TEACHER'S MANUAL 
 
 ^^ TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 1576 
 
 Jl^ SSONS IN LANGUAGE 
 
 AND GRAMMAR 
 
 H. S.TARBELL 
 6* M.TARBELL 
 
 I'iM.'t'iU! 
 
 GINN ^ 6-^ COMPANY 
 
Class _JLB_L5_TA 
 
 Copiglit'N''. 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
MANUAL 
 
 TO ACCOMPANY 
 
 LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 
 AND GRAMMAR 
 
 BY 
 
 HORACE S. TARBELL, LL.D. 
 
 AND 
 
 MARTHA TARBELL, Ph.D. 
 
 K , 
 
 ^0^' 
 
 O • 1 o ■» ' ' 
 
 3 J 5 > 111) 
 
 
 BOSTON, U.SA. 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
 
 d)e 9ltl)enaettm |)re66 
 1903 
 

 THt LlLRAl^Y OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Tv/o Copies Received 
 
 APR 22 1903 
 
 Copyright btury 
 
 CLASS a> XXc. No. 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 Copyright, 1903 
 By GINN & COMPANY 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
 
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TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 TARBELL'S LESSONS IN LANGUAGE 
 
 AND GRAMMAR 
 
 Book I 
 
 Part I — How to Write 
 
 The first fifty-seven sections of Part I should be studied 
 thoroughly. The remaining sections may be taken more 
 rapidly or omitted altogether. The suggestions in this 
 manual supplement, but do not supersede, those in the 
 text-book. 
 
 SECTIONS I AND II — THE SENTENCE 
 
 Ask your pupils to bring to class written upon paper five 
 or more sentences selected from one of their schoolbooks. 
 These may be read to the class by the pupils, and the class 
 may decide whether they are sentences and what kind of 
 sentences they are. Some of them may be copied upon the 
 board. The next day original sentences may be required. 
 It will take a long time with some pupils to develop the 
 ** sentence sense." 
 
 SECTION VI — THE STUDY OF A POEM 
 
 The pupils will, of course, notice the difference between 
 the lines in prose and poetry, and that the first word of 
 every line of poetry begins with a capital. 
 
2 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 They have now learned what may be called the funda- 
 mental rules of punctuation, — four rules for capitals and 
 two rules for the marks at the end of sentences. Test them 
 first in their language books and then in their reading books 
 upon their recognition of these rules. 
 
 SECTION VII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE 
 
 The questions given in this section by no means exhaust 
 the appropriate questions. Have the class write from the 
 questions here given ; then require the class to make a new 
 set of questions and to write answers to those. 
 
 SECTION VIII — THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS 
 
 After the pupils have followed the directions in the section 
 let them write from dictation all the sentences in the lesson, 
 telling them as they write where to insert the commas, but 
 letting them be responsible for capitals and periods. Call 
 their attention to the use of the period after the number of 
 a section, after its title, and after the title of a poem or com- 
 position. They ought also to notice the use of the colon 
 and dash in these lessons. 
 
 Sf. Marys River is written without the apostrophe because 
 it is a geographical name. 
 
 SECTION X — AN EXERCISE IN REPRODUCTION 
 
 Lead the pupils to notice the difference in the use of 
 capitals between months and seasons. 
 
 SECTION XI — INITIAL LETTERS; ABBREVIATIONS 
 
 The caution at the bottom of the page not to use too 
 many abbreviations, and similar cautions or directions in 
 succeeding exercises, should be repeatedly brought to the 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 3 
 
 notice of the pupils. Children tend too strongly to the use 
 of abbreviations, and are apt to omit the period which is a 
 part of the abbreviation. 
 
 SECTION XIII — THE DESCRIPTION OF A PICTURE 
 
 Have pupils write a composition by answering the ques- 
 tions in the section. Then let them make a set of different 
 questions and write a second composition from them. Fol- 
 low this practice wherever practicable. 
 
 SECTION XXI — THE COMMA IN A SERIES 
 
 In newspapers the comma is often omitted before the ajid 
 preceding the last term of a series; but in magazines and 
 books it is usually inserted. This should be explained to 
 the pupils, and they should be taught to punctuate according 
 to the rule given in the book. The comma is usually omitted 
 before the a7id in the names of firms. 
 
 SECTION XXIV — REVIEW EXERCISES 
 
 Review exercises like this should be given frequently, 
 much more frequently than they are set down in the book. 
 Such exercises should not, usually, take the full time of a 
 recitation, but rather take a small part of the recitation 
 period every two or three days. These may be impromptu or 
 prepared. For prepared reviews it is usually better to write 
 questions upon the blackboard or dictate them to pupils for 
 the coming recitation than to assign sections for review study. 
 
 SECTION XXVII — REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION 
 
 When this lesson is assigned, tell the pupils they may 
 study it until they can give the rule for every capital and 
 mark of punctuation except one comma [the one in " When 
 
4 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 I was in New York," etc.]. At the recitation period dictate 
 the sentences to the pupils. They may exchange papers 
 and correct without the book ; then exchange again and cor- 
 rect from the book. The exercise will need to be divided 
 for this work. 
 
 SECTION XXXI — THE STUDY OF A STANZA 
 
 This is a more serious and difficult exercise in composi- 
 tion than the class has yet undertaken. To do it well will 
 require three or four days ; but some other work, involving 
 oral recitation, not written, may be taken with it. 
 
 The questions are designed to induce thought, and are 
 not intended to be used to write from. If your pupils have 
 skill enough, let them draw the picture of the scene and 
 then describe the picture. Several pupils in every class 
 will show talent for such illustrations, and the exercise will 
 develop the imagination. 
 
 SECTION XXXVII — QUOTATIONS 
 
 Call the attention of the pupils to the punctuation of as^ 
 introducing an example. 
 
 The pupils should be able to explain the use of every 
 capital and mark of punctuation in this exercise except the 
 semicolon in the last paragraph. Have them do this orally 
 before writing from dictation. If they hesitate much in 
 doing this, the previous sections should be reviewed until 
 the work in this section can be done readily. 
 
 SECTION XLVI — A DIALOGUE 
 
 This exercise may be written first as a story, and then the 
 story may be rewritten in dialogue form as a second exercise. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 5 
 
 SECTION XLIX — LETTER WRITING 
 
 If you have already given your pupils lessons in letter 
 writing it has not been amiss. 
 
 It will be best to copy upon the board letter forms and 
 talk about them with the class before the children learn 
 anything about them from the book. Such sections as LI, 
 LI I, LIII, LIV, and LV are to be talked about before the 
 book is taken, then talked about again with the open book 
 in hand, and then questioned upon with books closed. 
 
 The sections from this subject to Part II are similar in 
 character to those before given and may be treated in the 
 same way. If you have not time for all of them, select such 
 as are most interesting to your class. It will be quite as 
 profitable to rewrite some of the preceding exercises and 
 see how much improvement your class has made since these 
 were first written, as it will be to write the exercises which 
 follow. Do both if you have time. 
 
 Part II — Elementary Grammar 
 
 SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 
 
 The pupil should be led to notice that in Section I, Part I, 
 there is no definition of a sentence, though he has been using 
 the word. Now, a definition seems needed. 
 
 SECTION II — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 
 
 In lessons in language it is important that the form of 
 the teacher's questions should be carefully considered, and 
 that the pupils' answers should correspond exactly in form 
 with the question asked. 
 
 Turn to Part I for additional material for exercises on 
 sentences and parts of sentences. 
 
6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION III — DECLARATIVE, INTERROGATIVE, IMPERA- 
 TIVE, AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES 
 
 Do not spend much time on exclamatory sentences. 
 
 SECTION V — THE NOUN, COMMON AND PROPER 
 
 There are other kinds of common nouns than class nouns, 
 but pupils need not be told about them now. At present 
 the statement, "All nouns not proper nouns are common 
 nouns," is sufficient. 
 
 SECTION IX — THE ARTICLE 
 
 The rule sought is, a is used before vowel sounds and an 
 before consonant sounds. The use of a or an before h is a 
 matter on which practice differs. 
 
 SECTION X — THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 Pupils will be helped to good work by making the require- 
 ments for study as definite as possible. For example, it 
 might be well to tell them to find two adjectives in the first 
 numbered sentence, page 105, three in the second, three in 
 the third, two in the fourth, two in the fifth, two in the sixth, 
 and four in the seventh ; that in the first line of the stanza 
 at the bottom of the page there is one adjective, in the second 
 two, in the third two, in the fourth two, in the fifth three, in 
 the sixth none, in the seventh one, and in the eighth two. 
 
 SECTION XI — THE ADJECTIVE: COMPARISON 
 
 Such a section is not difficult if it be taken in parts and 
 learned slowly. 
 
 The teacher should not confuse the class by long lessons, 
 nor by going hastily over ground partially understood and 
 not well fixed in the mind ; nor, on the other hand, should 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 7 
 
 she waste time by giving short lessons and delaying upon 
 that already mastered. The way out of this difficulty is to 
 give short lessons, well worked over by questions and drill, 
 and, at the same time, make progress by an additional lesson 
 or part of a lesson of a different character upon some other 
 topic. 
 
 SECTION XIV— SELECTING THE RIGHT PRONOUN 
 
 When this section is completed an additional exercise of 
 the same sort may be made of the last paragraph of the 
 preceding section, omitting the pronouns after />, are^ was^ 
 zvere, and be. 
 
 SECTION XV — THE VERB 
 
 The effort of the pupil should be in finding verbs rather 
 than in studying the definitions of the verb. 
 
 In the sentence, " The knife is sharp," the pupil will prob- 
 ably think sharp is the telling word, because it tells something 
 about the knife. Show that is is the telling word, while sharp 
 simply shows what is told, by calling the pupil's attention to 
 the fact that if he were to say "The knife is sharp," and 
 some one were to deny it, he would repeat his sentence and 
 say, "The knife is sharp," showing that is is the word on 
 which we depend to make the assertion, or do the telling. 
 
 It would be well to have the pupils learn a short list of 
 the verbs in most common use. They are a77t, been, shall, 
 will, may, might, and the list on page 39 of words with 
 which not may be combined. 
 
 SECTION XVI — THE VERB 
 
 Sections XVI and XVII and Sections XIX-XXV may be 
 omitted if the class has not time for them or the teacher 
 thinks it better to take up these topics for the first time 
 when the class studies Book II. 
 
8 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION XVIII — SELECTING THE RIGHT VERB 
 
 The work in this section is very suitable for pupils of the 
 fourth reader grade, and should be taken up as directed at 
 the head of the section. 
 
 The work should be done orally first. Pupils may correct 
 their written work from models placed upon the blackboard. 
 One lesson a week will be enough in this section. 
 
 SECTION XX — THE VERB: PRINCIPAL PARTS 
 
 W^hile teaching Sections XX-XXIII the teacher should 
 feel that it is not so much grammar that she is teaching as 
 it is the correct use in speech of the forms of verbs. Pupils 
 who have been accustomed to hearing correct speech will 
 virtually know all that is taught in these sections before 
 beginning their study, but will by studying them be helped 
 to systematize their knowledge. Others ought to be taught 
 to use correct forms of verbs before their habits of speech 
 become too firmly established. 
 
 SECTION XXIX — THE PREPOSITION 
 
 If Sections XVI and XVII were omitted, then the rule at 
 the top of page 142 should be omitted also. The remainder 
 of the section can be taken. 
 
Book II 
 
 A COURSE of study for this book, embracing eight half 
 years, is given in the text, page x. One for seven half years 
 is given below : 
 
 Course for Seven Half Years 
 
 Chapters 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 
 7 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 lO 
 
 II 
 
 Topics 
 
 Introductory . . 
 Letters .... 
 Description . . . 
 Narration . . . 
 Reproduction and Essays 
 Longfellow, A Study of 
 
 Style 
 
 Secretarial Writings 
 Synonyms . . . 
 Grammar .... 
 Punctuation . . . 
 
 1,2 
 
 I 
 1-3 
 
 1-13 
 1-6 
 
 2 
 
 4,5 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 1-6 
 
 14-17 
 7—10 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2,3 
 
 7-10 
 
 ig-26 
 II, 12 
 
 4-6 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 4,5 
 11-15 
 
 27-38 
 13-16 
 
 7,8 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6,7 
 16-20 
 
 1-3 
 
 39-46 
 17-21 
 
 7-9 
 
 8,9 
 21-24 
 
 4-7 
 
 47-53 
 
 22-25 
 
 5 
 
 ID, II 
 
 25-28 
 
 8-1 1 
 
 55-62 
 Review 
 
 No course is designated for the work in synonyms, as this 
 chapter is designed to be studied in connection with other 
 work according to the convenience and the judgment of the 
 teacher. 
 
