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FARM WINDBREAKS AND 
 
 SHELTER-BELTS 
 
 THEIR FORMATION AND CARE. 
 
 BY 
 SAMUEL B. GREEN, 
 
 Professor of Horticulture and Forestry in the University of Minne- 
 sota; Author of Amateur Fruit Growing, Vegetable Gardening, 
 Forestry in Minnesota, Principles of American Forestry, etc. 
 
 Published by 
 WEBB PUBLISHING CO. 
 St. Paul, Minn. 
 1906. 
 
 Copyrig-ht, ir.Oi;, by Samuel B. Green. 
 
LIBRARY otCONGStSS 
 One Copy RKCrivcd 
 
 AUG 6J906 
 
 Ci.u#ii«m tony 
 COPY 8. ' 
 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 This little book on ''Farm Wind-breaks and Shelter- 
 belts" is prepared in response to a call for a simple man- 
 ual on this subject adapted to our western conditions. 
 It is made up largely from matter that has appeared in 
 articles that I have written at various times for my 
 classes in the school and college of Agriculture. 
 SAMUEL B. GREEN, 
 
 College of Agriculture, 
 April 25, 1906. University of Minnesota. 
 
FARM WIND-BREAKS AND SHELTER- 
 BELTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PRAIRIE PLANTING. 
 
 Whatever the ulterior object of prairie planting, the sub- 
 ject of protection to the buildings, their occupants and the cat- 
 tle m the field should always be first considered. Our crops 
 m this section are most liable to injury from the southwest 
 wind of the summer, which dries them out, and the northwest 
 wind of winter, which blows the snow from the land caus- 
 ing It to lose the snow water. It also causes a loss of evapora- 
 tion, which goes on even in winter from the bare ground and 
 from exposed crops, causing them to winter-kill. The same 
 winds are also the most uncomfortable to the occupants of 
 farm buildings, and are most likely to cause dust storms, 
 which should be especially guarded against. 
 
 Windbreak is a general name given to anything that gives 
 protection from the wind. On the prairies it is often applied 
 to a single row of trees planted for protection. 
 
 Shelterbelt is a term often used to signify several or a 
 large number of rows of trees, but the term is often used inter- 
 changeably with windbreak. 
 
 Grove is a term that refers to comparatively large bodies 
 of trees which may be planted for shelter, fuel or other pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Protection to Buildings may be furnished by a few rows or 
 a grove of trees. It is generally best to locate the buildings 
 m a grove, or grow one up around them, so that protection 
 may be afforded from every quarter to the best advantage 
 The garden should also be included in the grove or shelterbelt 
 about the buildings. 
 
 Distance of the Trees from the Buildings and Roadways. 
 Of whatever the protection consists, it should not be close 
 
2 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 to the buildings or to any paths which are used in winter, for 
 the snow drifts which always form to the leeward of such pro- 
 tection may become a great nuisance under such circumstan- 
 ces during winters of great snowfall. The windbreak had bet- 
 ter be placed about one hundred feet back from the buildings, 
 and if shade is wanted it can be obtained from scattered trees 
 near the buildings, which will not drift the snow. The same 
 rule applies to the planting of trees on the north side of a 
 roadway. The drifts of snow which would be formed to the 
 leeward of a windbreak so planted would take longer to thaw 
 in the spring, and would keep the road muddy and in poor 
 condition after those that were not protected had become dry 
 and firm. A row of trees is very appropriate by the side of a 
 street or roadway and affords a pleasant shade, and if not 
 planted too closely together will not drift the snow sufficiently 
 to be an objection. 
 
 Protection to Crops by Windbreaks. The objection to 
 windbreaks close to driveways may also be made against their 
 use in fields, for they often keep the land for a short distance 
 to leeward wet and in unfit condition to work after the rest 
 of the field has become dry. This is an objection where spring 
 grains are grown, but to winter grains it is an advantage. On 
 the other hand, the protection of a windbreak may give a 
 much needed or beneficial covering of snow to crops on the 
 leeward side. The protection from dust storms and drying 
 winds has already been mentioned. The important question 
 is how to get the advantages without the disadvantages. In 
 many sections the disadvantage of having snow linger on the 
 field near the windbreak m-ay be overcome by leaving a strip 
 of land near it in permanent meadow, or use it for a rotation 
 that does not take in crops that require very early planting. 
 But even with spring-planted grains it is more than probable 
 that windbreaks properly planted are an advantage when 
 their benefits are considered for a series of years. It 
 ofttimes happens that low windbreaks are more beneficial than 
 high windbreaks in holding the snow on the land, for the high 
 windbreaks often form. a great drift that may remain late in 
 the spring, while the low windbreak nowhere forms a largo 
 drift, but spreads the snow for long distances. Professor 
 Budd says that in parts of the great continental plain of Rus- 
 sia, where the climatic changes are much the same as in this 
 
PRAIRIE PLANTING. 3 
 
 section, the use of low windbreaks in wheat fields is very 
 common. * 
 
 Height of Windbreak. From the preceding paragraph it 
 will be seen that low windbreaks may often serve a better 
 purpose than high ones in protectiftg fields. Exactly what is 
 meant by a low v/indbreak may be an open question, but for 
 the purposes of this discussion a low windbreak may be con- 
 sidered one under twenty feet in height. In Russia and at the 
 experiment station at Indian Head, Manitoba, windbreaks of 
 Artemisia toboiksiana, which seldom grows more than eight 
 feet high, are often used. About farm buildings windbreaks 
 cannot be too high, and for this purpose the largest, longest- 
 lived trees should be used. 
 
 Kinds of Trees for a Windbreak. In too many instances 
 too many tree planters on the prairies have put out exclusive- 
 ly quick-growing, short-lived trees, such as the Cottonwood 
 and Lombardy Poplar, and after fifteen or twenty years they 
 have found their trees dying and nothing coming on to take 
 their places. The quick-growing kinds are very desirable as 
 a protection for the near future, but they are often short lived 
 and should never be planted alone. Among them should be 
 planted a suflicient number of long-lived and perhaps slower- 
 growing kinds, to afford protection in later years, when the 
 short-lived kinds have died out. The soil and location have 
 much to do in determining the longevity of varieties; for in- 
 stance, the Cottonwood and Lombardy Poplar are generally 
 short-lived trees when planted in this section, but when plant- 
 ed in locations where their roots reach the permanent water 
 level their period of life may be considerably lengthened, and 
 they may then even be regarded as long-lived trees. 
 
 In starting a grove or windbreak on the prairie in this 
 section, there is probably no better tree to begin with than 
 the White Willow. It is quick-growing, rather long-lived in 
 most situations, makes good summer fuel and renews itself 
 very rapidly from the stump. The Green Ash would probably 
 rank next as a pioneer tree. The White Elm is also very 
 valuable for this purpose, but generally should follow the 
 White Willow. The Cottonwood may sometimes, though very 
 seldom, be the best to use, but on average prairie land it 
 would be better if the White Willow or Green Ash were al- 
 ways planted instead. 
 
4 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 After a good windbreak has been secured it is safe to 
 plant out the hardy coniferous evergreens and such trees as 
 the Mountain Ash, European White Birch and other similar 
 ornamental trees. Wind protection is beneficial to all trees 
 and necessary for many of our best ornamental kinds and 
 often makes the difference between success and failure in 
 growing them. 
 
 Distance Apart. In the planting of groves we should aim 
 to get the land shaded by the trees as soon as practicable, and 
 to keep it covered with a canopy of leaves. The United 
 States gevernment recommended the planting of trees four 
 feet apart each way, with the idea that when so planted they 
 would quickly shade the ground and consequently keep out 
 grass and retard evaporation. Some successful plantings have 
 been made on this plan, but when planted so closely together 
 the branches grow into the rows after a few years and cultiva- 
 tion must be discontinued. In this section, where we have 
 so much very bright, sunshiny weather that grass can grow 
 under foliage that would kill it out in a more humid climate, 
 we find that trees planted four feet apart each way seldom 
 afford sufficient shade to kill the grass under them for many 
 years. This is especially true of such trees as the Cotton- 
 wood, Lombardy Poplar and White Elm when planted alone, 
 as they have open foliage that does not furnish a dense shade. 
 Among tree planters who have had a large experience in 
 prairie planting, there has been a tendency of late years to 
 plant two feet apart in rows eight feet apart, and some of our 
 most successful planters prefer even more room than this be- 
 tween the rows. When plantings are made 2x8 feet the same 
 num-ber of trees are required for an acre as when planted 4x4 
 feet, but the former distance has the advantage over the lat- 
 ter in that the space between the rows can be cultivated for 
 perhaps ten years or more, by which time most trees will 
 have formed a dense shade and be able to take care of them- 
 selves. Where a much greater distance than eight feet is 
 allowed between the rows we generally fail to get forest con- 
 ditions for many years, and to that extent fall short of an im- 
 portant requisite in prairie planting. The distances given 
 here might need to be modified to suit different varieties and 
 local climatic conditions. 
 
 Clear Plantings. Most of the plantings on our prairies 
 
PRAIRIE PLANTING. 
 
 consist wholly of one kind. In some cases good results ar.e 
 thus obtained, but they are seldom as satisfactory as plantings 
 made up of several different kinds. One of the greatest draw- 
 backs to plantings made up entirely of one kind is the fact 
 that drouth, insects or fungous disease ifiay destroy the whole 
 planting at one time, while in a judiciously mixed planting 
 this could hardly occur. 
 
 Mixed Plantings, when properly made, have the following 
 advantages: (1) They make possible the growing of species 
 that form a protection in the least possible time, and still 
 have coming on in the came grove longer-lived and better 
 kinds to take their places. (2) Many kinds that are some- 
 
 Fig 1. A good tree claim in Minnesota near the Dakota line. 
 Located on high prairie. Soil very dry. 
 
 what tender are helped very much by being grown among the 
 hardier kinds until well established. In this case the protect- 
 ing trees are called nurse trees. The Scotch Pine is seldom a 
 success when standing alone on our Western prairies, but when 
 partially protected by some deciduous tree it stands very well. 
 The sam.e is generally true of Hard Maple in this section and 
 of Catalpa and Bl^.ck Walnut in Southern Minnesota. (3) In 
 good mixed plantings the ground is more likely to be properly 
 shaded and protected from winds than it would be in clear 
 
6 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 plantings of such thinly-leafed species as the Cottonwood or 
 White Elm, which do well and afford good shade when mixed 
 with Green Ash or Boxelder. (4) Mixed plantings are most 
 interesting and ornamental. (5) They attract more birds 
 by their better protection and the greater variety of food of- 
 fered. (6) While the chance of injury to some oif the species 
 by climatic changes, diseases and insects is increased, the 
 possibility of total loss from any or all of these causes is re- 
 duced to the minimum. 
 
 The Most Important Constituent of a Prairie Grove of 
 mixed trees in this section should be some well-known dura- 
 ble kind, as the Elm, Ash or Boxelder, of which there should 
 be a sufficient number to completely shade the ground when 
 the others are gone. On the outside, especially on the north 
 and west, it is often a good plan to put at least a few rows of 
 White Willow or possibly Cottonwood to furnish a quick pro- 
 tection. The rest of the grove should consist of hardy sorts, 
 and may include some of the evergreens and such fruit-bearing 
 trees or shrubs as the Wild Plum, Wild Black Cherry, Russian 
 Mulberry and Juneberry. These latter furnish food for the 
 birds and may often be a help in supplying the home table. 
 The plan of planting with a view of providing some food for 
 birds is not mere sentiment, for they protect our gardens from 
 many insects, and if we furnish an abundance of Russian Mul- 
 berry they will not trespass much on our strawberries or rasp- 
 berries. It is the author's opinion that in all our prairie plant- 
 ing we should pay more attention to using our native fruits 
 and Russian Mulberry as plants of secondary importance. 
 
 List of Trees for Mixed Plantings. Some suggestions 
 may be found in the following lists, but several other trees 
 might often be used to give a varety or a tasteful display. 
 
 For Porous, Moist Soils in Southern Minnesota and Simi- 
 lar Situations Elsewhere. White Elm, Black Walnut, Green 
 Ash and Hard Maple in equal quantities with a scattering of 
 the fruit plants. The Hackberry may wholly or in part take 
 the place of the White Elm, and the Boxelder the place of 
 the Green Ash. The White Willow, Basswood and Soft Maple 
 would also do well in such a location. One of the main kinds 
 might be replaced by the White or Norway Spruce, Douglas 
 Fir or White Pine. In fact such land as this will grow any 
 of the trees adapted to this section. 
 
PRAIRIE PLANTING. 7 
 
 For High Prairie Soiig in Southern iViinnesota and Simi- 
 lar Situations Elsewhere. Green Ash, Boxelder, White Elm 
 and White Willow in equal quantities, wich scattering of fruit 
 plants. Basswood might be used to^a limited extent, and 
 White Spruce, Red Cedar, Norway Pine, White Pine or Scotch 
 Pine might be used in the place of one of the main kinds. 
 
 For IVIoist, Porous Prairie Soils in Northern IViinnesota 
 and Similar Situations Elsewhere. White Willow, White Elm, 
 Boxelder, Basswood and Green Ash in equal quantities, with a 
 scattering of fruit plants. In some localities it might be best 
 to use Cottonwood on the outside of the grove. Hackberry 
 might take the place of part of the White Elm and White 
 Spruce. Arborvitae, Norway Pine, Red Cedar, and some other 
 conifers might be used to a limited extent. 
 
 For High Prairie Soils in Northern Minnesota and Simi- 
 lar Situations Elsewhere. Cottonwood, White Willow, Boxel- 
 der and White Elm in equal quantities, with a scattering of 
 fruit plants. White Spruce and native Red Cedar might also 
 be used in a small way. 
 
 Lists of trees commonly planted, arranged in the order of 
 their hardiness: Deciduous trees — Green Ash, White Willow, 
 White Elm, Boxelder, Bassv/ood, White Poplar, Hackberry, 
 Soft Maple, Canoe Birch and Yellow Locust. Evergreen trees 
 — Red Cedar, Dwarf Mountain Pine, Jack Pine, Bull Pine, 
 White Spruce, Austrian Pine. Scotch Pine, Douglas Spruce, 
 Norway Pine, Norway Spruce and White Pine. 
 
 Size of Trees. In the case of deciduous trees it is general- 
 ly best to start with one year old thrifty seedlings, although 
 trees two years old may often be used to advantage. The 
 Oak, Walnut and similar trees are better started from seeds 
 where they are to remain, and the White Willow should be 
 started from cuttings. Seedling Elm, Ash and Cottonwood may 
 often be pulled from some river bank or lake shore, or 
 bought of nursery men at a very low figure, or they may be 
 raised from the seeds. White Willow cuttings can generally 
 be obtained from some neighbor or from nurseries. In the 
 case of conifers, transplanted seedlings should be used. What- 
 ever the source of any stock that is to be planted, it should be 
 thrifty and vigorous and not weak or diseased. 
 
 Methods of Planting. The methods used in prairie plant- 
 ing are much the same as for transplanting in the nursery. 
 
