\' op' '^. J' c«-. " .'^ o '^qX ^o^ °^" -t^O^ ^-?.^ .^..^.r^ ~ ^ ^^- >s- K^ .t^ -^^0^ ^^°- C *Vy7;%H/, ^ .^3^ ^ov^ '^^0^ '"^^v :^ '-^^ 0^ .'■ ■ ""; I ■^^ ^: .^ -OV* ■■ '^-o< .-^ ■\> o '^ c ^ *^ ^ A' ^ -^ V. 0' >p <^. '' * . , --' \ - -* ._. •■ ^ u .xv* ■<' ,9 •J^ * ^.^^ .^^ n^ .0' ^oV^ ^>. -.^ .0^ ^•^"^ ^ .0' °oVjC^^'* .V ^>' -3'>- '^, ^ * a « ' 0^^ >r, 'X- ,0 .-S-^ ' ^ x^ '•"" ' '^, ^V^ ^^" "■ 4-. .\ . • c " '• ' * O A^ '^- -^ '' .V K^ ':^ '^. •^ "., V V ,0- V ■\^ J^'^ -' - J '^ <>* ' '►!.- ...;■ < ,\^ J o ., - -■/• o x^r^ ■ o •^^ - o\ ::';^' V ^ o .N^^" •X \ ^^ 0"' .s- iX', /. •:y ■^, O '?- o .0 <^, 'I' .0- '^ • o-" iiif..-; .V -^ 0^" Prartiral ^tipB •IN- AGRICULTURE AND NATURE STUDY By EDGAR S. JONES, City Superintendent Schools TAYLORVILLE. ILLINOIS HENRY L. FOWKES, County Superintendent Schools TAYLORVILLE, ILLINOIS a A '' ■' "The interest in the teacliing of agriculture is but a part of a much larger question, — the movement for teaching by means of things that have come within the student's experience. Laboratory work and all manual work are but a part of the same movement. The primary purpose of teaching agriculture is not to make farmers. It is a human-interest subject. The underlying reason why such teaching is desirable is because it brings the school in touch with the home life — the daily life of the community. A large part of^our teaching has had no relation wliatever to our daily lives. The teaching of agriculture will make better farmers who will make more money. It will lead more boys to choose farming as a profession, because it will open up a field for intellectual life whose existence they never suspected. But the great reason for this work is that it is one of the best means of training a student's mind, and it is one of the best means because it studies the things that come within his experience — the tilings with which and by which he lives." ""— G. F. WARREN. Copyright, 1914 By EDGAR S. .JONES and HENRY L. FOWKES. SEP -3 I9i4 .5 4 'J iT PREFACE. This booklet is intended to be used by the pupils or teachers of the rural or village schools as a supplementary book. It is designed as a book of material rather than an outline or a manual, containing an abundance of practical information and scientific facts. As it was written from the view- point of containing many helps and suggestions, it w-as impossible to include in a brief survey photogra'phs or drawings. Instead of using the space for pictures, a number of bibliographies, scorecards and tables are inserted. Such topics as birds, soil, corn and cattle are intended as type lessons. The authors realize tha-t Agriculture and Nature Study can best be taught by observation and experimentation, hence they have endeavored to furnish material that would assist in making keener observers. EDGAR S. JONES, HENRY L. FOWKES. Taylorville, 111., August, 1914. Copies of this book may be obtained by addressing FOWKES AND JONES, Taylorville, Illinois. Price, Forty Cents. CONTENTS Preface Ta-ble of Contents Corn Wheat Legumes Soil Cattle Swine Poultry Raising Sheep Horses Birds The Foi-est and Ornamental Trees Fungi Potato Insects Farm Machinery Composition of Air Effects of Heat Upon Bodies Siphons . . . .' Collections and Preservation of Material School Gardens and School Yards List of Books .... for Use in the Study 3 4 5 13 15 17 22 32 36 42 45 54 58 67 69 72 76 78 82 of Agriculture 82 84 ^ 'CI.A3S0205 CORN. KERNEL. — If we know the names of some of the parts of a kernel of corn and what purpose these parts serve, it will help in understanding what we will hear and read from time to time concerning the corn problem. If a few kernels of corn are placed in warm water for four or five hours the parts may be easily separated. By referring to the above drawing, it will be seen that the general outline of a section of a kernel is shown. The part of the kernel that is fastened to the cob may be called the cap. The top part is known as the crown. By begin- ning at the cap, the covering may be easily removed. This coat or husk (hull) appears to be a single covering. How many are there? It may be said in brief that there are four parts of the kernel, viz: covering, sta-rch (marked four in the drawing), protein cells, being numbered eight and nine, and the germ (marked six). The germ is also known as the embryo or heart. The end of the germ indicated by A forms the stalk of the plant, while the part designated by B becomes the root. We cannot tell by looking at this embryo whether it is alive or not, hence the necessity of testing seed-corn before planting. The kernel may be defined as a tiny plant with its first food, being protected by a covering. Under proper conditions of heat and moisture it will begin to grow. Just as it requires several kinds of food for a person, so there is needed many kinds of food to cause the germ (the little stalk of corn) to become a stalk with an ear of corn upon it. There are about twelve different foods needed for the corn plant. Six of the principal ones are, Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium. The first three are gotten directly fiom the air or water. The last three are gotten from the soil by very small root-hairs that may be seen on the roots of any plant. Sometimes Nitrogen, Phosphorus or Potassium must be placed in the soil before a very large corn crop ca^n be obtained, as these are the three foods whose supply is limited. (Clover will take Nitrogen from the air and place it in the ground.) Suppose a farmer in September has a mow full of hay. About February first he notices that his supply is becom- ing low. If he still wishes to feed his horses hay, there are three ways that be may do so: 1st. Place more hay in the mow. 2d. Feed the horses every third day. 3d. Lessen the amount tiiat he has been feeding. Which way would be best? If there is a lack of phosphorus in the soil, it is necessary that there be "more hay put in the mow," if we expect the corn plant to be strong and healthful and produce a good ear. USES OF THE PARTS OF THE KERNEL.— We usually think of corn as being the food of horses, cattle and hogs. The hull is made into bran, and when mixed with other material is a food for horses and cattle, but it is not as good, of course, as the whole kernel. The germ is about one-tenth of the entire kernel and furnishes nearly ail of the corn-oil. Corn-oil is the highest priced product of the kernel and is obtained by pressure. This oil is used extensively in the manufa-cture of soaps, paints and oil cloths. It is also mixed with rubber in the making of such articles as boots, shoes and rubber tires. After the oil is extracted the residue remaining is known as corn-oil cake and is used as a food for cattle. The starch of the kernel is used in the making of laundry starch, candies, jelly and syrup. La-rge quantities of the starch of corn is used in the making of muslins and ginghams. The parts marked eight and nine in the sketch contain a large percentage of protein — a food for all animals. Some corn contains more protein than other, hence it is better for feeding purposes. TESTING THE KERNEL. — Two ears of corn may have the same general appearance and the germs from different kernels from both ears will appear to be alike, but still the embryo from one ear may germinate while those of the other will not. With this thought in mind, it is very plain that a better stand of corn will be gotten if every ear of corn to be pla-nted is tested in some way. There are several simple and practical testing methods. One of the most simple plans is to place a number of ears of corn upon a bench or table. A piece of dampened muslin or other suitable cloth eight or ten feet long and six or eight inches wide should be placed alongside of the ears. Five or six kernels may now be taken from each ear and placed upon the cloth opposite the ear from which it is taken. After the kernels are taken from the ea>rs the cloth should be carefully rolled and placed in a warm place and covered with moistened paper or cloth. The roll should be dampened frequently. By leaving the ears of corn a-s they were first placed and by unrolling the cloth after the seeds have sprouted, it will be found that the sprouted ones will appear opposite the ears from which they were taken. By this method it will be quite easy to discard the bad ears. Another method is to take a box two or three inches deep a-nd fill it to the depth of one or two inches with shavings, saw-dust, blotting paper, sand or cloths. The material in the bottom of the box should be well moistened. Cover the layer in the bottom with a cloth or white paper. Divide this cover- ing into two-inch squares. Number the squares and the ears of corn. From ear number one select five grains and place them on the square numbered one. Continue until all the squares are occupied. A wet cloth should be placed over the kernels and a lid placed on the box. If possible, the tempera- ture of the room must be about seventy or eighty degrees and should never be lower than sixty degrees. Prove that tested seed corn will produce more bushels of corn per acre than that which is untested. Seed testers tha't are heated by oil may be obtained from reputable firms. They are, of course, better than any home-made tester. Why? QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION. 1. Do kernels near the butt of the ear germinate more slowly than those taken from the tip or middle? 2. Is an ea-r of yellow corn with a white cob as good as an ear of yellow coin with a red cob? 3. Should tbe kernels from the tip of the ear be planted? 4. Corn contains about ten per cent protein and five per cent oil. Do you think it would be possible to breed corn so that there would be fifteen per cent protein and less starch? 5. A farmer said: "The way to select seed corn is to select the sta-lks during summer time and then later in the season gather the best ears." Was he right or wrong? EXPERIMENTS. 1. Simple test to see if there is starch in corn: Place a drop or two of iodine on the white part of two or three ma-shed kernels. The parts that turn blue are starch. Try the same test for the potato. 2. A test to determine whether there is oil in the corn kernel: Mash the heart or embryo of the corn kernel on a piece of paper. A grease spot appears. Try the embryo of the bean or cotton. 3. A test to locate the cellulose of the corn kernel: Soak a piece of paper and the outer covering of the kernel. A comparison of the texture shows them to be the same. Cellulose is the framework of the cells and of the tissues in all plant life. THE CORN PLANT.— If the study of the corn plant is to be made in September or October, the entire plant should be brought before the class. A discussion may then follow concerning the culture, improvement, roots, stem, leaves, flowers and kernel. ROOTS. — There are two general classes of corn roots. The main or fibrous roots grow outward and downward from the base of the stalk. They are very numerous and often extend out quite a distance from the hill or to quite a depth in the soil. For this reason alone the fertilizer that is used should be scattered evenly over the ground and then plowed under to the depth of at least five or six inches. The brace roots, the ones that come from the joints, begin to appear at about the time the corn begins to tassel. Quite often some of the brace roots do not reach the ground. STALKS AND LEAVES.— The joints of the cornstalk are known as nodes and the space between the joints are the internodes. By cutting across the stalk, thready fibers may be seen. These carry the sap and the food that has been prepared in the leaves. By a careful examination it will be seen that these tiny tubes extend into the leaves. It may be said that the main purpose of the leaves is to make food for the growing plant and for the seed. This is done by the sun shining on the food elements in the leaf that have been brought to the leaf through these thread-like bodies. It will be noticed that the margin of the leaf is much longer than the middle of the leaf. Have you ever noticed the curling of the corn leaf? In the selection of seed corn the farmer usually chooses the ears from the best appearing stalks. Several characteristics are taken into consideration in determining wha-t is meant by a good stalk. Among these are, height of the stalk, height of the ear from the ground, number of ears per stalk, absence of suckers, freeness from smut, good blades, and a short ear stalk. FLOWERS. — In a common flower the essential parts are the stamens and pistils. The stamens produce the pollen. Under the microscope this dust-like pollen ha« the appearance of round-like bodies, something the shape of an egg. In producing the seed, the pollen falls upon the pistil. It begins to grow and form a tiny tube that continues to grow until it reaches the enlarged pa-rt (the ovary) of the pistil. In the ovary are, also, two cells. One of the cells unites with one of the ovary cells and forms the germ or heart of the plant. By the uniting of the other two cells is formed the food part of the kernel. The falling of the pollen on the pistil is called pollination, and the uniting of the cells is called fertilization. In the corn plant the tassels contain the stamens and the shoots which later become the ear, the pistils. Each silk is fastened to a round body on the embryo ear. This round body is the ovary. The same process of fertilization occurs in the corn plant as in any other common plant. EARS. — In the study of the ears there should be two or three varieties at hand. The short stem that bears the ear is called the shank. Many corn growers prefer the drooping ear to the one that is partially erect. Tlie erect ear is more liable to be water-soaked and thus become moldy. The drooping ear also has the advantage in that it is more easily shucked. SELECTION, DRYING AND STORING OF SEED CORN.— It is recognized that the better the seed the better the crop. Many farmers select their seed early in the fall from the part of the field that has the best general appear- ance, while others pass through the field at the time of the tasseling and check the best appearing stalks. The blades, height of ear from ground, tassels, silks and the condition of the surrounding ears are taken into con- sideration in the selection of the stalks. Later in the summer, when the ear 8 is well matured and before the frosts come, the ears are gathered from the checked stalks, husked and thoroughly dried before the freezes may affect the kernels. If a farmer gives the proper attention to the selecting, storing, testing, planting and cultivating of seed corn, it is not long until he becomes interested in corn breeding. There is always a demand for well selected and well bred seed corn. After the seed corn has been selected from the field it should be placed in a dry, airy room. It may be hung on wires or strings or may be placed on shelves prepared for it. Racks can be made which will keep the ears separate and at the same time the rack may be suspended from the rafters of the roof of an implement shed, hay mow or corn crib. This keeps it from being molested by rats or mice. Farmers quite often dry the seed corn in a sum- mer kitchen or other room where artificial hea-t may be used. Many farmers go a step farther in the selection of seed than has been suggested. They make what is known as a breeding plot. This consists of several rows of corn selected in the best portion of the field. At the time of the tasseling of the corn the inferior tassels are removed in order that there may be no self-fertilization. The typical hill of corn should contain at least two stalks. The following cha-racteristics should apply to a type stalk in a breeding plot: 1. The brace roots should be well formed. 2. Gradually tapering from the base to the tassels. 3. There should not be any suckers. 4. The ear should be located just a little a-bove the middle point of the stalk. SHRINKAGE OF CORN. — Corn on the market is generally known as "White Corn" and "Yellow Corn," and if mixed it is known as "Corn." There are usually three grades of corn. In the grading of the corn there are three points, the color, soundness, and moisture. Number 1 means that the yellow corn must be yellow, sound, clean and dry. Number 1 white corn, must meet the same requirements. Number 2 yellow corn means that it must be three- fourths yellow, dry and reasonably clean. Number 2 white, must be about seven-eighths white, reasonably clean and dry. Number 3 yellow shall be three-fourths yellow, reasonably clean and reasonably dry. Number 3 white must be seven-eighths white, reasonably clean and reasonably dry. Usually the price in December is much lower than in the following May. One of the causes of this is the shrinkage of corn during the year. If the corn is gathered during a dry fall and kept in good cribs there is not much loss in moisture. Under unfavorable conditions there is often a shrinkage of 10 per cent. If the corn is weighed when it is placed in the crib and then weighed again on removing it, the exact amount of shrinkage can be deter- mined. Should the corn remain in a crib for a year, there will be but little loss of moisture during the second year. VARIETIES OF CORN. — Corn or maize is a native of North America, being first cultivated by the English after their settlements in Virginia and Massachusetts. There are now several hundred varieties of corn, among which may be mentioned Reid's Yellow Dent, Golden Eagle, Boone County White, Riley's Favorite, Leaming, and the Silver Mine. There are 'Seven species of corn, four being common to the Middle West. The most common is the Dent corn. The kernel is wedge shaped, the summit being drawn in making it indented, hence its name. This is the white or yellow corn of the field. An- other species is the sweet corn. It has a shriveled condition and is the kind used for canning. The pop-corn is recognized by its small grains. The pop- ping is caused by the explosion of the moisture upon the application of intense heat. The flint corn is hard and smooth, having rather oval grains. This species is used for feeding ca-ttle or for the filling of silos. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EAR.