 It is advised that if the course be but seven half years, Sec- 
 tion XII of Chapter VI and Sections XVIII, XX (part), XXI, 
 XXIX, XXX, XXXIV, XXXVI, XLIII, LIV, LXIII of 
 Chapter X be omitted. 
 
 In case it is desired to complete the work in six half years, 
 then it is advised to omit, besides the above, — in Chap- 
 ter V, a part of Section III and all of Sections IV and V ; 
 
 9 
 
lO TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 in Chapter VII, Sections VII-X, XXV-XXIII ; in Chap- 
 ter VIII, Sections VIII-XI ; and in Chapter X, Sections 
 XLVI, LIII, and LX-LXIII. 
 
 In the courses for seven or eight half years, such of these 
 omissions as commend themselves to the judgment of the 
 teacher may, of course, be made. 
 
 THE MECHANICAL DIFFICULTIES IN 
 
 WRITING 
 
 There are two classes of difficulties which pupils meet in 
 their efforts at composition : those of mechanism and those of 
 thought, the latter including matter and expression. These dif- 
 ficulties should, so far as practicable, be overcome separately. 
 
 The mechanical difficulties include penmanship, spelling, 
 punctuation, arrangement in paragraphs and upon the page. 
 When these difficulties no longer trouble one, it is easier to 
 write than to talk ; for in writing, more time is given for 
 thought than in talking, and the matter already written 
 assists the thinking and suggests the form of that which is 
 to follow. 
 
 It is not the province of this book to treat of penmanship 
 and spelling ; but ample instruction has been given upon 
 the other mechanical parts of writing. 
 
 Nearly the whole field of mechanical difficulty has been 
 cultivated, and most of the obstructions removed by the 
 time the pupil has completed Chapter I and the first three 
 sections of Chapter II ; for these sections, with the accompa- 
 nying work in dictation and punctuation, cover all difficulties 
 of this character except certain work in punctuation and 
 certain forms of written documents. 
 
 During the time devoted to these sections, not much 
 attention should be given to the thinking of the pupils ; the 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR n 
 
 teacher should not trouble herself so much about what the 
 child writes as that he writes something readily and writes 
 it in good form. 
 
 During this mechanical period of training, large classes 
 are best, and there should be no correcting of papers by 
 the teacher. Those who make the most mistakes should 
 write their paragraphs upon the board, and the class should 
 correct. A few pupils who write very well should write 
 model forms upon the board. 
 
 Mistakes in spelling require special, early, and persistent 
 treatment. The pupils' written exercises should furnish the 
 material for a considerable portion of the spelling lessons of 
 the class. 
 
 At the time of writing, young pupils should be encouraged 
 to ask the teacher how to spell any word which they wish to 
 use and which they do not feel sure they know how to spell. 
 Older pupils should look up such words in the dictionary. 
 
 As pupils read their written work they may be asked about 
 the spelling of certain words, their use of capitals and marks 
 of punctuation. Thus these three elements of error may 
 be considerably eliminated from the papers before they are 
 handed to the teacher. 
 
 The papers of the class should lie upon the teacher's desk 
 from the close of one written exercise to the beginning of 
 the next, and during this time the teacher should look them 
 over sufficiently to discover how well they are done and what 
 the more common errors are. 
 
 At the beginning of the next lesson in language these 
 papers may be handed to the class, each pupil receiving the 
 paper of some one else, and mistakes may be marked. 
 
 Words misspelled should be underscored. Errors or omis- 
 sions in the use of capitals and marks of punctuation may 
 be shown by P placed at the beginning of the line in which 
 the mistake appears. The sign \j placed at the beginning 
 
12 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 of a line may signify that in this line there is some mistake 
 other than in spelling, capitals, and punctuation. 
 
 Papers may then be returned to the writers, and each 
 pupil may write upon a slip of paper the words misspelled 
 and make in his copy the other corrections required. 
 
 If a pupil has any doubt about the correction of a marked 
 sentence let him show it to the teacher, or copy it upon the 
 board for the consideration of the class and the teacher. 
 
 The pupil making most mistakes in spelling should collect 
 the slips containing the several misspelled words and copy 
 the words upon the blackboard. These words should be 
 studied and used later in a spelling or dictation exercise. 
 After such an exercise all words that no pupil has misspelled 
 may be erased and the rest may remain for further study. 
 
 It will not do, however, to make the search for mistakes 
 in spelling, punctuation, and grammar the chief effort of the 
 class critics. After these things have been sought out and 
 marked, let the critics next look for sentences or construc- 
 tions for which they can suggest improvement, and for omis- 
 sions which they can supply. Finally, let them seek for 
 points of excellence which deserve commendation. Usually, 
 two or three of the better exercises should be copied upon 
 the blackboard, and the elements that render them praise- 
 worthy should be pointed out. 
 
 DICTATION 
 
 Dictation is the teacher's main reliance in her efforts to 
 overcome the mechanical difficulties of her pupils. One 
 good form of dictation work is as follows : 
 
 The teacher reads from the reading book or other text- 
 book a paragraph which the class has studied before, though 
 not for a dictation exercise. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 13 
 
 The teacher reads it again, a few words at a time, pausing 
 for the pupils to write. When the work is done each pupil 
 compares his work with the printed paragraph in the book 
 and corrects his mistakes. 
 
 CORRECTION OF ORAL ERRORS 
 
 Training to correct speech has a positive and a negative 
 side. 
 
 The books which this manual accompanies set forth the 
 positive side, which consists, speaking broadly, of furnishing 
 the occasion for the use of correct forms of speech and 
 assisting pupils to develop the power of using these forms. 
 The negative side demands the exclusion from the language 
 of the child of erroneous or inelegant forms, unconsciously 
 imitated from the speech of those about him. 
 
 Incorrect language should be corrected whenever heard, 
 not perhaps at the moment of utterance, for by so doing the 
 child may be embarrassed and his current of thought broken, 
 but at the first convenient opportunity. Besides this inci- 
 dental correction, a wholesale crusade against bad habits of 
 speech must be entered upon. The most common and 
 serious fault in the speech of the children should be selected 
 for special attack. The better form should be presented in 
 contrast and made prominent. The pupils should be warned 
 against this error in their own speech and led to criticise it 
 in others. 
 
 It is not necessary to explain the grammatical or rhetori- 
 cal principles which prove the expression to be a faulty one, 
 but the form to be used instead should be carefully explained 
 and always insisted upon. 
 
 Professor W. D. Whitney says, "If a child comes to 
 school in such a state of training that he says come for 
 
14 TEACHERS' MANUAL - 
 
 came, done for did, or the77i for they, and the like, he needs 
 to be corrected outright, and the more authority and the less 
 grammar about it the better." 
 
 CORRECTING PAPERS 
 
 The careful correction of the papers of individual pupils 
 will not be profitable until Chapter V is studied. 
 
 Before this time, general instruction and blackboard illus- 
 trations are the means most useful to secure the mechanical 
 perfection aimed at. During the work on reproduction the 
 final treatment of the more common errors in punctuation 
 and grammar should be disposed of, so that from this time 
 on there may be greater. consideration of the thought. 
 
 As to the rewriting of exercises by pupils, — if an exercise 
 has been carelessly done, it should be rewritten. 
 
 For mistakes in spelling, give spelling drills rather than 
 require the rewriting of a paper. Errors in punctuation are 
 to be cured by careful discussion and explanation, followed 
 by dictation exercises involving the point misunderstood. 
 The common errors of grammar yield to a similar treatment. 
 If the vocabulary is meager, write on the board words and 
 phrases nearly equivalent and usable in the paragraph to be 
 written ; discuss them, arid suggest that pupils select from 
 this list or make an original selection, giving reasons for the 
 choice. 
 
 Whenever you mark an error, try by a class drill or by 
 conference with the pupil, to prevent its recurrence. Each 
 pupil should have a language notebook, in which he writes 
 matters to which he is to give attention ; e.g., the words he 
 misspells, the rules for capitals or commas he neglects to apply, 
 the words he confuses in use, as shall diud will, the past tense 
 and the past participle, the ambiguous use of the pronoun. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 15 
 
 The teacher should have private conferences with pupils 
 concerning the mechanism and the thought of their writing, 
 particularly and in increasing degree, the thought. 
 
 Corrections are most profitable when they come from a 
 growing standard within the child and a desire on his part to 
 make his ideals real. Too much correcting by the teacher 
 or fellow-pupils does harm. 
 
 It is better to write anew, not rewrite, after a month or so, 
 than to rewrite anything which the pupil has tried to do well. 
 If due pains has been taken, rewriting is a tiresome and 
 comparatively valueless effort. 
 
 Many teachers fear to have pupils do written work which 
 is not to be corrected by the teacher, lest the pupils fall into 
 careless habits. 
 
 It is a great mistake to think that all work done by pupils 
 must be criticised by the teacher. Where is the pupil's 
 , ideal of excellence.'' What personal interest has he to 
 improve ? What inspiration has the teacher given that 
 exists independent of the teacher's pencil markings and 
 lasts beyond them ? 
 
 The only large incentives are (a) the interest of the pupils 
 in their own work, (b) the fact that their classmates appreci- 
 ate the degree of their success, (c) the steady interest of the 
 teacher shown by help to do rather than by finding fault with 
 things done. 
 
 CHAPTER I — INTRODUCTORY 
 
 SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 
 
 " A sentence is a group of words making a statement, 
 a question, or a command," is a better working definition 
 than the one which follows it. This definition includes the 
 exclamatory sentence, for all exclamatory sentences will be 
 found to be statements, questions, or commands so put as 
 
l6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 to indicate emotion. Deal only with the simple sentence of 
 the three fundamental kinds. 
 
 After the exercise on page 3 has been studied, have the 
 pupils give orally a great number of declarative, interroga- 
 tive, and imperative sentences. 
 
 When Exercise II, page 5, has been well done, extend the 
 work in accordance with the suggestions at the beginning of 
 the chapter. Insist on having all that has been learned 
 exemplified in all the writing of the pupils, and teach nothing 
 else until this is done. 
 
 CHAPTER II — LETTER WRITING 
 
 Go through the first section of this chapter and then go 
 on to Chapter HI. 
 
 Hereafter, for course of study, see Course of Study, page x 
 of the text-book or page 9 of this manual. 
 
 Before your pupils attempt to study or do anything with 
 this chapter, give them blackboard instructions upon a letter 
 heading, showing just how it is written. Call attention to 
 the spacing, the arrangement, the capitals, the commas, and 
 the periods. Give no explanations why things are so, but 
 simply say, " It is the custom of good writers to do so." 
 Many writers prefer to write the date at the close of the 
 letter instead of at the beginning, placing it at the left-hand 
 side and lower than the signature, and writing out in full 
 the day of the month. This form may also be taught. 
 
 After the pupils copy your blackboard letter heading 
 accurately and in good form, let them write it from memory. 
 Then let them make original headings — original as to items, 
 not as to form or arrangement. Go slowly and thoroughly, 
 so that no part of this work will need to be done again. 
 
 Teach in the same way the salutation and the conclusion. 
 Then the letter in the book may be copied. Call attention 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 17 
 
 to the paragraphing. Require the punctuation to be copied, 
 but give no rules for it. 
 
 Teach the superscription of a letter as the heading was 
 taught. With the model letter on page 9 before the pupils, 
 question them as to all the capitals and punctuation in the 
 several parts of the letter, except the body (see page 8). 
 
 When the pupils have written the exercise on pages 9 and 
 lo, let each pupil write a statement for the parts of a letter, 
 as shown in this exercise. The papers may be exchanged 
 and the proper forms written. The forms may be criticised 
 by the pupils by whom the statements were prepared. 
 
 SECTION II — LETTERS OF FRIENDSHIP 
 
 These are taken to include all except business and social 
 letters. There is nothing new to be taught about the form 
 of these letters. The necessity of good penmanship and of 
 a natural, easy style should be explained. 
 
 A letter of friendship is written for the pleasure of the 
 person to whom it is addressed. Before it is written the 
 writer should stop to think what the recipient will wish to 
 know, and make a memorandum of the points to be spoken 
 of. These points should be arranged in the right order 
 and, if numerous, should be written down and kept in sight 
 while the letter is being written. 
 
