c:-K «Ks§ &ra Iff Hii HH HI LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ©|np,L.'. GcnynnU l^cr Shelf. £j\5 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Text-Book of Elocution MARIA PORTER BRACE, A.B. (MRS. KIMBALL) Late Teacher of Elocution in Vassar College and in the Brearley School, New York U.hm* LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN BOSTON AND NEW YORK \ Copyright, 1892, By Leach, Shewell, & Sanborn. C. J. PETERS & SON, Typographers and Electrotypers. Press of Berwick & Smith. DEDICATION. This little book is dedicated, in the words of Quintilian, to ' ' Him who is so qualified by nature that Rules will not fail to be of use to him." PREFACE. Iisr this age of book-making, every new treatise should offer an apology for its being. Such an apology may be particularly necessary in the case of a text-book of Elocution. Every " Reader " contains a preface which is supposed to embody the principles of the art of speaking, and there are also special treatises. Most teachers of Elocution, however, pre- fer, very wisely, to arrange their own courses of read- ing for their pupils — associating the practice of reading aloud with the critical study of literature. Having no text-book, the teacher must make his own verbal statement of the principles of Elocution. But students, whether they are boys and girls in prepara- tory schools, undergraduates in colleges, or young people who are fitting themselves for the pulpit or the stage, need constantly before them a concise statement of the rules of their art. The " Text-book of Elocution " aims to set forth, upon a scientific basis, the laws of sound as applied to articulate speech. It claims to do away with superfluous and fanciful terms, and reduce the sub- 5 6 PREFACE. ject to its essential principles. Each one of the topics, Pitch, Force, Quality, and Time, is treated from a threefold point of view ; i. e., the physiologi- cal, the physical, and the psychological. A few well- tried exercises for practice are offered under each topic. Brief selections illustrative of each property of tone are also given. A special effort is made to preserve the unity of the subject, while dwelling with sufficient detail upon the working principles of the art embodied in the four topics of the book. In order to insure the practical value of the Text-book, and, at the same time, a comprehensive view of the subject, all unnecessary amplification of topics and examples is avoided. The book is not offered as a substitute for a teacher. In no art is the personal skill, experience, and influence of a master of greater value. If the student who is to learn the use of rules must be generously equipped by nature, so must the teacher who is to direct the study and watch over its results. While we Americans acknowledge that nature must give place to art in the study of professional speech, we have apparently not yet learned that per- fect colloquial speech cannot be attained without artistic training. " Speaking naturally " often means, in the North, slovenly consonants and muffled vowels ; in the South, vowels somewhat flattened, with sup- pressed consonants ; in the West, harsh and exag- PREFACE. 7 gerated consonants and nasal vowels. In order to correct such defects, the earliest lessons in Elocution should be given to the child in the cradle by father, mother, or nurse. " Before all," said Quintilian, " let the nurses speak properly. The boy will hear them first, and will try to shape his words by imitat- ing them." These instructions should be supple- mented by the teacher of Elocution in schools. Indeed, it is perhaps his highest office to improve the e very-day utterance — the " domestic voice " — of the rising generation. The "evolution of the American girl " and boy is incomplete so long as their voices have not been properly tuned and formed. It is hoped that the Text-book may be useful in the cultivation of colloquial as well as of professional Elocution. The author wishes especially to acknowledge, among other authorities, — such as Bell on Articula- tion and Lanier on Rhythm, — Robert R. Raymond's privately printed work on " Melody in Speech." His former pupils will recognize many of his prin- ciples in the chapter on Melody. He, in turn, acknowledged his indebtedness to Mandeville. The present statement, however, of the laws of melody in speech is the result of the author's experience in teaching. M. P. B. Genoa, Italy, May, 1892. A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. i. HISTORY OP THE ART OP SPEAKING. Before entering upon the technical study of Elo- cution, let us glance briefly at its pedigree among the arts. In the ancient world Elocution formed a large part of the study of Eloquence, the two words having a common origin in the Latin verb eloquor. It is only lately that Elocution has been separated from the study of Rhetoric. If we adopt the Latin term, ars dicendi, the art of speaking, as representing every variety of Elocution, we shall find this art associated with some of the noblest traditions of antiquity. Indeed, the art of speaking may be traced back through two distinct lines of descent to the days of Homer and his cycle. 1. Through the art of oratory, — ecclesiastical, judicial, and political. 