— Many of the characteristics of a good ear of corn must be determined by growing tests, but still there are a number of points that may be found by a careful examination of the ear. If an ear is cylindrical in form and rounded at the tip and butt, it will have more and better kernels than an ear of apparently the same size but which has an irregular form. The size and color of the cob have much to do in increas- ing the yield in any particular species. The shape, size and arrangement of the kernels are factors in bringing about a typical ear. A wedge-shaped kernel prevents any waste of space. The corn score card given below suggests the detailed characteristics that are considered in comparing a sa-mple ear: CORN SCORE CARD. Circum- Proportion of Length. ference. corn to cob. Northern Illinois 9 to 10 6.75 to 7.50 88 percent. Central and Southern Illinois 10 to 11 7.00 to 7.75 88 percent. Points. Perfect Ear. Sample Ear. 1. Uniformity of exhibit 5 2. Shape of ear 10 3. Length of ear 5 4. Circumference of ear 5 5. Tip of ear 5 6. Butt of ear 5 7. Kernel uniformity 5 8. Kernel shape 5 9. Color, grain and cob 10 1 0. Space between rows 5 11. Vitality 10 12. Space between kernels 10 13. Trueness to type 10 14. Proportion of shelled corn to cob 10 100 EXPLANATION OF POINTS. 1. Uniformity of exhibit. — The ears should resemble each other in size and shape. 2. Shape of ear. — The ear is to be cylindrical. It must taper from butt to tip, the grains gradually getting smaller or else there will be a row or two of kernels dropped. 3. Length of ear. — Different species require different standards. 4. Circumference of ears. — This depends upon the depth of the kernel and the thickness of the cob. A deep kernel is always desirable. 5. Tips of ears. — Kernels should be oval shaped and regular in form. The part of the tip covered is counted. 6. Butts of ears. — The kernels should extend in regular order over the butt, leaving a depression when the shank is removed. 7. Kernel uniformity. — The kernels from the various ears to be uniform in shape and size. 8. Kernel shape. — Kernels should touch from crown to tip, but still be wedge shaped. The tip end should be well formed to insure a healthy germ. 9. Color. — An ear with red cob and white kernel is not desirable. It is a "scrub" ear. 10. Space between rows. — Should be sufficient for drying out of rows . 11. Vitality. — Fully ripe, dry and of strong vitality. Grains of a pinkish hue and the germ white, being somewhat brittle. 12. Space between kernels. — Shows that corn lacks nutritive value and has been improperly matured. 13. Trueness to type. — Compares favorably with other ears of same variety. 14. Proportion of shelled corn to ear. — Suppose there are 10 ears. Shell and weigh the corn taken from five ears. Divide the weight of the corn by the total weight of the ears to get the percent of corn. Below is given the length, circumference and percent of corn to the cob of three varieties of corn: 10 Circum- Lengtti. ference. Percent. Reid's Yellow Dent 10 to 11 7. to 7.75 88 Riley's Favorite 9 to 10 6.75 to 7.5 90 Champion White Pearl 8 to 10 6.75 to 1J^ 85 PREPARATION OF SOIL. — The condition of the surface of the soil deter- mines to a large extent the amount of rainfall that will be absorbed. The con- dition of the subsoil is also a large factor in preparing the soil for planting and cultivation. In many clay subsoils a better crop can be raised if deeprooted plants, such as a-lfalfa ami clover, are planted. The roots of these plants make openings through which the water may penetrate the soil. Some subsoils, how- ever, are too porous and much vegetable matter must be turned under if the best crops are to be expected. Corn needs at least from five to six inches of ra'infall in order to produce a good crop, hence one of the main things in the preparation of the soil is to cultivate the land in such a manner that the rain- fall of the spring may be kept in the soil. If the soil is kept thoroughly pulver- ized it prevents the evaporation of much moisture. Alter the corn has come up it is often advisable to have the surface layer a^ mulch of at least an inch in thickness. If a rain makes a crust of this mulch it must in most soils be imme- diately broken or else evaporation begins again. An excess of water, however, often does as much injury to the growing corn as does the lack of it. If the soil is to rema-in in a good state of prepara- tion there must be sufficient drainage to allow the air to enter the soil. The three important foods *hat the corn plant needs are nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. They are absorbed by the tiny rootlets and then carried to the leaves, and by the a-ction of the chlorophyll and the sunlight these elements are changed into food materials, such as starch, sugar, fats and proteids. Much nitrogen can be stored up in the soil by the planting of clover or alfalfa, hence much attention should be given from year to year to the storage of plant food in the soil. If proper rotation does not occur the careful yearly preparation of the soil lacks the vital factor. It is said that when you sell ten dollars worth of corn you have tr^ken from the farm about four dollars worth of fertilizer. Bulletin No. 126, of the Agricultural Experiment Sta-tion of the University of Illinois says concerning the planting of corn: "On all ordinary corn belt land of the northern part of Illinois, plant corn hills not more tha-n thirty-six inches apart and plant at least three kernels per hill." Also, "In Central Illinois in the common brown silt loam prairie land, of a productive capacity greater fftan fifty bushels per acre, plant corn 39.6 inches between the hills and drop three kernels per hill.'' Usually the early planting of corn produces a larger yield than does the late planting. The depth of planting depends nearly entirely upon the quality and moisture of the soil. The lateness of the season, however, nearly always suggests shallow planting. CORN DAYS AND CORN CONTESTS.— Farmers' Institutes, private citi- inens and school officers are doing much to awaken an interest in the growing of more and better corn. Each school in the corn belt should set aside at least one day a year to be known as "Corn Day." Every farmer boy should enter '.he contest in his school district, township, county or congressional district for the better yield of corn. In Christian County, Illinois, the bankers, in 1913, offered |200 in prizes for the raising of better corn. There was a one-acre con- test and a ten-acre contest. The conditions were as follows: 1. Age limit, 10 to 18 years. 2. The name and type of seed corn must be recorded. 3. An account of the time required for the various operations to be kept. 4. Final measurement of the area and husking shall be under the super- vision of a committee. 5. The corn must be gathered and weighed. Two 100 pound lots must be weighed from different parts of the area. Then the contestant must shell each (ot and weigh the shelled corn. The weights of the two lotg should be added and divided by two, in order to find the average percentage of shelled corn. The total weight of the corn should then be multiplied by the percent thus obtained, and the result divided by 56 to get the number of bushels. 11 Suppose that the two lots of shelled corn weigh 86 lbs. and 84 lbs. respect- ively, and the total weight of corn produced on the acre is 7,000 lbs., the pro- cess would be as follows: 86 lbs. S4 lbs. 170 divided by 2 = 85, the percent. 7000 .85 35000 56000 5950.00 divided by 56 = 106 with a remainder of 14; hence the area cod- tadns 106 bu. 14 lbs. 6. In estimating profits uniform prices will be used, for instance, $5 per acre for rent, 10 cents per hour for the work of each boy, .5 cents per hour for each horse, |2 for a two-horse load of stable manure, and market prices for commercial fertilizers. 7. The contestant must show that he did all the work on the corn. 8. In awarding prizes the following basis shall be used: Greatest yield per acre — 50 percent. Best showing of profit in investment — 30 percent. Best written history of crop — 20 percent. CORN BULLETINS. List of helpful pamphlets that may be obtained free: Directions for testing seed corn. Corn Improvement Committee, Board ol Trade, Chicago, Illinois. Distance between Hills of Corn.. Bulletin 126, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 Shrinkage of Corn Bulletin 113, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 Ear Rots of Corn Bulletin 133, Agri. College Urbana, 111 Com Breeding Bulletin 128, Agri. College, Urba^na, 111 Corn-field Ant Bulletin 131, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 Physical Characters in Cornplant. Bulletin 132, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 Fertilizers in the Corn-Belt Bulletin 165, Agri. College, Urbana, 111 Germination of Seed Corn Bulletin 253, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C Production of Good Seed Corn. .Bulletin 229, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C, School Lesson on Corn Bulletin 409, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C. Corn Cultivation Bulletin 414, U. S. Dept. of Agri., Wash., D. C. Corn and Its Uses Extension Bulletin, Agri. College, Urbana, IlL Feeding Corn to Live Stock. .. .Bulletin 102, Agri. College, Urbana, 111. CORN GRADE RULES ESTABLISHED BY FEDERAL GOVERNMENT FOR ALL MARKETS. EiTective Everywhere July 1, 1914. NEW GRADES FOR COMMERCIAL CORN. Promulgated by the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Effective July 1. 1914. No. 1 CORN. — Shall be sweet, exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- nels, and must not contain more than 14 per cent moisture. 2 per cent damaged corn. 1 per cent foreign material. 2 per cent cracked corn. 12 No. 2 CORN. — Shall be sweet exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- nels and must not contain more than 15.5 per cent moisture. 4 per cent damaged corn. 1 per cent foreign material. 3 per cent cracked corn. No. 3 CORN. — Shall be sweet, exclusive of heat damaged or mahogany ker- nels and must not contain more than 17.5 per cent moisture, 6 per cent damaged corn. 2 per cent foreign material. 4 per cent cracked corn. No. 4 CORN. — Shall be sweet and must not contain more than 19.5 per cent moisture. 8 per cent damaged corn. 2 per cent foreign material. 4 per cent cracked com. % per cent heat damaged or mahogany kernels. No. 5 CORN. — Shall be sweet and must 'not contain more than 21.5 per cent moisture. 10 per cent damaged corn. 3 per cent foreign material. 5 per cent cracked corn. 1 per cent heat da-maged or mahogany kernels. No. 6 CORN. — Must not contain more than 23 per cent moisture. 15 per cent damaged corn. 5 per cent foreign material. 3 per cent heat damaged or mahogany kernels. May be musty, sour, or include corn of inferior quality, such as immature aind badly blistered corn. SAMPLE CORN. — All corn that does not meet the requirements of either of the six numerical grades by reason of excessive moisture, damaged kernels, foreign matter, cracked corn, hot corn, heat damaged corn, fire burnt corn, in- fested with live weevil, or otherwise of distinctly low grade. WHITE CORN (All Grades).— Shall consist of not less thsm 98 per cent white corn. YELLOW CORN (All Grades).— Shall consist of not less than 95 per cent yellow corn. MIXED CORN (All Grades). — Shall consist of corn of various colors not coming within the limits for color prescribed for white or yellow corn. FOREIGN MATERIAL — Includes dirt, cob, other grains, finely broken corn, etc. CRACKED CORN. — Includes all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that will pass through a perforated sieve with round holes, one-fourth inch in diameter, except, that the material defined as finely broken com shall not be considered as cracked corn. FINE BROKEN CORN. — Includes all broken particles of corn that will pass through a perforated sieve with round holes, 9-64-inch in diameter. MOISTURE PERCENTAGES. — As provided in grade specifications shall conform to results obtained by the standard method and tester described in Circular No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. NOTE. — It is understood that the damaged corn; the foreign material, in- cluding pieces of cob, dirt, finely broken corn, other grains, etc., and the coarsely broken or cracked corn as provided for under the various grades shall be such as occur naturally in corn when handled under good conditions. 13 WHEAT. Wheat is the chief crop in the tempera^te zones. Wheat may be classified in many different ways, first there is tlie smooth and bearded, as well as the winter and the spring. Prom the fact that the wheat is such a common plant it has a number of enemies, chief among which are, the chinch bug, Hessian fly, the wheat midge, and the army worm. To combat the chinch bug and the Hessian fly, it is necessary to keep the fields a-nd fences free from trash and underbrush. Among the varieties in the middle west are, Turkey Red, Dawson's Golden Chaff, Indiana' Swamp, Fulcaster and Harvest King. The Turkey Red wheat is the more common in central and northern Illinois, while the Harvest King and Fulcaster are the more common varieties of the southern part of the State. THE CHINCH BUG. — If we are to combat successfully this little brown colored, full grown insect, (the young chinch bug is a bright red), it is necessary that we become more familiar with, where a^nd how he lives. The fore wings are white, each having a dark spot near the middle. Many insects have but one generation during the entire spring and summer, but this is not generally true in the case of the chinch bug as there are two generations in nearly all latitudes. When the freezes begin in the fall the adult bug leaves the fields where he has been staying and takes up his natural abode for the winter. In most instances these winter quarters are in neglected fence corners or along fences or division lines where the grass and weeds are often allowed to grow. Small brush hea-ps, tufts of grass along the ditches or scattered bunches of hay and straw are virtually "hot beds" where these pests are able to withstand the most rigorous winters. About the middle of April or the first of May these hardy insects come from their winter home and begin to lay the eggs in such fields as the wheat, the clover a^nd timothy. The eggs are laid on the lower parts of the plants. The product of these eggs do their greatest injury to the whea-t and oats. Formerly the depredations of the chinch bug seemed to be confined to the wheat and corn crops but now he invades other fields and often does as much injury to ao oats crop as he does to his choice articles of diet. The chinch bug moults four times and in the stage just preceding the one when they acquire the fully developed wings, they shed their complete covering. Quite often it is taken for granted that these outgrown shells are dead bugs. After leaving the wheatfield, for instance, the bugs travel principally by foot into nearby corn- fields. It is while the bug is in this stage of development that it does its greatest damage, however if no check is placed on him now it means a greater number for the propagation of the second generation about midsummer. This new generation does much damage to the corn during the latter part of July and through August. They travel principally by wing during these months. It may be safely figured that an extermina-tion of a thousand adults in early spring would be about the same as the destruction of one hundred fifty thousand of the first generation that come forth about sixty days later, or to carry the computation to the second generation of midsummer would mean that an army of 22,-500,000,000 would have to be destroyed to equal the one thousand adults that have lived through the winter. Many practical lines of attack on the extermination of this destructive insect ha^ve been effectively made but in many instances the attention has been given to the destruction of the pests after they have started on their depredations rather than of attempting to prevent their propagation. If the weeds in fence corners, weed ways, bunch heaps, piles of leaves and other similar places were destroyed in early spring by burning there would be a visible decrease in the number of the pests just as there is an absence of mosquitoes in a well drained tract of land. Of course, much better results could be attained if in- fested communities would have "clean up" day at about the same time in the spring. Too often the destruction of these natural breeding places does not occur until after the bugs have flown to the places where they deposit the eggs. Another factor that enters largely into the lessening of the number of the winter adults is the Bob White. If for no other reason than this the quail family should not be molested at any time during the year. During the late fall also 14 the quail eats many of these brown bugs. The assumption can be made at this time that if neighborhoods and groups of neighborhoods would give the proper attention to the destroying of the breeding grounds that the first and second generations could be reduced to a minimum. When an a-rmy of undeveloped bugs start, for example, from a wheat field to a cornfield something definite must be done at once. A line of crude oil may be placed around an infested field, thus stopping their forward movement. Holes two or three feet deep at certain intervals may be dug just within the oil line. Nearly invariably the bugs fall into these traps and are unable to crawl out. During an extremely dry season a dust furrow may be made around a cornfield. A log, wheel or other cylindrical object may be used to keep the depth of the furrow regular. By this method the drag must be kept continually going as this keeps the dust Tn a proper condition for stopping the progress of the bugs and at the same time kills the bugs that continually fall into the furrow. After the bugs have attacked the first rows of corn they will be reduced maiterially, possibly 80 per cent, by applying a spray of kerosene emulsion or one of water, tobacco and soap. The cost of either spray is a small item when a comparison is made with the good that is done. The cost should not exceed two dollars per acre. 15 LEGUMES. Among the plants that are known as legumes may be mentioned alfalfa red clover, white clover, sweet clover, alsike, cowpeas, soybeans and vetch m all the species the leaves are arranged ai'^und the stem in a regular order There is also a great similarity in the roots, there being a main root rom which many smaller roots branch. In nearly all soils the roots hive smaH umps or nodules on them. These nodules are produced by bacteria that Tive Ine ifto'he^'f,^ T *^ '""^^ °' ^""^'"-^ *^^ nitrogen fromlheS and idd- ing It to the soil. As nitrogen is one of the food elements of nearly all plant- it IS necessary that to get the best crops some species of legumes must be used ,. ,. ^^^ CLOVER.