 All letters of friendship should be kind in spirit and 
 complimentary in tone. 
 
 The visits, the parties, the excursions of the pupils will 
 form excellent themes for such letters. 
 
 SECTION III — BUSINESS LETTERS 
 
 Explain to your pupils that every heading of a business 
 letter should contain the particulars as to place that the 
 receiver will need to know in addressing his reply. 
 
l8 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 The address should contain the items of the superscription, 
 so that in case the letter is separated from the envelope it 
 may furnish the data for the proper address. In business 
 houses the superscription is usually written some time after 
 the letter, and often by another person. 
 
 After the class is thoroughly familiar with the forms in 
 the book and has written the exercises in part, other forms 
 may be shown and the pupil may exercise his taste in his 
 letters, or imitate that which he finds practiced by those 
 whose letters he sees, if these are found to be a safe guide. 
 The girls in the class need special instruction as to their 
 signatures. The most satisfactory form by which a lady 
 can indicate her address to the person from whom she seeks 
 a reply, is to write in the lower left-hand corner of her letter : 
 Please address 
 
 Miss Mary Smith 
 
 359 Prospect St. 
 
 Providence, R.I. 
 
 Some information as to the dead-letter office and the use- 
 fulness of a Return in the upper left-hand corner of the 
 envelope may be given. 
 
 SECTIONS IV AND V — LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION AND 
 
 RECOMMENDATION 
 
 Letters of introduction and of recommendation may prop- 
 erly furnish the occasion for advice to your pupils respecting 
 these important missives. The giver of a letter of introduc- 
 tion should regard considerately the interests and the feelings 
 of both the one for whom the letter is given and the one to 
 whom it is addressed. 
 
 The necessity of carefulness and discrimination in letters 
 of recommendation should be shown, and their after effects 
 upon the writer should be pointed out. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 19 
 
 SECTION VI — ADVERTISEMENTS AND LETTERS OF 
 
 APPLICATION 
 
 Drill your pupils on these until you will not fear to have 
 their letters seen by any one ; not merely the letters written 
 in class, but those that they may write in actual correspond- 
 ence. Have poorly written letters read, corrected, and 
 copied. Have the best letter each day put upon the black- 
 board for imitation. Advice as to paper and paper folding 
 is always needed by beginners. 
 
 Get a newspaper containing a large list of wants and simi- 
 lar advertisements, cut these out and give one to each pupil 
 to paste at the head of his letter sheet, and tell him to write 
 a reply. Not merely a correct form of letter, but propriety 
 of language should be sought. Talk with your pupils as 
 to what is appropriate and inappropriate in such letters. 
 Continue this work until you are proud of the letters your 
 pupils write. 
 
 Additional Exercises in Letter Writing 
 
 Copy the following forms of address : 
 
 Watertown, S.D., Aug. 5, 1902. 
 
 Honorable William P. Smith, 
 
 House of Representatives, 
 Washington, D.C. 
 Dear Sir : — 
 
 Oakland, Cal., Nov. 6, 1902. 
 
 To His Excellency James H. Smith, 
 
 Governor of the State of South Carolina. 
 Sir : — 
 
 Bangor, Me., Jan. 4, 1902. 
 
 To His Honor, the Mayor of the City of Boston. 
 Sir : — 
 
20 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 St. Louis, Mo., Dec. 9, 1902. 
 To the Honorable, the President of the Board of 
 Education of the City of Nashville. 
 Sir : — 
 
 Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of excuse • 
 
 180 Moore St Oct 9 1902 
 
 Dear Miss earle will you kindly excuse my absence from 
 school on monday and tuesday it was due to my illness 
 respectfully yours mary Brown approved Mrs John Brown. 
 
 Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of acknowl- 
 edgment : 
 
 315 Wabash Ave Chicago ill Dec 28, 1902 My dear aunt 
 I wish to thank you for the beautiful calendar you so kindly 
 sent me. it will be a daily reminder of one whose esteem is 
 highly prized by your nephew John Brown. 
 
 Arrange and copy the following notes : 
 
 Dear Julia will you dine with me to-morrow at six o'clock 
 in company with a few friends of ours cousin may 259 state 
 St. June 3. 
 
 My dear May. it gives me pleasure to accept your kind 
 invitation to dine with you and your friends to-morrow 
 Sincerely yours Julia 39 Adjutant ave June 3, 1902. 
 
 Arrange and copy the following letter of regret : 
 Dear Henry I regret that a previous engagement will 
 prevent my joining you this evening. I trust you will have 
 an enjoyable time ever yours George 257 Avon St. Sept. 18, 
 1902. 
 
 Correct, arrange, and copy the following letter of applica- 
 
 Boston Mass June 17 1902 
 Messrs Farwell and Newton 364 Pine st city gentlemen in 
 answer to your advertisement in todays Herald I respectfully 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 21 
 
 apply for the position you have named and enclose testi- 
 monials and references as required trusting these may be 
 satisfactory I am yours truly David Jones Latham 
 
 Correct, arrange, and copy the following : 
 
 Chicago 111 Feb 5 1902 my dear mr smith I cheerfully 
 recommend Vernon G. Wilson the bearer as a young man of 
 ability and good character he has served me faithfully for 
 two years and now seeks more remunerative employment 
 he is ambitious but not more so than his abilities and 
 training will warrant very truly yours Harvey G. Lane. 
 
 Correct, arrange, and copy the following letters : 
 
 Kansas City, Mo., June 25 1902 
 
 Dear Alice please accept my cordial congratulations upon 
 your success in your recent examinations and your approach- 
 ing graduation I will endeavor to be present at your graduat- 
 ing exercises on Thursday your sincere friend 
 Mary E. Nolan. 
 
 Muskegon Michigan June i, 1902 
 My dear Ralph you have my full sympathy in your failure 
 to be graduated with your class, your ill health and frequent 
 absences are the occasion of your failure and not any 
 negligence nor inability on your part wishing you success 
 in all your future efforts I remain your true friend Stephen 
 S. Ferine 
 
 jan 5 1902 boston mass dear sirs when the goods ordered 
 of you arrived here yesterday several breakages had occurred 
 showing them to have been carelessly packed we return 
 invoice with list of damaged articles and will remit amount 
 due you when the corrected invoice is returned to us S. R. 
 White & Co per j 1 hall tiffany & Co broadway new york. 
 
22 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 CHAPTER III — DESCRIPTION 
 
 For the place of this chapter in the course of study for this 
 book, see page x of the text-book or page 9 of this manual. 
 
 This chapter, like others in this book, begins with work 
 that is easy, but it increases rapidly in difficulty. On this 
 account it must be taken in order, and considerable intervals 
 of time must elapse between the study of some of the sec- 
 tions. Sections I, II, and III are easy ; Sections IV and V 
 are more difficult ; while Sections VI, VII, VIII, and IX are 
 more difficult still, and can be taken only after the pupil has 
 had some training. 
 
 Well-trained pupils can do Sections VI, VII, VIII, and IX 
 in the middle of their grammar-grade course, while the same 
 work is advanced enough for high-school pupils that have 
 had no special training in composition. 
 
 SECTION I — DESCRIPTION OF OBJECTS: SECTION II — 
 BIOGRAPHY: SECTION III — PARAGRAPHS 
 
 These sections are intended to teach the distinction 
 between a paragraph which is a unit and a series of 
 sentences in the form of a paragraph. 
 
 The indentation and arrangement of the paragraph, or 
 the putting it upon paper, is to be taught. An admirable 
 exercise for training in paragraph writing is to ask every 
 pupil to write as the first exercise of the morning, or 
 immediately after recess, a paragraph giving an account 
 of something observed, heard, read, or thought during the 
 last twenty-four hours. As many of the pupils as practi- 
 cable should write upon the blackboard, the others upon 
 paper. These paragraphs should be read to the class by 
 the writers, and credit should be given for interesting matter 
 and good form. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 23 
 
 SECTION IV — DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS 
 
 The making and using of an outline is here taught. 
 
 Pupils should now be trained to be unwilling to write at all 
 until they have thought about their theme and formed a plan 
 for their writing. When they write they should have two 
 papers by them, — one on which the writing is to be done, and 
 one containing the outline with notes of what is to be writ- 
 ten. The pupil's time for thinking is when he is gathering 
 and arranging his topics and noting his facts or thoughts. 
 When the actual writing is done he should write rapidly, 
 finishing in a few minutes. 
 
 Let several pupils, some of the best and some of the poor- 
 est, copy their descriptions upon the blackboard. Let the 
 class criticise and the teacher suggest improvements in 
 arrangement and in form of sentences. 
 
 The class may now rewrite their descriptions. While they 
 are doing this the teacher may render individual assistance 
 as she passes from pupil to pupil. 
 
 Further exercises in oral description : 
 
 (a) A pupil may describe an animal without naming 
 it. When a member of the class guesses rightly the name 
 he may continue the description with additional state- 
 ments. 
 
 (b) A picture may be passed around the class, each pupil 
 having a few seconds in which to observe it. Then at the 
 call of the teacher, pupils may rise and describe the picture 
 they saw. 
 
 (c) Several pupils may be given pictures to study and 
 describe. When the pupil has described his picture to the 
 class, let the class see the picture and judge the quality of 
 the description. 
 
 (d) A picture in a geography, reader, or history may be 
 selected for study ; then while the other members of the class 
 
24 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 have the picture before them, several members of the class 
 may describe the picture from memory. 
 
 When a class has gained sufficient skill in the work, the 
 following general form for the description of pictures may be 
 suggested : (a) What is in the foreground ; the background ; 
 at the right ; at the left ? (d) Of the persons or things to 
 be seen, describe position, action, appearance, character. 
 (c) What is the general purpose of the picture ? What does 
 it illustrate ? 
 
 SECTION V— DESCRIPTION OF THINGS 
 
 The description of things may, if the teacher desires, 
 be carried on in the minute, detailed way that has been 
 followed with the description of animals. 
 
 Good subjects for such work are : a candle, a pencil, a 
 pen, a knife, a box, a kite, a wheelbarrow, a sled, a trunk, 
 a bicycle, a carriage, an automobile. 
 
 But the purpose of this section is to attempt a higher kind 
 of work, to show the value of apt selection rather than full 
 detail, of suggestion rather than plain statement. 
 
 SECTION VI — DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS 
 
 Section VI is harmonious in style and purpose with 
 Section V. 
 
 Exercise IV Whether your class will enjoy this work 
 
 or not will depend largely on how much they have been 
 trained to appreciate the literature they have read and 
 especially the choice bits of description they have found. 
 
 If any of the class, after due assistance, appear unable to 
 do the work in these exercises, let them have something 
 easier to do while the more capable ones show their power 
 to enjoy and to imitate the beautiful descriptions selected. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 25 
 
 While your pupils are studying this chapter, correct the 
 errors they make more by advice how to do and by the 
 suggestion of right ways of doing than by the marking of 
 the papers of individuals. 
 
 The time for such work has not yet come. 
 
 SECTION VIII — CONTRASTED DESCRIPTIONS 
 
 This work should not be undertaken until some months 
 have elapsed since the first study of the preceding sections 
 of the chapter. When your class is about to undertake this 
 work review Section IV and then take Section VIII. 
 
 CHAPTER IV — NARRATION 
 
 Section XI of the chapter on punctuation should now be 
 studied if it has not already been mastered. 
 
 Narration concerns itself with events ; description, with 
 things. Narration uses verbs and adverbs as description 
 uses nouns and adjectives. The study of narration begins 
 with personal experiences, continues through stories, heard 
 or read, fables, and biographies, to history, which is the 
 highest form of narration. Oral narration is more natural 
 and more easily given than description. It is placed later 
 in the course than description because of the difficulties in 
 its written forms. 
 
 As an early training in narration the exercise described in 
 the notes on Chapter III, page 22, in this manual may be com- 
 mended. Encourage the children to tell what they did or saw 
 last evening after school, this morning before coming to school, 
 on Saturday last, their last vacation, their last excursion. 
 
 The desire to tell should give zest to narration. In the 
 effort to interest others in their discoveries, real composition 
 can be secured without drudgery. 
 
26 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION I — STORIES TO BE IMITATED 
 
 Your pupils should be led to see the outline of events in 
 the stories to be imitated, and to use these outlines in their 
 own work. 
 
 For example, in the story of " The Two Goats " the outline 
 evidently is : 
 
 1. The situation at first. 
 
 2 . The action of the goats. 
 