2. Through the art of the theatre. With the end of barbarism the history of eloquence and poetry began. Demosthenes in oratory, and 9 10 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. Sophocles in poetry, represent the two fields of clas- sical elocution. The Greek view of the human body as the reflec- tion of the divinity of the soul, prompted him to perfect every part of his physique. A complete physical education must therefore include the devel- opment and perfection of the voice. The aesthetic sense of the Greek taught him, too, that speech in its highest functions — as the instrument of the orator or of the poet — must be ranked among the fine arts. The Greek words rhetor (flowing speaker) and rhapsode (chanter of poems) imply that, from the beginning, speaking was treated as an art, and the speaker as an artist. The conditions of government in democratic Athens were admirable for the cultivation of political and judicial oratory. The large body of five hundred senators, and the legislature composed of the entire population of freemen, made public speaking an ab- solute necessity. There must be political leaders and judicial pleaders. With a language formed for the expression of every nicety and beauty of thought, with the bodily instrument pliable and athletic, with cultivated intellect and lofty patriotism, a Demos- thenes seems the natural product of his race and time. Antiquity has left us many traditions, and several careful records of the orator's methods of study. HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING. 11 Every student is familiar with the stories of Demos- thenes' practice of articulation by speaking with pebbles in his mouth, of his declaiming while run- ning up hill, in order to improve his respiration, and his study of gesture with the impending sword above his head. The nearest approach to a scientific analy- sis of the art of Elocution is to be found in Qui-n- tilian's " Institutes of Oratory." Cicero, too, left a record of his famous practice, in " De Oratore." These two well-known authorities insist upon the complete education both of mind and character as a part of the preparation for the practice of oratory. The two great orators of antiquity, Demosthenes and Cicero, though they regarded the art of the stage as secondary to their own, did not hesitate to profit by the instructions of actors. " Actors should be judged by their voices, politicians by their wisdom," said Demosthenes ; and said Cicero, " Delivery is to be ordered by action of body, by gesture, by look, and by modulation of the voice ; the great power of which, alone and in itself, the comparatively trivial art of actors and the stage proves." In the brilliant fourth century B.C., the art of act- ing became recognized in Greece as an art separate from that of poetry ; the players were organized into a guild known as the "Artists of Dionysus." "The whole of the art of poetry," said a Greek author, "is the praise of the gods." The conception of 12 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. tragedy as an act of worship, together with the ma- terial conditions of the out-door theatre, necessarily modified the elocution and action of the ancient actor. Delicacy of elocution and refinement of pan- tomime would have been useless in such a colossal auditorium. In order to be seen from the most dis- tant parts of the amphitheatre, the actor was obliged to add to his height and size by the use of the cothurnus, liberal padding, and a large mask. It is said that the tragic declamation resembled a deep- toned chant, while the movements were slow and the gestures strongly marked. Power of voice was therefore more important than variety of timbre. Distinct articulation, with perfect rhythmical delivery, was required by the cultivated ear of the Athenian auditor. Hence we hear much about the elaborate education in music necessary for the ancient actor. The Phonascus, or voice-trainer, was most exacting in the practice of scales, and in their application to song, speech, or to the accompanied recitative of the tragic chorus. Sometimes a slave accompanied the actor to the theatre, and gave him the key-note for his first lines. Yet the perversion of this musical train- ing marred the tragic declamation. Ancient actors, like modern " elocutionists," were tempted into the imitation of cries of animals, the roaring of seas, and other meretricious effects. Athens became infested with her " Ranters," who were notori- HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING. 13 ous for their " bellowing " and " booming." Yet the true art and the true artists happily survived. In Greece, as in England, the golden age of histri- onic art was somewhat later than that of dramatic poetry. The material for the actor was, of course, the work of the masters of the drama. The Romans were mere imitators in art. While they copied many of the traditions of the Greek theatre, the spirit of Greek tragedy never existed in the Roman genius. The name of Roscius, Cicero's friend and tutor, stands for the art of acting among the Romans. With the advent of Christianity, the practice of oratory was extended to a field unknown to the ancient world, — the pulpit. In the long conflict between Paganism and Christianity, which culmi- nated in the century of Constantine, there existed perhaps the noblest opportunity ever known for the practice of the art of persuasion. The eloquence of the apostles themselves was succeeded by that of the early Fathers of the Church. The learned Greek and Latin " apologists " for the Christian martyrs used all the rich fruits of pagan culture in behalf of the new philosophy of life. Doubtless Justinian, Origen, Chrysostom, Augustine, inherited the tradi- tions of Cicero and Quintilian, though it is said that the Hebraic conception of the orator as the mouth- piece