perform simple additions, subtractions, multiplica- tions, and divisions, mentally; to recognize the signs indicating these operations, and to use them jjroperly; and to perform simple problems upon the slate or black board, in which there is no " canying," as it is some- times called. 4. Much reasoning should not be required of the pupils during this course. The aim should be to make them ready to see how to do, and quick in obtaining results. CHAPTER XIX. PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. I. Preliminary Definitions. 1. UniL 2. N'wnher. II. Notation. 1. Defined. 2. Homan — defined and uses given. 3. Arabic — defined and uses given. III. Arabic Notation. 1. Notation of integers. {ci) Classification of units as units of the first order, or ones; as units of the second order, or tens; as units of the third order, or hundreds, etc. {h) Characters employed to represent numbers. {c) Combination of characters used to represent a combination of the difl'erent orders. {(I) Law of increase and of decrease in the value of these orders. METHODS IK ARITUMETIC. 127 2. JVbtation of Decimals. (a) Classification of units as tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. (b) Law of increase and of decrease in the value of the decimal orders. (c) Manner of representing the decimal orders, — use of the decimal point. 3. Exercises in writing and reading numbers, {a) Integers, {b) Decimals. (c) Integers and decimals combined. IV. Combining Numbers. 1. Addition of integers and decimcds. 2. Multiplication of integers and decimals. v. Separating Numbers. 1. Subtraction of integers and decimcds. 2. Division of integers and decimals. VI. Practical problems, both mental and written, combining two or more of the pre- ceding operations. VII. Multiplication and division of deci- mals. VIII. Further applications of the fundamen- tal rules. 1. United States Money. 2. Compound Numbers. 3. Fractions. 4. Simple examples in Simple Interest. * Notes, — 1. At the beginning of this course also, a text-book is superfluous ; bvit if insisted upon, each lesson in the book should be preceded by an oral lesson, that the pupils may obtain ideas and not merely words. 2. Only such definitions should be taught as are 128 THE teacher's HAi^^D-BOOK. absolutely necessary. These shonld be made as simple as possible, and amply illustrated by both teacher and pupils. Until a pupil can illustrate a definition, he does not clearly nnderstand it. 3. The most important idea to be gained at the out- set is that of a unit, as it is the basis of all arithmetical calculations. The pupils must have a clear idea that units may differ in value and size — tJiat one of anything is a unit ichether large or small, simple or compounded of other units smaller than itself. Numerous examples must be given. One dollar is a unit, so is one cent ; one bushel and one peck ; one school, as well as each individ- ual that helps compose the school. In short, whatever is thought of as one whole, without reference to the parts that compose it, is a unit. They are now ready to understand how numbers are built up ; — first, of simple " ones " as far as ten; then, that each ten is considered by itself as a whole, and is therefore a unit, to which are added others until a ten of these is obtained ; that these ten tens are now regarded as a whole, or a unit, to which other like units are added till again we reach ten. In this way they see what is meant by a imit of the first ordei; of the second order, of the third order, etc., and understand when they are told that, as each of the nine figures always represents a certain number of units (which may be of different orders), to represent a number com- posed of these difiereiit orders of units each must have its own place in the number; — that, for example, 4 repre- sents four ones, or four tens, ot four hundreds, etc., (each of which is a unit) acco'rding to its posit io7i in a number. 4. As the JVotation of Decimals is based upon the same law as that of integers, they should be taught at the same time. For this reason they are introduced together In this abstract. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 129 6, The tei'ms used in the different subjects should be learned and defined. iVo rides should he learned, but simple explanations of processes be given by the pupils. iVb memorizing of princiijles should he allowed. In this course the foundatio7i of facts is to he laid, from which, and upon which, may be built up the superstructure of principles and rules in the advanced course. The aim should be to make quick thinkers and ready workers. Accuracy and rapidity shoxdd he the watch-words. CHAPTER XX. MORE ADVANCED ARITHMETIC. REVIEWS. I. Preliminary definitions. 1. Unit — defined. {a) Integral. {h) Fractional. 2. JSfumher — defined ; unit of ; Classes as to kind of tinit ; («) Integra], or integers ; {h) Fractional, or fractions and decimals ; Classes as to application. (a) Concrete. {I)) Abstract. Classes as to likeness of unit value. (a) Like numbers. (h) Unlike numbers. Classes as to form, (a) simple ; {!)) compound. 3. Quantity — defined. 4. Arithmetic — defined. 6* 130 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. II. Notation and Numeration. 1. Latos of the Iloman Notation. 2. Terms used in the Arabic notation, defined; as figure, cipher, digit, significant figure, simple and local value, decimal, etc. 3. Law of Notation. 4. Principles of Notation, loith the reasons for the same, (a) Removing the decimal point either toward the right or left, {h) Pi'efixing or annexing ciphers to integers and to decimals. 5. To read a number ; Notation defined ; also, to numerate. Numeration defined. 6. Mules for Notation and Numeration, including integers and decimals, (a) For writing numbers, (b) For reading numbers, (c) For multiplying a number by ten, 100, 1000, etc. (d) For dividing a number by 10, 100, 1000, etc. III. Addition and Subtraction of Integers and Decimals. 1. Principles. 2. Problems solved and analyzed. 3. Proofs. 4. Pules deduced. IV. Multiplication and Division of Integers and Decimals. 1. Principles, vnth the reasons for the same. 2. Problems solved and analyzed. 3. Proofs. 4. Pules based tipon analysis and jirinciples. V. Dif&cult Problems involving all the funda- mental operations, to be analyzed and proved. VI. Contractions in Multiplication and Di- vision, with applications, using United States money. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 131 VII. Fractions. 1. Terms reineiced and defined. 2. Principles derived and illustrated. 3. Rules based upon these principles to he demon- strated. 4. Problems to be analyzed and proved. VIII. Compound Numbers reviewed in con- nectioD -with tlie Metric System. IX. Simple Interest thoroughly reviewed, with CompoauJ Interest and Partial Payments. NEW SUBJECTS CONSIDERED. I. Factoring. 1. Terms defined, (a) Divisor, factor, prime factors. (b) Prime and composite numbers, (c) Numbers prime to each other. 2. Principles and rules demonstrated, and i\\nsira,ted by examples. 3. Greatest Comtnon Pivisor, and I^east Common Multiple, (a) Terms defined, (b) Different rules demon- strated and illustrated by examples. II. Percentage and its applications. — Both mental and written problems analyzed and proved. 1 . Profit and Loss. 2. Commission and Prokerage. 3. Insurance. 4. Taxes. 5. Customs and Duties. 6. Capital and StocJc. 7. United States Ponds. III. Ratio and Proportion.— Terms defined; Simple and Compound Ratio, and Proportion; Principles and Rules deduced ; Problems solved. 132 THE teacher's hand-book. IV. Analysis of Miscellaneous Problems; "both mental and written, involving principles pre- viously learned, testing and developing the reasoning faculty; to be solved by proportion as well as by analy- sis ; pupils encouraged to find the shortest and plainest solutions. v. Applications of Interest. ■ 1. rromissory Hotes and Drafts. — Practice in writ- ing the usual business forms; Banking; Discount. Ex- change, — Domestic and Foreign; Drafts; Bills of Ex- change ; Practice in writing them; Practical Problems. 2. Partnership., Simple; Compound. 3. Averaging Accounts. With one side ; with two sides; by jjroducts ; by interest. VI. Involution and Evolution. — Algebraic Method first, followed, if desired, by the Geometric. VII. Alligation.— Medial; Alternate. VIII. Progressions. — Arithmetical; Geometrical; Rules and Forniulre deduced from Analysis. Notes. — 1. In this course, theoretical as well as practical arithmetic should receive attention. The reviews should be thorough, gathering up that which lias been left unnoticed in the previous course, and comhining all into a symmetrical whole. For this pur- pose, the teacher should encourage the pupils to form abstracts. This can be done by first presenting one for their ins])ection and pointing out the manner of its for- mation, afterwards requiring them to form their own as soon as a topic has been completed, and finally to unite these separate topics into one general abstract. 2. Throughout this course, all principles and rules should be demonstrated. Nothing should be allowed to pass, the reason of which is not understood ; and rigid analyses of all problems should be strictly adhered to. METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. 133 3. Pupils should be encouraged to do their oioi work • to form their own analyses, and to prove their work by logic rather than by the answer in the book. CHAPTEE XXL ARITHMETIC CONTINUED. Sketches of Lessons given as illustrations of vjhai should be done in carry inrj out the preceding abstracts. I. PBIMARY LESSON. Notation and Numeration. — Point. — To teach the pupils to read and to write two periods of integers and three orders of decimals. The teacher first illustrates the different oi'ders of units, as suggested in Note 3, at the close of the Abstract of Primary Arithmetic, and also teaches that some one of the nine figures is used to represent these different orders of units ; which one, depending upon the number of units to be represented. Thus, teacher questions and jDupils answer. " What does this figure (4) represent?" "It represents four units." " What order of units may it represent?" "It may represent any order of units — four ones, or four tens, or four hundreds." As the forin of the figure is always the same, the pupils see that there must be some way of distinguishing which order a figure is intended to represent, and are told, or themselves discover, that it is the place of a figure in a number that determines its value ; that units of the first order, or ones, are represented by a figure in 134 THE teacher's hand-book. the first right-liand place; of the second order, or tens, by a figure in the second place toward the left, &c. They now see the necessity for a character to show the absence of any order of units — the cijAer. Upon being questioned by the teacher as to how numbers that are composed of different orders of units, are represented, the pupils answer: "A number com- posed of diflerent orders of units is represented by com- bining and repeating some of the nine figures in a hoii- zontal line, using ciphers if necessary." " What does each figui'e represent ? " " It represents a certain num- ber of units." " Upon what does the value of the unit represented depend." " Its value depends upon the place of the figure in the number." The teacher now places a number on the black board ; as, 563. Upon being questioned, the pupils say, " The figure 3 represents three units of the first order, or three ones," arid so on with each other figure in the number. They then read the number ; as, " 5 hundreds, 6 tens, and 3 ones," or " Five hundred sixty-three." Other numbers are to be read in the same manner, and also written. The teacher now reviews the composition of the dif- ferent orders of units ; which is given by the jDupils as follows: " Each one, or unit of the first order, is a simple unit. Each ten is composed of ones, each hundred is composed of tens and therefore of ones. Ten ones make one ten, ten tens or one hundred ones make one hun- dred." They may now numerate numbers as ones, tens of ones, hundreds of ones. Tliey then learn that these three orders form a period, and as each is composed of ones, it is called the period of ones. The teaelier next presents the fourth order of units in a similar manner, and the pupils learn that it is called units of thousands, METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 135 because each is made up of a thousand ones. From this to the next two higher orders is an easy step. The pupils complete the table of Notation as far as now learned. They are then told that these three higher orders taken together form a second period called the period of thousands, and observe for themselves that each period is composed of units, tens, and hundreds, the periods being separated by a comma. The teacher now drills the class in reading and writ- ing numbers of two periods. 2. Exercises in writing numbers. 1. Write 5 hundreds, 2 tens, of the second period ; 3 hundreds, 4 ones, of the first period. (As soon as an order is omitted, a cipher should be written ; and as soon as the second period is complete, a comma should be placed after it. If these directions are observed, the frequent erasures and rewriting so common will be avoided.) Many exercises of this kind should be given till the pupils make no mistakes. 2. Write three hundreds of thousands, two units of thousands, four hundreds of ones, and six tens of ones, etc, 3. Write four hundred sixty- four thousand, twenty- four, etc. Numerous examples should be given, both for the class to prepare before recitations and for class drill during recitation. The teacher now calls the pxapil's attention to the fact already observed by them, that the different orders of units increase in value from right to left, and decrease in value from left to right; that each lower order is ten times less, or one-tenth as great in value, as the preced- ing higher order. Having ali'eady become familiar with the idea of 136 THE teacher's hand-book. units differing in size and value, they will not be sur- . prised to learn that there are units still less in value than the ones, and will jjerhaps themselves observe that each must be one-tenth as great in value as a one, which will suggest the name, tenths. At a hint from the teacher they are also ready to tell where a figure intended to represent such units should be placed, — in the first place at the right of the ones. They now see that some- thing is necessary to distinguish tenths from ones, and the use of thejjeriod or decimal point is taught. Hav- ing compared these orders at the right of ones, with those at the left, and observed that the first order at the left of ones is tens, while the first at the right is tenths; that the second at the left is hundreds, while the second at the right is hundredths, &c., they are prepared to reason by analogy and find the names of the remaining decimal prders. As each order is learned, the pupils are drilled in reading and writing it, both alone and in connection with other orders. Questions such as the following are asked and answered: "Which decimal order is hundredths? tenths ? thousandths ? " &c. " What decimal order is represented by a figure in the third place at the right ? in the second place ? " &c. " How many decimal places are required to represent thousandths? hundredths?" &c. " How many tenths in five ones? " " How many hun- dredths in two tenths ? " &c. " How many ones in sixty tenths ? " HoAV many hundredths in seventy thou- sandths ? " METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 137 II. MORE ADVANCED LESSONS. Point. — To derive the rule for multiplying any num- ber by 10, 100, 1000, etc. The teacher first reviews the class on the following points : What does each figure in a number represent ? Upon what does the value of the unit represented depend ? Then continue to question as follows : — " Since the value of a number depends on the position of its figures, how may its value be changed?" "The value of a number may be changed by changing the position of its figures." " What point determines the position of the figures?" "The decimal point, &c." (complete answers required). " How then may the posi- tion of the figures be altered without erasing any of them ? " " By changing the position of the decimal point." " How must the position of the figures be changed in order to increase the value of the number ?" " They must be placed farther to the left as regards the decimal point." " Why ? " " Because the orders of iinits increase in. value toward the left." "How shall this change be effected ? " " By moving the decimal point toward the right." " Why ? " " Because this has the eftect of moving the figures toward the left as regards the decimal point." " If the decimal point be moved one place to the right, what will be tlie effect upon the value of the number ? " " The number will be ten times as great in value as before," " How do you know the exact increase ? " " Each order toward the left is ten times as great in value as the next lower order, and each figure has been placed one order higher 138 THE teacher's hand-book. than before." (Similar questions on two removals, three, etc.) The pupils are now ready to give the following prin- ciple, with the reason for it: Moving the decimal point toward the right increases the value of a number ten times for each order beyond which it is moved: — Because, the figures are thus moved as many places toward the left, which increases their values according to the Law of Notation : The diiferent orders of units increase in value toward the left in a tenfold ratio. From the preceding principle the 'following rule is derived : Rule. — To multiply a number by 10, 100, 1,000, etc. — Move tlie decimal point as many orders to the right as there are ciphers in the multiplier. Examples for practice should follow. Note. — The answers given to the preceding ques- tions may be varied in language by each member of the class; in fact they will necessarily be varied, as they are not learned from a text-book, nor from the dictation of the teacher, but are thought out in the mind of each individual pupil. To encourage the original expression of ideas, the summing up after a developing lesson may be left to private study ; after which each pupil should produce in writing the Principle, Reason, and Rule, expressed, in his own language. He should likewise, without further instruction, be required to think out the remaining principles and rules of Notation, and bring them to the class in writing. METHODS IK ABITHMETIC. 139 CHAPTER XXII. SKETCH OF LESSONS IN ADDITION AND MULTIPLI- CATION. Point, — To teach the definitions, and the analysis of examples. 1. IVCatter. — 1. Addition is counting together two oi' more numbers to find another number equal to all of them combined. 2. The sum is the number found by counting two or more numbers together. 3. Multiplication is uniting two or more equal num- bers at once, to find their sum. 4. The multiplicand is any one of the equal numbers to be united. 5. The multiplier is the number that shows how many equal numbers are to be united. 6. The product is the sum found by uniting equal numbers at once. II. Method— Addition. 1. Pnpils hnving already learned to add in the Num- ber Lessons, the teacher gives them a few mental prob- lems, whicli they quickly solve. He next gives some that are more difficult, requiring more time. He then calls attention to the process gone through in their minds before arriving at the result. Pupils re- member that they were obliged to count the numbers together, and are told that this counting of numbers together, is called Addition. The teacher now calls their attention to the number obtained, and they com- pare it with the numbers added. Being asked the pur- 140 THE TEACHER S HANP-BOOK. pose of addition, they are ready to answer, "To find another number equal to all the others." The pupils now recite and write the definition as in " 1," "Matter." 2. The teacher tells the class the name of the result. Pupils repeat aud write the definition as in " 2 " « Matter." 3. Examples analyzed. — Pupils remember from their number lessons that only like numbers can be added, and and how to write numbers for addition. They have now to learn how to add numbers when the sum of a column exceeds nine, and to explain the process. The teacher writes upon the board some numbers to be added; as — 34.6 88.9 79.3 202.8 The pupils add the first column, finding the sum to be 18 tenths. The teacher questions and the pupils answer as follows : "How many of a lower order make one of a next higher? " "Ten of any order make one of the next higher." "How many more than 10 tenths are there in 18 tenths ?" There are 8 tenths more than 10 tenths in 1 8 tenths." " What is the next higher order ? " "Ones is the next higher order." "Then to what are 18 tenths equal? " " 18 tenths are eqiial to 1 one and 8 tenths." (The teacher here writes a figure eight under the column of tenths.) " What kind of units do we add together?" "Units of the same order." "Are there any other units of the same ordi^' as the 1 one taken out of the 18 tenths ? " Tlieie is a column of ones." " What then shall be done with the 1 one?" "Add it to the column of ones." METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. 141 Teacher and pupils proceed in the same way until all the columns have been added. Each pupil now explains the process as follows (naming sums but not the differ- ent figures added) : 3, 12, 18 tenths. In 18 tentlis there are 1 one and 8 tenths. Write a figure 8 under the column of tenths and add the one with the column of ones. 1, 10, IS, '22 ones. In 22 ones there are 2 tens and 2 ones. Write a figure 2 under the column of ones, and. add the 2 tens to the column of tens. 2, 9, 17, 20 tens. In 20 tens there are 2 hundreds and no tens. Write a cipher under the column of tens, and a figure 2 at the left of it in hundreds' place. The sum of these numbers is found to be 202.8. Many examples are given for practice, till the pupils become expert in explaining. ]y£ultiplication. — 1. The teacher reviews the class on the multiplication table as learned in the number les- sons : as " Two times four are how many ? " " Six times eight?" "Seven times nine?" &c. The teacher ques- tions and pupils answer, as follows : "What is done to find two times four ? " " Two fours are added together." "To find six times eight?" "Six eights are added to- gether," &c. " If you were required to add four eights and twelve together, how should you proceed ? " " Add four and eight and to this sura add twelve." " In adding the four and eight, and afterwards the twelve to the twelve, do you stop to count, or what do you do ? " "No, we remember the results." " When I ask you how many three times four are, do you add four to four, and then this result to four, before you can answer, or what do you do? " " Xo, we add the three fours at once by remembering that tlie sum is twelve." "Compare the numbers to be added in the last example (Three times four) with those in the preceding (four, eight, twelve.) 142 THE teacher's hand-book. What can you say of the value of the numbers in the last ? " " They are equal." " What is the result called ?" "The sum." They are now told that adding several equal numbers at once to find their sum, is called multiplication. The definition is then repeated and written as in •" 3," " Matter," 2. The ideas involved in the remaining definitions are then develoi^ed in a similar manner and the definitions are repeated and written as in " 4, " 5," and " " " Matter." 3. Example explained. — In the Number Lessons the pupils were taught how to solve examples when the mul- tiplier consists of only one figure and no product exceeds nine. They are now to learn to multiply when the multiplier contains more than one order and the products exceed nine. At this point the multiplicand may be a decimal or contain one, but the multijjlier must be an integer. The teacher writes an example on the black board ; as — 68.75 24 By questioning draw from the pupils that the multiplier is composed of 2 tens and 4 ones ; and that therefore, the jDroduct must be 2 tens times the multiplicand and 4 ones times the multiplicand. They know that each figure in the multiplicand must be multiplied, and give the first result as 20 hundredths, which, remembering the process in addition, they are ready to express as 2 tenths and hundredths. Reasoning by analogy they infer that a cipher should be written under hundredths and the 2 tenths added to the product of tenths. They proceed in like manner till the first partial product is complete. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 143 The teacher now by trains of questions draws from tlio pupils that as the 2 in the multiplier is one order higher than the 4 of the multiplier, the product by 2 must be one order higher than the product by 4, or tens. They then proceed to multiply: 5 hundredths by 2 of the second order is 10 tenths ; In 10 tenths there are 1 one and no tenths. Write a cipher under the tenths of the first partial product, and add the 1 one with the next product ; and so on till the second partial product is complete, when the two are combined to find the en- tire product. The entii-e example should now be ex- plained by one or more of the pupils. Note 1. — After completing the fifth and sixth topics of the abstract, the multijilication and division of deci- mals are suggested. They should be considered in a very simple way without much abstract reasoning. The following explanatiou of an example in multiplica- tion may serve as a hint. Example. 36.24 1.23 36.24 7.248 1.0872 44.5752 Multiplying by 1, the first partial product is 36.24. Next multiply by 2. As this is one order lower than the 1, its product must be one order lower than the product by 1, hence, must be placed one order farther to the right, giving for the second partial product, 7.248. For a like reason the third partial product must be placed one order to the right of the second, and is 144 . THE teachek's hand-book. 1.08V2. Adding the partial products, the entire product is 44.5752. Note 2. — The following abstract will indicate what is to be done in these subjects by more advanced classes. The new topics are combined with the old so as to make a complete abstract. ADDITION. EXAMPLE OF ABSTRACTS. I. Definitions. 1. Addition. 2. Stem. II. Signs. 1. Of addition +. 2. Of equality =. III. Principles. 1. Like numhers. 2. XiiJce orders of figures. IV. Analysis of examples. 1. Manner of writing the numhers. Why? 2. Place to begin. "Why f 3. Add each column. 4. Conclusion. V. Rules. MULTIPLICATION. I. Definitions. 1 . 3Iu Itiplication. 2. Multiplicand. 3. Mxdtiplier. 4. Product. 5. Factors. II. Principles. 1. Nature of the niidtiplicand — concrete or abstract. 2. Nature of the multiplier — always abstract. METHODS IN AEITIIMETIC. 145 3. Nature of the product — like the multiplicand. 4. Order of the factors. 5. JItdtipli/ing or dividing the multiplicand. 6. JIulfiph/ing or dividing the multiplier. III. Examples analyzed. 1. When the multiiMer is an integer. 2. When the multiplier is a decimal. IV. Rules— derived from analysis. Another analysis for multiplying by a decimal. Example. 34.27 X 2.35 = 8053.45-=-100 = 80.5345. 2.35 171.35 Multiply first by 235 ones, which gives 1028.1 as a product 8053.45. But as this multi- 6854. plier is 100 times as great as the true 8053.45 multiplier, 235 hundredths, the product obtained must be 100 times as great as the required product. We therefore divide 8053.45 by 100, which is done by moving the decimal point two orders to the left. Therefore the product is 8053.45. CHAPTER XXIII. SKETCHES OF LESSONS IN SUBTRACTION AND DIVISION. Point. — To teach definitions and analyses. 1. Matter. — 1. Subtraction is taking part of a num- ber from the Avhole of it to find how much remains. 2. The minuend is the number from which a part is taken. 7 146 THE teacher's hand-book. 3. The subtraliend is the part of the minuend taken away. 4. The remainder is the part of the minuend left after the subtrahend has been taken away. 5. Division is the process of finding how many equal numbers, one of which is given, there are in another, or it is finding one of the equal numbers when their number is given. 6. It may be found by successive subtractions, but division is the shorter jorocess. v. The terms defined as usual. II. Hyiethod. — A method similar to the one in the pre- ceding sketch should be pursued. The lessons should be oral, the questions asked in such a way as to bring out from the pupils the expression of the ideas embodied in the definitions. At the close of each recitation the defi- nitions should be written by each member of the class and illustrated by examples. III. Explanation of examples. 1. Subtraction. The teacher writes an example on the board, and leads the pupils by questions to perform the work. Then each pupil explains an example as, From 326.5 subtract 219.7. "Write the subtrahend under the minuend with figures of the same order in the same column. Commence at the right to subtract. As V tenths cannot be taken from 5 tenths, the 5 tenths must be increased. Take 1 «(Qne from 6 ones, leaving 5 ones. 1 one is equal to 10 tenths, which, added to 5 tenths, make 15 tenths. 7 tenths taken from 15 tenths leave 8 tenths. Write a figure 8 under tenths' column." And so on with each column. 2. Division. Examples in Short Division should be explained first, each step in the division being taken alone by the pupils METHODS IN" ARITHMETIC. 147 — writing the quotient, reducing the remainder, and ' adding it to the next lower order, &g. Long Division should be explained in the same man- ner as Short Division, the only diiference between them being that the products and remainders are written in the one and not in the other. Note 1. — ^Division of Decimals may be omitted till the advanced course, if thought advisable, although it may be taught in a very simple manner here. First show that the dividend is always the product of the divisor and quotient. It must therefore contain as- many decimal places as the sum of those in the other two terms. Whence it follows that the quotient must contain as many as those in the dividend less those in the divisor. Examples may now be solved and explained by dividing as if the divisor were an integer, and then following the rule for the number of decimal places. Note 2. — Abstracts of these subjects as they may be considered in advanced Arithmetic. SUBTRACTION. I. Definitions. 1. Subtraction. 2. Mi7iuend. 3. Subtrahend. 4. Remainder. II. Sign — minus. III. Principles. 1. Like numbers. 2. Like orders of figures. IV. Examples explained. (Same steps as in addition.) ^ V. Proof. VI. Rule derived from analysis. 148 THE teacher's hand-book. DIVISION. I. Definitions. 1. Division, {a) How many times one number is contained in another, {h) Finding one of its equal parts. 2. Dividend. 3. Divisiofi. 4. Quotient. 5. Memainder. )Dividend, II. Signs. -4- ^.. • ° Divisor. III. Principles. 1. Nature of the terms in the first division {a). 2. Nature of the terms in the second division (h). 3. Divisor and quotient as factors. 4. Multiplying or dividing the dividend. 5. Multiplying the divisor. 6. Dividing the divisor. 7. 3Iultlplylng or dividing both dividend a,nd divisor hy the same number. IV. Examples analyzed. 1. When the divisor is an integer. 2. When the divisor is a decimal or a mixed number. V. Rules derived from the analyses. Another explanation of an example in division of decimals. -^ 12)268.032^1.2 = 22.336X10 = 223.36 Example. — l 22.336 First dividing by 12 ones the quotient is 22.336. But as the divisor used, 12 ones is ten times as great as the given divisor 12 tenths, this quotient must be ten times as small as the i-equired quotient. Therefore we multiply 22.336 by 10, by moving the decimal point one order to the right, and the quotient is 223.36. METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. 149 CHAPTEE XXiy. FRACTIONS. Abstract of points to he considered in Primary Arith- metic. I. Definitions. 1. Fractions. 2. Numerator. 3. Denomjinator. II. Classes of Fractions. 1. Proper. 2. Improper. 3. Mixed number. III. Reduction. 1. Integers and mixed numbers to improper fractions. 2. Improper fractions to integers or mixed numbers. 3. Fractions to their lowest terms, (a) Lowest terms defined, {b) Principle upon which the operation is based. 4. Revieic, with numerous examples. IV. Addition. 1. Fractions of like denominators. 2. Fractions of unlike denominators. {a) Reduction of fractions to a common denomi- nator. V. Subtraction. 1. Fractions of like denominators. 2. Fractions of unlike denominators. "VI. Examples combining and illustrating Addition and Subtraction. 150 ■ THE TEACHEE's HAND-BOOK. VII. Multiplication. 1. A fraction by an integer, (a) By multiplying the numerator, (i) By dividing the denominator. 2. An integer by a fraction. 3. Heview, loith numeroxis examples. VIII. Problems combining Addition, Sub- traction, and Multiplication. IX. Division. 1. A fraction by an integer. (a) Dividing the numerator, {b) By multiplying the denominator. 2. Multiplying a fraction by a fraction. 3. Cancellation. 4. Dividing an integer by a fraction. 5. Dividing a fraction by a fraction. G. Hevieic, with nnmerous exampiles. X. Miscellaneous problems reviewing the preceding operations. METHODS IN FRACTIONS. 1. Definition — 1. The definitions should be simple, but correct. For the sake of simplicity do not say a fraction is*a " broken number," nor a part of a number, 2. Numerator, In defining the numerator give the meaning of the word — numberer — hence the figure that numbers the parts of the fraction. 3. Denominator. In defining denominator give the meaning of the word — namer — hence the part that names the fraction. Impress upon the minds of the class that it shows into how many parts the unit has been divided and the size of the parts ; that the more parts a thing is divided into, the smaller each part will be — hence the greater the number used as the denominator the less the size of each part represented, and vice versa. Note. — The ideas in these definitions should be de- METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. 151 veloped by the use of objects, and all operations in frac- tions should be illustrated by them. II. Classes. — l and 2. Several proper and improper fractions compared with unity, and their names and definitions dei'ived from the comparison. 3. Mixed Numbers. Their nature as a combination of integer and fraction. III. Reduction. — 1 and 2. Whole or mixed num- bers to improper fractions, and vice versa. These two cases are easily understood. Examples should be ex- plained ; as in 2| how many 3ds ? Since in 1 there are f in 2| there are 2 times f + f, which is f. In -1^ how many ones? Since in ^ there is 1, in ^f- there are as many ones as f are contained times in ^-, which are 2 1 times. • 3. Lowest terms, — To show the manner of reducing fractions to lowest terms, refer to the fact that the nu- merator shows the number of parts, while the denomi- nator shows their size. Show that if the number of parts is made less, and the size of the parts just as much greater, the fraction will be of the same value as before. To change the number of parts the numerator must be changed, and to lessen the number, the numerator must be made of less value. To change the size of the parts, the denominator must be changed, and to make them greater the denominator must be made smaller, de- creased in value. Therefore, dividing both numerator and denominator, &c. From this the method of proce- dure in reducing to lowest terms is plain. Illustrate by giving pai't of the class a number of equal parts of an apple, and the rest a less number but each of greater size in proportion; as, part of the class each receives A, another part f , and the rest ^. By comparison they see that each has the same part of an apple as the other. 152 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. IV. Addition. — 1. Denominators alike. That the denominator shows the name of the parts and the numerator tlieir number, is the significant fact here. Hence, to find how many there are in two or more of the same name, taken together, add the several numbers indicating how many there are of each, that is, add the numerators. As the sum is of the same kind as the numbers added, write the denominator vinder the sum of the numerators. 2. Denominators unlike. The pupils have already learned that unlike numbers can not be added without change; as, 4 books and 2 pencils must be added together as 4 objects and 2 objects, making 6 objects. Also, in subtraction, before adding 1 of a higher denomination to a number of a lower, it had to be reduced to that lower. So these fractional numbers must be made alike before they can be added. To do this the pupils must learn how to reduce frac- tions to a common denominator. ° Refer to the process of reducing to lowest terms and the principles involved. Show that if, instead of dividing the numerator, it were multiplied, the number of parts would be increased, and to preserve the value of the fraction their size must be decreased just as much; hence, the denominator must be made greater by multiplying it by the same number. Here the principle should be stated and illustrated: To make fractions alike, multiply the terms of each by a number that will make the denominators alike. In many cases the new denominator can be determined by inspection; if not, multiply the given denominators together and use the product for the new denominator. V. Subtraction. — Will be understood by compar- ing it with Addition. VI. Multiplication. — 1. To multiply a fraction METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 153 by an integer, (a) By multiplying the numerator. Show that a fraction may be changed in value in two ways, by changing the number of parts or .by changing their size. If the number of j^arts be increased, and each be of the same size as before, the value of the fraction must have been increased. Hence, a fraction may be multi- plied by multiplying the numerator, (b) By multiply- ing the denominator. If each part be increased in size and tTiere be just as many parts as before, the fraction will be increased in value. Hence, a fraction is also multiplied by dividing its denominator. 2. To multipy an integer by a fraction. Refer to the fact that a change in the order of the factors does not change the product. Therefore, change the order of the factors and multiply as before. VII. Division. — 1. To divide a fraction by an in- tegei". Developed in a manner similar to the same case in Multiplication. 2. To multiply a fraction by a frac- tion. Teach that when numbers are written in the form of a fraction division is indicated; as, |=2-=-3. Hence |Xf = -fX2--3. Show by using integers that the effect on the product is the same whether it be divided, or the multiplier be divided before multiplying. So in this case we may mul- tiply first and then divide the product, giving a result of ■^. Hence the Rule. 3. Cancellation. Teach by referring to the Principle ; Dividing both terms by the same number, &c. 4. To divide an integer by a fraction. Show that to find how many times one nvimber is contained in an- other, the numbers must be alike. So in fractions, if they are alike, the pi'ocess is the same as finding how many times a certain number of dollars is contained in another number of dollars ; as, 4 fifths are contained in 8 fifths 2 times, |-hf =4. 154 THE TEACUEE'S HAND-BOOK. Therefore reduce the integer to the same denomina- tion as the divisor, and divide the numerator of the divi- dend by the numel-ator of the divisor. 