Class. Book_ ,3& PRESENTED B'l' ' • French, British and American lATElGHTS, MEASURES and COINS. LENGTH. Inch. . . . foot . . . yard . . mile. . . naut. mile. = centim. 2.54 = " 30.5 = metres 0.915 = " 1609.315 = " 1358.4 5 miles = 8 kilom. m6tre ... centimetre. . millimetre. . = kilometre . . lieue marine . 11 metres feet. in. do. yds. do. 12 3.28089 0.39371 0.03937 1093.63 6075. yards. ■sq. inch, sq. foot, sg. yard, sq. mile. 1 SQUARE MEASURE. . = sq. centim. 6.^5 . = sq. decim. 9.29 . = sq. metre. 0.836 . = sq. kilom. 2.588 acre = 40 ares. metre carr6 = sq. feet. 10.75 are . . . = sq. yds. 119.60 10 ares . . = sq. roods. 1. kilom. carre = sq. mile. 0.38 1 hectare = 2.5 acres. CUBIC MEASURE. •cubic inch. = cubic foot. = -cubic yard. = c. centim c. decim. 10 cubic 16.38 28.37 766. metres = metre cube et stere = decimetre cube . . = centimetre cube . = 13 cubic yards. c. feet. 35.32 c. in. 61.03 do. 0.06 FLUIDS AND GRAINS. gill . . . . = litres pint . . . . = quart. . . . = gallon . . . = do. (American) = iusbel . . . = do. (American) = barrel (beer) . = •quarter 0.142 0.568 1.136 4.54 3.78 36.35 35.2 163.25 290.4 litre . . = decilitre. = centilitre = decalitre. = hectolitre = pint, c. inch. do. Engl. Amer. do. Engl, galls. Amer. do. Eng. bushels. Amer. do. 1.76 6.1 0.6 2.2 2.6 22. 26. 2.75 2.8 2 gallons = 9 litres. 7 litres = 6 quarts. 3 hectol. = 1 quarter. dr. lb. •cwt Avoirdupois. = grammes 1.8 = do. 28.35 = do. 453.58 = kilogr. 50.78 WEIGHTS Troy. gr. = grammes dwt. = do. oz. = do. lb. = do. 0.065 1.155 31.1 373.23 Metric. gramm.=grs. troy . 15.4 livre = lbs. avoir. 1.1 kilogramm. = do. 2.2 quint, metr. = do. 220.5 Long ton = 1018 kilog. Short ton = 910 kilog. Tonne = 2205 lbs. Avoir. COINS (Post Office rates, normal times). penny = 2 cents = fr. 10 centimes shilling = quarter = 1 fr. 25 1 pound St. = 5 dol. = 25 francs. franc = 10 d. = 20 cents sou = 1/2 d. = 1 cent 5 francs = 4 shillings = 1 dollar. TEMPERATURE. :From Fahrenheit into Centigrade : subtract 32 from Fahr. and divide by 1. 8. E. g. : 104° F. = (104—32) : 1. 8. = 40° C. 100° Fahr = 38°8 C From Centigrade into Fahrenheit: Multiply C. by 1.8 add 32. E. g. : 25° C. = (25x1.8)4-32 = 77° Fahr.: (fever). THERMOMETER The value of 5° Centigrade corresponds to 9° Fahrenheit and 4° Reaumur. The o" Centigrade corresponds to 0° Reaumur and 33° Fahrenheit. Fox instance to obtain the corresponding value of 15° Centigrade alove zero ^^^s shall have to make the following calculations : 15° Centigrade = 4° Reaumur x 3 = 12° + 0° = 12° Reaumur. 15° Centigrade = 9° Fahrenheit X 3 — 27° + 32° = 59° Fahrenheit. FACTS ABOUT FRANCE A SHORT HISTORY OF FRANCE By MARY DUCLAUX (A. MARY F. ROBINSON) With Four Maps. Cloth, los. 6d. net {Third Ivipression) "Mrae Duclaux possesses the art of breathing life into the dry bones of the dead past."— T^e Thnes. " The best history of France which has yet appeared in English." — The Field. " Mme Duclaux is a true literary artist ; and no one, we venture to say, even among the writers of her adopted nation, the home of brilliant literature, was better fitted for the exact task she has here set herself and so charmingly fulfilled." — Spectator. T. FISHER UNWIN LTD. I Adelphi Terrace, London FACTS ABOUT FRANCE "By E. SAILLENS, Interpreter British Expeditionary Force o ^ ^ ^ Wit/i a Foreword by EMILE HOVELAQUE Inspecteur-gen^ral de I'lnstruction publique o o WITH 45 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 21 MAPS AND PLANS NEW YORK FREDERICK A. STOKES COMPANY PUBLISHERS GFIffr Pabllsher i^m IS tsi9 First Published in igiS i\^^ / 3 AUTHOR'S NOTE To the reader who now lives " somewhere in France " I need not enumerate the various difficulties attendant upon the compiling of a book like the present one, which deals with so many subjects. Indeed, these difficulties were such, that if I had not been certain of the necessity of such a book, long before the war, and much more so since then, I would never have attempted to write it. If I now presume to offer it to our English-speaking Allies, in spite of its inevitable incompleteness, and of the inaccuracies which must have escaped my notice, that is because it is the first of its kind, so far as France is concerned. It will justify its existence, imperfect as it is bound to be, if it only helps the average reader to take his bearings in a new country, and induces him eventually to more detailed study. I specially desire to state that in no case have I consciously de- viated from what I believed to be the general French point of view. I suggest that a national point of view, even when erroneous, is better worth knowing than the conclusions of any individual, however well- founded, because such a point of view, true or false, is a national fact, and an important determining factor of national action. The specialists are respectfully requested to show forbearance. If they will carry generosity so far as to single out to me my worse errors or omissions, they will render a great service both to myself and to future readers. E. S. H. Q. 5th Army. 30th March, igi8. FOREWORD Sir Walter Scott tells us that an old Scotch peasant looked over his shoulder one day as he was poring over a dictionary, and remarked : " They're perhaps fine stories you're reading, Master, but they're unco' short ! "And the stories Mr.Saillens has gathered here are unco' short perhaps, but certainly fine, since they tell us all about France. He has done for his native land what Chamberlain did in that delightful book familiar to all who have visited Japan — and to many who haven't — : Things Japanese. In the smallest possible space Chamberlain packed everything the most inquisitive mind could wish to know about the past and present of that Far-Eastern fairy-land, its history, its aspects, its productions, manners, customs, life and art. No living guide could better answer the questions raised at every turn, in simpler, surer, more living words, than that tiny encyclopaedia of Japan, And with the plan of Mr. Sail- lens' model, its spirit has passed into the little book I am asked to preface, a spirit of love and sympathy for his sub- ject and his readers, which alone can lead to a right under- standing of both. In every way Mr. Saillens was fitted for his task. He knows and loves his country like a native, yet has seen it through the eyes of a foreigner, first as a world-wide traveller and next as Interpreter for nearly three years to the British Expedi- tionary Forces in France. And further no one better under- stands England and America, the splendid soldiers of both, their thoughts and needs, their very language, which he writes like one of them. And thus in a sense his book grew up of itself out of old sympathy and present experience. It is no work of the study, but a living product of every day inter- FOREWORD course with living, questioning men, suddenly thrown into a strange and complex land where everything was new. Every paragraph corresponds to some question really asked, to some need that had to be met, in trench or village, or countryside. And questions and needs are answered by a brother-soldier, simply, frankly, humorously, with a kindly humanity which gives warmth and life to every fact. Read the article on the French peasant for example, and say whether it is possible not to understand and love that sturdy soul as you read and realize all he has stood for in the life of France, in this awful struggle, which without his stead- fastness, his heroic simplicity of sacrifice, his grit, his endu- rance and his dash, would long since have spelled' defeat. As we read what his patience, his strength, his native intelligence of civilized things have done for the world, what his women- folk have borne and done for their fair land and all it stands for, a passion of gratitude and admiration sweeps our hearts. And little by little a reasoned love, a love founded on under- standing, on realities and facts, not vague sentimental ideal- ism, grows up in our minds, and the soul of France is re- vealed to us. And so, while holding out a brotherly hand to our Allies, Mr. Saillens fulfils a duty towards his country, so long raisun- derstood, so hard to understand, since it is perhaps the subt- lest and most complex of human realities. Some of its charm and all its defects lie upon the surface : its solid virtues it takes long familiarity, or the revelation of a great crisis, the illumination of world-stirring names, Joan of Arc, the Marne, Verdun, to bring before all eyes. But then we see beneath the light-heartedness that jests at everything the great-hearted- ness that mocks at death, beneath the vivacity in little things the staunchness under strain, beneath the spirit of universal criticism and the determination never to be a dupe of others or of one's self, but to seek the truth at any cost, the loftiest idealism, an undying faith in all things sweet and noble. "lis grognent, mais ils marchent" ("They're always grumbl- ing, but they always fight "), as Napoleon said of his " gro- gnards " (grumblers), ever ready to follow a leader or an idea to the world's end. The flame of devotion and idealism that made the crusades, raised the cathedrals, and swept Europe with the armies of the Revolution, still burns inextinguish- ably along the desolate dykes that hold back the flood of barbarism as in the days of Poitiers and Chalons ; — and the — vin — FOREWORD Frenchman is still true to his ag6-long mission to be at infinite personal cost the buckler of civilization. For him life has ever been a thing of little worth if it is to be bought at the expense of liberty, of human dignity, of honour, of self-respect, of the right to live one's own life in one's own way, with no master but one's own conscience under laws accepted by free consent alone. And so the grimy blue-coated « poilu » , frozen and scorched by turns, caked with mud, grey with dust, worn and battered and seared by three years of hell, is to eyes that are not blind no less heroic a presence than the knights of old. There can be no greater privilege than to see the light that leads him on', than to feel the spirit of the land that gave him birth, the unconquerable soul of France. Out of the unspeakable wretchedness of this awful tragedy this good at least has come, that the recognition of what a few large-hearted English raen and women, like Meredith, Mrs. Browning and Swinburne clearly saw, is becoming a common possession of all the world : And I am strong to love this noble France, This poet of the nations, who dreams on For ever after some ideal good, Some equal poise of sex, some unvowed love Inviolate, some spontaneous brotherhood, Some wealth that leaves none poor and finds none tired. Some freedom of the many that respects The wisdom of the few... Mrs. Browning wrote that long ago : other things have been revealed to us by the lurid glare of the unending battle on French soil, and the infinite sacrifices of French hearts. Those sacrifices have been made for all alike : one may truly say that the whole world is France's debtor, and that debt none have acknowledged more generously than England and America in the burning words of Kipling and Roosevelt, Galsworthy, Chesterton, Belloc, a hundred others. Her aims are those of all free men : a common consciousness of all mankind, a new brotherhood of man is the fruit of all this pain. " We learn by admiration, love and hope " : Englishman and American and Frenchman are learning to know, admire and love each other in this great communion of suffering and sacrifice, their common hope and task to make the world a IX — f^OAEWOtlD Sweeter, kinder, safer home for their children and all men . Towards this understanding of each other's life and thoughts this little book will do much. It is more than an introduc- tion to France, though that is no small gain : it is a contri- bution to that mingling of the peoples towards which the whole world moves. Something of France, something of the larger vision born of common suffering and devotion to the cause of humanity our innumerable brave Allies will carry back with them from this last crusade. And I hardly know whether Mr. Saillens renders a greater service to them, to us, or to that cause. Emile Hovelaque, Inspector General of Public Instruction in France. CONTENTS French, British, and American Weights, Measures, and Coins. Itiside the Covey at the hegiujiing. Scale of I : 80,000 and 1 : 20,000. Inside the Cover at the end. Author's Note Foreword . " Acadt^mies" Agriculture Aisne Alsace-Lorraine Architecture Army Arts Bapaume . Bayonet Belfort "Bourgeois " Cafes Cathedrals Cities ' Climate Colonies "Comedie Fran9aise " PAGE V 19 25 31 32 33 34 34 36 37 43 44 46 51 — XI CONTENTS Commerce . Cooking- Decorations Decorative Arts " D^partements " Domestic Animals "Dot" Drinks Duelling Emblems . Etiquette Fairs Frontiers . Funerals Geographical Outli Grenades . Historical . Home Huguenots . Industries . Information Instruction . Joan of Arc Joflfre La Fayette Language . Libraries Literature . Louis XIV . Maritime Marne " Marseillaise " Metric System — XII — PAGE Meurthe-et-Moselle ...... 147 Minerals 150 Montmartre 152 Music 153 Napoleon . 157 Nobility . . . • 163 Nord 167 Oise 168 Painting . 171 Paris ... 173 Pas-de-Calais . 180 Pasteur 182 Peasants . 184 Peronne 189 Philosophy . 191 Political Organization 197 Population . 199 Postal 202 Provinces .... 203 " Quartier Latin " 205 Races 206 Railways . . , 214 Recreations 217 Red-Letter Days . 2ig Religion " 221 " Revanche" 225 Roads 226 "Sabots" . 227 Science 228 Sculpture . 238 Situation and Consequences 241 " Soixante-Quinze " 245 Soldiers 246 — XIII CONTENTS PAGE Somme . 250 Taxes • 252 Thermal Stations . . 256 Trees • 257 Verdun . 260 Versailles . • . 263 Victor Hugo ■ 265 War-French . 267 Waterways . 270 What Others Have Said . 271 Wild Animals ■ 274 Wines • 27s Women • 27s Workmen . . 277 World-War • 279 Appendix . . . • 28s Index . • 299 — XIV -- LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Richelieu, by Philippe de Champaigne Production' of Wheat in Certain Countries French Architecture in the XVth Century- French Architecture in the XVIth Century French Architecture in the XVIIth Century Badges and Insignia in the French Army A Few Uniforms of the French Army The Lion of Belfort, by Bartholdi Notre-Dame of Paris (front view) Notre-Dame of Paris (inside view) Notre-Dame of Paris (abside) A Turco Voltaire, by Houdon Foreign Trade of France A Louis XIV Drawing-room A Louis XV Drawing-room The Bed-Chamber of Marie-Antoinette The Bed-Chamber of Empress Josephine Increased Consumption of Drinks in France The Raising of the Oriflamme of St. Denis : Rhone and Certain Rivers compared . Joan of Arc, by Dropsy . Symbols used in the '■^ Etat-Major" Maps Joan of Arc, by Princess Marie d'Orleans Joffre ..... La Fayette .... Moli^re, by Mignard Louis XIV, by Rigaud . — XV -— I9I7 22 23 26, 27 zz 37 39 41 50 51 S3 60 6i 62 63 70 74 82 93 107 II I "S 117 125 129 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Allied and German Forces in 1914 French Coal World's Production of Coal Napoleon, by David Sainte Genevieve watching over France, Arms of Paris The Seine at Paris Pasteur .... Pascal .... Railway Mileage of Certain Nations Kilometre and 100 Metre Posts . Our Lady of Rheims Rodin's " La Pensee " General View of Verdun Victor Hug-o French Output in War Material PAGE . 139 . ISO . 151 158 byPuvis de Chavannes 174 176 . 177 . . . . 182 . 194 . 215 . 227 . 239 . 241 '. . 260 . 265 • 283 LIST OF MAPS The Celts in Europe, about 300 B.C. The Climates of France . The Colonial Empire of France The French Hexagon France and the Great Lakes Roman Gaul . . . The Verdun Partition (843) Europe under Charles V of Spain How French Lands became France The Western Front, 1914-1917 . France in the Days of Joan of Arc The German Advance in 1914 . Plan of Paris The Battle of the Somme Traditional Trade Routes, and Main Battlefields Main War Routes, and the Great Battle Area The Battle of Verdun .... The Palace and Park of Versailles . , — XVI — 12 45 47 81 82 84 85 86 87 , 99 "3 138 175 189 242 243 261 264 FACTS ABOUT FRANCE " ACADIEMIE FRANCAISE. " — We have had learned and lite- rary societies ever since the " £cole Palatine " of Charlemagne, and our provincial academies are many. We possess to-day an " Academie des Jeux Floraux " , established at Toulouse in 1323, from which young Hugo received a prize in 181 8. The " Institut de France " , in Paris, comprises 5 "Academies " : " Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres " , iounded by Colbert for the purpose of compos-, ing noble inscriptions for the buildings and statues erected to the glory of Louis XIV ; " Sciences ", established by Colbert in 1666; " Fine Arts", by him again, between 1667 and 1672; " Sciences Morales et Politiques ", founded by the Convention in 1794. Older, and more famous than those four, is the " Academie Frangaise " , originated by Richelieu in 1635. The great object of Richelieu was national unity; th.e" Academie " was to " establish firmly the rules of the language, and make French not only elegant, but capable of dealing with all arts and sciences. " As the great Cardi- nal's failing was writing dramas, he thought he was doubly entitled to be one of the original members. Another was Corneille, although Richelieu found him, as a writer, rather defi- cient in " esprit de suite " (perseverance and method). The Academicians took their parts quite seriously, and regarded themselves as " artisans in words, working for the exaltation of the Kingdom. " The King was the patron of the institution ; nobody could be elected without his due assent ; every new member, on the day of bis reception, had to tender his thanks to the Royal Master. There could not be more than forty members, and this rule has been strictly maintained. " Les Quarante " (the Forty) do not believe that they can keep the language under discipline by merely publishing a Dictionary now and then (the first edition came out in 1694). They believe that a standard must be set, and that it is for them to set it. Therefore the Academy does not simply call to its Cardinal Richeliew By Philippe de Champaigne (Lou- vre Museum.) " ACADfiMIE FRANCAlSfi '^ ranks famous or careful writers but soldiers as well, bishops, scientists, men of the world, men of social rank, so as to maintain from generation to generation a national conservatory of good manners and good speech. It has become, therefore, almost unconsciously a " salon " with a moral force of social preservation. Some writers, previous to their election, have had to buy up and destroy any copies still left in the trade of some lively book written in hot youth. Almost every year, the " Academie" receives legacies large or small, from persons anxious to reward through its channel good literature of various kinds, long services, honest conduct, etc... Thus has the " Academie " come to assume the combined functions of a Dr. Johnson, an informal House of Lords, a Mrs. Grundy, and several philanthropic institutions put together. When a seat becomes vacant, it is customary for the candidates to call personally on every member. The competition is very keen in some cases. Some candidates have been life-long oppo- nents of certain members ; others have already tried other seats, and strongly suspect that A. or B., in spite of his courteous praises and promises, was the cause of their failure, etc. A great deal of wire-pulling and drawing-room diplomacy comes into play. Again, on the day of his reception, each candidate goes through the ordeal of two speeches : one addressed to himself, in which due compliments accounting for his election are paid him, while his possible errors and wanderings are at least hinted at ; the other, by which he returns profuse thanks for the honour conferred on him, and praises his predecessor. Those " Discours de Recep- tion " are among the social events of the year, eagerly looked forward to in some cases, as having almost national importance. They are always models of sober eloquence and neat language. Some writers would never submit to the indignity or tedium of all those preliminaries ; others have regretted that the objects of the illustrious Company were not exclusively literary. It is quite true that many wind-bags have found their way into the "Academie" while some eminent writers (e. g. Moliere)were left outside ; Daudet wrote against the "Academie " a bitter satire : " Z-'/wmor^e^". The Goncourts, two brothers of refined tastes and brilliant literary talent, founded another academy solely devoted to the interests of letters. Daudet and Zola belonged to it. The " Academic Goncourt " rewards the best literary talents as they come to light year by year ; it awards no prize when a certain standard has not been reached. Yet it may be said that neither this new academy, nor any other with an even more exclusive programme, will ever wield the social and national iniiuence, for good on the whole, of Richelieu's institution. Its prestige extends to the masses : " That's not the way they talk at the Academ.ie " is a by-phrase. A wit of the xviiith century is mostly remembered to-day by two of his flings at the venerable "salon". His epitaph, AGRlCtJLttrRfi composed by himself, runs thus : " Here lies Piroii, who waS nobody, not even an Academician", (" Ci-gUPiron qui nefut Hen, pas meme academicien "). To emphasize that a man is very strong, the French say " strong as four ". Piron said of the Academicians : " They are only forty, but witty as four ". Bossuet defined the Academy : " A perpetual sovereign council whose credit, established on public approbation, shall be able to check the oddities of usage, and curlj the unruliness of that all too popular domination. " Books recommended. — Arsene Houssaye, Le 41" Fauteuil. — Cheruel, Diction- iiaire historique des Institutions de la France (Hachette, 12 fr.). — Discours de reception, (Perrin, i fr. each). Robertson (D.-M.), History of the French Academy, 1634 to igio (Fisher Unwin, London, 1910). AGRICULTURE. — France is mainly agricultural : 48 % of its population live on agriculture, and 82% of the land yields direct profit, in the following proportions : Plough-land 48 % Forests 18 % Pastures 12 % Non-cultiv. streams.roads 6 % Vineyards 4 % Uncultiv. yet cultivable. 12 % We have 8,000,000 land-owners, one fourth of the holdings being under 15 acres. This distribution is supposed to work for general prosperity, as small holdings yield i or 2 % more than large ones. Farmers' associations would be very useful, but the French peasant is a strong individualist, who owes almost everything to his own efforts, and has not learned to trust his neighbour. As a worker he is marvellous ; as an agri- culturist, he is fairly well informed ; as a business man and an economist, he is nowhere. The official returns of our Agricultural Department for 19 12 state the general condition of French agriculture for that year, in the following figures : Land value in 191 2 : Not built on . . . 5.J.571.263.000 fr. Built on 10.800.000.000 Total.. . 70. 371. 263. coo fr. 70.371.263.000 Capital : Horses and cattle . . 7 . 100 . 000 . 000 Poultry, etc. . . . 250.000.000 Implements. . . . 3.200.000.000 Seeds 950.000.000 Circulating capital. 8.000.000.000 Total.. . 19.500.000.000 fr. 19. 500. 000. coo Grand total 89.871.263.000 Net profits in 1913 : 772,000,000 francs. — 3 — agriculture: Net profits in agriculture were 6.5 % in 1882 ; 4.5 % in 1892 ,* and only 3.8 % in 1912. Land values. — French land, in 1789, was worth about 500 francs an hectare (I 40, £ 8, an acre) ; about 1850, the same area was worth 1,275 francs ; it is estimated now at 1,700 francs (I 135, £ 27, an acre). Those figures, of course, are averages ; in the Alps, an hectare will be worth 400 francs, while it will fetch 5,000 in the North. Our chief productions are grains, wines, potatoes, and garden produce. I. Grains — Cover more than a quarter of our total area. Wheat alone covers 13 % and is grown in every Department, the yearly wheat crop being about 330 million bushels (worth 2,000 million francs), or : 120 million- hectolitres (U. S. : 227 million hect. ; Russia : 180 ; Germany : 45 ; U. K. : 19). As a rule we have to buy a further supply of 4 million hect. from U. S., Algeria, Roumania, etc. Our production in wheat per hectare has risen within the last 100 years from 8.6 to 16 hectolitres (England, with modern methods, and using only the best land, obtains 30 for the same area). Our area under wheat having more than doubled in the same period, we produce four times as much wheat as in the days of Napoleon. Our great wheat lands are Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Beauce (a plateau extending between Seine and Loire), Brie (another plateau between the Seine and the Marne), Limagne (Centre), and Gascony. Oats are grown in the same districts as wheat. Indian Corn, along the Garonne and the Saone. Barley, by the beer-drinking populations of North and East. Rye and Buck-Wheat in Brittany, Limousin, and other regions where the soil is cold and poor. Our various cereal crops in 1913 amounted to : Wheat. . . 2.345,4 (million francs). 8.691 (thousand tons) Meslin . . . 34 » 149 » Rye . . . . 254,4 » 1. 271 » Barley . . . 217 » . 1.043 » Buckwheat.. 109,7 » 566 » Oats. . . . 1.103,2 » . 5-182 » Maize. . . . "5,3 » 543 » Millet.. . . i> 18,62 17.463,620 » Francs . . 4.179.000.000 tons. {% 835.800.000) (349.250.00c cwt.) (£ 167.160.000) 2. Wines. — We produce on an average one third of the world- supply. The main wine districts are : Lower Languedoc (1/4 of — 4 — AGRICULTURE total Fr. production) ; the region of Bordeaux ; Burgundy ; the lower valley of the Loire (Saumur, Vouvray) ; the Lyons district ; the Western slopes of Jura; the Rhone valley; Roussillon (slopes of East Pyrenees); the valleys of the Dordbgne (a tributary of the Garonne), and of the Charente. The vineyards of Champagne cover 37.500 acres, and produce over 30 million bottles, 8 million of which remain in France. (See Dvinks.) 3. Potatoes — Were little known in France until 1778, when Parmentier, and Louis XVI, made them popular. They are FRANCE saill.ouartsrs Average yearly production of wheat. We produce very liltle maize, and Germany grows more rye than we do The United Stat?s and Russia not only produce more wheat than ourselves absolutely out in proportion to their population, much more : they can sell, while we must buy. Our position is mfinitely better however than that of U. K., with a population 15 0/0 over ours, an area 40 0/0 less than ours, and a wheat crop one-sixth of our own now extensively grown in the sandy districts of the Sologne fa plam near the Loire), parts of the Central Range, and Brittanv The North and East produce them too, mostly as raw material for alcohol and fecula. Our potato crop in 1913 was worth ^"6 mil- lion dollars. Production of ivheat and potatoes, in cwt., per acre, in France and m other European countries (average for 1909-19 13) ; Wheat Potatoes (cwt) France n. Germany 17 U. K 17. Belgium 20. Denmark 22. Holland ig. (cwt) 66. 100. 117. 147. no. 118, AGRICULTURE N. B. — It is quite true that if our farmers would or could spend more on their land, the returns would be higher, abso- lutely and comparatively. But it should be remembered that we raise crops on a good many fields which some of our neigh- bours, having more profitable sources of revenue than farming, would regard as not worth cultivating ; the breaking up of new land is still going on amongst us ; the new fields being poor the total output is increased, but the average per acre is lowered. 1 In 1. 000 tons WHEAT OATS POTATOES MAIZE BARLEY RYE FRANCE 1913 . 8.691 5-182 13-585 543 1.043 1. 271 842 FRANCE 1915 . 6.063 3.642 9-399 434 642 U. K. 1913. • . 1-543 2.923 7.726 - 1.488 5 U. S. A. 1913 . 20.776 39-553 9.022 62.155 3-879 1. 051 (From Statistiques du Ministere de l' Agriculture.) 4. Garden Produce. — Always successful, but largely increased of late and still growing, with the improvements of railway facilities, the production of vegetables; especially " primeurs " (early vegetables) is a staple resouice of the Mediterranean South (especially Roussillon), and the Avignon district ; of Roscoff (N. Brittany : — the Gulf-Stream) ; Anjou; Nantes ; the Garonne and Dordogne valleys ; the environs of Paris, Amiens (Amiens " hortillonnages "), etc. Tinned vegetables mostly come from Nantes and Bordeaux (300 establishments in France). The earliest " primeurs " come from Algeria. The total value of our garden produce in 1913 (not counting what was consumed by the owners of our millions of plots) was 477,700,000 francs. Asparagus alone (grown in 20 " depar- tements "), yielded over 8 million francs ; artichokes (9 "departe- ments ") : as much ; onions : 4,400,000 francs ; mushrooms : 3 millions ; garlic (6 " departements ") : 600,000 francs. Other notable productions of our land are : Fruit. — " France produces in the open air all the ordinary species ot fruit which its inhabitants consume, apart from bananas and pine-apples. " (Encycl. Brit.) — 6 — AGRICULTURE Of Strawberries alone we produced 9.317 tons ^^ 1913 ; they sold from 250 to 1,400 francs a ton. We sold Grapes, in 1913, to the amount of i miUion pounds (5 million dollars). ,, ^ Figs : only in the South ; over i.ooo tons, worth from 400 to 1,500 francs a ton. Almonds : Provence and Avignon. Plums (5.6 million francs), the best variety giving the prunes of Agen and Tours. Peaches bring in 4 million francs ; Apricots (Auvergne) : about 2, „ , . Eating Apples : 45 millions; Cherries : 8; Chestnuts (mostly in Cevennes and Auvergne) : 33.5 ; Walnuts ."23. Most of Our fruit we consume, or send fresh to England, Kussia and Germany. We make jam in 160 factories, and tin fruit in 140 more. Beet-Roots : Flanders, Artois, Picardy, Ile-de-France (219 sugar refineries). Tobacco, Flax, Hemp : in the North and the West. Cider apples, Milk, Butter, Cheese, and Eggs : Normandy and Brittany chiefly ; the last two : everywhere. Olives (food and oil) : by the Mediterranean, in Provence especially; 12 million francs. Truffles : Perigord (east of Bordeaux) and Lower Alps especially. They are tubercles found at the foot of certain trees, under the ground ; the speciahsts who hunt for them do so with the help of a dog or pig. Truffles are found in 26 " departements " and bring in about 5 million francs yearly. The livers of geese of Toulouse, combined with the truffles of the district, provide the famous " Pates de foie ". Cheeses vary almost from village to village. The three famous ones are " Roquefort " (ewes' milk from Central Range) ; " Camembert " (cow's milk, Normandy) ; and ''Brie" (cow's milk, Brie). The last we regard as the king of cheeses ; but it is too delicate to stand travehing. ,, , We imported, in 191 6, 200 million dollars worth of corn, 40 milhon worth of sugar, and 80 miUion worth of meat. Books recommended. — Eugene Risler, Geologic agricole (Berger-Levrault), ^ vol. — Daniel ZoUa, Questions agricoles d'hier et d'aujourd'hui (Colin), 3 fr. 50. De Foville, La Propriete rurale en France (Colin), 6fr. See also : Domestic animals. — Trees and Flowers — Peas- ants, and the catalogues of : Hachette, Larousse, BaiUi^re, La Maison Rustique, etc. ^ 7 — AISNE (DEPARTMENT OF) AISNE (DEPARTMENT OF). — Named after the River Aisne and formed in 1790 out of 6 territories originally belonging to Picardy. Its total area is 1,841,800 acres, and its greatest dimension (N.