l\.k-% JLJ. 1 HNvj &M CROCKER NTO. WWHMWBWBN Class Book ^MO d Copyright N^' ^/V"- COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. J z z o H U is u ■f. H B £ -; FURNITURE DESIGNING AND DRAUGHTING NOTES ON The Elementary Forms, Methods of Construction and Dimensions of Common Articles of Furniture BY ALVAN CROCKER NYE, Ph.B, INSTRUCTOR IN FURNITURE DESIGNING PRATT INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN, NEW YORK CITY THIRD EDITION REVISED WITH ADDENDUM NEW YORK THE WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK CO. ,"° \% Copyright By ALVAN C. NYE J900-1907 By THE WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK CO. 1914 JAN 3 1916 ©CU420157 "Vt-o. / i M u PREFACE THIS book for the use of students, architects and others who at times find it desirable to make drawings for furniture, has been prepared from material collected during an experience of some years as a designer of furniture for several of the most important furniture-makers in New York City. It is assumed that a knowledge of how projection and per- spective drawings are made has been obtained, and that the general principles of design and ornamental forms are famil- iar to the reader. It describes methods of construction as far as they relate to draughtsman's work, but stops there, for it is not the intention to make this an instruction book for those who wish to become cabinet-makers. The "man at the bench" may, however, find the parts relating to designing of interest even though the practical details are already- known, and seem to him incomplete because many mechani- cal matters that he realizes are necessary in making furni- ture are not mentioned. Construction details that have been omitted were not thought essential to the draughtsman, and if known by him would be of no service in making the design or working drawing, as they would not appear on either. A. C. N. New York City, 1900. CONTENTS Page. Preface 3 CHAPTER I. Definitions, Classification, Proportion 9 CHAPTER II Tables, Turnings, Cross Veneering 15 CHAPTER III. Chairs, Seats, Sofas, Upholstery 37 CHAPTER IV. Casework, Panelling, Bedsteads 57 CHAPTER V. The Drawer 81 CHAPTER VI. Ornamentation of Furniture 86 CHAPTER VII. Theories of Design, Rendering 94 ADDENDUM. The "Louis" Furniture Styles 115 LIST OF PLATES Frontispiece. Louis XIV. Desk. I. The Construction of a Table. II. Chair and Table Legs. III. French Chair Leg. IV. Drop Leaf Tables. V. Pivoted Top Tables. VI. Extension Tables. VII. Chairs. Front and Side Elevations. VIII. Arm Chairs. Seat Plans. Stretchers. IX. Outline of Chair Backs. X. Composition of Chair Backs. XI. Construction and Upholstery of Chairs. XII. Composition and Proportion. XIII. Case Construction. XIV. Mouldings and Panels. XV Hanging Doors and Lids. XVI. The Drawer. XVII. Ornamental Chair Backs. XVIII. Louis XV. Table. XIX. Louis XVI. Cabinet. XX. Louis XIV. Chair. XXI. Louis XIV. Chair. XXII. Louis XV. Chair. XXIII. Louis XVI. Chair. XXIV. Louis XVI. Chair. XXV. Louis XV. Chair. ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT Page. Acanthus 121 Bedstead framing 79 Card table hinge 31 Effect of mouldings 62 Inlay, Louis XIV 126 J oints 65 Louis Styles Ornaments 119 Meeting stiles for hinged doors 75 Meeting stiles for sliding doors 75 Outline Plans, Louis XIV. and Louis XV 114 Outline Plans, Louis XVI 117 Pin hinge 72 Secretary hinge 76 Table Legs 117 Table Legs 123 Turnings 21 INDEX Arm chairs, Plans of, 46. Applique metal work, 91. Bandy legs, 16. Brackets, supporting leaves, 28. Banister back chair, 45. Bearer, 82. Bedstead, 78. Bookcase, 77. Burnt ornament, 92. Built-up table top, 24. Butt joint, 66. Cane seats, 56. Case work, proportion, composition, 57. Case work, construction, 65. Classification, 9, 10. Castors, 47. Carving, 86, 87, 88. Chair, plan of arm, 46; arms, 48; banis- ter back, 45 ; carved back, 88 ; cano seat, 56 ; construction, 45 ; dimensions, 46; elementary forms, 37; four backed, 46; for use at table, 48; Hepplewhite, 49; parts of, 37; rush seat, 55; seat dimensions, 47, 48; stretchers, 46; scissor pattern, 38 ; slope back, 49 ; upholstered, 49; Windsor, 38; wood seat, 45. Cover, for upholstery, 55. Cross veneering, 24. Composition of case work, 57. Construction of bedsteads, 79; drawers, 81; case work, 65; chairs, 45; tables, 23. Draw table, 51. Drawer, hanging, 82; slides, 85; triangu- lar, 85; depth of, 81; pivoted, 85; for music cabinets, 83; construction, 81; runners, 82. Desk lids, 76. Dimensions of bedsteads, 80; case work, 78; chairs, 56; component parts, 11; sofas, 56; tables, 23. Disposition of ornament, 93. Doors, sliding, 75; swinging, 72. Dove tail, 67. Dowel joint, 24. 66. Drop leaves, 27. Dust panel, 82. Extension table, 31. French bandy legs, 16. First things considered, 11. Finger joint, 28. Four-backed chair, etc., 46. Furniture, what is good, 12; plan, 114. Glazing, 71. Hepplewhite chair, 34, 49. Hinging, 71. Joints. 66; knuckle, 28; finger, 28; mitre, 66; mortise and tenon. 