 3. The result. 
 
 From this outline let the story be reproduced. 
 
 The same outline may be applied to the story of " The 
 Two Farmers." 
 
 In the application of the outline to " The Two Farm- 
 ers," the pupil will notice that the result has an explanatory 
 statement added. 
 
 In writing an imitation of the story of "The Two Goats," 
 the pupil should use the same outline. This outline also 
 applies to Exercise II. 
 
 Let the pupils present satisfactory outlines for each exer- 
 cise before attempting to write it. 
 
 Explain to pupils the difference between direct and indi- 
 rect narration, and give them some practice in changing from 
 one to the other. For instance, in Exercise III, the direct 
 form is used. Let the pupil reproduce this narration from 
 his outline in both the direct and the indirect form. Do the 
 same with Exercise V and Exercise VIII. 
 
 Before doing Exercise IV, have the pupils write a repro- 
 duction of the fables to be imitated, and prepare an outline 
 of each of them. 
 
 The pupils will notice that the direct form is the more 
 vivid ; the indirect, the more brief and convenient ; that a 
 combination of the two is usually the most effective. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 2/ 
 
 SECTION II — STORIES TO BE WRITTEN 
 
 Write always from outlines. These should be arranged 
 in the order of time as nearly as may be. An effort should 
 be made by the pupil to reach in each story one interest- 
 ing statement for which the preceding portion of the story 
 prepares the way. 
 
 Of the eighteen topics select the half dozen or so that can 
 be most readily written upon with some interesting result. 
 
 The following may be the outline for the illustration of 
 the first proverb: 
 
 1. Shoemaker, busy, successful. 
 
 2. Led to change his business. 
 
 3. Poor success. 
 
 4. Returned again to his shoemaking. 
 
 5. Successful, 
 
 6. Moral. 
 
 CHAPTER V — REPRODUCTIONS AND ESSAYS 
 
 The note to the teacher, page 53, should be thoughtfully 
 read, and then the notes in this manual. 
 
 Oral Reproduction 
 
 One of the best tests of a trained mind is the ability to 
 reproduce a story accurately and fully. . One of the best 
 exercises in language training is reproduction. Reproduc- 
 tion is of thoughts, not of words nor of sentences. 
 
 For a child to be able to give readily and in good language 
 the substance of what is told to him or of what he reads is 
 an attainment of great value. His career as a pupil depends 
 very largely upon the possession of this power. 
 
28 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 Teachers usually try to train their pupils in this direction, 
 but many fail because they do not attempt it wisely or with 
 sufficient preparation. The pupil will reproduce better what 
 he hears than what he sees. Narration is more readily repro- 
 duced than description. Hence stories told to the pupils 
 should be selected for the first reproductions. 
 
 1. The work may be commenced by asking each pupil to 
 tell a short story to the class, beginning with the pupils most 
 forward and apt in this work, and continuing until all or 
 nearly all have told two or more stories. 
 
 2. The teacher may tell short and interesting stories to 
 the class, and have them repeated on the following day by 
 several of the pupils. Fables, anecdotes, biblical and classi- 
 cal stories are suitable for this purpose. The story should be 
 very interesting and long enough to prevent the pupils from 
 remembering the exact words of the teacher, but not too 
 long to have the incidents all recalled by the greater part of 
 the pupils. It will do no harm to repeat the same stories 
 over again after a few weeks. 
 
 3. The teacher may read a little story, stopping at the 
 end of each phrase and sentence to give the explanations 
 which seem necessary. There should be an animated and 
 interesting conversation in which the pupils should take 
 the larger part. " Do not talk to the children, but with 
 them. The child is, above all things, active, and this activity 
 should be afforded full opportunity to display itself. . . . 
 It is not so much you who are to talk with the pupils as the 
 pupils who are to talk with you." [Richter.] The explana- 
 tions finished, the teacher will read the story a second time 
 from beginning to end without interruption, and will then 
 have it repeated from memory by several of the pupils, 
 letting the other pupils supply any omissions or correct any 
 misstatements. The story may be repeated on other days by 
 other pupils until it can be told readily by any of the class. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 29 
 
 Written Reproductions 
 
 Written reproductions should not be attempted until the 
 class has reached a fair degree of facility and of correctness 
 of expression in oral reproductions. 
 
 Oral expressions can readily be put into better form, if 
 need be, through the suggestions of the teacher before 
 crudities of expression have become fixed, as they would be 
 by the use of the pencil. 
 
 It is fortunate that when we express ourselves in oral 
 language, intent chiefly upon the thought, as we always 
 ought to be in a first expression, the language that we use 
 makes very little impression upon us, and we are not very 
 likely to recall it. But if we write, the slowness and formality 
 of the writing, and the sight of the words in their order in 
 the sentences, tend to fix the words and their arrangement 
 in the mind. Hence expressions should be put into the 
 best form readily obtainable by the pupil, before they are 
 committed to writing. 
 
 Method. After a story has been reproduced orally, and 
 before it has become familiar by repetition, the teacher may 
 write upon the board a little summary of the story or a 
 column of catch words that will help the pupils to reproduce 
 the story. The pupils may then be set to writing it, each 
 in his own style, but fully and interestingly. During this 
 writing the teacher may pass among her pupils to notice 
 their work, giving an occasional suggestion or criticism, or 
 she may stand by her desk ready" to answer questions as to 
 the spelling of words, the punctuation of sentences, or the 
 best forms of expression. 
 
 When the time for writing has expired, all should be 
 required to cease writing and to attend to the reading and 
 criticism of what they have written. As they read their 
 reproductions, one after another, these may be criticised 
 
30 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 by the teacher or by the pupils as to (i) omissions, (2) 
 incorrect statements, (3) faulty constructions. 
 
 Omissions should be supplied by other members of the 
 class. Incorrect statements should be rectified and faulty 
 constructions amended during a free and kind conversation 
 between teacher and pupils. 
 
 It is not necessary that the teacher should look over the 
 slates or papers for minute criticisms. The reading will 
 suggest the main points. 
 
 The teacher of younger pupils may ask. What is your first 
 sentence .'* How does it begin ? How is it punctuated ? 
 How are the words spelled ? Can it be improved ? Appeal 
 to the class to know if the answers are correct. 
 
 Exercises not well done should be rewritten. Young 
 children are much more patient of these rewritings than 
 older ones are, and all of the simpler and more common 
 faults of writing ought to be extirpated at an early period. 
 
 Gems 
 
 Pupils from their first attendance at school to their entrance 
 to the high school should learn every week some line, stanza, 
 or paragraph, beautiful in thought and in language. 
 
 At first the sentiment, the moral influence of the passage, 
 should be chiefly considered ; but later the beauty and the 
 force of the language and the breadth and the truthfulness 
 of the thought must be regarded. For the first half dozen 
 years of school life, all in a class should learn the same 
 passages and recite them individually and in concert, receiv- 
 ing such paraphrase and explanation as may lead the pupils 
 to get the thought and appreciate its dress. 
 
 Selections to be memorized are not included in this book, 
 for much will depend upon the taste and must be left to the 
 choice of the individual teacher. The sources of such gems 
 as may suit the taste of all are not far for any one to seek. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 3 1 
 
 SECTION I — REPRODUCTION WITH OUTLINE AND 
 
 ABSTRACT 
 
 Pupils may have difficulty in writing any other abstract of 
 the first exercise than that given in the book. 
 
 The following is another abstract. It will benefit the 
 pupils to compare this abstract with that on page 55. 
 Which is the better abstract ? 
 
 The habit of keeping a diary is of great value to a boy. In it 
 should be written down every evening the events of the day, even 
 though not more than two lines are written. 
 
 Such a book should contain everything which interested the 
 boy, his observations on the habits of birds and animals, what 
 happened to them, and what was done for them. 
 
 The order of work should be : 
 
 (1) Study the selection to be reproduced. 
 
 (2) Make an outline of it. 
 
 (3) From the outline write an abstract. 
 
 (4) From the outline write a reproduction. 
 
 It is best to allow a day or several days to elapse between 
 making the outline and making the abstract, so that the 
 phraseology of the book may be somewhat forgotten and 
 the pupil may rely upon his outline rather than upon his 
 memory of the paragraph to be reproduced. On the other 
 hand, it is best to write the abstract and the reproduction in 
 immediate succession and to compare them closely. 
 
 Some pupils will write only abstracts when they attempt 
 reproductions. For such pupils bring the four parts of the 
 exercise more closely together, and let them compare their 
 meager reproductions with the fuller ones of their classmates. 
 
 It is usually easier for pupils to reproduce what they hear 
 than what they read. It is often well to have the outline 
 and abstract prepared from hearing the paragraph, then the 
 reproduction may be made after reading it. 
 
32 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 At first this work should be done orally. After a pupil 
 has read the paragraph to the class, the outline may be 
 called for and, after discussion, agreed upon and placed 
 upon the blackboard for later use. 
 
 When an abstract or a reproduction is orally given, dif- 
 ferent pupils may be called upon to supply any missing 
 items. In so doing, not merely the item, but its position in 
 the paragraph should be given. If an abstract only is being 
 given, the question of the importance of the item supplied 
 will be worthy of some debate. 
 
 While the selection to be reproduced is being studied for its 
 outline, the teacher should question the pupils to lead them to 
 reason about the situation and to appreciate the beauties, and, 
 if the class be capable of it, to see the art of the author. 
 
 Exercise VI. — The thought to be expressed and the order 
 of its presentation should be fully considered before any 
 writing is attempted. Attend to the thinking before you 
 write, and the style after you write. While writing express 
 your thoughts as best you can. 
 
 The question of sentence structure and improvement of 
 style comes mainly after the first draft of the composition. 
 Sentences are to be improved after they are on paper rather 
 than by much revolving them in mind before writing them. 
 
 SECTION II — ESSAYS ON MANNERS 
 
 Exercise I. — Spend a week, or two weeks, on this exercise, 
 discussing the thoughts and their application. Show that 
 several of the quotations mean very nearly the same thing ; 
 group them together ; arrange the groups in good order for 
 treatment ; find the main thought in each group ; state this 
 thought in a short sentence ; have every pupil copy these 
 sentences upon paper, and with them at his hand, and the 
 book laid aside, let him write as fully as he can upon True 
 Politeness, making no quotations. While this is being done, 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 33 
 
 other work in language, advance or review, should, of course, 
 be in progress, and form a portion, greater or less, of every 
 recitation. 
 
 The method of writing a composition outlined above is the 
 method to which the pupil should become accustomed in his 
 treatment of all abstract subjects ; except that, of course, he 
 usually deals with his own thoughts rather than with those 
 furnished to his hand, as here. 
 
 His method, then, will be : first, to write down all the 
 thoughts that occur to him upon the topic ; second, to inves- 
 tigate, read, converse, reflect, upon the points on which he 
 wishes further light. At length he will begin the process 
 which has been described in the directions for the treatment 
 of this lesson. 
 
 The pupil should review this lesson every few months, 
 treating it as freshly and fully as he is able, and comparing 
 the result of his effort with what he has previously done. 
 
 SECTION V — VARIETY OF EXERCISES WITH A STORY 
 
 AS THE BASIS 
 
 This section shows various exercises that may be founded 
 upon one literary selection. Some are easy and some are 
 difficult. If any are too difficult, or the thought at the basis 
 of them is unappreciated, they should be omitted. 
 
 CHAPTER VI — A STUDY OF LONGFELLOW 
 
 If the class does no other formal language work in connec- 
 tion with the study of literature, then the work of this chap- 
 ter may be extended over a considerable period of time. If 
 other similar work is done by the class, this work may be 
 taken as a model and less time may be spent upon it. 
 
 It is thought that the directions in the chapter are so 
 complete that nothing further is needed. 
 
34 TEACHERS' MANUAL • 
 
 CHAPTER VII — STYLE 
 
 Literary study and composition should go hand in hand. 
 The literature furnishes both model and material, and thus 
 becomes of great aid to the composition work. 
 
 On the other hand, after a thorough study of a literary 
 selection there is lodged in the mind a great number of inter- 
 esting facts and thoughts, which the effort at composition 
 puts into a connected and unified form, and so brings order 
 out of what might otherwise be confusion. 
 
 The teacher should keep a blank book into which she 
 places, as she finds them, illustrations suitable for the 
 several sections of this chapter. 
 