8 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 In every case much pains should be taken to have the soil 
 in the best condition. It is generally better to delay planting 
 for a year than to attempt it in poorly prepared soil. Tree 
 plantings have been made on our prairies by sowing tree seeds 
 broadcast in autumn after first carefully preparing the soil, 
 but the plan is seldom successful. A start can, however, be 
 made from seeds by planting the seeds in hills either alone 
 or with corn or beans. In the latter case the tree seedlings 
 often do very well and do not interfere with the growth of 
 the crop. The seedlings are cultivated in the spring after 
 the crop is removed and as they are in rows this is a very sim- 
 ple matter. The common and generally most successful plan 
 with trees that can be easily transplanted is to start with seed- 
 lings and plant in rows. The simplest and easiest way of do- 
 ing this is to furrow one way, mark out the other way and 
 plant the trees in the furrows at the intersections. If Black 
 Walnut or any of the oaks are wanted in a mixed planting it 
 is generally best to plant the other species first and put in the 
 nuts or acorns afterwards. Where it is desirable to plant 
 seedlings or cuttings to fill vacancies, a pointed stick or spade 
 may be used to make the hole. Whatever method is used 
 in planting, it is most important that the soil be packed firm- 
 ly around the roots, so they will not dry out. If the soil is 
 dry it cannot be made too solid around the roots. If cuttings 
 are used they should be made about 14 inches long, and in 
 planting be pushed into the loose soil in a slanting position, 
 leaving only one bud above the surface, as recommended 
 in the planting of cuttings. 
 
 Cultivation should be commenced shortly after planting 
 and be repeated often enough to keep the top three inches of 
 soil loose, so as to form a dust blanket to retard evaporation 
 during dry weather. The soil should never be allowed to be- 
 come baked hard after a rain, but the crust should be broken 
 up with a horse cultivator as soon after a rain as it can be 
 worked. Cultivation should be discontinued after the first of 
 August, in order to encourage early ripening of the wood. The 
 weeds that grow after this time of year will do no harm. 
 
 One of the best tools for early cultivation of small seed- 
 lings is Breed's Weeder, which may be worked both ways and 
 cleans out the weeds to perfection. The ordinary corn cultiva- 
 tor is also a good implement for this purpose. Later cultiva- 
 
PRAIRIE PLANTING. 9 
 
 tio'n should consist of working the soil with a one-horse cul- 
 tivator or plow. If the horse implements are properly used 
 there will be no necessity of hand hoeing, for the few weeds 
 that grow in the rows of trees will do iio injury to them. 
 Some planters sow oats among the young trees for protection 
 when cultivation ceases, but if field mice are abundant it may 
 be best not to do so. Late in autumn of the first year or two 
 after planting some soil should be turned towards the trees 
 with a plow, to protect them. 
 
 Thinning. In growing prairie groves we should always 
 aim to have the tops of the trees just touch one another with- 
 out serious crowding, but still have the soil shaded and pro- 
 tected from wind. In order to bring this about, the grove 
 must be thinned occasionally, for although the trees would 
 thin themselves if left alone, it would be at the expense of 
 growth and perhaps cause serious injury. Trees that are 
 crowded together may suffer more from drouth than those that 
 have plenty of room for their roots. This is especially true of 
 tender trees on dry land. If the trees begin to crowd one an- 
 other the poorest should be removed, but this should be done 
 carefully and never to such an extent as to let in the sunlight, 
 which would encourage the growth of grass, weeds and side 
 branches. Thinning may be done at any time, but if the wood 
 taken out is to be used for fence posts or poles it would be 
 better to cut in winter and peel at once to aid in curing. 
 
 The Blowing Out of Small Seedlings planted in prairie 
 soil is not uncommon where they are in very exposed situa- 
 tions. The movement of the young seedlings by the wind 
 keeps the soil loose around them, which the severe winds 
 blow away. Occasionally by such means tho roots may be left 
 three or four inches out of ground the first season. In such 
 very severe locations it is often a good plan to mulch the soil 
 with straw or similar material until the seedlings are well 
 established, after which they may be cultivated, or the mulch- 
 ing process may be continued until they will take care of 
 themselves. 
 
 The Proper Location of the Buildings on a Farm is a very 
 important matter and seldom receives the attfention which its 
 importance demands. The position of the buildings deter- 
 mines the location of the drives and of the shelterbelts if 
 any are to be planted. There are factors which should 
 
10 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 enter into the study of this question, among the first of which 
 is the lay of the land. Good drainage and good water are the 
 first requisites for the location of a home, after which como 
 convenience and beauty. It is very desirable that the first 
 location be made just right, since when other improvements 
 and buildings have been commenced it can seldom be changed 
 without m.uch extra expense. In the case of most of our 
 farms the subject of plans is conspicuous by its absence, as 
 
 North 
 
 South 
 _ Fig-. 2. Suggestion for laying out the gi^ounds about the 
 buildings on prairie farms, showing arrangements adapted to ' ai 
 highway located on four different sides. Size 30x.37 rods, enclosing 
 five acres, exclusive of shelterbelt on north and west sides five rods 
 wide. Rows of trees indicated. See figure (3) for further details 
 and suggestions. 
 
 small cramped grounds about inconveniently arranged build- 
 ings bear abundant evidence. 
 
 In figure 2 is shown four plans suggestive of the proper 
 location of the shelter belts about farm buildings located on 
 
PI^AIRIE PLANTING 
 
 11 
 
 level prairies, and varying actording to the location of the 
 main highway. Five acres in the form of a rectangle, 25 rods 
 wide and 32 rods long, are included in the land about the build- 
 ings, and this has a shelter belt five rods Avide on the north 
 and west sides, and the south side two rows of trees ten feet 
 apart, with the trees one rod apart in the rows. Within this 
 enclosure are all the farm buildings, orchard, fruit and vege- 
 table garden, barn-yards, etc. The house should be within 
 100 feet of the road, and the stock buildings at least 100 feet 
 from the house and garden. About the buildings and garden 
 some supplementary windbreaks and ornamental trees and 
 shrubs will be needed for wind protection and for beautifying 
 the place. This arrangement gives plenty of room for the 
 
 t - 31,rcdi 
 
 V ,.,.. ,, , , 
 
 K£::i}::y/;::::v/:"v?v'->:f: 
 
 f^ ; • I • ' ; • 5 j' 
 
 
 hi 
 
 ■ 1 
 
 LB-".:.: 
 
 
 Small 
 
 Fru.l. 
 
 • Or'chard. ■ 
 
 I : < : 
 - » » » 
 
 i 1 '. 1 
 
 
 olo 
 
 21:1 
 
 1 Vegetable. 
 
 Fig. 3 Suggestions in detail for laying out the grounds 
 about the buildings on a prairie farm. Highway on south, size 
 30x37 rods enclosing five acres; windbreak on north and west five 
 rods wide. Two rows of trees next to highway. Rows of trees in- 
 dicated. 
 
 buildings, barnyards, garden and orchard, and, while all the 
 land enclosed may not be needed for these purposes, the re- 
 mainder is well adapted to the growing of general farm crops. 
 
12 ' FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 The plans are only suggestive and no attempt is made to work 
 out details, and there are comparatively few farms that they 
 would fit exactly. For instance, while it is desirable to have 
 the buildings centrally located, their position must frequently 
 be pushed to one side on account of a swamp or lowland which 
 is not suitable for them, or their position may be determined 
 by a beautiful natural grove. Figure 3 shows a plan for a 
 south front drawn on a larger scale. It may often be desirable 
 to change the shape of the land enclosed, but in the great ma- 
 jority of prairie farms a plan similar to this would work out to 
 good advantage and the area enclosed by windbreaks could 
 often be increased to ten acres to good advantage. 
 
 A rule that should be carefully followed in all tree plant- 
 ings is that the view from the most commonly used rooms of 
 anything that is suggestive of pleasant associations or that 
 is especially interesting or entertaining should not be cut off. 
 Under this head would be included the view, from the living- 
 room windows, of the traveled wagon road or perhaps of the 
 railroad, of the neighboring houses or perhaps a nearby lake, 
 and of the important fields on the farm, especially those where 
 stock is pastured. These views can generally be secured 
 without seriously impairing the value of the windbreaks, by 
 cutting small openings in them or perhaps by simply shorten- 
 ing the trees, so that they will not interfere with the line of 
 sight. Plantings of this kind often add very much to the 
 comfort and actual income from the place and the land oc- 
 cupied by tliem may generally be regarded as the most pro- 
 ductive of any on the farm when its effect on the live stock 
 and gardens and the comfort of the famJly is considered. It 
 also adds very much to the selling value of a place. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 The gardening art offers this advantage to its lovers; 
 that they may everywhere enjoy it and that with comparative- 
 ly small expense they may practice it on their own account. 
 The poor washerwoman, who has hardly time to look at the 
 statue of Washington in the city park and scarce money 
 enough to buy a chromo, is quite able to grow geraniums in 
 her window and to have a pretty bed of marigolds and phloxes 
 in the yard. The opportunities to cultivate a taste for this sort 
 of landscape art lie all about us, while to only a few comes 
 the freedom of art galleries and exhibitions. How cheap and 
 simple materials may be combined to give an excellent ef- 
 fect can hardly be known until one has seen a few good object 
 lessons in the use of simple and inexpensive materials for out- 
 door decorations. The high priced novelties of nurserymen's 
 catalogues are not necessary nor often even desirable for 
 finest effects, and too often they are tender and unreliable. 
 Much more of beauty is affected by the skill with which the 
 planting is arranged than by the material used. 
 
 In laying out grounds in general the most important thing 
 is to have a plan that shall be sufficiently comprehensive to 
 include the whole scheme of the location of buildings and 
 drives, and the planting of trees and shrubs. This plan should 
 be made with much care and only after much study. 
 
 There are two general styles of gardening. The first, 
 which is known as the "formal" or Italian style, is character- 
 ized by the uniform and geometrical patterns as seen in the 
 fioxfer beds in our parks. It is best adapted for use about 
 buildings and for very small places. The "natural" style, also 
 known as the English style, which is the most popular kind 
 of ornamental gardening in this country and generally in 
 Europe, may be best seen in this section in the parks of St. 
 Paul and Minneapolis. In it straight lines, regular curves, 
 trimmed trees and anything that tends to take away the soft 
 
14 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 effects of natural lines are out of place. This is the style best 
 adapted for farms and country places in general, for the reason 
 that it easily fits into natural conditions and is least expensive 
 in maintenance. It is to the study of this styld of gardening 
 that we shall devote ourselves here. 
 
 Before considering so large a subject in detail it is im- 
 portant to become thoroughly familiar with the material at 
 our disposal, i. e. the ornamental trees, shrubs, grasses, plants, 
 rocks, views of interesting objects on our own or neighboring 
 grounds, and in proportion as we use all the material at our 
 disposal to good advantage will our work be a success or fail- 
 ure. In planning such work it is important to get the whole 
 family interested, for there is nothing that holds the children 
 to the old home as the trees and plants they have planted or 
 helped to plant and care for. 
 
 In establishing new homes, the most important thing to 
 be considered is healthfulness of surroundings, including water 
 supply, after which comes convenience, kind of soil, outlook 
 and general beauty. 
 
 Plans. For new homes, consider all the points of interest 
 carefully before beginning the work. This is much more satis- 
 factory than the making of plans for places already establish- 
 ed. Where it is a question of improving old grounds a diffi- 
 cult problem is often presented, and to properly treat this 
 kind of a subject requires in many cases great skill. 
 
 Healthfulness of Location is of first importance. Avoid 
 low land, especially if swampy, even if it is well drained arti- 
 ficially. Good drainage is a most important factor in making 
 for healthfulness of location. Provide properly for sewage 
 waste. 
 
 Convenience. Build convenient to friends, so as not to 
 be too much isolated. One should consider nearness to rail- 
 road, to school, church, library, etc.; main streets or side 
 streets. On farms build for convenience of situation for 
 doing work. Build economically; a house begins to lose in 
 value from the day it is completed. 
 
 Height of Land. Among the advantages of high land may 
 be mentioned pure air, better drainage, extent of view. Among 
 the disadvantages of high land are the extra effort to reach 
 such places, greater exposure to wind, extra cost of maintain- 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 15 
 
 ing drives and walks on ste^p slopes and extra cost of heat- 
 ing house in exposed situations. 
 
 Slope. Southern or southeastern slopes are best in cold 
 weather, as they are protected from the, cold winds, and, if 
 the outlook is good should be preferred to west or northwest- 
 ern slope. Yet with proper tree plantings northern slopes can 
 be made very pleasant. 
 
 Good Water is a most important feature. Nothing causes 
 more misery than poor water. Source of water should be care- 
 fully investigated. The sources of contamination in the coun- 
 try and in villages are cesspools, sink drains, stable yards, 
 etc. The best water supply is from a clean reservoir, as by 
 long exposure to sun and air it becomes purified, but such 
 water does not sparkle like that fresh from wells. Clean 
 cisterns afford a good supply of healthful drinking water. , Soft 
 water is better than hard for drinking or other purposes. 
 
 Kind of Soil. On this depends much of the success of our 
 ornamental planting. One kind of soil will not suit all kinds 
 of plants; yet in any fairly good soil most of our best orna- 
 mental plants will grow well. 
 
 Rocks, Water, Distant Views and other natural features of 
 our location should be considered and may add wonderful 
 beauty to our grounds if properly handled. "Ledges" and 
 "boulders" serve as a nucleous around which to group orna- 
 mental trees, shrubs and vines. "Water" in the near vicinity 
 may not always be desirable, but where exposed to full circu- 
 lation of air, and if the land near by is cons-iderably elevated 
 it may often produce m.uch beauty. But too often it becomes 
 stagnant and a breeding place for mosquitoes. A brook, on 
 the other hand, has not the quiet restfulness of the lake, but 
 is more satisfactory, especially if it can be arranged so as to 
 get its ideal ripple and gurgle. In order to have any near-by 
 water enjoyable it should not be contaminated by sewage or 
 other waste. Association of thoughts have much to do with 
 enjoyment. 
 
 An Increase in Value of Locations in growing towns and 
 cities may generally be regarded as certain, if good judgment 
 is displayed in selection and buying. The increase in value 
 of places due to proper planting is illustrated in many ways. 
 
 Amount of Land to Start With. Use only what can be 
 well cared for. Do not build houses or other improvements 
 
16 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 so expensive as to be beyond your means to maintain. Happi- 
 ness is not increased by living beyond one's income. 
 
 Location of House. Wliere possible, put at some distance 
 from street, and it is often best to locate on one side of lot. 
 Where many houses are already built on a street it often de- 
 tracts from its beauty to set it very much out of line with 
 the others. 
 
 The Approach to House should be such as will be in accord 
 with its pretensions. In the case of large grounds this may 
 be made a grand feature of ornamentation by being planted 
 with fine trees, but in small grounds it should occupy as little 
 space as practicable and should be as inconspicuous as possible. 
 There is nothing that tends to reduce the apparent size of 
 grounds as to cut them up with walks and drives, and the wider 
 the drives the worse their appearance. The drives may often 
 come in on the north side and so avoid interfering with the 
 view from the windows of the south side. The same is true 
 of the staircase and front door. They should not be placed on 
 the pleasantest side of the house but this should be reserved 
 for living rooms. 
 
 The Architecture of the house should be in keeping with 
 the surroundings. A large pretentious house, built in a quiet 
 and secluded place, is not in good taste. 
 