—Probably the most important legume is red clover but al- fa'' sL?v oT e'd'fS"^ "•' 'I'r' 'f T""^ ^^^*^""^- ^^^ «*■ the Principi' fac ors ma studj of red clover is the selection of the seed. Much clover offered for sale contains many weed seeds, as dodder, buck horn and trefoil land'^hafisTht^'^/cloTeT ''"^^'^ *' ^'' ^^^^"^ '^"^ ^^ "^^'^ ^'^^'^"^ '^ -^^ Jt is"^' mL^h'h^aa?p7aS'iran^Z^rcTov^ '''' ^^^^"^'^^ ^'^^ ^^--- COW PEAS.— The cow pea is a plant that grows in rather a bushy form It js used m many sections as a substitute for oats, hay. or other farm^a-Sl SOYBEANS.— The soybean often grows to a height of three feet havine a hundred or more pods. The leaves of the soybean are the parts that arJufed ni[rSto?he%^oiT^ '^^ "" ''^'^' '' '''''^' ^" unsuall^ largf aL'n?itrof thatT^S^^-^^^SKyXlJ^ J^e^a^t" ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ALFALFA.— The growing of alfalfa, the typical forage plant has begun tn. ?n iv tiw fh"'^v,''°H ^',"^^"^ '''■'''''"' °f "^^^«i«- Q^ite often failure L success iflJlT/^'^ ^/"^^ ^^^""^ '^ "°t ^^ ™"ch the fault of the plant as it is to lack of knowledge of how the plant grows and the treatment it needs t can be grown on practically any soil except a wet a<^id soil. The bacteria foundTthP nodules on the alfalfa roots cannot live in an acid soil Lime nmst be u^d^^ neutralize the acidity of such a soil before the attempt Is made to plant the alfalfa. In conjunction with the use of limestone there must be the innr^i^LS^ ot the seed bed Much care must be taken in the prepSa on of the seed beS of tht ZZff d^f ^^.'^f ,a» ^eeds and grasses. Just preceding the sowing Sler the Plot SolhaT tV'h'^''"'^ "" ^''"''^ ^^^*^ ^'^^"'^ ^^ ««^«ered ev^n^y AffI- tb\ H^l H I ^^^ bacteria may be scattered in all parts of the field the dirt has been sown the field should be disked or harrowed ^ht tTtrs^n'^Iftn'alfl^fT^eld '"''T '^'^TJ^^ surfaceld'notb^rg'expJs" d frorn thi^ L^ an alfalfa field is not near, the inoculated dirt may be obtained from the bed of the common sweet clover that grows along the public road? of gfoS "TherP ^.^i^ "r^"^"*'^' ^^T ^^7''^'' P""'^^^ «f alfalfa seed for a.n acre Alfalfa Growing in Illinois. It is a valuable book of 116 pagls. ^ FORAGE CROPS Sard kSss and 1-ed ton Th^^..'^ 'T"'"" ^'^"^"^^ ^^^ ^'"^ S^a««- timothy 16 WEEDS. The main object in a study of tlie weed is to get the notion that the eradi- cation of the plant depends upon the lessening of the production of the seed. An interest may be awakened in the subject of weeds if a- collection of the seeds is made so that the student may know the plant as well as the seed. Some weeds may be reduced in numbers by merely cutting the plant be- fore the seeds ripen. In other instances the plant must be "dug up by the roots" so to speak, otherwise the mere cutting of the stalk does but little good ' Salt or acids may be placed upon the root stalks of many plants, thus destroying them. With but very few exceptions deep plowing destroys the worst of weeds. The keeping of the fence corners, fields, and byways tree from weeds means a lesser number in the grain fields, hence a larger crop (Farmers often raise larger crops on account of the work placed upon the soil in the attempt to exterminate the weed.) , , . .. ,v. Many weeds are used as medicine. Sometimes it is the leaf, sometimes the root sometimes the seed, and sometimes the stalk. Among the common medi- cine' weeds are dandelion, burdock, yellow dock, quick grass, muUem, tansy, catnip, and jimson weed. SEED TESTING. In the planting of clover, alfalfa, oats, blue grass and timothy it is of much economical importance that the individual distinguish the grade of seed by the physical examination. This can be done by examining the seed under a hand glass Quite frequently old seed is mixed with the new seed or the weed seed is not separated from the good grass seed. By experimenting with a number of samples it may be easily discovered the proportion of dirt, shriveled clover seed plump clover seed and weed ^eeds in a sack of clover seed. Place small quantities of the seed upon a clean white paper and make the inspection with the small miscroscope, separating the various adulterants into groups Among the seeds often found in red clover are buckhorn, dodder, trefoil and wild carrot. SOIL. ORIGIN. — boil is the thin covering of the earth which can be tilled and in which plants grow. It is composed of fine pa-rticles of rock and decayed plants. At first the earth's surface was solid rock. Through centuries of time the great forces of nature have been crumbling this rock. The natural forces, or agents, as they are usually called, which break up the rocky materia-l, are given below: 1. GLACIERS. — A glacier is a great mass of snow and ice moving slowly over the surface of the earth. It wears away hills and mountains, fills val- leys, and grinds the rock beneath it into fine particles. A great many years ago a large portion of North America was covered by a glacier which gradually moved southward producing in its course the fine soil characteristic of this region. Large parts of Northern and Central Illinois were covered by this glacier, traces of which may yet be seen in the sand banks or gra-vel banks left by its melting. 2. WATER. — Running water has been an important agent of soil forma- tion. Just as our brooks and rivers now carry muddy soil towards their mouths so they carried many years ago, ground rock, which had been worn from the bed rock by the action of water, or large pieces of rock which were thrown together or against the banks of the stream until they were ground finer. Solid rock is often broken into pieces by the freezing of the water which has found its way into cracks. 3. Air. — The o>a>'gen and carbonic aci deerees mMmmmmm with'?readier sill'" "'''''' ^'""P^*^ ^"^ ^^^^^^^ -^^h oiled paper, it meets package''' " ^"'^'' '^^ ^*^ ^^^°^' ^«^-' ^^^^ or texture, amount of salt and CHEESE. re^rr. "4 -L v\r vi ;-?r,T „-a:.'sr. '--- - — - form of curds are separated trom the water or whey wh ch L dr,„„ ^ =ar3,L^d%rs^;r.^r^-err-t .1%^^^^^^^ 30 FREE BULLETINS, U. 3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. 29. Souring of Milk. 42. Facts About Milk. 55. The Dairy Herd. 57. Butter Making on the Farm. 63. Care of Milk on the Farm. 71. Essentials in Beef-Production. 74. Milk as Food. 106. Breeds of Dairy Cattle. 166. Cheese Making on the Farm. 280. A Proflla'ble Tenant Dairy Farm. 351. The Tuberculin Test. 201. The Cream Separator on Western Farms. SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE. Perfect General Appearance. Score. Form: wedge-shaped as viewed from the front, side and top 5 Form: spare, as indicated by prominent joints and clean bone and lack of muscular development a-long ribs and loins 8 Quality: hair fine, soft; skin pliable, loose, medium thickness; secretion yellow, abundant 8 Constitution: vigorous, as indicated by alert expression, evidently active vital functions, and general healthy appearance 6 Head and Neck. Muzzle: clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large 1 Eyes : large, bright 1 Face: lean, long; quiet expression 1 Forehead : broad, slightly dished 1 Ears : medium size ; fine text ure , 1 Neck: fine, medium length; throat clean; light dewlap 1 Forequarters and Hindquarters. Withers: lean, thin; shoulders, angular,, not fleshy 3 Hips: far apart; not lower than spine; i Rump : long, wide, comparatively level ; ^ 5 Thurls: high, wide apart I Thighs: thin, long 2 Legs: straight, short; shank fine 1 Body. Chest: deep; with large girth and broad on floor of chest; well-sprung rib. 10 Abdomen: large, deep; indicative of capacity; well supported 4 Back: lean, straight; chine open 2 Tail : long, slim, with fine switch 2 Loin : broad 2 Udder: large, long; attached high and full behind; extending far in front and full ; quarters even 20 Udder: capacious, flexible, with loose, pliable skin covered with short, fine hair 10 Teats : convenient size, evenly placed 2 Milk veins: large, tortuous, long, branching, with large milk wells 4 Total 100 SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE. Perfect General Appearance. Score. Weight: estimated pounds; actual- pounds; score accord- ing to age 10 31 f'oim: straight top and bottom lines; deep, broad, low set, compact, sym- metrical • • 10 Quality: hair, fine; bone, fine but strong; skin, pliable; mellow even covering of firm flesh; especially in region of valuable cuts; absence of ties and rolls 10 Condition; thrifty, well fleshed, but not excessively fat; deep covering of firm flesh 10 Head: clean, symmetrical; quiet expression; mouth and nostrils, large; lips, moderately thin; eyes, large, clear, placid; face, short; forehead, broad, full ; ears, medium size, fine texture, erect 5 Neck: thick, short, tapering, neatly from shoulder to head; throat, clean. 2 Shoulder vein : full 2 Shoulder: well covered with flesh; compact 3 Brisket: full broad, but not too prominent; breast wide 1 Dewlap : skin not too loose and drooping 1 Chest: deep, wide, full 1 Crops : full, thick, broad 3 Ribs: long, arched, thickly fleshed 8 Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 8 Loin: thick, broad; thickness extending well forward 8 Flank : full, low, thick 2 Hips: smoothly covered; width in proportion with other parts, but not prominent 2 Rump: long, level, wide and even; tailhead smooth, not patchy 2 Pin bones: not prominent, width in proportion with other parts 1 Thighs: full, fleshed well down to hock 3 Twist : deep, full ; purse in steers full 4 Legs: straight, short; arm, full; shank, fine, smooth 4 Total 100 SWINE. Swine, or hogs as they are often called, are raised in large numbers throughout America. Our present breeds of hogs have been developed from the wild hogs of Europe, Asia and Africa. The hog excels all other animals in the cheap production of meat. There is very little waste in a hog carcass, as it "dresses out" from 70 to 85 pounds of food to every 100 pounds live weight. The hog will make more money for the farmer in proportion to its cost than any other animal. As it requires about five pounds of corn to produce one pound of hog flesh, it may be readily seen that it is cheaper to ship the hogs than it is to ship the corn which they eat. In addition to the grain which they consume, hogs will eat waste products which other animals will not touch. Another argument in favor of feeding farm products to hogs instead of selling them is the value of the manure which is estimated as being worth $12 per year for each anima-l. The breeds of hogs are divided into two classes known as the lard or fat type, and the bacon or lean type. LARD HOGS. Hogs of this type have well-developed hams and shoulders, small heads, short thick necks, and deep, fat sides. As the name implies, they produce large quantities of fat. The leading breeds of swine in America of the fat type are: 1. BERKSHIRES, black in color, with white markings and ears erect. 2. POLAND-CHINA, black, with six white points and drooping ears. 3. DUROC-JERSEYS, cherry red or chestnuts, with ears that point for- wards and downwards. 4. CHESTER WHITE, white, with drooping ears. 5. VICTORIA, white, with occasional dark spots on the skin, ears erect and a good coat of fine, soft hair. 6. ESSEX, black, with erect ears and no white markings. 7. CHESHIRE, white, with erect ears. 8. SMALL YORKSHIRE, white, with occasional black markings. Very email. 9. MULE-FOOT, black, with white markings. Hoofs solid like those of a mule. A very hardy breed. BACON HOGS. Hogs of this type have long legs, long, narrow bodies, long necks and long, deep sides. They produce most of the expensive cuts of meats, such as choice hams and breakfast bacon. The leading breeds of this type are: 1. TAMWORTH, red or chestnut hair, long, straight snouts and large pointed ears. 2. LARGE YORKSHIRE, white, with occasional blue spots. Long, deep bodies. Yorkshire bacon is said to be the best. 3. HAMPSHIRE, black, with a broad, white belt encircling the body and with white fore legs. Ears inclined forward. According to size, the breeds of hogs are sometimes grouped as follows: LARGE BREEDS. MEDIUM BREEDS. 1. Chester White. 2. Lari^e Yorkshire. 3. Tamworth. 1. Cheshire. Berkshire. 3. Poland-China. 4. Durcc-Jersey. .5. Hp.mpsbire. 6. Victoria. 7. I\Iulp-Foot. 33 SMALL BREEDS. 1. Essex. 2. Small Yorkshire. CARE OF HOGS. When hogs are raised in large numbers they should have plenty of pasture. When allowed to run with cattle they use the corn aod other feeds which the cattle waste. Small houses called "colony houses," which are scattered widely about the hog pasture, are coming into use very rapidly. The object of these houses is to prevent hog cholera, the most serious obstacle which confronts the hog- grower. They provide a certain isolation which prevents the spread of disease. The United States Bureau of Animal Industry has prod"uced a remedy recently whereby hog cholera can be controlled. Using as a basis the fact that one attack rendered a-n animal immune for the rest of its life, they experi- mented until they discovered what they term an absolute preventive. In this method virulent blood is drawn from a diseased pig. This virulent blood is injected into the veins of a pig that has recovered recently from an acute attack of cholera. After nine or ten days the blood of this pig becomes potent and will, when injected into the veins of susceptible hogs, prevent them from taking the disease. In order to secure good results, this work must be done with great precis- ion, but it is believed that its application will save the farmers many millions of dollars. A letter of inquiry addressed to the Bureau of Animal Industry, Washington, D. C, will bring much interesting information concerning hog-vaccination. References: Free Bulletins, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. No. 100. Hog-Raising in the South. 133. Profitable Crops for Pigs, pp. 27-29. 183. Meat on the Farm. 222. Market Classes and Grades of Swine. 272. A Successful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. 296. Grinding Corn for Hogs. 379. Hog Cholera. 329. Hogging Off Corn. SUGGESTIVE EXERCISES: 1. At the present prices for corn and hogs, which would be more profitable to feed corn to hogs or to sell it by the bushel? 2. Name the breeds of hogs raised in your community. 3. What advantage is there to the farmer in raising "blooded" pigs? 4. Which do hogs prefer, clean or filthy sleeping quarters? .5. Describe the different plans of housing and feeding hogs in your neigh- borhood. 6. What annual profit may be reasonably expected from a good brood sow? HOG SCORE CARD— LARD (FAT) TYPE. Perfect General Appearance. Score. 1. Weight : score according to age 6 2. Form: deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely on legs 10 3. Quality: hair, silky; skin, fine; bone, fine; mellow covering of flesh, free from lumps and wrinkles 10 4. Condition: deep, even covering of flesh and fat over all parts of body. 10 Head and Neck. 5. Snout: medium length, not coarse 1 6. Eyes : full, mild, bright 1 7. Face: short, cheeks full 1 8. Ears : fine, medium size, soft 1 9. Jowl : strong, neat, broad 1 10. Neck : thick, medium length 1 34 Forequarters. 11 Shoulders: broad, deep, full, compact on top / 6 3 2. Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; pasterns upright; feet, medium size Body. 13. Chest: deep, broad, large girth * 14 Sides: deep, lengthy, full; ribs, close and well sprung b 15. Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 1^ 16. Loins : wide, thick, straight ° 17. Belly : straight, even Hindquarters. 18. Hips: wide apart, smooth * 19. Rump: long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight ^ 20. Hams: heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide 10 21. Thighs: fleshed close to hock •' V; ' "; ' » 22. Legs: straight, short, strong; bone, clean; pasterns upright; teet, medium size Total 100 HOG SCORE CARD— BACON TYPE. Perfect General Appearance. Score. 6 10 1. Weight: score according to age 2. Form: long, level, smooth, deep .:," i' V " 3. Quality: hair fine; skin thin; bone fine; firm covering ot flesh free from bunches of fat and wrinkles • , 1^ 4. Condition: deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in region of high-priced cuts Head and Neck. 5. Snout : fine, medium length j 6. Eyes : full, mild and bright j 7. Face : slim - 8. Ears: fine, medium size | 9. Jowl : light, trim • | 10. Neck: medium length, light Forequarters. 11. Shoulders: smooth, compact and same width as back and hindquarters 6 12. Breast: wide and full '■'il'"/': 13. Legs: straight, short, strong; bones clean; pasterns upright; teet medium Body. 14. Chest: deep, full girth ^ 15 Back: medium, uniform in width, smooth ° 16. Sides: long, smooth, level from shoulders to hindquarters w 17. Ribs: deep, uniformly sprung / V ■ ', -.n 18. Belly: trim, firm, thick, without flabbiness or shrinkage at flank iu Hindquarters. 19. Hips: wide apart, smooth ^ 20. Rump: long, even, straight, rounded toward tail ^ 21 Hams: firm, round, tapering, fleshed deep and low » 22'. Legs: straight, short, strong; feet, medium size; bone, clean; pas- terns upright Total 10« 35 POULTRY RAISING. Farm poultry consists of domestic fowls, or chickens, turkeys, geese, ducks and guinea fowls. Of these kinds chickens are most common. There is hardly a farm or a home that does not have its flock of chickens. .Many farmers have small flocks of turkeys, geese and ducks. Formerly chickens were a^llowed to grow without any particular attention and anything in the way of eggs, meat and feathers which they produced was considered clear gain. At this time they are receiving careful attention aod are proving themselves a profitable source of revenue. Statistics show that nearly $700,000,000 worth of poultry and eggs are produced annually in America. It is supposed that our domestic fowls originated from the jungle fowl of India. BREEDS OF CHICKExXS. There are four well-defined breeds of chickens grouped according to their purposes: (1) Egg breeds, (2) meat breeds, (3) dual-purpose breeds, (4 I orna- mental or fancy breeds. 