 A gradual accumulation of illustrations gathered from read- 
 ing and from the pupils' own exercises will be of very great 
 value. Teachers should exchange such illustrations with 
 each other. By this means large lists, graded under the 
 section numbers of this chapter, may be obtained with 
 comparatively small effort. 
 
 SECTION IV— NATURAL POSITION OF MODIFIERS 
 
 The rule, " A modifier should not be placed between two 
 words, phrases, or clauses in such a way as to make it doubt- 
 ful which of them it modifies," is a very important one. The 
 mistake condemned is often called the squmtmg construction, 
 because it is difficult to tell which way the modifier looks. 
 
 SECTIONS V AND VI — NATURAL POSITION OF ADJECTIVE 
 AND ADVERBIAL MODIFIERS 
 
 Take abundant time for these sections. Discuss fully 
 with the pupils the effect on the meaning of the sentence 
 of placing modifiers in different positions. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 35 
 
 Collect from the compositions of the pupils and from the 
 newspapers, examples of faulty construction of this char- 
 acter, and have them written upon the board for discussion 
 and improvement. 
 
 SECTIONS VII, VIII, IX, AND X — ORDER OF EMPHASIS 
 
 The aim in the study of these sections is to secure an 
 appreciation of the effect of position on emphasis. They 
 contain, in the main, something to be talked about rather 
 than something to be done. They are for the recitation 
 period rather than the study period, and should be occa- 
 sionally reviewed to renew and deepen the impression they 
 ought to make. 
 
 SECTION XV — BREVITY 
 
 The pupil will probably be able to make all these sentences 
 briefer, but he will not consider that in every case he has 
 improved them. This fact will bring him very naturally to 
 the consideration of the next section. 
 
 SECTION XVI — CLEARNESS 
 
 This section will require thought. The point of the 
 exercise Ues in the explanation. 
 
 The second part of the exercise affords an opportunity for 
 discussion over the question. How far must we in common 
 speech seek absolute accuracy when we are rightly under- 
 stood without it ? 
 
 SECTIONS XVII, XVIII, XIX, AND XX — AMBIGUITY 
 
 Direct pupils to ask themselves the questions : W^hat did 
 the one who wrote or spoke this sentence mean ? What also 
 may the sentence be taken to mean? How should it be 
 
^6 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 changed so that it will mean precisely what was intended 
 and nothing else ? 
 
 To answer these questions will often require much study, 
 but it will be study of a very profitable character. 
 
 SECTION XXVI — METAPHORS 
 
 The teacher's aim should be to lead the pupil to appre- 
 ciate the beauty of appropriate metaphors rather than to 
 feel that a perplexing task is given him in endeavoring to 
 comprehend and explain them. It is easier to recognize a 
 metaphor than to explain it. This is an instance in which 
 a pupil may " know how it is but cannot explain it." 
 
 The following hints are given to aid in explaining the 
 metaphors in the exercise. If the teacher judges it advis- 
 able, these hints may be given to the pupils, some of whom 
 will still find task enough in putting these explanations into 
 good sentences. 
 
 1. See explanation above. 
 
 2. Root — that from which the trouble grows. 
 
 3. Ground — that on which my complaint rests. 
 
 4. Jewel — something beautiful and precious. 
 
 5. Gem — of small size and great value. 
 
 6. Fruit — product. 
 
 Perhaps this may be called a faded metaphor. 
 
 7. Cloak — that which covers or hides. 
 
 8. Spring — source from which water flows. 
 
 9. Chain — that which binds together. 
 
 10. Music — that which attracts and pleases. 
 Harp — source of music — pleasure. 
 
 Let the teacher hunt for metaphors in the reading exer- 
 cises of her class, and keep the pupils on the alert to dis- 
 cover them. This is a task for months, not days. Allow 
 much discussion, and let pupils have the joy of discovery. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 37 
 
 SECTION XXVIII — CONTRAST 
 
 Ask your pupils to copy for you as many good, brief 
 examples of contrast as they discover. Rearrange these 
 in such English as your pupils would naturally write, and 
 then hand them to pupils to be put into more complete 
 contrasted form. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII — SECRETARIAL WRITINGS 
 
 The note to the teacher at the head of this chapter should 
 be carefully considered. 
 
 To go through this chapter in successive lessons until 
 finished would be a mistake. 
 
 If a Daily Doings Club, an Anti-Cigarette League, a Par- 
 liamentary Law Club, or some other society is established 
 in the school, it will furnish a suitable opportunity for train- 
 ing secretaries to their duties, and the practical require- 
 ments of the business that may be devised will furnish the 
 best possible exercises. A large part of the class, perhaps 
 a third of their number, may serve at the same time as sec- 
 retaries for short periods. Their records, notices, reports, 
 etc., should be handed to the teacher. Some of these, the 
 best, should be copied upon the blackboard and approved. 
 A dozen or fifteen weekly or fortnightly meetings will afford 
 opportunity to cover the entire work of the chapter. 
 
 CHAPTER IX — SYNONYMS 
 
 No better exercises can be found to render pupils accu- 
 rate in thinking and in expression than the study of syno- 
 nyms. To get the benefit of this work, however, the study 
 must be careful and deliberate. The pupil must have time 
 to do a large part of the work himself, and must not memo- 
 rize the statements of distinctions that he does not see. 
 
38 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 The best study of synonyms is incidental to the improve- 
 ment of one's own writing in precision and variety. 
 
 When the pupil begins the study of a set of synonyms he 
 should look up in the dictionary the meaning and use of 
 each word, writing down the definition which seems most 
 characteristic of the word, with a sentence showing its use. 
 When he has so studied each word let him state what com- 
 mon element of meaning the words have, and then examine 
 each word to see what additional element of meaning it 
 has. In these additional meanings lie the distinctions in 
 the words. Then let the pupil state the contrast of mean- 
 ing or use of the words, as has been done in the illustrative 
 examples in the chapter. 
 
 Not more than one set of synonyms should be discussed 
 in one lesson, and several days may sometimes be required 
 before the pupil will be ready to treat fully and clearly one 
 set of synonyms. 
 
 There is a great difference in pupils in their ability to 
 comprehend the distinctions in the meaning and use of 
 words. To make this work difficult or puzzling is not 
 profitable. Omit the study of all words with which your 
 class will have much trouble or which they will not readily 
 understand from your explanations. 
 
 CHAPTER X— GRAMMAR 
 
 It is believed that this chapter contains as much gram- 
 mar as can profitably be studied in grammar schools. There 
 has been an attempt to arrange the matter in an order con- 
 venient for study, the easier portions coming early, and at 
 the same time to preserve the logical order of the parts. 
 
 Omissions that may be made are noted in the several 
 sections. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 39 
 
 SECTION I — THE SENTENCE 
 
 A declarative sentence which is exclamatory may be called 
 an exclamatory dedaratwe sentence. So we may name sen- 
 tences exclamatory interrogative and exclamatory imperative. 
 
 In the exercise, the first sentence is interrogative; the 
 second, declarative ; the third, imperative ; the fourth, 
 declarative ; the fifth, exclamatory declarative ; and the 
 sixth, exclamatory imperative. 
 
 Say as little as practicable about exclamatory sentences 
 until your class is well grounded in grammar. 
 
 SECTION II — THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE 
 
 Spend much time in dividing simple, easy sentences into 
 subject and predicate. Good sentences for this purpose 
 must be found or made. Ordinary paragraphs will not 
 answer the purpose at this stage of the pupil's advance- 
 ment. Establish in the pupils the habit of beginning the 
 grammatical study of every sentence by seeking first the 
 predicate, then the subject, and last the modifiers, con- 
 nectives, and independent elements. 
 
 In the earlier study, the simple subject and simple predi- 
 cate, not the modified, should be named. 
 
 SECTION IV — THE PRONOUN 
 
 Pupils should learn the list of pronouns so that they will 
 be as familiar as A, B, C. 
 
 See if any of your pupils can discover a reason for the 
 arrangement of the pronouns in II. 
 
 The pronouns given are only one kind of pronouns, but 
 your pupils need not be told that at this time. 
 
40 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION V — THE VERB 
 
 Definitions are of little use in giving pupils the idea of 
 the verb. The verb is the predicate-making word ; it is the 
 doing word, the telling word, the asking word, the command- 
 ing word. Have pupils learn the list of words that are 
 always verbs or parts of verb-phrases. 
 
 Illustrate the exceptions ; as, the month of May^ a strong 
 will^ a tin can^ the must in vinegar, the 7night of a strong 
 man. These exceptions should not prevent the pupil from 
 relying on the general statement that all the words in the 
 list are usually verbs and most of them always verbs. 
 
 Spend some weeks in having the pupils find in their 
 reading books nouns, these verbs, and the pronouns they 
 have learned, until the eye becomes quick to see them. 
 Take time for such work. It will prevent many nonsensical 
 mistakes later. Do not go on to Section VI until this has 
 been thoroughly done. 
 
 Of course, during this practice, work in the other chapters 
 of the book will occupy the major portion of the recitation 
 period. 
 
 SECTION VI — MODIFIERS 
 
 In the exercise do not have pupils attempt to separate 
 the phrases into parts ; treat them as wholes. In the sixth 
 sentence, on the top of Mt. Washington modifies blows. 
 
 Call the attention of the pupils to the fact, illustrated in 
 the tenth and fourteenth sentences, that a modifier of the 
 predicate may stand before the subject. 
 
 SECTION VII — THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 On the first study of this section omit all about descriptive 
 adjectives, articles, and numeral adjectives. Go from the 
 definition of the adjective to the treatment on the next page 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 41 
 
 of predicate adjectives ; then take the exercise. A month or 
 two later, when this section is reviewed, have pupils study 
 the entire section. 
 
 In the exercise find first the nouns and then the adjectives 
 which modify them. 
 
 SECTION VIII — THE ADVERB 
 
 In an exercise like this you will secure better results by 
 telling your pupils in advance just what they are expected 
 to accomplish ; thus, when assigning the lesson say to the 
 class. Copy these sentences, underlining each adverb. You 
 will find at least two adverbs in each sentence ; in the seventh 
 and eleventh there are three. 
 
 SECTION IX — THE CLAUSE 
 
 The term clause is here used as equivalent to what is 
 called by some grammarians member of a sentence. It has, 
 of course, other meanings than that to which it is here 
 restricted. In this book, however, it is used only in the 
 sense defined. 
 
 Do not drill upon clauses until your pupils are ready to 
 take Sections LV-LIX. 
 
 SECTION X — THE PHRASE 
 
 In the exercise, the phrases in the first stanza are with 
 kisses, about me, of the Bishop, of Bi^igen, in his Mouse- Tower, 
 Oft the Rhine. Let the rest of the exercise, and also the 
 exercise on page 179, be written in the same way. 
 
 Review work may be given by asking the pupils to find 
 the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs in each sentence 
 in this exercise. 
 
42 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION XI — THE PREPOSITION 
 
 It will be profitable to give your pupils considerable 
 practice in finding prepositions : thus, say to pupils, In the 
 exercise on page 179 there are twenty prepositions ; make 
 a list of them in the order in which they appear. In the 
 exercise on page 177 there are fourteen. 
 
 Give pupils paragraphs in their readers from which to 
 select the prepositions. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS I-XIII 
 
 Name the parts of speech. What is a sentence ? What 
 are the kinds of sentences ? Define them. What are the 
 parts of sentences ? Define them. 
 
 What parts of speech may be the subjects of sentences ? 
 What part of speech may be the predicate of a sentence ? 
 Which parts of speech are modifiers ? Which parts of speech 
 may have modifiers ? Which parts of speech do not have 
 modifiers ? Which parts of speech are connective words? 
 
 What is the difference between a noun and a pronoun ? 
 an adjective and an adverb ? a preposition and a conjunc- 
 tion ? a phrase and a clause .'' 
 
 Which part of speech is used as a substitute for another 
 part ? What part of speech modifies a noun ? a pronoun .? 
 an adjective ? a verb ? an adverb ? What is an antecedent ? 
 What is a verb phrase ? an adjective phrase ? an adverbial 
 phrase ? What part of speech is always used as the connect- 
 ing word of an adjective or adverbial phrase ? Name the 
 words that are always pronouns ; those that are always verbs. 
 