 The Cost of House and Grounds generally exceeds the ex- 
 ceeds the estimates 25 to 50 per cent, due to changes made in 
 plans after contract is let. This should be borne in mind in 
 building. Consider plans carefully before letting the contract. 
 
 The Cellar. There is little necessity for large cellars for 
 storage in villages as with convenient stores it is not neces- 
 sary. They should be large enough for heating plant and fuel. 
 They must be dry in order to be sanitary and to prevent heat- 
 ing plant from rust. They should be ventilated in summer 
 especially. If possible do not store vegetables under dwelling, 
 but use a storage cellar outside. 
 
 Perfect Ventilation in the house is very important. It is 
 probably best to have the hot air come in above and go out on 
 the same side below. A house heats best when some system 
 of ventilation is provided. 
 
 Preliminary Grading. Vhen excavating for a cellar, scrape 
 surface soil to one side for surfacing later. In making fills, 
 save the black soil to go on top of inferior material. The 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 17 
 
 surface of the lawn should slope away from the house in all di- 
 rections, so there shall be no standing surface water, but 
 some hollows may be left near trees and shrubbery at a dis- 
 tance from the house, in the case of gfavelly land, to catch 
 the water from summer showers — which is all needed on such 
 soil. Where water stands on the lawn in winter it will often 
 kill out the grass. Trees and shrubbery which it is intended 
 to save should be protected during building and grading opera- 
 tions or they will be injured. 
 
 Slopes should be easy and gradual. Terraces should be 
 avoided as they are hard to maintain in good order and add 
 no beauty. 
 
 Lawn. This may be considered the canvas onto which we 
 are to make our home picture by trees, shrubs and other ma- 
 terials and the buildings. The whole thing, when finished, 
 will be an index of our knowledge of the grouping of these 
 units, and very often it is also an index of the character of the 
 owner. For a good lawn we must have good soil, and no after 
 treatment by special manuring or special grass seed can fully 
 make up for carelessness in the preparation of the soil in the 
 beginning. The soil should be pulverized deep, raked fine, and 
 heavily manured. 
 
 Grass Seed and Seed Sowing. Our best lawns are made 
 up of nearly pure Kentucky Blue Grass. As this grass does 
 not start quickly it is customary to sow a little Red Top and 
 White Clover with it, as these show quickly the first season, 
 but later on are killed out by the Blue Grass. Perhaps for 
 this section a mixture of 3 bushels of Blue Grass, 3 pounds 
 solid Red Top and 3 pounds White Clover per acre is as good 
 as any for seeding lawns. 
 
 The time for sowing grass seed will depend upon circum- 
 stances. As a rule early spring is the best time, but if water 
 is plentiful, so the seed can be kept from drying out, August 
 will be found a very good time. July and August are general- 
 ly so hot and dry that seed is very uncertain when sown at 
 that time. In sowing the seed much care should be taken to 
 scatter it evenly, and it should be raked in and rolled. Rolling 
 is important as it leaves a smooth surface. 
 
 Where it is desirable to get a grass cover at once oats may 
 be sown with the grass and be cut off when six inches high, 
 and if afterwards frequently cut with a lawn mower makes a 
 
18 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 very good, coarse lawn and does not interfere with the devel- 
 opment of the seed of finer grasses. 
 
 Sodding is sometimes resorted to in order to get a lawn 
 quickly. It has the advantage that it can be done at any time 
 and gives a lawn at once; but it is very expensive and generally 
 no better than seeding. It is a good plan, however, to border 
 the walks with sod to define their lines. 
 
 Mowing Lawns. The lawn mov/er should not be allowed 
 on the new lawn until it is well established, and the first Cut- 
 tings should be done by hand. After the lawn is established 
 it should be frequently cut, especially during the cool weather 
 of spring and early autumn — if a fine close turf is the object. 
 Most of the clippings may be allowed to remain on the lawn, 
 when they are not heavy enough to smother out the grass, but 
 when heavy they should be carried away. 
 
 Renewing Old Lawns is most easily accomplished by the 
 tise of very fine, well rotted compost, or rich loam, which 
 should be scattered thinly over the grass about one-half inch 
 deep, so the grass will push up through it. Grass may also be 
 sown in it. Covering lawns in autumn, or at other times, with 
 coarse stable fertilizer leaves the lawn unsightly and often re- 
 sults in killing it out in spots. Tankage is a good fertilizer for 
 this purpose, to be used at the rate of 1,000 lbs. per.acre. The 
 most quickly acting fertilizing substance is nitrate of soda, 
 which may be applied at the rate of 150 lbs. per acre in two or 
 three weeks, but not oftener. It gives the grass a dark green 
 appearance, as well as makes it grow rapidly, but it is not need- 
 ed where proper attention has been given to preparing the soil. 
 
 Re-Seeding may be resorted to where bare spots come :n 
 the lawn. This should be done in early spring. The annual 
 grasses are often very unsightly and annoying, but close cut- 
 ting with the lawn mower and hand weeding will generally 
 remedy the trouble. Before re-seeding it is a good plan to re- 
 surface the bare spots with fresh loam. 
 
 The Use of Trees about the home is desirable for furnish- 
 ing shade during the hot days of our summer months and for 
 the protection they give from the cold winds of winter. They 
 are also necessary in many places to cover up unsightly or un- 
 pleasant objects, to open up vistas, to form backgrounds for 
 other ornamental materials, for their own individual beauty, and 
 also for the variety they afford in their varying shades of color 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 19 
 
 and form. Trees, as well as other woody plants, vary in their as- 
 pect with each season. Some trees and shrubs, like the Scar- 
 let Maple and the Sheepberry, are noted for their fine autumn 
 coloring, and others for some conspicuous features in winter, 
 as for instance the White Birch and the Golden Willow, while 
 all are attractive during the growing season. Some trees pro- 
 duce beautiful flowers and fruit and others attractive foliage; 
 some take on the regular spiry form, and others grow with 
 well-rounded outline; some have a spreading, delicate habit, 
 while others are compact, close and massive in their build. 
 
 Distance Between Trees should vary according to the var- 
 iety and soil, and to the objects in view. Thus the White Elm 
 in good soil should eventually have at least forty feet for best 
 results, while on poor soil thirty feet would be enough. It is, 
 however, a good plan to plant rather close at first and thin 
 out later on. This is especially true of the conifers in this cli- 
 mate, which generally do best when planted in groups, as in 
 this way they protect one another. This is especially true of 
 western Minnesota and Dakota where they are not at home. 
 
 Where To Obtain Trees. As a rule trees and shrubs do 
 best if obtained from some good nursery, as such trees gener- 
 ally have better roots than those obtained from the woods, but 
 Elms, Maples and Basswoods generally do very well when dug 
 from our woods. To do this successfully young trees should be 
 selected. If these are cut around with a spade in the spring 
 of the preceding year, about one foot from the trunks, they will 
 grow much better than if moved without this preparation. 
 In the case of Oaks, Hickories and other tap-rooted trees, 
 this is most important, while Elms and Ash do very well with- 
 out this preparation. 
 
 Time to Plant. Autumn planting may be done in case of 
 the Elm, when we have very favorable conditions, but as a 
 rule very early spring planting is better for all trees. In 
 wind swept locations it is extremely doubtful if autumn plant- 
 ing should ever be practiced with any but herbaceous plants 
 which may be easily protected. Coniferous trees may be suc- 
 cessfully moved at any tfme when we have favorable condi- 
 tions, but spring is the best time. 
 
 How to Dig a Tree. More trees die from injuries re- 
 ceived in digging than from any other cause. A good roo\ 
 system is most desirable. In digging a tree set the spade in 
 
20 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 the ground with one edge toward the trunk, so as not to cut 
 the roots, and then throw off the soil down to the roots in a 
 circle, varying from one to four feet, according to the size 
 of the trees. Then cut off the roots at a reasonable distance 
 from the trunk, when with the aid of a strong spade the tree 
 can very likely be loosened. If, however, it has one or more 
 tap roots, it will be necessary to dig under and cut them off. 
 Small trees can often be lifted by the spade without much un- 
 covering of the roots. In moving large trees a trench must 
 be dug around them two or three feet deep, and the deep 
 roots cut off. The soil should then be partially shaken off 
 until the ball is light enough to be dragged out of the hole. 
 Sometimes large trees can best be moved in winter, after the 
 ball of earth is frozen, but the holes should be prepared in 
 advance, and the frost kept out, so the planting work can be 
 properly done in winter. 
 
 Pruning Trees for Transplanting. In digging trees the 
 root system is necessarily much injured and it is a good plan 
 to shorten in the top correspondingly. When pruning is not 
 practiced the trees seldom start as well as when severely 
 pruned, but it is not a good plan to prune so severely as to 
 disfigure the trees. Pruning at time of transplanting is often 
 necessary in order to start branches at the desired height. 
 If low branching trees are desired, it is often necessary to 
 prune them severely at the top. This is especially the case 
 with Elms and other trees taken from thickets where they 
 have grown very tall. In such cases good results may be ob- 
 tained by cutting the trunk to a bare pole — 12 feet high. The 
 roots also require a little pruning, which should consist of 
 cutting off the badly bruised portion. When large branches 
 are cut off they should be covered with shellac, or painted. 
 
 Shrubs can seldom be used as screens, but are valuable 
 for defining division lines between city lots, for the great 
 variety of color and form which is found among them and 
 especially for their use in grouping about the borders and 
 in other places to give a softening effect to tree planting. 
 They offer a much greater variety of material than the trees. 
 Beginners generally understand the value of a collection of 
 trees as windbreaks and as street trees, but shrubs are too 
 often planted as individuals and without regard to their col- 
 lective effect. By using them in masses, they may be made 
 
LANDSCAPE GARDENING. 
 
 21 
 
 to produce strong and very pleasing effects. They may even 
 be combined with herbaceous plants and their effect greatly 
 heightened in this way. We have some very beautiful shrubs 
 in our woods, and among the best are tlie Kinnikinnick or 
 Dogwood, the Silky Cornel, High Bush Cranberry, Juneberry, 
 Burning Bush, Elderberry, Sheepberry, These can often be 
 gathered from the woods without any serious expense. Among 
 the hardiest and best of the introduced plants are the Lilacs, 
 Tartarian Honeysuckles, Hydrangea, Spireas, Caragana and 
 Snowball. Among the best hardy vines or climbing shrubs are 
 the Virginia Creeper, Wild Grape, Clematis and Bittersweet, 
 all of which are native in our woodlands and thickets. 
 
 a. - - - ^ 
 
 Fig. 4. Showing- best method of cutting back Willows to get 
 best lenevval fiom the stump. 
 
 Herbaceous plants can often be used to good advantage and 
 will give good results. They are very easily protected in 
 winter. Among the best and hardiest are the Peonies and 
 Irises, which, with slight protection, are perfectly hardy and 
 most satisfactory. But many others are easily grown. 
 
 The Pruning of Trees and Shrubs, or of any other plant, 
 should never be attempted unless with some definite purpose 
 in view. In the case of trees it is seldom that more pruning 
 is needed other than to cut off awkward branches or those 
 that interfere with travel. The best time to do this is prob- 
 ably in June. 
 
22 FARM WIND-BREA1.3. 
 
 In the case of shrubs, siifRcient priming should be given 
 to l^eep the plant in good form. In no case should they be 
 pruned to stiff, formal shapes. Every shrub has its own pe- 
 culiar graceful form, and pruning should be done to develop 
 it and not to change it. As a general rule, shrubs should be 
 pruned by taking out the stems or branches from the inside, 
 to make room for new shoots. The shrubs that bloom early 
 in spring form their flowers the year before and hence should 
 be pruned immediately after they are done flowering. Shrubs 
 that flower in August should be pruned in the early spring, 
 so as not to interfere with their flowering. 
 
 Fruit Trees may often be worked into the ornamental fea- 
 tures of the planting design. Such trees as the plum, apple, 
 crab-apple and cherry have good form and foliage and are es- 
 pecially beautiful when in flower or in fruit and to many per- 
 sons have in interest that mere ornamental plants do not 
 possess. 
 
 The Grounds About Our School Houses should be large 
 enough to afford good play grounds and a chance for orna- 
 mentation at the same time. Where the grounds are small 
 they must generally be used for play grounds; where they 
 are large enough it would add much to their interest to have 
 a variety of trees and shrubs and a few vines of our most 
 hardy kinds. These should be labeled plainly with their com- 
 mon names, as without labels they are of little interest to 
 the amateur. If this feature of our school grounds could be 
 more generally developed it would become most valuable in 
 teaching habits of observation. In this work much depends 
 upon the teacher — who has here a rare opportunity of teach- 
 ing object lessons to the whole community, 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 Trees are Grown from Seeds or by Division. The latter 
 term inclufies increase by cuttings, layers, buds and grafts. 
 Plants grown from seeds are generally more vigorous and 
 longer lived than those of the same species propagated in any 
 other way. Trees should be grown from seeds when it is prac- 
 ticable to do so, but willows and some other trees are appar- 
 ent exceptions to this rule and seem to do as well when grown 
 from cuttings as when grown from seeds. Varieties do not 
 generally perpetuate their peculiar characteristics when grown 
 from seeds, and must therefore be propagated by some method 
 of division. 
 
 The iVlost Desirable Trees from Wliich to Propagate are 
 those of good form and healthy growth; the latter is the one 
 most important requisite, especially if new plants are to be 
 grown by any method of division. It is not so essential in 
 selecting seeds, as even weak plants may produce good seed- 
 lings, but unhealthy cuttings, layers or grafts are of very un- 
 certain growth. In general, it is best that the stock trees be 
 healthy throughout, but a tree may have a rotten trunk due 
 to some injury and still have perfectly healthy branches and be 
 a desirable tree from which to propagate. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 Sources of Seeds. In growing trees from seeds the source 
 of the seeds is very important. It may be given as a safe 
 general rule that seeds are most desirable which come from 
 trees grown in as severe a climate as that in which the seeds 
 are to be sown. It has been found that trees of Boxelder and 
 Red Cedar grown from seeds gathered in Missouri are not near- 
 ly so hardy in this section as those from seeds grown in our 
 own state. It has also been found that seeds from the western 
 slopes of the Rocky Mountains, where the climate is very hu- 
 
24 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 mid, produce trees which are not so well adapted to with- 
 standing the conditions of this section as trees grown from 
 seeds from the eastern slopes, where the summers are very 
 dry and hot and the winter very dry and cold. Our climate 
 is especially trying to trees, and it is necessary to exercise 
 much more care in the selection of tree seeds here than it is in 
 the more favored climate of the eastern and western coast 
 states. 
 
 There are Conditions Under Which Every Species of Tre» 
 Thrives Best and makes its greatest growth, but the trees pro- 
 duced under these conditions are not always the hardiest. 
 As we reach the limits of their growth, trees have a tendency 
 on account of drouth or cold to become smaller, more com- 
 pact in form and to fruit younger; e. g., the Boxelder is a 
 large tree in Kansas and Missouri, but as it gets towards the 
 Manitoba line we find it becomes dwarfed and more bushy in 
 habit. Towards the southern limit of its range the tree be- 
 comes more open in habit and more liable to disease. The 
 Scotch Pine seeds imported into this country are generally 
 saved from the small scrubby trees that are found in the higher 
 altitudes of the mountains of Europe, because such trees pro- 
 duce the most seeds and they are most easily gathered from 
 them, while seeds are seldom gathered from the large timber 
 trees of this species, and it is very likely that this poor seed 
 stock is responsible for much of the scrubby appearance of 
 many Scotch Pine plantations in this section. 
 