5. Fraction by a fraction. Based on the same principle as the preceding. Hence, reduce them to a common denominator and divide the numerator of the dividend by the numerator of the divisor. VIII. Problems. — These should be simple but prac- tical, mental and written. Continue them until the pu- pils become quite expert, but not long enough to weary them. They can be used in the problems in the remain- ing subjects?, so that the pupil will become ready in their application. Abstract of Fractions as prepared for more advanced pupils. I. Definitions. 1. Fraction, (a) Unit of. (b) Fractional unit. 2. Terms, (a) Numerator, (b) Denominator. II. Fraction. Indicates division — value of. III. A Fraction analyzed. IV. Classes of Fractions. 1. As to value lohen compared with xmity. («) Proper. (J) Improper. 2. As to form. (a) Mixed number, (b) Simple, (e) Compound. ((/) Complex. V. Principles and Rules derived from the analyses of examples. 1. JPrin, Miiltqilying the mimerator. 2. Prin. Dividing the denominator, (a) Hule for multiplying a fraction by an integer. 3. Prin. Dividing the numerator. 4. Prin. Mxdtiplying the denominator, (b) Rule for dividing a fraction by an integer. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 155 5. Prin. Multiplying both terms hy same number. (c) Rule for reducing a fraction to higher terms. 6. Prin. Dividing both terms by the same number. (d) Rule for reducing a fraction to lower terms. VI. Reduction— defined. 1. To reduce a xohole or mixed number to an improper fraction, {a) Example analyzed, {b) Based upon Prin- ciple 5. (c) Rule. 2. Improper fractions to xohole or mixed numbers. {ci) Example analyzed. (6) Based on Principle 6. (c) Rule. 3. Fractions to loicest terms — defined, (a) Example analyzed, (b) Based on Principle 6, (c) Rule. 4. To higher terms. (a) Example analyzed. (b) Based on Principle 5. (c) Rule. 5. Compound Fractions to Simple. («) Example analyzed. (&) Based on Principles 1 and 4, or 1 and 3. (c) Rule. 6. Fractions to Decimals, (a) Example analyzed. (b) Based on Principle 6. (c) Rule. 7. Decimals to Fractions. (Same as lowest terms.) 8. Fractions to Common and Least Common Deno- minator. VII. Addition. 1. Fractions of like denominators. 2. Fractions of unlike denominators. 3. Mixed Numbers. 4. Rule. VIII. Subtraction. 1. Fractions of like denominators. 2. Fractions of unlike denoryiinators. 3. Mixed Numbers, 4. Rule. 156 • THE TEACHEE'S HAND-BOOK. IX. Multiplication. 1. A fraction by an integer, (a) By multiplying the numerator, (i) By dividing the denominator, (c) Refer to Principles 1 and 2 for deriving the rule. 2. An integer hy a fraction, (a) Examples analyzed. (Z*).Iiule derived from analysis. 3. A fraction hy a fraction, {a) Example analyzed. (J) Rule derived from analysis. 4. One or each factor a viixed numher. X. Division. 1. A fraction hy an integer, (a) Dividing the nu- merator, (h) Multiplying the denominator, (c) Refer to Principles 3 and 4 for deriving the rule. 2. An integer hy a fraction, (a) Examples analyzed. [b) Rule derived from analysis. 3. A fraction hy a fraction, (a) Examples analyzed. {h) Rules dei-ived from analyses. 4. Dividend, or divisor, or each a mixed numher. 5. Complex fractions reduced to simple ones. CHAPTER XXV. ILLUSTRATION OF SEVERAL POINTS IN THE LAST ABSTRACT. I. Analysis of a Fraction. Analyze the frac- tion f . -| is a fraction because it expresses 6 of the 7 equal parts of a unit. 1 is the unit of the fraction, or the unit divided to form the fraction. J- is the fractional unit, or 1 of the equal parts of the unit divided. 7 is the denom- inator, it names the fraction. It shows that the unit METHODS IN AEITHMETIC. 157 is divided into 7 equal parts and the size of each part. It is written below a short horizontal line. 6 is the numerator, it numbers the parts taken to form the frac- tion. It is written above the line. 6 and 7 are the terms of the fraction, and its value is 6-^7. II. Derivation of the Second Principle. It is required to derive the second principle of fractions. To do this I analyze the following example : If the denomi- nator of the fraction Jg- be divided by 2, what will be the effect on the value of the fraction ? Dividing the denomi- nator by 2, the resulting fraction is ^. -| contains the same number of fractional units as y^, but each unit is twice as great. Therefore the fraction has been multi- plied by 2. Hence the principle : Dividing the denom- inator of a fraction by an integer mi^ltiplies the value of the fraction by the same number, because it increases the size of the fractional units, while their number re- mains the same. III. To reduce a Compound Fraction to a Simple one. Reduce -| of 4 to a simple fraction. First find i of f Since to find |^ of a number we divide the number by 3, 1 of 4=4^3, -1-^3=^^ (Pi"in- 4). Since -^ of f is ^V, f of 4 is 2 times ^^=1^ (Prin. 1). We observe that the numerator of the product is the product of the numerator of the given fractions ; and the denominator of the product is the product of the denomi- nator. Hence the rule. IV. To derive a Rule for multiplying a Frac- tion by a Fraction. To do this I analyze the following example : 1. Mul- tiply f by -I, |-x4=^3/. But as the multiplier used is 5 times as large as the given multiplier, the pi'oduct obtained must be 5 times as large as tlie required pro- 158 TUE teacher's hand-book. duct. I therefore divide ^^- by 5, which gives for a result f|. Therefore |Xf=f|. Hence the rule. Mul- tiply the multiplicand by the numerator of the multi- plier and divide the product by the denominator. Or, as according to the first part of this rule, the numerators of the factors are multiplied together, and by the last part the denominators, we have the more general rule. Multiply the numerators of the fractions together for the numerator of the product, and the denominators together for its denominator. V. To divide a Fraction by a Fraction. — This rule may be derived in a manner similar to the preced- ing, by dividing first by the numerator of the divisor, or first by the fractional unit of the divisor. But as in every division of a fraction by a fraction by inverting the divisor, the fractions are really reduced to a common denominator, the latter method would seem to be pref- erable. PERCENTAGE. ABSTRACT. I. Terms defined. 1. Per cent — how expressed. 2. Base. 3. Kate per cent. 4. Percentage. 5. Amount. 6. Difference. II. Cases. 1 . To find the Percen tage^ Base an d Bate being given, (a) Analysis of examples. {b) Formula: B-f-R=iP. (c) Rule. 2. To find the Base, Percentage and Bate being given. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 159 (a) Analysis of examples. (b) Formula : P-^R=B, (c) Rule. 3. To find the Hate, Percentage and Base given. (a) Examples analyzed. (V) Formula: P-4-B=R. (e) Rule. 4. To find the JBase, Amount and Hate being given. (a) Analysis of examples. (J) Formula : a-^-(l+R)=B. (c) Rule. 5. To find theBase, Difference and Bate being given. (a) Examples analyzed. {b) Formula: D-^l— R=B. (c) Rule. METHODS. T. Definitions. — The pupils should learn the defini- tions from the text-book. At the recitation the teacher should test their knowledge of the subject by other means than by merely asking questions; such as, What is per cent. ? What is the base ? &c., and receiving as answers the definitions as previously learned. 1. Per cent. The first thing to be done is to clearly impress upon the class that 1 percent, means .01, 3 per cent. .03, &c. In short, that any per cent, of a number is so many hundredths of it. To do this let the class be sent to the board to write from dictation, 1. Teacher dictates the numbers as per cents. Pupils write as dictated, using the sign ^, and then write the equivalent of the given number in hundredths ; as, 6^=1 .06 25^= .25 ^0= .00^=. 0025 m= .02i=.025 225^=2.25 160 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. This form of exercise to be continued until the majority of the class make no mistakes. 2. Teacher dictates the numbers as hundredths, which are written by the pupils as dictated, followed by their equivalents as the sign i = i 4. Examples dictated to be solved mentally. What is 6fo of 12 bushels ? 6^=. 06, and .06 of 12 bushels='72 bushels. What is 8^ of 90 ? 8^ =.08, and .08 of 90=7.2. What is Ulfo of 64 ? 12i^=12|^, or i and i of 64=8. What is 33^fo of 360? 33|^ = .33i, or i and ^ of 360 is. 120. 2. Base, Rate, etc. As these terms are defined, they should be illustrated, both by the one giving the defini- tion, and by other members of the class. Thus : the Base is the number of which a certain number of hun- dredths are to be taken ; as, a man lost 25^ of $40. $40 is the base. 20^ of 300 are how many ? 300 is the base. The Rate Per cent, is the number showing how many hundredths of the base are to be taken ; as, a boy had $1 and gave away 20^ of it. 20 is the rate per cent. The remaining definitions should be illustrated in a METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 161 similar manner. The teacher may then give examples, and let the class decide as to the terms used. The teacher writes on the board : $5 is 20^ of $25. Pupils recite : $5 is the percentage, 20 is the rate^ |25 is the base. A man having llOO in the bank adds to it 25^ as much, and then has $125. Pupils recite: flOO is the base, 25 is the rate, and $125 is the amount. Continue exercises of the kind until the terms are readily distinguished. II. The pupils should study a lesson previously assigned in the book, and bring to class upon their slates, problems already solved, I'eady for explanation. The teacher should be sure always to hear the lesson assigned, otherwise the pupils may become careless in its preparation. Allow wide range in the forms of analysis as long as the language is good and the reasoning logical. After the pupils have recited what they have pre- pared, they should be put to the test in various ways ; as. Each may be called upon for an original example in the case under discussion, stating which number in it is the Base, etc., and what term is called for by the question. 2. One pupil may give an example for the others to decide as to its terms. 3. The teacher may give the example and the class tell the terms. 4. After completing a case it may be reviewed by requiring the pupils to make an abstract of it. At the recitation each pupil should write his abstract on the board, and several should be called upon to give topical recitations from them, defining terms, analyzing exam- ples, giving formulae, and deducing rules. The review of the five cases can be conducted in a 162 TUE teaciiek's hand-book. similar manner. Three clays, if not more, may be very profitably employed iu reviewing. 1. The first day, as suggested above. Also some time during that day the teacher might dictate some problems for the second day, containing applications of all the cases. Note. — Each pupil should nnderstand the benefit he will derive if he gets no help in solving diificult prob- lems. It should be a point of honor to prefer coming to class with unsolved problems, after persistent effort, rather than be assisted by others. The teacher can then determine the exact instruction needed by individual pupils, and the length of time that should be devoted to a subject, in order to make the class thorough in it. Whereas if the pui^ils come with their work Avell done, by others, the teacher may suppose them to be inde- pendent thinkers, and the very instruction such pupils need they may thus fail to receive. 3. The recitation on the third day may profitably be spent in solving problems that are entirely new to the class, thus testing their judgment and accuracy, also the rapidity with which they can solve problems. To save time, the teacher may test the judgment of the class as to the proper solution of problems, by making a list beforehand, of such as he considers proper tests, and writing them on the board. The pupils then, after coming to class, may read and explain them without actually working them out. METHODS IN ARITHMETIC. 163 SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS XVIII. TO XXV. INCLUSIVE. AKITHMETIC. (1) Importance of abstracts or outlines ; (2) Abstracts compared to map of the world. General outline of topics. Number lessons. I. General idea of number. II. Method of expressing numbers particularized. III. Combining numbers by Addition, by Multipli- cation. IV. Separating numbers ; by Subtraction, by Division ; Notes on the foregoing outline. CHAPTER XIX. PRIMARY ARITHMETIC— OUTLINE. I. Preliminary definitions — unit ; number. — II. Notation ; Ro- man ; Arabic. III. Arabic notation ; Notation of integers ; No- tation of decimals ; Writing and Reading numbers. IV. Com- bining numbers ; Addition 6f integers and decimals ; Multiplica- tion of do. V. Separating numbers. Subtraction of integers and decimals ; Division of do. VI. Practical problems involving fore- going. VII. Multiplication and division of decimals. VIII, Ap- plication of foregoing. Note on the above. XX. MORE ADVANCED LESSONS; REVIEWS. I. Preliminary definitions. II. Notation and Numeration. III. and IV. Fundamental rules. V. Difficult problems. VI. Con- tractions, &c. VII. Fractions further considered. VIII. Com- pound numbers .reviewed, &c. IX. Simple interest reviewed, &c. NEW SUBJECTS CONSIDERED. I. Factoring, &c. II. Percentage and its applications. III. Ratio and Proportion. IV. Analysis of miscellaneous problems. 164 THE teacher's hand-book. V. Applications of Interest. VI. Involution and Evolution. VII. Alligation. VIII. Progressions. Notes. XXI. SKETCHES OP LESSONS. I. Primary lessons given in detail. II. More advanced lessons ; Notes. XXII. I. Outline of matter. II. Method — addition, multiplication ; Example of abstracts. XXIII. SKETCHES OP LESSONS CONTINUED. Subtraction and Division — Matter and Method. Outlines presented. XXIV. Outlines and Methods. Analyses of fractions. XXV. Fractions further considered ; Percentage. Typical methods. METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY. 165 CHAPTER XXYI. METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY. 1. Improved Methods. — For several years past Geography and geograplncal teaching have claimed and received much thoughtful attention from educators. There has been a deep-seated dissatisfaction both Avith the text-books and the methods of teaching in common use. But the active discussion of the subject, and espe- cially the earnest labors of some of our best minds in the production of superior treatises and maps, have led not only to a better knowledge of the subject itself, but to great improvements in methods of teaching it. Nearly every intelligent person admits the impor- tance of geography properly taught, but still there are many who claim that it is the most dry and uninterest- ing of our school studies. Such a feeling cannot arise however from a consideration of the nature of the study; for no science can be more fully freighted with interest- ing and valuable, not to say, fascinating ideas. 2. More Rational Plans. — Being unable to escape the responsibility of teaching this branch, we must boldly assume it, admitting that our plans hereto- fore have been far short of perfection, and strive to do what we can to render them more rational and efficient. The query why our methods in Geography have not kept pace with those in other subjects is often presented. Among the many important reasons for this deficiency may be mentioned the following : First. The science is not so nearly an independent 166 THE teachee's hand-book. one as some, but is based upon and draws largely from several others. Second. The majority of teachers have had neither the time nor opportunity to acquire a comprehensive knowledge of these various sciences, and hence have made little or no effort to prepare a systematic plan for teaching the facts presented in the text-books. Third. They have frequently felt mOre inclined to invent a plan whereby they might entirely exclude the subject from the school. This feeling is but natural, .since the greater number of those whose circumstances have enabled them to investigate the science have pre- sented, if they have published anything in the form of text-books, only mere theory, or dry, hard facts. The authors of many text-books seem not to have understood that these isolated statements, however valuable to them- selves as summaries of their research, are little else than dry bones to the uninitiated. Again, other subjects have been taught with a view to prepare the pupil for the active duties of life, while Geography, judging from the text-books and methods heretofore employed, has apparently no relation to a practical education. The student is seemingly led to infer tliat the sum total of geography is " mental disci- pline," as manifested in the rapid repetition of words minutely descriptive of the location, length, breadth, and height of mountains, and other particulars involving the use of names of difficult pronunciation, with little or no idea of the influence of geograiAical forms, and of terres- trial phenomena upon man and his movements in the course of history. This neglect to introduce Geography into the course of "practical studies " has had a tendency to keep improved methods of teaching it, also in the backscround. METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY. 167 3. The study of Geography a means to an important end. — This subject should not be taught as an end so much as a means to an end, and that end not altogether " mental discipline." It should rather be jDursued as a means whereby the student is enabled to understand the history and civilization of mankind. The simple question presented for solution throughout the entire course is, " What relation does this or that coun- try, its physical features, productions, &g., bear to other parts of the world, and above all, to man and his move- ment in the great march of history ? " Hence, although a knowledge of the physical characteristics, or of the pro- ductive capacities of a country, is necessary as a basis, the attention should mainly be directed to the question, " What does one region produce that is necessary for the comfort or enjoyment of the people of another, and what are the means, both natural and artificial, of trans- porting these products ? " What are the educational, social, and political conditions of the various countries, the influence of each upon the other and u2:)on the world at large. 4. Study of physical features not to be undervalued. — We would not, in this brief sketch, underrate the careful study of the surface, drainage, climate, and natural resources of the various sections, for a superstructure without a solid foundation is of little value. But let the fact be impressed that a basis, how- ever substantial, without either a superstructure or the power to erect one, or a basis that is out of proportion to the former, is a most undesirable possession. Let these natural featui'es be studied then, not as detached facts but as parts of a harmonious whole, and with reference to their influence on the life of man. Let the knowledge of the drainage of a country be made subservient to a 168 THE teacher's hand-book. knowledge of its capabilities for water power and navi- gation, and the extent to which each is or may be used for the benefit of man. Make each natural feature but the stepping-stone to a better comprehension of the civili- zation of the world, and the complaint that the study of Geography is uninteresting and unprofitable will no longer be heard. 5. Outline of the Course. — It is not proposed to lay down an extended course in this connection. To present an exhaustive analysis of the subject would re- quire far more space than the limits of a work like the Hand-Book will allow. The formal study of Geography should be preceded by oral lessons that should develop ideas of place, direction, form, size, and distance. This primary course would usually occuj^y about three years. For details respecting the method of conducting these oral lessons, reference is made to Sheldon's Manual of Elementary Instruction, and works of a similar character. 6. Geography proper. First step, one year. — Lessons in the first grade will include ideas of repre- sentation by map drawing. The course may be com- menced by drawing an outline of the top of a table, of the school-room, of the school grounds, of a block, of the entire city, town, and finally a map of the coi;nty, locat- ing upon each the more prominent objects of interest, so as to impress upon the minds of the pupils the concep- tion that a map is a picture of that which has a real existence. Throughout this step the teacher should introduce the more important geographical terms, and the manner of representing the difterent physical features located in the section under consideration. This work should be carefully and thoroughly done. In preparing the maps, constant reference should be made to the localities and METHODS IN GEOGRAPHY. 169 objects represented by it. No term should be intro- duced until the thing signified is cleai-ly apprehended^ 7. Second Step. The State— two years.— lu this step the geography of the State should be considered somewhat in detail, together with a general outline course of the world. The map of the State should be drawn and the pupils taken on imaginary journeys to different portions of it, to parts of the United States and of the globe. The true signification of maps has been acquired, and the physical features should now be studied with some reference to their bearing upon man and upon civilization. The agricultural and mining sections should be noted, the water powers and navigable rivers indi- cated, and the various productions and means of transit described. Throughout this step the teacher has innu- merable opportunities to arouse interest in the study, and much of the pleasure and success of his future work will depend upon the thoroughness with, which this part is done. (See outline of method.) 8. Third Step — one year. — The lessons in this step should include simple exercises on the globe, in which are developed ideas of the equator, poles, tropics, form of the earth, form of the continents and their com- parative sizes, general ideas of climate, and some of the causes of its diversity. Here, also, should be introduced the motions of the earth on its axis and around the sun, and the result of these motions, or the succession of day and night, the change of the seasons, &c. At this point the oceans may be considered in outline. Their forms, relative sizes, and the great currents that facilitate com- merce should be studied. At the close of this course the pupil will have a good knowledge of the geography of his own State, and a suffi- cient general knowledge of the subject at large to enable 8 170 THE teacher's hand-book him to help himself in the further prosecution of the study. But if there he time, anci a disposition further to pur- sue the subject, a careful and systematic examination of each country would not only be of exceeding interest, but it would add greatly to his stock of general infor- mation. (See outline of methods.) 9. Syllabus of Topics. — The following series of topics will indicate the general course that may be pursued in the study either of the State or of any given country : I.- Map of the State or country. to be accurately drawn. II. Its position defined. III. Its boundaries, (a) Mathematical. («) Actual. IV. Size < V. Its Form. VI. Its Coast. VII. Its Surface VIII. Inland AVaters. IX. Its Climate. X. Its Soil. XI. Its Productions. (/>) Physical. Length. Breadth. Area, j Elevation. [ Seaboard. (A) Comparative. Highlands. Plains. Lakes. Rivers. XII. Its Occupations ( Vegetable. } Animals. ( Minerals. ( Agriculture. I Mining. Fisheries. Manufacture; Commerce. I ((/) Amount. (^>) Exports. Imports. METHODS IK GEOGRAPHY. 171 XIII. Its Towns. XIV. Its People. XV. Education. XVI. Religion. XVII. Government. 10. Mathematical Geography. Syllabus of Topics. — This syllabus of topics in mathematical geography will be serviceable in the third step. I. The subject defined. 11, Form of the Earth, III. Proofs of Form, \ Comparative. I Actual. V. Latitude and Lona^itude. IV. Size. VI. Motions of the Earth Diurnal. Direction and rate. Proofs. Results. Annual. f Direction and rate. J Inclination of axis. j Sun's declination. [ Results. VII. Change of Seasons explained and coj^iously illustrated. 11. Brief Outline of Methods— First Step.— Instruction in the first grade must be presented mainly in the form of oral lessons, but the pupils should be re- quired to collect and bring to the recitation all the information they can obtain on the various subjects. They should be taught where and how to seek for the desired information, and should be encouraged to dili- gence in obtaining it. 12. Second and Third Steps. — In the second and third grades, when the teacher selects a topic for a les- son, he should also present an abstract of it, applicable to the locality under consideration. Suppose the climate 112 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. of North America to be the subject of the lesson. An abstract similar to that which follows should be furnished by the teacher, and each pupil required to collect, arrange, and write the subject matter under the proper headings. Temperature. ABSTRACT. 'Northern, or cold region. Middle, or tem- perate region. Southern, or warm region. I Coast. ( Interior. j Northern. ( Temperate. ( Coast and 4 Islands. { Highlands. Eastern. Central. Western. Northern. Southern. It would be well to require each pupil to keep a note book, in which the topics and the subject matter of each should be carefully and systematically arranged under the supervision of the teacher. The labor and study necessary in the compilation of tlie matter under these abstracts will be very useful and important to the pupils, aud the books will be exceedingly valuable for reference in reviews. SUMMARY OF CHAPTER XXVI. GEOGRAPHY. (1) Improved methods ; old methods unsatisfactory ; when properly studied, an interesting science ; (2) More rational plans ; Geography a dependent science ; (3) The study of Geography a means to an important end ; a knowledge of the earth, its climate and productions in their relations to mankind ; (4) Study of physi- cal features not to be undervalued ; to be considered as parts of a harmonious whole ; (5) Outlines of course, an exhaustive analysis not attempted ; study to be preceded by oral lessons ; (6) Geogra- phy proper — first step, one year, first grade lessons include repre- sentations by map drawing ; practical suggestions ; (7) Second gtep— the State, two years ; (8) Third step, one year— use of globe ; mathematical geography ; (9) A syllabus of topics presented ; (10) Syllabus of topics in mathematical geography ; (11) Brief outline of methods ; abstracts. METHODS IX GRAMMAR. 173 CHAPTER XXYII. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. GENERAL OUTLINE OF THE COURSE. I. Introduction — Language lessons. 1. The Sentence: Its deliiiition developed; Its prin- cipal parts named ; Classification as to use. 2. Capital letters and their uses. 3. Simple exercises in Punctuation. 4. Simple exercises in Compositio?^. II. Elementary Grammar, 1. The sentence defined, (a) Simple sentences ; Their elements; Analysis, naming the elements and their uses. (b) Compound sentences; Analysis, (c) Complex sen- tences; Analysis. 2. JParts of S2)eech defined ; Their uses in a sentence; Analysis continued. 3. More advanced exercises in xoritten composition. III. Advanced Grammar. The term grammar defined ; Its principal divisions ; Orthography ; Etymology ; Synta.x ; Prosody ; — Each considered separately and in order. NOTES ON LANGUAGE LESSONS. 1. Time of introducing lessons. Formal lessons in language should not be given before the fourth school year, and in some cases perhaps, not until a still later period. The teacher should exer- cise a wise discretion in respect to this matter. But from the child's entrance into the school, it should be the teachefs constant care to lead his pupils to form cor- 174 THE teacher's hand-book. red habits in the use of language. That this may be accomplished the teacher must himself at all times speak accurately; he must rectify all errors, both in the pro- nunciation of words and the construction of sentences, that are committed by his pupils, himself giving the correct expression when necessary, to be repeated by the learners. Every recitation in the school should be a practical .language lesson, habituating the pupils to speak with purity, propriety, and precision, and requir- ing them to give their answers in complete sentences whenever it is possible. 2. Use of words, &c. — Every new word should be spelled, and its meaning illustrated by its proper use in sentences orally expressed. After the pupils have learned to write, the Reading and Spelling lessons should be carefully written on their slates. They may also joractice Avriting simple sentences, using capitals and periods in a proper manner. 3. Object of Language Lessons. — The object of the course of language lessons is to imj^art some formal instruction upon the subject, with special reference to written composition, that the children may early form the habit of expressing their thoughts in wn-iting, using correct and pleasing expressions, and, at the same time, learning the application of the more common marks of punctuation. No technical terms, except such as may be absolutely necessary, should be introduced into this course. SYLLABUS OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. I. Sentences considered. 1. The sentence defined. 2. Parts of the sentence ; [a) First i:)art, representing object spoken of. {b) The second part, representing what is said of the object. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 175 3. Kinds of Sentences, (a) The telling sentence ; Use of capital letter and period, {b) The asking sen- tence; Interrogation point, (c) Commanding sentence ; Period, {d) Exclaiming sentence ; Exclamation point. 4. Exercises in comjDOsing and writing these different kinds of sentences. II. Other uses of Capital Letters. 1. Thetoords and I. 2. JV^ames of the Creator and of Persons. 3. JVam.es of days, months, and of particular days of the year. 4. JVames of cities, toicns, counties, states, and coun- tries. 5. JVames of streatns and bodies of water. III. Other uses of Punctuation Marks. 1. Comma and Semicolon, [a) Words used to in- troduce examples. 2. Apostrojyhe. (a) To denote possession. (b) To denote the omission of a letter. 3. Use of the Period, {a) Abbreviations, (b) Initial letters, (c) Numeral letters and figures. 4. Use of the Comma, (a) Parts of a couplet when "and" is omitted, {b) Parts of a series, (c) Word de- noting person or thing spoken to. 5. Use of the Hyphen, (a) Parts of a compound word, (b) After an unfinished word at the end of a line. 6. Use of quotation marks, (a) Direct, (b) Indi- rect, (c) Continuous, {d ) Interrupted. IV. Exercises in Composition. 1. description of inanimate objects,\X\Qvc parts, quali- ties, and uses. 2. Description of animals. 3. Description of i^ersons. 4. Description of pictures. 11 Q THE tea-Ciier's hand-book.. 5. Description of games or plai/s. 6. Desc7'iption of places. 7. Descrijition of journeys. 8. Letter writing. ■ METHODS FOR LANGUAGE LESSONS. General Remarks. — The lessons sliould be oral and developing in their character. The subject matter ot" each lesson should be reproduced in Avriting by the pupils, and subjected to the criticisms of the teacher. The children must be directed quite minutely respecting the work to be done, otherwise the sentences may be too difficult for them to understand and punctuate. 2. Sentences defined. — Awaken thought in the minds of the pupils respecting some object, as a tree. They perceive that before their thoughts can be known to others they must express them. These thoughts may then be expressed; as, "The tree is green," "The tree grows," &c. They next discover that to communicate their thoughts they must use words. Kow let them form several sentences orally, saying in each case: "I first think about something; I then use words to express my thought. The words that express my thouglit are &c." They are now told that words that express a thought are called a sentence. From this step the pupils are led to define a sentence as follows: "A sen- tence is words that express a thought." Each member of the class then gives a sentence, saying, " • is a sentence, because it is words that express a thought." 3. First and Second Parts. — By a similar pro- cess of development the pupils are led to observe that before there can be a thought in the mind there must be an object or subject for thought, and that they must think about lliat object. They further discover that when METHODS IN GRAMMAE. 117 they tell their thoixghts they speak of some object or subject, and also say something about that object. Hence they M'ill perceive that there are two parts to their- sentences which they are informed they may call First Part and Second Part. By repeated trials they soon find that they can form no sentences without these two parts. They are now led to define tlie First Part as that which represents the object spoken of / and the Second Part as. that which represents what is said of the ohject. The sentences given in this lesson, and those proposed for the next lesson, should be oral. They may be ex- plained as follows : " Birds sing " is a sentence, because it is words that express a thought. The word "Bird" is the First Part, because it represents the objects spoken of. The word "sing " is the Second Part; it represents what is said of the birds. 4. Kinds of Sentences. — To develop the ideas of these classes of sentences, such as Telling, Asking, &c., it will be necessary for the teacher to invent circum- stances in which it would be natural for the pupils to use them. The teacher can then write these sentences as given hy the pvpils^ their differences can be pointed out, and the appropriate names given. The proper written expression should be taught at the same time. Tiie lesson to be prepared for the next day should be carefully assigned. For example, after the lesson on Telling sentences the following may be given out for preparation : " Write on your slates the definition of a sentence, of the first and second Parts, and of a telling sentence. Then write six telling sentences, one about each of these objects : a horse, a book, a girl, a boy, a clock, a flower, and tell only one thing about each." Or, at the close of the second exercise, the assigned les- son might be as follows : " Write the definition of an 178 THE teacher's haxd-book. asJdng sentence. Then write an asking and a telling sentence about eacbi of the following objects : home, school, vacation, lions, &c., telling and asking only one thing about each." The sentences prepared by the pupils should be brought to the class and read, after which they should be explained, stating, 1. A Sentence, Why ? 2. What kind, Why '? 3. First Fart, Why ? 4. Second Fart, Why ? &q.. 5. Uses of Capital Letters. — Question the pupils in such a way that they will form sentences requiring the use of these capitals, then give the rules. Conduct several exercises on their application. Carefully scruti- nize and criticise the work of the class. 6. Punctuation. — Same as above, all new terms being defined. More complex sentences may be formed after learn- ing the uses of the comma; as, "Tell one thing about two persons." " Tell three things about some animal." " Write three words before the word ' house ' to describe the house, and also state something about the house." " Speak to Mary and tell her to do something, asking her if she will do it," &c., &c. In learning to use the marks of punctuation, sentences correctly punctuated shoiild be presented to the class, from which they can deduce the rules. Then the pupils themselves should form their own sentences and punctu- ate them properly. Finally, other sentences not written by the pupils may be given them to punctuate. 7. Exercises in Composition. — Fosition of the subject, margin, paragraphs, &c., should be spoken of. Show the class a good model. At first the lessons should be given as object lessons, the pupils finding out as much as possible for themselves, and the teaclier giving all necessary information. The lesson should be summed up METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 179 orally in good language by the cbildren, the points hav- ing been j^resented in logical order so that they can easily be remembered. After a course of Object and Animal Lessons, and, perhaps, Plant Lessons, the pupils may be left to write their own compositions from an abstract placed on the board by the teacher. The object lessons may con- sist of exercises on all objects of common use at home, at school, in the different trades, etc.; also on different kinds of plants, flowers, trees, &c. The following may serve as a hint in the preparation of abstracts : Inanimate Objects. 1. General description of — defined, of what composed, where found, for what used, shape, size, etc, 2. l\trts — name, number, and position. 3. Qualities and uses dependent on them. Animals. 1. Foreign or native. 2. Wild, tame, or domesticated. 3. Size, parts, covering. 4. Habits, 5. Uses, living or dead, of its part or as a whole. Description of a Picture. 1. Name of the scene. 2. Objects seen in the foreground, background, at the right and left. 3. Their appearance. 4. If animate, what they appear to be doing. 5. Thoughts about the picture as a whole. 180 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK; Description of a game or play. 1. When and where iilayed. 2. By boys or girls, 3. Objects used in the play. 4. Numbers of persons engaged. 5. The game to be won. 6. Manner of playing. v. What you think about the game. CHAPTER XX-YIII. METHODS IN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. SYLLABUS OF TOPICS. I. The Sentence. 1. I>i:finition developed. 2. Eletncnts as to rank, (a) Principal, Subject and Predicate. (b) Subordinate to subject, adjective elements ; to predicate, adverbial and objective elements ; the latter direct, indirect, and double. 3. Elements as to form, (a) Simple, (b) Complex, (c) Compound. 4. Analysis of simple sentences, natning the elemetits and their uses. 5. Sentences classified according to prop>ositions. (a) Propositions defined. {b) Classes of Propositions developed ; Principal, Subordinate, Co-ordinate. (c) Classes of Sentences — Simple, Complex, Compound. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 181 6. Analysis of Complex and Compound Sentences. II. Parts of Speech. 1. The Noun, (a) Definition developed. (6) Its uses in a sentence ; as Subject ; as part of simple Predicate ; as Object ; as Identifier; as the name of a Possessor ; as the name of the person spoken to. 2. The Pronoun, {a) Its definition developed, {h) Its uses in the sentence ; as Subject ; as part of simple Pre- dicate ; as Object ; as representing Possessor ; as rep- resenting person spoken to ; as subordinate connector. 3. 2'he Adjective, (a) Definition developed, (b) Its uses in a sentence ; to describe objects by showing form, size, color, Aveiglit, position, condition, character, etc.; to number objects, definitely and indefinitely ; to locate them ; to point out an object, definitely and indefinitely; used as part of simple predicate ; for euphony. 4. IVie Verb, (a) Definition developed, (b) It rep- resents action, being, state, possession. (c) Its uses in a sentence; as simple Predicate ; as affirming part of simple Predicate. (d) The Participle ; its uses in a sentence ; as Sub- ject ; as part of simple Predicate; as objective element; as adjective element ; as adverbial element. (e) The Infinitive; its uses in a sentence ; as Subject; as part of simple Predicate ; as adjective element ; as adverbial element; as objective element. 