* : ' : 
 
 AND 
 
 IVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 
 
 HENRY HERBERT GODDARD 
 
ClassB-F43_ 
 Book._ JjLb _ 
 Copyright N° 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 
 
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 THE LOUIS CLARK VANUXEM FOUNDATION 
 LECTURES FOR 1919 
 
®Jje Kama Qllark Battuxm 3faun&attmt 
 of ilnnreian HtttorBttg 
 
 was established in 1912 with a bequest of $25,000 
 under the will of Louis Clark Vanuxem, of the Class 
 of 1879. By direction of the executors of Mr. Van- 
 uxem's estate, the income of the foundation is to be 
 used for a series of public lectures delivered in Prince- 
 ton annually, at least one half of which shall be on 
 subjects of current scientific interest. The lectures 
 are to be published and distributed among schools 
 and libraries generally. 
 
 The following lectures have been published: 
 
 The Theory of Permutable Functions, by Vito 
 Volterra. 
 
 Lectures delivered in connection with the dedi- 
 cation of the Graduate College of Princeton 
 University by Emile Bcutroux, Alois Riehl, 
 A. D. Godley and Arthur Shipley. 
 
 Romance, by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 A Critique of the Theory of Evolution, by Thomas 
 Hunt Morgan. 
 
 Platonism, by Paul Elmer More. 
 
LOUIS CLARK VANUXEM FOUNDATION 
 
 HUMAN EFFICIENCY 
 
 AND 
 
 LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HERBERT GODDARD 
 
 DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF JUVENILE 
 RESEARCH OF OHIO 
 
 LECTURES DELIVERED AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY 
 APRIL 7, 8, 10, 11, 1919 
 
 PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 PRINCETON 
 
 LONDON: HUMPHREY iMILFORD 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 
 
 1920 
 
•*f*H 
 
 ,t ■» V!* 
 
 < 
 
 Copyright 1920, by 
 Princeton University Press 
 
 Published 1920 
 Printed in the United States of America 
 
 APR 2/ iS2U 
 
 ©CU565702 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Without some word of explanation the reader 
 might judge that the author of this book thought 
 that intelligence was the sole determiner of 
 human conduct. Such a view is of course in- 
 consistent with the most obvious facts. 
 
 It happens however, that in the solution of this 
 problem of human efficiency, we are just at pres- 
 ent better equipped to evaluate the part intel- 
 ligence plays, than any other of the psychological 
 factors. It therefore seems worth while to solve 
 our problem in terms of intelligence as though it 
 were the only variable. The other unknown 
 quantities may be considered when the part they 
 play is better understood. 
 
 Let us solve our equation for x now and leave 
 y and z for later consideration when we shall 
 know as much about emotion and temperament as 
 we now know about intelligence. 
 
 If mental level plays anything like the role it 
 seems to, and if in each human being it is the 
 fixed quantity that some believe it is, then it is no 
 
v: PREFACE 
 
 useless speculation that tries to see what would 
 happen if society were organized so as to recog- 
 nize and make use of the doctrine of mental levels. 
 
 Moreover if the views set forth in these lectures 
 are in the main sound then it is quite possible 
 to restate practically all of our social problems 
 in terms of mental level. 
 
 For example, what could be done with labor 
 and wages ? Suppose we say men should be paid 
 first according to their intelligence; and second 
 according to their labor: e.g., "D" men are 
 worth and should receive "D" wages; C men C 
 wages (which are higher), etc. If a certain job 
 requires D intelligence, D men should be em- 
 ployed at D wages. If there are not enough D 
 men, C men must be employed at C wages. And 
 it may be relied upon that they will be worth the 
 difference because of their greater intelligence. 
 
 If, of two jobs each requiring D intelligence, 
 one is more agreeable than the other and hence 
 draws all the D men, the conditions must be 
 evened up as far as possible by changing hours, 
 etc., and then by increasing the pay for the less 
 desirable job. A little experimenting would 
 equalize the two jobs so that all would be satis- 
 fied. Doubtless other adjustments would be 
 found necessary. But the great advantage of 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 having every man doing work on his own mental 
 level would prove fundamental. 
 
 Testing intelligence is no longer an experi- 
 ment or of doubted value. It is fast becoming 
 an exact science. 
 
 The facts revealed by the army tests cannot be 
 ignored. Greater efficiency, we are always work- 
 ing for. Can these new facts be used to increase 
 our efficiency? No question! We only await 
 the Human Engineer who will undertake the 
 work. 
 
 It is hoped that the consideration of the topics 
 of these lectures will help prepare the way for 
 greater social efficiency. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 The topic of mental levels or "levels of intelli- 
 gence" has been chosen for these lectures because 
 while the subject is not altogether new it seems 
 that there are phases of it that have not been 
 dwelt upon but which enable us to look at some 
 of the present day problems from a new angle, 
 and suggest solutions different from any usually 
 discussed. 
 
 Stated in its boldest form our thesis is that the 
 chief determiner of human conduct is a unitary 
 mental process which we call intelligence: that 
 this process is conditioned by a nervous mechan- 
 ism that is inborn : that the degree of efficiency to 
 be attained by that nervous mechanism and the 
 consequent grade of intelligence or mental level 
 for each individual is determined by the kind of 
 chromosomes that come together with the union 
 of the germ cells : that it is but little affected by 
 any later influence except such serious accidents 
 as may destroy part of the mechanism. 
 
 As a consequence any attempt at social adjust- 
 ment which fails to take into account the deter- 
 mining character of the intelligence and its un- 
 alterable grade in each individual is illogical and 
 inefficient. 
 
MENTAL LEVELS 
 
 In one sense the doctrine of mental levels may 
 be said to have had a lowly origin. On June 
 10th, 1903, Earl Barnes in concluding an address 
 before the Corporation of The Vineland Train- 
 ing School for Feeble-Minded Girls and Boys, 
 said: "To me Vineland is a human laboratory 
 and a garden where unfortunate children are 
 cared for, protected and loved while they un- 
 consciously whisper to us syllable by syllable the 
 secret of the soul's growth. It may very well be 
 that the most ignorant shall teach us most." 
 
 In October 1904 the Minister of Public In- 
 struction of Paris named a Commission which 
 was charged with the "Study of Measures to be 
 taken, Showing the Benefits of Instruction for 
 Defective Children." This Commission decided 
 that no child suspected of retardation should be 
 eliminated from the ordinary school and admit- 
 ted into a special class without first being sub- 
 jected to a pedagogical and medical examination 
 from which it could be certified that because of 
 the state of his intelligence he was unable to 
 
4 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 profit in average measure from the instruction 
 given in the ordinary school. But how the ex- 
 amination of each child should be made the Com- 
 mission felt under no obligation to decide. To 
 one member of that Commission, however, it 
 seemed extremely useful to furnish a guide for 
 future Commission examinations. That member 
 was Alfred Binet. He felt strongly the need of 
 a scientific method of determining what children 
 needed this special treatment. He says, ' To 
 be a member of a special class can never be a 
 mark of distinction, and such as do not merit it 
 must be spared the record." With this feeling 
 Binet set to work upon the problem devoting the 
 energy of his marvelous intellect and a large part 
 of his time for approximately seven years to the 
 developing and perfecting of a measuring scale 
 for intelligence. 
 
 In 1906 the Vineland Laboratory was opened 
 for the psychological study of feeble-mindedness. 
 Those who are especially interested in the origin 
 and evolution of ideas may be interested to pon- 
 der over the problem of how there should origi- 
 nate in two nations widely separated, different in 
 language, and without collusion or suggestion 
 from one to the other, the same idea though moti- 
 vated by very different purposes. The French- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 5 
 
 man having the very definite and practical ob- 
 jective of determining who were the children who 
 needed special education. The American having 
 a vague conception that these same defectives 
 might "unconsciously whisper to us syllable by 
 syllable the secret of the soul's growth, and, thus, 
 the most ignorant teach us most." 
 
 It was not long, of course, until these two 
 streams of independent origin flowed together 
 and out of them has grown the theory of mental 
 levels. 
 
 It is often easy after a theoiy has been scien- 
 tifically demonstrated to discover that there is 
 nothing new about it. We have accepted and 
 used it for long only under a different name, or 
 without realizing its far-reaching significance. It 
 is certainly not new to declare that a two-year old 
 child is at a higher mental level than a one-year 
 old. A child of ten is of higher intellectual de- 
 velopment than one of six; and so far, it is true 
 there is nothing new in the theory of mental 
 levels. Throughout childhood the human being 
 rises to an ever higher level of intelligence, but 
 beyond this we had not gone, perhaps never 
 would have gone had not the genius of a Binet 
 given us the means of extending the principle. 
 As so often happens in human affairs it is the part 
 
6 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 that is just beyond the obvious that proves to be 
 of the utmost value. When gold was discovered 
 in the Black Hills it was not long until the visible 
 supply was exhausted, and at that time it was lit- 
 tle realized that the rock, which to the placer 
 miner was of no use, would one day furnish the 
 material for the most profitable mining operation 
 in the world. 
 
 It is a matter of every-day observation, as al- 
 ready stated, that children as they grow rise to a 
 higher and higher level of intelligence. But two 
 facts were unappreciated and even yet are so 
 little recognized as to make the whole matter "a 
 theory" in the minds of most. These two facts 
 are: First that the intellectual development is 
 largely independent of what we call learning or 
 knowledge ; and second that not all develop to the 
 highest level, or even near to it; many stop at 
 some one of the lower levels of childhood. To 
 produce the evidence for these facts and to draw 
 some of the far-reaching conclusions therefrom 
 is now our task. 
 
 That we may approach the problem with un- 
 biased minds it will be well to first remove some 
 of the obstacles. First let us state the theory 
 more succinctly than we have yet done. The 
 theory of mental levels holds that every human 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 7 
 
 being comes into the world with a potentiality for 
 mental development that will carry him just so 
 far and that barring those accidents that may 
 stop a person from reaching the development 
 which would have been normal to him, nothing 
 can, to any great extent, effect the mental level 
 to which he will finally attain. Why is this view 
 hard to accept? 
 
 Probably the first and most important reason 
 is that we have generally confused intelli- 
 gence with knowledge. Having no way to evalu- 
 ate either one we have been lost in the intricacies 
 and confusion results. At this point I should 
 like to define each one but unfortunately we are 
 unable to. We do not know what intelligence is 
 and it is doubtful if we even know What knowl- 
 edge is. This however need not frighten us since 
 man works with and makes use of many things 
 which he cannot define. For example electricity, 
 which we can measure, control and use, but the 
 exact nature of which has never yet been ascer- 
 tained. We may point out that intelligence is an 
 inherited force while knowledge is wholly ac- 
 quired. Moreover they are not to a large extent 
 inter-dependent. It is true that one can not ac- 
 quire a high degree of knowledge without having 
 some intelligence and the highly intelligent per- 
 
8 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 son certainly acquires knowledge because it is of 
 great use, but, a person may have knowledge that 
 is out of proportion to his intelligence and vice 
 versa. 
 
 The last statement especially forces us to make 
 at least an attempt to define our terms. What 
 do we mean by intelligence and what do we mean 
 by knowledge? We have said that the one is 
 inborn, the other acquired. Intelligence is the 
 potentiality of the machine. Knowledge is the 
 material upon which it works. Knowledge is the 
 raw material. Intelligence determines what we 
 do with it. The effectiveness of a machine ( what 
 it can do), depends upon its structure and its 
 functioning. Likewise, intelligence is dependent 
 upon the structure of the brain cells which con- 
 dition given mental processes, and second, upon 
 the functioning of those cells. 
 
 A hand printing press is a machine of very 
 simple structure and has a simple function of 
 spreading ink upon paper according to a prear- 
 ranged plan. Its structure may be of the sim- 
 plest, merely a square block of metal, wood or 
 rubber cut into the desired form upon which the 
 ink is spread and then the block placed against 
 the paper. Twenty-six such blocks used individ- 
 ually in the prescribed order is sufficient to put 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 9 
 
 upon the paper any message in the English lan- 
 guage and by repetitions of the process one can 
 make as many copies as one likes. This would 
 be an example of very simple structure and a 
 very simple functioning. We may elaborate the 
 structure of this machine so that it will hold to- 
 gether the different blocks in the prescribed order 
 so that they can all be impressed at once upon 
 the paper. We have thus elaborated the struc- 
 ture slightly and extended its function and thus 
 attained to a higher level of printing. 
 
 A higher level is reached when we elaborate the 
 structure by the addition of guides, wheels and 
 levers so put together and arranged that it is only 
 necessary to place the paper of the right size in 
 a particular position and the copies are produced 
 as rapidly as the paper can be placed. 
 
 A still higher level of structure and function- 
 ing is attained when the machine is so elaborated 
 that it is only necessary to place a pile or a roll of 
 paper in a given position and the machine picks 
 up a piece of paper, places it under the type, 
 prints it, puts it out of the way and repeats the 
 process. And so by adding new structure to our 
 machine in such a way that new f imctions are pos- 
 sible, we may finally arrive at a machine that 
 needs only to have a supply of the raw material 
 
10 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 in the shape, for instance, of sheets of paper cut 
 in a definite shape, when it will pick up the paper 
 a sheet at a time, print it, spread glue on certain 
 prescribed edges of the sheet, fold over and press 
 together some of those edges until we have an 
 envelope which continuing through the machine, 
 the gum on the flap is dried and then the flap 
 is folded over and the completed envelopes are 
 counted, pushed out, grouped in packages of 
 twenty-five, a band placed around the bundle 
 and dropped into a box. The structure of such 
 a machine is exceedingly complicated and the 
 functioning is so surprising that it is a common 
 remark that the machine is "almost intelligent. " 
 We, thus, have a very high level of mechanical 
 efficiency. This is comparable to intelligence. 
 This machine may exercise its complete function 
 upon paper and a printers ink made from lamp 
 black and oil. These are the raw materials com- 
 parable to knowledge. But the same machine is 
 capable of using other raw materials. It may use 
 innumerable kinds of ink made from widely dif- 
 ferent substances. It may print upon paper of 
 many different kinds, upon cloth, wood, metal 
 and numerous other substances. It may make 
 envelopes of different sizes and shapes with no 
 change of its structure and only a slight change 
 
LEVELS OP INTELLIGENCE 11 
 
 of functioning. It may count them out in tens 
 or fifties or any other numbers and thus its use- 
 fulness is enormously increased, but it will be 
 noticed it is the same machine, the same structure 
 and functions. We have merely increased the 
 range of its raw materials. Knowledge is to in- 
 telligence what the raw material is to the ma- 
 chine. This is, to be sure, a crude and inadequate 
 illustration of the human machine and yet the 
 analogy is sufficiently close and accurate to help 
 us to comprehend the relation of intelligence to 
 knowledge, which is fundamental to an apprecia- 
 tion of the doctrine of mental levels. 
 
 It may be said that one may have considerable 
 knowledge with little intelligence. The simple 
 hand press, our lowest level of mechanical struc- 
 ture in the printing press, might nevertheless be 
 supplied with quantities of all kinds of ink and 
 material to be printed ; but it could never use all 
 of that material because the process is too slow 
 and because the structure would not permit of its 
 being used upon all kind of substances. It could 
 never make an envelope because its structure is 
 wholly inadequate. Low grade intelligence can- 
 not use much knowledge. In our illustration it is 
 always possible to distinguish the machine or any 
 part of it from the raw material upon which it 
 
12 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 works. In considering the work of the human 
 being this is not the case, hence, the confusion to 
 which we have referred, between intelligence and 
 knowledge. 
 
 Many a person is estimated as of high intelli- 
 gence who in reality has only a somewhat unusual 
 supply of knowledge. The extreme of this is fa- 
 miliar in the man who, as it is commonly ex- 
 pressed, "is a walking encyclopedia" but who 
 makes almost no use of his knowledge for the 
 usually unappreciated reason that he has not the 
 natural intelligence necessary. A man well 
 known to the writer has an intimate knowledge 
 of the facts of history sufficient to have made him 
 a statesman; but lacking the intelligence to use 
 his valuable acquisition in this line he spent a 
 perfectly colorless life unknown outside of his 
 own township and unappreciated even there. 
 
 The second important reason why the theory 
 of mental levels is hard to accept is to be found in 
 the fact that while we know that children gen- 
 erally increase in intelligence from birth to ma- 
 turity we have never appreciated the exceptions. 
 Let us consider the accompanying diagram. 
 
 The vertical lines with their increasing height 
 may represent the increase of intelligence as the 
 years increase. This we have observed and ac- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 
 
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1* HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 cepted. The horizontal lines will represent what 
 we have not appreciated, viz., that some of the 
 people who attain to the mental level of six, for 
 instance, stop there and as the years go by will al- 
 ways be found on that level. We have, it is true, 
 begun to appreciate the fact of arrested mental 
 development. What we have not begun to ap- 
 preciate is the proportion of human beings who 
 have stopped at the ages of ten, twelve, fourteen 
 years. If we seek for the reason for this over- 
 sight it is to be found partly in the confusion of 
 intelligence with knowledge and partly also, in 
 the fact that we confuse mental development with 
 physical development. Because the boy of ten 
 whose mental development may have ceased at 
 that point, continues to develop physically our 
 estimate of him follows the physical development 
 which is so obvious ; and we fail to appreciate the 
 mental side which is obscure. It is a notorious 
 fact that men judges and men physicians refuse 
 to admit a girl is feeble-minded if she is pretty. 
 