of divine inspiration probably hindered the pol- 14 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. ished refinement of the art of speaking. Yet the solemn trust to preach the new religion was in itself a great teacher of eloquence. The century of Con- stantine (the fourth of the Christian era) represents the formal triumph of Christianity, and has been called the golden age of Christian eloquence. St. Chrysostom is generally recognized as the master pleader of the new cause. After the recognition of Christianity by the em- pire, the art of speaking declined. War displaced the arts of poetry and oratory. The monks kept their cells, contenting themselves with guarding si- lently the precious records of classical learning. With the enthusiasm and fanaticism of the crusad- ers, the monks again became preachers. Though the eloquence of such a man as Peter the Hermit probably lacked the culture of antique models, its results were certainly marvellous. With the rise of the modern world came the re- turn to the old arts of peace. During the period of transition from ancient to modern civilization, the history of oratory is rather a history of men and causes than of speaking as a fine art. Doubtless the "revival of learning," the " renaissance," that wonder- ful uprising of the human intellect in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, restored, with ancient literature, the traditions of the art of speak- ing. The French, with their passion for order, were HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING, 15 the first to follow antique models in oratory. The orators of Catholic France, led by Bossuet, in the " century of the Grand Monarch," are said to be the most direct successors of the speakers of antiquity. Bossuet's famous funeral orations had their prototype in the ancient world. Let us turn now to the art of speaking, as devel- oped through dramatic poetry. The Church, con- stantly seeking new means for the propagation or restoration of religious enthusiasm, revived in her worship the ancient traditions of the drama. The germs of the so-called Mysteries and Miracle-plays were developed in the dramatic arrangement of music, tableau, and pantomime in the sacred mass. Thus the source, both of the ancient and the modern drama, is found in the idea of worship. The marvellous development of the English drama during the age of Elizabeth, and in France under Louis XIV., brought with the dramatic poets profes- sional actors. As in ancient Greece, poet and actor were at first one, — Shakspere and Moliere appeared on the stage as members of their own dramatis per- sonce. The guilds often formed rude dramatic com- panies ; the child choristers of various royal chapels were also utilized as players, until at last Queen Elizabeth and her courtiers attained to their own professional players, under a " Master of the Revels." Plays were also studied and acted at the great uni- 16 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. versities. As early as 1612, Thomas Hey wood gives, in his " Apology for Actors," an estimate of the value of such histrionic training to the undergraduate students. "I, in Cambridge, have seen tragedies, comedies, histories, and shews publicly acted by graduates. It teacheth audacity to the bashful gram- marian, makes him a bold sophister. To come to Rhetoric : it not only emboldens a scholar to speak, but instructs him to speak well and with judgment ; to observe his commas, colons, and full points, his parentheses, his breathing spaces and distinctions ; to keep a decorum in his countenance, neither to frown when he should smile, nor to make unseemly and dis- guised faces in the delivery of his words ; nor to stare with his eyes, draw awry his mouth, confound his voice in the hollow of his throat, or tear his words hastily betwixt his teeth ; neither to buffet his desk like a madman, nor stand in his place like a lifeless image, demurely plodding, and without any smooth and formal motion. It instructs him to fit his phrases to his action, and his action to his phrase, and his pronunciation to them both." It is apparent that Heywood, like Cicero and Demosthenes, knew what the actor and orator might learn from each other. Their study of the art of speaking must, up to a certain point, be identical. In Hamlet's direc- tions to the players (Act III., sc. 2), Shakspere gives his own summary of tne requirements for good HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING. 17 acting, in speech and in pantomime. Hamlet implies that the art, even then, was sadly in need of reform. The history of English dramatic elocution may be traced in a succession of great names. Even before Shakspere left the stage we read of the famous Burbage and the fascinating Tarleton. Betterton was the great actor of the Restoration, while Garrick and Mrs. Siddons made the eighteenth century the golden age of acting in England. The nineteenth century, however, adds no mean names to the record, — Henry Irving and Ellen Terry in England, Edwin Booth, Joseph Jefferson, and Charlotte Cushman in America. In any comparison of ancient and modern acting, one must recognize the vast change in thought brought about by Christianity. Man, in Shak- spere's day, was no longer the creature of the gods, rewarded or punished by Fate, but a free agent work- ing out his own destiny. Shakspere stated the new law of life when he made Cassius say, that man's fate was not in his star, but in himself. In other words, the interest of the new drama was centred in character and