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Drawings by
Miss W. S. WOODS, Carlisle, Pa.
et al
Copyright, 1918
by
W. O. Mc Indoo
(All rights reserved)
UNIVERSAL SERVICE ASSOCIATION
DISTRIBUTORS
Grand Avenue Temple
KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI
Mc Indoo Publishing Company
Publishers
KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI
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OOPYRWKT OfriQf
OCT » '»tl
Abb -6 I
THE EMBLEM OF DEMOCRACY
Copyright, 191S, W. O. Mclodoo
^ IQOOOOOOOOOOOOOCIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO^
The Star-Spangled Banner
Oh, say, can you see. by the dawn's early light.
"What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming,
Whose broad stripe' and bright stars, through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there,
Oh, say does that star-spangled banner yet wave,
O'er the land of the free, and the home of the brave?
Oh ! thus be it e'er when freemen shall stand
Between their loved homes and the war's desolation;
Blest with vict'ry and peace, may the heav'n-rescued land
Praise the pow'r that hath made and preserv'd us a nation;
Then conquer we must when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto, "In God is our trust."
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.
J^OOOOOOOCOOOOOOC^^
4*
*
*
♦
*
*
*
•:•
many titles by which we know George Washing-
a call from his country. And his response to the
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
•:•
TRUE PATRIOTS ♦
♦
"The Cincinnatus of the West" is one of the *
*
* ton, the Father of Modern Democracy. ' As Cin- X
X cinnatus of old left his plow to answer the call of
his country, so likewise, while in his fields, *
*** *
George Washington is here pictured as receiving £
♦
* call was prompt. *
% In like manner the young men of 1917 and %
t '18, in response to the call of country for uni-
versal service, left their various vocations to
* y
% follow the flag to France in defense of Democ- X
* racy, furnishing the generations to come with
* an inspiring example of patriotic zeal. *
* *
* *
* t
| t
* *
% It may not be each name and deed £
* In granite columns traced, *
* Nor yet on history's printed page -:•
* These sacrifices placed; %
* But, lodged in lasting memory *
4> Of millions who shall share ♦
% The Liberty for which they fought, — X
* They shall be gathered there. *j!
% W. O. M. %
a *
A A
A A
A *
* *
* i
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
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Copyright;, 191S, W. 0- Mclndoo
THE FATHER OF MODERN DEMOCRACY
The Growth of American
Democracy
A Concise Account of the Establishment and Development
of Democracy in America.
and
America in the
European War
An Account of the Causes and Events of
the European War.
Bv Elmer E. Rush, M. A.
Illustrated by Original Paintings,
Reproduced in Colors.
Copyright 191S
\V. O. McINDOO, Kansas City. Missouri
(All rights reserved.)
UNIVERSAL SERVICE ASSOCIATION
Distributors
Published by
McINDOO PUBLISHING COMPANY
Kansas City. Missouri
THE "AMERICANS CREED."
By William Tyler Page.
I believe in the United States of America
as a government of the people, by the people,
for the people; whose just powers are derived
from the consent of the governed ; a democracy
in a republic; a sovereign Nation of many sov-
ereign states; a perfect union, one and insep-
arable ; established upon those principles of free-
dom, equality, justice and humanity for which
American patriots sacrificed their lives and for-
tunes.
I therefore believe it is my duty to my
country to love it, to support its constitution,
to obey its laws, to respect its flag and to defend
it against all enemies.
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
The Growth of American Democracy
The establishment of the Federal Union.
Jeffersonian I lemocracy
Industrial Change.
Our Democracy Tested.
Democracy Nationalized
The making- of the Federal Union by the construction
of the constitution was under the guiding influence of those
master workmen, Madison and Hamilton ; but it was the
public faith in Washington that supported the whole struc-
ture and accepted it from the hands of the builders.
The federal convention met in Philadelphia, May 25.
1787, the fifty-five delegates electing Washington president
of the convention. When the several plans of government
were brought forward, the statesmanship of Hamilton was a
constructive force in the attainment of nationalism, but the
silent influence of Washington prevailed in the final mould-
ing- of its character.
The convention ended its labors September 17, 1787. It
had constructed a constitution which represented the accu-
mulated experience of the people of the time and placed it
before the people of the states for adoption.
During the construction of the constitution two par-
ties appeared, the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The
Federalists favored a centralized government and succeeded
6 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
in organizing the convention and controlling the construction
of the constitution. The same party secured its adoption,
and, in the fall of 1788, it carried the first Presidential elec-
tion and a majority of the state elections. A Federal con-
gress was elected also, and a majority of the state legisla-
tures was Federal, which in turn, elected a Federal senate.
The electors chose Washington president of the United
States, the vote being unanimous.
When Washington was inaugurated president of the
United States April 30, 1789, there were but eleven states
in the union. North Carolina and Rhode Island reluctantly
signed the constitution a little later, thus completing the
list of the original thirteen states, commonly known as the
Revolutionary States.
The inaugural ceremonies were scarcely over when the
new government was called upon to face the grave responsi-
bility of constructing a national policy. All that had been
done was to produce a skeleton of government ; it was now
to be clothed with flesh and blood and receive the breath of
life. This duty fell upon the Federal party. The first im-
portant act of congress is known as the Tariff Act of 1789 ;
it placed a tax on foreign imports to raise revenue and to
encourage the growth of infant industries.
Another act of great importance was the creating of a
cabinet. The supreme court was organized ; a National
Bank was established; a naturalization law was passed, and
the national capital was located. Public credit was estab-
lished by Hamilton's funding bill, a plan by which the old
Revolutionary war debt was converted into interest bearing
bonds, which carried a guarantee from congress that all
former government debts should be paid at their face value.
An excise tax was placed on distilled spirits. And thus within
two years the federal party had secured the passage of im-
portant measures, all tending to the establishment of the
THK GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 7
centralization of power ; this was done in the face of strong
opposition. The Anti-Federalists, also known as the state
rights party, raised the objection that the foregoing meas-
ures were unconstitutional.
The Federal party was construing the constitution with
a liberal meaning, and in that way they evolved the doctrine
of implied powers. The opposition adhered to the literal or
close construction of the constitution, and were horrified at
the growing tendency toward centralization which in their
opinion, lead to monarchy.
The first opportunity of the Federal party to prove the
power of the constitution was in the summer of 1794 when
the people of Western Pennsylvania held riotous meetings in
opposition to the excise tax on whiskey. Washington was
mild and patient, but firm ; order was restored ; the leaders
were convicted of treason, but pardoned, and the tax col-
lected. The government had proved its power to lay and col-
lect a tax.
The French Revolution, occurring at this time, made a
deep impression upon the American people. The Federalists
had no sympathy with the radical movement, while the
• Anti-Federalists were enthusiastic in its support. Washing-
ton saw that a crisis was at hand, that a precedent must be
established ; he believed that the Republic could not live if it
allowed itself to take sides in the political broils of Europe.
He submitted the matter to his cabinet and, with their ap-
proval, he issued his now famous Proclamation of Neutrality.
England had shown little respect for the new Republic;
they still held some western military posts; they refused to
pay for the slaves carried off at the close of the Revolution.
England had promised to surrender the forts and pay for
slaves, but gave as her reason for delay that the United States
had promised to repeal her obnoxious laws against the loy-
alists, and had not done so.
S THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
The source of greatest irritation, however, was that
England would not acknowledge the right of expatriation.
"Once an Englishman always an Englishman" was her motto.
Natural born Americans were often taken off ships. War
seemed imminent; Washington greatly desired peace, be-
cause he knew that a war at that time would endanger the
independence of the country. Finally a treaty, known as the
Jay treaty, was secured.
The treaty was not very favorable to the Americans,
and could be defended only on the ground that it was prefer-
able to war. Washington's second term was now drawing to
a close, and he desired to retire to private life at his planta-
tion on the Potomac. "No nobler figure ever stood in the
forefront of a nation's life," says Green, an English Histo-
rian ; "there was little in his outward bearing to reveal the
grandeur of soul which lifts his figure, with all the simple
majesty of an ancient statue, out of the smaller passions, the
meaner impulses of the world around him. Almost uncon-
sciously men learned to regard him with a reverence which
still hushes us in the presence of his memory."
Washington died December 14, 1799. We all are devo-
tees at his shrine. He has left a record that can not fade,
and his name will ever be held sacred in the hearts of all men
who love human rights and liberty. The Federal party
elected John Adams to succeed Washington ; he was a schol-
arly man, but not tactful ; the party lost its popularity, and
the small coterie still loyal to the president branded the op-
position as "Jacobins and Miscreants," denounced democracy
as the government of the worst, while Adams, himself,
stated that none but the well born is fitted to rule. The
party enacted a number of obnoxious laws in an effort td
humble the Anti-Federalists. They had failed to catch the
spirit of republican institutions ; the Anti-Federalists took
advantage of the popular wave, and reaped a golden harvest
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 9
by electing- Jefferson president in the autumn election of
1800.
Jeffersonian Democracy
The dawn of the nineteenth century found the Ameri-
can people awakening to the truly American spirit. Before
1800, American ideals bore the colonial stamp of that of
France, or England. The Federal party had given us na-
tionalism ; it was now essential that democracy be built
upon it. Jefferson began by attempting to moderate the bit-
ter felings existing betwen the two parties and called upon
all to acquiesce in the decision of the majority — the vital
principal of republics.
His party had been founded upon opposition to centralized
power, and the doctrine of strict construction. Jefferson
gradually withdrew his opposition to centralized power when
he saw that it was being created by the masses of the people,
and existed at their pleasure and for their good. The re-
sponsibility of power nationalized him ; he stepped boldly
upon Federal ground, that of liberal construction, and pur-
chased Louisiana from France in 1803, saying, when he did
so, that he "stretched the constitution until it cracked;"
strict construction, like the Federal party, was regarded as a
relic of the past.
Under the wise statesmanship of Jefferson the public
awakened to self-consciousness and fortunately discovered
its coherence and national strength in time for the coming
war of 1812. The causes of this war lie much farther back
than the date of its outbreak. Since the days of the Ameri-
can Revolution, England had been accustomed to stopping
our vessels at will, and searching for deserted seamen ; the
custom was becoming more frequent and the insult was
even augmented by seizing American seamen under the claim
10 THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
that they were deserters from the British navy. Great
Britain was engaged in a tremendous war with Napoleon at
the time and gave no heed to our protests.
In 1806, Napoleon became master of central Europe. He
defeated Prussia at Jena, entered Berlin, and issued his fa-
mous decree blockading the British Isles. Every American
or other neutral vessel going to, or coming from a British
port was subject to capture.
England retaliated by blockading all European ports
under the control of France or her allies, unless the vessel
first entered a British port and paid duties. Napoleon then
declared any vessel subject to capture as lawful prize that
should enter a British port and pay duty, or submit itself to
be searched.
The United States was now between the hammer and
the anvil, and on December 22, 1807, passed the Embargo
Act. This was a severe blow to New England, as most of
the shipping interests were there.
Jefferson insisted the importance of the Embargo was
not to be measured in money, but before the year closed it
was evident to every fair-minded person that it had failed to
make any impression on the European powers, and on March
1, 1809, the Act was repealed.
There was great rejoicing, but it was of short duration.
The embargo had been raised only after we had been assured
by the British Minister that England had cancelled her or-
ders in council, and that France had promised to withdraw
her decrees. Our government was bewildered by the news
that the Minister had exceeded his authority, and that
England had repudiated his acts. The President immediately
issued a Proclamation forbidding trade with England. Many
vessels, however, had put to sea; the French decrees had not
been revoked, and the Americans lost over six millions of dol-
lars in ships and cargoes being "sequestered" by France.
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 11
It had been a long struggle for the rights of neutral
commerce. Our flag had been insulted on the high seas,
British cruisers had hovered over our ports; British traders
had influenced Indian hostilities on the frontier, and Ameri-
can citizens had been impressed into the British service.
For these causes, the United States declared war on Great
Britain, June 18, 1812.
Industrial Change
In the twenty-five years following the war, the Ameri-
can mind became introspective. It was not deeply concerned
about treaties, impressment, embargoes, and the open sea;
its energy was given to canals, turnpikes, tariffs, factories,
public land, currency, banks, and slavery. The whole coun-
try experienced an industrial change; in New England, com-
merce declined and manufactures grew; the. South, however,
did not suffer the change from one form of industry to an-
other, but a change from the rise of new conditions in the
cotton industry.
The invention of the cotton gin had made the production
of upland cotton profitable. This brought western land in
sharp competition with that of the older sea-board planta-
tions, which resulted in impoverishing their industrial power,
later to be relegated to the rear politically.
The old ruling class in New England and in the South
was disrupted, and the center of power was being transferred
to the middle and western states, where soon began the
struggle between the forces of freedom and slavery.
The Westward March of a People
During this industrial change New England and New
York had expanded westward to the Mississippi river, and,
the states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had been admitted
into the Union. The Ordinance of 1787 had extended the
Mason and Dixon line as the division between slave and
Testing Democracy
The fight at Gettysburg ranks
as one of the decisive battles of
history. It Was the supreme strug-
gles of the American Union for
life. The valor of the Federal and
Confederate hosts has never been
surpassed in the annals of man-
kind, and the heart of every patriot
is thrilled by the consciousness
that the heroism displayed in that
awful conflict was the heroism of
Americans.
The terrible struggle of those
July days of '63, is portrayed in
the pictured entitled TESTING
DEMOCRACY.
THK GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 13
free territory westward along the Ohio river to the Missis-
sippi. The question of its extension beyond the Mississippi
did not come up until Missouri applied for admission to the
Union in 1819.
The Missouri Compromise, two years later, extended
this line around the northern boundary of Missouri and
westward along the parallel thirty-six degrees and thirty
minutes, and declared that all north of this line should be
free territory. Soon following the Missouri Compromise, the
north began to oppose slavery from moral rather than from
economic reasons. The voice of John Juincy Adams was
heard in the halls of Congress defending the right of peti-
tion and free speech.
The abolition of slavery by France, Germany, England,
and the Spanish-American States, had its influence upon
northern sentiment. William Lloyd Garrison and Elijah P.
Love.joy had suffered violence in an attempt to crystallize
northern sentiment ; each failed, and it was evident a great
leader was needed.