 Trees Have a Strong Tendency to Perpetuate Qualities 
 which have been developed in them by climate and soil condi- 
 tions. Hence, even though an essential point in considering 
 the value of any tree is its hardiness, the question of size is 
 important and should be taken into account, as we generally 
 wish to grow trees of as large size as practicable. We may 
 conclude, then, that since trees from a very cold climate gener- 
 ally lack in hardiness, and those from a very severe climate 
 may lack in size, it is best to procure seeds from the best 
 trees grown near by or from those grown under similar climat- 
 ic conditions elsewhere. It is not generally necessary to limit 
 this range very closely, as a hundred miles north or south 
 of a given point will seldom make much difference in hardi- 
 ness, unless the climatic conditions are very dissimilar. 
 
 The Place Where the Trees that We are to Set Out are 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 25 
 
 Grown is not of so great importance as the source of the seeds 
 from which they are grown; e. g., seedlings of Red Cedar 
 grown in Missouri from seeds of native Minn^esota trees would 
 be safer to plant here than seedlings raised in Minnesota frou 
 the seeds of native Missouri trees. 
 
 Seedling Variations. In our common trees variations are 
 not sufficiently marked but that we think of the trees as com- 
 ing true from seeds, and yet careful observation will show 
 to any one that each seedling plant is different from neighbor- 
 ing plants of the same species. Sometimes a seedling will 
 occur that possesses especially -pleasing or curious character- 
 istics that are very marked and desirable. In such cases the 
 seedling is generally propagated by some method of bud-di- 
 vision and makes a new variety. In this way have originated 
 such highly esteemed kinds as Wier's Cut-leaf Maple, which 
 was a chance seedling of the Soft Maple, the Weeping Ameri- 
 can Elm, Cut-leaf Birch, Weeping Mountain Ash, Pyramidal 
 Arborvitae, and a host of other kinds that are propagated by 
 bud-division by nurserymen. The person who is on the lookout 
 for these or other variations will have no trouble in finding 
 many that may perhaps be worth naming and propagating. 
 
 Gathering Seeds. All kinds of seeds should be gathered 
 when ripe. In some cases it is best to pick them from the 
 trees even before they are quite ripe, after which they will 
 ripen if kept dry. Unripe seeds do not keep as well as perfect- 
 ly ripe seeds. Most kinds of tree seeds are most cheaply 
 gathered from the ground. In some cases this method can be 
 greatly facilitated by cleaning up the land under the trees 
 so it will be smooth and even. Seeds of some species can of- 
 ten be swept up at little expense from under trees growing 
 along the highway. 
 
 Germination of Seeds. There are many conditions which 
 affect the germination of seeds: 
 
 (1) Seeds which are thoroughly ripened before they are 
 gathered produce the best plants. Very immature seeds will 
 very often grow, but the tendency with them is to produce 
 weak plants. (2) Freshly gathered seeds, as a rule, are 
 preferable to old seeds for sowing, and seeds that have never 
 been allowed to become very dry are more likely to grow than 
 those which have been severely dried. This is especially true 
 of most of the kinds of seeds that ripen in early summer, 
 
26 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 the most of which lose their vitality very quickly when stor- 
 ed. (3) Some seeds, such as those of the Plum, Cherry and 
 Black Walnut, require severe freezing when moist in order 
 to germinate. (4) Seeds that are covered with water will 
 not generally grow. This is true at least of our northern tree 
 seeds. (5) The seeds of some trees germinate at a tempera- 
 ture near freezing, while others require a much higher, tem- 
 perature. (6) After seeds of some plants have become very 
 dry, scalding may aid them in germinating, while with others 
 scalding is injurious. It is sometimes desirable to soak seeds 
 for one or two days in tepid water, and then mix with sand 
 and freeze before sowing. Lindley records that seeds found 
 in raspberry jam grew after passing through the heat neces- 
 sary to boil syrup (240 degrees Fahr.) and that seeds of Acacia 
 and Lophantha grew after being boiled five minutes, but our 
 common tree seeds will not stand such treatment. 
 
 Stratification, as the term is used in this connection, refers 
 to the storing of seeds mixed with layers of earth, leaves or 
 other material. It is customary to apply the term solely to 
 seeds that are mixed in this way and kept frozen over winter. 
 It is the common practice with the seeds of such trees as the 
 Black Walnut, Hickory, Basswood, Plum, Cherry and Moun- 
 tain Ash. Where only small quantities are to be cared for they 
 are generally mixed in boxes and the boxes buried in well 
 drained soil out of doors, but where large quantities are to be 
 handled they may be mixed with soil on the surface of the 
 ground and left until spring; such a pile is termed a pit. Ono 
 of the best materials with which to cover seed pits is inverted 
 grass sod. It is a good plan to have the material that is 
 mixed with the seed so fine that it will easily go through a 
 •screen and leave the seeds separated for sowing. 
 
 Wintering Acorns and Other Nuts in Large Quantities. 
 On account of the great liability to injury where a large 
 amount of nuts are stored in heaps, and on account of the im- 
 practibility many times of stratifying them with sand, the 
 following plan is resorted to in some sections: 
 
 A house is made, preferably with a sandy floor, so as to 
 secure good drainage, and is covered with sod roof and sides, 
 so as to keep out most of the frost. This may be of any size, 
 but perhaps 20 feet in width and any length would be very con- 
 venient. The nuts are spread over the ground about 18 inches 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 27 
 
 thick, and are kept stirred untif frozen in winter. As soon as 
 they thaw out, they are turned once a day. In this way they 
 are prevented from moulding, and from the other injuries that 
 are so common to nuts stored in large quantities. It would be de- 
 sirable to keep the temperature from ever going much belov/ 
 freezing. 
 
 Seeds May be Classified Into Three Groups: (1) Those 
 that ripen in spiing and early summer, (2) deciduous tree 
 seeds that ripen in autumn, and (3) coniferous tree seeds. 
 
 Seeds that Ripen in Spring and Early Summer should 
 be gathered as soon as ripe, and, with the exception of the 
 Red Elm, sown within a few days or weeks, as they retain 
 their vitality but a short time. (Red Elm seed will not grow 
 until the following spring.) In raising seedlings of this class 
 it is important to have land that will retain its moisture dur- 
 ing the Slimmer months or else that which can be conveniently 
 irrigated, since these seeds m.ust often be sown during very 
 hot, dry weather, and as they cannot be covered deeply they 
 are very liable to fail with any but the best conditions. The 
 thousands of seedlings of Cottonwood, Elm, and Soft Maple 
 that spring up on the sand bars along our rivers and lake 
 shores show what are the best conditions for these seeds to 
 germinate. 
 
 Cottonwood Seedlings can be grown by scattering the 
 branches bearing unopened seed pods along rows in moist soil 
 and covering the seed lightly when it falls, but they are of sc» 
 uncertain growth that most of our nurserymen depend upon 
 the sand bars and lake shores for their supply. 
 
 Elm, Soft Maple and Mulberry seeds generally grow well 
 on any good moist soil. They should be sown thickly in 
 drills eight inches wide and three feet apart, or in narrow drills. 
 Elm seeds should be covered with about one-half inch of soil, 
 Mulberry with about one-fourth inch and Soft Maple with 
 about one inch. If the weather is dry the soil over the seeds 
 should be well packed, and if the weather continues dry the 
 rows should be watered. Watering, however, is seldom neces- 
 sary on retentive soil if the soil has been properly packed. 
 With proper conditions seeds so planted will start quickly 
 and grow rapidly; the Elm will grow from six to eighteen 
 inches and t*he Soft Maple twelve to twenty-four inches high be- 
 fore the first autumn. Such seedlings are large enough for perma- 
 
28 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 n 
 
 nent setting in forest plantations or windbreal^s. They may- 
 be allowed to grow in the seed bed another year without in- 
 jury, but should be transplanted before the growth of the 
 third season begins. 
 
 Seeds of Deciduous Trees that Ripen in Autumn may be 
 sown to advantage in the autumn; provided, (1) the soil is 
 not of such a nature as to become too solidly packed over 
 them before spring; (2) they are not liable to dry up or wash 
 out; or (3) they are not subject to injuries from rodents, in- 
 sects or other animals. In many locations some or all of 
 these possible injuries may make spring sowing most desirable 
 with most kinds of seeds. Our most successful nurserymen, 
 however, prefer to sow in autumn, and try to bring about the 
 conditions that make it successful. 
 
 In the Matter of Storing Seeds it is difficult to lay down 
 any exact rule to follow, and here, as in all other similar mat- 
 ters, considerable must be left to good judgment. As a rule, 
 however, it is perfectly safe to winter over all of the seeds of 
 hardy plants which ripen in autumn, by burying them in 
 sand out of doors. 
 
 Tree Seeds that Ripen in Autumn may be divided into 
 four classes, which require different methods of treatment to 
 grow them, viz., dry seeds, seeds with fleshy coverings, nut 
 seeds and leguminous tree seeds. 
 
 Dry Seeds, like those of the Ash, Birch, Hard Maple and 
 Boxelder, are very certain to grow when sown in the spring 
 in drills as soon as the soil can be easily worked, in the same 
 way as recommended for Soft Maple and Elm. If not sown 
 until spring they will have to be kept over winter, and when 
 only a small quantity is to be kept over this is best done by 
 spreading the seeds on the surface of the hard ground, cover- 
 ing with an inverted box and digging a ditch around it to car- 
 ry off the water, or the seeds may be mixed with sand and 
 kept in a dry, cool place. Large quantities may be kept on 
 dry ground under a shed. These seeds will stand considerable 
 drying, but if allowed to become very dry, hot, or moist, their 
 vitality may be injured or destroyed. 
 
 Seeds with Fleshy Coverings, as those of the Cherry and 
 Plum should be kept from getting dry before planting. The 
 best way to handle them is to separate them from the pulp, 
 mix with moist sand out of doors, and keep them moist until 
 
30 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 planted. It is generally safe to sow such seeds in the autumn 
 on good land, but some growers prefer to sow them in the 
 spring. This class of seeds requires to be frozen before ger- 
 minating. If allowed to get dry before being frozen, they 
 should be mixed with moist sand for a few days until plump, 
 or they may be soaked in water, but care must be taken that 
 they do not get water soaked. Sometimes the dry, hard shells 
 of such seeds seem to be waterproof. In this case, if the 
 seeds are of special value, it is a good plan to file a hole 
 through the shell, so as to let the seed become moist. Most 
 seeds of this class grow the first year if properly handled, but 
 some of them — for example, the Red Cedar and the Wild 
 Thorn — even with the best management, will remain dormant 
 in the ground for one year before growing. 
 
 Nut Seeds, as those of the Oak, Hickory and Walnut, 
 should be handled as recommended for seeds with fleshy cov- 
 erings, but are more sensitive about being severely dried. As 
 they do not transplant readily, it is very desirable to plant 
 them where they are to remain permanently. They should 
 be covered about two inches deep. 
 
 Seeds of Leguminous Trees, as those of the Black Locust, 
 Honey Locust and Coffeetree, will stand severe drying for a 
 long time and still grow, provided they are treated with hoi 
 water just before planting. In this case the hot water should 
 be poured over the seeds shortly before they are sown, and 
 be allowed to stand until cool, when it will be found that some 
 of the seeds have swollen up; these should be picked out, and 
 the remainder be treated again with hot water, and the pro- 
 cess repeated until all have swollen. Seedlings of this class 
 generally transplant readily, and are managed in the same 
 way that is here recommended for the Ashes and Maples. 
 
 Seeds of Leguminous Trees, as those of the Black Locust, 
 and Arborvitae. are dry and winged, but the Red Cedar has 
 a fleshy, berry-like covering surrounding its seed. The seeds 
 that grow in cones are most easily gathered before being shed 
 from the cones. The cones should be gathered before they 
 open, and then dried, after which those of most species will 
 open, and the seeds can be threshed out. Cones of a few trees, 
 as those of the Jack Pine, will not open without artificial heat. 
 These can be opened by gently heating them over a stove or 
 in an oven to a temperature of from 100 to 150 degrees Fahr. 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 31 
 
 Seeds of this class grow read41y when sown, but must be very 
 carefully stored or they will lose their vitality. They should 
 be kept similarly to the seed of the Ash and Boxelder, but are 
 more liable to injury than these kinds frojn too much moisture 
 or heat, and for this reason some careful growers prefer to 
 always keep them mixed with dry sand in a cool shed. 
 
 The seeds of the Red Cedar hang on the tree all winter, 
 and must be picked by hand. They should be soaked in 
 strong lye for twenty-four hours, the fleshy covering removed 
 by rubbing them against a fine sieve, and then stratified in 
 sand, where they will be frozen during the winter. Even with 
 this treatment they will seldom grow until the second year. 
 
 R'alsing Coniferous Trees from Seed. The land selected 
 for sowing the seed should have a light, porous surface soil, 
 preferably underlaid with a moist subsoil that will not dry 
 out easily. It should be so located as to have good circula- 
 tion of air over it, that the plants may dry off quickly after 
 rains, and it must be so shaded as to keep off about one-half 
 of the sunlight. This latter permits a play of light and shade 
 over the bed all day, and is about the condition under which 
 we find nature raising such seedlings where trees partially 
 shade the ground and protect them from the constant rays of 
 the sun. In practice we aim to secure these conditions as fol- 
 lows: A piece of well drained, rather sandy soil, in an airy 
 place is selected, and laid out in beds four feet wide. In May 
 the seeds are sown rather thickly (about three good seeds 
 to a square inch), either' broadcast or in rows, and covered 
 with about one-fourth inch of sandy loam and then with about 
 oue-fourth inch of clear sand. Some of the smaller seeds, like 
 those of White Spruce, should not be covered more than one- 
 fourth inch. Before the seedlings break the ground, a frame- 
 work six feet above the beds, is made, and covered with laths, 
 laid about one and one-half inches apart, running north and 
 south, or with sufficient brush to shut out about one-half the 
 sunlight. If the bed is very much exposed to the winds it 
 should have similar protection on all sides. In such a place 
 as this, or in woodlands where these conditions can be ful- 
 filled, evergreens can be raised with much certainty, while 
 if planted in the open ground most kinds are sure to fail. 
 
 The most common cause of failure with those who try lo 
 raise evergreens is what is known as "damping off," which 
 
32 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 occurs only while the plants are growing rapidly the first year. 
 In such a case the seeds start well, and the seedlings grow 
 vigorously for a short time, or until we have a spell of damp 
 weather, and then die off with great rapidity. It seems that 
 the sunlight and the mud that has been spattered on the plants 
 so weaken them that they are liable to disease. For this reason 
 we shade the bed and cover with sand, which will not allow 
 the mud to be spattered over the seedlings, and in very moist 
 warm weather we occasionally apply dry sand to dry off the 
 plants. For most kind of conifers the shade is required for 
 at least two years. 
 