 On the final study of these sections, add the following : 
 
 What kinds of adjectives are there ? How many articles 
 are there ? To which part of speech do they belong ? Is 
 an adjective modifying a pronoun always a predicate adjec- 
 tive ? Is a clause ever found in a simple sentence ? 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 43 
 
 What two parts of speech compose an adjective phrase ? 
 an adverbial phrase ? What parts of speech have case ? A 
 noun or pronoun in a phrase is in what case ? Can you 
 write a phrase that has in it a noun in the objective case 
 and a noun in the possessive case ? Can you write a phrase 
 that has in it a noun in the nominative case ? A clause of 
 two words is composed of what parts of speech ? A clause 
 of three words is composed of what parts of speech? 
 
 SECTION XIV — COMPLEMENTS 
 
 This subject of complements is difficult and will require 
 time for its comprehension. 
 
 When the lesson is assigned, the teacher should read it and 
 discuss it with the class as far as the bottom of page 183 ; 
 then the class may study it, and the discussion be renewed 
 and, if need be, repeated the next day. Two days may 
 be spent upon the exercises. The subject should now be 
 dropped for a week and then studied again. Make clear to 
 the class that there are three kinds of complements. 
 
 SECTION XV — ANALYSIS 
 
 Oral analysis should precede written. Take Section XV 
 and the exercises in Section XVI in oral form; then go back 
 and use the written form for the exercises in both sections. 
 It is not intended that analysis should be dropped when 
 these two sections have been studied, but that sentences 
 should be assigned for analysis from all the suitable exer- 
 cises which follow and from other sources. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XIV-XVI 
 
 What is a complement ? What is a compliment ? With 
 what part of speech is a complement used ? In what part of 
 the sentence is it usually found ? What parts of speech may 
 
44 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 be a complement ? Give an example of each. What is a 
 complete verb ? an incomplete ? What are the elements of a 
 sentence ? What is analysis ? What is parsing ? In what 
 order are you to look for the elements of a sentence in analy- 
 sis ? Name the kinds of elements there may be in a sentence. 
 
 On the final study of these sections add these questions : 
 
 What is the distinction between a part of speech and an 
 element of a sentence ? 
 
 In the sentence, Naming the elements of a sentence and 
 stating their relation to each other is called analysis^ how 
 many parts of speech ? how many words ? how many ele- 
 ments ? Is every element a part of speech t Is every part 
 of speech an element ? Every preposition is a part of 
 what kind of an element? What are the principal elements 
 of a sentence ? the modifying elements ? the connecting 
 elements ? the independent elements ? 
 
 What part of speech may be the subject of a sentence ? 
 the predicate ? the complement ? the modifiers ? the connec- 
 tive ? When is a noun complement in the nominative case ? 
 in the objective case ? What kind of verbs are followed 
 by complements ? What kind of incomplete verbs have 
 their complements in the nominative case ? in the objective 
 case? 
 
 SECTION XVIII — THE ADJECTIVE AND THE ADVERB: 
 
 HOW DISTINGUISHED 
 
 Omit this section until the last term of study of this book. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XVII-XVIII 
 
 What is an adjective ? an adverb ? In what ways are 
 they alike ? in what ways do they differ ? What are the 
 degrees of comparison? How is the comparative degree 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 45 
 
 formed from the positive ? the superlative ? What does the 
 suffix ish denote when joined to an adjective ? 
 
 What words are sometimes used to aid in forming the 
 comparative and superlative degrees of adjectives? In 
 such use, what part of speech are they ? What part of 
 speech are very^ rather^ more^ leasts somewhat^ when placed 
 before adjectives? 
 
 What is the distinction between bad and illl much and 
 many ? farther and further ? little and few ? nearest and 
 next? latest and last? older and elder? tiighest and next? 
 foremost and first ? 
 
 How do you distinguish between an adjective complement 
 and an adverbial modifier ? What kinds of adjectives can 
 you name ? Adjectives that can be compared are of what 
 kind ? Can numeral adjectives be compared ? Can adjec- 
 tives denoting an unchangeable quality be compared ? 
 
 SECTION XX — NUMBER 
 Omit IV-XII until near the end of the course. 
 
 SECTION XXI — THE NOUN: ABSTRACT, VERBAL, AND 
 
 COLLECTIVE 
 
 Omit this section until near the end of the course. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XIX-XXII 
 
 What are the two kinds of nouns? What is the distinction 
 between them ? Name some kinds of common nouns and 
 give examples. Do the kinds you have named include all 
 common nouns ? 
 
 What is number ? Give two general rules for the forma- 
 tion of the plural of nouns. Do all nouns admit of the 
 plural number? Name some nouns used in the singular 
 
46 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 only; some used in the plural only; some plural in form 
 and singular in meaning. 
 
 Give a rule for the formation of the plural of nouns 
 ending in y. How do proper nouns form their plurals ? 
 compound nouns ? letters and figures ? 
 
 What is gender ? Name the genders. Name the pro- 
 nouns of the masculine gender ; the feminine ; the neuter. 
 In what ways is the gender of nouns indicated ? Name ten 
 masculine nouns and the corresponding feminine nouns. 
 Why are the nouns in the following sentences neuter? My 
 name is John. I drew a girl in my book. 
 
 SECTION XXIV — CASE: THE NOMINATIVE 
 
 Turn back to the exercise in Section II, page i66, and find 
 the nouns and pronouns in the nominative case ; find them 
 in the exercises on pages 172, 179, 185, 186, 188, 189, and 
 190, and then in the exercise in this section. Take pains 
 with this work, discussing all troublesome words carefully. 
 
 The statement, A noun or pronoun whose case depends on 
 no other word is in the nominative case, seems like a contra- 
 diction. Grammarians speak of nouns really in no case, that 
 is, in no relation to other words, as in the nominative case, 
 from analogy to Latin grammar, on which a good deal of 
 English grammar is based as to terminology. 
 
 Part II of the exercise is designed to call attention to a 
 troublesome construction and show pupils some of the verbs 
 that take a predicate nominative. Have pupils point out 
 the examples in Part I of the same construction. 
 
 SECTION XXV — CASE: APPOSITION 
 
 When or or as unites a noun in apposition to the noun it 
 modifies, it is a conjunction and should be parsed as such. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 47 
 
 SECTION XXVI — CASE: THE POSSESSIVE 
 
 There is a possessive case in each sentence in the exer- 
 cise. In one sentence there are two. Have pupils find them 
 before attempting the analysis. Which sentence shows that 
 one possessive case may depend upon another ? Have 
 pupils name the case and construction of all the nouns in 
 the exercise. 
 
 SECTION XXIX — ADVERBIAL USE OF NOUNS 
 
 Omit until near the end of the course. 
 
 SECTION XXX — MODIFYING COMPLEMENTS 
 Omit until near the end of the course. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXIII-XXX 
 
 What is a verb ? a transitive verb ? an intransitive verb ? 
 a complete verb ? an incomplete verb ? What complement 
 do transitive verbs take ? Are all transitive verbs incom- 
 plete .'' Are intransitive verbs complete or incomplete? 
 Give an example of a complete intransitive verb. Of an 
 incomplete intransitive verb. 
 
 What is case ? In what case is the subject of a verb ? 
 the complement of an intransitive verb ? of a transitive 
 verb ? Name five constructions of a noun or pronoun in 
 the nominative case. 
 
 Table of the Nominative Case 
 
 1. Subject of a verb. 
 
 2. Complement of an incomplete verb. 
 
 3. Used in an address. 
 
48 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 4. Used in an exclamation. 
 
 5. Used in a title or signature. 
 
 6. Used independently with a participle (Section LXI). 
 Give an example of each use (except 6). 
 
 In what case is a noun in apposition ? What case has a 
 special form ? What is this form ? When is a noun in the 
 objective case ? 
 
 Explain the several constructions of the objective case 
 shown in the following : 
 
 Table of the Objective Case 
 
 I. With a preposition. 
 . 2. With a verb. 
 
 a. Direct object. 
 
 b. Indirect object. 
 
 c. Adverbial object. 
 
 d. Modifying complement. 
 
 To what kind of phrase is an indirect object equivalent ? 
 What is the distinction between a direct object and an 
 indirect ? a direct object and an adverbial ? What beside 
 a noun or pronoun may be a modifying complement ? 
 
 They made him captain. 
 They made him tell his name. 
 They made him very unhappy. 
 They made him an apology. 
 
 In the four sentences above, there are five direct objects, 
 one indirect, one modifying complement which is a noun, 
 one which is an adjective, and one which is an infinitive. 
 Find these. 
 
 Write one sentence containing a noun used as a direct 
 object, indirect object, and adverbial object. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 49 
 
 SECTION XXXIII — THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 
 
 The construction of the relative what is a difficult one. 
 In the sentence, " The path of duty lies in what is near," 
 the antecedent part of what is a pronoun, objective case, 
 and object of the preposition in; the relative part is a 
 pronoun, nominative case, and subject of the verb is. 
 
 Instead of saying antecedent part and relative part, the 
 pupil may be taught to say what is equivalent to that which ; 
 that is a pronoun, objective case, object of the preposition 
 in ; which is a relative pronoun, agreeing with its antecedent 
 that, nominative case, subject of the verb is. After pupils 
 have completed the exercise as directed, have them parse 
 the relative pronouns in the exercise. 
 
 SECTION XXXIV— THE INDEFINITE RELATIVE PRONOUN 
 
 Omit until near the close of the course. 
 
 SECTION XXXVI — THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUN 
 Omit until near the close of the course. 
 
 SECTION XXXVII — DECLENSION 
 
 The distinction between my and mine, her and hers, etc., 
 is that the first form has an adjective use, and the second 
 a substantive, or noun, use. Mi?ie, ours, thine, yours, hers, 
 and theirs may be called possessive pronouns, and are used 
 in the nominative and objective cases. His is used both 
 adjectively, as a pronoun in the possessive case, and sub- 
 stantively, as a possessive pronoun in the nominative or 
 objective case. Parse these -words as they appear in the 
 exercise in this section. 
 
50 
 
 TEACHERS^ MANUAL 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXXI-XXXVIII 
 
 What is a pronoun ? the antecedent of a pronoun ? 
 a personal pronoun ? How many personal pronouns are 
 there ? Make a list of those which are of the first person ; 
 the second ; the third. Name the compound personal pro- 
 nouns. How are they formed? In what cases are they 
 used ? What is a relative pronoun ? Make a list of them. 
 What is an indefinite relative pronoun } Make a list of 
 them. What is an interrogative pronoun ? Name them. 
 What is an interrogative adjective ? Name the interroga- 
 tive adjectives. Where is the antecedent of an interroga- 
 tive pronoun to be found ? of a relative pronoun .'' of a 
 personal pronoun .'* 
 
 What pronouns contain in themselves their antecedents ? 
 What is an adjective pronoun .'* What is the distinction 
 between an adjective pronoun and a pronominal adjective? 
 What is declension ? comparison ? conjugation ? Decline /, 
 you J Ae, she^ it^ who, which. 
 
 SECTION XXXIX — VOICE 
 
 The exercises in the several sections may be used not only 
 as directed, but also as exercises in analysis and parsing. 
 By so using them the knowledge of the class will become 
 clearer and more available. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS XXXIX-XLI 
 
 What is voice ? What voice does an intransitive verb 
 have ? a transitive ? What is mode ? What modes do verbs 
 have ? What is tense ? Name the tenses. Define each 
 tense. Name the tenses in each mode. What is an auxiliary 
 verb ? a principal verb ? What is a simple verb ? a verb 
 phrase ? a compound tense ? What is the subject of a verb ? 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 51 
 
 In what respects does a verb agree with its subject ? What 
 is an infinitive ? a participle ? 
 
 SECTION XLIII — NUMBER OF VERBS 
 
 This section should be omitted until near the end of the 
 course. 
 
 SECTION XLIV — THE INFINITIVE AND THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 The purpose of this section is to introduce the infini- 
 tive and the participle so that their simpler uses may be 
 recognized. Do not spend much time now with this les- 
 son, nor attempt to teach more about these forms than is 
 here given. 
 
 SECTION XLV — REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 Teachers who do not wish to introduce the term root can 
 avoid it by saying present iiifinitive instead. It will not be 
 well to spend time learning the principal parts of all the 
 irregular verbs. That knowledge is better gained incidentally 
 by asking for these parts when irregular verbs are parsed. 
 Children learn these forms mostly by talking and listening. 
 Those which they do not learn in this way can be taught by 
 the teacher. 
 
 SECTION XLVII - CONJUGATION : THE AUXILIARIES 
 
 The conjugation of the auxiliaries at the outset of the 
 study of conjugation simplifies very much the pupil's task. 
 It is essential that the order of the book should be followed 
 here. If the pupil is puzzled by calling shall and will 
 present tense, should and would past tense, explain to him 
 that this has reference to their form and meaning when used 
 alone ; but that used as auxiliaries shall and will are used in 
 future tenses, should and would in past potential phrases. 
 