In 1850, a bill to admit California could only be passed
as a part of a compromise which contained valuable conces-
sions to the South on slavery. At no time after 1850 was
Congress free from a discussion of slavery. For a short
time the question was shifted to the plains of Kansas by the
passage of the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 1854. Three years
later the Supreme Court attempted to settle all slave con-
troversies by the Dred Scott decision, which denied a com-
promise line and allowed a slave owner to take his slave into
any state or territory, but this resulted in the evasion of
law and a storm of protest. In the fall election of 1860, the
responsibility for the settlement of the status of slavery
was shifted from Congress and the courts to the people of
the United States, and Abraham Lincoln was elected presi-
dent.
1 ! THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
Our Democracy Tested
The news that Lincoln had been elected, fell like a pall
upon the South, and the leaders determined upon secession.
The North demanded a united nation. The issue was to be
decided by an armed conflict. The American people were
now about to engage in the bloodiest of all civil wars in the
annals of history.
On February 22, 1861, Jefferson Davis stood at the base
of Washington's statue in Richmond, Virginia, and was in-
augurated President of the Confederate States of America.
Ten days later Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated President
of the United States, taking an oath to preserve and protect
the union.
In some respects the South had the advantage of the
North. One of these was unanimity. The firing on Fort
Sumpter, however, swept the free states with one grand pa-
triotic impulse ; the president called for 75,000 volunteers,
and was answered by 100,000 men, loyal to the Union and
the democracy established by Washington and Jefferson.
Events hurried to the climax of arms, and thirty-one mil-
lions of American citizens divided and faced each other
across the chasm of disunion.
The deadly strife lasted for four years. It was inevi-
table that the South should lose. She was handicaped by
the very system of bondage she was fighting to maintain ;
moreover, she lacked that quickening impulse of freedom
which sustains in the presence of difficulties. The genera-
tions that opposed have nearly passed away; the bitterest
recollections are gone; there remains on either side the glory
of the race, and —
"No more shall the war cry sever,
Nor the winding river be red ;
They banish our anger forever,
When they laurel the graves of our dead.
THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY
Under the sod and the dew,
Waiting the judgment day- —
Love and tears for the Blue,
Tears and love for the Gray."
The news of Lee's surrender, April 9, 1865, brought
deep peace and thankfulness. They that sowed in tears now
reaped in joy, only to be plunged into deepest gloom by the
assassination of the President.
Looking back through the lens of later knowledge, we
see the colossal figure of Abraham Lincoln. Posterity does
not yet fully realize how perfectly his life harmonized with
that loyal generation of freedom-loving Americans with
whose aid he solved the stupendous problem of saving the
Union, and yet destroying slavery.
Democracy Nationalized
Upon the patriotism of the American people must rest
the responsibility of maintaining American democracy.
Since the time of Lincoln, the people have been called upon
to declare national policies rather than to elect presidents.
One fact which has commanded attention is the great
development of concentrated capital. Every department of
industry has undergone many changes and every change
has brought an increased power of production. The century-
long march across the continent was soon ended ; the fron-
tier had gone; and the great western plains became the
battle ground of railroad kings. Today great trunk lines
with radiating threads of steel connect industrial centers.
There was a further demand for trade expansion. Then
came the Spanish-American war which gave us the Philip-
pine Islands, Porto Riio, and other islands, and an enlarged
commerce; the commercial invasion of China; the construc-
tion of the Panama Canal, and the search in remote lands
for opportunities of trade.
EXTENDING DEMOCRACY
In the Philippines
In the picture entitled "Extending Democracy," is de-
picted the condition of a people who had known only the
rule of Autocracy previous to the coming of the American
to their shores, when Admiral Dewey sent the Spanish
fleet to the bottom of Manila Bay. The sound of his
guns as they echoed and re-echoed throughout the Islands,
was the announcement of the approach of a democratic
people. In the picture is shown the savage natives, who
misunderstood the motives of the newcomers, and mis-
trusted their good intentions. They could not understand
Democracy, therefore to accomplish its extention it w;is
necessary to resort to force of arms.
It is refreshing to review the results. A decade after
the acquisition of the Philippine Islands by the United
States, William H. Taft, then Secretary of War, made a
full report, giving an instructive account of what had been
accomplished during the period. In sending this report
to Congress, Theodore Roosevelt, then president of the
United States, said:
"No great civilized power has ever managed with such
wisdom and disinterestedness the affairs of a people com-
mitted by accident of war to its hands. ' * Save only
our attitude towards Cuba, I question whether there is a
brighter page in the annals of international dealing be-
tween the strong and the weak than the page which tells
of our doings in the Philippines." And the conditions there
since have been increasingly satisfactory.
There were troublesome times in the islands for a long
time after they came into our possession, and many val-
uable lives were sacrificed before peace was fully estab-
lished. It is gratifying now, however, that peace prevails
throughout the islands, with their population of more than
7,000,000. The aim has been to extend democracy to the
people, giving them a greater measure of self government
as they fit themselves for it, with complete self-gov-
ernment as the ultimate end.
opyright, 191S, W. 0. Mclndoo
EXTENDING DEMOCRACY
AMERICA AT WAR 17
In each epoch in the development of our national life,
we see the dominant power creating - a public policy after its
own image. The same forces of human interest which have
operated in the past will continue to operate in the future.
Organized democracy is gradually formulating its philosophy
to include all classes of American citizenship and merging
their economic interests with political action.
In this country there are those born in other lands,
standing by those born under the flag, defending our
democratic institutions. The American democracy today is
fighting its own battles : the situation is a test of nation-
alized democracy ; it is the capacity of a people for demo-
cratic self-government that is on trial.
Assurance of Democracy
It is a trite but true saying that
"in unity there is strength." The
picture entitled, "THE ASSUR-
ANCE OF DEMOCRACY," is well
named. The great chasm between
the North and the South, which
culminated in the Civil War, is
here shown to be closed ; the Blue
and the Gray are assembled be-
neath the Stars and Stripes— a
united people. Here, too, is pic-
tured the Public School, the "Hope
of our Country." Other good in-
fluences are shown ; the content-
ment of age, the innocence of child-
hood, the manly "Boy Scout," and
the benignant clergyman, — these
good influences permeating the life
of a united people, whose tradi-
tions are glorious, and whose flag
is the most ancient and honorable
now in existence, give us ample
ASSURANCE OF DEMOCRACY.
THE ASSURANCE OF DEMOCRACY
AMERICA AT WAR
19
AMERICA AT WAR
I. The European Phase:
Theories.
1. Dominance of ;i single
power.
2. The balance of nations.
3. International Law.
4. Arbitration.
Complications:
1. German aggressions
2. The conflict.
3. Conclusion.
II. The United States Phase:
1. The rights of neutrals.
(An old grievance.)
2. Germany's attitude.
(Forced to do it(?) )
3. United States protests.
(a) Precedent (50 years
ago.)
(b) The Hague convention.
(c) Congressional action.
(d) Lansing's note.
4. Germany's new policy of
1916.
(a) Her offer.
(b) Submarine activity.
5. The United States contin-
ues a desire for peace.
(a) Political platforms.
(b) Wilson's peace speech.
May 27.
(c) Honotaux's article on
the situation.
(d) Our interests confused
with our powers.
(e) First efforts at pre-
paredness.
(f) Wilson's "olive branch"
note. January 18.
(g) Wilson's "peace with-
out victory" speech, Jan.
22, 1917.
6. Diplomatic relations sev-
ered, February 3, 1917.
(a) The "safety lane" note.
(b) Wilson reviewed nego-
tiations, Feb. 3.
1. Warning to Germany.
2. Germany's justification
answer.
3. Wilson's reply.
4. Germany's last note.
7. The Crisis.
(a) In American ports.
1. German vessels seized.
2. Shipping affected. -
(b) Public opinion.
1. Newspapers.
2. Industrial plants.
(c) Government activity.
1. Naval appropriation.
2. Government buildings
closed to the public.
3. Ports guarded.
(d) Overt acts.
1. Freight steamer sunk,
Feb. 3.
2. Lumber steamer sunk,
Feb. 11.
•'!. Laconia steamer sunk,
Feb. 27.
4. Algonquin steamer
sunk, Mar. 12.
5. Other sinkings, Mar.
19, et. seq.
(e) State of war recognized.
1. Armed neutrality im-
practicable.
2. The President advises
war.
8. War declared, April 6.. 1917.
(a) Resolution bv Congress,
April 6.
(b) Aims — Wilson's speech
April 15.
1. Not selfish.
2. Against autocracy.
(c) The declaration received
in Europe.
(d) Nature of the struggle.
!>. Military interests — Persh-
ing.
(a) Registration.. June 5.
(b) Troops to France, June
26-27.
(c) Call for recruits, June
23-30.
(d) Training camps.
(e) Aviation.
(f) Red Cross.
(g) The Pope's appeal for
peace, Aug. 14.
(h) Wilson's reply,
(i) Food conservation,
(j) The navv.
(k) Second Liberty Loan.
(1) Congress appropriated
21 billions, Oct. 6.
(m) The Enemy Acts, passed
Oct. 14.
10. Government conservation
and control.
20
AMERICA AT WAR
1
,n) Mobilization of Indus-
18.
tries.
If).
11.
The Espionage Act.
20.
12.
War with Austria-Hun-
21.
gary.
22.
13.
Nations against the Cen-
28.
tral Powers.
24!
14.
President's peace terms:
15.
Results of Conservation.
25.
16.
Submarine damage.
26.
17.
Close of first year of the
war.
27.
The National Army.
The National Guard.
The Allies gain.
The Russian Revolution.
Germany checked.
Three general movements.
Germany threatens Russia
and Italy.
Origin of Venice.
Closing events.
The battle of Picardy.
AMKKICA AT WAR 21
ORIGIN OF THE WAR AND ITS DEVELOPMENT PRE-
VIOUS TO AMERICA'S ENTRANCE AS A
BELLIGERENT
The German War Machine
< fermany's < >pportuni1 y.
Nature of the War,
Italian and Russian Movements.
Battles "i Verdun* and the Somme.
It is well known to the world how, a half century ago,
Bismarck prepared his war program in order to make Prus-
sia the ruling state in Germany. In like manner, the pres-
ent ruler of the German Empire, for twenty-five years, has
planned to make Germany the ruling power of Europe.
A large war fund was collected ; they gathered arms
and munitions and material for making more ; they experi-
mented with submarines, zeppelins, poison gas and new ex-
plosives ; they created a navy, hoping thereby to rival Great
Britain on the sea.
Either by treaty or by mariiage, they invaded the
thrones of Russia, Greece, Bulgaria, Roumania and some of
the lesser states ; the Turkish Empire was reorganized under
German influence, and its army and navy officers were
mostly German ; every important country in Europe, and in
the Western world, became honeycombed with German
agencies in the guise of friendship.
The great war machine was complete and the war
lords were anxious to use it before it grew old, and before
the other p.owers could prepare to meet it.
Germany's Opportunity
Germany placed over against her preparedness, as she
expressed it, "shop keeping" England, "licentious" France,
"anarchic" Russia and "money serving" America. Under
such seemingly favorable conditions she regarded her
treaties with these, and with lesser powers, as "scraps of
paper." The assassination of the Austrian duke in Serbia
22 AMERICA AT WAR
gave the war lords their opportunity; they affected deep
insult in the friendly attitude of France toward Serbia.
Immediately, six great German armies invaded Belgium in
the hope of finding an unguarded road to Paris.
The Nature of the War
From the Belgian invasion to America's entrance into
the war is a story of three years of terrible warfare new
to the world; it is a story of huge cannon, poison gas, high
explosives, motor tanks, trenches, aeroplanes, photography
and wireless telegraphy. The sea became infested with
submarines to eclipse all former deeds of privateers or
pirates ; whole villages of noncombatants were burned in
their houses or shot and bayoneted if they attempted to
escape. No such brutal warfare is recorded in history since
the ancient Assyrian, spattered with blood, stood exultantly
on pyramids of mangled dead.
But, when the German commanders turned their backs
on the Marne and rode hurriedly for their newly entrenched
battle lines, they knew, and the world knew, that the war
machine had failed. As Charles Martel, nearly twelve hun-
dred years before, drove back the Moslems at the battle
of Tours and saved the world for Christianity, so Marshal
Joffre beat back the Hun of the twentieth century in the
week-long battle of the Marne and saved the world again
from a towering despotism.
Italian and Russian Movements
On May 23, 1915, Italy joined the allied nations of
Great Britain, France and Paissia against the Central Powers
of Germany, Austria-Hungaria and Turkey. The Central
Powers were thoroughly prepared for Italy's move and pre-
vented her from rendering aid to Russia, then hard pressed
by Germany in Poland.
Two great Russian armies, one under Rennenkampf, the
other under Samsonoff, invaded East Prussia and beat the
AMERICA AT WAR 23
Prussians at Eytkuytten and Gumbinnen; moving westward
they soon became separated and confused in their move-
ments in the Masurian lake region.
Hindenberg, an old military student of this lake region,
was immediately called in command of the German forces.
He defeated the Russians in a decisive battle at Tannenberg
on August 27 and 28, and what had promised to be a great
Russian invasion of Prussia was turned into a rapid retreat.
Turkey, in the meantime, had saved the Dardenelles
from England.
The Central powers had lost in the west but had gained
on the eastern front; however, her hope of defeating the
Allies was gone. Germany knew that her enemies were
increasing in strength while she was decreasing. Therefore,
she decided to fly the dove of peace, while she secretly
pushed her intrigues close to the Russian Court in the hope
of detaching Russia from the war.
The Battles of Verdun and the Somme
Then came another great western move. The first bat-
tle of Verdun began February 20 and closed April 9, 1916.
It was a fearful slaughter; but the enemy seemed to be
doing what he wanted to do — he was bleeding to death!
The Germans are said to have lost a quarter of a mil-
lion men, and Joffre stood victorious on the heights before
Verdun. Scarcely a month had passed, when, on May 3, the
Germans again opened on Verdun with one hundred heavy
guns ; assault followed assault, costing them appalling losses.
The hill slopes were literally covered with mounds of dead.
Many heroic efforts were made, all with the same result ;
wave after wave of the boche infantry was mown down by
the French gunfire. By the last of August the Germans
admitted defeat and the second battle of Verdun had ended.
During the long second battle of Verdun, occurred the
battle of the Somme. By the middle of June, the Allies
24 AiMERICA AT WAR
began a bombardment along the Somme; on July 1, the
guns were lifted for a barrage and the Allied infantry went
"over the top" from Gommecourt to Maricourt. This con-
quered ground had been considered impregnable by the Ger-
mans. On the 12th of September the Allies bombarded other
portions of the line, using motor-tanks for the first time.