 As long as we had no scientific method of de- 
 termining the mental level it was but natural that 
 we should fail to appreciate it. What then are 
 the methods of interpreting the mental level and 
 what are the results of using those methods? I 
 shall not weary you with the details of the tests 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 15 
 
 used or the systems of tests, but, rather attempt 
 to emphasize some of the principles of mental 
 testing that have been too little appreciated and 
 are still too often ignored. The assumptions un- 
 derlying the determination of mental level are : 
 
 First, there is an orderly development of in- 
 telligence from birth to an upper limit as yet not 
 accurately determined. 
 
 Second, it is possible to observe and measure 
 this development independent of the acquired 
 knowledge. Moreover a test of a child's knowl- 
 edge has only an indirect value as when a person 
 who has not succeeded in acquiring knowledge, 
 we may explain his failure on the basis of lack of 
 intelligence. But that is an indirect argument 
 which is only resorted to in borderline cases or for 
 purposes of confirmation. 
 
 The first assumption does not need discussion 
 so far as its main theme is concerned. It has been 
 objected that while there is an orderly develop- 
 ment that order is peculiar to each individual and 
 that the individual variations are so great that it 
 is impossible to have one standard. It has been 
 maintained rather strongly that children do not 
 develop equally on all sides, but on the contrary 
 very unevenly ; that one child is strong where an- 
 other is weak. There is no denying that the facts 
 
16 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 upon which this statement is made are true. 
 What has not been appreciated is the fact that 
 they have no bearing upon the problem of meas- 
 uring the intelligence level. The differences and 
 peculiarities that are a matter of common obser- 
 vation are the manifestations of intelligence and 
 not the intelligence itself. To go back to our 
 analogy of the printing press, one printer may 
 use black ink, another red or green. One may 
 make a specialty of printing on silk, another on 
 parchment, one may show one kind of product 
 and another another, but it is always the same 
 machine. 
 
 Our second assumption needs more careful 
 consideration. It is rather popular to deny in 
 toto that intelligence can be measured. This view 
 has persisted apparently for two main reasons; 
 first, the confusion with knowledge with the added 
 consideration that knowledge is more in evidence ; 
 and second, from a misconception of the nature 
 of mind. This misconception is natural enough, 
 because the psychologist has been in the habit of 
 discussing the various phases and manifestations 
 of mind as though they were separate entities, a 
 process justifiable for purposes of study but ex- 
 ceedingly misleading when it comes to the appli- 
 cation to practical problems. Even if the psy- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 17 
 
 chologist's description of attention, memory, per- 
 ception, reasoning, will, etc., is correct, and even 
 if we could measure the strength of these in a 
 particular child, it would be utterly unsafe and 
 irrational to conclude that we could predict what 
 the result would be when some or all of these pro- 
 cesses are combined into that function which we 
 call intelligence. 
 
 Even in the material world it is often unsafe 
 to attempt to predict what will be the properties 
 of a synthetic product. For example, the proper- 
 ties of steel are well known, also the properties 
 of vanadium, but no one would have dared pre- 
 dict that the addition of seventeen hundredths of 
 one percent of vanadium to a quantity of steel 
 would produce a product that differs from both 
 to the extent that vanadium steel differs from 
 either one. 
 
 In the matter of tests of intelligence this error 
 has been made repeatedly. At one time there 
 was a strong demand for a statement of what 
 each question tested; in the Binet Measuring 
 Scale of Intelligence for instance, it was asked 
 which were tests of attention, which of memory 
 or perception or reasoning. It was very difficult 
 to convince students that this was an irrational 
 procedure ; especially difficult since it is true that 
 
18 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 different types of questions do call for a grade of 
 intelligence in which now memory predominates, 
 now reasoning and now something else. But it 
 is important to remember at all times that we are 
 testing intelligence. To revert to our figure of 
 the printing press it is as though one took it to 
 pieces and laid out the different parts and then 
 concluded that he could judge of the efficiency of 
 the machine by the perfection of those parts. It' 
 is obvious that the real question is, — how do they 
 work together? 
 
 No machinist, however skilled could, by look- 
 ing at the parts thus spread out, predict whether 
 the machine would work or not — still less tell 
 what it would do. If this is true, even of the 
 most complicated machine, how much more true 
 of anything so complicated as the human mind. 
 
 If it is granted then that intelligence develops 
 and that it can be measured, our next question 
 is, — how is it to be done? The answer is easy, 
 its application difficult. It is only necessary to 
 devise a series of tasks that involve the applica- 
 tion of the varying degrees of intelligence; ar- 
 range these tasks in order of difficulty and then 
 by setting the tasks to a child ascertain how far 
 along the scale he has gone. Binet arranged his 
 tasks or test questions according to age. This is 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 19 
 
 simple and practicable and although other types 
 of scales have been suggested it seems probable 
 that nothing can take the place of an age grade 
 rating. This means that we ascertain what tasks 
 or test questions the children of the various chron- 
 ological ages can do. We find, for instance, that 
 children of five years can answer certain ques- 
 tions which children of four years cannot answer, 
 and the five year olds in turn, cannot answer the 
 questions that belong to six year intelligence. 
 Thus we have standards for each age, and we 
 can compare any person old or young with these 
 standards. Many have thought that because the 
 original purpose of the tests was to discover de- 
 fectives, they were not valid for normal children. 
 Such persons have failed to understand the real 
 nature of the tests. 
 
 Others have thought that while they are useful 
 for children they are not valid for adults. They 
 are surely reliable for feeble-minded adults and 
 as for normal adults the original Binet tests had 
 norms only up to twelve years. The Stanford 
 Revision however, has extended this to "superior 
 adult." 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the task set must 
 be such as calls for native intelligence and not 
 knowledge. Skepticism in regard to the validity 
 
20 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 of tests is the result largely of a confusion of in- 
 telligence with knowledge. One constantly hears 
 the objection that such a child has not had an op- 
 portunity to learn certain things. If the question 
 is one that depends upon the acquisition of knowl- 
 edge then it is not a suitable test of intelligence. 
 While it is probable that no measuring scale so 
 far devised entirely gets away from more or less 
 influence of knowledge and education, yet the 
 questions are so arranged that on the whole it has 
 very little influence. The truth of this is proved 
 by the results. 
 
 Let us now consider the results obtained in the 
 use of mental tests, for after all the truth of the 
 theory must be determined by the validity of the 
 results. I shall not bother you with statistics or 
 detailed statements of results in special cases. 
 Suffice it to say that the results have surpassed 
 all expectations. The mental level of a person 
 as determined by any standardized measuring 
 scale of intelligence is found to agree remarkably 
 with his mentality as it is judged by his adapta- 
 tion to his environment; and in practically all 
 cases where the mental level of abnormal persons 
 is determined it is accepted as the adequate ex- 
 planation of conduct previously unintelligible. 
 Not only that but the method has proved to be so 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 21 
 
 elastic that it is but little affected by what we may 
 call rough usage. 
 
 It was long contended, for example, that the 
 scale would be of no value except in the hands of 
 those who had received long and extensive train- 
 ing. It was thought that the so-called personal 
 equation of the examiner would often invalidate 
 the test. It was thought that the person ex- 
 amined must be kept under most rigid laboratory 
 conditions. It was thought that children would 
 communicate to each other the results and thus 
 render the procedure invalid. These and many 
 other difficulties were anticipated. As a matter 
 of experience practically none of these has proved 
 serious. 
 
 It is true that statistical studies of large groups 
 have shown variations in personal equation, in 
 the effect of different procedures, and so on. But 
 so far as any one individual child is concerned his 
 mental level is determined with an error so slight 
 as to be negligible. These statements must not 
 be confused with the question of diagnosis which 
 is an entirely different matter. We may for ex- 
 ample determine that a twelve year old child has 
 a ten year mental level. Whether such child is to 
 be considered a case of mental arrest, feeble- 
 minded, is an entirely different question which 
 
22 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 depends upon many other factors. Here as else- 
 where, diagnosis is difficult and requires a great 
 deal of training and experience in all borderline 
 cases. If a twelve year old child tested four there 
 would be no difficulty in either case, that is, of 
 determining the mental level or of deciding upon 
 feeble-mindedness. 
 
 If in the past there has been any doubt of the 
 truth of these statements, there can be no question 
 now with the experience of the army tests 
 in mind. Over one million, seven hundred 
 thousand men in the army have been tested by 
 these methods, their mental level determined and 
 recorded. The results were so uniformly accur- 
 ate and in agreement with the experience of the 
 officers, that they were quickly accepted and used 
 as a basis for procedure. Officers were appointed 
 from the men who were found by the tests to be 
 most intelligent. Those who were found to be 
 least intelligent, proved also to be dull as deter- 
 mined by the daily routine and were recognized 
 as of too low mentality to be profitable to send 
 overseas. These results have been published and 
 we shall not reproduce them. We may, however, 
 as a basis for our later discussion draw some very 
 significant inferences from the results so far 
 published. 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 23 
 
 The significance of these results will be appre- 
 ciated when we consider that one million and 
 seven hundred thousand drafted men in the army 
 may be accepted as a fair sample of the popula- 
 tion of the United States. Whatever we may 
 determine in regard to that group of men we shall 
 probably find applicable to the country as a 
 whole. It is thus probable that we can find in 
 these results, suggestions and conclusions of pro- 
 found importance as bearing upon our social 
 problems and social well being. It will be re- 
 called that the Army Tests were, for the most 
 part, group tests ; that is, the men were examined 
 in groups of fifty to three hundred. Moreover, 
 the scale used was essentially a Point Scale, that 
 is to say in what is known as the Alpha test were 
 two hundred and twelve points, possibly obtain- 
 able. The accompanying chart is made from the 
 figures given out by the Surgeon General. 
 We quote from the official report : 
 "Explanation of Letter Ratings. The rating 
 a man earns furnishes a fairly reliable index of 
 his ability to learn, to think quickly and accur- 
 ately, to analyze a situation, to maintain a state 
 of mental alertness, and to comprehend and fol- 
 low instructions. The score is little influenced by 
 schooling. Some of the highest records have been 
 
24 
 
 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 
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LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 25 
 
 made by men who had not completed the eighth 
 grade. The meaning of the letter ratings is as 
 follows : 
 
 "A. Very Superior Intelligence. This grade is 
 ordinarily earned by only four or five per cent of 
 a draft quota. The "A" group is composed of 
 men of marked intellectuality. "A" men are of 
 high officer type when they are also endowed with 
 leadership and other necessary qualities. 
 
 "B. Superior Intelligence. "B" intelligence is 
 superior, but less exceptional than that repre- 
 sented by "A." The rating "B" is obtained by 
 eight to ten soldiers out of a hundred. The group 
 contains many men of the commissioned officer 
 type and a large amount of non-commissioned 
 officer material. 
 
 "C plus. High Average Intelligence. This 
 group includes about fifteen to eighteen per cent 
 of all soldiers and contains a large amount of 
 non-commissioned officer material with occasion- 
 ally a man whose leadership and power to com- 
 mand fit him for commissioned rank. 
 
 "C. Average Intelligence. Includes about 
 twenty-five per cent of soldiers. Excellent pri- 
 vate type with a certain amount of fair non-com- 
 missioned officer material. 
 
 "C minus. Low Average Intelligence. In- 
 
26 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 eludes about twenty per cent. While below aver- 
 age in intelligence, "C — " men are usually good 
 privates and satisfactory in work of routine na- 
 ture. 
 
 "D. Inferior Intelligence. Includes about fif- 
 teen per cent of soldiers. "D" men are likely to 
 be fair soldiers, but are usually slow in learning 
 and rarely go above the rank of private. They 
 are short on initiative and so require more than 
 the usual amount of supervision. Many of them 
 are illiterate or foreign. 
 
 "D minus and E. Very Inferior Intelligence. 
 This group is divided into two classes (1) "D — " 
 men, who are very inferior in intelligence but are 
 considered fit for regular service; and (2) "E" 
 men, those whose mental inferiority justifies their 
 recommendation for Development Battalion, 
 special service organization, rejection, or dis- 
 charge. The majority of "D— " and "E" men 
 are below ten years in "mental age." 
 
 "The immense contrast between "A" and 
 "D — " intelligence is shown by the fact that men 
 of "A" intelligence have the ability to make a 
 superior record in college or university, while 
 "D — " men are of such inferior mentality that 
 they are rarely able to go beyond the third or 
 fourth grade of the elementary school, however 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 27 
 
 long they attend. In fact, most "D— " and "E" 
 men are below the "mental age" of 10 years and 
 at best are on the border-line of mental deficiency. 
 Many of them are of the moron grade of feeble- 
 mindedness. "B" intelligence is capable of mak- 
 ing an average record in college, "C plus" intelli- 
 gence can not do so well, while mentality of the 
 "C" grade is rarely capable of finishing a high 
 school course." 
 
 It is possible to make 212 points in the tests, 
 and the number of points for each letter rating 
 are as follows: 
 
 D minus, to 14; D, 15-24; C minus, 25-44; 
 C, 45-74; C plus, 75-104; B, 105-134; A, 135-212. 
 
 In the nature of the case this group testing can 
 hardly be expected to be as accurate as the indi- 
 vidual examination. Nevertheless this army 
 work was repeatedly reviewed and investigated 
 by the general staff and always approved, because 
 it agreed with their experience with the men and 
 the results could be obtained so much more 
 quickly. A Depot Brigade of raw recruits could 
 be tested by the psychologist in an hour or two 
 and the commanding officers be given the results 
 which it would take them six months to learn in 
 the ordinary routine of drills. 
 
 In the words of the Army Report already 
 
28 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 quoted, it has been thoroughly demonstrated that 
 the intelligence ratings are useful in indicating a 
 man's probable value to the service. We could 
 give many evidences of this if time permitted. 
 For example, eighty-two percent of the officers 
 of the army are found in the "A" and "B" 
 groups. In a unit about to go overseas three hun- 
 dred and six men were designated by their com- 
 manding officers as unfit for overseas service. 
 These were referred for psychological examina- 
 tion with the result that ninety percent were 
 found to be mentally ten years or lower. 
 
 In other words with this army experience it is 
 no longer possible for any one to deny the valid- 
 ity of mental tests, even in case of group testing ; 
 and when it comes to an individual examination 
 by a trained psychologist, it cannot be doubted 
 that the mental level of the individual is determ- 
 ined with marvelous exactness. 
 
 The significance of all this for human progress 
 and efficiency can hardly be appreciated at once. 
 Whether we are thinking of children or adults it 
 enables us to know a very fundamental fact about 
 the human material. The importance of this in 
 building up the cooperative society such as every 
 community aims to be, is very great. The me- 
 chanical engineer could never build bridges or 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 29 
 
 houses if he did not know accurately the strength 
 of materials, how much of a load each will sup- 
 port. Of how infinitely greater importance is it 
 then when we seek to build up a social structure 
 that we should know the strength of our mate- 
 rials. Until now we have had no means of de- 
 termining this except a few data on the physical 
 side such as a man's strength, ability to bear bur- 
 dens, and so forth, and on the mental side a rough 
 estimate born of more or less experience with 
 him. How inadequate all this has been is indi- 
 cated by the large proportion of failures that are 
 continually met with in society. This we shall 
 discuss somewhat in the next chapter. 
 
 In this connection the chart showing the re- 
 sults of the army testing is of profound signifi- 
 cance. The first thing is the relatively low men- 
 tality of the great middle group, the "C" group. 
 The army has not yet given out the age grade 
 ratings for these different groups with the excep- 
 tion of the "D — " which they say is ten years and 
 under, but it is possible to make a fairly accurate 
 estimate by mathematical means. The accuracy 
 of this estimate is confirmed by the statements 
 that are made in the official report. For ex- 
 ample, they tell us that the "C" group are rarely 
 capable of finishing high school; even "C plus" 
 
30 
 
 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 20- 
 
 34' " 
 
 35- 
 
 44 « 
 
 45- 
 
 59 " 
 
 60- 
 
 74 " 
 
 75- 
 
 89 " 
 
 90-114 " 
 
 115-134 ' 
 
 135-159 ■ 
 
 men are rarely equal to complicated paper work 
 by which is meant making the necessary reports 
 in connection with the army work. 
 
 A score of from 10- 19 points is equivalent to a mental age of 10 
 
 " 11 
 
 ■ 12 
 " 13 
 
 ■ 14 
 " 15 
 " 16 
 
 H 1T 
 
 « 18 
 " 19 
 
 From these figures and those given on page 27 
 it will be seen that the D — group would have 
 a mental age of 10 or less; the D group would be 
 made up of some 10 year and some 11 year men- 
 tality; C — , includes the rest of the 11 year and 
 all of the 12 year. C is 13 and 14 year: C +, 
 holds the 15 year and half of the 16: B is the rest 
 of 16 and all of 17: and finally the A group ex- 
 actly covers the 18 and 19 year mentalities. 
 
 These figures are so startling that in spite of 
 the fact that the tests made their way against 
 much opposition and were finally endorsed by 
 the general staff, one is inclined to think the 
 questions must have been too hard. 
 
 This is not the place to reproduce the tests 
 but a brief abstract will satisfy the reader that 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 31 
 
 the 10 per cent who fell in the D — group must 
 have been at least as low in intelligence as ten 
 year old boys. 
 
 By reference to the above figures it will be 
 seen that only 15 points were required to get into 
 the D group and only 25 to get into the C — 
 group. 
 
 Here are 15 test questions taken from the army 
 examination: 
 
 1. How many are 30 men and 7 men? 
 
 2. Are cats useful animals because they catch 
 mice, or because they are gentle, or because they 
 are afraid of dogs? 
 
 3. Is leather used for shoes because it is pro- 
 duced in all countries, or because it wears well, 
 or because it is an animal product? 
 