its various manifestations. To inter- pret all the shades and contrasts of character, with the variety of situation involved in such dramatic themes, must tax to the uttermost the genius and skill of the actor. His elocution and pantomime must show far greater delicacy and subtlety than that of 18 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. the ancient actor. As the theatres were small and enclosed, less power of voice, with more flexible decla- mation, was required. With this necessity for careful training, the Eng- lish genius has never recognized the need of a sys- tematic school for actors. It is true that the custom prevailed in the early history of the stage for a lead- ing actor to take a number of apprentices. But the art has relied chiefly upon its oral traditions, which have been handed down hap-hazard from one genera- tion of actorg to another. It has thus often hap- pened that English actors have never unlearned their own eccentricities, and in some cases the defects of genius have been copied as excellences by servile imitators. While it is folly to suppose that genius should reproduce itself, it has been proved in France that the great actors of the national theatre have had a direct influence in " forming " their successors. While the English stage can boast quite as many "names to conjure with" as the French, unquestion- ably the general standard of excellence in the pro- fession is lower in England than in France. There the art has been systematically taught for nearly two centuries. The Theatre Frangais was rooted in a school as early as 1784, when the " National Conser- vatory of Declamation" was founded. The conditions of modern life have modified the art of oratory as well as that of the stage. Aristotle HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING. 19 said that there were three instruments of Rhetoric: (1) the ethical, (2) the pathetic, (3) the logical. It is said that ancient orators, before Aristotle, used most freely the element of pathos ; that is, they did not hesitate to appeal, often unscrupulously, to the emotions of the crowd. Modern orators, especially those of Teutonic descent, limit themselves, says the same authority, to the effects of logic ; that is, they move by the power of the syllogism rather than by an appeal to the feelings. These limitations of modern eloquence refer particularly to the oratory of politics or of the courts. In parliamentary assem- blies the delivery of a speech is often a mere form, its value depending upon the accuracy with which it is " reported " in the newspapers for the speaker's " constituents." Under such conditions excellence of delivery must be of less importance than accu- racy and power of thought. Eloquence thus loses its original meaning ; it is no longer vocal but literary. This ascendency of literary eloquence over the ars dicendi represents, perhaps, the most re- cent state of the art. At the close of the last and in the beginning of the present century, England, France, and America produced notable orators. The mighty question of the social rights of man, which was then making the history of the three peoples, must needs produce its advocates. The names of Mirabeau, Burke, and Webster stand for the cause of 20 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. liberty. Mr. Gladstone's glowing eloquence has been called out by every vital theme, and is one more proof of the superiority of the speaking man to his printed page, even in this age of newspapers. The later struggles for liberty in America pro- duced Sumner and Phillips. These men were self- taught speakers. Wendell Phillips said that the secret of his power was " the burning love of truth that must come out." The greatest opportunity of the modern orator, the pulpit, has in recent times been shamefully neglected or misused. That there are grave errors in the teach- ing of Elocution is apparent from the unmannerly reading of devotional hymns, and the uncouth eccen- tricities of most pulpit-elocution. Nevertheless, one must not forget the noble pulpit-oratory of John Henry Newman in England, and of Henry Ward Beecher in America. They represent two distinct types of oratory, yet they both knew how to move men. The history of the art of speaking would be incom- plete without some reference to its colloquial prac- tice. The best British talkers of our own day, men like Mr. Gladstone, Mr. Goschen, Matthew Arnold, Robert Browning, have succeeded in keeping that happy balance of dignity which has been described as " knowing how to be easy without being free and easy." This apparently unstudied eloquence of the HISTORY OF THE ART OF SPEAKING. 21 drawing-room and the club is the result of thorough culture and consummate art. The " accent of a gentle- man," which characterizes high-bred English speech, is the result of long and careful training. Unfortu- nately in America it is often neglected, even in fam- ilies of education and culture. We have seen how laboriously the ancients discov- ered the laws of effective speech, and how studiously they applied these laws. In modern times we exalt the theme, and ignore the means of ably presenting it ; and this when the art of Elocution rests upon a scien- tific basis utterly unknown to the ancient world. Instinct and enthusiasm should be tutored by art, in order to make the platform, the pulpit, and the thea- tre worthy of the noble traditions of the past. 22 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. II. ELOCUTION -VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. Definition. — We