52 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 When the forms of conjugation become familiar, accustom 
 the pupil to use, so far as can readily be done, other subjects 
 than the personal pronouns. 
 
 SECTIONS XLVII-XLIX — CONJUGATION 
 
 The pupil should be led to notice how the conjugation of 
 a verb is built up. 
 
 The verb has no variation for person and number except 
 in the indicative mode, and there only in the forms with thou 
 {est forms, sometimes contracted to st or / ; ask the pupil to 
 find examples of these contractions and to show what omis- 
 sions have brought the word to the form of it now used) and 
 the third person singular of the present tense, an s form 
 (sometimes et/i). 
 
 The present tense is from the first root of the verb, and 
 the past from the second. 
 
 The future tense is made by adding the first root to the 
 present tense of shall and will. The remaining tenses are 
 formed by adding the third root to the present, past, and 
 future of have. This is true of have itself as well as of all 
 other verbs. 
 
 SECTION XLVIII — CONJUGATION : THE VERB HAVE 
 
 The pupil should realize that have is here conjugated as a 
 principal verb ; as, / have an apple ; and that have as an 
 auxiliary has the same forms, not the same tenses, as have 
 as a principal verb. 
 
 SECTIONS XLIX-L — CONJUGATION: THE VERBS IV/?/rf 
 
 AND BE 
 
 The pupil should write the conjugation of write and be as 
 the conjugation of have is written. 
 
 Omit for the present Sections LI, LII, Lltl, and LIV. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 53 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS— SECTIONS XLV-LIV 
 
 What two kinds of verbs are there as to form ? as to use 
 with complements ? as to use with objects ? as to number 
 of forms ? Define these eight kinds of verbs. 
 
 What is conjugation ? What are auxiliary verbs ? prin- 
 cipal verbs ? What are the principal parts of verbs ? Name 
 the auxiliary verbs. Of these auxiliaries, shall^ will, and have 
 are used in regular forms ; may, can, and must in potential 
 forms ; do in emphatic, interrogative, and negative forms ; 
 be in progressive and passive forms. 
 
 Name the simple tenses in each mode; the compound 
 tenses. In which modes is do used .'' in which tenses ? In 
 which tenses of the indicative mode is have used as an 
 auxiliary ? What rules can you give for the use of shall 
 and will? 
 
 SECTION LV — CLAUSES AND CONNECTIVES 
 
 Study the first page of this section and then omit for the 
 present the remainder. 
 
 SECTIONS LVI-LIX — THE SENTENCE: THE CLAUSE 
 
 Study these sections carefully and then review, beginning 
 with Section XIV, Complements. In the review take the 
 sections and parts of sections omitted in the advance. 
 Then take Sections LX and LXI. Sections LXII and 
 LXIII are for reference. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS — SECTIONS LV-LIX 
 
 What is a phrase ? a clause ? a member of a sentence ? 
 an element of a sentence ? a part of speech 1 What two 
 kinds of elements are there as to use ? When are elements 
 coordinate ? What is a principal element ? a subordinate ? 
 What three kinds of subordinate clauses ? What two kinds 
 
54 . TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 of subordinate phrases? What are coordinate connectives? 
 subordinate connectives? Name the kinds of subordinate 
 connectives. What are correlatives ? What is a sentence ? 
 What kinds of sentences are there as to use ? as to form ? 
 What kind of connectives unite the clauses of compound 
 sentences ? complex ? What is an adjective clause ? What 
 is the usual connective of an adjective clause ? What is an 
 adverbial clause ? Give an adjective clause in which the 
 connective is a conjunctive adverb. Give an adverbial 
 clause in which the connective is a conjunctive adverb. 
 What is a noun clause ? What constructions may a noun 
 clause have ? Give an example of each. 
 
 REVIEW QUESTIONS— SECTIONS LX-LXI 
 
 What is an infinitive ? a participle ? What modifiers 
 may they have ? what complements ? 
 
 What tenses does an infinitive have ? a participle ? Do 
 infinitives and participles have voice ? 
 
 Give the infinitive forms, active and passive, of five irregu- 
 lar verbs ; of two regular verbs. Give the participles of 
 five irregular verbs ; of two regular verbs. The infinitive 
 is generally used as a noun. Give a sentence in which the 
 infinitive is a subject; a nominative complement; an objec- 
 tive complement ; a modifying complement ; in apposition 
 with a noun ; the object of a preposition. 
 
 After what verbs is to^ the sign of the infinitive, usually 
 omitted ? What is the usual construction of the infinitive 
 after these verbs ? 
 
 What are independent elements ? What part of speech 
 is always independent ? What parts of speech are some- 
 times independent ? What parts of speech are never inde- 
 pendent ? Name the eight forms of independent elements. 
 Which of them have you studied before ? In what case is 
 a noun or pronoun when used independently ? 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 55 
 
 CHAPTER XI — PUNCTUATION 
 
 There should be much practice in punctuation in connec- 
 tion with the study of this chapter. 
 
 A duplicating press is a great convenience in preparing 
 exercises in punctuation for pupils. Such exercises may 
 also be given as dictation exercises, or may be written upon 
 the blackboards without capitals and marks of punctuation. 
 As another plan, let pupils copy, without capitals or marks 
 of punctuation, the exercises in punctuation in this book, 
 and hand them to you at the recitation period. 
 
 At a subsequent lesson give these exercises to the class 
 for completion. Pupils may copy without capitals and 
 marks of punctuation certain paragraphs from their school 
 books, each pupil having a different paragraph to copy. 
 The paragraphs may be exchanged in class for completion. 
 If the incomplete paragraphs are not marked or written 
 upon, they may be used many times over. Take care to 
 select paragraphs not containing punctuation in advance of 
 the study of the pupils, and do not allow certain marks to 
 be used without explanation. Refer to the directions in 
 Section XXVII as occasions for their use arise. 
 
 Begin the treatment of punctuation by reviewing Chap- 
 ter I of this book in the following manner: Have your 
 pupils observe the use of capitals in the chapter. What 
 rules for the use of capitals can they make ? What rules 
 for the use of the period ? interrogation point .'' exclama- 
 tion point.'' 
 
 Have them now study Section VI, Terminal Marks, in 
 the chapter on punctuation. What illustrations of these 
 rules are found in the first chapter ? What uses of the 
 dash are found in this chapter ? 
 
 (a) When as introduces an example it is followed by a colon 
 and a dash, if it comes at the end of a line. (See p. 240.) 
 
56 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 (b) When a quotation is followed by the name of its 
 author a dash is placed before the name, if it is printed 
 continuously with the quotation. 
 
 If Shakespeare^ Exercise I, example i, page 4, had been 
 printed at the right of the line on which it stands, no dash 
 would have been used. (See examples on pp. 60 and 61.) 
 
 Ask pupils what use of colon and dash ( : — ) is found 
 in Chapter I ? What use of semicolon with as ( ; as) ? 
 What other words introducing examples or illustrations are 
 punctuated like as ? 
 
 Give the rules for all capitals and marks of punctuation, 
 except commas and some semicolons, in Chapter I. 
 
 Study Section I, Chapter XI. Find many illustrations, 
 in this book and elsewhere, of the use of capitals. 
 
 Note. — Capitals are used less than formerly, and sometimes 
 their use is a mere matter of taste. A geographical common 
 noun, like river, island, mountain, lake, street, county, is not to 
 be capitalized unless it is an essential part of a name. We 
 usually write Lake Michigan, but Michigan lake. 
 
 A title of honor or office is capitalized only when joined with 
 a proper name. However, as an exception, capitalize the title 
 of the chief ruler of a state or nation. Write, Colonel Atwater is 
 president of the company ; George Washington was first Presi- 
 dent of the United States ; James Brown, Esq., is pleased to 
 have esquire written after his name ; the state vs. the city of 
 Lynn. 
 
 Have pupils study Sections II and III, and note that 
 titles used with names are usually abbreviated, and that 
 titles following a name are separated from the name and 
 from each other by commas. Many illustrations of Sec- 
 tion III may be found in Chapter II. 
 
 Have pupils learn the following abbreviations : Mr., 
 Messrs., Mrs., Mmes., Jr., Sr., Esq., Hon., Fr. (only before 
 the name of a divine), Rev., Rt. Hon., Bro., Prof., Supt., 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 57 
 
 Capt., Col., Gen., Lieut., 2d Lieut., Gov., Atty. ; the days of 
 the week, the months of the year, the states of the Union. 
 
 SECTION IV— THE USE OF THE APOSTROPHE 
 
 Note the two uses of the apostrophe. Find examples of 
 each. 
 
 At before the name of a firm requires the use of the 
 possessive case ; as, at Jordan and Marsh's. 
 
 SECTION V— THE USE OF THE HYPHEN 
 
 Note the two uses of the hyphen. A sufficient number 
 of examples of the first use will be found in the pupil's 
 own writing. Teach this use with care. The second use 
 requires scholarship. For young persons there is nothing 
 better than to rely on the dictionary. 
 
 SECTION VI — TERMINAL MARKS 
 
 Have pupils find numerous examples of each rule for the 
 use of the period. Rule 4 is an important one and should 
 be studied with the explanations under it until it is thor- 
 oughly understood and examples of its application are 
 readily found. 
 
 SECTION VII — THE COMMA IN A SERIES 
 
 Many writers do not use the comma before the conjunc- 
 tion preceding the last term of a series. Usually news- 
 papers do not insert a comma at this place ; but books 
 and the higher-class magazines do. 
 
 Have the pupils find all the illustrations of the use of the 
 comma in a series in the seven rules of Section VI. 
 
 The comma after polite in the sixth example, page 294, 
 follows the rule in Section X. The other commas in this 
 
58 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 example follow both Section VII and Section X, the sev- 
 eral pairs of words being considered the parts of a series. 
 
 SECTION VIII — THE COMMA WITH WORDS OF ADDRESS 
 
 It will be easy to find examples of this use of the comma. 
 Exercise II directs the pupil to explain the punctuation in 
 certain examples. This explanation and all similar explana- 
 tions should include, not only the marks used in illustra- 
 tions of the rule, but also all the capitals and marks of 
 punctuation to be found in the examples. 
 
 SECTION IX — THE COMMA SHOWING THE OMISSION OF 
 
 WORDS 
 
 Note that the day of the month is not separated from the 
 name of the month. 
 
 The rule in this section, as has been before noticed, 
 applies also to titles following names. To what commas 
 in the forms for letters does the rule in Section VIII apply.? 
 to what the rule in Section IX ? Find illustrations of these 
 rules in Chapter II. 
 
 Notice the use of the semicolon in this section. When 
 the divisions of a sentence cgntain commas, these divisions 
 are separated by semicolons. 
 
 SECTION X — THE COMMA WITH WORDS IN PAIRS, 
 AND AFTER YES AND /\fO 
 
 Have your pupils copy the following paragraph and 
 explain the use of the first six commas. The others they 
 will learn about later. 
 
 Light and darkness, heat and cold, hunger and food, 
 sweet and sour, solid, liquid, and gas, circle round in a 
 wreath of pleasures, and, by their agreeable quarrel, beguile 
 the day of life. — Emerson. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 59 
 
 SECTION XI — DOUBLE QUOTATION MARKS 
 
 Pupils may study Section XI as far as the exercise ; then 
 copy the first four examples at the top of page 298, and the 
 first, third, sixth, seventh, and eighth examples, page 299. 
 Ask them to give the rules for the capitals, periods, inter- 
 rogation points, quotation marks, and commas in the exer- 
 cises they have written. For the second comma in the 
 second sentence see Section XVIII ; for that after to-day^ 
 eighth sentence, see Section XVII. 
 
 Have them change the sentences in Exercise I, and then 
 take Exercises II and III. They should be asked to insert 
 only such marks of punctuation as they understand the 
 use of. 
 
 SECTION XII — SINGLE QUOTATION MARKS 
 
 When pupils have studied Section XII as far as Exer- 
 cise II, ask them to explain all the capitals and marks of 
 punctuation in the sentences which they have just studied, 
 except the comma after liberty in the second example. 
 (See Section XVII.) They may then take Exercise II, as 
 directed. 
 