 4. Do these two words mean the same or 
 opposite: wet — dry? 
 
 5. Do these two words mean the same or 
 opposite: in — out? 
 
 6. Do these two words mean the same or op- 
 posite: hill — valley? 
 
 7. Re-arrange these groups of words into a 
 sentence and tell whether it is a true or false 
 statement, lions strong are. 
 
 8. houses people in live. 
 
 9. days there in are week eight a. 
 
32 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 10. leg flies one have only, 
 
 11. Write the next two numbers in this series : 
 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 
 
 12. In this series: 15, 20, 25, 30, 35. 
 
 13. In this series: 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3. 
 
 14. From the four words in heavy type select 
 one that is related to the third word in italics as 
 the second is to the first; gun — shoots :: knife — 
 run cuts hat bird. 
 
 15. ear — hear :: eye — table hand see play. 
 Man examined was allowed fifty minutes for 
 
 the task. Each type of question was fully ex- 
 plained; and what he was to do was illustrated 
 before the test began. No man who answered 
 correctly these fifteen questions or any similar 
 fifteen, was rated as low as group D — . 
 
 This shows us at a glance the enormous propor- 
 tion of the human race that is of moderate in- 
 telligence, a fact not usually appreciated by the 
 people of higher intelligence; to which group all 
 readers of this book must modestly admit they 
 belong, for the simple reason that a "C" intelli- 
 gence or less could not be interested in these 
 topics. 
 
 Moreover the army report tells us that the "B" 
 group is of average college intelligence. Does not 
 this make it clear why it is so difficult to carry for- 
 ward a great movement that appeals so strongly 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 33 
 
 to men of intelligence but cannot be expected to 
 appeal to the masses whose intelligence is lower 
 than that of the "C plus" group? There seems 
 to be much food for thought here and we shall dis- 
 cuss some of these topics in the later lectures. 
 
EFFICIENCY 
 
 The facts and considerations set forth in the 
 previous chapter enable us to restate in a new 
 way the condition in which we find ourselves in 
 relation to the problem of social efficiency. 
 
 Our army abroad had a well earned reputa- 
 tion for efficiency and no small part of the result 
 may be attributed to the fact that the lowest 10 
 per cent in intelligence were not sent overseas 
 and that 83 per cent of the officers came from the 
 "A" and "B" classes — superior and very superior 
 intelligence. 
 
 There can be no question that if a similar con- 
 dition prevailed in our social groups a corre- 
 sponding gain in efficiency would result. As a 
 matter of fact, not only are the "lowest 10 per 
 cent" with us, but they are unrecognized and 
 hence are often mistaken for intelligent people 
 and placed in responsible positions. 
 
 It is a maxim in engineering that a bridge is 
 not stronger than its weakest part. The same is 
 largely true of society. It must be understood 
 however, that weakness is not determined by the 
 size of the part but by the relation the size or 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 35 
 
 strength of the part bears to the work it has to 
 do. The big steel girder may be the weak part 
 while the small bolt may be capable of bearing all 
 the strain that is required of it. 
 
 Similarly, the efficiency of the human group is 
 not so much a question of the absolute numbers 
 of persons of high and low intelligence as it is 
 whether each grade of intelligence is assigned a 
 part, in the whole organization, that is within its 
 capacity. An intelligent man who undertakes 
 work requiring even higher intelligence, may be 
 as inefficient as the imbecile who undertakes work 
 that only a moron can do. 
 
 Let us again look at our chart showing the dis- 
 tribution of the people according to mentality. I 
 suppose no one will deny that this distribution 
 based on the examination of a million, seven hun- 
 dred thousand drafted men, may be applied to the 
 entire population of the United States, — not to 
 take any larger group. Surely we cannot say 
 that the drafted army was either more or less in- 
 telligent than those who make up the rest of the 
 population. They must certainly be a fair sam- 
 ple of the whole. 
 
 Let us see what these percentages would give 
 us. On the basis of a hundred million population, 
 we have four and one-half million people of "A" 
 
36 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 intelligence, nine millions of "B" grade, sixteen 
 and one-half of "C plus," twenty-five of "C," 
 twenty of "C minus," fifteen of "D" and ten 
 miUion of "D— " and "E" mentality. 
 
 These figures are beyond human comprehen- 
 sion and hence are of no use except for compari- 
 son and illustration. 
 
 From the standpoint of efficiency the funda- 
 mental question is this: Does the work of the 
 country require these numbers of people of the 
 various grades? Is there for example, just work 
 enough requiring thirteen-fourteen year intelli- 
 gence to keep twenty-five million people busy? 
 Is there enough work requiring "D" intelligence 
 to keep fifteen million people busy? 
 
 Of course we have no answer. No attempt has 
 ever been made to ascertain what grade of intel- 
 ligence is required for any of the multitude of 
 occupations. That is the next step, that follows 
 logically from the discovery of mental levels. 
 Moreover, it is not a difficult task, once we set 
 ourselves about it. 
 
 If we assume that the foregoing question is 
 to be answered in the affirmative, we are at once 
 relieved of one tremendous problem. The supply 
 equals the demand at least! We are however, 
 confronted with another question which exposes 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 3T 
 
 a condition not so easy of adjustment. Are all 
 the "C" people doing "C" work, "A" men "A" 
 work, etc? We know they are not. 
 
 Manifestly here is an enormous loss of effi- 
 ciency . Every time a "B" man employs himself 
 doing "C" work society is losing. Every time a 
 "C" man attempts to do "B" work he fails, and 
 again society loses. 
 
 There are of course many other factors that 
 determine — and rightly so — what work a man 
 does. Some of these we shall consider later. 
 
 An ideally efficient society then would be made 
 up of the right proportion of individuals to do all 
 the different types of work that are to be done 
 and each man doing the work for which he is just 
 capable. How far we are from the ideal may be 
 seen from a consideration of the various types. 
 We have mentioned the case of those who have 
 an intelligence below that required for the task 
 they have undertaken. 
 
 The prevalence of this condition is vastly 
 greater than has been appreciated, and is a potent 
 cause of social inefficiency, individual unhappi- 
 ness, misdemeanors and crime. Well may it be 
 said, "Blessed is that man who has found his 
 work." We may perhaps, pass over the pre- 
 school age since no great efficiency is looked for 
 
88 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 during that period; however, even here serious 
 errors sometimes occur as for example, when an 
 attempt was made to test the eyesight of a three 
 year old child by the use of what is called the il- 
 literacy eye test card. This card though adapted 
 to illiterates nevertheless involves more intelli- 
 gence than is possessed by the average three year 
 old child. Needless to say, the examination was 
 a failure but sad to relate, the physician did not 
 know why. 
 
 With the commencement of school life, the 
 trouble begins and the number of cases of five 
 year intelligence attempting to do six year (first 
 grade) work, is probably vastly greater than is 
 appreciated. The writer has elsewhere shown 
 (Pedagogical Seminary, June 1911, Volume 18, 
 pages 232-259) how this works out in one school 
 system. For example, in one first grade there 
 were thirty-one with six year mentality (there- 
 fore properly placed) but there were also twenty- 
 four with five year mentality and one with four 
 year mentality. These twenty-five cases were un- 
 dertaking work that was beyond their intelli- 
 gence. In the fourth grade, were twenty- six of 
 nine year mentality and eight of eight year men- 
 tality. Similar conditions were found in all 
 grades. 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 39 
 
 This condition is still found in the high school 
 and even in college and sometimes in graduate 
 work and finally is all too prevalent in the adult 
 business of life. Many a man attempts to be a 
 physician, a lawyer, a clergyman who has not the 
 requisite intelligence. These professions are 
 strewn with failures besides having vast numbers 
 of people who are practically nonentities in these 
 professions because they have not sufficient in- 
 telligence to make their mark. When it comes 
 to mercantile pursuits, many a man has started in 
 business only to fail because his intelligence was 
 not equal to the task that he had assumed. In 
 political life, the situation is notorious. How 
 many are elected to a public office for which they 
 have not the adequate intelligence, being elected 
 on the basis of some other quality which may be 
 pleasing in itself, but has no bearing upon the 
 work they are to do ! 
 
 Another phase of the situation is of consider- 
 able importance and is best seen in the educa- 
 tional group. Often, a child in a certain grade 
 shows the intellectuality capable of doing all the 
 work save in one subject. Here he is beyond his 
 depth. This may be due to one of two causes, 
 either the subject itself is out of place (really re- 
 quiring more intelligence than the average child 
 
40 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 in that grade possesses), or second, because the 
 particular individual on account of some idiosyn- 
 crasy manifests less intelligence in relation to that 
 particular subject. A mathematician of large 
 experience and ability once told the writer that 
 as the result of his many years of teaching, he 
 was convinced that a large number of children 
 were spoiled for mathematical work by under- 
 taking it too early. It is a pedagogical question 
 often asked and much discussed, whether a child 
 who is backward in one subject should be required 
 to give intensive study to it, or should that subject 
 be allowed to lapse while he goes on with those 
 topics for which he seems to have capacity. The 
 real solution of the difficulty would seem to be 
 that the amount of intelligence required for the 
 particular work should be ascertained and the 
 amount of intelligence that the individual has 
 should also be ascertained. If the latter is below 
 the former then it is useless to attempt to make 
 up for the lack of intelligence by excessive work, 
 that problem should be laid aside until the child's 
 development reaches the necessary level. 
 
 It is proper to ask in connection with this 
 whole matter, how does it happen that so many 
 people undertake work that is beyond them? 
 The reasons are numerous, but it will be neces- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 41 
 
 sary to point out only a few. With children, it 
 is very often a matter of parental pride, many 
 parents are anxious that their children should 
 show up a little better than their neighbor's chil- 
 dren and consequently they push them on into the 
 higher grades faster than their intelligence de- 
 velops. This is usually accomplished by use of 
 the memory. School work is so conducted that 
 memory is a large factor and most any child can, 
 by persistent effort (the result of parental driv- 
 ing), memorize enough of the school work to 
 satisfy his teachers, get a requisite mark and so 
 pass on into the higher grades. What has been 
 called social heredity accounts for a great deal of 
 this. The father or mother, or both, have been 
 college people and it is their ambition that all of 
 their children should go through college, regard- 
 less of whether the children are of college caliber 
 or not. In the same way, university careers are 
 prescribed and finally, the professions. The an- 
 cestors have all been physicians, therefore the 
 child must study medicine. Sometimes it is the 
 question of money ; a certain profession or a cer- 
 tain business is supposed to be lucrative so the 
 children must be prepared to earn their living in 
 that work. In many cases, the well known re- 
 ligious enthusiasm of the adolescent is taken ad- 
 
42 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 vantage of and the youth decides that he will be 
 a clergyman which decision is heartily and en- 
 thusiastically encouraged either by parents or as- 
 sociates without any regard to the question 
 whether the individual has the necessary intelli- 
 gence or not. 
 
 It is not necessary in this place to point out the 
 evil consequences of these mistaken choices. It 
 may be said by way of a caution however, that not 
 all the failures in these various lines are due solely 
 to the lack of intelligence. We shall discuss later 
 some of the other qualities to be taken into con- 
 sideration, but we would emphasize our thesis 
 that the correct determination of the mental level 
 of the individual would save vast numbers of these 
 failures. 
 
 It is natural to raise the question just here 
 as to whether it would not be a serious humili- 
 ation for an individual to discover that he has 
 not sufficient intelligence to undertake a given 
 line of work. The reply is first, whatever the 
 momentary humiliation, it can never compare 
 with the humiliation of failure that is sure to 
 come later, or with the unhappiness that is the 
 constant accompaniment of worrying through 
 the years working at a task that is beyond one's 
 ability. The second answer is, that it is only 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 43 
 
 a question of custom and frequency. For a single 
 individual to be pointed out as not having suffic- 
 ient intelligence to become a doctor while the rest 
 of his group were supposed to have the requisite 
 intelligence, would be somewhat humiliating; 
 but if the intelligence of each member of the 
 group were determined and all were found to 
 have approximately the same, even though it 
 were below that required for a particular pro- 
 fession would not be humiliating. Moreover, 
 it is not so new and strange as at first appears. 
 Many people today are advised not to undertake 
 this or that profession or business because they 
 have not the requisite qualifications. The ap- 
 plication of the facts of mental level is only a 
 more scientific way at getting at the same result. 
 We may pass now to the next type. This 
 group comprises those who have more intelligence 
 than the work requires. At first sight, one would 
 be inclined to expect that this would be a much 
 smaller group than the other. However statistics 
 of school children, while not yet sufficiently ac- 
 curate to determine the absolute ratio, neverthe- 
 less do not indicate that this is a very small group. 
 The same study referred to above showed that in 
 the first grade, there were thirty-one children of 
 seven year mentality and thirteen of eight year 
 
44 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 mentality. It may very probably be safely as- 
 sumed that some of these had just entered school 
 and would not long remain in the first grade ; but 
 in the fourth grade, we have thirty-seven with ten 
 year mentality, two with eleven year mentality 
 and two with twelve year mentality; in the fifth 
 grade, twenty-eight with eleven year mentality 
 and fourteen with twelve year mentality. Simi- 
 larly in other grades. It has been repeatedly as- 
 serted that the reason for this condition in the 
 public school, is the strong tendency of teachers 
 to be guided by stature and chronological age 
 more than by mental capacity. There is also a 
 natural reluctance to giving up the bright pupil 
 and passing him on to the next higher grade. 
 
 When it comes to college and university and 
 the adult affairs of life the situation is apparently 
 somewhat different. It seems there, to be largely 
 a matter of volition. Every college professor 
 knows of students whom he believes to have the 
 intelligence to do much more than they are doing. 
 The same in the daily walks of life. Modesty and 
 lack of sufficient self-appreciation, undoubtedly 
 plays a part. A lack of energy, generally if not 
 always having a physical basis, is another factor. 
 But probably the largest element with the adult 
 population is a matter of habit. One who gets 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 45 
 
 his habits of lif e fixed, even though he finds him- 
 self doing work that is more or less distasteful 
 largely because it does not call for all of his in- 
 tellect, nevertheless hesitates to make a change 
 because of the difficulty of starting new habits. 
 A definite assurance, based upon scientific pro- 
 cedure, that these individuals have an intelligence 
 greater than they are using and that they are 
 capable of doing more extensive work would un- 
 doubtedly induce many of them to undertake 
 something where they could be more efficient. 
 
 Once again society would be the gainer by a 
 definite knowledge of the mental level of these 
 persons. We have already stated that there are 
 other things besides intelligence, that determine 
 efficiency, but since intelligence even here is a 
 more or less important factor in controlling and 
 determining the effect of these other elements, 
 we must take them into consideration in this dis- 
 cussion of mental levels. 
 
 It has not infrequently been objected that the 
 mental level of a person is not sufficient ; that the 
 emotional nature is quite as important. It is very 
 true that emotion plays a large part in individual 
 efficiency. The man of violent emotion is liable 
 to be inefficient through a wasting of his energy 
 in emotional outbursts, while the man of weak 
 
46 -HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 emotions is apt to be inefficient because he does 
 not have the emotional stimulus to hold him up to 
 his capacity. Besides that, one's emotional tone 
 has much to do with his efficiency. The poet 
 sings, "Give us, Oh, give us the man who sings 
 at his work, he will do more, he will do it better." 
 The man who is chronically unhappy not only ac- 
 complishes less in almost any line of work, but 
 he is socially inefficient because of the way in 
 which his chronic unhappiness interferes with his 
 normal adjustment and adaptation to his en- 
 vironment. He tends to make others unhappy 
 as well as himself and interferes with that perfect 
 cooperation which is essential to the highest effi- 
 ciency in modern society. 
 
 While all this is profoundly true, it must not 
 be overlooked that the level of intelligence to a 
 large degree determines the extent to which the 
 individual either controls these tendencies of his 
 emotional life or fails to control them. Nor must 
 we forget the danger of reasoning in a circle here, 
 since much of the chronic unhappiness is directly 
 traceable to the fact that the individual is at- 
 tempting to do a work for which his intelligence 
 is not equal. Again, many times the emotional 
 outbreak is due to an uncongenial environment 
 which a better intelligence would prompt him to 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 47 
 
 change. Still better, as we shall see later this 
 emotional condition has a physical basis, which 
 while sometimes beyond control, is nevertheless 
 in many cases capable of being much modified by 
 a use of sufficient intelligence. So that while, in 
 view of these facts of the emotional life, we may 
 not say that one's efficiency is entirely propor- 
 tional to his mental level, we can at least feel safe 
 in declaring that a low mental level will exercise 
 little or no control over the emotional life and 
 therefore, those instincts and emotions which 
 would tend to inefficiency will have their full 
 force instead of being modified and controlled as 
 they are by higher intelligence. So that in de- 
 termining the mental level of an individual, we 
 are ascertaining how much power of control he 
 has over these fundamental instincts and emo- 
 tions, a fact which is obviously of no small value. 
 We shall speak of only one of the other inher- 
 ent traits that influence efficiency. It is common 
 to speak of temperamental differences and to 
 recognize that some temperaments are more effi- 
 cient than others. While the doctrine of temper- 
 aments is still to a large extent a concept under 
 which to hide our ignorance yet we do know that 
 the term temperament covers some of those 
 fundamental inherited differences which divide 
 
48 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 human beings into several rather well known 
 groups. Our only concern with the matter here 
 is to point out again that the level of intelligence 
 has much to do with the extent to which these 
 temperamental peculiarities interfere with effi- 
 ciency. While it is probably impossible to get 
 away completely from one's temperamental 
 handicaps, yet like most handicaps it is usually 
 possible for intelligence to find a way around 
 them. So that here also, the intelligence level is, 
 to a large extent, the determiner of the efficiency, 
 even in cases of adverse temperament. 
 