67; rule, 27. Leaves, for table, 27. Llning-up, 24. Marquetry, 92. Mediums, for sketching, 63. Meeting stiles, 72. Mirrors, 71. Mortise and tenon, 67. Mouldings, 61 effect of, 62; ornamenta- tion, 65. Music cabinets, 85. Ornament, 93; painted, 92. Over-stuffed work, 53. Originality, 94. Ormolu, 91. Plan, furniture, 114; chair seat, 38. Panels, 67. Painted ornament, 92. Perforated carving, 88. Pivot hinge, 72; top table, 28. Pivoted drawer, 85. Rush seat chairs, 55. Rule joint, 22. Runners, 82. Scale of sketches, 96. Stability, of tables, 22. Seats, plans of, 38; wood, 45. Sketch, purpose of, 95; scale, 96; medi- ums, 113. Stiles, 94. Spread, of table feet, 22. Stretchers, chairs, 4Q; table, 21. Shelving, 77. Slides, for extension tables, 32; drawers, 88. Sliding doors, 75. Shieldback, 38. Stiles, meeting, 72. Scissor chair, 38. Sofas, 56. Stub tenon, 67. Stumbling block, 11 Tables, construction of, 23 ; draw, 33 ; definition of, 15; extension 31; frame of, 22; height, 22; leaves, 27; legs, 16; overhang, 22 ; parts of, 15 ; spread of feet, 22; stability of, 22; tops, built- up, 24. Tracings paper, use of, 96. Turnings, 21. Tufting, 64. Upholstery, 49; block, 53. Varnishing, 86. Veneers, 91; built-up, 24. Vernis Martin, 92. Wood, qaulities of, 10; seat, 45. Windsor chair, 38. Wrought iron, 91. FURNITURE. CHAPTER I. Definitions, Classification, Etc. FURNITURE designing is the art of delineating and ornament- ing household effects so they become objects of beauty and pleasure as well as service. Furniture designing means giving thought and study to the proposed plan ; the seeking for the best forms, sizes, proportions, materials, and workmanship to produce what is required. It may be necessary to make several attempts be- fore success is attained, but the result will be the best individual effort. In this sense designed furniture should be useful, handsome, and well made of properly selected material used in an attractive way. Furniture may be made without any special study or thought, the result being mechanical, careless and lacking in artistic qualities. A mechanic may make something that is serviceable but extremely ugly, and without design. If, however, he has the personal quality that causes him to take pride in the appearance of his work com- bined with the knowledge of how to proceed to obtain the beautiful he will become a designer, for he will put his mind to his work, giving it a personality, independent of chance effects. Furniture made without this thought and study brings to the mind at once the feeling that something is wanting. Either the lines indi- cate an indecision in the mind of the maker, or the methods employed in its construction show no desire to produce the best effect with the material. Furniture can be divided into three classes, according to use. First, DOMESTIC FURNITURE, including that for dwellings of every rank. 10 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC. Second, CIVIL FURNITURE, that for public buildings and places of business. Third, ECCLESIASTICAL FURNITURE, for churches. Furniture may also be divided into two groups named for the methods of construction. The first, Fratnezvork, includes seats, tables, mirrors, screens, etc., and all articles not boxed in. The second. Casework, includes chests, bureaus, sideboards, desks, etc., and all articles which are cased (boxed) in by panel work or its equivalent. The materials from which furniture is usually made are wood, metal and stone. The use of metal and stone need not be considered here, because these materials are employed for extraordinary furni- ture of a more or less fixed architectural character not strictly within the general accepted meaning of the word. The natural material is wood, which has many qualities to recommend it. It is abundant, easily obtained, and easily prepared in convenient form for use. It is of light weight so that objects made from it are not heavy enough to become inconvenient, and it is sufficiently strong to serve all prac- tical purposes. The ease with which it is worked into the forms desired, and the facility with which necessary repairs may be made are recommenda- tions in its favor. In addition to these advantages, which may be called technical, there are the aesthetic and physical reasons why wood is superior to other materials. It is agreeable to the eye in its natural state, which furnishes a large variety of colors, but if these do not meet the requirements stains of any shade can be applied with ease. It also assumes, under proper conditions, a polish of a greater or less degree. There are no objectionable sensations experienced when it is touched by the hand, as it is not hard or harsh, nor is the temperature unpleasant. The kind of wood used may have an influence on the character of the design. Some woods are of a coarse, open grain hardly adapted to small details or fine work. Such woods are oak and ash. They are well suited to large, heavy articles for severe usage, and of broadly executed design. Woods like mahogany, satinwood and maple are of a fine, close grain and admit of a more delicate treatment. Mould- ings and carvings in these woods may be smaller in detail than seems proper for those of a coarser grain. This feeling is quite well recog- nized by everyone, so that furniture for halls, libraries, etc., is often of the coarse woods, reserving those of finer grain for the living- room, parlors and bedrooms. FIRST THINGS CONSIDERED. II The character of the wood need not affect the quality of the de- sign, as each variety may receive equal aesthetic treatment. The bold, coarse work may have just as much feeling expressed in the design as the more delicate. It is not the material used that is the most im- portant consideration, but the form and proportion of the article, and the harmony