have followed, in the Introduc- tion, the history of the art of speaking, under the various forms of oratory, dramatic declamation, elo- quence, elocution, from the Acropolis of Athens to the drawing-rooms of America. In treating of the art, we shall adopt the word elocution as best suited to our purpose: it is simply the Latin ars dicendi (the art of speaking) applied either to professional or to colloquial speech. The art of speaking, as used by the ancients, in- cluded the perfect use of the voice and of the whole body as instruments for the expression of the highest forms of thought. Speech and Action — Elocution and Pantomime — were then, as now, the special subjects to be studied by the artistic speaker. The ancient teachers also insisted upon a liberal education of mind and character as a part of the preparation for effective speaking. Though Rhetoric, Elocution, and Pantomime are so intimately associated, each subject must now receive separate and special treatment. Rhetoric has already been specialized, though the art of Pantomime has, until lately, never VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 23 received adequate and expert attention. The art of Pantomime does not belong exclusively to the pro- fession of Acting. This popular superstition has done much harm to the art of speaking. A knowledge of the laws of facial expression, of attitude, and of ges- ture — the pantomime of the whole body — is equally essential for the actor, the preacher, and the talker. As has been ably said, " The body is a house of many windows ; there we all sit showing ourselves and crying on the passers-by to come and love us." No man or woman is completely cultivated unless he knows how to use his body as an instrument perfectly attuned to the " cries " of the mind and the soul. The study of the principles and practice of Pantomime should therefore accompany the study of Elocution. Subdivisions of the Subject of Elocution. — Elocution, in its restricted sense, must deal with the voice from several points of view, — the physiological, the phy- sical, the psychological. The voice is a part of our physiological structure ; it is also a tone-producing instrument ; it is, as articulate speech, the direct ex- ponent of thought ; and, as musical sound, the accu- rate registrar of emotion. Vocal Physiology. — The first lesson in Elocution must then be a brief study in vocal physiology. The parts of the body concerned in speech are : The Head, The Throat, The Chest. 24 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. The chest deals directly with respiration, the throat with vocalization, the head with articulation. In the three processes of respiration, vocalization, and articu- lation are embodied respectively the body, the soul, and the mind of speech. The Chest. — The organs of the chest concerned in respiration are : — Diaphragm, Costal and Dorsal Muscles, Lungs, Bronchial Tubes. Chest. The diaphragm is a powerful but elastic muscle which forms the floor of the chest ; the dorsal muscles form the back, while the costal muscles make the front and sides of the chest. Within these walls of the chest, which are supported by the bony frame- work of spine and ribs, are the lungs with their air-cells. The lungs are penetrated by many rami- fications of the bronchial tubes, which unite above to form the wind-pipe, or trachea. The Throat. — The organs of the throat concerned in vocalization are : — Trachea, Throat. < Larynx, Pharynx. Vocal Cords, Cartilages, Glottis. ( Thyroid, < Cricoid, ( Arytenoid. VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 25 The trachea is a tube composed of a series of car- tilaginous rings. It forms the connecting link be- DIAGRAM OF THE ORGANS OF SPEECH. (From Bell's " Visible Speech.") The Larynx. 5. The Back of the Tongue. The Pharvnx. 6. The Front of the Tongue. The Soft Palate. 7. The Point of the Tongue. The action of the Soft Palate in 8. The Lips, closing the Nasal Passage. 9. Hard Palate. tween the chest and throat. The larynx is situated at the top of the trachea, or wind-pipe, and is, in fact, an expansion of this cartilaginous tube. The larynx 26 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. is somewhat triangular in shape, being outlined in front by the acute angle of the thyroid, or shield- shaped cartilage, and at the back by the cricoid, or seal-ring-shaped cartilage. From the angle of the thyroid cartilage to the cricoid cartilage are stretched two parallel cartilaginous bands known as the vocal cords or ligaments. These ligaments are attached to the cricoid cartilage by two little cartilages called the arytenoid or pyramidal-shaped cartilages. The opening between the cords is called the glottis. The epiglottis is a leaf-shaped cartilage situated at the upper part of the larynx ; to its base is attached the root of the tongue. The pharynx is a chamber having fleshy walls, and situated directly over the larynx, with openings into the mouth and nasal pas- sages. The anatomy and physiology of the larynx are very complex and delicate. Only the details necessary for an intelligent use of the organ are given here. (See diagram on page 25.) The Head. — The parts of the head which are directly concerned in speech are : — (Tongue, Pafate i The S ° ft Pakte ' Li ' ( The Hard Palate (roof of the mouth). v Nose. (See Diagram.) Respiration. — It may seem superfluous to describe the process of respiration, which we have all been VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 27 practising, by the action of