 Note, on the use of quotation marks, that they may 
 sometimes be omitted ; for example : 
 
 When his tempters demanded that Jesus should show them a 
 sign from heaven, " He answered and said unto them. When it 
 is evening, ye say, It will be fair weather : for the sky is red. 
 And in the morning, It will be foul weather to-day : for the sky is 
 red and lowering." 
 
 To put quotation marks around the inner quotations 
 above would be cumbersome and distinctly confusing. 
 The change from the words of one speaker to another is 
 sufficiently indicated by the use of the capital letters. 
 
6o TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 SECTION XIII — THE COMMA WITH NOUNS IN APPOSITION 
 
 If your class has studied apposition in grammar they may 
 now take Section XIII ; otherwise, take Section XIV. 
 
 SECTION XIV — THE COMMA WITH PARENTHETICAL 
 
 EXPRESSIONS 
 
 The rule in this section has many applications requiring 
 good judgment. It cannot be expected that pupils will use 
 it infallibly at first. After studying the section it will be 
 well for the teacher to give the class training in hunting 
 for illustrations of the application of this rule. Ask each 
 member of the class to select from a certain reading les- 
 son as many illustrations of this rule as he can find ; at 
 another time to see how many illustrations he can find in 
 his geography or history. 
 
 SECTION XVI — THE COMMA WITH WORDS IN THE 
 
 SAME CONSTRUCTION 
 
 Words and terms in apposition, words in pairs, and words 
 in series are particular instances of " words in the same 
 construction." 
 
 SECTION XVII — THE COMMA IN COMPOUND ELEMENTS 
 
 An effort has been made to bring those rules of punctua- 
 tion for whose application no knowledge of grammar is 
 required, as early as possible, consistent with the plan to 
 treat each mark of punctuation by itself. 
 
 From this section on, some knowledge of grammar will 
 usually be a prerequisite to the ready application of the 
 rules of punctuation. But this knowledge existing, the 
 application of the rules which follow is often easier than 
 of some which precede. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 6l 
 
 SECTION XVIII — THE COMMA WITH ADJECTIVE 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 This is one of the most difficult rules of punctuation, and 
 it is very important that it should be well understood. 
 
 Many examples of explanatory and restrictive adjective 
 elements should be selected, and the difference between 
 them gradually and fully pointed out. 
 
 In addition to the exercise in this section, examples of 
 restrictive adjective clauses may be found in Section LVII 
 of the chapter on grammar. 
 
 SECTION XIX — THE COMMA WITH ADVERBIAL ELEMENTS 
 
 This rule is most often applicable to the adverbial ele- 
 ment at the beginning of a sentence. Examples of this use 
 of the comma are readily found and easily comprehended. 
 Rules in Sections XVII and XIX will cover the punctua- 
 tion of clauses of complex sentences. 
 
 SECTION XX — THE COMMA AFTER THE SUBJECT 
 
 The comma should not be used under this rule unless it 
 separates two verbs, one of which belongs in the subject, 
 or is needed to show where the subject ends and the predi- 
 cate begins. 
 
 SECTION XXI— THE COMMA WITH INDEPENDENT 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 
 This section has already been studied in part. At this 
 time, further study should be made only as far as the gram- 
 matical constructions involved are understood by the pupils. 
 
 It will be best at this point to interrupt the detailed study 
 of punctuation by sections, and to devote some months to 
 a study of punctuation as shown in well-punctuated texts. 
 
62 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 Begin, for example, with Chapter II, page 6, and ask the 
 pupils to notice each capital and mark of punctuation on 
 the page, both in the text and exercises, and tell, or refer to, 
 the statement in the chapter on punctuation that applies to 
 the case. Explanations should be given, not only of the 
 comma, the chief mark of punctuation thus far studied, but 
 also of all the marks of punctuation which are already 
 partially understood and can hereafter be best studied by 
 noting and explaining them as they are found in the text 
 examined. 
 
 This exercise and the punctuation of dictated sentences 
 and paragraphs should be continued a few minutes daily 
 for a long time. Pages of the history or geography may 
 be used in the same way, and preferably, for the sake of 
 variety. 
 
 SECTION XXII — THE SEMICOLON 
 
 The semicolon has been studied somewhat already. The 
 entire section should now be taken. The examination work 
 in geography, history, and physiology will probably provide 
 many illustrations of the use of the semicolon. 
 
 SECTION XXIII— THE COLON 
 
 Several uses of the colon have already been observed. 
 It is a mark of punctuation that will not be often used by 
 school children. Its use can best be taught by calling atten- 
 tion to it when it is found, and explaining why it is used in 
 the particular instance observed. 
 
 We observed under the semicolon that divisions of sen- 
 tences containing commas should be separated by semi- 
 colons. This rule might be enlarged so as to read. Divisions 
 of sentences containing semicolons may be separated by 
 colons. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 63 
 
 SECTION XXIV — PARENTHESES AND BRACKETS 
 
 As the difference between the use of parentheses and of 
 commas to inclose parenthetical expressions is simply one 
 of degree, so the use of the brackets indicates a greater 
 separation from the context of the words inclosed than 
 would be shown by the use of the parentheses. 
 
 SECTION XXV— THE DASH 
 
 No special directions for the study of the dash are 
 required. The contrast expressed sometimes by the use 
 of the dash is stronger than that shown in similar instances 
 by the comma. 
 
 SECTION XXVI — AN EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION 
 
 Much study of miscellaneous exercises in punctuation is 
 required to give readiness and confidence to pupils. 
 
 The exercise in correct form is repeated in the miscella- 
 neous exercises for the convenience of the teacher who may 
 wish to direct a pupil to copy it upon the blackboard. 
 
 SECTION XXVII — MARKS OF CORRECTION 
 
 It is supposed that most of the directions here given 
 have been already learned as the need of them has been 
 felt. They are here gathered for convenience. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION 
 
 The Mississippi Pilot 
 
 A passenger said to a pilot on a Mississippi steamer, 
 '' How long have you been a pilot on these waters ? " 
 
 The old man answered, "Twenty-five years, and I came 
 up and down many times before I was pilot," 
 
64 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 "Then," said the passenger, "you must know every rock 
 and sand bar on the river." 
 
 The pilot smiled at the man's simplicity and replied, 
 " Oh, no, I don't; but I know where the deep water is." 
 
 That is what we want, to know the safe path and keep it. 
 
 Took a Country 
 
 A British soldier was recently conducting a party from 
 the United States through the citadel at Quebec. One of 
 the party, a small maid of nine, was an earnest patriot. 
 "Here," said the soldier triumphantly, "here are two guns 
 we took from your people at Bunker Hill." For a moment 
 the child was silent, then replied, " Come home with me, 
 and I '11 show you a whole country we took from your people 
 about the same time." 
 
 Cross-Questioning 
 
 Frederick the Great prided himself upon his personal 
 interest in every one of his soldiers. No matter how large 
 his forces, he knew a strange face as soon as it appeared 
 in the lines. 
 
 Of the new soldiers, as they came to his notice, he always 
 asked three questions, " How old are you .'' " " How long 
 have you been here ? " " Have you received your pay and 
 your uniform ? " 
 
 These questions he always asked in the same order. 
 Therefore, one day when a Frenchman entered the ranks, 
 his comrades attempted to prepare him to meet the king. 
 
 The Frenchman, not knowing one word of German, was 
 taught the answers to these questions. 
 
 In due time, the volunteer appeared before the King. 
 Frederick spied the newcomer at once and called him out. 
 Alas for the Frenchman and the three German answers 
 which he had learned ! 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 65 
 
 By some unhappy fortune the King forgot his usual order 
 and began with, " How long have you been in the army ? " 
 " Twenty-one years, sir," answered the Frenchman glibly 
 " How old are you ? " 
 " Three days." 
 
 Frederick looked puzzled. Was the man trying to insult 
 him ? 
 
 " Are you a fool ? " thundered the King, " or am I ? " 
 " Both, sir," answered the Frenchman politely. 
 Frederick was furious. The poor man was seized by the 
 bodyguard and no one knows what might have happened 
 had not a comrade of the unfortunate man rushed forward 
 and explained the trouble. 
 
 Shakespeare was born in 1564; died in 1616. Yesterday 
 is past ; to-morrow is to be. Keep your temper ; you may 
 be sure no one else wants it. 
 
 Wheat is raised abundantly in the following states : Ohio, 
 which is on Lake Erie ; Indiana and Illinois, which border 
 on Lake Michigan. 
 
 There are seven days in a week ; Sunday, Monday, etc. 
 
 The United States has been engaged in five wars; the 
 Revolution, the War of 18 12, the Mexican War, the Civil 
 War, and the Spanish War. 
 
 The Indian wars accomplished four great results : they 
 united the colonies ; they trained thousands of men in the 
 use of firearms, and thus, in a measure, prepared them for 
 the War of Independence ; they made the colonists feel less 
 need of English protection ; they cleared the ground east of 
 the Mississippi. 
 
 There are extensive coal beds in five countries of Europe ; 
 Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, and Belgium. 
 
66 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 There were at that time two political parties in the United 
 States : the Federalists, who had adopted the Constitution ; 
 and the Anti- Federalists, who had voted against it. 
 
 In peace and war, at home and abroad, there is but one 
 humane and safe rule : Hesitate to strike ; strike hard. 
 
 Then amidst the ringing of bells and firing of cannon, a 
 great shout went up : " Long live George Washington, the 
 President of the United States." 
 
 " Go back ! go back ! " his soldiers cried, as he exposed 
 himself incautiously. " We will do our duty." 
 
 Everything grows old ; everything passes away ; every- 
 thing disappears. 
 
 That continent commands the Atlantic only ; this com- 
 mands two oceans, the Atlantic and the Pacific. 
 
 A second conquest of ancient Peru has begun, a con- 
 quest of steel ; but it is the steel of rails, and not of swords. 
 
 . A man said to his slave, " I am your master no longer ; 
 I make you free." 
 
 " No, master, my work is not oppressive and I fare well, 
 and, being -a slave, I feel no degradation." 
 
 " But," said the man, " I feel the degradation of being 
 your master; you are free." 
 
 " Have you among all the animals a greater benefactor 
 than I am ? " asked the bee of the man. 
 
 " Certainly," he answered, " the sheep ; for its wool is 
 necessary for me, whereas your honey is only agreeable." 
 
 Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 
 
 The eternal years of God are hers ; 
 But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 
 
 And dies among his worshippers. 
 
TARBELL'S LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR 6/ 
 
 A Cure for Crying 
 
 The great French writer, Victor Hugo, tells this story 
 about his own childhood. His father, be it remembered, 
 was one of Napoleon's generals. 
 
 " When I was five or six years old, I was crying one day. 
 My father, who heard me, did not reprove me ; ^ but this 
 is the way he punished me : 
 
 " ' Why, the poor dear little girl,' he said in a cool, iron- 
 ical manner. * What 's the matter with her ? Who has been 
 making her cry } She shan't be found fault with. It 's all 
 right for little girls to cry. But how 's this .? What have 
 you been dressing her in boy's clothes for ? Make her a 
 pretty frock at once, and to-morrow she shall go and take 
 a walk in the garden of the Tuileries.' 
 
 " Sure enough, the next day the nurse put a girl's dress 
 on me, according to order, and took me to walk at the 
 Tuileries. I was well mortified, as you may perhaps imag- 
 ine. But I never cried again from that day until I had 
 become a man grown." 
 
 Abou Ben Adhem 
 
 Abou Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase !) 
 Awoke one night from a deep dream of peace, 
 And saw, within the moonlight in his room, 
 Making it rich and like a lily in bloom, 
 An angel writing in a book of gold. 
 Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
 
 1 Here the semicolon is used instead of the comma because of the 
 contrast between what precedes and what follows. If the thought had 
 been so expressed as to admit the use of and instead of du^ the comma 
 would have been used. 
 
68 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 And to the presence in the room he said, 
 " What writest thou ? " The vision raised its head, 
 And, with a look made of all sweet accord, 
 Answered, " The names of those who love the Lord." 
 "And is mine one?" said Abou. "Nay, not so," 
 Replied the angel. Abou spoke more low. 
 But cheerly still ; and said, " I pray thee, then. 
 Write me as one who loves his fellow-men." 
 
 The angel wrote, and vanished. The next night 
 It came again, with a great wakening light. 
 And showed the names whom love of God had blest ; 
 And, lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 
 
 James Henry Leigh Hunt. 
 
 [For further exercises in punctuation the teacher is 
 referred to Tarbell's Essentials of English Composition.] 
 
APR 22 1903 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
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