-S.) about 87 miles. It adjoins to the Departs, of Nord, Ardennes, Marne, Seine- et-Marne, Oise, and Somme, and to Belgium. Its general aspect is that of a plateau, cut up by the fairly deep valleys of rivers running E. or W. ; the highest hill in the Depart, is 752 ft., the lowest point iii ft. above sea-level. The Waterways belong to 4 basins : i. to the Seine Basin flow the Marne, the Surmelin, the Ourcq, the Oise, and its important tributary the Aisne, which meets the Oise 2 kilom. above Compiegne. The Oise comes from Belgium, and the Aisne from the Argonne. 2. The Somme takes its rise in the Depart., at a village called Fonsomme, crosses Saint-Quentin, and leaves the Depart, after a short journey of 25 miles. From Saint-Quentin starts a Canal connecting Somme and Scheldt; from another point further down, another Canal runs to the Oise. 3. The Scheldt takes its rise in the Aisne, close by Le Catelet. 4. The Sambre, and one of its tributaries, the Petite- Helpe, flow from the Depart, toward the Meuse. The Climate is very much the same as that of the Somme. Laon, on an average, has no days of rain, 15 of snow, 10 of frost, and 35 of mist. The History of this territory is remarkable; taking only one place, Soissons, and omitting a great many of its associations, this much seems well worth mentioning. The tribe of the Suessiones ruled North Gaul when Csesar appeared; their old men could still remember the raids of their King Divitiac in the Island of Britain. Rheims was all in favour of Caesar; but Galba, the king of the Suessiones, refused to submit, collected 50,000 mea, and was appointed by the Belgian tribes, to which he belonged. Chief Commander of their joint forces. Inverse- ly, when the Barbarians, 500 years later, had become masters of Roman Gaul, Soissons remained the last stronghold of Roman authority, and it was at Soissons that Clovis defeated Syagrius. The capital of Clovis was Soissons at first, then Paris in 508 ; but Soissons remained a royal residence for many generations, and there it was that the father of Charlemagne received the crown. It became a free city as early as 1131, began to build its cathedral soon after, suffered occupation by the English during the 100 Years' War... was taken and re-taken by their Allies in 1814, and finally captured by the Russians in 1815. The Prussians took it after a vigorous defence in 1870. The Population of the Depart., in 1906, was 534,495 inhab., the agricultural population being 405,000. The average den- sity is exactly that of France : 73 inhab. per sq. kilom. The Depart, numbers 5,500 Protestants, and 160 Jews. AISNE (DEPARTMENT OF) The "Chef-lieu" is Laon (15,288 inhab.), the " Arrondisse- ments" and "Cantons" being as follows (841 "Communes" in all) : Arrondissements. Cantons. Chateau-Thierry. Charly, Chateau-Thierry, Conde-en-Brie, Fere-en-Tardenois, Neuilly-Saint-Front. Laon Anizy-le-Chateau, Chauny, Coucy-le-Cha- teau, Craonne, Crecy-sur-Serre, La Fere, Laon, Marie, Neufchatel-sur-Aisne, Ro- zoy-sur-Serre, Sissonne. Saint-Quentin . . Bohain, le Catelet, Moy, Ribemont, Saint- Quentin, Saint-Simon, Vermand. SoissoNS Braisne, Oulchy-le-Chateau, Soissons, Vail- ly, Vic-sur-Aisne, Villers-Cotterets. Vervins Aubenton, La Capelle, Guise, Hirson, Nouvion, Saint-Richaumont, Vervins, Wassigny. , Agriculture. Plough-land 1,300,937 acres. Pastures 150,000 Vineyards .:.> ; 5.875 Woodland. . .■ 257,500 Heaths, etc 20,000 Roads, buildings, etc 107,500 The foremost productions are cereals (the Depart, exports 270,000 quarters of wheat yearly), asparagus, artichokes, beans, hemp, sugar-beets, rape-seed, osier, and flax. The wines are good " ordinaires" as a rule; but the " Cantons" of Chateau-Thierry, Charly, and Conde, belong to the champagne producing area. The total wine output in 1906 was 1,826,000 gallons. Industries. — Peat : 12,000 tons yearly; freestone : 45,000 tons. Cotton and woollen tissues are staple industries of Saint-Quen- tin (8,000 looms), Bohain, Nouvion; Fresnoy-le-Grand manu- factures silk shawls, silk gauze, thread, etc. Saint-Gobain, founded 400 years ago, turns out 5,500,000 sq. feet of plate- glass (1/3 of total European production); the largest plates reach 380 sq. ft. The works, at Saint-Gobain, Chauny, and Cirey, occupy over 1,000 hands. Another remarka»ble establishment is the " Familistere" of Guise, founded by Godin, a former working man, and a disciple of Ch. Fourier. He left his fortune to his employees, whose 400 families live in healthy (if somewhat monotonous) buildings; the workers share in the profits, and are entitled to a pension. The "Familistere" turns out 4 million fr. worth of heating apparatus, and other articles in cast-iron. Guise again, ^.nd several other places, produce steel (1,000 tons of sheet plate - 9 -^ AISNE (DEPARTMENT OF) in 1903) copper-plate files, agricultural implements, etc. Hirson and Origny specialize in basket-work, and have a drawing- school for their apprentices. 80 sugar factories (12,000 hands) produce 90,000 tons, Paper, vinegar, candles, boots, chemical works, etc., etc. Total steam-power of Depart. 2,075 engines : 30,000 H.P. The Depart, has to import 931,000 tons of coals, 2/3 from Valenciennes, 1/3 from Belgium. Communications. 34 Railway lines 1,040 kilom. National Roads 614 " Chemins vicinaux (good) 2,122 " — — (fair) 1,557 " Canals and Nav. Streams 350 " 5,683 kilom. Population of places above 1,000 inhab. — Ambleny : 1,038; Anizy-le-Chateau : 1,130; Athies-sous-Laon : 1,046; Aubenton : 1,179; Braisne : 1,520; Brancourt : 1,155: Buironfosse : 1,910; La Capelle : 2,235; Charmes : 1,097; Chateau-Thierry: 7,347; Chauny : 10,496; Chezy-sur-Marne : 1,109; Coincy : 1,046; Crecy-sur-Serre : 1,834; Crepy : 1.560; Crouy : 1,418; Cuffies : 1,499; Dizy : 1,302; Essommes : 1,541; Estrees : 1,049; Etaves : 1,096; Etreaupont : 1,512; Etreillers : 1,036; Etreux : 1,483; Fargniers : 2,351; La Fere: 4,745; La Fere-en-Tarde- nois : 2,690; La Ferte-Chevresis : 1,306; La Ferte-Milon : 1,664 ; La Flamengrie : 1,270; Flavigny-le-Grand : 1,055 '> Flavy-le-Martel : 1,810; FoUembray : 1,717; Fresnoy-le-Grand : 3,409 ; Gouy : 1,325 ; Guise : 7,776 ; Hargicourt : 1,574 '< Hirson : 8,541; Homblieres : 1,105; Jussy : 1,314; Landouzy-la-Ville : 1,050; Laon: 15,288; Lesquielles-Saint-Germain; 1,520; Liesse : 1,277; Marie: 2,854; Mennevret : 1,781; Mondrepuis : 1,469; Mont-d'Origny : 1,026; Montbrehain : 1,604; Montcornet : 1,547; Moy : 1,007; Nauroy : 1,202; Neuilly, 1,481; Nogent- I'Artaud : 1,590; Le Nouvion : 2,977; Origny: 2,461; Origny- Sainte-Benoite : 2,234; Fremont: 1,427; Premontre : 1,424; Quessy : 1,346; Ribemont : 2,627; Rozoy-sur-Serre : 1,352; Saint-Erme : 1,262; Saint-Gobain : 2,268; Saint-Michel : 5,140; Saint-Quentin : 52,768; Seraucourt : 1,404; Sissonne : 1,737; Soissons : 14,334; Tavaux : 1,140; Tergnier : 4,307; Treloup : 1,404; Vailly : 1,812; Vaux-Andigny : 1,486; Vendeuil : 1,222; Vendhuile : 1,619: Vermand : 1,270; Vervins : 3,187; Vic-sur- Aisne : 1,002; Villeneuve-Saint-Germain : 1,126; Villers-Cotte- rets : 5,381; Viry-Noureuil : 1,558; Wassigny : 1,123. Among the notable personages born within the area of the Depart, are : Saint Remi (437-533), Bishop of Rheims, who baptized Clovis ; Saint Ouen (609-683), Archbishop of Rouen, and Chancellor of Dagobert I; Bertrade, mother of Charle- — JO — ALSACE-LORRAINE magne, d. 783; Prince of Conde, d. at Jarnac (see Soldiers) { Charles of Lorraine (1554-1611) leader of the Ligue; Jean de La Fontaine (see Literature) ; Jean Racine (see Literature) ; the three brothers Le Nain (see Painting) ; Alexandre Dumas senior, (1803-1370) etc. Books recommended. —Joanne, L'Aisne. (Hachette, i £r.) See also : Information. ALSACE-LORRAINE. — What exactly is the "Alsace-Lor- raine question " ? There is no " Alsace-Lorraine question. " In the words of Mr. Barthou : " Alsace-Lorraine, invaded 44 years ago, differs in no respect from the French " departements " invaded 3 years ago. " ... Yet, the Germans claim that the Alsatians are of their race, that they simply have taken back what was their own... Most Alsatians bear Germanic names ; German is still spoken in many parts of Alsace... I. — The compound name was coined by the Germans after 1 87 1 ; and the area it designates is a political unit of Germany s making. The official German name for it is Reichsland (Impe- rial property ; the common property of Germany). It consists of the long valley of the 111, which runs parallel to the Rhine (111 Sass : Alsace), and of a portion of the table-land of Lorraine, a totally different province. Alsace we partly acquired by conquest in 1648 ; Lorraine fell to the French Crown in 1 766, when its king, Stanislas, the father-in- law of Louis XV, died. II. — Lorraine, the second province to be annexed, was the more French of the two ; feudalism had kept the Lorrainers subjected to other princes than the King of France, but they had spoken French, and served in our armies, their manners and culture had been French for centuries. Paris had always been their intellectual and social capital. The whole province, through the influence of France, was one. The Revolution had divided it into 4 "departements" : Vosges, Meuse, Moselle, andMeurthe; in order to secure the fortress of Metz (fortified by Vauban), the Germans, in 1871, annexed part of Meurthe and of Moselle ;_ with what was left of those two Departments, we formed the present Meurthe-et-Moselle, "chef-lieu" : Nancy. About that portion of Alsace-Lorraine, there cannot be the slightest hesita- tion. What about Alsace ? III. — When we annexed it, we found it a mediaeval omnium gatherum of petty states and disconnected cities, linked by feudal bonds to a variety of rulers. Princes of the Holy Empire owned extensive lands, where they did not reside ; a village would be the only property of some local nobleman ; Austria ruled, nominally, Ensisheim and a dozen other boroughs ; the Bishop- — U — ALSACE-LORRAINE Princes of Strasbourg owned about 115 towns and villages, gov- eirned by the Regency of Saverne ; the Republic of Strasbourg possessed about 30 villages ; ten cities were independent repu- blics ; forty villages belonged to one Count de Ribeaupierre, a French absentee. In a word, Alsace was a mere geographical The Celts in Europe, about 300 B. C. The Germans assert that " might is right ", and then go back' on it at once, and try to prove that their conquests are justified on historical or pre-historical grounds. This map shows that the Celts, 300 years B. C, extended well beyond France into Germany and Austria. In France, they had displaced the Iberians. Therefore any Alsatians of Germanic descent must admit the priority of the mail French (Celto-Iberian) stork. expression. Germany at the time did not exist as a nation : there was simply a Germanic race. Did the Alsatians belong to it ? — Essentially not, for they are mostly Celts like ourselves ; like ourselves they had shared Gallo-Roman culture, and suffered under Prankish rule. Only an error of the Frankish rulers had severed them, for a time (see page 85), from their French ■ kinsmen ; unfortunately, that time had lasted 800 years ; and ■ their language as well as their habits, were unlike ours. Lost amid the Germanic nebula, they had preserved a taste for local independence, which our absolute kings had repressed in France ; they had acquired German dialects ; and a number of them were Lutherans. Their culture was provincial, neither French, nor properly German ; some of them spoke French ; they felt drawn towards Switzerland^ and formed indeed a buffer and a neutral region, ALSACE-LORRAINE IV. — The whole situation was so intricate that : i, we only ad- quired the possessions of the Holy Empire and those of Austria ; the rest of the land was tacitly placed under our influence, but remained officially under the same petty rulers, or enjoyed the same liberties, as before ; 2. the wise patient policy of the Capetians, and our national tolerance, took great care not to impose uniform law on that still amorphous province. The maxim of our governments in the xviith and even in the xviiith century, was : " Leave things Alsatian alone. " "By respecting the old boundaries", says Reuss, "the old administrative machineries, the traditions and language of the people, by never meddling with their schools, nor imposing any military service upon them, we left the masses under the bene- ficent illusion that nothing, or hardly anything, had changed, and thus the new regime could strike root, a little slowly perhaps, but all the more surely, without ever arousing any serious opposition, any conflicts of races or interests. Only in religious matters was it sometimes otherwise... So light indeed had been our hand, that when the time of the Revolution arrived, Mulhouse was still a republic, allied with Switzerland (not Germany !) ; Alsace still spoke her Germanic dialects; Strasbourg had maintained her privileges, and two-thirds of the population were still under foreign princes. Now that our hand was weakened, and the Austro-Germans threatened France, surely Alsace was going to slip her " bonds " ?... The very reverse happened; all Alsace became French voluntarily. V. — What were her motives ? One was that Alsace now had a soul, and that soul was French. She had been a raartyr in every great war (100 Years' War, religious wars, war against Burgundy, 30 Years' War), and we had given her peace. Again, through the bonds which this peace and our own unity had formed, Alsace had gradually acquired unity ; her. spirit had asserted itself. Then again, after being No Man's Land for so long, she had become part of a great nation. For all this she was grateful. But her great motive, perhaps, was this : Alsace had remained more free than we were ; she suffered from the rule of absentee princes, whom we had not tried to remove, as long as we had ourselves been under similar bondage. When we set ourselves free from feudalism entirely, she saw that by joining us, she was at last going to liberate her soil from German feudalism. She sent 24 deputies to the " Etats Generaux" of 1789; on July 7, they presented to the Assembly an address from Stras- bourg, stating that " on the outskirts of the land they also shared in the general joy over the union of the representatives of the French nation from all classes... into one focus of light and power". On March 18, 1790, a solemn ceremony took place in Strasbourg,, an address to the Assembly in Paris being read : " On this; Esplanade, where our fathers gave themselves to France but regretfully, we come to cement with our oaths our union with — 13 - ALSACE-LORRAINE her. We have sworn and do now swear to shed our blood to th^ last drop in the defence of the Constitution. If the city of Stras- bourg has not had the honour to set the example to the cities of this realm, at least it shall have the glory to be, through the patriotic zeal of its inhabitants, one of the strongest bulwarks of French liberty. " " This was the day, " exclaimed a Protestant minister, on the first anniversary of the taking of the Bastille, "when we were freed at last from the heavy yoke of bondage ; when differences of rank and caste disappeared ; when the Papist and the Lutheran enjoyed the same rights. " From that time, French civilization ruled supreme in Alsace. Goethe learnt French in Strasbourg. The State schools of Napo- leon made French official; the other schools adopted it in 1820. Church and stage followed gradually. The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 further increased the influence of Paris over Alsace. Railways completed the unification. Under Napoleon III, the parish-schools propagated French among the peasantry. Even 1870 could not stop this evolution : Alsace numbered more French speakers in 1914 than in 1870. Among scores of artists, writers, and scientific men that Alsace had given to us at the time, we may name the poet Ratisbonne, the critic E. Schure, the chemist Wurtz, Bartholdi, Gustave Dore, Henner. VI. — How the Alsatians took their annexation by Germany should be briefly recorded here. The treaty was concluded in two stages : the Provisional Government of Paris made an agreement, which included the cession of Alsace-Lorraine, subject to the approval of a National Assembly to be elected in the interval. The man who had most insisted on fighting to the bitter end was Gambetta : the Alsatian electors put him at the head of their lists in both "departements" of Alsace. The Assembly met at Bordeaux ; before it opened the discussion of the cession of Alsace, the 28 Alsatian deputies lodged a most vigorous protest: "By these presents we proclaim forever inviolable the right of the citizens of Alsace and Lorraine to remain mem- bers of the French nation, and we vow on our own behalf, and on that of our constituents, their children, and their descendants, to continue to lay claim to it forever and by every means, in the face of all usurpers. We are Frenchmen and wish to remain Frenchmen. " When, by a vote of 546 against 107, the Assembly had decided to ratify the cession, the Alsatians unanimously made another statement, saying: " We once more declare null and void a com- pact which disposes of us without our consent. " " The demand for the return of our rights will forever remain open to all and several, in the form and in the measure that our conscience shall dictate. " At the moment of leaving this hall of assembly, the thought we find supreme in our hearts is one of unalterable attachment — 14 — ALSACE-LORRAIKE to our native land, from which we have been violently torn away. " 200.000 of the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine expatriated themselves immediately after the war. Many settled in French Lorraine, others went to Algeria. With the exception of those refugees, we had lost 2.000.000 citizens, whose fine character, hard-working habits, and liberal spirit, were most valuable assets to the nation. Three years after the war, when the people of Alsace-Lorraine had another opportunity of expressing their views by electing fifteen representatives to the German Reichstag, the first thing those members did was to enter a unanimous protest, which was read before the House on February 18, 1874, by Edouard Teutsch, member for Saverne : " Citizens who have a soul and a brain are not objects of barter. ... In electing us all, our constitutents desired above all to assert their sympathy for their French mother-country and their right to determine their own fate. " VII. - — Both these declarations hold good to-day as they did forty years ago. They have never been renounced by Alsace- Lorraine. It is true that the campaign of protest gave place in the 'nineties to a movement for self-government. If, however, anybody feels the slightest doubt about the nature of this second phase and about the present feelings of the Alsatians, let him inquire into the number of days of imprisonment, not counting death-sentences, that the German courts-martial have imposed on Alsace-Lorraine since the outbreak of the war. When we claim that Alsace must be French again, we appear selfish, because our interests coincide with justice ; but we feel that Alsace has a claim on us, even more than we have a claim on her. She is one of the oppressed nationalities of the world. We should have been sorry, but would have bowed to the fact, if Prussia had said to Alsace : " You are free now ; govern yourself as you please, " and Alsace had chosen to be an independent State, or even a member of the Empire. But the annexation was, and remained, brutal ; and we have always felt that just as we sym- pathized with Armenians and Poles, Boers and Finns, Coreans and Russian Jews, we must sympathize with our Alsatians. The fiction that they were Germans was disproved by the fact that they were not received into the German family as equals and with open arms, but treated as rebels who must be taught their Germanism under the Prussian drill-sergeant. Their home was brutally labelled Reichsland, Imperial Territory, as if it had been nothing more but the common property, the hostage, and the bond, of the accomplices in this crime. "And is not their whole country, " writes an Alsatian in America, " submitted to a kind of barbarous quarantine ? They cannot leave it except under the supervision of the police, and no one can enter it without meeting obstacles which frequently stand in the way of the most sacred family relations and duties... The use of the — 15 — ALSACE-LORRAINE t'rench language is forbidden, not only in the schools and in all public enactments, but even in the most ordinary business tran- sactions. " (Alsace through the ages, by Kaeppelin, Franklin, Penn.) Just one detail, showing the conditions in Alsace. Prussia, that nation of pedants and martinets, obliged every shopkeeper, when he had his shop painted again, to have none but German inscrip- tions on it. Therefore, many shops in Alsace have never been done up since 1871 !... Mean persecution on the one hand, silent resistance on the other, have gone on like this, in hundreds of ways, for 46 years. VIII. — Alsace is a moral problem, we believe, not to us only, but to the whole world. " We do not prolong the war for selfish reasons," said Mr. Pichon, our Foreign Secretary, speaking in the Chamber on December 27, 191 7, "the question of A.-L. is not a French territorial problem... According as it is solved in the French way, or in the German, there will be, or there will not be, a new Europe based on the principles and forces which lead contemporary nations. " On the same day, a member of our C. G. T. (General Labour Federation), Mr. Keufer, an Alsatian, stated : " The annexation of A.-L. has been the cause of the persistency of armaments in Europe, and of the constant menace of war. " There Mr. Keufer stated the facts of the past ; but the fate of Alsace-Lorraine involves a principle which means war in the future. If Germany is allowed to retain A.-L. it will mean that, after all, violence does pay. And no peaceful nation can be safe, no peaceful Europe, or world, is possible, so long as that principle is not contradicted by actual facts. IX. — A referendum has been suggested ; neutralization has been recommended as another solution. As no neutralization could take place unless it had been preceded by a referendum, both solutions are equally impracticable, as is shown by the following excellent paragraphs of Mr. Ph. Millet (Observer, June 10, 1917) : " As a matter of fact, the very idea of asking for a new referendum is as distasteful to a great many Alsatians as it is to the rest of the French nation. After what they have publicly proclaimed in 1 871 and 1874, and after their long and painful struggle against German rule, they feel as indignant as the inhabitants of Kent would be if they had been made a German province forty years ago, and were now invited to take a referendum before being reunited to England. " Even, however, if these legal and sentimental reasons did not stand in the way of a referendum, there remains the practical difficulty of such a consultation being organized at all. First of all, who in Alsace-Lorraine is going to be allowed to vote on the question ? According to the German census of 1910, as recorded in the Statistische Jahrbiicher fiir Elsass-Lothringen (1913- — 16 — ALSACE-LORRAINE 1 91 4), there were at that time in Alsace-Lorraine, besides a native population of a little over 1,500,000 people, nearly 300,000 Ger- man immigrants. These immigrants had simply taken the place of at least an equal number of natives who had left their homes since 1871 as a consequence of annexation. No complete figures are officially available as to the extent of this emigration. It is only known that from iSyitoigio the excess of emigration over immigration was 267,639 people, of whom an average of 65 per cent, went to France ; also that the emigration movement, which had subsided from 1900 to 1905, went up again from 1905 until 191 2, when the proportion of emigrants to France reached 68.57 per cent., a proportion as high as in the seventies {Siatistische Jahrbiicher, 1913, pp. 43 and 45). " Now it is obvious to any unbiassed mind that if you had been driven out of your own house by violence and somebody else had taken your place, it is you, not the invader, who should be called upon by a righteous judge to say to whom the house belongs. A fair referendum can, therefore, only take place if the German immigrants in Alsace-Lorraine are deprived of the right to vote, while all the people of both provinces who have taken refuge in France are asked to share in the decision. This double condition, however, makes the task an almost hopeless one. Just to men- tion one of the minor points involved, it would have to be decided whether the son of a German immigrant in Alsace-Lorraine, if born in the Reichsland, is to be considered a native, and vies versa, whether the son of an Alsatian emigrant, if born abroad, is to have a vote. It is clearly impossible to start such a compli- cated registration in time of war, or even immediately after. A referendum would mean endless complications. "There is yet another difficulty. The question is : Who will govern the country while the people are going to the polls ? If it were the German administration, we know the Germans too well not to be sure of what would be the result. If the consulta- tion is to be a fair one, not only must the StatthaUer not be allowed to have his finger in it, but Alsace-Lorraine must be pre- viously cleared of all the German troops and all the officials, Prussian or otherwise, appointed by the German Government. Moreover, some neutral State must be found who could act as a sort of umpire, and therefore inspire both sides with the same confidence. I wish somebody could point out such an ideal neutral. " These are the main reasons why both the French Government and the French nation, apart from the Alsatians themselves, are determined not to allow any humbug of any sort to interfere with a matter that is to them dearer than life. If Alsace and Lorraine are to give expression to their will, let this step come after they have been freed from the Germans. Then and then only, the referendum will have a fair chance. Should the two provinces ask to be reunited to Germany or set apart as an SAILLENS 17 3 ALSACE-LORR A INE ndependent State, there is not a man in France who would want to keep them against their wih. But about that one need not feel anxious. " X. — Here again is another aspect of the situation, which may commend itself to many readers. After 2,000 years, the Jews who have now become French, English, Portuguese, or American, are still regarded as morally entitled to the possession of Palestine. What about the Alsatians and Lorrainers (over I /7th of the population since 1871) who have left their home, rather than submit to alien rule ? In the U. S. alone, there are more than 200,000 citizens of Alsatian origin, who have proved their loyalty to France and Alsace by joining special patriotic societies. Must those people lose all hopes of ever feeling at home in Alsace, or at least knowing that their country- men are as free as themselves? Is the reader aware that, since this war began, 20,000 young Alsatians have deserted from the German army, and come to join our ranks, in spite of German vigilance and the punishment inflicted on their families in such cases ? Must these young men never see their homes again ? Either there is no meaning to this war (and no doubt we can make it meaningless if we choose) or its first object must be to make Alsace free ; not simply because it is French, but because, of all the oppressed nations which this war mtust liberate, Alsace is the most highly developed, the one that suffers most from any attempt on her liberty. Only Belgium can have the same claims on the world's help, but her case is so clear, that no one disputes it ; Alsace, on the contrary, has been the subject of so many lies or illusions on the part of Germany, that her position is particu- larly pathetic and dangerous : she is not easily understood, and one is tempted not to try to understand. She seems German outwardly, on some points ; yet her spirit is French. To suppose that Alsace is more German than the French assert, is to beg the question, to suppose that the problem is solved, which now awaits its solution : an easy way out of present difficulties, but a sure road to future trouble. Books recommended. — Delahache, La Carte au lisere vert (Hachette, 3 fr. 50) (essential). — H. Welschinger, La Protestation de I' Alsace-Lorraine en 1871 (Berger- Levr., o fr. 50). — Les Martyrs d' Alsace-Lorraine , d'aprcs les debats des Conseils de guerre allemands (Plon, 2 fr.). — M. Barres, Au Service de VAUemagne, Colette Baudoche. — Hansi, L'Histoire d' Alsace-Lorraine racontee aux petits enfants. — Abbe Wetterle, L' Alsace-Lorraine dolt rester franfaise (Delagrave). The plebiscite problem (Ligue republic. d'A L., o f. 25). — Edwards (M,-B.), Under the German Ban in Alsace-Lorraine (Tiie Wayfarers Library, 19 14) — Wetterle, French thought in Alsace-Lorraine (1915)- — Cowell (H,-J.), Alsace-Lor- raine. Past, Present and Future (London 1916). — Jordan (D.-S.), Alsace-Lorraine. A Study in Co'nguest. (Bobbs, Menil C°, Indianopolis). — Kelly, The Story of Alsace-Lorraine (i sh., London). — D. Blumenthal, Alsace-Lorraine. Introd. by Douglas W. Johnson (Putnams, 3 s.), etc. See also catalogue of the Librairie Alsacienne et Lorraine, I, rue de Medicis, Paris. — 18 -^ ARCHITECTURE ARCHITECTURE. — More than any other art, architecture is social ; its history on our soil is curious. Pre-Roman Gaul built probably nothing but huts ; the nomadic Celt was not quite settled nor properly organized. — - Roman Gaul had temples and schools, baths and villas, bridges and forts, theatres, arenas, and basilicas (law-courts) ; the " Maison Carrie " of Nimes, the theatre of Orange, the aqueduct over the Gard, and many other monuments mostly in the South, are as good examples of Roman architecture as can be found an3^where ; but they are monuments of Roman art in France, rather than works of French art proper. — The Franks could conquer, but were unable to organize ; the Church alone remained standing amid the general anarchy ; therefore all the buildings of the period are churches, barbarously imitated from the old Roman basilica. Classical art was gone; ashlar buildings and wooden roofs supersed- ed the freestone work and the vaults of the Romans. Norman raids and civil wars destroyed buildings and discouraged builders. At last, about looo A. D., i. e. one generation after the birth of Capetian France, Romanesque architecture revived. First in Auvergne, where the stock was pure and Roman tradition suffi- ciently preserved ; the style produced was simple and earnest to severity. Languedoc followed with more freedom and magnifi- cence (" Saint-Sernin ", Toulouse) and its influence entered Spain. Heavy and awkward in Poitou, proud and luxurious in Burgundy, restrained and almost classical in Provence, the " style roman " was generally clumsy, and tried to achieve height without having the means to do so. The great problem in stone-building is how to make vertical walls stand the lateral thrust of the heavy stone roof. Greek and Roman art had solved the problem once for all by determining the due thickness and height of the walls for a given width of roof ; from this calculation others had followed, so that when we discover to-day the base of a classical column, we can tell all the dimensions of the temple to which it belonged. — Fur- ther, classical buildings were never very high. — The French builders, having lost these canons, and being desirous of building high, produced at first buildings in which the thickness of the walls was so great as to be sometimes excessive, and counterforts which increased the resistance, and even more so the heaviness of the pile. The building was often higher, and yet always appeared more bulky than its Roman predecessor ; it had something pyra- midal in its outward aspect. It had however two main features in common with a Roman building : stones lay on stones, mainly in horizontal layers; in the second place the weight of the barrel- vaults or cupolas rested over the whole length of the walls, and as a consequence the walls had to be strong throughout, and the win- dows but few and small. Such a style might suit the South, but not the North. Gothic. — The North, owing perhaps to its "wild" energy — 19 -^ ARCHITECTURE and certainly to its local jealousies, aimed at building very high, and therefore was forbidden wide windows even more imperatively than the South. For a time, the North eluded the difficulty by keeping to wooden roofs. That early imperfect style, imported into England by William of Normandy, designed Winchester, Peterborough, Norwich, etc. At last, some unknown masons, or carpenter-masons, solved the problem of Northern architecture by applying to stone-building the methods of car- pentering. Instead of a solid mass, as compact as possible, they used a frame-work, which required a minimum of material, and therefore admitted a maximum of light ; at the same time, it became possible to alter the height or length of the building as required, and the lines of the structure were vertical. They found that if arches were thrown across the walls in diagonals, and a light vault was built in sections upon those arches, the total weight of the roof would bear exclusively on the points of the walls where the arches arose. At those points therefore pillars would suffice, and it became possible to have free spaces between the pillars. — Those "additional" arches {" augifs" "ogifs" "ogives "from L. augere), gave their name to the new architecture. But another invention of the Northern builders is equally remarkable. How would the pillars stand the lateral thrust of the arches ? — Not this time by the help of bulky, badly concealed counterforts, inert vertical masses, but by the support of light slanting props, the " flying-buttresses", which were not only visible, but worth seeing. Another feature of Gothic was the pointed arch ; the Romanesque arch had been semi-circular. But this difference, if noticeable, is not essential. Thus was achieved, about 1150, between Paris and Amiens, the architecture that was called " French " {opus francigenum) by the men of the Middle Ages, and spread from Flanders to Spain, and from England and Brittany to Germany, Hungary, and the Isles of Greece. It was nicknamed '■' Gothic " by the Italians of the Renaissance, who found it barbarous ; its " poems in stone " were rather unpleasant to the formal classical South. Indeed, political changes had their share in the variations of taste in architecture. The first Gothic churches were built in the Ile-de-France and Picardy ; portions of France which, although more amenable than Flanders to Roman ideals of absolute central authority, favoured however the Northern, and Gaulish, tradi- tions of local privileges and feudal independence. It was almost inevitable that, when a Louis XIV wielded, from his Northern capital, a power very similar to Roman imperialism, the mania for imitating Rome should have invaded even the arts. Gothic art had no share in the planning of the cathedral of Versailles, and Louis XIV could not pass Notre-Dame without a wish to have it pulled down. The word " Gothic ", in the xviiith century, in France, and even in England (we ruled European taste at the •r- 20 — ARCHITECTURE time), had the complex meaning of uncouth and northern, mediaeval and grotesque... We began to admire our Gothic mar- A MONUMENT OF FRENCH ARCHITECTURE IN THE XVTH CENTURY : The gate of the Castle of ViTRfi (Brittany). Highforbidding walls, with a few loopholes, behind a deep moat. The stronghold is a small city on ahill. The fate of a whole Province may depend on this one fortress. Utility has presided over every detail; the high roofs are not mere ornaments, but landmarks. vels only when Romanticism, about 1830, cast a new light over our history. The " Notre-Dame " of Victor Hugo is the logical (though unwitting) continuation of " La Belle Dame Sans Mercy. " ARCHITECTURE As wars became less frequent, and secular life organized itself. the new style evolved from simplicity to splendour, and was applied to " chateaux " , law-courts, town-halls, and private buildings. Its " early " or " lancet " period practically dates from the reconstruction of St. -Denis Abbey (1137); the Cathedral of Notre-Dame of Paris, begun 26 years later, was completed French architecture in the xvith century : The Castle of Azay-le-Rideau (Touraine) The warrior has ■ become a courtier ; his residence is now a hospitable chateau. High windows open upon his well-laid park ; the grim battlements have become purely decorative. during the ' ' rayonnant ' ' period, when A miens, Chartres, and Rkeims were begun (ab. 1250). More ornate still are the Western portals of Rheims (1400) ; " flamboyant " uses stone and painted glass in such a way that the windows look like enormous fires, of dazzling, upward-winding flames (See :. Cathedrals). Renaissance. — The Gothic did not progress in France beyond the xvth century, while in England it gave' birth, after that period, to the Tudor style, and indeed has never quite fallen into disuse. Royal power with us had become overwhelming (Louis XI), and AftCHltECTURE we had invaded Italy (1499) ; the result was a national style in which the classical repose of the South had a share. National unification, the cessation of civil wars, brought about the substitution of " chateaux " (palaces or country-seats), for the grim strongholds of the Middle Ages. In the erection and embel- lishment of those happy comfortable houses ( " Chateaux de la Loire " ), the " flamboyant " was toned down gradually, and Italian ornament used more and more, until at last a new French architecture in the xviith century : A portion of the Palace of the Louvre (Paris). The King has now nothing to fear frona his subjects, and his home opens on the street. The fapade is all doors and windows; the ornaments of the xvith have disappeared ; they partook too much of barbaric days. Discreet statuary relieves the regularity of the straight lines and simple curves. style was evolved, which was quite different from the Gothic^ and yet was French in its comparative moderation. The XVIIth century was the age of reason and discipline ; even private buildings had something of the chilling grandeur which followed the gay freedom of the Renaissance. Appeal was made to the classical past ; the French architect used exclu- sively the elements provided by later Roman art as revealed to us by Italy : frontons, pilasters, caryatids, etc. ; in the combi- nation of those elements and their adaptation to the particular end in view the French artist displayed taste and feeling, French elegance, moderation, and symmetry. The " Louvre " of Pierre Lescot (1515-1578) was the first monument, and a master- piece, of this new school, from which practically all French - 23 - ARCHITECTURE architecture thereafter proceeded. The churches made usd of Gothic a little longer than the laity, then Renaissance orna- ment crept into the fa9ade of " Saint-Eustache " and " Saint- Etienne-du-Mont " (Paris), and shortly afterwards the cold Jesuit style imported direct from Italy built the churches of the " Sorbonne ", " Val-de-Grdce " , " Saint-Paul " . To that period belong the Palace of Luxembourg (Paris) by Salomon de Brosse, the Palace of Versailles by Mansart, another portion of the " Louvre " by Mansart and Perrault, the " Invalides " by Mansart, etc. A more pleasant style, and a more comfortable, was found in the private houses of the nobility under Louis XV ; the persistant symmetry of the fa9ades was relieved by bulging, florid balconies of gilt iron, and smiling goddesses and cupids, while the rooms behind them were smaller, and often round, or oval. Then it was that Gabriel designed the " Place de la Concorde ", the Military School in Paris, and the " Petit Trianon " . "Saint-Sulpice " tried to combine Gothic towers and classical elements, the " Madeleine " emulated the " Maison Carree " of Nimes, and Soufflot's " Pantheon " copied St-Peter's in Rome : all three artificial productions, and failures. By the early part of the XlXth century, lifeless imper.sonal architecture had invaded all our buildings. We returned to Gothic, restored churches that had been damaged gradually for over 300 years, or built new ones in the Gothic style (" Sainte- Clotilde ", Paris ; " Saint-Epvre ", Rouen) but Gothic was dead, outside the brains of the antiquaries ; it was costly, and an- swered modern requirements only imperfectly. The beauty of our streets became the main object of our artists ; Haussmann (1809-1891) greatly improved the aspects of Paris under Napo- leon III. New monuments have since been treated as elements in the general decoration (e. g. Opera, by Charles Garnier, 1875). A new material has come to hand, and we have made the most of it, as is proved by the Eiffel toiver. But iron, if convenient, is chilling, and the Palais of the Champs-Elysees conceal their iron frame-works behind stone fa9ades. On the whole, public buildings with us are more and more designed by science, rather than by art. Size, geometry, hygiene, and an impersonal method, content the public. The most success- ful effort of our modern architecture has been the building of thousands of small private houses, practically all different, around our great cities. Personal tastes, and circumstances of site, materials, etc., have created a number of new pleasant types, which display more variety than the corresponding British build- ings, mostly because in our case each house, and the ground on which it stands, belong to a different person. Books recommended. — A. Choisy, Histoire de V architecture (Rouveyre, 2 vol.). — Courajod, Lefons professees d I'Ecole du Louvre (Picard, 3 vol.). — - 24 - ARMY UntSiTt, Manuel d'Archeologie frangaise : I. Architecture religieuse ; II. Architecture civile (Picard, 15 fr.). — Hourticq, Ars una. France (Hachette, 7 fr. 50). — J. Lahor, Les Habitations A bon marche et un art nouveau pour le peuple (Larousse, 2 fr.). West (G.), Gothic Architecture in England and France (G. Bell & Sons, London, 1911). — Pythian (J.-E.), French Gothic Architecture, with particular reference tc the Northern Cathedrals (1915). ARMY. — For military purposes, France is divided into 20 " Re- gions ", each contributing one Army Corps to the standing army. Algeria, on that point as on many others, is regarded as part of France and is a 21st Region. The strength of the French army actually in the ranks, in 1913, was : Infantry 418.000 Cavalry 68.000 Artillery. . . . ~v-- . . . . 104.000 Engineers 25.400 Flying Corps 3-397 Transports 9.207 Marines 31.310 A. S. C 14.608 a total of 674.292 Off. and O. R. giving, at mobilization, about 5 million men. Every able-bodied Frenchman is liable to military service from 20 to 48 years of age ; he must serve : 3 years in the " Armee Active ". II — "Reserve de I' Armee Active". 7 — " Armee Territoriale " . 7 — "Reserve de V Armee Territoriale (R.A.T.) ". While in the Reserve of the " Active ", he serves two periods of 21 days ; while in the " Territoriale " , one period of nine days. History shows that military service became more general, as nations became more conscious of themselves. Our case is no exception. Until 1445 (toward the end of the 100 Years'War), the French King had to engage the services either of his noblemen and their serfs, for a price, or apply to specialists, generally foreign- ers, who hired their troops and their services to him for a stated time and amount. Those troops had been recruited from the lowest classes of all parts of Europe, mostly Germany. They looted the French peasantry as willingly as the enemy, who was often a French vassal... Permanent cavalry was instituted first, then, in 1448, permanent French infantry. Five years later, the land was entirely reconquered. The first national army on the large scale now generally adopted was created by Prussia, after the invasion by the French in 1807. — 25 — FRENCH ARMY (Collars) a© Ir>f. (colour of coat). Cav.- (dark blue). Artillery (scarlet). Engineers ^ black velvet) , iHi Flying C. (orange). A. S. C. (grey Med. Off. velvet) . (crimson) . Chemist (green velvet) . I nsigt^ia. General Staff. Special Artillery Staff. Special Engineers Staff Heavy Artillery Colonial Infantery. Foreign Legion, Mountain Artillery. Flying Corps. A. S. C. Officers A. S. C. Officials. Courts Martial. Paymasters and Postmasters. Telegraph. Interpreters. hSl Wireless. Field Railways. Anti-Aircraft Motor-Mach.-Guns. - 26 - FRBNCH ARMY (Sleeves) I^stnlc^ • lA 1^1 ■Soldatdeifeclss (Inf.). "Soldatdei'^^clBs (Cav.). Corporal (Inf.). 'Sergent-Majo u ^! G. O. C. Brigade. I xxjsig^tui a. C? Scovjtf iCav ,. tr Search- lights. N. C. O. Artillery. Machine Gun. observers. 27 — lf^=^iw=a ARMY Napoleon had tried to break the miUtary power of Prussia, " whosfl national industry is war ", as Mirabeau put it so neatly. He therefore forbade Prussia to have more than a few thousand sol- diers. Prussia complied perforce with the letter of his law, but... although at any given time she never had more than the exact number of troops allotted to her, those were never the same men for more than a few months. Thus did the whole nation rapidly go through the mill, and in 1813, Napoleon was met by a homo- geneous, perfectly drilled force, of 250,000 men, who seemed to have risen from the soil by magic. Our present system was adopted, in its general lines, in 1872. Previous to 1870, everybody was called up, and drew a num- ber by lot. The lowest numbers, up to the requirements for the year, were taken. It was legal to " buy a man " to take one's place in the ranks. The duration of the service was 7 years. The law of 1872 called up for 5 years every young man of 21, the only sons of widows and students reading for certain exa- minations being exempted. In 1889, the 5 years were reduced to 3, and the categories previously exempted had to serve I year. In 1905, every man was called up for 2 years without any exemptions whatever. In 191 3, the 2 years were increased to 3, still without exemptions. The institution is entirely democratic and technical. Rank is given on purely military grounds. Mr. Briand is a private ; President Poincare is a lieutenant. Every man must begin as a private, and live in barracks ; after 6 months of special training, and a successful examination, the private can become a " caporal " (unmounted troops), or a " brigadier ". As a rule, it takes a year to make a " brigadier " of the Artillery, or a "caporal " of the Engineers. After another minimum of 6months, the caporal may become a " sergent ", and the "brigadier " a " marechal des logis " . Then they may rise again to " sergent fourrier " or " mare- chal des logis fourrier" (stores, ammunition, billets, and signall- ing), and to " sergent-major " or " marechal des logis chef (book-keeping, office-work, platoon commander). If they wish to stay in the army they must re-enlist for 2, and then for 5 years. They can then become " adjudant " and " adjudant- chef " (the senior N. C. Os. in a Company), or read for military schools where is given general and technical instruction. Officers belong to two main categories, and are recruited from four sources. The "offieiers de reserve" — civilians commanding units in war-time. — are recruited from N. C. Os. who pass a compe- titive examination at the expiration of their active service, and are called up again for 21 days every other year. The "offieiers d' active " — regular— are either graduates from the military schools of St. Cyr, etc., who entered the Army as .2nd Lts. ; or former privates and N. C. Os. who became cadets - 28 - ARMY {"aspirants") by competitive examination, and received theit commission after a period of training and probation ; or again former N. C. Os. who after serving two years at least as N. C. Os., entered by competitive examination some special schools (St. Maixent, etc.) which they left as lieutenants. The organization, downwards, is a follows : A " Corps d'Armee", under a " General Commandant le Corps d'Armee " , consists of " Divisions " . A "Division" as a rule comprises : 2 Inf. Brigades, i Artillery Regt., I Squadron of Cavalry, Engineers, etc. A " Brigade " consists of 2 " Regiments " . The Regiment, under a "Colonel" , or a "Lieutenant-Colonel" , is the fundamental unit ; every private belongs to a regiment, located in one given town, paraded and marched in the same manner, etc. Ithasi2 "Compagnies", grouped into2"Bataillons". The Batta- lionis under a "Commandant (M.a]or)with a smallstaffof N.C.Os., and every Company under i "Capitaine" , and 2 "Lieutenants" . The N.C.Os. of a Company of 125 men (250 in war-time), are : the "adjudant", the "ser gent-major" and his "fourrier" , assisted by a " caporal d' ordinaire " (cooks'), 4 sergeants commanding " sections ", and 8 corporals commanding " escouades " . I corporal is in charge of the Coy's transport; i officer, with a proper number of N.C.Os. and men, are in charge of the machine-guns of the Battalion. To sum up, a "Regiment d'lnfanterie" , is composed of 2,000 men in peace-time, distributed between : 3 " Bataillons ", 12 " Compagnies ", 24 " Pelotons" , 48 "Sections ",96 "Escouades ". The pay of a 2nd. Lt. is I 600 a year. The soldier's pay has been raised during this war to 25 centimes a day ; it used to be 5 (i cent). This purely nominal pay works, in peace-time, better than one would suppose : instead of paying more taxes to the State, each family provides for its own boy direct. The very poor, orphans, etc., generally manage it quite well, as officers' servants, grooms, privates' batmen, cooks, canteen helps... Reveille sounds at 5 A. M. in summer, 6 in winter. A pannikin of hot coffee is brought to the men straight from the kitchen into their dormitory by the man in charge of the room for the day. This, and some bread, hastily swallowed while dressing, or lei- surely taken in bed on more favourable days, is the breakfast. Drill follows. At 10, soup, meat, and potatoes, (the national " pot-au-feu "), some jam, or cheese, and water, are consumed in the refectory. More drill. At 5, a " ragoAt" (stew) and more water, are issued. Then the men may stroll in town ; they may leave at 5 if they can afford restaurants ; but all must be back by 9 ; and all lights are out at 10. French Kings always had some foreign troops in their pay. Charles VII, who instituted our first national force, had a Scotch body guard (See Races...). The Swiss replaced the Scotch, and the last Swiss Guards did not leave France before 1 830, - 39 — ARMY We now have the "Legion ^irangere " (instituted 1792) which is a sort of refugium peccatorum, a military purgatory, which any man may enter if he is fit m body and wil mg to fight Many of the men are Germans, who fled the brutal methods of their chiefs ; many are Alsatians, Some were officers at one time, « somewhere in Europe », and had to disappear from their circle... and many were impelled by a taste for adventure, or a desire for sacrifice. One-third are French. Shortly after the death of one " legion- naire ", a man-of-war of a great allied nation steamed to the nearest point of the wild coast where the men were fighting, and received the body with the honours paid to impe- rial blood. At the death of an- other, the captain asked if any man could say a few words over the body, as there was no chaplain near. One man stepped forward, and went through the Catholic Service for the Dead in truly profes- sional style : he had been a priest. The " Legion " has done extremely well in this war, and wears the red " Fourragere. " (See Decorations.) Napoleon on war. — Xouave Alpine Chasseur Marine Alpine Cliiasseurs oti " slus* A FEW UNIFORMS OF THE FRENCH ArMY. " The art of war consists in having, with an army inferior in numbers, always more men than your enemy on the point attacked by him or by yourself ." " The first qualities of the soldier are constancy and discipline; valour comes only second ." " War is cruel to the nations, but its results are terrible for the vanquished ." SookS recommended. — Lt. CErtle, Organisation de I'arm'e franfaisc (Berger- - 3^ - ARTS Levrault, o fr. 75.) — Capt. Ch. Romagny, liistoire generale de' Varmee nalionale J2i4-i8g2 (Berg.-Levr., 3 fr.). — Capt. Hanguillart, Petit Guide pratique de guerre pour ma compagnie (Berg.-Levr., o fr. 60). — Capt. Erlande, En Campagni avec laLegion Etrangire (Payot, 3 fr. 50). — Capt. Frolle, La Marsouille (the marines), (Payot, 3 fr. 50). • — Etat miUtaire de toutes lesnaiions du monde en igi4 (Berg.-Levr., I fr. 50). — General Maitrot, Les armies jranfaise et allemande (Berg.-Levr., 19x4, I fr.). — Singley, L'Infanterie de Marine (Berg.-Levr., 6 fr.). — GaL Grisot, La Legion EVangere 1831-1887 (Berg.-Levr., 10 fr.). Millet (P.), Comrades in Arms. Trausl. by Lady Frazer (Hodder & Stoughton, i9i6).' — Ex-Trooper, French Army from within (Army from within Series, 1914). (Everett), — F. Martyn, Life in the Legion etc., etc. See also the catalogues of : Berger -Levrault, Paris and i^ancy ; Chapelot, Paris; and Ch. Lavauzelle.Paris. ARTS. — It is fairly easy to define the characteristics of art in Greece, Holland, Spain, or Italy ; easier still to state the moment when each of those countries reached the perfection of its art. But French art escapes definition, as much as our history or our race, and it is as impossible to state when it really attained its highest point, as to say at what time we were most truly ourselves in politics or philosophy. Indeed, the best way to classify our works of art is undoubtedly to group them under periods, coinciding with stages of our national evolution. Then the following essential points become quite clear : a) Owing to the general wealth of our soil, our artistic pro- duction has been exceptionally continuous and abundant. (The practice of any art implies the release of much accumulated energy ; general poverty is unfavourable to it.) b) The diversity of our climates and races has allowed us to practise successfully every form of Western art. c) We have been able to learn from all our neighbours, and to influence them all, owing to that same diversity. Our situation being central, this meant European expression and influence. d) This many-sidedness was not uniformly apparent at all times; the different gifts asserted themselves at different periods. Either one art took precedence over all others, or, in all arts, similar traits became predominant. For instance : in painting, colour may prevail over design, or inversely ; the gift of colour is more generally found in the North ; as a rule, it remains a gift (some men can be taught to draw, but most men remain hope- lessly colour-blind, from the artistic point of view). Now, when our political circumstances have caused discipline to prevail over freedom, design has asserted itself, and the South with it, in the history of our painting ; the gift for colour still existed, but had to await a more favourable opportunity. e) All life being rhythmical, a recurrence appears in the evolu- tion of our arts ; but life never retraces its steps, and therefore every period has been different from the last but one, - 31 - BAPAUME f) Our political unity being thej oldest and deepest in Europe, a certain standard remained apparent, in spite of those changes ; one element never predominated to such an extent that the others were entirely absent. Balance is perhaps the charac- teristic of our arts. Nor is this balance attributable to our national unity o^ily ; it is partly due to our traditional dislike of pure emotion (a personal temporary factor) ; in our arts, as in our literature, the mind remains the great task-master who selects and combines the means of expression, ensuring due proportion, order, restraint, saving contrasts. Emotion may provide the loftier purpose, but must remain the key-note of the melody ; that, but no more ; as to manual skill (very common in France), it is expected to do its best, but must keep in the back-ground ; an excellent pianist may be a bad composer, and a worse critic. Perfect art is neither " mere genius ", nor " mere cleverness ": it stands in a middle region where the Frenchman is at home. The actions and reactions of those several factors will better appear in the various chapters on Architecture, etc. Their net result has been that, while some other nations have given to the world artists who rank as high as any of our, own, the bulk of our artistic production stands unparalleled in continuity, variety, and influence. Books recommended. — Andre Michel, L'Histoire de I' Art (Colin, 15 fr. a vol.). Hourticq, Ars Una. France. Full bibliographies and 943 illustrations. (Hachette; 7 fr- 50). BAPAUME. — It was a small city of hardly more than 3,000 ; but, like most cities of Picardy, it had strategic value, and its history has been proportionately dramatic. In the xvth century, Louis XI burnt it down, like Arras. In the xvith, Charles V of Spain captured it, and made it his bul- wark against Peronne, which was at the time the stronghold of the French. Francis I besieged it successfully in 1537. The " Ligue " gave it to the Spanish ; it was besieged and taken, in 1 64 1, by a general of Richelieu, finally made French by the treaty of 1659, and fortified by Vauban. The " Allies " occupied it in the xviiith and xixth centuries ; Napier was Camp- Commandant of Bapaume as late as 1817... The old ramparts were demolished in 1847. In 1870, our "Armee du Nord" under Faidherbe, defeated Prince Albert of Prussia just outside the little city. (It was the same army that fought the Prussians at Pont-Noyelles, between Albert and Amiens.) Such a history partly accounts for the great presence of mind of the people is this war : they know all about invasion. They know what to expect, and what is worth, or is not worth doing. As long as the land is theirs, and they are able to work it, they are ready to endure almost anything. Houses are soon built again, - 32 - feAYONEt S,nd it is no more use making them too durable than crying over their disappearance. (The wanton destruction of fruit-trees is quite another matter.) The staple industries of Bapaume were... mus in and lawn; does not this remind one of that starling described by Sterne as singing in its little cage between the awful walls of the Bastille, and of "butterflies broken on wheels " ? BAYONET. — Said to have been invented at Bayonne, in the time of Richelieu. It replaced the pike, and was a blade of steel fixed inside the muzzle of the gun. Some companies were armed with The Lion of Belfort (see next page). Carved in the face of the rock at the foot of the fortress, standing near the Lion. Note the two men it as early as 1642. It was issued to one full regiment in 1671. In 1 701, a means was found at last to fix it alongside the barrel ; two ye ars later, Vauban issued it to all infantry troops. The " bai'onneite " is the favourite weapon of our infantry. The shape of the French bayonet is such that it can pierce easily, but cannot cut. " The bayonet has always been the weapon of the brave and the main instrument of victory ; it is the one that suits French soldiers best. " (Napoleon.) Books recommended. — Le Combat d la ba'ionnette (Berger-Levrault, o fr. 75).— A larger treatise by Capt. Gauchet (snme publ i fr. 25). SAILLENS 33 3 BELFORT EELFORT. — The fortress of that name and the small territory adjoining, are all that was left to France, after 1871, of the province of Alsace. It was excluded from annexation on account of its splendid defence ; its commander. Col. Denfert-Rochereau, had held it from the early part of the war until the last day. A gigantic lion, carved in the rock of the fortress by Bartholdi, the French artist who executed the statue of " Liberty " of New York harbour, is the proud memorial of that defence (see illustr. page 33). A bronze replica of that lion, on a moderate scale, can be seen in Paris, on the "Place Denfert-Rochereau ", near the entrance to the Catacombs. BOURGEOIS — The word is often used, because it has many meanings. To an artist, the " bourgeois " is the hateful Philis- tine. To the manual worker, he is the man who never takes off his coat at his work. To the historian, he is that middle class which patiently achieved the overthrow of the aristocracy. Indeed, it is difficult to define or explain the bourgeois of present times without some reference to his origins. He was not a " citizen ". The citizen was a perfectly free man, belonging to the aristocracy of the great independent centres of Roman days. The first ••bourgeois " were peasants, who left their unsafe scattered cottages, and clustered around the fortresses (Germ. Burg) of some knights, thus gradually forming " bourgs " (boroughs). Their ranks were continually swelled by other peasants, and they gradually became strong enough for self- defence. Hence their desire to pay less and less for a protection which they less and less required. They greatly contributed to the rise of absolute monarchy, as they so frequently appealed (spe- cially from the xiith century), from their feudal lords to their common liege the King. Between an ever-oppressed peasantry, and an ever-free aristo- cracy, they were the slow-moving, rising class, consisting of offi- cials, well-to-do farmers, merchants, doctors, and lawyers. The lawyers were the most active ; they alone knew exactly how to substitute justice for caprice, and provide the Iving with legal in- struments against the unruly knights. This complex character of a continuous rise, by work, brains, and money, within legal limits, is the essence oi "bourgeoisie" . Hence the slow and sure methods, the matter-of-fact habits, ridiculed by artists, who leap at new ideas, and take risks gladly. _ Hence the satire of Moliere, who reminds "Monsieur Jourdain" that he wants to rise too fast. Hence also, since the Revolution, a growing dif&culty in assigning definite limits to the " bourgeoisie "as a class. Our nobles are gradually led to making money, while few of our peasants or artisans do not dream of making ••bourgeois" of their sons No class is absolutely stable, and every class believes in legal - 34 " BOURGEOIS methods ; therefore, although some individuals and trades a.ri still regarded as below bourgeois status, all classes are permsated with the bourgeois spirit. What is exactly tbe bourgeois, status ? Money is no sufficient distinction: a badly paid official may be a bourgeois, when a rich farmer may be but a peasant. Education of course is an import- ant factor ; yet, the young counter-jumper who knows nothing but the prices of his cloth, regards himself as socially superior to the mechanic who understands electricity and modern machi- nery. In this case, the fact that the former always wears decent clean clothes, and never soils his hands, is predominant. On the whole, it might be said that the unconscious distinction lies be- tween those who mostly depend for their livingon physical exertion and those who do not. But the very word "most" shows how lax the distinction must be, in individual cases. At the "Eiats generaux" oii^oi, the "feoMyg'eofs"upheld the King against the Pope (see Religion), asserting that the King of France must have "no temporal ruler save only God only ". In 1356, after the defeat of Poitiers, the indignant ' ' bourgeois ' ' asked that the nobles, having betrayed their charge, should be deprived of their power, and the country ruled by Kin hand Parliament. As the clergy and nobles successfully opposed- this proposal, a general rebellion of the cities began, led by theParis merchant and mayor, Etienne Marcel ; the peasants joined them; this first revolu- tion was cruelly repressed, but the doctrines of democracy surviv- ed. The Etats of 1484 statee that " Kingship is an office, not an heirloom ", and that " th sovereign people, originally, had created all kings ." From theclear-headed, practical bourgeoisie, were selected the great ministers of our kings, from Michel de I'Hopital (our Thomas Morus) to men like Colbert or Turgot. Yet, in 1789, the deputies of the "JioMyg'eoJsie" complained to the King that, whilst the Church and the nobles enjoyed all the privi- leges of the eldest born, their own class was treated with the utter indiiierence offered to youngest sons in those days. To this the members for the aristocracy retorted : " We will not have the sons of shoe-makers and cobblers call us brothers ; there is as ^much difference between them and ourselves, as between valets and masters. " Our revolutions could not have succeeded without the vigorous action of the people, but the leading principles came from the middle class, as well as the new organizations of the national life immediately following upon such upheavals. Books recommended. — Vavasseur, Qu'est-ce que la Bourgeoisie? (Fontemoing, I fr.). — Bardoux, La Bourgeoisie jranfaise. Z5 — *' CAFES'' AND "RESTAURANTS*' " CAFES " AND " RESTAURANTS ".— " Cafes " are our clubs, where we are sure to meet the same friends at the same hours, and to be served at the same table by the same waiter ; ■ — our back offices, where we negociate a difficult piece of business over a quiet glass ; — their " terr asses " are the jetty-heads from which we command the surging crowd of the boulevards, as it ebbs or flows to or from the play-houses, or runs and laughs and screams- on festive "Mavdi-Gras" 2in6."Mi-Caremes" .now and then punish ing the indolence of the onlookers by splashing themwith its foam : confetti ! There can we write our correspondence on the paper provided by the establishment, until such time as our wives have done their shopping, or our sweet-hearts return from their music lessons. They provide for almost every need of man. Most of them are reistaurants as well ; many will offer you songs and dances after d°nner ; in others you are sure to watch the best games of chess, billiards, or skittles in the capital ; by taking a glass of beer at such a one, you may hear, to your heart's content, the great poet B... discuss the laws of rhythm, (or the new fashion in bodices), with some members of his " chapelle " ; at such another, S..., the famous tragedian, holds his levees; retired majors play a violent game of bridge at some " Cafe de la Paix ", while quiet students talk philosophy, beneath fair eyes, in the gloomy recesses of some other well-known Hall of Gambrinus. Choose, and enter ! But, being in France and in a " cafe ", ask for any drink you please except wine, or coffee. That is the fundamental paradox of French "cafes". If you ask for wine, the waiter will stare, then smile ; a " cafe " is not a " bistro " (a " pub "). If you ask for coffee, he will bring you a tepid brown- ish fluid which is best left alone. However, just after meals, you may venture to ask for a " special ". If you have chosen your " cafe " wisely, the waiter will bring you a little filter all for yourself, with fresh coffee dripping from it into the glass below. Coffee was first introduced into France by Thevenot, in 1657 ; it was then worth £ 5 16 s. a lb. The first "cafes" followed soon; literary " cafes " were in vogue as early as 1714. As to "restaurants" , they were instituted by one Boulanger in 1765. On the door of his shop was a Latin inscription : " Come unto me, all ye that are troubled in the stomach, and I will restore you. " Your happiness, in cafe or restaurant, will greatly depend on your tips. If they are too high, you will be regarded as the care- less millionaire, who might have given more. If they are too low !... Give 10 %. Books recommended- — Courteline : Un Client serieux. — and Tristan Bernard's light comedy : Le Petit Cafe. Gilson (C), Among French Inns. (Hodder & Stoughton, 1906). 36- CATHEDRALS CATHEDRALS — We have only 84 Archbishops and Bishops to-day, but French sees were more numerous on the eve of the Revolution, and even then some changes had already taken place in the ecclesiastical distribution of the country ; so that we possess \ojRL Daml ot Paris. Twice as wide, twice as long, and tour times as high as the Parthenon. This facade rises 223 feet above present Pans; as the level of old Pans was much lower, Notre- Dame used to stand at the top of a flight of 13 steps. The fagade consists of the 3 gatfs of the eastern side (other gates N. and S.) ; then a gallery, of 28 statues of French Kings. Over this gallery, two wide windows each including two ogives and a rose; between them, a rose of stone and glass 40 feet high, and above them an elegant colonnade ; then the towers. The windows in those towers are higher than the seven-storied house of modern Paris in the left of the picture. The towers are not identical ; they try to give the impression that they are, but they have no right to be; only the Cathedral of Ly^ns, first Christian City and Roman capital, is entitled to this dignity. The high sharp spire at the back rises just over the inter- section of nave and transepts. -37- CATHEDRALS 138 cathedrals : 54 at the former sees of : Agde, Alais, Aries, Auxerre. — Bazas, I3eziers, Blois. — Cite de Carcassonne, Castres, Chalon-sur-Saone, Condom. — Dax, Die, Digne, Dol. — Elne Embrun. — Gap, Grasse. — Laon, Lavaur, Lectoure, Les- car, Lisieux, Lodeve, Lombez. — Maillezais, Mirepoix, Mou- tiers. — Narbonne, Noyon. — Oloron, Orange. — Riez. — Saint- Bertrand-de-Comminges, Saint-Lizier, Saint-Malo, Saint-Omer, Saint - Papoul , Saint-Paul-Trois-Chateaux , Saint-Pol-de-Leon, Saint-Pons-de-Thomieres , Saintes, Sarlat, Senez, Senlis, Sis- teron. — Toul, Toulon, Treguier. — Uzes. — Vaison, Vence, Vienne. and 84 at the present archbishoprics and bishoprics of : (archbishoprics Paris . Aix . . Albi . . AucH . Avignon Besancjon Bordeaux BOURGES. Cambrai . Chamb^ry Lyons . . Rheims . Rennes . Rouen. . Sens. . . Toulouse Tours . . (bishoprics) Chartres, Meaux, Orleans, Blois, Versailles. Marseilles, Frejus, Digne, Gap, Nice, Ajaccio. Rodez, Cahors, Mende, Perpignan. Aire-sur-l'Adour, Tarbes, Bayonne. Nimes, Valence, Viviers, Montpellier. Verdun, Belley, Saint-Die, Nancy. Agen, Angouleme, Poitiers, Perigueux, La Ro- chelle, Lufon. Clermont-Ferrand, Limoges, Le Puy, Tulle, Saint-Flour. Arras. Annecy, Albertville, Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne. Autun, Langres, Dijon, Saint -Claude, Gre- noble. Soissons, Chalons-sur-Marne, Beauvais, Amiens. Quimper, Vannes, Saint-Brieuc. Bayeux, Evreux, Seez, Coutances. Troyes, Nevers, Moulins. Montauban, Pamiers, Carcassonne. Le Mans, Angers, Nantes, Laval. Our cathedrals are practically all built on the same plan, which is an adaptation of the Roman basilica to the requirements and inspirations of Christian worship. When, through the conversion of the Emperor Constantine, in 313, the Christians were able to worship publicly, they had no churches of their own, and used the largest public building of the time : the basilica, or lawcourt, which consisted of one or several long naves at the end of which sat the judges. By the xth century, the basilica had assumed the shape of a cross, by the addition of two " transepts " ; a tower at the gate served as bell-house and land-mark. How that fun- damental type, evolved from one original building and one reli- gion, came to develop into so many varieties, is explaioed under Architecture. -38- In •'I I E VIEW OF Notre-Dame of Paris. SLo\M!.o, I. t!„ ,.„„.^.,„rk scheme of Gothic architecture; 2. the grand simpli- city of early Gothic; no statues, very little carving; the building is supported by plain heavy pillars; 3. how the weight of the vault is divided so as to bear on the pillars only. CATHEDRALS Most of our cathedrals were begun in the xiith and the xiiith centuries ; few 'are older ; some, like Versailles, or Vence, were entirely or largely erected as late as the xviith and xviiith. Few of the older ones are quite finished ; they often have no spires (Notre-Dame de Paris, Amiens), or only one (Dol, Auxerre), when two were distinctly intended by the original architect. Further, as they were built over long periods, in no case has the original plan been adhered to : one of the spires of Chartres belongs to the xiiith, the other to the xvth ; the latter is not a replica of the former. But their incompleteness and composite character heighten, rather than diminish, the beauty of Gothic churches ; they are best compared with natural growths, and nobody would expect the trees in a forest to be " all complete " and identical . The Frenchman who first made a thorough study of Gothic art, and as a consequence was employed on the restoration of several of our cathedrals, was Viollet-le-Duc. They were still more or less picturesque, in spite of the cruel improvements of the two preceding centuries; he made them more "nice and clean" than they had ever been, did not hesitate to replace old statues by new or to carry out what the original architects " must " have intended, etc... Notre-Dame and Amiens suffered a good deal at his hands. The great difference between the Gothic church, the highest product of Western art, and its predecessors, is that while the latter were content to be as useful as possible, by accommodating a great many people, and being fortresses as well as places of worship, the Gothic church fills the two requirements and is a poem as well : the people's book, expressing in terms of architec- ture the ideals and facts of the religious life of the times. Notre- Dame can accommodate 7,000 people, and could stand a siege ; but, at the same time,' it tries to " rise " as high as it can ; the ogive is a device for obtaining height and the impressioo of height. Not only is the plan of the church in the shape of a cross ; in some cases, the choir slightly deviates from the axis, as the head of Our Lord must have turned aside when he was crucified. The string of little chapels all round the choir are His crown. The three gates are the symbols of the Holy Trinity, The altar is under the eastern windows, so that the people face Jerusalem when they face the altar ; they face Golgotha when the priest holds up the Host, and they bow their heads... On the pavement, a maze of coloured stones allows them to pray on their knees all the way to the centre of the maze, which they call Zion... The pillars are the apostles and martj^rs; and not only the designs, but the very colours in the windows, have mystic meanings ; every plant and animal shown in the decoration has a message to the soul or the mind, — 40 — CATHEDRALS They were not imagined by a few individuals, but by a race; norwere they intended exclusively for worship, but for business and pleasure as well ; specialization was less developed than to-day, Abside of Notre-Dame of Paris. Showing how the flying-buttresses complete and support the general frame-work (there are no proper walls here). Note that one series of buttresses press against the upper portion of the frame-work while other buttresses below them press oij intermediate points as well. — 41 ^ CATHEDRALS the result was mysterious harmonies, and amusing contrasts. Tha builders would give a block of stone to a shepherd, and let him carve what he liked, while he tended his sheep ; some extraordi- nary gargoyle, or cynical monk, was the outcome. A window was offered by a corporation, and the arms of the guild figured in the design. Chartres was built by the whole population of Beauce, who came and lived about the new walls ; the men would place the stones, the women drew water for the mortar made by the boys ; rich people provided food, and the priests distributed it. As to the architects of those churches, most of them have not left even a name. The finest of our cathedrals, and the dearest to us, was Rheims, which has been shelled intermittently since the beginning of this war. Ever since 496, when Clovis our first King was baptized there, the church at Rheims had remained the royal sanctuary. Napo- leon chose to be crowned in Notre-Dame, but Charles X received his crown in Rheims in 1825. The building now destroyed had seen Joan of Arc. It contained over 2,500 statues, and the windows were second to none. Amiens, according to Viollet-le-Duc, is our most perfect and most homogeneous Gothic church. Ruskin paid it ample justice. But it has been touched up and scraped " like new " more than was necessary. Chartres and Bourges are probably as fine, and certainly more eloquent. Date of Height of foundation vault Albi (brick) . . . Amiens , Beauvais Bordeaux .... Bourges Chartres Clermont-Ferrand Laon Paris Poitiers Rheims Rouen Soissons 1252 1220 1225 1096 "75 1140 1248 1150 1163 1162 1211 1200 1212 98 feet 141 157 108 124 120 95 131 III 98 124 174 108 Length 351 feet 469 » 236 » 450 » 387 ,. 426 » 263 » 360 » 426 » 312 » 460 » 426 » 326 » Height of towers 197 feet 200 » 213 » 279 » 213 » 377 » 355 » 246 » 223 » III » 207 » 492 » 216 » Books recommended- — Emile Male, L'Art religieux dii xiu" Steele en France (Colin, 25 fr.). — Huysmans, La Calhedrale, C}iar tr es (Vlon, s fr. 50). — Broquelet, Nos Cathedrales (Garnier, 5 fr.). — Ruskin, The Bible of Amiens. — Emile Male, La Calhedrale de Reims (Bloud, o fr. 60). Penuell (E.-R.), French Cathedrals, Monasleries and Abbeys (Fisher Unwin, 1909). — Rose (E.-W.), Cathedrals and Cloisters of Midland France (Putnam, New York, 1907). — Cathedral Cloisters of the South of France (Putnam, igi6). — Bumpas (T.-F.), Cathedrals of Southern France (T. Werner Laurie, London, 1913). - 42 - CITIES CITIES — Some important or well-known cities are : Inhab. Abbeville 20.700 Ajaccio 22.300 Amiens 90.900 Angers 83.000 Angouleme .... 37.600 Arras 24.900 Avignon 48.300 Bayonne 26.500 Besan9on 56.200 Bordeaux 251.200 Boulogne 51.200 Bourges 44.100 Brest 3.5 -300 Caen 44.400 Calais 66 . 600 Cambrai 27.800 Carcassonne . . . 31.000 Cette 34.000 Chalons-sur-Marne 27.800 Chambery 23.000 Cherbourg .... 44.000 Clermont-Ferrand 53.400 Colmar 42.000 Dieppe 23.600 Dijon 74.100 Douai 34.000 Dunkerque .... 38.300 Epinal 28.000 Grenoble 73.000 Havre (Le) .... 123.400 Laon 15.300 La Rochelle. . . . 33.900 Le Mans 65.500 Lille 206.000 Limoges 88.000 Lorient 46.500 Inhab. Luneville 24.300 Lyon (Fr. spelling) 472.000 Marseille (Fr. spelling) 517.000 Maubeuge .... 21.500 Metz 61.000 Mezieres 9.400 Montauban. . . . 28.700 Montpellier. . . . 77.200 Mulhouse 92.000 Nancy 110.600 Nantes ...... 162.000 Nevers 27.000 Nice 134.200 Nimes 80.200 Niort 23 . 300 Orleans 68.600 Paris 3.000.000 Pau 35- 000 Perpignan .... 39.000 Poitiers. . . ; . . 39.300 Reims (Fr. spelling) . no. 000 Rennes 75.600 Rochefort 36.700 Roubaix 121.300 Rouen 118.500 Saint-Etienne . . . 146.000 Saint-Nazaire. . . 35.800 Strasbourg (Fi'.cpel). 167.400 Tarbes 25.900 Toul 13.600 Toulon 103.600 Toulouse 149.000 Tourcoing 81.700 Tours 67.600 Valenciennes . . . 31.800 Versailles 55.000 Their narrow winding streets must often surprise our American friends ; they should bear in mind that our cities have grown " naturally ", house after house, an irregular path between two strings of houses slowly becoming a street. The citizens of a new country first design streets, and then build houses along them ; this method we followed only in a few cases ; for instance, when Saint Louis, in 1247, in order to check the growth of Toulouse (which was at the time outside his dominions), created a commer- cial centre at Carcassonne, a town was designed at the foot of the - 43 CLIMATE old fortress of the same name, with perfectly straight thorough* fares, running at right angles. This "American" method was again followed when Francis I created Le Havre 400 years ago, and when Richelieu designed Richelieu (21 kil. from Chinon). Just as our streets are as a rule naturally winding, and can be made straight only gradually, or at considerable cost, so are their cleanliness, sanitation, and means of communication, generally behind the times, from similar causes. Those of our villages that possess a source of electric power, can adopt electric light far more easily than our townspeople, who are bound to old contracts with gas companies ; Marseilles and Algiers had excellent and cheap trolleys long before Paris, etc. A new order is opposed by Nature far less than by older stages of civilization. CLIMATE. — The temperature is moderate as a rule ; the summer average is 18° Centig. (72.4 Fahr.) ; the winter average, 6° C. (48.8 F.). But averages may include distant extremes ; this is the case with France. Parts of France are as warm as Spain or Italy, others are under snow nine months in the year ; some are exposed to the East wind coming straight from Russia across Germany; others to the mild influences of the Gulf-Stream. The usual division is the following : Breton climate : distinctly mild ; soft rains ; drizzle ; the Gulf- Stream. Bordeaux (or Gironde) climate : much the same as the Breton, but warmer. Much rain, and plenty of sunshine. Parisian climate : less damp than both, and less warm; ex- tremely variable : the battle-ground of East and West. Picardy, Artois, Flanders, are under this climate. Vosges climate : very continental. Much snow and hard frost in winter, great heat and drought in summer. The East wind rules. Lyons climate : high mountains in the neighbourhood, and the cold violent wind called " mistral " (rushing down the Rhone valley from the Alps) mean a continental climate, severe and sudden, with heavy condensations along the valley. Auvergne climate : not harsh, but extreme also. (Auvergne is the region of extinct volcanoes, right in the centre of France.) Mediterranean climate : warm and dry as a rule ; would be perfect if the great differences of temperature between the coast and the neighbouring mountains did not raise violent winds. Marseilles, being situated at the end of the Rhone valley, suffers from the " mistral ", -^- CLIMATE Rain fails 150 days in the year on the West coast, only 55 days a year at Marseilles ; on the West coast in gentle showers or pro- longed drizzles ; by the blue sea in short violent spells. Owing to unknown causes (deforestation is suspected to be one), France is now colder than itwas. Climate and agriculture. — Our climate af- fects our agricul- ture quite dis- tinctly, by divid- ing our country into 3 areas: one, bordering on the Mediterranean, and including the Rhone valley to some distance in- land, is an area where the olive can grow. A Nor- thern area, bor- dering on the Channel, and in- cluding the whole of Brittany, Nor- mandy, Picardy, Flanders, Artois, and part of Ar- dennes, is one where the vine Betweln thSr extreme regions Ues the Atlantic area, which includes 2 h of France; normal French agriculture, with its combination of wheat-land, vineyards, meadows, forests, is to be found in that area. Climate and health. — It should be remembered : i. that generally speaking, our cHmate is intermediate between that ot En<^land and that of North America. It is more harsh than the former • more variable, but within more proximate extremes, than the latter • 2. that we make a distinction, from our human point of view between the cUmate of Lorraine, and that of Artois or Flanders. Lorraine has wine, Flanders not. This means that Artois or Flanders are wet, while the East as a rule enjoys dry bracing weather, whether in summer or in winter ; 3. however, the heat in France will never be what it is in New York (New \ ork is on the latitude of Madrid ; while Paris is further North than - 45 - The climates of France. COLONIES Quebec) ; nor the cold ever be so bitter or prolonged as in Canada (even our East is not very far from the Gulf-Stream). On the whole, our Allies need not fear our climate; if it is slightly different from their own, they will find that it does not affect their health to any extent. But both Britishers and Americans had better beware of its sudden changes, and wear wool. Woollen socks are the only thing for marching, especially in summer. Our best-known proverb on the subject of climate and health is : "In April, do not remove one thread. In May, do as you please. " {"En Avril, note pas un fil. En Mai, fais ce qu'il te plait. ") A second rule of health is : never drink water, unless you know it is safe and even then drink very little of it, unless you are on the march, or take food with it. Books recommended. — See : Geographical Outline. — Also : Mac Quarrie, How to live at the Front (Dippincott, 6 s.) COLONIES. — It is a matter of fairly common belief that the French are lacking in colonizing spirit, the assertion implying as a rule that the Frenchman is a born " fonctionnaire " , unfitted for individual enterprise. A more serious mistake about us could not very well be made. It is quite true that very often the Frenchman is deeply attach- ed to his fields and " familie ", and is fond of social life; but what better proof could be given of his ability as a colonist than the fact that in spite of this close affection for his home, he has built up no less than three successive colonial empires since the xivth century ? We are so far indeed from lacking individual resource as colonists, that our colonization has been almost enti- rely, save in recent times, the work of individuals. Until about 40 years ago, colonies were hardly ever a national affair with us ; the mother-country generally neglected her adventurous sons ; their activity and obstinacy forced over-sea possessions upon her; she lost them in European wars with a fairly light heart. In the xvith century, our Kings appreciated only the Colonies that produced gold ; in the xviith and xviiith, the spices of the West Indies ranked far ahead of the wheat lands of Canada. Voltaire called North America " a few acres of snow, " and " could have wished Canada at the bottom of the sea. " D'Argenson, the great Premier of Louis XV, stated that " if he had been the King, he would have parted with all the Colonies for a pin's head... " Choiseul, a very able minister, when he ceded Canada, thought he had "caught" the English, as their Colonies in the South could but rise against them, now that the French had left the North... We never took much interest as a nation in things Egyptian; even the Suez Canal left us indifferent, etc... With this official ignorance or indifference, compare the 65,000 " individual " French peasants left behind in Canada - 46 - Colonies in 1763 ; they are a minion and a half to-day, and have proved excellent colonists; they have never depended on " foncHon- narisme " . The case of England is almost the reverse ; there the nation made colonization her business as early as in the days of Eliza- beth, spent money and blood on it lavishly, made emigration easy, and at times almost compulsory. Not that the British have ever lacked energetic individuals (who also had to force colonies on the Little Englanders) ; but on the whole the State understood and led. Colonies are a necessity to England as a nation; to us as a nation they are merely useful; sometimes indeed they were burdensome : the defence of our soil was as much as we could manage. And so it has happened that the individual French traveller or colonist opened up Canada and India, which were secured thereafter by the national policy of England. It has been said that the British Empire was to a great extent " a present of the French " ; the statement, far from inviting ill-feeling on either side, would be of little interest to-day, if the amount of obvious truth which it contains did not establish beyond doubt, we think, that the Frenchman is not a born " fonctionnaire ", incapable of individual enterprise. We occupied Guinea as early as 1365 ; the Canaries in 1402, Brazil in 1503, Canada in 1518, Guiana in 1582, Madagascar in 1 601, etc. After the Seven Years' War, our defeat at Rosbach by Frederic of Prussia in 1757, the death of Montcalm at Quebec in 1759, and the taking of Pondicherry in 1761, we had to give Louisiana to Spain, and all the rest of our possessions (in- cluding Canada, India, Senegal) except Pondicherry and Chander- nagore, to England (Treaty of Paris, 1763). Thus ended our first Empire. Yet, only five years later, Bougainville gave us New Guinea, the New Hebrides, Tahiti, etc. We gradually regained most of our old Colonies, abolished slavery in 1794, conquered Egypt in 1798. But Napoleon sold Louisiana to the •United States, and... lost Waterloo, with the consequence that the Treaty of Paris of 1814 left us a few islands in the West Indies, 5 towns in India, Senegal, Guiana, Saint-Pierre and Miquelon. Thus much for our second Empire. However, in 1821, Rene Caille entered virgin Timbuctoo ; we occupied Tamatave in 1829, Algiers in 1830, Oran in 1831, Gabon in 1849, New Caledonia in 1853, Tourane (Indo-China) in 1858, began the Suez Canal in 1859, settled in Cochin-China in 1862, explored the Niger in 1865, etc... By 1871, we possessed over seas more than one milUon square kilom. with a population of 5 mill- ions. To-day, our third Empire is the second in importance in the world ; its area is over 11 million sq. kil. (22 times the area of France), and its population over 58 millions. Surely, those facts speak for themselves. COLONIES Algeria 925.000 sq. kil. 5.563.000 inh. Alger. Tunisia 125.000 1.923.000 Tunis. Morocco 800.000 6.000-. 000 Fez. Sahara 5.037.00^ 700.000 Senegal & Sudan . . . . 1.800. 001 12.700.000 Dakar. Gabon & Congo 1.800.000 8.500.000 Brazzaville. Madagascar 592.000 2.700.000 Tananarive. Reunion & Comores . . . 4.600 275.000 St-Denis. Somalee Coast 36.000 200.000 Djibouti. Total Africa. . . . 11. 119. 600 38.561.000 Fr. India 508 273.000 Pondichery, Fr. Indo-China 705.000 18.925.000 Hanoi. ToEAL Asia 705.508 19.198.000 New Caledonia 21.000 62.000 Noumea. Tahiti Group 4.100 30.000 Papeiti. Total South Seas. . 25.100 92.000 Saint- Pierre & Miquelon. 242 6^300 Saint- Pierre. Guadeloupe & Group. . 1.868 182.000 Pointe-a-Pitre. Martinique 988 207. oco Fort de France. Fr. Guiana 88.000 33.000 Cayenne. Total America. . . 91.098 428.300 Our most valuable Colony s Algeria, with its annexes Tunisia and Morocco. North Africa is only 500 miles from our coast, a 24 hours' crossing. Algeria is almost apart of France; it is divid- ed into '■ departements ", contributes i Army Corps, has a Univer- sity, etc. ; 15 % of its population are Europeans; 10 % are French. Its total trade has grown from 253 million francs in 1870 to more than 1. 000 millions; 3 /4 of that trade is with us. Wine, grain, vegetables, sheep, are its main productions. Algeria has proved an invaluable school to our soldiers and administrators ; it gradually led us to become an African power. General description of the French colonial contingent which has taken part in the European war. {Observer, Jan. 1917.) " These forces fall under three heads : French colonists, white natives, and coloured men. They do not include those troops — such as the " Infanterie Coloniale " or the Foreign Legion — which were garrisoned in the Colonies when the war began, but had all been recruited in Europe... No official figures have been issued as regards the contingent supplied by the French colonists. The last census, however, shows that there are 492,000 French- men in Algeria, 46,000 in Tunis, and 36,000 in Morocco, to which must be added 70,000 Algerian Jews who are all French citizens... This makes an aggregate of over 600,000 people, all liable to conscription... We are probably under the truth inputting the whole properly French contingent (most of whom serve as Zouaves) at about 60,000. SAILLENS =— 49 — ' 4 COLONIES "We are somewhat better informed as regards the native element from North Africa, whom the British public knows under the name of " Turcos ", and who are officially termed "Tirailleurs Algerians ", "Tunisians", "Marocains" : Tunis alone had, by March 15, 1915, raised a force of 41,000 men. On the other hand, Morocco, which is still half unconquered, has supplied a few thousand native troops. M. Boussenot, by the middle of 1916... stated that the white native force already raised by North Africa amounted to a total of 130,000 men... This contingent to-day is at least 150,000 men. " The main body of the coloured troops consists of blacks from French West Africa, who are usually called Senegalese, although they are recruited in all parts of the Fr. Sudan. These excellent troops have fought with distinction on the Somme and around Verdun, as well as in Gallipoli, or in Salonica... The " Jour- nal officiel " of Fr. W. Africa states that the number of Senegalese raised for the European War reached in 1916 the respectable figure of 118,000 men. Other equally official documents show that, if one adds the various coloured contingents supplied by Indo-China, Madagascar, and the West Indies, the total figure reached in 191 6 was well above another 150,000 men. " " This brings us to a grand total of 360,000 men actually in the ranks of the Army fighting on the various European fronts... It would not be surprising to hear that Greater France has supplied the mother-country with another half million men before the war is over. Neither have I taken into account the coloured forces which fought in Togoland and the Cameroons or the native labour imported into France A French north African SOLDIER. from the Colonies... " This is yesterday's effort. What about the future ? " Books recommended. — Novels and descriptions by Pierre Loti, Louis Bertrand. — Commandant Baratier, La Mission Marchand (B?rrere, 1903). — Henri Lorin, L'Ajrique du Nord (Colin, 3 fr.). — General Lyautey, Du Role colonial de I'armee (Colin, o fr. 50). — Chiq siecles et demi d'aciiviie coloniale (Didier, fr. 60). The French Colonies' effort (Bloud, o fi. 50). — Balch (T. W.), France in North Africa (Allen et Scott, Philadelphia, 1906.) — Bradley (A. G.), The Fight with France for North America (Constable, 1908), See also : Geographical outline. -30- GOMEDIE FRANgAISE^ "COMEDIEFRANCAISE." (The old meaning of •• comedie" V7a.5 " drama ", i. e. tragedy as well as comedy.) — It is well known that our principal theatres, in Paris and in the provinces, receive financial support from the State or the towns. The most famous of those national institutions is the " Comedie Frangaise " in Paris, also called "la Maison de Moliere", " le Theatre Frangais", or simply : " le Frangais". It was founded by Louis XIV in 1680, seven years after the death of Moliere, by the fusion of the two main theatrical com- panies existing in Paris at the time. It occupied se- veral sites (1689, 1770), but enjoyed an unrivalled repu- tation and a happy fruitful existence until the Revolution brought about a conflict be- tween the old conservative house and a young com- petitor which called itself " Theatre de la Republique " ; — upon which the Comedie assumed the name of " Thea- tre de la Nation " . The Convention in 1791 disestablished all theatres ; whereupon the " Comedie " became more imprudently royalist than ever. The whole company were arrested in 1793, some of them being released on condition they joined the rival house. When the rest were released in their turn on the 9th Thermidor (the day when the rule of Robespierre came to an end), they revived the old " Comedie " which soon outshone its young opponent, because of its supe- rior technique, especially in comedy. But, after a number of unfortunate and intricate transactions private enterprise, by favouring competition rather than co-opera- tion, dispersed the original artists, and the creation of a second inferior company, the first artists of the "Odeon". At last the Government took the matter in hand, and by regulations dated 1799 re-organized the original company and established them in the present house near the " Palais-Royal " built by Louis, in 1787; (destroyed by fire, in 1900; re-built the same - 51 - Voltaire by Houdon, (in the lobby of the Comed.e Frangaise). See Literature, and Sculpture. COMMERCE year). Napoleon, in 1803, framed for them a more precise constitution, and then another, still in force to-day, which he signed at Moscow in 1812. The house is under the presidency and administration of a State official, the " Administrateur General " ; the artists have an important share in the artistic management, but admissions and dismissals are in the hands of the Government (" Ministre de I' Instruction Publique et des Beaux-Arts "). Promotion is given partly by vote, partly for long service. All members are entitled to a pension upon retiring from active service, like other State officials. The " Comedie Francaise " is the best theatre in the world ; its standard is very high, as it does not depend on one or two "stars", but on the taste of cultured Frenchmen past and present, and on the cumulative teachings of all our best actors since Louis XIV. No one can say that he really understands our classical drama until he has heard the artists of the " Comedie ". They teach more about Corneille and Racine than most masters or critics could do ; because the " Comedie " maintains the living atmosphere in which the plays came to life, and without which they can appeal to the emotions but indirectly and imperfectly. Another service rendered to us by the " Comedie " is that of preserving a standard of French pronunciation ; on that point it co-operates with the " Academie " in keeping our language pure. The "Opera", as a national company, is still older than the " Comedie " ; it was founded in 1671. The " Opera-Comique " was founded about 1716 and re- organized in 1 801. The " Odeon " (or " Second Theatre Frangais ") and " Conser- vatoire " (see Music) are also State-aided institutions. As a result of those subsidies, the prices of the seats in all those houses are very moderate. Books recomniended. — Bonnassies, La Comedie Franfaise (Perrin). — Tisse- rand, Plaidover pour ma maison, le Theatre Fraiifais (Paris, 1866). ■ — • Works of J. Claretie, Larroumet, Francisque Sarcey, Jules Lemaitre. COMMERCE — Our home trade is about ten times more import- ant than our foreign trade. Full and accurate statistics are not available. Our foreign trade was steadily growing before the war. The high protective tariffs of 1892 had made it decline at first, from 9,000 million francs in 1890 to 8,000 in 1893; but the pro- gress of our colonies and our industries soon made it rise again; it reached 12,700 million francs in 1912. (U. K. : 30,350 ; Germ. 20,000 ; U. S. A. 16,500.) - 52 — COMMERCE Imports : 6,700 million francs ; 53 % of total trade (U. K. 16.950). a) Food-stuffs : 16.7 % of total imports. Coffee from Brazil and our own Colonies (100 to 120 millions); grain from U. S. A., Russia, Algeria, Argentina ; rice from Indo-China ; tea, sugar, rum, etc. b) Manufactured articles : U. S. A., U. K., Germany. c) Raw materials : 64.5 %. 18.8 %. Mostly machinery from Wool from Australia, Argentina; cotton from U. S. A., Egypt, India ; silk from China and Italy ; t S / -V* FOREIGN TRADE %■ f. Possessions of French nobles. Frontiers of France in ISm--,-., Maps showing how, after the partition of Roman Gaul into petty feudal states, a united France grew again, slowly and surely, under the wise guidance of the Capetians. The Revolution pursued their policy with even grea.er energy, and carried our frontier to the Rhine once more. Under Napoleon III, Savoy and Nice (white spaces S-E of last map), were aimexed by referendum. -87- HISTORICAL IV. — Capetian France. — The Capetian dynasty slowly evolved absolute monarchy from feudalism. On this point does our his- tory contrast sharply with that of England. In both countries (in spite of some vigorous rulers like William the Conqueror or Philippe-Auguste) the king was at first but the lord paramount, first among his peers ; his authority was often more formal than real. But, in England, the nobles never substantially alienated their rights nor their duties ; they stepped in between the King and the people ; Magna Charta is the charter not only of the ' English democracy, but of the English aristocracy as well. The absolute rule imported from France by the Conqueror, and partly revived much later, again under French influence, by Charles I, could but yield to the federative instinct of England. 'On the con- trary, the K^ing and people of France lent each other mutual sup- port against the disorderly unscrupulous nobles. Although the people had rallied to the King before (1124 and 1 214), one may say that the turning point, the moment when the people finally looked up to the King, and away from the nobles, was the day when Joan of Arc, at Chinon, ignoring the gay courtiers, went straight to the " gentle Dauphin. " Under the next King, the democratic policy of our Royalty is plainly discernible : Louis XI made it a point to take advice from his barber, and invite himself to burghers' houses, the while hekept his own brother in duress, and hung up a Cardinal for fourteen years in a cage of iron. Henry IV was a man of the people in many respects. Not blood, but brains, ruled the land under Richelieu ; his King destroyed noble manors by fire and cannon. The noblemen tried in vain to shake the growing power of their Liege; expeditions to Italy, Spain, Germany, like the Crusades of old, exhausted their energies and allayed their ambitions. Hen- ry IV routed the Ligue, and Mazarin disarmed the Fronde. Louis XIV might safely treat his nobles like valets; he could say proudly and truly : " L'Etat, c'est moi! " (the State is myself). He was indeed absolute master of all the resources of the land. France reached for one brief moment the acme of unity, power, and prestige... Yet under Louis XIV himself began the decline of both unity and power. When one man is the whole State, what must become of the State when that man gets old, or dies ? The worst of abso- lute rulers is that they rule so little, really. The army and the police are at their command, but they follow the suggestions of their kinsmen, of their courtiers, and of their own follies. The French noblemen turned from partisans to flatterers, and instead of living on the people direct, lived at Versailles on the King's bounty; the people gained little by the change. The King, having no further need of the support of the people, wasted the country's substance in luxurious living and vainglorious wars. Discontent arose, slight at first, against the favourites, then the King himgelf, then all kings, and the very principle of absolute HISTORICAL monarchy ; expressing itself in whispers under Louis XIV, in books under Louis XV, in bloodshed under Louis XVI. The original home of Absolute Monarchy became a Republic. The Capetian period lasted 800 years, a transitional period of 100 years beginning about 1774 came to a close in 1870. Those 800 years (987-1789) fall into six great divisions: i. slow extension of the King's possessions, by Capetian methods; 2. 100 Years' War; 3. resumption of Capetian policy; 4. wars in Italy; 5. wars of Religion ; 6. triumph of Absolute Monarchy. V. — Republican France visibly began on July 14, 1789, when the " good people of Paris " took the Bastille Saint- Antoine, a stronghold in which the King could emprison any of his subjects " during the pleasure of His Majesty. Joan of Arc at Chinon marks the enfranchisement of the people from feudal rule ; the taking of the Bastille marks the enfranchise- ment of the people from monarchy. But this new stage could be at first but a violent crisis, which is only just over to-day. After centuries of stern discipline, a na- tion does not become free by one stroke of the pen, or one stroke of the guillotine. Therefore this latest period was feverish, and so- mewhat confusing; Kings alternated with Emperors and Republics, as if France did not know her own mind... Yet there is no doubt about the general trend of events. It is more than probable that the Republic has come to stay, at this third attempt which began in 1870, though it should not be forgotten that what the Revolu- tion had planned, and nearly accomplished, was the effort of the elite ; the vast majority of the nation merely desired the removal of certain abuses ; what happened then had its counterpart in the short-lived theocracy of Cromwell. Even now, true Republican principles have sunk less deep than one might suppose. The peasant, who is France essential, is a Republican so far as he might lose his hold on the land if King and nobles came back to power ; but he has remained quite individualistic, and does not appreciate association ; his working-theory is not that citizens are freemen, who should understand and help each other, and that general progress depends on private initiative. On the contrary, he has retained the haunting conception of an all-powerful " Govern- ment ", which may be strong and wise as God, or strong and harm- ful as the Archfiend, like that of the Kings of old, with this great difference that, now there is a Republic, he can, by his vote, " blackmail " that tremendous force to some extent : a non- democratic view of democracy which is slowly but surely vanishing. Parties : our Socialists are sometimes no^y, often eloquent ; but they wield far less power than is generally believed, as our population is so largely agricultural. At the other extreme (we say : the Right : " la droite " ) we still have Royalists, many of them active young men, who believe that France must preserve hex unity on the old lines at all cost, and get rid of " la,wyers, " HISTORICAL The intermediate political region is extensive, and divided intc many schools. The most important, which has ruled France for a number of years because it represents, in the main, the favourite views of the country at present, is the " Radical-Socialist " party ; its name might mislead one ; it means that some members of the old " Radical Republican " party, seeing that their colleagues were becoming as conservative as the " Republicains ' , took a leaf from the Socialist book. It is hoped that these preparatory remarks (see also : Situa- tion) will help the reader to connect the data of the following. CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY. I. — Pre-Roman Gaul. B. C. 1600 (?). — Celts conquer S. France and Spain, held by Iberians. 600. Gauls conquer N. Italy. Greeks settle in S. Gaul. 390. Gauls sack and ransom Rome. 280 to 189. Celtic tribes take Macedonia, Thrace, Thessaly, enter Delphi, Asia Minor; settle in Galatia, which remains independent until B. C. 25; Saint Jerome, four centuries later, recognizes in Asia Minor the language he had heard about the Moselle and Rhine. (See Alsace-Lorraine.) 283 to 192. Second attack on Rome, with Hannibal; war of Hannibal against S. France. Defeated Gauls settle about Danube, Bohemia, and Bavaria. 154-118. Rome annexes Mediterranean coast from Alps to Pyrenees as a passage to her new province of Spain, no- 102. A deluge of Teutons and Kymri, rushing down from the Baltic to Spain, are crushed near Marseilles by Marius, a Roman general. 58-50. Suevi and Helvetii enter Gaul; help of Rome asked for; in 7 campaigns and 9 years /. Caesar drives back the Barbarians, and conquers Gaul for Rome, in spite of Vercingetorix . (See: Soldiers) II. — Roman Gaul (B. G. 50 — A. D. 486.) A. D. 41. Lyons founded, and made capital of Gaul. 160. Saint Irenaeus establishes Chnstianity \n Lyons; martyred 203. 241. Romans beat back first Frankish invaders. 313. Constantine's conversion makes Christianity official religion. 359 . Julian establishes Frankish tribe in Belgium. 407. Gaul laid waste by Vandals, etc. 419. Visigoth Empire founded over Spain and S. Gaul; cap, Toulouse. 438. Clodion, a Frankish chief, first of Merovingians, advances to the Somme. 433. Hmws enter Gaul ; are routed at Chalons in 421, by Romans, Gauls, Visigoths, and Franks. 165.000 men killed in one day. Attila retires into Germany. 486. Clovis defeats Syagrius, last representative of Roman power in Gaul. End of Roman occupation. The Frankish capital is Soissons. III. - Frankish Rulers (486-987.) a). — Merovingians. 428. Clodion. — 429. Merovee. — 458. Childeric I. 481.. Clovis defeats the Romans at Soissons (486), the Alamans at Tolbiac (496), and embraces Christianity ; the Burgundians at Dijon (500), the Visigoths at Vouille (507). All France is under one king. He had reigned 30 years, and died at 45. His four sons divide the realm... — 90 — HISTORICAL 628. Dagobert extends his power over the Basques, the Bretons, and throughout Ger- many, to the Danube and the Bulgars. Builds the Abbey of Saint-Denis (638), in which himself and all French Kings are buried. Hisprimeminister is Saint Eloi, a goldsmith. Both names survive in a nursery-rhyme ; Saint Eloi is a great favourite in the N. of Fr. because he is the patron saint of all workers in metals. — 638, Two sons divide the realm... 732 . Under the last of the « idle kings » , a Frankish duke, Charles the Hammerer, beats the Arabs at Poitiers (732); driven out of N. Fr., Arabs take Avignon (^37), and Charles crushes them out by destroying their strongholds: Nimes, Beziers, etc. b). — Carolingians. 752 . Pepin, son of the Hammerer, assumes the crown ; fights the Frisians, the Saxons, the Lombards, gives a kingdom to the Pope, subdues S.-W. Fr. after 8 years' war. — 768. His two sons divide the land. 771. Charles (later Charlemagne) survives, and, after defeating the Lombards in N. Italy, the Arabs in N. Spain, the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the last Huns about the Danube (33 years'fighting against Saxons), 800 . Is crowned Emperor 0/ the West by the Pope, in Rome, on X'mas Eve 800. First Norman raids in France in 804. (Charlemagne dies 814.) 843. By the treaty of Verdun, the Empire of Charlemagne is divided between his three grandsons : Lothair has Italy, Alsace, Holland, and the title of Emperor; Louis le Germanique, all Germany; Charles, a France bounded in the East by the Rhone, Saone, Argonne, and Scheldt. Norman raids more frequent; Paris ransomed, Rouen burnt. Charles, at Lothair's death, annexes Lotharingia (Lorraine) ; assumes imperial title ; and invades Italy. (See map page 85.) 887. Eudes, Count of Paris, a great fighter of the Normans, is made King. From this date, the new dynasty alternates with the old. — Rollo is made Duke of Normandy. IV. — The Capetians (987-1789). a). — Rise of Royal Power. 987. Hugues Capet. Merely a feudal lord among others ; defeats Charles of Lorraine, and the Count of Poitiers. 996. Robert. Annexes Burgundy. Rising of Norman peasants ; first heretics burnt ; Normans established in Sicily and S. Italy (1016). 1031. Henri I. Gives Burgundy to his brother; Burgundy lost for 300 years. Fights his vassals. 1060. Philip I. Rise of chivalry; institution of free cities, and town-militias. French expansion : Raymond of Toulouse king of Spain ; Norman kingdom in Italy (1055) ; Normans in England (1066) ; first Anglo-French war (1087) ; Kng's nephew founds Portugal (Port of Gaul) (1095) ; first Crusade (1096) ; Jerusalem taken and Godefroy de Bouillon king of Jerusalem (1099). 1 108 . Louis VI the Fat. Fights unruly vassals ; tries to weaken his vassal Henry I. of England, who routs him at Brenneville (1119), and induces Emperor of Germany to invade France. Louis calls on the town-militias ; the large army collected at Rheims frightens the Germans, who retire without fight- ing (1124). Wars in Flanders, Auvergne, and beyond the Loire. 1137. Louis VII the Young. Leads the second Crusade, to Palestine (1147-49). Di- vorces inii52 Eleonoreof Aquitaine,who laavueS Henry Plantagenet. (That disastrous divorce will lead to 300 years'war, as Henry, already master of Anjou, Maine, Touraine, inherits Normandy and England from his mother in 1 154; receives Guyenne, Poitou, Saintonge and Angoumois from Eleo- nore, and personally conquers Brittany. . .). Besides, the dangerous Duchy of Austria rises in 1156. — A great minister : Sugar, — 91 — HISTORICAL il8o. Philip II (PhiUppe-Auguste) annexes Artois ; defeats league of nobles (1185); fights Henry I in France; Jeads the 3rd Crusade with Richard Li'on Heart. While Richard is prisoner in Austria, helps his brother John Lack- land against him. Richard, released, dies in France. John murders Arthur. Is sentenced to death by his French peers and his liege Philippe; Nor- mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, are confiscated to' the French Crown. John allies with German Emperor and Count of Flanders. Knights and militias beat German Emperor at Bouvines (near Lille), in 1214. — In 1208 and 1219, two Crusades against Albigenses (S. France) : — Languedoc conquered. — In 1204 and 12 17, two Crusades to the East : Constantinople taken, and Beaudoin Emperor; French nobles divide- Greek Empire. .Wise administration.. Paris fortified and paved; Louvre 'bniti.; Notre-Dame begun ; embryo University organized in Paris in 1200. 1232. Louis VIII the Lion; Conquers Poitou, Aunis and Saintonge, from the English. Annexes Limousin, Perigord. Guyenne remains English. 1226. Louis IX (Saint Louis), is then but a child; his mother, Blanche de Casfille, rules with much wisdom and energy ; defeats several vassals. — German Emperor leads 6th Crusade (1229); pagan Prussia first colonized by Knights of Teutonic Order (1230). King Louis defeats a vassal, helped by Engl, army, at Taillebourg (1242), leads 7th Crusade, to Egypt; is made prisoner ; peasants organize a crusade for his delivery; in 1259, for peace sake, Louis presents to England Limousin, Quercy, and Perigord ; in 1264, arbitrates at Amiens between Henry III and his barons. Leads 8th Crusade, to Tunis; dies there. — Parliament of Paris. (High Court) established ; building of Sainte Chapelle, Sorbonne, hospitals . . . Royal coin extended to whole Kingdom. 1270. Philip III the Bold. Languedoc annexed : Valdenses of Languedoc persecuted. French massacred in Sicily (1282); expedition to Sicily, then to Aragon, Spain having helped Sicily. 1285. Philip IV the Handsome. Master of Champagne and Navarre by. marriage; conquers Flanders and Guyenne ; loses them. Helps the Scotch against Edward \. Annexes Lyons: . 1314. Louis X the Headstrong. Enfranchises his serfs. His daughter debarred from the throne by the so-called Salic Law. 1316. Philip V the Tall. Brother of Louis X; wise administration. 1322. Charles IV the Handsome. Another brother of Louis X., as Philippe had left no son. Charles leaves no son either. 132S. Philip VI (de Valois), grandson of Philip. III. EdwardIV of England claims succession. Begins 100 Years' War. Crecy (1346) ; Calais lost (1347) ; the Black Death (1348). 6). — 100 Years' War. 1350. John II the Good. French and English fight in Brittany; then in Normandy; Black Prince lands at Bordeaux ; invades Centre ; is victorious at Poitiers (1356) ; Jean prisoner ; great rising of Fr. peasants against Engl, plunderers and idle French nobles ; John's ransom is 12 provinces and 3 cities (treaty of Bretigny, 1360). In 1362, English is substituted for French in English Courts. 1364. Charles V the Wise Successful wars (Duguesclin) against Navarre, Brittany, Spain, allies of England; friendly prince made king of Spain ; Black Prince takes Limoges ; but is routed at Pontvalain (1371) ; Engl, driven from Poitouin 1373. Two more Engl. invasions (1373, 1376) defeated. Languedoc and Auvergne rise in 1378 ; rising quelled. — When Charles and Duguesclin die (1380), the only English possessions in France are Bordeaux, Bayonne, Calais. J380. Charles VI the Well-Beloved. Rise of Paris and several cities, mostly Flemish, a.sainst nobles. Flemish defeated (1382), and Parisian burghers hanged. Civil wars. Expedition \.o Naples (1-^?,^) ; Duke of Bourbon in Tunisia (i^qo), ^ 92 — HISTORICAL Joan of Arc from a medaillon by E. Dropsy. King insane (1392). French Crusade in Hungary against Turks (1395). In 1410 duke of Anjou takes Rome. In 1411 beginswar ot Armagnacs,\&(i.hy King's son, against Biirgundians under liis cou- sin. Engl, land in France (1415) : Azincourt; besiege Rouen (1418) while Burgundians enter Paris and massacre Armagnacs ; Engl, enter Paris (1420). — Charles dies 1422, and Henry VI of England is proclaimed king of France at Saint- Denis. 1422. Charles VII reigns at first over five provinces only, in ' Centre and S. France; Joan of Arc relieves Orleans (1429) ; dies 1431. In 1435, Charles disarms iSurgundian allies of England ; the latter leave Paris (1436). French nobles rise (la Piaguerie) (1440) ; are defeated. Dangerous bands of hired foreign soldiers are sent to fight in Switzerland and Lorraine ; a permanent national army created (1440) ; Rouen reconquered (1449) ; Engl, routed in Normandy (1450), in Guyenne (1453) ; keep Calais. End of 100 Years' War. (French landing in England, 1457.) — Nobles, led by King's own son, rise in 1455 ; are severely punished, but King dies broken-hearted. c). — Capetian policy resumed. 1461. Louis XI. A powerful coalition of nobles ("Ligue du Bien Public") defeated (1465). League of Burgundy, Guyenne, England : Duke of Guyenne, King's brother, probably poisoned. Burgundy invades the North. Engl, land at Calais, and are bought out. North relieved. Great nobles emprisoned, tortured, beheaded. Rise of .\ustria ; Fr. defeated by Austr. at Guinegate. Duke of Burgundy dies in Switzerland. "Louis mheriis ArtoisAnA Burgundy; the Low Countries go to Austria. (See page 86). d). — Expeditions to Italy. 1483. Charles VIII. Leads expedition to Italy. Enters Milan, Florence, Rome, Naples ; Italian princes ally with Spain, Austria, England ; we leave Italy. 1498. Louis XII. From 1500 to 1514, Italy is regained (Bayard), reconquered by Spain, partly regained, lost again. Engl, victorious at Guinegate (1514). Swiss reach Dijon ; Spaniards take Navarre. 1515. Francis I. Crosses the Alps; victory of Marignan (1515) ; is knighted by Bayard on battlefield. In 1516, Charles V, Emperor of Austria, becomes King of Spain. Henry VIII allies with Charles (1520) against France. N. France saved by Bayard ; Marseilles relieved ; Austrians pursued into Italy ; Francis beaten and made prisoner in Italy, (Pavia 1525) : Italy, Flanders, Artois, Burgundy are lost, and King must marry sister of Charles. Engl, allies with us and Italy. F'rance recovers Burgundy ; Francis allies himself with Turks. Second and third campaigns in which we annex Savoy and Piemont, lose and regain Provence and Picardy ; Hungary invaded by Turks ; French and Turkish fleets bombard Nice. Engl, turns against us again ; Picardy and Champagne invaded, then saved. Imperials defeated in Italy, at Cerisoles. Henry takes Boulogne. — When Francis dies, we have lost Italy ; but Charles V has no hopes of ruling Europe. e). — 'Wars of Religion. 1547. Henry II. Helps Protestant Germany against Charles, while persecuting French Protestants. Metz, Tout, Verdun, taken from Charles (1552) ; Lorraine and Luxemburg occupied. Charles abdicates (1556) ; Austrian Empire divided. Henri allies with the Pope against Philip of Spain. Guise invades Italy ; Philip enters Picardy. Paris saved by defence of Coligny in — 93 — HISTORICAL Saint-Quentin. Guise takes Calais (1558). We lose Savoy and Piemont.— * (First " Reformed church " in Paris established (1555). 1559. Francis II. Marries Mary Stuart. Dies childless. 1560, Charles /X brother of F. II. — Catherine de Medicis Regent. Civil wars begin, (1560-1594) ; Saint- Bartholomew (1572) 1574. Henry III, brother of Ch. IX. — 8th civil war .The King, and the supporters of Guise, the Catholic candidate to the throne, defeated at Coutras (1587) by Henri de Navarre, the lawful heir, in spite of the defeat of the foreign troops that help the Huguenots. Guise, the King being weakened, becomes threatening ; Paris rises in his favour ; he is murdered the same year (1588). King Henry murdered (1589). 1589 . Henry IV of Navarre, brother-in-law of Henri III, and direct descend- ent of Saint Louis, is of pure French blood, like Guise, but he is a Huguenot and Queen Elizabeth supports him. His opponents are the members of the "Ligue", who rely on Spain. After the death of Guise, the Ligue looks for another candidate, and quarrels with Spain over that choice ; Henri, seeing that the only obstacle between him and the people is his religion, abjures at Saint Denis (1593), and is crowned at Chartres (1594). Paris, then held by the Spanish, opens its gates at once ; Span, garrison leaves the same day. H. delivers Burgundy from the Spanish (1595). Spanish invade Picardy, take Amiens ; Picardy regained same year (1597). Brittany, last defender of the "Ligue", submits. Edict of Nantes gives legal status to Protestants (1598). A fanatic murders Henri (1610). H. had framed a Scheme for the permanent peace of Europe, through a European league, and arbitration. Champlain settles Canada in 1604; it had been discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1535. /). — From 1624 : triumph of absolute monarchy. 1610. Louis XIII, (and ifjc/ietow, from 1624J. Risings of nobles and Protestpnts ; Spa- niards deteated in Tyrol ; noblemen beheaded ; political power of Protestants broken (1629), after siege of La Rochelle,and a campaign in the South. Expe- dition to Italy successful. Cardinal Richelieu interferes in 30 Years'War, allies with Protestants of Germany, Sweden, Holland, against Catholic Spain and Austria. Rhine, Italy, Pyrenees, threatened by Imperials. Spaniards take Corbie (1636) .. Victories on every hand; /4/sace conquered (1639) ; Arras retaken (1640) ; Roussillon regained (1642) ; Spaniards routed at Rocroi by young Conde, a few days after the King's death. 1643. Louis XIV. Longest reign in European history; three periods : a) The King is a child ; Mazarin and the Queen Mother rule with very fair success; b) the young King, through efficient administration, successful wars, good finance and diplomacy, brings France to the height of power and prestige; he is seconded by able honest men, chief of whom is Colbert ; c) Louvois replaces Colbert : serious mistakes, and unfortunate wars, weaken the Kingdom. a) 1643-1661 : Turenne and Conde in Germany, Conde in Flanders, Spain. Artois, crush Austria and Spain. Treaty of Westphalia (164 8) among other clauses ratifies our annexation of Alsa'e, and makes the House of Bran- denburg (Prussia, Protestant), a menace to Austria (Catholic). b) 1661-1678: On the death of his Spanish father-in-law, Louis claims Spa- nish Flanders as his due; takes Lille (1667), and Franche-Comte (1668). Holland, England and Sweden league against France ; Holland invaded (1672); Holland flooded and saved. Spain and Germany help Holland. Franche-Comte retaken by Fr. in six weeks (1674). Impeiials invade Alsace, lose it, invade it again; finally ejected by Turenne (1675). Several victor its in Flanders and on Mediterranean, allow Louis to keep Flanders and Franche-Comte (1678); just when England had declared against us again, — 94 — Historical c) 1678-1715 : Strasbourg annexed (1681) ; Algiers and Genoa bombarded; Edict of Nantes cancelled (1685); James II, supported by Louis, defeated at the Boyne ; second expedition fails; French fleet is scattered at La Hougue (1692). Seve al victories in Netherlands and Italy are unavailing. Tr. of Ryswtck (1697) : we keep Strasbourg; lose Flemish and Italian conquests ; William III recognized by Louis. In 1700, a grandson of L. inherits Spanish crown ; L. breaks Treaty of Ryswick, and his promise not to regard that grandson as possible heir to French throne. Coalition of Holland, England, and Austria. Villars and Vendome victorious in Germany, Austria, and Italy (1701-1703) ; Villars recalled to fight the Camisards ; defeats of B/e»/i«i»i (1704), Turin (1706), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), drive us out of Germany, Italy, Flanders. France invaded, Lille besieged; victory of Malplaquet (Nord, 1709), a victory of French King of Spain over competitor supported by English army at Villaviciosa (1710), a last victory of Villars at Denain (1712) painfully restore the situation. England obtains Gibraltar; Prussia becomes a kingdom; we lose some colonies. 1715. Louis XV, great-grandson of Louis XIV; King at 5 years of age. The " Regent ". Alliance with England, Holland, Germany, against Spanish King, who claims French throne. Financial catastrophe due to Law's " system. " The " Compagnie des Indes " exploits our possessions in India and America. After fighting against Russia, Austria, England, etc., in Italy, Bohemia, Alsace, Lorraine, Poland, Low Countries, India, Medi- terranean, Prussia, Brittany, Canada, etc... France loses Canada, India, Louisiana; gains Lorraine and Corsica. Fontenoy : 1745 ; Rosbach : 1757; Dupleix and Clive; Montcalm and Wolfe. 1774. Louis XVL \iA^s American Colonies against England (1778-1783) Financial difficulties force him to assemble the " £teis Gfi'»«>aM;t; " never assembled since 161 4! The Eta ts meet on May 5 1789, in the Palace of Versailles ; our continuous Parliamentary life dates from that day. Between 1302 and 16 14, the Etats had been called together only 15 times. Had they been consulted more frequently, there would have been no occasion for... 1789-1795. V. The Revolution. The Etats included representatives of 3 "orders": nobility, clergy, " third order". After a discussion as to how the votes should betaken, whether by 'orders' or individually, the two privileged classes naturally insisting on voting by orders, the Third Estate decided to do without them entirely, and on June 17, took the name of " Assemblee Nationale Constituante ", {i. e. " Constituting " : Constitution-making). The majority of the clergy soon came over to them. The Court was shocked, and closed the rooms reserved for the meetings within the Palace. The new Assembly adjourned to a private building (salle du Jeu de Paume) on June 20, and swore never to separate before they had given France a Constitution. Bailly, astronomer, member of two Academies, was made president. Thereupon the King's brother hired the building as though for private reasons. The clergy at once opened the Cathedral of Versailles to the Assembly. On the 23rd, they were admitted into the Palace as before, but Louis warned the Third Estate ^nd cancelled their decisions. They refused to take any notice of his veto, and Louis at last yielded to the inevitable, even recommending the nobles and the clergy to join the third order on equal terms. He might have been sincere, but his Court would not tolerate a popular government, and while the Assembly discussed the Nation's interests, regiments after reg ments, most of them German hired troops, were marched toward Paris. Necker, a wise moderate minister, was dismissed. The people of Paris, on hearing of his dismissal, at once suspected foul — 95 — HISTORICAL play, and gathered in the Palais-Royal around Camille Desmoulins. Aftet a few encounters with the soldiers, the people looted the arsenal of the Invalides, and at last, on July 14, marched on the Bastille. The place was poorly garrisoned, and surrendered very soon. The affair was a trifle, materially ; but the nobles read the sign, and " emigration " began ; some went abroad merely to await developments in safety, others with a view to finding military support against the rising nation, as the French-born troops had sided with the people. .... " This is a rebellion, then? " said Louis. — " No, Sire ", said a cour- tier, " this is a revolution. . " The King came to the assembly unescorted, and promised to send away the German troops, and recall Necker. " You were afraid of me", he said to the Deputies; "well, see, I trust you". They rallied to him at once; and proceeded with him to Paris, where he recognized Bailly as Maire, and La Fayette as chief of the new " National Guard. " A few days later, on August 4, feudalism was declared extinct, the titled and the ecclesiastical members voluntarily surrendering their privileges. However, the internal situation which had caused Louis to call the " Etats " was not mending itself, and popular disorders due to scarcity of food began to agitate Paris. The Constituante went on with its work, and gradually became more stringent in its claims. On July 1790, the King promised to remain " a true Constitutional monarch "; the crowd cheered him ; joy was generaL Harmony seemed to have been reached at last ; privileges were gone; the King was liberal, and the people loyal... In April 1 79 1, Mirabeau died. Whether the King really trusted the people, or hoped that the great leader would be able to check democracy, remains doubtful ; the fact is that, on June 20, he ran away with the Queen and the Dauphin, so as to regain his independence from people and Constitution. He was caught at Varennes and had to return to what he now regarded as his prison, the Palace of the Tuileries. On Sept. 30, the Constitution was framed, and passed, and the Kmg pro- mised to keep it. According to that Constitution, the King was to rule, subject to the control and guidance of an Assembly ; his veto could not prevail for more than four years. Urged by motives of delicacy, or with a view to ousting the majority of the conservative members, the deputies who had framed the Constitution denied themselves the right to stand for election to the forth- coming permanent Parliament. The men who came into power with the " AsscmbUe Legislative " were decided democrats; they abolished the titles of " Sire " and " Majeste", passed hard laws against all " emigres " and non-juror priests. — There certainly was a danger of the Constitution being wrecked, as the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Germany, at Pilhiitz, had concluded an agreement stating that the situation of Louis interested all crowned heads (his situation was that of an English king, no worse). L. had to declare war on Austria, although the Emperor was his father-in-law. Was he quite in earnest? The Prussians were marching on Paris, threatening it with " total eversion ". " The Prussians ', said Vergniaud to the Parisians, " advance in the name of the King, to defend the King; they come to the relief of the King ". ... The people take the Tuileries, kill the Swiss guards, depose Louis ; and new elections are called for, toward the institution of a Republic... Verdun is already in Prussian hands; Champagne lies open before them... This is the time when Rouget composes the "Marseillaise ", when Danton cries out : " To rout the enemy, what do we want ? Daring, daring again, and ever more daring !" " Suspect "nobles and priests previously emprisoned are put to death in their cells from Sept. 2nd to 6th. On the 20th, the Prussians are beaten at Valmy, and again at Jemmapes on Oct. 7th. France and - 96 - HISTORICAL the Republic are saved, and the Low Countries are in our hands. The new Republic (Sept. 21) is provisionally governed by another Par- liament : the Convention. The extreme Montagnards (centralization) soon overrule the moderate Girondins (federalism); it is decided "to challenge all kings by throwing at them the head of a king". Louis is beheaded on Jan. 21, 1793. The Royalists of Vendee rise at once, while a new coali- tion, including England, threatens us. N. France is invaded again... The Convention levies fourteen armies; Robespierre organizes " la Terreur ; " Marie-Antoinette and 22 Girondins are beheaded; Royalists and suspects are massacred in Lyons and Nantes. Generals receive absolute . orders to be victorious by certain dates under pain of death. On Oct. 16 1793, Austro-Prussians are beaten at Wattignies ; next day Vendeens are routed at ChoUet. Further victories regain Alsace, conquer Belgium, Aachen, Coblentz, Holland. A Batavian Republic, allied to ours, is created. Prussia and Spain sign peace (1795) ; France extends at last to the Rhine, for the first time since the Romans. MeanwhUe the Convention had reorganized the finances, created' primary instruction, opened High Schools, Museums, an Academy, etc., and completed the new Constitution. Dissolves on Oct. 26, 1793. 1705. The " Directoire ". The new government instituted by the Con- vention rests in the main on two Chambers, and five " Directeurs". Austria and England being still in the field, the war goes on. The .^ustrians are beaten by Bonaparte in Italy, by Marceau in Germany, by Bonaparte again in Austria. Austria gives in (1797). To reach at England through the East, Bonaparte lands in Egypt (1798). Conquers Egypt, is checked by English in Syria. Meanwhile France is torn by p ili- tical intrigue, and Europe is frightened by our republican agitation in Rome, Naples, Switzerland... We lose our grip over Germany, and Italy. Massena holds Switzerland against the Russians and Austrians ; and Anglo- Russians are defeated in Holland ; yet the condition is critical. Bonaparte leaves Egypt, and assumes power as "First Consul", 3 Consuls being substituted to the 5 "Directeurs" . 1799-1804 : " Consulat " ) 1804-1815 : " Empire" \ ^'^^ P^^® '^^• (Briefly, the Empire was a compromise between liberty and power, between Louis XIV and the Revolution. Without a strong ruler, and an able military chief (Napoleon happened to be both), the young Republic could not repress disorder at home, and opposition abroad. Nspoleon was Emperor " of the French ", not : " of France ", i. e. military ruler by free consent of the people. Such was the fiction, at least, and it was very near actual truth. Napoleon was no democrat; but it would be hard to prove that as a military leader he should have been less ambitious (that he was not successful is more certain) ; his two main objects were : I. to win the long duel with England begun under Louis XIV; 2. to neutralize the Germanic nations. Both objects, though vast, were more than reasonable; they were almost unavoidable. 1814. Restoration. Louis XVIII (a brother of L. XVI, the son of the latter, Louis XVII, having died in prison soon after his father). Grants a fairly liberal constitution ; but the sudden return and campaign of Napo- leon alarm the extreme Royalists, who adopUviolent measures. Napoleon gradually becomes a popular figure, and the old spirit of the " Jacobins " revives. An expedition to Spain (1823), in the interests of absolute monarchy, causes discontent. 1824. Charles X (another brother of L.XVI) pursues a similar policy : he is more liberal than his courtiers, and is quite popular in the provinces, but unpopu- lar in Paris. At Navarin (1827), our white ensign sides with Greece against Turkey. Algiers taken (1830). But liberal opposition grows steadily ; the SAILLEN§ ■"" 97 ■"" 7 CH SeNNZ.BS^UH, HISTORICAL King dismisses the Chamber ; a few days' rioting in Paris (July 1830) force him to abdicate. Thiers and La Fayette call in the Duke of Orleans, whose views are known to be liberal. (Ch. X dies at Goritzia.) 1830. Louis-Philippe (a descendant of a brother of Louis XIV; had fought at Valmy and Jemmapes). Riots and disorder untU 1840 ; a great minister, Casimir Perier, dies too early (1832) : naval demonstration against Austria. Belgium made independent from Holland ; wetrke Antwerp (1832). Russia despises the new dynasty, and settles the fate of Egypt with Austria, Prussia, Engl, without consulting us : French opinion exasperated (1840). The k ng shows more personal and conservative, as the nation becomes more liberal. Paris wants universal suffrage. Revolution of Fsbr. 1S48 ; King abdicates; (dies in England). 1848. Second Republic, Prince Louis Napoleon, a nephew of the great Emperor, is elected President, for 4 years, by 5,400,000 votes. Sends troops to Rome (1849), to restore temporal power of Pope, and allows religious schools to be re-opened ; this makes him popular with the clergy. On the other hand, he seems more liberal than the Assembly on some points. On the termination of his presidency, he is elected "Emperor of the French" by 7,800,000 votes. 1852 Second Empire. Napoleon III. Economic development; railways; Paris embellished ; first World's Fair (1855). Franco-British expedition to the Crimea (1856) ; expedition to Italy against Austria (1859) ; N. signs peace before victory is complete : Italy disappointed ; yet we gain Savoy and Nice who accept their return to Fr. by referendum (i860). Expeditions to Syria, China, Cochin-China (i860). Free-trade established abruptly (i85o). Disastrous expedition to Mexico (1861-1867). In 1866, N is unable or unwilling to help Austria against Prussia. World's Fair (18S7). Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). Emperor and 80.000 men made prisoners in Sedan (2 Sept. 1870) ; Metz surrendered by Bazaine (Oct. 70). Napoleon deposed by Paris on 3 Sept. 1870. Third Republic begins on Sept. 4. The people of Paris insist on their deputies constituting a Provisional Government of National Defence; the provinces agree to this arrangement, no elections being possible at the time. Thiers andGambetta are the leaders, but many members expect a return to monarchy. 1871 . The " Assemhlee Nationale " is at last elected, meets at Bordeaux, then at Ver- sailles. Ratifies terms accepted by Provisional Gov. (Treaty of Frankfurt, cession of Alsace, etc. ) ; and represses the "Commune" of Paris. Tniers is President and Premier. In 1872, Thiers, seeing that monarchy has become unpopular and impossible, asks the Assembly to institute a proper republic ; he is practically thrown out by monarchists and radicals. 1873. Mac-Mahon (Marshal), a conservative, President. Present Constitution adopted in 1875. Mac-Mahon dissolves Chamber in 1877; but a republican majority is returned. World's Fair (1878). President resigns (1879). 1879. Jules Grevy. Proper republican regime begins. Premiership of Jules Ferry. Measures taken against religious schools (1880), and primary instruction organized and enforced (1882). Tunisia annexed (1881). Disagreement with Engl, over Egypt (1883). Senegal-Niger railway (1884). Expedition to China (1885). Annam and Torag^irag annexed ; we settle in Madagascar again. 1887. Sadi Carnot (a descendant of Lazare Carnot, tlie " organiser of victory" under the Convention). Boulangisme (1887-1889). Military service fixed at 3 years (1889). World's Fair (1889). French fleet calls at Cronstadt (1891). Protective tariffs established (1892). Panama scandal (1893). Russian fleet calls at Toulon (1893). Timbuctoo occupied {1894). Carnot murdered by Italian anarchist (1894). 1894. Casimir Perier. Resigns after 6 months, for private reasons. Mr. Hanotau:!; Foreign Secretary (1894-1898). — 100 — HOME t§95. Felix Faure. Expedition to China, and conquest of Madagascar (1895). France-Russian alliance declared (1897). Delcasse Foreign Secretary (1898. 1905). Treaty of Paris ends Hispano-American war ; Dreyfus affair begins; Fachoda (1898). President dies suddenly {1899). 1899. Eniile Loubet. Agitation by Deroulede, and conservatives ; Waldeck- Rousseau^ Premier ; end of Dreyfus affair (1899). World's Fair (1900). Law on Associations (1900). Ultimatum to Turkey about Morocco (1901). Religious congregations dispersed (1902). Anglo-French Arbitration Treaty (1903). Anglo-French agreement over Morocco, Egypt, Newfoundland, etc. ; cind our representative at the Vatican recalled (1904). Military service reduced to 2 years (1905). Kaiso: at Tangiers ; campaigns of German press ; separation of Church and State {1905). 1906. Armand FallUras. We land at Casablanca (1907) ; antimilitarist propa- ganda : same year. Income tax passes the Chamber (1909). Railway strike (1910) ; Agadir (1911) ; part of Congo ceded to Germany : same year. 1913. Raymond Poincare. Franco-German incidents of Luneville and Nancy; military service brought up to 3 years (1913). See : World-War and France, and : Appendix. Books lecommended. — Besides the works of Michelet, Guizot, Lavisse, Lavisse and Rambaud, A. Sorel, Hanotaux, etc., Aulard, Histoire politique de la Revolution franfaise (Colin). — Taine, Les origines de la France contemporaine (Hachette). — Albert Malet, Manuels d' Histoire de France (Hachette, 3 fr. 50 et 4 fr.). — Rambaud, Hiaioire de la Revolution Frangaise (Hachette, i fr. 75). — G. Hano- taux, La France en 1614 (Nelson). — Didier's pamphlets (o fr. 75) : Les grandes divisions de I'histoire de France ; La France a travers le XIX'^ siecle ; L'evolution de la France Republicaine. — Battifol, Le Siecle de la Renaissance. — J. Boulanger, Le Grand siecle. — C. Stryenski, Le XVIII^ siecle. — L. Madelin, La Revolution (all four publ. by Hachette, 5 fr. each). Marriott (J. H. R.), The Re-making of Modern Europe lySgto 1878 (Methuen, 1909, 2 s. 6d.) (Contains a list of books for further study.) HOME. — It is quite true that no single French word has all the wealth of associations (somewhat indefinite, we think, in some cases) of the English word : " home ". But to infer from this that " the French have no home " is merely to play on a word. Firstly, we have precise terms for every shade of meaning contained in the word " home ", and for every phrase of which it is part. For " home trade " we say : " commerce interieur " ; for " home-trader " : " caboteur " ; for " home rule " : " auto- nomie " ; for " home delivery " : " livraison a domicile ", etc. There is just one case, perhaps, in which we might be at a loss; that is when an Indian, who intends to go to England, says : « I expect to go " home " next winter... » Secondly, for the two essential meanmgs of " home ", we have distinct equivalents, which English, despite its magnificent voca- bulary, fails to surpass and perhaps to equal in intensity. We say : " le foyer " and we say : " la patrie ". " Le foyer" is the hearth, the very heart and soul of the house ; they used to say in criden times, in their simple pious way : " this town has so many " dmes " (souls), or this village has so many " feux " (fires), so many " foyers " (hearths), according as they counted the indi- viduals, or the households. HOME " La patrie *', a brief, rousing word, means the land of out " fathers ". It is the ancient association of the hearths, and all that has been handed down to us by the hearths that preceded our own. " The word country fails as an equivalent because it is used in various non-emotional senses, whilst " patvie " never stands for anything but the land that we should be ready to die for, and it is never used without visible or suppressed emotion. " (Hammerton, French and English.) Lastly, we have a little word, " chez ", which our neighbours might well envy us. It comes from the Latin casa (the house), and we use it like a preposition; " chez moi " is: " at my place ' ; " le chez-soi " is the home, with a special connotation of privacy and comfort... " They are wrong, our friends the English, if they really believe that we have not the " foyer ", because we do not pronounce it " home ". That is no sufficient reason. We love it with a French pronunciation, that is all : but we worship it. The " foyer is pressed so close, so gathered together, so carefully concealed that those who deny it have one excuse for doing so, they have not seen it. It is quite true that a stranger can travel all over our country and know everything about us, except the inside of our hearts and the inside of our houses. On that point the jesters of Europe do not jest. We welcome the stranger, we are hospitable ; but it is our territory that we open, and our street, and our boulevard..., the " foyer " never, or hardly ever. The truth is that the "foyer " is our religion, just that. It is our pride and it remains our secret. The French pater- familias does not descant on his love for his "foyer"' ; he is shy about it ; because it is a deep love. The deep feelings are those that we live on, and which we hide... That our literature should have given to Europe a totally different idea of us, is explained by what I have just said. Feelings so deep never get into lite- rature. Real " /03/eys " are not for the printer. The literature of domestic confidences we regard as not quite delicate. (Emile Faguet, Annates 1892.) This is what an American has to say on the subject : " A rough summary of the ideas which some of us hold about France would run like this. — The life of pleasure is the rule of France. There "ain't no Ten Commandments", and the stranger in Paris is expected to paint the town red, just as he is expected to go to church in Edinburgh and see a bull-fight in Spain. "La Vie Parisienne " represents the reading of the race. France is a joy-ride for us Puritans.' " A poilu wrote a letter to a friend of mine the other day, and my friend brought the letter to me. The French soldier who wrote it is at the scene of the recent push on the MUGiJENOtS '' Chemin-des-D antes ". He belongs to a company of " Genie " (Engineers). " My Home... The war has come and prevented me from building it. But I have built it in my dreams. I wish for a small house on the slope of a hill near a river, a small white house under the trees. The wisterias will climb along the walls and the swallows will build their nest under the roof. There will be many beds where will grow rose-bushes and china-asters, primroses and daisies. I will have a kitchen garden with all kinds of vegetables and many fruit-trees. I will have, too, a poultry-yard ; I will have a lazy cat and an alert dog. " The interior of my house will not be very luxurious; the furniture will not be of any great price, for I am not a rich man. But I hope that it will shelter happiness, for when I return from my hard work I shall feel every day the faithful tenderness of my wife and the light smile of my little children. " (Arthur Gleason, Franco-American Weekly.) Books recommended. — Showing how a French home is run : Mme Moll- Weiss, Le Livre du Foyer (Colin). Pickard , trance in War Time zgi4-i5 (Methuen, 19 15). — Barrett Wendell (B.) France to-day (Constable, 1907). — Lynch (H.) French Life in Town and Coun- try (1901). — Edwards (M. B.) Twentieth Century France, Social, Intellectual and Territorial. — Dawbarn, France and the French (Methuen, 1911). — Sergeant (E.S.), French Perspectives (Constable, London, also Cambridge, Mass. igi6). HUGUENOTS. — French Protestants, who called themselves "Reformed", were nicknamed " Huguenots " about 1560, when the Prince of Conde (see Soldiers) became the leader of a party of discontented nobles and Protestants; many of the troops were hired Swiss; Helvetia being a Confederation, the men called them- selves Eidgenossen (Confederates) ; the strange word became Huguenot, and was applied to French Protestants in general. At one time, the Huguenots were numerous. Persecution brought on civil war, which led to further persecution. At last, Henri IV, a former Huguenot himself, granted them a charter in 1599 : the " Edit de Nantes " . Richelieu, however, had to fight them again as a party, and defeated them as such, while he treated them liberally as individuals and as believers. Louis XIV went further, and cancelled in 1685 the Edict of Henri. The "Revoca- tion de I'Editde Nantes " made it illegal for Protestants to belong to the professions, to assemble for worship, etc., and at the same time forbade them to leave the Kingdom under penalty of confis- cation. 500,000 of them chose exile and momentary ruin. They contributed largely to the development, economic and otherwise, of all Protestant nations (Prussia among others) ; many of course went to England ; others to the Low Countries ; or to the colonies of either. French " refugies " founded New Rochelle in America ; while Johannesburg was designed 35 years ago by a descendant — 103 — INDtJSTftffig from the French refugees to Cape colony. The Jouberts, Dela- reys, Bothas, Malans, are all of French descent. As a rule, the refugees were not illiterate peasants ; the poor labourers had not the means to travel far ; they had perforce to stay, and some of them became the " Camisards ". Most refu- gees, on the contrary, belonged to the best classes ; some of them Were practically masters of the supply of certain articles, so that their loss was felt severely by the nation soon after their depar- ture : in the first place, essential industries had disappeared or had been greatly weakened ; in the second place, rival countries had gained as much as we had lost. " Camisards " was the nickname given exclusively to the Pro- testant peasants of the Cevennes (South), who fought the troops of Louis XIV from 1703. Being few at first, and never very numerous, they often resorted to surprise attacks by night. Such attacks, in which the party surprised had to fight for their lives dressed just as they were, i. e. in their shirts, were common occu- rences at the time and had been called " camisades " , from the Southern word " camise " (a shirt). Hence the nickname given to those specialists. They were so successful that the mighty monarch had to send against them three field-marshals in succession, the last being the illustrious Villars, who was sadly wanted at Blenheim at the time, and whose dragoons, " missionaries in boots " as they called them- selves, treated the people cruelly. So skilful and obstinate were the peasants that even those " dragonnades " did not end the war. The old men and women might abjure, in the villages, but the men kept the field. At last Villars built a road across the mountains, and bought off the able young chief Jean Cavalier. Yet, Protestant villages survive to this day in the Cevennes. Books recommended. — F. Puaux, Les Defenseurs de la souverainete du peuple sous le regne de Louis XIV (Fischbacher, 1917). — Ch. Read, La Fayette, Washing- ton, et les Protestants de France (Fischbacher, 1893). Baird, History of the Rise of the Huguenots of France i vol. (New York, 1879). — Smiles, The Huguenots in France (1881). INDUSTRIES — Smelting works (1913 : cast-iron, 5,5 mill. t. ; steel, 4,5 mill, t.) are to be found in the North (Lille, Maubeuge, Denain, etc.) ; in the Centre (Creusot, Saint-Etienne, Saint- Chamond, Montlufon, Bourges, Vierzon, etc.) ; and the East (Lorraine, Champagne). The Creusot works alone (a colliery in the xvith century, foundry end of xviith, developed with Schnei- der, 1835) turns out yearly : 200,000 tons of iron and steel arti- cles, employs 20,000 workers, uses 600,000 tons of coal a y ear, turns out daily 360 tons of coke, and 200 tons of cast-iron. Cen- tral France turns out 700,000 tons of steel and cast-iron. Lyons handles 300,000 tons of pyrites. We produce 50 % of the total European output in alumi' nium, and export 50 % of our production. — 104 — Prance produces i % mill, tons of cement (Grenoble alon^ 350,000 tons). Machines, implements, etc., are manufactured in all those centres, but their production does not cover all our requirements; we import agricultural machines, typewriters, etc., from U. S. A. and much of our machinery came from the States via Germany, owing to the particular advantages conferred on all exports from Germanyin 1871. One firm of Saint-Etienne, "Societe Franfaise", turned out 112,000 rifles in 1908. Textiles. — Flaxsmdhemp arespunandwoveninthe N.andN.-W. The linen of Cambrai, Amiens, Armentieres, Dunkirk ; the lawns and laces of Valenciennes, the net of Calais, also the linen of Anjou, Maine, and Brittany, are much in request, thanks to the industry of the masters and the skill of the workers, although their trade has suffered much from the growing success of cotton goods. Wool is worked : i. at Lille, Roubaix, Tourcoing ; 2. in Nor- mandy (Rouen, Elbeuf, Louviers, Lisieux) ; 3. in Champagne (Rheims, Sedan) ; 4. in Languedoc (Aubenas, Mazamet, Castres) ; 5. in Berry (Chateauroux). Grazing land and parish pastures diminishing steadily, most of our wool has to be imported (mostly from Australia). Cotton is made into linen, cloth, velvet, at Lille, Amiens, Saint-Quentin, Rouen and suburbs ; at Epinal and Belfort ; about Lyons (Roanne, Tarare), and in Dauphine (Vienne, Voiron). Most of those places used to weave flax. Silk weaving is limited to the S.-E. (Lyons, Saint-Etienne, Roanne), the only part of France where the mulberry-tree and the silk- worm do really well. We produce 600 mill. fr. of silks (Lyons: 500 ; Saint-Etienne: 100), of which we export 400. Food industries. — Flour-mills and manufactures of macaroni, vermicelli, etc., are found in the wheat districts, and great har- bours : Ile-de-France (Meaux, Corbeil), Toulouse, Marseilles, Nantes, Havre... The sugar industry, brought into existence by Napoleon when he boycotted among other things the British sugar of the West Indies, developed seriously after 1820, and has pro- gressed a great deal since then. ItisVonfined to the North, and its output is 75,000 tons a year(25o mill. fr.). Germany, Russia, Austria, do much better. See also: Agriculture, and: Drinks. Paper-mills exist in Corbeil, Epinal, Angouleme, Annonay, etc. Porcelain and Crockery come from Limoges, Nevers, Gien, Sisvres ; Glass and Cut glass from the North, the Vosges, and Central Range (colliery districts as a rule). Besan9on specializes in Watches and Clocks. Marseilles Soap (176,000 tons) is as well- known in France as the Gloves of Grenoble (12 mill. fr.). Limoges and Fougeres make Boots. Carpets are woven at Amiens, Beauvais, Aubusson (Centre) ; while Nantes, Brest, La Seyne, Rochefort, Le Havre, Saint-Nazaire, build Ships. — 105 — INFORMATION On the whole, industries of all kinds flourish mostly in thd mining districts : N., N.-E., and E. ; the W., S.-W. and S.-E. are almost entirely agricultural. However, the waterfalls of the Alps, and the local deposits of iron ore, are fast making Dau- phine (S.-E.) an important industrial centre. Total hydraulic power in Dauphine : 474.000 H.P. Employed in various industries (1909). Food producing . . . 464.000 Spinning and weaving. 892.000 Wood industries.. . . 710.000 Metallurgy 783.000 Building, decoration. . 572.000 Kiln industries. . . . 161.000 Books recommended. — E. Levasseur, Histoire des classes ouvrieres et de Vindustrie en France (Rousseau, 2 vol., 1904). — G. Villain Le fer, la houille et la mitallurgie (Colin, 3 fi. 50). — ■ Annnaire du Ministere du Commerce et de Vindustrie. — D'Avenel, Mecanisme de la vie moderne (Colin). — Yves Guyot, La Repartition des Industries aux Etats-Unis, en France et en Belgiq'ie (Berger-Levrault). — Studniczka, Industrial conditions in... England and France (Washington). Steam-power (excluding railway & marine engmes). Total - Engines. horse-power. 1852. 6.080 76.000 1861. 15-805 191 .000 1871. 26.146 316.000 1881. 44.010 576.000 1891. 58.967 916.000 1905. 79.203 2.232.263 INFORMATION. — In town, ask a policeman of course. We call our policemen indifferently : " ser gents de ville ", " gardiens de la paix ", or " agents de police " . We usually address them as " Monsieur I'agent ". But there are many things that even an agent does not know. Enter practically any cafe, and ask for the "Bottin". This directory is in six volumes : " Paris-adr esses " , " Paris-profes- sions ", " Paris-mondain " (Parisian society), " Departements in two volumes, from A. to L., and M. to Z. ; Foreign and Colonial. " Paris-Hachette ", " Tout-Paris ", are useful guides as well. A common phrase, when asking one's way about, is : " Pardon M..., voudriez-vous m'indiquer le chemin pour aller a... In villages, ask the village policeman {"garde champetre"); but- you will have to find him first ; he may be ploughing his field, or gone to town for " Monsieur le Maire ". This mayor, or better still the " secretaire de mairie " (village clerk) who is almost invariably the school-master, can tell you almost anything about anybody in the place. Every "mairie" has a "plan cadastral" ; i. e. a survey-map, showing every house, garden, or field, in the village area. As a rule, such plans were drawn up many years ago, but they often are all the more use- ful, as accounting for certain names, showing former streams, etc. — 106 — Inform AT loisf - Some of the details sKov«7n on the French "General S-tauffJyiaps ..— » P40--'heJls ;---- £\ ' V? ^ ■^^ kfiorvz hruifje LA-. Wooden^ br. iDith, •sioru* pters Bruige. ^ boais Wooden. hrLdge 1 — r 5^ — I 1 J^erny hoctt Ckzrriciffe. -For^ £ofz£- crossing Fh^' bru^e. Swing- "bridge HcUlzzjfcu/ m^* JZiuineZ. Vi/X£iu£i Cubxrl. -jR^zx>cu^, St"^^^ GrcuZe. arossiTtt/ crossing Gyxsjing tuiderroad- HufJizjjgg St.Ifigltzv. tmZhrlrees. DeparifTi.. RocxjoL. Gxrri£uf€. - J^actd, JPrizxz^_ Tocut JPaOy \Romxxn^ road: ''JErribankeii. road. ' HigTuvcof -^^"Mansh Or-chctreLs *Si£fne ziKxZZs Jleclges Ji6aI/L,btLS?L Ovuxrry, Ecafh^fimbankmjenis c i^ock, Ttum^. Lock. ^Irru^ccHon^ ccauaZ^ J)3/7c& 107 iKPORMATlOM In almost every village on the front, and in most borougliS in the rear, you will find "gendarmes" (men-at-arms) ; these belong to a military and national organization, and are all picked men from the army, very reliable as a rule. They should be consulted on any difficult point of regulations, military or civil procedure, etc. They are to be sent for in any case of misbehaviour crime, supposed spying, etc., involving French civilians or troops, if the matter is urgent. They will then report it to their chief, who is in touch with the A. P. M. In the field, you want a good map. The maps commonly called " cartes d'Etat-Major " (General Staff maps) are very accurate and detailed. They are stocked by Plon (8, rue Garan- ciere, Paris), and can be obtained in most bookshops. They are issued in three editions, on three scales. The most practical, fo reveryday purposes, is the So.oooth; every sheet costs i franc, and represents an area of 64 kilometers by 40. The only fault with it is that being printed in black only, and full of details at the same time, an unpractised eye easily misses much of the information. One should learn how to read it; the labour expended will be amply repaid, (" Lecture de la Carte", illustr. pamphlet. Berg. Levrault, o fr. 50.) The edition on a i : 50,000th scale is an enlargement of the preceding. Every sheet covers 32 kil. by 20 and costs 0.50. The I : 200.000th editio is printed in 5 colours, and omits many details; a sheet costs i fr. 50 and covers 128 kil. by 80. In these days of dug-outs and mines, geology is essential. We would recommend the excellent "Carte Geologique de la France", published by Beranger, 15, rue des Saints-P6res, Paris, in 4 edi- tions : 8o,oooth, 320,000th, 500,000th, and i,ooo,oooth. When not quite sure what sheet of a map you require, ask the publisher or bookseller to show you a " tableau d' assemblage ". The best guide-books on France, from the tourist's point of view, are those of Joanne (publ. by Hachette). Most instructive and interesting are the volumes of Ardouin- Dumazet, which combine the personal impressions of the author, (a man of wide interests, who has patiently tramped every mile of French soil) with most accurate, yet readable information, on the local geology, history, ethnology, agriculture, industries, etc. The publications of the various State-Departments (corres- ponding to the English Blue Books) can be obtained from Roustan, 5, quai Voltaire, Paris. Some books well worth reading, on France past and present, are : Young's travels in France (Bell and Sons, is.); Barret Wendell : France to-day; Jerrold : France to-day (J. Murray, 1916, 7/6). — 108 — INSTRUCTION INSTRUCTION. — Our Allies generally say : " education " •, we say " instruction ". Of course, we try to educate children, just as the British try to instruct them; yet the difference in ter- minology is interesting because it does correspond with a difference in points of view. We have come to believe that a teacher's duty is essentially to impart acknowledged facts and principles. He should shape and fill the mind ; as to the hearts, consciences, or souls, he should not depart in his action upon them from undeniable principles. No part of his teaching should be a matter of controversy ; his business being to provide his pupils with a maximum of certainties. Only the parents can assume, we believe, the responsibility of suggesting to their offspring particular views about this world and the next. A variety of schools corresponding to the various debatable views (or the various social classes), imply an expensive multiplicity of organizations, a system which debars the vast majority of the nation from culture, and from the spirit and methods of culture. That teaching of the universally admitted is what we call " Enseignement Laique " , i. e. neutral, or non-religious. Of course, some parents are afraid of the " neutral " spirit, and send their children to religious schools, but those schools are not State-aided; they are supported exclusively by those who believe in them. These non-State-aided schools are called " free " : " Enseignement Libre ". They are recognized by the State, and regularly inspected as regards hygiene. Their methods of teach- ing are practically the same as those of State-schools, and they cover exactly the same ground, comprise the same categories, lead to the same examinations. No teacher of those schools belongs to any committee of examiners : the standard of teaching is set by the State. The whole organization of State-aided teaching, from the small- est infant-class to the " College de France " , is the " Unvversite de France " , first planned out by the " Convention ", and com- pleted by Napoleon. It is all in the hands of the " Ministre de I'Instruction publique ", who appoints every member, chooses the subjects for examinations, etc. It is divided into i6 local Universities, or Academies, each under a " Recteur ", assisted by " Inspecteurs d' Academic " (i per " departement "). All Schools and Universities are under the control of " Inspecteurs Generaux ", who reside in Paris, and report direct to the " Ministre ". There are two categories of schools : one for the people ; another for the middle-classes. In each category, the pupils range from about 6 years of age to about 20. Popular. — Primary instruction is given in every town and village at the " Ecole Communale ". This leads to the " Certi- — 109 — INSTRUCTION ficat d'Etudes Primaires ", generally obtained between 12 and 14. The " Ecoles Primaires Superieures " lead to the " Brevet Simple " and the " Brevet Superieur " . The " Ecoles Profes- sionnelles " teach Arts and Crafts. No Latin or Greek is taught in any of those establishments, and they are all gratuitous. Attendance at the " Ecole Primaire " is compulsory until the Certificat has been received, or the age of 14 attained. Middle class. — " Lycees " in larger towns, and the less ■ complete " Colleges " in other localities, provide for the upper and lower middle classes. In a complete establishment, such as a " lycee " , primary instruction will be given in the junior department, from " Enfan- tine " up to the 6th (we begin with the loth, and finish in the first) ; the parents then decide whether the boy is to take the classical or the modern side ; two years later another cross-roads leads the pupil to one of the 4 " baccalaureats " , called A. B. C. and D. — A. implies Latin, Greek, and one living language ; B : Latin, no Greek, two modern tongues; C.: Latin, Sciences, one modern tongue; D.: Sciences, and two modern tongues. Those examinations are held at the seat of the local Univer- sity, at the Faculty of Letters or at the Faculty of Sciences, the examiners being professors of those Faculties, assisted by masters of " Lycees ". . The full-fledged " hachelier " may then register his name, at any of the Universities, and read for one of the " licences " , or enter by competitive examination one of the Higher Schools '' Ecole .Normale Superieur e ", " Ecole Polytechnique ", " Ecole des Mines", etc.)... Lycees, Colleges, Universities, are not gratuitous ; but the fees are small (about 30 s. a month in lycees, for day-boys ; 40 s. a year in the Universities) ; besides, scholarships are awarded through competitive examination. ) The great majority of pupils are day-pupils ( "exiernes"), a good many are half-boarders ( " demi-pensionnaires"), i.e. they do all their preparatory work at school under the supervision of masters. All State-schools are in towns, with two or three not very success- ful exceptions. That is one strong reason for leaving education mostly to the parents : the child lives with them. As to the stu- dent, he, is his own master, lives as he likes and where he likes ; all Universities are in towns. We used to have Colleges of the Oxford type (See : Quartier latin), but even those hostels were in towns, and our Universities are now exclusively lecture-halls, libraries, and examination rooms. School-hours in France are generally 8 to 11.30, and 2 to 4 ; Sundays and Thursdays are full holidays, but there is no half- holiday on Saturdays. Schools are closed for one week at New Year's time, a fortnight at Easter, and during August and Sep tember. — no — JOAN OF ARC In all State-schools, all masters are State-servants, and must be French. They cannot be dismissed without very serious cause, and are entitled to a pension. Books recommended: — Barrett Wendell, France to-day. — Oct. Greard, Enseignement primaire, secondaire, superieur. — Alexandre Ribot, La refonne dt I'enseignement secondaire (Colin, 3 fr. 50). — L. Liard, L' enseignement superieur en France (Paris. 1888-94.. 2 vol.). — P. Crouzet, Maitres et parents (Colin, 4 fr.). — R. Thamin, L'Universite et la Guerre (Hachette, 2 fr.). Hodgson (G.), Studies in French Education from Rabelais to Rousseau (Cambridge, University Press, 1908). — Farrington (F. 'E.), French Secondary Schools {'Longm^i-as, 1910). — French University Degrees (Toe Comite de Patronage des Etudiants Etrangers, igi6). JOAN OF ARC. — " Jeanne d'Arc " was the daughter of a well- to-do farmer. She was born in January 1412, in the village of Domremy, between Champagne and Lorraine, in the North East of France. ■ A simple girl, good at sewing, good at catechism, she was under two great in- fluences: religion and patriotism. When quite a child she often sat, tending her sheep, under a large beech-tree, called the Fairy-beech ; there the lonely lassie pondered no douljt over the gentle teachings of the priest, and the sinister doings of the soldiery. She was fourteen when, on a sum- mer's day, and a Fast, about noon, being in her father's close, by the church, she saw a great light ; and out of the light came a voice that said : " Jeanne, be a good and wise girl ; go to church often. " On another occasion, she saw the ligjit again, with some beautiful beings stand- ing in it ; one of them was winged, and said : " Jeanne, go and deliver the King of France and restore his King- dom to him. " She trembled much and replied : " Sir, I am but a poor girl ; I could never lead men-at-arms. " The voice insisted : " Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret will assist you. " She saw the archangel and the two Saints, and heard " her voices ", as she said, several other times over a period of four years ; at last, she obeyed. Her father, on the first hint she gave of her intentions, threat- JoAN OF Arc from a statue by Princess Marie d'Orleans. JOAN OF ARC ened to drown her with his own hands, rather than let her consort with the soldiery. But she found a means to be sent to Vaucou- leurs, where lived an uncle of hers. This man believed in Jeanne, and sent a message to the local military authority. This was a Captain who answered the messenger that the girl should be slap- Eed in the face and sent home. Jeanne only said : " Before Mid- ent comes round, I must have gone and found the King, were I to walk away my legs to the knee-joints to get there. " The Captain consented to see her and promised his help ; the common people had in the meantime urged him into compliance. They found money among themselves to equip Jeanne, and buy her a horse, as the Captain would give her no more than a sword. She cropped her hair, put on military dress, and, with six men-at-arms, left Vaucouleurs in February 1429. On the 24th of the same month, she reached the Court, at Chi- non, in the centre of France. For two days, the courtiers made her wait. On being shown at last into the room where stood the young King amidst his noblemen and dressed like any of them, she at once walked straight to him, although she saw him for the first time, and said : " Gentle Dauphin (i), why not trust me ? I tell you God has pity on you, on your Kingdom and your people... After some weeks of trial, and hesitation on the part of an irre- ligious and unpatriotic court, the will of the people triumphed again and Jeanne was allowed to exert her influence over the troops who, at the time, were trying to relieve Orleans of its English besiegers. Those troops had neither military discipline, nor morality. They mostly consisted of hired scoundrels who cared for pillage much more than for honest fighting. Jeanne soon inspired them with her lofty ideal. They admired, understood, and were transformed into sober obedient soldiers. Orleans was soon relieved : May 8, 1429. Then came the great victory of Patay, over Talbot. Then several cities, Rheims among them, which had sided with the English or their Burgundian allies, opened their gates; and at last, the King could be persuaded to be crowned at Rheims. During the ceremony, Jeanne proudly stood near the altar, with her standard in her hand. Later, she was asked by her judges why she had thus asserted herself : " My standard, she said, had known sorrow and labour, it was only fair that it should know honour. Now the King was crowned, he was more than content ; no fur- ther help could Jeanne expect of him ; and among his idle cour- tiers envy was rank. Jeanne went on with her task : " To put (i) The heir to the French throne was called " Dauphin", the Province of Dauphine having been ceded to France on condition that the heir to the French Throne should be called so (1349) (Cf. Wales). Charles the Vllth at the time had lost his father, but was still " Dauphin " as he had not been crowned yet. — 112 — JOAN OF ARC the English out of France, " but her successes were less marked, and she felt the hand of treason working against her. The King returned to Chinon and his pleasures, while Jeanne proceeded to Paris, which was held by the Burgundians. Much time was lost, she received practically no help, was wounded, and the city could not be relieved. She then forced her way into Cbmpiegne, a little city near Paris, which the Burgundians were tJitiuse ^(^x PrQvnces "'••■, C -u » -* occ upied : ^y the English' ' " ' •-i.-^-' ^ ^ - ^ r -^ i%%jj Domh lions of the "King ofBourges '>\~ rrr-TTi ChaHes VII . LMj Provinces ceded to England in 1360 (Treaify pFBretiqnyj, by John ihe Good. MEDITERRANEAN I French frontier to da y Showing the hopeless condition of France when Joan appeared {1429). Note that the King himself hardly realized the justice of his cause. Officially, the only true King was Henry VI of England, crowned at Saint-Denis Abbey in 1422. gAU-LENS - 113 JOAN OF ARC besieging. While at church there, on the morning before her last battle, she said to her lieutenants : " Good friends, dear chil« dren of mine, I tell you there is a mian who has sold me ; I am betrayed, and soon I shall be delivered unto death. Pray God for me, I request you, for I shall no longer be able to serve my King, nor the noble realm of France: " The same night, after a vigorous sally, Jeanne was covering the retreat of her men ; when she reached the drawbridge of the city, she found it closed against her. After several months' negotiations between the Count of Luxemburg, the Burgundians, and the English, and two attempts of Jeanne to escape, she was sold to the English for 10,000 francs. To fall into their hands was what she most dreaded, as she was unwilling to die. The English took her to Rouen. They regarded her as a witch ; Cauchon, a French priest who hoped to be made Bishop of Rouen by them, took up the case against her. She gave marvellously frank and yet guarded answers to the treacherous and learned questions of her judges. She wasaccused of breaking the laws of the Holy Church by : i. using magic arts ; 2. disobeying her parents' wishes ; 3. wearing masculine dress ; 4. asserting personal revela- tions not recognized and sanctioned by ecclesiastical authority. Nothing could be proved ; but, after a period of imprisonment, and further questioning under threat of torture, she had the weakness to " retract " (which implied admission), on being promised that she would be sentenced by the Church, and not by the English. She signed the document without reading it, and was granted pardon of her life, but sentenced to perpetual empxisonment, with no other food but " bread of sorrow and water of anguish. '' Unfortunately for Jeanne, the work she had begun was going on ; the English were being repulsed and routed everywhere : they put it down to the " accursed witch, " and insisted on her being put to death. — " Nothing easier, " said Cauchon. A very simple trick was used. First she was transferred to a military (i. e. English) prison. Then, while she slept the English sentry took away her dress, and put in her cell some male clothing instead. She protested, but it was no use; so she donned the forbidden clothes, without calculating the " judicial point ", and the deadly consequences : having sinned again, and in the same manner, she had become a " relapse ", a hopeless criminal, unworthy of life ! As the Church never sheds blood (horret a sanguine), this meant death by fire ! The sentence was carried out without delay, on the Old Market Place of Rouen, May 30, 1431. She was nineteen and six months. Not two years had passed since her taking Orleans. But modern France was made, through the mysterious mission and inexplicable influence of that daughter and elect of the people. - 114 - JOFFRE " Frenchmen, wrote our great historian Michelet, never forget that your country was born of a woman, of her blood and her tears. " Books recommended. — Michelet, Jeanne d'Arc. — G. Hanotaux, Jeanne d'Arc (Hachette, 7 fr. 50). — H. Peguy, Le Mvstere de Jeanne d'Arc (Nouvelle Revue franfaise). — Anatole France, Jeanne d'Arc. — General Canonge, Jeanne d'Arc guerndre (Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, maps and plans, 2 fr.). — R. Landry d'Arc, Jeanne d'Arc et la guerre de 1914 (Berger-Levrault, i fr.). — Hinzeiin, Chez Jeanne d'Arc, Guide sentimental... a Domremy, illustr. (Berger-Levrault, 6 fr.). Lang (A ), The Maid of Orleans. (rgoS). — Haggaid, The France of' Joan of Arc (Stanley Paul & Co, London, lyii). JOFFRE. — He was born at Rivesaltes, a village of " Pyrenees- Orientales", in 1852. His father, a cooper, sent him to the neigh- bourmg ■• Lycee " of Perpignan. He entered " Polytechnique " with very good but not exceptional marks, and left is as a lieute- nant of Engmeers. As such, he went through the war of 1870. He was made a captain at 24, and remained in that rank 14 years. He gained experience, promotion, and reputa- tion, in our Colonies. His name reached the public for the iirst time when he occupied Timbuctoo, in 1894. In Madagascar, he built the harbour and the forts of Diego Suarez. On his return to France, he was singled out for the grand simplicity, the promptitude and clear- ness of his mind, and was appointed Chief of the General Staff, an appointment implying supreme command in war-time. A master of organization, he himself is per- fectly organized. He combines intuition and reflection to an exceptional degree, and keeps an even balance between attention to details and wide outlook. His appearance, manner, and conversation all give the impression of a strong quiet man, full of common sense and certain of his facts. He is not dogmatic, yet he never hesitates. A son of the people, he does not forget what is due to the men. They called him " grand-pere ", for his kindness to them was even greater and more outspoken than that of a father. His ways are extremely simple ; during this war, he would take his food with him on his motor-car, and consume it when convenient, on a farmer's table, or by the road-side. He was Chief Commander of the French Armies until December 1916, when the dignity of Field-Marshal, in abeyance since 1871, was revived in his honour, and he was appointed High Technical Adviser to the-AUied Forces. In April 191 7, he was sent to Ame- rica, with Mr. Viviani and others, on a special mission. When the train that carried him across America went off the rails in Arkansas, several travellers jumped out at oncejoffre went - 115 - Field-Mahshal JOFFKE (ph. by Manuel). JOFFRE on with his dinner... In a similar way, when France and Europe seemed in mortal danger, one man kept composed and clear- headed, and quietly organized the " miracle" of the Marne. The whole truth about this war will never be known, at least not in our days (the history of 1870-1871 is still incomplete) but a sufficient epitome of what took place is already wide-spread and will never be materially altered. The portrait of Joffre is hung in every French farm to-day; to our people, he will always be " the man of the Marne. " An American paper has most truly said of him that he was " the greatest, and perhaps the only really grandiose figure of this war." THE WELCOME OF MARECHAL JOFFRE TO AMERICAN TROOPS IN FRANCE : " When after conscientiously weighing the acts of Germany, President "Wilson placed the sword of the United States in the service of Right, no one in France had any doubts but that you would accompHsh great things. America, true to her past and traditions, was sure to step into the conflict with all the fervour of her ideals and all the power of her material resources. "Since that decision was taken, you have fulfilled our hopes and discharged your duties with loyal zeal. The best proof of it stands now revealed before us. Here are American troops, under General Pershing, facing the enemy and ready to make him feel the power of their arms. Led by that eminent chief, your officers vie with one another in perfecting this army which will soon adorn her brows with the first laurels of glory. "On the other side of the Atlantic the emulation is the same. The news I receive from Washington shows me that in all parts of the States work is proceeding intensely and with a single mind and will. Your Secretary for War, Mr. Baker, who so admirably controls the organization of the new army. General Bliss, who most competently commands every service in it, fight the good fight on lines parallel with your own. " ' ' All our efforts complete one another. Our common enemy will soon see rising before him one of the most formidable engines of war that can be imagined. He had hurled defiance at you as he had done at the rest of the world, thinking in his mad pride that he was to rule the world. Your answer is to us the most eloquent, to Germany the most disappointing, of all possible retorts. *I sincerely congratulate you upon it; I feel assured that with such an army as yours working methodically hand in hand with the Allies, we shall succeed in averting from mankind the yoke which Germanic insolence intended to lay upon her. Let us all stand united: the reward will be victory. " — "Somewhere in France, " Oct. 15, 1917. Books recommended. — S. Blanchon, Le General Joffre (Bloud, o fr. 60) — Ji. Bizet, Le General Joffre (Berger-Levrault, o fr. 60). — J. Joffre, Operations de Id .- 116 — LA PAYETTE Cotonne joffre avani et apris I'occupaiion de Tombouctou, illust., 1895 (Bergef' Levrault, 2 fr.). Dawbarn (C), Joffi'e and his Army. La Fayette. LA FAYETTE (Marie-Joseph Motier, marquis de), was born in the heart of France, Auvergne, in 1757. A generous disposition, and the teachings of the philosophers of his time, filled him with a passion for freedom, which in his case, he said, had all the enthusiasm of religion, the irresistibleness of love, and the conviction of geometry. Not that he contemplated a revolution, or a republic ; but he was a sincere friend of the people, and his conception of the new France was a constitutional monarchy, having the full support of a generous intelligent nobility. He was garrisoned in Metz, in 1776, when he heard of the American rebellion ; iBenjamin Franklin, in Paris, was pleading for the colo- nists. " My heart enlisted at once, " said La Fayette. — Against the wishes of his fa- mily, and the formal orders of the Court, he resigned his commission, equipped a ship at his own expense, filling it with arms and am- munition, and crossed to America, in company with a few noblemen, leaving his young wife in France. He met Washington near Philadelphia, and the brilliant generous boy was much liked at once by the great man, who always preserved for him a fatherly affection. La Fayette offered to serve as a private, but was courteously made Major-General. The needs of the Americans were many and urgent; La Fayette returned to France, and this time pleaded personally with the King and his ministers ; in 1778, Louis acknowledged the independence of the United States ; this meant war with England. A great naval engagement off Brittany (Ushant, July 1778) revealed the power restored to our navy by Choiseul during the latter part of the reign of Louis XV. Du Cou^dic, La Touche- Tr^ville, La Motte-Piquet, Suffren, D'Estaing, Guichet, and Grasse, were the eminent seamen who secured the success of our troops in America. La Fayette had left France, as soon as French co-operation had been assured ; a French army corps, under Rochambeau, landed in America at a moment when the English had nearly overcome Washington and La Fayette. The fight was less unequal from that moment, and the intervention of Admiral de Grasse carried the day. Washington, La Fayette and Rochambeau were besieging General Cornwallis in York Town; but the English force was able to hold against them as long as the English fleet kept in touch with it. The French fleet under de Grasse completed the blockade ; Cornwallis had to capitulate (Oct. 1781). — 117 — LA FAYETTE One year later, Grasse lost a battle to Rodney, off the French coast ; -after some more fighting, which led but to partial results on either' side, England gave in ; the treaty by which she recog- nized American Independence was signed at Versailles in 1783. After some travelling in Europe, La Fayette was elected by the nobility of Auvergne, to represent them at the " Etats " of 1789. He was soon found to be the ideal " agent de liaison " between King, nobles, and people. As Commander of the town-militia, and adviser to the King, he protected the Royal Family from rioters in 1789; as "Major-General " of the Realm, he readout the oath of fidelity to the Constitution which the King repeated after him, on the "Champ de Mars" in July 1790... Butwhen the King fled from Paris, in June 1791, La Fayette lost his credit with the people. He received the command of an army, France being in mortal danger, but soon returned to Paris, to dispel idle rumours which accused him of aiming at dictatorship, and to protest against the treatment offered to Louis in June 1792, when he had been forced by the people to don the " red bonnet ". The deputies gently reminded him that there was a war on, and he should not have left his command. He returned to the front, and as the King was deposed shortly after, tried to find support for him in the army ; his suggestions met no response ; he had lost touch with the nation. He then made what we cannot help considering as the mistake of his life ; he left his post, and France. The Austrians soon captured him, and rehabilitated him, by emprisoning him in Olmiitz for 5 years, thus showing that if the French people might find him too conservative, he was still too liberal for Europe. Napoleon obtained his release. La Fayette took to farming, and abstained from any political activity during the Emperor's reign; the two men had more respect than sympathy for each other. Napoleon called La Fayette "a simpleton ", adding that this appellation, from him, amounted to a certificate of honesty. La Fayette welcomed the return of the Bourbons, and at once re-entered political life, being elected by the Sarthe department in 1 81 8. He led the liberals, enlisted among the carbonari, and was involved in the Belfort plot of 1822. Not returned in 1824, but re-elected in 1827, after a triumphant tour in the States, he pursued the contest against the extreme royalists, and took a prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. He died four years later, on his wife's estate, in Brie, where he had lived as a gentleman farmer, very proud of his sheep and his crops. He it was who said, in 1790 : " the old order being but bondage, insurrection is the most holy of duties ; " to the militia of Paris, as he gave them their new cockade, he said : "Take it ; it will tra- vel round the world. " Books recommended. — Et. Charavay. Le general La Fayette (Paris, 1895). — A. Bardoux, La jeunesse de La Fayette (Paris, 1892). —His Memoirs and Letters, — 118 — Language published by his family (6 vol., 1837-38). — Captain Blaesin, Le complot miiitaire de Belfort (1822) (Berger-Levrault, 2 fr.). Tickerman Bayard, Life of La Fayette (New York, 1889). — Charlemagne Tower, The Marquis de la Fayette in the American Revolution (Philadelphia, 1895). LANGUAGE, — French is, roughly speaking, Latin spoken by Celts. Just as some of us have learnt English from books while others are picking it up from British or American troops, so did the Gauls learn Latin partly from school-masters, partly from the Roman soldiers camping in Gaul. As a consequence, many of our words are puzzling to a classical student : we still speak a certain amount of Roman slang ! E. g. we say " tete " (head), from the slang word of the soldiers: testa (a phial, a pot), the proper word, caput, giving " capitale " , " capitaine ", " chef ", " chevet ", etc... The only Gauls who refused to learn Latin, even from their compatriots, were the obstinate Bretons, and the remote Basques. All the other provinces altered the common language each in its own way ; one of those dialects, spoken from Loire to Seine, became, from political circumstances, the language of the Court, and the one mostly used by writers ; we call it French to-day, while the other less fortunate tongues (except Proven9al), are the various " patois " of the provinces, unrepresented in modern literature. The dialects of the South are much nearer the original Latin, and at one time produced an abundant literature. They were called collectively, in spite of their variety, "langue d'oc ", i. e. lan- guage (or group of languages) in which the word for " yes " was "oc"(Lat. : hoc). In the middle of last century, a great poet of Provence, Mistral, urged by local patriotism, and a desire to combat what he regarded as the excessive predominance of Paris and the North, wrote a large amount of splendid poetry in the dialect! of Provence, which he enriched and beautified into a literary language. The writers of the North had the deepest admiration and respect for his genius, and he was offered several times a seat at the " Academic. " He always refused to be thus " annexed " by the North. The dialects of the North are far from harmonious as a rule. Artois and Picardy speak an unpleasant jargon. But the peas- ants of Touraine have a neat clear expression, which is regarded as the original and the standard of French. Even educated Pari- sians, although, being Parisians, they cannot be said to be wrong, use a very unpleasant " R" , spoken in the throat, which was not regarded as correct only two hundred years ago, and is still avoided on the stage ; it is not used in Touraine. Those Northern dialects were all called in the Middle Ages "langue d'oil" ; the word for "yes" came from Lat. hoc illud (which pleonasm, of late and vulgar origin, was absent from Southern speech). — 119 — LANGUAGE This general Latin background, thus divided between North and South dialects, should be further divided, in both regions, into learned and popular varieties. The scholars, whether of the North or the South, periodically found some new words which they introduced almost bodily into their language {"incorporation" is an example in point), whereas the people who could not read, promptly adapted every word they heard, old or new, to their Celtic pronunciation. E. g. : from augustus the scholars derived " auguste " (an " august " personage) ; but the people, who spoke of the month of August, gradually wore down the name until it had lost every one of its consonants, and three vowels out of four. We still spell the word " aout " , but we pronounce it " ou " , in one sound. This " ou " is the second " u " of Augustus, which was accented; our unstressed vowels tend to disappear, especially when final. Hence this peculiarity of French : while Latin, Greek, English, German, etc., generally stress on the last syllable but one, French lays the stress on the last. A good many words came to us from other languages than Latin. Greek merchants travelled from Marseilles to Britain, through Burgundy and Picardy, long before Roman times ; then the Church used many Greek words. Latin and Greek being much alike, it is often impossible to be sure of the Greek origin of a French word. It is all the more interesting to find in the old "patois" of Picardy such words as " hode " (road-tired, very tired), which cannot come, it seems, from any other word but ados (Gr. road) ; or theion, theie (uncle, aunt), exactly similar to Greek words of the same meaning; " moquer " is almost certainly Greek; " cercueil" is sarcophagos. Celtic words have not all died out ; the place-names are very often Celtic ; e. g. " Verdun ", " Dunkerque ", " Chdteaudun ", contain the Celtic word for " hill ". " Barque " came from Egyptian, via Greek, Latin, and Italian. Arabic (" alcool " , ' almanack " , " alcali ") ; Spanish (" bizarre " , " camarade "); Italian (" buste ", " medaille ") ; Germanic dialects (" guerre " , " gaiifre " : " war ", " wafer ") and other languages, have all contributed their share, as in English. English has help- ed our sailors and sportsmen : " jockey ", " handicap ", "starter", have become French at a late period, and therefore have hardly changed ; " beaupre" is " bowsprit "; our fishermen call " bouete " the small fish used as " bait " for the cod. A curious example of the exchanges taking place between sailors is the following. We familiarly call our marines " marsouins " (porpoises); now "porpoise" is clearly the French "porc-poisson" (hog-fish) ; while " marsouin " is just as clearly English, being made up of Old Engl. " mere " (sea) and " swine ". To conclude this section, a " family of words ", all con net ed with " chambre " , will give an idea of the formation of our vocabu- lary. " Chambre " (room) comes from Latin camera (Gr. kamara) and its first meaning was "vault"; hence the verb" cambrer" LANGUAGE (and nouri : " cambrure ") meaning " to arch ". The diminutive is •• chambrette " ; Spanish gave us •'camarilla" ; '• chambrier was coined in France, but " camerier" and " camerlingue come from Italy ; " chambellan ", from Germany ; " chambncre , is French; Italy gave us " cameriste ". " Chambree ", and the Spanish " camarade " both meant a " room-full " ; " chambrer is to shut up in a room. " Antichambre " explains itself. Modern slang uses " cambrioler ", when referring to a variety of burglary, fust as our Celtic pronunciation has altered Latin and other words, our construction is Celtic. Not only do we invariably place the verb before its object (like the Enghsh, and unlike the Germans), but we also place the epithet after its noun (on that point, English has preserved its Germanic tradition). Our grammar is more strict, and less evolved than Enghsh grammar. It has changed but little since the xviith century, when our men of letters and statesmen (see : Literature) " organized our language. r ■,■ ■, -j, Under Louis XIV, French became the language of diplomacy ; it has this great advantage that, by its use, it is always possible to enact a new, or interpret an old treaty, with absolute accuracy, by referring to the " Dictionnaire de I'Acadeniie" for the period in which the treaty is, or was framed. . . . . A large proportion of English words being of Romanic origin, : it is fairly easy for an educated American or Britisher to make out the meaning of a French text, especially if the text is technical. For "house" we sa-y " maison" , but Engl, has "mansion , "manse"; we say "cheval" for "horse", but Engl, has "cavalry", "chivalrous "," cheval-glass ", "chevalier'... As to such words as "distinction", "culture", "collection , "troops", "artillery", "march", etc... they are common to both languages, or nearly so. r j. t A great source of trouble is gender. It may comfort some of our friends to know that very few Frenchmen are sure of the gender of every French word. . i, x ii. Another difficulty is the pronunciation. We claim that the fault lies here with the English-speaking learner, rather than with our language, as most foreigners find it fairly easy to acquire a decent French pronunciation, whereas there is but one opinion about the unique nature of Enghsh diction. It is almost impos- sible for an Enghshman or an American to pronounce ±.ooo French & ^British DIXMUPJ&' 9.00a marine/' holo out. 7 day/ MARNE arrived in Paris, was dispatched to Maunoury in the same way. Foch, in spite of the help he received sometimes from his right, sometimes from his left, was beaten back three days in succession ; his cheerfu message, on the third evening, was : " The situation is excellent ; my right is driven back ; so is my left; I am pushing my centre forward. " The next day. he outflanked and utterly routed the German centre. Sarrail, with the able help of Castelnau and Langle de Cary. defeated his two royal opponents. The heroic resistance of Troyon Fort, the garrisons and defences of Verdun and Nancy, were to him invaluable assets. There is a " legend " of the Marne, and some have called it a miracle. Others have insisted on its national, as distinguished frorn its military character. Both views make too little of the efficiency of our officers, from J off re downwards, of their bravery and cool-headedness, and of the whole-hearted way in which they all worked together. Even if the success of the battle was all their own, it would still be national, for they belonged to all classes of the nation. Yet it is true that on that day the nation achieved the unexpected. The men realized with extraordinary clearness the extreme peril of the situation, yet never lost heart or hope. They rose to the occasion, and did more than any save their leaders could have expected of them. Joffre had thought out every measure, but there was one incalculable element on which everything depended in the last resort. We were said to be cankered with alcoholism and " antimilitarisme" ; it was also believed that the French soldier could not stand a defeat, and that Charleroi, followed by that long torturing retreat, must have disheartened him ; but the men of 1914 behaved as well as any other French troops in history. Joffre had relied on them ; they answered fully to his high expectations of them, which were part of his reckonings. Our casualties were so heavy that there were no rejoicings over the victory, although its magnitude was apprehended at once by the whole nation. The forces engaged have been estimated at 900.000 men on the German side against our 700.000. The British Force amounted to only i /30th of the total forces engaged, but it was of the first order. Though forced to withdraw, the Germans were not altogether discouraged, and still tried to outflank us as they drew back. This we prevented them from doing by extending our front as fast as they did theirs : this epilogue was the " race for the sea ". There again did Joffre evince singular judgement and promptitude. The Germans being by that time effectually checked in the East, thousands of men were convoyed from Verdun and other places to Flanders, by train or motor-transport. The sea was reached by both armies at the same time ; the Yser refused to let the Ger- mans pass, and trench-warfare began (Oct. 1914). Trench- warfare is essentially defensive ; the German War was to be — 140 — MARNfi exclusively aggressive : the nature of German operations and expectations was radically changed. Prussia had contemplated a lightning campaign through France and Russia ; she was faced by weeks and months of waiting, intriguing, corruption, piracy, starving, slave-driving, the use of gas and fire and mines, aerial torpedoes, Zeppelins, and what not... a war that was no war, and could end but m ruin : it gave time to our Allies ! From the diary found on a prisoner (Staff-Lieutenant R. J., in von Kluck's Army) : 2 Sept. ■ — Since the engagements on the frontier our army has done little fighting. The French troops are retreating before us. Our men are exhausted. They have been marching 40 kil. a day for the last four days. The ground is bad, the roads are des- troyed, the trees cut down, the fields pitted with shell-holes. The men stumble at every step, their faces all begrimed with dust, their clothes in ribbons ; they look like living rags. They march with their eyes closed, and sing in chorus, lest they might drop asleep on the road. The certainty of instant victory and a triumphant entry into Paris keeps their nerves taut. But for that certainty they would drop from exhaustion, and lie down wherever they happened to be, so as to sleep at last, anywhere and anyhow... It is the ecstasy of victory that keeps the men alive ; but in order to make their bodies as light as their souls, they drink to excess. The drink too helps them to keep their legs. To-day the General, after an inspection, has gone mad with rage. He wanted to stop this collective drunkenness. We have just dissuaded him from extreme measures. We must not be too harsh, else the men would cease to move on. Such abnormal fatigue makes abnormal excitement indispensable. Once in Paris, we will stop it all. No alcohol once we are there. Order will return when we rest on our laurels. 3 Sept. — Our main body is camping at present in the Forest of Ermemonville (30 kil. N. of Paris). We are to move toward Betz, leaving Paris on our right, and then collect our forces to the S.-E., opposite the remnants of the Franco-British troops which are vainly trying to gather their scattered elements in the Marne area. Our men are not aware that we have left for the time being the road to Paris. They are so sure of being at the gates of Paris to- morrow or the next day that it would be cruel to tell them the truth. They believe that the period of fighting is over, that the French army is destroyed and in hiding, and that we are going to enter Paris singing and drinking. I have been about the forest in a motor-car behind our armies. The sight is awful ; the French guns have opened bloody gaps in our ranks. The road is strewn with bodies in heaps. Dead — 141 — MARNfi bodies, thousands of empty tins and millions of empty bottled, such is the jetsam left by the flood of our army... 'wiiile in the Forest of Ermenonville I witnessed a curious scene. A battalion was marching, quite done up. At a cross-roads, they saw a sign-board bearing : Paris, 3y kil. This was the first sign-board not erased. The sight thrilled the men like a galvanic battery. That word Paris under their eyes made them simply mad. Some hugged the sign-post with both arms, others danced around it... The songs revived ; they were no longer the traditional tunes, but Parisian love-songs, stupid enough by the way. 4 Sept. — General von Kliick has just passed through Lizy-sur- Ourcq on an inspection. His Staff-Colonel has talked to me about the operations of the day, and the General's intentions. The General has no doubt but that we shall squash rapidly the " crumbs " of the hostile army. They are a depressed horde, discontented, with no heart left in them. Not the least chance of their taking the offensive. The General has no anxieties either from the direction of Paris. We shall return to Paris after destroying the remnant of the Franco-British Army. The IVth Reserve Corps is told off for the triumphal entry into the capital... However orders have been given to begin earth-works and defences on our line Nanteuil-Lizy. The English artillery is still pursuing us. Our detachments in the wood of Meaux are shelled frightfully. To-night, a farm is burning in the neighbourhood of Claye. That farm belonged to one of our agents. He set fire to it to warn us of danger. Are there any important French forces about Paris then ? Yet our Uhlans and aeroplanes have not noticed anything. That farm on fire gives us concern. The signal had been pre- arranged ; its meaning is perfectly certain. 5 Sept. — Although our reconnaissances give us no certainty on the point, our High Command believes that the French are concen- trating their forces against our flank. Orders are issued for the prompt achievement of the defences... The orders are very badly carried out... The workers are exhaust- ed or drunk... Our men are too tired, and too bitterly disap- pointed... The Staff-Colonel enforces strict discipline. But then the discontented soldiers make the French peasantry rue for it. They try to cause disorder, they burn and loot in order to evade discipline. This afternoon there was a regular stir. Is the enemy trying to turn our right ? Our patrols have met his about Villeroy... We have many wounded ; but he seems to have had more... The men are told to fall in and work at the defences... now they under- stand, and work hard. If the French were not so completely — 142 — MARSEiLLAlSfi demoralized, they might become most dangerous. Our ist Army is far from having the energy and disciphne that made it so strong in Belgium and on the Northern French frontier. We shall spend the night in raising defences... 6 Sept. ■ — The battle is begun for good, and the French troops seem very keen. The fighting is atrocious, for us as much as for our foes... Our people hold the heights, but the French are demons ; they charge under shot and shell ; they get killed blithely... Books recommended. — G. Babin, La batailU de la Marne (Plon, 2 fr.). Madelin, La Victoire de la Marne (Plon, 2 fr). — Mme Cladel, Le General Gallieni (Berger-Levrault, 2 fr.). — • Michelin, La Bataille de VOurcq (3 fr.). — R. Mercier, Nancy sauvee (B.-Levr., 4 fr.). ■ — Ch. Le Goffic, Dixmude (Plon, 3 fr.). — R. Puaux La Course a la mer... (B.-Levr., o fr, 75). Davis (H. W. C), The Battles of the Marne and Aisne (Oxford Pamphlets, 1914). — Aldrich (M.), A Hilltop on the Marne (Constable, 1915). MARSEILLAISE. — In 1792, as the Austro-Prussians were taking advantage of our political difficulties and threatening Lille and Verdun, regiments of volunteers were levied all over France, for we had no system of general conscription at the time. In the city of Strasbourg, which then was French, the local regi- ment had taken the name of " Les Enfants de la Patrie; " the first man to enlist had been the son of the able, genial Mayor, Baron de Dietrich, the descendant of a Lorrainian family of the name of Didier. One morning, on the 24th of April, the new regi- ment had paraded through the city to no better music than some very feeble tunes, and the song of " Qa ira ". In the evening, the Mayor's family and seven guests, all military men, among them two Field-Marshals ( the Prince of Broglie and theDukeof Aiguillon), discussed various aspects of the situation over an excellent dinner. This absence of a good marching-song was deplored ; the Mayor was a good singer ; one of his two nieces, Louise (who was to become the grandmother of Mme Casimir-Perier), was an able pianist, like her mother ; one of the soldiers present, a young captain of the name of Rouget de Lisle, could write music and verse with some facility. Everybody agreed that " ^a ira " was quite unworthy of the great Revolution ; it was sad doggerel, sung to a vulgar quadrille ; its refrain was merely a tag of the Parisian mob, who had borrowed it from Benjamin Franklin ; the favourite of the Parisians had a trick of saying : " Qa ira, pa ira " (It will be all right) ; Parisian humour had caught on at once ; but Alsace must give a better song than this to her sons in the field... " I am going, said Dietrich, to offer a prize to the citizens of Stras- bourg for the best song brought to me. But, he added, I believe that you, my dear Rouget, should try your hand ; you would surely bear off the prize. " The whole company concurred ; then the conversation turned on other topics, while the gentlemen — 143 — MARSEILLAISE present, Rouget in particular, generously honoured the Mayor's champagne. Rouget went to his small lodgings some hours later, and at once began to compose verse and music, which he sang or hummed to the accompaniment of his fiddle ; then he slipped into bed, woke after a few hours, hastily wrote down what he had composed, and ran to the house of a brother officer, who altered two lines of one stanza. Rouget now proceeded to the Mayor's ; it was just past seven, Dietrich was walking in his garden. He looked over the song, and said : " Let's go inside and try it ; by the look of it, it must be very good or very bad. " A few minutes later, the Mayor called up Mme Dietrich, and asked her to write at once to all the guests of the preceding night, and invite them to luncheon. They came, heard of nothing until luncheon was over, and then the Mayor let the miracle burst upon them ! Surely there was no occasion to offer a prize. Dietrich had the song printed at once, and the band of the " Enfants de la Patrie " performed the " Chant de I'Armee du Rhin ". But it had little success in Strasbourg. Newspapers and commercial travellers, however, made it known throughout France, and by June it had reached Marseilles ; there it was adopted enthusiastically, and the young soldiers from Marseilles, on their way to Paris and the North-Eastern frontier, made it popular ; it was soon called after them " Hymne des Marseillais. " In October, as Paris publicly rejoiced over the conquest of Savoy, the new song was officially adopted by the nation. These few facts, recently vouched for by a direct descendant of the Mayor, are among the best instances that can well be given of the political and social unity of France at the time, and of the closeness of our bonds with Alsace even then. Be it noted that the origins of the ' ' Marseillaise "are associated with every portion of our Eastern frontier, including Champagne, and the birth- place of Rouget, Lons-le-Saulnier, a town in Jura. Two more coincidences may interest Americans : the younger niece of Dietrich, Amelie, who was 13 at the time, was to be the mother of a boy who married a grand-daughter of La Fayette ; and the Lieutenant-Governor of Alsace in 1792 was the Count of Rochambeau. Rouget de Lisle composed nothing else worth mentioning ; but by that single song has achieved a popularity never reached by any other composer. The sailors of the Kaiser sang the "Marseillaise" in 1917, a few months after the soldiers of the Czar. Books recommended. — Albert de Dietrich, La creation de la "Marseillaise" (B.bliotheque Als.-Lorr.). — Louis de Joantho, Le triomphe de la "Marseillaise" (Plon). — J. Tiersot, Hisioire de la " Marseillaise" (Delagrave), — 144 — METRIC SYSTEM Metric system (••systeme metrique decimal"). -^ Weights and measures were fully as complicated in old France as they are to- day in Great Britain or America. The " Constituante" of 1790, acting on the general principles of unity and simplicity, requested a committee of savants to plan a System of Weights and Measures that would substitute common sense and general facts for local caprice and casual traditions. The committee evolved a system in which all units were derived from the measure of an object at once invariable in size and accessible to all men at all times : the Earth. It was found that, by dividing into 10,000,000 equal parts the distance from the pole to the equator, one obtained a unit of length suitable for daily purposes, amounting to about one half of the time-honoured " toise " (i toise : 6 French feet). That unit was called " metre " (Gr. : me^fow, measure), i. e, measure " par excel- lence". All other units were derived from it, as far as the nature of things allowed. Why this division into 10,000,000 equal parts ? Because the system is not only metric, but decimal. Man has ten fingers, and has always practised decimal numeration, in spite of such other divisions or groupings as by 3, by 4, by 3 x 4, by 4 x 4, etc. (3 feet, 4 farthings, 12 inches, 12 pence, 16 ounces, 16 annas...). With a view to further clearness, it was decided that all multi- ples should be named by Greek decimals, and all fractions by Latin decimals; e. g. : " hectometre " = "metre " X 100; " centi^ metre" = "metre" ; 100. MULTIPLES FRACTIONS ' ' — ■ UNITS ^— 10. 000 1. 000 100 10 i/io i/ioo i/iooo Mvriam. (Mm.) Kilom. (Km.) Uectom. (Hm.) Decani. (Dm.) Metre, m. (metre carre, raq.; metre cjbe, mc.) (lecimet. (dm.) ccntiin. (cm.) uiillim. (mm.) nil nil Hectare (Ha.) nil Are (land measure) = 100 mq. nil Centiare (ca.) nil nil nil nil Decaslerc Stere (Timber) = i mc. decislere nil nil nil Bil Hcctol. Decalitre Litre (fluids, grains) = i dmo. (le'cilitrc ccnIililiT nil nil ■ Kilogr. Hectogr. Decagr. Gramme (weights) = i cmc. of water (at temperat. of max. density) (lecigr. cenligr. milligr. oil nil nil nil Franc = 5 grammes of silver. nil centime miUiine 145 METRIC SYSTEM Observation, practice, the resistance of the past, have not allow- ed the D. M. System to seem or to be as satisfactory as was first expected. (The earth may not be invariable in size ; it was perhaps not measured accurately at first ; certain multiples are not practical, etc.) But the present system is a neatly designed park, as compared with the tangled jungle of the past. The preceding table shows its simplicity. Temperature : the unit of weight cannot be determined without some accurate measuring of temperature. If we use dis- tilled water, at the altitude of sea-level, and divide into loo the difference of temperature between the invariable freezing point of ice and the invariable boiling point of water, we get the "cen- tigrade" degrees of temperature. Heat : one " calorie " is the quantity of heat required for raising by one degree centigrade the temperature of one " litre " of distilled water. Time: at first, even time did not escape the Decimal System; the year preserved its twelve months, but the months had three " decades " of lo days. It is not advisable here to go into further detail : the scheme failed, owing to the Church and the peasant. Money : the old " livre " , slightly altered to the exact metric weight of 5 " grammes " of silver, became the "franc " , which was divided into "decimes" and "centimes." The " decime " hsiS fallen into disuse, as a word ; its value is represented by the well- known lo centime bronze coin. No paper notes under 50 francs existed before the war. Gold coins above 20 francs (50, 100) are scarce. Notes of 50 and 100 are commonly used ; in U.-K. five pound notes are regarded very nearly as cheques, which they are essentially ; in France banknotes change hands as if they were coin. Old terms still in use. " Lieue. " — The average distance that a man can walk in one hour was called leuca by the Gauls. This is an older measure than the English mile, of Roman origin and designation. We have kept the word, but the distance is metric, it is of 4 kilometres. " Sou. " — The old silver " livre " was worth twenty " sous ". We find it convenient to call the 5 centime coin a " sou ", ox a " petit sou " : and the 10 centime coin a " gros sou. " Peasants still talk of " ecus " (5 fr. piece) and of " pistoles " (10 francs). We often say "louis" for 20 francs; 5 louis = 100 francs, etc. "Livre. " — Instead of speaking of grammes always, we still like to say " une livre " (500 gr.) ; " une demi-livre " (250 gr.) ; " un quart de livre " (or simply : " un quart "). The "quintal " (formerly 100 livres) is sometimes counted as 50 kg., but more generally as 100 kg. (" quintal metrique "). — 146 — MfiURTHE-ET-MOSELLE (DEPARTMENT OF) In all these cases, the terms have survived, but their actual meanings have become metric (the same applies to "tonne ") ; see table in front of the volume. The D. M. System is now adopted in Austria, Belgium, Ger- many, Greece, