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POLITICAL HISTORY SINCE 1815 
 
 (EXCLUDING THE UNITED STATES). * 
 
 A SA r LLABUS OF LECTURES 
 
 PREPARED FOR USE IN THE 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY. 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES II. LEVERMORE, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of History, 
 
 and 
 
 DAVIS R. DEWEY, Ph.D., 
 
 Professor of Economics and Statistics. 
 
 ^m is \m .) 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 W. J. SCHOFIELD, PRINTER, 105 SUMMER STREET. 
 
 1893. 
 
- 
 
 Eutered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1893, 
 BY CHARLES H. LEVERMORE AND DAVIS R. DEWEY, 
 In the Clerk's Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This book is intended to serve as a basis for a course of 
 lectures upon the outlines of political history in the nine- 
 teenth century. As used in the Massachusetts Institute of 
 Technology, it is placed in the hands of the students, who 
 follow in its pages the oral lectures upon the same subjects. 
 The lecturer, feeling that his hearers already know the skele- 
 ton of his topic, is at liberty to provide the flesh, blood, and 
 life, wherever and however it may seem best. The students 
 are required also to read selections from the references and 
 from apposite articles in the current reviews and magazines, 
 and to submit abstracts of this reading, periodically, to the 
 instructor. It will be seen, therefore, that no attempt has 
 been made to refer to works that are not to be found in a 
 comparatively small class-library. No books have been 
 ( I noted which are not easily obtainable at a small cost. At 
 the same time, those who are near large libraries can readily 
 expand the reference work, if they so desire. The individual 
 student into whose hands the book may fall, and who may 
 desire more comprehensive guidance, is recommended to 
 resort to the bibliographies of modern history already pub- 
 lished in Dr. G. Stanley Hall's " Methods of Teaching 
 History " (2nd ed.), and in Prest. Charles Kendall Adams's 
 " Manual of Historical Literature " (2nd ed.). 
 
 C. H. L. 
 
 D. R. D. 
 Boston, Mass., Feb. 1, 1893. 
 
LECTURES. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Introductory Lecture: Races, Governments, 
 and Religions of Men. .... 1 
 I— II. England and Her Empire. ... 8 
 
 III-IV. English Political Parties 20 
 
 V. Canada. The Cape Colony. ... 32 
 
 VI. English Colonies in Australasia and Poly- 
 nesia. . . . . . . .38 
 
 VII. The Asiatic Empire of England. . . 42 
 
 VIII. China. Japan 50 
 
 IX. The Russian Empire. .... 55 
 X-XI. The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. . . 61 
 XII-XIII. The Ottoman Empire and the Revolted 
 Christian States of the Balkan Penin- 
 sula 71 
 
 XIV. The Present Empire of the Ottoman Turks. 
 
 The Eastern Question. . . .85 
 
 XV. German Confederations and the Growth of 
 
 Prussia 89 
 
 XVI. The German Empire, 1871-. . . .96 
 
 XVII. France, 1815-1871 102 
 
 XVIII. The Third Republic, 1870-. . . 107 
 
 XIX. Italy, and the Struggle for Unity. . . Ill 
 
 XX. Switzerland. Netherlands. Belgium. 117 
 
 XXI. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. . . .121 
 
 XXII. The Iberian Peninsula: Portugal (with 
 
 Brazil). Spain. . . . .124 
 
 XXIII. Spanish America, or the Revolted Colonies 
 
 of Spain. ...... 131 
 
 XXIV. The African Continent. Colonization and 
 
 Currents of Emigration. . . . 137 
 
BOOKS FOR GENERAL REFERENCE. 
 
 American Almanac. 
 
 Annuaire de Legislation Etrangere. — Public par la Societe de 
 
 legislation cornparee. Paris, since 1872. 
 Barker's Trade and Finance Manual. 
 Bartholomew. — The Pocket Atlas of the World. London, John 
 
 Walker & Co. The best cheap atlas. 
 Brace.— The Races of the Old World. New York, 1870. 
 Chisholm. — Longman's New Atlas. 
 Dorchester. — The Problem of Religions Progress. New York, 
 
 1881. 
 Ewald. — The Last Century of Universal History. 1767-1867. 
 
 London, 1868. 
 Freeman. — The Historical Geography of Europe. 2 vols. London, 
 
 1882. 
 Fyffe. — A History of Modern Europe. 3 vols. New York, 1887. 
 Labberton. — New Historical Atlas. New York, 1887. 
 Lalor. — Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and 
 
 United States History. 3 vols. 
 Latham. — The Varieties of Man. London, 1850. 
 Latham. — Russian and Turk. London, 1878. 
 Lodge. — A History of Modern Europe. The Student's Series. 
 
 New York. 1886. 
 Hazell's Annual Cyclopaedia. Since 1886. 
 McCarthy. — A History of Our Own Times. — from the Accession 
 
 of Queen Victoria to the General Election of 1880. 2 vols. 
 
 New York. 
 Meyer. — Iland-Lexikon des Allgemeinen Wissens. Leipzig, 1885. 
 Morris. — The Aryan Race. Chicago, 1888. 
 Mulhall. — The Progress of the World. London. 1880. 
 Miller. — Political History of Recent Times, 1816-1875. With 
 
 Special Reference to Germany. 1882. 
 Ploetz. — Epitome of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern History. 
 
 Translated, with Extensive Additions, by W. H. Tillinghast. 
 
 Boston. 1884. 
 
Putzger. — Historische Schul-Atlas. Bielefeld und Leipzig, Vel- 
 
 hagen und Klasing, 1887. 
 Schaff-Herzog, — The Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge. 
 
 I vols. 
 Stanford. — Compendium of Geography and Travel. London, 1882. 
 6 vols., namely : 
 
 Bates. — Central and South Africa. 
 Hayden and Selwyn. — North America. 
 Johnston. — Africa. 
 Keane. — Asia. 
 Ramsay. — Europe. 
 Wallace. — Australasia. 
 Stanley. — History of the Eastern Church. 
 Stieler's Schul-Atlas. — Gotha. 
 The Statesman's Year Book. 
 Vidal-Lablache. — Atlas. Colin & Cie., Paris. Now appearing, 
 
 (1892-93). 
 Vincent. — Haydn's Dictionary of Dates and Universal Information. 
 
 New York, 1883. 
 Non-Christian Religious Systems. A series of volumes published 
 by the S. P. C. K., including: 
 S. Beal. — Buddhism in China. 
 Rhys Davids. — Buddhism. 
 R. K. Douglas. — Confucianism and Taouism. 
 C. R. Haines. — Islam as a Missionary Religion. 
 W. Muir.— The Coran. 
 J. W. H. Stobart. — Islam. 
 Monier Williams. — Hinduism. 
 
POLITICAL HISTORY SINCE 1815. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY LECTURE. 
 
 RACES, GOVERNMENTS, AND RELIGIONS OF MEN. 
 
 I. RACES OF MANKIND. 
 
 1. Three broad, racial divisions of mankind, — the Negro, the Mon- 
 golian, the Caucasian. 
 
 " Topinard goes so far as to divide man into three distinct species. The first of these is 
 the Mongolian, distinguished by a brachycephalic or short skull, by low stature, yellowish 
 skin, broad, flat countenance, oblique eyes, contracted eyelids, beardless face, hair scanty, 
 coarse, and round in section. The second is the Caucasian, with moderately dolichoceph- 
 alic or long skull ; tall stature ; fair, narrow face, projecting on the median line ; hair and 
 beard abundant, light colored, soft, and somewhat elliptical in section. The third species 
 is the Negro, with skull strongly dolichocephalic, complexion black, hair flat and rolled 
 into spirals, face very prognathous, and with several peculiarities of bodily structure not 
 necessary to name here. Morris: The Aryan Race, pp. 6, 7. 
 
 a. The Negro includes — 
 
 African Negroes, Bushmen, and Hottentots, Dravidians and 
 Kolarians of India, Oceanic Negroes, or Melanesians, the 
 Negritos, Pacific Ilanders, and the Australian aborigines, — 
 the last five divisions perhaps presenting, in most instances, 
 various degrees of mixture of Negro and Malay Mongolian 
 bloods. 
 
 b. The Mongolian includes — 
 
 Chinese, Siberian aborigines, Tatars, Turks, Finns. Lapps, 
 Basques, Eskimo, American Indians and Malays (perhaps 
 mixed races). 
 
 c. The Caucasian, probably resulting in its present form, at 
 least, from mixture of the other two, includes Hindoos, Per- 
 sians, Semitic people of Asia Minor, Arabs and people of 
 North Africa, all the people of Europe except Turks, Finns, 
 Lapps, and Basques. Name " Aryan " applied to Hindoos, 
 Persians, Greeks, Romans, Kelts, Teutons, and Slavs. 
 
2 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 d. European Caucasian peoples classified by differences of lan- 
 guages into four main divisions: — 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Latin (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Rou- 
 manian). 
 
 Teutonic (German, Dutch, Scandinavian, and English). 
 Slavonic (Russian, Polish, Bohemian, Servian, Bulgarian). 
 
 e. Dark and fair Caucasians. 
 
 " Of the two sub-races which make up the Caucasian stock of mankind the Xanthochroi, 
 or fair white, are now found most typically displayed in the north of Europe, mainly in 
 Denmark, Scandinavia, and Iceland. The Melanochroi, or dark whites, have their typical 
 region in northern Africa and southwestern Asia. Between these regions an intimate mixt- 
 ure of the two types exists, endless intermediate grades being found ; though, as a rule, 
 the Xanthoehroic becomes more declared as we go north, and the Melanochroic as we go 
 south." Morris: The Aryan Mace, p. 12. 
 
 " What, then, was the origin of the two Caucasian sub-races? In response to this ques- 
 tion we may propound the views offered by Mr. J. W. Jackson, who advances the theory 
 that the Semitic (or, as we prefer to consider, all the Melanochroi) is really a derivative 
 from the Negro race ; and the Aryan (or rather the Xanthochroi) is a derivative from the 
 Mongolian. Morris: The Aryan Race, pp. 15, 16. 
 
 II. GOVERNMENTS. 
 
 1. All Aryan peoples have shown a tendency to organize a govern- 
 ment with three characteristic features. 
 
 a. National chief, or King, with power more or less limited. 
 
 b. Council, of nobles, or elder men. 
 
 c. Assembly of the whole people, or their representatives. 
 
 2. Governments gradually concentrate power upon the office of 
 King, — Despotic Monarchy : or upon the Council, — Aristocracy (not 
 now existent) ; or upon the Assembly, — Democracy ; or upon all three 
 organs of government in proportion, — Limited Monarchy, Republic, 
 and Federal nations. 
 
 a. Despotic Monarchies. Power of National Chief limited 
 only by force of custom and public opinion, or by fear of 
 revolution. 
 
 Russia,China, Japan, all Mohammedan and savage nations. 
 
 b. Democracies. Powers of government concentrated within 
 a parliamentary body representing the people, and controlled 
 completely and speedily by majority votes of that people. 
 
 France, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland 
 and its Australian, Canadian, and South African colonies. 
 
 c. (1) Limited Monarchies. Fusion of hereditary monar- 
 chical principle with principle of government by parliament- 
 ary law expressed through council and popular assembly. 
 
Introductory Lecture. 3 
 
 Belgium, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Brazil, Italy, Greece, 
 Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the German kingdoms and 
 Hungary, Servia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and, in form, the 
 United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Almost 
 without exception, these nations are imitating England in 
 the concentration of powers upon the popular assembly. 
 (2) Republics. Fusion of same principles as in (1), except 
 that hereditary monarch is replaced by an executive chief 
 elected by people for a limited term. See '' Federal Repub- 
 lics "; also, in general, the republics of Central and South 
 America, and, in form, France. 
 
 NOTE. — Mexico and the Republics of Southern and Central America, with the possible 
 exception of Chili, arc OLIGARCHICAL REPUBLICS, — monopoly of power by factious com- 
 binations of powerful families and interests. The rive Central American Republics, more 
 nearly Democracies than the others ill theory, are in reality more nearly Despotisms or 
 Oligarchies. 
 
 d. Federations. Unions of states (which conform in some 
 large measure to the principle of government by parliament- 
 ary law) into one comprehensive national life under the 
 traditional governmental forms (vide 1, above). Separation 
 of organs of local government from those of national gov- 
 ernment. May be either monarchical or democratic in type. 
 
 (1) Federal Monarchies. Austria-Hungary, and the 
 ( rerman Empire. 
 
 (2) Federal Republics. United States, Switzerland, 
 Argentine Republic, Mexico, San Domingo, Venezuela. 
 The Republic of Colombia, formerly a weak confederation 
 under the federal form, is, since 1886, a centralized re- 
 public with some federal characteristics. 
 
 III. RELIGIONS. 
 
 1. Nature Worship. Crude primitive beliefs; Shinto religion 
 of Japan among the most developed. 
 
 2. Confucianism. Ancestor-worship, state religion of China; 
 rites observed by all, even by adherents of other religions ; Buddhists 
 and Taoists (Mystics) ; bulk of population is Buddhist. 
 
 3. Brahmanism. Hindu religion, a social organization, and a 
 religious confederacy. In society, perpetuation of castes ; in religion, 
 combination of cultured philosophic faith of Brahmans with material- 
 istic beliefs of inferior races ; Brahman ideal, a life of ceremonial pu- 
 rity, self-discipline, and restraint ; gradation of castes from low to high. 
 
4 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 Each caste is, in a measure, a trade guild, a mutual insurance society, 
 and a religious sect. W. W. Hunter. 
 
 4. Buddhism. Religion of good works; mortification of the will 
 and of bodily desires. Monastic institutions ; China, Japan, peninsula 
 of Farther India, Tibet, Ceylon, Cashmere, Nepaul. Monier Wil- 
 liams: Hinduism, 72-76, 83-87. 
 
 5. Parsee. Religion worshipping an Ideal Good, under the image 
 of Light; sacred writings, the Zend-Avesta. Scattered remnants of 
 ancient Persian race, living for the most part in India. 
 
 6. Islam, or Mohammedanism. Creed, "There is but one God, 
 and Mohammed is his prophet."' Sacred writings, the Koran; sacred 
 city, Mecca, in Arabia. 
 
 Secular Head of Islam, the Turkish Sultan, the Caliph (*. e., fol- 
 lower, successor, of the Prophet). 
 
 Ecclesiastical Head of Islamism, — under the Caliph, the Sheikh-ul- 
 Islam, Primate of the Priesthood and Lord Chancellor of the Judges 
 of the Faithful ; chief authority of the Ulema, the men learned in 
 religion and law. . Statemans Year Book, 523. 
 
 Importance of Shereef of Mecca, — head of family of Mohammed, 
 and Guardian of the Holy Temple, the Caaba, at Mecca. 
 
 Importance of Ulema of Great Mohammedan Schools. 
 
 Turkish Empire, Persia, Afghanistan, Russian Turkestan, and 
 parts of Siberia, China, southeastern part of European Russia, parts 
 of India, states of northern and central Africa, and of the east coast 
 of Africa. 
 
 Principal divisions. 
 
 a. Soonees, subjects of Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia, and 
 Africa. Accept the Soonah, or oral traditions, in addi- 
 tion to the Koran, and pay equal honors to all Caliphs after 
 Mohammed. Stobart: Islam and its Founder, 197-199. 
 
 b. Sheeah, subjects of Persian Empire, found also in India 
 and Turkey. Number about 20,000,000. Reject the Soo- 
 nah, and regard AH, the fourth Caliph (656-661), as the 
 rightful successor of Mohammed. Sacred places, Kerbela 
 on the border of Mesopotamia, and Meshed in northeastern 
 Persia. Stobart, 199, 200. 
 
 c. Wahabbees, people of Nejd, state in the centre of the Ara- 
 bian peninsula, founded about 1750. Reject all modern 
 innovations and influences, and aim, first, at the revival of 
 the exact beliefs and customs of primitive Islam ; later, at 
 
Introductory Lecture. 5 
 
 unity and independence of Arabia. Political power broken 
 in 1819. Stobart, 202. 
 
 d. Sultan of Morocco (lineal descendant of Ali> and his subjects adopt as a text- 
 book of faith a commentary on the Koran by Sidi Bokhari. 
 
 e. Sufis, Mystics; in India and Persia. Stobart, 201. 
 
 7. Judaism. Religion of the -Jews. Monotheism its principle. 
 Doctrines of "a chosen people," and of a future restoration to Pales- 
 tine. Sacred writings, the Law and the Prophets, of the Old Testa- 
 ment. Sacred city, Jerusalem. Found in all parts of the world. 
 
 8. Christianity. Origins of creed in Judaism, and in ancient 
 Greek philosophy: doctrine of the Messiah; creed, Apostles' creed 
 (see Book of Common Prayer) ; sacred writings, books of the Old and 
 New Testaments, excluding the Apocrypha. 
 
 a. The Eastern Christian Church. Constantinople, relig- 
 ious capital ; principal divisions follow national lines, com- 
 prising the most ancient forms of Christian organization, as 
 follows : — 
 
 (1) The Orthodox Greek Church. Absence of cen- 
 tralized hierarchical authority ; parochial clergy married; 
 monastic orders ; five patriarchates. Constantinople. Alex- 
 andria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Moscow [vide (2), below]; 
 found in Greece, European Turkey. Georgia, and Asia 
 Minor. Stanley: History of Eastern Church, 1-17. 
 
 (2) The Orthodox Church of Russia. Offshoot of 
 Greek church ; Czar supreme in church as in state ; office 
 of Patriarch abolished by Peter the Great, and the Holy 
 Synod substituted therefor; beliefs and usages same in 
 general as those of the Greek church. Number of dis- 
 senting communions, — the most considerable known as 
 " Starovers," or Old Believers, more conservative than 
 the National Church. The Orthodox Church of Monte- 
 negro is closely affiliated with the Russian Church. 
 
 Found in European and Asiatic Russia, the established 
 church of the Russian nation. Wallace: Russia, 426-434. 
 
 (3) The Orthodox Church of Bulgaria, Offshoot of Greek Church. 
 
 Orthodox Churches of Slavonic peoples under the rule of Hungary are 
 affiliated with groups (3), (4), and (5). 
 (,4) The Orthodox Church of Servia. Offshoot of Bulgarian Church. 
 
 (5) The Orthodox Church of Roumania. Offshoot of Bulgarian Church. 
 
 (6) Chaldean or Nestorian Christians, in Kurdistan, 
 on the western borders of Persia. 
 
 Admit authority of first two general councils of the primitive Christian 
 Church ; reject the third because that council condemned Nestorianism. a 
 dispute about the nature of Jesus. 
 
Political History Since 1815. 
 
 (7) The Armenian Church, in Armenia, and scattered 
 throughout the northern part of Turkish empire. 
 
 Patriarchate of Etehmiazin, in Armenia, their sacred city. Reject author- 
 ity of one out of the seven ancient general councils of the Christian Church. 
 
 (8) Church of Syria, or Jacobite Church. 
 
 Admit authority of lirst three general councils only. Differ from Greek 
 Church concerning nature of Jesus. Patriarchate of Diarbekir ; Sacred 
 City, Antioch. The Christians of St. Thomas, in India, are classed with (7) 
 and (8). 
 
 (9) Church of Egypt, or Coptic Church. Faith and 
 usage closely similar to that of (7) ; Patriarch of Alex- 
 andria, head of church, lives at Cairo. 
 
 (10) Church of Abyssinia. Offshoot of Church of Egypt 
 and stands with it; beliefs and usages more like those of 
 ancient Jews than those of any other Christian church. 
 
 (1 1) Melchites. Name applied to churches of Asia Minor 
 and Egypt which remain faithful to the Orthodox Greek 
 Church, and are not affiliated with the National Churches 
 of Syria, Egypt, Armenia, etc. 
 
 b. The Roman Christian Church. Developed in 16th 
 century, out of mediaeval European Church, which had grad- 
 ually separated from Eastern Christian Church, between 
 the 8th and the 12th centuries of our era. Rome, the 
 religious capital. Strongly centralized hierarchical admin- 
 istration of the Church culminating in unlimited ecclesiasti- 
 cal power of Bishop of Rome, or Pope. Dogma of papal 
 infallibility. Clerical celibacy. Monastic orders. Predomi- 
 nance of the Society of Jesus, commonly called "Jesuits." 
 
 Found in all parts of the world. Strongest in Italy, 
 France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Ireland, Poland, Bohe- 
 mia, Austria, and the nations of Central and South America. 
 Divisions not assimilated : 
 
 (1) The Maronites, an ancient division of the Eastern 
 Christian Church, belonging to the Syrian Church, and 
 inhabiting Mt. Lebanon. In the 12th century (1181), 
 attached to the Romish Church. Use an ancient ritual of 
 their own. Inferior clergy allowed to marry. Found also 
 in Egypt and Cyprus. 
 
 (2) Melchites. Some of the Melchites, though using the 
 Greek rite, profess obedience to Rome. 
 
 (3) United Greeks, Bulgarians, Ruthenians, Chaldeans 
 (Nestorians), Copts, Armenians, and Roumanians. Sec- 
 
Introductory Lecture. 7 
 
 tions of the larger divisions of the Eastern Church, which 
 have professed obedience to Rome. The local rites are 
 used. In some, clergy are married, and communion is 
 allowed to the laity. Service of United Roumanians is in 
 the language of the people, the only instance of the kind 
 in the Roman Church. 
 . The Protestant Christian Church. Principally de- 
 veloped in the lGth century, from the mediaeval European 
 Church. Luther and Calvin. Essential principle, assertion 
 of the independence of the individual judgment in deciding 
 questions relating to faith and morals. Absence of uniform 
 organization for church government. Principal divisions in- 
 dicate common preferences for methods of action or expres- 
 sions of belief. 
 
 Found in all parts of the world. Strongest in Germany, 
 Holland, Denmark, Switzerland, Norway and Sweden, Great 
 Britain and colonies, and the United States. 
 
 Classified according to modes of church government, the 
 principal divisions are — 
 
 (1) Episcopal hierarchical government, including — 
 
 (a) The Anglican Church, the Established Church of 
 England, and its representative in the United States, 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church. 
 
 (b) The Methodist Episcopal Church, found mainly among 
 English-speaking peoples. Originated in a great relig- 
 ious revival of the 18th century, in England. 
 
 (c) The Unitas Fratrum, or Moravians, dating from the 
 early Reformation period, and found in Germany, 
 Great Britain, and the United States. 
 
 (2) Congregational, each church self-governing, includ- 
 ing — 
 
 Baptists ; immersion, a necessary mode of baptism. 
 Congregationalists, including Unitarians and Universalists. 
 Friends, commonly called Quakers. 
 Methodists. 
 
 Waldenses, and the Free Church of Italy, Italian Prot- 
 estants. 
 
 (3) Presbyterian, a system of parliamentary church gov- 
 ernment, without bishops, including — 
 
 Presbyterians, including the Established Church in Scot- 
 land. 
 
8 Political History Since lSlo. 
 
 Lutherans and Reformed (Calvinist). Most of the Prot- 
 estants of Germany, Scandinavia, Holland, Switzer- 
 land, and France; principal governing assembly called 
 
 the Consistory ; Lutherans strong also in the United 
 
 States. 
 Methodists. 
 Mennonites, Russian Protestants. 
 
 Total number of Christians, about 420 millions. Roman Christians, about 200 m. ; esti- 
 mate vary from 1">2 m. to 218 m. Protestant Christians, about 120 m. ; estimates vary 
 from 115 m. to 130 m. Eastern Christians, about 100 m. Buddhists, about 450 m. Brah- 
 manist Hindus, about 190 m. Mohammedans, more than 200 in. Parsees, about 85,000. 
 Jews, about S m. 
 
 Note. — A census of illiterates in various countries has recently been published by the 
 StatisHsche Monatsschrift. According to this authority, the three Slavonic states, Ron- 
 mania, Servia, and Russia head the list with about SO per cent of the population unable to 
 read and write. Of the Latin races Spain leads with G3 per cent, followed by Italy with 48 
 percent. The illiterates in Hungary are about 43 percent of the population, in Austria 
 39, in Ireland 21, in France ami Belgium 1">, in England 13, in Holland 10, in the United 
 States i white population only) 8, in Scotland 7 per cent. The Teutonic races make the best 
 showing. Switzerland has only 21 per cent of illiterates, Germany as an Empire only 1 per 
 cent, while in Sweden, Denmark, Bavaria, Baden, and Wuertemberg there is practically 
 no one who cannot read and write. 
 
 LECTURES HI. 
 
 England and Her Empire. 
 
 References. Constitutional: Sir W. R. Anson: The Law and 
 Custom of the Constitution. Part I, Parliament. Part II. The 
 Crown, 2 vols. Homersham Cox: Institutions of the English 
 Government. W. E. Hearn: The Government of England; its 
 structure and development. Dr. Alpheus Todd: On Parlia- 
 mentary Government in England, 2 vols. Sheldon Amos: Fifty 
 Years of the English Constitution. S. Buxton (ed.) : The Im- 
 perial Parliament Series, 10 vols. ; London, 1885. The Eng- 
 lish Citizen Series. 15 vols.; London, 1883. Especially, Chal- 
 mers: Local Government. Traill: Central Government. Wat- 
 pole: Electorate and the Legislature, and Foreign Relations. 
 J. C. Bourinot: Constitutional History of Canada. B. T. 
 Finniss: The Constitutional History of South Australia. 
 Feilden: A Short Constitutional History of England. 
 
England and Her Empire. 9 
 
 Political and Social: S. Amos: The Science of English 
 Politics. J. F. Bright : History of England, vols. Ill and IV. 
 B. C. Skottowe : A Short History of the English Parliament. 
 Acland and Ransome : Handbook of English Political History 
 to 1887. Justin Mc Carting : A History of Our Own Times to 
 1880, 2 vols. T. H Ward: The Reign of Queen Victoria, 
 2 vols. T. H S. Escott : England, her people, policy, and pur- 
 suits. W. Harris: History of the Radical Party in Parlia- 
 ment. T E. Kebbel : History of Toryism. St. Loe Strachey : 
 A History of Liberalism. S. Buxton : A Handbook to Political 
 Questions of the Bay, 7th edition. J. Chamberlain (writes 
 introduction) : The Radical Programme. J. Bryce (ed.) : A 
 Handbook of Home Rule. Sir 0. W. Bilke : Problems of 
 Greater Britain. Shaw LeFevre (Home Ruler) : Incidents 
 of Coercion. A. V. Dicey (Unionist) : England's Case Against 
 Home Rule. J. Chamberlain (Radical Unionist) : Home Rule 
 and the Irish Question, speeches. Geo. Pellew (impartial) : In 
 Castle and Cabin. J. T. Ball : Historical Review of Legislative 
 Systems in Ireland. Win. A. Dunning: Irish Land Legisla- 
 tion, Pol. Sci. Quarterly, vol. VII (Nos. for March and Sept., 
 1892). H. W. Clarke: A History of Tithes. G. R. Parkin : 
 Imperial Federation. W. Heaton: The Three Reforms of 
 Parliament, 1832, 1867, 1885. W. N. Molesworth : History 
 of England, 1830-1874, 3 vols. 
 Biographical: Lloyd C. Sanders (ed.): The Statesmen Series. 
 Especially, T. E. Kebbel: Beaconsfeld ; T.E.Kebbel: Derby; 
 J. A. Hamilton : C Conned ; L.C. Sanders: Palmerston : F.C. 
 Montague : Peel ; C. 31. Tonge : The Prince Consort. R. J. 
 Hi ii ton : English Radical Leaders. L. Stephen, H. Fawcett. G. 
 B. Smith: Life ofW. E. Gladstone, friendly. L. J. Jennings : 
 Mr. Gladstone, unfriendly. G. B. Smith : Life and Speeches of 
 John Bright. S. Walpole : Life of Lord John Russell, 2 vols. 
 P. Fitzgerald : Life and Times of William IK 2 vols. 
 1. Component parts of the English Empire. 
 
 a. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 
 
 b. The iland (kingdom) of Man. 
 
 c. The Channel ihmds (Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, Sark). 
 Area of a, b, and c, 121,481 sq. mi. A little smaller than the ter- 
 ritory of New Mexico. Population, ahout 38,000,000. 
 
 d. Colonies and Dependencies. 
 
 e. The Empire of India. 
 
10 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 General REFERENCES: Cotton and Payne: Colonies and Depend- 
 encies. E.J.Payne: European Colonies. Colonial Policy 
 and Progress in Ward: The Rciyn of Queen Victoria, I, 403— 
 559. C. S. Salmon: The Crown Colonies of Great Britain. 
 C. P. Lucas: Historical Geography of the British Colonies. 
 
 (1) Geographical distribution of English colonies. 
 
 For full list with date of acquisition, etc., see Statesman's 
 Year Book, and Hazell under British Empire 
 
 Asia 2 m. sq. miles ; about 300 in. popul. 
 
 Africa 2^ ni. sq. miles ; 40 m. " 
 
 America. . . . 3.64 m. sq. miles ; 5^ m. " 
 
 Australasia. . . 3.26 m. sq. miles ; 3.9 in. " 
 
 Europe (Gibraltar, Malta, Cyprus) 3700 sq. miles ; about 373,- 
 000 popul. Hands of Atlantic and Pacific oceans, about 
 135,000 sq. miles, 2.3 m. popul. Total, about 11.4 m. sq. 
 miles ; about 350 m. popul. 
 e. Estimate of total figures for the whole empire and its de- 
 pendencies, based on censuses of 1881 and 1891 : — 
 Area, over 11 m. sq. miles. Popul., about 379 m. 
 Annual revenue, £208 m. Expenditure, £197 in. Public 
 
 debt, £1117 m. 
 Public debt of the United Kingdom alone, £690 m. 
 
 2. The Central Government. 
 
 I. The Crown. 
 
 'Although Parliamentary Government has existed since the Revo- 
 lution of 1688, the Crown has retained much of its influence, owing 
 to its position as the head of society, to its powers of patronage, and 
 to that love of monarchy which is characteristic of the English peo- 
 ple. The Sovereign has at present many legal prerogatives, most 
 of which are practically vested in the ministry, such as the power of 
 summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament at pleasure, of 
 refusing assent to any bill, of making peace or war, of dealing with 
 foreign nations by making treaties, and receiving and sending ambas- 
 sadors, of pardoning offenders after conviction, and of creating peers. 
 Many of the feudal and fiscal prerogatives of the Crown, such as 
 purveyance, coining, regulation of markets, and the like, have been 
 surrendered. The Sovereign is, in fact, the head of the Church, the 
 army, and the law, the fountain of justice, mercy and honor, and has, 
 formally at any rate, the supreme executive power, as well as a co- 
 ordinate legislative power with the Houses of Lords and Commons." 
 Feilden. 26. 
 
England and Her Empire. 11 
 
 " In the English Constitution hardly anything is called by a name that indicates its true 
 nature. "We call the Queen the Sovereign, when not she but.Parliament is the real Sover- 
 eign ; and we ^> mi naming our highest court of appeal the House of Lords, when in 
 reality it is a court of Ian constituted like other courts of law, anil only in fact connected 
 with the House of Lords by reason of its holding the jurisdiction once held by the House 
 of Lords. In the same way we solemnly declare that Parliament exercises supremacy over 
 the great colonial Legislatures, when we all know that Parliament could not possibly legis- 
 late for Victoria or ( 'anada. The colonial parliaments, again, nominally regard themselves 
 as dependent upon the Parliament at Westminster, and yet every day assert their complete 
 legislative independence." Editorial in The Spectator for Aug. 27, 1892, p. 281. 
 
 Almost the only real political privileges possessed by the Monarch 
 of England are thai — 
 
 1st. lie is informed of important news and of the principal 
 purposes of the Cabinet before anyone else knows them. 
 
 2nd. He is exempt from hostile criticism upon the govern- 
 ment. The ministers alone are responsible for official acts. 
 
 3rd. lie may exercise over the councils of the Cabinet a nega- 
 tive influence, difficult to define, proportional perhaps to the 
 personal influence of the Monarch, but this vague power of 
 veto could scarcely affect a subject upon which the Cabinet 
 was agreed, or upon which the popular sanction had been 
 somewhat plainly impressed. 
 
 a. Separation of England and Hanover, 1837. Crown of 
 Hanover not to lie inherited by a woman. 
 
 b. Annual expense of royal establishment: — 
 
 Queen Victoria receives from Treasury £385,000 per 
 year, £60,000 to her own purse, £325,000 for salaries, 
 pensions, alms, and general expenses. 
 
 (^neen Victoria receives from the Duchy of Lancaster 
 about £45,000 per year, and for pensions £1200. 
 
 Prince of Wales receives from the Treasury £40,000 per 
 year, and from Duchy of Cornwall about £65,000. 
 
 The Princess of Wales receives from the Treasury 
 £10. (MM) per year. 
 
 Annuities are paid to surviving descendants of George 
 III, to children of Victoria, and to wives or husbands of 
 these children. Amount uncertain ; estimated about £150,- 
 000. 
 
 The Financial Reform Almanac for 1884 estimates total 
 payments in one year to and for the Royal Family at 
 £886,973, and for Royal Parks and Pleasure Grounds at 
 £114,823 in addition per annum. 
 
12 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 II. The Cabinet. 
 
 " It is theoretically an inner circle of the Privy Council, though 
 practically distinct from it, but, as a body, is not recognized by the law, 
 its members deriving their position from the fact of their being mem- 
 bers of the Council. It was natural for the Sovereign to select cer- 
 tain members of the Council as his more trusted and confidential 
 advisers, and as early as the time of Charles I. we find the actual 
 name, Cabinet Council, in use. Under the present system of minis- 
 terial government, 'the Ministry is in fact a committee of leading 
 members of the two Houses. It is nominated by the Crown, but it 
 consists exclusively of statesmen whose opinions on the passing ques- 
 tions of the time agree in the main with the opinions of the majority 
 of the House of Commons.' At the present time ministers do not 
 wait to be dismissed, as in the last century, but resign together, and 
 the Executive is now so closely connected with Parliament as to 
 represent the nation." Feilden, 44-4(3. 
 
 " The most curious point about the cabinet is that so little is known about it. The meet- 
 ings are not only secret in theory, but secret in reality. By the present practice no official 
 minute in all ordinary cases is kept of them. Even a private note is discouraged and dis- 
 liked. The House of Commons, even in its most inquisitive and turbulent moments, would 
 scarcely permit a note of a cabinet meeting to be read. No minister who respected the 
 fundamental usages of political practice would attempt to read such a note. The committee 
 which unites the law-making power to the law-executing power — which by virtue of that 
 combination is, while it lasts and holds together, the most powerful body in the state — is 
 a committee wholly secret. No description of it, at once graphic and authentic, has ever 
 been given. It is said to be sometimes like a rather disorderly board of directors, where 
 many speak and few listen, though no one knows." Bagehoi • English Constitution, 82. 
 
 a. The Cabinet may consist of — 
 
 1. Prime Minister, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ; 
 
 2. Lord High Chancellor ; 
 
 3. Lord President of the Council ; 
 
 4. Chancellor of the Exchequer ; 
 
 5. Secretary of State for the Home Department ; 
 
 6. Secretary of State for War ; 
 
 7. First Lord of the Treasury ; 
 
 8. Secretary of State for the Colonies ; 
 
 9. Secretary of State for India; 
 10. First Lord of the Admiralty ; 
 ] 1. Lord Chancellor of Ireland ; 
 
 12. Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland; 
 
 13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster; 
 
 1 4. President of the Board of Trade ; 
 
 15. Secretary for Scotland ; 
 

England and Her Empire. 13 
 
 16. Lord Privy Seal ; 
 
 17. President of Lor;d Government Board; 
 
 l.s. First Commissi sr of Public Works and Buildings; 
 
 11). Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland; 
 
 2u. President of the Board of Agriculture. 
 The first ten officers here named are always in the Cabinet ; the 
 others may or may not In-. All the members of the Cabinet arc oi 
 course members of the Ministry, which is a much larger body than the 
 Cabinet, and usually comprises, in all, about fifty individuals. In 
 addition to these about eighteen officers in the royal household arc 
 changed with each new ministry. Spectator, Feb. 8, 1<S!>0. editorial 
 on '• Swollen Cabinets." 
 />. I low chosen. 
 
 "On the resignation or dismissal of a previous ministry, it is customary for the sover- 
 eign tu ■ send for ' some eminent member of one or the other of the Houses of Parliament • 
 and to entrust him with the task of forming a new administration. It is his duty to Belect 
 such minister-designate from the ranks of the majority of the House of Commons, and, 
 further, perhaps (though this is a point on which some latitude of choice must, naturally 
 and necessarily exist), to fix upon that one of two or more eligible candidates tor the trust 
 who may appear the most likely to be acceptable to the majority of the party to which he 
 belongs. But with the designation of this one person the initiative of the sovereign is at an 
 end. According to modern usage the Premier alone is the direct choice of the Crown, and 
 he possesses the privilege of ehoosing his own colleagues, subject of course to the appro- 
 bation of the sovereign. Tn the exercise of this privilege the Prime Minister then proceeds, 
 either with or without consultation with Other leading members of his party, to nominate 
 the persons to be appointed t< i the various executive offices. The whole number of persons 
 thus nominated are in strictness entitled to the appellation of Ministers, while those ap- 
 pointed to the more important of these offices compose, either exclusively, or with one or 
 two additions, what is called the Cabinet. It is to this latter and smaller body that the office 
 of advising the Crown is confined. They, and they alone, are in the exact sense of the 
 words -The Government' of the country. The Cabinet .Minister is. as a matter of course, 
 'sworn of the Privy Council,' and advises the Sovereign, according to legal theory, in his 
 capacity of Privy Councillor alone, while that council itself at present takes no part what- 
 ever in this duty of giving advice, nor is in any way responsible for the advice given by 
 those particular Privy Councillors who form the Cabinet." Traill: Central Government, 
 11-13. 
 
 c. Responsibility to Parliament. 
 
 (1) Censure and dismissal from office. 
 
 (2) Impeachment. 
 
 d. Functions of the different members. 
 (1) The Prime Minister or Premier. 
 
 " There is no such official known to the language of constitutional 
 law us a ' Prime Minister.' Supreme as is the authority which the 
 so-called ' Premier ' has in course of time established over his col- 
 leagues, and complete as is their subordination to him, he is in theory 
 only one among other ministers of the Crown, and his sole official 
 title is derived from the department over which he nominally pre- 
 
14 Political History Shire 1815. 
 
 sides. This department is usually the Treasury, and the office of 
 First Lord of the Treasury has been held by the Prime Minister, 
 either alone or in conjunction with another, ever since the year 1806." 
 
 TratH, 31. 
 
 The First Lord of Hie Treasury should sit in the House of Commons. The Marquis of 
 Salisbury, the recent Premier, is a Peer, and must sit in the House of Lords. When lie 
 
 first I ame Premier, in November, lss.~>, he joined the Premiership to the Secretaryship 
 
 for Foreign Affairs. 
 
 ( 2) The Treasury Board. 
 
 "The full official description of the persons who constitute this 
 Board is that of ' Lords Commissioners for executing the office of 
 Lord High Treasurer,' the said persons being the First Lord of the 
 Treasury, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, and three other officials 
 known as 'Junior Lords.' The Treasury is still a Board of Com- 
 missioners in name, and the patent under which the members of the 
 Board are appointed still represents them as being of equal authority, 
 with powers to any two or more of them to discharge the functions 
 of the whole. But the Treasury has long since ceased to be a Board 
 in anything but name : it is now practically a department presided 
 over by a single head, the Chancellor of the Exchequer." Traill, 32. 
 
 Of this Board only the First Lord of the Treasury and the Chan- 
 cellor of the Exchequer are, at present, members of the Cabinet. 
 
 (3) Secretaries of State. 
 
 " Constitutionally speaking, there is but one Secretary of State: 
 for the five ministers who divide among them the departmental func- 
 tions are all of co-equal and co-ordinate dignity, all fully authorized to 
 transact, if need be, each other's business, all equally competent to 
 discharge those specific duties to the Sovereign which belonged to the 
 Secretary of State, when as yet there was only one. Thus they are 
 the only authorized channels whereby the royal pleasure is signified 
 to any part of the body politic, whether at home or abroad, and any 
 one of them may be empowered to carry the Sovereign's commands 
 at any time to any person. The counter signature of a Secretary of 
 State is necessary to the validity of the sign-manual, and this coun- 
 ter-signature may be attached by any one of those five ministers. 
 The Secretaries of State were formerly resident in the royal house- 
 hold, and it is »till the practice for one of them to attend the Queen 
 during her occasional visits to parts of the kingdom. It is a rule, 
 moreover, that oue of them must always be present in the metropolis. 
 They all have necessarily seats in the Cabinet ; and, necessarily, they 
 are members of the Privy Council, aud sit in one or other of the 
 Houses of Parliament. The Secretaries of Foreign Affairs, the Colo- 
 
England and Her Empire. 15 
 
 nies, and India are appointed indifferently from either House. The 
 Secretary of War, however, has now for some years been selected 
 from the House of Commons, and an unbroken usage of nearly half 
 a century has confined the Home Secretaryship to the popular Cham- 
 ber." Traill, GO, Gl. 
 
 (4) Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland. 
 
 " The government of Ireland is formally vested in a Viceroy, usu- 
 ally styled the Lord-Lieutenant, in abbreviation of his full official 
 title of ' Lord Lieutenant-General and General-Governor of Ireland.' 
 He is assisted by a Privy Council, consisting of fifty or sixty mem- 
 bers, whose sanction, like that of the English Privy Council, is neces- 
 sary to give validity to many of the official acts of the Executive. 
 The Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland possesses nominally very extensive 
 powers, but his actual freedom in their exercise is by no means com- 
 mensurate with their ostensible extent. He acts under instruction 
 from the Crown, conveyed to him by the ministry for the time being, 
 whose business 'is to direct him in his proceedings, and to animad- 
 vert upon his conduct if they see him act improperly, or in a manner 
 detrimental or inconvenient to the public service, or displeasing to 
 the Crown.' The Cabinet Minister, ordinarily responsible for advis- 
 ing and directing the conduct of the Lord-Lieutenant, was at one 
 time the Secretary of State for the Home Department ; and it is 
 presumed that theoretically the responsibility still attaches to him. 
 But in practice it has now devolved wholly, and, considering his sub- 
 ordinate title, somewhat anomalously, on a functionary whose strict 
 official style is that of ' Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant.' The 
 Secretary for Ireland, as he is popularly called, has, since the aboli- 
 tion of the Irish Parliament, become essentially the Prime Minister 
 of the Viceroy. He wields great powers, which he is sometimes 
 called upon to exercise without communication with his chief, and he 
 is the minister responsible to Parliament for every act of the Irish 
 administration. He is invariably a Privy Councillor, and has always, 
 at least of late years, been a member of the lower branch of the 
 Legislature; and the increasing frequency with which this post has in 
 modern practice been associated with a seat in the Cabinet is a testi- 
 mony to its augmented importance, and a proof of its virtual inde- 
 pendence of the control of the Home Secretary." Traill, 78-80. 
 
 (5) The Foreign Secretary. 
 
 "The Foreign Secretary is the official organ and adviser of the 
 Crown in its intercourse with foreign powers, and upon him devolves 
 
16 Pol if teal History Since 1815. 
 
 the duty of conducting those international negotiations upon the suc- 
 cess of which the most vital interests of his country, or of Europe at 
 large, may on occasion depend. In affairs of this high moment the 
 general line of policy to he pursued would, of course, he settled by 
 the Cabinet collectively ; but the execution of the particular plans 
 agreed upon must he largely left in his hands, and, according to the 
 amount of tact and address displayed by him in directing it, the min- 
 isterial policy may to a great extent he made or marred." Traill, 78. 
 (G) The Leader of the House. 
 The office of Leader of the House falls to some member of the 
 Cabinet, who directs the Parliamentary action of the partisans of the 
 Government, and in concert with the Speaker of the House exercises 
 important control over the duration of dehates. This honor is held 
 by the Premier, if he sits in the Commons, hut if he is in the other 
 House it is usually given to the Chancellor of the Exchecpier, or the 
 Secretary for Foreign Affairs, or the First Lord of the Treasury. 
 