5. T/ie Adverb, (a) Definition developed, (b) Its uses in a sentence; to describe actions, being, &c. ; joined to verbs, showing manner, time, place, cause; joined to adjectives to describe qualities ; joined to other adverbs to describe, manner, time, &g. 6. Preposition, (a) Definition developed, (b) Its uses in a sentence; to denote relation ; adjective, adverbial; indirect, objective. 182 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK; 7. The Conjunction, (a) Definition developed, (b) Uses in a sentence ; as subordinate connector ; as co-or- dinate connector. 8. Interjection. («) Definition developed, (b) Its uses. NOTES ON ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN GRAMMAR. 1. The Utility of the Study. — Grammar has too often been considered by the pupil as a dry, uninter- esting subj.ect, which he studies only because he is com- pelled to do so. It should be the aim of the teacher to present the subject so that it will be not only profitable but pleasant. It should be presented to the class as the study of language. Let the teacher draw from the pupils the fact that language is the means by which we express our thoughts, feelings, and desires. Show how helpless we should be without it, and what a great source of enjoyment it is in many Avays. They will thus see the importance of its proper use, and of its study in order to derive the greatest benefit and pleasure from it. 2. Strive to awaken thought. — The teacher should, throughout the course, awaken the mind of the child to activity. He should invent circumstances to arouse thoughts that will require for their expression various kinds of sentences and different forms of elements. The pupil, knowing the thouglit he intended to express, will be interested in examining the language by which he has conveyed his thought to others ; he will also be anxious to hear others express the ideas he has conveyed to them by his words. If they be those which he de- signed, then pleasure will follow as the reward of his effort. Should he fail to express himself intelligibly, the METHODS IN GRAMMAE. 183 failure should be made to act as a stimulus to renewed attempts until success shall reward his perseverance. Having correctly expressed his thought, he will be ready- to state for what different purposes the words and ele- ments that hold the most important j^lace in the sen- tence are used. 3. Clear knowledge of the thought expressed, the foundation of correct analysis. Thus is laid the foundation for analysis. A perfect understanding of tlie thought is essential to correct analysis ; hence, the first step should be to prepare the children to analyze sentences they themselves have con- structed. When they shall become quite expert at this exercise, let them analyze the language of others, sentences ex- pressing some simple fact, some important truth, some deep emotion. Let the sentences be such as embody ideas of the good, the pure, the beautiful, the grand in Nature and in human life. Train the pupils to search for the thought behind the words, until their young- minds grasp it, their warm hearts swell with the same feelings. Let them strive to express the same thoughts and feelings in their own language. Then they will be ready to analyze the sentences into their parts ; to point out the relation of one to another, and to describe the peculiar use of each element and word. 4. Why Grammar is so distasteful to Chil- dren. — Another reason why children so often dislike Grammar is that they are hurried along so rapidly, taking up subjects that are so entirely new to them, and devot- ing only one or two lessons to their consideration, that they become bewildered and utterly discouraged with the attempt to. master the subject. Time is a necessary element in the attainment of pro- 184 THE teacher's hantj-book. ficiency in any branch, and in none more than in the study of Grammar, which deals largely with abstract subjects. The teacher should proceed then, slowly but surely, and allow sufficient time for each new idea to become firmly fixed in the mind and made the individual prop- erty of each young learner. 5. Object and length of the first course. — Pursued in this way, at least one term, and perhaps two or even more should be spent in the study of the first topic, sentences and analysis, before considering the Parts of Speech. These, as indicated by the syllabus, should be studied only with reference to definition and tise in the sentence. All classification and properties should be left for the more advanced course. 6. Sentences to be first studied. — Although the parts of speech are not learned as such, nor by their technical names, until after sentences and their elements have been studied, still each word may be described by its use, as a relation word, a quality word, an object word, &c., throughout the lessons in analysis. 7. Instruction adapted to capacity of pupils. — Tlie teacher must be guided by the age and ability of his pupils as to the character of the sentences he gives them to analyze. They must not be above the compre- hension of the majority; neither must they be so simple as to impose no labor upon the learners. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 185 CHAPTEE XXIX. ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR CONTINUED. ILLUSTKATIVE LESSONS, NUMBER TWO. I. Sentences classified according to their Propositions. Subject matter, or that lohich is to be taught. 1. A proposition is the uuion of a subject and predi- cate. 2. A proposition by itself may or may not form a sentence. 3. A single proposition is a sentence when it ex- presses a complete thought. 4. A proposition may form an element of a sentence, in which case it is called a clause. 5. Propositions are classified according to their rank in a sentence, as Principal, Subordinate, and Co-ordinate. G. The principal proposition of a sentence is that which expresses the leading thought. 7. A subordinate proposition is one that modifies the principal. 8. Co-ordinate propositions are those of equal rank in the same sentence. 9. Sentences are classified, according to the proposi- tions they contain, as simple, complex, compound. 10. A simple sentence is one composed of but one proposition. 11. A complex sentence is one composed of a princi- pal and one or more subordinate propositions. 186 THE TEACHER^S HAND-BOOK. 12. A compound sentence is one composed of two or more co-ordinate propositions. METHODS. 1. Proposition defined, — Teacher asks each member of the class to form a sentence under the "follow- ing conditions : Giving an affirmative unconditional answer to the question, " Is Mary going home ? " They give the subjoined sentence, which is written on the blackboard: "Mary is going home." The pupils are now asked to answer the same question affirmatively, but to add to it a condition upon which her going depends. A pupil will say, perhaps, "Mary is going home, if it is pleasant." The teacher next takes one of two books and places it in a chair ; then asks for a sen- tence aboixt the book that is in the chair. A pupil says, " The book that is in the chair is an arithmetic." In a similar manner several other sentences are composed and written. The sentences are then analyzed by the jDnpils, the use of each element being given as it is named. Thus — "The book that is on the chair is an arithmetic," is a declarative sentence. " The book that is on the chair," is the complex subject; " is an arithmetic," is the simple predicate. To " book," the simple subject, are added "the" and "that is on the table," adjective ele- ments showing that some particular book is implied, and pointing out which particular book is intended. Teacher asks the pupils to define subject and predi- cate, which they do. They now perceive and answer, when questioned by the teacher, that some elements of these sentences have a subject and a predicate. Each subject with its predicate is then written separately as follows : METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 187 Mary is going home. The book is an arithmetic. If it is pleasant. That is on the chair. When the time ari-ives. In which the flowers are blooming. School will commence. That is a beautiful garden, &g., &c. The pupils now decide that each expression is a combination of a subject and predicate, but that some express a complete thought while others do not. The teacher may now call for combinations of subject and predicate that express complete thoughts. Pupils answer, " Birds sing," " Horses run," &c., &c. Also for those that do not express complete thoughts " If I go," "When it rains," &c. The piipils now learn that a com- bination of subject and predicate, whether forming a sentence or not, is called a proposition, and are ready to define a proposition and to make the statements found in "2," "3," "4" of "Matter," the teacher giving the term clause. 2. Propositions classified. — Sentences such as the following may be written on the board : " Children who persevere will succeed." " Flowers that grow in the woods are called wild-flowers," &c., &c. The pupils being asked to select the propositions that express the leading thought, do so, and are taught to call them the jirincipal projjositions. Each member of the class now defines the principal proposition of a sen- tence, and illustrates his definition by giving a sentence and selecting its principal pro])Osition. The teacher now writes only the principal propositions of the sen- tences that were first written : Children will succeed. 188 THE teacher's HA^'D-BOOK, Flowers are called wild flowers, &e., &c. Class decides the meaning to be all children and all flowers, and that the signification is changed by adding the propositions " Avho persevere " and " that grow in the woods." The term "modify" being given, tliey are ready to form sentences containing a principal and a modifying proposition. The term " subordinate " and its meaning being given they can define a subordinate proposition. A similar method may be pursued in teaching co-ordinate propositions. 3. Classification of sentences. The pupils are requested to bring to the recitation, written upon their slates, sentences fulfilling the follow- ing conditions: (a) Three sentences, each composed of but one proposition, (b) Three, each composed of two propositions, a principal and a subordinate, (c) Three, each composed of three jjropo^itions, one pi'incipal and two subordinate, (d) Three, each composed of two co- ordinate propositions, (e) Three, each composed of three co-ordinate propositions. At the recitation the sentences are read, and the dif- ferent propositions pointed out. The class discover that they have only three different kinds of sentences, for which the teacher now gives the appropriate names. The pupils recite and wiite the definitions of each kind of sentence, giving a sentence as illustration. They are now ready to make the abstract, which they do with the teacher's help. fl. Define. ri. Sentences. ri A 4. 2. Elements of (1. As to use. -I o t j bentences or I. Propositions. -! [ Class. 3. Classes. -( 2. As to rank. -! 3. Subordinate. [ (3. Co-ordinate. ( 1. Principal. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 189 C 1. Simple. n. Sentences as to Propositions. < 2. Complex. ( 3. Compound. 4. Suggestions. — More than one lesson will be re- quired to teach all that is suggested in the preceding sketch. Indeed, it may require a distinct lesson for each separate point in the Matter. Much will depend upon the age and ability of the pupils. But whether one or two points are considered at a lesson, each must be copi- ously illustrated, and the sentences given as examples must be analyzed by the pupils, so that after classifying them, all that will need to be added to the analysis will be the kind of sentence, naming the principal and sub- ordinate propositions, &c., and analyzing the separate propositions. CHAPTER XXX. MORE ADVANCED GRAMMAR. Abstraci. I. Orthography, 1. Eleme^itary Sounds. Tonics or vocals ; Subtonics, or sub-vocals ; Atonies or aspirates. 2. Letters. {a) According to form | sSleUers. {h) According to sound | Coi^',''a„ts. {]. Diphthongs. •< y V * . 2. Triphthongs. f^-^P^^"- ^ =" ( Improper. 3. Syllables. 190 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. 4. Words. (a) Classes. ^ berof syllables. Accordincc to oricrin, '' f Monosyllables. According to the num- J Dissyllables. 1 Trisyllables. [ Polysyllables. Primitive. Derivative. Compound. For Pi'imitives. (h) Spelling. — Rules -| For Derivatives. For Comj)ounds. (e) Rules for the use of Capital Letters. II. Etymology and Syntax of Words. PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. 77ie JVoun. (a) Definition. — Object. . . Define. ri^ \ Material. Classes.. ■< t ^ • i ( Immaterial. ' According to the nature J Abstract, of object represented. ( Concrete. (b) Classes. . i According to use ] go'^^^io"- ^ ^ * =■ ( Proper. According to meaning and form ; Collective. r Define. (c) Properties. ((?) Declension. (e) Rules for Construc- tion. ' Number, Classes. . ■{ Gender, Person , Case . i Singular. Plural. Rule for form- ing Plural. Masculine. Feminine. Common. Neuter. First. Second. Third. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 191 \ Simple. Limiting. Extendinsr. 2. The Pronoun. (a) Definition. {h) Differences between it and the noun. i Personal. (^) ^^^^^«« ] Relative. ..... Compound. ( Interrogative ( ^ r Number. I T, -o 4.- I Gender, (c?) Properties.. jp^^.g^^^ [ Case. (e) Rules for Construction. 3. The Adjective . (a) Definition, f According to the na- ture of the modi- fication Limiting Adjective. I ^;;^^:fy.^g^ (5) Classes. . . ^ ( Articles. Pure Limiting; i Pi-onominal. Numerals. Cardinal. Numei'als -( Ordinal. Multiplicative. 'Why adjectives have this prop- erty. ' Positive. Comparative. (c) Comparison. . < Degrees. < Superlative. Formation of Compar- ative and Superlative. (d) Rules for Construction. 192 THE TEACHER S HAND-BOOK. 4. Tlie Verb. (a) Definition. According to (^^P;;['^;^j^^_ nature. ) --^ , ^. ( Copulative. According to j Regular. form. 1 Irregular, f Transitive. Intransitive (b) Classes. ^ According to ; . use. I Auxiliary. I Impersonal. According to (Affirming, the Verb. manner of J statin sr the | . • \ Participle. Assummcc. ■< ~ ~ - -^ relation. Infinitive. Voice Mode. (c) Properties. -( Active. Passive. f Indicative. J Potential. Subjunctive. Imperative. Absolute. Tense. { Relative. Present. Past. Future. Present perfect. Past perfect. Future perfect. NUMBER AND PERSON. (d) Conjugation. (e) Rules for Construction. 5. T/ie Adverb. rVerb. (a) Define. — Illustrate as ) x .c ^-^^^ ' ^ ^ 11^+ ^ Innnitive. added to a . . . l . ^ . Adjective. [ Adverb. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 193 (b) Classes. (c) Compari- sou. Manner. ^According to j Pure. Conjunctive. Of Place, Time, Cause, 1. Degree, 2. Modal. Expletives. Interrogative. Why adverbs have this property. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. (d) Rule for Construction. 6. The jPre2)osition. Define. (a) Define. — Relation ■{ ^, ^ ^ I Clas asses. Adjective. Adverbial. Indirect. Objective. (b) Classes. < W Classes |«74L. (c) Rule for Construction. 7. The Conjunction, (a) Definition. Pure. . As to nature ■{ Conjunctive words. Copulative. Adversative. Alternative. ( Substantive. Subordinate. -< Adjective. ( Adverbial, (c) Rules for Construction. 8. The Interjection. (a) Definition. (b) Rule for Construction. 9 As to rank of elements ■< con- nected. Co-ordinate. 194 THE teacher's hand-book. III. Syntax of Sentences and their Ele- ments. 1. Sentences classified according to their use as a lohole. (a) Declarative, {J)) Interrogative, (c) Imperative, ((?) Exclamatory. 2. Sentences classified according to their j)ropositions. {a) Subject and Predicate, {b) Proj^osition. i Principal, (e) Classes of Propositions as to rank. ■< Subordinate. ( Co-ordinate. ((?) Classes of Sentences, as to Propo- j p ^ / sitions. I Compound. 3. Elements classified according to office. (a) Subject. (b) Predicate. (c) Adjective. (d) Adverbial. ( Direct. (e) Objective < Indirect. ( Double. 4. Elements classified according to RanJc, WP'-'P^l IScate. ! Adjective elements. Adverbial elements. Objective elements. 5. Elemerits classified according to Form. (a) Simple of the First, Second, and Third Classes. (b) Complex of the First, Second, and Tliird Classes. (c) Compound of the First, Second, and Third Classes. 6. Character of the elements peculiar to the different classes of sentences. (a) Elements of SimjDle j Words. sentences. / Phrases. METHODS IN GEAMMAE. 195 r Words. (b) Elements of Complex] Phrases. ""'""''''■ [Clauses. I fXXLte. r Words, (e) Elements of Compound! Phrases, sentences, j Co-ordmate. [ Clauses — Principal. 7. Contracted Senteyices. '{a) Partial Compounds. (b) Sentences with abridged propositions, or Contracted Complex. 8. Figures. {a) Of Etymology. (h) Of Syntax. (c) Of Rhetoric. 9. Punctuation. (a) Principal marks : comma (,), semicolon ( ;), colon ( :), the dash ( — ), the parenthesis ( ), the period (.), interrogation point (?), exclama- tion point ( ! ). {h) Rules for the use of each. NOTES ON THE FOREGOING SYLLABUS. Object of the Course. — The object of this course is twofold : To teach those things which are omitted in the previous courses, and at the same time present the subject of Grammar as a harmonious whole, composed of separate parts, it is true, but each following the other in a natural sequence and sustaining its own peculiar relation to the whole. It is also a partial review, in that subjects before dis- cussed are again considered; but those that were then left incomplete are now finished, and those that need no addition are fitted each into its ajjpropriate place.- METHODS. The class should use some standard text-book on the subject. The teacher should assign a definite lesson 196 THE teacher's hand-book. in the book, with definite instructions in respect to the manner in which it is to be prepared. For example, the first lesson might be the definition of Grammar, its di- visions, and their definitions and the first topic under Orthography, Elementary Sounds. The pupils are told to read the lesson through carefully first, so as to get a general idea of the lesson as a whole. Then they are to take up each separate definition, read it, understand it, illustrate by an example not given by the author, and express the same without the book. Finally, they should classify the knowledge they have obtained. Or, suppose the subject to be Nouns; the lesson assigned may be merely to read the matter through care- fully and thoughtfully, preparatory to forming an out- line of the subject under, the direction of the teacher. An entire recitation may be occupied in this preparatory work, after the subject has been so read by the class. The teacher develops the main topics in their proper order, and leaves the outline to be filled in by the pupils. Thus, as left for the pupils to finish, the abstract on Nouns might appear as follows : Define — Object. < p. Define. lasses. {i. 'As to nature ■] ' The Noun, -j Classes ^ As to use -j ^' As to .meaning and form. f Define. Proj)erties, [ Classes <^ "• [i. METHODS IN GRAMMAR. 197 The next lesson might be to iill in the outline as far as " properties," and be prepared with definitions and illustrations so far. There are many subjects that will need special instruction on the part of the teacher, while there are others that the pupil can, by careful study prepare entirely by himself. Of the first class may be mentioned the Properties of the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb; the Relative Pronoun; Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs ; Participles and Infinitives ; Abridged Propositions, &c. It seems to me better that the rules for construction should follow each part of speech as soon as it is considered, although they are not so placed in all Grammars. As soon as a part of speech has been thoroughly studied, before passing to the next, fix that one firmly in the mind by requiring sentences containing it to be analyzed, and the words, so far as they have been learned, parsed. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS XXVII. TO XXX. INCLUSIVE. GENERAL OUTLINE OP THE COURSE. I. Introduction, language lessons. II. Elementary Grammar, the course outlined. III. Advanced Grammar, the course out- lined. Notes. Time of introducing lessons ; use of words, &c. ; object of language lessons ; syllabus of language lessons ; sentences considered ; parts of tlie sentence ; kinds of sentences ; uses of capital letters ; of punctuation marks ; outline of course in com- position ; methods for language lessons presented. XXVIII. SYLLABUS OP TOPICS. I. The sentence and its classes. II. Parts of speech; their uses and definitions. Notes on language lessons. 198 THE teacuek's uand-book. XXIX. ILLTJSTEATIVE LESSONS. — CONTINUED. I. Methods proposed ; classification of sentences as to proposi- tions ; practical suggestions. XXX. ADVANCED COURSE IN GRAMMAK. Detailed outline of the course. (1) Orthography; (2) Ety- mology and syntax of words ; (3) Syntax of sentences and their elements ; notes on this syllabus ; methods presented. CHAPTEK XXXI. THE FORMATION OF HABITS AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF CHARACTER AT SCHOOL. 1. General Remarks. — "Give us something practical," says the teacher of the period. The days of mere theorizing in education seem to be passing away. The leading desire of true educators everywhere, is to learn how to do their work wisely and well. Hence our professional organs are largely engaged in the discussion of methods and, incidentally, of the princiiyles which underlie them. This is well. There is no doubt that, under the impulse of this agitation of modes and princi- ples, the average skill of the great mass of teachers will be increased, and that better results will be achieved in the domain of intellectual culture. This will be an im- portant point gained. For one step, and perhaps the first toward the elevation of man, is to improve him intellectually. foematiojS" of character. 199 2. Practical Education. — But there is a practi- cal education, and there are practical methods for the school-room that do not pertain exclusively to Reading and Grammar, Arithmetic and Geography, the Calculus or the Anabasis. There is a species of traimng that, in importance and utility, surpasses them all, because it undertakes to deal with the character, and hence it has more to do with true success in life than has the power of computation or expression. That training relates to the formation of right habits and the development of a virtuous and noble character. 3. Thought and action — Knowing and doing. — This is a work more comprehensive in its scope and influence than mere intellectual instruction and, indeed, than any other teaching whatsoever. It lays hold of the whole being, physical, intellectual, social and moral. It s^ipplements the hnoxoing with doing. It attends to the repetition of good thoughts, feelings and actions until as a consequence of such repetition that which at first perhaps, was difficult or irksome, becomes easy and agreeable. It is one thing to hnow^ and still another thing habitually to do the right. There are thousands, both in the school of childhood and the far greater school of active life, who know their duty but do it not. This fact is indisputable. All will admit it, and yet too many of us actually close our eyes to the impressive lesson that it ought to convey. 4. A Grave Defect. — It reveals the gravest defect in our system of teaching that can possibly force itself upon our attention. To teach the youth of our land to knoro, and still not lead them a step farther to the practice of that which is just and true, is to increase their capacity for evil, while it does not necessarily }nduce the corresj)onding action. Not to supj>iement at 200 THE teachee's HAND-EOOK. every step the knowing with the doing, the thonght witli the action, the knowledge with its practical appli- cation, is as unwise in manners and morals as it would be in a school of mines or engineering, a commercial college, or a military academy. Of what avail would be a system of military, tactics if taught from a book, without the actual drill in movements ? How vain to attempt a mastery of the science and practice of accounts without the actual drill of the day-book, cash- book, journal, and ledger? And yet this is too often precisely the way in which we attemi^t the formation of habits and the development of character in the school- room, if indeed we attempt them at all. We are apt to give line upon line, precept upon precept, theory upon theory, without much, heed to the character of the actions by which a knoioledge of duty ought ever to he habitually folknoed. 5. An Uncultivated Field. — It is manifest that here is a field that lies almost entirely tmculti- vated before us. Ought we not to reflect that a human being in this life, and indeed, in the great hereafter, will be precisely that which his character makes him, no more, no less ? Man is emphatically a creature of habit. It is the chief end of education to form good habits, to develop a perfect character. The character of any individual may be said to be the sum total of. his habits. 6. Habits defined. — But what are habits ? They are thoughts, feelings, and actions repeated until they become easy, pleasurable, perhaps unconscious. On the theory that all our powers, physical, mental, and moral, are conjointly, not equally, concerned in every act of life, our actions must thus possess a three-fold quality. There mivst be a moral element even in what might be FORMATION OF CHARACTER. 201 called a purely physical or mental act, if sucli were possi- ble, in the sense that the act is either right or wrong, useful or hurtful. And again, in every physical or moral action there must, in the conscious mind, be a correlated mental manifestation and an impulse of the will. 7. Influence of good actions. — If the truth of these positions be conceded, it will be. admitted further, that, not only may good actions spring from right intel- lectual perceptions, but that such actions may by reci- procity of influence, lead to noble thoughts and virtuous resolves. No thinking person will probably deny the reflex influence of outward actions upon the mental and moral states. An act which at first is distasteful, if often repeated, will soon become agreeable, and event- ually ripen into a fixed habit, an element of character. Whether the action be good or evil, the result will be a corresponding habit. The law is invariable and the consequence inevitable. Thus, it is by repetition that actions ripen into habits ; habits become fixed and exer- cise complete dominion over us. They determine the character. 8. A pertinent Question. — Now the simple question is, Plow can these principles be applied in the daily practice of the school-room ? What can we actually accomplish ? What methods may be specifi- cally employed to form desirable habits and thus assimi- late the characters of our children and youth to that standard wliich marks the perfect man ? This subject should receive the most careful attention at the Teachers' Institute and in those more permanent agencies where teachers are prepared for their work. In the subjoined sketch, an attempt is made to suggest a few methods looking to a solution of the important problem under consideration. 9* 202 THE TEACHER S HAND-BOOK. 9. Habits that may be cultivated at school. — Among the habits that fall within the scope of school influences, and that may be cultivated through its special appliances, the following are suggested : Promptness and Regularity. Obedience. Order, System. JSelf-respect. Respect for the persons, property, and rights of others. Scrupulous Carefulness. Neatness of person and surroundings. Courtesy. Kindness. Justice. Industry. Economy. "Attention. Many others might be mentioned, but the foregoing will suffice for the present purpose. It can not be neces- sary for a moment, to dwell upon the importance of these habits to the pupil or the school, to the citizen or society; merely to make mention of them is to offer a conclusive, argument for their necessity in every well- regulated life and well ordered community. To neglect their careful cultivation in that precious seed-time of life which the school-going days represent, is almost a crime against the peace, good order, and well-being of society, to say nothing of the future success and happiness of the individuah Let us briefly consider the importance of some of those habits. Promptness and Regularity. — This is one of the- cardinal virtues. So valuable is it as an element of FORMATION OF CHARACTER. 203 character that it has been declared, on high authority, to be the foundation of all other virtues. Its opposite may with equal truth, be said to be the parent of innumerable evils aiid vices. The child that is not carefully and persistently trained always to be at the right place, ready to perform the right duty at the right time, must almost inevitably become the man who is always too late — too late at church, too late at the jDublic meeting, too late in his business engagements, too late to com- • raand the confidence or respect of his fellow citizens, too late to win success in the worthy and noble pursuits of an honorable and upright life. Obedience. — A disobedient boy is the " logical ante- cedent " of a lawless man. An undisciplined, disorderly school is the natural precursor of a law-defying mob. To obey promptly and willingly, is the first lesson in the school of preparation for a position of command — even of self-command. Disobedience and self-government, as applied to the same individual or community, are con- tradictory terms. Plence, the most dangerous foe of a free people is a system of schools devoid of the whole- some restraints of a well-ordered and efficient discipline. Order, System. — " Order is heaven's first law." Its cultivation, therefore, is man's first duty. Confusion and disorder in the management of affairs, ought to be regarded as but little less than criminal, since they lead to disaster, disgrace, crime, and misery. This habit, like many others of the better class, is rarely acquired spon- taneously, or without special incentives. There seems to be in most persons a positive disinclination to a sys- tematic method of doing things. Some seem able to acquire it only through long and patient practice. These facts render it the more nece'ssary that special efforts should be put forth to counteract the tendency 204 THE teacher's hand-book. to disorder in the individual, and hence in the com- munity. Self-respect. — Where self-respect is lost, all is lost. In its absence there is little room for honor, virtue, or manliness. This is the hopeless stage in a career of deg- radation, ^elf-respect is the foundation of most of the personal virtues. It is a powerful defense against the inroads of vice, and its assiduous cultivation is a duty of the highest importance. Mespect for the persons^ rights, and property of others. — This means good manners, a courteous bearing in per- sonal and official intercourse. It implies a deep sense of justice and its faithful exercise at all times. So impor- tant are good manners that in many respects they do, in truth, make the man. Nothing can fully compen- sate for their absence. They are indispensable to com- plete success in life. There is no adequate excuse for a neglect to employ appropriate and efficient means to hab- ituate our children amd youth at school to the constant practice of good manners.. Scriqyulous Carefulness / — in the use of property whether our own or belonging to others ; in the use of language, that it be concise and accurate ; in the exer- cise of our powers of thought and emotion, that we Miink no evil, and do no wrong. The opposite char- icteristic is recklessness, or, to use a milder terra, heed- lessness, either of which is criminal, and in its greater manifestations at least, should be so treated in law and in fact. More property is wasted by carelessness than is saved by prudence. More valuable human lives are sacrificed fi'om this cause than from malice afore- thought. JS^eatness of person and surroundings. — Cleanliness has been affirmed to be closely allied to godliness. FORMATION OF CUAEACTER. 205 How can it be possible for a i^urc heart and filthy habits to co-exist in the same individual ? On the other hand, who can deny that neatness of person and surroundings must in the nature of things tend directly to pure thoughts and a guileless heart? It is not necessary to speak further of the value of these good habits. That may be safely taken for granted. The great question is how most effectually to cultivate them by any motives and appliances within the ordinary scope of the school influence. 10. The foregoing syllabus not intended to be exhaustive — merely illustrative. — The habits referred to in the preceding discussion constitute but a small proportion of the number that it is possible, by the direct and skillful employment of the means at school, to instill into the daily life of our children. The list is merely illustrative, not exhaustive. Indeed it should be regarded as one of the chief functions of the school^ so to direct its enginery of motives and methods as to make of each child "a bundle of good habits," physical, mental, social, moral. The teacher who has failed to learn this important lesson, is scarcely prepared to enter the vestibule of his high vocation. The course of studies, so called, ought to be regarded only as one of the means to this noble end, and not as an end unto itself To supplement the knowing with the doing, the conception with the execution, until good deeds with their antecedent motives ripen into the golden fruits of fixed habits and a symmetrical character, — this, and this alone, best meets the demands of a complete and gen- erous education. 206 THE teachek's hand-book. CHAPTER XXXII. FORMATION OF HABITS AND DEVELOPMENT OF CHARACTER CONTINUED. 11. Methods suggested. — But how may tliese things be done ? A few methods will now be suggested. The intelligence and ingenuity of the conscientious teachei' will, however, readily devise others suited to his peculiar circumstances. This department of school duty should be made the subject of special study and preiyara- tion. When this is done regularly and earnestly, there will be no lack of ways and means in the hands of teachers that have a heart for their business. Occasions will multiply and methods will spontaneously appear. Promptness and JRegularity. — These habits are to be cultivated in connection with School Attendance ; Class Movements ; the Preparation of Lessons ; Class Exer- cises; Regular hours of Study and Recreation ; and the general movements and exercises of the school as a whole ; such as. Gymnastics, Music, Recesses, and Dis- missal. School Attendance. — To be at school every day at the appointed hour is the duty of every child belonging to it, when in health. This duty is to be enforced, by appealing to the' noblest motives that can influence human conduct : — to the sense of justice ; to a regard for the rights of others ; to self-respect ; to a high sense of honor ; and to a love of the approbation of the wise and good. To be late at school, or in the discharge of any of its duties or to be absent without justifiable cause, is FOEMATION OF CUAEACTER. 207 unjust to one's self and unjust to others. This is easily shown by the embarrassment and loss of time it imposes both upon teacher and pupils. It can be shown by the evil results to which it leads in future life. It can be shown to be rank disobedience to rightful authority. Disobedience of orders or a violation of regulations in the military and naval service is regarded and treated as a crime. It is really no less such in civil life. Diso- bedience at home or at school is incipient crime. Its logical result is disobedience to the laws of the State and of God, the Righteous Ruler of all. Strive to make your pupils feel and act upon this truth. Habits of x:)romptness and regularity are to he 'en- forced by subjecting delinquents to inconvenience, and to just and wholesome penalties for each and every case of failure. — Let the doors of the school house be closed at the time of opening the school. Let an assistant or one of the more trustworthy pupils be detailed as Offi- cer of the Day ; let it be understood that this officer will admit the tardy ones only at a particular entrance if there be more than one ; let him detain them in the entry or waiting room until the opening exercises of the school are ended. Then let the delinquent squad be subjected to the inspection of the principal teacher, and to such admonition or j^enalties as he may deem it best to administer. If the admonition be given in presence of the school, the pride and self-respect of the offenders will be touched, and they may be induced to turn from the error of their ways. It is sometimes customary to recompense tardy pupils in hind ; that is, to detain them at the close of school for a sufficient time to exact an adequate recompense. There is no injustice in this, and if the plan be wisely and rigorously carried out, it 208 THE teacher's hand-book. may have a happy influence in abating a great evil and forpung a desirable habit. ' Promptness and regularity may be greatly encour- aged hy commending those loho practice them. — Speak oftpa and highly of the virtue. Cite such illustrious ex-^mples as Washington, who waited for no man beyond the appointed hour. Extol it as one of the noblest attributes of true manhood and womanhood. Above all, faithfully exemplify it in your own life and conduct. In class movements. — Let your classes be moved in all cases by gentle signals addressed either to the sight or hearing. The signals should be quiet, though quick, and your pupils should be trained to obey them with all the precision of a military drill. Among the higher grades of a school there may be an officer for each class. He should be selected on account of his general good con- duct and his fitness to command. When the time of a recitation has closed, the exercises should stop at once. The class officer, being charged with the duty of keeping the time, should, at its expiration, instantly arise, com- mand the class to stand and pass, wiien each mem- ber, in perfect order, passes to his regular seat. Too much stress can not be placed upon these prompt and orderly movemeyits. They influence the whole charac- ter ; and since habits are gregarious, they generate orderly j^ractices in other directions. The p)reparation of lessons in study hours. — Let your programme define the study hours of each class, and the particular branches that are to be attended to during the given time. This leaves your pupils with no idle mo- ments. It provides useful work for every portion of the day. It thus conduces to prompttiess and regularity as well as to thorough preparation. The fidl employment of the time shoidd he insisted upon. FORMATION OP CHARACTER. 