of the design with the surroundings. It is the study of these conditions that gives opportunity for the designer to display his skill. He asks himself : Shall the article be square or oblong? Shall it be high or low in proportion to the width? Or if, as frequently is the case, one or two dimensions are given, what will be the best proportion for the other? After the general proportion and form is determined, then the dimensions of the component parts are considered, and it may hap- pen that these will be the only ones left for the designer, as the con- ditions of the problem sometimes fix all other sizes. By the component parts is understood (taking a table as an example) the relation of the size of the leg to the whole, the thickness of the top, and its projection ; the depth of the frame, etc. Such questions must be answered for every article, and on the solution depends the qual- ity of the design. The stumbling block for beginners in design is the habit of think- ing in feet and inches. One of the first questions usually asked by students is, how many inches wide shall this, or that, be made? There is a feeling that because it cannot be answered at once it is impossible to make the drawing correctly. It is not necessary, in most instances, to know the figure, as the dimension is dependent entirely on the sense of proportion and practicability. All dimen- sions fixed by common usage are known or given to the designer ; the others should be determined by the knowledge obtained from experience and observation. As the designer becomes proficient he learns that within limits a square post of a given size may be used in certain places, but whether it will look better a little larger or a little smaller is determined by judgment. The sizes of material found in stock need not interfere with the expressing of ideas that may occur. Lumber can be obtained of almost any size desired, and if it is not at hand the next largest dimension can readily be cut down, at the small expense for waste and labor, which in special work is hardly to be considered. It cer- tainly is not advisable to spoil a good design in order to use material without cutting a little to waste. 12 DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATION, ETC. A good piece of furniture must be adapted to the intended use, and it should not defy the laws of nature even in appearance. It is not sufficient for it to be strong, but it must appear so, that no thought of weakness may occur; nor ought it to appear unstable. It must be well constructed, otherwise it soon becomes broken or rickety ; and when new, if carelessly made, there will be something about it to cause dissatisfaction. It ought to be pleasing to the eye, not only in design but in workmanship, and its form should express its purpose. Excessive ornamentation is to be avoided. It is better to have too little ornament than too much. Construction has been placed second in these requirements for good furniture, believing that by following the laws of utility and construction natural and rational forms will be obtained. A de- signer should, then, have a little knowledge of the principles of con- struction, and in the following chapters the usual methods will be described as far as is necessary for the needs of a draughtsman. pun I. THE CONSTRUCTION OF A TABLE tfl— FRAME DOWELED To THE LEG FRAME TENONED INT" THE LEA. CLEAT SCREWED T° Top. SECTION °r A BUILT-UP TOP . C nniSH VEMtER. CROSS MEriEER-, """ S3? T°P SECURED BT blocks tonouedint° FRAME —^ m CHAPTER II. Tables. THE table consists of a flat, level surface, suitable to receive whatever may be placed upon it, supported on one or more uprights. The word table properly applies to the top, which in early times was called a board, and it was, indeed, nothing more, the sup- ports being trestles not attached in any way to the top itself. The top may be made of wood, marble, glass, etc., and is spoken of ac- cordingly as a wooden table, marble table, glass table, etc. If the material is not mentioned, it may be supposed to be of wood. The name of the material is sometimes linked with the geometrical form of the top ; thus, a square table, a circular marble table, an oval slate table, etc. Tables are made high or low, according to the purpose for which they are used, and may be either with or without drawers. They are composed of three parts — the top, the frame and the legs. Plate I. The top has been described above. The frame is composed of hori- zontal rails immediately beneath the top and parallel with its edge. It is sometimes omitted on small tables, called "stands," but is com- mon for the larger varieties. It serves as a means of binding the sup- ports and top together as well as strengthening the top, which might otherwise sag beneath its load. The depth of frame gives apparent as well as real solidity to the whole structure. The legs are the sup- ports for the table, and may be secured in several ways to the frame, or its equivalent. There may be but one leg, or post, directly under the center of the top, and ending at the floor in a spreading foot, thus forming a "pillar table." There may be two uprights, one at the middle of each end of a rectangular top, terminating in spreading feet, usually connected by a horizontal rail near the floor. There may be three, four or more legs, but four are most frequently used. These legs may be of an endless