 So far we have endeavored to show that the 
 subjective qualities upon which individual effi- 
 ciency depends are: first, intelligence and sec- 
 ond, another group of qualities more or less inde- 
 pendent but nevertheless to a great extent con- 
 trolled by intelligence. From this fact we wish to 
 maintain the thesis that a knowledge of the in- 
 telligence level and a conscious effort to fit every 
 man to his work in accordance with his intelli- 
 gence level, is the surest way of promoting social 
 efficiency. At this point arises a question which 
 has frequently been asked, as to whether these 
 mental levels, emotional types and temperamen- 
 tal peculiarities are so fixed as to be unchangeable 
 and whether we are therefore justified in attempt- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 49 
 
 ing to adapt the work to the individual rather 
 than try to change some of these conditions to 
 bring the man up to the level necessary for a par- 
 ticular task. In other words, to take a concrete 
 example, suppose a young man has the ambition 
 to become a physician. Even though he should 
 find he has a low mental level, emotional peculi- 
 arities and temperamental idiosyncrasies, will not 
 his ambition make up for all these negative condi- 
 tions, so that he succeeds in spite of them? The 
 reader will undoubtedly be able to cite instances 
 that seem to indicate that this is the fact, but be- 
 cause the mental level has never been determined 
 in these cases, it is possible to say that they are 
 not cases in point because the mental level may 
 have been adequate to the accomplishment of the 
 task, and consequently it was not a case of the 
 ambition or the circumstances overcoming mental 
 weakness. Moreover, we are compelled to con- 
 clude that this actually is the situation because of 
 what we know of the nature of intelligence. This 
 comes from the fact that these conditions that we 
 are discussing are definitely determined by a 
 physical condition which is, to a high degree, un- 
 changeable. 
 
 The study of feeble-mindedness has confirmed 
 our belief that intelligence is a matter of brain 
 
50 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 cells and neuron patterns, and still more defi- 
 nitely, it is a question of the development of the 
 larger association areas of the brain, the function- 
 ing of which develops relatively late, and hence 
 this development is particularly liable to arrest; 
 moreover when such arrest has taken place, there 
 is no evidence that it ever starts up again. This 
 means of course, that once a person's mental level 
 is determined, there is no known method of 
 changing it. During the period of development 
 throughout childhood and youth, a single deter- 
 mination is not always sufficient to enable us to 
 say that any arrest has taken place. Indeed, if a 
 child has the mental level corresponding to his 
 chronological age, there is every reason to expect 
 that his mental level will correspond to his age a 
 year later and so on until complete development 
 has taken place. 
 
 But experience has taught us that if the mental 
 level is as much as three years lower than the 
 chronological age, it is practically safe to assume 
 that arrest has already taken place and that the 
 level will never be higher, or at least significantly 
 so.* Moreover, the indications are, that the nor- 
 
 * We are speaking here of uncomplicated arrest of develop- 
 ment. Many a low intelligence rating is due to mental disease — 
 insanity. Even in children this is not uncommon. In all such 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 51 
 
 mal development ceases, as a rule, somewhere 
 near the completion of the adolescent period. 
 Therefore, when the mental level of an adult has 
 been ascertained, it is safe to conclude that this 
 will never be changed. As explained in an earlier 
 lecture, this of course, does not mean that the per- 
 son may not acquire knowledge. In regard to 
 the emotional peculiarities, it is believed that these 
 are dependent upon the structure and functioning 
 of the ductless glands and that up to the present 
 time, there is no known way of materially chang- 
 ing these conditions. 
 
 There is, however, one exception to this which 
 is so significant as to give us some hope that fur- 
 ther results may eventually be obtained. The 
 absence or loss of function of the thyroid gland 
 gives rise to a peculiar form of physical and 
 mental arrest of development found in the Cretin. 
 It is found that the administration of the extract 
 of thyroid gland materially changes this condi- 
 tion. Moreover, Cannon has discovered that the 
 injection of the extract of the adrenal glands 
 produces all the symptoms of fear and anger that 
 may be brought about by any actual situation. 
 These facts give hope that some day, there may 
 
 cases the "mental age" means very little; it is not indicative of a 
 mental level but rather of an average of mental inequalities. 
 
52 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 be some more definite control of these unusual 
 emotional conditions. Whether temperamental 
 peculiarities are also amenable to any such treat- 
 ment is as yet entirely unknown, but one may 
 still insist that whatever may be the possibilities 
 of modifying these other conditions, it is the in- 
 telligence that is the final determiner in these 
 cases, and that until some method of developing 
 the larger association areas is discovered, there is 
 no hope of our ever producing any material 
 change in this line. 
 
 Thus far we have dwelt upon the dependence 
 of efficiency upon intelligence and other subjec- 
 tive conditions. There are three other conditions 
 that should receive at least a passing mention. 
 One of these is the energy of the individual which 
 is mainly a physical matter, a question of diges- 
 tion and assimilation, heart activity and blood 
 composition, to which again, the man of intelli- 
 gence gives due consideration, while the unintel- 
 ligent person is wholly ignorant of the problem 
 and the relation of these conditions either to him- 
 self or to society. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say more than has al- 
 ready been said about the relation of knowledge 
 to individual and social efficiency. Obviously a 
 person without knowledge has very little value; 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 53 
 
 except in the most simple routine matters, his 
 knowledge may be limited to the simple thing of 
 what to do. Other things being equal, the more 
 knowledge one has the more he is likely to be able 
 to meet the situation and adjust himself to 
 changes of environment, and we have already 
 stated to what extent the acquisition of knowl- 
 edge is dependent upon the intelligence. 
 
 We cannot pass so lightly over what we may 
 call the social adjustment. Robinson Crusoe 
 on his island was efficient mainly on account of his 
 intelligence, his energy, his knowledge and un- 
 doubtedly somewhat from his temperamental and 
 emotional conditions. There was practically no 
 problem of social adjustment. An approxi- 
 mately similar condition existed, perhaps, with 
 primitive man when he lived largely by himself 
 and far enough from his neighbors so that very 
 few social adjustments were required. But as 
 soon as man began to congregate in groups, there 
 arose at once the question of social adjustment 
 and the problem has increased in complexity with 
 every move which has tended to crowd individuals 
 closer together. We are accustomed to regard 
 ability to adapt one's self to his environment as 
 a measure of intelligence. 
 
 In view of the facts and considerations of the 
 
54 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 previous lecture, it is easy to see that mental 
 levels are of immense significance in relation to 
 the problem of human efficiency. Since efficiency 
 is largely a question of the wise adjustment of 
 means^ to ends, it is obvious that persons of little 
 intelligence will be capable of only the simplest 
 adjustment. It is the inability to make any but 
 the very simplest adjustments which constitutes 
 f eeble-mindedness, and it is because of this inabil- 
 ity that the defective is so inefficient that he can 
 rarely earn sufficient to maintain himself. Edu- 
 cation for the normal child consists in giving him 
 such a stock of experiences and general principles 
 that he is able to adapt himself to any of the ordi- 
 nary situations of life; and with increasing ex- 
 perience, to almost any situation that may come 
 up. The feeble-minded person, on the other 
 hand, cannot be given the general principles. He 
 can only understand concrete situations. Conse- 
 quently when a new situation arises which is dif- 
 ferent from any that he has seen, having no gen- 
 eral laws or principles that he can call upon, he is 
 unable to meet it. The extent of these limitations 
 is often surprising. For instance, a feeble-mind- 
 ed girl who might have been taught to make bread 
 according to a very definite formula would be ut- 
 terly helpless if told to make Half the usual 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 55 
 
 amount; while the cook who reasoned that if it 
 took three minutes to boil one egg, it would take 
 six minutes to boil two might be above the moron 
 grade, although very little. When it comes to 
 steaming eggs six minutes in a pint of hot water 
 for one egg, it requires a relatively high grade of 
 intelligence to understand that two eggs require 
 a quart of hot water rather than twelve minutes 
 in a pint of water. 
 
 It is easy to see that different material situa- 
 tions require different degrees of intelligence and 
 it is common in the business world to estimate a 
 man's mentality and decide whether or not he is 
 capable of meeting a different class of situations. 
 
 It is not necessary to go further into this phase 
 of the problem but there is another aspect of the 
 same problem which is not so frequently appre- 
 ciated. If adjustment to the environment even 
 roughly measures the intelligence of the individ- 
 ual, the most difficult adjustment of all and that 
 requiring the highest intelligence, is adaptation 
 to the human environment. Many a person can 
 adapt himself to live in any kind of a house, in 
 any kind of climate and even to most any kind of 
 food, but to be able to adapt one's self to all kinds 
 of human beings is indeed difficult, and it is here 
 that many persons of relatively good intelligence 
 
56 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 fail. It is true that often the apparent cause of 
 this failure is something else than the intelligence, 
 namely, some emotional or temperamental 
 peculiarity ; but we have already seen that intelli- 
 gence, if rightly applied, may, and we know does 
 to a large extent, overcome this difficulty. But in 
 proportion as these peculiarities are difficult the 
 intelligence must be correspondingly high. The 
 quarrels and squabbles and feuds that are so com- 
 mon in certain classes of society are usually found 
 accompanied with at least only a moderate degree 
 of intelligence. 
 
 That such failure of adjustment means ineffi- 
 ciency, both for the individual and for the social 
 group of which such individuals are a part, is ob- 
 vious. When these difficulties arise between indi- 
 viduals or groups of individuals of moderate in- 
 telligence, the matter seems easily explainable. 
 But when, as not infrequently occurs, similar dif- 
 ficulties arise between a person of high intelli- 
 gence and one of moderate intelligence another 
 factor must be considered, for at first thought the 
 explanation is not obvious. This factor again 
 takes us back to our view of mental levels, since 
 experience seems to confirm the view that the dif- 
 ficulty arises from the fact that the person of 
 high intelligence has assumed that the other per- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 57 
 
 son has equal intelligence and therefore, equal re- 
 sponsibility. Had the intelligent member of the 
 controversy appreciated the fact that his oppo- 
 nent was of low mentality, and consequently of 
 less responsibility, his whole attitude would have 
 been different and his treatment different, with 
 the almost certain result that no conflict would 
 have occurred. 
 
 In the preceding discussion we have attempted 
 to show that while intelligence or mental level is 
 not the sole factor in human efficiency, it is never- 
 theless, the determining factor and that our social 
 inefficiency of which we are more or less conscious, 
 is due primarily to the large percentage of low 
 intelligence and secondly to a lack of apprecia- 
 tion of relatively low intelligence by those of 
 higher intelligence. 
 
 We have shown in the first lecture that it is 
 possible to measure the mental level with a high 
 degree of accuracy for the younger years, up to 
 twelve at least, and with perhaps less accuracy 
 up to nineteen. We have as yet no satisfactory 
 method of determining with accuracy the higher 
 levels. Experience has proved beyond a doubt 
 that an intelligence below the eight year level is 
 utterly incapable of functioning as an efficient 
 member of society. From the eight to the twelve 
 
58 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 year level, we have a group called morons who 
 while of low mental efficiency are nevertheless in 
 some cases and under most favorable circum- 
 stances capable of contributing more or less 
 toward their own support. The proportion of 
 those so capable naturally increases as the mental 
 level rises. The favorable conditions alluded to, 
 comprise first, a favorable temperament, second 
 a favorable environment with careful training, 
 and thirdly, a more or less constant supervision. 
 
 A favorable temperament is one that renders 
 the individual quiet, obedient, easily satisfied and 
 not requiring excitement; as contrasted with 
 those individuals who are nervous, irritable and 
 have a constant craving for excitement without 
 which they are unhappy and to a large degree, 
 unmanageable. 
 
 By favorable environment, we mean not only 
 decent physical surroundings but associates who 
 are moral, reasonably intelligent and have a hu- 
 man interest in this person who does not get 
 along so easily as others — for example, an em- 
 ployer, overseer or foreman, who will have con- 
 siderable patience, be willing to give needed di- 
 rections and instructions and even repeat them 
 until the person becomes capable of doing the 
 work. It is the history of these people of low 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 59 
 
 mentality, so constant as to be almost diagnostic, 
 that they are constantly changing jobs. This is 
 largely because they make mistakes and require 
 more direction than foremen are willing to give. 
 In other cases, of course, it is due to the fact that 
 with their weakened minds and lack of acquired 
 attention, they cannot stick to one thing long. 
 
 In view of the foregoing facts and discussion 
 it is easy to see why human society is relatively 
 inefficient. Knowing nothing of mental levels 
 beyond a crude appreciation of the fact that some 
 men are certainly more intelligent than others, 
 we have made no serious attempt to fit the man to 
 the job. It is true the employer interviews the 
 employee and attempts to form some subjective 
 impression as to whether he is probably capable 
 of doing the work required. Some employers 
 rather pride themselves upon their ability to make 
 correct judgment on such cases but most people 
 feel that it is a lucky chance if they hit it right. 
 We sometimes require the testimony of other em- 
 ployers but any one who has had large experience 
 with these testimonials is very apt to say that they 
 are worthless. In other cases we hold some form 
 of examination but that again is notoriously un- 
 satisfactory, largely as we now know because 
 such examinations generally test only technical 
 
60 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 knowledge which a person may have acquired by 
 a system of cramming or by some other method 
 and in either case is incapable of applying his 
 knowledge when the conditions are changed. 
 
 Of late, progressive employers in industries 
 have inaugurated a sort of tryout system and if 
 in a reasonable time a man is not efficient in one 
 line of work, they attempt to discover some other 
 job in which he can work successfully; but all this 
 is a crude makeshift in comparison to the results 
 of a scientific determination of the mental level 
 of the individual. 
 
 When one contemplates the enormous propor- 
 tion of misfits that must exist in the industrial 
 world and that such misfits mean discontent and 
 unhappiness for the employee, one can but won- 
 der how much of the present unrest in such circles 
 is due to this fact. A man who is doing work that 
 is well within the capacity of his intelligence and 
 yet that calls forth all his ability is apt to be 
 happy and contented and it is very difficult to 
 disturb any such person by any kind of agitation. 
 
 Perhaps the most serious part of this whole 
 problem of inefficiency concerns that lowest ten 
 per cent who have a mental level so much lower 
 than we could have imagined, so much lower than 
 many people are willing to admit even today, so 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 61 
 
 wholly unrecognized and unappreciated that we 
 have never understood it. As a result of this fail- 
 ure to understand this type, we have concluded 
 that their failures were due to maliciousness or to 
 lack of knowledge or to lack of opportunity. We 
 have accordingly wasted an immense amount of 
 energy, in trying to reform them by punishment 
 or in giving them better opportunity. All of 
 these efforts have been failures because we did 
 not understand the nature of the people that we 
 were working with. Had we appreciated the fact 
 that they were of very low mentality and were in 
 reality doing the best that they could with their 
 limited intelligence, our treatment would cer- 
 tainly have been radically different. We would 
 have eliminated them from the group of self- 
 directing, efficient people and realized that they 
 must always be dependent upon persons of su- 
 perior intelligence and the only success that we 
 could hope for would lie in the direction of plac- 
 ing them in an artificial environment where the 
 conditions were simplified and kept simple by the 
 care and oversight of intelligent people. We 
 shall discuss this further in the next lecture. 
 
 It may be too much to expect that society will 
 ever be so perfectly organized that every indi- 
 vidual will be working at the highest possible effi- 
 
62 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 ciency but it is not at all impossible to handle this 
 lowest group. They are amenable to any reason- 
 able treatment that we may prescribe for them 
 and whenever society is ready to eliminate them 
 from the main group and to provide for them in 
 ways that will make them happy and as efficient 
 as they, with their limited intelligence can be 
 made, we will at least have increased the total effi- 
 ciency to an almost unbelievable extent. 
 
 It is said that the busy bee, so often held up to 
 us as a model of industrious work, actually works 
 twenty minutes a day. The explanation of the 
 great amount that he accomplishes is said to be 
 in the fact of the perfect organization of the hive. 
 Perhaps it would be wiser for us to emulate the 
 bee's social organization more and his supposed 
 industry less. 
 
DELINQUENCY 
 
 A delinquent is literally one who has been left 
 behind. In the army, on the march such a per- 
 son is called a straggler; in the onward march of 
 civilization he becomes one who neglects or fails 
 to perform a duty. When the duty is something 
 that is owed to society, the neglect to perform it 
 becomes a fault or a misdemeanor, provided al- 
 ways that the person is supposed to have the ca- 
 pacity for performing this duty. It is in the lat- 
 ter sense that we use the term in the present dis- 
 cussion, in other words, it is social and moral de- 
 linquency that is under consideration. 
 
 The delinquent is the one who does not come 
 up to the mark in the performance of those duties 
 which the group has placed upon every member. 
 Delinquency is an offense because it impairs the 
 efficiency of the group. Just as the army cannot 
 effectively attack the enemy if many of its mem- 
 bers are stragglers. So the advance of the total 
 group in civilization is impeded by every case of 
 delinquency of its members. So far as the wel- 
 fare of the group is concerned, it matters not 
 what may be the cause of the delinquency, its 
 
64 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 efficiency is marred just the same. So far as the 
 individuals are concerned, we are accustomed to 
 divide them into two groups: those whose delin- 
 quency is the result of conditions beyond their 
 control and those whose delinquency is the result 
 of carelessness, indifference or a willful refusal to 
 comply with the demands of the group as a whole. 
 