209 In all class exercises. — Here the teacher must be the inspirer and motive power. He must be master of the subject and of the occasion. He must have a 2)lctn of conducting the recitations so icell defined that it is patent to every observer. His own part must be performed with promptitude and precision, and he will then be in a position to compel corresponding action among his pupils. Let him ever remember that whatever course secures ihe, practice of right habits, confirms and makes them eleinents of character. In the general movements and exercises of the school. — Allow no confusion under any circumstances. Let your school be so thoroughly and wisely organized that you can move at will the whole or any part of it with celerity and precision. Let your classes be formed as companies, with an officer for each. Give special instructions to the officers, and drill them when necessary. When a general movement is to be made, let it be done by com- panies, at the word of command, or by signal, according to circumstances. Occasionally, say once a week, drill your classes to redly rapidly by companies to previously assigned positions, at a moment's warning. Precision, promptness, and regularity come by practice. They do not appear spontaneously^ nor are they acquired by spas- modic and inefficient efibrts. Such drills develop true executive power. The teacher needs this. Everybody needs it, everywhere. Therefore it should, like the other powers, be developed at school. Every school, particu- larly every large school, should be organized and con- ducted on a systematic, or modified military plan. If masses, either of children or adults, are to- be handled with facility, and moved rapidly and safely, there is but one general plan, and that is the systematic, or, if you please, the military plan. This system implies neither unkind 210 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. ness nor severity. On the contrary, it is i:>erfectly com- patible with mutual kindness and respect between teacher and pupils, and it conduces to both. The best system is capable of mismanagement and abuse. But no system, or a half-icay system, is an abifse in itself. That disci- pline which does not seciire precision and pi'omptness is a misnomer. It is worthless, because it is slipshod and demoralizing. In no country is strict discipline at school more needful than in our own ; for nowhere is the lesson of exact and willing obedience more important than in a country whose watchword is Liberty under Law. System in all tilings is to be cultivated by the methods already suggested. The well-ordered school will impress the lesson 2iYidi enforce l\ie practice oi order at every step. Orderly movements, whether of individuals, classes, or masses ; orderly studies systematically pursued ; orderly recitations and exercises of every kind, will necessarily develop orderly habits in all who are subjected to their influence. Here, also, tJte consistent example of the teacher is of the greatest importance. He should never neutral- ize his precepts by the influence of a false example. Neatness of person and surroundings. — It can scarcely be necessary to occupy much space in the detail of plans for encouraging and enforcing habits of neatness. They must be too obvious to require a formal statement. Nothing can be more inexcusable or out of place thaji filthiness in the school-room or among its occupants. It costs nothing to be neat, if we except the price of a little labor and patience. Begin, then, by exemplifying neat- ness of person, and follow it up by enforcing it, if need be, upon your pupils. Provide the necessary aids to this work, or see that they are provided. Require the free iise of clean water, clean towels, clean drinking utensils. Keep the school-room, the furniture, and grounds FOEMATION OP CHAEACTEE. 211 clean at all hazards. Is it necessary to suggest how this may be done ? The teacher who has not yet learned the ways and means to neatness has not completed his pre^xaration for his duties, and should be sent to a good laundry, thence to a bath-house, and thence to take les- sons of a tidy housekeej^er ! If your pupils come to school with dirty hands and faces, send them home with clean ones. If they appear to you with dirty clothes and unkempt hair, dismiss them at night with a kind and gentle hint. A school-room, its appurtenances and sur- roundings, kept scrupulously neat and orderly, will ever be a silent yet powerful incentive to every child to go a) id be liketvise. Carefulness. — It is not speaking too strongly to declare that carelessness is, in most cases, closely allied to crime, and that in its larger manifestations it should be treated as such. There may sometimes be excuses for ignorance, but for carelessness, never. Nothing should be more assiduously cultivated at home, at school, and everywhere, than its opposite, carefulness, foi'e- thonght, attention. Whatever is attempted to be done at all should be loell done. If loorth doing, it deserves vkU doing, care. Hence, let forethought be religiously enjoined and exacted in every exercise, physical or men- tal, oral or written. Let a repetition of the act he de- manded in case of negligence or inattention until the duty assigned is performed loith care. By persistent atten- tion to what each child does, and to his manner of doing it, any teacher who is so disposed will find abundant opportunities, not only for eradicating bad habits, but imitating good ones, carefulness as well as others. Respectful deportment. — The practice of good man- ners should be systematically enforced in every school and household. All of the customary tokens of respect 212 THE teacher's hand-book. should be observed, not only in the intercourse between teachers and pupils, but among the pupils themselves. The practice of formally passing the salute on the school grounds, in the street, and elsewhere, by the pupils on' meeting in the morning, is to be commended and encour- aged, if not insisted upon. Boys and young men should be taught to give the military salute easily and grace- fully. They may, indeed, be required to practice it to- ward all with whom- they associate while under the immediate authority of the teacher. A particular time may be set apart occasionally for considering and put- ting in practice those rules of conduct which govern rational beings in cultivated society. It is a legitimate part of the school work, no more to be neglected than the lessons in language, or the demonstrations of mathematics. The preservation of jiroperty. — One of the most lamentable indications of the day is the growing reck- lessness in the use of property, and the wanton waste- fulness that grows out of it. This practice is literally encouraged, because permitted and uncorrected at school. Our costly school buildings and other public edifices, Avith their furniture, are often no sooner opened for use than the spirit of vandalism seems at once to be let loose upon them for injury and destruction. The fact is noto- rious, and our schools should everywhere lay a stern and unrelenting hand uj^on so grave an abuse. The duty of guurding against such flagrant wrongs should be pressed home by precept, by example, and, when necessary, by the summary punishment of all ofl:enders. In practices of this kind, and kindred evil habits, are to be found the sources of crime, and they can not be too severely rebuked. Attention. — This habit of the mind lies at the founda- tion of all good teaching and intelligent practice. It is to be cultivated in connection with every study, move- FOKMATION OF CHAKACTEE. 213 ment and exercise of the school. It should he made the condition precedent to every event in the power of the teacher to guide or control. Is a movement signal to be given ? Atiention is the first in order. Is a rule to be promulgated, a lesson assigned, a question asked or answered, a recitation heard ? Let nothing be attempted until attention is secured, and when that ceases let your work cease ; for otherwise it will be in vain. In a word, since attention is the basis of all progress and success, seize upon every occasion and legitimate device for arresting and holding it until it becomes in- deed a habit, fixed and wrought into the very being of your pupils. Remember that nothing profitable can be done where there is inattention. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS XXXI. AND XXXII. (1) General remarks — principles and methods ; (2) Practical education — the formation of habits ; (3) Thought and action, knowing and doing ; (4) A grave defect in education noticed ; {5) An uncultivated field — development of character ; (G) Habits defined ; (7) Influence of good actions ; (8) A pertinent question — What can the school do toward forming good habits ? (9) Habits that may be cultivated at school : promptness and regularity, obedience, order, system, self- respect ; respect for persons, rights, and property ; scrupulous carefulness ; neatness of. person and surroundings; courtesy, kindness, justice, industry, economy, attention ; importance of these habits considered seriatim ; (10) This syllabus "not intended to be exhaustive, but merely illustra- tive and suggestive; (11) Methods detailed; promptness and regularity, how made habitual ; by regular attendance ; by sub- jecting delinquents to proper penalties ; by commending those who practice them ; through class movements ; through regular preparation of lessons ; through class exercises ; through prompt general movements and exercises ; system to be enforced by same means and by example of teacher; neatness, how made habitual; careful habits, how formed ; respectful deportment ; the preser- vation of property ; attention. 214 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. CHAPTER XXXIII. MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE. 1. General Remarks. — The origin, objects, organ- ization, and, to some extent, the Course of Instruction of the Institute have been considered. The next step is to make some practical suggestions concerning its manage- ment. All previously described conditions may have been fulfilled, and yet, without intelligent and judicious control and direction, failure must be inevitable. No agency, whether material, social, or moral, however im- portant its objects or perfect its organization, can accom- plish its beneficent purjDOses without Avise and efficient guidance. Neither the institute nor the school, nor any other human instrumentality, is exempted from the opera- tion of this law. 2. The management should be energetic. — Time is precious. The session of the institute is to be brief. It must be assiduously devoted to the promotion of the objects contemplated. To this end -everything should be done decently, in ordei", and with as little delay as* may be compatible with well-doing. The example that a prompt and earnest method of conducting its affairs will present, should not be lost upon a body of young and comparatively inexperienced teachers. Let it be such that they will carry with them its inspiration to their respective schools, and thus redeem them from MANAGEMENT OP THE INSTITUTE. 215 the reproach that they seem to be devices for killing time. A due degree of deliberation should, of course, characterize the exercises, so far, at least, as may be necessary to secure clear and accurate thought and ex- pression ; but let it not degenerate into that slow and easy movement which converts so many schools into dormitories for drowsy children, or contrivances for the promotion of dullness and stupidity. If earnestness and enthusiasm are needed anywhere, it is in the school-room. The order of exercises, if properly prepared, has provided a time for everything. Hence, let everything be done in its time, and let the changes from one event to another be effected without any unnecessary delay. 3. It should be cheerful and vivacious. — So far as the circumstances will allow, it may be reiterated, the institute should be made a pattern for the study and imitation of all who attend it, that their schools may at once feel the impetus and inspiration it is so well calcu- lated to impart. A teacher with a cheerful and ani- mated style is a " pearl of great price " to any school. He diffuses a perpetual sunshine wherever he goes, and converts the class-room into one of the most delightful of resorts. This spirit should ever prevail in the man- agement of an institute. The conductor and instructors should illustrate it in the presence of their pupils. A demure and surly style will be certain to impart its con- tagion to all subjected to its influence, and it can not fail to tell powerfully against the chances of a successful issue of the work in hand. 4. It demands a responsible head. — Since it is assumed that the institute should be organized and con- ducted as far as possible, like a school with a responsible head, and not like a deliberative body subject to the irregularities and vicissitudes of a mass meeting, swayed 216 THE teacheb's hand-book. to and fro by conflicting opinions, it is manifest that it niTist be controlled and directed by one mind and spirit. This proposition is so evident as to require no discussion. 5. Qualifications of the Conductor. — It is fur- ther evident that the conductor should be a person of scholarly attainments, of broad views, generous sympa- thies, and eminent professional acquirements. He should be quick to perceive, prompt to decide, ready to execute, courteous yet firm in manner, and just in his intercourse. He should possess that keenness of discernment and ready tact which will enable him to adapt himself to the requirements of the occasion. In a Avord, his scholar- ship, executive abilities, manners, and professional attain- ments should be such as to challenge universal respect. 6. Adhere to the Programme. — If the order of exercises has been prepared with due care, it should be faithfully followed in all respects. To tamper with it leads only to confusion, dissatisfaction, and comparative failure. A convenient and rapid method of calling the roll at the commencement of each session has already been described. This is the first duty after the institute has been called to order. The roll of absentees may be reviewed at a subsequent time and explanations heard. This is a good practice. It stimulates regularity. It discourages tardiness and needless absence by appealing to the/)r/«e?^>?e of self-respect. No person is so regard- less of his reputation as to be willing that his short-com- ings should be exposed to public view. The evils of' irregular attendance upon our schools are so great that the most radical remedies for their removal may be easily justified. Unless teachers can be induced to be prompt and regular, there can be no hope of amendment in their pupils. Let them remember then that the reformation of this abuse must begin at home, with themselves. MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE. 217 7. Devotional Exercises. — No school of auy descrii3tion should omit appropriate religious exercises at the opening of the morning session. They should immediately follow the roll-call. In order to enlist the religious element of the community in behalf of the institute, the services of the local clergy should be secured to conduct the devolional exercises and to assist in the evening lectures. The former should be made impressive yet short, never exceeding five or ten min- utes in length. In the absence of the clergy, the exer- cises may be led by the conductor or one of the instruct- ors. The following plan will be found interesting and impressive, inasmuch as it aids in securing the hearty co-operation of all present. The devotional exercises should occur at the opening of the morning session only. PLAN FOR CONDUCTING RELIGIOUS EXERCISES. 1. Music, chant or chorus by the entire body. 2. Reading of Scriptitkes, by the leader and the members responsively. 3. Chanting or reciting in concert the Lor<.Vs Prayer, to be followed immediately by a short silent prayer, xoith bowed heads and in a sittiny position. 4. Chorus by the entire body. That seems to be the best method of worship which heartily and reverently enlists the attention and sym- pathy of the assembly. As this method has been found, after a long experience, to be very satisfactory, it is cor- dially commended to the consideration of institute con- ductors and the teachers of our public schools generally. 10 218 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. CHAPTER XXXIY. MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE CONTINUED. 8. Class Movements. — Whenever the institute is divided into classes under separate instructors, and in different rooms as heretofore indicated, a simj^le, prompt and effective method sliould be devised for moving these chisses when necessary in a quiet and orderly manner. The object of this is to save time and afford a good example to the young teachers. It will be a potent lesson in school management. Order is not only heaven's first law, but it is the first law of the school-room, where habits are to be formed and character develoj^ed that are to be as enduring as life itself. The classes may be trained in a few minutes to move in a certain order at the light tap of a bell, the word of command, or other gentle signal. The members should be seated in the clas-s-room in the order in which they enter it, and leave it in reverse ordei*. By observing a few simple rules like these, Avhich are soon learned and reduced to practice, time may be saved, order preserved, and a wholesome precedent established of great value to the teachers present. In this drill, as in all others of whatever nature in the school-room, precision and promptness should be insisted upon at all times. The truth is that these two charapteristics are the soul of good discipline, and good disciplitie has more to do loith the formation of character than all the studies of the most elaborate curriculum. There is a moral power in a wisely-con- MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE. 219 ceived and effectively-administered discipline that no other agency can supply. 9. Recesses and intermissions. — These inter- ruptions should be regular but brief, and not too fre- quent. A general recess of ten or fifteen minutes at the middle of each half day's session will be amply sufficient. When they do occur, all the members should be encour- aged to participate in them. They offer an excellent opportunity for agreeable social intercourse between the members. It would be well for the instructors also to take special pains on such occasions to mingle Avith the members and bring themselves into hearty sympathy with them. The acquaintances and personal friendships thus formed constitute some of the most valuable results flow- ing from these meetings of teachers and friends of edu- cation. Such opportunities should by no means be neglected. At the close of the recess period the proper signal should promptly be given, and no unnecessary delay should be allowed to occur in the resumption of business. 10. Choice of instructors. — In the selection of instructors it will be wise to look at the question of their adaptation to the particular branches they are to teach, and the other special duties they are to perform. For instance, if we wish to secure the best attainable I'esults in reading, language, and their related subjects, we must assign them to the teacher who has special gifts in that direction rather than to one who is indifferent to them. The same principle will apply to the teaching of mathematics, the sciences, and the more distinctively professional subjects that may engage attention. Teach- ing a subject con atnore is very difterent in its I'esults from compulsory or distasteful work. This is one of the 220 THE teacher's hand-book. best methods of avoiding stale platitudes and the weari- some practice of talking around subjects, arising from the attempt to teach what is imperfectly understood. Our institutes in many cases, have been brought into disfavor, if not into positive discredit, by a surplus of this style of talking against time. It is in no proper sense, teaching. 11. Day and Evening Exercises. — A refer- ence to the programme heretofore presented, will dis- close the fact of a marked difference between the exercises of the day and the evening. During the morning and afternoon drill, exercises are mainly carried on with par- ticular reference to professional objects. Some of them may be regarded as academical, yet they are designed to be conducted in such a manner as to develop princi- ples and methods of instruction. One of the best modes of teaching hoio to teach, is hy example. We should so teach as to illustrate the best methods. Example is more impressive than precept. The practice of an accom- plished teacher at an institute will generally make a deeper impression upon his hearers, than the jDrecepts with which it is accompanied. The evenings, so far as they are occupied, should be set apart for work of a more general nature. A leading object of the institute, let it be remembered, is to arouse and inform the people. While it is necessary to educate the children and youth, it should not be forgotten that there is an education of the people to be secured, with- out which, none of our measures to 2)vomote the former can succeed. Puhlic sentiment must he p>repared to accept and sustain the plans for school work. Hence, the proceedings of the evening meetings should be so shaped as to meet this want. Lectures and essays upon practical educational suhjtcts, with jjointed discussions MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE. 221 in which the people should be freely invited to join, ought to form the leading if not the exclusive feature of the evening work. Care must be taken to avoid long, prosy, and tedious lectures upon unimportant topics. On the contrary, the aim should be to secure those which are short, i)ithy, and suggestive, and to allow sufficient time to discuss the leading points developed by the speakers. With six hours devoted to the morning and afternoon sessions, n.ot more than one hour and a half should be occupied in the evening. One evening in each week, say on Friday, may be profitably used for purely social purposes. If more than two weeks be devoted to the session, not more than two evenings in each should be given to public exercises. While it is wise to improve the time, it will be very unwise to over- tax the powers of the teachers by attempting to do too much. 12. General Exercises. — By general exercises we imply those in which the entire body of teachers shall take part. Vocal music, drills in elocution, simul- taneous answers to general questions, and calisthenics, are examples. Such exercises should be regularly and judiciously interspersed and vigorously conducted. They ought to be brief and sprightly. Aside from being extremely useful per se, they give a healthful A'ariety, introduce that change which is equivalent to rest, and thus enable the class to pursue its ordinary work with unabated interest and zeal. If wisely con- ducted at the institute, these exercises will aiford valua- ble hints to the teachers, and enable them, with sucli wise modifications as the altered circumstances may demand, to introduce them into their schools. 13. The Use of Apparatus. — While the market is crowded with school api^aratus and with multifarious 222 THE TEACIIEll's UAND-BOOK. forms of aids to illustration, it must be confessed that, as a whole, our common schools are lamentably deficient in the possession and application of tliem to the purposes of instruction. It is true that maps, globes, blackboards, &c., abound in many of the schools, while othere, per-' haps a great majority, are totally destitute in this re- spect. In a large projiortion of those supplied with material aids, these helps or most of them, 'are per- mitted to rust out unused, to suffer abuse, or if xised at all, are handled to very little profit. The mere presence of apparatus in the schools is not enough; that does not guarantee its judicious and eifective ajjplication to its intended purposes. It should not be forgotten that considerable tact and skill are required to uae appcD'atits with effect. This is almost a specialty, in itself The art of manipulating it dexterously and to the purpose, needs to be tcmght, not only by example, but by the actual practice of the future teacher, if possible, under supervis- ion and criticism. Once learned, this art becomes a real pleasure and a fascination both to the teacher and taught. The institutes afford an excellent and indeed almost the only occasion to the majority of teachers, for acquiring the requisite skill in this important depart- ment. Hence, apparatus should be liberally supplied and faithfully used at these gatherings. Not only should the example of its skillful use be afforded, but as fre- quently as possible, the members of the institute should be called upon to repeat the illustrations and experiments under the direction and subject to the criticisms of those w^ho are skilled in the art. So important is the ability to use material aids in teaching, that a certain speci- fied portion of time might be profitably employed daily in the work. Skill in this respect will tend more than anything else to draw teachers away. from a blind adher- MANAGEMENT OP THE INSTITUTE, 223 ence to text-books. It will give them useful practice in oral instruction, and cultivate a habit of self-reliance that is indispensable to real power and success in teaching. 14. Technical Education. — It is one of the most encouraging signs of the times that the number of phys- ical and chemical laboratories, art schools, and polytech- nic institutes is increasing throughout the coiintry. Such facts indicate that educated people begin to recog- nize more than ever the utility of cultivating the hand and eye, as well as the memory of abstract ideas. It shows an increasing belief that things no less than vmrds are educational instruments of immense importance. Seeing, touching, and handling, as well as hearing and speaking, must lead to understanding and believing. The teachers' institutes, as the principal means at pres- ent available for reaching the great body of the elemen- tary teachers, should recognize this truth, seize upon and endeavor to enforce it in the practice of the common schools everywhere. 15. Map^, Globes, Black-boards, &,c. — Even as simple and common-place instruments as the black- board, wall map, and terrestrial globe are yet very im- perfectly employed as school helps. Hundreds of schools are not supplied, while other hundreds seem to harbor them only as appendages that are more orna- mental than useful, or leave them exposed to the ravages of time and youthful vandalism. It is insisted here, that the ability would create the desire to use and the dis2)0sl- tion to save them from the tcear and tear of disuse, as well as the criminality of abuse. 16. Open Questions. The Question Drawer. — Many questions will arise in the minds of teachers during the discussions of an institute, and it is verv 224 THE TEACIIEk's HAND-BOOK. desirable that they should be satisfactorily answered. Some of the questions will be upon professional, and others upon general subjects. Ample provision should be made by which pointed and pithy replies may be given. It is sometimes customary to set apart a definite portion of time daily for this exercise. The last fifteen or twenty minutes of the afternoon session will afibrd a faA^orable opportunity. The questions may be proposed verbally in open court, or deposited in a box or drawer designated for the purpose by the conductor. Inexpe- rienced and dittident teachers will pi-efer the latter method. Others will have no hesitation in proposing their ques- tions at the time appointed for their consideration. If wisely managed, this will prove to be one of the most interesting and profitable exercises in the series. Many of the teachers, by means of it, will be able to present the difiicuUies encountered in their jjrofessional experi- ence, and will profit by the solutions that older and wiser heads may freely ofter. The time given to the question drawer is thus turned into an experience meet- ing, and lessons of wisdom that would require years to learn unaided, may here be mastered within a few well-spent minutes. Every encouragement ought to be aftorded for the presentation of questions in one form or another, and the utmost freedom should be used in dealing with them concisely, practically, and in a kindly spirit. 17. The Class Drills. — In the management of classes at an institute, sj)ecial pains should be taken to individualize the teacMiHj, by drawing out as frequently as possible, each member of the class. It is not that which is heard merely, but that wliich is reproduced and digested that is truly acquired. The lectui'e, or pour- ing in process is not enough, liut little of what is MANAGEMENT OF THE INSTITUTE. 225 said in this way is actually retained and applied by the average teacher. The method of conducting the class- drills should be such as to secure the closest attention of all and draw out, in a correct ansicer or apt illustration, each member as frequently as possible. An accomplished instructor will look carefully after this matter, and not allow himself to call upon the more forward and ready persons only. Questions calling for simultaneous an- swers and direct questions should be sparingly employed. The habit of calling out the members of a class in a uniform order should generally be avoided. Let each question be pointed and logical ; let it be asked promptly ; and let the person that is to answer be designated after it has been enunciated. This will secure attention, keep the class on the alert with exjDCCtation, and enable the instructor to accomplish the maximum of good in the minimum of time. 18. Dictation Lectxires, Lessons, &.c. — Expe- rience has shown that but few of those who attend the institutes are much profited by lengthy lectures embody- ing sustained arguments upon abstract subjects, or even a long array of facts and figures. The lectures delivered on such occasions should be brief, and given witli a de- gree of deliberation that Avill enable the members to write out quite fully the leading thoughts developed. Indeed, dictation lectures so outlined and timed in the delivery as to enable their hearers to record the principal points, are by far the most permanent and beneficial in their influence. Such lectures become a positive acquisi- tion to the hearer, who derives mucli advantage from the practice of writing out concise and systematic abstracts of the best thoughts of others. 10* 226 THE teacher's hand-book. SUMMARY OF TOPICS ON THE MANAGEMENT OP INSTITUTES. CHAPTERS XXXIII. AND XXXIV. (1) Importance of good management ; (2) It sliould be ener- getic ; (3) It should be cheerful and lively ; (4) The Institute must have a responsible head ; (5) Qualifications of the conductor pointed out ; (6) Programme should be closely followed ; (7) Devotional exercises recommended and outlined ; (8) Class movements, how conducted ; (9) Recesses and interruptions to be brief but regular ; (10) Choice of instructors to be characterized by a wise adapta- tion ; (11) Day and evening exercises to be varied to suit the Jieeds of teachers and people ; (13) General exercises specified and recommended; (13) The use of apparatus strongly urged; (14) Remarks on technical education ; (15) Maps, globes, and black- boards, the importance of their free and judicious use ; (16) Gen- eral and professional questions recommended ; " experience meet- ings ; " (17) Class drills, how conducted; necessity of individual- izing instruction ; personal power of the teacher in class work ; (18) Dictation lectures and lessons, their value considered. CHAPTEE XXXV. PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 1. Value of Questions. — Perhaps no form of composition is more suggestive of close thought than concise and pointed questions. If they refer to vital topics, they at once challenge attention and incite to in- vestigation. Thovxghtful minds can not easily resist the force of such interi'ogatories. The art of judicious ques- tioning lies at the basis of thorough teaching. It is therefore worthy of careful study and assiduous practice. By means of the right kind of questions, put at the right PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 227 time and in the right order, a, teacher may lead his pupils to any desired conclusion through the natural operation of their own faculties. The great advantage of such teaching is that the truths are received into the minds of the pupils with all the force of a legitimate convic- tion, instead of being passively accepted on the tes- timony of the teacher and the text-book. The true method of leading out and forming the minds of young children is the method of questioning carefully, logic- ally, thoroughly. Nor is this method devoid of great advantages to adults. Other modes are applicable, it is true, to minds more advanced, but the Socratic method is always in order. If the teacher would increase his power, let him imitate the example of his illustrious pro- totype of antiquity. The uses to which the subjoined series of questions may be applied are various, and it may be proper to indicate a few of them. 2. The Self-examination of Teachers. — Self- examination is no less profitable in intellectual and pro- fessional than in moral and religious culture. It may be regarded as the key to true progress in every depart- ment of study. This introversion of the mind upon it- self is one of the most difficult as well as one of the most useful of mental exercises. It leads to the discovery of one's deficiencies. It defines clearly the limits of our knowledge, and discloses somewhat the extent of our ignorance. It thus becomes a powerful incentive to self-culture. A caj-eful examination of the questions submitted, will, it is believed, lead to the conviction that there are none in the list that a teacher ought not to he qualified to ansv^er intelligently. The answers to many of the in- terrogatories will be found in the Hand-Book, since they relate to topics discussed herein. References to the 228 THE teacher's hand-book. works indicatecl in connection with some of the ques- tions will aftbrcl the information necessary for their proper answers. The best metliod of using them in the j^rocess of self-examination will be, perhaps, to select one series at a time, and, having determined the answers, write them out systematically in connection with the questions, in a book provided for the purpose, leaving a blank space under each answer for such additions or annotations as further reading and reflection may suggest. 3. The question indicates a course of profes- sional reading and study. — By a little attention to the order of the several topics covered by the ques- tions, as well as to the order of the latter themselves, it will be seen that they present an outline of a course of professional study. They are not, however, exhaustive ; others will be suggested to the thoughtful teacher as he advances. But they will serve to guide the course of his reflections, and lead him to some of the more important conclusions upon professional subjects. Following the series out to their legitimate answers, the reader can not fail to find himself reasonably well-in- formed upon a great variety of useful professional topics. 4. The questions will be valuable to Su- perintendents in the examination of teachers. — In the course of the author's observations in respect to the professional questions employed in the examina- tion of teachers, he has been especially struck with their vagueness and want of breadth. Many of those pub- lished in ofticial reports have seemed to be frivolous and of little practical use. Such questions can not stimulate to high professional attainments. They rather encourage mediocrity, and lead to tlie impression that a fair knowl- edge of the hrcDiclits taught is the chief requisite in a teacher's qualifications. PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 229 The subjoined scries has been prepared in the hope of opening up a broader and deeper view of the profes- sional attainments necessary to tlie teachers of this country'. The aim has been to propose no questions of an ephemeral character, but rather to prepare such only as refer to salient points of permanent and vital interest. They are not for a day but ibr all time, and it is be- lieved that their indirect or suggestive value will prove to be quite equal to their direct and immediate import- ance. The author suggests that these questions, with others of a similar character, might be so employed as to eflect a general and permanent elevation of the standard of professional attainments throughout the land, by means of uniform examinations according to clearly defined rules. This grand consummation might be reached by the general use of portions of the questions at successive examinations of teachers in the several States, selections being made from them and issued in advance, with the understanding that at the appointed time for the exami- nations, satisfactory answers would be exacted of all who desired certificates of a given grade. If this, or some similar plan, could, by concerted action, be followed up from year to year, it is submitted that an advance would be realized in the qualifications of teachers, and conse- quently in the chai'acter of our schools, not easily attain- able in any other way or at so insignificant a cost. Through the Bureau of Education, the National Associa- tion, the departments of Public Instruction, and the Teachers' Associations of the several States, such a plan could be inaugurated and successfully carried out, to the immeasurable advantage of the people. This plan accords with the conviction that education is based upon unchanging principles, essentially the same from age to 230 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. age, their application only being modified according to time, place, and circumstances. Hence it is possible so to frame questions as to develop the principles and the methods growing out of them. That all loho teach should master these principles and methods is a proposi- tion admitting of no argument. How to develop them in the minds of the two hundred thousand teachers of the country is an important problem. It is the convic- tion of the author of these pages, tha^t no one step loould he more conducive to the end in view than the plan sug- gested. Whether it be undertaken as a national move- ment in the manner suggested, or not, the scheme is 2^er- fectly practicable in the States possessing organized systems of public instruction, with their machinery of supervision and examination perfectly adjusted and under control. In any event, the scheme may be worthy of consideration, and its discussion can result in no injury to the great interests involved, while it may be product- ive of incalculable good. 5 . Many of the questions will afford fruit- ful themes for discussion at Institutes, Asso- ciations, &,C. — ^^M^^ch inconvenience is sometimes expe- rienced through the lack of suitable topics for discussion at Institutes. A careful examination of the questions will disclose a great number of such topics, while their perusal will suggest others of vital importance adapted to these occasions. For the evening sessions, at which it is iisually expected that the people will be present, questions relating to the " Location and Construction of school houses;" "Ventilation;" "The relations of Parents and Teachers;" "The State and Education;" and kindred subjects will be the most appropriate. In the series presented, will be found a great number and PEOFBSSIONAL QUESTIONS. 231 variety of this class of questions, to which attention is especially directed. It has not been deemed expedient to present any questions upon the subjects taught in the schools, since that course would have extended the series far beyond the limits assigned to this portion of the work. Ques- tions of this kind are more easily prepared, and may be indefinitely varied according to the individual views of the examiner. That a systematic and thorough course, especially upon the methods of teaching the elementary branches of study, would prove highly useful in many ways, there can be no doubt. Such a series, superadded to those annexed, wuth suggestive answers and copious references, is in course of preparation, and may hereafter be submitted to the profession in a separate volume, should there be a demand for it. QUESTIONS ON THE NATURE OF EDUCATION. 