variety of shapes, and decorated by mouldings, carving, inlay, etc. On Plate II. are shown twelve legs, which can be termed elemen- 1 6 TABLES. tary forms, as nearly all others can be reduced to one of these. They are shown as chair legs, but they differ from table legs in proportions only. By comparing the plans and elevations, the drawings explain themselves clearly ; but it is desirable to study particularly numbers ii and 12. Eleven is the "bandy leg," with the ball and claw-foot used on "Dutch" and "Colonial" furniture. In many ways it re- sembles 12, which is the "Louis XV.," or "French bandy leg." This latter is much lighter, more graceful and ornamental than the Dutch form, but it at times seems too frail to support the weight it carries ; and, again, the curved lines make it appear as if bending beneath the strain. In many of the exaggerated patterns of these legs the vio- lent curvature causes the defects not only to become more prominent, but actually makes the leg weak. If the curvature is great, the ver- tical grain of the wood crosses it at one or more points, and at each of these places there is danger of the leg breaking. By examining the drawings Nos. n and 12 (a larger drawing of 12 in three posi- tions is shown on Plate III.) it will be seen that a vertical line may be drawn throughout the entire length of the leg without intersecting its curved outline. This vertical line represents, then, a portion of the stick from which the leg is cut that has not had the strength weakened. The leg increases in strength directly in proportion as the distance betwen the contour lines and such a vertical widens. The draughtsman is to observe that, although moulded and cut in irregular forms, the cross-section of this leg at any place is prac- tically square, and that in making it a square stick is first sawn so as to have the shape shown as front and side elevation, Plate III., and then turned over at right angles, on the vertical axis, and the same form cut again. As a result the diagonal view will curve as shown. When the leg is complete and casually examined it is seen in the diagonal view. It is with the recollection of such a view in mind that the designer too frequently lays out the curve for the front and side elevation, giving them the sharp sweep he really intends for the diagonal resultant curve. When the work is made from such a drawing the draughtsman is surprised to find how great the curve is In designing the bandy leg the proper method is to draw its three elevations and plans as on Plate III. and study the outlines carefully till sure they are right. Whatever may be the shape of table legs, they should be propor- tioned to the dimensions of the top, that they may not seem either too frail or stronger than necessary for the purpose of support. © X: CHAIR AND TABLE LEGS © © © © ^ \ ^ i ^ i 5 hJ © © CUVATI0H5 i • PLANS © ® H © w =3 JA ® ELEVATIONS M PLANS m FRENCH CHAIR LEG LATE I. V)9i DIAGONAL LltWIOM. ,, t 5-1- - 'ADD 31PL ELEVATIOM. ': DIAGONAL ELEVATION. 1 o JCAlt I l I I I 3 ^ INCH5 /Ti TURNINGS. 21 Occasionally it may be desirable to make them so small and delicate that the table becomes shaky, owing to the elasticity of the wood, though they may be quite strong enough in appearance, and in reality to sustain the weight intended to be placed on them. When such is the case the legs can be connected, near the floor, by hori- zontal braces, known as stretchers. Plate VIII. shows three arrange- ments of stretchers as applied to chairs, and those for tables are similar. Stretchers are sometimes used for aesthetic reasons when TURNINGS Q) © © not needed to stiffen the support. Tables having legs like Nos. 7 and 8, Plate II., do not look well without stretchers; the baluster forms of the turnings and the heavy foot of each leg seeming to demand a framework binding the supports together. Turnings are used continually in the construction of furniture, and they always appear smaller than a square stick of the same dimen- sions. This is apparent in the above illustrations. No. 1 shows the projection of the corner of a parallelopiped beyond the inscribed 22 TABLES. cylinder turned from it. The angular projection exists whenever an abrupt change from a square to a turned section is made. As this is objectionable in furniture work, it is cut away by rounding off the angle, as in No. 2, or by moulding it, as in No. 3. Nevertheless, if, as in these examples, the diameter of the cylinder and the side of the square are the same, the turning appears so much smaller than the square portion of the stick that the transition is too great. When the design will admit, the square parts of the stick are cut down after the turning is made, so that they are a trifle smaller than the turned portions. This makes the two sections seem more nearly of the same dimensions, and is shown in No. 4, where a torus and fillet are also introduced to make the change of form more gradual. This same feature is shown in No. 5, where the angles of the square are cut away. The square is smaller than the diameter of the turn- ing, and the torus is introduced to grade the transition. No. 6 is a longitudinal section of No. 5. The use of the torus or a bead be- tween the square and turned parts of a post seems desirable in most cases, whatever the profile of the turning. No. 7 shows it in use on a twisted turning. The depth of the frame of the table