 Coniferous tree seedlings grow very slowly when youn'j;, 
 seldom making a growth of more than two or three inches the 
 first year. The most rapid growing of our pines seldom pro- 
 duce a growth of more than sixteen inches in the first four 
 years, and should not be moved to their permanent place until 
 
 Fig. 6. Evciyiucii t;t(jd bed shaded with a screen of old brush 
 placed on a frame. . 
 
 about this time. They should, however, be transplanted from 
 the seed bed to a temporary place when two years old, to 
 prevent crowding and to facilitate root growth. 
 
 On the approach of winter the beds of coniferous seed- 
 lings should be covered with about three inches of straw v:r 
 leaves, evergreen branches, or other material that will afford 
 protection from the sun and from alternate freezing and thaw- 
 ing. This should be removed in the spring after all danger 
 from drying cold v/inds has passed. 
 
 Depth to Cover Seeds. Most of our tree seeds should, 
 in good soil, be covered from one-half to three-quarters of an 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 33 
 
 fnch; but this is rather too inuch for such small seeds as the 
 Birch, Alder and Cottonwood, while the Black Walnut, Native 
 Plum, Acorns and other large seeds and seeds of Boxelder, 
 Ash, Soft Maple and Basswood may oJ^ten be covered two 
 inches to advantage if the soil is somewhat dry. It is a good 
 rule not to cover any tree seeds deeper than is necessary to 
 secure permanent moisture, and on wet or heavy land only a 
 very thin covering is desirable. If the land is very heavy, it is a 
 good plan not only to cover lightly but to sow more thickly 
 than usual, as a large number of seeds may be able to push 
 up through the surface soil when a few would fail to do this. 
 The Amount of Seeds of Deciduous Trees to Sow on a 
 given area depends very much on the kind and quality of the 
 seeds and the soil in which they are to be sown. As a ruie, 
 thick is better than thin sowing. The seeds of Boxelder, Ash 
 and Maple should be sown at the rate of about one good seed 
 to the square inch; Elm and Birch should be sown twice as 
 thick. Plums and cherries sown in drills should be allowed 
 about one inch of row for each good seed. Black Walnut, 
 Butternut, Hickory and similar seeds should preferably be 
 planted three or four. in a place, and all but one seedling cut 
 out when nicely started. If sown in drills they should be 
 placed from three to six inches apart. Rather thick seeding 
 does not seem to be any hindrance to the making of a go .id 
 growth by seedlings of most of our broad-leaved trees the 
 first year, but if left thick in the seed bed the 'second year 
 they are often seriously stunted. On this account such seed- 
 lings should be transplanted or thinned out before the begin- 
 ning of the second year. In nursery planting it is a good plan 
 to sow in freshly stirred land, as the seeds are far more likely 
 to get a good start in it than in soil that has remained unfilled 
 long enough to become crusty and lumpy. Then, if the seeds 
 are planted immediately after cultivation has been given, and 
 while the soil is still moist, they have at least as good a chance 
 as the weeds to start, while otherwise the weeds are soon 
 ahead of the seedlings. 
 
 It is important to keep the soil loose and mellow between 
 the seedlings, and to keep the weeds very carefully removed 
 until at least the middle of July, after which they may some- 
 times be left to advantage to afford winter protection; but in 
 the case of very small seedlings this protection is best given by 
 
34 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 a light mulch, put on in autumn and taken off in spring, and 
 the weeds should be kept out. 
 
 If the seeds of Red Cedar, the Thorn, Mountain Ash. and 
 other seeds that require a long time to start, are sown in the 
 spring, and do not germinate, it is a good plan to cover the 
 bed with about an inch or two of hay or leaves, keep out 
 weeds, and let this mulch remain until the following spring, 
 when the seeds will probably be in condition to grow, and ttio 
 mulch should then be removed. 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE-YEAR OLD 
 SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 
 
 Botanical Names. 
 
 Common Names. 
 
 Height in 
 Inches. 
 
 PiNUS STROBUS 
 
 . . White Pine 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS FLEXILIS 
 
 . . Western White Pine. 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS RESINOSA 
 
 . . Red Pine 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS DIVARICATA 
 
 Jack Pine . 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS PONDEROSA 8COPULORUM . 
 
 . . Rock Pine . 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS 8YLVESTRIS 
 
 
 3 
 
 PiNUS LARICIO AUSTRIACA 
 
 
 3 
 
 Larix LARICINA 
 
 Larix europea 
 
 . . Tamarack 
 
 European Larch 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 PiCEA canadensis 
 
 . White Spruce. 
 
 2 
 
 PiCEA MARIANA 
 
 
 2 
 
 Picea pungens 
 
 PiCEA ENGELMANNI 
 
 PiCEA EXCELSA 
 
 tsuga canadensis 
 
 pseudotsuga taxifolia 
 
 Abies balsamea 
 
 . Blue Spruce 
 
 . Engelma m Spruce 
 
 . Norway Spruce 
 
 . Hemlock 
 
 . Douglas Spruce 
 
 Balsam Fir 
 
 3 
 3 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 3 
 
 Abies concolor 
 
 WhitP Fir 
 
 9 
 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 35 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE YEAR 
 
 OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 
 
 Height in 
 Botanical Nasjies. Common Names. Irrches. 
 ■■ '■ « 
 
 Thuja occidentalis Arborvitae 2 
 
 JuNiPERUs viRGiNiANA Red Cedar 3 
 
 JuNiPERUS communis Common Juniper 2 
 
 JuGLANS nigra Black Walnut 12 
 
 JUGLANS CINEREA Buttemut 12 
 
 HicoRiA ovATA Shcllbark Hickory 8 
 
 HicoRiA minima Bitternut Hickory 4 
 
 Salix nigra Black Willow 10 
 
 Salix AMYGDALOIDE8 Peachleaf Willow 10 
 
 Salix alba White Willow 10 
 
 Salix lucida Shining Willow 6 
 
 PopuLus TREMULoiDES Aspen 10 
 
 PoPULUS GRANDiDENTA Largetooth Poplar 12 
 
 PopuLUS BALSAMiFERA Balsam Poplar 10 
 
 PopuLus DELTOiDES Cottonwood 16 
 
 Betula papyrifera Canoe Birch 4-8 
 
 Betula alba European White Birch 6-10 
 
 Betula lutea Yellow Birch . 4-8 
 
 OsTRYA VIRGINIANA Hop Hornbeam 4-6 
 
 Carpinus caroliniana Blue Beech 4-6 
 
 Quercus alba White Oak 4-8 
 
 QuERCus MACROCARPA Burr Oak 4-8 
 
 Quercus rubra Red Oak 6-12 
 
 Quercus coccinea Scarlet Oak 6-12 
 
 Ulmus AMERICANA White Elm 6-12 
 
 Ulmus racemosa Cork Elm 6-10 
 
 Ulmus pubescens Slippery Elm 10-20 
 
 CeltiS occidentalis Hackberry 8-10 
 
 MoRUS RUBRA Red Mulberry 6-10 
 
36 FARM WIND-BREAKS 
 
 TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE HEIGHTS OF ONE -YEAR 
 OLD SEEDLINGS GROWN ON GOOD AVERAGE SOIL. 
 
 Height in 
 
 Botanical Names. Common Names. Inches. 
 
 MoRUS ALBA tartarica Russian Mulberrj' 0-12 
 
 Pyrus ioensis Wild Crab 4-8 
 
 Pyrus AMERICANA American Mountain Ash ... 8 
 
 Pyrus sambucifolia Elderleaf Mountain Ash. . . . 4-8 
 
 Amelanchier canadensis Juneberry 8 
 
 Crataegus tomentosa Black Thorn 4-8 
 
 Prunus AMERICANA Wild Plum 15 
 
 Prunus pennsylvanica Wild Red Cherry 12 
 
 Prunus serotina Wild Cherry Black 12 
 
 Prunus virginiana Choke Cherry 12 
 
 Gleditsia triacanthos Honey Locust 8-12 
 
 Gymnocladus dioicus Coffeetree 8-12 
 
 Robinai pseudacacia Locust 24 
 
 Acer saccharum Sugar Maple 12 
 
 Acer platanoides Norway Maple 12 
 
 Acer rubrum Red Maple 10 
 
 Acer saccharinum Soft Maple 24 
 
 Acer pennsylvanicum Striped Maple 4 
 
 Acer tartaricum Tartarian Maple 4 
 
 Acer negundo Boxelder 12 
 
 .ascuLus HippocASTANUM Horse Chestnut 6 
 
 jESCUlus glabra Ohio Buckeye 4-6 
 
 Rhamnus catharicus Buckthorn 6-12 
 
 Tilia AMERICANA Basswood 6-12 
 
 Elaeagnus augustifolia Russian Olive 12 
 
 Fraxinus AMERICANA White Ash 12 
 
 Fraxinus lanceolata Green Ash 12 
 
 Fraxinus nigra Black Ash 8 
 
 Catalpa speciosa Hardy Catalpa 24 
 
 Viburnum lentago Black Haw 4-6 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 37 
 
 CUTTINGS. 
 
 Cuttings are pieces of the branches or roots which have 
 the power of growing and forming new giants when placed 
 in moist sand, soil or other material. For example, the pieces 
 of the twigs on branches of many kinds of willows and poplars, 
 when taken while the tree is dormant, will root when placed 
 in moist soil, but there are few other trees that grow as read- 
 ily from cuttings as these. Cuttings of the roots of many 
 kinds of trees, as the White Poplar, Wild Plum, Yellow Locust, 
 and many others that sprout from the roots, will grow if treat- 
 ed about the same way as branch cuttings. 
 
 In growing trees from cuttings the source of the cuttings 
 is not of so great importance as the source of the seed from 
 which the stock trees were grown, for the qualities of individ- 
 ual trees are probably not permanently or greatly changed by 
 climate. For instance, trees grown from the cuttings of Rus- 
 sian Poplars would be as hardy in Minnesota if the cuttings 
 came from St. Louis, where they had been growing for years, 
 as they would be if imported direct from Siberia. However, 
 owing to a longer growing season at St. Louis, the wood 
 might be of a more open texture, and perhaps might not resist 
 cold as well as Minnesota-grown wood; but after one season's 
 growth in Minnesota it would probably be as hardy. The 
 same would hold true of plants propagated by any method of 
 division. With the exception of Willows and Poplars, very 
 few of our ornamental trees grow readily from cuttings.. The 
 best time to make cuttings is in the fall, as soon as the leaves 
 will strip easily from the twigs. Most of the willows and pop- 
 lars will grow readily from cuttings made in the spring, and 
 even those made in summer will generally grow if planted in 
 moist soil. For this purpose the smaller branches with leaves 
 removed should be used. They may also be rooted from grow- 
 ing twigs with the leaves left on, provided the cut surfaces 
 are placed in water, as they would be if stuck in the soil of a 
 swamp or treated the same as cuttings of geraniums. These 
 latter ways, however, are not to be depended upon for gener- 
 al propagation purposes. 
 
 The Form and Size of Cuttings is a matter upon which 
 there is a great difference of opinion. Cuttings of the Willow 
 from one bud each and only an inch or two long up to those a 
 
38 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 foot or more in diameter and ten or twelve feet in length can 
 generally be made to grow, but probably the most convenient 
 size for general planting is one-half inch in diameter and 
 twelve inches in length. They are generally tied in bunches 
 of 100 or 200 each for convenience in handling, and care should 
 
 Fig. 7 A bunch of Willow cuttings. 
 
 be taken to keep all the butt ends one way to facilitate plant- 
 ing. Very large cuttings are liable to decay in the center, and 
 are not best to use, although they often make a very rapid 
 growth. Poles of willows and poplars are sometimes laid in 
 furrows where they will generally sprout wherever the bark 
 is laid bare and often make good trees. 
 
 Fig. 8. Planted cuttings, showing angle and depth at which 
 to plant cuttings. 
 
 In Planting Cuttings of ordinary size it is a good plan to 
 have the soil loose, and then, after marking off the rows, the 
 cuttings can be pushed into the land the proper depth. If not 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. - 39 
 
 desirable to plow all the land, It may be loosened just where 
 the rows are to come. Where a subsoil plow can be obtained, 
 it can be made very useful for this purpose. 
 
 Cuttings should be planted at an angle of about forty- 
 flve degrees, leaving only one bud above the surface of 
 the ground and the soil should be packed firmly around them. 
 Those set in a slanting position settle with the soil and remain 
 firm, while those set vertically may become loosened by the 
 settling of the soil near them, leaving too much of them ex- 
 posed above the surface, unless very great care is exercised 
 in planting. The rows in the nursery should be about four feet 
 apart, and the cuttings about six inches apart in the rows, 
 though a much less distance may sometimes be sufficient. 
 In packing the soil over the cuttings great pains should be 
 taken to get it very solid around the lower end, and if the soil 
 is very dry, the firmest pressure of the full weight of a man 
 over the base of each cutting is not too great; in fact, when 
 the soil is dry it cannot be made too firm over the cutting. 
 When the soil is moist, however, only enough pressure should 
 be used to bring the particles in close contact and close up the 
 air spaces. 
 
 The Cultivation of Cuttings should commence shortly after 
 they are planted, and the top soil should be kept loosened to 
 the depth of about three inches, which^ while not disturbing 
 the solid soil around the base of the cuttings, prevents evapora- 
 tion from the soil. 
 
 Time of Planting Cuttings. Spring cuttings may be plant- 
 ed at once where they are to grow. Autumn cuttings may be 
 planted out at once, provided the land is not wet, but when 
 planted at this season they should be covered with soil turned 
 toward them with a plow. In the spring this covering should 
 be raked off before the buds swell. The ground being warm in 
 autumn often causes autumn-planted cuttings of some kinds to 
 root before cold weather sets in, and if made up before the 
 first of October they may thus score quite a gain over spring- 
 planted cuttings. If not desirable to plant in the autumn, the 
 bundles of cuttings may be kept over winter, buried in moist 
 soil, preferably that which is somewhat sandy, where there is 
 no standing water; but much care should be taken to keep 
 them from drying out. To this end the bundles should be 
 buried so as not to touch each other, and have two or three 
 
40 FARM WIND-BREAKS 
 
 inches of soil packed in between tiiem. If they are kept in a 
 cellar, moist sawdust will be found to be good material to keep 
 them in. 
 
 The amount of growth made by cuttings varies much, ac- 
 cording t© the kind of plant, size of cuttings, soil, etc. The 
 most of our willows will make a growth of three or four feet, 
 on good soil, in one season, from ordinary cuttings. 
 
 The Solar Pit. There are many trees that will not grow 
 from cuttings unless they have their roots started a little be- 
 fore planting. This is most easily accomplished by means of 
 what is called the "solar pit," which owes its success to the 
 fact that cuttings root first at the warmer end. It is made and 
 used as follows: The bundles of cuttings are heeled in as 
 recommended. In the spring they are taken out, and buried 
 
 Fig. 9. The solar pit 
 showing bundles of cuttings 
 in place under glass. 
 
 close together, with the butt ends uppermost, in a warm sunny 
 spot, and covered with about six inches of soil. A hotbed 
 frame, with sash, is then put over the spot, to warm the soil. 
 Sometimes, instead of using sash, the soil over the cuttings fs 
 covered with a foot or more of fermenting manure. In either 
 case the soil is warmed, and the formation of roots encouraged. 
 In using the solar pit the rooting process should not be carried 
 so far as to permit roots to show plainly, as they are liable 
 to be broken off in planting out; but the cuttings should be 
 planted out as soon as they show signs of healing over on the 
 butt end. This healing over process is called callousing, and in 
 ma-iy plants necessarily precedes the formation of roots. 
 