1. What do you mean by Education? 2. Give the etymology of the word (Webster's Un- abridged). 3. How does Webster define the term? 4. What is the diiference between education and learning ? Between education and instruction ? 5. What was Milton's conception of education? 6. What was Kant's idea of it ? 1. What do Dr. Whewell, Lord Bolingbroke, John Locke, Addison, Bishop Butler, Fellenberg, Marcel, Sidney Smith, Cicero, Dugald Stewart, and liuskin say of Education? • 8. Who was Pestalozzi ? Give a summary of his educational principles. 9. Who were John Locke, Addison, Sidney Smith, 232 THE teacher's hand-book. Cicero, Dugald Stewart, and Fellenberg ? (See Ameri- can Encyclopedia or BiograjDhical Dictionary.) 10. What was Horace Mann's idea of Education ? David P. Page's ? W. E. Channing's ? 11. Who was Horace Mann ? Dr. Channing? David P. Page ? 1 2. State what yon know of Fellenberg, Kant. (See American Journal of Education, Vols. IH., V., VIH., X., and Xni.) 13. Why should teachers possess a clear conception of the true ends of education '? Note. — For concise answers to questions 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, see report of the United States Commissioner of Education for 1867-8, pp. 833 to 848, both inclusive. Also Barnard's American Journal of Education, Vol. XL, pp. 11-20 ; Vol. Xni., pp. 7-16; and Vols. HI. p. 401, IV., p. 65, &c. THE PRINCIPAL AGENCIES IN EDUCATION. 1. Name the three most potential agencies in the promotion of education. 2. Which of the three do you regard as the most im- portant ? Why ? 3. Whose personal influence is the earliest felt by the child ? 4. What do you think of the power of this influence ? 5. At what age does the child begin to be afiected by it ? 6. What is the office of the family in the education of the child prior to the school age ? What during the school period ? 7. Name some of the more prominent duties of the parent toward the school. PKOFESSIONAL QUESTIOKS. 233 8. How may a teacher influeiife parents to discharge these duties ? 9. How woiTld you induce parents to visit the school? 10. Why ouglit a teacher to visit the parents of his pupils ? 11. Name some of the advantages of these mutual visitations. THE SCHOOL. 1. At about what age should a child first enter school ? 2. How far advanced in intellectual culture ought the child to be previous to entering the school ? 3. Name some of the more important moral habits to be formed in the child before entering the school. 4. Which of these do you regard as the most im- portant ? Why ? 5. What personal habits should the child possess be- fore admission to the school ? 6. What is the most important lesson in the child's life? 7. How would you habituate your pupils to Obedi- ence ? Order ? Industry ? Promptness ? Neatness ? 8. Which do you regard as the more potent agency in education, the family or the school ? Why ? 9. Do you think the school in any case more influen- tial than the home ? If so, under what circumstances ? 10. F©r how many hours per day ought children under ten years of age be kept in school ? 11. How many recesses, and of what length, would you allow such children ? 12. What employment would you provide for them ? 13. For how many minutes ought primary pupils to be engaged in a class exercise ? 234 THE teacher's hand-book. CHAPTER XXXYI. . PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. THE STATE AND EDUCATION. 1. Why should not the education of the young be left exclusively to the family ? 2. Why should it not be confided to the chuvch and the family alone ? 3. Give what you conceive to be the best reasons why the state should exercise control and supervision over education. 4. What do you mean by the state ? 5. Why is knowledge the universal right of man ? 6. Why is education the universal interest and duty of man ? I. How is man's inalienable right to liberty and the pursuit of happiness best secured ? 8. Why are ignorant men not free men ? 9. Why is ignorance a menace to free institutions ? 10. Do you think the mere ability to read and write, a sufficient qualification for the exercise of suftrage? If so, why ? II. What were Thomas Jefferson's views of the rela- tions of education to the welfare of the state and the happiness of the people ? 12. What were the words of President George Wash- ington in his farewell address ? 13. What were the views of William Penn, Presidents Madison and John Quincy Adams ? PROrESSIOlSrAL QUESTIONS. 235 14. What did De "Witt Clinton assert to be the first duty of government ? 15. What distinguished jurist was the author of the following sentiment ? " The parent who sends his son into the world uneducated, defrauds the community of a lawful citizen and bequeaths to it a nuisance." 16. What were the views of Horace Mann as to the qualifications of an American citizen ? 17. What were the views of Daniel Webster, as ex- pressed in his discourse at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1822? 18. Who was the author of this sentiment? "You will confer the greatest benefit on your city, not by rais- ing the roofs, but by exalting the souls of your fellow- citizens ; for it is better that great souls should live in small habitations than that abject slaves should burrow in great houses." 19. Why may not the promotion of education be left to the operation of the law of demand and supply ? 20. What were the views of John Stuart Mill upon this subject ? 21. On what occasion did Lord Brougham give utter- ance to the following sentiment? "Let the soldier be abroad if he will, he can do nothing in this age. There is another personage abroad, a person less imposing — in the eyes of some, insignificant. The school-master is abroad ; and T trust to him, armed with his primer, against the soldier in full uniform array." Who was Lord Brougham ? 22. What do you think of this sentiment of Montes- quieu? "Illducation makes the man, that alone is the parent of every virtue ; it is the most sacred, the most useful, and, at the same time, the most neglected thing in every country." Who was Montesquieu ? 236 THE teacher's hand-book. 23. What distinguished statesman and philosopher uttered the following truism? "Liberty can never be certain and complete unless among a people sufficiently enliglitened to listen in every emergency to the voice of reason." 24. What do you think of the standard of education suggested in the following paragraph? The education required for the people is that which will give them the full coTumand of every faculty, both of mind and of body ; which will call into play their powers of observation and reflection ; which will make thinking and reasonable beings of the mere creatures of impulse, prejudice, and passion; wliich, in a moral sense, will give them objects of pursuit and habits of conduct favorable to their own happiness and to that of the community of which they will form a part ; which, by multiplying the means of rational and intellectual enjoyment, will diminish the temptations of vice and sensuality ; wliich, in the social relations of life, and as connected with objects of legislation, will teach them the identity of the individual with the general interest; which, in the physical sciences, especially those of chemistry and mechanics, will make them masters of the secrets of nature and give them powers which even now tend to elevate the moderns to a higher rank than that of the demi-gods of antiquity. All this and more should be embraced in that scheme of education which would be worthy of a statesman to give, or of a great nation to receive ; and the time is near at hand, when the attainment of an object thus comprehensive in its char- acter, and leading to results the practical benefits of which it is impossible for even the imagination to exag- gerate, will not be considered an Utopian scheme. 25. "Did I know the name of the legislator who first PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 237 conceived and suggested the idea of common schools, I should pay to his memory the highest tribute of rever- ence and regard. I should feel for him a much higher veneration and respect than I do for Lycurgus and Solon, the celebrated lawgivers of Sparta and Athens, I should revere him as the greatest benefactor of the human race; because he has been the author of a provision, which, if it should be adopted in every country, would produce a happier and more important influence upon the human character than any institution which the wisdom of man has devised," What do you think of the estimate placed upon the value of common schools by the learned jurist that uttered the above sentiments ? 26. Upon what does the value of the common schools depend ? 27. Name the agencies by means of which their qual- ity is to be improved and raised to the required standard. 28. How extensively should good common schools be established in this country ? 29. Give an outline of what you conceive to be necessary to a complete and efficient system of common schools. ORGANIZATION OP THE SCHOOL. 1. What is meant by the organization of a school ? 2. State what items of business should be transacted between the teacher and the school officers, prior to the commencement of the school. 3. Enumerate the more important duties to be per- formed on the first day of school. 4. Why should a teacher strive to make a pleasant first impression upon his pupils ? 238 THE teacher's hand-book. 5. IIow many grades or classes ought to be estab- lished in a district school ? 6. State what, in your opinion, is the proper basis of classification in such a school. v. What are the chief advantages of a programme of daily exercise and study ? 8. State the principles upon which a programme should be formed. 9. What reasons can you urge in favor of carefully adhering to the programme? 10. What items of information should be embraced in the daily record of a school ? 11. How would you determine the average daily attendance ? Monthly ? Yearly ? 12. How would you determine the " average number belonging " ? 13. State the advantages and disadvantages of daily class records. 14. What ai-e the advantages of written examina- tions ? What of oral ? Which do you prefer, and why ? 15. By whom should the seating of the pupils be determined, and why ? 16. In what manner ouglit all the movements of a school to be made ? What reasons can you give for your opinion ? 17. How often and in what manner should the roll be called ? IS. In what manner ought the records of a school to be kept ? 19. What should be done with the records at the end of the teacher's engagement ? 20. Of what use are school statistics of attendance ? Upon what does their value depend ? 21. In organizing your school what provision would 3^ou make for securing order ? Neatness ? Industry ? PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 239 CHAPTER XXXVII. PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. 1. "What is the diiFerence, if any, between the soul or mind and the intellect ? 2. Undei- what three divisions is it most convenient to consider the mind or soul ? 3. What is meant by the sensibilities ? 4. What by the intellect ? 5. What by the will ? 6. Name some of the sensibilities. V. Mention some of the means by which teachers may injui'e the sensibilities of children. 8. What do you regard as the strongest incentive to good actions by young children ? 9. What is the difference between capacity and sus- ceptibility. 10. What is a faculty? 11. How many and what are the classes of the intel- lectual faculties ? 12. Explain what you mean by each. 13. To which of these classes does memory belong? Reason ? Judgment ? Imagination ? What is the dis- tinction between recollection and memory ? 14. What is conscioxisness ? 15. What is sense-perception ? 16. What do you mean by observation ? 1 7. What faculties are the earliest developed in the child ? 240 THE teacher's hand-book. 18. How may these best be cultivated ? 19. By what means would jo\i aim to cultivate the imagination ? 20. What relation does the cultivation of the imagi- nation sustain to moral character ? 21. What is the relation of attention to memory ? Name some of the abuses of memory. 22. How would you seek to form the habit of atten- tion in your pupils ? 23. What do you mean by a concept ? 24. What relation does association sustain to memory ? 25. In what ways may a teacher cultivate the j^ower of association in his pupils ? 26. What can you say of the importance of this fac- ulty in its relations to other mental phenomena ? 27. Upon what does the vividness of mental impres- sions depend ? 28. Upon what does their permanence depend ? 29. Why ought not students to study late at night ? 30. What are some of the consequences of over exer- tion in mental labor ? 31. What rules would you give respecting the dura- tion of mental labor ? 32. AVhy ought vigorous physical exercise to accom- pany severe mental labor? MORALS AND MANNERS.- 1. What do you understand by the moral faculty? 2. What is the nature of conscience ? 3. Name several of the moral sentiments. 4. How would you endeavor to form the habit of truthfulness in your pupils ? 5. By what means would you seek to correct the practice of falsehood ? PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 241 6. How can a teacher best lead his pupils to the practice of kindness ? 7. By what methods would you seek to correct pro- fanity ? 8. Why are you bound to keep your promises ? 9. How would you lead your pupils to an habitual respect for the property of another ? 10. What would be your treatment of cases of hypocrisy and deception ? 11. How Avould you inculcate the spirit of patriotism ? 12. What would be your method of treating a quar- relsome disposition ? 13. How may courteous manners be best cultivated? 14. What is the diffei-ence between reputation and character ? 15. Would you attempt to reform an inoixlinately conceited pupil ? If so, how ? 16. Mention some of the more prominent evils result- ing from carelessness. 17. What proportion of the accidents of life do you conceive to be the result of carelessness ? 18. Have you any well-matured plans for breaking up this habit, and replacing it by the opposite charac- istic ? 19. Do you think that this kind of culture comes within the sphere of the teacher's duties and respon- sibilities? If not, please state the reasons. 20. Please state what is implied by symmetrical development in education, with moral culture omitted. 21. How may the power of conscience be strength- ened ? 22. In what way may a teacher wound the sense of justice of his pupils ? 23. Name some of the more serious consequences of 11 242 THE teacher's hand-book. neglecting the cultivation of the morals and manners of the young. SCHOOL STUDIES— PRIMARY. 1. What branches of study are best suited to the wants of a primary class ? 2. What reasons can you offer in support of your conclusion ? 3. Which of these branches would you give the greater prominence ? Why? 4. What method, or combination of methods would you adopt in teaching a class of beginners to read ? 5. On what considerations do you base your plan ? 6. How would you prevent children from using lan- guage mechanically in reading or otherwise ? 7. Name some of the evils arising from the use of words by children, without attaching to them their proper signification, 8. Why should ideas precede the use of language ? 9. At what stage of progress would you permit the use of a reading book ? 10. What aids to teaching reading should precede the use of books by the children ? 11. How would you employ the blackboard in teach- ing reading ? 12. In what manner would you make use of cards, charts, pictures, and objects in teaching primary read- ing, and for what purpose ? 13. When and how would you aim to cultivate an easy and natural expression in reading '? 14. How would you develop emphasis? 15. How would you secure accurate enunciation? 16. At what stage and how would you introduce Writing into a primai-y school ? PEOFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 243 17. What objections can you urge against teaching writing as a merely imitative art ? 18. What use can be made of blackboards and slates in teaching writing ? 19. In w4iat manner shoulds slates be prepared for the purpose ? 20. How would you connect writing with the read- ing lessons ? 21. At what stage of progress would you introduce Spelling, and how ? 22. What are the advantages of written exercises in spelling ? 23. What are the disadvantages of requiring children to spell words with the meaning and use of which they are unfamiliar, either by the oral or written methods ? 24. With what other exercises would you connect the spelling of words ? 25. What are the objections to the mere oral spell- ing of words arranged in word columns ? 26. What use would you make of geometrical forms and solids in a primary school ? 27. State some of the advantages of construction blocks in a primary class or school. 28. At what stage and how would you introduce Drawing into a primary class ? 29. What kind of lessons should precede and accom- pany those in drawing ? 30. When and how should Botany be introduced into this grade ? 31. Give an outline of the course. 32. When would you introduce lessons in Number, and in what manner ? 33. Give an outline of a course of lessons in number for a primary school. 244 THE teacher's hand-book. 34. What material aids should be employed in teach- ing pi'imaiy number lessons ? 35. In what cases and to what extent should text- books be used in a primary school ? 36. For what purpose should lessons in Place be introduced into the primary school ? 37. Give a list of the terms whose meaning it is one object of these lessons to develop. 38. For what regular study do lessons in place pre- pare the pupil, and how ? 89. Can you name any other primary lessons leading directly to the same study ? 40. What are the advantages of systematic lessons on Color and Form ? 41. What class of faculties should it be the special aim of the primary teacher to develop ? 42. In what way and how often should a teacher test the accuracy of the pupil's mental imj^ressions ? 43. For*what length of time should an exercise in a primary school be allowed to continue daily ? 44. During how many hours per da}'' should a pri- mary school be continued in session ? 45. How many recesses and for what length of time per day ? 46. Name such physical exercises as you deem advis- able in such a school. 47. In what manner would you aim to promote the Moral and Religious training of the children '? SCHOOL STUDIES— SECONDARY. 1. Give an outline of a course of study for a sec- ondary grade. 2. At what point should each of these studies be taken ujj at this stage ? PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 245 3. State what branches of knowledge you deem the most important to qualify an American citizen for the proper discharge of his duties both public and private. 4. State what you deem to be the proper use of text- books. What their abuse. 5. What qualifications are necessary in a pupil to enable him to use profitably a text-book on Arithmetic ? Grammar ?• Geography ? 6. Name such of the foregoing studies as you deem suited to pujiils of the secondary grade. 7. How far ought arithmetic to be carried in this grade ? 8. State why pupils should be confined to processes at this stage. 9. Why would you not demand the reasons for these processes ? 10. What should be the main objects in teaching arithmetic at this stage ? 11. By what means would you aim to secure accu- racy and rapidity of calculation here ? 12. What use would you make of the blackboard in teaching arithmetic in this grade ? 13. How would you lead your pupils to do their slate and blackboard work in a neat and symmetrical man- ner? 14. What powei's of the mind is arithmetic calculated to call into exercise when properly taught ? 15. How would you lead your pupils to an intelligent knowledge of the rules for the various processes ? 16. What are the objections to requiring a memo- rizing of the rules laid down in the text-books, by the pupils ? 17. What are the advantages of teaching mental and written arithmetic in connection with each other ? 246 THE teacher's hand-book. 18. "What are the objections to teaching Mental Arithmetic as an independent study ? 19. What are some of the abuses in teaching this branch to young children ? 20. Give an outline of a course of Languas-e lessons suitable for a secondary class. 21. What would be your aim in such a course ? 22. What would be your general metlrod of con- ducting these lessons ? 23. How would you employ the slate and blackboard in this course ? 24. At what time and in connection with what stud- ies should a teacher attempt to cultivate a ready and correct use of language on the part of his pupils ? 25. Give an outline of the plan you would pursue in connection with these studies. 26. What do you consider to be the best evidence a pupil can give of his knowledge upon any subject ? 27. When and in what manner would you introduce the Writing of Compositions ? 28. AVhat branch of natural science should be taught in a secondary school, and in what manner? 29. Name some of the more important advantages of Botany, as a study for children when properly taught. 30. Why should the Geography of the region imme- diately surrounding a pupil be first taught ? 31. State why a text-book should not be used in the early stages of this study. 32. Give a brief outline of the course you Avould pur- sue before using the text-book. 33. Explain what use you would teach your pupils to make of a text-book on geography. 34. What arc the advantages of map drawing ? 35. Why" would you lead your pupils to a knowledge PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 247 of the geography and resources of their own State before taking up that of remote regions ? 36. When would you introduce the globe ? What facts would you teach from it ? 37. When and how would you employ wall maps ? 38. What are the most important objects of the study of geography ? 39. What works of reference are necesstlry for a class in geography ? 40. How would you seek to cultivate language in teaching geography ? SCHOOL STUDIES. GRAMMAR SCHOOL GRADE. 1. Give a general outline of the studies suitable for a grammar school, or for a class of similar grade in a country school. 2. How should the methods of teaching in this grade diifer from those below it ? 3. State generally how you would conduct a class in Reading in this grade. 4. What preparation for such an exercise would you require of your pupils ? What preparation would you deem necessary for yourself? 5. Name some of the advantages of a thorough study of the subject-matter of a reading lesson. 6. What kind of a drill would you prescribe as a means of cultivating distinctness of articulation and compass of voice ? 7. How would you stimulate your pupils thoroughly to study the subject-matter? 8. What are the advantages of occasional concert or simultaneous readino- bv a class? 248 THE teacher's hand-book. 9. Describe your method of teaching Spelling in this grade. Why do you prefer this plan ? 10. How should the method of teaching Arithmetic in this grade differ from that of the class below ? 11. Why may the consideration of principles and reasons be brought forward here ? 12. What should be the leading object in a common school course in arithmetic. 13. Why should not an elaborate treatment of pi'in- ciples be entered upon in the common school ? 14. What use should be made of the blackboard in teaching arithmetic at this stage V 15. Give an outline of a course in Geogi-aphy suitable for a grammar school. 16. What serious objections can you urge against the memorizing of lessons in geography from a text- book? 17. What works of reference would you deem neces- sary in connection Avitli geography in this grade ? What use should be made of them ? 18. Why should map drawing be required in all the stages of geographical study ? 19. What use would you make of wall maps ? 20. What topics in mathematical geography would you teach here? What facts in physical geography? 21. Give outline of a course in Language and Gram- mar. 22. What use do you make of the text-book here ? What of the blackboard ? 23. How would you connect Composition with the lessons in language ? 24. What use, if any, would you make of parsing exercises, and why ? PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 249 25. Do you deem the analysis of sentences or pars- ing the more important, and why ? 26. What are the two more important objects of the study of grammar? 27. What branch of natural science, if any, would you introduce in this grade ? 28. What are the peculiar advantages of the study of Botany ? How far would you allow your pupils to use a text-book in this study ? 29. What part of the course in Writing should be taught in the grammar grade ? 30. How should the Discipline of a grammar school differ from a primary or secondary grade ? 31. What general exercises should be here intro- duced ? 32. Why may topical recitations and reviews be more frequent in the grammar school ? 33. What should be the length of the recitations ? 34. To what extent may the Etymology of words be introduced ? 35. In what Avay may the study of United States His- tory be conducted here ? 36. What are the advantages of this study to Ameri- can citizens ? 37. In connection with what other studies ought some knowledge of the structure of our government to be taught ? 11* 250 THE teacher's hand-book. CHAPTER XXXVIII. PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. CONDUCTING KECITATIONS, 1. Name fom* of the more imjDOrtant objects of the recitation. 2. Which of these objects do you regard as first in the order of time ? 3. What is meant by the development of ideas ? 4. What is the best method of developing thought ? 5. Upon what basis alone is it possible to develop new ideas in the mind of the child ? 6. State what you consider to be the true order of nature in this respect.- 7. Explain the terms concrete and abstract, and give an example of each. 8. Give an illustration of reasoning from the known to the unknown. 9. Give an example of the mental process of passing from the simple to the complex. 10. To what extent should a teacher aim to cultivate the use of language or the power of expression in a recitation ? 11. What valuable purposes are subserved by spend- ing a portion of a recitation in reviewing previous lessons ? 12. How may the power of association be cultivated in the recitation ? Memory ? Comparison ? Judg- ment? 13. How are the extent and accuracy of the attain- ments of the pupils tested in the recitation ? PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 251 14. Upon what does the value of our knowledge depend ? 15. How are the attainments of a class to be in- creased in the recitation ? 16. Why should a teacher know much more of a subject than he is required to teach ? 17. How are the habits of study of the pupils to be determined in the recitation ? 18. Why should a teacher make a careful special preparation for each recitation ? 19. In what should this preparation consist ? 20. What serious evils result from the failure of teachers to make such preparation ? 21. What do you mean by a sketch of a lesson ? 22. How would you aim to correct wrong habits of study in a pupil ? 23. Give an examjile of a wrong method of study. 24. Why is a pei'sistent concentration of the atten- tion necessary to profitable study ? 25. What mental injuries result from the opposite habit ? 26. What is a direct question ? A leading question ? An alternative question ? 27. Why should they be generally avoided? 28. In what way would you cultivate self-reliance in pupils ? 29. What oppoi'tunities are presented by the recita- tion for cultivating the moral faculties of the pupils? 30. What should be the length of a recitation in a secondary or intermediate class ? 31. What can you say of the value of judicious criti- cism in a recitation ? 32. Why should a teacher encourage his classes? How may this be done ? 252 THE teacher's hand-book. 33. For what purpose would you require frequent topical recitations in advanced classes ? 34. How would you prevent your pupils from recit- ing in the language of the text-book? 35. What are the chief objections to class records ? 36. In what manner would you require your classes to move to and from the recitation ? Why ? 37. What are the benefits resulting from a vigorous style of conducting recitations ?. 38. To what extent should a teacher use text.books in the recitation? 39. Why should talking in a loud tone of voice be avoided before a class ? 40. Why should recitations be promptly closed at the expiration of the apjjointed time ? SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 1. What are some of the serious evils of frequent changes of teachers ? 2. What evil consequences flow from a failure of school oflicers to visit the school and support the teacher ? 3. Why ought parents and school officers to visit the school often ? 4. At what time does the authority of the teacher over the pupil begin and end for the day? 5. Why is there no economy in the occupancy of old, inconvenient, and dilapidated school-houses ? 6. What objections can you name to the use of school- hoiises for public meetings ? 7. How would you prevent your pupils from cutting, defacing, and destroying the school building, furniture, and other property of the school ? 8. What are the good results flowing from a prompt PEOFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 253 and regular opening and closing of the school each day? 9. Why should a teacher be prompt and orderly in his management of a school ? 10. What are some of the bad consequences of a contrary policy ? 11. Name some of the more serious evils of a peevish and fretful temper on the part of a teacher in school. 12. Why is self-control in a teacher the basis of all proper control over his pupils ? is. What influence has the bad management of a school upon the habits and character of its pupils ? 14. Mention some of the more important means to be employed at school in the formation of good habits. 15. To what extent is a teacher responsible for the habits of his pupils ? SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 1. What is the meaning of the word discipline ? (See Webster's Unabridged.) 2. What are the two leading objects of discipline in a school ? 3. Which of these objects do you deem the more important, and ^'hy? 4. What motives should be addressed as incentives to right conduct in the pupil ? 5. In what manner and on what occasions especially would you appeal to these motives ? 6. Mention some of the incentives to right actions that you conceive to be superior to the fear of punish- ment, and give reasons. 7. Upon what does the moral quality of actions depend ? 8. What is the source of all bad conduct ? 254 THE teacher's hand-book. 9. How would you aim to exclude evil thoughts from the minds of your pupils ? 10. What relation does constant and useful employ- ment sustain to the good conduct of pupils and the good order of a school ? 11. What relation does a comfortable and pleasant school-room sustain to good order ? 12. Why ought the teacher to make the school-room and its exercises attractive to his pupils ? 13. What relation does bad air sustain to the disorder of a school? 14. What has the poor health, either of the teacher or his pupils to do with a disorderly school ? 15. Why is a carefully-devised system of school management necessary, to secure good order ? 16. Why are firmness and consistency of character in the teacher, indispensable to the same result ? 17. How does a carefully-devised and faithfully executed programme of recitation arid study tend to secure good order? 18. Why is a noisy and boisterous manner in the teacher promotive of disorder ? 19. How does a firm and quiet demeanor tend to the opposite result ? 20. Why should corporal punishment rarely be used ? 21. Under what circumstances, if ever, would you employ corporal punishment ? Why ? 22. Name such modes of punishment as you deem improper in a school. 23. Mention such penalties as you deem to be proper. 24. When should a penalty be imposed in private, and when in presence of the school ? 25. Under what circumstances would you consider a school to be governed too much ? PKOFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 255 26. How much of a teacher's time should be devoted to government ? 27. What are some of the direct and what some of the remote consequences of disorderly schools ? 28. What do you think of the plan of detaining pu- pils at recess and after school for bad conduct or neglect of duty ? 29. By what means would you seek to prevent tardi- ness and absence ? 30. What are some of the evils of these bad habits? 31. To what extent are parents resj)onsible for tardiness and absence ? 32. By what means would you seek to form studious habits in your pupils ? 33. Why should the aim of all government be to promote self-control ? 34. What is the only sure foundation of self-govern- ment in the community or state ? 35. How can a teacher who fails to control himself secure self-control in his pupils ? CHAPTER XXXIX. PROFESSIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED. LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF SCHOOL HOUSES. 1. Give some of the best reasons wby a school build- ing should be placed in an elevated location. 2. What extreme is to be avoided here ? 3. Give some good reasons why such a building should not stand directly upon the street. 256 THE teacher's hand-book. 4. State the principal objections to a flat or a de- pressed location. 5. What advantages result to the school from a pleas- ant location ? 6. What influence have a pleasant location and sur- roundings upon the pupils ? 7. Why should a school house not be located upon the immediate banks of a stream or pond ? 8. Why ought the school grounds to be neatly inclosed and decorated ? 9. About what should be the dimensions of a countiy school house capable of accommodating fifty pupils ? 10. What should be the plan of such a building, as to the number, size, and location of the rooms ? 11. Why do you deem a separate cloak-room desira- ble for each sex ? 12. How should such cloak-rooms be located as to the entrances ? What should be their sizes, and how should they be furnished ? 13. How should the grounds and out-houses be arranged in respect to the proper relations of the sexes ? 14. What radical defects characterize the arrange- ments of most of our country school houses, their grounds, and outbuildings, in this particular. 15. What is the influence of such defects upon the morals and manners of the pupils ? 16. What valid excuse can you suggest for such gross deficiencies? IV. To what extent are teachers responsible for them ? 18. What can competent teachers do to remedy such evils ? 19. Of what value are moral precejots in school, in the face of such immoral realities ? PKOFESSTONAL QTJESTIOISrS. 267 20. What plan for seating a school house would you recommend to the people of a country district ? 21. What are the relative advantages of single and double seats and desks ? 22. Why should the children be so seated as to be able to rest their feet squarely on the floor ? What should be the height of the seats and desks respectively, for a primary school ? 23. What should be the least width of the aisles ? Why? 24. What evil consequences result from the desks being too high ? Too low ? 25. Why should not a stove pipe pass directly over the heads of the children ? 26. What extent of good blackboard should be pro- vided for such a school ? 27. With what furniture should a blackboard be provided ? 28. With what other furniture, other than that already named, should the school be supplied ? 29. What precautions should a teacher take, so far as his influence and power extend, in arranging and fur- nishing a school house, to secure order, neatness, and comfort ? 30. Why should scrapers and door mats be furnished to every school ? 31. Why should teachers be thoroughly informed upon these subjects ? VENTILATION OF SCHOOL-ROOMS. 1. What are the constituents of the atmosphere ? 2. In what way are these constituents associated? 3. What is the oflice of oxygen in respiration ? 4. What is the use of nitrogen in the atmosphere ? 258 THE teacher's hand-book. 5. What would be the effect of breathing pure oxy- gen ? 6. What of inhaling inxre nitrogen? v. What is the composition of carbonic acid gas ? 8. Name some of the more common forms of carbon. 9. What are some of the more common sources of carbonic acid gas ? 10. What causes tend to j^roduce it in the school- room ? 11. Name some of the more injurious effects of the inhalation of impure air by pupils. 12. What is the effect of carbonic acid upon the tbroat when present in quantity? 13. What are its effects upon the brain ? 14. How does it affect the mind ? Why ? 15. What other combinations of carbon and oxygen are deleterious to health? 16. How does the effect of carbonic oxide upon the animal economy differ from that of carbonic acid ? 17. Why is its presence more dangerous than the latter ? 18. What diseases are likely to be produced by foul air in the school-room ? 19. How may you account for the frequently dull and stupid condition of children in school ? 20. How many cubic feet per hour of pure air are necessary to the health of an adult ? 21. How many cubic feet of air space should be allowed for each child in a primary school ? 22. What relation should the method of heating a school-room bear to the ventilation ? 23. Why is a room heated by direct radiation alone, difficult to ventilate ? What is the best method of ven- • tilation in the summer time ? PEOFESSIONAL QUESTIONS. 259 24. How would you aim to secure sufficient fresh air in case no system of ventilation were provided in your school-room ? 25. What are the advantages of a small fire-place and chimney, or an air tube and register, leading from a school-room ? 26. What are the disadvantages of lowering the windows during school hours ? What are the objec- tions, if any, to opening the doors and windows at recess ? 27. Why is it necessary to provide for the admission of pure air into a room, as well as for the expulsion of the foul air from it ? 28. Why should not cold air currents be allowed to strike the children ? 29. At about what temperature should the air of a school-room be held ? 30. What are some of the more injurious effects of too warm rooms ? 31. Why should every school-room be provided with a good thermometer ? 32. Why should some means for evaporating an ade- quate amount of water be provided in connection with the heating apparatus ? 33. Why do candles, lamps, &c., burn dimly in crowded and ill-ventilated apartments ? 34. Why is it dangerous to burn charcoal in an open vessel in a close room ? 35. Why is it dangerous to descend into old and unused wells, vaults, and other deep places ? 36. What precaution should always be observed befoi'e entering such places ? 37. AVhy should the exit for the foul air of a room be near the floor rather than the ceilinor ? 260 THE teacher's hand-book. 38. Why should the warm and pure air be admitted near the floor ? 39. On what condition is it possible to expel foul air from an apartment ? 40. Why is it better slightly to lower the upper sash than to be deprived of pure air ? 41. Upon the operation of what law of gases does this method of ventilation tend to improve the quality of the air in a room ? 42. Explain what is meant by the diffusion of gases ? 