involuntary muscles, since the day of birth. But as artistic respiration, unlike mere vital inhalation and exhalation, is a distinctly voluntary process, it must be carefully understood and deliberately practised. Without such practice, beauty of voice and elegance of articulation are im- possible. The air which is inhaled by the speaker through the nose and mouth, descends through the pharynx, larynx, and wind-pipe to the lungs. The dilation of the air-cells with the in-rushing of the air is accomplished by the simultaneous expansion of the diaphragm, costal and dorsal muscles. As the lungs are filled with air, the diaphragm descends to its low- est position, and the muscular walls of the chest are distended. With the impulse to speak, the diaphragm rises towards its normal position, the walls slowly relax their tension, until, when the air is entirely ex- pelled, diaphragm, costal and dorsal muscles attain their normal position. There is always a residue of so-called vital breath in the lungs, even after the most exhaustive artistic use of breath. Vocalization. — The column of air expelled from the lungs strikes the vocal cords. This stroke of the confined air, assisted by the muscles of the larynx, causes a vibration of the vocal ligaments, which pro- duces a musical tone. The varying tension and relaxation of the cords, together with the vibration of the air in the different chambers of the throat and 28 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. head, produce an infinite number of changes in the key and force of tone. It is evident that the human voice partakes of the nature of both a wind and a stringed or reed instrument. But the adjustments are so flue as to make possible the effects of both instruments, — effects which are impossible in the orchestra. A flute must always remain a flute ; an organ, an organ ; a violin, a violin. In the human voice, one can produce the tone-colors of all these instruments, wonderfully blended or contrasted. The pharynx and certain parts of the larynx, the mouth and the nose, form a series of resonators, or sounding- boards, for the voice. These cavities both multiply and shape the vibrations, thus regulating the power and the quality of the voice. As the walls of the pharynx are elastic, it is particularly adapted to the moulding of tone. Articulation. — As the tone issues from the pharynx, it is shaped by the mouth and nose into definite vowel forms, or it is cast into consonants by the rapid closing and opening of the tongue, teeth, palate, or lips. While studying in detail the pro- cesses of respiration, vocalization, and articulation, the student should remember that in practice, the action of the physical mechanism is an almost in- stantaneous and simultaneous response to the dictum of the brain. Respiration in its Relation to Speech. — The different VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 29 varieties of artistic respiration may be classified as follows : — ! Vocal, Logical, Emotional. Vocal respiration is a controlled and measured use of the breath for the purpose of producing beauty and power of tone. In correct vocal respiration, the words seem poised on the column of breath. The steady, measured flow of air forms and sustains the succession of vowels and consonants. A good illus- tration is found in the following description of the " Summer of All-Saints " in Acadia : — " Filled was the air with a dreamy and magical light; and the landscape Lay as if new created in all the freshness of childhood. Peace seemed to reign upon earth ; and the restless heart of the ocean Was for a moment consoled. " Evangeline : Longfellow. Logical respiration is respiration used to aid in the interpretation of thought. The pauses for breath in the delivery of a sentence must be so arranged as to help rather than hinder the expression of the ideas. Sometimes it will not be necessary to take breath at every rhetorical pause, but the sustaining of breath throughout a series of short phrases requires as much skill as the measured exhalation of breath for a long 30 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. phrase. The skilful reader will supply himself with breath for a long phrase or a short phrase, according to the grouping of words in the sentence. The logi- cal pause and the logical respiration are evidently closely associated. But as the study of pause be- longs more accurately to the subject of Time, it will be treated more fully under that topic. " And this is what the Koman Church does for religion, feeding the soul not with the essential religious sentiment, not with a drop of the tincture of worship, but making us feel, one by one, all those original elements of which worship is composed.' ' Fireside Travels : James Kussell Lowell. Emotional respiration is such an artistic use of in- halation, suspension, or exhalation of breath as to convey emotion. Thus, calm, labored, or spasmodic respiration may suggest different states of mind. A deliberate and audible inhalation is indicative of en- durance, either enforced or heroic. Enforced endur- ance is shown in Cassius's respiration as he exclaims to Brutus (Act IV., 3) : — " O ye gods, ye gods ! Must I endure all this ? " Julius Ccesar. Heroic endurance is implied in Macbeth's respira- tion as he cries out : — " I'll fight till from my bones my flesh be hack'd. Give me my armor." Macbeth, Act V., 4. A prolonged exhalation suggests an element of confidence or affection : — VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 31 