 LAYERS. 
 
 Layers are portions of the branches of trees, shrubs or 
 vines which are covered with earth without being separated 
 from the parent plant and there take root and grow. These 
 are cut off from the main plant in autumn or spring, and form 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 41 
 
 new plants. Almost all trees a^d other plants can be rooted 
 in this way, but, while some root very easily, others require 
 so long a time to do so as to make it impracticable with them. 
 The growing of trees from layers is seMom practiced in 
 this country, but in some European nurseries it is a common 
 means by which to increase special varieties of trees. For 
 this purpose what is commonly known as mound layering i.s 
 often used. This consists simply of drawing the soil up around 
 the sprouts that come from the stump of a tree, covering the 
 base of them about a foot in depth. It may be done at any 
 time of the year after the sprouts are two or more feet high, 
 but preferably in the spring. After the sprouts have become 
 well rooted they may be removed in spring or autumn and 
 treated the same as seedlings. Layering is sometimes prac- 
 ticed in European forests to fill up vacancies, and a similar 
 method is often employed in nurseries. 
 
 GRAFTAGE. 
 
 Graftage refers to the growing of one plant on the stem, 
 root or branch of another plant. There are several forms of 
 graftage, which are generally known as grafting, budding and 
 inarching. It is a common practice to use graftage in the 
 growing of the different varieties of fruit trees, and it is also 
 used to some extent in the growing of some of the varieties 
 of ornamental trees that cannot be grown from seed. Trees 
 that are grown by any form of graftage are seldom as long- 
 lived as those grown on their own roots, and these methods 
 should be avoided when it is practicable to do so. These methods 
 are not much used in common practice, and consequently 
 are not discussed at length here. 
 
 Inarching is a rather unusual way of growing plants. It 
 works on the principle that when the growing stems, branches 
 and roots of the same or closely allied plants are held closely 
 together for some time they become united. Such unions of 
 roots are frequently found in woodlands; in some cases the 
 roots of the same trees, and in others the roots of different 
 trees, become grown together. Occasionally also trees are 
 found grown together by their branches or stems. Inarching 
 is sometimes used for growing the Cutleaf Birch, in which 
 case the sprouts from a stump of a Cutleaf Birch, or the twigs 
 
42 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 from a small tree laid on the ground, are tied to small Birch 
 seedlings, which, have been grown in pots and plunged to 
 their rims in the ground near the tree. In doing this the 
 bark is removed for about two inches at the pcrtnt of contact 
 of the twig and seedling, which are then tied firmly together. 
 It should be done by the middle of June, but will often be suc- 
 cessful if done even a month later. They should be kept to- 
 gether until the leaves fall, and then the branches from the 
 parent tree should be cut away, leaving the seedlings with 
 the twigs grown fast to them. These should be carefully 
 heeled-in over v/inter, and in the spring the seedlings should 
 be cut off just above the union, so as to throw all their strength 
 into the adopted twig of the Cutleaf Birch. This method may 
 also be used to replace lost branches on trees or vines. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 NURSERY PRACTICE. 
 
 Nursery. This term is appliec to a plot of land u'^'ed for 
 raising plants that are intended for planting elsewhere for 
 their final growth. 
 
 Soil and Cultivation. The best soil for a general nursery- 
 is a deep, rich, reasonably level, retentive upland. It is cus- 
 tomary to grow most of the nursery crops in rows, so that 
 they may be readily cultivated. The land should be plowed 
 deeply when the crop is planted, and the surface soil kept 
 loose and fine during all the early part of the growing season, 
 or until about the middle of July. If the land that has to be used 
 for a nursery is rather shallow, it should be gradually deepen- 
 ed by plowing from year to year, and, if inclined to dry out, 
 the addition of large quantities of organic matter, together 
 with constant cultivation, will do much to remedy these de- 
 fects. 
 
 The cultivation of a nursery or young forest plantation, 
 provided the latter is planted in rows, should consist in keep- 
 ing the land stirred to the depth of three inches, thus giving a 
 dust blanket, which will protect from drouth. After the first 
 of August much cutivation is likely to encourage a late au- 
 tumn growth, which should be avoided; but a moderate quan- 
 tity of buckwheat or oats may be sown then, and be allowed 
 to grow the remainder of the season, to serve as a winter 
 protection — to hold snows, and prevent the heaving out of the 
 young seedlings by frost. 
 
 GRADES OF NURSERY STOCK. 
 
 Nursery stock of different kinds has come to be known by 
 such convenient names as seedlings, transplants, street trees, 
 forest-pulled seedlings, etc. 
 
 Seedlings are young plants, grown from seed, that have 
 never been transplanted, and are generally designated by 
 their size or age. They form the cheapest class of nursery 
 stock, and are used largely for starting windbreaks. 
 
44 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 Transplants are seedlings that have been at least once 
 transplanted, and are designated by the size and number of 
 times they have been moved. They are higher in price than 
 seedlings, but with some kinds of trees they are much more 
 likely to grow, and may be well worth the extra price. Ever- 
 greens, especially pines, will seldom do well unless transplant- 
 ed before being set in a permanent place. 
 
 Street Trees include the trees of large size which are used 
 for street, shade and ornamental purposes. To be of the best 
 quality they should have been transplanted two or more times 
 and have received some attention in the way of pruning so as 
 to give them a good form. Such trees vary much in quality 
 and price, but the best are necessarily rather expensive. 
 
 Forest-pulled Deciduous Trees of small size can often be 
 obtained at a very low price, and may be as desirable as those 
 that are nursery grown. 
 
 Forest-pulled Evergreen Seedlings may also be desirable. 
 
 Fig-. 10. A bunch of Green Ash Seedlings. 
 
 but too often they have poor roots, or have been so injured 
 by poor handling that they are generally worthless. 
 
 Forest-pulled Shade Trees sometimes grow very well, but 
 they are always inferior to good nursery-grown trees. They 
 are greatly improved by having their roots shortened two 
 years before they are to be removed, and when so treated 
 grow very well. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING. 
 
 Transplanting is Simply the Removal of the Plant. It 
 
 may be to some permanent place, as a park, lawn, or street, 
 or it may be done for the purpose of improving the root sys- 
 tem, and to give the tree more room to grow. By shortening 
 the long roots the root system is made more compact and bet- 
 ter able to withstand subsequent removal. This may be done 
 by transplanting, or by cutting around the tree with a spade 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 
 
 45 
 
 or tree digger. It is especially desirable to do this to trees 
 that are not easily moved on account of their long branching" 
 roots, such as the Birch, or to those that have tap roots, like 
 the Oak and Walnut. It is on account of their having had 
 their roots shortened so they can all be moved with the tree 
 that nursery-grown trees are generally superior to others. 
 
 In Transplanting it is Important to take up a sufficient 
 amount of roots to support the plant, and as a rule the more 
 roots the better the conditions for growth. Very long roots 
 should be shortened unless the tree is removed to a perma- 
 nent place, in which case all the good roots should be left on 
 the tree. All bruised or broken roots should be cut off in eith- 
 er case, and the top of the tree shortened to correspond. In 
 transplanting trees they should be set one or two inches lower 
 than they formerly stood, and the roots should be spread out 
 
 Fig. 11. Extra good roots on a forest- 
 grown Elmi, used as a street tree. 
 
 in the holes without crowding. It is customary to plant many 
 kinds of small trees in furrows made with a plow. 
 
 Very Large Trees (those over six inches in diameter) are 
 sometimes successfully planted in winter, by taking them up 
 with a ball of earth. This is done by digging a trench around 
 the tree, late in the autumn, deep enough to cut most of the 
 roots, but far enough away from the tree to leave a large ball 
 of earth. The trench is then filled in with a mulch of some 
 kind, and when the ground is frozen the tree is moved, with 
 the ball of earth attached, to the hole which has been pre- 
 viously prepared and kept free from frost. 
 
 After Trees Have Been Moved, or had their roots short- 
 
46 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 ened in some other way, they should generally not be tranfs- 
 planted again for at least one or two years, during which 
 time they will have overcome the injuries done to their root 
 system. The time which should thus elapse will vary with 
 the kind of tree, and also with the amount of injury done. 
 Where the injury is severe a much longer time will be re- 
 quired for recovery than where it is slight. 
 
 Time to Transplant. Planting of trees should always be 
 done when they are dormant, or just as they start into growth 
 in the spring, which is generally from the middle to last of 
 April. If for any reason it is desirable to risk the moving 
 of trees late in the spring, after the leaves have started, they 
 should be cut back severely, all the leaves removed, and great 
 pains be taken to secure all the roots and to prevent their drying 
 out. Very hardy deciduous trees, as the Elm, Cottonwood, 
 Boxelder and Ash, can often be successfully moved in the fall, 
 if the ground is moist at the time of removal, but great care 
 must be taken to work the soil in very compactly between the 
 roots, so that there will be no large air spaces among them. 
 If the trees are large, it is a good plan to stake them, so they 
 cannot be blown about by the wind. The more tender trees 
 should not be transplanted in this section in autumn, and even 
 the hardiest kinds should never be moved at this season unless 
 the soil is moist. 
 
 Transplanting Evergreens. When seedling evergreens are 
 two years old they should be transplanted, and this should be 
 done about once in three years afterwards, until they are 
 moved to their permanent places. As evergreens are very 
 sensitive to being moved, this requires more care than with 
 most deciduous trees. The most important point is to not 
 allow the roots to have even the appearance of being dry. 
 They may be transplanted in the spring, as soon as the ground 
 works easily and the roots have white tips, and they may be 
 safely transplanted even up to the time that the new growth 
 shows about an inch, but at this late time more care must be 
 taken in doing the work than when it is done earler. Ever- 
 greens can sometimes be moved successfully in August, or 
 even in the autumn, if they are to be carried only a short 
 distance and the conditions of the weather and land are favor- 
 able; but this is not a time for general planting, and it is 
 seldom advisable to do it at this season. 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 47 
 
 The Very General Error is Current that June is the best 
 time to plant out evergreens. They may be transplanted at 
 this season successfully if the conditions are just right in every 
 particular, but they are much more liable to failure than when 
 *he work is done earlier in the season. At whatever time of 
 the year evergreens are to be moved, the work should be done 
 in such a manner as to protect the roots from having even the 
 appearance of being dry, for if dried ever so little the prob- 
 abilities of their living are much lessened. The kind of treat- 
 ment that would be considered all right for apple trees might 
 be ^atal to evergreens, as they are much more susceptible to 
 injury from drying. 
 
 In addition to the above precautions to be taken when mov- 
 ing evergreens, it is desirable to shorten back the limbs about 
 one-third, to compensate for the loss of roots. Of course this 
 shortening should not be done in such a way as to disfigure the 
 tree, but, when the roots are in any way severely mutilated, the 
 whole top makes more of a draft on them for moisture than the 
 roots can supply. This pruning is not so necessary in the case 
 of young seedling evergreens or nursery-grown trees that have 
 been recently transplanted, for when they are moved their root 
 systems are not seriously injured. 
 
 Very Small Evergreens and Other Small Plants are 
 often set in trenches made with a spade, as shown in figure 12. 
 For this method the soil must be loose, and yet sufficiently com- 
 pact so that it can be cut with a spade and not crumble before 
 the plants can be set out. The beds are made about six feet 
 wide, and a board of this length and six inches wide should be 
 used. The soil is thrown out with a spade (A) to the depth of 
 about six inches, but no wider than necessary to just take in the 
 roots. The plants are then placed in position by hand, and a 
 little soil pushed against them to hold them in place. (B) The 
 trench is then half filled and the soil firmly compacted by the 
 feet. The remainder of the soil is then put in and leveled otl, 
 the board is changed to the other side of the row first planted 
 and the planting is continued in the same way. (C and D) 
 Such close planting as this is only desirable when it is intend- 
 ed to give special care to the plants, as by shading or watering. 
 Plants should not remain more than two or three years in so 
 close a bed before they are transplanted. When it is desirable 
 
48 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 to set out small seedlings in rows, instead of beds, a tight line 
 may be used in place of the board. 
 
 Heeling in. This term is applied to the temporary cover- 
 ing of the roots of trees with earth to keep them from drying 
 out aftei' they are dug or are received from the nursery and 
 until they are planted. If they are to be kept for only a few 
 days, comparatively little care is needed in covering; but if 
 they are to be kept for several weeks, or over winter, especially 
 if the weather is dry. great care must be taken to work the fine 
 soil in among the roots and to pack it solid. A good way «f 
 doing this is as follows: Select a dry, mellow piece of ground, 
 and dig a trench just large enough to take in the roots of the 
 trees when laid close together in a single row. Place the trees 
 
 Fig. 12. Successive steps in planting young evergreen or 
 other very small seedlings, (a) Board in place and trench partly 
 opened, (ta) Seedlings in place and partly covered, (c) New 
 trench partly opened, (d) New trench with seedlings in place. 
 
 or seedlings in this trench, in an upright position, a few at a 
 time, and cover the roots firmly and deeply with soil taken 
 from close in front of the first trench, thus making a trench for 
 the next row. In this section, if Maples, Cherries and other 
 trees not of the greatest hardiness are to remain heeled in all 
 winter, it is a good plan to bend the tops down and cover with 
 earth. This is only necessary for winter protection. The 
 neglect to properly heel in nursery stock, as soon as it is 
 received is undoubtedly a frequent cause of failure. 
 
 When nursery stock consisting oi: common tree seed- 
 lings, other than evergreen seedlings, are to be planted out in 
 a few days, they may be unpacked and piled up in a moist 
 cellar or even in a tight shed, provided they are moistened a lit- 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 
 
 49 
 
 tie from time to time as reseeded. Temporarily, too, they 
 could be safely left in the bundles and be covered with moist 
 hay or straw to keep out the wind, but this can most safely be 
 done under cover somewhere. 
 
 Trees and cuttings will sometimes get so dry in shipment 
 that the bark shrivels. In such cases the best treatment is to 
 bury them entirely for a few days, which will often enable 
 them to recover. Soaking in water will answer the same pur- 
 pose, but unless very carefully done is likely to injure the 
 wood. 
 
 The Packing of Nursery Stock is a matter that calls for 
 much experience to adapt it to the various kinds of nursery 
 stock shipped and to the method of transportation. 
 
 Practically all the nursery stock that is used in forest plant- 
 
 
 Fig: 13. Heeling-in. Various stages of the operation: row of 
 trees with roots covered; row bent down and the tops covered. 
 
 ting in this country is best shipped when dormant. It will 
 generally be found that the box is the safest package to use 
 in the handling of it but sometimes it may be convenient to 
 ship in bales. Small packages may be sent in bundles or in 
 t)Oxes by mail, and for this purpose, they can best be packed 
 in clean sphagnum moss wrapped with oil paper and after- 
 .ward v/ith brown paper. Packages that are to go by express 
 do not require as careful packing as those that are to go 
 by freight, as they are not liable to be neglected. In ship- 
 ping by freight, it is important to pack with exceeding care 
 so that the goods will be safe even if considerably delayed. 
 