43. What proportion of deaths among the human race do you suppose results either directly or indirectly from foul air ? 44. How far are teachers responsible for the proper ventilation of the school-room ? Why ? 45. How far are they responsible for the prevalence of correct ideas upon the subject in the community ? 4G. To what extent should teachers be held respon- sible for the health of their pupils ? 47. What excuse have teachers for ignorance upon these subjects ? 48. What is your opinion of those who assume the responsibilities of the teacher without properly qualify- ing themselves for their duties ? INSTITUTE PEOGBAMMES. 261 CHAPTER XL. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES AND COURSES OF INSTRUC- TION. 1. Preliminary Observations. — Experience in the teacher is of tlie highest importance. In every effort to promote the cause of education, Ave should avail ourselves of its lessons. In this, as in every other important work, it is mainly through experience that we are finally guided to the most satisfactory results. The programme of an institute or of a school usually sets forth the subjects discussed, the order of exercises, the time devoted to each, and, to some extent, the methods of work employed. The plan that it embodies is such as the observation and experience of those who prepared it have shown to be the wisest, after a complete survey of the whole field. For this reason it is the best attainable record of that experience and of the character of the work performed in any given case. 2. Value of Programmes.-— The study of these programmes is the study of experience. Besides repre- senting the subject-matter of instruction, they teach a lesson of forethought, of careful preparation, and of a wise adaptation of means to ends. The work of an institute should never be left to be devised and executed on the impulse of the moment. It should be carefully considered and wisely planned in advance. The excite- 262 THE teacher's hand-book. ment and the pressing demands of the actual session are unfavorable to skillful preparation. The programme should not only be arranged, but printed and distributed to the teachers for two or three weeks previous to the assembling of the institute. This course will enable them, in a measure, to prepare for the exercises, and thus to realize the greatest amount of benefit. 3 . Organization of Institute Work. — Another lesson to be learned by a study of some of the programmes submitted, is the importance of a thorough organization and sujDcrvision of the work as a whole. This lesson may be drawn especially from the examples of New Hampshii-e, Wisconsin, and Iowa. Not only is the most complete supervision established over the operations of the institutes in these States, but the work itself is care- fully laid out and a faithful account is exacted of the manner in which it is performed. Not until such thorough organization and supervision are generally secured, shall w^e be able fully to realize the advantages of this agency for improving the qualifications of the great body of our teachers. Spasmodic and disconnected eflbrts may be productive of some good in localities of limited extent. But to move an entire State thei*e must be a complete and harmonious plan and concert of action, such as only a wise organization and an intelligent supervision can secure. 4. State of New Hampshire. The following is an example of a Programme for Teachers' Institutes prepared and issued under the direc- tion of the Department of Public Instruction of the State of New Hampshire. INSTITUTB PEOGBA.MMES. 263 ORDER OF EXERCISES. MONDAY AFTERNOON. 2.00— Devotional Exercises, ■ 2.15— Orgauization, Superintendent 2.30— Arithmetic— Introduction, Prof. E. K. 3.15— Reading- Introduction, Mrs. H. M. M. EVENING. Lecture — Tlie Brain, Mr. C. C. L. Select Readings, Mrs. II. M. M. TUESDAY FORENOON. 9.00— D evotional Exercise, 9.15— Arithmetic— Fundamental Rules Prof. E. K. Questions, 10.00 —Business Arrangements of the School, Superintendent 10.45 — Temperaments, Mr. L. 11.30— Drawing, Mrs. M. AFTERNOON. 1..30 — Penmanship 2.00— Qualification of Teachers, J. E. V. 2.45 — Natural Sciences in School, Mr. L. 3.15— Reading— Object-teaching. Word method, Elements, Mrs. M. EVENING. Free Discussion— How Improve our Common Schools ? 7.00— Duties of Parents, Prof. K. 7.20 — Employ Better Teachers, Mr. V. 7.40— Furnish Blackboards, Maps, Dictionaries, «S;c., Mrs. M. 8.00 — Require better Supervision, Superintendent 8.15 — Citizens, WEDNESDAY FORENOON. 9.00 — Devotional Exercise, 9. 15 — Arithmetic— Fractions , Prof. K. Questions, 10.10— Geography, Mr. V. 11.00— School-Room Arrangements, Mr. L. 1 1 .45— Book-Keeping Mr. V. 264 THE teacher's hand-book. AFTERNOON. 1.3&— Pure Air— Ventilation, Mr. L. 2.00 — Grammar— Elements, Oral Instrnction, B. W. C, A.M. Questions, 3.00— Reading— Articulation, ,T. E. V., A. M. EVENING. Lecture — A Forming World, Mrs. M. THURSDAY FORENOON. 9.00— Devotional Exercise, Rev. Mr. C. 9.15— Arithmetic— Interest, Prof. K. Questions, 10.00— Moral Instruction, , Mr. C. 10.30— Health of Teachers, Mr. L. 11.15 — Composition, Mr. V. 11.45 — General Questions, AFTERNOON. 1.30— Grammar Mr. C. Questions, . . ; 2.30— Spelling— Primary Classes , Mr. J. M. F 3.00— Astronomy, Mr. V. 3.45— Logic of Teaching, Mr. C. 4.15 — Reading — Pronunciation, EVENING. Lecture— School Management, Prof. H. O. FRIDAY FORENOON. 9.00— Devotional Exercise, Rev. Mr. C. 9.15— Proportion, Roots, Prof. K. Questions, 10.10 — Grammar— Analysis, Mr. C. 11.10 — School Government, AFTERNOON. 1.30— Map Drawing, Mr. F. 2.00— Head Work, Head Rest, Mr. L. 2.30— School Law, School Register, Superintendent 2.45 — Spelling — Advanced Classes, Mr. P. 3.10 — How Interest and Teach Primary Classes ? Supt. J. G. E. 3.45 — Reading— Expression, Mrs. M. EVENING, Lecture— Discipline J. G. E. Select Readings Mrs. M. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES. '" 265 This was substantially the plan pursued in each of the difierent counties of New Hampshire for the year 1873. It was modified in some of its details according to the circumstances of the locality or the convenience of the instructors. The publication and distribution of such programmes in advance are highly advantageous in many ways. The example may be imitated with profit wlierever institutes are maintained. 5. State of Wisconsin. Allusion has already been made to the very generous and complete provision made for the instruction of teachers in Wisconsin. The fund from which her insti- tutes are supported is munificent, and the appropriations from its annual income are made by the Board of Re- gents of the State Normal schools, under whose general supervision the institutes are conducted. So elaborate are the prejjarations for these annual convocations of teachers, and so minute are the instructions under which they are operated, that it has been deemed advisable to give the details in full. For permission to do so the author is indebted to the courtesy of the Superintendent of Public Instruction. The fullness of these details ren- ders it unnecessary that any comments or explanations be added. They speak for themselves and are eminently worthy of study by all who are interested in this work. 12 266 THE teacher's hand-book. INSTITUTE PROGRAMME— First Week, TIME. EXERCISE. MONDAY. 1 TUESDAY. 8.45 A.M 9.00 9.45 Opening Exercises Class wbrli. Methods. Arithmetic— Fun- damental rules. Primary A r i t h- nietic. 10.30 Recess. Recess. 10.45 Class worli'. Reading and Spell- 11.30 Primary Reading. Intermission. 12.00 m Intermission. 1.30 P.M Class work. Organization and Spelling. Art of Teaching. Geography of Wis- 2.15 School manage- ment. consin. Organizing mixed Schools. 3.00 Recess. Recess. 3.15 Model Class. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Teacher appointed by Conductor. 4.00 Miscellaneous. Miscellaneous. SECON D WEEK. 8.45 A.M 9.00 9.45 Opening Exercises Class work. Methods. Arithmetic— Re- duction. Penmanship. G. C. D. and L. C. M. Penmanship. 10.30 Recess. Recess. 10.45 11.30 Class work. INIethods. Reading and ex- ceptions to rules for Spelling. Composition. Reading and use of Dictionary. Letter Writing. 12.00 M Intermission. Intermission. 1.30 P.M 2.15 (!lass work. School manage- ment. Geography of United States. Recitation— Meth- ods and Objects. History of U. S., Spanish Colonies, Claims and Settle- ments. Reviews. 3.00 Recess. Recess. 3.15 Model Class. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Teacher appointed by Conductor. 4.00 Miscellaneous. Miscellaneous. . INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES. INSTITUTE PROGRAMME— First Week. 267 WEDNESDAY. Mental Arithmetic. Drill in Mental Arith- metic. Recess. Reading and Spelling. Intermediate Reading. Intermission. Outline Map of Wiscon- sin. Programme. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Miscellaneous. THURSDAY. Notation and Numera- tion and Definitions. Number Lessons. Recess. Reading and Spelling. Language Lessons. Intermission. Geography of North • America. Warming and ventila- tion of school-room. Recess. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Miscellaneous. FRIDAY. Classification of num- bers. Factoring. Recess. Reading and rules for Spelling. Language Lessons. Intermission. Outline of Map of North America. Seating, movements of Classes— Records. Recess. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Miscellaneous. SECOND WEEK. Common Fractions. Common Fractions. Percentage. Oral instiuctim— Gulf Stream. Drawing. Drawing. Recess. Recess. Recess. Reading and use of Dic- tionary. Reading and Word Anal- ysis. Reading and word Anal- ysis. Calisthenics. Calisthenics. Calisthenics. Intermission. Intermission. Intermission. United States History- Treaties. Causes and events lead- ing to the civil war. Closing exercises. School Government. Qualifications of Teach- ers. Recess. Recess. Recess. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Teacher app(^nted by Conductor. Teacher appointed by Conductor. Miscellaneous. Miscellaneous. Miscellaneous. 268 THE teacher's hand-book. INSTITUTE WORK, 1874. TO THOSE PERSONS WHO CONDUCT AND THOSE WHO ATTEND INSTITUTES. The work of training the youth of this State to habits of thought, iudustiy, and usefuhiess is one of grave im- portance. Properly to lay the foundations of true greatness, broad and deep, so that good citizenship shall result, is worthy of careful attention. Considerable time and money are being expended by the State in order to prepare teachers for their duties. A meeting of gentlemen interested in the work was called at Madison, July 10-14, to mature the Institute work for the State, that there might, if possible, be unity of effort. After careful consideration, the accompanying schedule has been prepared to guide you in your duties. While considerable time ought to be given to methods of presentation and detail of plan, yet much class xoork is needed, so that the subject taught, as well as the tnanner of teaching, shall be well understood. In this a clear coinprehension of a subject does not necessarily involve minuteness of detail. The quality and not the quantity should be the aim, in the short time allowed. To accomplish this, the In- stitute must be, as far as possible, a model school. The recitations should be models; the manners, deportment, and punctucdity, models. Thus the spirit emanating from these meetings will permeate the subse- cpient life of each teacher. As a great amount of work is laid out, it is recom- mended that the class be numbered, and divided into two sections by the even and odd numbers. INSTITUTE PR0GRAM4IES. 269 No. 1 reciting one day in Heading, Geography, Grammar, and No. 2 listening ; the same day, No. 2 re- citing in Arithmetic, Sinlling, and History, while No. 1 is listening. The next day, No. 1 recites in Arithmetic, Spelling, and History, and No. 2 in Heading, Geography, and Grammar. In this manner a healthy competition will secure in recitations a fair standard of perfection, while the pupils will not be overburdened with so much work as not to do any well. In case the Institute numbers less than fifty members, it shall be in the discretion of the Conductor to make one class and diminish the number of branches. It is recommended that the conductor and assistant shall prepare eacli day a schehie of the work they wish to accomplish, so that there may he point and freshness in the recitation. Also, that but one evening lecture per week be given, as the evenings should be devoted to study and j^repara- tion for the daily work. Also that one daily exercise in class work be conducted as a model, by a pupil, to be followed by criticism from critics previously appointed. Each conductor shall cause a full record of attendance, deportment, andpla/i of daily work to be made, and at the close of the institute, forward to the State Superin- tendent at Madison. Conductors will also prepare and forward to Madison, reports covering, as far as possible, the following points : (I.) Any modifications of syllabus, and reasons. (II.) Measures taken to secure punctuality, good de- portment, and attention, with results. (III.) Recitations : (a.) Means to secure accuracy and promptness. 270 THE teachek's hand-book. (b.) Result as regards (1) Memorizing. (2) Original thought. (c.) Topical and Individual. (d.) Catechetical and Individual. (e.) What co-oi:)eration allowed on the part of class or teacher. (/.) What aid given before recitation. (IV.) Alternation of sections — results. (Y.) Average age of teachers. (VI.) Average experience of teachers. (VII.) Proportion of sexes. (VIII.) Proportion of old and new members. (IX.) Amount of time devoted to study. (X.) Moral and social condition of members : (1.) In class room. (2.) At recesses. (3.) In the community. To this schedule is appended a programme of study and recitation in mixed schools, not as a pattern but as a suggestion. Also a scheme for the study of botany for one term. SYLLABUS. SCHEDULE OF DAILY WOKK. h.m. 1. Reading 45 min. per day — 3.45 per week. 2. Arithmetic 45 " " 3.45 3. Geography 35 " " 2.55 " 4. Spelling and Analysis of Words.- 25 " " 2.20 " 5. Penmanship and Drawing.. . 20 " " L40 '•' 6. Grammar 35 " " 2.55 " 7. History and Constitution 40 " " 3.20 8. Opening Exercises, Roll-call, 12 " " 1.15 " Recesses 26 " " 2.30 INSTITUTE PEOGEAMMES. 271 ""^ h.m. 9. Vocal Music, if practicable ; min. per day. per week. if not, the time to be given one-half to Physiology, one quarter to Botany, and one quarter to Biography 15 " " 0.50- " 10. Critical Class Drill, Criticism, 30 " " 2.30 " 11. Methods of Teaching, Tlieory and Art, Lecture or Discus- sion 30 " " 2.30 Morning session begins at 9 o'clock. Afternoon session at 1.30 o'clock. READING. Time, 45 minutes — divided into two parts — (a) first part, 25 min- utes, ih) second part, 20 minutes. FIRST "WEEK. Second Day. First Part. — Lecture on importance of Reading, and on the manner of treating cases of J^^/ec^- ive Articulation. Second Part. — Poxoers and Markings of a. Third Day. First Part. — Method of conducting reci- tations in Primary reading (1) with reference to begin- ners; (2) with reference to First and Second Reader Classes. Second Part. — Powers and Markings of e and i. Fourth Day. First Part. — Continuation of third day's work. Second Part. Powers and Markings of o and u. Fifth Day. First Part. — Drill in Spelling by sound. Second Part. — Written review of above second-part work, with^'ye words to illustrate each vocal element. SECOND WEEK. First Part. — During the remainder of the term, give attention in every exercise to analyses of thought, and 272 THE teacher's hand-book, let that be followed by reading, with reference to the laws of expression. Conline the reading this week to one descriptive or narrative selection, with special atten- tion to Pitch. Second Part. — The letters representing Vocal Sounds, called Vocal Substitutes, with Jive illustrative words for each sound. THIRD WEEK. First Part. — Read an arguinentalive piece, giving attention to Rate and Force. Second Part. — Classification of consonants, Powers, and Markings. FOURTH WEEK. First Part. — Read one piece in Verse or one in Dia- logue, giving attention to Qucdities of Voice and to manner of breathing, Effusive, Fxpidsive, and Explosive, with written Review of the whole. Second Part. — Powers of voivels in imaccented sylla- bles, with drill on accent, with written Review of whole. ARITHMETIC. 45 minutes daily. FIRST WEEK. Prima?'!/ Arithmetic. Development of the idea of number, by Addition, by Subtraction, by Multiplication, and by Division, using objects. Fundamental princii^lcs established. Especial atten- tion given to verification. Abstract numbers. Drill exercises in Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES. 273 Reading written abstract of work for the week. In this absti'act, specific illustration to be required. SECOND WEEK. Mental Arithmetic. Practice in performing fundamental operations with rapidity, giving results only. Problems involving Addition only. " . " Subtraction " " " Addition and Subtraction. " " Multiplication only. " " Addition and Multiplication. " " Subtraction and " « " Add., Sub., and " " " Division only. " " Combinations as above with Division. Reading of written abstract of work for the week. Note. — After a iiroblem given by tlie teacher lias beeu solved, let the pupil make and solve one of similar structure. I THIRD WEEK. Practical Arithmetic. Definitions, Notation and Numeration. Classification of numbers. Addition and Subtraction : — 1. Simple Numbers. 2. Decimals. 3. Common Fractions having same denominator. 4. Compound Denominate Numbers, not involving fractions. Factoring. Divisibility of Numbers. 12* 214 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. Greatest Common Divisor and Least Common Mul- tiple of whole numbers and fractions. FOURTH WEEK. Reduction, ascending and descending, of Denominate numbers and of Common Fractions. Multiplication and Division of Denominate numbers and of Common Fractions. Change from Common Fractions to Percentage ; Problems in percentage. Note. — "When tlie solutiou of a problem requires several opera- tions, let one member of tlie class give the verbal analysis, another put this in proper form on the blackboard, and a third find the result in its simplest form. GEOGRAPHY. Time, 35 minutes. FIRST WEEK. Facts of Personal Observation. Monday. — Land Features ; as, hills^ valleys. Water Features ; springs, hrooks, rivers, lakes. , Tuesday. — Productions — Vegetable; herbs, trees. Animal ; domestic, loild. Mineral ; rocks, soils. Wednesday and Thxtrsday. — Direction and Distance, Cardinal points. Development of the conception of linear units ; foot, rod, mile. Application in school- room ; school (/rounds. Friday, — Definition and distinction of Town and Township. Illustrate by reference to the county map. SECOND WEEK. Monday. — County ; Surface, land, water. Produc- tions ; vegetable, animal, mineral. INSTITUTE PEOGKAMMES. 2*75 Tuesday. — Form of the Earth, proofs. Wednesday. — Matliematical Geography ; Principal Lines, \)sxe of the Spelling Book, use to be made of the lists of words of similar and opposite meanings, &c. Fifth Day. — General spelling-down exercise, no words to be used but those given in the lessons of the Institute. INSTITUTE PEOGEAMMES. 277 PENMANSHIP. Daily Exercise — Time, 20 minutes, 2 weeks. First Day. — Specimen of Penmanshi]) secured from each member of Institute. Attention given to position of hands, feet, body, and manner of holding pen. Move- ment drill 5 minutes. Note. — This movement drill for 5 minutes should precede each day's work. Second Day. — Slant ; Make lines 1, 2, and 3 units in length, a portion of the class at the board. Write on board and paper. Criticisms confined to slant. Third Day. — Height; Comparative height of letters, w taken as the standard. Scale formed. Writing on board and paper. Criticisms confined to slant and height. Fourth Day. — Foem ; Analysis of small letters ?', ?/, vk Fifth Day. — Form ; Analysis of small letters, a, I, g,f. Sixth Day. — Foem ; Capital principles and analysis of capitals. Seventh Day. — Right and wrong forms of letters illus- trated. Tests applied to specimens presented the first day. Methods of criticisms exemplified and applied. Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Days. — Class drill to repre- sent ordinary school work. DRAWING. Time, 20 minutes. FIRST WEEK. 1. Monday. — Lines; vertical, horizontal, oblique. 2. Tuesday. — Measurement of lines. Scale taught. 3. Wednesday — Combination of two lines to form angles, right angle, obtuse angle, acute angle. 4. Thursday. — Combination of three lines to form 278 THE teacher's hand-book. triangles, right-angled, equilateral, isosceles, and scalene. (Particular attention given to equilateral and isosceles triangles.) 5. Friday. — Formation of designs from triangles, by arrangement around a common center. (Work inventive.) SECOND WEEK. 6. Monday. — Quadrilaterals, names, (Work in- ventive.) 7. Tuesday. — Formation of disigns by arrangement of quadrilatei'als around a common center. (Work in- ventive.) 8. Wednesday. — Formation of designs from triangles and quadrilaterals combined. (Work inventive.) 9. Thursday — Outlines of familiar objects by the use of straight lines. (Class work imitative.) 10. Outline of curved-line drawing. GRAMMAR. Time, 25 minutes, daily. FIRST WEEK. First Day. — State the province of Grammar; show wJiat may be taught to young pupils, and hoio to teach it. Second Day. — Have class bring in different kinds of sentences and analyze, chiefly with reference to the thought. Third Day. — Noun ; Its functions, forms, positions, classification, treated orally in the class with blackboard illustrations. Fourth Day — The teachers to bring in the same sub- ject properly arranged on paper with sentences illustra- tive of each point. The papers to form subject of that day's lesson. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES. 279 Fifth Day. — Adjective ; Functions, classes, forms, position, with sentences illustrative, by teachers. Exam- ples of false syntax by conductor to be corrected by class. SECOND week. First, Seco7icl, and Tliird Days. — Pronoun ; Func- tions, classes, forms, positions, with illustrative sen- tences. Special attention to the different functions of the pronoun and correspondingly different forms. Examples of false syntax by conductor to be corrected by class. Fourth and Fifth Day. — Adverbs ; As before, with adjective and adverbial phrases and clauses. Sentences by conductor illustrative of false syntax, both in form and position, to be corrected by class. THIRD WEEK. Verb ; Functions, classes with regard to form, with regard to signification ; changes of form (in this and all other cases, the reason of the changes to be given) ; relation to and influence upon other words. Illustrative sentences by teachers ; sentences by conductor to be corrected by class, with reasons therefor. In all the papers by the pupils, strict regard to be had to neatness, order, penmanship, capital letters, spelling, and punctua- tion, that the grammatical exercises may be eminently practical exercises in composition. fourth week. Phrases and clauses used as substitutes for the noun, adjective, and adverb. Special attention to the syntax of such. A paper from each teacher embodying the salient points of all the previous work. One or more of these to be examined in class as text for an oi-al review. 280 THE teacher's hand-book. Consideration of a few of the principal rules for agreement and government. Last Day. — Review the work. Bring to the notice of the class any difference of treatment that the sub- ject may require in school, from that in the Institute. HISTORY. Time, 40 minutes daily, 3 weeks. I. 1. Discover)'^, with historical causes. II. 2. Claims derived from discovery and settlement. 3. Transfers of territory. 4. The colonies ; royal, proprietary, and charter. . III. 5 and 6. Two administrations. (Jefferson's and Jackson's recommended.) IV. 7. Causes and events leading to the civil war. 8. Analysis of campaigns in the East. . 9. Do. in the West. 10. Results of the war up to the present time. Each lesson should be analyzed on the blackboard, and the Outline Map should be constantly in use. The main points only of each lesson should be held to, and minor parts omitted. CIVIL GOVERNMENT. Time, Same as History, 3 weeks. 1. Historical sources (1) English, (2) Colonial constitu- tions, and (3) Articles of Confederation. 2. Citizeiisliip and naturalization. 3. Electorship, (the first, process of representation.) 4. Legislative. Qualifications and manner of election of Senators and Representatives. Compare State legislatures. INSTITUTE PROGEAAIMES. 281 5. Process of law-making, in Congress and Legislatures. 6. Executive. National and state. V. Administrative officers, foreign and domestic. Compare State officers. 8. Judiciary^ national and State. 9. County and town organization. 10. General review. ALGEBRA. Time of recitation, 45 minutes, outside of regular institute work. First Day. — Connection of Algebra and Arithmetic. Illustrations. Second Day. — Connection of Algebra and Arithmetic. Illustrations. Third Day. — General Definitions ; Classify Symbols. Fourth Day. — Review ; Idea of Fositive and Nega- tive Quantities. Fifth Day. — Addition ; Relation to Arithmetic. Cases. Axioms or Principles. Sixth cfey.— Subtraction ; Cases, law of Signs, Axioms or Principles. Seventh Day. — Multiplication; Law of signs, relation to Arithmetic. FigJith Day. — Multiplication; Law of Exponents. ninth Day. — Multiplication of Binomials. Tenth Day. — Multiplication, Theorems I., II,, III. FJleventh Day. — Division, Laws of Signs. Twelfth Day. — Division, Laws of Exponents. Thirteenth Day. — Theorem cc"=l. Fourteenth Dau. — Theorem H"*= L. Fifteenth Day. — Factoring ; Monomials, Binomials. Sixteenth Day, — Factoring, Binomials. 282 THE teacher's hand-book. Seventeenth Day. — Greatest Common Divisor and Least Common Multiple. Elgldeenth Day. — Fractions; Reduction, ascending, descending. Nineteenth Day. — Symbols of 0, co, a. Twentieth Day. — Review. GEOMETRY. First Day. — Introduction; idea of line, surface, solid. Second Day. — Definition and classification of lines and angles, and formation of polygons, especially triangles. Third Day. — Review ; axioms. Fourth Day. — Theorem treating of straight lines and their intersections. Fifth and Sixth Days. — Same subject. Seventh Day. — Triangles and their classification. Fight, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and Twelfth Days. — Theorems (1 per day) relating to triangles. Thirteenth Day. — Quadrilaterals ; classification. Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Days. — Theorems relating to quadrilaterals. Eighteenth Day. — Polygons ; classification and theorems. Nineteenth. Day. — Theorem or problem. Twentieth Day. — Review. NATURAL SCIENCES. In view of the difiiculty attending the introdiiction of new branches of study into mixed schools of the State, it is recommended that work be done i;pon ]5otany and Physiology only ; the former in the summer months, and the latter in the winter. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES. 283 PLAN OP WORK FOR BOTANY. I. Leaves. — (1) Parts. (2) Form. (3) Venation. (4) Margin. (5) Kinds. (6) Arrangement on stem. (7) Use. II. Flowers. — (1) Parts, {a) Sepals. • {b) Petals, (c) Stamens, (c?) Pistils. (Seed vessel.) (2) Form, color. (3) Arrangement on stem. (4j Purpose of. (5) Adaptation of parts to purposes. III. Stem— (1) Parts. (1) Modes of growth. (3) Kinds. (4) Uses. IV. Boots.— (1) Parts. (2) Kinds. (3) Uses. Note. — In nearly every advance step in term or classifi- cation, let , the specimen be in the pupil's hand. Let a constant review be kept up by a description of leaves and flowers previ- ously presented by the pupil, naming the plant described, where known; e. g. "The leaf of the elm is ovate, doubly -serrate, rough, &c." 284 THE TEACHER S HAND-BOOK. PROGRAMME FOR MIXED SCHOOLS. A. M. Recitation. ..Studies. 9.00 Opening Exercises. 9.10 General Exercise. « Number. 9.15 Primary Class " A " Arithmetic ; 1st, 2d, and 3d Reader. 9.25 First Reader "A" Aritli. ; Primary Class print ; 2d and 3d Reader. 9.35 Second Reader " A " Arith. ; 3d Reader. 9.50 Third Reader "A" Arith.; Recess for 2d Reader class. 10.05 " A" Arithmetic "B" Arithmetic; 1st and 2d Reader write numbers. 10.25 Penmanship. 10.45 Recess. 11.00 " C" Arithmetic (Oral). . "A" Geography; "B" Arith. 11.15 " B " Arithmetic " A " Geography. 11.85 Primary Class " A " " Language Class. 11.45 " A " Geography Language Class. P.M. 1.00 Language Lesson State Work for Primary Class; Fourth Reader. 1.15 First Reader State Work for Primary Class ; " B " Geog. ; 2d Reader. 1.25 Second Reader State Work ; " B " Geog. 1.35 Fourth Reader " B " Geography ; 1st and 2d Reader draw. 1.55 Primary Class " B " Geography ; Grammar. 2.05 " B " Geography Grammar. 2.20 History and Constitution. "B" Spelling. 2.40 Recess. 2.55 Grammar " B " Spelling. 3.15 " B " Spelling (Oral) " A " Spelling. 3.25 "A" Spelling (Written). 2d and od Reader classes prepare for general exercise. 3.40 General Exercise : Biography 1 day in each week ; Botany or Phy- siology, 2 days ; outline maps, 2 days. INSTITUTE PEOGEAMMES. 285 THEORY AND PRACTICE. Time, 30 minutes daily. 1. Certificate ; contract ; care of school-room ; care of school grounds. 2. Classification. Programme. 3. Seating and movements of classes. 4. Records. 5. Warming and ventilation of school-room. 6. Recitation : (1) objects ; (2) methods ; (3) errors to be corrected ; (4) aid. 7. Study : (1) adaptation to age and mental power; (2) methods ; (3) incentives to thoifght, observation^ and study. 8. Reviews: (1) how often; (2) of what character; (3) examinations. 9. Culture in manners and morals. 10. Oral Instruction : (1) when advisable ; (2) sub- jects thus best taught ; (3) methods best adapted. 11. Government: (1) authority whence derived ; (2) legal and moral aspects ; (3) influence of diiferent modes upon the character of pupil and teacher; (4) causes of disobedience ; (5) peculiar obstacles and aids ; (0). influ- ence of enthusiasm, energy^ and integrity in teacher, upon government ; (V) rights and duties of teachers, pupils, parents, and school officers. - 12. Manners of teachers in school. 13. Teacher's employment of time out of school : (1) rest ; (2) recreation ; (3) mental and social culture. 14. Care of pupils in regard to food, dress, recreation, sleep, labor. 15. Specific modes of teaching : (1) Reading. Primary, Intermediate. (2) Arithmetic. Primary, Intermediate. (3) Language. (4) Geography. Primary, Higher. 286 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. INSTITUTE BLANKS. (Wisconsin.) To be filled by Teachers and those preparing to teach, on becom- ina: Members of Institutes. 1. Name in fuU,- 2. Age,. 3. Eesidence,. 4. Post-office AddreJB ■ 5. How many months have you taught ' 6. What is the length of time, in months, you have received instruction in Common Schools. Graded Schools. Academies. Colleges and Universities. Normal Schools. 7. How many Institutes have you already attended? 8. What is the length of time you have heretofore spent in attendance upon Institutes ? 9. Are you teaching, or do you intend to teach, during any part of the ensuing year ? 10. Do you hold a Teacher's Certificate ?- grade ? -If so, what INSTITUTE PROGEAitMES. 287 CHAPTEE XLI. INSTITUTE PROGRAMMES CONTINUED. 6. state of Iowa. — The plan of institute work iu Iowa is nearly identical with that in Wisconsin. The State Department of Public Instruction, acting in con- sultation with county superintendents and others prom- inently connected with education, j^repares, publishes, and distributes a pamphlet containing a programme of exercises and an elaborate syllabus of topics in each of the branches to be taught during the session. The precise work of each day and of each hour of the day is clearly specified, leaving nothing to be provided for on the impulse of the moment. As the result of this care- ful forethought, the operations of the institute are clearly and sharply defined, leaving no opportunity for that desultory and pointless teaching that yields no valuable result and that is likely to bring the institute into positive disrepute. Since the identity of plan in these two north-western States is so marked, it has not been deemed necessary to reproduce in full that of Iowa. The programme of daily exercises, the abridged syllabus of topics, an out- line of the course in Didactics, and the instructions of the State Superintendent, are, however, submitted for study an-d comparison. DIDACTICS. First Weelc, — School Organization and Classifica- tion. 1. Preparatory work ; Certificate, contract, neces- 288 THE teacher's hand-book. sity and use of blackboard, dictionary, maps, apparatus, call-bell, thermometer, &c, 2. Organization ; Opening, grading, and classifying mixed schools. 3, Programme of study and recita.tion. 4, School Regulations; Seating of pupils, movement of classes, recesses, rules, &c. 5. School Records and Reports ; class, deportment, attendance, &c. Second Week, — School Disciplitie and Geiiercd Exercises. 1. Recitations ; Objects and methods, reviews. 2. School Discipline ; Means of securing order and industry. 3. Rewards and Punishments ; Proper and improper. 4. Singing; Rhetorical and other general exercises. 5. Oi"al Instruction ; Calisthenics, morals and man- ners, care of school property, &c. Tliird Week, — Methods of Instruction. 1. How to teach reading in primary grades. 2. How to teach reading in intermediate and gram- mar grades. 3. How to teach spelling and writing. 4. How to teach arithmetic in primary grades. 5. How to teach arithmetic in intermediate grades. Fourth Week, — Methods of Instruction. 1. How to teach geograi)hy. 2. How to teach grammar to beginners. 3. How to teach grammar to advanced pupils. 4. How to teach histojy. 5. Industrial expositions in the public schools. INSTITUTE PEOGEAMMES. 289 COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE NORMAL INSTITUTES, 1874. The law jDi'oviding for Normal Institutes, having im- posed upon county superintendents additional labors, it was thought best to give special consideration to these Institutes in the recent conventions of county superin- tendents. At four of the six conventions held in May last, courses of study designed for the Institutes to be held the present year, were prepared by committees, sub- mitted to the conventions and adopted, together with resolutions requesting the Superintendent of Public In- struction to prepare, from them, a course of study suit- able for a four weeks' session, for the use of county superintendents and conductors in preparing their schemes of work. With the aid of these, and such suggestions as I could get from other sources, I have prepared a course of study, and send it out in the hope that it may serve, in some measure, to unify ajid systemize the work and aid in securing the best possible results from these brief training schools for the present year. The work here mapped out will require, of both in- structors and students, thorough preparation, close study, and hard work. This course of study will, doubtless, need to be modified to meet the wants of different locali- ties, but the amount of work undertaken to meet the present pressing wants of our teachers, will, necessarily, be large in every county. Whenever, in the opinion of the county supperintendent, any one of the branches has been sufficiently developed, it may be dropped, and the time thus gained devoted to such part of the work as may be deemed of immediate importance. The whole plan of work should be arranged before- 290 THE teacher's hand-book. hand so that students may be able to prepare for every lesson before going to the class room. Every class exercise should be a model lesson, so that methods of teaching shall be constantly illustrated by example. Provision should be made for one or two lectures per week, and the remainder of the evenings should be devoted to study. The names of the instructors engaged should be for- warded for approval along with the application for the appointment of the Institute, designating who is to act as conductor, whether the county superintendent or another. At the close of the Institute the blank report forwarded from this office, with the appointment and State warrant, should be promptly^^/ec? and returned. (Signed) Superintendent of Public Instruction. INSTITUTE PROGEAMMES. SYLLABUS OF COURSE OF STUDY. 291 DAILT ESEE- CISES. FIRST WEEK. SECOND WEEK. THIED WEEK. FOURTH WEEK. Orthography- 1st half. Writing— 2d half. 30 minutes. Class drill in Spelling, Kules for Spelling. Word Analy- sis, Diction- ary Exer cises. Position, Prin- ciples, Move- ments. Practice L e s- gons, Letter Writing, BusinebS Forms. Reading — 45 minutes. Classification of Element- ary sounds. Markings of Tonic Ele- ments. Quality, Force, Stress and Pitch. Class drill. Quality, Move- ment, lufiec- tiou. Circum- flex and Pause. Class Drill. Melody, Transition, Personation, Position and Gesture. Class drill. Arithmetic — 45 minutes. Fundamental Rules and Properties of Numbers. Fractions- Common and Decimal. Compound Numbers. Percentage and its Ap- plications. Interest. Ratio and Pro- portion, Partnership, Involution and Evolu- tion. Geography — 45 minutes. General Geog- raphy. United States, with Special Study of Geography of fowa. Remainder oJ Western Hemisphere. Eastern Hemi- sphere. Grammar — 45 minutes. Language Les- sons, Form- ing and An- alyzing Sim- p 1 e S e n- tences. Rules for the use of Capitals. Parts of Speech and their Proper- ties. Inflection of Parts of Speech. Parsing. Syntax and Composition. Physiologj'- 45 minutes. Bones and Muscles. Food, D i g e s- tion and Absorption. Circulation and Respira- tion . Nervous S y s- tem and Spe- cial Senses. History of U.S. 45 minutes. Discoveries, Claims and Settlements. French and Indian War. ■ Revolution- ary War. The Constitu- tional period to 1825. Recent Events and Consti- tutions. Didactics — 45 minutes. School Organi- zation and C 1 a s s i fl c a- tion. School Disci- pline and general E x- Methods of In- struction. Methods of In- struction. 292 THE teacher's HAND-BOOK. O Q W O I— I H cc '^; l-H- ^< <1 o 1 m 1- ■< O a s 1 SO o er!' bluing simplicity of explanation with elegance of illustration. From W. S. McRae, Svpaniitendent Yevay Public Schools, Indiana. Having carefully examined a number of text-books on natural philosophy, I do not hesitate to express my decided opinion in favor of Peck's Ganot. The matter, Btyle, and illustration eminently adapt the work to the popular wauts. From Rev. Samuel McKinnet, D.D., Preset Austin. College, Iluntsville, Texas. It gives me pleasure to commend it to teachers. I have taught some classes wiOj Jt as our text, and must say, for simplicity of style and clearness of illustration, I have found nothing as yet "published of equal value to the teacher and pupil. From C. V. Speae, Principal llaplcwood Institute, Pittsfidd. Mass. I am much pleased with its ample illustrations by plates, and its clearness and simplicity of statement. It covers the ground usually gone over by our higher classes, and contains many fresh illustrations from life or daily occurrences, and new applications of scientific principles to tuch. From J. A. Banfield, Svperintendent Marshall Public Schools, Michigan. I have used Peck's Ganot since lSfi3, and with increasing pleasure and satisfac- tion each term. I consider it superior to any other work on physics in its adapta- tion to our high schools and academies. Its illustrations are superb — better than three times their number of pages of fine print. From A. Schuteeb, Prof, of Mathem.atics in Baldwin University, Berea, Ohio. After a careful examination of Peck's Ganot's Natural Philosophy, and an actual fest of its merits as a text-book, I can heartily recommend it as admirably adapted to meet the wants of the grade of students for which it is intended. Its diagrams and illustrations are utirivaled. Wq use it in the Baldwin University. From D. C. Van Noeman, Principal Van Norman Institute, New York. The Natural Philosophy of M. Ganot. edited by Prof. Peck, is, in my opinion, fhe best work of its kind, for the use intended, ever published in this country. Whether regarded in relation to the natural order of the topics, the precision and clearness of its definitions, or the fullness and beauty of ita illustrations; ii, is cer> tainly, I think, an advance. ^^~ For many similar testimonials, see current numbers of the Hhistrated Ed ooational Buiietln. 