 In the latter case we call the delinquency an 
 offense, in the former merely a defect. Our 
 treatment of the delinquent is determined thus by 
 the classification. In the one case we hold the de- 
 linquent individual^ responsible; in the other 
 case, society regards it as an unavoidable condi- 
 tion. In the former case we expect the indi- 
 vidual to overcome his delinquency and we take 
 every means to persuade him so to do. In the 
 latter case society holds itself more or less respon- 
 sible and attempts to remove the conditions and 
 thus increase the total efficiency. 
 
 In the evolution of civilization there has been 
 a constant change in the classification in the di- 
 rection of a taking over by the group, of respon- 
 sibilities that were formerly placed upon the in- 
 dividual. If therefore, we are to judge by the 
 past we shall conclude that the future will find 
 society holding itself responsible for many con- 
 ditions now blamed upon the individual. It is 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 65 
 
 therefore profitable to discover the causes of de- 
 linquency and to ascertain under what circum- 
 stances these are under the control of the indi- 
 vidual and under what circumstances they are 
 beyond his control, with the result that we may 
 determine whether the methods of treatment are 
 to be applied to the individual, or whether society 
 shall reform itself and its methods. 
 
 There has grown up another grouping of de- 
 linquency: into juvenile delinquency and adult 
 delinquency or criminality. We shall consider 
 first and chiefly, juvenile delinquency partly be- 
 cause it has been more studied, partly because we 
 find the simpler and more fundamental causes, 
 and partly because it is more profitable. It is 
 more profitable because the causes once discovered 
 are more easily removed and the individual re- 
 formed. We are fast coming to the practical, if 
 somewhat hardhearted view, that efforts at re- 
 forming the adult offender are largely futile and 
 consequently, it is wisest to deal with the adult 
 offender as best we may, and to put our chief 
 efforts upon the prevention of delinquency in the 
 youth from whom the adult offenders as a rule, 
 grow. In this way we shall soonest and most 
 successfully eliminate the adult offender. 
 
 Fifty years ago the chief efforts of temperance 
 
66 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 reformers were centered upon reforming the 
 adult drunkard. Some thirty years ago this em- 
 phasis was changed and the chief efforts were 
 placed upon the education of children, and the 
 effects of alcohol upon the human system, and the 
 adult drunkard was largely given up as a hope- 
 lass task, to be dealt with as a nuisance or toler- 
 ated as best we could until natural causes and the 
 effects of his habits took him out of the way. The 
 good results of this wiser policy have been evi- 
 denced in the great reduction of drunkenness 
 and has a climax in the present national prohibi- 
 tion. It is logical and natural to expect a simi- 
 lar result when we attack crime and misdemeanor 
 in the same way, namely by dealing with adult 
 offenders by such summary methods as seem most 
 efficient in protecting us from their criminal acts 
 and devoting our main efforts at preventing juve- 
 nile delinquency. We shall indeed find that some 
 of the causes of juvenile delinquency are equally 
 causes of adult delinquency and crime, and that 
 the methods that we may devise for preventing 
 juvenile delinquency may equally well be applied 
 to this class of adult crimes. 
 
 What, then, are the causes of juvenile delin- 
 quency? It is one of the triumphs of modern 
 science that it has taught us to beware of the 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 67 
 
 vague general terms that formerly were consid- 
 ered satisfactory. Most of us were brought up to 
 believe in, and to be satisfied with the answer to 
 the foregoing question, that juvenile offenses 
 were due to wickedness, some kind of inborn 
 viciousness as unexplainable as it was unaccount- 
 able and irremediable. If we asked "What is 
 wickedness"? we were told that it was sin, and 
 were immediately launched into a theological dis- 
 cussion. When once it began to be realized how 
 vague and useless were these answers to the ques- 
 tion, then we began to apply to this problem some 
 of our scientific methods of insisting upon defi- 
 nite, concrete, simple questions to be satisfied with 
 equally definite and concrete answers. We 
 asked ourselves "Why does a child go wrong?" 
 The answer came, in the language of Superinten- 
 dent Johnstone "Either because he does not know 
 any better, or because he cannot help it." An 
 answer somewhat startling at first thought and 
 yet one which leads to further analysis with sur- 
 prisingly satisfactory results. 
 
 We realize that we have always excused some 
 things in some children on the ground that they 
 did not know any better. It is equally clear that 
 we have been in the habit of excusing some mis- 
 demeanors of some person on the ground that 
 
68 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 they could not help it. It is with the feeling of 
 pity rather than censure that we read that some 
 person in a fit of insanity has killed a fellow be- 
 ing. The new thought in this connection is that 
 we have only to extend these two principles in 
 order to account for practically all of juvenile 
 delinquency and a large part of adult criminality. 
 The barrier which until recently has prevented 
 our extending these principles has been a dog- 
 matic assertion that many people, in the phrase- 
 ology of the old song, are "big enough and old 
 enough and ought to know better. " What we 
 did not realize was that size and age are not suffi- 
 cient to determine responsibility, and that the 
 real condition of the man, the forces actuating 
 him to conduct, are not so easily discerned. We 
 excuse a man for his act or his failure to act when 
 he is obviously sick. We are beginning to realize 
 that many a person suffers from actual and seri- 
 ous physical illness who gives no outward sign 
 of it, at least to the layman and often even to the 
 physician. Similarly have we learned that there 
 are many people who, while they are big enough 
 and old enough nevertheless have not mind 
 enough to learn to know better. 
 
 In our thinking on these topics we have been 
 ffuiltv of many serious inconsistencies and con- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 69 
 
 tradictions. On the one hand, we have reasoned 
 that no sane, intelligent man would commit the 
 crime that this particular man has committed, 
 nevertheless we have looked at this man and said 
 that he is both intelligent and sane, and being in- 
 telligent and sane he is responsible for his crime 
 and therefore must be punished. We next ask 
 why should he be punished? What is the pur- 
 pose? It has been said that there have been at 
 least three stages in the evolution of our thought 
 on this question. The old primitive idea was that 
 of vengeance, the crude notion that if the perpe- 
 trator of the crime was made to suffer that it 
 somehow atoned for the crime. It was the eye 
 for an eye and a tooth for a tooth idea. It in no 
 way restored the original conditions or removed 
 the harm that had been done, but it somehow satis- 
 fied a primitive idea of vengeance. Later as hu- 
 man intelligence developed and man began to 
 think of these things, he said "there is no sense in 
 this procedure, we should only punish in order 
 to deter others from committing a like crime." 
 That idea still prevails and is the chief argument 
 for capital punishment and the long term sen- 
 tence. What may be called the present concep- 
 tion of punishment, at least in the minds of those 
 who have given it the most thought and attained 
 
70 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 the broadest view, is that punishment, legal pun- 
 ishment of adult criminals, like the simple punish- 
 ments of children, is for the purpose of reforming 
 the criminal. The investigation of the causes of 
 delinquency and crime leads logically to a fourth 
 attitude toward the whole question, namely that 
 of the prevention of crime as vastly better even 
 than curing the criminal. 
 
 Now the one thing that makes all this rational 
 and easily intelligible, that puts us in the right 
 attitude toward the problem is the doctrine of 
 mental levels. When we realize that it is not a 
 question of stature or age but of mentality that 
 determines an individual's conduct, we shall cease 
 to rely upon these factors but instead, demand to 
 know what is the mental level of the offender, 
 then we may discover that perhaps he did not 
 know any better, not because he was not old 
 enough, not because an effort had not been made 
 to teach him, but because he had not intelligence 
 enough to learn. 
 
 The effect of this view upon our attitude to- 
 ward the offender is obvious, and this new atti- 
 tude is of the utmost importance for our success 
 in dealing with offenders, as well as with the 
 whole problem of prevention. It is fully appre- 
 ciated by the intelligent, that the fundamental 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 71 
 
 condition for winning a man to our way of think- 
 ing is to convince him of our friendliness and in- 
 terest in his welfare. Once let him get the im- 
 pression that we are actuated by any other motive 
 and every argument that we use is either denied 
 or suspected. Now the moment we assume that 
 a man is guilty and responsible, we put ourselves 
 in a hostile attitude and cannot assume or pretend 
 to that attitude of friendliness which is essential 
 if we are to win him over to our way of thinking. 
 On the other hand, once we have accepted the 
 view that there are many persons of such inferior 
 mental level that they either cannot know the 
 significance of their action or cannot control their 
 action and the possibility of our hostile attitude is 
 removed, and we meet the situation in an atti- 
 tude of sympathy or pity, the attitude most cal- 
 culated to bring about best results. 
 
 Is it after all rational, having thrown a man 
 into a 5 x 7 stone cell closed by a steel barred 
 door, then talking through the bars to tell him 
 we love him and expect him to believe it ? 
 
 So much for the a priori argument that since 
 there are mental levels we may expect persons of 
 the lower levels to commit offenses. Let us now 
 see what are the facts. Are the persons who com- 
 mit offenses really of low mental level? The 
 
72 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 answer is no longer in doubt and it is not neces- 
 sary at this time and place to quote statistics or 
 cite individual investigations. It is sufficient to 
 state that every investigation of the mentality of 
 criminals, misdemeanants, delinquents and other 
 anti-social groups has proven beyond the possi- 
 bility of contradiction that nearly all persons in 
 these classes and in some cases all are of low men- 
 tality. Moreover, a large percentage of all of the 
 groups are of such low mentality as to be prop- 
 erly denominated feeble-minded. These facts 
 were at first only accepted and pointed out by 
 those who were experienced in the use of tests for 
 determining the mental level, and who were also 
 experienced with the feeble-minded. But once it 
 was pointed out it was readily accepted by a large 
 proportion of those who had had most experience 
 with the various classes of delinquents. A third 
 group who had less faith in the tests of mentality, 
 or whose insistence upon the responsibility of all 
 human beings was great, or whose concept of low 
 mentality was restricted to the idiot or the im- 
 becile, have finally more or less reluctantly ad- 
 mitted the facts. Actual tests of the mentality of 
 scores of groups of criminals and delinquents, 
 have given percentages varying from ten to 
 eighty. This wide variation is due partly to the 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 73 
 
 way in which the group has been selected and 
 partly to the greater or less conservatism in in- 
 terpreting the results of the tests. 
 
 A few years ago a score or more wardens of 
 penitentaries and reformatories were asked what 
 proportion of their inmates were, in their opinion, 
 mentally defective. Their answers were of course 
 based solely upon their subjective impressions, 
 the result of working with these people for num- 
 bers of years. The answers varied from none to 
 a hundred percent; the average was about fifty 
 percent. The majority of respondents giving 
 percentages between thirty and eighty. Finally 
 the results in the more recent tests since the meth- 
 ods have been perfected and are better under- 
 stood, have been steadily tending towards the 
 larger percentage. 
 
 In view of these facts it is no longer to be de- 
 nied that the greatest single cause of delinquency 
 and crime is low grade mentality, much of it with- 
 in the limits of feeble-mindedness. 
 
 Since we are discussing delinquency and its 
 causes, we must go beyond our main problem of 
 mental levels and mention the other causes. In- 
 sanity as a cause of crime has long been recog- 
 nized and needs no discussion here. There is 
 however, a new phase of this subject that is of 
 
74, HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 such great importance as to merit a brief men- 
 tion. Studies of juvenile delinquents have abun- 
 dantly proved that a fair percentage of them are 
 suffering from mental disease, which is often not 
 clearly enough marked or sufficiently developed 
 to be definitely named insanity. Some cases are 
 clearly cases of dementia praecox; others are 
 proved by later experience to be the first incipient 
 stages of that condition ; other conditions detected 
 still earlier have been spoken of by Myer as the 
 soil upon which dementia praecox grows. There 
 are still other psychopathic conditions not clearly 
 to be classed in any of the recognized groups of 
 insanities, yet nevertheless, as the sequel often 
 proves, clearly cases of mental disease. Another 
 cause of delinquency is epilepsy or epileptical 
 conditions including the so-called psychic-epilepsy 
 and epileptic equivalents. Healy has described a 
 group which he calls cases of "mental conflict." 
 
 Finally we pass to the acquired mental condi- 
 tions, which may range all the way from those 
 children who have been brought up in crime by 
 their criminal parents, have been taught and 
 practiced in the criminal acts, down to those who 
 merely yield to natural instincts without ever hav- 
 ing had the good fortune to have the evils of such 
 conduct pointed out to them or to have suffered 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 75 
 
 the consequences of their wrong doing to such an 
 extent as to compel them to break the vicious 
 habit. 
 
 Lastly we have a small group whose conduct 
 cannot be accounted for on the basis of any of 
 the above mentioned causes ; a group that would 
 justify, if it could be justified, the old concept of 
 pure wickedness. Nevertheless, we cannot fail 
 to make use of the argument of progressive ap- 
 proach and claim that since we have accounted 
 for nearly all of the crimes and misdemeanors on 
 the basis of more or less well understood physical, 
 mental or social conditions, if we could get at the 
 facts we would find these few also were to be ex- 
 plained without recourse to the doctrine of origi- 
 nal sin. 
 
 The purpose of studying causes is of course to 
 know better how to prevent as well as to treat and 
 cure. We must now consider the treatment 
 and prevention of delinquency and crime. It 
 goes without saying that where the causes are 
 known and can be removed, they should be re- 
 moved. If alcohol has caused a large proportion 
 of adult criminality, national prohibition may 
 hopefully be looked to to prevent that proportion 
 of crime. But when once the crime or misde- 
 meanor has been committed, and especially when 
 
76 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 the cause though known, cannot be removed, how 
 shall we treat the offender? In the case of en- 
 vironmental cases it is obvious that the individual 
 must be removed from the bad environment. This 
 is not always sufficient, as in those cases where 
 the person has formed vicious habits so that he 
 will continue his offending practices in almost 
 any environment. When such is the case it seems 
 that there is nothing to do but to so limit his en- 
 vironment that it shall become impossible for him 
 to continue the practice. The extreme is of 
 course confining such a person in a prison for 
 such length of time as it may take to break the 
 habit. How long a time that will require, can 
 often be determined only by experiment such as 
 placing the person on parole after a certain time 
 and giving him an opportunity to demonstrate 
 what is his actual condition. Where the conduct 
 is due to disease, mental or otherwise, if the dis- 
 ease can be cured, that generally means the cure 
 of the offense. In the case of incurable diseases 
 it is obvious that the only thing to do is to care 
 for the offenders but they must be cared for as 
 diseased persons rather than as criminals. Our 
 institutions for the criminal insane offer an illus- 
 tration of the extreme of this condition. 
 
 Finally we get back to our specific problem of 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 77 
 
 the cases of low mentality, such as the feeble- 
 minded. Here we have two distinct groups; 
 those who are amenable to treatment and those 
 who call for the application of methods of deten- 
 tion. The feeble-minded person who has com- 
 mitted an offense may or may not have formed 
 the habit that is more or less difficult to break. As 
 a matter of fact, experience has proved that a 
 very large proportion of the feeble-minded de- 
 linquents and criminals have not formed any per- 
 persistent habit but rather have merely reacted to 
 the wrong treatment which they have received 
 from persons who did not understand their men- 
 tal level. Once such defectives are placed in the 
 care of persons who do understand them, there is 
 no recurrence of the offense. 
 
 The following is typical : 
 
 A gentleman brought his seventeen year old 
 boy to an institution for feeble-minded. When 
 arrangements had been made the father took his 
 departure, the superintendent accompanying him 
 to the door leaving the boy in the office. Upon 
 his return to his office the superintendent said to 
 the boy, "Now, John, you may go to your cot- 
 tage." John replied, "I ain't going to the cot- 
 tage. I ain't going to stay here. I wouldn't stay 
 here even if God Almighty paid the bills. You 
 
78 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 can't telephone, I have cut the wires. I have cut 
 your gloves all to pieces and I have cut your over- 
 coat." This was true, except the last, and well 
 shows his desperate character. He, of course, did 
 go to his cottage and was soon so taken up with 
 his new surroundings that he forgot his grouch 
 and the next morning was seen going to his 
 "work" arm in arm with a middle grade imbecile, 
 perfectly happy; and during his entire stay of 
 some years never gave the slightest trouble. 
 
 In at least ninety percent of cases the feeble- 
 minded delinquent when placed in the institution 
 becomes thoroughly tractable and obedient, a 
 pleasant and agreeable inmate not to be distin- 
 guished from the others of his mental level. The 
 few who have formed habits which they cannot 
 control, must of course like the others that we 
 have spoken of be kept in rather close quarters. 
 The most troublesome group in this class is the 
 sex offender, especially the female. The male is 
 not quite so serious a problem since his feeble- 
 mindedness renders him inexpert in making op- 
 portunities for wrong-doing and normal women 
 will seldom have anything to do with feeble- 
 minded men. With the female, it is quite dif- 
 ferent; having once learned the significance of 
 this life she is always impelled by this instinct 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 79 
 
 common to humanity; and exercising no control 
 over her impulses easily finds a male to accept 
 what she has to offer. The marked difference be- 
 tween the girl who has been brought up carefully 
 in an institution and kept free from vice and the 
 girl who comes into the institution after having 
 formed these habits, points most unmistakably to 
 the necessity of discovering those girls of low 
 mental level and segregating them early and 
 keeping them at least until the first strong im- 
 pulses of adolescence have become somewhat 
 modified. 
 
 There remains one group to be considered. 
 Those of mentality just above that which is in- 
 cluded in the group of the feeble-minded, but be- 
 low that which insures normal conduct. This in 
 turn raises the question of how these two are to 
 be distinguished; where is the line to be drawn 
 between feeble-mindedness and what is technic- 
 ally called the dull normal person? It is a diffi- 
 cult matter and possibly we may never be able to 
 draw it accurately and yet it must be drawn for 
 practical purposes. In law the matter seems to 
 turn on the question of right and wrong, at least 
 the law excuses from responsibility only those 
 persons who are believed not to know right from 
 wrong. 
 