1. EGG BREEDS. — Many varieties of chickens are kept for egg produc- tion. They are small, light weight chickens, with large combs, which mature early and begin laying very young. Some of the common varieties of the egg breeds are as follows: Leghorn, Minorca, Spanish, Blue Andalusian and Ancona of the Mediterranean family, and the Red Caps of the English family. 2. MEAT BREEDS. — The varieties of the meat breeds are heavy, low- maturing fowls that belong to the Asiatic fa-mily. They are not noted for their egg-laying, but their meat is excellent. The Brahmas, Cochins, Langshans, Dorkings and Indian Games belong to this group. 3. DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS.— Most of the varieties of this breed, but not all, belong to the American family. They are medium in weight, their meat is nice and tender, and they are good layers. These chickens are the best for farmers to keep. This group includes the Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Javas, Dominiques, Rhode Island Reds, Orpingtons and Houdons. Some authori- ties class the Dorkings and Indian Games also as general-purpose fowls. 4. ORNAMENTAL, OR FANCY BREEDS.— The Bantam.<3, Polish, Sultans, Frizzles, Silkies, and Games (except Indian Games), are included in this group of chickens. They are kept mainly for fighting and for show purposes. CARE OF CHICKENS. FEEDING. — When chickens are allowed to roam over a large range they easily find for themselves a balanced ration consisting of insects and seeds, but Vvhen they are confined in pens or coops the feeding problem becomes a-n important one. They must be fed foods that will produce eggs, or meat or both, according to the particular purpose. Laying hens require food rich in protein. A dry mash is used by many poultrymen for egg production. This is made by mixing a number of finely ground grains together and feeding them dry from a hopper. In addition to this dry mash, whole gra-in should be scattered in the straw or litter so that the chickens will have to scratch for it, thereby getting the exercise which they need. Skim milk, meat scrap, insects and plenty of green food should be fed to produce the best results. In winter, oats which have been sprouted on boards or in flat boxes in a warm room, cabbage, beets and turnips meet the require- ment for green food. Henp have no teeth, so they must have access to oyster shells, sa-nd, ground bone or grit which are taken into their gizzards to grind the food. Since these materials contain much lime, thej^ are also used for making egg shells. An abundance of fresh water should be supplied daily. Another system of feeding chickens, known as the "wet mash" .system, consists in giving them wet ground feed d&ily suppplemented by dry grain at times. 36 Pupils Mhould be encouraged to tell about the systems ot feeding and watering followed in their neighborhood and of the rations fed. HOUSING. — Chickens should have comfortable, clean, well-ventilated houses in which to roost and lay eggs. These houses should face the south or south-east in order to shut off the coldest winds, and to allow the sunlight to reach every part. In many houses the south side is made up of windows and muslin curtains, thus admitting light and air and preventing drafts. Extra cloth curtains are often hung so that they may be pulled down in front of the roosts on cold nights. The roosts should be built along the north side of the I'oom with a platform aBout six inches below them to keep the floor and nests clean. If space is limited the nests may be built under this platform. The floor should be dry and covered with deep litter in which the whole grain is fed. Scratching for the grain will keep the chickens strong and healthy. The litter should be kept fresh and clean. Some poultrymen hang vegetables a little above the floor, so that the birds are forced to jump for bites of them. This gives them m.ore exercise and of a different kind than that afforded by scratching. Boxes filled with fine ashes and dry soil should be put in sunny places, so that the birds can wallow in them. They like to do this, and the dust aids in keeping them free from lice. The roosts, nests and platform should be made so they can be removed easily and cleaned. Whitewash, containing some disinfectant, should be used liberally on the interior, and scalding water and sunlight should be employed often as cleansing agents. Spray crude oil (petroleum) on the walls, nests, boxes and roosts once a week in warm weather. With provisions for ventilation, drinking fountains and self-feeding hoppers, we may feel certain that our domestic fowls are cared for properly, and they will amply repay such attention. Artificial heat often leads to sickness among fowls, hence it is not desirable in a poultry house. DRINKING FOUNTAINS. — As chickens require much water to drink, it should be supplied to them in liberal quantities and in clea-n ways. A simple but effective water fountain may be made by making a hole on one side of a can or jar about one-half inch from the top. The jar should be filled with water a^nd covered by a shallow pan. When the fountain is inverted the water will flow down ir.to the pan, and will continue to do so as fast as it is used. These fountains should be cleaned daily and kept filled with fresh water. INCUBATORS AND BROODERS.— An incubator is a machine that hatches eggs by keeping them at the same tempera-ture as when covered by a hen. When eggs are to be hatched in large numbers the incubator is much cheaper than feeding a number of hens to do the work. An additional advantage claimed for the incubator is that its use causes the hens to begin laying sooner than they would if they were used as sitters and brooders. Chickens hatched artificially are usually reared in brooders which take the place of the mother hen in affording warmth and protection. Incubators and brooders may be seen and their workings explained in nearly any hardware store or place where implements are sold. PERIOD OF INCUBATION. PERIOD OF INCUBATION.— Chicken, 21 days. Duck, 2S days. Turkey, 2S days. Guinea. 25 days. Goose. 28 days. PRESERVING EGGS. — The growth of a germ which makes its entrance through the shell in a way that is not fully understood, ca-uses the egg sub- stances to decay. This decay is more rapid in the summer for the reason that warmth favors the development of the germs. The most satisfactory way to preserve eggs is to select clean (not washed) fresh ones and pack them in a- jar that has been rinsed thoroughly with boiling water. Then pour over the eggs a solution consisting of tw^elve parts of boiled water, cooled to ordinary temperature, and one part of sodium silicate, which is commonly known as "water-glass" and which may be purchased at a- drug 37 store, covering them to the depth of one inch. Eggs treated in this manner and kept in a dry, cool and dark place, will keep indefinitely. It will prove a profitable exercise to have pupils preserve some eggs in April and May (these months are the best) for use the following winter. EXERCISES. 1. How does a chicken drink? Why? 2. Explain the methods in use in your neighborhood for testing eggs. 3. Is there any advantage, in marketing eggs, in having them uniform in size and color? 4. Have pupils make and keep an egg record from their flocks of chickens. Compare frequently with others and explain the difference, if possible. 5. Name and describe all the varieties of poultry raised in your neighbor- hood. 6. Find out by observation and inquiry whether chickens pay for them- selves or not. 7. Keep an account with poultry. 8. Write to the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for the fol- lowing: FARMERS BULLETINS. No. 41. Fowls: Care and Feeding. 51. Standa-rd Varieties of Chickens. 64. Ducks and Geese. 128. Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 141. Poultry Raising. 177. Squab Radsing. 182. Poultry as Food. 200. Turkeys: Varieties and Management. 234. The Guinea Fowl. 236. Incubation and Incubators. 287. Poultry Management. 355. A Successful Poultry and Dairy Farm. 390. Pheasant Raising in the United States. 452. Capons and Caponizing. The following bulletins contain much useful and interesting material on poultry feeding, poultry-house construction, preserving eggs, incubators and other phases of poultry farming: Nos. 84. 97, 103, 114, 122, 225, 227, 273, 281, 296, 305, 309. SCORE CARD— POULTRY BREEDING. Breed Va-riety Sex Weight Rel. Val. Rel. Val. Total. in shape. in color. Rel. Val. Symmetry 4 Weight or size 4 Condition 4 Comb 8 Head 2 2 4 Beak 2 2 4 Eyes 2 2 4 Wattles and ear-lobes 2 3 5 Neck 3 5 • 8 Wings 4 5 9 Back 6 5 11 Tail 5 5 10 3S Breast 6 5 11 Body and fluff i> 3 8 Legs and toes 3 • 3 6 Total 100* *Note: These relative values are given for the American Class. They differ on some points for the Asiatic and Mediterranean Classes. 39 SHEEP. HISTORY AND USES.— It is supposed that our domestic sheep are descend- ants of the strong and agile wild sheep known as Argali, tha? hve on the plains of Asia, and those of Southeastern Europe, known as Mu^mln Sheep are mentioned frequently in the Bible, they being used in ancient r^Z T ''Ti^'J'"'''^ ^^^ ,''^°'''^^^ ^°'" ^^^" ^""^ f°'- sacrificial purposes. Uke stomachs^ "^ '''' ''''''^' '^'^ '^"^ ^^^ ^"'^' ^^^^ «^«^^^ l^««fs and four Sheep are valued for the production of wool and mutton. Since they in- crease rapidly and can live on a great diversity of food, they should be ken t on every farm. In addition to their other good qualities, they are useful n helping to maintain the fertility of the land over which they graze twn^SfJP^T^*'^^^,^'^ ^""^^ ^'^^^"^ ^°'" ^^°1 °^' °i"tton, hence we have the two g eat classes known as mutton breeds and ivooi breeds Since these classes are not wholly distinct, they are more commonly grouped ac^ cording to the length or fineness of their wool. siuupea ac The following breeds are found in America: I. Fine or Short- Wooled Breeds- FrentS^MenSo.^'''''"' '"''"'''' ''''*''"' ^''^ I^n^bouillet (Ran-boo-ye) or These breeds have descended from Spanish stocks. They are hardv ani- rjngth^ ^°°^ ^"^"'""- ^'''"' ^''''' '' ""''^ ^^" ^" ~^"^"t^ ^^d uniform^a II. Medium-Wooled Breeds: ChevlofanrTunl^.™'''^''"' ^""^"'"^ °°''''' ^"'"""^ °^'''^' ^^^^P^^^^'^' Suffolk, III. Coarse, or Long- Wooled Breeds: Lincoln, Cotswold and Leicester. The first group are the best wool breeds, while the other two groups are grown principally for mutton. ^loups are However, it must be kept in mind that the fine- wooled sheep are even- tually converted into mutton, and that wool is sheared from the medium and coarse-wooled sheep. meuium, on.t?''^f- ^^^. FEEDING OF SHEEP.-Since sheep have their own warm coats, their winter quarters should not be kept warm. They must howeve k^t'stuld^blriiraiir^^^' ''' ''' ''^'^ ^"^ '^'^ ^^ -''^- *^^^ - Sheep are good grazers and make good use of land that might otherwise be worthle.ss. n winter they should be fed plenty of corn fodder, clover 3 oat straw, turnips and sugar beets. '^iovei nay, FREE BULLETINS, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON D. C. No. 49. Sheep Feeding. No. 96. Raising Sheep for Mutton. No. 159. Scab in Sheep. No. 457. Early Spring Lambs. SCORE CARD FOR MUTTON SHEEP. ■ General Appearance. . . . Score Weight: score according to age and breed .... , Perfect ^°™etricaP* *''^' """"^ ''""^^^ ""^' ^^''^' ^'■°^'^' ^°''' set,' compact.' 'sym- Quality: hair fine; bone fine but strong: even covering of firm flesh- fea tures refined but not delicate; stylish ^ ' ^^ 40 Constitution: chest capacious; brisket well developed; flank deep; bone strong; movement bold and vigorous 10 Condition: thrifty; skin pink; fleece elastic; well fleshed, but not exces- sively fat ; deep covering of flrm flesh 5 Disposition: quiet but not sluggish 2 Color and markings: according to breed 2 Head and Neck. Muzzle: mouth and nostrils large; lips thin 1 Eyes : full, bright, clear 1 Face: short, according to breed 1 Forehead : broad, full 1 Ears: texture, fine; size and form, according to breed >^ 1 Neck: thick, short, neatly tapering to head; throat clean, according to breed 3 Forequarters. Shoulder: covered with flesh; compact, smoothly joined with neck and body 4 Brisket : well developed ; breast wide 1 Fore legs: straight, short, set well apart; pasterns upright; feet squarely placed, neither close nor sprawling 2 Body. Ribs: long, well sprung, thickly fleshed 3 Back: broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed 5 Loin : thick, broad, firm 5 Flank: full, even with under line ., 1 Hindquarters. Hips: level, smoothly covered; width in proportion with other parts 1 Rump: long, level, wide and even in width; not covered at tailhead with excessive fat ^ 3 Thighs : full, fleshed well down to hock 2 Twist: deep, plump, flrm indicating fleshiness 5 Hind legs: straight, short, set well apart; bones smooth, strong, being neither coarse nor fine; pasterns upright; feet squarely placed; neither close nor sprawling i 3 Wool. Quantity: long, dense, even, according to breed .,. . 5 Quality: structure and color true; fine, soft, even, according to breed 5 Condition: strong, bright, clean, slight amount of yolk 4 Total 100 SCORE CARD FOR WOOL SHEEP. Perfect General Appearance. . . . Score. Form: level, deep, stylish; round rather than square 8 Quality: clean, fine bone; silky hair; fine skin 6 Head an^ Neck. Muzzle: fine; broad, wrinkly nose; pure white . 1 Eyes: large, clear, placid 1 Face: wrinkly, covered with soft, velvety coat 1 Forehead : broad, full . . . j 1 Ears: soft, thick, velvety 1 Neck: short, muscular, well set on shoulders 1 41 Forequarters. Shoulder: strong, deep and broad 4 Brisket: projecting forwards; breast wide 1 Legs: straight, short, wide apart, shank smooth and fine 2 Body. Chest: deep, full indicating constitution 10 Back: level, long; round ribbed 4 Loin: wide, level j 4 Flank: low, making under line straight 2 Hindquarters. Hips : far apart, level, smooth 2 Rump : long, level, wide .^ 4 Legs: straight, short, strong; shank, smooth, fine 2 Wool. Quantity: long, dense, even covering, especially ovei- crown, cheek, armpit, hind legs, and belly 15 Quality: fine fiber; crimp close, regular; even quality, including tops of folds 15 Condition: bright, lustrous, sound, pure, soft, even disti'ibution of yolk, with even surface to fleece 15 Total 100 42 HORSES. HISTORY AND BREEDS. When the Spaniards came to North America they did not find any horses, hence they soon brought over a number to Cuba, Mexico and the southern confines of the United States. The English in colonizing the Atlantic Coast soon found a need for horses and imported the breeds then common to England and, France. Where the climatic conditions and food were favorable the horses became a large type, but where these conditions were unfavorable there was produced the small type of horse, such as the Shetland pony or the burros of the mountainous countries. For convenience horses may be divided into three general groups, viz., Draft, Carriage, and Roadster breeds. The typical draft horses have short and stout legs. Their body is nearly cylindrical and should be of a depth equal to the length of the legs. They should have upright shoulders, and a very wide hock. The legs should be straight. A straight line from the shoulder to the hoof should divide the knee, fetlock and foot into two equal parts. Among the draft breeds may be mentioned the Percheron, from France; the Belgian from Belgium; the Clydesdale from Scotland and the English Shire from England. The Percherons are usually gray or black. The English Shire is commonly a black or a bay. The Clydesdale has much the appearance of the Shire, but is somewhat smaller. The carriage or coach horse is much lighter in weight than the draft horse. They are used to draw heavy carriages. They might be called the combination horse as they combine strength, style and action. The Cleveland Bay Coach is from England, the French Coach from France, the German Coach from Germany and the Hackney from England. The roadsters have a light bone, their legs, however, being longer than those of the draft. They represent the highest type of speed. There are three distinct types of roadsters, the American trotting or pacing horse, the Thoroughbred, the English running horse and the Saddle horse from Kentucky and adjoining states. The American bred trotters have more than been able to compete with foreign bred horses. The importation of the trotting horse into America began about 1790 when "Imported Messenger" was brought here. Many of his descendants have become famous sires. Enormous sums are often paid for a single horse. In 1913 $250,000 was paid for Prince Palatine, an English thoroughbred. Dan Patch is one of the most famous of the American pacers, having a record of 1.55%. For a horse to make such a record means that he must travel about 45 feet a second. Trotters and pacers that travel miles in 2:04 or better, often step 20 feet. A thoroughbred is a running horse. England has developed the running horse to a higher degree of speed than has the American horseman. Many running horses are able to make a mile at the rate of 1% minutes for a mile. The saddle horse is a product of Kentucky, being used extensively in the hilly regions. He can be taught several gaits. CARE. — The horse does not have a very large stomach, hence the food must not be too bulky. Although the horse shows much strength and endur- ance it becomes sick very easily. Much attention should be given to the sudden changing from dry food to green food such as oats, clover or corn. When the horse is heated it is not a good plan to feed it much grain or let it drink large quantities of cold w'ater. There are two general classes of foods, carbohydrates and protein; grains contain much more carbohydrates than protein. The carbohydrates produce fat and heat and the protein produces muscle. Horses should be fed regularly, the heavier meal being given at the supper. It is not advisable to feed a horse corn and hay three times a day for a month at a time. Oats is a good food and the working or driving horse should be given some at least once a day. A bran mash should be given at least once a week. This is made by heating bran and water. It should be 43 flavored with salt. Dusty hay should never be fed to horses unless it has been well sprinkled. Much care should be used in watering horses when they are very warm. A small amount of water will always allay the thirst and at the same time will not cause any serious trouble. If the horse is to remain in the best of condition, he must be carefully groomed both morning and evening. There is not much need of cutting the frog of the hoof when shoeing the horse. During the dry season the horses hoofs often become brittle and break off causing lameness. This may be a-voided by oiling the hoofs frequently— once every two weeks at least. It is a good plan to wash, quite often, the under surface of the foot. This is especially true where the horse stands in an uncleaned stall. This keeps the frog of the foot in a healthy condition and gives the owner the opportunity of dis* covering any corns that may be making their appearance. HARNESS.