On November 9, Sir Douglas Haig brought the battle to a
close with a victory for the Allies.
The Allies' Gain
For three months following the battle of the Somme,
the armies lived in the trenches, ever vigilant, enduring the
strain of constant terror; February 4, 1917, the Germans
began an offensive by opening upon the Allies in six heavy
attacks in their effort to take Grandcourt; they failed.
Hindenburg began to retire on the fifth. The German
line fell back from Miraumont, retreated from Warlencourt.
Serre, Prisieux, and was defeated at Irles. By the middle
of March, the Allies were in possession of Bapaume, Peronne,
Har, Nesle, Noyon and Chumy.
AMERICA AT WAR , 25
Brothers in blood ! They who this wrong began
To wreck our commonwealth, will rue the day
When first they challenged freemen to the fray,
And with the Briton dared the American.
Now are we pledged to win the Rights of Man;
Labor and Justice now shall have their way,
And in a League of Peace — God grant we may —
Transform the earth, not patch up the old plan.
— -Robert Bridges.
AMERICA ENTERS THE WORLD WAR
THE INFRINGEMENT OF OUR NEUTRAL RIGHTS
EUROPEAN PHASE
For many years prior to the outbreak of the European
War and especially since the Franco-Prussian War, it has been
evident to thinkers that armed neutrality would ultimately
lead to war. Count Benedetti, the French ambassador at the
Court of Berlin at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War,
distinctly stated that the German-Austrian alliance of 1882
would lead to war. He said, "It is, in fact, armed peace
that the powers have organized ; and can peace under arms
be lasting?" The Marquis of Salisbury, in 1897, said: "The
federation of the European nations is the germ of the only
possible neutral relation of these states which can protect
civilization from the frightful effects of war." The German
chancellor in his speech in the Reichstag, August 19, 1915,
.^aid : "An England able to dictate its will to the world is
inconsistent with the peace of the world." His statement
but corroborates the idea that dominance of power in the
hands of anv one nation is unsafe.
26 AMERICA AT WAR
In the history of the world three distinct theories of
government organization have been tried and found want-
ing. First, the dominance of nations by one great world
power; as in the case of Greece under Alexander, and Rome
under Julius Caesar. Second, after the Napoleonic wars, there
was revived the old theory of the balance of nations, under
which certain nations were united in offensive and defensive
warfare. Group alliances were formed by which it was hoped
to maintain peace and order. Gradually, International La'w
was developed as a means of determining the relationships of
nations.
These methods of organization have all failed. They
have been built upon a false foundation, the principle of
peace by armament. Any plan, to be lasting, must recon-
struct international relationships on the basis, not of war
but of peace ; it must be determined, moreover, not by a
single dominant power nor by a group of powers, but by a
unity of power. It must place the United Nations as
guardians over the rights of each nation.
The nations must discover a plan by which they may
relieve themselves of the tremendous burden of armies and
engines of destruction. As the Europe of Napoleon was not
that of Charlemagne, so modern Europe is beyond that of
Napoleon's time. Civil and religious liberty have been estab-
lished; scientific thought has progressed, and the growth of
democracy has produced new and urgent problems making
arbitration preferable to war.
The German Government is directly in opposition to the
attainment of any such international peace. The history of
German aggression illustrates this. Von Treitschke, the Ger-
man historian, so well formulates the German principle of
the right of single, selfish domination asserted by mere
superiority of power, when he said, "International treaties
are no absolute limitation but a voluntary self-limitation of
AMERICA AT WAR 27
the State, and only for such time as the State may find it
policy has always been upheld by Germany. It was on
January 18, 1896, in the throne room of a castle in Berlin,
that William II. proclaimed his "welt-politik" — the world-
wide policy of the Empire. Henceforth, Germany wished to
be represented everywhere, to aid in the adjustment of all
controversies, in order to obtain German interests and
advantages.
Consistent with this policy is the so-called justification
for the invasion of Belgium. The German Chancellor, August
14, 1914, in his speech in the Reichstag, said: "We are
now in a state of necessity, and necessity knows no law.
Our troops have occupied Luxemburg and perhaps are already
on Belgium soil. Gentlemen, that is contrary to the dictates
of international law." German policy holds that, in the
relation of nations, moral considerations do not enter in ;
that might makes right ; that the governmental unit is state
absolutism and that "each state is primarily and ultimately
concerned for itself and itself alone; that its interests over-
ride its obligations, when its necessities demand ; that
treaties, however specific and solemnly made, shall not be
considered binding;" that they are mere scraps of paper to
be tossed aside at will.
The conflict, then, which is slowly but surely drawing
all civilized nations into it, is a conflict between democracy
and absolutism; between rebarbarization under the "blood-
and-iron" policy, and justice and liberty under constitution-
alism. The war is not primarily a war of aggression, but
a war over the principle of aggression.
United States Phase
What, now, has America to do with this problem of
European government and balance of power? According to
the statement in the Monroe Doctrine, "In the wars of the
28 AMERICA AT WAK
European powers, in matters relating to themselves we have
never taken any part, nor does it comport with our policy
to do so." President Monroe announced our policy in 1823
based upon the theory that "America had a set of interests
apart from those of Europe and that Europe had interests
apart from us." This is not true today, however. We are
neither physically nor commercially isolated as we were
then ; distance no longer separates or protects the nations
of one continent from those upon another. We have
assumed, together with this increasingly intimate relation-
ship with European powers, a likewise increasing obligation
in regard to international problems and principles. And
while the Monroe doctrine establishes the principle of non-
interference, it also recognizes the right of self preservation,
since Monroe said: "It is only when our rights are invaded
or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make prep-
arations for our defense."
Germany's Attitude
The German submarine policy seriously menaced our
rights as neutrals. The question of neutrality has been one
of deep concern to the United States; in 1798 it caused
a state of war to exist with France ; it caused the war with
Great Britain in 1812; and it was the cause of our declara-
of war against Germany April 6, 1917.
On February 4, 1915. Germany announced to all nations
that she intended to sink every enemy merchant ship found
in the waters surrounding Great Britain and Ireland with-
out regard for the lives of its crew and passengers; more-
over, she warned all neutral ships to steer clear of those
"waters, since it might be difficult to distinguish them from
hostile ships. She was forced to this action, she said, as
a retaliation for England's violation of international law
upon the water by abolishing the distinction between abso-
AMERICA AT WAR -'•'
lute and conditional contraband, by seizing German prop-
erty and subjects on neutral ships and by declaring the
waters of the North Sea the seat of war, thus rendering
all navigation on those waters exceedingly dangerous. Ac-
cording to the German interpretation, the English had
"established a blockade of neutral coasts and ports which
is contrary to the elementary principles of international
law," measures which would in effect "reduce the German
people by famine." In reply, we warned the German govern-
ment in the most explicit terms not to destroy any mer-
chant vessel of the United States and not to cause the death
of American citizens.
United States Protests
±ne loss of American life due to deliberate German sub-
marine attack in defiance of this warning would be a long
story. The first American to lose his life was Leon Chester
Thresher, a passenger on the British liner Falaba, bound
from Liverpool to West Africa ; the liner was torpedoed
and sunk March 28, 1915, off Milford, England. Of 242
persons, 136 were saved. The first American ship attacked
was the Gulflight, off the Scilly Islands, May 1. 1915; it
was an oil tanker from Port Arthur, Texas, bound for
Rouen, France. Three lives were lost; the ship was towed
to port, damaged.' The German government acknowledged
the attack but claimed it to be an accident; expressed its
regrets and promised to pay damages.
If the two previous attacks were "accidents," the first
deliberate attack by a German submarine under military
orders was the sinking of the Lusitania, which shocked
civilization and brought America to the verge of war.
The vessel was sunk off Old Head of Kinsale, near Liver-
pool, May 7. 1915; it was unarmed and carried 1,257
passengers, 1,198 of whom lost their lives, including 124
:;0 AMERICA AT WAR
Americans. Our government contended that this act was
"unlawful, inhuman and a violation of many sacred prin-
ciples of justice and humanity." We refused to accept the
palliations put forth by Germany for the deed and based
our protest upon very distinct grounds. As President Wilson
so aptly said: "we are contending for something much
greater than any right of property or privileges of com-
merce. The government of the United States is contending
for nothing less high and sacred than the rights of human-
ity. * * * It is upon this principle of humanity as
well as upon the law founded upon this principle that the
United States must stand."
The protest of the United States was founded upon
two statements. First, her own position, expressed origi-
nally more than fifty years ago in the Articles of Instruc-
tion to Armies in the Field :
Article IV. It is incumbent upon those who
administer martial law to be strictly guided by the
principles of justice, honor and humanity, virtues
adorning a soldier even more than other men.
Article XXVIII. Unjust or inconsiderate re-
taliation (reprisal) removes the belligerents fur-
ther and further from the mitigating rules of reg-
ular war and by rapid steps leads them nearer to
the internecine wars of savages.
The other statement upon which the position of the
United States rests is that of a principle to which Ger-
any, together with all the belligerents in this war, approved,
as evidenced by its signature at the Hague Convention in
1907: "The high contracting parties clearly do not intend
that an unforseen case should in the absence of a written
undertaking be left to the arbitrary judgment of military
commanders. Until a more complete code of laws of war
have been issued, the high contracting parties deem it expe-
AMERICA AT WAR 35
dient to declare that, in cases not included in the regula-
tions adopted by them, the inhabitants and the belligerents
remain under the protection of the rules and principles of
the laws of nations as they result from the usages estab-
lished among civilized people from the laws of humanity and
the dictates of the public conscience."
As to whether or not the sinking of the Lusitania vio-
lated the principles of humanity and the dictates of pub-
lic conscience was a matter of individual opinion. The
fact of the tragedy remained; the United States govern-
ment was faced by a definite situation due to German mili-
tarism, as opposed to American ideas of justice and right.
Wilson's reluctance to admit the gravity of the situation
is intimated in his speech of May 10, 1915, which aroused
a flood of criticism and comment both at home and abroad.
He said: "The example of America must be a special
example. The example of America must be an example not
merely of peace because it will not fight, but of peace
because peace is the healing and elevating- influence of the
world and strife is not. There is such a thing as a man
being too proud to fight. There is such a thing as a
nation being so right that it does not need to convince
others by force that it is right."
In view of the Lusitania disaster, a resolution was pro-
posed in Congress ordering Americans off belligerent ships.
Sweden, in accordance with Germany's like request to all
neutral nations, complied, passing a resolution warning
her subjects to keep off armed ships. But the passage
of such a resolution to abridge the rights of American
citizens would have been humiliating. As the President
said: "To forbid our people to exercise their rights for
fear we might be called upon to indicate them would be a
deep humiliation, indeed. It would be an implicit, all but
an explicit acquiescence in the violations of the rights of
man everywhere. It would be a deliberate abdication of
32 AMERICA AT WAR
our hitherto proud position as spokesman, even among the
turmoil of war, for the law and the right."
The protest of the United States was not against
German policy alone. It is interesting to note that, on
May 24, 1915, Secretary Lansing sent a vigorous message
to France and England protesting against interference with
neutral mails.
. Meanwhile, German submarine activity continued. The
ship, Ordena, was attacked and escaped only because of
her speed. This attack, after the assurance for the safety
of passenger liners, aroused American public opinion. The
German government insisted that the commander had
"failed to understand orders." On July 25, 1915, came the
first complete destruction of an American ship by a sub-
marine; the Leelanaw of New York, bound from Archangel
to Belfast with flax, which is contraband, was sunk. The
crew was saved. On August 19, 1915, the White Star liner,
Arabic, bound from Liverpool to New York, was sunk near
the grave of the Lusitania. Thirty Americans were on
board; all but two were saved. Forty-eight lives in all were
lost. One American of the crew of the Allan liner, Hes-
perian, Avas lost on September 4, 1915. The Anconia was
destroyed by an Austrian submarine in the Mediterranean,
November 7, 1915, bound from Naples to New York. Twelve
Americans were on board ; nine were lost. , On December 3,
1915. a submarine fired on the American aid steamer. Com-
munipaw, bound from Portici, Italy, to Alexandria, Egypt.
No damage was done ; the enemy vessel was presumably,
Austrian. The American oil steamer, Petrolite, was stopped
two days later off the coast of Tripoli and robbed of stores.
Diplomatic negotiations over the case were unsatisfactory
and prolonged. American Counsul, McNeeley, lost his life,
together with one or two other Americans, December 30.
1915, with the destruction of the Persia, a British liner, on
AMERICA AT WAR 33
her way to the Orient. Germany, Austria, and Turkey de-
nied responsibility. Assurances were given for what
Germany termed "cruiser warfare" which involved a promise
not to sink any peaceful ships without warning or providing
for the safety of those aboard.
Germany's New Policy
The Teutonic powers announced a new policy to become
effective after March 1, 1916. to the effect that they would
sink armed ships of enemy nations without Warning, no
matter who was on board. The purpose of the Reichstag
seemed to be to cut off English trade. Their offer to the
United States Government is significant, as revealed in a
note to America, charging England with forcing her into
submarine warfare and offering to observe the rules of in-
ternational law prevailing before the war if England would
do likewise.
The policy of sinking merchant ships without warning
is illustrated in the Sussex disaster, which is the culmination
of a series of outrages. It was a French channel steamer
between Folkstone and Dieppe, attacked March 24, 1916. No
warning was given ; the vessel was unarmed ; nearly 50 lives
were lost.
The question was whether the time had come to sever
diplomatic relations with Germany. Secretary Lansing
cabled Ambassador Gerard to inquire directly of the Berlin
authorities concerning responsibility for the destruction of
the Sussex and other vessels. In reply, in a note of April
10th, the German government admitted having sunk a
vessel in the English channel at almost the exact time and
place but contended that it was not the Sussex. The evi-
dence on their side is weak, however,. Affidavits were
secured from American survivors who stated that they had
seen the wake of a torpedo. Eye witnesses testified to the
fact; fragments of apparatus were identified as parts of
M AMERICA AT WAR
a torpedo rather than a mine, some of the parts being: for-
warded to Washington as evidence.
United States Desires Peace
Even with these accumulated wrongs, the American
people desired peace. This attitude is clearly stated in the
Democratic platform, June 16, 1916. "The people of the
United States love peace. They respect the rights and
covet the friendship of all other nations. They desire
neither any additional territory nor any advantages which
cannot be peacefully gained by their skill, their industry
or their enterprise; but they insist upon having absolute
freedom of national life and policy, and feel that they owe
it to themselves and to the role of spirited independence
which it is their sole ambition to play, that they should ren-
der themselves secure against the hazard of interference
from any quarter and should be able to protect their rights
upon the seas or in any part of the world. We hold that
it is the duty of the United States to use its power, not
only to make itself safe at home but also to make secure
its just interests throughout the world, and both for this
end and in the interest of humanity to assist the world in
securing settled peace and justice."
Wilson's speech before the League to Enforce Peace,
May 27, 1916', intimates in general that the United States
is willing to serve the present belligerents in the matter of
peace negotiations, if they so desire. He says: "We are
not mere discontented lookers-on. We are participants
whether we would or not in the life of the world." More-
over, it is clear that "the principle of public right must
henceforth take precedence over the individual interests of
particular nations, and -the nations of the world must in
some way band themselves together to see that right pre-
vails as against any sort of selfish aggression; that hence-
AMERICA AT WAR 35
forth alliance must not be set up against alliance, under-
standing against understanding, but that there must be a
common agreement for a common object and that at the
heart of that common object must be the inviolable rights
of peoples and of mankind. * * * We believe these funda-
mental things: (1) that every people has a right to choose
the sovereignty under which it shall live; (2) that the
small states of the world have a right to enjoy the same
respect for their sovereignty and for their territorial
integrity that great and powerful nations expect and insist
upon: (3) that the world has a right to be free from
every disturbance of its peace that has its origin in aggres-
sion and disregard to the rights of peoples and nations."
Believing in these principles, we were confronted by, a
situation rather than a mere theory. The question was,
as Cabriel Hanatoux puts it in the Paris Figaro: "Can an
American citizen go to Europe in safety, or can he not?" He
continues: "North America is regarded by Germany as an
enemy. Americans in that country are no less under sus-
picion than the English; our committees know that Amer-
ican citizens connected with charitable bodies have been
driven out of Serbia and Montenegro, because it was not
desired that any impartial or pitying eye should be present
at the systematic and methodical strangling of a race."
Attempts were made against American industry: "every-
where this underhand hostility shows itself. Events are
unrolling in such a way that they carry with them, like an
avalanche, all that seek to escape them. Germany has put
America up against the wall, has forced her to declare her-
self. The die is cast." As Wilson so aptly said: "Our inter-
ests are now confused with our powers." Preparation for
action was necessary.
The House and Senate agreed upon a practical Defense
Program in case of need. This program required
36 AMERICA AT WAR
$661,418,000, $110,000,000 to be available at once for the
Navy. For maintenance of the reorganized army and sup-
plies, Congress appropriated $267,597,000. Provision was
made for the extension and improvement of coast defenses
with appropriations aggregating $25,748,000. Congress also
provided for the creation of a Council for National Defense
composed of Cabinet officials and citizen experts to co-ordi-
nate the military, industrial and natural resources of the
country in time of war.
December 18, 1916, President Wilson sent an "olive
branch" note to all belligerent and neutral powers. The
Secretary of State hastened to explain that the President's
note was not a peace offer but merely an effort to induce
the belligerents to define the end for which they were fight-
ing. In the note the President suggested, "that an early
occasion be sought to call out from all the nations now at
war such an avowal of their respective views as to the
terms upon which the war might be concluded and the
arrangements which would be deemed satisfactory as a
guaranty against its renewal or the kindling of any simi-
lar conflict in the future as would make possible, frankly
to compare them." He is indifferent as to the means taken
to accomplish this In the measures to be taken
to secure the future peace of the world the people and
the government of the United States are as vitally and as
directly interested as the governments now at war
It may be that peace is nearer than we know; that the
terms which the belligerents on the one side and on the
other, would deem it necessary to insist upon, are not so
irreconcilable as some have feared ; that an interchange
of views would clear the way at least for conference and
make the permanent concord of the nations a hope of the
immediate future, a concert of nations imediately prac-
ticable."
AMERICA AT WAR 37
The action of the President was received with distinct
approval throughout the Central Empires; the Entente na-
tions, however, resented the action bitterly. In neutral
countries the note was approved officially except by Spain,
which, however, was unofficially well-disposed. Sentiment
in the United States upheld the action of Wilson. The
following resolution was adopted by the Senate. December
20, 1916:
"Resolved, that the Senate approves and strongly in-
dorses the request of the President in the diplomatic notes
of December 18 to the nations now engaged in war, that
those nations state terms upon which peace might be
discussed."
January 22, President Wilson delivered an important
Senate address on "Permanent Peace." His initial state-
ment was that America's participation was certain. "It is
inconceivable that the people of the United States should
play no part in that great enterprise." While we need
force to make peace secure, yet the peace must be a "peace
without victory." "Only a peace between equals can last.
No peace can last or ought to last which does not recog-
nize and accept the principle that governments derive all
their just powers from the consent of the governed and
that no right anywhere exists to hand peoples about from
sovereignty to sovereignty as if they were property." Pres-
ident Wilson further stated that there must be freedom of
the seas. "The paths of the sea must alike in law and
in fact be free." The speech in closing practically offered
the Monroe Doctrine to the- world. "No nation should seek
to extend its policy over any other nation or people but
every people should be left free to determine its own policy.
its own way of development, unhindered, unthreatened,
unafraid, the little along with the great and powerful."
The United States severed diplomatic relations with
38 AMERICA AT WAR
the German Empire, February 3, 1917, by dismissing- Count
von Bernstorff, the German ambassador, and by recalling
James W. Gerard, American ambassador at Berlin.
Diplomatic Relations Severed
The break came in consequence of a note issued by
Germany on January 31, 1917, to the fact that, beginning
February 1, merchant ships bound to or from allied ports
would be sunk without warning. A safety zone leading to
Falmouth, England, extending through the prohibited zone
bordering Holland, England, and France, and including parts
of the Mediterranean, was designated in the note to America.
One American vessel a week, carrying passengers only, would
be allowed to proceed through this lane unmolested, pro-
vided there were no contraband on board and the vessel
conspicuously marked by a design indicated by the German
admiralty.
President Wilson, on the 3d of February, addressed
Congress, reviewing briefly the content of negotiations be-
tween the two countries from March 24, 1916, the date of
the sinking of the Sussex, to date. After the sinking of
the Sussex, the note of the United States government to
Germany stated that "unless the Imperial German Govern-
ment should now immediately declare and effect an abandon-
ment of its present methods of subamrine warfare against
passenger and freight carrying vessels, the Government of
the United States can have no choice but to sever diplomatic
relations with the German Empire altogether." In reply to
this declaration Germany assured the United States that
"the Imperial German Government is prepared to do its
utmost to confine the operations of war for the rest of its
duration to the fighting force of the belligerents; but
neutrals cannot expect that Germany, forced to fight for
her existence, shall for the sake of neutral interests restrict
the use of an effective weapon if her enemy is permitted to
AMERICA AT WAR S»
continue to apply at will methods of warfare violating the
ends of international law."
Germany's reference to the enemy's violation was based
upon the Allies' declaration of July 8, 1916, in which they
announced their abandonment of the Declaration of London
and their adoption of new regulations concerning blockade
and contraband.
The United States note in reply to Germany stated that
this government "cannot for a moment entertain, much less
discuss, a suggestion that respect by German naval authori-
ties for the rights of citizens of the United States upon
the high seas should in any way or in the slightest degree
be made contingent upon the conduct of any other gov-
ernment, affecting the rights of neutrals and noncom-
batants. Responsibility in such matters is single, not joint ;
absolute, not relative." To this note, the German Govern-
ment made no reply.
On January 31, 1917, the German Ambassador handed
to the secretary of state the following statement :
"Germany will meet the illegal measures of her enemies
by forcibly preventing, after February 1, 1917, in a zone
around Great Britain, France, Italy, and in all the eastern
Mediterranean, all navigation, that of neutrals included,
from and to England and from and to France. All ships
met within the zone will be sunk." President Wilson says:
"I think you will agree with me that, in view of the declara-
tion which suddenly and without intimation of any kind
deliberately withdraws the solemn assurance given in the
Imperial German Government's note of the 4th of May, 1916,
this government has no alternative consistent with the
dignity and honor of the United States, but to take the
course which in its note of the 18th of April, 1916, it an-
nounced it would take, in the event that the German govern-
ment did not declare and effect an abandonment of the
40 AMERICA AT WAR
methods of submarine warfare which it was then employing
and to which it purposes again to resort."
The Crisis
American ports were greatly affected by the break
with Germany. German vessels were at once damaged by
their crews so as to be useless without costly repair. An
example of this was the Kronprinzessen Cecelie, valued at
$4,500,000. Thirty Teutonic steamers caught in New York
harbor were valued at $29,000,000. German ships Were de-
tained in the Panama Canal Zone and in the Philippine Is-
lands, and at Colon, Panama, the German merchant vessels
were discovered to have certain parts of their machinery
removed and, in some instances, there was evidence of
preparation for the sinking of these vessels.
Solely for the purpose of protecting the several harbors
and other shipping and property interests, steps were taken
to prevent damage, but none of the ships were seized and in
all cases the commanders and crews were informed that the
government of the United States had made no seizures and
claimed no right of vessels, and did not deny the right of
the commander and crew to dismantle the vessel if they
saw fit, so long as the destruction was accomplished in a
way which would not obstruct navigable port waters or
injure or endanger other shipping or property.
Secretary of the Navy, Daniels, ordered the crews of
the German auxiliary cruisers Kronprinz Wilhelm and Prinz
Eitel Friedrich, both at Philadelphia, to be placed in isolation
barracks. Other German and Austrian ships were placed
under guard. American seizure of German ships Was
rumored, but February 4th the government announced that
such a step had not been contemplated.
The port of New York was sealed on the night of
January 31, 1917. American vessels were detained, causing
AMKUICA AT WAR 41
serious delays in mails and cargo, also interfering with the
conveyance of passengers. The Standard Oil Company of
New Jersey recalled its vessels bound for the danger zone.
Other companies adopted the same policy. No mail was sent
from New York to Liverpool after the departure of the
Philadelphia, January 27, until February 12, on the White
Star Liner Cedric. The State Department announced that no
convoys would be provided for ships bound to go through
the danger zone, the government policy being that the
nation would interfere only in case of an "overt act." After
the German note of January 31, only five American freight-
ers had left for the danger zone up to February 19.
Public Opinion
Approval was expressed throughout the country upon
the severance of relations with Germany. Newspapers with
one consent indorsed the action of the President and indi-
cated a willingness to support him. The German-American
press expressed regret that severance was necessary but
affirmed their intention to stand by America. State legis-
latures in session and governors telegraphed their approval.
Offers poured in from industrial centers all over the country
to place their plants in the hands of the government if
they were needed. February 12th, the National Defense
Council met at Washington and took premilinary steps to
take over the regulation of industry in case of hostility.
Government Activity
On February 12, the House passed the Naval Appropria-
tion Bill of $368,553,388.07. The amendment to this bill is
noteworthy, as reaffirming our policy of arbitration in mat-
ters of international dispute. "It is hereby reaffirmed to
be the policy of the United States to adjust and settle its
international disputes through mediation or arbitration to
42 AMERICA AT WAR
the end that war may be honorably avoided." The bill in-
cludes a clause giving the President power to commandeer
shipyards and munition factories in time of war. It also
calls for the building of three battleships, one battle cruiser,
three scout cruisers, fifteen destroyers, one destroyer tender
and eighteen submarines.
Immediately after the departure of Count Bernstorff,
government buildings and navy yards were closed to the
public; the wireless stations were taken over by government
authorities; guards were placed at important arsenals. State
authorities set a watch at bridges, subway entrances and
water supply reservoirs. A watch was placed at all seaports
to prevent damage to harbors. The Panama Canal was
especially guarded. One million dollars was appropriated
by the New York legislature for the protection of New
York property. A federal fort was commenced at Rocka-
the harbor and surrounding coasts. A net of heavy steel
wire was stretched between Sandy Hook and Rockaway
Point to protect New York Harbor from submarines. During
daylight, the net is lowered to permit vessels to pass
through the channels. From sunset to sunrise the net is
raised to bar all ingress to submarines at any depth. Simi-
lar steps were taken for the protection of other harbors on
the Atlantic coast.
President Wilson addressed Congress February 26, 1917.
asking for authority to supply armament to American mer-
chant ships and to employ any other instrumentality that
might be needed to protect American ships and people in
their legitimate pursuit on the sea. He said: "It would
be foolish to deny that the situation is fraught with the
gravest possibilities and dangers. No thoughtful man can
fail to see that the necessity for definite action may come
at any time if we are, in fact and not in word merely, to
defend our elementary rights as a neutral nation. It would
AMERICA AT WAR 43
be most imprudent to be unprepared. I wish to feel that
the authority and the power of the Congress are behind me
in whatever it may become necessary for me to do. Since
it has unhappily proved impossible to safeguard our neutral
rights by diplomatic means against the unwarranted in-
fringements they are suffering at the hands of Germany,
there may be no recourse but to armed neutrality, which we
shall know how to maintain and for which there is abundant
American precedent." The bill passed the House but was
blocked in the Senate by unlimited debate and failed to
reach a vote before Congress expired, March 4. The famous
"manifesto" was signed by the majority, however, indicating
that 75 out of the 96 members were in favor of the bill,
and that its passage was prevented only by a minority group
of filibusters.
The President appealed to the people in a protest against
the action of the Senate. "The inability of the Senate to
act has rendered some of the most necessary legislation of
the session impossible at a time when the need of it was
most pressing and most evident. The remedy? There is
but one remedy. The only remedy is that the rules of the
Senate shall be so altered that it can act." A wave of
indignation swept over the country, denouncing the Senate
filibuster. In an extra session of March 8, 1917, the Senate
rules were revised, eliminating the former desultory prac-
tices.
Overt Acts
In his speech of February 3, 1917, Wilson had stated
that only actual "overt acts" could bring about a condition of
war between the United States and Germany. On that day,
the American freight steamer Housatonic, bound from Gal-
veston to Liverpool with grain, was sunk by a German
submarine. On February 12, the American sailing schooner
Lyman M. Law, carrying lumber from Maine to Italy, was
44 AMERICA AT WAR
destroyed off the coast of Sardinia. Five Norwegian steam-
ers with Americans on board were sunk without adequate
warning in the next ten days. February 27, the Cunard liner
Laconia, bound from New York to Liverpool, loaded with
foodstuffs, cotton, and war material, carrying 43 passengers
and a crew of 216, was sunk off the Irish coast. Twelve
persons perished in the bitter weather before they were
picked up by a patrol boat. The next serious overt act
was the sinking of the American steamship Algonquin,
when bound from New York to London with foodstuffs.
Public opinion burst into intense excitement March 19, when
it was announced that within the preceding twenty-four
hours three American ships, the City of Memphis, the Illi-
nois and the Vigilancia, had been sunk by German subma-
rines near the English coast.
State of War Recognized
March 9, President Wilson had issued a proclamation,
announcing his decision to arm American ships, but armed
neutrality in the present crisis was found to be imprac-
ticable. The President clearly recognized, and stated, the
necessity of War in his Senate address of April 2, 1917. "The
present German submarine warfare against commerce is a
warfare against mankind. It is war against all nations.
Each nation must decide for itself how it will meet it.
Our motive will not be revenge or the victorious assertion
of the physical might of the nation, but only the vindication
of right, of human right, of which we are only a single
champion. Armed neutrality, it now appears, is imprac-
ticable. I advise that the Congress declare the recent course
of the Imperial German Government to be in fact nothing
less than war against the government and people of the
United States. He said in part:
"It is a fearful thing to lead this great, peaceful people
into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars —
AMERICA AT WAR 45
civilization itself seeming to be in the balance. But the
right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for
the things which we have always carried nearest our
hearts, — for democracy, for the rights of those who submit
to authority and have a voice in their own governments,
for the rights and liberties of small nations, for a universal
dominion of right by such a concert of free people as shall
bring peace and safety to all nations and make the world
itself at last free."
Thus we see that out of the entangling broils of
Europe arose our controversy with the German Empire.
Beyond any question our neutrality was real ; we ad-
hered to the treasured tradition of non-interference, and
the thought of taking part in the war was far from our
minds. Our international principles, briefly stated, were as
follows :
(1) The Monroe Doctrine. This doctrine was a pledge
to defend the new world from European aggression.
(2) The freedom of the seas. This doctrine we up-
held in every naval conference in support of International
Law, based upon the consent of the governed.
(3) Arbitration. In upholding the principle of arbitra-
tion we advocated a permanent world court.
By signing arbitration treaties with nations both great
and small, we made plain our purpose to forestall by every
means available the recurrence of war. These principles
failed to gain recognition. Neutrality had lost to the
submarine. The Germans regarded aggressive war as the
final measure' of a nation's worth. One of her writers voiced
the German sentiment when he said : "The time is near when
the earth must be conquered by the Germans." Thus the
shadows deepened over the American people, but the spirit
of American Democracy remained true to its ideals, and we
reluctantly entered the war April 6, 1917.
16 AMKRICA AT WAI!
AMERICA
A prosperous, mighty Nation, —
A land of true Democracy
Where men may thrive who "hold or drive"
A land fulfilling prophesy !
Ever watchful, hopeful Nation, —
A land of real sincerity,
Where all abhor the shades of war ;
A land of faith and charity.
A powerful, fearless Nation, —
A land both chivalrous and strong,
Which does not fight to show its might
But will avenge a despot's wrong.
America, America !
The land of Father Washington.
America, America!
The sacred land of Lincoln's care ;
The proud land of Woodrow Wilson.
With gallant Patriots everywhere
Who call for World Democracy —
Who cry against Autocracy.
The greatest tribute paid to man
Is this, "He is American!"
— W. O. M.
Copyright. 10IS. \V. O. Mclndoo
AMERICA FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY
(ON LAND AND IN AIR)
AMERICA AT WAR 4?
FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR, APRIL 6, 1917, TO APRIL
6, 1918.
I. War — Events in United States:
1. Declared April 6, 1917.
2. Cause.
3. Immediate Result:
a. Congratulations from Europe.
b. German vessels seized April 6.
c. Diplomatic relations broken with Austria,
April 8.
II. Nature of the Struggle.
1. Military.
2. Industrial.
III. Military Interests.
1. First Liberty Bond, June 15, 1917.
2. First gun fired April 19, 1917.
3. Pershing in France June 26, 1917.
(The life of Pershing.)
4. Conscription Bill May 18, 1917.
5. First draft July 20, 1917.
6. jRecruiting week June 23-30, 1917.
7. Training camps established.
8. Aircraft Bill July 24, 1917.
9. Work of the Red Cross.
10. The Pope's Appeal, August 14, 1917.
11. Wilson's reply, August 27, 1917.
12. Germany's attitude toward the note.
IV. Industrial Movements.
1. The Food Administration Act, August 10, 1917.
2. The Government Wheat Corporation formed
August, 1917.
3. The Coal Administrator appointed August 23,
1917..
4. Shipping Act.
48 AMERICA AT WAR
5. Plans of the Navy.
6. The Second Liberty Loan.
7. Centralization of the Railroads, April 11, 1917.
8. Government Control of the Railroads, Decem-
ber 26, 1917.
9. Coal given right-of-way December 29, 1917.
10. Espionage Act.
V. Later Activities.
1. War declared with Austria, December 7, 1917.
2. Nations Against the Central Powers.
3. Wilson's Peace Terms, January 8, 1918.
4. War Saving Societies.
5. Evidence of actual aid given the Allies.
6. Efficiency of the War Department — Secretary
Baker, on January 10, 1918.
7. Secretary Baker's Speech, January 28, 1918.
8. Summary of submarine damage to date, to
ourselves and to the enemy.
9. Sinking of the Tuscania, February 5, 1918.
10. American troops on the Lorraine Line, January
31, 1918.
The Declaration of War
Preceding our entrance into the great world war, there
existed on the side of Germany a state of war against the
United States, and on the side of the United States a state
of peace toward Germany. Whether we should remain
at peace under the accumulated and progressive wrongs,
whether we should use force in defense of our national and
normal rights was a solemn question. Our government
wisely confides the answer of such a question to Congress.
Its answer was worth the patriotic councils of a free and
powerful nation. Its answer was war; war for the sake of
democracy; war against the withering bonds of autocracy;
war for the ultimate peace of mankind.
AMERICA AT WAR 49
Since the establishment of our government in 1789, we
have engaged in four foreign wars : the war against England
in 1812; the war against Mexico in 1845; the war against
Spain in 1898, and the war with Germany in 1917. The
declaration of war against the German Empire passed Con-
gress by joint resolution and was signed by the President,
April 6, 1917. It is in part as follows:
"Whereas, the Imperial German Government has com-
mitted repeated acts of war against the government and the
people of the United States of America;
Therefore, Be It Resolved, by the Senate and House of
Representatives of the United States of America, in Con-
gress assembled; That, the state of war between the United
States and the Imperial German Government which has
thus been thrust upon the United States is hereby formally
declared; and that the President be, and he is, hereby au-
thorized and directed to employ the entire naval and mili-
tary forces of the United States and the resources of the
government to carry on war against the Imperial German
Government; and, to bring the conflict to a successful termi-
nation, all the resources of the country are hereby pledged
by the Congress of the United States."
Cause
Why did we declare war on Germany ? Because she
made an attack upon us — upon our rights, our lives, our Na-
tion. As Secretary of the Interior, Lane, said at the time: "It
is a war to save America, to preserve self-respect, to justify
our right to live as we have lived, not as some one else
wishes us to live. * * ,* For America is not the name of so
much territory ; it is a living spirit, born in travail, grown
in the rough school of bitter experiences, a living spirit
which has purpose and pride and conscience — knows why
it wishes to live and to what end." Because of broken
promises, because of outraged Belgium and desecrated
50 AMERICA AT WAR
France, because of the Russia that is to be and the Eng-
land that is, we declared war. The government which has
no conscience is intolerable to the American sense of justice
and right, and incompatible with international arbitration.
President Wilson stated, April 15, 1917, "There is not a
single selfish element so far as I can see in the cause we are
fighting for. We are fighting for what we believe to be the
rights of mankind and we wish for the future peace and
security of the world." May 30, he said, "In one sense
the great struggle into which we have now entered is an
American struggle because it is in defense of American
honor and American rights, but it is something even greater
than that ; it is a world struggle. It is the struggle of
men who love liberty everywhere." To the government of
Russia, the President said, June 9, 1917, "The position of
America in this war is so clearly avowed that no man
can be excused for mistaking it. She seeks no material
profit or aggrandizement of any kind. She is fighting
for no advantage or selfish object of her own, but for
the liberation of peoples everywhere from the aggressions
of autocratic force. The brotherhood of mankind must no
longer be a fair but empty phrase ; it must be given a
structure of force and reality."
The Effect of the Declaration in Europe
Immediately, upon our declaration of war with Ger-
many, telegrams of congratulations came to President Wil-
son from the Allied nations. A few neutral nations sent
expressions of approval. Cuba and Panama declared war
on Germany. Brazil broke off diplomatic relations with
Germany and on April 14 seized German ships in Brazilian
ports. Premier Lloyd George in his message to the Amer-
ican people said, "America has at one bound become a
world power in a sense she never was before. She waited
until she found a cause worthy of her traditions. The
American people held back until they were fully convinced
AMERICA AT WAR 51
that the fight was not a sordid scrimmage for power and
possessions, but an unselfish struggle to overthrow a sin-
ister conspiracy against human liberty and human rights."
About one hundred German vessels, representing a
tonnage of 600,000, were taken over by the United States
Government April 6 ; the crews were turned over to immi-
gration authorities. Practically every ship was damaged
by order of the German Embassy. Fourteen Austrian ships
were also taken over.
April 8, the government of Austria-Hungary severed
diplomatic relations with the government of the United
States. Baron von Zweidinck, Charge d'Affaires, called
for his passports and those of his staff. A note was
handed to the American Charge dAffaires, in Vienna to
the effect that Austria, because she was an ally of the
German Empire, had decided to break off diplomatic rela-
tions with the United States.
Nature of the Struggle
Our entrance into the war created many problems of
national character which called for immediate considera-
tion. Attention was at once given to the strengthening
of the Navy and the Army ; these were great tasks, but
probably not the greatest. The government had no greater
task than to convince the American people of the grim and
terrible struggle which it had undertaken. This being, not
the soldiers' war alone, but the civilians' war as well.
There were some things to be done without which fighting
would have been fruitless. It was apparent that we must
not only provide food and clothing for our armies and for
ourselves, but help to supply our Allies as well. Every
phase of our industrial life underwent a change for ef-
ficiency; millions of loyal citizens in home and field, in
factory and in mine were enlisted in a great service army
for the cause of democracy.
52 AMERICA AT WAR
Military Interests
April 14, both houses of Congress passed a bill which
authorized the issuance of bonds to the amount of
$5,000,000,000, $3,000,000,000 of which was to be loaned
to the Allies; also the issuance of Treasury Certificates
for $2,000,000,000 ultimately to be met by taxation. This
proposed bond issue of $5,000,000,000 is the largest in the
history of the world. It is about one-tenth of the national
income of the United States for the year 1916. The first
popular offering of bonds was for the sum of $2,000,000,000
to close June 15, 1917. The interest rate was 3i/ 2 %. Large
corporations, notably railroads, industrial, commercial and
banking institutions made subscriptions for their employees,
allowing them to subscribe on the installment plan ; in this
way giving the loan a wide distribution. The total of the
subscriptions was $3,035,226,850, an oversubscription of
$1,035,226,850. More than 4,000,000 men and women sub-
scribed.
The first American gun was fired April 19, thirteen days
after the declaration of war, from the steamship Magnolia.
Captain Rice reported from Liverpool, and stated that the
shot was fired at a German submarine. Hostilities were
opened. The first contingents of the first United States
army to fight in Europe arrived in France June 26 and 27,
1917. The order to sail for France had been given May
18. German submarines twice attacked the transports while
crossing but were beaten off. Major General William L.
Sibert was the commander in charge of the troops.
General Pershing said, June 30, "The landing of the
first American troops has been a complete success. The
men are exceptionally well camped and cared for, with
substantial wooden barracks, good beds, good food and the
best sanitary arrangements. They are located on high
ground. For all this we are deeply indebted to French
AMERICA AT WAR 53
co-operation with members of my staff." Intensive train-
ing of these troops began July 25.
General Pershing
The landing of General Pershing himself in France was
an event of great historic significance. For the first time
in the history of our country America appeared, sword in
hand, upon the ancient battle fields of Europe. France ral-
lied to the Stars and Stripes ; thousands in the streets
of Paris cheered the approach of General Pershing, cry-
ing, "Vive 1'Amerique !" Bands played the Star Spangled
Banner and the Marseillaise. All waved American flags. A
new inspiration and hope came to the depleted French
nation which, for three long weary years, had been fight-
ing the Teutonic invaders. The French soldiers greeted
our boys with an enthusiasm, a sympathy and a spirit of
comradeship growing out of a united determination to
fight to the end for the same great cause, the freeing
of a world from oppressive autocracy. From that day the
spiritual bond which has always existed between laughter-
loving, impetuous Fiance and America, the love of the Free
lias been drawn the closer.
Previous to the war, General Pershing proved himself
worthy of the great position as head of the American
troops in France. His early life fitted him unqualifiedly
to lie a great and successful leader. Coming from the very
heart of America, the hills of Missouri, a poor boy, he
taught school to support himself while struggling for a
meager education ; winning entrance to West Point by a
competitive examination, his training shaped itself along
military lines. In the war with Spain he distinguished him-
self at San Juan and Santiago de Cuba and was commended
highly for "personal gallantry, untiring energy and faith-
fulness." General Baldwin said of him there, "I have been
54 AMERICA AT WAR
in many fights through the Civil War but Captain Pershing
is the coolest man under fire I ever saw in my life."
In the Philippines Pershing exhibited discretion, judg-
ment and restraint. He was given temporary command of
five troops of the 15th cavalry with a battery of artillery,
a company of engineers and a battalion of the 27th infantry
at Camp Vicars in the Lake Lanao district of Mindanao. He
learned to speak the Moro language and conducted negotia-
tions with the Moros. President Roosevelt complimented
him by name in 1908 for his efficiency as a fighter and an
administrator.
General Pershing was married to Miss Frances Warren
just as he received the appointment of military attache at
Tokyo; he and his bride expected to go to Japan, but he
was sent instead to Manchuria as the American observer
with the Japanese army. Incidentally he gained a speaking
knowledge of Japanese, French and Spanish.
August 27, 1915. his wife and three of their four chil-
dren were burned to death in the fire in San Francisco
that destroyed the Presidio. Warren Pershing, a boy, was
left. Immediately following this disaster, Pershing was or-
dered to the Mexican border. Of conditions there he said,
"We do not want war if we can in any way honorably avoid
it ; but we do not hesitate to make war if the cause of
civilization and progress demands it." This written before
we thought of entering the world war against Germany
summarizes our spirit in the conflict "over there" and is
still General Pershing's attitude as he marshals our troops
on foreign soil for the cause of civilzation and progress.
Conscription Bill
Congress passed the Conscription Bill May 18, 1917,
after a month's debate, providing for a system of selective
drafts between the ages of 21 and 31 years, whereby men
could be taken by the government. The first step putting
AMERICA AT WAR 65
this law into operation was the registration of all male resi-
dents between the ages of 21 and 31. The President by-
proclamation fixed upon June 5, 1917, as the day of regis-
tration. Each man registering was given a number, disre-
garding sequence of any kind. The numbers were placed
in a lottery and July 20, 1917, the order in which the men
would be called was determined by drawing these numbers
and listing them in the order drawn.
Class 1, under the draft included single men without
dependent relatives ; men who had habitually failed to sup-
port their families ; those who were dependent on their
wives for support or were not usefully engaged and whose
families were supported independent of their labor; unskilled
farm laborers; unskilled industrial laborers; registrants by
or in respect to whom no deferred classification was claimed
or made; registrants who failed to submit a questionaire
or in respect of whom no deferred classification was claimed
or made, and all registrants not included in any other di-
vision of the schedule. The first draft brought a total of
9,586,508; 6,503,559 were not called by the board; 3,082,949
were summoned to appear. Of these 1,057,363 were certified
for service and 687,000 were named in the first call. As
opposed to 32% in the Civil War, 23.7% were rejected for
physical disability.
January 7, 1918, the United States Supreme Court
passed upon seven cases arising under the selective draft
law, and declared the law constitutional.
June 23-30, 1917, was recruiting week in America. The
call was for unmarried men between the ages of 18 and 40.
By the middle of July, 1917, nearly one-half million men had
volunteered for service in the various branches. By act of
Congress June 3, 1916, the National Guard is subject to
call on draft by the Federal authorities. Thus our fighting
forces are made up of three parts, the Jtegular Army, ob-
tained by volunteers, the New National Army obtained by
•56 AMERICA AT WAR
the draft, volunteers, and transfer from the regular army,
and the National Guard, obtained by volunteers.
According- to the War Department figures, it costs
$156.71 to equip one infantryman for service in France;
of this $101.62 is for clothing, $7.73 for eating utensils and
$47.36 for equipment. The ranking of men is as follows:
Private, first class Private, Corporal, Sergeant, first class
Sergeant; Sergeant Major, of which there are different
grades. The Regimental Sergeant Major is the highest en-
listed man, or non-commissioned officer. Of the commis-
sioned officers, the lowest is Second Lieutenant, then Lieu-
tenant, Captain, Major, Lieutenant Colonel, Colonel, Brigadier
General, Lieutenant General, and General.
The following training camps were established:
NAVY TRAINING CAMPS
Navy training camps were established. Location and
accommodation as follows:
Philadelphia, for 5,000 men.
Newport, R. I., for 6,000 men.
Cape May, N. J., for 2,000 men.
Charlestown, S. C, for 5,000 men.
Pensacola, Fla., for 1,000 additional men.
Key West, Fla., for 500 men.
Mare Island, Cal., for 5,000 men.
Puget Sound, Wash., for 5,000 men.
Hingham, Mass., for 500 men.
New Orleans, La., for 500 men.
San Diego, Cal., for 2,500 men.
Great Lakes Training Station. Chicago, accommodations
for 15,000 additional recruits.
Port Royal, S. C, 5,000 men of the Marine Corps; also
a Marine Corps Camp at Quantico, Va., for 8,000 men.
Hampton Roads naval operating base, 10,000 men.
AMERICA AT WAR 57
Mississippi Exposition Grounds, Gulfport, Miss., 3,500
men.
New York, a camp for 3,000 regulars adjoining- the navy
yard; Pelham, N. Y., 5,000 reserves.
OFFICERS' TRAINING CAMPS.
Fort McPherson, Ga. (two camps).
Fort Ogletrorpe, Ga. (two camps).
Fort Myer, Va. (two camps).
Fort Benjamin Harrison. Ind. (three camps).
Fort Logan H. Roots, Ark. (two camps).
Leon Springs. Tex. (two camps).
Fort Riley, Kas. (two camps).
Presidio, San Francisco, Cal. (one camp).
!
AVIATION FIELDS.
1. Camp Kelley. Aviation Training Field, San Antonio, Texas.
2. Chanute Aviation Training- Field, Rantoul. 111.
3. Essington Aviation Field, Essington, Pa.
4. Hazelhurst Aviation Training Field, Hempstead, N. Y.
5. Langley Aviation Training Field, Hampton, Va.
6. Love Field Aviation Training Field, Dallas Texas.
7. Memphis Aviation Training Field, Memphis, Tenn.
8. Selbridge Aviation Training Field, Mount Clemens, Mich.
9. West Va. Aviation Field, Wellsburg, W. Va.
10. Wilbur Wright Aviation Training Field, Fairfield Station, O.
July 24, 1917, President Wilson signed the war air craft
bill appropriating $640,000,000. As soon as the bill was
signed, Howard Coffin, Chairman of the Aircraft Produc-
tion Board, stated that the board was prepared to go to
work at once.
Our duty in the construction of aircraft is scarcely
surpassed by our duty of furnishing ships on the sea. The
supreme effort of the Allies is to determine the shortest
method to end the war. There is no more important field of
operation to that end, than the air of France and Belgium
5S AMERICA AT WAR
on the western front; to extinguish the military vision of
the Hun and compel him to fight and perish on tre earth
Such a victory is not ideal but altogether reasonable and
practicable ; France and England have caught the vision
but other enormous demands consume their resources. It
remains for the United States to put its flag at the van of
victory.
Red Cross
By this time the Red Cross had become active in Amer-
ica The first of six fully organized and equipped hospital
units arrived in England May 17, 1917. This unit was the
first sanctioned by the United States Government to carry
the American flag to the battle fields of France. The War
Council of the Red Cross with Henry P. Davidson of the
J. P. Morgan and Co. as Chairman, was created May 10,
1917, to carry on relief work. The general purpose of the
Council is to maintain hospitals, recreation huts and rest
houses for the soldiers ; to care for the wounded and dis-
abled; to furnish inhabitants in devastated areas with food,
clothing, temporary shelter and agricultural implements ; to
care for destitute children, and in all possible ways alleviate
suffering in the belligerent countries. Not alone in Europe
is the work carried on. Families of soldiers here in America
are cared for ; needy children are fed and clothed. The
money poured in to the Red Cross from every home in
America supporting this great cause. By November, 1917,
2,000 Red Cross nurses were on the field and 9,000 more
were ready to go. The total donation of the American Red
Cross up to that date was about $80,000,000.
The origion of the Red Cross dates back to the time
of the Crimean War, 1854-56, when Florence Nightingale, a
wealthy English lady, visiting a soldiers' hospital was ap-
palled by the dirty, unsanitary conditions and there decided
to become a nurse. She became at once an "angel of mercv"
AMERICA AT WAR 59
to the sick and dying soldiers. Shortly after the war,
Henri Dunant, a young Swiss, published a pamphlet de-
scribing the horrors on the battlefield of Solferino; then
followed the idea of an international organization to pre-
pare in time of peace, for war, so that the scenes of the
Crimean and Solferino might never be repeated. Representa-
tives from fourteen nations met at Geneva, Switzerland, in
1864, and organized the Red Cross.
During our great Civil War, the care of the sick and
wounded was under the charge of "The Sanitary Commis-
sion." There were also many individuals who devoted their
lives to the work.
Dorothea Dix, a noted prison reform worker, volunteered
her services and became Superintendent of Women Nurses;
"Mother Bickerdye" devoted her life to the work of human-
ity and inspired the respect of even the sternest of generals.
A third noted worker was Clara Barton. Like Doro-
thea Dix and "Mother Bickerdyke," she gave faithful serv-
ice in our Civil War. Later, in 1870-1, during the Franco-
Prussian War, she saw on the battlefields, squads of doc-
tors and nurses each with a red cross on the sleeve. She
was inspired with the idea of "Humanity" and "Neutrality"
and. as a result of her efforts, the United States signed
the Geneva treaty in 1882, and the American Red Cross
was established, and Clara Barton was its first president.
POPE'S APPEAL FOR PEACE.
On August 14, 1917, there was sent to all the belligerent
countries a great appeal for peace by the Pope of the Roman
Catholic church. Such a document in the Middle Ages would
have been effective in its purpose; even today, the. note car-
ried great weight and at least brought about a more careful
consideration and definition of their war purposes by the
belligerents. The pope announced that his attitude to date
in the war had been to maintain impartiality, to give as
60 AMERICA AT WAR
much charitable aid as possible, and to endeavor to bring the
war to a close. He suggested certain definite proposals :
that force should give way to arbitration ; that the freedom
of the seas should be established ; that the evacuation of Bel-
gium and France by Germany, and the evacuation of German
colonies by the Allies be demanded ; that there be some
definite settlement concerning Poland, Armenia and the
Balkan States. While many of the vital issues of the war
were enumerated by the Pope, he was severely criticized for
his consistent neutrality, in that he failed to condemn Ger-
man atrocities, the invasion of Belgium and violations of
international law.
THE PRESIDENT'S REPLY
The reply to the Pope's note which President Wilson sent
August 27, summarized the attitude of all the Allied nations;
to the effect that, while it was a great and generous appeal,
yet its acceptance would accomplish nothing in advance of
conditions as they existed before the war. Since the ob-
ject of the war is "to deliver the free peoples of the world"
how could we stop until this is accomplished? "Responsible
statesmen must now everywhere see, if they never saw be-
fore, that no peace can rest securely upon political or eco-
nomic restrictions meant to benefit some nations and cripple
or embarras others ; upon vindictive action of any sort or
any kind of revenge or deliberate injury."
"Peace should rest upon the rights of peoples, not the
rights of governments." Our purpose in the war was clearly
stated and understood. The note further says: "We do not
seek material advantage but the reparation of intolerable
wrong and injustice. We cannot take the word of the pres-
ent German rulers unless supported defintely by the German
people. Before peace shall be possible, there must be not
another "Scrap of Paper," but the annihilation of abso-
AMERICA AT WAR 61
lutism." Such was our answer to the Papal Note.
This peace note was presented in the German Reichstag
August 21, 1917, by Dr. Michaelis, the German Chancellor.
He declared the policy of the German Empire to be in sym-
pathy with the Pope's attitude, and denied the opinion that
the initiative for the proposal came from the Etnente powers.
While the Pope's appeal commanded great respect, the
Allied powers felt that it did not squarely meet the issue
at all points. The Pope's plan would construct a peace treaty
based on the rights of governments — a plan wholly agree-
able to the Central powers, while the Allied powers con-
tended that no peace can be reached that is not based on
the rights of the people dealt with in the treaty. The
purpose of this, on the part of the Allies, is to protect the
rights of the various peoples in the several Balkan states,
as well as those of Belgium and Poland, against imperialism.
Peace depends upon the curbing of arrogance, greed
and privilege; upon the exaltation of the idea of justice;
for peace is a bi-product of justice.
Industrial Movements
This is a war of resources and industry as well as of
arms. The economic effect of the war made itself felt im-
mediately. There was a decline in agricultural and manu-
facturing production ; yet the requirement for these things
remained as great. There was an increase in exports. The
wheat export increased, also that of copper; foreign demand
for iron and steel was four times as great. There was
an increase in home demands as well, for ships, food, muni-
tions, and coal. A shortage followed, caused not so much
by the huge foreign demand as by local advance buying.
Prices increased. The President asked Congress for legisla-
tion to relieve these conditions.
62 AMERICA AT WAR
The Food Administration Act was passed August 10,
1917, making Herbert Hoover Food Administrator. The
act sought to stimulate production, to reduce waste of dis-
tribution, to eliminate unreasonable profits and to direct
wise consumption. It gave the President power to purchase,
store and sell wheat, flour, meal, beans and potatoes;
to regulate the price of coal and coke; to regulate the method
of production, distribution and storage; to take over plants
if necessary ; to manage the disposition of commodities neces-
sary for the common defense, as food, fuel and seed. The
manufacture of distilled spirits was greatly reduced. The
making of whisky from grain ceased September 7, 1917.
August 15, 1917. a $50,000,000 wheat corporation was
formed to handle buying for the American Government. Dr.
Harry A Garfield, chairman of the committee, fixed the
price August .i0 at $2.20 a bushel. The bakers were brought
under licenses which called for a standard loaf. This con-
trol by the government disturbed vitally the great wheat
markets, Chicago and St. Louis; the wheat was shipped south
by way of the Gulf, and from there to both foreign and
American ports. The Food Administration decided upon the
amount of essential commodities which go abroad and to
what country they go. August 24, the order was issued
that all purchases for the Allied government should be
made by an American commission for the War Industries
Board. This was to prevent foreign agents from usurping the
market in advance.
Sugar as well as wheat had been closely controlled bv
the government. Agreements as to prices were made
with refiners ; wholesalers were limite3, also retailer
as a result the public was informed what it should pay for
sugar. Mr. Hoover fixed the price at $7.25 a hundred-
weight for beet sugar at refining centers. Without such
AMERICA AT WAR 63
regulation, the price of sugar would have soared. When we
consider the fact that prior to the war one-third of the
world's beet sugar production came from Germany, and Aus-
tria, and that we were called upon to furnish the Allies with
the needed amount, besides supplying our own needs, we
were surprised that the sugar situation remained so com-
paratively normal.
The coal situation called for control and regulation as
well as the food situation. August 20, Robert S. Lovett,
Federal Agent, gave coal shipment in the Northwest prece-
dence over other business. August 21, the President fixed
the base price of bituminous coal in all big coal districts at
about $2.00 a ton; later raised it to $2.45. August 25, Dr.
Harry A. Garfield was appointed Coal Administrator. Due
to the alarming shortage in mid-winter, January 18, the
ultimatum was issued, to the effect that the Nation's fac-
tories should close for five days, and for ten weeks, each
Monday should be regarded as a holiday.