80 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 Since this has given rise and continues to 
 give rise to much discussion, it is worth while 
 to consider again the thesis which we wish to 
 maintain and have repeatedly stated, that the 
 feeble-minded even of high-grade, do not know 
 right from wrong, in the sense and to the de- 
 gree that must be within the meaning of the 
 term as used in the law if it is to determine re- 
 sponsibility. When we say that a person who 
 knows that an act is wrong is responsible if he 
 does it, we can only mean that he has a clear con- 
 cept of what it means for an act to be wrong and 
 that this is one of those acts. It is not reasonable 
 to conclude that the law means that to know that 
 it is wrong is simply to be able to say that it is 
 wrong any more than you would conclude that a 
 child knew right from wrong because he could 
 read the two words in a book and knew the one 
 from the other. 
 
 It has proved to be exceedingly difficult to get 
 intelligent people, especially parents, to appre- 
 ciate the real condition of the child in respect to 
 this matter. Most every intelligent parent who 
 has not thought it out says, "A child of twelve 
 not know right and wrong! why my child of six 
 knows right and wrong." The idea is a common 
 one. It is a confusing of what one knows from 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 81 
 
 concrete experiences, with an abstract principle. 
 The child of six has learned that a good many 
 individual acts are wrong; but that is very far 
 from knowing an abstract principle of right and 
 wrong. It is still another step to recognize a 
 specific action as belonging to the group of wrong 
 things. A child of six or even less knows that un- 
 supported objects fall to the ground and yet it 
 is probable that no one would claim that a child 
 of six or even twelve understands the law of 
 gravitation. It is always difficult for one to com- 
 prehend how another person can fail to under- 
 stand something that he himself understands so 
 well. It is so obvious to us that lying, stealing, 
 killing and other more common offenses are 
 wrong that it is difficult for us to appreciate that 
 a lower grade of intelligence does not have the 
 same appreciation of these things that we do. 
 
 The only way for us to come to a correct judg- 
 ment as to children's abilities in this line, is to get 
 at it indirectly. Let us see if we as intelligent 
 adults are ever puzzled on this question of right 
 and wrong. We think we know that it is wrong 
 to steal. Let me ask you, "Do you ever steal?" 
 If I convict you of having stolen something in 
 the past twenty-four hours, your defense as an 
 honest man will be that you do not call it stealing 
 
82 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 and you and I may have a heated argument over 
 the definition of the term. For example, you are 
 riding in a street car; through an oversight the 
 conductor does not collect your fare, you know 
 that he did not collect it but you do not go to him 
 and hand him the nickel. Did you steal five cents 
 from the car company? There is a frank differ- 
 ence of opinion. Some hold that it is stealing, 
 others maintain that it is the business of the con- 
 ductor to collect fares. If he does not do it, he 
 and not the passenger, has committed a fault. If 
 intelligent beings are in doubt on this question, 
 can we expect that children should not be in 
 doubt? There are business deals carried through 
 continually which some people hold as dishonest, 
 while others maintain equally strongly that they 
 are perfectly legitimate. If we are in doubt 
 about these somewhat complicated problems, 
 must we not admit the possibility that children 
 may be ignorant on what are to us the most simple 
 problems ? 
 
 The writer has maintained and still maintains 
 that a young man seventeen years of age with a 
 mentality of eleven, who killed his school teacher 
 did not know the nature and quality of his act and 
 that it was wrong. That sounds like strange doc- 
 trine but let us consider. Is it wrong to take 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 83 
 
 human life under any circumstances? There are 
 those who answer in the affirmative, but the ma- 
 jority of people do not so answer, as is evidenced 
 by the fact that the majority of our States ap- 
 prove of capital punishment. It is right to take 
 life under certain circumstances. In ordinary 
 civil life this right has been restricted in legal pro- 
 cedure to the execution of murderers, but when 
 a nation is at war the rightfulness of taking life 
 is extended enormously. A sentinel is shot for 
 sleeping at his post and most people think that is 
 right. Is it absurd to imagine that a twelve year 
 old child could not understand how military ne- 
 cessity makes it right to kill a man just because 
 he fell asleep when he was expected to keep 
 awake? Even in civil life we allow men to kill 
 others and do not call it wrong as for instance, in 
 self defense. A considerable proportion of the 
 time of our courts is spent in deciding particular 
 cases as to whether it was right or wrong for the 
 man to kill. Again we repeat: if it is so difficult 
 for men of high intelligence to agree on these 
 cases must we not admit that children may well 
 be in doubt in cases that are to us much simpler? 
 Moreover, most of these criminal acts are done 
 in response to primitive, natural, human instincts. 
 Lying, stealing and killing were at one period, 
 
84 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 man's virtues. It is because we have come to 
 live together in groups where each is dependent 
 upon the rest, that these become vices and the 
 more closely modern methods of living and civili- 
 zation crowd us together, the more we find it 
 necessary to regard an ever increasing number of 
 acts as wrong. 
 
 But some one says, ask the child and he will tell 
 you that he knows it is wrong. But he might 
 tell you he understood the binomial theorem. 
 Would you believe him without testing it? In 
 legal procedure we do not believe a man even 
 when he says that he committed the crime. We 
 cannot convict him on his own confession, except 
 under special conditions. If you ask a child how 
 he knows that it is wrong, he may tell you either 
 that he did that thing once and got punished for 
 it or else that he has heard somebody say it was 
 wrong. 
 
 To be able to say a thing is wrong because 
 someone else has said it, is very far from knowing 
 right and wrong, and that is the fact usually over- 
 looked. We think because children can say what 
 we would like them to say that therefore they 
 understand. When it comes to the question of 
 responsibility, this is a serious error. Your six 
 year old child or even your ten year old, whom 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 85 
 
 you think knows right and wrong, in reality 
 knpws only that certain things which he has actu- 
 ally experienced and for which he has suffered 
 punishment, are wrong. For the rest it is mere 
 hearsay and not a matter of conscience at all. In 
 other words, it is again the question of hearsay 
 knowledge as contrasted with an intelligent un- 
 derstanding of the case. It may be maintained 
 that the child does understand that the thing is 
 wrong but is unable to control himself. We will 
 not deny that that is a description of cases that do 
 exist and yet it is improbable even in those cases 
 that the child appreciates that the act in question 
 is exactly like other acts that he knows are wrong. 
 Precisely as a man kills another without realiz- 
 ing that it comes under the general law of 'Thou 
 shalt not kill.' He thinks that killing in self de- 
 fense is not the kind of killing referred to in the 
 law. When Jean Gianini killed his teacher, he 
 said he believed it was right and he would do it 
 again under the same circumstances. He thought 
 that he had been wronged by the teacher and it 
 was perfectly right for him to take vengeance as 
 he did. His attitude was precisely that of a man 
 who shoots another in self defense and says he 
 would do it again under similar circumstances. 
 The only difference is that in a case of self de- 
 
86 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 fense, adult high intelligence maintains that this 
 is the proper procedure, whereas the same intel- 
 ligence maintains that Jean Gianini's act does not 
 come under the act of justifiable homicide, but 
 Jean Gianini is feeble-minded and totally unable 
 to appreciate the difference in the circumstances 
 of the two cases. Moreover this is entirely in 
 agreement with the results of study into the 
 mental makeup of the feeble-minded. A funda- 
 mental principle long recognized is that these 
 persons cannot deal with abstractions. They 
 can learn concrete experiences, but they are un- 
 able to generalize from those experiences and 
 formulate a general principle and no one is likely 
 to deny that moral principles are the hardest of 
 all to formulate. 
 
 As we have already pointed out, we ourselves 
 are not able to agree that all stealing is wrong or 
 all lying or all homicide. A moron girl of seven- 
 teen years of age was recently asked why she 
 committed her first sex offense. She replied per- 
 fectly naivety, "Because a man kept asking me 
 to." It is very probable that she would have said 
 that she knew that it was wrong, nevertheless it 
 is clear that she had no general principle of the 
 wrongfulness of that type of act and not having 
 such general principle, the fact that a man re- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 87 
 
 peatedly asked her to do this, made a special case 
 of it and not one that fell under the formula that 
 she had learned to repeat. The same girl was 
 asked why she shot a man and replied, "Because 
 a man told me to." In other words, one does not 
 know that a thing is wrong until he has had suffi- 
 cient experience in that particular line for it to 
 become what we might call a moral reflex, to be 
 settled in the lower nerve centers so that no ques- 
 tion in regard to it arises. Honest people have 
 thus reduced the question of deliberately stealing 
 and upon every occasion that would come under 
 that head, their action is prompt and emphatic. 
 It is stealing and that settles it, they will not do 
 it ; but we have only to modify the circumstances 
 a little, so that a doubt arises and one hesitates as 
 to whether this act would be stealing or not, to 
 find the best of us sometimes yielding. In those 
 cases we do not know that it is wrong. If we did, 
 we would not do it. 
 
 We conclude then, the feeble-minded do not 
 know right and wrong though they may be taught 
 and will then know, that a great many acts are 
 wrong. When we come to the group on the bor- 
 derline between the feeble-minded and the normal 
 or only a little above that line, we have no rule 
 to follow. Each must be settled on its own 
 
88 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 merits ; at least until the time comes that we know 
 more about these cases. The treatment of these 
 cases however, is not so difficult since it is entirely 
 possible that we have a right to assume that even 
 if they do not know that it is wrong, they are 
 capable of learning that fact, and therefore the 
 particular occasion should receive its proper pun- 
 ishment as a part of their education. We are 
 thinking now of the type which has been desig- 
 nated as the defective delinquent. These are 
 particularly girls who are delinquent along sex 
 lines. Such delinquency cannot be tolerated and 
 if these girls show an incapacity for controlling 
 themselves and acting properly, they must be 
 placed where they will not meet the temptations 
 and they must be kept there indefinitely or until 
 the habit is broken down. 
 
 It remains only to speak of the intelligent 
 criminals. These are divisible into at least two 
 groups, the accidental criminal and the profes- 
 sional or the professional in the making; or per- 
 haps we should say the voluntary and the invol- 
 untary criminal. The accidental or involuntary 
 criminal needs no discussion. He is the man who 
 has unintentionally violated the law and were it 
 not for the fact that it is believed to be unwise to 
 allow any exceptions, we should always excuse 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 89 
 
 such a man and let it go ; but as it is always easier 
 to follow the rule than to justify exceptions, 
 these cases must usually pay the penalty. 
 
 Nor shall we at this time discuss extensively the 
 volitional criminal, the man who chooses criminal- 
 ity as a career. That has been discussed by oth- 
 ers and it is only necessary to point out here that 
 inasmuch as a large percentage of criminals prove 
 to be of low intelligence, all criminals should be 
 examined as to their mentality. Those who are 
 found to have normal and even above average 
 mentality must be explained of course by some 
 other means such as environment or peculiar tem- 
 perament and treatment should be applied ac- 
 cording to the conditions found. We may have 
 to conclude that for these cases the most drastic 
 punishment is necessary. In other words, if there 
 are people who deliberately and intelligently 
 choose a life of crime, then the results should be 
 made so uncomfortable that every such intelli- 
 gent criminal would perceive that it was undesir- 
 able and did not pay. 
 
 Finally we must point out that if the doctrine 
 of mental levels were applied to problems of de- 
 linquency and criminality, a large proportion 
 would be found to be of such low mental level 
 that they could be cared for as feeble-minded. 
 
90 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 Another large group would be found to be only a 
 little above this level and when their mentality was 
 taken into consideration, their treatment could be 
 made simpler and more rational and with better 
 results. This would leave us with our high-grade 
 group which would be relatively so small that it 
 would be possible to devote all our energies to an 
 intelligent study of those cases, with the good 
 hope that when thus studied we would be able to 
 solve the problem. 
 
 We have attempted to show that the recognition 
 of mental levels and the treatment of delinquents 
 and criminals in accordance with their known 
 mental levels would enormously simplify the en- 
 tire problem. In other words, we would gain 
 what is always gained by a rational system of 
 classification. We should divide our problem 
 into groups and treat each group separately ac- 
 cording to its merits. It may confidently be pre- 
 dicted that this will be the procedure of the future 
 and when it comes to be the general practice, we 
 will have removed many of our special problems. 
 
 Lest it be thought that this is an idle prophecy, 
 we shall conclude this lecture with a brief ac- 
 count of the steps actually taken in this direction. 
 
 In 1913 the Legislature of Ohio passed a law 
 creating a Bureau of Juvenile Research to which 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 91 
 
 all minors who in the opinion of the Juvenile 
 Court required State care, must be sent for ex- 
 amination and study before being finally assigned 
 to an institution. This means that every such 
 child gets a thorough mental and physical exami- 
 nation and investigation into the conditions that 
 may have led him to commit his misdemeanor. 
 
 The Bureau is not yet thoroughly established 
 because the Legislature which passed the law re- 
 ferred to, failed to appropriate any money to 
 provide buildings for the purpose. Later this 
 oversight was corrected and $100,000. appropri- 
 ated. Those buildings are now practically com- 
 pleted. They include two cottages in which 
 the children will be housed as long as they are 
 needed to be kept under observation. As soon as 
 their case is diagnosed, they are assigned to the 
 appropriate institution; whether that be the 
 School for the Feeble-Minded, the Hospital for 
 the Insane or the Industrial School, or if it is 
 thought more suitable, they may be placed in 
 private families. 
 
 The third building is a large laboratory where 
 may be carried on all kinds of investigation that 
 the cases seem to warrant. There will be trained 
 psychologists for making the mental examina- 
 tions ; also psychiatrists for investigation of pos- 
 
92 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 sible mental disease; there will be physicians for 
 making thorough physical examinations; there 
 will be a bio-chemist for the study of the physio- 
 logical f unctionings ; there will be facilities for 
 doing minor surgery, such as adenoids and ton- 
 sils, and X-ray work; there will be dentists and 
 there will be teachers and physical trainers and 
 industrial trainers. It is expected that the great 
 majority of children will not need to be detained 
 long, the diagnosis will be fairly easy to make, 
 but in the difficult cases the children may be kept 
 in the cottages as long as is necessary, even weeks 
 or months. 
 
 A fourth building has been provided for by a 
 legislative appropriation of $25,000. This will 
 be a hospital for the sick children. 
 
 Another clause in the law permits the Bureau 
 of Juvenile Research to receive for examination 
 and recommendation any child from any per- 
 son having legal guardianship. This is indeed 
 progress for it looks not to cure but to preven- 
 tion. Already there are being brought in many 
 children who are a little peculiar, a little unusu- 
 ally troublesome at home or at school; and their 
 cases are diagnosed and treatment recommended 
 without waiting for them to commit a misde- 
 meanor and get a court record. 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 93 
 
 Nor does the Bureau confine its work to the 
 mentally defective children. Many normal chil- 
 dren are examined and many precocious children, 
 so that mental levels are being determined and by 
 means of a careful system of records every case 
 becomes the basis for a future study as later ex- 
 aminations are made. Besides the work done in 
 the laboratory, which is located in Columbus, 
 trained clinicians are being sent out over the 
 State to examine children in Children's Homes, 
 in Detention Homes and other places where they 
 cannot conveniently be brought to the laboratory. 
 Ultimately there will be sub-stations of the Bu- 
 reau in the principal cities so that it will not be 
 necessary to send all the children to Columbus; 
 they can be examined in their home city and from 
 there be assigned to their proper institutions. 
 School children, I mean entire schools, are being 
 examined and recommendations made for special 
 classes in the public schools. Already more than 
 five thousand children have been examined and 
 careful records are on file. When it is remem- 
 bered that this is a State Bureau serving a popu- 
 lation of five million people, it is seen how vast is 
 the work to be done. At least a beginning is be- 
 ing made and some of the children of Ohio are in 
 a fair way to receive scientific treatment. 
 
94 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 It is too early to announce results or to make 
 predictions for the future, but it may be said that 
 the results bear out all the statements that we 
 have made in regard to the large number of cases 
 of children of arrested development or having 
 low mental levels or suffering from child insanity. 
 The evidence is fast accumulating to prove that 
 in the vast majority of cases when the child does 
 wrong, it is either because he does not know any 
 better or because he cannot help it. 
 
MENTAL LEVELS AND DEMOCRACY 
 
 The discoveries that each individual has his 
 mental level which, once established, he cannot 
 exceed and that the level of the average person 
 is probably between thirteen and fourteen years, 
 explain a great many things not previously under- 
 stood, but also raise some questions that are at 
 first sight, somewhat disturbing. 
 
 One of these questions is: What about dem- 
 ocracy, can we hope to have a successful democ- 
 racy where the average mentality is thirteen? 
 The question is an interesting one and suggests 
 many other questions upon which the doctrine of 
 mental levels can certainly throw much light. 
 Democracy of course means the people rule, as 
 contrasted with aristocracy which means literally, 
 "the best" rule. We would probably all agree that 
 we ought to be ruled by the best, but unfortuna- 
 ately, that term best is one of those indefinite 
 terms which must be limited before we can dis- 
 cuss it. It might mean best in physical strength, 
 or best in knowledge, or best in intelligence, or 
 best in administrative powers, or best in any one 
 of the many other things. Now democracy is not 
 
96 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 opposed to a rule by the best. The essential point 
 of democracy is that every citizen shall have a 
 chance to say whom he thinks is the best. "Gov- 
 ernments obtain their just powers from the con- 
 sent of the governed." 
 