 " It is not to be wondered at that no constitutional topic has attracted more attention of 
 late years than that of the true relation between the Ministers of the Crown and Parlia- 
 ment. In tbe first place, this relation is, by its nature, of the most subtle kind, and sets at 
 defiance any attempt at legal definition. In the second place, no analogy or precedent for 
 the character of the relation, as it exists in England at the present day, is supplied by the 
 experience of any otlier country. In other countries the Ministers of the Crown occupy 
 a position either outside the representative Assemblies, as in the United States ; or in only 
 casual and desultory connection with them, as under even such free Constitutions as those 
 of France and Italy ; or one which is practically adverse to the representative Assemblies, 
 in reference to which the Ministers merely personate the competing and conspicuously 
 jealous attitude of the Crown, — a state of things which seems to be represented in the Ger- 
 man Empire." Sheldon Amos: Fifty Years of the English Constitution, 336. 
 
 " The Opposition Party lias now its recognized leader, who is the organ of communica- 
 tion, for all purposes of arrangement and simplification of public business, with the leader 
 of the Government, that is, the leader of the House. Tbe Opposition recognizes, equally 
 with the party in power, the duty of loyalty to the clearly-ascertained will of its own major- 
 ity, or to the dictates of its chief, as presumably expressing that will ; and of faithfully 
 submitting to all the compromises or adjustments of business which its own chief, in con- 
 cert with the leader of the House, shall make from time to time, in furtherance of such 
 ends as that of deciding, satisfactorily, complex issues between the rival parties, and of 
 determining whether the party in power continues to possess, on some or on all topics, the 
 confidence of tbe majority of the House. In spite of the fact that it is the duty and habit 
 of tbe Opposition to do its utmost to expose the shortcomings of the Government, and 
 in fact to be the organ of the House itself, for the purpose of compelling the Government 
 to acknowledge the rights and claims of the House, and that thereby an irritating hostility, 
 sometimes of a most acrimonious and embittered sort, is engendered, — the existence and 
 nurture of the relations just adverted to between the Opposition and the party in power 
 have tin' effect of producing an extraordinary amount of unity of spirit and general co- 
 operation between the House itself and the Government. Tbe Government seems to the 
 House to be, and is, tbe direct product and continuing creature of its own highest and 
 most intense organization." Sheldon .linos, 341, 342. 
 
England and Her Empire. 17 
 
 III. The Parliament. 
 
 a. House of Lords, or Peers. 
 
 (1) In 1892 this was composed of — 
 
 6 Peers of the Blood Royal, 28 Viscounts, 
 
 2 Archbishops, 24 Bishops, 
 
 21 Dukes, 294 Barons, 
 
 21 Marquesses, 16 Scottish representative Peers, 
 
 119 Earls, 28 Irish representative Peers. 
 
 There may be from two to four life-peers, called " Lords of Appeal," 
 who may be appointed to ensure to the House of Lords the legal 
 knowledge necessary for the exercise of its functions as a Court of 
 Appeals. The total number of peers entitled to sit in the House of 
 Lords is 555. In addition there are 9 peeresses in their own right, 21 
 Scotch peers not in Parliament, and G2 Irish peers not in Parliament. 
 
 (2) The peers hold their seats — 
 
 (a) By virtue of hereditary right ; 
 
 (b) By creation of the Sovereign ; 
 
 (c) By virtue of office, — English Bishops; 
 
 (d) By election for life, — Irish Peers; 
 
 (e) By election for duration of Parliament, — Scottish 
 
 Peers. 
 
 (3) Its Powers. 
 
 " From the Reform Act the function of the House of Lords has been altered in English 
 history. Before that Act it was, if not a directing chamber, at least a chamber of directors. 
 The leading nobles, who had most influence in the Commons, and swayed the Commons, 
 sat there. Aristocratic influence was so powerful in the House of Commons that there 
 never was any serious breach of unity. When the Houses quarrelled, it was, as in the great 
 Aylesbury rase, about their respective privileges, and not about the national policy. The 
 influence of the nobility was then so potent that it was not necessary to exert it. Since the 
 Reform Act the House of Lords has become a revising and suspending house. It can alter 
 bills ; it can reject bills on which the House of Commons is not yet thoroughly in earnest, — 
 upon which the nation is not yet determined. Their veto is a sort of hypothetical veto. 
 They say, we reject your bill for this once, or these twice, or even these thrice, but if you 
 keep on sending it up, at last we won't reject it." Bayahot : English Constitution, 99. 
 
 "In theory it has a coordinate power with the King, and the House 
 of Commons ; practically, it does not initiate important measures, but 
 confines itself to amending and revising Bills sent up from the Com- 
 mons ; it is thus a most useful check on hasty legislation, whilst on a 
 matter on which the nation has really made up its mind the Lords 
 are compelled to yield, e. g., the Reform Bill of 1832. It has the 
 sole power of initiating Bills relating to the peerage, but cannot initi- 
 ate or amend a money Bill." Feilden, 126. 
 
 b. House of Commons. 670 members, composed of — 
 (a) Knights of the shire, representing counties (377). 
 
18 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 (b) Burgesses, representing boroughs (284). 
 
 (c) Representatives of Universities (9). 
 
 c. Parliament is summoned by the Crown ; new Parliament in 
 seven years. 
 
 3. Iland of Man. 
 
 Manx people are distinct Keltic nationality. Last kings of Man 
 
 were dukes of Athole, who sold their revenues in 1765, but did not 
 
 give up entire rights until 1825, since which time only has Man been 
 
 a dependency of the British crown. Area, 220 sq. mi.; popul., 54,000. 
 
 a. Government, home rule, consisting of Lieut.-Governor, and 
 
 an elected Parliament known as the Tynwald Court. 
 
 Two Houses of Parliament, the Council, and the House 
 of Keys. Acts of this Parliament receive the assent of the 
 British Crown. Must then be proclaimed on Tynwald Hill. 
 (See Introduction to Scolth Peveril of the Peak, and article 
 by W. H. Rideing in Harper's Mag., Vol. 50.) 
 
 4. The Channel Ilands. 
 
 Government, Home Rule. Area, 76 sq. mi. Popul., 87,000. 
 
 Hands divided into Bailiwick of Jersey and Bailiwick of Guernsey. 
 Each bailiwick under the control of its own representative legislature 
 called the " States." The British government appoints for each baili- 
 wick a Lieut.-Governor and a Bailiff. (See Ansted's and Inglis's 
 "Channel Islands") 
 
 5. Local Administration of England. 
 
 principal divisions. 
 
 a. The Parish. Organization ; a Vestry, and Board of Over- 
 seers of the Poor appointed by the Vestry. 
 
 Poor Law Parish, Highway Parish, and Ecclesiastical 
 Parish. 
 
 b. The Union. Generally an aggregation of Parishes ; au- 
 thority, Board of Guardians. 
 
 Most important duties, care of the poor and sanitation. 
 
 c. The County. Einancial, judicial, and administrative di- 
 vision. 
 
 Chief authorities, — Lord-Lieutenant, Sheriff, Coroner, 
 Justices, and County Councils, the latter a representative 
 legislative and administrative body created by Act of 1888. 
 
 d. The City of London. English Citizen Series, Chalmers: 
 Local Government, 139-147. 
 
England, and Her Empire. 19 
 
 c. The Local Govern. m km Board. The central authority 
 
 for local government. Chalmers, 150, 151. 
 
 " The local government areas into which England and Wales are divided maybe enu- 
 merated as follows : There are 52 counties, 40 in England and 12 in Wales ; 239 municipal 
 boroughs, 7o Improvement Act Districts, 1006 urban sanitary districts, -11 port sanitary au- 
 thorities, f>77 rural sanitary districts, L'!).">1 school-hoard districts, 4'_'4 highway districts, 
 853 burial-board districts, 649 anions, 194 lighting and watching districts, 14,946 poor-law 
 parishes, 5064 highway parishes not included in urban or highway districts, and about 
 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes. The total number of local authorities who tax the English 
 rate-payer is 27,069, and they tax him by means of 18 different kinds of rates." M. D. 
 Chalmers: Local Government (English Citizen Series), p. 18. 
 
 6. The Colonies. (See Lectures V and VI.) 
 Colonial administration : — 
 
 a. English colonial governments are of three forms: — 
 
 (1) Those having neither responsible nor representative 
 government. 
 
 (2) Those having a representative but no responsible gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 (3) Those having both responsible and representative gov- 
 ernments. 
 
 b. Commercial importance. Colonies and Dependencies, 120- 
 125. The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 457, 458. One third 
 of British exports goes to the colonies. 
 
 c. England's colonies compared with those of France and Ger- 
 many. 
 
 (1) France. 3 m. sq. mi., or less than one third of Eng- 
 land's. Large colonies represented in the French Senate 
 and Chamber of Deputies, and politically form part of the 
 Republic. 
 
 (2) Germany. Less than 1 m. sq. mi. Colonial possessions 
 large on the coast of Southern Africa, but as yet not im- 
 portant. Change of policy in 1884, with extensive annexa- 
 tions. 
 
 7. India. Not a colony, and not a part of the United Kingdom, 
 but subject to the English Ministry, and an integral portion of the 
 Empire of England. (See Lecture VII.) 
 
 8. Dependencies and Protectorates. (See Lecture VII.) 
 
 9. Imperial Federation. 
 
 a. Can England and her self-governing colonies be federated 
 together as the different states of the United States, or of 
 the German Empire, are federated? 
 
 b. Federation in Canada, Australia, and South Africa. 
 
 c. Colonial conferences and colonial agents in London. 
 
20 
 
 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 LECTURES III-1V. 
 
 English Political Parties. 
 
 The different parties. 
 
 a. Tories ; Conservatives ; Liberal Unionists. 
 
 b. Whigs ; Liberals ; Radicals. 
 
 c. Irish Nationalists, or Parnellites, or Home Rulers. 
 
 d. The administrations. 
 
 
 Tories ; Conservatives. 
 
 Whigs ; Liberals. 
 
 1812-1830 
 
 Lord Liverpool, Wellington. 
 
 
 1830-1834 
 
 
 
 
 Earl Grey. 
 
 1834-1835 
 
 
 
 Peel. 
 
 
 1835-1841 
 
 
 
 
 Melbourne. 
 
 1841-1846 
 
 
 
 Peel. 
 
 
 1846-1852 
 
 
 
 
 Lord John Russell. 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 Derby. 
 
 
 1852-1858 
 
 
 
 
 Aberdeen, Palmerston. 
 
 1858-1859 
 
 
 
 Derby. 
 
 
 1859-1865 
 
 
 
 
 Palmerston. 
 
 1865-1866 
 
 
 
 
 Russell. 
 
 1866-1868 
 
 
 
 Derby, Disraeli. 
 
 
 1868-1874 
 
 
 
 
 Gladstone. 
 
 1874-1880 
 
 
 
 Disraeli (Beaconsfield). 
 
 
 1880-1885 
 
 
 
 
 Gladstone. 
 
 1885-1886 
 
 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 
 Feb., 1886, to July, 1886 
 
 
 Gladstone. 
 
 July, 1886, to July, 1892 
 
 Salisbury. 
 
 
 1892 
 
 
 Gladstone. 
 
 A. Parliamentary and Electoral Reforms. 
 
 1. The term reform in English history is used with especial refer- 
 ence to representation in Parliament. 
 
 2. French Revolution and its ideas exerted strong influence upon 
 English politics, and diverted attention from domestic questions. 
 Whigs (C. J. Fox) inclined to criticise Revolution more favorably. 
 Tories (Pitt and Burke) violently oppose it and sustain the long war 
 
English Political Parties. 21 
 
 against Napoleon. Popular Revolutionary societies. Bright: His- 
 tory of England, III. 1160-62. 
 
 3. Attempts at Reform before 1882. Advocated in 1745; by Lord 
 Chatham in 1770; by Win. Pitt in 1782; by Earl Grey in 1792. 
 Leeky : History of England in 18th Century, IV, 60-62. Molesworth: 
 The History of England, I. 4-8; after LSI 6 reform bills were intro- 
 duced yearly. Molesworth, I, 11-14; 17. 
 
 4. Rapid spread of Reform principles and of popular discontents 
 after 1815, due to — 
 
 a. Organization among workingmen. Knight: Popular His- 
 tory of England, VIII, chap. v. 
 
 b. Success of Irish agitation under O'Connell. See below. 
 
 c. Revolution of 1880 in France. Peaceful revolution con- 
 ducted by middle classes against reactionary king. See Lect- 
 ure XVII. 
 
 d. Manufacturing districts of the North of England unrepre- 
 sented in Parliament. 
 
 Triumph of Whigs over Tories in the Act of 1832 for 
 the reform of Parliament. Wellington, the Tory leader. 
 Knight: VIII, 262, 263. Bright: III. 1420-22. 
 
 5. Character of the franchise and of representation in Parliament. 
 
 a. Distinction between county and borough franchise. 
 "The knight of the shire was the man of the county which elected 
 him. The borough member was ordinarily a burgess of the borough 
 which he represented. But the rule was not followed in the case of 
 the county. When the position of a member of Parliament became 
 a privilege, rich men evaded the law by being admitted to the free 
 burghership of the town. The election in a borough was not con- 
 ducted on the principle which was uniformly in force in the sur- 
 rounding county. In some towns the whole of the inhabitants, in 
 others the rate-payers, in others again the governing bodies, chose 
 the representatives. Originally, indeed, the borough franchise was 
 probably wide and included either the whole of the adult male inhab- 
 itants of the borough, or those of them, at any rate, who paid scot 
 and lot, as the local and general taxes were called, or enjoyed the 
 freedom of the community. But it was the policy of the Stuarts to 
 limit the franchise, and the restrictions which were thus introduced 
 were continued by decisions of the House of Commons after the 
 Restoration. In consequence of these decisions, a great variety o 
 franchises existed in different boroughs. 
 
22 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 These complicated and difficult franchises made the work of a 
 returning officer no sinecure. When Romilly stood for Horsham in 
 L807, only 7.'! electors voted; yet the poll-clerk was occupied for the 
 best part of two davs in taking down the description of every burg- 
 age tenement from the deeds of the voters. In Weymouth the right 
 of voting was the title to any portion of certain ancient rents within 
 tin' borough ; and. according to Lord Campbell's autobiography, sev- 
 eral electors voted in 1826 as entitled to an undivided twentieth part 
 of a sixpence." Spencer Wat pole : The Electorate and the Legislature, 
 
 52-54. 
 
 b Rotten and nomination boroughs. McCarthy : Epoch of 
 Reform, 25, 26. 
 
 ••The members of the House of Commons were mostly returned 
 by decayed towns or little villages, and the inhabitants or electors 
 uniformly supported the nominee of their patron. It was stated in 
 1793 that 309 out of the 513 members, belonging to England and 
 Wales, owed their election to the nomination either of the Treasury 
 or of 162 powerful individuals. The 45 Scotch members were nomi- 
 nated by 35 persons. In 1801, 71 out of the 100 Irish members 
 owed their seats to the influence of <>o patrons. The House of Com- 
 mons, therefore, consisted of 658 members, and of these 425 were 
 returned either on the nomination or on the recommendation of 252 
 patrons. 
 
 "Some boroughs had almost literally no inhabitants. Gatton was 
 a park ; Old Sarum a mound ; Corfe Castle a ruin ; the remains of 
 what once was Dunwich were under the waves of the North Sea. 
 But the great mass of boroughs were a little more populous than these 
 places, and contained a dozen, fifty, or even one hundred dependent 
 electors." Spencer Walpole, 55, 56. 
 
 c. Nou-representation of large and important districts. 
 
 "In 1831 the ten southern counties of England and Wales com- 
 prised a population of 3,260,000 persons, and returned 235 members 
 to parliament ; the six northern counties contained a population of 
 3,594,000 persons, and returned 66 members to Parliament; Lan- 
 cashire, with 1,330,000 people, had 14 representatives; Cornwall, 
 with 300,000 inhabitants, had 44 representatives. In round num- 
 bers, every 7,500 persons in Cornwall, and every 100,000 people in 
 Lancashire, had a member to themselves." Spencer Walpole, 58. 
 
 d. Restricted suffrage. 
 
 e. Bribery. 
 
English Political Parties. 23 
 
 6. Act of 1882. Fyffe. II, 419-421 ; McCarthy: Epoch of Re- 
 form, ch. 6 ; Midler, 1 49, 150 ; and Molesioorth, I, chs. 2, 3, 4, consider 
 
 the Reform bill in detail. 
 
 a. 56 rotten boroughs disfranchised. 
 
 b. 30 boroughs lost one member ; 2 lost two members. 
 
 c. 22 large towns given two members; 20 one member. 
 
 d. County members increased from 94 to 159. 
 
 e. Changes in the franchise ; extension. 
 
 "Up to 1832 the county members bad been invariably elected by 
 an uniform constituency, — the county freeholders ; the borough mem- 
 bers had been elected by different kinds of electors in different places. 
 The Act of 1832 exactly reversed this condition. The complicated 
 borough franchises were swept away; and, except for the preserva- 
 tion of the rights of freemen and freeholders, the borough franchise 
 was confined to householders whose houses were worth not less than 
 ten pounds a year. The county franchise, on the contrary, was 
 enlarged by the admission of copyholders, of leaseholders, and of 
 tenants whose holding was of the clear annual value of fifty pounds." 
 Spencer Walpole, 62. 
 
 7. Change of party names. Conservatives and Liberals. McCar- 
 thy: Own Times, I, 28. Sir Robert Peel ; Lord John Russell; Pal- 
 merston. 
 
 a. Anti-Corn Law League, 1837-1846. Richard Cobden ; 
 John Bright. Goiving's Life of Cobden. Morley's Life of 
 Cobden. Molesworth, II, 178-226. 
 
 8. The English Radicals. Chartism. Molesworth, II, 270-302. 
 Bright, IV, 44-46, 87-89, 176-178. 
 
 9. Reform Act of 1867 ; Disraeli's measure, involving a redistribu- 
 tion of seats and reduction of franchise. In England suffrage in 
 boroughs was granted to all householders paying taxes, i. e., paying 
 not less than £4 a year for rent, and to all lodgers at £10 a year. 
 Suffrage in counties was given to £5 owners and £12 renters. 52 
 seats in the House of Commons were redistributed. Eioald, 232-238. 
 Mc Carthy, ch. 51, 52, 1 1, 340-370. Molesworth, III, ch. 5, 271-355. 
 
 a. Rivalry of Disraeli and Gladstone. See Kebbel : Life of 
 Beaconsfield. Emerson: Life of Gladstone. 
 
 10. Introduction of the Ballot. Ballot Act of 1872. Molesioorth, 
 III, 410,411. Judges of Election Returns Act, 1868; Corrupt Prac- 
 tices Prevention Act, 1883. Hazell. 
 
24 Political History Since 181-5. 
 
 <i. •■ It is still felt by many who are most earnest vindicators of political liberty that the 
 effect of the ballot must be to impair political conscientiousness by hiding out of sight the 
 fact that the franchise is at least as much a trust to be publicly exercised as a right to be 
 privately enjoyed." .turns: Fifty Yearsofthe English Constitution, 39. 
 
 b. •• The ballot is a machine to protect the individual voter, not against the nation on 
 whose behalf be exercises the trust, but against all sorts of illicit pressure, outrage, clamor, 
 intrusiveness, curiosity and confusion, which, on so solemn an occasion as thatof recording 
 a vote for a member of the legislature, may disconcert even the strongest-minded voter, 
 and which voters of average mental strength and intelligence may be wholly unable to 
 bear up against." Amos: Fifty Years of the English Constitution, 39, 40. 
 
 11. Reform Act of 1885, introduced by Gladstone in obedience to 
 the demands of the Radical wing of his party. 
 
 a. This reform act consisted of two acts, one concerning the 
 representation and suffrage, the other concerning the redis- 
 tribution of seats. The former act extended the borough 
 lodger (£10) and household (£4) franchises throughout the 
 counties on proof of one year's residence. This meant sub- 
 stantially that every householder, either in borough or in 
 county, should have a vote, and a service-franchise explicitly 
 provided that a servant should have a vote if he occupied a 
 house separate from his employer's dwelling. The counties 
 are also divided into equal electoral districts, which was one 
 of the demands of the Chartists fiftv years before. This bill 
 created two millions of new electors, most of them among the 
 agricultural laborers. The greatest proportional increase 
 was in Ireland, which had 400.000 new voters. The whole 
 electorate of the United Kingdom numbers now more than 
 five millions. 
 
 b. The redistribution scheme was as follows: — 
 
 (1) All boroughs with population under 15,000 were dis- 
 franchised and merged in county districts. 
 
 (2) All towns with population under 5U.000 were to be 
 represented by one member only. 
 
 (3) Under these conditions 160 seats were redistributed. 
 Towns with population between 50,000 and 165,000 were 
 to elect two members; excepting these and the city of 
 London, the system of single-member districts is universal. 
 
 c. Result of extension of suffrage in Ireland, the triumph of 
 Home Rule candidates except in Ulster; alliance between 
 Liberals arid Parnellites to establish Irish Home Rule. — 
 See below, %B, 12, c. 
 
 12. Woman Suffrage. 
 
 " At a parliamentary election a woman cannot vote, neither can she serve as a member of 
 Parliament. But a woman may exercise all local franchises if she be qualified in other 
 
English Political Parties. 25 
 
 respects, and she also may fill most local offices. It has been judicially decided that a 
 woman may l>e a commissioner of sewers, governor of a workhouse, keeper of a prison, 
 gaoler, parish constable, returning officer for a parliamentary election, guardian, and over- 
 seer of the poor. In the case of the overseer the judges rather ungraciously intimated that 
 a man ought to be appointed, and that it there was no man available a woman was the next 
 best thing. Women have come forward lately in a good many instances to serve on 
 school boards, but with this exception they have not shown much disposition to take part 
 in local affairs." CJialmers: Local Government, pip. 11,12. 
 
 a. Influence of the Primrose League, founded in 1883 in 
 memory of Disraeli. 
 
 13. Modern English Radicalism; Leaders: John Bright, Joseph 
 Chamberlain, Sir Charles Dilke, Charles Bradlaugh, H. Labouchere, 
 John Burns, Sydney Webb (the Fabian Society); most urgent de- 
 mands met by Reform Act of 1885, and by Mr. Forster's Education 
 Acts of 1869 and 1870, establishing public school systems. Bright, 
 IV, 462-466. Present Radical platform: Reform of the House of 
 Lords. Eight-Hour Day, " One Man, One Vote." 
 
 B. Ireland and the Irish Question. 
 Popul., 4.7 m. ; area. 32, .58,3 S q. mi. ; 4 times Massachusetts. 
 
 1. Four ancient divisions of Ireland : Leinster, Munster, Connaught, 
 and Ulster; the three former, Catholic; the latter, Protestaut. 
 
 2. History of Ireland before the Legislative Union with England 
 (1801). First invasion from England, 1169. First real conquest of 
 the whole Hand in the reign of Elizabeth, 1565-1602. 
 
 a. 1495. Statute of Drogheda. 
 
 (1) Irish Parliament not to be held except by consent of 
 King of England. 
 
 (2) No bill to be introduced into Irish Parliament except 
 by King's consent. 
 
 (3) Recent English legislation should extend to Ireland. 
 
 b. 1597. Rebellion of the Irish. Green: Short History of 
 English People, 449-452. 
 
 c. 1633. The "Thorough" policy of Wentworth. Green, 
 509, 510. 
 
 d. 1641. Irish massacre in Ulster ; 30,000 Protestants slain. 
 The period of Cromwell. Deane: A Short History of Ire- 
 land, ch. 5 ; Green, 558. 
 
 e. 1652. Act of Settlement for Ireland. Land of the Irish 
 in Ulster, Munster, and Leinster was confiscated and dis- 
 tributed among those who had advanced money for the war, 
 and among the soldiers. Papists who had not taken part in 
 the rebellion received land in Connaught. 
 
26 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 f. 1 089-1801. The Roman Catholics of Ireland supported 
 James II ; after the Revolution treated with great harsh- 
 ness. Roman Catholics excluded from Irish Parliament. 
 Green, 070, 071 ; 772, 773. 
 "A reward of £100 is offered for information against any priest 
 who exercises his religious functions, for which the penalty is impris- 
 onment for life. Every Papist at the age of eighteen is to take the 
 oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscrihe the declaration 
 against transubstantiation and the worship of saints, in default of 
 which he is incapable of holding land by purchase or inheritance, and 
 the property is to go to the next Protestant kin. No Catholic is to 
 send his children abroad to be educated. N. B. — This Act was rarely 
 put into practice. Acland and Ransome : Political History, 124. 
 
 For the whole period before the Union. May: Constitutional His- 
 tory of England, II, ch. 10. Deane, ch. 7. 
 
 3. Legislative Union of Great Britain with Ireland, 1801 ; Imperial 
 Parliament ; Ireland sent 32 members to the House of Lords, and 100 
 members to House of Commons. Deane, ch. 10. Green, 772, 773. 
 
 Pitt not successful in attempt to repeal the Acts disfranchising 
 Roman Catholics. 
 
 4. Emmet's Rebellion, 1803. Deane, 137. 
 
 5. Agitation for Catholic Emancipation throughout the United 
 Kingdom, 1823-29. Deane, 147-150. Green, 778-798. 
 
 First organization 6f Irish peasantry for political campaign pur- 
 poses by the Irish priesthood and Daniel O'Connell. 
 
 Catholics admitted to all offices except those of Regent, Lord 
 Chancellor of England and of Ireland, and Viceroy of Ireland. 
 McCarthy, ch. 12. Hamilton's Life of O ' Connell. 
 
 0. The tithe war. Moleswortk, I, 293, 303, 373, 385; II, 18. 
 
 Deane, 150-108, 178. McCarthy: Epoch of Reform, ch. 8. 1838, 
 
 Irish pool' law. 
 
 " It is shown that the state church included little more than one tenth of the people, that 
 in 150 parishes there was not one Protestant, and SliO parishes less than 50." 
 
 7. Agitation for Repeal of the Union, and for the reestablishment 
 of an Irish Parliament. Beginning of the "Home Rule" movement, 
 1843. Deane, 185-190. McCarthy, I, 182-203. Mc Carthy : Epoch 
 of Reform, 191-194. 
 
 In this agitation O'Connell condemned the use of physical force, and 
 hoped to dissolve the Union by peaceful methods ; this policy was 
 too cautious for the more radical portion of his followers, aud there 
 
English Political Parties. 27 
 
 was consequently a secession known as the Young Ireland Move- 
 ment. McCarthy, I, 302— 317. Deane, 196-202. Epoch of Reform, 
 
 195. 
 
 8. Potato famine, 1847 ; emigration, chiefly to the United States. 
 Deane, 190-193. McCarthy, I, 277-282. 
 
 9. Fenianism. Deane, 203-211. McCarthy, II, 373-390. Aetjm 
 
 q/* Queen Victoria, I. 577—583. Rutherford's Secret History of the 
 Fenian Conspiracy, 2 vols. 
 
 10. Disestablishment of the Episcopal church in Ireland, 1869. 
 Deane, ch. 14. McCarthy. II. 450-454, 463-471. 
 
 11. The land question, 1848-91. Deane, ch. 15. McCarthy, II, 
 471-479. Land owned largely by few persons ; absenteeism; evic- 
 tions ; rack-rent system ; Ulster tenant right ; Clearances, and the En- 
 cumbered Estates Act. 1848-49. Deane, 223. McCarthy, II, 473, 
 474. Bright, IV, 165-168, 192. 
 
 a. First Land Act, 1860. Attempt to base relations between 
 the owner of the land and the tenant on contract instead of 
 custom, or common law. Reactionary measure against inter- 
 ests of tenants. 
 
 b. Second Land Act, 1870. For Gladstone's speech see 
 Molesworth, III. 385-388. McCarthy. II. 477. Deane, 230- 
 237. Bright, IV. 460, 461. Partly legalized Ulster tenant 
 right. 
 
 (1) Compensation to tenant for disturbance by landlord, 
 except in ease of eviction for non-payment of rent. 
 
 (2) Compensation for improvements which are presumed 
 to be made by tenant unless landlord can prove the con- 
 trary. 
 
 (3) Possible for tenants to borrow from the Government 
 two thirds of purchase money necessary to buy their 
 holding. 
 
 (4) Landlords might escape these conditions by letting land 
 on long leases. 
 
 c. Third Land Act, 1881 ; the " three F's." Deane, 238, 239. 
 Miiller, 585, 586. 
 
 (1) "If a yearly tenant thinks his rent too high, he may 
 go before the Land Commission Court, and get a rent 
 fixed. This rent cannot be raised for fifteen years, and 
 then only by the Court which fixed it. This privilege is 
 called 'Fair Rent.' 
 
28 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 (2) When a tenant has a fair rent fixed, he cannot be 
 evicted by his landlord except for non-payment of rent, 
 for dilapidation, persistent waste, or the breach of some 
 other statutory condition. This privilege is called ' Fix- 
 ity of Tenure. 1 
 (•'!) Every yearly tenant lias now an interest in his holding 
 which he can sell. Thus, a tenant wishing to give up his 
 farm can sell the right of succession lor a sum equal to 
 several years' purchase of the rent. This privilege is 
 called • Free Sale.' " 
 "The career of the Act of 1881 was not altogether prosperous. 
 The law was obnoxious to the landlord class. Still more threatening 
 to its prospects was the antagonistic attitude of the Land League 
 See §12, a~\. It was the unrelenting agitation of this organization 
 and its successor, the National LeagUe, against landlordism and rent 
 that rendered supplementary legislation indispensable to the working 
 of the Act. From Mr. Gladstone's government was extorted the 
 Arreais Act of 1882, by which, for tenancies of under £30 valuation. 
 arrears of rent which had accrued before 1881 were swept away so 
 far as the tenants were concerned, the treasury paying to the land- 
 lord one half the amount due. 
 
 •• Up to Aug. 22, 1886, judicial rents had been fixed for 176,800 of 
 the 350.000 holdings "subject to the Act of 1881. and the average 
 reduction had been 18.2 percent. It was claimed that even these 
 rents were too high, and in 1887 it was provided that the court might 
 for three years have power to relax the judicial rents srill further." 
 Adapted from Prof. Wm. A. Dunning. 
 
 </. Fourth Land Act, the Land Purchase Act of 1885, popu- 
 larly known as Lord Ashbourne's Act, — renewed and ex- 
 tended in 1888, apparently a successful effort to increase the 
 number of land owners. Deane, 239, 240. 
 " If a tenant wishes to buy his bidding, and arranges with his land- 
 lord as to terms, he can change his position from that of a perpetual 
 rent payer into that of the payer of an annuity terminable at the end 
 of forty-nine years, the Government supplying him with the entire 
 purchase money, to he repaid during those forty-nine years at four 
 per cent. This annual payment of £4 for every £100 borrowed 
 covers both principal and interest. Thus, if a tenant, already paying 
 a statutory rent of foil, agrees to buy from his landlord at twenty 
 years" purchase, or £1000, the Government will lend him the money, 
 

English Political Parties. 29 
 
 his rent will at once cease, and he will pay. not £50, hut £40 yearly, 
 for forty-nine years, ami then become the owner of his holding free of 
 all charge." 
 
 Land purchases under the conditions of preceding Acts were accom- 
 modated to the terms of this Act. The limit upon loans made by 
 Government was fixed at £5,000,000. The Act was so successful in 
 operation that in 1888 the appropriation was raised to £10,000,000, 
 and in 1891 the Fifth Land Act, Balfour's Land Purchase Act. made 
 elaborate provision for extending the principles of the Ashbourne Act 
 
 to cover the possible purchase of all the 600,000 peasant holdings in 
 Ireland. Gladstone in L886 had coupled a similar land purchase bill 
 with his proposition of Home Rule (See p. 26,c), except that he pro- 
 posed to make the sale and purchase of holdings compulsory, and not 
 merely permissive. Under the Ashbourne Act, up to Dec. 31, 1890, 
 there had been 24,223 applications lor loans, over half of which, how- 
 ever, were from the province of Lister. This shows that the farmers 
 most forward to take advantage of these Acts were not those who were 
 most ready to complain of high rent and hard times. 
 
 " Only 27 defaulters had been sold out up to the end of 1890, and 
 in only seven cases was resort to the guarantee deposits necessary to 
 discharge unpaid instalments." 
 
 12. The Home-Rule party, 1870. McCarthy, [1,542-545. Lead- 
 ers: Isaac Butt, 1870-75; Shaw, 1875-77; Parnell, 1877-90. 
 
 Agitation for restoration of Home Rule to Ireland based on disaf- 
 fection with the system of land tenure. Parnell leads successful revolt 
 of more violent wing of Home-Rule party against conservative leader, 
 Butt. " Obstruction " in Parliament, 1874-77. Bright. IV, 554- 
 560. 
 
 a. The Land League and National Convention system organ- 
 ized in 1879 by C. S. Parnell and Michael Davitt. Refusal 
 to pay rents. Agrarian outrages. Appeal to the Irish in 
 the United States. Bright, IV, 560-562. 
 
 (1) W. E. Forster's Coercion Act, 1881. Unparalleled 
 obstructive tactics of Irish members of Parliament. T. 
 Wemyss Reid: Life ofW. E. Burster. 
 
 b. "No Rent Manifesto." Suppression of Laud League, Oct. 
 20, 1881. 
 
 Organization of National Land League, Oct.. 1882. 
 Objects, political and industrial independence. The plan 
 of campaign ; Michael Davitt, leader of the agrarian agita- 
 tion. Doctrine of the nationalization of the land. See Hurl- 
 
30 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 hut's "Ireland under Coercion," especially pp. 161-164; also 
 Proceedings before the Parnell Inquiry Commission, London 
 
 Times, 1888. 
 
 (1) Phoenix Park murders, 1882. The '• Invincible*. " 
 Crimes Act of 1<S,S2, Gladstone's Coercion Act. Hazell. 
 
 (2) Contributions from America. The League in the United 
 States. 
 
 c. The general election of 1885 was the first one held after 
 the Reform Act of 1885. For the first time the Parnellites 
 secured a majority of the Irish representatives in the House 
 of Commons, and they held the balance of power between 
 the two great parties in that House. The Liberals had 333 
 members, the Conservatives 251, and the Parnellites 86. 
 
 d. Alliance between Gladstone and Parnell, 1886. Gladstone's 
 Home-Rule Bill. April 8, 1886; defeated, ;> 4 L to oil. See 
 Hazell, 1887, " Home Hide." 
 
 Gladstone's Land-Purchase Bill (1886), introduced to 
 accompany Home-Rule Bill, and failed with it. Contem- 
 plated universal purchase by new Irish state with money 
 loaned by English Treasury. 
 (1) Division of Liberal party. 
 
 (a) Home Rulers: Gladstone, Morley, Harcourt. 
 
 (b) Liberal Unionists. Bright, Hartingtou, Chamberlain, 
 Goschen, unite with Conservatives to maintain the Union 
 of 1801, and to suppress agrarian crime in Ireland. 
 
 e. Appeal to the country. Defeat of Gladstone iu General 
 Election of 1886. Marquis of Salisbury (Conservative), 
 Premier. 1886; A. J. Balfour, Chief Secretary for Ireland, 
 1S.S7. Some principal events of Salisbury's administration, 
 1886-92': — 
 
 (1) The "Closure" to stop "obstruction," 1887. See 
 Hazed, under title " Parliamentary Procedure." 
 
 (2) The League " proclaimed " under Balfour's Coercion 
 Act, Aug., 1887. Hazell, 1888, p. 386. 
 
 (3) The Light Railways (Ireland) Act, 1889. Railways 
 to be built by Government in the congested districts of 
 western Ireland. 
 
 (1) The Local Government for Scotland Act, 1889, estab- 
 lishing iD Scotland County Councils similar to those 
 already provided in England. 
 
English Political Parties. 31 
 
 (5) The Radicals under guidance of Mr. Labouchere opposed 
 grants of money to the Queen's grand-children, 1889. 
 
 (6) Investigation of the charge that Mr. Parnell had been 
 in communication with the " Invincibles," and that he 
 and his followers were aiding and abetting crimes of vio- 
 lence and rebellion in Ireland. Parnell Commission began 
 sessions Oct... 22, 1889. 
 
 A certain R. Pigott forged incriminating letters pur- 
 porting to come from Mr. Parnell's hand. These letters 
 were published in the London Times, and were widely 
 believed to be genuine. The forgery was shown, and the 
 Commission exonerated Parnell from the accusation of 
 complicity with the Phoenix Park murders, but found 
 that the other charges were substantially true. See Re- 
 port of the judges on the commission in Hazell for 1891, 
 pp. 481, 482. 
 
 (7) The condemnation of Mr. Parnell as co-respondent in 
 the divorce suit of O'Shea vs. O'Shea and Parnell for 
 adultery, Nov. 17, 1890, did not at first have any effect 
 upon Mr. Parnell's political position. During the follow- 
 ing week Parnell's followers and various public bodies in 
 Ireland declared fidelity to him, and he was unanimously 
 rechosen leader of the Home Rulers in the House of 
 Commons. 
 
 Nov. 25, Mr. Gladstone declared that he would have 
 nothing further to do with Mr. Parnell. The result was 
 a division in the Irish party, 44 of its members in the 
 Commons abandoning Mr. Parnell, and selecting Justin 
 McCarthy as their leader, while 2G adhered to Parnell. 
 The influence of the Irish priesthood was generally adverse 
 to Mr. Parnell. towards whom, as a Protestant, the hier- 
 archy had never been entirely favorable. 
 
 (8) Death of Parnell, Oct. G, 1891. The division in the 
 party still continues. The great majority under McCar- 
 thy's nominal leadership call themselves Nationalists, and 
 desire to adhere closely to the Liberals, the minority 
 under Wm. Redmond call themselves " Independents," or 
 " Parnellites," and urge a policy of untrammeled action. 
 Formation of Irish National Federation, to take place of 
 Parnell's former party machinery, Mar. 10, 1891. See 
 London Times, Mar. 13, 1891, p. 7. 
 
32 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 f. 1802. Balfour proposed a County Councils Act for Ireland, 
 and a genera] election was held in which Home Rule, the 
 Eight-Hour Da}', "One man, one vote," and other advanced 
 Radical measures were the questions at issue. The result 
 was a Liberal victory, although England returned a Con- 
 servative majority. Scotland, Ireland, and Wales were 
 strongly Liberal, and Mr. Gladstone resumed office with a 
 majority of forty, Aug., 1892. 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 Canada. The Cape Colony. 
 
 A. Canada. 
 
 Additional References: Payne: European Colonies, ch. 2. W. 
 P. Grestvell : History of the Dominion of Canada. J. E. C. 
 Munro : Canadian Constitutional History. C. R. Tuttle : The 
 History of Canada. C. Marshall: The Canadian Dominion. 
 W. F. Rae: Canada. G. M. Adam : Life and Career of Sir 
 John Macdonald. Stephe?i B. Stanton: The Bering Sea Con- 
 troversy. Donald Hforison : The Discontent in Newfoundland, 
 The Forum, Aug., 1890, pp. 694-704. 
 Area, 3^ m. sq. mi. : popul., about 5 m. 
 1. Early history. 
 
 a. Until 1774, governed by England as a conquered province. 
 
 b. From 1774 until 1791, governed as a crown colony by a 
 Governor under the name of Province of Quebec. 
 
 c. In 1791, divided into Upper and Lower Canada, the Ottawa 
 River being the boundary between them. In each colony 
 a governor and council were established, but there was no 
 responsible government. Little wisdom shown in the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
Canada. TJir Cape Colon;/. 33 
 
 "The Councils and Assemblies could indeed vote new laws, bat 
 their acts might be vetoed by an irresponsible Executive. The Coun- 
 cils and Assemblies voted supplies, bur the Executive administered 
 them. No member of the Executive could be deprived of his post 
 by the Council and Assembly ; and however corrupt anil unpopular 
 the entire government might be, it was removable only by the British 
 Government, which acted through the Colonial office. The Colonial 
 office was presided over by an English Secretary of State, who owed 
 his position to the chances of party politics, and was sometimes igno- 
 rant of the very names of the colonies whose fortunes were placed in 
 his hands. A system better adapted to degrade and irritate a grow- 
 ing community could not have been devised." Payne, 10o, 104. 
 
 2. Insurrection of 1837. Causes : — 
 
 a. Ill feeling between the French of Lower Canada (Quebec) 
 
 and English of Upper Canada (Ontario). 
 
 " In Lower Canada there was a chronic animosity between the French and the English. 
 
 It was a war of races, which so divided the i pie that they hardly mingled in society, and 
 
 ' the only public occasion when they met was in the jury-box, and they met there only to 
 the utter obstruction of justice.' " The Rt iyn of Q-tiet n Victoria, I, 431. 
 
 b. Misrule of the English Colonial Office. 
 
 The administration of the colony had been thrown by the 
 Colonial office into the hands of an oligarchy, or " ring," and 
 the landowning classes were in bitter opposition. The pub- 
 lic land system was favorable for speculators, and unfavor- 
 able for settlers. Immigration, except of paupers, had 
 nearly ceased. 
 
 "There was no agreement between the executive and the assembly. In all of them the 
 administration of public a Hairs was habitually confined to those who did not co-operate 
 harmoniously with the popular branch of the legislature." Tin Reign of Queen Victoria, 
 I, 431. 
 
 3. Responsible government (the Union Act) granted in 1840. 
 Upper and Lower Canada were united. 
 
 " The subordination of the Executive to the Legislature, as in tiie 
 mother-country, which was thus secured, received the name of ' Re- 
 sponsible Government.' It was the emancipation of the colony, and 
 rendered it practically as free as one of the United States. It was 
 also the emancipation of the empire, for when secured in one of the 
 colonies it was within the reach of all. This change is the principal 
 event in our modern colonial history. Henceforth it was recognized 
 that the inhabitants of all colonies where Englishmen are the major- 
 ity were entitled to the same political rights as Englishmen at home. - ' 
 Payne, 105, 106. 
 
34 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 4. Canadian Federation. Payne, 162-1G4. 
 
 a. 1867, union of Canada, — composed of the provinces of 
 Ontario and Quebec, — Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick 
 as a " Dominion." Bright, IV, 433-435. 
 
 b. In 1869 the territory of the Hudson Bay Co. was purchased, 
 and in 1870 the Northwest Territories and Manitoba joined 
 the Confederation. British Columbia entered the confedera- 
 tion in 1871, and Prince Edward Hand in 1873. New- 
 foundland is not yet included. 
 
 "The Canadian federation was a consequence of the American civil war. Not only did 
 there seem to be every prospect of attack, hut the action of the home government taught 
 the various colonies of North America that they must rely on their own strength for defense. 
 The necessity was common to all, and the advantages of a defensive union were conspicu- 
 ously brought before them." The Rt ign of Quei n Victoria, I, 433. 
 
 5. The Central Government of the Dominion. 
 
 The government of the Canadian Dominion is modeled upon the 
 Federal government of the United States. Each of the eight prov- 
 inces which compose the Dominion — Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, 
 and Northwest Territories (since 1888) — has its separate provincial 
 legislature. The powers of these provincial legislatures are limited 
 to local questions ; and all matters of general public policy are dealt 
 with by the Parliament of Canada. 
 
 The Parliament of Canada meets annually, at Ottawa, upon sum- 
 mons issued by the Governor-General in the Queen's name. The 
 members of the Upper House, or Senate, are nominated for life by 
 the Governor-General. They number 80. The Lower House, or 
 House of Commons, consisting at present of 215 members, is elected 
 by the people. The real business of the government is carried on by 
 a Cabinet of fourteen ministers, who have the support of the majority 
 in the House of Commons. The Prime Minister of the Dominion, 
 who is called upon by the Governor-General to form an administra- 
 tion, and who forms it out of his political supporters, is the ' Minister 
 of the Interior.' His duties, besides the general management of the 
 government and miscellaneous duties which are not entrusted to any 
 other minister, include those of the Home and Foreign Secretaries in 
 England. Payne, 143, 144. 
 
 England has a nominal veto upon Canadian legislation, but never 
 exercises it. Appoints the Governor-General. 
 