Hamlet. — " Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio ; A fellow of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy." Hamlet , Y., 1. A deliberate holding of breath suggests surprise, reticence, or controlled emotion : — " She clos'd the door; she panted, all akin To spirits of the air, and visions wide : No uttered syllable, or, woe betide!" Eve of St. Agnes : Keats. The whisper is the simplest form of speech. As the air issues from the trachea, it passes through the glottis (the vocal cords remain relaxed) into the pharynx and thence into the mouth, where it is articulated. As there is no vibration of the vocal cords, a strong and well-governed supply of breath is necessary in order to make the whisper audible. The use of the whisper is, therefore, an excellent exercise for students. The preceding examples of the different kinds of respiration may be practised first in a whisper. Preliminary Exercises in Respiration. — 1. Slow inha- lation, suspension, and exhalation of breath ; syllables sh and buzz. 2. Quick but thorough inhalation, as in speaking or singing, suspension of breath, and slow exhalation ; the same syllables. Repeat each exercise several times with care. Use the exclamations Push! Pull! Puff! with different kinds of energy, first in a whisper, then aloud. 32 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. Simple pantomime may accompany each utterance. Thus, while speaking the word, push a chair steadily and slowly across the room, or lift a weight in each hand from the horizontal to the perpendicular. The objects may be real or imaginary, but the action should be definite. Pull a bell by a rope attached to the clapper, with vigorous inhalation and explosive utter- ance of the word " Pull ! " Keep a feather floating in the air, or blow a soap-bubble gently and keep it suspended in the air by careful and quiet exhalation, saying again and again, " -Puff, puff! " " Toss " and " Catch " may also be used. One student may toss an imaginary ball to another student at the opposite side of the room. The word should be suited to the action. Sentences should be read at sight by one member of the class to the others, as a test of his correct use of respiration. Vocalization in its Relation to Speech. — In theory, the acts of vocalization and of articulation are distinct processes, but, in practice, they are so intimately asso- ciated that it is difficult to treat them separately. In both processes we are dealing with the elements of speech, — vowels and consonants. Philologists agree that the first vocal utterances of man were probably vowels. Thus, such exclamations as Oh ! Ah ! Ugh ! may be made expressive of many primitive material wants by a very simple vocal process. Short u (as in tub) in English has been called the "natural vowel," VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 33 because it is produced by the easiest opening of the mouth and pharynx, with the vibration of the vocal cords. The consonants are the result of a much more elaborate mental and physical action than the vowels. Professor Bell classifies the elements of spoken language as Vowels, Glides, and Consonants or Articu- lations. A Vowel, scientifically speaking, is a musical tone produced in the larynx, and fixed in form by the shape of the mouth. A Vowel retains its form through- out its duration ; as a in f a-ther. A Glide is a transition from one Vowel form to an- other during the same impulse of breath; as a in ba-ne. BelPs Table of English Vowels and Glides. — The sounds are numbered for convenience, as in English the same sound is often represented by several different com- binations of letters : — 1. eel. 7. ask. 12. pull. 2. ill. 8. ah. 13. pool. 3-1. ale. 9. up. 8-1. isle. 4. ell. 10. all. 8-13. owl. 5. an. 11. ore. 11-1. oil. 6. earl. 11- -13. pole. 2-13. tube. " The vowels ee (1), ah (8), and oo (13)," says Professor Bell, " are the extremes of the natural vowel scale." Preliminary Exercises in Vocalization. — It is desirable to practise the notes of speech first on the simplest 34 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. open vowel sounds, such as ah, uh, awe. All students who can discriminate note from note should practise these vowels with the musical scale. Even those who have very little " ear" can usually make at least three notes with the correct intervals. 1. Uh, Ah, Awe. Beginning with B-flat (below middle C on the piano) sing first three, then five, then eight notes up and down the scale. Utter the notes with a light " staccato," first with an inhalation before each note, then with one inhalation for the groups of three, five, or eight notes. 2. After the " staccato " practice, sustain the vowel sounds with a prolonged " legato," taking breath be- fore each vowel. 3. Use the words, push, pull, and puff, prolonging the vowels, first from E-flat downwards, then rapidly, and " staccato" downwards to B-flat, and upwards to E-flat. 4. Chant such expressions as Move slowly, Walk quietly, Stand firmly, Step lightly, on the four notes mentioned. 5. Speak the same words, bearing in mind the dif- ferent keys used, while retaining the inflections of speech. 