 In the case of the aristocracies of the past, a 
 few people have said, "We are the best, therefore 
 we will rule," and best has often meant best in 
 physical strength. Had those rulers been best in 
 every sense, the probabilities are that democracy 
 would never have arisen, but because they were 
 often not wise, not humane, not considerate of the 
 welfare and happiness of the masses, those masses 
 gradually developed the idea that they wanted to 
 have something to say as to who was best. 
 
 Now it is a question of whether a people whose 
 average intelligence is that of a thirteen year old 
 child can make a sufficiently wise choice of rulers 
 to insure the success of a democracy or as it would 
 often be put, can children of thirteen govern 
 themselves? The fact that we here in the United 
 States have done it for a hundred and forty years 
 is of course an all sufficient answer, unless new 
 conditions are arising which will make the meth- 
 ods of the past, prove a failure in the future. 
 
 Let us not at the outset, commit the fallacy of 
 the average. The average only means that there 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 97 
 
 are about as many of lower intelligence as of 
 higher. We have seen that while the average is 
 perhaps thirteen to fourteen years and there are 
 twenty-five million people of this intelligence and 
 forty-five million still lower, there are also thirty 
 million above the average and four and one-half 
 million of very superior intelligence. Obviously 
 there are enough people of high intelligence to 
 guide the Ship of State, if they are put in com- 
 mand. 
 
 The disturbing fear is that the masses — the 
 seventy million or even the eighty-six million — 
 will take matters into their own hands. The fact 
 is, matters are already in their hands and have 
 been since the adoption of the Constitution. But 
 it is equally true that the eighty-six million are 
 in the hands of the fourteen million or of the four 
 million. Provided always that the four million 
 apply their very superior intelligence to the prac- 
 tical problem of social welfare and efficiency. 
 
 Lower intelligence will invariably and inevit- , 
 ably seek and follow the advice of higher intelli- 
 gence so long as it has confidence in the individ- 
 uals having the higher intelligence. That is a 
 proposition so invariable as to be recognized as 
 a law of human nature. 
 
 The crux of the matter however, lies in the 
 
98 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 word confidence. Here is the root of our social 
 troubles and here is found the explanation of 
 everything from local labor troubles to Bolshev- 
 ism. Intelligence has made the fundamental 
 error of assuming that it alone is sufficient to in- 
 spire confidence. A little thought shows that this 
 is a blunder almost worthy to be called stupid. 
 Intelligence can only inspire confidence when it 
 is appreciated. And how can unintelligence com- 
 prehend intelligence? There is an old Persian 
 proverb which says, "The wise man can under- 
 stand the foolish because he has been f oolish ; but 
 the foolish cannot comprehend the wise because 
 he has never been wise." 
 
 The one source and efficient cause of confidence 
 of lower intelligence for the higher is what we 
 call the human quality. The poet says of the 
 great Agassiz, "His magic was not far to seek — 
 he was so human." It is the man whose activities 
 show that he cares for the welfare and the happi- 
 ness of those of less intelligence, that has their 
 confidence, their vote and their obedience. 
 
 The inmates of the Vineland Training School, 
 imbeciles and morons, did not elect Superintend- 
 ent Johnstone and his associates to rule over 
 them; but they would do so if given a chance be- 
 cause they know tliat the one purpose of that 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 99 
 
 group of officials is to make the children happy. 
 
 Whenever the four million choose to devote 
 their superior intelligence to understanding the 
 lower mental levels and to the problem of the 
 comfort and happiness of the other ninety-six mil- 
 lion, they will be elected the rulers of the realm 
 and then will come perfect government, — Aris- 
 tocracy in Democracy. 
 
 We may suggest in passing, one reform not in- 
 consistent with the above view. While we all be- 
 lieve in democracy, we may nevertheless admit 
 that we have been too free with the franchise and 
 it would seem a self-evident fact that the feeble- 
 minded should not be allowed to take part in civic 
 affairs; should not be allowed to vote. It goes 
 without saying that they cannot vote intelligent- 
 ly, they are so easily led that they constitute the 
 venial vote and one imbecile who knows nothing 
 of civic matters can annul the vote of the most 
 intelligent citizen. 
 
 Before passing to a discussion of education ac- 
 cording to mental levels, we may perhaps be per- 
 mitted to apply the principle to another problem 
 that looms up rather large at the present time, 
 namely, socialism and especially its extreme form 
 of Bolshevism. Most of the arguments used by 
 the more intelligent members of these groups are 
 
100 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 fallacious because they ignore the mental levels. 
 These men in their ultra altruistic and humane 
 attitude, their desire to be fair to the workman, 
 maintain that the great inequalities in social life 
 are wrong and unjust. For example, here is a 
 man who says, "I am wearing $12.00 shoes, there 
 is a laborer who is wearing $3.00 shoes; why 
 should I spend $12.00 while he can only afford 
 $3.00? I live in a home that is artistically deco- 
 rated, carpets, high-priced furniture, expensive 
 pictures and other luxuries ; there is a laborer that 
 lives in a hovel with no carpets, no pictures and 
 the coarsest kind of furniture. It is not right, it 
 is unjust." And so in his enthusiasm for the sup- 
 posed just treatment of the workman, this gentle- 
 man who has been converted to socialism will go 
 on pointing out the inequalities which he consid- 
 ers unjust. As we have said, the argument is 
 fallacious. It assumes that that laborer is on the 
 same mental level with the man who is defending 
 him. It assumes that if you were to change 
 places with the laborer, he would be vastly hap- 
 pier than he is now, that he could live in your 
 house with its artistic decorations and its fine fur- 
 niture and pictures and appreciate and enjoy 
 those things. Or if it is admitted that this par- 
 ticular laborer could not enjoy it, your gentle- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 101 
 
 man socialist is apt to fall back upon the argu- 
 ment that it is due to the fact that he has not been 
 brought up right, his environment has been poor 
 and so he is accustomed to such conditions and 
 could not enjoy anything better. Therefore we 
 should take the children and educate them to 
 these ideals. 
 
 Now the fact is, that workman may have a ten 
 year intelligence while you have a twenty. To 
 demand for him such a home as you enjoy is as 
 absurd as it would be to insist that every laborer 
 should receive a graduate fellowship. How can 
 there be such a thing as social equality with this 
 wide range of mental capacity? The different 
 levels of intelligence have different interests and 
 require different treatment to make them happy, 
 and we are committing a serious fallacy when we 
 argue that because we enjoy such things, every- 
 body else could enjoy them and therefore ought 
 to have them. 
 
 As for an equal distribution of the wealth of 
 the world that is equally absurd. The man of 
 intelligence has spent his money wisely, has saved 
 until he has enough to provide for his needs in 
 case of sickness, while the man of low intelligence, 
 no matter how much money he would have 
 earned, would have spent much of it foolishly and 
 
102 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 would never have anything ahead. It is said that 
 during the past year, the coal miners in certain 
 parts of the country have earned more money 
 than the operators and yet today when the mines 
 shut down for a time, those people are the first 
 to suffer. They did not save anything, although 
 their whole life has taught them that mining is an 
 irregular thing and that when they were having 
 plenty of work they should save against the days 
 when they do not have work. 
 
 Socialism is a beautiful theory but the facts 
 must be faced. One of the facts is that people 
 differ in mentality and that each mentality re- 
 quires its own hind of life for its success and hap- 
 piness. There are undoubtedly, a great many 
 abuses ; there are a great many ways in which in- 
 telligent men, men cf means, might alleviate some 
 of the conditions of the poor, but here again, the 
 only way it can be done is by recognizing the 
 mentality of the poor and treating them in ac- 
 cordance with that mentality. For example, if 
 we discover a man with fifteen year intelligence 
 who on account of misfortune, bad luck or some- 
 thing else, is down and cannot get a start, then 
 we may profitably give that man as much as he 
 needs to put him on his feet again, knowing that 
 once that is done he will succeed. Here is another 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 103 
 
 man whose outward circumstances look much like 
 the former but when we examine him we find he 
 has a ten year mentality. To give that man 
 money is a mistake for he has not intelligence 
 enough to use the money when he gets it ; though 
 you gave him a thousand dollars today he would 
 be poor tomorrow. 
 
 All this has been said often. These facts are 
 appreciated. But it is not so fully appreciated 
 that the cause is to be found in the fixed character 
 of mental levels. In our ignorance we have said 
 let us give these people one more chance — always 
 one more chance. 
 
 Much money has been wasted and is continu- 
 ally being wasted by would-be philanthropists 
 who give liberally for alleviating conditions that 
 are to them intolerable. They admit the money 
 is being wasted. They do not understand that it 
 is being wasted because the people who receive it, 
 have not sufficient intelligence to appreciate it 
 and to use it wisely. Moreover, it is a positive 
 fact that many of these people are better con- 
 tented in their present surroundings than in any 
 that the philanthropists can provide for them. 
 They are like Huckleberry Finn who was most 
 unhappy when dressed up and living in a com- 
 fortable room at Aunt Polly's and having good 
 
104 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 food and everything that Aunt Polly thought 
 ought to make him happy. He stood it for a few 
 days and then he ran away and went back in his 
 hogshead with his old rags on, and getting his 
 food wherever he could pick it up. 
 
 Aunt Polly's efforts were wasted because she 
 did not appreciate the mental level of Huckle- 
 berry Finn. 
 
 We must now consider what is the wise pro- 
 cedure with the various low levels of intelligence. 
 As we stated in an earlier lecture, all work look- 
 ing to the eventual control of this problem of so- 
 cial efficiency as conditioned by mental levels, 
 must begin with the children. When children 
 enter school their mental level should be deter- 
 mined. Several groups will be found. At the 
 top are those who are exceptionally intelligent, 
 well endowed, who test considerably above their 
 age. This group subdivides into two : first, those 
 who are truly gifted children and second, those 
 whose brilliancy is coupled with nervousness. The 
 superior mentality of the truly gifted will mark 
 them throughout life. They should have the 
 broadest and best education that it is possible to 
 give, not necessarily hurried through the grades 
 at the most rapid rate but while advancing some- 
 what faster than the average child, they should 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 105 
 
 be given a broader experience. There should be 
 opportunities for them to do many things, in each 
 year, that the average child has not time to do. 
 
 The nervously brilliant group is a very im- 
 portant one. It contains those children who 
 are brilliant in school, but whose brilliancy is evi- 
 dently due to a very high-strung nervous system. 
 It is a case of the well-known but little under- 
 stood relationship between genius and insanity. 
 While these children may probably not be called 
 insane they are nevertheless in a stage of nervous 
 instability which, while it happens to make them 
 keen, acute and quick, and they give the appear- 
 ance of brilliancy ; on the other hand, it is an ex- 
 ceedingly dangerous situation since experience 
 has taught that a little pushing or overwork may 
 very easily throw them over definitely on the in- 
 sane side. These children should be treated with 
 the very greatest care. 
 
 A second group comprises the moderately 
 bright children, a little above average and yet not 
 enough to be considered especially precocious. 
 They should however, have their condition taken 
 into account and they should not be compelled to 
 drudge along with the average child. 
 
 Then comes the average child for whom our 
 school systems at present are made, and the only 
 
106 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 group whom they adequately serve. The ques- 
 tion as to whether the training that we are giving 
 this group in the public schools is the best that 
 can be devised is not for us to discuss here. 
 
 Our next group is the backward. Those chil- 
 dren who are not quite up to age, who have con- 
 siderable difficulty in getting along with their 
 work and yet who do get along after a fashion. 
 This group should be carefully watched from the 
 start and eventually they will differentiate again 
 into two divisions, possibly three. Perhaps some 
 of them may later on catch up with the average 
 child. Some of them will go through their whole 
 educational career with the same slowness, never- 
 theless they will get through. There are still 
 others, who while only a little backward at this 
 first examination, later on will show that they are 
 actually feeble-minded children. 
 
 Finally there is the group of definitely feeble- 
 minded. In many cases it will not be possible, at 
 this time, to predict just what their final mental 
 level will be. This group will ultimately divide 
 into several grades according to their mental 
 level. There will be the morons with their three 
 or four subdivisions, that is to say, those who 
 have a mentality of eight, those of nine, or ten 
 or eleven, perhaps of twelve. Then come the im- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 107 
 
 beciles with their mentality of seven and six and 
 five ; and each of these should receive special train- 
 ing and treatment. 
 
 The lower grade imbeciles will probably not 
 get into the school but will be recognized at home 
 as defective and kept there until they can be 
 placed in an institution for the feeble-minded. 
 
 Now it is impossible to decide from this single 
 examination of the children on entering school 
 just what kind of training is best for each one. 
 Consequently with many of them it will perhaps 
 be necessary to start with the regular work of the 
 first grade, but they must be carefully watched 
 and if it is found that they are not progressing 
 like the other children then they should promptly 
 be placed in the other group where the children 
 are taught to do things rather than to read and 
 write about things. 
 
 The group that is recognized as distinctly 
 feeble-minded should not be worried with reading 
 and writing at all, but be at once placed in a 
 group where they will be taught various activi- 
 ties. The purpose of this kind of training is two- 
 fold, first to develop physical coordinations and 
 second to train them to do useful things. They 
 may all be started at the same point but the rela- 
 tively brighter ones will progress faster and 
 
108 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 should the more quickly get on into industrial and 
 vocational training. 
 
 The starting point for these cases is the care of 
 their own person. These children generally have 
 not been taught to wash their faces and hands 
 and comb their hair, still less to bathe. These 
 matters should be carefully taught until they be- 
 come habits. Next comes the dressing. Many 
 cannot lace their own shoes and have to be care- 
 fully taught to do so. Sometimes the buttoning 
 and unbuttoning of their clothing is beyond them 
 until they have been carefully trained. Along 
 with this, may go such kinds of household work 
 as they can do, such as scrubbing the floors and 
 windows, washing and ironing, facilities for all of 
 which should be provided by the school depart- 
 ment. The janitor should have practically noth- 
 ing to do in this room. The sweeping and clean- 
 ing and scrubbing should all be done by the chil- 
 dren as it gives them just the training they need. 
 Mending may be included, simple mending of 
 their own clothing or clothing brought from home 
 for the purpose and later on the making of simple 
 garments may be taught. 
 
 In connection with this work such use of writ- 
 ten or printed words in writing or reading as is 
 natural, may be made and encouragement given 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 109 
 
 along this line in proportion as the children show 
 ability. A few of them in this way may learn to 
 read and write. Those who cannot learn it this 
 way can never learn it profitably in any way. 
 Gradually in the course of the first three or four 
 years of school these children will differentiate 
 themselves into high-grade imbeciles and morons, 
 the latter again subdivided into low, middle and 
 high grades. When it is finally ascertained that 
 a child has a mentality of eight or another one of 
 ten or another of eleven, their future may be 
 pretty definitely outlined and they must be train- 
 ed therefor. 
 
 When once it is ascertained that these chil- 
 dren are feeble-minded, they should of course, if 
 possible, be transferred to an institution for the 
 feeble-minded where their training will be more 
 intensive and uniform and less interrupted than 
 in the public schools and where they will be cared 
 for as long as is necessary. Some of them will 
 need to be cared for throughout their lives, others 
 may probably be "graduated" when they have 
 reached manhood or womanhood. The time is to 
 be determined partly by their level of intelligence 
 and partly by their temperament and the likeli- 
 hood of their getting into trouble. If they can- 
 not be placed in institutions then their training 
 
110 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 in the public schools should go on as outlined. 
 The higher grades, as they grow older and 
 stronger and come nearer to the age for leaving 
 school, may be taught various simple industrial 
 pursuits. What this will be, depends not only 
 upon their mentality but upon the locality in 
 which they live, that is to say, upon what indus- 
 tries are carried on in that community into which 
 these children may fit and do their simple work. 
 For example, in one city children are taught 
 to be assistants to a cook because there are many 
 bakeries in that city and many of these morons 
 find occupation as helpers in the bakery. They 
 have been taught cleanliness and taught to handle 
 the various materials used and so are able with- 
 out too much labor on the part of the employer 
 to adapt themselves to some of these occupations. 
 Much of the work now done in schools under the 
 head of manual training is of no use to these chil- 
 dren except as recreation, they can never earn 
 their living by making baskets or doing wood- 
 work, hammock making and other attractive 
 looking occupations. However, as said, there are 
 certain ones of these that may serve as entertain- 
 ment for them; for example, girls like to make 
 lace, crochet and knit and they may well be 
 taught these things in order to have something to 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 111 
 
 do in the out-of-work hours, just as the house- 
 wife likes to sit down and embroider when the 
 work of the day is done. Such a thing as shoe 
 repairing is justifiable because they can often 
 mend their own shoes or those of the family, but 
 again, it is doubtful if many of them can ever 
 earn a living by shoe mending, especially now 
 that so much of this is done by machinery. 
 
 If the school is in a factory town, the teachers 
 may well study the work in these factories and 
 ascertain what opportunity there may be for 
 these high-grade feeble-minded children more or 
 less completely to earn a living in these factories. 
 Moreover, the teacher should be on the lookout 
 for any special interests or capacities that these 
 children may have, and should be governed some- 
 what by that in the choice of occupational train- 
 ing for them. 
 
 Coming back now to those children who are at 
 age or above age and are doing regular school 
 work, they should be given mental tests when- 
 ever it is proposed to promote them to an ad- 
 vanced grade. It will thus be ascertained whether 
 they have the mentality for doing the work of 
 that grade. Whenever it is shown that they have 
 not the capacity, they should be transferred to 
 
112 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 special work within their capacity, and their de- 
 velopment caref uliy watched. 
 