— ( Discussion ) . What are the two purposes? Name all the parts. What is the approximate cost of a set? How should the collar be fitted to the neck of the horse? Some farmers oil their harness at least twice a year and "soap it" at at least once a month. Why? How is harness soaped? BREAKING COLTS. The secret of teaching the colt to obey lies in the two factors, kindness and firmness. The average colt requires but little training if he is properly handled. The first and most important step is to teach him to lead. After a halter has been placed upon him a long common wrapping cord (string) about twenty feet long should be secured. The ends should be held in the hand and the loop end placed just above the hocks. (A rope is too heavy). By standing in front of the colt and pulling lightly on the cord he will soon more forward, following wherever you go. This plan is much better than using the halter strap alone. Horses should be taught to stand still and not start until given the signal. The word "Whoa" to the horse ought to mean to stop. The second step in teaching the colt to obey is to drive him about with the lines fastened to the halter, the bit being omitted. Colts should seldom be jerked, whipped or frightened. The horse is intelligent and will usually do what is asked of him. Balking and kicking horses are those that have been improperly trained. One new thing a week is enough for a- colt to learn. Balky horses may be made to move by the following simple arrangement. A brow band should be placed in the middle of a 30 or 40 foot rope. The rope should now be placed on the horse as a bridle. When the rope reaches the right side of the mouth it should pass through the horse's mouth to the left side. The rope on the left side should pass through the mouth to the right- side. (It is best to have the rope that passes through the mouth covered with leather.) The rope on the left side should pass to the ring in the back band, passing through it. Do the same with the right side rope. Gather the ends of the rope and stand in front of the horse. By a little practice a balky horse can be made to move forward. An even and a light pull should be made on the ropes until the art of using them is learned. TERMS. The HOCK refers to the rear part of the hind knee joint. The CANON is the part of the leg between the knee and the fetlock. The FETLOCK is the first joint below the knee. A PASTERN applies to the space between the fetlock and the coronet or upper part of the hoof. The part just back of the ears is called the POLL. 44 THINGS TO DO AND QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION. 1. Make a study of the ration of the farm horses in the community. The pupils to report on the kinds of feed. 2. Trace the origin and history of one of the common breeds of pure bred horses in the immediate neighborhood. 3. Make a chart of the pictures of the various breeds of horses. They may be obtained from farm magazines oi' from the periodicals devoted to the subject of horses. 4. A light draft horse weighs about 1,500 pounds, a medium draft 1,700, and a heavy draft about 2,000 pounds. Classify the draft horses of the community. 5. Does it cost any more to raise a well bred colt than it does a scrub? 6. Mention some things that were formerly run by horse power. (Such as street-cars, corn-sheller, threshing machines and traction plows.) 7. Will the automobile finally take the place of the horse? FREE BULLETINS. Horse-shoeing — Bulletin 179, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Principles of Horse-breeding — Bulletin 170, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Feeding of Farm Animals— Bulletin 22, Department of Agriculture, Wash- ington, D. C. 45 BIRDS. BIRD STUDY. — It may be said that the main purpose in the study of birds in the public schools is to awaken in the child the powers of observation so that he will naturally learn to love and apprecia^te bird life. If the child, or adult, for that matter, will familiarize himself as to wha-t the bird is doing, he will soon become intensely interested. Judicious discussion and careful ob- servation soon arouse the spirit of helpfulness on the part of the student and he will in most instances devise ways and means of affording protection to the song birds from the weather and from its natural enemy, the cat. Bird descriptions are all right in their place, but they can never take the place of the individual observation. The logical beginning is the study of the habits of the bird— how and where it secures its food, its fight against its enemies, its defense of its home and the rearing of the young. Birds as a group make their appeal to us through their song, beauty, atti- tude toward each other, or for the good they do in the destruction of weeds or animal pests. They all seem to have in their constant struggle for ex- istence their happy times and their times of sorrow. In the early morning all bird life seems to be unusually joyful, but should the young be killed we find that the mother bird, especially, hides in the underbrush or hedge rows for several da-ys. Her disposition during this period is apparently one of sorrow. To become familiar with bird lore it is absolutely necessary to enter the by-ways, the field and the forest, as it is by this method that we are able to get first hand things that give us the joy of discovery. It is necessary for the bird to adapt itself to a given community so that it may obtain food, be secure from its enemies and rear the young. The peculiar structure of a particular group of birds fit it so that it will have the best of opportunity to secure its food. The eagle has a strong bill for tearing food and sharp talons for grasping and holding its prey. Along with these the long sweeping wings of the eagle give it the power of long, rapid flights and of remaining in the air for a great length of time. Such birds as the wood cocks have long bills which they can push into the soft earth and secure the worms near the surface. The wood pecker has a sharp bill with which he can bore holes into the trees and is thus able to get his food or to make a hole large enough in which he can build his nest. His spreading toes also assist him in hanging onto the trunk of the tree while he performs his work. Many other examples might be enumerated of the re- lation of the form of the bird to its habits. If bird study is to be a vital thing and have real meaning it is necessary that we become in touch with the bird as it lives out of doors. The essentials of bird life are the food and the home, a knowledge of which will cause us to assist in the partial domestication of the wild bird by a feeding now and then of our feathered friend, and by affording him means of protection. PROTECTION OF BIRDS.— There has been growing steadily during the past few years a genuine sentiment favorable to the protection of the song birds and those whose food consists of destructive quadrupeds or insects. The Audubon Societies have done much to l)ring about this condition, but there still remains much to be done. In many States the stringent laws are not enforced for the reason that many persons fail to appreciate the real worth of the birds to the community. Quite frequently nothing is done to add to the bird's propagation, but instead an attempt is made to drive them away from the locality. Below is briefly mentioned some of the things which birds have to contend with in securing food, in rearing their brood, or in living out their natural life time. 1st. Many persons still continue to wea-r the feathers or wings of certain birds in their hats. 2d. The destruction of the nests, eggs, and the young birds by boys or men who assume tliat the bird is doing an injury to the fruit or the grain. 3d. Some quadrupeds such as the weasel, rat, mink, raccoon and fox de- stroy birds of all kinds. The cat, however, is the natural enemy of the song bird. The good that a cat might do in catching mice and rats is greatly overbalanced by the harm it does in killing the young birds. 46 4th. The cultivation of the waste lands and the timber tracts lessens the natural brooding places, hence the chances for final extermination are much increased by this one factor alone. 5th. Hunters seldom discriminate in the killing of birds. The most bene- ficial are slaughtered aJong with those that are apparently injurious or with those that are secured for food. With some of the more common hindrances to bird propagation in mind it is easily seen how some birds are becoming practically extinct. We will all agree that the bird is as much a part in the cycle of life as are the trees and flowers and that more definite organization be done so that effective work can be accomplished. The Audubon Societies" pledge is, "To encourage the study of birds, particularly in the schools. To work for the betterment and enforcement of State and National la-ws relating to birds. To discourage the wearing of feathers and the wanton destruction of wild birds and their eggs." Under the auspices of the Audubon Societies there may be organized in every school Junior Societies. If carefully organized the children will become in- terested in the protection of wild birds. In the selection of their nesting place and in the building of the nest the bird should be offered some means of protection. To ha-ve the birds build their nests in the rose bushes, peach trees, apple trees or in ornamental trees near our homes is the vital problem. It may be accomplished within a year if the birds are seldom molested. Most birds soon learn to know their friends and do not show alarm at their presence. Strings, pieces of cloth, cotton and straw placed in the vicinity of the selected nesting places will always be used by the birds. Overgrown vines and bushes may be left here and there as they will usually attract such as the red bird, the thrashers and the robin. Bird houses will also assist in attracting the bird as he is looking for a- nesting place. This is especially true of the wren, blue bird, martin and swallow. A little attention to grassy spots — the omission of the cutting will be a benefit to the finches, bobolink and meadow lark. The screech owl, barn owl and swallow will make their homes in the attics of barns and out- buildings, if there is an opening where they may enter. One owl in a barn is worth a- dozen cats when it comes to the destruction of rats and mice. Except during periods of droughts or cold weather birds are able to se- cure the necessary food, but very frequently the water supply is what causes them to seek what would appear to us more unfavorable quarters. By plac- ing a basin of water in the neighborhood of a nest will soon prove how much the bird will enjoy the little kindness. Birds aJso bathe quite often and in many instances will travel a considerable distance to obtain a drink or a bath. It may be said that if the protection of birds is to become of vital moment that it must be reached by teaching the child the proper status of the bird so that he will respond with acts of helpfulness. It is a difficult proposition to enact laws that materially assist in the protection of the birds until a proper spirit has been created for obeying them. The outline given here on the robin may suggest a genera-l plan of studying any of the common birds. THE ROBIN. — Although the robin is one of the most common birds, we find out daily that there are many things to learn about him. If we will but look we will be able to find out many interesting facts. It is by observing a bird in its natural home that we become interested and a-ppreciate its real purpose in the world and its actual worth. The stories and descriptions of birds in books are valuable, but they will not ca-use us to have a better feeling toward the bird family as will an hour or two, now and then, spent in the field and forest or along the stream. It is possible to learn many things with the naked eye, but a field glass may be obtained for a small sum and then the bird may be observed as he works or plays — every bird has its play time. Few wild birds act naturally if they are aware that they are being watched, hence the advantage of a field glass. The following brief outline is given for the reason that it may help you in becoming better acquainted with the robin (or any other bird for that mat- ter.) The suggestions, however, are of but little value unless we experience at least a few of them. 47 1. Notice when and where the robin sings. Does he sing during a rain? Learn to imitate his song. (A boy ought to be able to imita-te any bird that he hears). 2. Selection of the site for his nest. Does his judgment seem good? Do they ever partly build a nest and then leave it to start another? 3. Building of the nest. Do you suppose that it would help the robin any if you Avould place a box or pan of mud near the place where he has begun the nest? Try it. Of what material is the nest constructed? 4. Hatching period. Does the mother do all the sitting upon the nest? What does the robin do if molested by another bird? Did you ever see a robin's nest in a well protected place? 5. Care of the young. Does the male or female bring most of the food to the young? What kind of food is brought? Watch the mother as she teaches the young birds to ily and to eat. For severa4 days after the robins are hatched thev merely open their mouths to receive the food brought to them. Would it not be possible' for you to help the robin during a dry season by furnishing him with a supply of fishworms or caterpillars for the four or five tiny fledglings? He will carry five or six fishworms at a time. By follow- ing this plan you will have the satisfaction of making him your intima-te friend. 6. The food supply. Determine for yourself whether he eats more animal food or more cherries. By careful observation you will find that his daily food consists of about 60 per cent of animal food and about 35 per cent of wild fruit. He will travel quite a- distance to make a dinner on the wild cherry, wild grape or the elderberry. The tame cherry crop will be decreased many per cent if the robins are driven away. Why? 7. Peculiar habits or traits. What becomes of the first brood of robins while the female is hatching the second brood? Do robins ever fight each other? Watch the robin as he gets a cut-worm or an angleworm (fishworm). Did you ever see him listen to determine whether an angleworm was working near the surface of the soil? 8. Simple way to help. Did you ever place a shallow pan of water in the vicinity of the nest? The robin will use it as a drinking fountain as well as a bath tub. Try the experiment. The pleasure that you will have in watching him drink and bathe will more than pay for the trouble. The pan should be so placed that the birds will be entirely free from danger when drinking or bathing. The following life histories of common birds are intended to suggest what may be worked out about any bird that may be studied: BOB WHITE'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. The name which is given to me in books is Colinus Virginianus —rather a long name. The name that suits me best, however, is "Bob White" although I am often known by the name of quail or partridge. We live in nearly all parts of the United States, and as w^e do but little migrating, are among the first birds to indicate the coming of spring. Our family of the previous summer live together during the fall, winter and early spring months. As the spring approaches we divide into small groups of two or four. About the middle of April or the first of May the .selection of a nesting place is made. It may be quite a distance from the winter home that was located in a brush-pile, hedge row, a bunch of grass or in a cluster of leaves in a bushy thicket. Our ndsts are usually to be found in bunches of grass, near a small bush, by a stump or along an old lane-fence — in same color as our coat of feathers. If you will notice closely, you will see that otir feathers resemble in color, dead leaves, dead grass or the bark of trees or posts. For this reason but very few people are able to see us when in the nest. In many nests there will be found as many as two dozen white eggs. As the eggs are pointed the mother bird is able to arrange them s© that they may all be covered by her. If the eggs were not pointed it would not be possible for the small nest to hold all of them. 48 During the nesting and hatching season you can hear the male bird in the early morning or in the late evening giving his thrilling call, "Bob White." The male and female take turns in covering the eggs during the hatching season. After the hatching season the whistle FORE-A-FEE, FORE-A-FEE is often heard. It is a whistle given to gather together the covey. It will be easy for you to discover whether the whistle FORE-A-FEE is given by the nuale or female. As any form of danger approa^ches, the young Bob Whites scatter and hide in any form of undergrowth. As they become larger, however, they endeavor to escape danger by running rapidly in a zig-zag way and then by flying in a peculiar undulating manner. The amateur hunter can seldom hit us while we are on the wing. Our food during the spring, summer and fall months consists mainly of the seeds of weeds, chinch bugs, ants, beetles, grass hoppers, potato bugs, cut worms, caterpillars and small quantities of gra-in. If farmers would be more careful in protecting us from the hunters, it w.ould not be necessary for them to spend much time and money destroying the insects that we depend upon for food. We hope that sometime the farmer will recognize our worth and will give us more protection from the depredations of the annual sportsman. As the droughts of the summer approach we seek the nearby streams, but return of evenings to our roosting place. During the fall and winter the covey sleep in the same place unless they have been disturbed by some noc- turnal visitor, such as a weasel, fox or mink. In sleeping we group our- selves in the form of a circle upon the ground, all having our heads outward. By this method we can more readily discern the approach of an enemy. Quite often a number of our family are killed by being covered with deep snows. Frequently the deep snows cause many to starve. If a farmer could supply us with a small amount of grain during the worst winter months, we would pay him back many fold during the summer season by the eating of destructive insects. THE BIRD THAT SHOWS THE WHITE FEATHER.— Meadowlark. With the possible exception of the robin this bird is the first to announce the approach of spring in the northern states east of the Mississippi River. To appreciate his song the most it must be heard in the early morning as he flits from one knoll in a meadow or pasture to another. It is when standing on a knoll, post or tuft of grass that he renders his best selection, which con- sists of a clear, musical whistle. The earnestness with which he sings attracts our attention and we need to hear hira but a few times to be convinced of this fact. He is never to be seen standing around and apparently out of tune with even the worst weather. Except when seaching for food he walks with his head erect and the way in whch he moves is very striking. He walks as though he was intimately interested in the work that he is doing. He can rightly be called an optimist. The meadows and pasture lands are the natural home of this bird. Should he arrive at his summer home too early in the spring, as he often does, the chances are that he will have some trouble in evading the deep snows. He ahvays sleeps on the ground in a tuft of grass. In crossing a meadow in the springtime after a light snow you will often be surprised by having one spring from his cozy nest where he has been protected from the wind and snow. To you and me it wouljl seem to be a lonesome and a dreary place to spend the night alone. It is another story if the snow is a deep one, as he may be covered to the depth of several inches and in this event would freeze or starve. In looking for food he walks rapidly through the grass in a stooping position. He raises his head quite often to see if the'-e is any danger near. It is said that at least three-fourths of his food consists of beetles, ants, grass- hoppers, caterpillars and cut-worms. During the spring and fall he eats a great number of weed seeds. The nests are usually located in a tuft of grass. Generally the nest has a natural covering of grass, leaving but one place for entrance. This opening is in most instances on the south side of the nest. The feathers on the back 49 and wings of the bird bear a close color resemblance to the mixed grasses. The bird on the nest is seldom seen by the passerby, as at the approach of danger they crouch closer to the ground. There are usually five or six white eggs with brown spots. The eggs are often destroyed by snakes or field mice. This bird has a bright yellow breast with a black crescent on it; his back, wings and sides are of a brown and black. He does a great deal of walking, consequently his legs and feet are very strong. The most interesting point about his description is that the outer end of the tail feathers are white. When he alights he moves the tail feathers very rapidly several times, show- ing the white on the ends of the feathers. In a natural flight this white on the feathers is also very noticeable. He has but few associates during the nesting season. He is known as the bird of the "white feather," because he will not enter into combat with another bird. Of course he shows the white feather in making a flight, but he also shows it when forced to stand for his rights. When trouble appears he evades it by taking flight or by hiding in the grass. He seldom offers any resistance to an intruder, even though it be an English sparrow. Our admiration for the bird ought to increase when we take into con- sideration his songs, his destruction of insects and his qualities of peace. IDENTIFICATION CHART OF THIRTY COMMON BIRDS. 1. RED-HEADED WOODPECKER.— 9 to 10 inches in length. Head and neck a crimson; wings and back a glossy black, excepting the tips of the wings which a-re a white. Breast and under part a white. Eggs are nearly spherical. Eats larvae found in wood, ants, insects and nuts. Non-migratory. Two or more broods a year. Nest generally in hole in tree. More good than harm. 2. BROWN THRASHER.— 11 to 12 inches in length. Bright, rusty, red back and wings. Small bands of white on wings, the breast and under surface are white, but marked with brown spots. Long bill and tail; yellow eyes. Eggs are white with brown spots. Migratory. Eats insects and berries. Nests made from fiber and twigs; located in hedge-rows or bushes, sometimes on the ground. Destroy weeds and insect pests. 3. WHIP-POOR-WILL. 10 inches in length. Color a mixture of brown, black and white; white band across breast. Under side of tail feathers white. Tail is broad and rounded. Near base of bill, many bristles. Lays two eggs that are marked with yellow spots. Nest is on log or bunch of leaves. In perching sits lengthwise on limb. Eats insects. A valua-ble bird. 4. MEADOW-LARK.— 10 to 11 inches in length. Back, wings and sides are a brown and black; the breast is a bright yellow with a black crescent. Outer end of tail feathers are white. Nest in tuft of grass, in meadows or pastures; white eggs with brown spots. Eats beetles, ants, grasshoppers, cater- pillars, w^eed seeds and cut-worms. Walks through grass in stooping position but raises head quite often. Songster and a destroyer of pests. 5. DOWNY WOODPECKER.— A little larger than English sparrow. White hand down the middle of back, remainder of back and wings striped with black and white. Under parts white. Red band on neck of male bird. Eats larvae of codling moth, ants, beetles, grasshoppers and wild berries. Often runs down trunk of tree. Nest in hole of dead tree. Often miscalled sap- sucker. Highly beneficial. 6. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.— About 6 inches long. Upper parts of of a light slate color, top of head being black, sides of head and under parts a white. Wings and tail a slate color mixed with white and black. Eats nuts, canker worms, insects, weed seeds, and ma^ny larvae. Does not brace the tail against the tree as does the woodpecker. A help to the gardener and fruit grower. 7. SCREECH OWL. — About 10 inches long. Upper parts of a gray or brownish red, the under parts a whitish hue or yellow. It is mottled with 50 yellow or black. Coats vary quite a great deal. Tufted ears and yellow eyas. Nest in hollow tree or attic or building. Eggs very nearly round. Eats mice, caterpillars, gi-asshoppers and beetles. Of more value than a cat. 8. BELTED KINGFISHER. — About thirteen inches long. Wings, tail and back are an ashy blue, the wings and tail being marked with spots of white. Neck and breast are white with a belt of blue across breast. Crest on head; white spot in front of eye. Bill longer than head. Outer toe is fastened to middle one for one-half length. Flies near surface of water. Nest in hole in side of bluff. Eats fish, frogs, decaying animal matter,, bird eggs and mol- lusks. Eggs, white. Practically harmless. 9. CAT BIRD. — About nine inches long. Dark slate color above, below a light slate color. Top of head and tail black. Feet and bill black. Nest in bushes, being roughly made. Eggs a greenish-blue. Eats insects and cater- pillars. It sings like the brown thrasher, and at times utters a cry some- thing like a cat. Is constantly moving about. Migratory. Valuable on ac- count of song and the destruction of insects. 10. KING BIRD. — Smaller than the robin. Upper parts a grayish slate. Light slate color below. Small crest. Tail black with white tips. Nest on branches of trees. Egg a white with brown spots. Eats bugs, caterpillars and winged insects. Attacks crows and hawks. Seen about orchards or hedges. Migratory. Often miscalled Bee-martin. Beneficial to fruit grower. 11. SCARLET TANAGER. — A little more than seven inches long. In spring, the male is a bright scarlet, with black wings and tail. Underneath wing feathers are a white. During the fall the male and female look very much alike, having an olive green hue above and the underneath a yellow. Nest on branches of trees. Blue eggs with brown spots. Makes nests in groves. Usually sings from top branches of a tree. 12. BLACK-BILLED CUCKOO AND YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO.— Somewhat larger than the robin. Black-billed is gray above and below. Bill long. Skin about eye is red. A long tail. Yellow-billed is a bronze gray above and below. Lower mandible of bill is yellow. Outer tail feathers tipped with black. Long tail. Seldom comes out in open. Often called rain-crow. Eats caterpillars. Lay eggs in nest of other birds. Disappears noiselessly if ap- proached. 13. MOURNING DOVE.— Grayish brown above. Reddish brov.n below. Upper part of head a greenish blue. Easily recognized by its low mellow notes. Nest poorly made in lower branches of small trees or on the ground. Eggs white and two or three in number. Nests in wooded tracts or grain fields. Gathers in flocks in early fall. Eats v% eed seeds, insects and small quantities of grain. Highly beneficial to farmers. Does but little injury. 14. FLICKER. — Called yellow-hammer or golden winged woodpecker. Head and neck a gray, with red crescent across back of neck. Black crescent on breast. Above a bright brown with black. Below a cinnamon brown with black blotches. Yellow lining of wing« and ta-il. Nest in hollows of trees. Feeds upon the ground quite often. Migratory. 15. RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD.— Male is a black. Shoulder a scarlet with an edge of yellow. Female a rusty black with less scarlet. Lives in swampy tracts or along small streams. Nests a-re fastened to bushes or slumps of weeds or grasses. Eggs a pale blue marked with black. Eats worms, weed seeds, insects and grains. Lives in flocks. Highly beneficial. 16. AMERICAN GOLDFINCH.— Often called wild canary and yellow bird. Black crown, wings and tail. Remainder of covering a yellow. In v.-inter an olive brown. Nests in low bushes. Bluish whtie eggs. Nesting period in July. Often seen in thistle patches or by roads. Live principally upon weed seeds. Found in flocks. Of much value to the farmer. 17. COW BIRD. — Male, black, with head, neck and brea-st a brown. Female, a dull slate color. Both are smaller than the other black birds. Has a conical beak. S?en among cattle in pasture. Lays eggs in nests of other birds. Eggs, white with brown spots. Eats weed and grain seeds. Congre- gates with other species of black birds. Beneficial. 51 18. BRONZED GRACKLE or COMMON BLACKBIRD.— Black with blue, purple and copper tints. Tail longer than wings. Yellow in eye. Builds nest in trees. Often carries tail rudder-wise. Ea-ts insects, weed seeds and growing grain. The flocks separate during hatching season, but gather together in early autumn. Does a slight damage to grov.ing corn. More than pays for all dam- age it does. 19. SHARP-SHINNED HAWK and COOPER'S HAWK (Male.)— The Coop- er's hawk is much the larger. The upper parts are of a brown slate. Under parts lighter, the throat being white. Under parts barred with brown. Long tail. Nest in top of trees. White speckled eggs. In fields, orchards or wooods. Flies very swiftly. Eats mice, rabbits and chickens. The only species of haw'k that lives on poultry. All other species highly beneficial. 20. SPARROW-HAWK ( Ma^le. )— About ten inches long. Upper parts a reddish brown, being barred with black. Under parts a yellowish white. Wing fea-thers a slatish hue. Makes nests in barns, roofs or a hollow tree. Eats insects and mice. When searching for prey in meadows it hovers above and then drops down. Should not be killed. 21. RED-TAILED HAWK (Male.)— About twenty inches long. Often called hen-hawk. Upper parts brown, being mottled. Lower parts a light brown. Tail a red-brown. Eats insects, mice, rabbits and small birds, but seldom poultry. Makes nest in top of trees. Beneficial. 22. MARSH HAWK. — Male bird is smaller than the female. Back wnngs and tail are of a grayish color. The tail has bars across it. The throat and breast a white gray. The lower parts a white, but mottled with a reddish brown. Long wings and tail. Lives in open. Flies low. Can often be seen turning a somersa-ult in the air. Nest in bunches of grass or in shrubbery patch. Eats moles, frogs, insects, mice, ground squirrels, lizards and small birds. Does not eat poultry, hence should not be killed. 23. RED-SHOULDERED HAWK (Male.)— Upper parts a grayish brown, barred white. Under parts blotched with black. Lives in wooded tracts. Seldom visits poultry yard. A benefit to farmer. 24. PRAIRIE HORNED LARK.— A little larger than the English sparrow. Lives in open fields. Permanent resident. Pinkish brown. Erect feathers on both sides of head. Throat a yellow. Breast has black blotch. Tail black. Under surface a pale white. Seen often in by-roads, grain fields, and meadows. Nests in meadows of pastures. Eats weed seeds and insects. 25. BALTIMORE ORIOLE (:\Iale).— Head, throat, back and wings black. Wings have white spots. Rest of body an orange. Female a yellowish brow^n. Wings dark brown. Has a hang nest on end of limb. Nest made of string and pieces of cloth or pieces of inner bark. Eats worms, flies, ants and caterpillars. Noted for its song. 26. RED-EYED VIREO.— About the size of an English sparrow. Upper parts an olive green. Crown a slate color. White just above eye. Above this is a black hue. The iris of eye is red. Under surface a white with a greenish yellow on sides. Lives among bushes and small trees. Sings at midday. Eats insects and worms. 27. SONG SPARROW.— About the size of English sparrow. Reddish browm. Brown stripe on side of throat. Below is white. Black spot on breast. Tail a light brown. Nest on ground or in small bush. Raises two or three broods a year. Found in fields, in by-ways, or in patches of underbrush. 28. HOUSE WREN. — About five inches long. Brown barred. Darker ex- cept on head. Wings finely barred. Light brown on under surface. Often has tail erect. Nest in boxes, openings in buildings or in hollow trees. Very domestic. Eggs are speckled. Eats worms and small insects. VaJuable to gardener and fruit grower. 29. WOOD THRUSH.— Reddish brown on head and shoulders. Rear of back an olive brown. White beneath but spotted with dark brown spots. White eye ring. Rather domestic. Common in parks, orchards and gardens. Nest in low bushes. Lively singer. Lives principally upon insects. 30. NIGHT HAWK.— Black and brown spots. Yellow spots on under sur- 52 face which is barred. Throat a white. Long wings. Large white spots no- ticeable only in flying. Small bill. Nest on logs or ground. Flies in flocks in late afternoon in summer. Eats insects that it catches on the wing. BIRD CALENDARS. — During the spring, vacation and fall a' bird calendar should be made . It may include any points that have been learned by obsei-- vation, as: Name Color Arrives Location of nest Material in nest American Goldfinch Bright Yellow May In small tree Grass and moss Food eaten Weed seeds Number of broodsOne Number of eggs Five or six Color of eggs Pa-le blue Migrates October BIRD MAPS. — A map should be drawn of the yard, garden and orchard of a- home or of the neighborhood of the school showing location of all the nests made. It may be indicated on the map as to whether the nest is in a bush, tree on the ground or in a prepared nest. Taking a census or survey of a neighborhood in this way makes anyone more familiar with bird life. BIRD FOOD CHART.— A simple outline may be kept of the food that the bird is seen to eat. In course of time, a complete chart can be made of twenty-five or thirty and much will be learned about the habits of the bird. A check may be placed after the name of each food that the bird is seen to eat. Where it eats a great deal two crosses may be made. Tame fruit Screech Owl Wild fruit Caterpillars X Grasshoppers X Ants .... Grain . ^ . Weed seeds .... Mice XX Worms .... Potato bug Cut w?;ms ... Bird eggs X Birds Robin Jaybird Bluebird Wren SPECIAL POINTS ABOUT A FEW COMMON BIRDS. KIND OF RESIDENTS. — Birds that stay in the same immediate neighbor- hood are called permanent residents. Six such birds near the fortieth parallel are: blue-jay, crow, red-headed woodpecker, downy woodpecker, flicker and horned lark. Some birds remain near the fortieth parallel during the winter but at the approach of spring they migrate toward the north. Such birds as these are, the ruby crowned kinglet, brown creeper, white throated sparrow and tit-mice. Again there are those that remain with us during the summer. These are called migratory or summer residents. The majority of our birds belong to this class. TREE-PROTECTORS. — Many birds are helpful in that they destroy many insects that injure either the tree or the fruit. Among these may be mentioned the flicker, hairy woodpecker, white-breasted nuthatch, kinglet, downy wood- pecker, red-headed woodpecker, chickadee, vireos, brown creeper, yellow-bellied sapsucker and cuckoo. BIRDS OF PREY. — In this class may be grouped the hawks and owls. They are usually solitary in habit, excepting during migration. They live principally upon mice, large insects, rabbits, birds, squirrels, eggs and poultry. There are only two members of the hawk family that invade the poultry yard. They are the sharp-shinned hawk and the Cooper's hawk. The marsh hawk, the red-tailed hawk, the red-shouldered hawk and the sparrow hawk 53 should not be blamed for the depredations of the first two mentioned hawks. The screech owl, and the short-eared owl are all highly beneficial. SOURCES OF MATERIAL. — Colored bird pictures may be obtained from Birds and Nature, Chicago, 111. (Price 2 cents apiece.) Any of the following magazines will be found helpful in the study of birds: Bird Lore, Harrisburg, Pa. Nature-Study Review, Chicago, 111. Birds and Nature, Chicago, 111. The Illinois Audubon Society, Lincoln Park, Chicago, 111., will be pleased- to send bird leaflets to any teacher. The bulletins mentioned below may be obtained free from the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C: Common Birds — Bulletin 54. Relation between birds and insects — Bulletin 486. Economic value of Predaceous birds — Bulletin 474. Does it pay the farmer to ))rotect birds? — Bulletin 443. Migratory movement of birds — -Bulletin .54.5. Economic value of Boh White — Bulletin 300. How birds affect orchards — Bulletin 197. Food of nestling birds — Bulletin 194. The Blue-jay and its food — Bulletin 66. Our Grosbeaks — Bulletin 456. Among the bird books are: Chapman's Birds of Eastern North America. Merriam's Birds of Village and Field. Blanchan's Bird Neighbors. Lange's Our Native Birds. Reed's Our Birds. 54 THE FOREST AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. If an appreciation for the presence of trees is to be instilled in the pupils of the public schools there must of necessity be considerable attention paid to the planting and caring of trees. The trees aside from being of an economic value, also add much to the appearance of the landscape and at the same time afford a place for the nesting of nearly all species of birds. The element of shade is a- question that also enters into the consideration of the study. The planting of the seeds or the trees so that our descendants may enjoy the fruits of our labor is one of the highest motives that can grow out of the study of trees. There is something uplifting in seeing an old man plant a hard maple in preference to the rapidly growing soft maple. The study of trees can be carried on at all times of the year. The col- lecting and planting of such as acorns, maple seeds, walnuts, hazel nuts, linden seeds and box elder seeds may be carried on during the fall. Careful obser- vation should be made as to how the seeds are propagated. Many of the seeds of the hardier trees do not germinate until the second year. The seeds may be planted in either the spring or the fall. It is always best to plant the seeds very shallow — not more than two inches deep. It will also help the seed to germina-te if the seed plot is covered lightly with leaves or grass. A corner of a school ground is an excellent place to have a tree plot so that the school grounds or community could be furnished with the necessary young trees. During the study on trees much time should be spent in the discussion of the care of the school yard and home. It is not an uncommon thing to neg- lect a scar on a tree or a partially broken limb. In the collection of samples of wood there should not be the wanton destruction of small trees and the limbs of trees as is often done. A collection of leaves may be made during the late spring or the early fall. These will help in the identification of many species. Tree study to be successful must be principally bj' observation and not by breaking limbs of trees in an haphazard manner. Too much of this kind of work has already been done a« is evidenced by the number of imperfect trees. When the buds begin to appear in the early spring there should be a study of the flower bud, the leaf bud and the bark. It is also interesting to keep a calendar of the flowering and leafing of the trees. It may be as follows : Name. Time of leaves. Leaves fully developed. Elm. April 25. May 10. The culmination of the tree study should end on Arbor Day when a special exercise of some kind should be held. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 1. Make drawings of leaves and trees. 2. The following poems or prose selections refer to tree life: October's Party, Hiawatha's Sailing, The Crooked Fir Tree, The Brave Old Oak, Planting of Apple Tree, Rhoecus, The First Christmas Tree, Woodman Spare That Tree. 3. Make a list of all the nuts common to Illinois. 4. Describe the white oak telling where it is commonly found, shape, color of bark, seeds and shape of leaves. 5. Make tree booklets. 6. Draw a map of school district showing the location of trees. 7. Make a- list of insects that infest the trees. 8. Make a collection and then a study of the twigs of various trees. The color, buds, general shape, smoothness and the seeds. 9. Learn to recognize the following trees (take into consideration the shape, bark and leaves) : 55 soft maple sassafras birch hard maple sycamore walnut Norway maple linden cotton wood box elder elm hickory white oak red oak red haw- beechnut hackberry chestnut pecan mulberry burr oak catalpa ash wild cherry Describe the following, telling some places where they should be planted: lilac honeysuckle ivy spirea barberry wistaria privet clematis grapevine Questions to be proposed and answered after observations have been made: 1. What trees do not lose their leaves during the winter? 2. Are the leaf scales covering the buds, sticky? For w'hat purpose? 3. Do pecans grow in Illinois? 4. Is coal formed from trees? 5. What is the layer under the outer bark called? How does the tree get its food from the soil? 6. How can you tell the age of a tree? 7. Name a common tree that does its own pruning? 8. Why is it necessary to dig the hole for planting a tree two or three times as large as seems necessary? 9. Why is it better to transplant a tree in the early fall? 10. What trees grow close to the smaller waterways? 11. What are Forest reserves? 12. What are some of the ways in which forests are destroyed? 13. Does the absence of forests cause a decrease in the amount of rain- fall? 14. In what ways are forests being preserved? FRUIT TREES. The successful growing of fruit trees is one of the most interesting and helpful studies in the nature study field. The results of Burbank, the spray- ing of trees, the grafting, the fruit pests, the care of the trees and the storing and marketing of the fruit are some practical illustrations of what the general field suggests. Some of the things that ought to be done in the study of the Apple: (Other fruit trees should also receive attention.) 1. Make a list of the various fruit trees of the neighborhood. 2. Draw a home plot showing the location of the fruit trees and follow this with a discussion as to where more trees can be set out. 3. In orchards it is the best arrangement to set the trees of each row opposite the spaces of the next row. Draw a diagram showing that sixty-eight trees twenty feet apart can be set on a plot 160 feet square, no tree within ten feet of the edge of the plot. 4. Apple trees (results to be gotten by observation). (1) Average height of the trees? (2) Color of the bark? (3) What is the arrangement of the branching? (4) How and where are the flowers located? (5) Compare the flower bud and stem until they are easily distinguished. 5. Send to a nursery for their catalogue and make a study of the com- mon varieties of apples, such as Winesap, Red Astrachan, Northern Spy, Jona- than, Snow, Greening, Grimes Golden and Russet. 56 6. Make a collection of seeds and plant a few to show the process of germination. Other fruit seeds should be planted at the same time. 7. PLANTING APPLE SEEDS.— The apples from the apple trees that have been raised from the seeds are usually very small and do not resemble the apples from the original tree. This may be avoided by grafting the sprout or young tree after it is a year or two old. This may de done by taking the stem buds and placing them on the stem of the tree that has been developed directly from the seed. (This phase of work will be the most interesting and vital of any of the work on the trees for the reason that it concerns, the prop- agation of trees for future generations. One stem bud will often produce a hundred or more during a summer. To do simple grafting it will be necessary to have a sharp knife, pieces of cloth and wax. The wax may be of equal parts of tallow, resin and beeswax. Four or five stems (scions) may be cut from the same tree or a scion from each of several trees may be used. There are several methods of graft- ing, but in this instance only two are mentioned — cleft graifting and the slanting cut grafting. The cleft grafting consists of splitting the stock, the stem on which the graft is to be fastened and then placing a thinned end of the graft stem into the slit. The other plan is to cut down obliquely across the graft stem and obliquely up the stock stem. The main thing in any plan of grafting is to unite the living pa-rts of the two stems. It is the layer lying next to the ba-rk that finally unites the two stems. This is called the cambium layer. After the stems have been united and covered with a thin cloth or hemp, the cloth should be given a thin coat of the wax. Grafting should be done at the first approach of spring. 8. BUDDING. — Budding consists in cutting a small T-shaped slit in the tree and inserting just the stem bud into the opening. The bark should then be fastened back in its original form. Budding can be done more successfully on the old peach tree or on the yearling sprout than on the apple tree. 9. PRUNING. — If the trees are carefully pruned they will have a better shape, and will produce a better api)le. They will also be less susceptible to decay. The pruning should be done a-t the close of the winter months. When large limbs are cut off they should be removed close to the body of the tree and the exposed surface given a thin coat of paint. 10. APPLE AND APPLE TREE PESTS.— Among the common pests of the apple orchard are: Codling Moth Tent Caterpillar Locust Apple Tree Borers Canker Worms San Jose Scale. CODLING MOTH.— The Codling Moth lays the eggs at about the time the bloom is falling. The larvae or worm upon hatching eats its way into the apple, causing the apple to fall to the ground before ripening. The larvae then emerges from the apple and crawls up the tree and makes a cocoon. The moth comes from this cocoon. If the orchards are kept clean of all trash it will assist in lessening the number of cocoons. The spraying of the tree at the time of the falling of the bloom will be found very effective. The following mixture may be used: Copper Sulphate 3 lbs. Lime 3 lbs. Water 50 gallons. Paris Green 4 ounces. TENT CATERPILLAR.— The moth lays the eggs in the late summer. When spring approaches the larvae eat their way through the covering and begin to devour the leaves. As they reach full growth they leave the trees and spin the cocoons. By the first of July the moth appears and soon after the eggs are laid. The number of these pests may be greatly lessened by the burning of ihe nests. The spraying of the codling moth mixture also tends to eliminate them. Many birds, such as the chickadee, woodpecker, nuthatch and catbird feed upon both the larvae and the cocoons. CANKER-WORM. — The measuring worm or canker-worm, in the early summer burrow into the earth. In a few days they come forth as moths, the male with wings and the female wingless. The female crawls up the tree and deposits eggs. The larvae then soon appear. A band of tarred paper placed around the tree will prevent the female from crawling up the tree. The codling-moth spray may be also used. Nearly any of the common song birds feast upon the canker worm moth. SAN JOSE SCALE. — One of the difficult orchard pests to check is the San Jose scale. They are very minute and propagate very rapidly — often there are five generations in a year. The bark and the tree appear to have tiny gray specks on them. If the scale is unmolested the tree will often die after a fight of three or four years. The most simple treatment is to burn the infested trees, otherwise the entire orchard will become infested. TREE BULLETINS. Grafting Bulletin 408, Dept. or Agri., Washington, D. C. Forestry in Nature Study Bulletin 486, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Arbor Day Bulletin 96, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Tree Planting Bulletin 134, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Growing of Apples Bulletin 113, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Pruning Bulletin 181, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Spraying Bulletin 283, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Spraying Peaches Bulletin 440, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C, San Jose Scale Bulletin 124, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Pear Blight Bulletin 50, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Handling of Fruit Bulletin 387, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Diseases of Ornamental Trees. . Bulletin 463, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Enemies of Shade Trees Bulletin 99, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Lumber Supply Bulletin 2.5, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. How Birds Affect the Orchard. . . Bulletin Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Bitter Rot of Apples Bulletin 118, Agri. Ex. Station, Urbana, 111. Insects of Illinois Shade Trees.. Bulletin 115, Agri. Ex. Station, Urbana, 111. Apple Score Card Department of Horticulture, Purdue, Ind. Pruning Bulletin 30, Dept. of Horticulture, Purdue, Ind. 58 FUNGI. Fungi are plants of a low order. They do not contain the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) as do most plants and, therefore, are compelled to be dependent upon other organisms for food. They bear no flowers, and conse- quently produce no seeds. Instead of seeds they produce little bodies called spores, which answer the same purpose. Mushrooms, puff balls, molds, rusts, blights, mildew, rot, sca^bs, smuts, etc., belong to the fungi. These plants obtain their food in two ways, viz.: from living animals and plants, and from dead bodies or organic waste products. The fungus that attacks living bodies is called parasite, and the body which it attacks is called the host. The plant which attacks dead bodies or obtains its food from organic waste products is called a saprophyte. THE MUSHROOM— A TYPE STUDY. The rusts, puff-balls and mushrooms represent the most highly special- ized and extensive group of fungi. The mushroom, being the easiest to observe on account of its size and abundance, is chosen for the type study. Have the children bring in some mushrooms. The common meadow mushroom is abundant in the fall. If possible it would be advisable to buy some of thespawn and raise a crop in the school room. Bulletin .5o, U. S. Department of Agriculture gives full directions for cultivating this fungus. Mushrooms are found in the woods, around stumps and barns, in the meadows and fields, and on trees or wherever there is decaying organic matter. The stem or stalk-like part is called the stipe and the expanded umbrella-like part the pileus. The leaf-like plates found on the under side of the pileus are called the giUs. The surface of the gills is covered by a membranous layer bearing club-shaped cells from the ends of which project from two to four delicate branches each bearing a^ minute spore at its tip. When the gills are ripe these spores shower down in great abundance, and germinate, producing new plants. Attached to the end of the stipe are small whitish threads which branch extensively through the sub-stratum of decaying organic matter upon which the fungus grows. These threads make up the vii/celium and are called spaum by some growers. The mycelium is the real vegetative body of the plant upon which buttons are produced which develop into the umbrella- like plants commonly regarded as mushrooms, but which are only the fruit or reproductive organs. An exact print of the under side of the top (pileus) of a mushroom may be obtained by breaking the stem off and laying the top gills downward, on a piece of clean white paper, leaving it for from twelve to twenty-four hours. An examination of the print thus made will show an exact representation of the under side of the pileus. By rubbing the fingers over this print the discharged spores in the form of a fine powder, may be felt. MUSHROOMS, EDIBLE AND POISONOUS. The popular classification, which limits mushrooms to a certain species and classes all others as toadstools ,is erroneous. All toadstools are mush- rooms and all mushrooms are toadstools. The real distinction is between puff- balls and mushrooms. Puff-balls differ from mushrooms in that they have the spores enclosed until they are ripe, while mushrooms have the spore- bearing surface exposed. The color of the spores is an important aid in distinguishing the edible type from the poisonous. The latter generally have white spores while the favorite edible kinds have dark purple brown spores which can be clearly distinguished in the print mentioned elsewhere. FUNGOUS DISEASES. Plants have diseases just as animals do. Most of these diseases are caused by fungi the spores of which float around through the air, and settle 59 on (he healthy plii-nt. Here they grow and cause much injury to the plant. Indeed, if they are not destroyed they may kill the plant or seriously impair its usefulness. The diseases caused by spores are called fungous diseases. The most common forms are potato scab, peach leaf 'curl, fruit rot, fire blight of the pear and apple, S7niit in corn, black knot in plum, potato blight, and apple scab. Mildew and mold belong also to the fungus diseases that affect plants. HOW PLANT DISEASES SPREAD. 1. The spores of the, fungi are very light and are easily carried from one plant to another by insects, wind or water. They fall upon the surface of plants and work their way into the tissues through wounds, cracks or stomata. 2. The soil in new fields is often infected by tools that have been used ill infected soils or by diseased plants which have been transferred from infected soil. 3. Tools that have been used to cut off diseased portions of plants often retain some of the spores on their surfaces and, when used on healthy tissues, deposit them where they begin to grow immediately. 4. When oats infected with smut are threshed the spores of the fungus arise in a cloud and often settle on the threshed grain. If any of this grain is planted the spores soon develop in the growing plant. In this way a whole field is often ruined at a cost of many dollars to the farmer. 5. Many of the diseases are contagious. This is especially true of the rots. Healthy fruit may become infected by coming in contact with diseased fruit. This may be clearly shov/n by putting a rotten apple or potato in a box or barrel with some sound ones. In a very short time the good ones will begin to decay. HOW PLANT DISEASES MAY BE PREVENTED. Fungous diseases can seldom be cured, therefore, they must be pre- vented. It is very important that the ways of preventing these diseases should be given careful study. Some of the genera-l means of prevention are given below: r., BURNING. — Since plant diseases spread very rapidly, * it follows diseased fruit, leaves, limbs or vines should be destroyed. These parts are often cut off and thrown into the fence corners, or the brush heap where they remain a menace to every healthy plant. Instead of this, a^Il the affected parts should be burned, which is a very effective means of destroying disease. 2. ROTATION OF CROPS.— It is a w^ell known fact that in most in- stances diseases confine themselves to only one or two kinds of plants. By growing some other kinds of plants on the land for a year or two the spores which have been left in the ground will die and the chances of injury from these diseases will be materially lessened. 3. SELECTION OF VARIETIES.— It has been found that some varieties of plants are able to resist disease much better than others. By a careful selection of the most resistant varieties, farmers are able to reduce their losses to a great extent. 4. SPRAYING. — By spraying the foliage of plants with a poisonous solution the spores may often be prevented from developing. A preparation used for this purpose is called a fungicide. Bordeaux mixture and lime- sulphur are the principal fungicides. Spraying is a common remedy for the following na-med diseases. Scab of apples, pears and peaches, peach leaf curl, potato blight and rot. 60 BORDEAUX MIXTURE. 5 lbs. copper sulphate (bluestone). 5 lbs. unslacked lime. 50 gal. water. Dissolve thoroughly the copper sulphate in 25 gallons water. Slack the lime and add 25 gallons to it. When the lime and copper sulphate are thor- oughly dissolved, mix them and strain through a coarse cloth into a spray pump, barrel or tank. Always use wooden vessels. A weaker mixture for trees in foliage may be made by using 2% lbs. each of lime and copper sulphate with the amount of waiter called for in the above recipes. An excellent table containing directions for spraying is given in the Appendix of "Agriculture for Beginners," published by Ginn & Company. 5. COATING CUT SURFACES.— When big limbs are pruned off decay often sets in, caused by the spores entering the fresh wounds. This decay may be prevented by covering the cut surface with a coating of paint, lar, wax or some other substance to prevent the spores from enter- ing and germinating. Valuable trees are often lost if this precaution is not taken. 6. PLANTING CLEAN, HEALTHY SEED.— -Vigorous seeds produce strong pla-nts that are able to resist disease more effectively than weak plants. Before seeds are planted they should be dipped for a few minutes in a solution of formaldehyde. Especially should this be done if there is any danger that the seeds are infected with spores of fungi. This treatment will kill the spores thereby preventing the disease from developing in the young plants. FORMALDEHYDE SOLUTION. 1 pint formaldehyde (40 per cent). 40 gallons water. Put the seed in a- 'gunny sack" and soak in this solution for about ten minutes. Then spread out to dry. TREATMENT OF SPECIAL PLANT DISEASES. 1. OATS AND WHEAT SMUTS.— It is very important that seed grain should be free from smut. If it is not the spores will develop with the sprouting seed and will attack the young plant, causing the blackened heaids of grain which are a familiar sight in many oats and wheat fields and which cause the farmer a loss of millions of dollars every year. This loss can be prevented largely by soaking the seed in the formaldehyde (formalin) solu- tion directions for the making of which are given in the preceding section. It would be well to have one of the pupils to bring a peck of oats to school and treat them with this solution. The spores that are on the oats will be killed and the crop coming from this seed will be free from smut. No doubt some of the farmer boys will be glad to try this experiment in the spring and sow the seed in some place where the result of the treat- ment can be watched. 2. CORN SMUT. — Corn smut is a parasitic fungus that develops among the growing tissues of the kernels of Indian corn. It causes the kernels to swell and finally destroys the plant cells, developing in their place large numbers of tiny blackish spores. These spores being very light are readily carried from place to place by the wind or running water. Each of these spores will germinate under favorable conditions, producing secondary spores, which will penetrate the tissues of young corn plants thus completing the life cycle. To prevent this disease it is necessary to destroy all infected plants thus checking the dispersal of the spores. Care should be taken that no smut- ted ears are left in fhe fields or gardens. Rotation of crops is another way by which corn smut may be fought. 61 3. THE POTATO SCAB. — Potato scab lessens the yield of potatoes and decreases the selling price. Scabby potatoes used for seed will produce scabby potatoes. This disease can be prevented in a large measure by soaking the seed potatoes in the formaldehyde solution for about two hours. Potatoes treated in this way should not be eaten nor fed to stock. 4. POTATO BLIGHT. — The blight is another serious disease of the potato that is quite different from the scab a^nd which requires a different treatment. This disease is caused by a fungus which attacks the leaves causing them to turn yellow and dry up. There are two kinds of potato blight known as Early Blight and Late Blight. The Ea-rly Blight does not usually attack the tubers but it decreases the yield materially. The Late Blight is much more serious since it causes the decay of the tubers as welt as the death of the leaves and stems. It is ca-used by a fungus known as the Downy Mildew the spores of which are carried by the wind and find lodg- ment on the surface of the potato leaves. Moisture will cause these spores to germinate and the little filaments thus produced find entrance into the leaf through some of its many open breathing pores. There they begin to grow very ra-pidly sending little threads in all directions. After penetrating through all the tissues of the leaf these little threads (mycelium) extend down the stem to the tuber causing it to rot. Millions of tiny summer spores are produced on the tips of branches which the mycelium in the lea-ves sends to the surface. These spores mature quickly and are readily carried away by the wind. In this way the Downy IMildew of the potato is spread. In some cases this disease is so bad that the crop is entirely destroyed. To prevent blight the seed should be rolled in sulphur, and when the vines appear above ground they should be sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. Resistant varieties should be selected and crop rotation practiced. It is well to remember that (1) potatoes should never be planted in a field where the preceding crop was affected by this disease, (2) potatoes grown in a field where the disease was present should never be used for seed. Downy Mildew of the Tomato, of Lima Beans, of the Grape, of the Onion, etc., ha^ve about the same life history and similar means of prevention are employed. 6. THE BLACK KNOT.— This is a disease which attacks the branches of the plum and cherry tree. The knots are caused by a parasitic fungus which produce a large number of spores e made with such crops as alfalfa, corn or wheat. Garden or flower seeds may be obtained free by any teacher from the Department of Agriculture, Washing- ton, D. C. It is suggested that something definite be done each year in the way of beautifying the school grounds. The planting of flowers, shrubs, vines and trees in a definite natural way is known as landscape gardening. Trees and shrubs may be set out either in the fall or in the spring. For ornamental pur- poses it is not best to set trees in rows and especially upon school grounds. Shrubs should be placed near the building or in masses along the walks. Cata- logues should be procured from seed houses and from nurserymen. Among the nurserymen that may be mentioned are: Swain Nelson Co Chicago, 111. A. M. Augustine Normal, 111. Wm. A. Peterson Chicago, 111. C. H. Webster Centralia, 111. Below is a list of shrubs. (In many places wild shrubs may be set out on the school grounds.) dog wood ' . choke berry elder viburnum arrow wood dwarf blue berry sumach The arbor and bird day book of 1914 contains many suggestions as to planting shrubs. It may be obtained free by addressing State Superintendent F. G. Blair, Springfield, 111. FREE BULLETINS. Forestry in Nature Study Bulletin 468, Dept., of Agri., Washington, D. C. Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. .Bulletin 99, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. School Gardening Bulletin 218, Dept. of Agri., Washington. D. C. Testing Seeds Bulletin 428, Dept. of Agri., Washington. D. C. Arbor Day Bulletin 96, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Tree Planting Bulletin 134, Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS IN ONE TON OF PEED STUFFS. Digestible Nutrients. Dry Kind of Feed. Matter. Alfalfa hay 1832 Sugar beets 270 Buckwheat bran 1790 Buckwheat grain 1748 Carrots 22S Clover hay 1694 Corn and Cob Meal 1698 Corn fodder, green 414 Corn, grain 1782 Corn Kiia-ge 418 Corn fodder, dry 1156 Carbohy- otein. drates. 220 864 22 208 148 694 154 1066 16 166 136 792 88 1330 20 250 158 1528 18 258 50 746 366 1134 516 1362 744 888 72 264 62 130 58 118 78 130 24 808 184 1136 198 1402 12 830 592 1094 204 1460 244 906 8 744 56 932 85 Cowpeas • ■ 1704 Gluten meal 1836 Cotton seed meal • • . . . 1836 Whole milk 256 Skim mirk (gravity) 192 Skim milk (centi'ifugal) 198 Buttermilk 198 Oat Straw 1816 Oats, grain 1780 Rye, grain 176S Rye straw 1858 Soy beans 1784 Wheat, grain 1790 Wheat bran 1762 Whea t straw 1808 Timothy hay 1736 STANDARD FEEDING RATIONS. (Wolff-Lehmann.) Showing approximate amounts of nutrients required per 1,000 pounds live weight for a day's feeding: Animal. >> . = Fattening Swine: First period 36 Second period 32 Third period 25 Oxen: At rest in stall 18 At medium work 25 At heavy work 28 Fattening Cattle: First period 30 Second period 30 Third period 26 Milch Cows: Giving 11 lbs. milk a day. ... 25 Giving 161/2 lbs. milk a day. . 27 Giving 22 lbs. milk a day 29 Giving 27% lbs. milk a day. . 32 Sheep : Coarse wool 20 Fine wool 23 Breeding ewes, with lambs. . 25 Fattening Sheep: First period 30 Second period 28 Horses : Light work 20 Medium work 24 Heavy work 26 Brood Sows 22 2.5 15.5 0.4 35,170 1:6.6 p OS o > 5 4.5 25.0 0.7 57,800 1: 5.9 4.0 24.0 0.5 .54,000 1: 6.3 2.7 18.0 0.4 40,200 1: 7.0 0.7 8.0 0.1 16,600 1:11.7 2.0 11.5 0.5 27,200 1: 6.3 2.8 13.0 0.8 32,755 1: 5.3 2.5 15.0 0.5 34,650 1: 6.4 3.0 14.5 9.7 35,000 1: 5.4 2.7 15.0 0.7 35,900 1: 6.1 1.6 10.0 0.3 22,850 1: 8.7 2.0 11. 0.4 25,850 1: 6.0 2.5 13.0 0.5 30,950 1: 5.6 3.3 13.0 0.8 33,700 1: 4.5 1.2 10.5 0.2 22,600 1: 9.2 1.5 12.0 0.3 26,400 1: 8.5 2.9 15.0 0.^ 35.400 1: 5.5 3.0 15.0 0.5 35,600 1: 5.4 3.5 14.5 0.6 36,000 1: 4.5 1.5 9.5 0.4 22,150 1: 6.9 2.0 11.0 0.6 26.700 1: 6.2 2.5 13.3 0.8 32,750 1. 8.0 86 LEGAL WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. Barley 48 lbs. Beans 60 lbs. Blue Grass Seed 14 lbs. Bran 20 lbs. Buckwheat 52 lbs. Clover Seed 60 lbs. Corn in car, husked 70 lbs. Corn (shelled) 56 lbs. Corn Meal 48 lbs. Oats 1 32 lbs. Onions j 57 lbs. Sweet Potatoes 50 lbs. Irish Potatoes 60 lbs. Rye 56 lbs. Fine Salt 55 lbs. Coarse Salt 50 lbs. Timothy Seed 45 lbs. Turnips 55 lbs. Wheat 60 lbs. QUANTITY OF SEED NEEDED FOR AN ACRE. Alfalfa 25 lbs. Blue Grass 25 lbs. Brown Corn 35 lbs. Cabbage 1 lbs. Red Clover 16 lbs. Cowpeas 75 lbs. Oats 80 lbs. Red Top 14 lbs. Soy Beans 80 lbs. Timothy 20 lbs. Wheat 80 lbs. FARM PAPERS. (There should be a farm paper on the library table of both rural and city schools.) Prairie Farmer Chicago, 111. Farm Journal Philadelphia, Pa. Indiana Farmer Indianapolis, Ind. Wallace's Farmer Des Moines, Iowa Farm and Fireside Springfield, Ohio Orange Judd Farmer Chicago, 111. Farmer's Review Chicago, 111. Farmer's Wife Minneapolis, Minn. The Farm Home Springfield, 111. Country Gentleman Philadelphia, Pa. Successful Farming Des Moines, Iowa Farmer's Wife St. Paul, Minn. Missouri Valley Farmer Topeka, Kans. Breeders' Gazette Chicago, 111. Wisconsin Agriculturist Racine, Wis. Ohio Farmer Cleveland, Ohio Iowa Homestead Des Moines, la. Colman's Rural World ._ St. Louis, Mo. pD ^ri^-\ 87 Units that should be memorized so that they may be used on a moment'* notice : 486^number of cents in an English pound. .866=altitude of 1 ft. equilateral triangle. l]^=di. of a silver dollar in inches. 412y2=weight of a silver dollar in grains. 25.8=weight of a gold dollar. 13.6=specific gravity of mercury. 22J^=No. of bricks for a cu. ft. 128=cu. ft. in a cord. 114— cu. ft. in a bushel of small grain. 1 4/9=cu. ft. in a bushel of ea-r corn. 18i/^=di. in inches of a bushel measure. .7854=No. used in finding area of circle. 2150. 4=No. of cu. in. in a bu. of small grain. 3888=No. of cu. in. in a bu. of ear corn. 2067=value in cents of an ounce of gold. 31i^=gallons in a barrel. 100=links in chadn. 640=acres in section. 5760=grain in 1 lb. Av. .5760=grains in 1 lb. Troy. 16%=ft. in a rod. 3014 =sq. yd. in a sq. rd. 7.92=in. in a link. 4:=inches in a hand. 62%=pounds in a cu. ft. of water. 1.4142=diagonal of a 1 ft. square. 231=cu. in, in a gallon. 1.732=diagonal of a 1 ft. cube. 43560=sq. ft. in 1 acre. 100=cu. ft. in cord of stone. 7%=gallons in 1 cu. ft. 550=cu. ft. in 1 ton loose clover hay. 400=cu. ft. in 1 ton mixed hay that is settled. 343=cu. ft. in 1 ton compact hay. 3 . 1416=circumference of a 1 ft. circle. 9=:sq. ft. in 1 sq. yd. 27=cu. ft. in 1 cu. yd. 2240=No. of lbs. in a large ton. i4=the a-rea of an inscribed square is % of a circumscribed square. 9=No. of shingles to a sq. ft. when laid 4 in. to weather. 22i^=No. of brick to a cu. ft. 24=a roll of paper is 24 ft. by U^ ft. 18%=diameter of a cylindrical bu. measure. .7071=line parallel to base of triangle and dividing it into 2 equal parts. 268.8==cu. in. in a dry gallon. 19.36=specific gravity of gold. 88 LIST OF BOOKS. 1. Elementary Principles of Agriculture — Ferguson and Lewis — Ferguson Pub. Co., Chicago. 2. Beginnings in Agriculture — Mann — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 3. Elements of Agriculture — Warren — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 4. Productive Farming — Davis — J. B. Llppincott & Co., Philadelphia. 5. Agriculture for Beginners — Burkett, Stevens & Hill — Glnn & Co., Chicago. 6. Elementary Agriculture — Nida — A. Flanagan & Co., Chicago. 7. Practical Agriculture — James — D. Appleton & Co., Chicago. 8. One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture — Nolan — Row, Peterson & Co., Chi- cago. 9. I. C. S. Farmer's Handbook — International Text Book Co., Scranton, Pa. 10. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture — Hopkins — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 11. Elementary Agriculture — Hatch & Haselwood — Row, Peterson & Co., Chi- cago. 12. Farm Friends and Farm Foes — Weed— Ginn & Co., Chicago. 13. First Principles of Agriculture — Goff & Mayne — American Book Co., Chi- cago. 14. Fungous Diseases of Plants — Duggar — Glnn & Co., Chicago. 15. Types and Breeds of Farm Animals — Plumb — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 3 6. The Principles of Breeding — E. Davenport — Ginn & Co., Chicago. 17. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture (4 volumes) — L. H. Bailey — The Mac- mlllan Co., Chicago. 18. Physics of Agriculture — King — F. H. King, Madison, Wis. 19. How to Keep Hens for Profit — Valentine — The Macmlllan Co., Chicago. 20. Practical Na-ture-Study and Elementary Agriculture — Coulter & Patterson — D. Appleton & Co. 21. Eleven Studies in Horticulture — Blair. Twelve Studies in Farm Animals — E. Davenport. Twelve Studies in Agriculture — E. Davenport — C. M. Parker, Taylorville, III. 22. Story of the Soil — Hopkins — Gorham Press, Boston. 23. Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them — Keeler — Charles Scribner's Sons. 24. Trees that Every Child Should Know — Rogers — Doubleday, Page & Co. 25. Grasshopper Green's Garden — Schwartz — Little, Brown & Co., Boston. 26. How to Know the Wild Flowers — Dana — Charles Scribner's Sons. 27. Flyaways and Other Seed Travelers — Fultz — Public School Pub. Co., Bloomington. 28. Garden-Making — Bailey — The Macmlllan Co. 29. The Farm and the Dairy — Sheldon— The Macmilla-n Co. 30. Milk and Its Products — Wing— The Macmlllan Co. 31. The Diseases of Animals — Mays — The Macmlllan Co. 32. Forage Crops — Voorhees — The Macmlllan Co. 33. Plant Diseases — Massee — The Macmlllan Co. 34. Diseases of Plants — Ward — The Macmlllan Co. 35. Farm Machinery — Davidson & Chase — Orange Judd Co., Chicago. 36. The Book of Alfalfa— Coburn— Orange .ludd Co., Chicago. 37. Plants and Animals Under Domestication — Darwin — D. Appleton Co., Chi- cago. 38. Corn Plants — Sargent — The Macmlllan Co. 39. The Potato— Fraser—The Macmlllan Co. 40. An Introduction to Agriculture — Upham^D. Appleton & Co., Chicago. 41. Principles of Agriculture — Bailey — Macmlllan Co. 42. How to Make School Gardens — Hemenway — Doubleday, Page & Co. 43. Nature Study and Life — Hodge — Ginn & Co. 44. The Study of Nature — Schmucker — J. B. Llppincott & Co. 45. Special Methods in Elementary Science — C. A. McMurry — Macmlllan Co. 46. Corn Plants: Their Uses and Ways of Life — Sargent — Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 47. Feeds and Feeding — W. A. Henry — Madison, Wis. 48. Poultry Craft — Robinson — Farm Poultry Publishing Co., Boston. o y '■■-t.^Vv>',. ^ V- '< ^c V^' x^ -Ci. '^ "" O 00B8S BROS. liaMANr aiNDINa 'i,- V"\ ST. AUGUSTINE ^^ /\,;^y/%fS ^^^%