50 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 Puddling. All dormant nursery stock should have the 
 roots "puddled" before being shipped. This operation con- 
 sists in dipping the roots of the trees into a thin clay mud. A 
 convenient way to do this is to dig a small deep hole in which 
 the mud is prepared. Such treatment is quite a protection to 
 the roots against drouth. 
 
 The Best Material in which to pack nursery stock is prob- 
 ably moist (not wet) sphagnum moss, but as this is often ex- 
 pensive and out of the question in many localities, peat, ex- 
 celsior or wet chaff will be found to be good substitutes. Of 
 late years, excelsior has been growing in favor with our best 
 nurserymen as packing material. The material used for this 
 purpose is the fine shavings such as is generally wasted at 
 shingle mills. Before using, it should be thoroughly water 
 soaked. It has the advantage of not heating and yet retain- 
 ing moisture for a long time if covered up. 
 
 Nursery Stock in Transit is liable to several injuries. 
 One of the most common is for it to become too dry and in 
 this way lose its vitality. Yet it often happens in shipping 
 nursery stock that is to be several weeks in transit that it 
 is best to pack it so dry that the plants will perhaps shrivel 
 a little, because if packed moist, they will often decay. When 
 moss is to be used for packages that are liable to be a month 
 or more on the way, it should be thoroughly dried so that 
 there will be little moisture apparent in handling it. In such 
 cases the boxes should be thoroughly lined with paper before 
 they are packed. Paper lining for boxes is also very desir- 
 able when nursery stock is to be shipped during excessively 
 cold weather as it aids greatly in keeping out frost. 
 
 In shipping nursery stock in warm weather, it is often 
 desirable in the case of evergreens to pack the roots in moist 
 moss and leave the tops exposed, shipping the box without 
 any cover, or if covered at all, using only burlap or similar 
 material. In packing such a box, it is a good plan to remove 
 one end and pack in alternate layers of packing material and 
 plants and when the box is full, nail on the end. In this way, 
 the plants can be put in very solid. 
 
 It is Customary to Have Seedlings tied in bunches of 
 about 100 each when they are shipped, and whenever small 
 stock is shipped with large stock, it should be in a separate 
 bundle. It is seldom necessary or desirable to put packing 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 51 
 
 material about the tops but it should be confined to the roots 
 and the center of the bundles and the tops should be left 
 somewhat free so they will not heat. In packing nursery- 
 stock in this way it may sometimes be desirable to carefully 
 nail cleats across the box after the stock has been put in to 
 hold it in place and prevent its shifting about in transit. 
 Sometimes it may be desirable to ventilate the cases in which 
 they are packed. 
 
 In Packing a Bundle, great care should be taken that after 
 the plants are tied together the packing material is well 
 worked in between and around the roots so as to exclude a 
 free circulation of air about them. After this has been done, 
 and the package well tied together, it should be covered about 
 the roots with more packing material and wrapped with bur- 
 lap and well sewed on. The tops should be protected with 
 burlap, straw or grass. 
 
 Some Important Things to Remember in handling nur- 
 sery stock: 
 
 1 — If the roots of trees are frozen out of the ground and 
 thawed again in contact with the air, they will probably die. 
 
 2 — If the frozen roots of hardy plants are well buried in 
 the ground before thawing at all, they will be uninjured. 
 
 3 — Deciduous trees that are received in a shrivelled con- 
 dition may often be revived by burying them, tops and all, 
 in earth for a few days. 
 
 4 — Manure should never be placed in contact with the 
 roots of trees when they are set, but good black soil should 
 be preferably used for this purpose. 
 
 5 — If trees are watered, it is important to keep the soil 
 around them cultivated or covered with a good mulch, other- 
 v/ise the surface will bake hard and will lose moisture very 
 fast. 
 
 6 — Small thrifty trees are very much to be preferred for 
 transplanting purposes to those that are large, as the latter 
 are liable to be checked in their growth by being moved. 
 
 7 — The roots of coniferous Evergreens should not be al- 
 lowed to have even the appearance of dryness, as a very little 
 drying will prevent their growing. 
 
 8 — Spring is the best time to move all kinds of nursery 
 stock and as a rule plants do best when transplanted before 
 the buds start. 
 
52 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 9 — Autumn is a good time for transplanting our hardiest 
 deciduous trees, providing that the soil conditions are favor- 
 able, but it is not a good time to move coniferous Evergreens. 
 
 10 — Coniferous Evergreens may be safely moved about the 
 first of August after they have ripened up the first growth 
 of the season, if moved carefully with a ball of earth, but 
 when handled at this time they require much careful atten- 
 tion. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 Pruning should be avoided as much as possible, and yet 
 be done sufficiently to secure the effect desired. If it is begun 
 early in the life of a tree no large branches need ever be re- 
 moved, the most desirable pruning being the directing of the 
 growth by pinching off the buds that would develop into un- 
 desirable branches; but this is impracticable on a large scale, 
 and for this reason, in ordinary practice, it is often necessary 
 to do more extensive pruning. 
 
 The Purpose in Pruning Trees is to give them forms 
 that are desirable for the purpose intended. For example, a 
 tree for the lawn or windbreak may be most desirable when 
 covered with branches even down to the ground, while street 
 trees should have a trunk free from branches for eight or ten 
 feet from the ground. Many of the evergreens, and some 
 other trees used for ornament, naturally take on so regular 
 and desirable a form that it is not necessary .to prune them, 
 except perhaps to pinch or cut off an extra leading shoot that 
 is likely to make a forked top, while the White Elm, Soft 
 Maple, and others need occasional pruning to remove or short- 
 en awkward branches, at least while the tree is young and 
 growing rapidly. 
 
 The Proper Time for Pruning is determined by the effect 
 of the operation upon the health of the tree. Dead branches 
 may be safely removed at any season. The removal of live 
 branches during the growing season lessens the leaf surface, 
 and hence checks growth. Pruning when the tree is dormant 
 results in a more vigorous growth in the remaining branches. 
 Wounds made by pruning jus; as trees are starting into 
 growth do not heal over as readily as those made earlier in 
 the spring, or during the period ^r active growth in June. 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 
 
 53 
 
 Wounds made in autumn or early winter generally heal over 
 well, but are more likely to cause bad injuries than if made at 
 the close of the winter. These considerations and practical ex- 
 perience have brought ahout the following conclusions as to 
 the best time for pruning: 
 
 Large Branches are Most Safely Removed during the 
 latter part of winter, before growth starts. Small branches 
 may be safely removed at this time, or during the growing 
 season, preferably about the middle of June; but such very 
 hardy trees as the Elm, Ash, Boxelder, White Willow and 
 Cottonwood may be safely pruned at any time in autumn, win- 
 ter or spring, while the Mountain Ash, Apple, Plum and Wild 
 Cherry are liable to injury if pruned at any but the most 
 favorable seasons, 
 
 Fig. 14. Showing the proper place to make the cut in pruning. 
 
 A wound made on the dotted line A-B wlill be promptly healed. 
 
 One made on the line C-D or E-F will not. In figure 14 the lower 
 
 branch was cut off too far from the trunk. (After Goff.) 
 
 Among the Directions to be Followed in Good Pruning are 
 the following: 
 
 (1) Do not cut off a single branch unless you have a good 
 idea of what you wish to accomplish and the probable effect of 
 so doing on the tree; better not prune at all than to do it 
 without considering the consequences. 
 
 (2) Avoid doing very much pruning at one time, especially 
 on small street trees, which, if they have all their branches re- 
 moved from the trunks to their final height, are likely to make 
 too much growth at the top for the trunk to support well in high 
 winds. A better way is to remove a part of the lower branches 
 and shorten back in summer those that are to be removed 
 later; by such treatment a large part of the strength of the 
 
54 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 tree goes into the top without increasing the size of the lower 
 branches, which may be removed in a year or two without 
 injury to the tree. 
 
 (3) After pruning paint the wounds with good white lead 
 paint, to keep the wood from decaying and the injuries from 
 thus becoming permanent. This is not so necessary on very 
 hardy trees as on those that are somewhat tender. 
 
 (4) Where branches rub together it is generally best to 
 remove one of them. 
 
 (5) Where bad crotches are being formed by the devel- 
 opment of two leaders, severely check the growth of one of 
 them by shortening it, thus throwing more sap into the other 
 and making it the leading shoot. 
 
 (6) Prevent the formation of long side branches by short- 
 ening those that are liable to become too long. This is espe- 
 
 Fig. 15. Showing how to make the cut in pruning large branches. 
 The upper cut, all made from above, permits the branch to split 
 down. The left cut, first made partly from below, prevents split- 
 ting down. After Goff.) 
 
 cially desirable with the Soft Maple, which has a tendency to 
 form long branches that are likely to break off unless occa- 
 sionally pruned, 
 
 (7) Where trees have lost their leaders, prune so as to 
 develop one of the side branches into a leading shoot. This 
 the tree always attempts to do itself, but a little judicious 
 pruning will greatly aid it. 
 
 (8) Every species of tree and shrub has its own natural 
 form, and in pruning do not try to make all of them of one 
 shape. Study the natural form of each kind of tree, and en- 
 courage the development of this form. 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 55 
 
 (9) When trees are full of frost the wood cracks very 
 easily; therefore do not prune in very cold weather, for bad 
 wounds may then be easily formed. 
 
 Treatment of Crooked Trees. It is common to have some 
 trees in the nursery that are of vigorous, healthy growth, but 
 so crooked as to be nearly worthless. The proper treatment 
 for most of our shade trees when in this condition in the nurs- 
 ery, if anything is to be made of them, is to cut them off at 
 the surface of the ground, early in the spring, and then select 
 one of the good, strong sprouts that come from the roots of 
 each tree, train it into a straight stem, and cut away the 
 others. Treated in this way well-formed trees may soon be 
 grown. Such treatment may also be desirable with small 
 street trees that have their stems hopelessly injured. How- 
 ever, trees that to the novice may seem hopelessly crooked 
 may only have crooks in them that will be outgrown in a 
 few years. 
 
 STREET TREES. 
 
 Success with Street Trees is perhaps more dependent on 
 good soil about the roots than on any other one factor. If the 
 land is so very sandy or gravelly as to be subject to drouth, at 
 least two cubic yards (two full two-horse loads) should be 
 taken from where each tree is to be planted and the same 
 amount of good clay or loam substituted for it. If in subse- 
 quent years the trees outgrow the limits of the material sup- 
 plied, more of it should be added, and if this consists largely 
 of stable manure, so much the better, provided it does not come 
 into contact with the roots of the trees. It is important to do 
 this work thoroughly, for one tree well planted is better than 
 a dozen poorly set out. 
 
 Kinds of Trees. The best trees for street planting in this 
 section are the White Elm, Hackberry, Green Ash, Basswood, 
 Boxelder and Soft Maple. All of these trees do well in good 
 soil, and with the exception of the Soft Maple they all do well 
 in rather inferior land. Evergreens may sometimes be used to 
 advantage along narrow drives, but they are seldom desirable 
 as street trees. The trees planted should be about two to 
 four inches in diameter near the ground, eight or ten feet high, 
 and of thrifty growth. Much larger trees are sometimes set 
 out, but it is not advisable, as a rule, to plant those that are 
 
56 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 over four inches in diameter. Smaller trees are often planted 
 and do well, if properly cared for, but need more attention in 
 directing their growth than those that are larger. But small, 
 thrifty trees are much better for street planting than large 
 stunted trees. In all cases it is more important to have plenty 
 of good roots than a large top, as a top can soon be developed 
 if the roots are good. 
 
 Distance Apart. The distance between trees depends on 
 the kind planted and the quality of the land. On rich land in 
 
 Fig. 16. Soft 
 Miaiple not pruned 
 since it was planted 
 out. Liable to break 
 in its crotches at any 
 time. A bad form. 
 
 Fig. 17. Soft 
 Maple once pruned 
 showing close head 
 that is not liable to 
 break down. A good- 
 form. 
 
 Fig. 18. Soft 
 Maple several times 
 pruned preserving a 
 main central axis. 
 A good form. 
 
 this section the trees named should be put forty feet apart, 
 in fairly good soil about thirty feet, and in poor soil twenty 
 feet apart. This gives sufficient room for good development, 
 but where a quick effect is wanted it is a good plan to set the 
 trees much thicker than this, and use Cottonwood, Willow or 
 similar fast-growing treesr to alternate with one of the kinds 
 named as desirable, with the expectation of cutting out the less 
 valuable when it shall have commenced to crowd the more 
 desirable kinds. 
 
 Planting. Provided the soil is in the proper condition, 
 the next consideration is the proper planting of the tree. The 
 preparation for this should consist in digging a hole of suffi- 
 cient size to take in the roots without crowding. If the sub- 
 soil is very solid clay, it should be thoroughly loosened up. 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 
 
 57 
 
 and where practicable it is a good plan to dig a trench to the 
 loose soil over a water pipe or sewer, for by this means the 
 roots get into loose soil, and drainage is secure, which is often 
 much needed on such land. Sometimes a very stiff hardpan 
 can be broken up to advantage by exploding a small dynamite 
 cartridge in a deep hole made with a crowbar. 
 
 Before Setting the tree, it should have all broken and dead 
 roots cut off. It should then be set an inch or two deeper 
 than it had been growing, the discoloration above the roots in- 
 dicating the depth at which it had stood. If, however, good 
 drainage cannot be secured, the tree can be planted less deep- 
 
 Fig. 19. Elm 
 street tree properly 
 trimmed for planting 
 out. 
 
 ly, and then have a mound made around it. Fill in about the 
 roots slowly, being careful (should the tree have a great num- 
 ber of fibrous roots) to work the earth well in among them and 
 under the butt of the tree. Fine soil, free from large stones, 
 should be used for this purpose. Pack the soil in firmly, if 
 reasonably dry, with the heels, or, better still, with a rammer, 
 making it as solid as possible around the roots. The object 
 
58 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 in doing this is to leave no air spaces about them. It is not a 
 good plan to put water into the hole before the tree is set, 
 but it may be put in when the roots are just covered and 
 allowed to soak away before the remaining soil is put in. As 
 a rule, however, little is gained by watering if the trees have 
 not leafed out and the moist soil is packed firmly around the 
 roots. Water is most needed after growth starts. 
 
 Mulching. Newly planted street trees are much helped by 
 a mulch of straw, hay or well-rotted manure. The latter 's 
 best, as it also furnishes plant food, but hot manure is liable 
 
 Fig. 20. Elm -tree that has been planted five years and was 
 pruned to a bare pole when set out. 
 
 to injure the trunk if piled against it. These materials pre- 
 vent the soil from drying out, and this is especially beneficial 
 if the trees are artificially watered. 
 
 Watering should be done thoroughly or not at all. One 
 good watering should keep the ground moist for two or three 
 weeks, in the driest weather we have, if the land is heavily 
 mulched when the water is applied. For a good watering in a 
 dry time about one barrel of water should be given to each 
 street or lawn tree. A hollow should be made around the tree 
 
NURSERY PRACTICE. 59 
 
 and covered with mulch before the water is applied. This 
 same amount of water might be applied at the rate of one or 
 two pailfuls a day, and not be of the least benefit to the tree, 
 if applied to the bare surface of the ground. 
 