29 The JVatlonal Series of Standard School-Tiooks. NATURAL SCIENCE-Continued. CHEMISTRY. Porter's First Book of Chemistry, • • • . ^i oo Porter's Principles of Chemistry, 2 oo The above are widely kuown as the productiouB of one of the most eminent scien- tific men of America. The extreme simplicity in the method of presenting the Bcience, while exhaustively treated, has excited universal commendation. Darby's Text-Book of Chemistry, i ^5 Purely a Cheniistry, divestins; the subject of matters comparatively foreim to it (such as heat, li'jht, electricity,' etc.), but usually allowed to engross too much atten- tion in ordinary school-books. Gregory's Organic Chemistry, 3 50 Gregory's Inorganic Chemistry, 3 50 The science exhaustively treated. For colleges and medical students. Steele's Fourteen Weeks Course, i so A successful eftbrt to reduce the study to the limits of a single term, thereby niakiii.j feas^ible its general introduction in institutions of every character. The anther's felicity of style and success in making the science pre-eminently interest- ing are peculiarly noticeable features. (See page 34.) Steele's Chemical Apparatus, *-0 oo Adequate to the performance of all the important experiments. B O T A ISr Y. Thinker's First Lessons in Botany, .... 4o ■ For children. The technical terms are largely dispensed with in favor of an easy and familiar style adapted to the smallest learner. Wood's Object-Lessons in Botany, .... i 50 Vt/ood's American Botanist and Florist, . . 3 50 Wood's New Class-Book of Botany, • ... 3 50 The standard text-books of the United States in this department. In style they are simple, popular, and lively ; in arrangement, easy and natural ; in description, graphic and strictly exact. The Tables Tor Analysis are reduced to a perfect sys- tem. More are annually sold than of all others combined. Wood's Plant Record, • • *75 A simple form of Blanks for recording observations in the field. Wood's Botanical Apparatus, *8 oo A portable Trunk, containing Drying Press, Knife, Trowel, Microscope, and Tweezers, and a copy of Wood's Plant Record— composing a complete outfit for the collector. Young's Familiar Lessons, 2 oo Darby's Southern Botany, 3 oo Embracing general Structural and Physiological Botany, with vegetable products, end descriptions of Southern plants, and a comDicte Flora of the Southern States 30 The JVational Series of Standm'd Schoot-'Books. WOOD'S BOTANIES. •Z'ESXI3Vwd:03Sri-A-IL.S. Frcym Pres. R. B. Bukleson, Waco University, Texas. Wood's Botanies— books that meet every want iu their Una. From Prin. J. G. Ralston, Norristown Seminary, Pa. We And the "Class-Book " entirely satistactory. Fro7n Pres. D. F. Bittle. Roanoke College, Va. Tour text-books on Botany are the best for students. From Prof. W. C. Pierce, Baldwin University, Ohio. I thluk his Flora the best we have. His method of analysis is excellent. From Prof. Blakeslee, State Normal School, Potsdam, N. Y. Tt is admirably concise, yet it does not seem to be deficient or obscure. In paper, print, and binding, the book leaves little to be desired. From Pres. J. M. Gregory, State Agricultural College, III. I find myself greatly pleased with the perspicuity, compactness, and complete- ness of the book (Wood's Botanist and Florist). I shall recommend it freely to my friends. Frcmi Prof. A. Wincheli., University of Michigan. I am free to say that I had been deeply impressed, I may say almost astonished, at the evidences which the work bears of skillful and experienced authorship iu this field, and nice and constant adaptation to the wants and conveniences of students of Botany. I pronounce it emphatically an admirable text-book. From Prof. Richard Owen, University of Indiana. I am well pleased with the evidence of philosophical method exhibited in the general arrangement, as well as with the clearness of the explanations, the ready intelligibility of the analytical tables, and the illustrative aid furnished by the numerous and excellent wood-cuts. I design using the work as a text-book with my next class. From Prin. B. R. Anderson, Columbus Union School, Wisconsin. I have examined several works with a view to recommending some good text- book on Botany, but I lay them all aside for " Wood's Botanist and Florist." The arrangement of the book is in my opinion excellent, its style fascinating and attrac- tive, its treatment of the various departments of the science is thorough, and last, but far from unimportant, I like the topical form of the questions to each chapter. It seems to embrace the entire science. In fact, I consider it a complete, attractive, and exhaustive work. Fro}7i M. A. Marshaxl, Netv Haven High School, Conn. It has all the excellencies of the well-known Class-Book of Botany by the same author in a smaller book. By a judicious system of condensation, the size of the Flora is reduced one-half, wliile no species are omitted, and many new ones are added. The descriptions of species are very brief, yet sufficient to identify the plant, and, when taken in connection with the generic description, form a complete description of the plant. The book as a whole will suit the wants of classes better than anything I have yet seen. The adoption of the Botanist and Florist would not require the exclusion of the Class-Book of Botany, as they are so arranged that both might be used by the same class. FYom Prop. G. H. Perkins, University of Vermont and Stats Agricultural College. I can truly say that the more I examine Wood's Class-Book, the better pleased I T.vn with it. In its illustrations, especially of particulars not easily observed by the student, and the clearness and compactness of its statements, as well as in the ter- ritory its flora' embraces, it appears to me to surpass any other work I know of. The whole science, so far as it can be taught in a college course, is well presented, and rendered unusually easy of comiirehension. The mode of analysis is excellent, iivoiding as it does to a great extent those microscopic characters which puzzle the beginner, and using tliose that arc nbvious as far as possible. I regard the work as a most admirable one, and shall adopt it as a text-book another year. 31 The JVational Series of Standard School -:Bool-s. NATURAL SCIENCE-Continued. PHYSIOLOG-Y. Jarvis' Elements of Physiology, $75 Jarvis' Physiology and Laws of- Health, • l Go The only books extant wliich approach this subject with a proper view of tlie trud object of teaching Pliysiology in schools, viz., that scholars may know how to take care of their own health. In bold eoiitrast with the abstract Anatomies, which children leani as they would Greek or Latin (and forget as soon), to disajiline the mind, are these text-books, using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is necessary for the cciuprehension of tlie laws of health. Hamilton's Vegetable & Animal Physiology, l 25 The two branches of the sciencu combined in one volume load tho Btu- deat to a proper comprehensio.i of the Analogies of Nature. Steele's Fourteen Weeks Course (see p. 34), . i 50 ASTRONOMY. Steele's Fourteen Weeks' Course, • • • • . i so Reduced to a single term, and better adapted to school use than any work heretofore published. Not written for the information of scientific men, but for the inspiration of youth, the pages are not burdened with a multitude of figures which no memory could possihly retain. The whole subject is presented in a clear aud concise form. (See p. 34.) Willard's School Astronomy, i oo By means of clear and attractive illustrations, addressing the eye in many cases by analogies, careful definitions of all necessary technical terms, a caiefnl avoidance of verbiage and unimportant matter, particular attention to analysis, and a general adoption of the simplest methods, Mrs. Willard has made the best and most attractive elementary Astron- omy extant. Mclntyre's Astronomy and the Globes, • • i 50 A complete treatise for intermediate cbisses. Highly approved. Bartlett's Spherical Astronomy, 5 oo The West Point course, for advanced classes, with applications to the current wants of Navigation, Geography, and Chronology. 50 NATURAL HISTORY. Carll's Child's Book of Natural History, » • o Illustrating the Animal. Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdoms, witk appU- cation to the Arts. For beginners. Beautifully aud copiously illujtrated. ZOOLOGY. Chambers' Elements of Zoology, • • • • • 1 50 ,\ complete and comprelieusive Bystem of Zoology, adapted for aca- demic instruction, presenting a systematic view of the Animal Kingdom as a portion of eiternal Nature. 32 JVatioiiat Series of Stattdai'd School-^ooks. Jarvis' Physiology and Laws of Health. TESTIMONIALS. JVowt Samuel B. McLane, Superintendent Fublic ScJwols, Keokuk^ Iowa, I am glad to see a really good text-book on tins much neglected branch. This ia dear, concise, aoaurate, and eminently adapted to the class-roovi. From William F. Wyeks, Principal of Academy, West Chester, Pennsijlvania- A thorough examination has satisfied me of its superior claims as a text-book to the Mteiition of teacher and taught. I shall introduce it at once. From, H. R. SANPOEn, Principal of East Genesee Conference Seminary, N. Y. , "Jarvis' Physiology" is received, and fully met our expectations. We immediately adopted it. ^rom Isaac T. Goodnow, State Superintendent of Kansas^published in connection xoith the " Scluiol Law." "Jarvis' Physiology," a common-sense, practical work, with just enough of anat- omy to understand the jihysioIogiCMl portions. The last six pages, on Man's Kespon BibUity for Lis own healtli, are worth the price of the book. From D. W. Stkvens, Superintendent Public Schools, Fall River, Mass. r have examined Jarvis' " Physiology and Laws of Health," which you had the kindness to send to me a short time ago. In my judgment it is far the best work ot the kind within my knowledge. It has been adopted as a text-book in our public schools. From IIenut G. Denny, Chairman Book Committee, Boston, Mass. The very cxcplleiit *' Physiolo:.ry " of D, Jarvis I had introduced into our High Soliool, where the study had been temporarily drojiped, believing it to be by far the best work of the kind that had come under my observation; indeed, the reintroduc- tion of the study v^as delayed for some months, because Dr. Jarvis' book could not ba had, and we were unwilling to take any other. From Prof. A. P. Peauouy, P.D., LL.D., Harvard University. • • I have been in the habit of examining school-books witli great care, and 1 hesitate not to say that, of all the text-books on Physiology which have been given to the public. Dr. Jarvis' deserves the first place on the score of accuracy, thoroughness, method, simplicity of statement, and constant reference to topics of practical interest and utUity. From James N. Townsend, Superintendent Public Schools, Hudson, K Y. Every human being is appointed to take charge of his own body; and of all books written upon this subject, I know of none which will bo well prepare one to do this as "Jarvis' Physiology" — that is, in so small a compass of matter. It considers the pure, simple laws of health paramount to science; and though the work is thoroughly scientific, it is divested of all cumbrous technicalities, and presents tlie subject of phy- sical life in a manner and style really charming. It is unquestionably the best text- book on pliysiology I have ever seen. It is giving great satisfaction in the schools ol this city, where it has been adopted as the standard. From h. J. Saiifoed, 51. D., Prof. Anatom'j and Physiology in Yale College Cooks on human physiology, designed for the use of schools, are more generally a failure perhaps than are school-books on most other subjects. The great want in this department is met, we think, in the well-written treatise of Dr. Jarvis, entitled " Physiology and Laws of Health." • • The work is not too detailed nor too expansive in any department, and is clear and concise in all. It ia not burdened with an excess of anatomical description, nor rendered discursive by imany zoological references. Anatomical statements are made to the extent of fjnaii- fying the student to attend, understandingly, to an exposition of those functional pro eesses which, collectively, make up health; thus the laws of health are enunciated, and many suggestions are given which, if heeded, will tend to its preservalioa. t^~ For further testimony of similar character, see current nnmbers of the lilua- trated Kducational Bulletin. 33 The jVaiioiial Series of Standm^d School-Sooks. NATURAL SCIENCE. "FOURTEEN WEEKS" IN EACH BRMOH. By J. DORMAN STEELE, A. M. Steele's 14 Weeks Course in Chemistry l^, %\ m Steele's 14 Weeks Course in Astronomy . i 50 Steele's 14 Weeks Course in Philosophy • i co Steele's 14 Weeks Course in Geology. • i ^o Steele's 14 Weeks Course in Physiology • i 50 Our Text-Books in these studies are, as a general thing, dull and uninteresting. They contain from 400 to COO pages of dry facts and unconnected details. They abound in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupU commences the study, is confused by the fine print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly what to learn nor vi'hat to hasten over, is crowded through the single term generally assigned to each branch, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact idea of a single scientific principle. Steele's Fourteen 'Weeks Courses contain only that which every ■well-informed person should know, while all that which concerns only the professional scientist is omitted. The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject within the range of home life and daily experience. They give Buch of the general principles and the prominent facts as a pupil can make famil- iar as household words within a single term. The type is large and open ; there is no fine print to annoy ; the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine execution. In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each branch to the limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is es- sential, and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to economize his time, or rather to employ that which he has to the best advantage. A notable feature is the author's charming " style," fortified by an enthusiasm over his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupil. The recent editions contain the author's "Practical Questions" on a plan never before attempted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the desiim being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing principles. Steele's General Key to his Works- • ■ • ''i ^^ This work is mainly composed of Answers to the Practical Questions and Solu- Mons of the Problems in the author's celebrated "Fourteen Weeks Courses " in the several Bciences, with many hints to teachers, minor Tables, &c. Should b« oa every teacher's desk- 34 IThe JSTational Series of Standard School-^Books, * Steele's 14 Weeks in each Science. TESTIMONIALS. From L. A. Bulle, President N. C. College. I have not been disappointed. Shall take pleasure in introducing thia seriea From J. F. Cox, Prest. Southern, Female College, Ga. 1 am much pleased with these books, and expect to introduce them. From J. E. Branhajm, Prin. Brownsville Female College, Tenn. They are capital little books, and are now in use in our institution. From W. H. G00DAI.E, Professor Peadviile Seminary, La. We are using your 14 Weeks Course, and are much pleased with them. From W. A. Boles, Sui)t. Shelbyville Graded School, Ind. They are as entertaining as a story book, and much more improving to the mind. From S. A. Snow, Principal of High School, Uxbridge, Mass. Steele's 11 Weeks Courses in the Sciences are a perfect success. From John W. Doughty, Neivburg Free Academy, iV. Y. T was prepared to find Prof. Steele's Course both attractive and instructive. My highest expectations have been fully realized. From J. S. Blackweix, Prest. Ghent College, Ky. Prof. Steele's unexampled success in providing for the wants of academic classes, has led me to look forward with high anticipations to his forthcoming issue. From 3. F. Cook, Prest. La Grange College, Mo. I am pleased with the neatness of these books and the delightful diction. I havo been teaching for years, and have never seen a lovelier little volume than the As- tronomy. From M. W. Smith, Prin. of High School, Morrison, 111. They seem to me to be admirably adapted to the wants of a public school, con- taining, as they do, a sufficiently comprehensive arrangement of elementary prin- ciples to excite a healthy thirst for a more thorough knowledge of those sciences. From J. D. Bartlet, Prin. of High School, Concord, N. H. Thay are just such books as I have looked for, viz., those of interesting style, not cumbersome and flUed up with things to be omitted by the pupil, and yet suf- ficiently full of facts for the purpose of most scholars in these sciences in our high schools ; there is nothing but what a pupil of average ability can thoroughly master. From, Alonzo Norton Lewis, Principal of Parker Academy, Conn. I consider Steele's Fourteen Weeks Courses in Philosophy, Chemistry, &c., the best school-books that have been issued in this country. As an introduction to the various branches of which they treat, and especially for that numerous class of pupils who have not the time for a more extended course, I consider them invaluable. From Edward Brooks, Prin. State Ncrrmal School, Millersmlle, Pa. At the meeting of Normal School Principals, I presented the following resolu- tion, which was unanimously adopted: ^^ Resolved, That Steele's. 11 Weeks Courses in Natural Philosophy and Astronomy, or an amount equivalent to what is contained in them, be adopted for use in the State Normal Schools of Pennsyl- -vania." The works themselves wiU be adopted by at least three of the schools, and, I presume, by Lliem all. 35 JiTatioiial Series of Stcaidard Sc?iool-3iooks. LITERATURE. • — » Cleveland's Compendiums .... each, $*2 50 English Literatuee. American Literatuek English Literature of the XIXth Century. In these volumes are gathered the cream of the litciaturc of the English speak, ing people for the school-room and the general reader. Their reputation is Eitional. More than 125,000 copies have heeu sold. Boyd's English Classics ..... each, *1 25 Milton's Paradise Lost. Thomson's Seasons. Yolng's Night Thoughts. Pollok's Course of Ti5ie. Cowper's Task, Table Talk, &c. Lord Bacon's Essays. This series of annotated editions of great English writers, in prose and poetry, is designed for critical reading and parsing in schools. Pi-of. J. K. Boyd proves himself an editor of high capacity, and the works themselves need no encomium. As auxiliary to the study of Belles Lettres, etc., these works have no equal. Pope's Essay on Man *20 Pope's Homer's Iliad *80 The metrical translation of the great poet of antiquity, and the matchless ' Essay on the Nature and State of Man," by Alexander Pope, afibrj superior exercise in literature and parsing. AESTHETICS. Hunlinglon's Manual of the Fine Arts • •*! 'S A view of the rise and progress of Art in different conntries, a brief account of the most eminent," masters of Art, and .an analysis of the prin- ciples of Art. It is complete in itself, or may precede to advantage tho critical work of Lord Karnes. Boyd's Karnes' Elements of Criticism • •*! 75 The best edition of this standard work ; without the study of which none may be considered proficient in the science of the Perceptions. No other study can be pursued with so marked au effect upon the taste and refinement of the pupil. POLITICAL ECONOMY. Champlin's Lessons on Polilical Economy i 28 An inijirovement on previous treatises, being shorter, yet containing every thing essential, with a view of recent questions in fiiMUice, ete., which is not elsewhere found. 36 The JVational Series of Standard School-^ooks. CLEVELAND'S COMPENDIUMS. TESTIl!wd[:01sri.A.IjS. From the New Englander. This is the very best book of the kind we have ever examined. From George B. Emerson, Esq., Boston. The Biographical Sketches are just and disscriminatiug; the selections are admir- able, and I have adopted the work as a text-book for my first class. From Prof. Moses Coit Tyler, of the Michigan University. I have given your book a thorough examination, and am greatly delighted with ft ; and sfiall have great pleasure in directing the attention of my classes to a woru which affords so admirable a bird's-eye view of recent "English Literature." From the Sati/rday Review. It acquaints the reader with the characteristic method, tone, and quality of all tha chief notabilities of the period, and will give the careful student a better idea of the recent history of English Literature than nine educated Englishmen in ten possess. From the Methodist Quarterly Review, New York. This work is a transcript of the best American mind; a vehicle of the noblest American spirir. No parent who would introduce his child to a knowledge of our country's literature, and at the same time indoctrinate his heart in the purest prin- ciples, need fear to put this manual in the youthful hand. From Rev. C. Peerce, Principal, West Newton, Mass. I do not believe the work is to be found from which, within the same limits, so much interesting and valuable information in regard to English writers and English literature of every age, can be obtained; and it deserves to find a place in all our high schools and academies, as well as in every private library. From the Independent. The work of selection and compilation — requiring a perfect familiarity with the whole range of English literature, a judgment clear and impartial, a taste at once delicate and severe, and a most sensitive regard to purity of thought or feeling — has been better accomplished in this than in any kindred volume with which we ^re acquainted. From the Christian Examiner. To form such a Compendium, good taste, fine scholarship familiar acquaintance with English literature, unwearied industry, tact acquired by practice, au interest in the culture of the young, a reMrd for truth, purity, philanthropy, religion, as the highest attainment and the highest beauty, — all these were needed, and they are united in Mr. Cleveland. CHAMPLIN'S POLITICAL ECONOMY. From J. L. Bothwell, Prin. Public School No. lU. Albany, N. Y. T have examined Champlin's Political Economy with much pleasure, and shall ba pleased to put it into the hands of my pupils. In quantity and quality I think it superior to anything that I have examined. From Pkes. N. E. Cobleigh, East Tennessee Wesleyan University. An examination of Champlin's Political Economy has satisfied me that it is the book I want. For brevity and compactness, division of the subject, and clear state- ment, and for appropriateness of treatment, I consider it a better text-book than any other in the market. From the Evening Mail. New York. A new interest has been imparted to the science of political economy since we have been necessitated to raise such vast sums of money for the support of the gov- ernment. The time, therefore, is favorable for the introduction of works like the above. This little volume of two hundred pages is intended for beginners, for the common school and academv. It is Intended as a basis upon which to rear a more elaborate superstructure. There is nothing in the principles of political economy above the comprehension of average scholars, when they are learly set forth. This aeems to have been done by President Champlin in an easy and graceful m»-uper. 37 the JVatlonal Series of Standard School- T^ooKs. ELOCUTION. Taverner Graham's Reasonable Elocution, ^i 35 Based upon the belief that tnie Elocution is the ripht interpreta- tion of Thought, and euidiuK the student to an intelliirent appre- ciation, instead of a merely mechanical knowledge, of its rules. 2achos' Analytic Elocution l 50 All departments of elocution — such as tUo analysis of the voice and the Bentence. phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c. — are here arranged for instruction in classes, illustrated by copious examples. Sherwood's Self Culture i oo Self-culture in reading, c.peaking, and conversation— a very valuable treatise to those who would perfect themselves In these accomplishments. S P E AKJE^R S. Northend's Little Orator, *go— Child's Speaker*oO Two little "orks of tlie same grade but different selections, contaiuiui; simple and attractive pieces for children under twelve years of age. Northend's Young Declaimer *'!5 Northend's National Orator *i ^5 Two vohnnes of Proir^c, Poetry, and Dialogue, adapted to inter- mediate and grammar classes respectively. Northend's Entertaining Dialogues • . . .*i 25 Extracts eminently ad.aptcd to cultivate the dramatic faculties, as well as entertaic an audience. Swett's Common School Speaker . . . .*i 25 Selections from recent literature. Raymond's Patriotic Speaker *2 oo A supero comnilaiion of modern eloquence and poetry, with original dramatic exercises. Nearly every emment living orator is represented, without distinction of place or party. COMPOSITION, SccT Brookfield's First Book in Composition • 50 Making the cultivation of this important art feasible for the smallest child. By a new method, to induce and stimulate thought. Boyd's Composition and Rhetoric - • • • 1 50 This work furnishes all the aid tluit is needful or can bp desired in the various aepartmcnts and styles of composition, both mprcse and verse. Day's Art of Rhetoric ^ ^^ Noted for exactness of definition, clear limitation, and philosophical development of subject; the large shiiro of attention given to lavenU.n, M a brunch of RHetoric, and the unequalled analysis of style 38 The J^ational Series of Standard School-'Hooks. MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. Mahan's Intellectual Philosophy '^i 75 The subject exhaustively considered. Tlie author has evinced learning, candor, and independent thinking. Mahan's Science of Logic ^ oo A profound analysis of the laws of tliought. The system possesses the merit of being intelligible and self consistent. In addition to the author's carefully elabo- rated views, it embraces results attained by the ablest minds of Great Britain, Ger- many, and France, in this department. Boyd's Elements of Logic 1^5 A systematic and philosophic condensation of the subject, fortified with additions from Watts, Abercrombie, Whately, &c. Watts on the Mind so The Improvement of the Mind, by Isaac Watts, is designed as a guide for the attainment of useful knowledge. As a text-book it is unparalleled; and the disci- pline it affords cannot be too highly esteemed by the educator. O R A L S^ Peabody's Moral Philosophy i 25 A sho.t course; by the Professor of Christian Morals, Harvard University— for the Freshman Class and for High Schools. Alden's Text-Book of Ethics go For young pupils. To aid in systematizing the ethical teachings of the Bible, and point oiit the coincidences between the instructions of the sacred volume and the sound conclusions of reason. Willard's Morals for the Young ^^5 Lessons in conversational style to inculcate the elements of moral philosophy. The study is made attractive by narratives and engravings. GOVERNMENT. Howe's Young Citizen's Catechism .... 75 Explaining the duties of District, Town, City, County, State, and United States Officers, with rules for parliamentary and commercial business — that which every future " sovereign " ought to know, and so few are taught. Young's Lessons in Civil Government . . i 25 A comprehensive view of Government, and abstract of the laws showing the riglits, duties, and responsibilities of citizens. Mansfield's Political Manual i 25 This is a complete view of the theory and practice of the General and State Gov- ernments of the United States, designed as a text-book. The author is an esteemed and able professor of constitutional law, widely known for his sagacious utterances in matters of statecraft through the public press. Recent events teach with em- phasis the vital necessity that the rising generation should comprehend the noble polity of the American government, that they may act intelligently when endov'cd with a voice in it. 39 2%€ JVatlonal Series of Standard Schoot-!Sooks, MODERN LANGUAGE. French and English Primer, $10 German and English Primer, 10 Spanish and English Primer, 30 The names of common objects properly illustrated and arranged in easy lessons. Ledru's French Fables, 75 Ledru's French Grammar, - • 1 oo Ledru's French Reader, ... p ..... i oo The author's long experience has enabled him to present the most thor- oughly practical text-books extant, in this branch. The system of pro- nunciiition (by phonetic illustration) is origi:i:il with this author, and will commend itself to all American teachers, as it e:i:ibles tlieir pupils to se- cure an absolutely correct pronu7iciation without th j assistance of a nativa master. Tliis feature is peculiarly valuable also to " self-taught" students. .The directions for ascertaining the gjnder of French nouns — ^also a great Btumbling-block — are peculiar to this work, .and will b3 found remarkably competent to the end proposed. The criticism of teachers and the test of tke school-room is invited to this excellent series, witti confiJeaco. Worman's French Echo, i 25 To teach conversational French by actual practice, on an entirely new plan, which recognizes tlie importance of the student learning to think in the language whicli he speaks. It furnishes an extensive vocabulary of words and expressions iu common use, and suilices to free the learner from the embarrassments which the peculiarities of his own tongue are likely to be to him, and to make him thoroughly familiar with the usa of proper idioms. Worman's German Echo, i 2r» On the same plan. See Worman's German Scries, pags 42. Pujol's Complete French Class-Book, . • . 2 25 OfTiTB, in one volume, methodically arranged, a comnleto French course .—usually embraced in series of from five to twelve books, including tha bulky and expensive Lexicon. Here are Grammar, Conversation, and choice Literature — selected from the best French authors. Each branch Is thoroughly handled ; and the student, having diligently completed tho course as prescribed, may consider him.^p!f, without further application, au/uit iu the most polite and elegant language of jnoderu times. Maurice-Poitevin's Grammaire Francaise, • 1 00 American sc'nools are at last supplied with an American edition of this famous text-book. Many of our best institutions have for years been pro- curing it from abroad rather than forego tlie advantages it offers. Tho policy of putting students who have acquired some proficiency from the ordinary text-books, into a Grammar written in tho vernacular, can not be too highly commended. It affords .an opportunity for finish and review at oucc ; while embodying abundant practice of its own rules. Joynes' French Pronunciation, ^0 Willard's Historia de los Estados Unidos, • 2 00 The History of the United States, translated by Professors Tolon and Dr TmtNoa, will be found a, valuable, instructivy, oiiil tatcrtaiainij read- ing-book for Bpiini^li cia&ses. ^ ,. The A'ational Series of Standard School-Sooks. Pujol's Complete French Class-Book. TESTIMONIALS. From Tkof. Elias Peissnek, Union College. I take great pleasure in recommending Pujol and Van Norman's French Clasa- Book, as there is no yiencli grammar or class-book which can he compared with it in completeness, system, clearness, and general utility. F'vm Edwakd Noeth, President of Hamilton College. I have cai'pfiJJly examined Pujol and Van Norman's French Class-Book, and am satisfied i»f its superiority, for college purposes, over any other heretofore used. We shall p'jt fail to use it with our next class in French. Fi^-\7r A. Cur.Tis, Preset of Cincinnati Literary and Scientific Institute. I am confident that it may be made an instrument in conveying to the student, rn i\-m\ sis months to a year, the art of speaking and writing the French with ilmo?.! native fluency and propriety. From HiEAsi Oecutt, A. M., Prin. Glenwood and Tilden Ladies'' Seminaries. I have used Pujol's French Grammar in my two seminaries, exclusively, for 2nore than a year, and have no hesitation in saying that I regard it the best text- book in this department extant. And my opinion i.^ confirmed by the testimony of Prof F. De Launay and MadcmoiccUe Marinclin. They assure me that the book is eminently accurate and practical, as tested in the school-room. From Pkof. Theo. F. Db Fcmat, Hebrew Educational Institute, Memphis, Tenn. M. Pujol's French Grammar is one of the best and most practical works. The French language is chosen and elegant in style — modern and easy. It is far su- perior to the other French class-bo'cks in this country. The selection of the con- versational part is very good, and will interest pupils ; and being all completed in only one volume, it is especially desirable to have it introduced m our schools. F)vm Pkof. Jaijes n. 'Woehak, Bordentoicn Female College, N. J. The work is itpon the same plan as the text-books for the study of French and English published in Berlin, for the study of those who have not the aid of a teacher, and these books are considered, by the first authorities, the best books. In most of our institutions, Americans teach the modern languages, and hereto- fore the trouble has been to give them a text-book that would dispose of the difficulties of the French pronunciation. This difficulty is successfully removed by P. and Van N., and I have every reason to believe it wiU Boon make its way into most of our best schools. From Prop. Chaeles S. Dod, Ann Smith Academy, Lexington, Va. I cannot do better than to recommend " Pujol and Van Norman." For compre- hensive and systematic arrangement, progressive and thorough development of all grammatical principles and idioms, v.ith a due admixture of theoret icnl knowl- edge and practical exercise, I regard it as superior to any (other) book of the kind, F7vm A.-A. FoESTER, Priii. Pinehwst School, Toronto, C. W. I have great satisfaction in bearing testimony to M. Pujol's System of French Instruction, as given in his complete class-book. For clearness and comprehen- siveness, adapted for all classes of pupils, I have found it superior to any other work of the kind, and have now used it for some years in my establishment with great success. From Prof. Otto Feddee, Maplewood Institute, Pittsfleld, Mass. The conversational exercises will prove an immense saving of the hardest kind €>I labor to teachers. There is scarcely any thing more trying in the way of teaching language, than to rack your brain for short and easily intelligible bits of conversation, and to repeat them time and again with no better rcf-ult than extorting at long intervals a doubting " oui," or a hesitating " non, monsieur " t^^ For further testimony of a similar character, see ppecia) circular, and current numbers of the Educational Bulletin. 41 The JVatio7ial Series of Standard School- SooJbs. GERMAN. A COMPLETE COUSSE IN THE GEEMAIT. By JAMES H. WORMAN, A. IVI. Worman's Elementary German Grammar -Si 50 Worman's Complete German Grammar . 2 co I These volumes are designed for iutermediato and advanced classes respectively., Though following the same general method with "Otto" (that of 'Gaspey> 9ur author difl'ers essentially in its application. He is more practical, more sys- tematic, more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable feature* which have never before been combined in a German grammar. Among other things, it may be claimed for Prof. Worman that he has been the first to introduce in an American test-book for Icamicg German, a system of analogy and comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enthusiastic about his methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, of correct pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient origi- nal classification of nouns (in four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also de- serves much praise. We also note the use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms.. »nd, in the exercises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules. Worman's Elementary German Reader . . i 25 Worman's Collegiate German Reader . . . 2 oo The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German Literature. These works embrace, progressively arranged, selections from the masterpieces of Goethe, Schiller, Komer, Seume, Uhland, Freiligrath, Heine, Schlegel, Holty, Lenau, Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelliug, Win- kclmann, Humboldt, Ranke, Eaumcr, Mcnzel, Gervinus, &c., and contains com- plete Goethe's " IpLigenie," Schiller's " Jungfrau ;" also, for instruction La mod- ern conversational German, Benedix's "Eigenslnn." There are besides. Biographical Sketches of each author contributing. Notes, explanatory and philological (after the text). Grammatical References to all lead- ing gnmimars, as well as the editor's own, and an adequate Vocabulary. Worman's German Echo i 25 Consists of exercises in colloquial style entirely in the German, with an ade- quate vocabulary, not only of words but of idioms. The object of the system de- Ycloped in this work (and its companion volume in the French) is to break up the laborious and tedious habit of trandnting the thoughts, which is the student's most effectual bar to fluent conversation, and to lead him to think in the language in u'hich he speaks. As the exercises illustrate scenes in actual life, a considera- ble knowledge of the manners and customs of the German people is also acqiiircd from the use of this manual. Worman's German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers, each 15 On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with progressive copies. 42 The JVational Series of Standard School-^Books. Worman's German Grammai^ TBSTIMOJS-IALS. From Prof. E. W. Jones, Peter.huro Female College, Ya. thfsrtiTudon. ''"''''" of the work it is almost certain I shall introUuc it into .. 7 ^, fC!'? ^''''■^- ^- CAMPBELt, UniversiUj of Minnesota. good* ' ""^'^'''""' *° °''' «'='^°°l-'^°ok^. ^^d will find many friends, and do groat i^/.o,7i P;-,/ O. II P. CoRPr.KW, Mary JIHitary Inst , Md. 1 am better pleased with them than any I hare ever tan^^hf T i.a-^,. oi. i j j through our booksellers. ^ taught. 1 have already ordered /-/oni Prof R. S. Kicndall, r€,-«07» Academi/, Conn. hai:\.::rirJ/J'';,!?if,?:S-,ir '^=^'- -^'^ ^^^ ^--^^ °f - «'-« of begmners, and _ i^rom P™/. D. E. Holmes, iJ«rZ.;» ^carfemT/, Wis. claltr'" ' '^'''"''' ^°''''' '""' ^■"^^"''"■- I ^^=^11 "«e "^'^n. hereafter in my German From Prof Magnus BucimoLTZ, /Zir^w College, OMo it ImTe S he^'e.*^" """"^'^'^ ^'•^'""^'^'•' ^"^ «'^<^ »' ^--"-^'- Vou may rely that i^-zw^ Prin. Tnos. W. Tobkv, P«(7«e«A i^.^^a?, ^e7«»,„,.y, i^Ty. J.!';.£3S-n:Thr^arrr,L^^rs^.^l!7ufea ^^^^''"^^^ '=^^^'"'^''-- ^^'^ «'^- From Prof Alkx. Eosenspitz, J?o«,sto« ^oaf7«;,;y, Texas Bearer will take and pay for 3 dozen coriipR Mr- w„..„,..„j and esteem of the teacher and the thanksTt the stud Jnt "■^'' '^"^ approbation i^roiJi, P;-o/. G. Malmene, Augusta Seminary, Maine 1 he Complete Grammar cannot fail to qivs areat snti^ifn-Hn^i »,„ .t, • ,• .. of Its arrangement, and by its completeness 8alisfa.hon by the simplicity From Prin. Oval Pirkey, Christian University, Mo w^tryj^S^:irj;^lS'J^™;,J<'«'-po th. author wm succeed as From Prof S. D. IIill.man, Dicldnson Colle,je, Pa i?'/-o»i P,•^,^. Silas Livermore, BloomfieU Seminary, Mo /-/-owi P/-0/. Z. Test, Rowland School for Young Ladles, N^ Y. pront'nclit'fh".°Co;n-,rp''tfrr ^'""^ ^ cursory examination I have no hesitation in prese"u%em^hiscoun?ry^''"'"''' '' '''"''^'^ in>provement on the text-books at _ /Vo;,i Prof Lewis Kistler, Northwestern University III hav ';\^SVl™;jt«o/' ^^P'"'" G'-ammar with some car. I must Say that you gramiM™,motes the f^HnV/ V,"''^'^''''''^^'■'''''^ "•'"' "'*^ gratification-that your fcqaai.iterrh\TsricUuerat';.re' '"''""^ ""^ '''^'■""" language, and of becoiing if/-o)» Pres. J. P. Rous, StocJcwell Colleqiate Tnd., Ind tilf'"''^lf,o.f:vL7^.^.lfl^^^^ '"" " Sives ro^nplete satt.fac principles andTp^?lt?o.t,fy """I'lS "ercses are well calculated to illustrate the 43 The A''atloiiat Series of Standard School-^ooks. SEARING'S VIRGIL. .^ . SPECIMElSr FRAGMENTS OP LETTERS. ♦•I adopt it gladly."— Peest. V. Daenet, Loudoun School, Va. "Hike Searing's Virgil."— Pkop. Bristol, Mpon College, Wis. "Meets my desires very thoroughly."— Pkof. Clakk, Berea College, Ohio. "Superior to any other edition of Virgil."— Pres. Hall, Macon College, Mo. " Shall adopt it at once."— Prik. B. P. Baker, Searcy Female Ingtiiute, Ark. "Your Virgil is a beauty.'"— Phof. W. II. De Motte, Illinois Female College. "After use, I regard it the best." — PErN. O. H. Barton, Some Academy, iV. T. " We lilce it better every day." — Piun. R. K. Buehele, AUentown Academy, Pa. " I am delighted with your Virgil."— Prin. W. T. Leonard, Pierce Academy, Mats. "Stands well the test of class-room."— Prin. F. A. Chase, Lyons Col. Inst., Iowa. " I do not see how it can be improved." — Prin. N. F. D. Browne, Chart. Hall, Md. " The most complete that I have seen." — Prin. A. Brown, Columbus High School, Ohio. " Our Professor of Language very highly approves." — Supt. J. G. James, Texas Military Institute. "It responds to a want long felt by teachers. It is beautiful and complete." — Prof. Brooks, University of Minnesota. " The ideal edition. We want a few more classics of the same sort." — Prin. C. F. P. Bancroft, Lookout Mountain Institute, Tenn. " I certainly have never seen an edition so complete with important requisites for a student, nor with such fine text and general mechanical execution." — Pres. J. R. Park, University of Deseret, Utah. " It is chai-ming both in its design and execution. And, on the whole, I think it ,e the best thing of the kind that I have seen."— Prof. J. De F. Richards, Pres. pro tern, of University of Alabama. "In beauty of execution, in judicious notes, and in an adequate vocabulary, it merits all praise. I shall recommend its introduction."— Pres. J. K. Patterson, Kentucky Agricullurnl and Mechanical College. " Containing a good vocabulary and judicious notes, it will enable the industrious student to acquire an accurate knowledge of the most interesting part of Virgil's works." — Prof. J. T. Dunklin, Fa^t Alabama College. "It wints no element of completeness. It is by far the best classical text-book ■with which I am acquainted. The notes are just right. They help the student when he most needs help."— Prin. C. A. Bunker, Caledonia Grammar School, TV. "I have examined Searing's Virgil with interest, and find that it more nearly meets the wants of students than that of any other edition with which I am ac- qiiainted. I am able to introduce it to some extent at once."— Prin. J. Easter, East Genesee Conference Seminanj, " I have been wishing to get a sight of it, and it exceeds my expectations. It is a beautiful book in every respect, and bears evidence of careful and critical study. The engravings add instruction as well as interest to the work. I shall recommend it to my classes."— Prin. Chas. H. Chandler, Glenwood Ladies' Seminary. "A. S. Barnes & Co. have published an edition of the first six books of Viriril's ^neid, which is superior to its predecessors in several respects. The publishers have done a good service to the cause of classical education, and the book deserves a large circulation."— Prof. George W. Collord, Brooklyn Polytechnic, N. T. "My attention was called to Searing's Virgil by the foct of its containing a voca- bulary which would obviate the necessity of procuring a lexicon. But >ise in th6 class-room has impressed me most favorably with the accuracy and just proportion of its notes, and the general excellence of its grammatical suggestions. The gen- eral character of the book in its paper, its typography, and its engravings is highly commendable, and the ftic-simile manuscript is a valuable feature. I take great pleasure in commending the book to all who do not wish a complete edition of Virgil. It suits our short school courses admirably."— IIeney L. Boltwood, Master qf Princeton High School, III. 45 JSTational S eries of Standard School-2ioo^s, THE CLASSICS, LATIN. Silber's Latin Course, $1 25 The book contains an Epitome of Latin Grammar, followed by Kcadin"' Exercises ■n-ith explanatory Notes and copious References to the leading Latin Grammars and also to the Epitome which precedes the work. Then follow a Latin-English Vocabu- lary and Exercise^ in Latin Prose Composition, being thus complete in itself and a very suitable work to put ia the hands of one about to study the language. ' Searing's Virgil's iEneid, 2 25 It contains only the first six books of the ..-Encid. 2. A very carefully constructed Dictionary. 3. Sufficiently copious Notes. 4. Grammatical references to four lead- ing Grammars. 5. Numerous Illustrations of the highest order, 6. A superb Map of the Mediterranean and adj.acent countries. 7. Dr. S. II. Taylor's "Questions on the yEneid." 8. A Metrical Index, and an Essay on the Poetical Style. 9. A photo- graphic fac simile of an early Latin M.S. 10. The text according to Jahn, but para- graphed accordhig to Ladewig. 11. Superior mechanical execution. Blair's Latin Pronunciation, i oo An inquiry into the proi>er sounds of the Language during the Classical Period. By Prof. Blair, of Hampden Sidney College, Va. Andrews & Stoddard's Latin Grammar, *i so Andrews' Questions on the Grammar, • *o 15 Andrews' Latin Exercises, *i 25 Andrews' Viri Bom^, *i 25 Andrews' Sallust's Jugurthine War, &c. *i so Andrews' Eclogues & Georgics of Virgil, *i so Andrews' Caesar's Commentaries, . . . . *i 60 Andrews' Ovid's Metamorphoses, . . . *i 25 G-REEK. Crosby's Greek Grammar, 2 oo Crosby's Xenophon's Anabasis, i 2^ Searing's Homer's Iliad, MYTHOLOG-Y. Dwight's Grecian and Roman Mythology. School edition, $1 25: University edition, *3 00 A knowledge of the fables of antiqaity, thus presented in a systematic form, is as indispensable to the student of general literature .is to him who would peruse intelli- gently the classical authors. The mythological allusions m frequent ia literatura are readily understood with such a, Kt y as this. 44 The JVational Series of Standard SchoolSooks. RECORDS. Cole's Self-Reporting Class-Book, • • • . *W so For saving the Teacher's labor in averaging. At each opening are a full set of Tables showing any scholar's standing at'a glance and entirely obviating the neces- Bity of computation. Tracy's School-Record, =*o 75. Pocket edition, *o 65 For keeping a simple but exact record of Attendance, Deportment, and Scholar- ship. The larger edition contains also a Calendar, an extensive list of Topics for Compositions and Colloquies, Themes for Short Lectures, Suggestions to Young Teachers, etc Brooks' Teacher's Register, *i oo Presents at one view a record of Attendance, Recitations, and Deportment for the whole term. Carter's Record and Roll-Book, • . • • . *i so This is the most complete and convenient Record offered to the public. Besides the usual spaces for General Scholarship, Deportment, Attendance, etc., for each name and day, there is a space in red lines enclosing six minor spaces in blue for recording Recitations. National School Diary, Per dozen, *i oo A little book of blank forms for weekly report of the standing of each scholar, from teacher to parent. A great convenience. REWARDS. National School Currency, .... Per set,*$i 50 A little box containing certificates in the form of Money. The most entertaining and stimulating system of school rewards. The scholar is paid for his merits and fined for his shortcomings. Of course the most faithful are the most successful in business. In this way the use and value of money and the method of keeping accounts are also taught. One box of Currency will supply a school of fifty pupils. TACTICS. The Boy Soldier, "5 Complete Infantry Tactics for Schools, with illustrations, for the use of those who Would introduce this pleasing relaxation from the confining duties of the desk. 46 The JVational Series of Sfandard SchoolSooks. CHARTS. ♦ — McKenzie's Elocutionary Chart, • • • • • I3 50 Baade's Reading Case, no oo This remarkable piece of pchool-room furniture is a receptacle containing a num- ber of primary cards. By an arrangement of slides on the front, one sentence at a time is shown to the class. Twenty-eight thousand transpositions may be made, aflbrding- a variety of progressive esercises which no other piece of apparatus oflers. One of its best features is, that it is so exceedingly simple as not to get out of order, while it may be operated with one finger. Marcy's Eureka Tablet, *i so A new system for the Alphabet, by which it may be taught without fail in nine lessons. Scofield's School Tablets, • • *8 oo On Five Cards, exhibiting Ten Suj-faces. These Tablets teach Orthography, Reading, Object-Lessons, Color, Form, etc. Watson's Phonetic Tablets, *8 oo Four Cards, and Eight Surfaces ; teaching Pronunciation and Elocution phonetic- any — for class exercises. Page's Normal Chart, *3 75 The whole science of Elementary Sounds tabulated. By the author of Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching. Clark's Grammatical Chart, *3 75 Exhibits the whole Science of Language in one comprehensive diagram. Davies' Mathematical Chart, *75 Mathematics made simple to the eye. Monteith's Reference Maps (School Series), . .*20 oo Eight Numbers. Mounted on Rollers. Names all laid down in small type, so that to the pupil at a short distance they are Outline Maps, while they serve as their own key to the teachei*. Willard's Chronographers, Each, *2 oo Historical. Four Numbers. Ancient Chronographer ; English (""hronographer ; American Chronographer ; Temple of Time (general). Dates and Events repre- sented to the eye. APPARATUS. Harrincjton's Geometrical Blocks, • • These patented blocks are hinged, so that each form can be dissected. Harrington's Fractional Blocks, • « . . Steele's Chemical Apparatus, Steele's Philosophical Apparatus, (see p,38) Steele's Geological Cabinet, (see p.28) . . Wood's Botanical Apparatus, (see p.30 ) . Book's Physiological Apparatus, • • • 47 . *8 00 . *20 00 *125 00 . *40 00 , *8 00 . 175 00 The JVational Series of Sta7idard School-Tjooks. U S I c. Jepson's Music Readers. 3 vols. . . . Each, 75 eta These are not Looks from which children simply learn soDgs, par- rot-like, but teach the snbject progressively — the scholar learning to read music by methods similar to those employed in tea^.hiiig him to read printed language. Any teacher, however ignorant of music, pro- vided he can, upon trial, simpiy sound the scale, may teach it without assistance, and will end by being a good singer himself. The '; Ele- mentary Music Reader," or first volume, heretofore issued by another publisher, has attained results in the State of Connecticut, where only It has been known, entirely unprecedented in the history of teaching music. The two companion volumes carry the same method into the higher grades. Nash & Bristow's Canlara. No.i, $i.i5; No.2,$i.40 The first volume is a complete musical text-book for schools of every grade. No. 2 is a choice selection of Solos and Part Songs. The authors are Directors of Music in the public schools of New York City, iu which these books are the standard of instruction. Curtis' Little Singer, ^o 60 Curtis' School Vocalist, i oo Kingsley's School-Room Choir, 60 Kingsley's Young Ladies' Harp, ..... i oo Hager's Echo, ^^ Perkins' Sabbath Carols (for sunday-schoois), . . 35 Phillips' Singing Annual do. do. . • 25 DEVOTION. Brooks' School Manual of Devotion, • • . $o 75 This volume contains daily devotional exercises, consisting of a hymn, selections of Scripture for alternate reading by teacher and pupils, and a prayer. Its value for opening and closing school is apparent. Brooks' School Harmonist, *'^5 Contains appropriate hmes for each hymn in the " Manual of Devo- tion " described above. 48 The J^ational Teachers* Jjihrary. TEACHERS' LIBRARY. Object Lessons— Welch *«1 oc This is a complete exposition of tlie popular modern system of " object teachiug," for teachers of primary classes. Theory and Practice of Teaching— Page • . *i so This volume has, without doubt, been read by two hundred thousand teachers, and its popularity remains undiminished — large editions being exhausted yearly. It was the pioneer, as it is now the patri- arch of professional works for teachers. The Graded School-Wells *i 25 The proper way to organize graded schools is here illustrated. The author has availed hiaiself of the best elements of the several systems prevalent in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other cities. The Normal— Holbrook *i so Carries a working school on its visit to teachers, showing the most approved methods of teaching all the common branches, including the technicalities, explanations, demonstrations, and deiinitions intro- ductory and peculiar to each branch. The Teachers' Institute— Fowle *i 25 This is a volume of suggestions inspired by the author's experience at institutes, in the instruction of young teachers. A thousand points of interest to this class are most satisfactorily dealt with. Schools and Schoolmasters— Dickens • • . *i 25 Appropriate selections from the writings of the great novelist. The Metric System— Davies *i 50 Considered with reference to its general introduction, and embrac- ing the views of John Quincy Adams and Sir John Herschel. The Student"— The Educator— Phelps • eacii,*i 50 The Discipline of Life-Phelps *i 75 The authoress of these works is one of the most distinguished writers on education ; and they cannot fail to prove a valuable addi- tion to the School and Teachers' Libraries, being in a high degree both interesting and instructive. A Scientific Basis of Education— Hecker • . *2 50 Adaptation of study and classification by temperaments. 49 TTie JVational Teachers* Zibrary. American Education— Mansfield $i 50 A treatise on the principles and elements of education, as practiced ia this country, with ideas towards distinctive republican and Christian edu- cation. « American Institutions— De Tocqueville • .*i so A valuable index to the genius of our Governnftnt. Universal Education— Mayliew *i 75 The snbject is approached with the clear, keen perception of one who has observed its necessity, and realized its feasibility and expediency alike. The redeeming and elevating power of improved common schools constitutes the inspiration of the volume. Higher Christian Education— Dwight • • .*i so A treatise on the principles and spirit, the modes, directions, and ra- snlts of all true teaching; showing that right education should appeal to every element of enthusiasm in the teacher's natura. Oral Training Lessons— Barnard .... *i oo The object of this very useful work is to furnish material for instruc- tors to impart orally to their classes, in branches not usually tan<^ht in common schools, embracing all departments of Natural Sciencli and much general knowledge. Lectures on Natural History— Chadbourne * 75 Affording many themes for oral mstruction in this interesting science — especially in schools where it is not pursued as a class exercise. Outlines of Mathematical Science— Davies *i oo A manual suggesting the best methods of presenting mathematical in. struction on the part of the teacher, with that comprehensive view of the whole which is necessary to the intelligent treatment of a part, in science. Nature & Utility of Mathematics— Davies • •*! 50 An elaborate and lucid exposition of the principles which lie at the foundation of pure mathematics, with a highly ingenious application of their results to the development of the essential iJca of the different branches of the science. Mathematical Dictionary— Davies & Peck .*5 oo This cyclopsedia of mathematical science defines with completeness, precision, and accuracy, every technical term, thus constituting a popular treatise on each branch, and a general view of the whole subject. School Architecture— Barnard *2 25 Attention is here called to the vital connection between a good school- hoiise and a good school, with plans and specifications for securing tli« former in the most economical and satisfaetory manner. 50 2'he jSTatioiiat '2'cachers' Ziibi'ary. Liberal Education of Women— Orton • • ^'^i so Treats of " the demand and the method ;" being; a compilation of the best and most advanced thought on this subject, by the leading writers and educators in England and America. Edited by a Professor in Vassar College. Education Abroad— Northrop *i so A thorough discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of sending American children to Europe to be educated ; also, Papers on Legal Prevention of Iliileracy, Study and Health, Labor as an Educator, and other kindred subjects. By the Hon. Secretary of Education for Connecticut. The Teacher and the Parent— Northend • • ""i so A treatise upon common-school education, designed to lead teachers to view their calling in its true light, and to stimulate them to lidelity. The Teachers' Assistant— Northend .... *i so A natural continuation of the author's previous work, more directly calculated for daily use in the administration of school discipline and instruction. School Government— Jewell *i so Full of advanced ideas on the subject which its title indicates. The criticisms upon current tlieories of punislimeut and schemes of administration have escited general attention and comment. .... ''■! 00 The diagram system of teaching grammar esplaincd, defended, and improved. The curious in literature, the searcVier for truth, tho.-^e interested in new inventions, as well as the disciples of Prof. Clark, who would see their favorite theory fairly treated, all want this bock. There are many who would like to lie made familiar with this system before risking its use in a class. The opportunity is here afforded. Grammatical Diagrams— Jewell The Complete Examiner— Stone *i ^s Consists of a series of questions on every English branch of school and academic instruction, with reference to a given page or article of leading text-books where the answer may be found in full. Prepared to aid teachers in securing certificates, pupils in preparing for promotion, and teachers in selecting review questions. School Amusements— Root *i so To assist teachers in making the school interesting, with hints upon the manage- ment of the school-room. Rules for military and gymnastic exercises are included. Illustrated by diagrams. Institute Lectures— Bates *i so These lectures, originally delivered before institutes, are based upon various topics in the departments of mental and moral culture. The volume is calculated to prepare the wiU, awaken the inquiry, and stimulate the thought of the zealous teacher. Method of Teachers' Institutes— Bates • • • '''^s Sets forth the best method of conductinc: institutes, with a detailed account of the object, organi;;ation, plan of instruction, and true theory of education on which such instruction should be based. History and Progress of Education .... *i so in al the p U COE 51 The systems of education prevailing in all nations and ages, the gradual advance to the present time, and the bearing of the past upon the present in this regard, are worthy of the careful investigation of all concerned in education. JVationat School J^ibrary, THE SCHOOL LIBRARY. The two elements of instruction and entertainment were never more happily com- bined than in this collection of standard books. Children and adults alike will here find ample food for the mind, of the sort that is easily digested^ while not degener- atin" to the level of modern romance. LIBRARY OF LITERATURE. Milton's Paradise Lost. Boyd's lUustrated Ed., $1 60 Young's Night ThougFits . . . . do. . . i 60 Cowper's Task, Table Talk, &c. . do. . . i 60 Thomson's Seasons do. . . i 60 Pollok's Course of Time . . . . do. . . i 60 These works, models of the best and purest literature, are beautifully illustrated, and notes explain all doubtful meanings. Lord Bacon's Essays (Boyd's Edition) . . . l 60 Another grand English classic, affording the highest example of purity in lan- guage and style. The Iliad of Homer. Translated by Pope. . . 80 Those who are unable to read this greatest of ancient writers in the original, should not fail to avail themselves of this metrical version. Compendium of Eng. Literature— Cleveland, 3 50 English Literature of XlXth Century do. 2 50 Compendium of American Literature do. 2 50 Nearly one hundred and fifty thousand volumes of Prof. Cleveland's iuimitabls compendiums have been sold. Talien together they present a complete view of literature. To the man who can afford but a few books these will supply the place of an extensive library. From commendations of the very highest authorities the following extracts will give some idea of the enthusiasm with which the works are regarded by scholars : With the Bible and your volumes one might leave libraries without very painful regret. — The work cannot be found from which in the same limits so much iutereft- ing and valuable information may be obtained.^ Good taste, fine scholarslii]), familiar acquaintance with literature, unwearied industry, tact acquired by iiiaclice, an interest in the culture of the young, and regard for truth, purity, i)liil;intliropy and religion are united in Mr. Cleveland.— A judgment clear and impartial, a tasic at oncedelicate and severe. — The biographies are just and discriminating. — An admirable l)ird's-eyc view. — Acquaints the reader with the characteristic method, tone, and quality of each writer.— Succinct, carefully written, and wonderfully com- prehensive in detail, etc., etc. Milton's Poetical Works— Cleveland . . . 2 50 This is the very best edition of the great Poet. It includes a life of the author, notes, dissertations on each poem, a faultless text, and is the only edition of Milton with a complete verbaJ Index. 52 ^YaiioJiai School Zibrary. LIBRARY OF HISTORY. History of Europe— Alison $2 50 A reliable and standard work, which covers with clear, connected and complete narrative, the eventful occurrences transpiring from A. D. 1789 to 1815, being mainly a history of the career of Napoleon Bonaparte, History of England— Berard i 75 Combining a history of the social life of the English people with that of the civil and military transactions of the realm. History of Rome— Ricord i go Possesses all the charm of an attractive romance. The fables witli which this history abouuds are introduced in such away as net to deceive thti inexperienced reader, while adding vastly to the interest of tha work and affording a pleasiug index to the genius of the Eoman people, illus- trated. The Republic of America— Willard • • . 2 25 Universal History in Perspective— Willard 2 25 From these two comparatively brief treatises the Intelligent mind may obtain a comprehensive knowledge of the history of the world in both hemispheres. Mrs. Willard' s reputation ae an historian la wide as the land. lUustr.-.ted. Ecclesiastical History— Marsh 2 oo A history of the Church in all ages, with a comprehensive review of all forms of religion fn^m the creation of the world. No otner source affords, In the same compass, tlie iuforniation here conveyed. History of the Ancient Hebrews— Ffl ills • . l 75 The record of " God's people" from the call of Abraham to the destruc- tion of Jerusalem ; gatuered from sources sacred and profane. The Mexican War— Mansfield i 50 A history of its origin, and a detailed account of its victories ; with official despatches, the treaty of peace, and valuable tables. Illustrated. Early History of Michigan— Sheldon • • • 3 50 A work of value and deep interest to the people of the West. Com- piled under the supervision of Hon. Lewis Cass. Portraits. History of Texas— Baker 1 ^5 A pithy and interesting' resume. Copiously illustrated. The State constitution and extracts from the speeches and writings of eminent Tesans are appended. 53 J^'ational School Ijibra/y. LIBKAHY OF BIOaKAPHY. Life of Dr. Sam. Johnson— Boswell • • $2 25 This work has been before the public for seventy years, with increasing approbation. Boswell is known as " the prince of biographers." Henry Clay's Life and Speeches— Wallory 2 vols 4 50 This Rreat American statesman commands the admiration, and Ida character and deeds solicit the study of every patriot. Life & Services of General ScoU-IVIans field i 75 The hero of the Mexican war, who was for many years the most promi- nent figure in American military circles, should act be forgotten in the whirl of more recent events than those by which he signalized himselt Dlustrated. Garibaldi's Autobiography i 50 The Italian patriot's record of his own life, translated and edited by his friend and admirer. A thrilling narrative of a romantic career. With portrait. Lives of the Signers— Dwight i so The memory of the noble men who declared our country free at the peril of their own "lives, fortunes, and sacred honor," should be em- balmed in every American's heart. Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds— Cunningham i so A candid, truthful, and appreciative memoir of the great painter, with a compilation of his discourses. The vohmie is a text-book for artists, as well as those who would acquire the rudiments of art. With a portrait. Prison Life 75 Interesting biographies of celebr.ated prise ners and martyrs, desigae J e^>eciaUy for the instruction and cultivation of youth. 54 A^'alloual Sc/iool Z,ibrary. LIBHARY OF NATURAL SCIENCE. The Treasury of Knowledge $i 2a A cyclopaedia of ten tliousand coramon things, embracing the widest range of subject-matter. Illustrated. €anot's Popular Physics i 75 The elements of natural philosophy for both student and the general reader. The original work is celebrated for the magnificent characttr of its illustrations, all of which arc literally reproduced here. Principles of Chemistry— Porter 2 oo A work which commends itself to tne amateur in science by its extreme simplicity, and careful avoidance of unnecessary detail. Illustrated. Class-Book of Botany— Wood 3 50 ladispensalale as a work of reference. Illustrated. The Laws of Health— Jarvis i 6S This is not an abstract anatomy, but all its teachings ard directed to the best methods of preserving health, as inculcated by an inlellignnt know- ledge of the structure and needs ef the human body. Illustrated. Vegetable & Animal Physiology— Hamilton i 25 An exhaustive analysis of the conditions of life in all animate natare. Illustrated. Elements of Zoology— Chambers i so A complete view of the animal kingdom as a por Jon of external nature. Illustrated. Astronography— Willard i o® The elements of astronomy in a compact and readable form. Illus- trated. Elemenis of Geology— Page 1 25 The subject presented in its two aspects of interesting and important. Illustrated. Lectures on Natural History— Chadbourne 75 The subject is here ccnsidered in its relations to intellect, taste, health, and religion. _ _ JVatlonal School I^ib7'ary. LIBRARY OF TRAVEL. Life in the Sandwich Islands— Cheever • .$i 50 Tlie "heart of the Pacific, as it was and is," shows most vividly the contrast between the depth of degradation and barbarism, and the light and liberty of civilization, so rapidly realized in these islands under the humanizing influence of the Christian religion. Illustrated. The Republic of Liberia— Stockwell, • • . i 25 This volume treats of the geography, climate, soil, and productions of this interesting country c'n the coast of Africa, with a History of its early settlement. Our colored citizens especially, from whom the founders of the new State went forth, should read Mr. Stockwell's account of it. It is so arranged as to be available for a School Reader, and in colored schools is peculiarly appropriate as an instrument of education for the young. Liberia is likely to bear an important part in the future of their race. Ancient Monasteries of the East— Curzon • 1 so The exploration of these ancient seats of learning has thrown much light upon the researches of the historian, the philologist, and the theo- logian, as well as the general student of antiquity. Illustrated. Discoveries in Babylon & Nineveh— Lay ard 1 75 Valuable alike for the information imparted with regard to these most interesting ruins, and the pleasint adventures and observations of the author in regions that to most men seem like Fairyland. Illustrated. A Run Through Europe-Benedict, .... 2 00 A work replete with instruction and interest. St. Petersburgh— Jermann 1 ^^ Americans are less familiar with the history -and social customs of the Russian people than those of any other modern civilized nation. Oppor- tunities such as this book affords are not, therefore, to be neglected. The Polar Regions— Osborn ^ 25 A thrilling and intensely interesting narrative of one of the famous ex- peditions in search of Sir John Franklin -unsuccessful m its main object, but adding many facts to the repertoire of science. Thirteen Months in the Confederate Army 75 The author a northern man conscripted into the Confederate service, and rising from the ranks by soldierly conduct to positions of responsi- Waty, had remarkable opportunities for the acquisition of facts respect- ing the conduct of the Southern armies, and the policy and deeds of their adders. He participated in many engagements, and Ins book is one of he rno^t exciting narratives of adventure ever published. Mr. Steven Lnn takes no ground as a partizan, but views the whole subject as with the eye of a neutral— only interested in suoserviug the ends of history by tno coutributiou of impartial facts. Illustrated. 56 JVntlonal School Library. LIBKAKY OF KEFERENCE. Home Cyclopaedia of Literature & Fine Arts S3 oo A complete i :dex to all terms employed in belles lettres, philosophy, theology, law, mythology, paiuting, music, sculpture, architecture, and all kindred arts. The Rhyming Dictionary— Walker .... i 25 A serviceable manual to composers, being a complete index of allowable rhymes. The Topical Lexicon— Williams i 'is The useful terms of the Enslish language classified by subjects and arranged ac- cording to their affinities of meaning, with etynioiogies, definitions and Ulastra- tions. A very entertaining and instructive work. Mathematical Dictionary— Davies & Peck • 5 oo A thorough compendium of the science, with illustrations and definitions. RELIGIOUS LIBRARY. The Service of Song— Stacy $i so A treatise on Singing, in public and private devotion. Its history, ofHce, and importance considered. True Success in Life— Palmer ^i so Earnest words for the young who are just about to meet the responsibilities and temptations of mature life. "Remember Me"— Palmer • i so Preparation for the Holy Communion. Chrysostom, or the Mouth of Gold— Johnson i oo An entertaining dramatic sketch, by Rev. Edwin Johnson, illustrating the life and times of St. Chrysostom. The Memorial Pulpit— Robinson. 3 vols., each i 50 A series of wide-awake sermons by the popular pastor of the Memorial Presby- terian CUurch, New York. Responsive Worship— Budington go An argument in favor of alternate Scripture reaffling by Pastor and Congregation. Lady Willoughby i oo The diary of a wife and mother. An historical romance of the seventeenth cen- tury. At once beautiful and pathetic, entertaining and instructive. Favorit3 Hymns Restored-Gage i 25 Most of the standard hymns have undergone modification or abridgment by com- pilers, but this volume contains them exactly as written by the authors. Poets' Gift of Consolation l so A beautiful selection of po&ms referring to the death of children, 57 JSTatlonal School Ijibrary. VALUABLE LIBKAKY BOOKS. The Political Manual— Mansfield $i 35 Every American youth should he familiar with the principles of the government under which he lives, especially as the policy of this country will one day oall upon him to participate in it, at least to the extent of his ballot.- American Institutions— De Tocqueville . . i so Democracy in America— De Tocqueville • • ^ ^'>o The views of this distinguished foreigner on the genius of our political institu- tions are of unquestionable value, as proceeding from a standpoint whence we sel- dom have an opportunity to hear. Constitutions of the United Stales .... 2 25 Contains the Constitution of the General Government, and of the several State Governments, the Declaration of Independence, and other lm]iortant documents relating to American history. Indispensable as a work of reference. Public Economy of the United States ... 2 25 A full discussion of the relations of the United States with other nations, espe- cially the feasibility of a free-trade policy. Grecian and Roman Mythology— Dwight • 3 00 The presentation, in a systematic form, of the Fables of Antiquily, affords most entertaining reading, and is valuable to all as an index to the mythological allusions so frequentin literature, as well as to students of the classics who wolild peruse in- telligently the classical authors. Illustrated. General View of the Fine Arts— Huntington 1 75 The preparation of this work was suggested by the interested inquiries of a group of young j)eople concerning the productions and styles of the great masters of art, whose names only were familiar. This statement is sufficient index of its character. The Poets of Connecticut— Everest • • • • 1 '^'^ With the biographical sketches, this volume forms a complete history of the poetical literature of the State. The Son of a Genius— Hofland "^5 A juvenile classic which neve*' wears out, and finds many interested readers in every generation of youth. Sunny Hours of Childhood '^5 Interesting and moral stories for children. Vo Morals for the Young— Willard A scries of moral stories, by one of the most experienced of American educators. Illustrated. Improvement of the Mind— Isaac Watts • • so A classical standard. No young person should grow up without having perused it 58 Churc?i 3ftesic, etc. FUBLIO ^A^OPtSHIF. Songs for the Sanctuary, 12 so By Rev. C. S. Robinson. 1344 Hymns, with Tunes. The most successful modern hymu and tune-book, for conjjregational s-iaging. More than 200,000 copies have been sold. Separate editions for Presbyterian, Congregational, and Baptist Churches. Editions without Tunes, $1.75; iu large type, $2.50. Abridged edition (" Songs for Christian Worship "), 859 Hymns, with Tunes, $1.50. Chapel edition, 637 Hymns, with Tunes, $1.4'..i. International Singing Annual, 25 Metrical Tune Book, i oo To be used with any hymn-book. By Philip Phillips. Baptist Praise Book, 3 so By Rev. Dbs. Fuller, Levt, Phelps, Fish, Aemitage, Winkler, Evaets, Lor- iMER and Manly, and J. P. Holbrook, Esq. 1311 Hymns, with Tunes. Edition without Tunes, S1.75. Chapel edition, 550 Hymns, with Tunes, $1.25. Plymouth Collection, 2 5o (Congregational.) By Rev. Henry Ward Beecher. 1374 Hymns, with Tunes. Separate edition for Baptist Churches. Editions without Tunes, $1.25 and $1.75. Hymns of the Church, 2 ?5 (Undenominational.) By Rev. Drs. Thompson, Yermilye, and Eddy. 1007 Hymns, with Tunes. The uso of tliis book is required in all congregations of the Reformed Church in America. Edition without Tunes, .fl.75. Chapel edition ("Hymns of Prayer and Praise "), 320 Hymns, with Tunes, 75 cts. Episcopal Common Praise, 2 75 Tlie Service set to appropriate Music, with Tunes for all the Hymns in the Book of Common Prayer. Hymnal, with Tunes, 1 25 (Episcopal.) By Hall & Wuiteley. The new Hymnal, set to Music. Edition with Chants, i51.50. Edition of Hymns only (" Companion " Hymnal), 60 cts. Quartet and Chorus Choir, 3 oo By J. P. Holbkook. Containing Music for the Unadapted Hymns in Songs for the Sanctuary. Christian Melodies. ByGEO.B.CHEEVER. Hymns and Tunes. 1 00 Mount ZiOn Collection. By T. E. Peekins. FortheCholr. 1 25 Selah. By Thos. Hastings. For the Choir. 1 25 Public Worship (Partly Responsive) .... 11 00 Containing complete services (not Episcopal) for five Sabbaths ; for use in schools, public institutions, summer resorts, churches without a settled pastor; in short, wherever Christians desire to worship— no clergyman being present. The Union Prayer Book, 2 so A Manual for Public and Private Worship. With those features which are ob- jectionable to other denominations o*' Christians than Episcopal eliminated o: modified. Contains a Service for Sunday Schools and Family Prayers. The Psalter, 16mo, 60 cts.; 8vo, 90 Selections from the Psalms, for : esponsive reading. 59 Sc/iool F'urnitur-e. FURNITURE. (SUPPLIED BY THE NATIONAL SCHOOL FURNITURE CO.) PEARD'S PATENT FOLDING DESK AND SETTEE. This great improvement for the school-room has come already into such astonish- ing demar.d as to tax the utmost resources of the company's uvo factories to sup- ply it. By a simple movement the desk-lid is folded away over the back of the settee attached in front, making a false back, and at once converting the school- room into a lecture or assembly-room. When the seat also is folded, the whole occui)ies only ten inches of space, leaving room for gymnastic exercises, marching, etc., or for the janitor to clean the room eflfectively. NATIONAL STUDY DESK AND SETTEE. When not in use for writing, the desk-lid slides back vertically into a chamber, leaving in front an "easel," with clamps, upon which the student places his book and studies in an erect posture. As a folding-desk this offers many of the same advantages as the " Peard." THE GEM DESK AND SETTEE. Fixed top, and folding seat. This is the neatest pattern of the Standard School Desk, and the strongest in use. THE ECONOMIC DESK AND SETTEE. This is the cheapest good desk, with stationary lid and folding seat. All descriptions of HIGH SCHOOL DESKS, SCHOOL SETTEES, TEACHERS' DESKS, CHURCH SETTEES, BLACKBOARDS, PEW ENDS, CHAIRS, LECTERNS, Etc, AIbo, CLASS AND LECTURE CHAIR. The dilliculty of reconciling furniture appropriate for the Lecture-room or Church with that convenient ftir the Sunday-school is an old one. This article eliectiially remedies it. It consists simply of a plan by which chairs of a somewhat peculiar "shape are connected with a coupling. The rows of chairs thus adjusted may at pleasure and with ease be spread out straight in one line, forming pews or benches ; or they may be bent in an instant into a semi-circular form to accomo- date classes of any size to receive instruction from teachers seated in tteir midst. For further particulars, consult catalogues of the National School Furnitura Co. and the Taylor Patent Chair Co., which may be obtained of A. S. Barnes &i Co. 60 The Peabody Correspondence. New York, April 29, 1867, To THE Board of Trustees of the Peabodt Edticationai. Fund : Gentlemen — Havin<; been for many years intimately connected with the educa- tional interests of the South, we are desirou-' of expressintjbi.isi3:epis_