6. Continue the exercise of chanting, on long sen- tences, grouping the words according to the require- ments of logical respiration. Thus (to be first intoned, then read) : — VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 35 11 Spirits of the Bells. . . . They take such shapes and occupa- tions as the hopes and thoughts of mortals, and the recollections they have stored up, give them." The Chimes: Dickens. Articulation in its Relation to Speech. — A Consonant, or, more strictly, an Articulation, is an emission of breath or voice (oral or nasal) which is obstructed for an instant at some fixed point in the mouth. The Articulation (Consonant) is composed of two parts, says Professor Bell, a position followed by an action. The firm holding of the position and the prompt relaxation of the hold are equally essential for distinct and elegant articulation. Bell's Table of English Articulations (Consonants). BREATH. VOICE. , A X Oral. Nasal. Pan Ban Man When Wan Fan Van Thin Then Sin Zinc Shun Zh (vision) Church J (judge) X (extend) X (exist) Tin Din Nun R L Hew Yew King, Queen Gun Ng (song) The utterance of a consonant is evidently a more complicated process than the formation of a simple vowel. It is said that the characteristic cries of ani- mals are vowel sounds unaccompanied by consonants. 36 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. Thus the B-a-a-a of the sheep is, to the accurate lis- tener, merely A-a-a-h. The formation of B is too complex an act for the mind and mouth of the sheep. The parrot and certain rare birds can acquire by imitation some of the articulations, but they cannot be said to use intelligently articulate speech. The vowels represent the blood, the consonants the bones of speech, says Richard Grant White. In other words y the vowels are pre-eminently the sensuous, the consonants the intellectual, elements of speech. It is possible to construct a scale representing the relative values of the vowels and the consonants. As in the spectrum of colors every hue is blended perfectly from violet to red, so in speech we pass imperceptibly from the penetrating, incisive e, through the sympathetic #A, to the impassioned or heroic o and oo. In the scale of consonants we recognize at one extreme the " keen-cut, thoughtful p and £, and at the other, the explosive, guttural, pas- sionate &." The poets and skilled prose-writers are masters in their selection of the vowels and conso- nants whose sound is most closely fitted to the sense. Indeed, the arrangement of the tone-colors of vowels and consonants constitutes a large part of the tech- nique of poetry. The timbre of the notes of speech will be considered more fully under Quality of Voice. Pronunciation. — In grouping the elements of speech into syllables and words, mere dictionary markings VOCAL PHYSIOLOGY. 37 should not be taken as the final authority for accent or utterance. The only absolute guide for the pro- nunciation of a living language is the usage of the cultivated classes. In England, those classes are tol- erably well defined; namely, the professors in the universities, men of letters, the clergy, and the nobil- ity. In France, the Academy and the Theatre Fran§ais fix the standards of pronunciation. In America, we have no definite canon of usage. It is perhaps safe to say, however, that, in the larger cities, representatives of the clerical and the legal professions, men of letters and college professors, may be trusted to establish best usage in pronunciation. In order to secure an elegant pronunciation, all provincialisms must be absolutely abandoned. Un- accented syllables should be carefully uttered — not with pedantic nicety, however; the vowels should be given their correct sound, though they should some- times be slightly obscured in colloquial speech ; the consonants should be accurately but lightly sounded. The Century Dictionary has adopted an ingenious system of marking to distinguish authorized collo- quial, from more formal, pronunciation. Preliminary Exercises in Articulation and Pronunciation. — 1. Practise the exact position and action of every consonant. 2. Practise difficult combinations of words and con- sonants, (1) in a whisper, (2) audibly. 38 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. 3. Poetical use of vowels and consonants. " Fountains, and ye that warble as ye flow, Melodious murmurs, warbling tune his praise." Paradise Lost : Milton. " The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, The swallow twittering from her straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." Elegy: Gray. " All these and thousand thousands many more, And more deformed monsters thousand fold, With dreadful noise and hollow, rombling sound Came rushing." The Faerie Queene ; Spenser. PITCH. 39 III. PITCH. The physical properties of tone are : — ( Pitch, Tone. < Force, ( Quality. In the consideration of the voice, as used in speaking, the element of Time must also be treated. Pitch of sound, whether produced by the voice or by any other instrument, depends upon the rapidity of vibrations, force upon the amplitude, quality upon the form of vibrations. In the human voice, pitch is regulated chiefly by the lengthening and shortening of the glottis, with the elasticity of the vocal cords. The supply of breath must be accurately adjusted to the notes of the musical scale. Thus, the lower notes, produced by fewer vibrations per second, require less breath than the upper notes. The musical scale is used for convenience of practice in speaking, though the actual intervals of speech are much shorter than those of singing. Sidney Lanier, who was both poet and musician, declares that, in the gamut of speech, 40 A TEXT-BOOK OF ELOCUTION. it is possible to detect at least nine tones in the inter- val called in music a " whole tone." Thus the effect of greater extremes of pitch is gained by a narrower range of notes than in singing. The octave divided by middle C on the piano will