Another important national move w^as the passage of
the Shipping Act by which all interstate commerce by water
is controlled; and all cargo ships of more than 2,500 tons,
413 in all, then in construction were requisitioned, and an
Emergency Fleet Corporation with a capital stock of $50,-
000,000 was organized. In its report the Shipping Board
said, "The Corporation is now engaged in what is probably
the greatest construction task ever attempted by a single
institution. The Corporation has 16 offices in various parts
of the country. It is supervising the building of 1,118 ves-
sels in 116 shipyards distributed throughout the United
States. It is disbursing for the construction of those ships
something in excess of a billion dollars per annum. It is
controlling substantially all the shipbuilding of the country
other than of naval vessels, and its program calls for the
completion in 1918 of eight times the tonnage delivered in
1916."
W AMERICA AT WAR
The Navy
In October, 1917, the naval authorities determined to
build a number of destroyers costing 350 million dollars
to be completed in April, 1919. Previously contracts
had been signed for 335 submarines and 200 torpedo boats.
January 16, 1918, Wm. B. Oliver, chairman of the sub-
committee of the House Naval Affairs Committee, said that
424 war vessels were being constructed, the largest build-
ing program in the world. Thus we see the Navy has
been growing.
On February 22, 1917, our navy consisted of 351 ships,
divided into two classes:
(1) Those in full commission, fully officered and
manned ready for service immediately upon notice ; there
were 224 in all. Of these, the most important were, 1 pre-
di-eadnaught, 13 dreadnaughts, 38 destroyers, 38 subma-
rines, 3 armored cruisers and 18 gunboats.
(2) Those not in full commission, but kept at a navy
yard ready for use on short notice. Of these we had 127.
The most important were, 13 second line battle ships, 33
destroyers, 5 submarines, 7 armored cruisers and 17 tor-
pedo boats.
The navy has ever been a pre-eminent power of govern-
ment in the history of nations. It is futile to attempt to
fathom its possibilities. The army, in its narrow limits of
mobility, appears insignificant when compared to a great
navy, from whose threat no coast line is free.
The Second Liberty Loan
The campaign for the Second Liberty Loan was opened
Ocotber 1, for an issue of $3,000,000,000. October 6, Con-
gress appropriated $21,000,000,000 for war purposes and
enacted the War Revenue Bill which provided for the rais-
ing of $2,700,000,000 by taxation. A "Trading with the
Jopyrisht, 191S, W O. Mclndoo
AMERICA FOR WORLD DEMOCRACY
(ON AND UNDER THE WAVE)
AMERICA AT WAR 65
Enemy Act" passed October 14, which provided for the
supervision of all exports and imports ; for the use of enemy
patent; for a strict censorship of news and for the licensing
of foreign language publications by the War Trade Board.
Government Control of Railroads
The mobilizing of industries for war was effectively
worked out in the instance of the railroads. April 11, only
six days after the declaration of war, they were put under
centralized control. Mr. Daniel Willard, of the Baltimore &
Ohio Railroad, of the Advisory Committee of the Council
of National Defense, asked for a meeting in Washington
of all railroad presidents. Fifty appeared. Mr. Willard
explained the need for running the mileage of railroad in
this country as a single unit. A committee was appointed
for this purpose. The movement would mean that upon
command, any road should move coal or tin or any other
needed commodity in preference to personal freight less
essential for war purposes. Such action would be against
the pecuniary interests of the roads, and is on the whole
illegal ; nevertheless, by common agreement, such a system
was accepted and successfully administered, preventing con-
gestion in the shipping of necessary government supplies.
The number of roads thus merged into one system was 693,
operating 262,000 miles of track, using 2,326,987 freight
cars, employing 1,750.000 persons and owned by 1,500,000
security holders.
This voluntary centralization was a stepping stone to
government control, which became necessary under the com-
plications which arose later in the year. While the Rail-
road Committee accomplished much, the greater efficiency
under government control became imperative. December
26, by proclamation of the President, this immense indus-
try passed under control of the government with Wm. G.
66 AMERICA AT WAR
McAdoo as Director General. December 28, the federal
authorities began the operation of the roads. It was pur-
posed in instigating the system to guarantee to each road an
average amount of its earnings, for the years 1915,
'16 and '17. Although the entire system of railroads is
undoubtedly complex and the plan of federal control would,
under normal conditions, bring about much argument,
criticism and comment, the change of control was secured
easily, quickly and effectively. The transportation business
of the country for the government was placed in the hands
of experienced railroad men. December 29, McAdoo issued
his first order. Vigorous measures were taken to relieve
congestion in the Eastern States especially. Traffic was
ordered to be moved by the shortest route regardless of
individual profit or convenience. Coal was given the right
of way. In certain cases passenger trains were removed
to make way for freight. Orders were given for all empty
box cars to be sent to wheat producing centers.
THE ESPIONAGE ACT.
Another important Congressional Act was the Espion-
age Act, which prescribes death or long imprisonment as
punishment of convicted spies ; penalizes interference with
foreign commerce; provides for the enforcement of neu-
trality; authorizes seizure of shipments of arms designed
for unlawful purposes; fixes penalties for injuring vessels
in foreign commerce and for disturbing foreign relations ;
puts new restrictions upon passports ; deals with censor-
ship of the mails; provides for the extension and use of
search warrants; confers on the President power to embargo
exports ; specifies penalties for disloyalty.
AMERICA AT WAR 67.
LATER ACTIVITY
War With Austria-Hungary
December 7, 1917, war was declared between the United
States and Austria-Hungary. The text of the resolution
follows :
"Whereas, the Imperial and Royal Austro-
Ilungarian Government has committed repeated
acts of war against the government and the people
of the United States of America; therefore, be it
Resolved, by the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives of the United States of America in Con-
gress assembled, that a state of war is hereby de-
clared to exist between the United States of Amer-
ica and the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian
Government and that the President be, and he is,
hereby authorized and directed to employ the entire
naval and military forces of the United States and
the resources of the Government to carry on war
against the Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian
Government; and to bring the conflict to a suc-
cessful termination all the resources of the country
are hereby pledged by the Congress of the United
States."
This step was not unlooked for by the American people.
War with Austria, Germany's ally, was the natural conse-
quence of repeated hostile moves during the year. The fact
of the declaration was accepted with little comment through-
out the country.
Nations Against the Central Powers
In the beginning of the new year, 1918, it might prove
interesting to take a survey of the nations who either are
•8 AMERICA AT WAR
at war with the Central Powers, or have severed diplomatic
relations:
The nations at war are:
Serbia, July 28, 1914,
Russia, August 1, 1914,
France, August 3, 1914,
Belgium, August 4, 1914,
Montenegro, August 7, 1914,
Japan, August 23, 1914,
Italy, May 23, 1915,
Portugal, March 10, 1916,
Rumania. August 28, 1916,
United States, April 6, 1917,
Cuba, April 7, 1917,
Panama, April 7, 1917,
Greece, June 29, 1917,
Siam, July 22, 1917,
Liberia, August 7, 1917,
China, August 14, 1917.
The following severed diplomatic relations:
Bolivia, April 11, 1917,
Guatemala, April 27, 1917,
Honduras, May 17. 1917,
Nicaragua, May 19, 1917,
Haiti, June 17, 1917.
Costa Rica, September 21, 1917,
Peru, October 5, 1917,
Uruguay, October 7, 1917,
Ecuador, December 8. 1917.
Wilson's Peace Terms
When we see this extensive list of belligerents against
the Central Powers, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey,
Roumania and Bulgaria, we realize that the conflict was
A.MKRICA AT WAR 69
not entered into by the Allies as a war of conquest, but we
are fighting, not a war of simple aggression, but as a war
for the establishment of a world principle of government and
world arbitration. In his speech of January 8, 1918, Presi-
dent Wilson, in the light of a year's participation in the
struggle, more closely defines the necessary terms for peace,
which are open peace terms ; absolute freedom of the seas ;
equality of trade; guarantee for the reduction of armament;
evacuation of Russia; evacuation of Belgium; restoration of
French territory: readjustment of the Italian boundary:
greater freedom for Austria: evacuation of Rumania, Ser-
bia, Montenegro ; independence for the Balkan States ; open-
ing of the Dardanelles to all nations ; establishment of an
independent Polish state : establishment of a league of na-
tions to preserve peace. Great Britain greeted Wilson's
message enthusiastically, as embodying much the same ideas
and principles as Lloyd George advocated in his speech a few
days later. The speech met with popular approval in France.
Gradually, the war made itself felt throughout this
great country of ours After November 1, 1917, the United
States had its weekly meatless day and one day a week
without bread made of wheat flour. The use of sugar was
restricted greatly to supply Fiance. The prices of wheat, an-
thracite coal, copper, iron and steel were fixed to prevent
specultion being the same for the Allies as for the
American people. As appeared in the Paris report of the
Chamber of Commerce December, 1917, "No restriction nor
taxation has called forth protestations on the part of the
public, who thus show their determination and willingness
to deprive themselves of necessaries in order to help the
Allies and win the war." There was automatic sav-
ing throughout the country for the promotion of economy
and thrift. War Saving Societies were organized by
churches, lodges, clubs and the like. The pledge was to pur-
TO AMERICA AT WAR
chase war saving- stamps of a certain amount weekly, to aid
the government by . buying only necessities, and to
encourage economy among friends and associates as well.
Regular meetings of these societies were held which
proved helpful in the discussion of personal and family bud-
gets. Besides organizing these societies, the government
sent specially qualified men and women to all parts of the
states for the purpose of giving helpful lectures upon the
general situation regarding such matters as food, and agri-
culture, advising people how to meet conditions.
Results of Conservation
Nor was our conservation futile. We gave ma-
terial aid to our Allies. From the New York harbor alone,
according to the Paris Chamber of Commerce report, $32,-
825,000 worth of goods have been shipped each week ; two-
thirds of these munitions consisting of army supplies ; 80,000
establishments manufacturing munitions passed into the
hands of the government. 50,000 engines were ordered for
aviation. The Government planned to send 30,000 machines
to France. In regard to shipping, the Shipping Board re-
ported in November, 1917, 1,036 vessels, a total of 5,925,700
tuns in the dockyards.
Thus we see that the War Department performed
a task of unparalleled magnitude in spite of delays and dif-
ficulties, which appear in every department of the govern-
ment in time of war. January 10, 1918, Secretary Baker
summarized before the Senate Committee the achievements
of the war department to date: "a large army is already
in the field; the training of troops has been accomplished
without seriously impairing ordinary industrial conditions ;
the men are well cared for, both here and in France; no
army of equal size in the history of the world has been
raised, equipped or trained so quickly."
AMERICA AT WAR 71
January 28, Secretary Baker gave more in detail a
summary of the work done by the department since war
was declared. He reminded us that, "this is an unprecedented
war, a war in which experts are engaged; a moving war in
which the situation changes from hour to hour; a war that
cannot be mapped out and planned carefully on a piece of
paper in America, but a war which must be planned and
fought on European ground and on European terms. It is
not for us to theorize or extemporize about possible condi-
tions; it is for us to meet the conditions which actually ex-
ist in the trenches, to talk over carefully with men who have
been on the grounnd 'over there' what the situation is and
what is best for us to do to meet it. We have already
accomplished what last August was pronounced impossible ;
instead of having 50,000 or 100,000 men in France we have
half a million ; and instead of having another paltry half
million to send, we have one and a half million. It is not
only soldiers which America has sent, but artisans, engi-
neers, technicians, nurses, surgeons who are not only help-
ing the Allies but are studying conditions so as to make
them more favorable for our greater army when it does
arrive on the battle line." The efficiency of our system was
recognized even by our enemy ; in a confidential note issued
by the German Government in June, 1917, the following re-
mark was made, "While the news about American war pre-
parations, such as the organizing and outfitting of an army
of 1.000,000 men to reinforce the French-English front, is
looked upon in that form as bluff, the spreading of which
may unfavorably affect the opinion of the German people,
yet, on the otrer hand, the fact must not be overlooked that
the United States, with the support of its capacity for ma-
terial and industrial management, is arming itself for war
with great energy and tenacity."
72 AMERICA AT WAR
Submarine Damage
Announcement was made January 30, 1918, that since
the launching by Germany of unrestricted submarine warfare
on February 1, 1917, 69 American ships, totaling 171,061
gross tons, had been sunk by submarines, mines and raiders,
and 300 persons drowned ; 107 German and Austrian ships
of a gross tonage of 684,494 were seized and added to the
American merchant marine ; 426 vessels, totaling more than
2,000,000 tons, were requisitioned through the Shipping
Board and contracts were awarded for 884 more ships.
The sinking of the Tuscania February 5, 1918, was
America's greatest military loss to date. It was a British
vessel carrying American troops from Michigan and Wis-
consin. Two thousand one hundred and seventy-nine Ameri-
can soldiers were on board; about 164 were lost. The ves-
sel was torpedoed off the coast of Ireland.
AMERICA'S ACTIVITIES
American troops were placed on the first line trenches
January 31, 1918, on the Lorraine line, and were actively
engaged in the great battle which started March 23, 1918.
The first year of the war closed with an expenditure
in money of about nine billion dollars. The casualties for
the same period were as follows :
The Army —
Killed in action 183
Lost at sea 237
Died of wounds ■ 52
Died of disease 793
Suicide and unknown causes 39
Wounded 777
Captured ■■ 22
Missing - 41
AMERICA AT WAR 73
The Navy-
Killed— Officers 13
Men .214
Injured — Officers 2
Injured — Men 28
Prisoners 7
During the first year we landed one-half million soldiers
in Europe, built over 600 miles of railroad in France, includ-
ing wharves, warehouses and docks. We entered the front
line trenches, holding five different sectors.
At home we greatly increased the army, the navy
and the aircraft preparatory to hurling a tremendous force
against the Hun. These achievements were great, but the
greatest and eventually the most powerful preparation was
the new mental attitude of the American people; uncertainty-
gave way to determination; pacifism gave way to force;
the millions were awakened; war became our business: war
against conquest ; war against secret treaties in the interest
of particular governments; war against aggrandizement;
war seeking no less victory than to secure for the world a
Christian democracy.
74
AMERICA AT WAR
NATIONAL ARMY.
Site Original Organization
Aver, Mas-. 76th Division
Yaphank, Long 77th Division
Island, N. Y
Wrightstown, N. J. 78th Division
\nnapolis 79th Division
Junction, Md.
Petersburg, Va. 80th Division
Columbia, S. C. 81st Division
Atlanta, Ga. 82nd Division
Chillicothe, O. SSrd Division
Louisville, Ky S4th Division
Battle Creek, Mich. 85th Division
Rockford, 111 86th Division
Little Rock, Ark. 87th Division
Fort Logan H. Root,
Des Moines, la. 88th Division
Junction City, Kas. 89th Division
Fort Riley,
Fort Sam Houston,
San Antonio, Tex. 90th Division
American Lake, 91st Division
Wash.
Troops from Camp
Maine, New Hampshire, Devens
Vermont, Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island
and Connecticut.
Metropolitan portion of Upton
New York.
Remainder of New Y'ork Dix
and Northern Penn-
sylvania.
Southern Pennsylvania. Meade
New Jersey, Virginia, Lee
Maryland, Delaware,
and the District of
Columbia.
Tennessee, North Caro- Jackson
lina. South Carolina
and Florida.
Georgia and Alabama. Gordon
Ohio and W. Virginia. Sherman
Indiana and Kentucky. Taylor
Michigan and Wisconsin. Custer
Illinois. Grant
Arkansas, Louisiana and Pike
Mississippi.
Minnesota, Nebraska, Dodge
Iowa, North Dakota
and South Dakota.
Kansas, Missouri and Funston
Colorado.
Texas, Arizona, New Travis
Mexico and Oklahoma.
Washington, Oregon, Lewis
California, Nevada,
Utah, Idaho, Mon-
tana and Wyoming.
AMKRICA AT WAR 73
The Navy-
Killed— Officers 13
Men 214
Injured — Officers 2
Injured — Men ... 28
Prisoners 7
During- the first year we landed one-half million soldiers
in Europe, built over 600 miles of railroad in France, includ-
ing wharves, warehouses and docks. We entered the front
line trenches, holding five different sectors.
At home we greatly increased the army, the navy
and the aircraft preparatory to hurling a tremendous force
against the Hun. These achievements were great, but the
greatest and eventually the most powerful preparation was
the new mental attitude of the American people; uncertainty
gave way to determination; pacifism gave way to force;
the millions were awakened; war became our business: war
against conquest ; war against secret treaties in the interest
of particular governments; war against aggrandizement;
war seeking no less victory than to secure for the world a
Christian democracy.
AMERICA AT WAR
NATIONAL ARMY.
Site Original Organization
Ayer, Mass. 76th Division
Yaphank. Long 77th Division
Island, N. Y
Wrightstown, N. J. 78th Division
Annapolis 79th Division
Junction, Md.
Petersburg, Va. 80th Division
Columbia, S. C. 81st Division
Atlanta, Ga. 82nd Division
Chillicothe, O. 83rd Division
Louisville, Ky 84th Division
Battle Creek, Mich. 85th Division
Rockford, 111 86th Division
Little Rock, Ark 87th Division
Fort Logan H. Root,
Des Moines. la. 88th Division
Junction City, Kas. 89th Division
Fort Riley,
Fort Sam Houston,
San Antonio, Tex. 90th Division
American Lake, 91st Division
Wash.
Troops from Camp
Maine, New Hampshire, Devens
Vermont, Massachu-
setts, Rhode Island
and Connecticut.
Metropolitan portion of Upton
New York.
Remainder of New York Dix
and Northern Penn-
sylvania.
Southern Pennsylvania. Meade
New Jersey, Virginia, Lee
Maryland, Delaware,
and the District of
Columbia.
Tennessee, North Caro- Jackson
lina, South Carolina
and Florida.
Georgia and Alabama. Gordon
Ohio and W. Virginia. Sherman
Indiana and Kentucky. Taylor
Michigan and Wisconsin. Custer
Illinois. Grant
Arkansas, Louisiana and Pike
Mississippi.
Minnesota, Nebraska, Dodge
Iowa, North Dakota
and South Dakota.
Kansas, Missouri and Funston
Colorado.
Texas, Arizona, New Travis
Mexico and Oklahoma.
Washington, Oregon. Lewis
California. Nevada,
Utah. Idaho, Mon-
tana and Wyoming.
AMERICA AT WAR
Site
Charlotte,
N. C
Spartanburg,
S. C.
Augusta, Ga.
Anniston, Ala
Greenville, S. C.
Macon, Ga,
Waco, Tex.
Houston, Tex
Deming, N. M.
Lawton, Ok.
Fort Sill,
Okla.
Fort Worth, Tex.
Montgomery, Ala.
Hattiesburg.
.Miss.
Alexandra, La.
NATIONAL GUARD.
Original Organization Troops from
.Maine, New Hampshire,
Camp
Greene
26th Division
(old 5)
27th Division
(old 6)
28th Division
(old 7)
29th Division
(old 8)
Vermont, Massachu-
setts Rhode Island
and Connecticut.
New York
Pennsylvania
Wadsworth
Hancock
30th Division
(old 0)
.'list Division
(old 10)
New Jersey, Virginia, McClellan
Maryland, Delaware
and the District of
Columbia.
Tennessee, North Caro- Sevier
lina and South Caro-
lina.
Georgia, Alabama and Wheeler
Florida.
32nd Division Michigan and Wiscon- MacArthur
(old 11) sin.
33rd Division Illinois. Logan
(old 12)
.".4th Division Minnesota, Iowa, Ne- Cody
(old 13)
35th Division
(old 14)
36th Division
(old 15)
.".7th Division
(old 16)
38th Division
(old 17)
39th Division
(old 18)
Minnesota, Iowa, Ne-
braska, North Dakota
and South Dakota.
Missouri and Kansas. Doniphan
(also 140th Division)
Texas and Oklahoma. Bowie
Ohio and West Virginia. Sheridan
Indiana and Kentucky. Shelby
Louisiana, Mississippi Beauregard
and Arkansas.
Linda Vista. 40th Division California, Nevada, Kearny
Cal. (old 19) Utah, Colorado, Ari-
zona and New Mexico.
Palo Alto. Cal. 41st Division Washington, Oregon, Fremont
(old 20) Montana, Idaho and
Wyoming
SCHOOL OF FIRE FOR FIELD ARTILLERY AT LAWTON. OKLA.
76 AMERICA AT WAR
EVENTS IN EUROPE FROM APRIL OF 1917 TO
APRIL OF 1918
The great German offensive was checked in the early
spring of 1917, and much of the territory which they had
captured was again occupied by the Allies. On April 9,
1917, occurred the great Allied victory in the famous
battle of Vimy Ridge, in which the Canadian troops were
conspicuous in valor together with their French allies.
The Germans lost town after town, before the ad-
vancing lines of the Allies. While the German armies Avere
retreating to their Eastern fortification for shelter, Lin-
denburg, their advising angel, was assuring them that they
could now afford to wait further victory until the submarine
had starved England.
The Russian Revolution
In the midst of these great military movements on the
western front, the Russian revolution broke suddenly upon
the scene ; the Czar, the Russian court, and the German
peace intrigues were all banished by the Russian terror.
This brought revolution dangerously near to the door of Ger-
many. She now began to speak encouragingly of democracy
and the freedom of nationalities — under her own guidance,
of course. But Russia, apparently, turned a deaf ear; then
came internal quarreling until she stood hesitant; racked by
discord, and robbed of victory. The immediate effect of the
Russian revolution was to confuse the war issues.
The temporary weakness and inaction of Russia en-
abled Austria to meet successfully the splendid Italian
offensive in May, on the Carso. The attack lasted for eight-
een days, during which time the Italian army evinced great
determination and sustained fighting power.
Germany Checked
On the Western front, Germany was attempting to reach
Calais in May. She was defeated in this attempt, however,
AMERICA AT WA1I
being driven back by the Allies in the famous battle of
Ypres. The retreat was accomplished with a great loss of
men to Germany; on the other hand, it enabled the Allies to
effect the desired straightening of their line from Zillebeke
to Armentieres.
July 1, under the personal magnetic leadership of Ker-
ensky, Russia again began an offensive along the northern
course of the Zlota Lipa. The town of Koniuchy was taken
first, with about 10,000 prisoners. This attack was signifi-
cant in that it evidenced the compact fighting spirit of
Russia in spite of alleged disintegration. Again, the Rus-
sians attacked south of Dniester, breaking the Austrian line;
the Lukwa River was reached and crossed; the Russians oc-
cupied the town of Kabisz, the most important along the
river, and the seat of the Austrian headquai'ters.
On July 14, 1917, Bethmann-Hollweg, the German Im-
perial Chancellor since 1909, was forced to resign and was
succeeded by Dr. George Michaelis. A complete reorganiza-
tion of the ministry followed. The political crisis in Russia
was making itself felt in Germany. News that the United
States had entered the conflict was not welcome to German
ears. General dissatisfaction with the conduct of war which
leaked out through newspaper comments, was pacified mo-
mentarily with the promise of a separate peace with Russia
and a rapid termination of the war.
Three General Movements
In the month of August, three general movements stand
out: the great Italian offensive, the occupation of Riga by
the Germans, and the French expansion north of Verdun.
The Italian offensive began on August 18; in twenty-five
days of fighting they straightened their line to include
Vodice Ridge and the steppes of Monte Santo. Thus a foot-
hold on the northern part of the Bainsizza Plateau was
78 AMERICA AT WAR
gained. The city of (Riga is half German, and of little mili-
tary value ; therefore, the German occupation was not a
serious menace. Over on the western front, August 20, the
French pushed forward along the Meuse, taking the fortifi-
cations between Avocourt and Bezonvaux ; on the 21st they
proceeded still farther, taking over 5,000 prisoners.
Early in September the Germans ordered the civil popu-
lation of several towns in Flanders to leave. The engage-
ments during the month took the Allies to the Ypres-Roulers
road. The losses of the German army were heavy; those of
the Allies comparatively slight. By the last of September,
the fighting in Flanders for Passchendaele Ridge concerned
itself more for the occupation of commanding positions, than
the winning of any specific battles.
Germany Threatens Russia and Italy
In October of 1917, the British gained land east of
Ypres of especial strategic importance for further attack.
Russia, however, was at this time suffering the loss of im-
portant islands in the Baltic Sea. On September 21, the
Germans captured Jacobstadt. They controlled the Baltic;
and the bases Reval, Vibrog and Kronstadt were in danger.
November 17, witnessed the alarming retirement of the
Italian line, and further trouble in Russia ; but, counter-
balancing these events was the conquest of Palestine by the
British, the gains in Flanders by the Allies, and the actual
presence of American troops on the front. A supreme war
council for coordination of effort was formed by Great Brit-
ain, Italy and France, which step greatly solidified the Allied
forces. The situation in Italy was so grave, and the possi-
bility of the fall of Venice so threatening, that this city
was practically evacuated and her art treasures were re-
moved.
AMERICA AT WAR 79
ORIGIN OF VENICE
It may be of interest to recall the origin of Venice,
known in ancient times as the "eldest daughter of the Roman
Empire," and as the "Carthage of the Middle Ages." In 451,
Attila, leader of the Aryan Huns, overran the weak Roman
Empire. He crossed the Rhine into Gaul ; leaving devasta-
tion in his wake, he moved into Italy with fire and sword,
and, so dreadful was his destruction, that he was known as
the "scourge of God." The Veneti of northern Italy fled for
safety to the low marshy country at the head of the Adri-
atic; upon the scanty patches of dry ground they built their
rude huts from which beginning came the beautiful city of
Venice, lately threatened with destruction by the Huns of
the Twentieth Century.
On November 19. 1917, news was received that the
Hun invasion had met resistance at the River Piave, hence
immediate danger was averted.
Closing Events
Germany's attempt throughout had been to fight Russia
with diplomacy rather than with force of arms. An armis-
tice for four weeks on the eastern front from the Baltic to
the Black Sea was agreed upon, on December 17. As a re-
sult, the removal of troops to the Western front added mate-
rially to the strength of the German new offensive and
aggravated the peril of the Allies.
In Italy, the situation remained the same.
In German East Africa, the last armed resistance was
crushed by Great Britain, completing the conquest of Ger-
man colonial possessions. Thus Germany's dream of colonial
empire came to an end.
On December 31, 1917, the French troops recaptured
Monte Tombe, taking 1,400 prisoners. The Austrian line was
80 AMERICA AT WAR
pushed northward, and the Italians were successful in a
series of engagements.
The political situation in Russia interfered during this
period with any military action on their part. Ukrania
signed a separate peace with Germany, followed by Rumania
and Finland. Russia was rendered useless to the Allies ; at
the same time she afforded Germany an outlet to Asia.
March 21, 1918, the battle of Picardy, the most des-
perate battle in history, began with the great German offen-
sive. Four million men were engaged in combat along 150
miles of battle front. General Foch was made commander
in chief of the allied armies March 28, 1918. In the attack,
the Germans advanced in the region between Ypres and
Labassee. Their gains in territory were small, scarcely
enough to bury their dead ; and the great battle of Picardy,
like Verdun, the Somme and the Marne, gave the victory to
the Allies. The Hun had met the allied strategy of the
world, a strategy supported by an increasing strength of all
that is best and noblest in the fulfillment of the brotherhood
of man.
Copyright. 1918, W. 0. Mclndoo
COPYRIGHT 1918 W. O.'MC INDOO
COPYRIGHT 1918 W. O MC INDOO
ANNOUNCEMENT J
OF
SERVICE
We are prepared to serve purchasers of our "UNIQUE
SOUVENIR ALBUM" at small cost, as follows:
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2. Additional parts of this book are for sale.
a A biography or service record of a soldier will be extended by
us at a small cost.
I b Additional blank leaves with decorated border I dozen lots only )
for sale.
, c "THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN DEMOCRACY" by Elmer
E. Rush, M. A.
A concise account of the establishment and development of modern
democracy in America, illustrated by original paintings, reproduced
in colors.
(d) "THE EUROPEAN WAR" by W. N. Sage, M. A. (Oxon)
A detailed account of the causes and the events from its outbreak to the
entrance as a belligerent of the United States of America. In this
account is related the awful story under the following headings :
CHAPTER I CHAPTER IV
The Causes of the War Early Attempts and Failures
CHAPTER II CHAPTER V
The German Onrush Verdun and the Somme
CHAPTER III CHAPTER VI
The First Winter Germany Against the World
CONCLUSION— To Make the World Safe for Democracy
"AMERICA AT WAR" by Elmer E. Rush, M. A.
The attitude of our Government and the events to date.
All material furnished on paper, cut and punched to fit the album.
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