 6. Government of the Provinces. 
 
 For provincial political business each province has its own execu- 
 tive and legislative bodies. Each has its Lieutenant-Governor, who 
 
Canada. The Cape Colony. 35 
 
 is appointed by the Governor-General. He is assisted by an Execu- 
 tive Council or Cabinet, enjoying tbe support of the majority in the 
 Legislative Assembly, except, possibly, in the Northwest Territories. 
 There the Executive is not necessarily responsible to the Assembly. 
 All the Provinces have Legislative Assemblies ; Quebec, Nova Scotia, 
 New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Hand have also second cham- 
 bers in the shape of Legislative Councils. Ontario, Manitoba, and 
 British Columbia have none. The Northwest Territories are divided 
 into the districts of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, Alberta, Athabasca, 
 and Keewatin. Labrador is also classed as a district. Payne, 144. 
 Canadian voting; The Nation, Jan. 10, 1889, pp. "29, 30. 
 
 7. Political parties in Canada. 
 
 a. Conservatives, or Tories ; Sir John Alexander McDonald. 
 
 b. Liberals, or Reformers. 
 
 Railways in Canadian Elections, London Times, Mar. 13, 
 1891, p. 3. 
 
 8. Recent growth and development of Canada. Its indebtedness. 
 Its relations with the United States. 
 
 B. The Fishery Question. 
 
 Open sea is open to any one ; each state owns the sea for three 
 miles from the shore. Method of measurement. 
 
 1. The treaty of 1783. 
 
 "By the treaty of 1783, which admitted the independence of the 
 United States. Great Britain conceded to them the right of fishing on 
 the Banks of Newfoundland along such coasts of the same island as 
 were usc<\ by British seamen, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on 
 the coasts, bays, and creeks of all other British dominions in Amer- 
 ica ; as well as the right of drying and curing fish in any of the 
 unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of Nova Scotia, the Magdalen 
 Islands, and Labrador, so long as they should continue unsettled; but 
 not the right of drying or curing on the island of Newfoundland." 
 Wooisey: International Lair, 83. 
 
 2. Treaty of IMS. 
 
 "Article I. — Whereas differences have arisen respecting the lib- 
 erty claimed by the United States for the inhabitants thereof to take 
 dry. and cure fish on certain coasts, bays, harbors, and creeks of His 
 Britannic Majesty's dominions in America, it is agreed between the 
 High Contracting Parties that the inhabitants of the said United 
 States shall have for ever, in common with the subjects of His Bri- 
 
36 Political History Since .1815. 
 
 tannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind on that part of 
 tlit- .southern coast of Newfoundland which extends from Cape Kay 
 to the Rameau Islands ; on the western and northern coast of New- 
 foundland, from the said (ape Hay to the Quirpon Islands, on the 
 shores of the Magdalen Islands ; and also on the coasts, bays, harbors, 
 and creeks from Mount Joly, on the southern coast of Labrador, to 
 and through the straights of Belleisle, and thence northwardly indefi- 
 nitely along the coast, without prejudice however to any of the 
 exclusive rights of the Hudson's Bay Company; and that the Amer- 
 ican fishermen shall also have liberty for ever to dry and cure fish in 
 any of the unsettled bays, harbors, and creeks of the southern part of 
 the coast of Newfoundland here above described, and of the coast of 
 Labrador ; but so soon as the same, or any portion thereof, shall be 
 settled, it shall not be lawful for the said fishermen to dry or cure 
 fish at such portion so settled, without previous agreement for such 
 purpose with the inhabitants, proprietors, or possessors of the ground. 
 And the United States hereby renounce for ever any liberty hereto- 
 fore enjoyed or claimed by the inhabitants thereof to take, dry, or 
 cure fish on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, 
 creeks. <>r harbors of His Britannic Majesty's dominions in America 
 not included within the above-mentioned limits ; provided, however, 
 that the American fishermen shall be admitted to enter such bays or 
 harbors for the purposes of shelter and of repairing damages therein, 
 of purchasing wood, and of obtaining water, and for no other purpose 
 whatever. But they shall be under such restrictions as may be neces- 
 sary to prevent their taking, drying, or curing fish therein, or in any 
 other manner whatever abusing the privileges hereby reserved to 
 them." 
 
 According to this treaty, therefore, American vessels can enter har- 
 bors for shelter, food, or water, but not for bait. 
 
 3. Reciprocity treaty of 1854. Liberty to American vessels to fish, 
 and commercial privileges to Canadians. Fish were admitted into the 
 United States free of duty. 
 
 "The inhabitants of the United States shall have, in common with the subjects of Her 
 Britannic Majesty, the liberty to take fish of every kind, except shell fish, on the sea coasts 
 and shores, and in the bays, harbors, and creeks of Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, 
 Prince Edward Island, and of the several islands thereunto adjacent, without being re- 
 stricted to anj distance from the shore." 
 
 This treaty terminated in 1866; treaty of 1818 again in force. 
 
 4. Treaty of "Washington, 1871. Government of United States 
 agreed to pay Canada a certain sum per annum for the grant of right 
 
Canada. The Cape Colony. 37 
 
 to fishermen. In 1880 this treaty was extended for a further period 
 of five years. Allowed to lapse in 1886. 
 
 5. Present situation. A modus vivendi. The question of the seal 
 fisheries in the Pacific. 
 
 C. The Cape Colony. ■ 
 
 Additional References: G. McCall Theal: History of South 
 Africa, 3 vols, issued and more to follow: the completest 
 work upon this subject. W. Greswell: Our Smith African 
 Empire, '1 vols. T. J. Lucas: The Zulus and the British 
 Frontiers. E. J. Gibbs : England and South Africa. The 
 British South Africa Co., Spectator, Oct. 19, 1889, p. 512. 
 The Development of Africa, Spectator, Sept. 20, 1890. The 
 Portuguese in Africa, a series of articles in the London Times 
 from dan. 3, 1890, to dan. 24th. 
 1. Cape Colony, or Cape of Good Hope. Payne: European Colo- 
 nies, 185-191. Settled by the Dutch in 1652; since 1806 possessed 
 by England. Area. 213,636 sq. mi.; popul., 1.1 in. 
 
 English colonics in Southern Africa have been incorporated with 
 Cape Colony, except Natal : and Natal, although a crown colony, pos- 
 sesses a representative government. The Boer republics also must 
 be ranked by themselves. 
 
 •• Tln. j (inly colony outside the North American and Australian groups which lias obtained 
 autonomy is the ("ape Colony. This Colony lias a Legislative Council of 'J2 members 
 elected fur seven years, and a House of Assembly of 76 members, both houses being elected 
 by electors possessing a property qualification. The Governor is president of the Executive 
 
 Council, which consists of the Cabinet plus several i -official members. The Cabinet 
 
 cunsists of the Attorney-General, the Colonial Secretary, who is the Premier, the Treas- 
 urer, the Commissioner of Crown Lands and Public Works, and the Secretary for Native 
 Affairs." J. S. Cotton and E.J. Paym Colonies and Dependencies, p. 151. 
 
 •J. Natal. Payne, 191—195. Declared an English Colony in 1843. 
 a. Zululand, northeast of Natal ; war with Cetewayo, 1879. 
 Annexation of the territory occupied by the Zulus, IS*?. 
 Political controversy concerning the desirability of acquir- 
 ing a "responsible" Executive, 1892. 
 3. The Free States : Transvaal Republic, Orange Free State. 
 formed 1836-40; conservative or backward character of the original 
 settlers, who are known as Boers. 
 
 " These districts arc occupied partly by natives and partly by Euro- 
 peans of mixed race, chiefly Dutch, whose ancestors have emigrated 
 in past times from the Cape Colony, and who are called ' Boers.' " 
 Colonies and Dependencies, 151. 
 
38 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 War between Transvaal Republic and England in 1882 resulted in 
 nominal suzerainty of England, but practical independence of tbe 
 Boers. 
 
 I. Confederation of African colonies. Act of 1877, not yet applied. 
 
 5. Enormous extension of tbe territory of Cape Colony, since 1890, 
 due chiefly to the efforts and energy of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, Prime 
 Minister of the colony since July, 1890, and President, of tbe British 
 South Africa Company. The interior of South Africa as far as the 
 Congo Free State passes under the influence of the colony or tbe com- 
 pany. A railway system to the Zambesi, and railway connections 
 with the Dutch republics, 1890-92. Rapid development of rail- 
 ways and of commercial relations has drawn a large English immigra- 
 tion into the Dutch republics. Legal barriers against the English 
 giving way, even in the Transvaal; 1892. Conflict with Portuguese 
 claims. Portugal's Aggressions and England's Duty, Fortnightly 
 Review, Jan., 18'JO. 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 
 English Colonies in Australasia and Polynesia. 
 
 Additional References : The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 437- 
 448. E. J. Payne: European Colonics, ch. 12, 165-185. Sil- 
 ver: Handbook of Australia and New Zealand. Sir Charles 
 Dilke: Problems of Greater Britain. E. G. Wakefield: New 
 Zealand after Fifty Years. E. Jenks: The Government of 
 Victoria. Philip Mennell: The Australasian Dictionary of 
 Biography. R. W. Dale: Australian Politics, Contemporary 
 Review, Mar., 1889. The New Departure in Australia, Spec- 
 tator, Nov. 2, 1889, p. 580. The Australian Convention, Spec- 
 tator. Feb. 22, 1890, p. 260. The Australian, Strikes, Spectator, 
 Sept. 20, 1890. Debates of tbe Federal Convention (Austra- 
 lia) ; see also London Times, March 6, 1891, pp. 6, 15. Aus- 
 
English Colonics in Australasia and Polynesia. 39 
 
 tralasian Federation, Westminster Review, May, 1889. G. W. 
 jRusden: History of Australia, 3 vols. ,/. E. T. Woods: His- 
 tory of Discovery ami Exploration of Australia, 2 vols. J. F. 
 Hogan: The Irish in Australia. 0. Lumholtz: Among Can- 
 nibals. J. D. Lang: Historical and Statistical Account of 
 New South Wales, 2 vols.. 4th ed. W. Harcus: South Australia. 
 J. West: History of Tasmania, 2 vols. H. H. Hayter: Notes 
 on Victoria, also The Victorian Tear-Booh, an annual. G. W. 
 Rusden: History of New Zealand, 3 vols. 
 1. The eight English colonies: Fiji. Western Australia, Southern 
 Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, and New 
 Zealand; area nearly that of the United States; popul., nearly 4 in. 
 "2. New South Wales. 
 
 a. Early history ; discoveries ; Cook's voyages. Botany Bay 
 discovered in 17*7 ; New South Wales the oldest settlement ; 
 first settled by convicts; 1854, gold discovered; growing 
 importance of the colony ; poor government ; governors 
 were despotic; no trial by jury or criticism of the press; 
 four classes of society; convicts, emancipists, free settler.-. 
 and officials ; rivalry of emancipists and settlers who were 
 admitted into the colony in 1851. 
 
 b. Establishment of responsible government in 1855. Par- 
 liament; Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly; 
 
 nature of each ; the Governor and his Cabinet. 
 
 " There was one grievance common to all the Australian colonies. They objected to the 
 mode adopted by the Home Government in dealing with the public lands, and, in their 
 consequent anxiety to obtain full local powers of control, they hastened to avail them- 
 selves of the authority granted by the Act to introduce a more fully representative system 
 with two chambers. Their action was confirmed by the Home Parliament, and the public 
 lands were surrendered to colonial management. By that time New Zealand and the Cape 
 had obtained representative legislatures, the one in 1852, the other in the succeeding year. 
 The result of the policy of this period was, not only that representative institutions had 
 been granted to the colonies of Australasia and the Cape, but that throughout the British 
 possessions the independence of the colonial legislatures had been acknowledged, and their 
 claims to be a parliamentary government satisfied." Tin /,'■ ign of Qui < /' Victoria, I, 414. 
 
 c. Question of single or double legislative chamber. 
 A. Advantages of a single assembly. 
 
 1. "That the enormously increased legislative business of modern times is, on the whole, 
 delayed, hampered, and interrupted to an extent wholly disproportionate to any benefits 
 derived by a second discussion conducted in a different assembly. 
 
 2. "As a barrier against the tempestuous current of democracy, the Second Chamber is 
 worse than useless, because if the more popular Chamber is practically omnipotent, resist- 
 ance will only be persisted in in matters on which the mind of the people is not fully made 
 up, and therefore on which no legislation ought to take place at all ; which is only saying 
 that the popular Chamber is badly composed, not efficiently representing the people, and 
 prone to reckless legislation ; or if, on the other hand, the popular Chamber is not omnipo- 
 
40 Political History Since 1813. 
 
 tent, and the two Chambers are of co-equal efficiency, legislation will either he the result 
 of a series of compromises, or be barred altogether by a succession of deadlocks, as it lias 
 been iii the British Colony of Victoria. 
 
 3. '• s<> far as, like the Senate of the IT. S. and of France and the Legislative Councils of 
 the A list ralian Colonies, it represents a different class of interests or sentiments, it is pure 
 legislative loss, without any compensating gain." 
 
 B. Advantages of a double assembly, or a bicameral system. 
 
 1. " That it affords a check upon the characteristic tendency of a democratic assembly to 
 hasty and precipitate legislation. 
 
 2. " Unless the constitution of the Second Chamber exactly repeats the constitution of 
 the first, its existence affords the opportunity of approaching a legislative problem from a 
 new point of view, and throwing, perhaps, fresh lights upon it. 
 
 3. " By prolonging and complicating the process of legislation, it affords multiplied op- 
 portunities for correcting the oversights, supplying the defects, and improving the struct- 
 ure of legislative measures. 
 
 4. " In the case of the Second Chamber being representative like the first, but represent- 
 ative of other classes of the community, it affords a security that the interests of these 
 classes are not overlooked." Amos : The Science <>/ r<iliti<-,<, 238, 239. 
 
 See also May: ( 'onstitutional History <>/ England, II, 535-53?. 
 
 3. Victoria; capital, Melbourne ; separated from New South Wales 
 in 1850; constitution granted in 1855 ; more liberal than that of New 
 South Wales ; legislative council elected instead of being nominated 
 by the Crown. 
 
 4. Southern Australia ; capital, Adelaide ; discovered in 1802 ; set- 
 tled by a company and not by convicts, 1836 ; real-estate speculation ; 
 governed by the Crown until 1856, when a liberal constitution was 
 granted, similar to that of Victoria. 
 
 5. Western Australia ; capital, Perth ; first settled on King George's 
 Sound by convict party from New South Wales, 1825, sent to antici- 
 pate a French attempt. Governor appointed by the Crown. Legis- 
 lative Council of 18 members, 12 of whom are elected. Growth of 
 colony retarded by convict labor. 
 
 6. Queensland; capital, Brisbane; until 1859 known as Morton 
 Bay, a convict colony ; not so advanced as others. Governor, respon- 
 sible ministry, and two Houses of Parliament. Constitution similar 
 to that of New South Wales. 
 
 7. Tasmania; capital, Ilobart ; convict settlement, 1803-53; con- 
 stitution and representative government similar to that of Victoria, 
 established in 1855, reorganized in 1871 and 1885. 
 
 8. New Zealand; capital, Wellington (since 1864); English sov- 
 ereignty proclaimed in 1840; representative government established 
 in 1852 and reorganized in 1875; constitution similar to that of New 
 South Wales; representation of natives in the Parliament. 
 
 9. Fiji, ceded to England in 1874; capital, Suva; a crown colony. 
 
English Colonies in Australasia and Polynesia. 41 
 
 10. New Guinea, the southeastern part of the iland bearing that 
 name. Chief town, Port Moresby. It was annexed by England in 
 1888 in response to the outcry in Australia, and especially in Queens- 
 land, caused by the annexation of the northern part of the iland by 
 Germany in 1887. The western portion of New Guinea belongs to 
 Holland. New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland contribute 
 equally towards paying the expenses of administration in this colony. 
 
 11. Principal political issues in Australasian history : — 
 
 a. The convict-transportation system, 1787-1858; due to (1) 
 English notions of the worthlessness of the colonial part of 
 the Empire, (2) desire for reform in dealing with the crimi- 
 nal class in England. 
 
 b. A bicameral legislature. See ante, 2, A, B. 
 
 c. Management of public lands. 
 
 (1) Economical management, restrictions on sales; the 
 Wakefield system. 
 
 (2) Eree and speedy sales, no reservations. 
 
 (3) The importance of water-rights. Concerning the aliena- 
 tion of public lands, see Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 443. 
 
 (4) The Torreus Land Registration Act. 
 
 d. The Australian ballot system. J. H. Wigmore: The Aus- 
 tralian Ballot System. 
 
 e. The question of tariffs. All the colonies have been and are 
 protectionist, excepting New South Wales, but protectionists 
 secured a majority in the New South Wales legislature in 
 1891. 
 
 f. Socialism in Australia ; the eight-hour labor day. Domina- 
 tion of trades unions. Great strike of the Queensland 
 Shearing Union against the Australian Pastoralists' Union, 
 1891; also of the dockmen. Virtual civil war; defeat of 
 the strikers. 
 
 y. The dangers of Chinese immigration ; prohibitory legisla- 
 tion. Importation of Kanaka laborers. 
 
 h. Federation of Australasian colonies. English Act of 1885 
 providing for a representative Federal Council of Australia 
 went into effect in 188G. Only New South Wales and New 
 Zealand refused to join. Powers of this Council, Hazell, 
 1888, p. 32. Desire for closer union led to the assembling 
 of an Australasian Federal Convention at Sydney, Mar. 2, 
 1891, under the presidency of Sir Henry Parkes, then the 
 
42 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 premier of New South Wales. Preparation of a Federal 
 Constitution for Australia, based on that of the United 
 States. Constitution not yet accepted by the colonies, owing 
 to disputes about tariffs, and a lack of common interest 
 among the colonies. 
 i. Growth of feeling of Australian independence. Doctrine 
 that Crown may not appoint governors without consulting 
 the local sentiment exemplified in resistance of Queensland 
 to an English nominee for governor of that colony, 1888. 
 Colonial opinion concerning the German occupation of New 
 Guinea, and concerning the French possession of the New 
 Caledonia and the New Hebrides, 1887. 
 Additional References : Geo. Baden Powell: Selecting 
 Colonial Governors, Nineteenth Century, Dec, 1888. A. W. 
 Stirling: Queensland, Fortnightly Review, Dec, 1888. 
 United Australia and Imperial Federation, Westminster Re- 
 view, Sept., 1888. 
 12. Commercial importance of Australia. The wool product. 
 
 Wealth of precious metals ; export of $700 m. worth of gold, and no 
 
 prospect of diminution. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 The Asiatic Empire of England, 
 
 A. India. 
 
 References : W. W. Hunter : The Indian Empire, 2nd ed. W. W. 
 Hunter : Bombay, 1885 to 1890. Sir Henry Maine : India ; 
 in The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 460. McCarthy, II, chs. 
 xxxii-xxxvi. Monier Williams: Hinduism. Rhys Davids: 
 Buddhism. Meredith Townsend: Will England Retain India 1 ? 
 Contemp. Review, June, 1888, p. 795. W. W. Hunter, editor : 
 

The Asiatic Empire of England. 43 
 
 Riders of India series; 21 vols, either promised or published. 
 Among the latter especially : L. J. Trotter : Warren Hastings ; 
 W. S. Seton-Kerr : The Marquess of Cornwallis ; D. Boidger : 
 Lord Wm. Bentinck ; W. W. Hunter: The Marquess of Dal- 
 housie ; Maj.-Gen. 0. T.Burne: Clyde and Strathnairu ; H S. 
 Cunningham: Earl Canning; W. W. Hunter: The Earl of 
 Mayo. J. RoutJedge: English Ride and Native Opinion in 
 India. Col. Meadows Taylor: Student's Manual of the His- 
 tory of India. G. B. Malleson : History of the Indian Mutiny, 
 3 vols. Sir John Strachey: India. Col. R. E. Chesney : 
 Indian Polity. Sir James Caird: India : The Land and the 
 People. F. If. Thomas: Mutual Influence of Mohammedans 
 and Hindus. F. W. Thomas: The History and Prospects of 
 British Education in India. A. R. Colquhoun: Amongst the 
 Shuns. Sir J. Phear : The Aryan Village, in India and Cey- 
 lon. A. H. Keane : Asia; in Stanford's Compendium of 
 Geography and Travel. JR. Seeley : The Expansion of Eng- 
 land; Course II, Lectures II— IV. 
 
 1. Size, density, physical characteristics. Area, including Ceylon, 
 Aden, and Burmah, 1.66 m. sq. mi., or nearly one half United States ; 
 popul., 286 m. Hazell. 
 
 2. History of acquisition by England. McCarthy, I, 440. 
 
 a. Organization of East India Company in 1600, for trading; 
 rival companies ; final consolidation and exclusive privi- 
 leges to trade to all places between the Cape of Good 
 Hope and the Straits of Magellan. 
 
 b. Establishment of factories. Hunter, 368, 369. 
 
 c. Contests with Dutch and French trading companies. 
 
 d. (live and the battle of Plassey, 1757. " History has agreed 
 to adopt this date as the beginning of the British Empire in 
 the East." Hunter, 382, 383 ; Midler, 154; or Lodge, 418. 
 (1) Conquest and annexation of Lower Burmah, 1826, and 
 
 1852 (Rangoon). 
 
 e. Governed by East India Co. until 1858. Hunter, 422, 423. 
 f Sepoy mutiny occurred, 1857-58 ; its cause, " an outburst of 
 
 terrified fanaticism," and desire to restore native independ- 
 ence ; the government transferred from East India Co. to 
 the Crown. Muller, 292-294; or McCarthy, II, 85-92. 
 Hunter 417-422. 
 
44 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 g. In 187G Victoria took the title, " Em press of India." 
 
 Hunter, 426. 
 h. Protectorate over Beloochistan established in 1883. Quetta, 
 
 chief town, occupied in 1876. Important only as an approach 
 
 to Persia or to Afghanistan. 
 i. Conquest and annexation of Upper Burmah ; King Thebaw 
 
 French intrigues, 1885-86 ; conflicts with native " Dacoits " 
 
 approach to Chinese frontier. '•'■Oar 2ask in Burmah" 
 
 Fortnightly Review, vol. 41, p. 376. 
 j. Relations with Tibet ; war about territory of Sikkim, 1888 ; 
 
 interference of Chinese Ambassador at Lassa. 
 
 3. Language and Education. No single common name for all 
 India; extreme varieties ; 110 different languages, of which 18 are 
 spoken by more than a million persons each. " India is much less 
 uniform than Europe." The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 461. In 
 British India, out of 200 m. inhabitants not more than six per cent can 
 read and write ; less than one per cent have any knowledge of English. 
 
 4. Religion. 188 m. Hindoos ; 50 m. Mohammedans ; 6 m. Bud- 
 dhists ; 1.8 m. Christians ; 85,000 Parsees ; bitter antagonism between 
 Mohammedans and Hindoos. W. W. Hunter: London (Weekly) 
 Times, Mar. 2, 1888, pp. 8, 9. Keane, 293, 294. 
 
 a. Hindu and Mohammedan pilgrimages, causes of epidemics. 
 Bengal, the nursery of Asiatic cholera. 
 
 5. Administration and organization of the Empire of India. 
 
 a. Parliament of the United Kingdom the supreme authority. 
 India office in London ; Secretary of State for India respon- 
 sible to Parliament ; a Cabinet Minister, assisted by a Coun- 
 cil, divided into Committees. Hunter, 431. 
 
 b. Administrative divisions in India. McCarthy, II, 91, 92. 
 (1) Supreme authority in India vested in Viceroy or Gov- 
 ernor-General, who is assisted by Council ; both Viceroy 
 and Council appointed by the Crown. 
 
 Two functions of Council : 
 
 (a) Administrative, consists of Viceroy, and, usually, the 
 six appointed members. 
 
 (b) Legislative, consists of Viceroy and the six members, 
 with about twelve additional members, nominated by 
 the Viceroy, of whom one half must be non-official per- 
 sons, and of whom some are always natives. 
 
The Asiatic Empire of England. 45 
 
 (2) British possessions divided into 8 governments (two 
 presidencies, Madras and Bombay). 
 
 (3) Provinces divided into districts, — about 246 in number, 
 — each in charge of a collector. "Upon the energy and 
 personal character of the collector depends ultimately the 
 efficiency of the Indian government." Duties two-fold : 
 fiscal officer, also civil and criminal judge. Hunter, 436. 
 
 c. Responsibility. 
 
 " The political constitution of India is regulated by a series of Acts of Parliament, which 
 culminate in the Act of 1858 transferring the government from the Company to the Crown. 
 By that statute it is enacted that India shall lie governed by, and in the name of, the Queen 
 [now the Empress] through one of her principal Secretaries of State, assisted by a council. 
 The Secretary of State is a Cabinet Minister ; and. according to the practice i>t' the British 
 constitution, he must have a seat in one of the two Houses of Parliament, while his Under- 
 Secretary must sit in the other. Responsibility to Parliament is thus provided, with all 
 that this entails. The Indian Budget is annually submitted to the House of Commons, 
 though the ways and means are not voted in detail as witli the English Budget. .Still it is 
 recognized in countless matters that the English Parliament is really the supreme ruler of 
 India." ./. S.Cotton: Colonies and Dependencies, Part I, 36,37. 
 
 d. The village communities of India. 
 
 " The community is so organized as to lie complete in itself. The end for which it exists is 
 the tillage of the soil, anil it contains within itself the means of following its occupation 
 without help from outside. The brotherhood, besides the cultivating families who form 
 the major part of the group, comprises families hereditarily engaged in the humble arts 
 which furnish the little society with articles of use and comfort. It includes a village 
 watch and a village police, and there are organized authorities for the settlement of dis- 
 putes and the maintenance of civil order Villages frequently occur in which 
 
 the affairs of the community are managed, its customs interpreted, and the disputes of its 
 members decided by a single Headman, whose office is sometimes admittedly hereditary, 
 but is sometimes described as elective ; the choice being generally, however, in the last 
 case, confided in practice to the members of one particular family, with a strong prefer- 
 ence for the eldest male of the kindred, if lie be not specially disqualified. But I have 
 good authority for saying that in those parts of India in which the village-community ia 
 most perfect, ami in which there are the clearest signs of an original proprietary equality 
 between all the families composing the group, the authority exercised elsewhere by the 
 Headman is lodged with the Village Council. It is always viewed as a representative body 
 and not as a body possessing inherent authority ; and whatever be its real number, it alwaj s 
 bears a name which recalls its ancient constitution of live persons." Maim : \illtt<j< Com- 
 munities, 122, 175. 
 
 (1) Zamindars, — land-holding aristocracy of Bengal, — rel- 
 ics of old Mohammedan Empire. Hunter, 438, 439. 
 
 e. Extension of local self-government. A. H. L. Frazer : Local 
 Self- Government in India ; Fortnightly Review, vol.39, 238 
 (1886). 
 
 Lord Ripon's policy. 1879-84; Ubert bill. The Local 
 Self-Government Act of 1882-84, extends benefits of the 
 elective principle over all India. In 1892 there are about 
 800 towns under municipal government. Ubert bill to 
 extend jurisdiction of native judges in criminal offences over 
 Europeans. 
 
46 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 f Seven Indian National Congresses : 
 
 In 1885 at Bombay; in 1886 at Calcutta; in 1887 at 
 Madras; in 1888 at Allahabad; in 1889 at Bombay; in 
 1890 at Calcutta; in 1891 at Nagpur. Since 1890 the 
 agitation has been somewhat discredited among the natives. 
 
 Demands : 
 
 (1) Admission of Hindoo people to a share in the govern- 
 ment of India. 
 
 (2) Abolition of the Council of the Secretary of State for 
 India as at present constituted. 
 
 (3) Admission of Hindoos on equal terms with English to 
 the civil service of India, and upon competitive examina- 
 tion tests. 
 
 (4) Natives should be admitted to the. higher ranks of the 
 army, should be allowed to form volunteer corps, and 
 should be permitted to possess and wear arms. 
 
 References : R. S. Watson : Indian National Congress ; The 
 Contemporary Review, July, 1888. John Flagg : The Na- 
 tional Indian Congress; Nineteenth Century, vol. 19, 710 
 (May, 188G). Sir Wm. H. Gregory: The Indian Moham- 
 medans; Nineteenth Century, vol. 20,886 (Dec, 1886). The 
 Allahabad Congress; London (Weekly) Times, Jan. 4, 1889, 
 p. 12. The Fifth Congress, Times, Jan. 24, 1890, p. 14. 
 
 g. Reasons against representative government in India, 
 strongly stated by Lord Dufferin. London (Weekly) Times, 
 Dec. 7, 1888. p. 10. N Y. Nation, Jan. 10, 1889, p. 26. 
 
 h. Unifying influences : Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 462. 
 
 (1) Land system. 
 
 (2) Maintenance of peace throughout India. 
 
 (3) Administration of justice by English courts. 
 
 (4) English language and school system. 
 
 (5) Creation of a railway system. 
 
 i. Wheat trade of India. Hunter, 486, 489, 573 ; current num- 
 bers of Bradst^eet's. 
 j. Legislation restricting child marriage, 1891. 
 
 6. Feudatory India. About 300 states, 20 or 30 large ones ; 
 area. 509,000 sq. mi.; popul., 66 m. ; governed by native princes, 
 advised by agents appointed by Viceroy ; no right to make war or 
 peace ; some pay tribute. Hunter, 43. 
 
 7. Non-British possessions in India. 
 
The Asiatic Empire of England. 47 
 
 a. Portuguese, — Goa, Daman, and Diu on western coast. 
 Popul., 400.000. 
 
 b. French, — Pondicherry, southeastern coast. Popul., 300,000. 
 
 8. Ceylon, a crown colony. Cotton and Payne, 152, 153. 
 
 9. Relations with Siam and the states of the Malay peninsula ; most 
 of the latter dependent on British Empire. Admirable commercial 
 position of Singapore ; occupied by the English, 1818-19. 
 
 B. The English and Russian Empires in Central Asia. 
 
 Additional Reference: G. Curzon: Russia in Central Asia. 
 
 1. Russian encroachments upon Asia. 
 
 a. Possessions in 1750. 
 
 b. Lines of advance. 
 
 (1) Southeast from Oremberg. The Khanates of Kho- 
 kanrl, Bokhara, and Khiva were acquired, 1881-84. 
 
 (2) Valley of Jaxartes to Oxus river. 
 
 (3) Southward on both sides of the Caspian. 
 
 c. Capture of Merv, 1884. 
 
 d. Herat, the Key to India. 
 
 e. The Trans-Caspian Railway, 1881-87. A. Vambery : The 
 Trans- Caspian Railway; Fortnightly Review, vol. 41, p. 
 294. 
 
 f. Exclusion of all but Russian trade. 
 
 g. Destruction of the Turkoman slave trade. Curzon : J'isit 
 to Bokhara the Noble ; Fortnightly Review, Jan., 1889. 
 
 2. Relations of England and Russia to Afghanistan. 
 
 a. Afghanistan, subject to Persia until the first part of last 
 century. No Afghan nation. Warlike tribes, most of whom 
 are united under the sovereignty of the Ameers of Cabal. 
 Popul., about G m. Fierce inter-tribal rivalries and jeal- 
 ousies. Religion, Mohammedan (Soonees). 
 
 b. First Afghan war, 1839. Mutter, 154. McCarthy, I, 151- 
 180. Hunter, 407, 408. 
 
 War between England and the Afghans in 1839, on 
 account of the advance of the Russians. England set up 
 a friendly prince as ruler. At the instigation of the Rus- 
 sians the Afghans rose against the English, and defeated 
 them disastrously. The English, however, soon gained 
 supremacy, destroyed Candahar and Cabul, and then evac- 
 
48 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 uated the country. England lost prestige on account of 
 
 political and military mistakes. 
 
 " The permanent interest of this Afghan war arises from its being the first of a series of 
 efforts to arrest or neutralize the steady advance of the Russian power to the mountains 
 which form the northwestern frontier of India." The 1!< ign of Qut t n I 'ictoria, I, 4G5. 
 
 c. Second Afghan war, 1878-81. Midler, 577-580. McCar- 
 thy, II, 617-619. Hunter, 426, 427. 
 
 In 1 <S77 England made a treaty with the Prince of Be- 
 loochistan, who became feudatory to the Empress of India, 
 and his country was placed at the disposal of the Indian 
 administration. Quetta and the road between Candahar and 
 Cabul were granted for occupation. The Ameer of Afghan- 
 istan, Shere Ali, sought alliance with Russia. A mission 
 was sent to Cabul by the latter power; this, however, was a 
 breach of the understanding between England and Russia. 
 An ambassador was therefore sent by England ; he was 
 denied admittance, and an English military force conse- 
 quently advanced into Afghanistan. At this juncture Shere 
 Ali died. His son, Yakoob Khan, succeeded him. A treaty 
 was made ; a subsidy granted to the Ameer, and a resident 
 agent of England appointed. A mutiny then occurred, fol- 
 lowed by a massacre of English troops. Advance of General 
 Roberts, and war. Abdurrahman recognized as the Ameer. 
 English finally victorious. Candahar evacuated in 1881. 
 Present supremacy of English influence ; railways from 
 India advance beyond Quetta to points controlling the passes 
 through the mountains from Candahar. 
 
 3. Boundary disputes between England and Russia. Determina- 
 tion of the northern boundary of Afghanistan by a joint commission 
 of English and Russians in 1886-87. Geo. N. Curzon: The Scientific 
 Frontier an Accomplished Fact; Nineteenth Century, June, LS.SS, 
 
 p. 901. 
 
 a. Russia in the Pamir, 1892. 
 
 4. Position of the Non-alarmists. It is claimed : 
 
 a. The true scientific frontier is not the northern boundary of 
 Afghanistan, but the Indus. 
 
 b. Herat is not the key to India. 
 
 c. England has no right to complain of Russian advance ; 
 matched by English policy of conquest. 
 
 d. Impossible to make Afghanistan a "buffer" state since it 
 is peopled by a variety of races in tribal condition. 
 
The Asiatic Empire of England. 49 
 
 e. The true frontier is the great wall of India, consisting of 
 the Suliman mountains. Few passes ; the Indus is uuford- 
 able up to Peshawur. 
 John Slagg : Tlie True Scientific Frontier of India ; Nine- 
 teenth Century, 3 xi\y, 1885, p. 151. Henry Green: The Great 
 Wall of India ; Nineteenth Century, May, 1885, p. 905. 
 5. Relations of England and Russia to Persia. 
 References: G. Curzon: Persia cud the Persian Question, 2 vols. 
 Claude Vincent: Through Persia; Contemp. Review, vol. 49, 
 p. 252 (Feb., 1886). & G. W. Benjamin: Persia. The Story 
 of the Bab ; Contemp. Review, vol. 48, pp. 808-829. 
 Area of Persia, 630,000 sq. mi., or one fifth of United States ; 
 largely a desert. Population, 7 m. 
 
 a. History. 632-651, A. D., all Persia conquered by Sara- 
 cens, and gradually converted to Mohammedanism. Until 
 1747 a populous and more extensive state than at present. 
 In that year Nadir Shah died, and the country fell into a 
 state of anarchy, owing to rival claimants for the throne. 
 At this period Afghanistan and Beloochistan separated from 
 Persia, which became divided into a number of small inde- 
 pendent states. In 1755 unity again established in western 
 Persia. Wars with Russia and cessions of territory. 
 
 (1) 1797. territory along the Kur ceded to Russia. 
 
 (2) 1802, Georgia made a Russian province. 
 
 (3) 1811-13, surrender to Russia of all territory north of 
 Armenia; Russia obtained right of navigation upon the 
 Caspian. 
 
 (4) In 1826 lost all possessions in Armenia. In 1829 the 
 popular exasperation toward Russia led to a mutiny result- 
 ing in the murder of many Russian officials. Further 
 concessions, however, had to be made to Russia, and since 
 that date the power of Persia has rapidly declined. In 
 1834-48, through assistance of Russia and England, Mo- 
 hammed Shah obtained the throne, but was constantly 
 assailed by rivals. In 1856 Persia seized Herat, violat- 
 ing treaty with Great Britain ; war and restoration in 
 1857. 
 
 (5) Seizure of territory at the northeastern frontier by 
 Russia, 1883. 
 
50 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 b. Government and administration. 
 
 a, Shah ; b, Cabinet ; c, Provinces ; d, local government. 
 Apathetic condition of the people, no fleet, small army. 
 6. Present politics. 
 
 a. Russian ambition ; a port on Persian Gulf; alleged will of 
 Peter the Great : " hasten the decay of Persia, and penetrate 
 to the Persian Gulf." Russia regards Persia already as a 
 dependency. 
 
 b. After 1858 predominance of Russian trade and liberal use 
 of Russian money and influence among Persian officials. In 
 1887-88 revival of English influence iu Persia. Prohi- 
 bition of Russian trade by Persia. In 1888 convention 
 between Persia and England (Sir H. D. Wolff) opens the 
 Karun River (southeast and central Persia) to the com- 
 merce of the world, i. e., to England. Russia and Persia ; 
 Spectator, Dec. 15, 1888, p. 1758. After the Shah's visit 
 to England in 1889 an English company opened an Im- 
 perial Bank at Teheran, and received a large and lucrative 
 contract for building railways and canals, collecting tolls 
 and farming the revenues. Formation of rival Russian 
 Company. Success of the English Bank. 
 
 c. Hatred of Persians for Russia, on account of fear of con- 
 quest or annexation. 
 
 d. Russia and England control all approaches to Persia. 
 
 e. Importance of the question of religion. 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 China. Japan. 
 
 References : J. H. Wilson : China, with a Glance at Japan. S. W. 
 Williams : The Middle Kingdom (new ed.). D. Boulger : His- 
 tory of China, 3 vols. W. F. Mayers ( G. M. H. Play/air, ed.) : 
 The Chinese Government. G. M. H. Play/air: Cities and 
 Towns of China. W. W. Roclchill: The Land of the Lamas. 
 Rev. J. Ross: The Manchw. 
 


China. Japan. 51 
 
 A. China. 
 
 1. Chief geographical divisions: the 19 Provinces of China proper, 
 and, in addition, Mongolia, Manchuria, Corea, Hi, or Chinese Tatary, 
 Bodyul, or Tibet. One third larger than the United States; popula- 
 tion, 404 in. China proper is about one third of the empire. Wilson, 
 63-68. Williams, I, 187-206, 237-257. 
 
 2. Opening of trade with China by Portuguese in 1516. 
 
 a. From 1742 until 1834 almost a monopoly of commerce by 
 English East India and Dutch trading companies; the tea 
 trade ; licensed Hong merchants. Hong means warehouse, 
 and the word was applied to the region used by associated 
 foreign merchants. Wilson, 315. 
 
 b. 1834, Napier sent to force open trade with England. Wil- 
 son, 319. Williams, II, 464-474. 
 
 c. Smuggling of opium into China from India; efforts of 
 Chinese government to stop the trade, 1834—39 ; opposition ; 
 English interests. Wilson, 321-324. Williams, II, 378- 
 380, 501. 
 
 d. Opium war, 1839-42. Wilson, 324-340. McCarthy, I, 
 112-124. Williams, II, 463-546. Muller,\oL 
 
 e. War closed by Treaty of Nanking: 
 
 (1) Five open ports to British trade; 
 
 (2) Hong Kong ceded to England ; 
 
 (3) China paid £21 m. ; 
 
 (4) Official intercourse on terms of equality ; 
 
 (5) Tariff established. Williams, 11,546-553. 
 
 3. Taeping rebellion, 1850-64; religious rebellion; hostility of 
 secret associations among the true Chinese to the Manchu dynasty 
 which has ruled China since 1644; Hung Siu-tsuen, leader of the 
 movement; rebels professed to promulgate a new religion based on 
 Christianity ; immense loss of life ; increasing hostility to foreigners ; 
 rebellion suppressed by aid of Pmglish Col. Gordon. Williams, II, 
 575-624. Wilson, 331-3:;:!. 
 
 "The Emperor Taow-Kwang, who died in 1850, during latter part of his reign became 
 liberal, and favored the introduction of European arts ; hut his son, the late emperor, 
 departed from his father's wise policy and adopted reactionary measures, particularly 
 against English influence. An insurrection broke out in consequence, Aug., 1850, of alarm- 
 ing importance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel the Tartars ; but in March, 
 1831, a pretender was announced among them, first by the name of Tien-tchu (Celestial 
 Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. He announced himself as the restorer of 
 the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, but had derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. 
 He declared himself monarch of all beneath the sky, true lord of China (and thus of the 
 world), the brother of Jesus, and the Second Sou of God, and demanded universal submis- 
 
52 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 sion. His followers were termed Taepings. The Taepings, who began hostilities against 
 the Imperialists, met with some success. Operations, suspended during war between 
 France and England and China, were renewed in 1861. The rebels sustained many reverses, 
 and were defeated with great loss in Feb., 1864." Ewald, 122. 
 
 4. The Arrow, under British flag, boarded by Chinese in search of 
 pirates, 185G ; McCarthy, II, 9-19 ; wars. 1857-60 ; alliance of France 
 and England ; treaty of Peking ; further concessions. Wilson, 336- 
 342. McCarthy, II, 108-111, 175-183. Williams, II, 625-689. 
 
 a. Russia took advantage of China's hour of peril to annex the 
 fertile valley of the Amur River, 1858-60. 
 
 5. Rapid progress among governing classes in China since 1860. 
 Princes Kung and Ch'un, and Li-IIung-Chang. Prince Ch'un was the 
 father of the present Emperor, Tsait'ien, who in 1875, while an infant, 
 was proclaimed Emperor under the name Kwang-su, and who assumed 
 full control of the government in Feb., 1889, at the age of 18 years. 
 London (Weekly) Times, Oct. 4 and 11, 1889. Wilson, ch. x. Great 
 influence of the American, Anson Burlingame, 1868-70. Education 
 of Chinese youth in the United States by order of Chinese govern- 
 ment, 1872-81. Williams, II, 739, 710. 
 
 a. China ruled by two women, widows of the Emperor who 
 triumphed over the Taepings. 1875-89. The " Eastern " 
 Empress and the " Western " Empress ; the former is dead, 
 the latter withdrew in 1889. 
 
 6. Dispute with Russia over a revolted portion of Chinese Tatary, 
 1871-81. Triumph of China, abandonment of Russian claims. 
 
 7. Dispute with France about French protectorate over Tonqnin, 
 formerly a dependency of China, 1882-87. The Black Flags. Un- 
 settled relations still existing. Negotiations with Italy, Germany, 
 and the Vatican concerning French protectorate of Chinese Catholics. 
 
 The Position of Roman Catholic Missionaries in China: London 
 
 (Weekly) Times, -Ian. 4, 1889. 
 
 8. Great outbreak of hostility to foreigners in the province of 
 Honan, 1891. Riots and destruction of lives and property. Chinese 
 Christians also the objects of the popular rage. Roman Catholics the 
 principal sufferers. In the Empire about 1 m. Catholics ; about 
 50,000 Protestants. 
 
 Riots due to — 
 
 a. Popular belief that Christians offer human sacrifices. 
 
 b. Belief that Chinese Christians are traitors to their race and 
 Empire. 
 
 c. Desire on part of many Chinese to ruin the present dynasty. 
 

China. Japan. 53 
 
 9. Importance of the " public audience " question. The new 
 Emperor receives in person the foreign ministers resident at the 
 Chinese court, March. 1891; a serious innovation. A single prece- 
 dent uuder Emperor T'ung-chi in 1873. The Audience Question in 
 China: London Times, Sept. •'.). 1890. 
 
 10. Corea ; hereditary, absolute monarchy, and hereditary aristoc- 
 racy-; since 17th century formal acknowledgment of Chinese suprem- 
 acy. Country closed entirely to foreigners until 1876-82. Area, 
 S2,000 sq. mi. Popul. estimated at 11 in. Russian designs. 
 
 11. Political system of China. 
 
 a. P^mperor, supreme, appoints his own successor from among 
 the younger males of the imperial family. Wilson, 1 69— 
 174, 179-181. Williams, I. 393-403. 
 
 b. Fundamental laws: first four books of Confucius; state 
 governed as a private family. Wilson, 182. 183. 
 
 c. Central administration ; ministers of state. Wilson, 1 84— 
 192 ; the six (since 1885, seven) hoards of government; the 
 censors. Wilson. 192, 351. Williams, I, 4 15-1.'!.'!. 
 
 (I. Provincial administration, 19 provinces. Wilson, 193— 196. 
 Williams, I, 4."! 7- 447. 
 
 e. Civil service; examinations. The " Peking Gazette," offi- 
 cial organ of the government, published daily for the last 
 800 years. Wilson, LSI. ,/. N. Jordan: Modern China; 
 Fortnightly Review, vol. 20. China, A New Departure; 
 Western Review. Sept.. 1888, pp. 294-309. 
 
 12. Religion; the state religion is Confucianism ; Taoism; popular 
 religion is Buddhism ; large numbers of Chinese profess and practice 
 all three religions; importance of ancestral worship; 30 m. Moham- 
 medans. Williams, II, 194-278. 
 
 13. Economic development. 
 
 a. Telegraphic communication admitted to Peking, as a result 
 of trouble with Russia (see §6 above). Great popular 
 prejudice against railways. First permanent railway, 1887 ; 
 railway from Peking to Hankow authorized by the Emperor 
 in 1889. Activity in railway construction, 1891-92; see 
 text of the decree in London Times, Oct. 25, 1889. 
 
 b. Navigation, commercial intercourse. Wilson, 363. Wil- 
 liams. II, 390-405. 
 
 c. Financial system. Wilson, 202-214. Collection of customs 
 and administration of lighthouses entrusted to an Imperial 
 
54 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 Customs Department, officered by foreigners. The Inspec- 
 tor-General, Sir Robert Hart, rewarded for his services in 
 1889 by an imperial decree, ennobling three generations of 
 his ancestors. 
 
 B. Japan. 
 
 References : Dr. J. J. Rein : Travels and Researches in Japan, 
 2 vols. Wm. E. Griffis : Life of M. C. Perry. Wm. E. Griffis : 
 The Mikado's Empire. F. 0. Adams: History of Japan. 2 
 vols. Miss J. L. Bird : Unbeaten Tracts in .In pan, 2 vols. 
 H. Norman : Th • real Japan. B. Chamberlain : Things Japan- 
 ese. The Constitution of the Empire of Japan, published by 
 the Johns Hopkins University. Prof D. Murray: Japan. 
 The volumes by Rein, Norman, and Chamberlain are the most 
 instructive. 
 
 1. Geographical situation ; four islands ; area equals Dakota ; pop- 
 ulation. 40 m. 
 
 2. History. 
 
 a. 3d century to 1192, the Mikado was supreme. 
 
 b. 1 192-1808, dual government of Shogun, or Tycoon, and 
 Mikado; Mikado rightful ruler; Shogun, at first ambitious 
 minister representing powerful noble family, pushed Mikado 
 into background ; the Mikados retained the title and appear- 
 ance of authority, but the Shogun held the substance of 
 power. 
 
 c. Intercourse of Japan with foreign countries; 1854, treaty 
 with United States, negotiated by Commodore M. C. Perry, 
 marks introduction of Japan into circle of modern nations. 
 
 d. 1854-78, conflict between Progressives and Reactionaries, 
 precipitated by foreign intrusion ; prominence of the clans 
 of Satsuma and Cho-siu. 
 
 e. 1868, revolution, and Mikado reasserted his authority. 
 
 f. 1871, feudalism abolished. Nobles (daimios) and their 
 retainers (samurai, two-sworded men) lose their especial 
 privileges. 
 
 g. 1878, final overthrow of Reactionaries. 
 
 h. 1873-85, local representative institutions introduced ; code 
 of criminal law; Court, Council, and Cabinet; establish- 
 ment of schools, telegraph, railways ; Shinto religion, ancient 
 national religion, recognized as official; in 1881 Mikado 
 promised full national Parliament, to be assembled in 1890. 
 

The Russian Empire. 55 
 
 3. Beginnings of parliamentary government in Japan. Proclama- 
 tion of the new constitution. Feb. 11. 1889. Assembly of the first 
 imperial diet. Nov. 29, 1890. Slow process of formation of political 
 parties. Prominence of personal politics, cliques. See N. Y. Nation. 
 April 30, 1891. p. 357. 
 
 a. Constitution partially similar to that of German empire. 
 Ministry responsible to Emperor. Two houses of the Diet, 
 the upper one but partially representative. 
 
 4. Extra-territorial jurisdiction of foreign nations in Japan. Neiv 
 Princeton Review, Mar., 1888. 
 
 a. Oppressive nature of treaty stipulations concerning duties 
 on imports. Relations between Japan and the United States. 
 Efforts of the Japanese government to obtain revision of 
 treaties. New Princeton Review, Jan., 1888. 
 
 5. Influence of newspapers, and the effect of the new civilization 
 on Japanese character and society. 
 
 a. Shintoism, Buddhism, Christianity. 
 
 b. Japanese students in the United States and other countries. 
 
 6. Laud System. U. S. Consular Reports, No. 75, Mar., 1887. 626. 
 
 LECTURE IX. 
 
 The Eussian Empire, 
 
 References: Rambaud: History of Russia. 2 vols. A. F. Heard: 
 The Russian Church and Russian Dissent. D. M. Wallace: 
 Russia. L. Tihhomirov: Russia, Political and Social, 2 vols. 
 Stepniak: The Russian Peasantry. George Herman's Articles 
 in The Century Magazine, 1888-89, pub. in book form in 1891. 
 G. Curzon; Russia in Central Asia. Col. Burndby: A Ride 
 to Khiva. N. P. Semenoff: The Emancipation of Peasants, 
 
56 Politic<rf History Since 1815. 
 
 vol. I (1889). Roskoschny : Russland, Laud und Leute (1886). 
 Fr. Matthaei : Die wirthschaftlichen Hulfsquellen Russlands, 
 
 2 vols., 1887. 
 
 1. Area about 8^ m. sq. mi. More tlian twice as large as the 
 United States. Popul.. about 113 m., of whom perhaps 90 m. are 
 Slavs. Popul. increases at rate of more than 1 m. per annum. 
 
 2. Early history. 
 
 a. Not until the House of Romanoff succeeded to the throne, 
 1613, did Russia begin to grow powerful. Rambaud, I, 
 254, 258-262. 
 
 In 1613 Russia comprised Lapland, Central Russia, the 
 valley of the Volga, and western Siberia. 
 
 b. 1689-1725, Peter the Great ; reforms; Wallaces Russia, 
 310, 311, 385-389. Rambaud, I, 296, 207, 303 ; II, 22-40. 
 Important changes. 
 
 (1) Admission of foreigners to trade and own land in Russia. 
 
 (2) Nobility to depend on service to the Czar. 
 
 (3) Forbade Asiatic customs of seclusion of women. 
 
 (4) Change of capital from Moscow to new city of St. 
 Petersburg. 
 
 (5) Establishment of Boards of Control in Church and 
 Departments of State. 
 
 (6) Improvement of local government of towns and prov- 
 inces. 
 
 (7) Compulsory introduction of usages, inventions, manners, 
 ideas of western Europe. 
 
 (8) Acquisition of a seaboard, especially on the Baltic, and 
 creation of a navy. Rambaud, II, 9. Lodge, 268-270, 
 284-287. 
 
 c. Fierce opposition to Peter from nobles, actuated by strong 
 Russian feeling, and from adherents of old ecclesiastic order 
 of things. 
 
 d. In 18th century, acquisition of extreme eastern Siberia 
 (1690-1706), of Baltic provinces from Sweden (1717-21), 
 of Black Sea region from Turkey (1792), and of Poland by 
 divisions with Prussia and Austria (1772, 1793, 1795). 
 Rambaud, II, 42-47, 94, 95, 117-126. Lodge, 448, 460, 471. 
 
 e. In 19th century, acquisition of Georgia (1803), Finland 
 (1809), Persian Armenia (1814-28), the Amur Valley 
 (1858-60), the rest of the northern coast of Black Sea 
 (1864), Southern Turkestan (1865-(1876-81)). 
 
The Mussian Empire. 57 
 
 f. Alexander I, Czar, 1801-25. Overthrow of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte began with his invasion of Russia, 1812. Alexander, 
 founder of Holy Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia), 1815, 
 to suppress rebellions against monarchy. 
 
 "Almighty Wisdom, in dividing the universe into different countries;, lias assigned to 
 each a sovereign into whose hands the reins of absolute authority over the nations subject 
 to his dominion are placed." Utterance of Congress of the Alliance at Laibach, 1821. 
 
 Liberal domestic policy. Polish disaffection and separate 
 constitution, 1818. Mutter, 86. 
 
 3. Nicholas I, Czar. 1825-55. Eambaud, II, 22G, 227; 254. 
 Change from the policy of Peter the Great; Russian forms and cus- 
 toms insisted upon. The gospel of Panslavism. Rambaud, II, 229— 
 232. European influences checked. Mulhr, 86, 87. Poland made 
 a part of Russian empire, 1832. Fyffe, II, 390-398. Eambaud, II, 
 238-243. 
 
 " The late insurrection of Poland had determined Russia to put an end to its separate 
 existence, ami reduce it as much as possible to a Russian province. The University of 
 Warsaw was suppressed, the archives, libraries, scientific collections, etc., were removed 
 to St. Petersburg, the Polish uniform and colors were abolished, and the Polish soldiery 
 incorporated into Russian regiments. The leading Poles were relegated to the interior of 
 the empire, and it is computed that 80,(100 Poles were banished to Siberia. Polish children 
 were taken from their parents ami carried into the military colonies of Russia. Last, but 
 not least, the Roman Catholic Church was persecuted agreeably to the Czar's Q-raeco- 
 Russian system." Ewald, 82. 
 
 4. The Crimean war, 1854-56. Rambaud. II, 248-258. Ruin of 
 Nicholas's policy. Cf. E. Hawley : The War in the Crimea. 
 
 5. Alexander II, 1855-81. Rambaud, II, 255. 
 
 a. More liberal policy. Rambaud. II, 258, 259. Mutter, 267. 
 
 b. 1861, gradual emancipation of the serfs; 23 millions set 
 free. Wallace, 485-509. Grant Duff': Studies in Euro- 
 pean Politics, 7 1— So. Ran/band, 11,260-266. Lodge, 74G. 
 
 Mi/tter. 267. 
 
 " By this decree the peasants attached to the soil were to be invested with all the rights 
 of free-cultivators ; the proprietors to grant to the peasants for a fixed regulated rental the 
 full enjoyment of their holdings, after a term of years the peasants to become full owners ; 
 domestics to receive their full enfranchisement two years hence. To assist these measures 
 in each district a court was to be established for the question of the peasants ; justices of 
 the peace were to be appointed in each district to investigate on the spot all disputes ; com- 
 munal administrations were to be organized in the seigneurial properties; a charter of 
 rules was to be continued in each district in which were to be enumerated the amount of 
 land to be reserved to the peasants in permanent enjoyment, and the extent of the charges 
 to be exacted from them for the benefit of the proprietor. Tliese charters were to be put 
 into execution within the term of two years, up to which time the peasants and domestics 
 were to fulfil their former obligations without scruple." Ewald, 170. 
 
 c. Growth of Nihilism, 1871-81, the result of social upheaval 
 of emancipation ; 1871-77, demand for immediate re-organ- 
 ization of State on Socialistic basis; 1877-81, attempt to 
 
58 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 revenge the governmental prosecutions, and to terrorize 
 Government by assassination ; demands for a constitution ; 
 the secret police; transportation to Siberia. Mutter, 569- 
 572. 
 
 d. War with Turkey, 1877-78. 
 
 Effort to divert attention of Nihilists by foreign war, and 
 to establish Russia's position as protector of southern Slavs. 
 Bulgaria set free. Annexation of Bessarabia. Progress of 
 Russia towards Constantinople checked by England. Treaty 
 of Berlin, 187s. 
 
 (1) Renewed Nihilist activity. In 1870-80, 60,000 polit- 
 ical prisoners sent to Siberia without trial, and on suspi- 
 cion alone. 
 
 e. Assassination of the Czar, March 13, 1881. Midler, 574. 
 
 6. Alexander III. 1881. Revival of Russian conservatism. 
 Policy of consolidating empire upon Russian basis, by — 
 
 a. Opposition to use of any language but Russian. 
 
 b. Opposition to freedom of worship for Protestants and Roman 
 Catholics. 
 
 c. Persecution of Jews. 
 
 d. Strict supervision of education in interest of autocratic 
 government and of Orthodox Church of Russia. 
 
 e. Policy of Russia towards the southern Slavs. The oppres- 
 sion of Bulgaria. 
 
 f. Why imperial Russia and republican France are friendly. 
 Opposition to the Triple Alliance. Conflicting ambitions 
 of Russia and Austria-Hungary. 
 
 7. Central government of the empire. Wallace, 194-212. 
 
 a. The Emperor; absolute hereditary monarchy. 
 
 b. The four councils or colleges. Statesman's Year Book, 
 1888, 413. 
 
 (1) Council of the Empire, consultative body, members 
 appointed by Czar. It is divided into three departments, 
 viz., 'Legislation, Civil and Church Administration, and 
 Finance. 
 
 (2) Ruling Senate, the high court of justice for the empire. 
 
 (3) Holy Synod, since 1700, superior authority of the 
 National Church, and controlled by the Procurator, the 
 representative of the civil power. 
 
 (4) Committee of Ministers, eleven or twelve departments. 
 
The Russian Empire. 59 
 
 " In its present form the Russian administration seems nt first sight a very imposing 
 edifice. At the top of the pyramid si mi ids the Emperor, the ' autocratic monarch,' as Peter 
 the Great described him, who has to give an account of his acts to no one on earth, hut has 
 a power and authority to rule his states and lands as a < Christian sovereign according to his 
 own will and judgment. Immediately below the Emperor we see the Council of State, 
 the Committee of Ministers, and the Senate, which represent, respectively the legislative, 
 the administrative, and the judicial power. An Englishman glancing over the first volume 
 of the cede might imagine the Council of State to lie a kind of parliament, anil the Com- 
 mittee of Ministers a ministry in our sense of the term, but in reality both are simply 
 incarnations of the autocratic form. Though the Council is intrusted by law with many 
 important functions, such as examining and criticising the annual budget, declaring war, 
 concluding peace, etc., it has merely a consultative character, and the Emperor is not in 
 any way bound by its decisions. The ministers are all directly and individually respon- 
 sible to the Emperor, and therefore the Committee has no common responsibility or other 
 cohesive force. As to the Senate, it has descended from its high estate. It was origiiuilly 
 intrusted with the supreme power during the absence or minority of the monarch, and was 
 intended to exercise a controlling influence in all sections of the administration, but now 
 its activity is restricted to judicial matters, and it is little more than a supreme court of 
 appeal." Wallape, 197, 198. 
 
 c. TchinovnikSj or the Bureaucracy, the civil and military 
 service of the empire. Wallace, 200-212. Stepniak, 94- 
 101. 
 
 d. The enormous debt of Russia. Inability to borrow more 
 money from European banks demonstrated in 1891. 
 
 e. Military establishment of the empire. European Russia 
 could place in the field an army of 2-J- m., and could perhaps 
 double this number if hard pressed. 
 
 8. Local government. 
 
 a. Empire divided into general governments, governments or 
 provinces, and districts ; in European Russia there are 5 
 genera] governments, 68 governments, and about 635 dis- 
 tricts ; the officers and their functions. Statesman's Tear 
 Book, 1892, 855-858. 
 
 b. The Zemstvos for a more general consideration of the affairs 
 of the district and province. Wallace, 213-228. 
 
 (1) District Zemstvos elected by landlords, towns-folk, and 
 peasants. 
 
 (2) Provincial Zemstvos, formed of delegates from each 
 District Zemstvos. 
 
 Supreme influence of governor of the province, who 
 uses the Zemstvos, at his pleasure. In 1890 an imperial 
 edict reduced the powers of the Zemstvos to a minimum. 
 These bodies are now little more than assemblies of the 
 nobles and land owners. 
 
 c. Municipal self-government in towns since 1870. 
 
60 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 d. The Mir (parish or commune). Wallace, 1 1 S— 137. Tik- 
 
 homirov, I, 115-127. Rambaud 1,41, 42; power limited as 
 
 to economic affairs. 
 
 '• In European Russia Hip government of the parish, in so far as the lands of the peasan- 
 try arc concerned, and part of the local administration are intrusted to the people. For 
 this purpose the whole country is divided into communes, which elect an elder, or execu- 
 tive of a commune, as also a tax collector or superintendent of public stores. All these 
 officers are elected at communal assemblies by the peasants from among themselves. The 
 offices are more or less honorary. The communal assemblies are constituted by all the 
 householders in the village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal 
 assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into cantons, each 
 embracing a population of about 2000 males. Each canton is presided over by an Elder, 
 elected at the cantonal assemblies, which are composed of the delegates of the communal 
 assemblies in proportion of one man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide 
 the same class of affairs as do the communal assemblies, but each concerning its respective 
 canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own, which are submitted 
 also to special colleges for peasants' affairs, instituted in each government." Statesman's 
 Year Book, 856. Supervision of the transactions of communal and cantonal assemblies 
 formerly lay with justices of the peace, partly elected and partly appointed. Appeals 
 from them went to the district judges and thence to the Ruling Senate. But in 1889 the 
 justices of the peace were replaced by " Chiefs of the Districts," officers appointed by the 
 administration from among the nobility. The chief is now an autocratic master of the 
 peasants, and has the right to inflict corporal punishment. This measure seems to have 
 been a step towards the restoration of serfdom. 
 
 9. Grand duchy of Finland, ceded by Sweden, ISO!); only province 
 of European Russia not lull)" incorporated into empire. 
 
 a. National Parliament convoked once in lour or five years, 
 has control of taxation : last assembly was in 1888. 
 
 I>. Senate, at head of judicial and administrative service of 
 Finland. 
 
 c. Grand duke, — the Czar. 
 
 d. In 1890 and 1891 the Russian government began to destroy 
 the local privileges of Finland, ordered the use of Russian 
 money and postal service, and suspended a new Finnish penal 
 code. 
 
 10. The Baltic Provinces, acquired in the 18th century, enjoyed 
 special privileges, intended to preserve the Protestant religion and 
 German tongue of the inhabitants, for the land-owning class in these 
 provinces is German in race and Lutheran in religion. These privi- 
 leges relating to schools, churches, and languages have nearly all been 
 swept away by imperial edicts of 1888, 1889, and 1890. 
 
 11. Poland, under separate administration from rest of empire, 
 1815-64. Rebellions, 1830-32, 1863. Absolute incorporation with 
 Russia, 1868. Muller, 142, 399, 400. 
 
 12. Khiva and Bokhara, Mohammedan states of Central Asia, vas- 
 sals of Russia, but permitted to retain their own rulers and laws. 
 Khiva became a Russian dependency in 1872, Bokhara in 1873. 
 
The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. 61 
 
 13. Journalism and public opinion in Russia. 
 
 The censorship. Tikhomirov, II, 93-1)7, 279-284. 
 
 14. Political parties in Russia. Tikhomirov, II, 141-147. 
 a. Panslavism, or the Slavophils. Wallace, 416-420. 
 
 /;. Katkoff and the Moscow Gazette. Contemp. Review, Oct., 
 1887, pp. 504-522. 
 
 c. The Russian Peasants. Stepniak. 
 
 See also article in Fortnightly Review, 1886, vol. 40, pp. 
 . r >!i;>-604. 
 
 d. Nihilism and Democracy. 
 
 LECTURES X-XI. 
 
 The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy, 
 
 References: Grant Duff: Studies, in European Politics, ch. iii. 
 Francis Dedk: A Memoir. Laveleye: The Balkan Penin- 
 sula. A. Vambery: The Story of Hungary. G. B. Malleson: 
 Life of Prince Metternich. Gerard: Transylvania, The Land 
 beyond the Forest. J I. de Worms: The Austro- Hungarian 
 Empire. L. Felberman: Hungary ami its People. Louis 
 Leger : History of Austria-Hungary. Home Hide in Austria, 
 Spectator, Nov. 2, 1889, p. 579. The Bohemian Settlement, 
 Spectator, Jan. 25, 1890, p. 109. Count Julius Andrassy, 
 Spectator, Feb. 22, 1890. p. 259. 
 Area: Austria, 115,903 sq. mi. ; popul., 24 m. Hungary, 125J339 
 
 sq. mi.; popul., 17 m. Bosnia and Herzegovina, about 23,000 sq. 
 
 mi.; popul., 1.5 m. Austria nearly twice as large as New England. 
 
 A. The supremacy of Austria, 1815-67. 
 
 1. Destruction of old German empire by Napoleon I, in 1806. 
 Francis, Archduke of Austria, head of Hapsburg House, which had 
 
62 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 held dignity of German Emperor since 1438, declared Emperor of 
 Austria, 1806. 
 
 2. Austrian dominions included (1815) Hungary and its depend- 
 encies, Galicia, Bohemia and Moravia, Venice and Lombardy in Italy, 
 and Austrian influence reigned in all Italian States except in the 
 kingdom of Piedmont, or Sardinia. 
 
 3. At the close of the Napoleonic wars the Germanic Confedera- 
 tion was formed (June 10, 1815) ; 39 states and four free cities ; per- 
 manent Diet at Frankfort. Grant Duff: Studies in European Poli- 
 tics, 257-260. J. R. Seeley: Life and Times of Stein {Tauchnitz 
 ed.), IV, 31. Austria predominant in the confederation. Timid policy 
 of Prussia. 
 
 4. The Constitution of the Confederation. 
 
 a. Agreement of states not to declare war against each other 
 or form injurious alliances. 
 
 b. Disputes between states to be referred to central Diet. 
 
 c. To contribute to confederate army according to population. 
 
 d. Certain military posts made the property of the confedera- 
 tion. 
 
 e. Constitutional government to be established in each state. 
 f Weakness of the constitution ; people not represented in 
 
 central Diet. 
 g. Chief purpose of Austrian policy, — to prevent anymore 
 revolutions. 
 
 " There were two things of which they were mortally afraid, Russia and the revolution." 
 GraM huff. 
 
 Prominence in the Holy Alliance. (See Lecture IX.) 
 
 5. Metteruich (1815-48), reactionary statesman of Austria, lead- 
 ing champion of arbitrary government in Europe. Muller, 220, 221. 
 Lodge, 609, 622, 637, 651, 669, 688. McCarthy, II, 338. Grant Duff, 
 1 13-144. 
 
 " Metternich described his system with equal simplicity atid precision as an attempt 
 neither to innovate nor to go back to the past, but to keep things as they were. In the 
 old Austrian dominions this was not so difficult to do, for things had no tendency to move, 
 and remained fixed of themselves ; but on the outside, both on the north and on the south, 
 ideas were at work, which, according to .Metternich, ought never to have entered the world, 
 but, having unfortunately gained admittance, made it the task of Government to resist 
 their influence by all available means. Stein and the leaders of the Prussian War of Lib- 
 eration had agitated Germany with hopes of national unity, of Parliaments, and of the 
 impulsion of the executive powers of state by public opinion. Against these northern 
 innovators Metternich had already won an important victory in the formation of the 
 Federal Constitution. The weakness and timidity of the king of Prussia made it probable 
 that, although he was now promising his subjects a Constitution, he might at no distant 
 date be led to unite with other German Governments in a system of repression, and in plac- 
 ing Liberalism under the ban of the Diet. In Italy, according to the conservative states- 
 man, the same dangers existed and the same remedies were required." Fyffe, II, 82. 
 
The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. 63 
 
 a. Austria's condition under Metternich's methods. 
 
 " Austria must make herself felt, not by her militarj strength, but through the skill of 
 her diplomats and the omnipresence of her police and her spies. This was Metternich's 
 chosen field, while the emperor found his pleasure in the details of the police system, 
 which was developed under him into a system of espionage of the mosl unworthy Bort. 
 This was, however, admirably adapted to that patriarchal system in accordance with 
 which the government, so far from denying its Oriental views, even dared to inculcate on 
 its subjects the doctrine that the sovereign ' has full powers over their lives and property.' 
 No less care was exercised in shutting up Austria against other lands. The influx of for- 
 eign intellects and intellectual products was guarded against like the smuggling in of the 
 cattle plague. Study in foreign universities was forbidden. The entrance into Austrian 
 schools of foreign teachers, and of scholars over ten years of ;ijre, was forbidden, and even 
 
 for younger children special permission had to 1 btained. The imparting of private 
 
 instruction was rendered very difficult, permission being granted by the police only under 
 oppressive conditions, and even revocable every six years. All political literature, as well 
 as modern histories, was subjected to strict censorship with a view to police prohibition. 
 
 And as for popular instruction, scarcely three tilths of t tie children of 
 
 school a^;e attended school, and those who attended were, with the teachers, confined to a 
 mechanical drill from which the why and wherefore were carefully excluded. The object 
 was not to produce savants, but subjects and officials trained to blind obedience. For this 
 purpose no guard and overseer could be more effective than the clergy. Upon their relig- 
 ious certificate depended every advance in the gymnasiums and universities, and confession 
 was exacted from teachers and scholars six times yearly. It will be readily understood 
 that the Protestants were much oppressed, — hardly tolerated. Upon purchasing a house, 
 upon assuming a trade, they were obliged to apply for a dispensation. To enter the mili- 
 tary academy in Vienna-Neustadt they must abjure their religion." Muller, 5, G. 
 
 6. Metternich and Austria antagonized by — 
 
 a. German Liberals desiring constitutional government in 
 Germany. 
 
 b. Italian patriots, desiring freedom and unity of Italy. 
 
 c. Magyars (or Hungarians), desiring to free Hungary from 
 Austrian control. 
 
 d. Slavs, of Hungary and Galieia, hostile both to Austrian 
 Germans and Hungarian Magyars. 
 
 7. In Germany, agitation among the students and the Carlsbad 
 conference, 1819. Seeley: Stein, IV. 148, 141). Under leadership of 
 Metternich, agreement was made by a congress of German cabinet 
 ministers at Carlsbad to — 
 
 a. Restrict freedom of press by censorship. 
 
 b. Restrict university teaching by governmental supervision. 
 
 c. Forbid societies and political meetings in universities. 
 Muller, 12-18. Lodge, 638. 
 
 These Carlsbad resolves were sanctioned by the Diet of the con- 
 federation in 1819. 
 
 8. Rebellions against despotism in Italy, 1821, 1831, suppressed by 
 Austrian troops. 
 
 a. Revolutionary agitation in Germany checked by Austria, 
 1833. 
 
64 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 Prussia forms a Zollverein of Northern and Central Ger- 
 man States, 1834-67, from which Austria is rigidly excluded. 
 First diminution of Austria's influence in Germany. 
 
 9. Hungary, including Transylvania, Croatia and Slavonia (town 
 of Fiume), separate kingdom, with a constitution dating from 891. 
 
 Vambery, 9, 10. Diet of two houses must, by constitution, be con- 
 voked every three years. 
 
 Austrian disregard of Hungarian laws. Vambery, 398, 399. 
 
 a. Metternich yielded to Magyar discontent in view of possible 
 complications with Russia over Greek war for independence. 
 Hungarian Diet convened at Presburg (for first time in nine- 
 teen years), 1825. 
 
 Emperor Francis disavows tyranny of his officers. 
 
 b. Szechenyi. Francis Dedk, 8. Vambery's Hungary, 400- 
 
 411. 
 
 " Great schemes of social and material improvement also aroused the public hopes in 
 these years. The better minds became conscious of the real aspect of Hungarian life in 
 comparison with that of civilized Europe, — of its poverty, its inertia, its boorishness. 
 Extraordinary energy was thrown into the work of advance by Count Szechenyi, a noble- 
 man whose imagination had been fired by the contrast which the busy industry of Great 
 Britain anil the practical interests of its higher classes presented to the torpor of his own 
 country. It is to him that Hungary owes the bridge uniting its double capital at Pesth, 
 and that Europe owes the unimpeded navigation of the Danube, which he first rendered 
 possible by the destruction of the rocks known as the Iron Gates, at Orsova. Sanguine, 
 lavishly generous, an ardent patriot, Szechenyi endeavored to arouse men of his own 
 rank, the great and powerful in Hungary, to the sense of what was due from them to their 
 country as leaders in its industrial development. He was no revolutionist, nor was he an 
 enemy to Austria. A peaceful, political future would best have accorded with his own 
 designs for raising Hungary to its due place among the nations." Fyffe, II, 481, 482. 
 
 10. Death of Emperor Francis I, and succession of Ferdinand, a 
 weak ruler, 1835. Muller, 1G3. Lodge, G88, 797. Grant Duff, 150, 
 151. 
 
 1 1. Revolution in France, 1848 ; spread through Europe ; uprisings 
 in Hungary and in all parts of Italy. Muller, 186-191, 203-211. 
 Lodge, 682-686. 
 
 a. Revolution in Vienna. Lodge, 696. Flight of Metternich, 
 abdication of Ferdinand in favor of Francis Joseph I, 1848. 
 Miiller, 221-230. Lodge, 688-690. Grant Duff, 158-164. 
 
 b. March, 1848, resolves of meeting at Frankfort to call a 
 national German constituent assembly. Muller, 221-230, 
 239. Lodge, 690. Grant Duff, 260, 261. 
 
 c. May, 1848, formation of a German National Assembly 
 (Muiler, 215), and dissolution of old confederate Diet. 
 Lodge, 702. 
 
The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. 65 
 
 d. New constitution for the German Empire, and offer of im- 
 perial dignity to Prussia. Opposition of Austria, Bavaria, 
 and Wiirtemburg. King of Prussia declines the offer. 
 
 e. Two parties in Germany. 
 
 (1) The Kleindeutsche party, wishing Prussia to be at the 
 head of the Confederation to the exclusion of Austria. 
 
 (2) The Great German (Grossdeutsche) party, favoring the 
 inclusion of Austria. Midler, 231. 
 
 f. Rupture between Prussia and Austria. Czar Nicholas of 
 Russia interferes on side of Austria. End of Assembly 
 and New Constitution, 1851. Restoration of old Diet and 
 the Confederation of 1815. 
 
 12. Austria conquers kingdom of Sardinia (Charles Albert), which 
 has taken sides with anti-Austrian party in Italy. Miiller, 203-211. 
 
 13. Uprising of Magyars, 1848-41). Leger, 514-521. Demand of 
 Hungary for independence conceded by establishment of separate 
 ministry for Hungary, 1848. Intrigues of Austrian court against its 
 Hungarian ministers. Dedk, 85-92. McCarthy, I, 382-387. Miiller, 
 241-248. Lodge, 695-698. Grant Duff, 152-157. Burdens of the 
 peasantry. Dedk, 17-20. 
 
 a. Rupture between Hungarian Diet and Francis Joseph, the 
 new Emperor of Austria. Francis Joseph disregards Diet's 
 right to elect the King of Hungary. Dedk, 100-105. 
 
 b. Kossuth. 
 
 "On emerging from prison, under a general amnesty in 1840, Kossuth undertook the 
 direction of a Magyar journal at Pesth, which at once gained an immense influence 
 throughout the country. The spokesman of a new generation, Kossuth represented an 
 entirely different order of ideas from those of the orthodox defenders of the Hungarian 
 Constitution. They had been conservative and aristocratic : he was revolutionary ; their 
 weapons had been drawn from the storehouse of Hungarian positive law ; his inspiration 
 was from the Liberalism of western Europe. Thus within the national party itself there 
 grew up sections in more or less pronounced antagonism to one another, though all were 
 muted by a passionate devotion to Hungary, and by an unbounded faith in its future. 
 Szechenyi, and these who with him subordinated political to material ends, regarded Kos- 
 suth as a dangerous theorist." Fyffe, II, 483. 
 
 c. Deak. Francis Dedk: a Memoir, with Preface by Grant 
 Duff. See in particular ch. iii. 
 
 " Between the more impetuous and the more cautious reformers stood the recognized 
 Parliamentary leaders of the Liberals, among whom Deak had already given proof of 
 political capacity of no mean order." Fyffe, II. 484. 
 
 d. Successful appeal of the Austrian government to Russia to 
 assist in putting down the rebellion. Dedk, ch. 14. 
 
 e. Suppression of revolt; repression of revolutionary senti- 
 ment ; arbitrary treatment of Hungary by Austrian govern- 
 ment. 
 
66 Poli tint] History Since 1815. 
 
 14. War of Austria with France and Sardinia, 1859. Leger, 558. 
 
 a. Attempt of Austria to gain assistance of the other states of 
 the confederation ; checked by Prussia. Mutter, 278-280. 
 Lodge, 71!). 
 
 b. Austria unsuccessful; loss of Lombards; retention of 
 Venetia. 
 
 15. Schleswig-Holstein question, 1846- (1864-66). Mutter, 213- 
 211), 267, 309-326. Lodge, 690, 691, 709, 727. McCarthy, II, 244- 
 253. 
 
 16. Austro-Prussian war, 1866. 
 
 a. Causes. Mutter, 335-355. Lodge. 729, 730. McCarthy, 
 II, 336. Leger, 568-571. Von Sybel: Founding of the 
 German Empire, vol. 5. 
 
 "The desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching 
 a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government, as long as two great pow- 
 ers confronted one another in the German Confederation, one having a population largely 
 non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. 
 
 " Special cause : the Schleswig-Holstein question, i. e., the quarrel about the future of 
 the North Albingian duchies. Austria wished the crown Prince of Augustenberg to be 
 recognized as Duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. 
 Prussia demanded that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was created : 
 
 (1) ' Its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and 
 fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia ; 
 
 (2) ' That several important military posts should be given to Prussia, to enable her to 
 undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark.' 
 
 " Reason for participation of Italy in the war ; the favorable opportunity of acquiring 
 Venice." Ploetz, 507. 
 
 b. Kesults : Peace of Prague. Mutter, 355-357. 
 
 (1) "The Emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German Confederation, 
 and consented to a re-organization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to annexa- 
 tions contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony from an alteration of 
 her boundary. 
 
 (2) "Austria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the reservation 
 that the northern district of Schleswig should be re-united with Denmark, should inhabit- 
 ants express desire for such re-union by free popular vote (reservation rescinded, 1878). 
 
 (3) "Austria paid 20 m. rix dollars for costs of the war. 
 
 (4) "At request of Prussia, Venice was ceded to Italy." Ploetz, 510. 
 
 B. The Dual Monarchy, 1867 — 
 
 1. Complete disorganization of Austria after the war of 1866. 
 Financial disorder. Magyars, under D( ak, refuse aid unless their 
 political independence is recognized. February 8, 1867, Hungary's 
 demands conceded. The dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary estab- 
 lished. Restoration of Magyar constitution of 1848. Francis Joseph 
 crowned King of Hungary at Pesth. Constitutional government 
 fully established in the Cisleithian empire (Austria and dependencies), 
 as well as in the Transleithian kingdom (Hungary and dependencies). 
 
The AustridTirHung avian Monarchy. 67 
 
 Transylvania and Croatia attached to Hungary. Perfection of a 
 federal government for the dual monarchy. 
 
 a. Complete overthrow of the Metternich system of internal 
 
 administration in Austria. Modification of legal supremacy 
 
 of Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 " The constitution of 1861 was revised, ami adopted in its revised form on the 21st of 
 December, 1867. This conferred upon the people and their representatives rights and 
 privileges of the greatest importance,— equality of all citizens before the law, freedom of 
 Press, right of associating and meeting, complete liberty of faith and conscience, the unre- 
 stricted right to impose taxes and levy recruits, etc The marriage law 
 
 restored civil marriage to the statute book, in so far as it introduced permissive civil mar- 
 riage, depriving the clergy of all jurisdiction in the premises and conferring it upon the 
 courts. The school law took the control of education, with the exception of religious edu- 
 cation, away from the church, and gave it to the state. The interconfessional law regu- 
 lated the religious obligations of children in case of mixed marriages, change of confes- 
 sion, burials, and the like. By the concordat the children of one Protestant and one 
 Roman Catholic parent must be educated in the faith of the hitter ; by the new law, male 
 children followed the father, and female, the mother." MM lev, 373, 375 ; see also Mailer, 
 484. 
 
 b. The laws of Austria and Hungary since 1867 have seemed to secure religious liberty, 
 but the laws are evaded or nullified in many Instances. 'An Austrian statute of 1874 pro- 
 vides that the Minister for Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs will grant legal recogni- 
 tion to religious bodies whose doctrine, worship, constitution, and designation contain 
 nothing illegal or immoral. Without this official "recognition" no religious body can 
 publicly exist. The Minister can readily find pretexts for refusing recognition. 
 
 In December, 1891, there was a small body of Methodists in Vienna. The police de- 
 manded a copy of the Methodist articles of faith. The Methodists have no authorized 
 articles, but a copy of John Wesley's selection from the 39 articles of the established Church 
 of England was sent to the department of police. ( >ne of these articles strongly condemned 
 the mass, and on that account, a decree appeared suppressing the Methodist congregation. 
 It was pointed out that the Lutheran church, which is ' recognized,' had, until recently. 
 placed the same article in its creed, and the matter was carried through tour courts of 
 appeal. In these courts the police edict was justified, not on account of the obnoxious 
 article, but because the Methodist body was too large to figure as an assembly for private 
 worship. The Methodists then petitioned for official "recognition." The Minister has 
 just (18'J2) answered that the .Methodist body is too small to receive state recognition. 
 
 " Thus for the present the congregation is disbanded. The clergyman dare not open his 
 mouth in public, and, should a member of his late flock visit him, a detective follows into 
 the house, which is under constant police surveillance." Louden Times, Oct. 28, 1892, p. 9. 
 
 2. After Russo-Turkish war of 1*77-78, occupation of Bosnia and 
 Herzegovina by Austria. 1878. Lareleije, chs. iii and iv. Rebellion 
 against Austria in Herzegovina, dialler, 553, 555, 587. 
 
 a. Intimate relations between Austria-Hungary and the Ger- 
 man empire date from Berlin Congress of 1S7.S. Bismarck's 
 desire to see Austria-Hungary powerful in the Balkan region. 
 What the Triple Alliance secures for Austria-Hungary. 
 1881-. Milller, 587, 588. 
 
 h. Hatred of Hungarians for Russia. 
 
 e. The subject Slavs. Bishop Strossmayer. Laveleye, ch. ii. 
 
 3. The dominating influence of the dual monarchy among the 
 
68 Political History Shire, 1815. 
 
 smaller nations of the Danube Valley. Railway connections of the 
 Balkan peninsula, from Buda-Pesth to Constantinople. 
 
 4. The Bohemian question. The Czechs (Tscheks) demand a 
 triple monarchy and autonomy for Bohemia, like that which Hungary 
 and Austria enjoy. Gregr and the " young Czechs " demand that the 
 Emperor be also crowned King at Prague. Contemp. Review, Dec, 
 1884, pp. 815-819. Milller, 483, 588. 
 
 5. Commercial policy. — treaties with Italy and Germany. A 
 central European Zollverein, 1891. Matlekovits: Die Zollpolitikd.es 
 Oesterreichisch- Ungarischen Monarchie sett 1868. 
 
 (5. Central government of the dual monarchy. 
 
 The Cisleithian empire and the Transleithian kingdom are united 
 under the hereditary ride of the House of Austria (Hapsburg) ; each 
 realm has its own parliament, ministers, and government; while the 
 connecting tie is a common sovereign, army, navy, diplomacy, and a 
 common parliament called the Delegations. Statesman s Year Book, 
 1892, pp. 333-335. Beak, ch. 29. 
 
 a. The Delegations, 120 members, chosen by the Parliaments 
 of each kingdom, one half from each kingdom, have juris- 
 diction over foreign affairs, common finances, and war. 
 
 b. The three executive departments, Foreign Affairs, War, and 
 Finance, responsible to the Delegations ; Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, chief officer of the monarchy. 
 
 7. Local government of Austria. The Constitution of 1867. Lodge, 
 
 731, 732. 
 
 a. Provincial Diets. 
 
 (1) 17 provinces, each having a Diet of one assembly. 
 The provinces are Upper and Lower Austria, Salzburg, 
 Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, Vorarlherg, Gorizia, 
 Istria, Trieste, Dalmatia, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, 
 Galicia, and Bukowina. 
 
 (2) Members of the provincial Diet: {a) archbishops and 
 bishops ; (b) representatives of great estates ; (e) repre- 
 sentatives of towns ; (d) representatives of boards of com- 
 merce and guilds ; (e) representatives of rural communes. 
 
 (3) Functions : local administration, taxation, agriculture, 
 educational and charitable institutions, public works. 
 
 b. Central Diet, or Reichsrath. 
 
 (1) Upper House, or Herren-haus ; consists, 1st, of the 
 princes of the imperial family; 2d, of a number of nobles, 
 
The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy. 69 
 
 possessing large landed property, in whose families the 
 dignity is hereditary ; 3d. of the archbishops and bishops, 
 who are of princely title, inherent in their episcopal seat; 
 4th, of any other life-members nominated by the Emperor, 
 on account of being distinguished in art or science, or 
 rendering signal services to Church or State. 
 (2) Lower House or Abgeordneten-haus, 353 members, 
 elected by citizens who are 24 years of age and who 
 possess small property qualifications. 
 
 c. Executive Ministers, seven departments, Council of the 
 Emperor, responsible to Reichsrath since 1870; there is 
 also an eighth department, consisting of three " Ministers 
 without portfolio," whose functions are advisory. 
 
 d. Bosnia and Herzegovina, territory of the dual monarchy, 
 but managed chiefly by Austria. ./. de Asboth: An Official 
 Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina (1890). 
 
 (1) Formerly portions of the Ottoman empire. Trans- 
 ferred by Treaty of Berlin, 1878, to Austria-Hungary. 
 
 (2) Population is Servian in blood, but it is sundered by 
 religious differences. The aristocracy is Mohammedan ; 
 the majority of the remainder is of the Eastern Christian 
 Church. The rest are Roman Catholics, Jews, and 
 Gipsies. 
 
 e. Parties in Lower House of Austrian Reichsrath, actuated by 
 racial antagonisms. Of the members, 92 come from Bohe- 
 mia, 03 from Galicia, 54 from the Austrias, 36 from Mo- 
 ravia, 23 from Styria, 18 from the Tyrol, 10 each from 
 Silesia and Caruiola, '•• each from Carinthia, Dalmatia, and 
 Bukowina, 5 from Salzburg, 4 each from Trieste, Gorizia, 
 and Istria, and ;! from the Vorarlberg. So many unsympa- 
 thetic races are represented that no party has a majority. 
 Since 1880 a federalist conservative, Count Taafe, has been 
 prime minister of Austria, maintaining himself by skill in bar- 
 gaining with the small groups that compose the conservative 
 party. Possibilities of complete federation in Austria-Hun- 
 gary, admitting the Slavonic districts as autonomous states 
 to representation in the Delegations. 
 
 (1) German Liberal party, . Moderately liberal, weak- 
 
 /a\ -v x- i r\ [ cued by its opposition to 
 
 (2) JNational German partv, . > •• /f, . , 
 
 r •" occupation ot Bosnia and 
 
 (3) Center party, . . . . | Herzegovina, 1879. 
 
r 
 
 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 (4) German clerical party, . 
 
 (5) Czech part}', in 3 groups, 
 
 (6) Polish party, • 
 
 (7) Slovenian party, 
 
 (8) Italian party, . 
 
 (9) Roumanian party, 
 
 (10) Croatian party, . . . } Conservative. 
 
 (11) Ruthenian party, 
 
 (12) Anti-Semitic party, . 
 
 (13) Moravian party, . 
 
 (14) Bohemian Feudal Con- 
 
 servatives, .... 
 
 (15) German Conservatives, . 
 
 8. Local Government of Hungary. The Constitution of 1867; 
 Francis Deak. Dealc, 259-2f»!>. 
 
 a. Legislative power rests in King and Parliament (Reichs- 
 tag). Two Houses. 
 
 (1) House of Magnates, hereditary peers; representatives 
 of Roman Catholic, Greek, and Protestant churches; 
 life-Peers appointed by the Crown; officers of state; 
 three delegates from Croatia-Slavonia ; Archdukes. 
 
 (2) House of Representatives, 413, elected by citizens 20 
 years old who possess small property qualifications, and 
 by professional classes without any property qualifications. 
 Forty representatives of Croatia-Slavonia are elected by 
 the Diet of that country. 
 
 b. Executive Ministry, responsible, a president and nine de- 
 partments. 
 
 c. The Liberal party in Hungary is dominant. Its present 
 demands are that civil marriage should be made obligatory, 
 that all religions should be equally free, that the state and 
 not the clergy should keep the registration of births. Leader, 
 M. Tisza, a Protestant. 
 
 9. Local Government of Croatia-Slavonia. 
 
 a. Local Diet at Agram, for Croatia-Slavonia, granted by 
 Hungary (influence of Deak), 1868 ; control of local affairs ; 
 55 per cent of revenues paid into Hungarian treasury. 
 
 b. Chief Executive of Croatia-Slavonia (title of Ban) appointed 
 by King of Hungary. Deak, 284, 285. 
 
 c. Parties in Croatia and political purposes. Laveleye, 151-166. 
 
The Ottoman Empire. 71 
 
 LECTURES XII-XIII. 
 
 The Ottoman Empire and the Eevolted Christian States of 
 the Balkan Peninsula — 
 
 MONTENEGRO, ROUMANIA, GREECE, SERVIA, BULGARIA. 
 
 References: E. S. Creasy: History of the Ottoman lurks. T. E. 
 Holland: The European Concert in the Eastern Question. 
 S. Lane-Poole : The People of Turkey. 2 vols. E. L. Clark : 
 The Races of European Turkey. Miss Garnett : The Women 
 of Turkey, vol. I. Christian Women; vol. II, Jewish and Mos- 
 lem Women. J. Samuelson: Roumania, Past and Present. 
 J. G. C. Minchin : The Growth of Freedom in the Balkan 
 Peninsula. Wm. Denton : Montenegro, its People and their 
 History. D. Campbell: Turks and Greeks. J. de Asboth : 
 An Official Tour through Bosnia and Herzegovina. J. M. 
 Bugbee : The Eastern Question. R. Roberts : Asia Minor and 
 the Caucasus. Lareleye : The Balkan Peninsula. R. G. Lath- 
 am: Russian and Turk. Lewis Sergeant : New Greece. Lane- 
 Poole: Turkey; Story of the Nations Series. Bar id Urquhart: 
 lite Spirit of the East, 2 vols. 
 Area of whole empire in Asia, Africa, and Europe about 1.6 m. sq. 
 
 mi. ; popul., about 36 m. 
 
 A. Empire of the Ottoman Turks to 1878. 
 1. Early history of the Turks. 
 
 a. The Ottoman Turks appeared in history in 1240; gradu- 
 ally acquired proviuce after province from the old Eastern 
 Roman empire ; finally established themselves in Constan- 
 tinople in 1453. Lodge, Id. Fisher: Outlines of Universal 
 History. 352, 353. 
 
 b. About 1550 the kingdom of the Turks reached its greatest 
 power, including all Asia Minor to the Persian frontier; 
 Arabia, Egypt, and all North Africa to Morocco ; the whole 
 Balkan peninsula, from the southernmost extremity of 
 
72 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 Greece to the southern boundary of Poland, including all 
 but the extreme western portion of Hungary, and including 
 the Tatar regions along the north shore of the Black Sea ; 
 1683, siege of Vienna; the defeat of the Turks before 
 Vienna marked the beginning of the ebb-tide of Turkish 
 power. Hungary recovered by Austria, 1 G82-99 ; Barbary 
 states of North Africa become only nominally dependent 
 during 17th and 18th centuries; Montenegro (Czernagora) 
 rebelled successfully, 1700. Lodge, 208, 209. Shifting of 
 territory between Turkey, Austria, and Russia. 1768-74, 
 Catharine's first war against Turkey, by which Russia gained 
 territory in the Crimea, and right of navigation for trading 
 vessels on the Black Sea. Fyjf'e, II, 258. Lodge, 449. 
 McCarthy. I, 458-455. Wallachia and Moldavia to be gov- 
 erned by Christian rulers, for whom Russia was henceforth 
 to be the Protector at Constantinople ; these rulers were 
 selected by the Sultan from among the wealthy Greek 
 families of Constantinople. They were called Phanariotes 
 because the Greeks of Constantinople lived in the quarter 
 of the " Phanar," or lighthouse. The Phanariote governors 
 of Wallachia and Moldavia (called the Danubian principali- 
 ties) were scarcely a whit better rulers than their Moham- 
 medan Turkish predecessors. War with Russia closed by 
 peace of Kutschouc Kainardji, 1774. Pyjf'e, II, 259, 260. 
 Six important points in this treaty. Ploetz. 412. 
 
 (1) The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey, 
 ami brought under Russian influence. 
 
 (2) Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts of 
 the Black Sea (Crimea), pushing back the Turkish fron- 
 tier to the river Boug. 
 
 (3) The frontier line between the two powers in Asia was 
 left much as it was before the war. 
 
 (4) Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople, and 
 for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey. 
 
 (5) Russia exacted promises for the better government of 
 the principalities, reserving the right of remonstrance if 
 these were not kept. 
 
 (6) Russia obtained a declaration of her right of free com- 
 mercial navigation in Turkish waters. All subsequent 
 controversies between the Porte and Russia may be re- 
 ferred to one of these six heads. Ploetz, 412. 
 
The Ottoman Empire. 73 
 
 c. Gradual encroachment of Russia by successive wars. From 
 the Boug River to the Dniester (1702), then to the Pruth 
 (1812). Mailer, 89, 90. By the latter war Servia becomes 
 partly autonomous (1812). 
 
 d. Egypt becomes only nominally dependent, 1811-41 ; Mehe- 
 met Ali; England forces from Turkey a promise of justice 
 to Christians, an empty promise'. 
 
 2. 1821-29, Greek Independence. Lodge, 650-656. Fyffe, II, 
 268-280. 285-300, 305-312, 345. MiXller, 70-73. For the Eastern 
 question in general before the Crimean war see McCarthy, I, 433- 
 461. For a sketch of the previous condition of Greece see Fyffe, II, 
 237-262. 
 
 a. Russian interference after accession of Nichcjas in behalf 
 of Christian subjects of Sultan (1828-29). Gradual rise of 
 Servia and the Danubian principalities. Treaties of Aker- 
 man (1826), of London (1827), between England, France, 
 and Russia, in favor of the Greeks ; treaty of Adrianople 
 (1829). Turkey admits the independence of Greece, and 
 cedes to Russia a portion of Armenia and the province of 
 Bessarabia. Russian territory extended to the Danube. 
 Latham : Russian and Turk, 48-51. 
 
 b. The Turkish Janissaries : their destruction, 1826. MiXller. 88. 
 
 3. Crimean war, 1853-56. Mailer, 253-264. Lodge, 743-745. 
 England becomes diplomatically powerful at Constantinople ; Lord 
 Stratford de Redcliffe. N. T. Nation, Dec. 27. 1888, p. 522. 
 
 a. Causes: ambition of Nicholas I to assume a protectorate 
 
 over all Christians of Greek church, to divide the empire of 
 
 the Turks and secure Constantinople for Russia, and to 
 
 divert Russian attention from liis tyrannical domestic policy. 
 
 McCarthy, I, 475-517. The Reign of Queen Victoria, I, 
 
 81-87. 
 
 " The guardianship and possession of certain places at Jerusalem were for many years 
 
 the source of contest between Christians belonging to the Greek and Latin churches. 
 
 These spots, known as Holy Places, are hallowed from a supposed connection with our 
 
 Saviour, the Virgin Mary, or the early disciples. Amongst them the Church of the Holy 
 
 Sepulchre, on Mt. Calvary, in which the sepulchre of Christ is said to exist, occupies a 
 
 prominent position. In 1690, this Holy Sepulchre was appropriated to the Latins, and 
 
 though other Christians might enter for private devotions, the Latins alone were allowed 
 
 to celebrate mass therein. It afforded constant matter of dispute, and France always 
 
 appeared as champion of the Latin Church, and Russia in modern times espoused the 
 
 cause of the Greek, for the conflict was at length confined to these rival sects. In 1740 a 
 
 treaty was signed between France and the Porte, having special reference to this question. 
 
 In 1757 a serious outbreak occurred at Jerusalem, and the holy sanctuaries were placed 
 
 under the protection of the Greek monks. Thus the rights and privileges granted to the 
 
 LatinB by the treaty of 1740 were gradually encroached upon by successive decrees issued 
 
74 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 at Constantinople in favor of Greek Christians. For many years these matters were 
 fiercely contested at Jerusalem. In 1850 the French government directed its represent- 
 ative at Constantinople to effect sonic arrangement. The Turkish Government admitted 
 the justice of the French claims, and affairs were progressing when the Emperor Nicho- 
 las,- favoring the interests of the Greek Church, wrote a letter to the Sultan, requiring his 
 adherence to the statu* qtio. Pressed hy these formidable rivals, the Sultan knew not how 
 to act; and, as the discussion was prolonged, Nicholas gradually disclosed his real inten- 
 tions. An arrangement was nearly concluded in 1852. hut toward the close of the year 
 the Czar set the forces of his empire in motion. In Feb., 1853, Prince Menschikoff 
 repaired to Constantinople, as extraordinary ambassador from Russia; and, although the 
 real nature of his mission did not at first transpire, it soon became evident that the ruin 
 of Turkey was intended." Condensed from Ewald, 1:28, 129. 
 
 " Iu his conferences with the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Sir Hamilton Sey- 
 mour, Nicholas called Turkey a 'sick man,' whom no doctor could help, so that it was 
 already time to come to some definite agreement about his inheritance. According to his 
 plan, Servia, Bulgaria, and Bosnia were to be made independent states, and with Moldavia 
 and Wallachia to be placed under the Russian protectorate. If England wished to appro- 
 priate Egypt and Candia, Russia had no objection. In his opinion, England and Russia 
 were the only countries concerned, as they were the only ones who had a tangible interest 
 in Turkey, and if they agreed about the transaction, there was no need of consulting the 
 other powers." Miiller, 254. 
 
 b. Peace of Paris, 1856. 
 
 (1) Russia ceded the mouths of the Danuhe and a small 
 portion of Bessarabia, on the left bank of the lower 
 Danube, to Turkey ; this territory became part of the 
 Danubian principalities. 
 
 (2) Russia renounced tlie one-sided protectorate over the 
 Christians in Turkey, and over the principalities of the 
 Danube. 
 
 (3) Russia restored Kars, and promised not to establish 
 any arsenals upon the Black Sea. nor to maintain there 
 more ships than the Porte. 
 
 (4) The Western powers restored Sebastopol to Russia, 
 after having destroyed the docks, the constructions in the 
 harbor, and the fortifications. Ploetz, 501. Lodge, 745. 
 Miiller, 264-26G. McCarthy, I, 517-523. 
 
 (5) Promise of justice to Christians renewed. Imperial 
 
 edict, the Hat Ilumayun, 1856. 
 
 "England, which had accomplished nothing great, either at sea or on land, was regarded 
 as on the decline. The Chancellor of the Russian Empire, Prince Alexander Gortschakoff, 
 a brother of the General, in his circular of Sept. 12, 1856, described Russia's new pro- 
 gramme in the words, ' Russia does not repine, she collects herself (La Russie ne boude 
 pas,elle se recueille). Against Austria, which had ' astonished the world by its ingratitude,' 
 Russia cherished a most bitter grudge, while it recognized Prussia's favorable attitude by 
 friendly approaches." Miiller, Jr.;>. 
 
 4. Revolt of Christians in Syria, 1860; temporary occupation by 
 the French. Miiller, 266. 
 
 5. Wallachia and Moldavia united as Roumania, 1861 ; a result of 
 the treaty of Paris, 1856; a blow to Turkish power. McCarthy, I, 
 518. Miiller, 266. 
 
The Ottoman Empire. 15 
 
 6. Revolt of Crete, which led to ill feeling between Turkey and 
 Greece, 1866. Lodge,, 748-750. Western powers interfere. McCar- 
 thy, II. 585. Mailer. 398. 
 
 7. Continued disposition to revolt among Christian populations of 
 Servia and Bulgaria. 1870—76 ; insurrectionary spirit diligently excited 
 by secret Russian emissaries, who distributed Russian money and Rus- 
 sian promises of assistance. Activity of Panslavist committees in 
 Russia. Virtual independence of Egypt ; revolt in Servia. McCarthy, 
 11, 585, 586. 
 
 8. Revolt in Herzegovina. 1*74. McCarthy, II, 587,588. Mutter, 
 505-508. Demands of the rebels; a. reform in taxation; &, native 
 instead of Turkish officials; c, native militia. Sympathy and support 
 of Servia and Montenegro. Mailer. 511. McCarthy. II, 597. 
 
 a. The Sultan Abdul Aziz, deposed by the Turkish reform 
 party, which favored an attempt to remodel the empire upon 
 western examples. His successor, Murad V, deposed in 
 thirteen months, for idiocy. Accession of Abdul Ilamid 
 1 1. 1876. The Death of Abdul Aziz and of Turkish Reform : 
 Nineteenth Century, vol. 23. p. 276. 
 
 9. Bulgarian atrocities; policy of Turkey towards Bulgaria one of 
 repression by harsh abuse and even massacre; revolt in 1876; the 
 Bashi-Bazouks. Lodge, 749. Miiller, 514-517. McCarthy, II, 591- 
 594. Gladstone: Bulgarian Horrors. 
 
 a. War declared by Servia and Montenegro, under Russian 
 instigation, 1876; interference by the great powers unsuc- 
 cessful because they demanded rights of guardianship over 
 Turkey, while Turkey would grant nothing but promises of 
 reform. 
 
 10. Russia declared war against Turkey, 1877, as protector of 
 oppressed Christians, and especially of Slavonic Christians in Turkev ; 
 1S77-7*. Turco-Russian war. Lodge, 750. Miiller, 518-545. Mc- 
 Carthy. II, 600-603. 
 
 11. Russia and Turkey sign the peace of San Stefano, which 
 aroused great opposition from western powers as too favorable to Rus- 
 sian interests. Miiller, 545-548. Lodge, 751. McCarthy, II, 602- 
 605. 
 
 12. Congress of Berlin, June, 1878, to revise the treaty of San 
 Stefano. Principal conditions : 
 
 a. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but 
 the cessions to be made to the two former states were some- 
 
76 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 what reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to 
 receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 
 
 b. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country 
 between the Danube and the Balkans, including, however, 
 Sofia and its territory. 
 
 c. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries con- 
 siderably narrowed toward the south and west, was left 
 under the immediate rule of the Sultan, with the title 
 Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate mili- 
 tia, and administration under a Christian governor-general ; 
 only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turk- 
 ish troops. 
 
 d. The Russian troops were to evacuate E. Roumelia and Bul- 
 garia inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 
 
 e. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and 
 administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the 
 military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 
 
 f. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thes- 
 saly to Greece, and a small strip of sea-coast to Montenegro. 
 
 g. Russia received in Asia, Batoum, Kars, Adaghan, and some 
 border territories. 
 
 h. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated 
 from her, there should be political equality of all confessions. 
 
 i. Turkey promised reforms in the Armenian provinces, and 
 security of Armenians from attacks of robber Kurds, h 
 and i have not been adhered to. Armenians worse treated 
 than before. Ploetz, 524. Lodge, 751. Muller, 550-552. 
 McCarthy, II, 606-612. 
 
 13. Cyprus given to England, 1878, and England assumes a vague 
 protectorate over Asia Minor with the responsibility of seeing that 
 the Turkish promises concerning Armenia are fulfilled. 
 
 a. Intervention of England in Egypt, 1882. See Lecture 
 XIV, §4. 
 
 14. Since 1878 the Turkish empire has been occupied in endeavor- 
 ing to avert wars, and in considering plans of improvement, especially 
 with reference to the creation of railway connections. The first 
 through train from Vienna reached Constantinople Aug. 14, 1888. 
 Small beginnings of Asiatic railways have been made. See Lect. XIV. 
 

 
The Ottoman Empire. 77 
 
 B. Montenegro. 
 
 Area, 3630 sq. mi., about § the size of Connecticut. Popul., 250,- 
 000 ; same blood as the Servians. 
 History : 
 
 1. Declaration of independence of Turkey, 1700. Establishment 
 of hereditary hierarchical government permitted, but not recognized 
 by Turkey. Union of church and state under one head, called Vla- 
 dika, 1700-1851. 
 
 2. 1851, the Vladika renounces the priestly dignity and becomes a 
 temporal prince; war with Turkey. 
 
 a. Display of friendship for Russia in Crimean war rewarded 
 by yearly payment of money. 
 
 b. Accession of Nikita, 1861. 
 
 3. Begins with Servia the war against Turkey (1876), which led to 
 the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78. 
 
 a. Independence recognized by Congress of Berlin, with ces- 
 sions of territory, but under restrictions favorable to Austria. 
 Midler, 553, 554. 
 
 b. The Dulcigno demonstration, 1880; the great powers force 
 Turkey to fulfill the promises of the treaty of Berlin. 
 Midler, 561-563. 
 
 4. Relations with Russia; hostility to Austria and to Albanians. 
 Austria is said to contribute money every year to keep up the roads. 
 Austrian money is the principal coin of the district, which has no 
 coinage of its own. There is no bank in Montenegro. 
 
 5. Government. Hereditary prince has absolute power. 
 
 a. State Council, 8 members, 4 elected by the people. 
 
 b. Inhabitants divided into tribes, each under elected " Elders." 
 
 6. Land laws, to prevent large estates. Laveleye, 281, 282. 
 
 C. ROUMANIA. 
 
 Reference: James Samuelson: Roumania, Past and Present. 
 
 Area, 48,307 sq. mi., about the size of North Carolina. Popul., 
 about 5£ m. About 4 m. Roumanians live in countries bordering 
 Roumania. A race of mixed origin, the Vlach, or Wallach. 
 
 History : 
 
 1. Known as " Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Walla- 
 chia." First relief from Turkish rule by Russo-Turkish war, 1768- 
 74. Christian governors but dependent on Turkey. 
 
78 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 2. Greek insurrection begins in the principalities, 1821. Placed 
 under protection of Russia. Treaty of Adrianople, 1829 ; native 
 rulers. 
 
 3. Autonomy under the suzerainty of Turkey guaranteed at end of 
 Crimean war ; union of two provinces under the name of Rourriania, 
 and under one elected Hospodar, or Prince, 1859-61. Alexander 
 Couza. 
 
 4. Navigation of the Danube. The European Commission, 1856. 
 Eugene Schuyler: American Diplomacy, 352-363. Laveleye: Balkan 
 Peninsula, 366, 367. 
 
 5. Emancipation of peasants from serf-labor, 1864. A peasant 
 proprietary. The weight of indebtedness, Jewish money-lenders. 
 Laveleye. 344-346. J. D. Bourchier: The Fate of Roumania, Fort- 
 nightly Review, Dec, 1888. 
 
 a. Jewish question. Midler, 563, 564. Laveleye, 361, 362. 
 
 6. Adoption of Constitution (almost exact copy of that of Belgium), 
 1866 (modified 1879 and 1884), and election of Charles of Hohen- 
 zollern-Sigmaringen as hereditary prince. Laveleye, 342, 343. 
 
 7. Alliance with Russia against Turkey, 1877. Important services 
 of Roumanian army at Plevna ; declared independent, 1877; and inde- 
 pendence guaranteed by Congress of Berlin, 1878; loss of territory 
 east of the Pruth to Russia; recognized as a kingdom, 1881. 
 
 8. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy ; cabinet execu- 
 tive, legislature of two chambers. All citizens of full age, paying 
 taxes, have a vote. 
 
 a. Political parties: Conservatives, pro-Russian; National 
 Liberals (Jean Bratiano), anti-Russian. 
 
 b. Triumph of Conservatives, 1888. Influence of King 
 Charles tends to maintain the anti-Russian policy of the 
 country. Extensive fortifications on the eastern frontiers. 
 Danger of invasion from Russia and Austria-Hungary com- 
 pared. 
 
 D. Greece. 
 
 Area, 25,000 sq. mi. ; 3 times Massachusetts. Popul., 24; m. ; about 
 oh m. more under Turkish rule. 
 
 1. From the 16th century until 1821-29 Greece was governed as 
 a province of Turkey. 
 
 " The forward movement of the Greek nation may be said, in gen- 
 eral terms, to have become visible during the first half of the eight- 
 
The Ottoman Empire. 79 
 
 eenth century. Serfage had then disappeared: the peasant was either 
 a freeholder or a farmer, paying a rent in kind for his land. In the 
 gradual and unobserved emancipation of the laboring class, the first 
 condition of national revival had already been fulfilled. The peasantry 
 had been formed which, when the conflict with the Turk broke out, 
 bore the brunt of the long struggle. In comparison with the Prus- 
 sian serf, the Greek cultivator at the beginning of the eighteenth 
 century was an independent man ; in comparison with the English 
 laborer, he was well fed and well housed. The evils to which the 
 Greek population was exposed, wdierever Greeks and Turks lived 
 together, were those which brutalized or degraded the Christian races 
 in every Ottoman province. There was no redress for injury inflicted 
 by a Mohammedan official or neighbor. If a wealthy Turk murdered 
 a Greek in the fields, burnt down his house, and outraged his family, 
 there was no court where the offender could be brought to justice. 
 The term by which the Turk described his Christian neighbor was 
 ' our rayah,' that is, 'our subject.' A Mohammedan landowner might 
 terrorize the entire population around him, carry off the women, flog 
 and imprison the men, and yet feel that he had committed no offence 
 against the law ; for no law existed but the Koran, and no Turkish 
 court of justice but that of the Kadi, where the complaint of the 
 Christian passed for nothing." Fyffe, II, 238, 239. 
 
 2. Beginnings of the movement towards Greek independence. 
 
 a. Influence of Phanariote governors of the Danubian princi- 
 palities and of the wealthy Greek families in Constantinople. 
 
 b. Klephts, robber bands of shepherds. Sergeant, 258-260. 
 
 c. Hetaeria, secret society first founded among Greek mer- 
 chants in Odessa in 1814, ostensibly to promote culture, 
 really to plan revolt. Fyffe, II, 265-270. 
 
 d. Ionian Hands taken under British Protectorate during the 
 Napoleonic wars, 1807, remain nnder English rule, 1815-62. 
 Seryeant, 397, 398. 
 
 e. Political influence of the Greek church. Fyffe, II, 243, 
 244 ; 249, 250. 
 
 3. War of Independence, 1821-29. Lot/ye, 650-657. 
 
 a. Unsuccessful rising of Ipsilanti in Moldavia ; a Phanariote 
 leader. 
 
 b. General revolt. Fyffe, II, 273-285. 
 
 c. Interference of the great powers. Selfish diplomacy of 
 Russia and England. Sergeant, 278-280, 350-352. 
 
80 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 d. Battle of Navarino, 1827; destruction of the Turkish fleet 
 by the united English, French, and Russian fleets. Fyffe, 
 II, 330-334. 
 
 e. Political effects of Philohellenism. Sergeant, 312-320. 
 
 f. Presidency of Capodistrias in Greece under Russian influ- 
 ence, 1828-31 ; Capodistrias assassinated, 1831. Fyffe, II, 
 345-348 ; disputes over the new boundaries ; civil war. 
 Fyfe, II, 353. 
 
 g. Crete given back to Turkey by England's influence. 
 
 4. Greece a kingdom, 1830; the Powers select a king for it. 
 Lodge, G57. 
 
 a. King Otho, a Bavarian prince, 1833-63. 
 
 "A frontier somewhat better than that which had been offered to Leopold was granted 
 to the new sovereign, but Crete, Thessaly, and Epirus were not included within his kingdom. 
 Thus hemmed in within intolerably narrow limits, while burdened with the expenses of an 
 independent state, alike unable to meet the calls upon its national exchequer, and to exclude 
 the intrigues of foreign courts, Greece offered during the next generation little that justi- 
 fied the hopes that had been raised as to its future. 
 
 " Poor and inglorious as the Greek kingdom was, it excited the restless longings nflt only 
 of Greeks under Turkish bondage, but of the prosperous Ionian Islands under English rule; 
 and, in 18G4, the first step in the expansion of the Hellenic kingdom was accomplished by 
 the transfer of those islands from Great Britain to Greece. Our own day has seen Greece 
 further strengthened and enriched by the annexation of Thessaly. The commercial and 
 educational development of the kingdom is now as vigorous as that of any state in Europe; 
 in agriculture and in manufacturing industry it still lingers far behind." Fyffe, 354, 355. 
 
 b. Representative constitution, 1843 ; won by threat of force 
 from the tyrannical Russianizing King Otho. 
 
 c. Agitation for extending the northern boundary. 
 
 " Greece was very much dissatisfied with the Peace of Paris, which guaranteed the Turk- 
 ish boundaries. Henceforward King Otho had a difficult position. The nation could not 
 forgive him for having shown no enterprise or military ambition during the Crimean war; 
 and from that time on he was regarded as wholly unfit to carry out the 'great idea' of a 
 great Greece and to transfer his residence to Constantinople. 
 
 " The Hellenes asked themselves whether that which the Italians had striven after with 
 almost complete success was to be forbidden them; whether they did not have the same 
 right to give ear to their Grecian brothers who were sighing under the yoke of a barbarian 
 people, and unite into one state all the Grecian provinces of the Olympian peninsula." 
 Muller, 2GC. 
 
 5. Revolution and expulsion of Otho. 1862. George of Denmark 
 chosen King, 1863. Cession of Ionian Hands by England. Sergeant, 
 397, 398. 
 
 a. Insurrection of Crete in favor of union with Greece, 
 1866-68 ; Greater Greece ; interference of the Powers ; 
 England, chiefly through fear of Russia, aids Turkey to 
 retain Crete. 
 
 6. Position and claims of Greece in the Russo-Turkish War of 
 


The Ottoman Empire. 81 
 
 1877. Restraint by England; promises of England unfulfilled at the 
 Berlin Congress. Sergeant, 402-413. Miiller, 554. 
 
 a. Greece, by threat of war, obtains Thessaly, 1881. 
 7. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy. Single cham- 
 ber. Election of members of the House by Scrutin de liste. Ser- 
 geant, ch. iv. 
 
 a. Political parties and tendencies. Tricoupis and party of 
 peace and domestic reforms. The desire for expansion, 
 and a vigorous foreign policy. Personal rivalry between 
 Tricoupis and P. T. Delyannis the chief basis of party pro- 
 grams. Delyannis, more wasteful, a demagog. 
 
 b. Brigandage suppressed. Sergeant, 116-126. 
 
 c. Greek influence in commerce. Sergeant, ch. vii. 
 
 d. Greece's share in a possible United States of the Balkans. 
 
 E. Sekvia. 
 
 Area, 18,750 sq. mi.; popul., over 2 m. 
 History : 
 
 1. Subject to Turks, 1389-1806. Gains some powers of local 
 government, with aid of Russia, 1807-11. Successful resistance to 
 Turkey, 1815-29, under Alexander Milos Obrenovitch, whom Tur- 
 key recognized as hereditary prince. Annual tribute to be paid. 
 
 2. Russian intrigues to prevent growth of national Servian feel- 
 ing. Civil wars, 1839-60. 
 
 3. Agitation for complete independence. 1860-68. Withdrawal of 
 Turkish garrisons, 1867. Accession of Milan, great grandson of the 
 half-brother of Milos Obrenovitch, 1868. Liberal constitution, 1869. 
 Free press and a re-organized army. Opposition of Russia. 
 
 4. Servians and Montenegrins, acting under Russian influence, 
 begin war against Turkey, 1877. Independence of Servia confirmed 
 by treaty of Berlin, 1878. Proclaimed a kingdom (Milan I), 1882. 
 
 5. Unsuccessful war against Bulgaria, 1885, caused by Russian 
 intrigues and by envy of Bulgaria's advancement. Servia saved by 
 Austria. See below, Bulgaria, §7. 
 
 6. Profound estrangement between King Milan and his wife, 
 Natalie, caused by political as well as domestic differences, resulted in 
 a divorce, 1888, granted at Milan's command by Theodosius, Metro- 
 politan of Servia. Hazell, 1889, p. 589. Quarrel between King and 
 the Queen's friends among the bishops. Milan secures adoption of 
 
82 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 new constitution, proclaims his son King, under name of Alexander I, 
 and abdicates, 1889. 
 
 a. Milan's friendly relations with Austria-Hungary. 
 
 b. Milan's extraordinary popularity in the Servian army. 
 
 c. Natalie banished from Servia, 1891. Hazett, 1892, p. 608. 
 
 7. Government, hereditary constitutional monarchy. Constitution 
 adopted, 1889. 
 
 a. Senate, or Council of State. 
 
 b. The Skuptschina (Parliament), one chamber. 
 
 c. The Great Skuptschina. 
 
 d. Communal institutions. Statesman's Tear Booh, 1888, 454. 
 Laveleye, 182-189. 
 
 8. Political parties and tendencies. 
 
 a. Conservative-Liberals, pro-Russian ; leader, John Ristics. 
 head of the Council of Regency during the minority of King 
 Alexander (until 1894). 
 
 b. Progressist, pro-Austrian, Garashanine. 
 
 c. Radicals, pro-Austrian, all powerful in the Skuptschina. 
 The party of the peasantry. Laveleye, 194—198. 
 
 d. New Constitution. A Radical triumph, 1888-89. London 
 (Weekly) Times, Jan. 4, 1889, p. 16. 
 
 9. Inevitable dependence of Servia upon Austria-Hungary. Rail- 
 way connections. Austria-Hungary contributes 65 per cent of Servia's 
 imports, and takes 88 per cent of her exports. 
 
 F. Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) ; a principality nomi- 
 nally tributary to Turkey. 
 
 Area, 37,860 sq. mi.; popul., over 3 m. 
 
 History : 
 
 1. Under Turkish dominion, 1892-1878. 
 
 " The Bulgarians, of Turanian race, came across the Danube from the banks of the Volga 
 in the lift li century. They settled in t lie eastern side of the peninsula and intermingled 
 
 with the Slavs, whose language and customs they adopted During the ninth 
 
 and tenth centuries the Bulgarians struggled victoriously with the Magyars in the north 
 
 and the Greeks in the south. They were then at the height of their power 
 
 For two centuries, 1018 to HOG, Bulgaria was only a Byzantine province, but Kaloyan re- 
 stored the Bulgarian empire and decided the defeat, near Adrianople, of the army of the 
 Crusaders commanded by Baldwin. Joanice-Asen II (1218-1241) reigned over almost the 
 
 whole peninsula, compelled the Patriarch to recognize the auti my of the Bulgarian 
 
 church, and besieged Constantinople, which was saved by the Italians in 1236. 
 
 " The Tatars arrived soon afterwards and ravaged the whole country horribly; then came 
 the Turks, who crossed the Bosphorus and invaded the peninsula. If Greeks, Bulgarians, 
 and Servians could have united, they might, perhaps, have driven them back into Asia ; 
 but they continued to make war with each other to the end. 
 
The Ottoman Empire. 83 
 
 " The Servians, under their great Emperor Dushan, joined with the Bulgarians, threat- 
 ened Constantinople and seemed on the eve of constituting a powerful state, 1356 ; but for 
 want of an administrative organization nothing lasting could lie established. The Servians 
 were defeated in the decisive battle of Kossovo in 1389, and Tirnova, the Bulgarian capital, 
 was taken by Tchelebi, son of Bajazet, in 1393. The Turkish domination began, and the 
 Bulgarian church, losing its autonomy, fell again under the authority of the Greek patri- 
 arch. The Bulgarian nationality had apparently ceased to exist." Laveleye : The Balkan 
 l'i ninsula, 245, 246. 
 
 2. Subjection of Bulgarian Christians to Greek church. Tyranny 
 of the Greek Patriarchs towards the Bulgarian church. Their polit- 
 ical motives. Acquisition of ecclesiastical autouonay by the Bulgarian 
 church. 1869-70. Laveleye, 249-252. 
 
 3. Insurrection against Turkey, 1876. Cruelty of Turks. See A, 
 §9, ante. How the promises of Turkish Government to Christian 
 nations were performed. (See A, 1, d, and A, 3, b, ante.) 
 
 " The hatti-sheriff of G-ulhani, sent by the Porte to satisfy the demands of the Christian 
 Powers, far from affording any relief to the rayas, only made their fate more terrible. 
 'The only change which resulted,' said Blanqui, 'merely concerned the finances, and was 
 
 directed with the greatest harshness against the Christians The various taxes 
 
 imposed on the rayas were added together, ami represented by a sum which included them 
 all, but did not increase them; but the unfortunate Christians, however, instead of paying 
 once, were compelled to pay them two or three times. The collectors pretended that they 
 had not received the taxes which the people asserted they had really paid. As they, for 
 the most part, could neither read nor write, they were deceived with receipts which gave 
 smaller sums or fixed earlier dates. Most frequently they had no written receipts, but 
 notches were cut in little bits of wood, always lost or out of the way when they might be 
 useful to a rate-payer; always at hand when they bore witness against him. After all, it 
 was .still the old system of extortion and violence, with hypocrisy added, and a deceptive 
 appearance of legality. That is what the Turkish mind had made of the hatti-sheriff, an 
 
 atrocious deception Now, in Turkey, those who are behindhand with their 
 
 taxes have soldiers sent to live in their homes. These soldiers install themselves in the rate- 
 payer's house day and night, rummage everywhere, use everything as if it was their personal 
 
 property, ami leave the inhabitants no peace Europe does not sufficiently 
 
 understand that at the present time there is not a single Christian woman whose honor is 
 not at the mercy of the first Mussulman whom she has the misfortune to please! Europe 
 does not know that the Turks enter a Christian's house whenever they like and take what- 
 ever pleases them; that a complaint is more dangerous than resistance; and that the 
 simplest quarters given to the lowest men in the most benighted countries would be 
 immense favors to the inhabitants of Bulgaria." Lavi leye, 294-296. 
 
 4. Great Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano. Midler, 546. 
 
 5. Congress of Berlin (1878) recognizes Bulgaria as self-governing 
 " principality under the suzerainty of the Sultan." Annual tribute 
 (on paper). People to ordain Constitution, and to elect a Prince, 
 suliject to the approval of the Sultan and of the Great Powers. 
 
 a. No prince of European reigning house eligible. 
 
 b. East Roumelia, with an autonomous administration and a 
 Christian governor-general, left under the control of the 
 Sultan. Mutter, 551, 552. 
 
84 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 6. 1879, Constituent Assembly of Bulgaria, under Russian auspices. 
 a. Liberal constitution. Single legislative chamber, the So- 
 branje. 
 /;. Alexander of Battenberg chosen Prince. Laveleye, 253. 
 
 c. Separate organization of East Roumelia by Turkish gov- 
 ernment, under foreign pressure. Mutter, 557, 55s. 
 
 d. Radical or anti-Russian sentiment in the Sobranje. Rus- 
 sian intrigues to keep Bulgaria weak. Tyranny of Russian 
 envoys. Laveleye, 255, 25G. Contemp. Rev., Nov., 1886, 
 pp. 609-615. Compulsory obedience of Alexander to orders 
 from St. Petersburg: suspension of the Constitution, 1881- 
 83. Laveleye, 254. 
 
 e. Prince Alexander rebels against Russian dictation and joins 
 the National Bulgarian party, 1883. Hostility of Russia. 
 Contemp. Rev., Oct., 1886, pp. 501-508. 
 
 7. Revolution in East Roumelia, Sept. 17, 1885. Union with 
 Bulgaria under Alexander proclaimed. 
 
 8. Defensive and successful war against Servia, 1885. Russian 
 intrigues to ruin both Bulgaria and Servia. 
 
 9. Aug. 20, 1886, Russian plot. Prince Alexander abducted. 
 His return and resignation, Sept. 7. Contemp. Rev., Oct., 1886, pp. 
 583-591. 
 
 a. Provisional regency. 
 
 b. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople, 1887. 
 r. Russian candidate, Nicholas of Mingrelia. 
 
 d. Sobranje elects Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg. July 7, 1887, 
 who accepts. Fortnightly Rev., July, 1888, pp. 39-56. 
 
 e. Attitude of the Powers towards Bulgaria ; persistent hos- 
 tility of Russia. 
 
 10. Continued efforts by Russian agents to ruin Bulgarian inde- 
 pendence, 1887-92. Pauitza plot, 1890, to kill Prince Ferdinand 
 and overthrow the government ; inspired directly from Russia. Ben- 
 dereff conspiracy to kill Stambouloff, and seize the reins of power, 
 1891 ; plots frustrated and conspirators punished ; more will follow. 
 
 11. Premier Stambouloff visits Constantinople and is received by 
 the Sultan, 1892. Russian wrath. 
 
 12. Government. Form of a constitutional monarchy. Princely 
 title hereditary. Responsible ministry. National Assembly (Sobranje) 
 "elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rating of one member 
 
The Eastern Question. 85 
 
 to every 10.000 of the population, ' counting both sexes.'" States- 
 man's Tear Book, 1892, p. 1030. 
 
 13. Political Parties: 
 
 a. Governmental, anti-Russian. Stambouloff. 
 
 b. Opposition. pro-Russian, Zankoff, Karaveloff ; reasons why 
 many of the Bulgarian clergy favor Russia. 
 
 c. Strength of nationality. Fortnightly Rev., July, 1888, 
 pp. 53-56. 
 
 d. Influence of Robert College. 
 
 14. Railway connections. Baron Hirsclis Railway, Fortnightly 
 Rev., Aug.. 1888, pp. 229-239. 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 The Present Empire of the Ottoman Turks. The Eastern 
 
 Question. 
 
 Additional References: ./. M. Bugbee: The Eastern Question 
 Historically Considered, Fortnightly Rev., vol. 40 (1886), 563- 
 567. Sit R- Roberts: Asia Minor and the Caucasus. W. G. 
 Palgrave: Central and Eastern Arabia. F. R. Wingate : 
 Mahdiism and the Egyptian Soudan. Greek Settlements and 
 Jewish Colonies in Asia Minor, Spectator, Feb. 8, 1890. The 
 Levant of To-Day, Spectator, Oct. 10, 1891. The Armenian 
 Debate, Spectator, July 18, 1891. 
 
 1. Government and Administration. 
 
 Area (including nominally dependent States of Bulgaria, Bosnia, 
 and Herzegovina), in Europe, Asia, and Africa, 1^ m. sq. mi.; popul., 
 over 33 m. Under the actual rule of the Sultan in Europe there are 
 only about 4 m. of people, Turks, Greeks, and Albanians chiefly, and 
 in about equal proportions- 
 
80 
 
 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 a. Fundamental laws based on the Koran, the Multeka, sup- 
 posed sayings of Mohammed and his immediate successors, 
 and the "Canon Nameh," edicts of the Sultans. 
 
 b. Authority ; Sultan's will absolute ; Head of State and 
 Church alike; in latter capacity claims to be the Caliph 
 (/. e., successor of Mohammed) of the Mohammedan world ; 
 dignity acquired from last Egyptian Caliph, 1517. Succes- 
 sion usually to the oldest male relative of the last Sultan. 
 The Harem a State institution. 5,000 individuals consti- 
 tute Court ami Harem, absorbing all revenues of the State. 
 
 c. Grand Vizier appointed by Sultan at head of administration, 
 President of Divan, or Imperial Council of Ministers. 
 
 d. Country divided into vilayets (vali, or Governor-General, 
 with Council), provinces, districts, and municipalities. En- 
 tire civil service dependent on central power. " Birth con- 
 fers no privilege, as all true believers are equal in the eye of 
 the law." Statesman's Tear Hook, 524. 
 
 e. Sheik-ul-Islam (Elder of Islam), appointed by Sultan, at 
 head of religious administration ; chief of the Ulemas, 
 interpreters of law and Koran. Religious administration 
 includes — 
 
 (1) Ulemas proper, chief religious and legal functionaries. 
 
 (2) Mollahs and kadis (judges and magistrates). 
 
 (3) Muftis, theologians and expounders of the Koran. 
 
 (4) Imams, ministers of worship. 
 
 (5) Sottas, theological students. 
 
 (G) Hadjis and dervishes, i. e., pilgrims and monks. 
 
 2. Religion and education. Under actual Turkish rule in Pmrope 
 and Asia together, excluding Africa and the tributary Christian 
 States of Europe, Mohammedans, 16 m. ; Christians, over 5 m. An- 
 nual pilgrimages to Mecca, 82,356 in 1891. Education in control of 
 muftis. Foreign missions aud schools exert principal influence upon 
 Christian peoples of the empire, not upon Turks. 
 
 3. Finance and taxation. Country bankrupt since 1875. Excise 
 taxes in hands of a commission of creditors since 1881 ; other reve- 
 nues mortgaged. National debt, permanent deficit. English loans. 
 Vakoufs, church lands ; f of the urban property of the empire is of 
 this character, but most of it has been illegally seized and retained by 
 government officials. Laveleye, 317-321. Different forms of land 
 tenure. Statesman's Tear Book, 1892, p. 1024. 
 
The Eastern Question. 87 
 
 4. Local government under Turkish empire. 
 
 a. Egypt, prior to 1884. included the Soudan, down to the 
 region of equator. Area of present principality, about 
 10,000 sq. mi.; popul., 6.8 m. Khediviate hereditary in 
 family of Mehemet Ali since 1841, on condition of annual 
 tribute. Tewfik Pasha, Khedive, 1879-92. Rebellion of 
 Arabi Pasha, 1882, to drive out foreigners, and establish 
 National Assembly. 
 
 Withdrawal of France. England occupies the country, 
 1882. Constitution of 1883; the joint control of England 
 and France (1879-83) abolished, and England became solely 
 responsible. Small English army of occupation. Sergeant's 
 Government Year Book, 1888, pp. 588-592. The Baggaras, 
 native Arab tribe of the Soudan, provoked by stoppage of 
 the slave trade, and relying on* disaffection caused by mis- 
 government of Egyptian governors, lead a revolt, headed by 
 Moslem fanatic (El Mahdi), and drive the Egyptians out of 
 the Soudan, 1883-84. Gen. Gordon killed at Khartoum, a 
 sacrifice to Gladstone's lack of decision. Abolition of forced 
 peasant labor, 1887. Our 7 ash in Egypt ; Fortnightly 
 Review, Nov., 1888, p. 629. Egypt and the English Occu- 
 pation ; Revue des JJenx Morales, tome 90, pp. 654, 890. 
 Marvellous improvement of Egypt under English supervis- 
 ion ; justice in the courts, the peasantry no longer plun- 
 dered and maltreated, desert lands reclaimed by irrigation. 
 Peaceful accession of Khedive Abbas, 1892. 
 
 b. Samos. Limited local control since 1832. Prince (a 
 Greek) appointed by Sultan, and Council of four Greeks. 
 
 c. Christians of Mt. Lebanon, in Syria, under a Governor of 
 their own faith since 1864. 
 
 d. Crete has a National Assembly in which both Christians 
 and Mohammedans are represented. 
 
 A. The Eastern Question. 
 The disposal of the territories of the important Mohammedan states. 
 1. The question of Turkey in Europe. 
 
 a. The race question. Greeks, Turks, Albanians, Bulgarians, 
 Serbs, Roumaus. Lareleye, ch. x. 
 
 b. Claims of Greece. Fortn. Rev., vol. 40 (1886), pp. 404-413. 
 
 c. Aspirations of Russia : 
 
88 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 (1) To control the Black Sea, and to reach the Egean either 
 by exercising Protectorates, or by direct possession. 
 
 (2) To unite Slav races under the sway of Orthodox Church 
 and Orthodox Czar. 
 
 d. Interests of Austria-Hungary, to be the dominant power in 
 the peninsula. 
 
 e. Ecclesiastical influences ; rivalry of Eastern Orthodoxy and 
 Roman Catholicism. 
 
 f. Possibility of a Balkan Confederation. Laveleye, 330-335. 
 
 g. What are the interests of England ? 
 2. The Asiatic question. 
 
 a. Russia's advance upon Asia Minor. (See Lecture VII, B.) 
 Objective points, the Persian Gulf and the Bosphorus. Fate 
 of Persia. The advance through Circassia, 1799—1878. 
 The advance through Turkestan, or Central Asia, 1846, 
 1860-84 (Merv and Bokhara) -1887 (Afghan frontier). 
 
 b. Claims of Greeks and Armenians. Laveleye, 321-323. 
 
 c. The mountaineers of Asia Minor. 
 
 d. The English in Cyprus. MMer,552. Hazell, 1888. Fort- 
 nightly Review, vol. 40, 1886, pp. 372-387. 
 
 e. Interests of European governments (France, Russia) in 
 Palestine. Fortnightly Review, 1882, p. 427 ; 1883, p. 227. 
 
 f. Independent Arabia. Beni Shammar, Nejd, Oman. Pal- 
 grave, ch. viii. Fortnightly Review, vol. 33, 1880, p. 141 ; 
 Feb., 1884, p. 11)1 ; Arab rebellion in Yemen, 1892. 
 
 y. Religious sympathies of Arabs. Dislike of Turks ; possi- 
 ble influence of the Shereef of Mecca. Stanford's Com- 
 pendium, Keane : Asia, 135, 136. 
 
 h. The English at Aden ; occupied in 1838. Keane, 138-140. 
 
 i. Trade routes; Keane, 140-142; beginnings of railways, 
 Hazell, 1892, p. 0'.)7. Railway from Jaffa to Jerusalem 
 completed, 1892. 
 
 The railway policy of the Ottoman government has resulted so far in the projection of 
 three trunk lines through the northern and central portions of the Sultan's Asiatic domin- 
 ions. These lines embrace a railway from Haidar Pasha, — a suburb of Constantinople, — 
 running right through the heart of Asia Minor, and thence down to the Tigris valley, Bag- 
 dad, and the Persian Gulf, the object being to link the latter gulf with the waters of the 
 <! olden Horn ; the second, a line from Samsoun, on the Black Sea, southward to Ayas, on 
 the Mediterranean Sea, and so link together the Black and Mediterranean Seas ; third, to 
 connect the Mediterranean Sea through Damascus and the Euphrates Valley with the 
 Persian Gulf. The first line has been undertaken by a German company, which has already 
 carried the line to Angora, 440 miles inland from Constantinople. A Belgian company 
 holds the concession for the second line, and has already completed the survey of the first 
 portion. The third line is in possession of an English company, whose operations have 
 
German Confederations and Prussia. 89 
 
 already reached the point of actual construction, and this line, which passes through Syria 
 and the Euphrates valley, will form part of the shortest route to India. London Times, 
 Nov. 11, 1892, p. 8. 
 
 3. The Eastern question in Africa. 
 
 a. Fate of the old Barbary States : Algiers nominally subject, 
 1516; conquered by France, 1830. Tunis, nominally sub- 
 ject, 1531 ; conquered by France, 1881-82. Tripoli, and 
 the hopes of Italy. 
 
 b. Egypt virtually independent of Turkey since 1841 ; polit- 
 ical importance of Suez canal ; the Red Sea route. 
 
 c. Feeling of Arabs and African Mohammedans towards the 
 Ottoman Turk. Soudanese sects and fraternities. Doctrine 
 of a Mahdi. Cf. Lect. XXIV. 
 
 (I. Success of Mohammedan missions in Africa. E. W. Blyden : 
 Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race (2d ed.), 199, 277, 
 350. Canon Taylor: The Great Missionary Failure, Fort- 
 nightly Review, Oct., 1888. 
 
 e. Arabians and the slave trade in the Soudan. The English 
 at Suakim. (Lecture XXIV.) The Italians at Massowa 
 and the French at Obock. 
 
 4. The future of Islam and the Caliphate. Fortnightly Review, 
 vol. 3G, 1881, pp. 204, 315, 441, 585 ; vol. 37, 1882, p. 32. See also 
 Blyden. 
 
 LECTURE XV. 
 
 German Confederations and the Growth of Prussia. 
 
 References: S. Baring- Gould : Genua ny, Bast and Present. 
 S. Baring-Gould : Germany. James Sime : History of Ger- 
 many (Freeman's Historical Course). Moritz Busch: Our 
 Chancellor. J. R. Seeley : Life and Times of Stein (Tauch- 
 nitz ed.). M. Grant Duff: Studies in European Politics, chs. 
 iv, v. Sidney Whitman : Imperial Germany. G. Krause : 
 
90 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 The Growth of German Unity. Jul. Braatz : Deutsche Reichs- 
 tag in Wort und Bild. Charles Lowe: Life of Prince Bis- 
 marck, 2 vols. H. von Sybel: The Founding of the German 
 Empire, 5 vols. G. Burnett Smith : Will in m I and the Ger- 
 man Empire. W. Riiston: The War for the Rhine Frontier, 
 3 vols. 
 In 1806 the German empire came to an end; Francis II, Emperor 
 of Germany, forced by Napoleon, resigned and retired to govern his 
 own inheritance, Austria, under the title of Emperor of Austria. New 
 confederation formed. Lodge, 592. Sime : History of Germany, 202. 
 
 I. 1806-15, Confederation of the Rhine, composed of 1 6 states 
 which were induced to unite by Napoleon under promise of cessions 
 of conquered territory from the rest of Germany. Lodge, 592-595. 
 The mediatized princes. Fyjfe, I, 295. 
 
 II. 1815-66. The Germanic Confederation, 39 states, under the 
 hegemony of Austria. See Lects. X-XI. Lodge, 637, 669, 687. 
 Mutter, 7-9. Sime: Germany, 209. Gould: Germany, 166. Stipu- 
 lations of the Federal Act. Grant Duff, 258, 259. 
 
 1. Influence of French revolutionary epoch upon Germany, espe- 
 cially after the defeat by Napoleon, 1806-07. Feudal customs and 
 laws displaced ; sentiment of nationality aroused by French victories; 
 desire to free Germany; first, from the invader; second, from her 
 former tyrants. Prussia, worst beaten by France, shows greatest 
 power of recuperation. 
 
 a. The Prussian Ministers, Stein and Hardenberg. McCarthy, 
 II. 348. 
 
 b. Reforms introduced into Prussia about 1810. Lodge, 605- 
 608. Former social system. Fyffe, I, 33, 34. 
 
 (1) Abolition of serfdom and prerogatives of feudal nobility. 
 Lodge. Seeley, II, 18-31. 
 
 (2) Abolition of trade guilds. 
 
 (3) Abolition of all restrictions to right of property in land. 
 
 (4) More equal distribution of taxes. 
 
 (5) Compulsory education. McCarthy, II, 481. 
 
 (6) Introduction of the Landwehr system. 
 
 2. Increase of Prussian territory at Congress of Vienna, 1815. 
 Ploetz, 482, 483. Character of King Frederic William III, 1797- 
 1840. Miiller, 10. Relative positions of Austria and Prussia; domi- 
 nation of Metternich ; question of Alsace-Lorraine. See Lects, X-XI. 
 Fyffe, II, 60-74. 
 
German Confederations and Prussia. 91 
 
 a. In 1815 the King promised the people a constitution ; oppo- 
 sition of Metternich and reactionary party, so that the pledge 
 was not fulfilled. Lodge, 630-637. Mailer, 3-5, 9. Fyffe, 
 II, 121-125. Sime, 221. 
 
 b. The Burschenschaft, or student fraternity ; murder of Kot- 
 zebue and consequent suppression of the association. 1819. 
 Lodge. 638. Muller, 13-17. Fyffe, II, 127-129, 139-142. 
 
 c. Formation of the Zollverein, 1828— 36. Industrial and com- 
 mercial union of central and south German States, under 
 leadership and protection of Prussia. Muller, 164, 165; 
 318.319. Fyffe, II, 406. 
 
 " The idea of a uniform system of customs for the German States, first suggested at the 
 Congress of Vienna in 1815, was acted upon by the government of Prussia, which abol- 
 ished all distinctions of customs throughout its territories. May 26, IMS, an( j invited 
 other governments to unite for a similar purpose. The invitation was generally accepted, 
 and the result was the formation of the Zollverein, by which internal trade was freed from 
 all restrictions, and a uniform system of duties agreed on for those states that joined it." 
 Ewald, 84. 
 
 3. 1837, dissolution of union between England and Hanover 
 (1714-1837) ; accession of reactionary King Ernest in Hanover ; rela- 
 tions with Prussia and south German States. Muller, 162, 163. 
 
 4. Frederic William IV, 1840-57, visionary ; 1857, gave way to a 
 regency; died, 1861. Grant L)/iff, 202-206. Hopes of reform; 
 disappointment. Lodge, 688. Muller, 165-168. Fyffe, II, 496-49*. 
 
 a. -Royal Patent" of 1847. 
 
 (1) Landtag or Central Diet assembled at Berlin. Lodge, 
 688-690. Muller, 168. Fyffe, II, 498, 502. Sime, 233. 
 
 " Prussia herself had no parliament of the whole monarchy until 1847; up to that year 
 there had been only local • Landes Stande,' estates or diets for the several provitices. The 
 liberal party had two objects to struggle for, — the establishment or extension of free insti- 
 tutions in the several states, and the attainment of national unity. . . . Now, in Ger- 
 many, such liberties hail not been known since primitive times ; and there were few seri- 
 ous practical grievances to be complained of . From the time of Frederick the Great the 
 country had been well and honestly administered; conscience was free, trade and indus- 
 try were growing, taxation was not heavy, the press censorship did not annoy the ordinary 
 Citizen, and the other restraints upon personal freedom were only those to which the sub- 
 jects of all the Continental monarchies had been accustomed. The habit of submission 
 was strong; and there existed in most places a good deal of loyalty, irrational perhaps, 
 but not therefore the less powerful, towards the long-descended reigning houses. It was 
 therefore hard for the liberals to excite their countrymen to any energetic and concerted 
 action; and when the governments thought fit to repress their attempts at agitation, this 
 could be harshly done with little fear of the consequences. 
 
 " It was therefore only through the carefully-guarded press, and occasionally in social or 
 literary gatherings, that appeals to the nation could be made, or the semblance of an agi- 
 tation kept up. There was no point to start from; and it was all aspiration and nothing 
 more; and so this movement, to which so many of the noblest hearts and intellects of Ger- 
 many devoted themselves (though the two greatest stood aloof), made during many years 
 little apparent progress." James Bryce : Holy Iioman Empire, 415-417. 
 
92 
 
 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 b. Development of political parties. 
 
 (1) Liberals; free institutions; peaceful foreign policy. 
 " Prussia Germanized, and not Germany Prussianized." 
 
 (2) Conservative ; aristocratic, opposed to changes, support- 
 ers of the Metternich policy ; warlike and ambitious. 
 
 (3) Junkers. Milller, 306. Grant Dvff, 214-216, 243-245. 
 
 c. Bismarck. Lodge, 708, 727-730, 737, 751. Midler, 306- 
 332, 445-448. 460, 466, 550. 568, 632-639, 645-651. Mc- 
 Carthy, II, 246, 504, 508, 509, 606. Sime, 245. For a 
 sketch of Bismarck in his private life, — Busch: Our Chan- 
 cellor, II, ch. 7. Grant Dvff, 233-235. 
 
 " Distinguished for the acuteness of his political diagnosis, of unbending will, an ardent 
 enthusiast for Prussian and German greatness, at the age of forty-seven he already had a 
 checkered career behind him. In the United Landtag of 1847 he was the leader of the 
 extreme right, and distinguished himself by his determined opposition to a national assem- 
 bly and a constitution. He accepted for his party the nickname ' Junker,' and replied to his 
 opponents : ' Be assured that we for our part will bring the name of Junker to respect and 
 honor.' As delegate to the Diet of Frankfurt, in 1851, lie had an opportunity to observe 
 Austria's influence over the second-rate and lesser German states, and to appreciate thor- 
 oughly Prussia's false position. Hitherto, in Junker fashion, he had overflowed with praise 
 of Austria, but now ' there fell from his eyes as it had been scales,' as he himself said, and 
 from that time he stood forward as her open and secret adversary. That he might not be 
 compromised by Bismarck's sympathy for the cause of Italy, the King transferred him to 
 St. Petersburg, as ambassador, in 1859. In 1862 he became ambassador at Paris, and had a 
 chance to study his future rival, Napoleon. His words in the Budget committee attracted 
 universal attention: 'Prussia must collect its strength for the favorable moment, which 
 has already been several times allowed to pass. Prussia's borders arc nut adapted to sound 
 health in the political body. It is not by speeches and resolutions of majorities that the 
 great questions of the times are to be decided,— that was the mistake of 1840 and 1845, — 
 but by blood and iron." Muller, 306, 307. 
 
 d. Prussia joins in European Revolution of 1848. Overthrow 
 of the Metternich system. Frederic William IV goes with 
 the tide. " Henceforward Prussia takes the lead in Ger- 
 many." Muller, 226-230. 
 
 e. Constitution of 1849-50. "By this step Prussia entered 
 the ranks of modern constitutional States." 
 
 f. Desire of Diet of Germanic Confederation (28 States) to 
 revive German Empire under Prussian King. Fierce oppo- 
 sition of Austria and south German States. Frederic 
 "William IV refuses imperial crown, 1849; desires no 
 "crown that will horribly pollute the bearer with carrion 
 smell of Revolution of 1848." Muller, 230-232. 
 
 g. Schleswig-Holstein, and the desire of the German Liberals 
 for national unity. Prussia outwitted and brow-beaten by 
 Austria, Russia, and England. Muller, 213, 218, 219, 
 245-25.",. 
 
German Confederations and Prussia. 93 
 
 5. William I. Regent, 1857-61 ; King, 1861-88 ; Emperor of 
 Germany. 1871-88. Milller, 273. Military reforms. Midler, 304, 
 30"). Promotion of Otto Vou Bismarck-Schoenhausen ; definite and 
 vigorous policy. Grant Duff, 233, 234. Whitman, 116—125. 
 
 a. Prussia's commanding attitude in Germany in 1859. Sime, 
 244. Micller, 283-286. 
 
 b. Austria repelled in attempts to enter and control the Zoll- 
 verein,1853, 1864. Milller, 272,318,319. Busch, 291-293. 
 
 c. Revival of Liberal -Democratic party of 1848 in Prussiaand 
 Germany (Fortschritts Partei), L859-62. Grant Duff, 
 228-233. 
 
 d. Lassalle creates the Social-Democratic party. Baring- 
 Gould: History of Germany, 410-411. 130-437. Laveleye: 
 Socialism of Today, ch. v. 
 
 e. Constitutional conflict between the ministry (Bismarck) and 
 the lower house of the Prussian Landtag, 1862-G6. Mid- 
 ler, 307. 
 
 f. The Schleswig-Holstein difficulty, 1863-65. Sime, 246- 
 249. Midler. 309-325. Prussia and Austria drive the 
 Danes from the duchies. 1S64. 
 
 g. Difficulty results in Prusso-Austrian War of 1866. Causes: 
 
 (1) Rivalry for possession of duchies of Schleswig-Holstein. 
 
 (2) Ambition of each state to he supreme in Germany. 
 Austria to keep the supremacy, Prussia to win it. 
 
 (3) Success of Prussia with the Zollverein. 
 
 (4) Opposition of two systems of government. Prussia 
 more liberal : Austria, the Metternich system. South 
 German State-, together with Hanover, Saxony, Hesse- 
 Cassel, and Nassau, side with Austria; the remainder 
 with Prussia; Italy also the ally of Prussia. 
 
 h. Sadowa (Koeniggratz), duly 3, 1866; destruction of the 
 Austrian power. Midler. 326-366. 
 
 i. Peace of Prague, Aug. 23, 1866. Austria excluded from 
 Germany. End of Germanic Confederation declared, 
 Aug. 24, 1866. South German States recognize hegemony 
 of Prussia. Sime. 255. Baring- Gould. 167. 
 
 j. Annexation to Prussia of Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, 
 Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfurt. Lodge. 726-730. 
 Midler, 367. McCarthy, II, 244-247. Sime, 255. 
 
94 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 III. 1866-71, North German Confederation. Lodge, 730, 731. 
 Milller, 368. 22 states in this alliance; Bavaria, Baden, 
 and Wurtemberg, states south of the Main, were excluded, 
 but were hound by secret treaties to Prussia, and in 1867 
 joined the Zollverein. 
 
 1. The constitution of the Confederation. 
 
 a. Military forces were consolidated under the leadership of 
 Prussia. 
 
 b. King of Prussia as President of the Confederation was 
 vested with the control of foreign affairs, and also with the 
 right of declaring war and peace with the consent of the 
 federal Parliament. 
 
 c. All legislation for revenue for federal objects transferred to 
 the control of the Parliament. 
 
 d. Parliament consisted of — 
 
 (1) Bundesrath or council of 43 members, of which Prussia 
 was entitled to 17 ; this represented the governments. 
 Midler, 379, 383. 
 
 (2) Reichstag, or popular branch, elected by manhood suf- 
 frage. Mutter, 378-383, 368, 381. 
 
 2. The Luxemburg Question, 1867. Mutter, 370, 371. 
 
 3. Strength of desire for German unity among the south German 
 States, 1866-70. Particularism in ultramontane Bavaria and Hesse, 
 and in democratic Wurtemberg. National feeling in Baden. Midler, 
 376-388. 
 
 a. Historical basis for the German demand for the left bank 
 of the Rhine. 
 
 4. War of Prussia with France, 1870. Uprising of the south Ger- 
 mans ; demand for German unity. McCarthy, 11,503-505. Lodge, 
 734-737. Miiller, 409-460. Sime, 256-264. 
 
 a. Bismarck was intent upon humbling France and consolidating the power of 
 Prussia, but the rapid formation of the German empire under Prussian leader- 
 ship was probably due chiefly to the Crown Prince Frederic, to King Louis of 
 Bavaria, and to the Grand Duke of Baden. 
 
 5. First peril of the new empire, the enmity of the Roman Catho- 
 lic hierarchy in Europe; reasons for the enmity. Struggle called 
 " The Culturkampf," 1871. Its beginnings. Jesuits expelled from 
 the empire in 1872, and other religious orders in 1873. Mutter, 
 165, 166. The May Laws enacted in Prussia, 1873-74, afterwards 
 partly extended throughout the empire by the Reichstag. 
 
 a. Church officers cannot inflict social or civil penalties. 
 
German Confederations and Prussia. 95 
 
 b. Priests must have a secular as well as clerical education. 
 
 c. Performance of ecclesiastical duties must be authorized by 
 the state. 
 
 d. State officers shall inspect all public and private schools. 
 
 e. 1<S74, compulsory civil marriage and registration laws. 
 Milller, 499-503, 631-636. Gould, ch. x. 
 
 0. Government of Prussia, hereditary monarchy; since 1850, con- 
 stitutional. 
 
 a. Ministry appointed by King, and not responsible to the 
 legislature. The ministry has ten departments and a presi- 
 dent. 
 
 b. Legislature, the Landtag, two chambers. First, the Ilerren- 
 haus, composed of Hohenzollern princes, heads of 16 princely 
 houses (mediatized), heads of territorial nobility (about 50), 
 life-peers, 8 noblemen elected in the 8 provinces to represent 
 land-owners, representatives of universities, burgomasters of 
 large cities, and an unlimited number of members nominated 
 by King. 
 
 Second, the Abgeordnetenhaus, — 4.32 members, — chosen 
 by an electoral college, which represents the great body of 
 voters in ratio of 1 to 250. 
 
 c. Character of the Hohenzollerns ; their importance in Prus- 
 sian history. Eulogistic view in Whitman, ch. iv. 
 
 (1) Was Bismarck or the Emperor Frederic III the real 
 
 founder of a united German Empire ? Diary of the 
 
 Emperor Frederic; Pall Mall Budget, Oct. 4, 1888, pp. 
 
 24-31. The Morier Incident. N. Y Nation. Jan. 10, 
 
 1889, p. 25. 
 
 7. Conservative character of local Prussian politics, due to the 
 
 pecuniary basis of the suffrage. Dominance of the larger tax payers. 
 
 Statesman's Year Book, 1892, 607, 608. Radical (socialistic) control 
 
 of large cities, as Berlin. 
 
96 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 LECTURE XVI 
 
 The German Empire, 1871-. 
 
 References : Of especial value are //. von Sybel: The Founding of 
 the German Empire, 5 vols. G. Krause : The Growth of Ger- 
 man Unity. Frenzel and Mende : Deutschland's Kolonien, 
 
 1889, or Ch. Demay : Histoire de hi Colonisation Allemande, 
 
 1890. The German Emperor as State Socialist, Spectator, 
 Feb. 8, 1890. The Ideas of the German Emperor, Spectator, 
 Feb. 22, 1890. William II, Contemp. Rev., April, 1892, 457- 
 471. The Statesmen of Europe, Germany, LittelVs Living 
 Age, Vol. LXXX, 242-247. W. H. Dawson : German Social- 
 ism and Ferdinand Lassalle. W. H. Dawson : Bismarck and 
 State Socialism. 
 
 Area, 211,196 sq. mi. ; equal to Colorado and Nevada joined; 
 popul. (1890), 49 in. Area of foreign colonial dependencies, 933,150 
 sq. mi. ; popul., about 5^- m. 
 
 1. Irresistible current of public opinion in soutb Germany in 1871, 
 in favor of unity with North German Confederation. Influence of 
 war with France promotes patriotism ; the States of Baden and 
 Bavaria take, the initiative. Muller, 460-468. Proclamation of the 
 new empire, and of the new imperial dignity of William, King of 
 Prussia, was made at Versailles, Jan. 1 and 18, 1871. William I was 
 elected to be German Emperor by the vote of the Reichstag of the 
 North German Confederation, on the united suggestion of the reign- 
 ing princes in Germany. 
 
 2. Constitution of the German empire, April 16, 1871. By the 
 terms of the constitution, the states of Germany formed an eternal 
 union under the supreme direction in political and military affairs of 
 the King of Prussia, who, as such, bears the title of " Deutscher 
 Kaiser." Lodge, 737. Muller, 463-467. Sime, 267. Baring-Gould : 
 Germany, 168-170. 
 
 a. The Emperor (Kaiser) represents the nation internation- 
 ally, can declare defensive war, can make peace and treaties ; 
 
The German Empire, 1871—. 
 
 97 
 
 to declare offensive war, the Kaiser must have consent of the 
 federal council. Lodge, 737. Miiller, 403-467. 
 The Bnndesrath, or federal council ; 58 members. 
 
 (1) Represents the governments, and appointed by them. 
 
 (2) May propose legislation, and exercises usual powers of 
 an Upper House. 
 
 (3) Controlled by Prussia ; the president of the Bundes- 
 rath is the Imperial Chancellor, who is usually also presi- 
 dent of the Prussian ministry. 
 
 (4) Supreme administrative and consultative board for the 
 empire. Miiller, 382, 383, 463. Baring-Gould, 170-172. 
 
 (5) The Governor of Elsass-Lothringen appoints 4 repre- 
 sentatives of that district who sit in the Bundesrath, but 
 without votes. 
 
 States of the Empire. 
 
 Number of 
 Members in 
 Bundesrath. 
 
 4 
 
 Number of 
 
 Deputies in 
 Reichstag. 
 
 Grand Duchy of Baden ........ 
 
 " " '• Saxe-Weimar 
 
 " " Lippe 
 
 " •• Schwarzburg-Sondershausen .... 
 
 17 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 3 
 
 230 
 48 
 17 
 23 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 . 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 58 
 
 397 
 
 Baring-Gould, 176-178. 
 
 c. The Reichstag, or Diet; 397 members, elected by universal 
 suffrage (ballot) for term of three years. Annual sessions. 
 Emperor can prorogue or dissolve. Confirms, amends, or 
 
98 
 
 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 rejects proposals of Bundesrath. Can draft bills and send 
 them to Bundesrath. Without its consent the state can con- 
 tract no loan. Mailer, 463. Baring- Gould, 172, 173. 
 
 d. Imperial Chancery (Ministry) under control of Imperial 
 Chancellor (Reichskanzler). Ten different departments. 
 " There is no provision in the laws of the Empire for bring- 
 ing the Chancellor to account." Baring- Gould, 173, 174. 
 
 e. Strongly centralized nature of government. The Hohen- 
 zollern prerogatives. Restrictions upon the press. Charac- 
 ters of the three Emperors of 1888, William I, Frederic III, 
 and William II. Busch, II, ch. iv. Milller, 646. Whit- 
 man, chs. v and xiii. 
 
 " In the royal rescript of January 4, 1882, the Emperor, speaking in his character as 
 King of Prussia, says: ' The government acts of the king require the countersignature of a 
 minister, and, as was also the case before the constitution was issued, have to be repre- 
 sented by the king's ministers, but they nevertheless remain government acts of the king, 
 from whose decisions they result, and who thereby constitutionally expresses his will and 
 pleasure. It is, therefore, my will that both in Prussia and in the legislative bodies of the 
 empire there may be no doubt left as to my own constitutional right, and that of my suc- 
 cessors, to personally conduct the policy of my government, and that the theory shall 
 always be gainsaid that the inviolability of the king, which has always existed in Prussia, 
 and is enunciated by article 43 of the constitution, or the necessity of a responsible counter- 
 signature of my government acts, deprives them of the character of royal and independent 
 decisions.' " Milller, 646. 
 
 3. Local governments of Germany. 
 
 a. Three Free Towns — republican. 
 
 b. All other states hereditary and constitutional monarchies, 
 except Mecklenburg-Schwerin, which has yet a feudal con- 
 stitution. 
 
 c. Elsass-Lothringen. Statthalter (Gov.-Gen.) appointed by 
 Emperor, with Council. 
 
 (1) Feeling in Elsass-Lothringen. Miiller, 497, 498. 
 
 4. Reign of the Emperor-King, William I, 1871-88. 
 
 a. Chancellor Bismarck's " League of Peace," the Alliance of 
 Central Europe, 1879, becomes the Triple Alliance of Ger- 
 many, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, 1 8 S 1 . 
 
 (1) Its motives: to push Austria-Hungary eastward and 
 maintain its influence in the Balkans as against Russia, 
 and to hold a check over both Russia and France. 
 
 b. Struggle between the Empire and the Roman Catholic hier- 
 archy, the Culturkampf. Distress of Pope Pius IX over the 
 triumph of Protestant Prussia, and the unification of Ger- 
 many under Prussian leadership. About two-thirds of the 
 population of the empire is Protestant ; one-third, Catholic, 
 
The German Empire^ 1871-. 99 
 
 See Lect. XV, §5. German Catholics formed a political 
 party, known as "The Center"; first leader, Dr. Wind- 
 thorst, of Hanover (died 1890). 
 
 c. Death of Pius IX in 1*77. Change of policy by his suc- 
 cessor, Leo XIII. The Papacy abandons its hope of the 
 French republic, 1878. 
 
 d. Bismarck begins to make peace with the Catholic hierarchy 
 in order to be free to deal with his new foes, the Social- 
 Democrats, 1879-82. 
 
 e. Social-Democracy in Germany. Busch, II, ch. v. Gould, 
 430-437. 
 
 (1) The party formed, 1875-77. Its leaders, Liebknecht 
 and Bebel. Its program. Milder, 637. 
 
 (2) Two attempts on Emperor William's life (1878), Miil- 
 ler, 637, 638, occasioned the severe anti-socialist law, giv- 
 ing the government extraordinary powers of repressing 
 associations. Laws enacted for three years, renewed from 
 time to time, finally allowed to expire in 1890 under 
 Emperor William II. Midler, 638-640. 
 
 (3) Bismarck's attempts to outbid the Social-Democrats for 
 the favor of the workinginen ; the Sickness Insurance Law 
 of 1883, the Accident Insurance Law of 1884, and the 
 Old Age and Infirmity Assurance Law of 1889. Hazed, 
 1890, pp. 650, 651. 
 
 f. Bismarck's industrial policy ; features of state socialism. 
 Adoption of strong protective tariff, 1879. State authorized 
 to purchase railways, 1879. The government's tobacco 
 monopoly. Midler, 643, 644. In general, consult Dawson : 
 Bismarck and State Socialism. 
 
 g. Bismarck's corruption of the press; "the reptile fund." 
 Tyrannical treatment of Socialist and Radical papers ; the 
 proposed Press Law of 1889. 
 
 h. Bismarck's scorn for parliamentary government. Demorali- 
 zation of German parties by his methods of bargaining. 
 Purchase and sale of the " Center " votes, as in the Septen- 
 nate discussion of 1887. 
 5. Reign of the Emperor-King, Frederick III, 1888 (March to 
 June). The new Emperor, dying of cancer in the throat, immediately 
 clashed with Chancellor Bismarck. 
 
 a. Hostility of the Bismarcks to the Empress Victoria. 
 
 b. The Emperor discourages the Anti-Semitic agitation begun 
 in 1879. Milder, 648, 649. 
 
100 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 6. Reign of the Emperor-King, William II, June, 1888-. 
 
 a. Serious dissensions between the Emperor and Chancellor 
 Bismarck caused the hitter's resignation March 18, 1890| 
 due to — 
 
 (1) The Emperor's policy concerning labor questions; the 
 international conference of 18i)0. 
 
 (2) Emperor's disinclination to repressive measures against 
 Social- Democratic party. 
 
 (3) Natural incompatibility of temper. 
 
 b. The new Chancellor, Gen. von Caprivi, 1890-. Bismarck's 
 insolent and factious conduct in retirement. 
 
 c. Germany's share in the partition of Africa. 1890. England 
 takes Zanzibar and cedes Heligoland to Prussia. 
 
 (1) Expansion of the German colonial empire, 1884-. 
 
 (2) The question of Samoa. W. L. Bees: German Conduct 
 in Samoa, Nineteenth Century, Nov., 1888. Robert Louis 
 Stevenson: A Footnote to History ; Eight Years of Trouble 
 in Samoa. 
 
 d. The Triple Alliance renewed for six years, 1891 ; the com- 
 mercial treaties that accompany it. 
 
 e. The great burden of the empire, enforced military service; 
 its necessity. Its influence in stimulating emigration. 
 97,000 emigrants in 1890, of whom 90.000 came to the 
 United States. 
 
 7. Political parties and tendencies. 
 
 a. Account of. Midler, 495-498, 632, 633, 641, 645, 648. 
 
 b. Divisions in the Reichstag elected Feb.. 18!*0: — 
 
 Center (Ultramontane), 117; Elsassers, 15; Poles, 16; 
 German Conservatives, 72 ; Imperialists (Reichspartei), 20; 
 National Liberals, 41 ; German Liberals, 66; Social Demo- 
 crats, 35; Volkspartei, 10. 
 
 r. While Bismarck was Chancellor, or prior to 1890, he relied mainly upon the 
 support of an alliance of parties called " The Cartel," comprising the Conserva- 
 tives, Imperialists, and National Liberals. Bismarck won these National Lib- 
 erals to the Conservative side by his adoption of a protectionist policy , although 
 the party represents the historic Liberal party of Germany. The German 
 Liberals, or Radicals (" Deutsche Freisinnige ") are the present really Liberal 
 party of the Empire ; the leader is Engen Richter. The Volkspartei, or Demo- 
 cratic party, is Socialist-Liberal. The Social- Democrats now (18!)2) show some 
 signs of schism, due to questions of patriotic allegiance and to the Anti-Semitic 
 agitation. The leaders are Bebel, Liebknecht, and Vollmar. Among the Con- 
 servatives there is now a strong tendency to adopt the Anti-Semitic platform. 
 Reasons for this revival of " Jew-baiting." 
 

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102 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 LECTURE XVII 
 
 France, 1815-71, 
 
 A. ruder Royalty, 1814-48: Legitimist Bourbons, Louis XVIII 
 and Charles X, 1814-30; Orleanist Bourbon, Louis Philippe, 1830-48. 
 
 B. Under the second French Republic, 1848-52. 
 
 C. Under the second Empire (Louis Napoleon III), 1852-70. 
 
 D. Under the third Republic, 1870-. Lect. XVIII. 
 
 References : E. W. Latimer: France in the Nineteenth Century 
 (McClurg). Imbert de Saint- Amand : Famous Women of the 
 French Court, a series of 15 vols., including 3 vols, on Marie 
 Antoinette, 3 vols, on Josephine, 4 vols, on Maria Louisa, 
 2 vols, on the Duchess of Angouleme, and 3 vols, on the 
 Duchess of Berry. The Student's History of France. Lebon 
 and Pelet : France as it is. E. Levasseur : La France avec 
 ses Colonies. P. de Remvsat: Thiers (Great French Writers 
 Series, translated by M. B. Anderson). F. T. Marzials : Life 
 of Leon Gambetta (The Statesmen Series). M. Betham- 
 Edwards: France of To- Day. Adolf Ebeling : Napoleon III 
 und sein Hof H. Geffcken: The Colonial Policy of France, 
 New Per., Vol. VI, pp. 723-732. 77ie Religious Question in 
 France. N. T. Nation, Dec. 1, 1892, p. 408. The Situation 
 in Paris, Spectator, Nov. 19, 1892, p. 725. J. F. Elton: 
 With the French in Mexico. J. G. Scott: France and Tong- 
 Mng. A. R. Colquhoun: 77te Truth about Tonquin. 
 
 Area, 204, 177 sq. mi., twice the size of Colorado. Popul. over 38 m. 
 
 Area of colonial possessions, over 3 in. sq. mi. ; popul. over 30 m. 
 
 "The only possessions having commercial importance besides Algeria and Tunis are 
 Cochin-China, the islands of Reunion and Madagascar on the roast of Africa; and Martin- 
 ique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies." Statesman's Year Bank, 1892, p. 508. 
 
 A. Royalty, 1814-48. 
 
 1. Upon the restoration of the Bourbons. (Fyjfe, II, 12-14. Lodge, 
 638-641. Miiiler, 90), a liberal constitution was granted, which pro- 
 vided for — 
 
France, 1815-71. 103 
 
 a. Limited monarchy. Fyffe, IL 15, 16. 
 
 b. Legislative power vested in two, chambers ; the Upper 
 House, or Peers, named by the King, and the Lower House, 
 or Chamber of Deputies, elected by the people. Fyffe, II, 
 14, 15. King alone proposed laws, hut Lower House con- 
 trolled taxation. 
 
 c. Property qualification for suffrage, and responsible ministers. 
 
 d. Freedom of the press, " within the limits necessary to pub- 
 lic tranquillity," and religious toleration. 
 
 e. Land titles not to be disturbed. 
 
 2. Reigns of Louis XVIII and Charles X. Milller, 79-102. 
 "Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bour- 
 geoisie)." Fyffe, U, 14-19, 31-77, 356-368. Lodge, 657-660. 
 
 a. Domination of clerical influence. Ultra Royalists. 
 
 b. Interference in Spain in behalf of Holy Alliance, and 
 against constitutional rule in Spain, 1823. 
 
 c. Conquest of Algiers, 1830. 
 
 3. Revolution of July, 1830 ; " The Three Days." Fyffe, II, 368- 
 381. Lodge, 660-662. Milller, 99-101. 
 
 a. Causes : 
 
 (1) Freedom of the press suppressed. Fyffe, II, 368. 
 
 (2) Representative government restricted; the number of 
 electors limited by raising the suffrage qualification. 
 Fyffe, II. 368. 
 
 (3) Control of the King by the " Congregation " (Jesuit 
 and clerical party). 
 
 (4) Combined influence of Lafayette, Talleyrand, Thiers. 
 
 b. Results : Charles X abdicated ; Duke of Orleans succeeded 
 as Louis Philippe. Milller, 102-112. 
 
 " In comparison with the Revolution of 1789, the movement which overthrew the Bour- 
 bons in 1830 was a mere flutter on the surface. It was unconnected with any great change 
 in men's ideas, and it left no great social or legislative changes behind it. Occasioned by 
 a breach of the constitution on the part of the Executive Government, it resulted mainly 
 in the transfer of administrative power from one set of politicians to another: the altera- 
 tions introduced into the constitution itself were of no great importance. France neither 
 bad an absolute Government before 1830, nor a popular Government afterwards. Instead 
 of a representative of divine right, attended by guards of nobles and counseled by Jesuit 
 confessors, there was now a citizen king, who walked about the streets of Paris with an 
 umbrella under his arm and sent his sons to public schools, but who had at heart as keen a 
 devotion to dynastic interests as either of his predecessors, and a much greater capacity 
 for personal rule. The bonds which kept the entire local administration of France in 
 dependence upon the central authority were not loosened; officialism remained as strong 
 as ever; the franchise was still limited to a mere fraction of the nation." Fyffe, II, 379. 
 
1(14 
 
 Political History Si nee 1815. 
 
 c. Constitution changed. 
 
 (1) Religious sects made equal in the eves of the law. 
 
 (*2) Censorship and all restrictions upon the press abolished. 
 
 (3) Power of the King to suspend laws taken away. 
 
 (4) The privilege of initiative in legislation extended to the 
 Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 4. Parties during the reign of Louis Philippe. 
 
 a. Legitimists, desiring a king of the elder Bourbon family ; 
 their candidate was the grandson of Charles X, the Count of 
 Chambord, also called Henry V. Muller, 173. 
 
 b. Orleanists. or Constitutional Monarchists; England the 
 model ; since the death of Louis Philippe, his grandson, the 
 Comte de Paris, has represented the party. Mutter, 1!)7. 
 
 c. Bouapartists ; in favor of the election of Louis Napoleon, 
 nephew of the great emperor. 
 
 d. Republicans ; in favor of a republic. 
 
 5. Reign of Louis Philippe; causes leading to his overthrow. 
 Fyfe, II. 414-418, 503. Lodge, 672-679, 682-686. Mutter. 186-201. 
 
 a. The laws of September, 1835 (Thiers), to restrict the press, 
 on account of several attacks made upon Louis Philippe ; 
 their unpopularity ; rivalry of Thiers and Guizot. Student's 
 France. 68 G, 688. 
 
 b. Plotting of Louis Napoleon ; 1836, unsuccessful attempt 
 to raise an insurrection among the troops at Strassburg ; 
 goes to America ; 1841, again landed in France; declared 
 himself emperor ; captured and imprisoned for six years. 
 
 c. Failure of the government (Thiers) in its support of the 
 
 ambition of Mehemet Ali, Pasha of Egypt, who attempted 
 
 to make himself independent of Turkey, against the wishes 
 
 of England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, 1840. 
 
 "France proposed that nil Syria and Egypt should be given in hereditary dominion to 
 Mehemet Ali, with no further obligation towards the Porte than the payment of a yearly 
 tribute. The counter-proposal of England was that Mehemet, recognizing the Sultan's 
 authority, should have the hereditary government of Egypt alone, that he should entirely 
 withdraw from all Northern Syria, and hold Palestine only as an ordinary governor ap- 
 pointed by the Porte for his life-time. To this proposition all the Powers, with the excep- 
 tion of France, gave their assent." Fyffe, II, 457. 
 
 d. Charges of avarice on the part of the king ; increased his 
 wealth by business undertakings. 
 
 e. Charge that the government was not sincere in its promise 
 to England with respect to the "Spanish marriages"; this 
 weakened the English alliance. Fyffe, II, 504-506. 
 
France, 1815-71. 105 
 
 f. Foolish return of Napoleon's body to France, 1840. 
 
 ;/. Scarcity and want in US47, which aroused the socialistic 
 classes; Louis Blanc; reform banquets, and attempt of the 
 government (Guizot) to prevent them; riot; abdication of 
 Louis Philippe. Fyffe, II, 506-513. 
 
 "On the one hand were the Legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch 
 of the Bourbons; on the other hand there were the Republicans, who wished to be rid of 
 monarchy altogether. The government of Louis Philippe satisfied neither. It served as a 
 transition, or temporary halting-place, in the progress of France towards the goal of ra- 
 tional and stable republicanism, to which the great revolution tended. It was an ' attempt 
 to put new wine into old bottles.' This inherent weakness of the Orleans rule it would 
 have been difficult by any means to neutralize in such a way as to avert sooner or later a 
 catastrophe. The unbending conservatism of Guizot — as seen in his refusal to extend 
 suffrage — hastened this result. A government over which less than half a million of 
 voters of the middle class alone had an influence could not stand against the republican 
 feeling of the country. The middle class, on which the throne depended, became separated 
 from the advanced party, to which the youth of France more and more rallied. Guizot 
 was personally upright ; but official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of 
 his administration, and briberj was used in the elections. These circumstances, added to 
 the mortification of national pride from the little heed paid to France by the other pow- 
 ers, weakened the throne. The failure of the government to support the cause of liberty 
 in Poland and Italy was another important source of its growing unpopularity." Fisher: 
 Outlines of Universal History , 562. 
 
 15. The Second Repup.lic, 1848-52. 
 
 1. Dissensions between Moderates (Lamartine) and Socialists and 
 Communists (Ledru-Rollin, Louis Blanc). 
 
 a. Constitution. Universal suffrage, single chamber, elected 
 President. 
 
 2. Louis Napoleon chosen President; conflict of parties. The 
 balance of power in the hands of the priesthood. Coup d'etat in 
 1851. Louis Napoleon becomes absolute master of France. The 
 Plebiscite, Lodge, 709—715. Student's France, ch. xxxiii. 
 
 3. Successive changes in the constitution. 
 
 a. Louis Napoleon's appeal to the people, Dec. 20, 1851. 
 The number of recorded votes was 7,439,216 to 646,757 in 
 Napoleon's favor. 
 
 " In the Constitution thus granted to France the form of liberty was maintained, but its 
 spirit was suppressed. It consisted of a Legislative Chamber, a Senate, and Council of 
 State. The Legislative Chamber was to be elected every six years by universal suffrage, 
 and the members of the Senate and the Council of State were to be nominated for life. 
 The President was elected for ten years." Ewald, 125. 
 
 b. Jan. 15, 1852. "The French President promulgated a new 
 constitution ; the whole executive power to be vested in the 
 President, who is to be advised by a state council, a senate 
 of nobles, and a completely powerless legislative assembly, 
 whose transactions at the demand of five members may be 
 secret." Ewald, 125. 
 
106 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 c. Dec. 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon declared "Emperor of the 
 French, by the Grace of God and the Will of the People." 
 
 C. Empire, 1852-71. 
 
 1. Napoleon strengthened his position — 
 
 a. By co-operation with England in the Crimean war. 
 
 b. By assisting Sardinia in ridding Italy of Austrian influence 
 and rule. Acquisition of Savoy and Nice. 
 
 c. Appeared as protector of Papal interests. 1860, French 
 garrison at Rome. 
 
 d. Genera] purposes of his foreign policy. 
 
 2. Power weakened. 
 
 a. Dissatisfaction with his arbitrary rule. 
 
 b. Growing importance and ambition of Prussia, especially 
 after war with Austria, 1866; failure of France in attempt- 
 ing to secure more territory. 
 
 c. Alienation of Italy, by sending French troops in 1867 to 
 keep Garibaldi out of Rome. Midler, 400, 401. 
 
 d. Interference and failure in Mexico, 1861-66. Wells: Study 
 of Mexico. 
 
 3. War with Prussia, 1870-71. Miiller, 409-460. Lodge, 734-736. 
 
 a. Causes : 
 General Causf.s : 
 
 1. " The iflea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by histori- 
 ans, poets, and the daily press, of the re-conquest of the left bank of the Rhine. 
 
 2. " The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political 
 unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, 
 and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an impermissible encroachment upon 
 their own military fame." 
 
 3. Belief of Napoleon and the French that the South Germans would not assist Prussia, 
 and that Austria would seize the opportunity to revenge herself for the events of 1866. 
 
 4. Rapid development among all Germans of a longing for national unity, and conse- 
 quent desire to recover the right bank of the Rhine (Elsass-Lothringen), niched from Ger- 
 many by Louis XIV in the 17th century. 
 
 Special Causes : 
 
 1. " The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. Growth of Constitutional 
 Party. New Constitution, 1870. Clerical control of Napoleon." Miiller, 388-394. 
 
 2. " The rejection of the ' compensation ' demanded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Ber- 
 lin, for the growth of Prussia, in extent and popnlation. 
 
 3. " News of the approaching introduction of an improved weapon for the North German 
 infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot." 
 
 4. Desire of the Prussian rulers to use a French aggression as a means of rallying all 
 German states about Prussia. 
 
 Immediate Cause : 
 "The election of a prince of Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain, which was repre- 
 sented in Paris as a Prussian intrigue, endangering the safety of France. The request 
 made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of King William I, in person, that he 
 should forbid the Prince of Hohenzollern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After 
 
France. The Third Republic. 107 
 
 the voluntary withdrawal of the Prince, the French government looked to the King of 
 Prussia for a distinct announcement 'that he would never again permit the candidacy of 
 the Prince for the Spanish crown.' King William refused to discuss the matter, and re- 
 ferred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin. 
 This, and the telegraphic announcement of the proceeding, was represented by the Due 
 de Gramont as an insult to France." Ploetz, 513. J >■ Remusat: Thiers, 160-176. 
 
 b. Results. MiiUer, 460. 
 
 (1) Capture of Napoleon. Fall of the empire (Sedan), 
 Aug. 31-Sept. 4, 1870. (Death of Louis Napoleon in 
 England, Jan. 9, 1873.) 
 
 (a) Government of National Defence (Gambetta, Favre) 
 proclaims the Third Republic. MiiUer, 439-443. 
 
 (2) Siege and capture of Paris, Jan., 1871. MiiUer, 457. 
 
 (3) General election of a National Assembly (Thiers) to 
 meet at Bordeaux, Feb. 12, 1871. Peace, March 1 and 
 2, 1871. Terms: 
 
 (a) France ceded to German empire Alsace and part of 
 Lorraine (4700 sq. mi. ; popul., 1.5 m.). 
 
 (b) Indemnity of $965 m. within three years ; until then, 
 Prussian occupation. 
 
 LECTURE XVIII. 
 
 D. The Third Republic, 1870-, 
 
 1. Presidential administrations : 
 
 a. Thiers, 1871-73. MiiUer 474, 475. 
 
 b. MacMahon, 1873-79. MiiUer, 475, 476. 
 
 c. Grevy, 1879-87. MiiUer, 620-629. 
 
 d. Sadi-Carnot, 1887-. 
 
 2. Insurrection and overthrow of the Paris Commune, March 18 
 to May 28, 1871. 
 
108 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 ■■ Not until the Commune was suppressed could the French government provide for an 
 orderly and systematic administration of the country. It had before it, at the outset, two 
 aim*, - -in rid the land, as soon as possible, of the German troops, and to improve the army 
 according to the Prussian pattern. As large sums of money were necessary for the attain- 
 ment ni both these aims, a great strain was put upon the taxable strength of the country. 
 The result to be achieved by the increase of the army was not the strengthening of the 
 defensive power of the country .— fur a peaceful France had no assaults to fear,— but a war 
 of revenge against Germany. The lost military glory must lie restored, and the ceded 
 provinces be regained, or compensation taken elsewhere." Mailer, 471. 
 
 8. Strife of parties. Failure of attempt for Bourbon restoration, 
 
 1873. Muller, 474, 475. Royalists help elect MacMahon President 
 
 and establish a republican constitution, intending it to be temporary. 
 
 Muller, 611-613. "We must have a republic because that is the 
 
 government that divides us least." — Titter*. Marzials: Gambetta, 
 
 126-174. 
 
 4. Constitution of 1875. Lebon, 75-84. Levasseur, 835-839. 
 
 a. The Executive ; President of the Republic. 
 
 (1) Elected by National Assembly, composed of Senate and 
 Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 (2) Term of office is seven years; reeligible. 
 
 (3) Powers; among others, initiates legislation concurrently 
 with the two chambers; cannot veto. 
 
 (4) Assisted by Ministers (11 in number), who form the 
 cabinet ; these responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 b. The Legislature; Senate and Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 (1) Senate, 800 members. 
 
 " The election of Senators is by an indirect process. In the first instance, the communes 
 or municipalities of France, large and small, elect by a majority of their members, each 
 one delegate or more, according to population. The delegates, after a lapse of two months, 
 meet together, along with the members of each departmental Council-General, and of each 
 district Council, and also with the deputies of the department who are ex-offlcio senatorial 
 electors, to choose the Senators. No other qualification is required for a Senator than to he a 
 Frenchman, at least forty years of age, hut by the act of 1884 all princes of deposed dynas- 
 ties are precluded from sitting in the Upper House. Generals or admirals on active service 
 are also debarred." Statesman's Tear Book. Senators, except some life members, are 
 chosen for nine years, one third retiring every three years. 
 
 (2) Chamber of Deputies. 
 
 " The Clumdier of Deputies is elected by universal suffrage. Each department forms a 
 single circumscription or electoral district, and chooses deputies in the ratio of one deputy 
 to TO.iiiiO inhabitants, foreigners not included. The total number of deputies is 576,— 560 
 for France, 6 for Algeria, 10 for the colonies. The Chamber of Deputies is elected for the 
 term of four years. The President is hound to convoke them if demand is made by one 
 half the number of members composing each chamber. The President can adjourn the 
 chandlers, hut the adjournment cannot exceed the term of a month, nor occur more than 
 twice in the same session. The Senate has, conjointly with the Chamber of Deputies, the 
 right of initiating and framing laws." Statesman's Year Book. 
 
 5. Elections for Chambers, 1876. Monarchical Senate and Repub- 
 lican House. 
 
France. The Third Republic. 109 
 
 a. Reactionary policy of MacMahon under clerical and royal- 
 ist influence. Gambetta, republican leader. Miiller, 613- 
 617. Appeal to people. Oct. 14, 1877. 
 
 " The bishops also look part in the campaign, and threw the whole weight of their posi- 
 tion on the side of the government. A three days' supplication was decreed for the favor- 
 able issue of the elections, and papal absolution offered to all who rendered assistance to 
 the marshal. The electoral proclamations of the Republicans were for the most part con- 
 fiscated by the prefects of the departments in which they were issued. On the 12th of 
 October, two days before the election, the President issued a second manifesto, in which 
 the voters were appealed to in the following language : ' You will vote for the candidates 
 whom I recommend to your free Choice. Go to the polls without fear. Follow my sum- 
 mons. I myself am your security for the maintenance of peace and order.' The elections 
 resulted in the return of about 320 republicans and 210 royalists, 112 of whom were Bona- 
 partists." Afiiller, 61G, 617. 
 
 6. Jan. 5, 1879, Republicans elect majority of the Senate. Mac- 
 Mahon resigns, Jan. 30. For the first time the Third Republic is in 
 the hands of its friends. Grevy, President. Gambetta, Speaker of 
 the Chamber. Marzials: Gambetta, l7.">-220. 
 
 a. Amnesty to Communards, Blanqui, Rochefort, and "L'ln- 
 transigeant." Midler, 620, 623. 
 
 b. Removal of Legislature from Versailles to Paris. 
 
 c. The Culturkampf (Jules Ferry). Secularization of educa- 
 tion. Miiller, 621, 622, 625. Lebon, 142-145. 
 
 7. Demoralizing effect on Bouapartist party of death of Prince 
 Imperial, .June 1, 1879. Miiller, 629, 630. Leadership devolves on 
 " Pion-Plou " and his son; see genealogy of the Bonapartes, p. 101. 
 
 8. Acquisition of Tunis, 1881-82. Lebon, 290-295. 
 
 a. Political motives of French colonial policy. Miiller, 625- 
 627. 
 
 9. Scrutin de liste vs. scruiin d'arrondissement. Lebon, 78. Elec- 
 tions by si- rut hi de liste adopted 1885 ; abolished, 1889, in order to 
 prevent a Boulangist plebiscite. Death of Gambetta, Dec. 31, 1882. 
 
 10. Claims upon Madagascar, 1882-85. Lebon, 307-310. I). 
 WiUoughby: French Aggression in Madagascar, Fortnightly Review, 
 
 March, 1887, p. 432. 
 
 11. The Tonquiu War, 1882-84. 
 
 a. Early history of Anam and Tonquin. In 200, B.C., Chinese 
 invaded Farther India, and conquered a large portion of it. 
 For 1000 years Anam a part of Chinese empire. In 1418 
 a revolt occurred and the Chinese power overthrown. In 
 1674 the kingdom of Anam split into Anam and Tonquin, 
 with the two capitals Hue and Hanoi. Both countries soon 
 admitted the supremacy of China. 
 
110 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 h. French interference. Conflicts and rivalry of Tonquin and 
 Anam. Emperor of Anam forced to flee to Siam, where 
 he met a French hishop, through whom he made treaty 
 with Louis XVI of France, in 1787. France to reinstate 
 the Emperor of Anam, and Anam to cede a small portion of 
 territory to France. Reinstatement of Emperor. French 
 revolution suspended operations, and not until 1858 did 
 France again push her claims. In 1862 and 1867 cession 
 of six provinces called Cochin China. In 1867 French pro- 
 tectorate of Camhodia. In 1874 French protectorate of 
 whole Anamite empire by treaty. 
 
 c. Fertility of Chinese province of Yunnan ; reached only by 
 Red River through Tonquin. 
 
 d. Tonquin war began in 1882. China re-asserted her old 
 supremacy. The Black Flags. Scott, 12, 13, 26-37. 
 
 12. Government of French Colonies. Lebon, 276, 277, 311-316. 
 
 a. Relations with Siam and India. Scott, 308-314, 369-372. 
 
 13. Death of Count of Chambord, 1883. Fusion of Monarchists 
 of both the Legitimist and Orleanist wings under the leadership of 
 the Comte de Paris. See Bourbon genealogy, p. 101. 
 
 a. Expulsion of the Orleans and Bonapartist princes, 1886. 
 Huzell, 1887. Monarchists still numerous among the officers 
 of the army and navy. 
 
 14. Administrative scandals, 1887 ; sale of honors and decorations. 
 Resignation of Grevy. Election of Sadi-Carnot. 
 
 15. Boulanger and his followers, 1887-90; a sham radical Repub- 
 lican excitement fostered by wealthy Monarchists, for ulterior political 
 purposes of their own. 
 
 a. Demand for " revenge." 
 
 b. Demand for revision of Constitution. France and Boulang- 
 ism; Westm. Rev., vol. 129, pp. 748-764. Fortn. Rev., 
 Sept., 1887, p. 360; July, 1888, p. 10; Feb., 1887, p. 161. 
 
 c. Gen. Boulanger fled from the country, 1889, to escape prose- 
 cution for embezzlement, and committed suicide in 1891. 
 
 16. Administration of government. Extreme centralization of 
 power. Levasseur, 784-787, 825, 835-839. Lebon, ch. iii. 
 
 a. Reasons why French cabinets are unable to remain in power 
 more than a few months at a time. 
 
 b. Finance and taxation. Nominal capital of national debt over 
 five billions of dollars. Lebon, 248-262. Levasseur, 806-819. 
 
Italy., and the Struggle for Unity. Ill 
 
 c. Misfortune of the close connection of the government with 
 the conduct of local affairs, and with responsibility for 
 private enterprises; e. g.. the Carmaux strike of 1892, and 
 the ruin of the Panama Canal Co., 1*79-92. Spectator, 
 Oct. 22, 181)2, p. 549, and Oct. 29, 1892, p. 588; London 
 Times, Dec. 2, 1892, p. 14. 
 
 17. The churches of France; all recognized and sustained by the 
 government. Remarkable changes in the attitude of the Catholic 
 priesthood towards the Republic, 1891-92, due to the advice of 
 Leo XIII. Levasseur, 832-835. L,ebon,ch. iv. 
 
 18. Political parties and their tendencies. Lebon, 84-95. Nine- 
 teenth Century, Mar., 1887, p. 340. 
 
 ( Legitimists. ^ United Right, or Cou- 
 rt. Monarchists : I French Carlists. I servatives. About 
 ( Naundorffists. 164 members now 
 
 b. Bonapartists. J in the Lower House. 
 
 c. Moderate Republicans ; Leon Say and "\ 
 
 Ribot. About 50 members at present. [ Party of the 
 
 d. Opportunists; Gambetta's followers. Ferry ( Left Center, 
 ami Spiiller. About 200 members. J 
 
 e. Radicals ; Clemenceau, Brisson, Floquet, de Freycinet, about 
 160 members; includes remains of Boulangist party. The 
 party of the Extreme Left. 
 
 LECTURE XIX. 
 
 Italy, and the Struggle for Unity, 
 
 References : A. Gallenga : holy. Present and Future. E. Dicey: Vic- 
 tor Emmanuel (the New Plutarch series). J. Theodore Bent: 
 Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi. M. Francesco Crispi et so Poli- 
 tique, Revue des Deux Mondes, Jan. 1, 1889. Martinengo- 
 Cesaresco: Italian Characters. J. A. K. Marriott : The Maker* 
 of Modern Italy. J. W. Probyn: Italy from the fall of Napa- 
 
112 Political History /Since 181o. 
 
 leon I in 1815 to the year 1890. F. Crispi : The Temporal 
 Power of the Pope, New Review, Vol. VI, 513-529. Italy and 
 the Catholics ( Charitable Trusts Bill). Spectator, Jan. 4, 1890, 
 jt. !•. Charles de Mazade : The Life of Cavour. Werner 
 (editor): Autobiography of Garibaldi, 3 vols. 
 
 Area, 114,410 sq. mi., size of Arizona. Popul., about 30 m. 
 
 1. Italy in 1815. Mutter, 23, 24. By the Congress of Vienna, 
 Lombardy and Venetia were ceded to Austria. 
 
 a. In northern part of Italy the three duchies of Tuscany, 
 Parma and Piacenza, and Modena ruled by princes of the 
 Hapsburg House, and the duchy of Lucca ruled by a Bour- 
 bon prince. 
 
 b. In central Italy, the Papal States. 
 
 c. Kingdom of Naples, called " Kingdom of the Two Sicilies," 
 ruled by a Bourbon line. Fyffe, II, 178-180. Lodge, 631, 
 632. See Bourbon genealogy, p. 101. 
 
 d. Northwestern provinces, ruled by the King of Sardinia. 
 
 (1) History of the House of Savoy. Dicey: Victor Em- 
 manuel, 18-25. 
 
 (2) In 1815, kingdom of Sardinia consisted of Sardinia. 
 Piedmont, Savoy, Nice, Turin, and Genoa. 
 
 2. Reactionary policy and influence of Metternich in Italy after 
 1815. Austrian influence supreme. Dicey: Victor Emmanuel, 15- 
 17. Mutter, 23-28. Lodge, 643, 644. 
 
 a. Old eighteenth century constitutions re-established, the 
 press fettered, free speech impossible except at peril of 
 punishment, the Inquisition restored to activity, all traces of 
 the French occupation extirpated. 
 
 b. Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont), the one hope of Italian 
 Liberals, for although the King, Victor Emanuel I, was per- 
 sonally tied to Metternich, his kingdom, alone in Italy, was 
 free from actual Austrian control. 
 
 3. The Carbonari, in Naples and Sicily (1817), secret society. 
 Fyffe, II, 180-182. Lodge, 644. Mutter, 24, 25, 29, 129-131. 
 
 4. Attempts at revolution, 1820-21, 1831 ; both suppressed by 
 Austria. Lodge, 671. Victor Emanuel abdicates in favor of his 
 brother Charles Felix, 1821 ; Charles Felix succeded by Charles 
 Albert, 1831. Marriott, 1-15. 
 
 " The revolution of 1831, which affected the States of the Church, Modena and Parma, 
 had been suppressed, like the still earlier rebellions in Naples and riedmont, by Austrian 
 
Italy, and the Struggle for Unity. 113 
 
 intervention. If revolution had fair play in Italy, it was sure of tlie victory. It was only 
 foreign power tor which it was not yet a match. Hence, all the hatred of the Italians was 
 directed against foreign rule as the only obstacle to the freedom and unity of the peninsula. 
 As in the times of Barbarossa and his grandson, so also in the forties the watchword was ■ 
 ' Death to the Germans ! ' by which the Austrians were now meant. The secret societies 
 and the exiles in communication with them — especially Joseph Mazzini, who issued his 
 commands from London — took care that the national spirit should not be buried beneath 
 material interests, but should remain ever wakeful." Mailer, 202. 
 
 5. Political parties, 1840: 
 
 a. Red Republicans ; Mazzini Society of Young Italy. Fyffe, 
 
 11,468. Muller, 170. Lodge, 692. Garibaldi, " cuor d'oro, 
 
 ma testa di hove.'''' Purpose, to drive the Austrians from 
 
 Italy by popular insurrections. 
 
 " The Italian cause from the beginning was not political, but national. Its champions, 
 from Dante to Alfieri, were all aristocrats. It was Mazzini who, in his impatience and self- 
 conceit, raised the senseless cry, ' Din <• Pojiohi!' But .Mazzini was not a democrat; he 
 was an autocrat. Had he ever had his way, the cry, like Mahomet's, would have been, 
 ' God is God, and Mazzini is His Prophet.'" Gallenga, 1, 183. "To Mazzini's thinking 
 the Carbonari had leaned too .much on the support of the educated influential classes. 
 ' Revolution,' he says, ' must be made by the people, and for the people.' " Marriott, 15. 
 
 b. Federalists. Federation of Italian states with liberal con- 
 stitutions favored by Pius IX (1846). Fyjf'e, II, 471-474. 
 Lodge, 692. The Pope to be the federal chief of Italy. 
 
 c. Constitutional Monarchists, or Liberals. Purpose, to estab- 
 lish a constitutional monarchy under the King of Sardinia, 
 Charles Albert. Fyjf'e, II, 469, 470. 
 
 d. Clericals, the aristocracy and priesthood who preferred the 
 existing order of things. 
 
 6. Revolution of 1848. Muller 202-211. 
 
 a. In Sardinia, King Charles Albert, leads the revolutionary 
 movement. Constitution of 1848. War with Austria and 
 defeat. Abdication of Charles Albert in favor of his son, 
 Victor Emanuel II. Millln\ 208-211. Lodge, 693, 700. 
 
 b. Revolution in Rome; sympathy for Sardinians, and demand 
 that Pius IX declare war against Austria; refusal. Lodge, 
 633,695. Republicans force the Pope to withdraw ; French 
 assistance to the Pope ; French occupation. 
 
 c. Revolution in Naples. Lodge, 693. Martinengo-Cesaresco, 
 167-202. 
 
 d. Rebellion in Venice ; Daniel Manin. Martinengo-Cesaresco, 
 123-165. 
 
 e. General failure. Lodge, 700, 701. Reason for interference 
 of the French republic to restore Italian tyrannies ; Louis 
 Xapoleon III. 
 
114 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 " All Italy was again brought under its old masters. The expelled princes returned; the 
 Austrians occupied Bologna and Ancona; and, owing to the valor of their armies and the 
 skill of their generals, their dominion .seemed invincible. The storm that had raged over 
 the whole peninsula had subsided, and the Italian sun smiled once more; but Italian hatred 
 of foreign rule grew ever darker and darker. They thought that they now knew the 
 country which under more favorable constellations would renew the right with Austria. 
 Notwithstanding Custozza and Xovara, the Savoyard cross continued to be the hope of 
 Italy." MUller, 211. 
 
 7. Growth of Sardinia (Piedmont). Lodge, 717. 
 
 a. Siccardi laws, 1851. Abolition of ecclesiastical jurisdiction. 
 
 b. Cavour, Prime Minister, 1852. Policy of Sardinia's share 
 in Crimean war, 1854-56. 
 
 " The keystone of Cavour's policy was a conviction that the freedom of Italy could only 
 be achieved with external assistance. He made it his object to obtain for Piedmont the 
 respect and the friendship of the European powers, and he sternly repressed -the revolu- 
 tionary projects of Mazzini and his associates, which alienated all upholders of orderly 
 government." Lodge, 717. 
 
 c. Relations between Cavour and Napoleon III. France sup- 
 ports Sardinia in war against Austria, 1859. Muller, 275- 
 291. Lodge, 719-711. Marriott, 2G-53. 
 
 (1) Causes: Austria perceived that her influence in Italy 
 was rapidly disappearing. Napoleon's foreign policy, to 
 avenge his uncle. 
 
 " A subscription was raised in the chief towns of the peninsula to assist in the fortifica- 
 tion of Alessandria. Austria was bitterly exasperated, and the Austrian minister was 
 recalled from Turin. It was evident that the struggle could not long be delayed. Sardinia 
 could not hope to contend single-handed with Austria, and relied for assistance upon the 
 sympathies of Napoleon III. 
 
 " Austria refused to allow that Sardinia should be represented at a Congress to settle the 
 affairs of Italy, and finally sent an ultimatum to Turin demanding disarmament within 
 three days, under penalty of immediate war. This was exactly what Cavour was waiting 
 for." Lodge, 717, 719. 
 
 (2) Result; treaty of Zurich, 1859. Lodge, 720. 
 
 (a) Emperor of Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon 
 111, who surrendered it to Sardinia. 
 
 (b) Italy to form a confederation under Presidency of 
 Pope. 
 
 (c) Sovereigns of Tuscany and Modena who had been 
 expelled were to be reinstated. 
 
 (d) Revolted portions of Papal States (Bologna) to be 
 restored, "but without foreign intervention." 
 
 d. Last three provisions not observed. Uprising of Northern 
 Italian people for union with Sardinia. Annexations. 
 Lodge, 722. France takes Savoy and Nice. Garibaldi 
 (Campaign of the One Thousand) overruns kingdom of the 
 Two Sicilies. Lodge, 723, 724. 
 
Italy, and the Struggle for Unity. 115 
 
 e. 1861, Victor Emanuel assumed title of King of Italy ; all 
 Italy, except Venice and Rome, under Ids ride ; Florence 
 made the capital. Cavour died June 0, 1861. 
 
 8. Italy as a Kingdom. Fyffe, III, ch. 4. 
 
 a. 1861, the first Italian Parliament. 
 
 b. Italy allied with Prussia in war of 1866; Venetia added to 
 Italy as a result. Lodge, 731. 
 
 c. 1870, French troops recalled from Rome during Franco- 
 Prussian war; Victor Emanuel entered Rome Dec. 31, 
 1870, and put an end to the secular sovereignty of the Pope. 
 Rome became the capital of Italy. During the same period 
 the Pope summoned to Rome a council of Catholic prelates, 
 which declared the dogma of the Papal infallibility. 
 
 9. Death of Victor Emanuel II, 1878, and accession of his son, 
 Uraberto I. 
 
 First alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Mean- 
 ing of the cry, " Italia Irredenta.'''' 
 
 10. The Moderates (Cavour's party) lose control of the government, 
 1876; more radical Liberals succeed them; political supremacy of 
 Party of Left and Left Center begins, 1876, and continues until the 
 present time. Rattazzi, Depretis, Crispi (1887). Gallenga,!, 189-195. 
 Prime Minister Crispi. Revue des Deux Morales. Jan. 1, 1889, p. 203. 
 
 a. The condition of Sicily and Naples. Secret Societies in the 
 Tiro Sicilies; Fortnightly Review, vol. 42. pp. 649-664. 
 
 11. Extension of suffrage. 1880-82; 2,112,563 electors instead of 
 621,896. Gallenga. I, 195-200. 
 
 12. Colonial policy. Dissatisfaction with France over Tunis, 1881 ; 
 Assab (1883); Massowah (1885). War with Abyssinia, 1887. Gal- 
 lenga, I, chs. 3, 6. Italy and Abyssinia ; Westminster Review, vol. 
 129, 1888, pp. 319-331. 
 
 13. Railway legislation. Hadley: Railroad Transportation, ch. xii. 
 
 14. The Triple League of Central Europe, 1887, probable terms. 
 Hazell, 1888. Renewed, 1891. Spectator, July 4, 1891. Fortnightly 
 Review. May, 1887, p. 617. 
 
 15. Political parties. 
 
 Moderates. 
 
 a. The Ministerial Left 
 
 ^ Progressists. 
 b. The Opposition Left, including some Socialists, { 
 Moderates, and Irredentists. j 
 
116 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 c. The Right. Clericals. Policy of abstention. Conservatives. 
 
 d. At the recent elections i IS'.il'i the results were as follows : Of the Liberal mem- 
 bers 235 belong to the Ministerial Left, 139 occupy the middle ground of the 
 Center (Left C(>nter. Right Center, and Independent Center), the Radicals 
 number 51, the Socialists ii, and the Right G8. 
 
 16. Government of Italy. 
 
 a. Constitutional monarchy. Constitution granted to Sardinia 
 in 1848. 
 
 b. Executive. King, who rules hy responsible ministers. 
 
 c. Legislature. 
 
 (1) Senate, composed of the princes of the royal house and 
 of unlimited number of life members nominated hy the 
 king; "a condition of the nomination being that the per- 
 son should either fill a high office, or have acquired fame 
 in science, literature, or other pursuit tending to the benefit 
 of the nation, or finally should pay taxes to the annual 
 amount of about SGOO." Senate also has judicial powers. 
 
 (2) Chamber of Deputies, elected by ballot and by scnitin 
 de liste, by citizens who can read and write and have a 
 small property qualification. Members of either Mouse 
 unpaid, but travel free. 
 
 (3) Sits for five years; can be dissolved at any time by 
 king, but he must convoke another within four months. 
 
 17. San Marino. Independent republic since 11th century; 32 
 sq. mi.; 8000 people. Last treaty with Italy, 1872. 
 
 18. Education. Conventual property confiscated (1866) and used 
 for schools. Compulsory primary education, under state control. Law 
 of 1884. Gallenga, II, chs. 1, 6. 
 
 19. The position of the See of Rome. W. C Langdon: Italy and 
 the Vatican, Political Science Quarterly, vol. 5. p. 487. 
 
 a. The Supreme Pontiff. " By the terms of the royal decree 
 of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that ' Rome and the Roman 
 provinces shall constitute an integral part of the kingdom 
 of Italy,' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged 
 supreme head of the Church, preserving his former rank and 
 dignity as a reigning prince, and all other prerogatives of in- 
 dependent sovereignty." States. Tear. Book, 1892, pp. 684-9. 
 
 b. College of Cardinals, limited in number to 70. 
 
 c. Sacred Congregations, at present twenty in number, the 
 most famous being the Congregations of the Inquisition, 
 Propaganda, Index, Indulgences, and Sacred Relics. 
 
Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium. 117 
 
 LECTURE XX. 
 
 Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium, 
 A. Switzerland. 
 
 References : Adams and Cunningham : The Swiss Confederation. 
 
 B. Moses: The Federal Government of Switzerland. W. J). 
 
 McCrackan: The Rise of the Swiss Republic. J M.Vincent: 
 
 State and Federal Government in Switzerland (Extra Vol. IX 
 
 of J. H. U. Studies). 
 Area, 15.900 sq. mi. ; popul., -'! in. 59 per cent of population 
 Protestants ; 40 per cent of population Catholics. 
 
 1. Increase of territory by Congress of Vienna. New constitution 
 (181o) aristocratic, and tending to disunion. League of 22 Cantons. 
 Lodge, 630, 669. 
 
 a. Neufch&tel, both Swiss and Prussian. 
 
 b. Domination of city patricians, 1815-30. 
 
 2. Revolution. 1830. City vs. County. Democratic success. 
 " Siebener-Concordat " (1832). Liberal League overthrows " Sarner 
 Bund " Conservative League formed, 1834. Lodge. 670. Miitler, 
 127, 128, 169. 
 
 a. Liberal demand for Constitutional revision. 
 
 b. Question of the Right of Asylum. 
 
 c. Religious dissensions, 1834-45. Mutter, 170. Lodge, 687. 
 
 3. Civil war between Liberal and Protestant Cartons, and Catholic 
 and Conservative Cantons (Sonderbund), 1847. Overthrow of Son- 
 derbund and establishment of a National Government in place of old 
 League. 
 
 "All the cantons had to yield, and accept the conditions of peace which were dictated to 
 them. Among these were payment of the expenses of the war, a change of government in 
 the cantons, the dissolution of the Sondt rbund, and the expulsion of the Jesuits. In a few 
 weeks all was accomplished. Then the reform of the Helvetian constitution was proceeded 
 with, and in 1848 the new federal state was established. The Standerath forms a sort of 
 upper house, which is to represent the governments of the several cantons; while the Na- 
 tionalrath forms a lower house, which is elected by the people in proportion to the popula- 
 tion. By this united congress the highest tribunal of Switzerland — the ISundesrath is 
 
 chosen, and at the head of this is a president." Muller, 172. 
 
118 Political History Since 18 15. 
 
 4. Culturkampf, 1873-80. Strength of Old Catholics in Switzer- 
 land. Liberal revision of Constitution accepted, LS74, in interest of 
 educational and ecclesiastic reforms. Midler, 491, 492. 
 
 a. Clerical political agitation prohibited; freedom of burial 
 secured to all religions; civil marriage made compulsory. 
 
 5. The railway question, 1886—87. 
 
 a. The tunnels. Milller, 609. 
 
 6. Government. Federal Republic. See §3, ante. 
 
 a. Nationalrath, 145 members, chosen by manhood suffrage. 
 
 b. Stiinderath, two members from each canton. 
 The two chambers elect : 
 
 c. Bundesratk. Federal (Executive) Council, for three years. 
 j d. President and Vice-President of Republic and Council, for 
 
 one year. 
 
 e. Bundes- Gericht. Federal Tribunal, for six years. 
 
 f. Direct legislation by the people possible through the Initia- 
 tive and Referendum. Statesman's Tear Book, 1892, pp. 
 993, 994. Adams and Cunningham, ch. 6. 
 
 7. Local government. Cantonal sovereignty and the Landesge- 
 nieinde. The Commune, the most important local division. Adams 
 and Cunningham, chs. 8, 9. Cf. The Revolution in Ticino, London 
 Times. Sept. 19. IS '.lit. 
 
 8. Political parties; the Right (Clericals, Roman Catholic), the 
 Center, the old Liberal party, moderate. And the Left, Radical, and 
 Socialistic. Adams and Cunningham, ch. 7. 
 
 B. The Netherlands. 
 
 References : T. C. G rattan : History of the Netherlands. J. T. 
 Rogers: Holland (Story of the Nations Series). C. W. Wood: 
 Through Holland (1877). 
 Area, 12,648 sq. mi. ; popul., about 4£ m. Area of colonial posses- 
 sions, 766,137 scp mi. Population of colonial possessions, nearly 30 m. 
 
 1. 1795-1806, Batavian Republic. 
 
 2. Kingdom of Holland, 1806-15. Louis Bonaparte, King. Eng- 
 land seizes colonial possessions of Holland. 
 
 3. 1815, Kingdom of the Netherlands equalled former Holland and 
 Austrian Belgium ; under William I. 
 
 a. Cape Colony and Ceylon retained by England. 
 
Switzerland, Netherlands, Belgium. 119 
 
 b. Luxemburg given to personal charge of King of Holland, 
 
 as head of family of Orange-Nassau. /'////''• II, 387, 388. 
 
 " Tlie kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the Congress of Vienna, had been formed 
 by the enforced union of two utterly different elements, the Protestant commercial state of 
 Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the Catholic manufacturing 
 country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities, 
 but was pervaded by French culture." Ploetz, 489. 
 
 4. Separation of Belgium, 1830. (See below.) King William I 
 abdicated, 1840. His son, William II, reigned until 1849, then suc- 
 ceeded by his son, William III, who died, 1890, and was succeeded 
 by his little daughter, Wilhelmina, 10 years old. Her legal title is 
 King, not Queen. 
 
 5. The Luxemburg question. 1815-90. Milller, 369—371. 
 
 From 1815 to 18(16 the grand duchy of Luxemburg was a member of the Germanic con- 
 federation. In 18GG the dissolution of that confederation left Luxemburg as a hone of 
 contention between Prussia and France, 1866-70. The death of the Prince of Orange ls>4 . 
 son of Grand-duke King William, threatened to reopen the controversy (on account of the 
 Salic law), but at William's death, Luxemburg passed peaceably to a < lerman ruler, Adolf, 
 duke of Nassau. 
 
 6. Government. Constitutional hereditary monarchy. King. Minis- 
 try, and two Houses of the States-General. Liberal Constitution, 
 1S14; revised in 1834-36, 1848-87. In 1887, extension of suffrage. 
 
 7. Local government; communal councils and states-provincial. 
 
 8. Political parties and tendencies. Religious, theological, and 
 educational questions the main causes of difference. 
 
 a. Liberals, in control generally since 1815. 
 
 b. Anti-Liberals, Catholics, and Orthodox (extreme) Protest- 
 ants. 
 
 C. Belgium. 
 
 References: C. V. deBavary: Ilisfoire de la Revolution Beige de 
 1830. H. G. Mwsel: Hist aire de la Belgique. 31. Vauthier : 
 Staatsrecht des Konigreichs Belgien. 
 
 1. Separated from Holland, 1830. Nine provinces. Area. 11,373 
 sq. mi. ; popul., about 6 in. 
 
 2. Cause of the insurrection was the underlying discord always 
 present between the two sections of the country. The two countries, 
 Holland and Belgium, did not have the same language or the same 
 religious or commercial interests. Fiiffe, II, 381-390. 
 
 " The Belgians complained that. they were saddled with part of the burden of the enor- 
 mous national debt of Holland; that they contributed to the building of Dutch ships and 
 other objects from which they derived no benefit whatever. Their discontent was also 
 increased by the unpopular government of King William I, who treated Belgium like a 
 conquered country." Euald, 79. 
 
120 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 "The antagonism between the northern and southern 'Netherlands, though not insuper- 
 able, was sufficiently great to make a harmonious union between the two countries a work 
 of difficulty, and the government of the Hague had not taken the right course to conciliate 
 its opponents. The Belgians, though more numerous, were represented by fewer members 
 in the National Assembly than the Dutch. Offices were filled by strangers from Holland; 
 finance was governed by a regard for Dutch interests; and the Dutch language was made 
 the official language for the whole kingdom. But the chief grievances were undoubtedly 
 connected with the claims of the clerical party in Belgium to a monopoly of spiritual power 
 and the exclusive control of education. The one really irreconcilable enemy of the Protest- 
 ant House of Orange was the Church; and the governing impulse in the conflicts which 
 preceded the dissolution of the kingdom of the Netherlands, in 1830, sprang from the same 
 clerical interest which had thrown Belgium into revolt against the Emperor Joseph forty 
 years before." Fyffe, II, 382. Muller, 112-121. 
 
 3. Independence was recognized by the foreign powers, and, in 
 1831, Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg was chosen king; reigned 
 until 1865, succeeded by his son, Leopold II, present ruler. 
 
 4. Clericalism. Educational and political power of the clergy. 
 Miiller, 490, 604. 
 
 o. Culturkampf, 1878-. Liberals vs. Ultramontanes. 
 
 a. Liberal regime, 1878-84. Influence of French politics upon 
 Belgium. Milller, 604-606. 
 
 (1) "Liberal" Education Act, 1879, deprived clergy of 
 school supervision. 
 
 b. Clerical reaction, 1884. Partial control of primary educa- 
 tion given to communes. 
 
 c. Agitation for universal suffrage, 1886-92. Industrial dis- 
 turbances, 1886-87. Hazell. Among 6 m. of people there 
 are under present laws only about 133,000 voters. 
 
 6. Political parties. 
 
 a. Clericals (Catholics), in power since 1884. Leader, A. 
 Beernaert. 
 
 b. Liberals, Radicals, Socialists, advanced Liberal program. 
 Radical and Socialist constituency mainly unenfranchised. 
 
 7. Hereditary constitutional monarchy. Property qualification for 
 suffrage. Important position of present King, Leopold II, in inter- 
 national affairs on account of his connection with the Free Congo 
 State in Africa ; President and chief factor in the International Asso- 
 ciation which owns the Congo State. 
 
 8. Relations of Belgium to France and Germany. Fortnightly 
 Review, Jan., 1887, pp. 24-28. 
 
The Scandinavian Kingdoms. 1-1 
 
 LECTURE XXI, 
 
 The Scandinavian Kingdoms. 
 A. Sweden and Norway. 
 
 References: B.Moses: The Crown and Parliament of Sweden, in 
 The Berkeley Quarterly. Oct., 1880. Home Rule in Norway, 
 Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1888. E. C. Otte: Scandinavian 
 History (to 1872). H. H. Boyesen : Norway (Story of the 
 Nations Series). J. }]'. Burgess: Recent Constitutional Crisis 
 in Norway, Political Science Quarterly, I, 259—294. IT. W. 
 Thomas, Jr.: Sweden and the Swedes (1892). C. F. Keary: 
 Norway and the Norwegians. 
 Area (Sweden). 170,979 sq. mi.; popul., 4.7 m. (Norway), 124,495 
 
 sq. mi.; popul., about 2 m. Total area a little larger than Texas. 
 
 1. Union of Calmar, 1397; Sweden, Norway, and Denmark united 
 under princes of Denmark. Independence of Sweden established 
 under Gustavus Vasa, 1521-23. 
 
 a. Territory in 1800, Sweden, Finland, Pomerania. 
 
 2. Peace of Tilsit. 1807. Russia seizes Finland.. Representa- 
 tive constitution established in Sweden, L809 ; ancient Diet of the 
 four classes, or estates, preserved. Napoleon's marshal, Bernadotte, 
 chosen crown prince of Sweden, 1810. Lodge, 598, 599. 
 
 a. The Four Estates. Moses, 8-11. 25. 
 
 3. Treaty of Kiel and Vienna, 1814. Loss of Pomerania. Acqui- 
 sition of Norway from Denmark. 
 
 a. Norwegian resistance and claim of independence unsuccess- 
 ful. Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1888, p. 55. 
 
 " Union of the two kingdoms declared indissoluble and irrevocable without 
 prejudice to the separate government, constitution, and code of laws of either 
 Sweden or Norway." Statesman's Year Book, 1892, p. 962. 
 
 4. Constitutions and government. 
 
 a. Sweden, 180 ( J, 1810, 1866. Hereditary constitutional mon- 
 archy and responsible ministry. King must be a Lutheran ; 
 
122 Political History Since 181o. 
 
 possesses legislative power in matters of political adminis- 
 tration. Diet of two chambers, the first elected by prov- 
 inces and municipalities. 
 
 b. Norway. Hereditary constitutional monarchy and responsi- 
 ble ministry. King has only a suspensive veto on legisla- 
 tion, and is restricted in power of appointment to office. 
 Large legislative and judicial powers of the Assembly, or 
 Storthing, which is elected indirectly, and meets annually. 
 
 c. Affairs common to the two nations decided in a Council of 
 State, in which both nations are represented. 
 
 5. Abolition of nobility in Norway, 1821. 
 
 6. Agitation in Sweden for Constitutional Reform, 1840-G6. New 
 (and present) constitution, 1S66. Moses, 32. 
 
 a. Compulsory military service, 1872. 
 
 7. Home rule in Norway. National resistance to Swedish propo- 
 sals for closer union, 1821-30, 1836, 1839, 1857. 
 
 Not until 1865 were subjects of the two kingdoms allowed to settle and trade at will in 
 either country. 
 
 a. Nationalist struggle to establish absolute supremacy of the 
 Diet over the royal veto, 1872-84. Nineteenth Century, 
 58-61. 
 
 (1) Influence of Norwegian emigrants to the United States. 
 
 (2) Surrender of the King (the Sverdrup ministry), 1884. 
 
 (3) Radicals (Bjoernsen), Liberals (Sverdrup, Steen), and 
 Conservatives. 
 
 b. Liberals demand a separate Norwegian consular and diplo- 
 matic service, 1890-. Overwhelming triumph of the Liberals 
 in elections, 1891. Steen, minister. Deadlock with the 
 king. Possibility of a republic of Norway. Nation, 53 : 64. 
 
 8. Agitation for extension of the suffrage in Sweden, 1880-. 
 
 B. Denmark. 
 
 References: Contemporary Review, April, 1886, p. 579. E. G. 
 Otte: Scandinavian History (to 1872). E. C. Otte : Den- 
 mark and Iceland (Foreign countries and British Colonies 
 Series). F. M. DeBorring: Notes from a Prosperous Agricul- 
 tural Country, Fortnightly Review, vol. 43, pp. 707-718. 
 Area, 15,289 sq. mi.; about as large as New Jersey. Popul., 2 m. 
 1. Present constitution a result of the revolutionary war of 1848. 
 Constitution proclaimed, 1849 ; revised, 1866. 
 
The Scandinavian Kingdoms. 123 
 
 2. Question of succession to the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein. 
 Danish success in the wars of 1848-51. Ploetz, 496. Miiller, 2 18, 
 219, 245-247, 309. 
 
 a. Accession of King Frederick VII in 1*48 reopened the question "t the inherit- 
 ance of the duchies, and involved a dangerous question of succession to the 
 Danish throne, for he was the last direct male representative of the house of 
 Oldenburg, which had furnished kings to Denmark since 1448. The great 
 Powers of Europe interfere (treaty of London, May 8, 1852), confirming the 
 Danish crown (but not the duchies) to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein- 
 Sonderburg-Gluecksburg. Frederick VII, 1848-03. Schleswig incorporated; 
 harsh 1 tanish rule in the duchies. 
 
 b. Death of Frederick VII and accession of Christian IX, 1863. 
 Excitement in Germany ; influence of the sentiment of Ger- 
 man nationality. Austria and Prussia seize the duchies, 
 1864. Miiller, 310-317. 
 
 3. Sympathy with France in 1870. Midler, 424. 
 
 4. Political attitude of Denmark towards Germany, Matter, 610, 
 611; towards England and Russia. Remarkable fortunes of the 
 children of Christian IX ; daughters married to the Prince of Wales 
 and Czar Alexander III ; his second son is King George of Greece. 
 
 5. Government. Hereditary constitutional monarchy. Riksdag, or 
 Parliament, of two Houses. Upper House, Landsthing, elected indi- 
 rectly, represents in general the wealthy class. Lower House, Folke- 
 thing, elected directly by universal suffrage. 
 
 a. Deadlock between the two houses has lasted since 1876, 
 with no present sign of abatement. King, supported by the 
 Landsthing, refuses to appoint a ministry representing 
 majority of the Folkething, and appropriates the revenues 
 by power of royal edict. Contemp. Rev., 1886, pp. 581-586. 
 
 6. Political parties : the Conservatives, or Right, in power by sup- 
 port of King and Landsthing since 1875; leader, J. B. S. Estrup ; 
 the Liberals, or Left, claim (hat Folkething has ultimate power over 
 ministers and taxation. In the Folkething are 80 Liberals, 22 Con- 
 servatives, latter from Copenhagen alone. 
 
 7. Colonies : Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe ilands and three West 
 India ilands, St. Croix, St. Thomas, St. John. Area, 86,614 sq. mi.; 
 popul.. 113.000. 
 
 a. Iceland, separate constitution and government, 1874. States- 
 mans Tear Book, 1892, p. 451. Otte : Denmark and Ice- 
 land, ch. xiii. 
 
124 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 LECTURE XXII. 
 
 The Ibsrian Peninsula: Portugal, Spain, 
 A. Portugal (with Brazil). 
 
 References: Oswald Craufurd: Portugal, Old and New (1880). 
 E. Macmurdo : History of Portugal, 2 vols. B. Mosse : Bom 
 Pedro 11, Empereur du Bresil (said to be written by Baron do 
 Rio Branco), Paris, 1889. M. M. Bush: History of Spain 
 and Portugal. Anfriso Fialho: Bom Pedro II. Empereur du 
 Bresil. Spring Time in Portugal, Fortnightly Review, vol. 43, 
 pp. 483-493. The Portuguese, Spectator, Oct. 26, 1889, p. 544. 
 The Brazilian Revolution, London Times, Dec. 13, 1889, 
 pp. 14, 15. F. J. de Santa-Anna Nery : Le Bresil en 1889. 
 Bulletin of the Bureau of American RepidAics (No. 7, June, 
 1891): Brazil. Moreira Pinto : Historia do Brazil. Alreu: 
 Historia do Brazil. F. Vincent : Round and About South 
 America. 
 Area (including Azores and Madeira), 34,038 sq. mi. Population 
 
 (1881), 4,708,178. Area of colonial possessions, 924,000 sq. mi. 
 
 Population, 12^ m. Former large colonial possessions diminished 
 
 during period of subjection to Spain, 1580-1640. 
 
 1. Napoleon's forces (Junot) occupy Portugal, 1807 ; driven out 
 by the English (Moore, Wellington). 1808-11 ; flight of Portuguese 
 court to Brazil, 1807. Fialho, 8. Bush, 261, 262, 267, 268-270. 
 
 a. Cause of French occupation, a refusal to prohibit trade with 
 England. 
 
 2. Portugal ruled from Brazil, 1807-21 ; supremacy of English 
 influence in Portugal. Teats: Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, 
 pp. 327, 328. MiXller, 56. 
 
 a. Uprising for a constitution, 1820, and return of the Ring, 
 John VI, from Brazil, 1821. Midler, 57. Brazil given to 
 John's eldest son, Dom Pedro I. 
 
Portugal; fyxiin. 125 
 
 b. Treaty with Brazil as an independent nation, 1825. "In a 
 secret article it was ordained that the two crowns should 
 never be united upon one head." Jfi/ller, 58. 
 
 3. Reactionary opposition to constitutional government (Queen 
 Carlotta, Don Miguel, younger son of John VI), 1821—26. 
 
 4. Civil wars between Miguelists (Clericals, Reactionaries) and 
 Pedrists (Queen Maria da Gloria, daughter of Doin Pedro I of Brazil, 
 elder brother of Miguel), or Constitutionalists. 1826-34 : struggle 
 against and for a liberal Constitution, 1S26. Similar purposes of 
 Miguelists and Spanish Carlists ; Doin Pedro having abdicated the 
 Brazilian throne (see below J?<S. b) comes to Portugal to help his 
 daughter against his brother Miguel ; interference of England and 
 defeat of Miguel, 1834. Mailer, 58-61. 
 
 a. Conventual establishments suppressed and property confis- 
 cated, 1834. 
 
 5. Marriage of Maria da Gloria with Ferdinand of Coburg, April, 
 183G. The constitution disregarded ; civil wars, 1836-51. Personal 
 rivalries of ambitions nobles ; prevalent influence of the Duke of 
 Saldanha. Similarity of political movements in Spain and Portugal. 
 Midler, 148. Queen Maria's rule peaceably assured, 1847-53. 
 
 6. Prosperity and quiet in Portugal ; reigns of Maria's son, Pedro 
 V, 1855-61, and of his brother, Luis I, 1861-89. Accession of Luis's 
 son, Carlos I, 1889. 
 
 a. Serious controversies with England over the boundaries of 
 English and Portuguese possessions in South Africa, 1888- 
 1891. 
 
 b. Financial difficulties of Portugal ; public debt, £138.67:.'. 7 1 1. 
 Bankruptcy of Portugal, Investors' Review, Aug., 1892, 12 1. 
 
 c. Appearance of a republican party in Portugal, 1889-. 
 Cf. with establishment of a republic in Brazil. 
 
 7. Government. Constitution of 1826, revised 1852, 1878, 1885. 
 Hereditary constitutional monarchy, responsible ministry ; monarch 
 has only suspensory veto upon acts of Cortes, or Parliament. Cortes, 
 two chambers ; Lower House chosen by citizens who can read and 
 write and have an annual income of about #100. and by heads of 
 families; Upper House. Peers. Law of 1885 provides for gradual 
 abolition of hereditary peerages and substitution of elected life Peers. 
 
 8. Brazil. Area, 3.2 m. sq. mi.; a little smaller than the United 
 States; popul., about 14 m. A colony of Portugal after beginning 
 
126 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 of 16th century. Pope's Bull of 1493. Ploetz, 282. E.G. Bourne: 
 Ttie Demarcation Line, of Pope. Alexander VI, Yale Review, May, 
 1892, pp. 35-55. 
 
 a. Residence of Portuguese royal family in Brazil, 1808-21 ; 
 ante, §1, 2. Brazil declared a kingdom, 1815; dissatisfac- 
 tion. 
 
 b. Dom Pedro I, eldest son of King, left as regent in Brazil, 
 1821 ; independence declared, 1822, and recognized by Por- 
 tugal, 1825. Mutter, 58. Struggle between the Liberals 
 and the Emperor, 1825-31. " I will do everything for the 
 people, but nothing by the people." Accession of Dom 
 Pedro II, 1831. Fialho, 9-15. 
 
 c. Rapid progress of Brazil ; suppression of slave trade, 1852. 
 Fialho, 34. Assertion of strength against neighboring 
 states: Buenos Ayres, 1852; Uruguay, 1863; Paraguay 
 (overthrow of tyrant Lopez), 1865-70. Fialho, 42-56. 
 Mailer, 299. 
 
 (1) German and Swiss colonists in the southeast. 
 
 d. Culturkampf, 1873-75. Illegal measures of Catholic bishops 
 against Free Masonry. Fialho, 74-80. Muller, 493, 654. 
 (1) Present attitude of Liberal party; the struggle about 
 
 religious orders and their property. Curtis, 690-693. 
 
 e. The labor question. Abolition of slavery ; first, slaves 
 serving as soldiers in the Paraguayan war, 1867; second, 
 gradual emancipation act, 1871. Law of the " Free Birth." 
 Fialho, 59-62. Third, wholesale emancipation by the prov- 
 ince of Ceara, 1881 ; fourth, gradual emancipation act, 1885. 
 Liberating the Slaves in Brazil ; Nineteenth Century, July, 
 1888, pp. 94-105. Hazell: Brazil. Statesman's Tear Book, 
 575. Curtis. 702-706. Fifth, final emancipation act, 1888. 
 About half a million slaves set free. 
 
 f Government. A hereditary constitutional empire since 
 1822. Dom Pedro I and the works of Benjamin Constant. 
 The sovereign as a "Moderator"; responsible ministry; 
 two Houses of legislature, bo.th elected by people. Lalor's 
 Cyclopaedia, I, 306, 307. Statesman's Tear Book, 567, 568. 
 
 B. Spain. 
 
 References : J. H. Harrison: History of Spain, chs. xxv-xxviii. 
 J. R. Seeley : The Spanish Revolution in the Life and l^imes 
 of Stein II, 71-102. M. M. Busk: History of Spain and 
 
Portugal ; Spain. 127 
 
 Portugal. H. M. Field: Old Spain and New Spain. Went- 
 worih Webster: Spain (Foreign Countries and British Colonies 
 Series). M. G. Liana: Political Parties in Spain. Fortnightly 
 Review, vol. 39, pp. 106—120. G. de Lavigne: L'Espagne et 
 
 le Portugal ( 1 <s 8 o ) . A. Gallenga: Iberian Reminiscences, 
 2 vols. J. Merc: Manners and Customs of Spain (1891). 
 Area, 197,670 sq. mi.; popul., 17.5 ni. Colonial area, 163,876 
 sq. mi. Colonial population, about 10 m. 
 
 1. Wretched condition of Spain prior to Napoleon's invasion, 1807. 
 Godoy, "Prince of the Peace." Harrison, 614-627. Loss of Louisi- 
 ana. Harrison, 621. 
 
 a. Spanish resistance to the Bonapartes, directed by England 
 (Wellington). 1807-13. 
 
 b. By the Congress of Vienna, the Bourbons of the old dynasty 
 were restored to power, and the government established by 
 Napoleon was set aside. Strength and significance of popu- 
 lar resistance in Spain to Napoleon. Seeley, 74-84. Harri- 
 son, 632-644. 
 
 c. Liberal Constitution, established by the National Cortes, 
 
 1812, under English influence, ignored after the Restoration. 
 
 " This constitution inaugurated representative government in Spain, abolished torture, 
 the Inquisition, and most ot the convents, founded the liberty of the citizen and the press, 
 and improved the judiciary. The seignorial rights attached to 13,309 out of the 25,320 vil- 
 lages of the peninsula were abolished, and though the nine thousand men's convents of 
 1626 had fallen to two thousand and fifty in 1808, these were considerably reduced. But 
 unfortunately this brilliant constitution died even before it was born, and was succeeded 
 by an absolute monarchy which utterly crushed it." Harrison, 643. 
 
 2. Ferdinand VII, restored in 1814. Character. Harrison, 645- 
 653. Midler, 43, 44. Grant Dvff, 5. Rule of the Royalists, or 
 "Serviles." Influence of the Camarilla, courtiers, and priests ; des- 
 potism ; bitter opposition to the Constitutionalists ; 50,000 political 
 prisoners. Fyffe, II, 207-209. 
 
 a. Revolution in 1820. Ferdinand forced to swear obedience 
 to the constitution of 1812. 
 
 "The patriots of 1812 could no longer endure in patience the pain and need of their 
 country, and their rage discharged itself, in the years 1814 to 1819, in nine attempts at revo- 
 lution, which, as the work of individuals, and representing little force, collapsed like riots, 
 and were suppressed with little trouble." Midler. 44. 
 
 b. Interference by the Holy Alliance. Intervention and inva- 
 sion of the French, 1S23, to support Ferdinand in his contest 
 with the Cortes. Constitutional government defeated. 
 Mutter, 48-50. 
 
 c. Revolt of American colonies, 1810-24. Mailer, 54, 55. 
 
128 Political Hixtory Since 1815. 
 
 3. Death of Ferdinand, 1838. Midler, 53. Lodge, G79. Civil 
 war, 1833-40. Muller, 143-146. Isabella II, daughter of Ferdinand, 
 supported by the constitutional parry ; the repeal of the Salic law. 
 MMler, •')'■'>. The Estatuto Real, 1834. Harrison, 665, 666. 
 
 a The Queen Regency. Revolt of the Carlists, supporters of 
 Don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand, or Absolutists ; the Carl- 
 ist provinces. Harrison, 655—661. Overthrow of Carlists 
 by P^spartero, 1839. Harrison, 673, 674. Muller, 144, 145. 
 Fyffe, II, 429-441. 
 b. 1837, the Queen Regent (Christina) took the oath to sup- 
 port the revised constitution. Midler, 146. Grant Duff, 8. 
 c Continued insurrections. Grant Duff, 10-13. Espartero, 
 Regent, 1840-48. 
 
 d. 1818, Isabella declared of age and assumed the government. 
 
 Recall of Christina, who hail tied in disgrace to France in 
 
 IS 10. 
 " Thereby gate and doors were opened to the French influence, and the game ot intrigue 
 and reaction commenced. In 1840 the constitution of 1848 was altered in the interests of 
 absolutism. The freedom of the press was restricted, the national guard abolished, and the 
 Cortes relegated to an existence even more nominal than that of the French Chambers." 
 Mailer, 147. 
 
 e. Divisions of the Liberal or Constitutional party at this time. 
 
 (1) Progresistas (Espartero). The Constitution of 1837. 
 English sympathy. 
 
 (2) Union-Liberal. O'Donnell. 
 
 (3) Moderados (Narvaez). The Estatuto Real. Under 
 influence of Louis Philippe's government. 
 
 (4) Democratic Progresistas (Republicans, .Socialists). 
 
 f. Supremacy of Narvaez, friend of Christina, 1844-51. Isa- 
 bella's marriage and the French policy. Lodge, 680. 
 Reactionary constitution, 1845. 
 
 " We have already seen that the constitution of 1837 was less liberal than that of 1812. 
 That of 1845 was in its turn far less liberal than its predecessor. The liberty of the press 
 was curtailed; the Senate became a nominated, not an elective, body; the Cortes lost its 
 right of assembling by its own authority, in case the Sovereign neglected to summon it at 
 the proper time; and the principle of the national sovereignty disappeared from the pre- 
 amble. The most significant change, however, in the circumstances of the hour, was that 
 which precluded the necessity ot the approbation of the Cortes as a preliminary to the royal 
 marriage. This was the event which was the pivot of intrigue for several years." Grant 
 Duff, 15, 16. 
 
 (1) Catholic-Absolutist triumph, 1851-54. Harrison, 682. 
 
 g. Revolt of 1854. Espartero and O'Donnell, 1*54-63. New 
 liberal constitution, 1855. Resistance of Queen and court 
 party. Character of Isabella. Harrison, 685-690, 691- 
 693.* 
 
Portugal ; Spa in. 129 
 
 h. Triumph of court party, 1863-G8. Frequent unsuccess- 
 ful pronunciarrentos ; O'Donnell, Prim, Serrano. Absolute 
 power of the clericals. Reign of terror, 1866-68. Harrison, 
 694, 695. 
 
 i. Insurrection in 1868. Despotism of Isabella and rule of 
 bigotry. Milller, 406. Lodge, 733. Isabella obliged to 
 escape to France. Cortes of 1869, a new constitution. 
 Serrano's regency, 1868-70. Aims of republicans. Harri- 
 son, 695-697. Prim and Castelar. Llano, 106-108. Field, 
 ch. ix. First Protestant Spanish religious service, Madrid, 
 March 28, 1869. 
 
 (1) Search for a king; prince of Hohenzollern offered the 
 throne. The Franco-Prussian war. 
 
 4. Amadeo, the second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy, elected 
 king, 1870-73. Finally forced to abdicate. Milller, 478. Lodge, 738. 
 Harrison, 699. 
 
 •Amadeo's government, under which Serrano was the first minister-president, was one 
 continued scramble for office on the part of the regular monarchists, while theCarlists and 
 Republicans busied themselves in organizing insurrections in the north and south respect- 
 ively. Serrano and Topete, Sagasta and Zorilla, gained and lost office with confusing rap- 
 idity. The king held fast to the constitution of 1869, but was bitterly hated by the powerful 
 nobles and the clergy as a stranger, and as the son of Victor Emanuel." Milller, 478. 
 
 5. Republic, 1873-75. Numerous civil wars. Four contesting 
 parties, — Moderate Republicans, Radical Republicans, Communists, 
 Legitimists. 
 
 "The programme of the new rulers was : A federative republic for Spain, with self-gov- 
 ernment of the individual states, after the pattern of Switzerland and the United States; 
 no centralization ; abolition of the standing army; absolute separation of the Church and 
 State; proclamation of the rights of the individual on the basis of a democratic constitu- 
 tion and under the authority of the law." Muller, 47'J. 
 
 a. Presidents, Pi y Margall, Salmeron, 1873. Castelar (1873) 
 resigned after a military coup d'etat, 1874. Mutter, 479, 480. 
 
 b. Serrano, military dictator, 1874. Milller, 480.' 
 
 6. Alphonso XII, son of Queen Isabella, 1875-85. Continued 
 revolts of the Carlists; final suppression, 1876. Mutter, 599-601. 
 New Liberal Constitution (present one), 187G. 
 
 a. Conservative ministry under Canovas del Castillo, the leader 
 of that party, 1874-81. Milller, 600, 601. Llano, 112-114. 
 
 b. Formation within the Liberal party of the Dynastic Left 
 by Serrano and Sagasta, 1881. Llano, 114-120. 
 
 7. Alphonso XIII, 1886. Regency of the Queen. Field, ch. vii. 
 Sagasta's administration ; reforms ; Colonial minister authorized to 
 abolish slavery, July 30, 1836. 
 
130 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 8. Spanish political parties : Conservative, Liberal, Republican. 
 Of the two historic parties, Conservatives and Liberals, the latter has 
 been dominant since 1868, with the exception of the years 1874-81, 
 and 1891-92. Conservative policy, clerical, protectionist and aristo- 
 cratic ; Liberal policy, low tariff and a wider suffrage. Liberal lead- 
 ers, Sagasta, Martos ; Sagasta again prime minister, December, 1892. 
 Republican leaders include: Opportunist, Castelar, Salmeron ; Irre- 
 concilable, Ruiz Zorilla; Federalist, Autonomist, Pi y Margall. 
 
 a. Carlist faction of the Conservative party, at present (1892) 
 elect one senator and seven deputies. » 
 
 b. Absence of real party life ; dominance of personal factions. 
 
 c. Farcical character of Spanish elections, always a majority 
 for " the government." 
 
 9. Government, and Constitution of 1876. Webster, 162-169. 
 
 a. Monarchy, controlled by a constitution ; responsible minis- 
 ters. 
 
 b. The legislative power is the Cortes, composed of a Senate 
 and Congress which are equal in authority. Senate com- 
 posed of hereditary, official, and elected members. Congress 
 composed of 431 deputies, elected by tax-payers 25 years old. 
 Cuba and Porto Rico are represented. 
 
 c. Local institutions. The Republic of Andorra. 
 
 10. Colonies. The Cuban question. 
 
 a. Relations with Morocco. Spectator, Jan. 9, 1892. In- 
 creased interest on the part of France. 
 
 b. Gibraltar. 
 
 11. Condition of education and religion. Webster, ch. vii. Field, 
 ch. xvii. 
 
 12. Financial policy. The tariff question. Webster, 174-180, 
 231-235. Nation, 51 : 395. The national debt. Investors' Review, 
 vol. 1, pp. 79-85. 
 
Spanish America. 131 
 
 LECTURE XXIII. 
 
 Spanish America; 
 
 OR THE REVOLTED COLONIES OF SPAIN. 
 
 References: Childs: Spanish American Republics. William Eleroy 
 Curtis: The Capitals of Spanish America. Lalor: Cyclopaedia 
 of Political Science, Political Economy, and United States His- 
 tory. A. H. Noll: History of Mexico. D.A.Wells: A Study 
 of Mexico. Florence C. Baylor: Hidalgo, the Washington of 
 Mexico; New Princeton Rev., 1888. C. B. Heller : Re i sen in 
 Mexiko, in den Jahren lSj f .',-J r S. J. F. Elton : With the French 
 
 in Mexico. Antonio Garcia ('//has: The Republic of Mexico 
 in 1876 (translated by G. F. Henderson). E. J. Howell: 
 Mexico. Edouard Sere: Le Chili Tel Qu'il Est. M. H. ffervey: 
 Park Pays in Chili, an Account of' the Revolution of 1891. 
 K. B. Murray: Commercial Geography, pp. 150-163. H W. 
 Bates: Central and South America (Stanford's Compendium 
 of Geography and Travel). J. Power: History of the Argen- 
 tine Republic. T. A. Turner: Argentina ; Notes of a Five 
 Years' Sojourn. Hand-hooks, published by Bureau of Ameri- 
 can Republics. J. B. Cairo: Republic of Costa Rica. Lau- 
 rence Oliphant: Patriots and Filibusters, pp. 170-242. C. W. 
 Doubleday : Reminiscences of the Filibuster War in Nicaragua. 
 Geo. F. Tucker: The Monroe Doctrine. 
 
 A. Mexico. 
 
 Area, 767.000 sq. mi.; or one fourth of the United States, exclud- 
 ing Alaska; popul., over 11m. 
 
 1. Colonial period. Authentic history dates from 1521. Until 
 
 1821 a province of Spain. 
 
 " Daring these three centuries the attitude of the masses was one rather of sullen sub- 
 mission than of active resistance to grinding oppression." 
 
 Valued by Spain simply on account of it- metals; country worked 
 for the benefit of the Spanish crown. System of repartimentos, or 
 
132 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 distribution of the aborigines on the plantations and in the mines. 
 Wells: Study of Mexico, ch. 3. 
 
 2. Revolt in 1810 under Hidalgo. Wells, 67. "Liberator," Itur- 
 bide. Noll, 148-174. Independence declared in 1821. 
 
 3. Mexico as an independent nation, 182 1-. 
 
 a. Revolutionary spirit throughout the whole period; anarchy 
 
 and frequent dictatorships. 
 
 " Since the establishment of her independence in 1821, Mexico, down to the year 1884,— 
 a period of sixty-three years, — has had titty-rive presidents, two emperors, and one regency, 
 and, with some three or four exceptions, there was a violent change of the government 
 with every new administration." Wells, 69. 
 
 b. Constitution adopted in 1824, modelled after that of the 
 United States. 19 states and 5 territories. Gen. Santa 
 Anna, 1824-57. Revolt of Texas. 1 835-36. Noll. -202-21 6. 
 
 c. War with United States in 1846, by which Mexico lost 
 nearly one half her territory. Noll. 225-235. 
 
 d. Reforms introduced to correct prevailing evils. Amended 
 constitution, and " War of Reform " for three years, 1857- 
 60. Triumph of Liberal Party under Benito Juarez. Finan- 
 cial embarrassment. Noll, 249-253. 
 
 e. 1861, suspension of specie payments. Obligations largely 
 held in Europe. Interference of France, England, and 
 Spain. Napoleon's ambition to obtain power. England 
 and Spain withdrew. In 1863 the French army entered 
 Mexico, and established an hereditary monarchy. Arch- 
 duke Maximilian of Austria made Emperor. 
 
 f. Demand of the United States, upon the close of the civil 
 war, that the French troops withdraw from Mexico. Monroe 
 doctrine. Compliance, and fall of Maximilian. In 1867 
 the Emperor captured and shot. 
 
 g. Presidency of Juarez (died 1872). Confiscation of church 
 property; banishment of religious orders (Jesuits) ; civil 
 marriage obligatory. Supremacy of Liberals since 1867. 
 Juarez, 1867-72. Lerdo de Tejada, 1872-76. Porfirio 
 Diaz, 1876-80. Manuel Gonzalez, 1880-84. Porfirio Diaz, 
 1884-88, 1888-92, 1892-. Curtis, 26-32. 
 
 4. Political parties. Liberals and Clericals. 
 
 a. The Indian race. Cubas, 61-64. Bates, 26-28, 84, 85. 
 Wells, ch. v. 
 
 5. Government of Mexico. Present constitution adopted in 1857. 
 A republic of 27 states, 2 territories, and a Federal District. Similar 
 
Spanish America. 133 
 
 to that of the United States. For translation of constitution see 
 Annuls American Academy of Political Science, vol. 2, p. 1. 
 
 6. Indebtedness and financial distress. Railway connection with 
 the United States. Influence of the United States and of European 
 nations. Wells, chs. x and xi. Brad street's, Oct. 3, 1891. 
 
 7. Proposition for a ship railway across the isthmus <>!' Tehuantepec 
 recently revived. 
 
 B. Ckntral America. 
 
 1. Composed of five republics: Costa Rica, 20,000 sq. mi.: popul., 
 203.780. Guatemala, 46,800 sq. mi.; popul., 1,400,000. Honduras. 
 46,400 sq. mi.; popul., 432,000. Nicaragua, 49.500 sq. mi.; popul., 
 283,000. Salvador, 7220 sq. mi.; popul., 651,130 (1886). Total 
 popul.. about 3 in. 
 
 2. Acquired their independence in the first part of this century, 
 Salvador and Guatemala taking the lead in 1821. and endeavoring to 
 found the Federal Republic of Central America. Frequent attempts 
 to unite them under one government as a confederation ; but, with 
 exception of a short period, unsuccessful. 
 
 3. Clericals vs. Liberals. Morazan, Carera, 1840-79. Curtis, 79, 
 
 80, 135-1 37. 
 
 a. Jose Rufino Barrios. President of Guatemala. 1873-85. 
 A liberal policy followed in the contest with the Clericals. 
 Advocacy of compulsory education. Encouragement of trade 
 and immigration. Ambition to form a Central American 
 Union. Curtis, 75-78, 81-88, 103-113. 
 
 b. Barillas, President, 1886; frequent insurrections. 
 
 4. Relations of United States and England to Nicaragua, 1848-60. 
 
 a. Walker, the filibuster, 1854-57. Oliphant, 195-210. 
 
 Doubleday, ch. xi. 
 
 b. Nicaragua Canal project. Scheme revived in 1879. Treaty 
 with the United States proposed (1884), by which the 
 United States was to be empowered to build a canal. Eng- 
 lish objections based upon Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of 1850. 
 Continued activity of Nicaragua Canal Co. (U. S.) from 
 1888 until the present time. Tucker, ch. v. John Sher- 
 man: The Nicaragua Canal, Forum, Vol. 2 (1891): 1-9. 
 Warner Miller, Forum, Vol. 12 (1892) : pp. 714-720. 
 
 5. Indian supremacy in San Salvador. Bates, 120. Curtis, 176— 
 178, 187. War with Guatemala, 1890. 
 
134 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 6. Costa Rica, " Mariana." Tomas Guardia, 1872. Curtis, 204- 
 212, 219-22;!. 
 
 C. Northwestern South America. 
 
 Colombia : area, 504,773 sq. mi.; popul., about 4 m. Venezuela : 
 area. 594,165 sq. mi.; popul., over 2 m. Ecuador: area, about 
 120,000 sq. mi.; popul., over 1 m. 
 
 1. Revolts from Spain began 1810. Simon Bolivar, a Venezuelan. 
 Curtis, 266, 269. 
 
 a. The Monroe Doctrine, Dec. 2, 1823. 
 
 2. Federal form of government in Colombia. Triumph of Cen- 
 tralization in 1886-87. Curtis, 255, 256. Translation of the Con- 
 stitution by Bernard Moses in Annals of American Academy of Polit- 
 ical Science, Jan., 1893. 
 
 3. Panama Canal project. In 1878 government of United States 
 of Colombia granted concession to a company to build a canal from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific through the Isthmus of Panama. J)e Les- 
 seps interested. Financial failure, 1888-89. Investigation into cor- 
 ruption of politicians and newspapers of France by the Panama Canal 
 Co., in order to obtain concessions, begun, 1892. London Times, 
 Dec. 2, 1892, p. 14. 
 
 4. Overthrow of clerical domination in Venezuela, 1874. Guzman 
 Blanco. Curtis, 269. 270, 275, 286-291. 
 
 «. Since 1887, controversy with England over boundary of 
 northeastern corner; territory valuable on account of gold 
 mining. 
 
 5. Ecuador, dissociated since 1831 from Colombia and Venezuela. 
 Political anarchy since 1874. Economic development very backward. 
 Curtis, 306-308, 317-319, 333-337, 341. 
 
 D. The Western South American Republics. 
 
 Rkferences : A. F. Sears: The Republic of Peru, New Enyland 
 
 Magazine. Dec, 1892, pp. 441-464. Child, ch. 8 ; or Harper s 
 
 Magazine, vol. 82, p. 253. 
 
 Peru : area, nearly 500,000 sq. mi.; popul., about 3 m. Bolivia : 
 
 area, about 567,000 sq. mi.; popul., about 2£ m. Chili: area, about 
 
 J9.;.970 sq. mi.; popul., about 2£ m. 
 
 1. Peru declared independence, 1821, and won it (San Martin, 
 Cochrane). 1824. 
 
 a. Overthrow of clerical supremacy, 1869-76. Curtis, 361. 
 
Spanish America. 135 
 
 b. Ill-advised railway construction and the defeat of Peru and 
 Bolivia in the "saltpetre war," by Chili, 1879-83, which 
 resulted in financial ruin. Futile interference of the United 
 States (Sec. Blaine). L882. Cession to Chili of southern 
 provinces, rich in guano, nitrate of soda, and silver. Lalor, 
 III, 164-166. Child, 217-224. 
 
 c. Henry Meiggs. Present condition of the Oroya Railway 
 and the silver mines. Child, 2 1 <S. 
 
 d. Monetary system disorganized. Curtis, 365. 
 
 2. Lack of organization in Bolivia. Succession of military dicta- 
 torships. Loss of sea coast to Chili, 1879. Priestly supremacy; 
 Bolivia and Ecuador are the only Spanish American nations now 
 under political control of the priesthood. Curtis. 442-451, 493. 
 
 a. Relations with the Argentine Republic. Curtis, 512. 
 
 3. Chili. Area, 294,000 sq. mi.; popul., 2.7 m. Independence 
 declared, 1810; war, 1810-18. An aggressive, united nation. Polit- 
 ical organization. Child, 127-129. 
 
 a. Acquisition of guano and nitrate districts by war from 
 Bolivia and Peru, 1879-83, and of jurisdiction over Straits 
 of Magellan by treaty with the Argentine Republic, 1881. 
 Export duty levied on nitrate a source of government 
 revenues. Child, ch. 7. 
 
 b. The Culturkampf in Chili. Curtis, 493-496. 
 
 c. Railway construction across the Andes. Child, 51-61. 
 
 d. Chilian civil war, President Balmaceda defeated, 1891. 
 M. H. Hervey : Dark Days in Ch Hi. ( 'h ild, 110-444. R. L. 
 Trumbull, Forum. 1 1 (1891) : 045. Fortnightly Review, 50 : 
 101. Contemporary Review, 60 : 135. Loudon Times, 
 March 13, May 29, and June 5, 1891. Revolution in Chili. 
 Harpers Weekly, July 11, 1891. 
 
 C. The Southeastern Republics. 
 
 The Argentine Confederation : area, 1,125,086 sq. mi.; popul., 4 m. 
 Paraguay: area, 91,970 sq. mi.; popul., \ m. Uruguay: area, 72,150 
 sq. mi.; popul., over ^ m. 
 
 1. Argentine Republic. War for independence in the La Plata 
 region, 1810-19. Continued importance of the State of La Plata and 
 its capital city, Buenos Ayres. Feuds of the Blancos and Colorados. 
 J. Power : History of the Argentine Republic. T. A. Turner : Argen- 
 
136 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 tina and the Argentines, 1885-1890. J. M. Walden, Harper & Maga- 
 zine, 82 (1891) : 863. Lalor, I, 114 Bates. 392-396. 
 
 a. Dictatorship of Rosas, 1 s^'J— ."> j?. Curtis, 572-574. 
 
 b. Conflicts between Buenos Ayres and other parts of the con- 
 federacy. Constitution of 1853 ; revised, 1860. Enormous 
 progress since 1860. "A republic in name only ; in reality 
 it is an oligarchy composed of men who make of politics a 
 commerce." Child, 328-330. 
 
 (1) Immigration and trade. Child, 337-340. 
 
 (2) Crisis of 1890, and financial disaster. The Fall of 
 Celman. London Times, Sept. 19, bS'JO, pp, 11, 14. Fort- 
 nightly Review, 54 : 439, 448. Argentine Finance in 
 Investors' Review, 1892, p. 379. Child, 439-440. 
 
 2. Paraguay. Ruled by Jesuits, under suzerainty of Spain, 161 1- 
 17C>7. R-evolt from Spain, 1811 ; dictatorship of Francia, 1811-40; 
 policy of isolation. Lalor, III, 49. 
 
 a. Lopez 1 and II, 1842-70; brutal tyranny. Ruinous war 
 with Brazil, the Argentine Republic, and the Colorado 
 party or Uruguay, 1864-70. A republic; recuperation 
 since 1870. Child, 366-368. 
 
 3. Uruguay (Banda Oriental). After revolt from Spain controlled 
 by Brazil until 1 .S 2 5 ; 1830-72, almost continual revolution and civil 
 war. Progress in recent years in material development. Child, 
 405-408.' 
 
 a. Conflict with clerical influence. Curtis, 612-614. 
 
 1). The international South American Congress at Montevideo 
 
 in 1888, pp. 569-606. Annario Estadistic de la Republica 
 
 Oriental del Uruguay. 
 
The African Continent. 137 
 
 LECTURE XXIV, 
 
 The African Continent. 
 
 COLONIZATION AND CURRENTS OF EMIGRATION. 
 
 References: Keith Johnston: Africa (Stanford's Compendium of 
 Geography and Travel). C. P. Lucas: Historical Geography 
 of the British Colonies. H. M. Stanley: The Congo and the 
 Founding of its Free State. Daniel DeLeon: The Confer- 
 ence at Berlin on the West African Question, Political Science 
 Quarterly. I, 103-139. E. De Anticis: Morocco, its People 
 and Places. John Eliot Bowen: The Conflict of East and 
 West in Egypt, Political Science Quarterly, I, 295-335, 449- 
 490. 63G-G77. with bibliography, pp. 676, 677. H. H. Johnston: 
 British East Africa. Fortnightly Review, Oct., 1888. Grant 
 Allen: A Glance at North Africa, Contemporary Review, April, 
 1888. A. B. Wylde: '83 to '87 in the Soudan. The Mystery 
 of Africa, Spectator, Feb. 15, 1890. The Division of Africa, 
 Spectator. June 6, 1891, p. 784. 
 
 Area, 11.5 m. sq. mi.; popuL, estimated from 125 m. to 170 m. 
 
 A. The Division ok a Continent. 
 
 Complete statistics and maps in first part of Statesman's Year Book, 
 1891, 1892. See also E. Levasseur in Forum, vol. 10 (1891), p. 479. 
 
 1. Share of the Turkish Sultan. 836,000 sq. mi. PopuL, 8 m. 
 
 a. Tripoli (including Barca and Fezzan) ; Turkish authority 
 reasserted, 1835 ; Turkish garrison strengthened since French 
 occupation of Tunis ; power of politico-religious fraternities ; 
 the Senoosiya, 1830-; claims of France and Italy. Scrifmer, 
 7 (1890). p. 37. 
 
 b. Egypt. 1805-49, destruction of feudal regime of the Mame- 
 lukes; rule of the Albanian, Mehemet Ali, whose great- 
 great grandson, Abbas, is now Khedive (accession, Jan., 
 1892)." 
 
138 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 (1) Conquest of the Soudan, 1870-73; its revolt (Al Mahdi) 
 1881-; Polit. Sci. Quart.. I, 626-645, 653-659. Gordon 
 killed at Khartoum, 1884-85. Death of original Mahdi 
 (1885), followed by a series of Mahdis, supported by 
 dervish societies. Fortnightly Review, 49 (1891), p. 383. 
 Alex. McDonald: History of the Nile Campaign. C. J. 
 
 Gordon: Journals at Kartum. Wingate: Mahdiism and 
 the Egyptian Soudan (reviewed in Spectator, Oct. 29, 
 1892). Emin Pasha (Dr. Schnitzler), at Wadelai, on 
 Lake Albert Nyanza. Stanley's expeditions, 1887-89; 
 Emin preferred to remain. Scribners Monthly, 7 (1891) : 
 663. 
 
 (2) Interferences of England in Egyptian affairs: to drive 
 out the Frerch, 1801 ; to check Mehemet Ali, 1840 ; to 
 purchase the Khedive's Suez Canal shares (nearly half 
 the whole). 1875. JBright, iv, 516, 517. To manage 
 (together with France) Egyptian finances, 1875-76, 
 1879-83. Polit. Sci. Quart., I, 314-334. To suppress 
 Arabi Pasha's rebellion, 1882 (end of the dual control). 
 Polit. Sci. Quart., I, 474-484, 487. To check the Mah- 
 dists (Khartoum, Suakim), 1884-. For unfavorable view 
 of England's present policy in the Soudan, see A. B. 
 Wylde: '83 to '87 in the Soudan, II, ch. viii. Continued 
 interference a critical question in British politics. " She 
 has shrunk all along from the final step of annexation, 
 but she remains the virtual suzerain of Egypt." Polit. 
 Sci. Quart., I, 674-676. 
 
 2. Share of England. Colonies in Southern part. (Lecture V.) 
 Lucas, 111. Discussion on the value of British possessions in Africa. 
 Nineteenth Century, 28 (1890), pp. 1, 169, 478, 488. 
 
 Sq. Mi. Popul. Mil. 
 
 British Guinea, 354,090 23.7 
 
 " South Africa, . . . 959,480 3.7 
 
 " East Africa, .... 1,255,000 12.8 
 
 Hands 126 
 
 Total, . . 12,570,926 
 
 a. Egypt (ante, §1, and Lecture XIV). 
 
 b. Zanzibar, subject to Muscat, 1784-1861, independent until 
 1890, when England assumed the protectorate. Formerly 
 possessed territory on the neighboring coast of the main- 
 land, but this has been recently ceded to Germany. 
 
The African Continent. 139 
 
 c. British Imperial East African Co.; Uganda and the lakes. 
 
 d. Zambezia and Nyassaland. Statesman's Year Book, 1892, 
 p. 195. Administration of British South African Co. (J. 
 Cecil Rhodes). 
 
 e. West African colonics: Gold Coast, Lagos, Gambia, and 
 Sierra Leone; influence of the Royal Niger Co. 
 
 3. Share of Italy. Including Abyssinia, 602,000 s<p mi.; popul., 
 6.3 m. Massowah given up by Egypt. 1885-86. (Lecture XIX.) 
 
 Wylde, I, 340-342. 
 
 a. Abyssinia (Habesh, Ethiopia). Estimated area. 195,000 
 sq. mi.: popul., 4.5 m. Group of semi-independent state-. 
 Christianized about A.D. 329. 
 
 (1) Theodore. 1855-68, takes title of Negoosa Negust, that 
 is. King of Kings. Overcome in war with Englaud, 
 1867-GS. Bright, iv, 436-438. 
 
 (2) King John 11,1872-89; " His Majesty Johannis, made 
 by the Almighty King of Sion Negoosa Negust of Ethi- 
 opia and its dependencies." Hewett's Treaty. 
 
 ((() Repels Egyptian invasion. 1<s7.">-77. Wylde, I. 312- 
 :V2\). London Times, April 12, 1889. 
 
 (b) Treaties of alliance with Egypt and England against 
 the Mahdists, and against the slave trade (Hewett's 
 Treaty). 1884. Wylde, II. 38-65, 403-409.' 
 
 (3) Menelek II became ruler. 1889, but the country is in 
 reality an Italian protectorate through a treaty with Italy. 
 
 (4) The people. Wylde, I. ehs. X-XV. 
 
 4. Share of France. Area, 2.9 m. sq. mi.; popul., 23.7 m. Algiers 
 and Tunis, the Senegal valley and coast, 1856-88; the Sahara; 
 French Congo (l)e Brazza), and (assumed) protectorate of Madagas- 
 car. This protectorate recognized by England in 1890. Lebon : 
 France as it is, 895-300, 303-307. (Lecture XVIII.) 
 
 5. Share of Spain. Area, about 204,000 sq. mi.: bordering the 
 Atlantic coast and including the western portion of the Sahara. Hopes 
 to secure Morocco. 
 
 6. Share of Portugal. Area, 841,000 sq. mi.; popul.. 5.4. Lower 
 Guinea, Angola, and Mozambique; undeveloped. Fortnightly Re- 
 rinr, ."to (1890), pp. 149, 136. National Review, 14. p. 583. 
 
 7. Share of Germany. 822,000 sq. mi.: popul., 5.9 m. Acquisi- 
 tions began in 1884. The Kameroons. Southwest Africa, including 
 
140 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 Damaraland, embrace, a coastline of 930 miles; concessions to the 
 
 German East African Company on the main-land opposite Zanzibar. 
 
 (1) German East African Company and the Arabian slave 
 
 traders, 1888-89. London Times, March 13, 1891, p. 5. 
 
 8. Independent states not yet appropriated by European powers. 
 Area, 1,584,400 sq. mi.; popul., 22 rn. 
 
 a. Morocco. E. de Amicis : Morocco : Its People and Places. 
 C. F. Goss : Morocco in European Politics, Nineteenth Cen- 
 tury, 29 (1891): 1016. 
 
 (1) British interests in Morocco; the N. W. African Co.; 
 cable laid from Gibraltar to Tangiers, 1887 ; failure to 
 negotiate advantageous treaty, 1892. 
 
 (2) French designs upon Morocco ; influence with the 
 Shereef of Wazan, head of the powerful religious brother- 
 hood of the Taibya or Wazani. Cf. with the Senoosiyah. 
 
 b. Liberia, founded 1822, by American Colonization Society, 
 and declared independent in 1847. Republic on model of 
 United States. ./. H. T. McPherson: History of Liberia; 
 Johns Hopkins University Studies, 9; No. 10. E. W. Ely den, 
 221-223, 22X-253, 392-432. 
 
 c. Congo Free State. The African International Association, 
 1877. Stanley's Explorations, 1879-84. Stanley, I, chs. 
 ii and iv. E. J. Glare, Century, 39, p. 609. 
 
 (1) International Congo Conference, Berlin, Feb., 1885. 
 The state defined ; declared neutral and free to trade of all 
 nations ; controls valley and mouth of Congo. Placed under 
 the sovereignty of the King of the Belgians individually, 
 who has by will bequeathed his rights to Belgium. Central 
 government at Brussels. Area, 865,400 sq. mi.; popul., 
 15.6 m. Stanley, II, ch. xxxviii. 
 
 d. The Dutch Republics. (Lecture V.) 
 
 e. Central African or Soudan States : 
 
 (1) Bornu, 50,000 sq. mi.; (2) Wadai, 172,000 sq. mi., 
 with vassal states, Kanem (30.000 sq. mi ) and Bagirmi 
 (20,000 sq. mi.) ; (3) Egyptian Soudan ; see ante, A, 1, 
 b, (1), (2). Darfur has reasserted its independence, and 
 the Equatorial Province has "lapsed into barbarism"; 
 (4) Dahomey, 4000 sq. mi. Statesman's Tear Book, 
 1892, pp. 317-321. A. Silva White: Development of 
 Africa (1890). Ashantee wars with England, 1864, 
 
The African Continent. 141 
 
 1873. Bright, iv, 372. 497-499. For tribes of the East- 
 ern Soudan, see Blyden, 312, 350, 356. 
 
 " We must not lose sight of the fart that there were many races in Africa — that the typ- 
 ical Negro with prognathous jaw and woolly hair, who has been so eagerly sought as a 
 slave in all ages, is quite as distinct from the Kaffir, and from many of the races described 
 by travellers in the interior, as from the diminutive Bushman, the feeble remnant of an 
 older race now extinct." Blyden, .'ill. 
 
 B. The Extent of African Mohammedanism. 
 
 References : E. J. Glare. Century, 39, p. 824. E. W. Blyden: Chris- 
 tianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. Joseph Thomson: Moham- 
 medanism in Central Africa. Contemporary Review, Dec. 1886, 
 . ]). 876. R. Bosivorth Smith: Mohammedanism in Africa, 
 Nineteenth Century, vol. 22, 791. Canon Mart 'oil: Islam and 
 Civilization, Contemporary Review. April, 1888, pp. 526-559. 
 
 1. The extent of Islam in Africa. Its civilizing powers. Varieties. 
 The Mahdis. See especially Bosworth Smith. 795. and Blyden, 199— 
 216, 350-378. 
 
 " Whatever may be the case in Arabia, there is an irrepressible activity — intellectual, 
 commercial, political, and religious — among the adherents of the creed in Nigritia." 
 Blyden, 377. 
 
 2. The competition of [slam and Christianity. For faulty methods 
 of the latter, see Thomson : Imr for general presentation of the sub- 
 j ct, see Blyden, 1—53, 277-297. 
 
 C. The Slave Trade. 
 
 References: Slavery in Africa, Hdzell, 1890. p. 641. 0. Crawfurd: 
 Slavery in East Central Africa, Nineteenth Century, Sept.. 
 1888. England, Germany and the Slave Trade, Spectator, 
 Nov.."!. 1888. IV M, Torrens: The East Africa// Slave Trade, 
 Fortnightly Review, vol. 43, 691. 
 France and Portugal the worst offenders among Christian nations. 
 
 1. The Trans-Arabian slave-traffic. Importance of the outlets at 
 Suakim, Massowah, and Zanzibar. Spectator, Nov. 3, 1888. 
 
 a. Reasons for Egyptian failure to control the Soudau and 
 suppress the slave-trade. Wylde, II. 65-68. 
 
 b. Complicity of Turkey and responsibility of England. Wylde, 
 II, 242-266. 
 
 c. General Act of Brussels Conference, 1890, to counteract 
 slavery and regulate liquor trade. Hazell, 189 f. 
 
 2. The Trans-Sahara slave traffic. Crusade of Cardinal Lavigerie 
 of Algiers, 1888. Nation, 50 (1890), p. 379. 
 
142 Political History Since 1815. 
 
 D. Colonial Empires of Today, and the Routes or Trade. 
 
 1. England, France, Holland, Portugal, Germany, Spain, Denmark, 
 and Italy. (Map exercise.) Lucas, chs. vi, vii, with maps. 
 
 2. The world's commerce. K. B. Murray: Commercial Geography, 
 pp. 15-19; especially <s'.)-113. John Teats: Recent and Existing 
 Commerce, part iv. G. G. Chisholm: Handbook of Commercial Geog- 
 raphy. 
 
 E. Currents of Emigration. 
 
 1. Most important inter-continental emigration is from Germany, 
 Scandinavia, Great Britain, Russia, old Poland, Italy, and China to 
 the United States, Argentine Republic, Australia, Canada, South 
 Africa. Brazil, Uruguay, and the Pacific Hands. 
 
 2. Total immigration into the United States, 1820-92, about 17 m. 
 Of these nearly 7 m. were from the British Hands. Largest number 
 in one year, 7SX.:) ( .I2 in 1882. Total immigration into the United 
 States from China, 1855-87,274,458; now excluded, but according 
 to census of 1890 there are 107,475. 
 
 3. For Chinese in Australia, see Sir John Pope Hennessey: The 
 Chinese in Australia, Nineteenth Century, vol. 23, p. 617. 
 
 4. Change in the character of immigration ; different nationalities 
 and lower economic standards. Problem of restriction. 
 
 For study of emigration from nearly all European countries, see 
 United States Consular Reports, vol. x.xii, 1887, No. 76. For Den- 
 mark. Consular Reports. 1884, pp. 672-675. Report of German 
 Imperial Emigrant Commissioner, Consular Reports, vol. xxvi, 1888, 
 pp. 233-239. See also Richmond Smith : The Control of Immigration, 
 Political Science Quarterly, vol. iii ; also same authority on The Influ- 
 ence of Immigration on the United States of America, Bulletin de 
 LInstitut International de Statistique, tome iii, 2*" me livre, 1888; and 
 more complete, Emigration and Immigration (1890), in which is full 
 bibliography. 
 
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