 When it comes to high school it is most im- 
 portant that their mental level be determined, be- 
 cause there are many children who get through 
 grammar school fairly well but have not the men- 
 tality for high school work. This fact should be 
 determined and these people allowed to leave 
 school and go into industries rather than be forced 
 on into high school. Again, each year in the high 
 school probably requires a higher level and some 
 will fall out at each step. This brings us to the 
 college. There is a prevalent idea that every 
 child who has the means and gets through the 
 high school, should go to college. The teachers 
 in college have long known that many who enter 
 should never attempt to do college work. 
 
 The failure to recognize the fact of mental 
 levelslas resulted in much wasted energy both in 
 the discussion of educational problems and in at- 
 tempts to overcome illiteracy. School men have 
 written volumes on "Why children leave school." 
 The government is at the present time making 
 extensive plans to reduce the illiteracy found in 
 the army. Statements have been issued showing 
 "the money value of education." 
 
 In the accompanying table the "wages" and 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 113 
 
 "school" figures were recently published by the 
 Department of Education, to show the import- 
 ance of keeping the children in school. Thfe 
 argument being that the facts in the "school" 
 column account for the conditions in the "wages" 
 column. We have added the "intelligence" col- 
 umn. Does it not seem clear that the facts of 
 intelligence account for school and wages? 
 
 To appreciate the full force of this "parallel 
 column" it must be understood that each of these 
 sets of figures was compiled and given out by a 
 different department of the federal government. 
 "Wages" comes from the Department of Labor; 
 "school" from the Department of Education; 
 while the figures on intelligence come from the 
 army. In other words, this parallel was not got- 
 ten up by any one person to prove a point. They 
 are independent groups of facts, here brought 
 together for the first time because they so strik- 
 ingly confirm the theme of these lectures. 
 
 It is to be hoped that levels of intelligence will 
 be taken into account in future plans and dis- 
 cussions. 
 
 The plan recently announced by a few colleges, 
 notably Columbia University, to give mental 
 tests to their entering class is a great step for- 
 ward. To allow a young man or young woman 
 
114 
 
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LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 115 
 
 to waste a year in college worrying along with 
 work for which he has not the mental capacity, is 
 social inefficiency of a high degree. 
 
 Moreover, there are varying levels among those 
 who have the necessary mental level to do college 
 work, some can do it easier and better and faster 
 than others. The ascertainment of this fact will 
 be of profound significance and value to instruc- 
 tors since they may thus know at once what they 
 have to deal with and what to expect. A man 
 who has high ability but is doing poor work may 
 very properly be dealt with for not living up to 
 his capacity. On the other hand, the student who 
 has the lowest degree of mentality that is capable 
 of doing college work and who does his work in a 
 slow manner, should be given the necessary 
 amount of help but should not be worried and 
 dealt with if he is doing the best he can. The 
 mental level would also show which students 
 could safely be conditioned. 
 
 It is not, as we understand, proposed to have 
 the mental tests entirely replace other examina- 
 tions. No matter what the intelligence of a per- 
 son, he cannot go into a college class in Cicero or 
 Horace if he has never had adequate preliminary 
 training in Latin. 
 
 As mental tests are developed and standardized 
 
116 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 for the higher intelligences, they should be ap- 
 plied to each college class and for university work 
 as well. Moreover it will undoubtedly be possible 
 eventually not only to give each student a mental 
 rating but to discover by proper tests the special 
 abilities of various students with an idea to guid- 
 ing them in their choice of work or profession; 
 thus saving an immense waste of energy, and 
 contributing enormously to the sum total of hu- 
 man efficiency. 
 
 We come now to our final topic: the social 
 control of the unintelligent and inefficient. That 
 society has a right to protect itself is an axiom 
 which no one will attempt to deny. When indi- 
 vidual freedom comes in conflict with social well- 
 being, there is no question as to which should 
 take precedence. In spite of this self-evident 
 fact, we have in the past allowed the idea of indi- 
 vidual freedom to encroach heavily upon the do- 
 main of social efficiency. There will always be, 
 of course, cases where it will be difficult to draw 
 the line but that the line should be drawn much 
 more closely on the individual freedom than has 
 been done, is evident to all thinking people. We 
 do not give to every man that asks it the freedom 
 to practice medicine, to pilot steamboats, to serve 
 as engineer (either locomotive or stationary). 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 117 
 
 Nor do we feel that we are interfering with his 
 individual liberty if we deny him the privilege of 
 doing these things after we have examined him 
 and found him incapable. There is no reason 
 why this principle should not be extended indefi- 
 nitely wherever the conditions indicate a need. 
 Even in the vocations just named, we do not at- 
 tain to perfect success, because our examinations 
 do not determine the mental level of the candi- 
 date. Many an accident involving a great loss of 
 life has been due to the actual mental incapacity 
 of some engineer or pilot who has somehow man- 
 aged to pass the usual tests. Many of the tests 
 only ascertain whether the person is able to per- 
 form his duties under ordinary circumstances, 
 when everything runs smoothly. They do not 
 test his ability to meet an emergency and it is in 
 these emergencies that a catastrophe takes place. 
 If we knew the man's mental level, we could of- 
 ten say at once that while he has passed the tech- 
 nical examination, he has not intelligence enough 
 to be safe in any emergency. 
 
 On the other hand, many people of ample in- 
 telligence fail to pass our examinations because of 
 purely accidental lack of technical knowledge. A 
 matter that could be made up in short order after 
 the individual once assumed the duties. In other 
 
118 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 words, we would surely all agree that we would 
 prefer an intelligent man with less technical 
 knowledge than an unintelligent one with all the 
 technical knowledge possible. We often act in 
 accordance with this view; indeed it is about the 
 only way in which an entirely new kind of work 
 can be carried on. Here is something to be done 
 that has never been done before. There are no 
 books giving directions, nor any experiences; 
 there is no way of testing a man's technical abil- 
 ity. What do we do? We pick out an intelligent 
 man and say, "You have sufficient intelligence to 
 learn this and work it out for yourself." If our 
 rating of the man's intelligence is correct, the re- 
 sult is satisfactory. 
 
 Why should we not ascertain the grade of in- 
 telligence necessary in every essential occupation 
 and then entrust to that work only those people 
 who have the necessary intelligence? This would 
 not be at all difficult to do. It would in some 
 cases require considerable labor, but that is all. 
 For example, how much intelligence does it re- 
 quire to be a motorman on a street car? To as- 
 certain this, it is only necessary to give mental 
 tests to all the motormen and then ascertain from 
 employers which ones are highly successful, which 
 ones moderately successful and which prove to be 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 119 
 
 failures. It would then be discovered that men 
 of a certain mental level fail, men of another men- 
 tal level are fairly successful, men of still a third 
 mental level are highly successful and efficient. 
 Now, of course, in each particular case certain 
 other qualities enter besides the intelligence. For 
 instance, a man may be highly intelligent, per- 
 fectly capable of being a motorman on a street 
 car and yet he may be of such nervous, excitable 
 temperament that he would get panicky at the 
 first unusual situation. He would be ruled out 
 not because of his intelligence but because of this 
 other peculiarity. 
 
 In the army, not all of the A men were chosen 
 for officers because, although they had a high 
 grade of intelligence, it was obvious in many 
 cases that they had not the quality to command. 
 To carry this still further, society not only has a 
 right to protect itself but it seems clear that so- 
 ciety has a right to take any action necessary to 
 attain the highest social efficiency. If this is true, 
 why should we not ascertain the mental level of 
 people in various activities and when we find any 
 inefficient, clearly on account of their lack of in- 
 telligence or other qualities, why should not so- 
 ciety have the right to transfer that individual to 
 some other line of work where he would be more 
 
120 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 efficient. This may be a too advanced step to be 
 taken at once but it surely will come to that 
 eventually. Such a procedure would work no 
 hardship to the individual because in the long 
 run it would actually increase his happiness and 
 lengthen his lif e, for there is nothing more dead- 
 ening and discouraging than to be compelled to 
 work at something where one is conscious that he 
 is inefficient. Many a person is inefficient be- 
 cause of an uncongenial environment which a bet- 
 ter intelligence would prompt him to change. 
 Moreover, this emotional condition has a physical 
 basis which, while sometimes beyond control, is 
 nevertheless in many cases capable of being much 
 modified by a use of sufficient intelligence. 
 
 We must return now to consider the problem 
 of the mental defective from the standpoint of so- 
 cial efficiency and social control. Let us assume 
 that under ideal conditions every feeble-minded 
 individual should be cared for in the proper in- 
 stitution or colony and let us assume further that 
 this has been done and that it was done as quickly 
 as the cases could be discovered, that is to say, in 
 childhood and early youth. To do this, would 
 probably require at least three times as many in- 
 stitutions as any State now possesses, a big ex- 
 pense; but what compensation! 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 121 
 
 First, we would have reduced our crime record 
 by from twenty-five to fifty percent, thereby sav- 
 ing the damage, including the lives of those who 
 are killed by feeble-minded people. We would 
 have saved all court costs, and instead of having 
 these persons in prisons where they practically do 
 nothing, they would be working in a happy com- 
 munity of their peers. Even in those prisons 
 where the prisoners are made to work, these 
 feeble-minded people can do very little because 
 they are not understood and because there is not 
 the right kind of work for them to do. In insti- 
 tutions or colonies for the feeble-minded, they are 
 largely self-supporting under direction. We 
 would have taken from the public schools all those 
 children that are the bane of the teacher in every 
 class. The teacher would thus be able to devote 
 her time and attention to instructing the normal 
 children. A gain that is so enormous as to be 
 difficult to appreciate. 
 
 Moreover, your child and mine would not have 
 to sit in school beside an imbecile. Every insti- 
 tution not for the feeble-minded, but where 
 feeble-minded people are now too often found 
 would be relieved of this burden and would be 
 able to do its specific work much more efficient- 
 ly. Sex immorality and prostitution would be 
 
122 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 largely reduced; also the problem of the spread 
 of venereal disease would be materially helped and 
 most important of all, the race of the feeble- 
 minded would be largely cut off, since these peo- 
 ple would be kept from propagating their kind. 
 We say the birth of feeble-minded would be 
 largely stopped. Some feeble-minded children 
 would continue to be born. We now know that 
 two normal people may have feeble-minded chil- 
 dren if each of them has a feeble-minded taint 
 somewhere in the ancestry. 
 
 Now what is the program for those who are 
 thus cared for according to the ideal plan? In 
 the institution, these children will be trained to do 
 all those things that are within their mental ca- 
 pacity ; and at the same time, correct habits of liv- 
 ing will be impressed upon them. Now the 
 feeble-minded more than anybody else are crea- 
 tures of habit. Once a habit is formed it is never 
 broken. This is because they lack energy, they 
 lack initiative, they lack imagination, they lack 
 ideas which would tend to make them try new 
 things. They are perfectly content to go on day 
 after day in the routine in which they have been 
 brought up. On this account, many of the evils 
 which society suffers from these people when they 
 are brought up in laziness and idleness, would be 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 123 
 
 eliminated. When they are eighteen or twenty 
 years of age, after having had from five to ten 
 years of this careful and wise treatment, many of 
 them could be sent back to their homes on parole. 
 Careful study of them while they were in the in- 
 stitution will have shown what ones can be thus 
 trusted in their home communities. 
 
 Ninety-five percent of those who are thus sent 
 home would give no further trouble, the other 
 five percent would sooner or later have to be sent 
 back to the institution. These persons who are 
 thus on parole would of course be under a con- 
 stant supervision ; where the parents were able to 
 exercise the proper control that would be suffi- 
 cient. In other cases there would have to be some 
 sort of local committee for the purpose of keeping 
 in touch with these cases. This oversight might 
 perhaps be exercised by the police or if necessary, 
 special parole officers could be appointed. In 
 small places the pastors of the churches might 
 without adding unduly to their day's work, give 
 the necessary oversight. The children thus sent 
 out would give ample room for the others that 
 needed to be taken in. 
 
 This is no fanciful theory, there is evidence to 
 prove that it is a possible solution of the problem. 
 Dr. Bernstein of the Rome Custodial Asylum, 
 
124 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 has placed out for day's work in the city of Rome 
 a hundred girls. They have all made good but 
 two. Studies have been made both at Waverly, 
 Massachusetts and at Vineland, New Jersey, of 
 those cases who have, for one reason or another, 
 left the institution and although these cases have 
 not been under the supervision that we would 
 plan for, nevertheless the results are amazingly 
 satisfactory. Very few of them have gotten into 
 trouble and the large number of them, thanks to 
 their careful training in the institutions, have 
 been able to work and earn something to help in 
 their own support. 
 
 I recently met in the city of Cleveland a boy 
 who had formerly been at Vineland. He is now 
 earning $18.00 a week, is quiet and well behaved 
 and shows no tendency whatever to go wrong. It 
 is thus seen that the problem of the high-grade 
 feeble-minded is a problem of education. Not the 
 kind of education that we are giving to the nor- 
 mal child, but a training to work according to the 
 child's mental capacity. 
 
 To sum it all up, here is a large group of in- 
 efficient people. This group is increasing rapidly 
 through the natural propagation of hereditary 
 feeble-mindedness. They are not only inefficient 
 themselves but they are causing inefficiency in 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 125 
 
 society. They are unhappy because they are not 
 understood and consequently mistreated. They 
 are idle because they have not been trained to do 
 anything that is within their capacity. They 
 commit crimes, they spread disease; they cry out 
 from every angle to be cared for. Will society 
 exercise its right of self -protection, its right to 
 develop itself to the highest efficiency and will it 
 take care of these people? It is a straight prob- 
 lem in economy and social well-being. In the 
 past we have thought these people were wicked 
 and willful and were to be reformed by constantly 
 punishing them. We now know that they do as 
 they do because they have not sufficient intelli- 
 gence to do otherwise. 
 
 Civilization is growing more complex every 
 day and making it more difficult for these people 
 to adapt themselves to their environment. Un- 
 der these conditions it would seem that there is 
 only one thing to be done, that is for society to 
 step in and control the situation. 
 
 I have dwelt somewhat at length upon educa- 
 tion and social control because to my mind these 
 matters are of vital importance in a democracy, 
 where the keynote must be happiness and con- 
 tentment. In a military aristocracy education 
 may not be so important, indeed it may be desir- 
 
126 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 able to keep the masses in ignorance in order to 
 emphasize their dependence upon their superiors ; 
 and where all are under the control of the ruling 
 group, it is not so important perhaps to segregate 
 the mental defectives from the other low levels of 
 intelligence. But in a democracy every man is 
 supposed to do his part. What that part is can 
 only be determined by knowing his mental capac- 
 ity and in training him to the limit of that ca- 
 pacity. 
 
 As Americans we are proud of our claims to 
 freedom and equality and that it is the inalienable 
 right of every one to enjoy life, liberty and the 
 pursuit of happiness. These are simple formulas 
 that make a strong appeal. The actual carrying 
 out of them however, is a difficult matter and only 
 by constant adjustment and readjustment can 
 they be worked out and the ideal goal attained. 
 The greatest liberty or the highest happiness is 
 only attained when each individual is properly ad- 
 justed to the rest, and while as we have pointed 
 out, there are many factors concerned in that ad- 
 justment we have maintained and tried to demon- 
 strate that the fundamental factor is the mental 
 level, and that a perfect democracy is only to be 
 realized when it is based upon an absolute knowl- 
 
LEVELS OF INTELLIGENCE 127 
 
 edge of mental levels and the organization of the 
 social body on that basis. 
 
 Resume. In this course we have tried to ex- 
 press our conviction that every human being 
 reaches at some time a level of intelligence be- 
 yond which he never goes ; that these levels range 
 from the lowest or idiotic, to the highest level of 
 genius. We have indicated without going into 
 great detail that the number of people of relative- 
 ly low intelligence is vastly greater than is gen- 
 erally appreciated and that this mass of low level 
 intelligence is an enormous menace to democracy 
 unless it is recognized and properly treated. We 
 have tried to show that the social efficiency of a 
 group of human beings depends upon recogniz- 
 ing the mental limitations of each one and of so 
 organizing society that each person has work to 
 do that is within his mental capacity and at the 
 same time calls for all the ability that he possesses. 
 
 In our third lecture we have tried to show that 
 the failure to appreciate this fact and control it, 
 has resulted in a vast amount of delinquency, and 
 that such delinquency impairs the efficiency of 
 the total group to an extent little appreciated. 
 We have pointed out that the intelligent group 
 must do the planning and organizing for the 
 mass, that our whole attitude toward lower grades 
 of intelligence must be philanthropic ; not the hit 
 
128 HUMAN EFFICIENCY AND 
 
 and miss philanthropy with which we are all too 
 f amiliar but the philanthropy based upon an in- 
 telligent understanding of the mental capacity of 
 each individual. And finally we have attempted 
 to show that democracy is not impossible even in 
 a group with a large mass of people of relatively 
 low mentality, provided that there is a sufficiently 
 large group of people of high intelligence to con- 
 trol the situation ; and provided further, that that 
 group has the right attitude toward those of less 
 intelligence. That that attitude is best expressed 
 by the one desire to make all people happy ; which 
 does not mean, as socialism is too apt to claim, 
 that all people are to be treated alike. Children 
 are not to be made happy by placing them in the 
 same level as adults. Even in a democracy where 
 every person has the right to vote for those who 
 shall rule over him, the masses will vote for the 
 best and most intelligent if they are made to feel 
 that these same intelligent people have the wel- 
 fare of the masses at heart. The only way to 
 demonstrate that, is for the intelligent to under- 
 stand the mental levels of the unintelligent, or 
 those of low intelligence, and to so organize the 
 work of the world that every man is doing such 
 work and bearing such responsibility as his men- 
 tal level warrants. 
 
ul. 
 
J