is largely a matter of indi- vidual taste. If, however, the table is one at which a person is to sit, with his knees beneath it, the frame must not be so deep as to reduce ihe space between its lower edge and the floor to less than two feet. An important condition of beauty in a table is its stability. It should not appear insecure on its feet, as happens if the legs are placed too far beneath the top. A safe guide is not to make the spread of the feet of a table less than two-thirds the spread of the top ; or, in other words, the overhang is one-sixth of the top. The overhang may be considerably more than this before the table be- comes dangerously insecure, but it will have, nevertheless, an ap- pearance of instability, especially if the width of the top is less than the height above the floor. It is well to round off slightly the corners of rectangular tables, that they may not present a sharp angle. The size of a table is determined by its use and the location it is to occupy. Unless intended for a special purpose it is thirty inches high. Possibly the most important uses to which tables are put are those of dining and writing. For either of these a table thirty inches high can be and is used continually, but there are those who find this DIMENSIONS OF TABLES. 23 somewhat too high. A dining table should be sufficiently low that a person need not raise the elbows when cutting his food, and that his plate rests well below him. If a writing table is too high, it is tire- some to sit at and write. Many dining tables and writing tables are, therefore, made but twenty-nine inches high. The side table used in dining rooms as a place from which to serve dishes or to carve should be thirty-six inches high. A dressing table is made thirty inches high, unless the person to use it requests that it be made otherwise. Parlor, fancy tables, etc., intended for ornamental use only, are made to correspond with the surroundings of the rooms in which they are placed, and may be any desired height, as they are neither intended to sit or stand at. The following list will give the dimensions of tables of average sizes that have been made and found satisfactory. It will serve as a guide or starting point in laying out new designs : DIMENSIONS OP TABLES Variety. Length. Width. Height Remarks. Bedroom 31 22 29 - 18 18 30 Commode. Bijou _ 30 22 30 Carving table 42 20 36 Dressing table 36 20 30 Extension table _ 66 66 30 Round. 54 54 30 Square. Library table 51 41 30 Oval. " 42 27 29 " 54 34 29 " 60 36 29 Tea table 13 13 20 Round. " 18 18 24 " I 23 23 18 Upper Shelf. ) " 130 17 29 LowerShelf. ( Note: All dimensions are in inchei. The parts of a table have already been named ; it remains to see how they are put together. The frame is joined to the legs either by the mortise and tenon or by doweling. The former joint was the old way of framing, but since the introduction of dowels the tenon has largely gone out of use among furniture makers. They consider it old-fashioned. And owing to the shrinkage of the tenon or the carelessness with which it is made, it does not seem as strong or equal to a dowel-joint. The mortise and tenon consists of a tongue (tenon) cut on the end of one of the joined pieces so as to fit tightly in a cavity (mor- tise) sunk in the other piece. In table work the tenon is on the end of the frame, and may or may not be its full width, while the mortise is in the leg. Plate I. 24 TABLES. The dowel joint derives its name from the dowel, a wooden pin, used for fastening the two pieces together by inserting part of its length in one piece, the rest of it entering a corresponding hole in the other. Where possible, more than one dowel is used. In table work two or more are fitted in holes bored for them in the end of the frame, and in the proper position on the legs are corresponding holes in which the dowels fit, and are glued when the two parts are brought together. Some small tables are constructed without a frame; in place of it there is a wooden cleat fastened to the underside of the top and the full diameter of the leg is inserted in this block ; or if the leg is of large size it is tenoned into the block. The top of a table may be solid or veneered. When small and cheap work is desired, it can be made of solid wood ; but otherwise it should be built up and veneered. Solid wood tops shrink, crack, or warp. The only sure way of avoiding these unfortunate occur- rences is to "build-up" the top. The building up process consists in constructing a core of some common, well-dried, lifeless wood, pre- ferably chestnut or pine. This core is of several strips of wood doweled together at the edges until a board is made about the size of the required top. These strips are arranged in a way that the annu- lar rings curve in opposite directions in each alternate piece. The core is next cross-veneered on both sides with hardwood, generally oak. A cross-veneering is laid so that the grain is at right angles to that of the wood on which it is applied. In table work it is at right angles to the grain of the core and the finish veneer; both of these naturally follow the length of the top. All around the edge of the top, after it is cross-veneered, is fastened a strip of the finish wood of the table (Plate I.). Finally, both sides are again veneered with the finish wood; that is, if the wood is not too expensive. If it is costly, a cheaper veneer is placed on the underside. When the design calls for the edge of the top to appear thick, it is a needless waste of material to construct it of wood the full thick- ness, besides making an unnecessarily heavy piece of furniture. To avoid this and yet obtain the appearance wanted, a frame of wood is fastened to the underside of the otherwise thin top, giving the thick- ness required. This frame is called the lining piece, and the top is said to be lined up. The method of fastening the top to the frame of the table varies with the class of work and the size. If it is a small table, no special care is taken, the fastening consisting of screws driven through the DROP LEAF TABLES Plate IV. fIDING BRACKLT5 Pit SUPPORTING LEAVE5 TABLE LEAVES. 27 rail into the underside of the top. If the rail is narrow and thick enough, the screw is set straight through it. If, however, it is a wide rail, the screws are driven in recesses cut for them on the inner side. Most tables are too large to admit of this method. A top fastened as just described is held fast to the frame, so if shrinkage takes place there is a strain somewhere that may result in a cracked top. To allow for any movement that may occur, short blocks hav- ing a tongue that fits securely in a groove cut on the inner side of the table frame are screwed to die underside of the top. These blocks hold the top firmly in position, and yet if a shrinkage takes place they are free to move in the grooved frame. Tables are frequently provided with a drawer either in the frame or hung beneath the top on cleats. How drawers are made, and the different kinds, are described in Chapter V. There are occasions that require a table larger than it is convenient to keep standing continually in a room. In early times, when tables were nothing more than boards resting on trestles, if they were not needed the board was turned up against the wall and the trestles stowed away. When the top and the supports became fastened together, methods were invented for reducing the size of the table, that it might not take up too much space, or for enlarging it for special purposes. One of these methods is the use of leaves or flaps that fold down against the side of the legs. Two things are to be observed in such tables — the way the leaves are hinged, and how they are supported when raised. In cheap work the edges of the leaves and top, where they meet, are cut straight and square, forming a plain joint, and the leaf is hung with a hinge on the underside. Plate IV., No. I. When hung in this way a small crack is seen between the top and the leaf as the latter hangs down, and the hinge also shows. In better work both these things are considered faults, and to avoid them the rule joint is used. Plate IV., No. 2. This joint is made by moulding both the edge of the leaf and the top where they meet, the moulding on the leaf being the reverse of that on the top. The top is cut with a projecting tongue, rounded like a quarter cylin- der, and the leaf is hollowed to receive it. The hinges are sunk into the underside of the top and leaf, with their center corresponding with the center of the quarter round moulding of the meeting edges. Then as the leaf swings up or down its rebated edge fits snugly against the moulded edge of the top. The hinge is practically con- cealed and there is no open joint. 28 TABLES. There are small tables made with two leaves hinged in a similar way to that just described, so when both are down the table is no wider than the cylinder plus the thickness of the leaves. Leaves may be supported by brackets attached to the frame and swinging out under them. The brackets may be hung with metal hinges, but better ways are illustrated in Plate IV., Nos. 3 and 4. These drawings show folding brackets somewhat similar in construc- tion made by fastening to the side rail of the table frame a block with one end cut so as to interlock with one end of the bracket. A metal pin through the two pieces where they interlock serves as an axis on which the bracket turns. In No. 3, the finger joint, the corners of the working parts are beveled off, that the bracket may turn. In No. 4, the knuckle joint, they are rounded so the parts fit clearly and are in contact in whatever position the bracket may be. The finger joint can be made the strongest, as more wood may be left between the pin axis and the ends of the tongues than in the other. The knuckle joint is considered the neatest, but it is more difficult to construct, and as the bracket is hidden from view the difference in appearance does not warrant its use. Sometimes, when the depth of the frame will permit, a portion of it may be cut so as swing on a pin at the middle, and, thus, when turned at right angles to the frame, one half is beneath the top. the rest acting as a support to the leaf. Plate IV., No. 5. Bracket supports are not strong, and a table with a large leaf is unstable. To obviate this, tables are made with a leg that swings out under the leaf, giving it support, and stability to the table. When such a table has a stretcher, the movable leg is strengthened by fastening it to a hinged bracket at the stretcher level, in addition to the one on the frame. Another way of supporting drop leaves is to arrange slides that may be pulled out from the table frame beneath the leaves when they are raised. The tables described thus far have the top fixed, but there are those with the tops pivoted, so when they are turned about the pivot a quarter way round, the leaves will be supported by the frame of the table, which in the revolved position of the top lies beneath them. Two varieties of this style are illustrated on Plate V. The first is an old-style drop-leaf table pivoted at the middle of the top. By raising both leaves and turning the top on its pivot the ends of the frame are brought beneath the leaves to support them. The second table is in more common use. The top is of two parts, of the same size and shape, hinged together so one part folds over on the other. When PIVOTED TOP TABLES Plat, V. !*5tTI<>NJ of T»P WHEN iWli ARE HPT DRop-HAFTME .,^\-. POTION of T°f , WHEN OPEtf mm w £afli EXTENSION TABLES. 31 folded the top is but half the size it is when open, and can be turned on the pivot to a position over one end of the frame with the hinged edges directly across the middle. The upper leaf may then be un- folded and will rest on the other end of the frame. Such tables are usually square when open, and are spoken of as card tables. u -TS(f . 66 © :k st^:~ i=SS=2JL=."i4i Card -table Hiriat. The hinges used for joining the two parts of the top are not ordi- nary butts. They are of a special form, as will be seen from the adjoining illustration, and are placed at each end of the leaves, with the screws driven into the edges. This avoids the appearance of any objectionable metal work on the surface of the table top, as would be the case if ordinary butts were used with their entire flaps ex- posed to view. The card table hinge has no projecting knuckle above the surface of the table, as its parts, instead of turning on a single pin, are joined by a link turning on a pin in each flap of the hinge. This link is flush with the edge of the table when the leaves are closed, and flush with the top when they are open. There are other forms of this hinge available. Other ways of increasing the size of tables are shown on Plate VI. These are extension tables. The upper one is the old "draw table," and is not used much now. A study of the drawings will show that the leaves enlarging the table are slides that pull out from beneath the top. Each slide is about half the length of the top, so the table is nearly doubled in length when both are pulled out. It should be noted, too, that to be of service the slide must be pulled out its full length ; otherwise the top and slide are not on the same level. This means that there are but two changes in size for this kind of a table. Either it is in- creased by the whole of one leaf or by both. The top of the table is not solidly fastened to the frame, but is free to move vertically a little, though prevented from moving in any other direction by keys fastened to its underside and passing through a rail the same thick- ness as the leaves, fastened to the frame. Each side has two bear- 32 TABLES. ing pieces fastened to its underside, one at each end. The bearing pieces are as long as the frame of the table, or a little longer, and when the slide is drawn out one end of them bears against the under- side of the rail to which the top is keyed, while their lower edge rests on the frame of the table, notched to receive it. They are cut at the proper level, so when drawn out the top and slide are on a level, and the slide is held securely in place against the edge of the top. The common extension table is familiar to everyone. The illus- tration presents it in the simplest form. It is really a table with a telescopic frame, and provided with extra sections of a top that may be added till the frame is extended its full length. The leaves are made of sizes from twelve inches to twenty wide, and the tables are made to extend as desired, the average being from twelve to sixteen feet. Each manufacturer has his own method of constructing the tele- scopic frame, or slides, as they are called, the differences depending on patented devices for holding the slides together. The principle, however, is the same in all. Plate VI. illustrates a section through two slides, showing one device. The sides of the slides are grooved to receive keys that dovetail them together. Each slide, when pulled out to the extreme, laps over those adjoining it about one-third, and stops are provided to prevent their being separated more than this. The slides are of wood, an inch and a half to two inches thick, nearly as wide as the table frame is deep and about as long as the under- side of the table when closed will permit. The number of slides depends on the length to which the table is to be extended. There are two sets — an odd number on each side of the table. The outer pair are screwed firmly to the underside of one-half of the top, and the inner pair to the other half. All the slides except these are free to move. As most tables extend too much for the slides to support the weight at the middle, it is usual to provide a center leg. This leg is fastened to the middle of a transverse rail screwed securely to the middle slide of each group. The frame of the table, when extended, is separated at the middle, and if the cloth cover is not used the slides are exposed to view. This interrupted frame is unsightly, and each leaf may be provided with its section of frame, so that when in place no gap is left between the extended ends. There are card tables made so two of the legs and one side can be pulled out to support a leaf when it is open. They are small extension tables, the frame itself forming a part of the slides. EXTENSION TABLES Plat. VI. A DRAW TABLE SLIDE. Cl.05[D yj 3t£TP«rl TWR006H E=Z: Top °f DRAW TABU f rrsn rami ran »r extem5i°m tabic 111 J^ SLIDE DMWtt Out £NlAR5tO SECTJOfl JH'WINli MY THROUGH rail "A* T» H°LD I°P IN aACti AIL) EL A SECTION OF TWO s U 0E5 ^TN fa z:- § u I zazjaiocz O B II MIT 2 " =n IS JL CHAPTER III. Chairs, Seats, Sofas. I" 1 HE parts of a chair are the legs, the seat frame, the hack, and the amis. Plate XI. The seat frame, and in most instances all the rails, are doweled to the legs and back posts. The seat frame is stiffened by corner blocks screwed securely to the inner side. If these blocks are wide and well fastened, they add very materially to the strength of the chair. The upholstery blocks mentioned on page 31 also stiffen the framing. The conditions given the designer usually determine the use of the chair and how much of it is to be upholstered. With this informa- tion given, he is free to make the rest as he likes, and he decides upon the form and proportion of the chair as a whole without respect to detail. This may be studied in plan and elevation at a convenient scale, or perhaps in perspective, if the idea is sufficiently clear in the mind to do so. It is, however, only by means of the projection drawings that the true forms of the different parts may be known, and even though the sketch is made at once without their aid a knowledge of what they are like is necessary. Chairs, when drawn in side elevation, assume one of the five elementary forms shown on Plate VII., where attention is called to the relation of the supporting members to a vertical line. These outlines are drawn from actual examples, and are at the same scale for purposes of comparison. The front elevation will appear like one of the three types shown on this plate. The one on the right, if drawn in side elevation, would have a straight back and straight legs ; the one on the left would have the side elevation, like one of the first three illustrated ; the one in the middle would appear in side elevation much the same as it does in the front, i. e., all legs and the back inclined. It is a drawing of a Windsor chair, with a solid wood seat, sometimes called the saddle seat, because of its shape. The legs and back posts are fastened in this seat by inserting the full size of the turning in holes 38 CHAIRS, SEATS, SOFAS. bored for them, and the seat frame is omitted; but the legs are tied together by stretchers. Italian and German chairs, with backs and legs of solid boards elaborately carved, appear in the same inclined form when drawn in elevation. The "scissor" pattern was originally a folding chair, but although the form is retained it is not always made to fold, though both folding and fixed chairs present a similar elevation. The plan of a chair seat approximates a square, a triangle, or a circle. The principal varieties, with the position of the legs in relation to the frame indicated by the shading, are shown on Plate VIII. The square plan, though not uncommon, is less frequently seen than the trapezoidal. This latter is perhaps the most used, either with the straight frame, as on the left of the dotted line in the illustration, or curved, as on the right. Triangular seats, though used in olden times, are not common now, except for corner seats. The circular and composite plans are constantly employed. The composite form, made up of curves and marked "French," is the plan of the Louis XV. arm-chair, given as an example of rendering (Plate XXV.), and the plan on the right marked "Windsor" is that of a Windsor chair, similar to the "inclined form" (Plate VII.). The outline of nearly all chair backs is either rectangular or trapezoidal (Plate IX.). If of the first, the back posts are perpen- dicular to the floor line, and the legs are the same distance apart at the floor as at the seat level. If of the second form, the back posts are inclined to the floor line so that the legs are nearer together at the floor than at the seat level, and the back of the chair is proportionately wider at the top than it is at the seat. Though a chair may have a more complex and elaborate back than any of those taken as examples for illustration, an analysis of the outline will result in finding that it is based on one of these figures. The other four shapes illustrated are not as frequently used as the first two. This is particularly true of the polygonal and semi- circular patterns. Both of these are taken from French examples. The elliptical back is also a favorite form for French chairs. The shield-back is characteristic of chairs made by Hepplewhite about 1793, and called by many "Colonial." It is well to observe, while studying these outlines, a constructive principle common to all of them. Whatever the outline of the back it is made up of two vertical posts extending from the floor to a horizontal rail connecting them at the top ; at the ?uTtvm. ARM CHAIRS SEAT PLANS 3H0WU1G P»5ITI0N of LEGS. H»MZ»HTAL AMI "C5 SZZ 5L0F1MC ARM & | .^npn.n T . ff ii)afnjriV. tyIRK, lOCtOIRC ART! P"5T ET Plate IX. OUTLINE OF CHAIR BACKS «£VNWU« TRAPEZOIDAL O WCWflAL O ELLIPTICAL /F=^S s / Stnr-ciRcui * © 6JUEL6 /T\ 4 <*r» COMPOSITION OF BACK. Plate X. TANELtO © SPLAT VtRTlCAL © BAMISTER" VERTICAL. ewsiTt ? /