 The Pruning of Street Trees at the time they are set 
 out is an important matter. If the trees are very tall and slen- 
 der, it is a good plan to cut them off at about ten feet from the 
 ground, and trim off all side branches, as shown in figure 19. 
 For trees that have been pulled from the woods this is gener- 
 ally the best treatment, while for nursery-grown trees that 
 have had plenty of room, to develop a good top it may some- 
 times be best to trim so as to leave part of the top. If the 
 trees are trimmed to bare poles before planting, some little 
 pruning will be required each season for a number of years to 
 develop good tops, while if they had well formed tops in the 
 nursery and were shortened back at planting time much less 
 attention will be necessary. 
 
 In a row of Elms or other trees there will often be found 
 peculiar individual shapes. Some of the trees will take on 
 desirable forms, while others will be spreading and awkward, 
 and perhaps have a tendency to crack in the branches. In 
 some cases a little extra pruning will bring such unfortunates 
 into shape, but often they are incorrigible, and are best re- 
 placed by other trees with better forms. 
 
 Protection should always be given street trees as soon as 
 they are set out, and this should consist of something that will 
 protect them from sun-scald, gnawing of horses and whittling 
 by thoughtless boys. A good temporary cover is afforded by 
 wrapping the trunk with gunny sacking or similar material, 
 but a more desirable protection is afforded by a slatted wooden 
 frame or box for each tree. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 TREE PROTECTION— INJURIES TO TREES. 
 
 The causes of injury to tree growth are many and various, 
 some affecting principally the cultivated trees in windbreaks 
 and shelterbelts, and others affecting the forest plantations and 
 large areas of timber. Some injure or destroy the trees or 
 tree seeds, and others do damage to the land on which they 
 grow. 
 
 Saw-FMes and Tent-Caterpillars. At present perhaps the 
 most serious injuries to cultivated trees in this section result 
 
 Fig. 21. White Willow windbreak seriously injured by suc- 
 cessive attacks of saw-fly larvae. A common source of injury to 
 willows. 
 
 from the neglect to take precautions against leaf-eating insects, 
 such as saw-flies and tent-caterpillars. These injuries may be 
 largely prevented by the use of Paris Green, in a liquid form, 
 applied by means of a force pump, using the solutions from a 
 
INJURIES TO TREES. 61 
 
 barrel carried in a wagon or^on a stone boat. An ordinary spray- 
 ing nozzle should be used, with a sufficient length of hose 
 to reach up into the tree. In order to reach the tops of the 
 trees it may be necessary to have a raised platform on the 
 wagon and to attach the nozzle to the end of a long bamboo 
 pole. In most prairie groves this is practicable, but with very 
 high trees it is very difficult if not entirely impracticable. 
 
 Borers and Lice. These sometimes cause serious injury, 
 but it is seldom practicable to combat them successfully. It is 
 generally better to avoid them by planting the kinds that are 
 least subject to injury from their attacks. Where lice are in- 
 jurious, kerosene emulsion or strong tobacco water are good 
 remedies. In the case of small trees that can be easily in- 
 closed in a tent, the best remedy is tobacco smoke. 
 
 Mice and Rabbits. Seedlings and small trees of some 
 kinds are liable to injury from rodents, such as mice and rab- 
 bits, which gnaw the bark near the surface of the ground, and 
 perhaps girdle the tree. They are most likely to do this when 
 the ground is covered with snow, for this furnishes them with 
 a protection under which they can do their mischief without 
 fear of being molested. In the case of small seedlings such 
 injuries may be largely prevented by plowing a furrow or set- 
 ting boards on edge around the seed bed. If, after each snow- 
 fall, the snow is trodden down so as to make a solid path 
 between the seedlings and the grass or woodland whence the 
 mice come, they will be kept out, as they will not try to work 
 through the solid snow. Seedlings that are badly girdled in 
 winter should be cut off at the surface of the ground, to encour- 
 age sprouts from the roots. To prevent the gnawing of larger 
 trees, paint the trunk with a cement or lime wash made rather 
 thick and containing Paris Green in the proportion of one 
 tablespoonful of Paris Green to a pailful of the wash. If skim 
 milk is used in mixing the wash, instead of water, the material 
 sticks better. Trees that are gnawed badly may often be 
 saved by coating the injured surface with grafting wax, blue 
 clay, or other similar material, soon after the damage is done, 
 so as to prevent the seasoning of the wood, and thus give it 
 a chance to heal over. Where the injury is close to the ground 
 it should be covered with earth. 
 
 The Pocket Gopher. Trees are sometimes injured by 
 pocket gophers eating the roots. Trapping or poisoning may 
 
62 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 be resorted to, or bisulphide of carbon may be used to suffo- 
 cate tliem in their burrows. 
 
 Birds. Most of our birds are helpful in various ways, such 
 as distributing seeds and in destroying injurious insects, and 
 such small injurious animals as mice and gophers. They also 
 add to the beauty of our woods and fields, and to our pleasure 
 and recreation. But some kinds are provokingly injurious by 
 eating the seeds we wish to gather, or by digging up newly- 
 sown seeds. Where they are troublesome on seed beds, they 
 may be kept away by covering the bed with wire netting, 
 which will also serve to keep away other animals. If only 
 birds are troublesome, mosquito netting may be used, or the 
 seeds may be given a light coating of red lead and dried in 
 land plaster or flour before sowing. 
 
 The sap-sucker does considerable injury to some trees by 
 making holes in the bark for the purpose of securing insects 
 which go there to feed on the sap. They are sometimes so 
 very injurious that it is necessary to destroy them. The 
 Apple, Boxelder, Maple, and most other trees, are subject to 
 their injuries. 
 
 Cattle. The pasturing of cows, horses, sheep and other 
 animals in the woodlands is generally a poor practice, as these 
 animals browse off many of the young seedlings, especially 
 those of deciduous trees, such as the Oak, Basswood, Cherry 
 and others, though they seldom eat coniferous trees. They also 
 compact the ground, and destroy many small seedlings by their 
 continued tramping, especially when present in large numbers. 
 This is especially true of sheep on the Western forest reserves. 
 Deer, moose, elk and other similar animals are likewise in- 
 jurious in forests and when abundant may do much damage, 
 though on account of their comparatively small number they 
 do but slight injury. 
 
 Severe Winters. These may injure many kinds of young 
 seedlings, which when two or three years old will be perfectly 
 hardy. Seedlings of such kinds should be dug at the end of 
 the first season's growth, and be heeled in over winter, or pro- 
 tected by a mulch or earth covering in winter. 
 
 Alternate Freezing and Thawing. Seedlings are often 
 thi*own out of the ground by alternate freezing and thawing, 
 and in this way have their roots broken. This is most likely 
 to happen where the ground is bare; if covered with leaves or 
 
INJURIES TO TREES. 
 
 63 
 
 grass, or shaded in other ways, this seldom happens. The best 
 preventive is to mulch the surface soil with leaves or other 
 similar material, but as mice generally like to live in such 
 places poison should be used. It should be placed under the 
 mulch, in tin cans laid on their sides, so they may be readily 
 found in spring and will not be liable to poison the birds. 
 When seedlings are thrown out of the ground by frost they 
 should be pushed back and have the earth pressed against 
 them as soon as the ground is thawed in the spring. 
 
 Fig. 22, Heaving out by Frost, (a) Tree in natural position, 
 (b) Drawn up by alternate freezing and thawing. 
 
 Late Spring Frosts are common in the low lands of this 
 section. They injure the trees by killing the new spring 
 growth after it lias started several inches. A large number of 
 trees are seriously injured in this way, and are classed as 
 frost tender trees, and those that are not liable to this injury 
 
64 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 are termed frost hardy trees. Among conifers the spruces 
 and balsams are much injured by late spring frosts, while our 
 pines and the Tamarack, Red Cedar and Arborvitae are seldom 
 if ever injured in this way. Deciduous trees recover from such 
 injuries more quickly than evergreens. Among the deciduous 
 trees most liable to injury from this cause are the Ash, Mul- 
 berry, Oak, Maple, Basswood, Black Walnut, Butternut and 
 Boxelder, though they do not all suffer in the same degree. 
 Among those that are not sensitive to late frosts are the Elm, 
 Willow, Poplar, Birch, Hackberry, Wild Black Cherry and 
 Mountain Ash. 
 
 On account of this liability to injury from late frosts, it is 
 customary to study the probability of damage from this cause 
 in given locations, and to plant accordingly. It will often be 
 found that in certain low spots there is greater liability to late 
 frosts, while there is very little injury from this cause on the 
 higher lands. It is customary among European foresters to 
 protect young seedlings of some kinds, particularly Beech, from 
 late frosts until they get up off the ground. For this purpose 
 Birch twenty or more feet high are encouraged at intervals of 
 thirty or forty feet, and the frost tender plants, such as Beech 
 and Spruce, are set out between. The result of this arrange- 
 ment is that the Birch, which is frost hardy, quite successfully 
 protects the frost tender trees below it. After the frost tender 
 trees are well off the ground, as ten or fifteen feet high, there 
 is comparatively little danger from this source of injury, and 
 the Birch is removed. 
 
 Sleet Storms occasionally do much damage by breaking 
 the limbs. Little can be done to relieve the trees, but preven- 
 tive measures may be taken. If no large crotches are allowed 
 to form in trees, and growth kept as near as possible to one 
 central shaft, or the longer branches shortened so that they will 
 not exert too great a leverage, the losses may be reduced to a 
 minimum. Trees having brittle wood or weak crotches, as the 
 Soft Maple, are much more liable to this injury than those with 
 tough wood, as the willows, oaks and elms, and need more 
 pruning on this account. Evergreens are likely to be broken 
 by heavy snows that freeze on the leaves. This may be pre- 
 vented on lawn and shade trees by shaking the snow off from 
 them before it freezes. 
 
 Frost Cracks are a rather infrequent injury caused by the 
 
INJURIES TO TREES. 
 
 65 
 
 cracking of trees from center to outside, due to uneven con- 
 traction in very cold weather. It is generally accompanied by 
 a loud report. Such cracks are often eight or ten feet long, 
 and occasionally longer. They generally close up again when 
 the wood thaws out, and during the following summer grow 
 over, only to burst open again the next winter. This alternate 
 bursting open and growing over may continue for many years, 
 until very conspicuous and peculiar wounds are formed. In 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Trees heavily loadea witli ice after a sleet' storm. 
 
 such cracks insects and rot-producing fungi find favorable lodg- 
 ing places, and as a result trees are seriously injured, and are- 
 liable to decay in the trunk. There are no practical remedies 
 for such injuries. 
 
 Wind. Injuries from wind are common where thinning is 
 done to a great extent at one time about shallow rooted trees, 
 such as Spruce growing on moist soil. These injuries can be 
 avoided only by thinning gradually. In many such cases, on 
 
66 
 
 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 limBer lands, thinning is impracticable, and it is then best to 
 cut all the merchantable timber, for if left it is sure to be 
 blown down. 
 
 On our prairies, where the soil is light and easily moved 
 by the wind. It is not uncommon to have young seedling trees 
 seriously injured by the blowing away of the soil around the 
 
 Fig. 24. Old frost cracks in Sugar Maple. 
 
 roots, which often leaves them uncovered for three or more 
 inches. This injury usually takes place in the spring, and 
 may be almost entirely prevented by seeding the land to oats 
 about the middle of July, at the time of the last cultivation. 
 
INJURIES TO TREES. 
 
 67 
 
 V 
 
 Sown at this season the oats form a good sod that serves to 
 hold the soil in place until spring, when it is easily broken up 
 by cultivation, but even then the roots prevent the blowing 
 away or the soil. Occasional strips of grass are also a pre- 
 ventive of this injury, or mulching may be resorted to. 
 
 Snow Crust. The settling of a snow crust that has formed 
 on the top of deep snow drifts may cause injury to young trees 
 by stripping off their branches and breaking the stems. It 
 
 Fig. 25. Trunk 
 of Soft Maple badly 
 sun-scalded. 
 
 • Fig. 26. Section of Trunk 
 of Sun-scalded Basswood, show- 
 ing dead bark and amount of 
 wood decayed. The top and 
 roots of the tree from which 
 this section was cut were per- 
 fectly healthy at the time when 
 the trunk broke off at the sun- 
 scald. 
 
 may be prevented by breaking up the crust or by thinly scat- 
 tering over the snow some sand, ashes or other material that 
 will absorb the sun's heat and cause the crust to melt before 
 the snow underneath melts. This injury seldom occurs except 
 under drifts, and a little good judgment in selecting the loca- 
 
68 FARM WIND-BREAKS. 
 
 tion and arranging the windbreak so as to prevent drifts may 
 obviate this source of injury. 
 
 Drouth. Injuries from drouth may be prevented to a great 
 extent by constant cultivation, but where this cannot be done 
 mulching is a good substitute. Attention to thinning at the 
 proper time so as not to get the soil filled with roots will also 
 help to prevent injury from drouth. Willow windbreaks can 
 be grown without any cultivation, after being once well estab- 
 lished, in the driest portion of Minnesota, if they are kept 
 mulched with straw or litter for six feet on each side. Mulch- 
 ing also prevents injury from severe freezing of the roots. 
 
 Sun-scald. Nearly all of our cultivated trees may be in- 
 jured by sun-scald. This occurs, almost without exception, on 
 the southwest side of unprotected trees of Hard and Soft Ma- 
 ple, Basswood, Boxelder, Black Walnut, etc. Oaks and all 
 other trees are occasionally affected. It never occurs when 
 the trees are sufficiently close together to shade their trunks, 
 and for this reason the growth of shrubs and low branching 
 trees shpuld be encouraged on the south and west sides of 
 groves where they do not crowd the principal kinds. Street 
 trees liable to this injury may be protected by burlap sacking, 
 straw or other similar material. When injuries from sun-scald 
 occur, the loose bark should be cut off down to the live growth 
 and the wood coated with paint, to prevent its seasoning, or 
 the wound wrapped in cloth. Trees inclined to the northeast 
 are most liable to sun-scald, because the rays of the sun 
 strike the trunk more nearly perpendicular. 
 
 Broken Branches and Decay. Large wounds are some- 
 times formed by the breaking down of a branch, or by decay, 
 which may have started in a wound made by pruning. In such 
 cases the broken and decayed wood should be cleared away, 
 and the exposed surfaces treated with a very heavy coat of 
 white lead paint, grafting wax, or other material that will keep 
 out water and disease. If the wound is very large, or forms a 
 hole in which water is likely to stand, it should be cleaned and 
 painted as recommended, and then covered with a sheet of 
 zinc, carefully tacked on, and the joints closed with grafting 
 wax to keep out water. 
 
 Fungus Diseases are quite common sources of injury to 
 trees of all kinds, including those of our forests. They attack 
 the foliage, trunk and roots. Occasionally very serious losses 
 
INJURIES TO TREES. 69 
 
 occur here from those that cause the trunks to rot. They are 
 generally most numerous in sections where there is not much 
 of a circulation of air. This subject is tog large for a detailed 
 account of any of them here, and only one is referred to, which, 
 although not very common, is occasionally quite injurious. 
 This is known as the toadstool root fungus, Agaricus melleus. 
 This fungus lives upon the roots of pines, spruces, firs, etc., 
 and occasionally kills them. At one stage of its growth it lives 
 on the decaying wood of oaks and similar trees. 
 
^\)t 
 
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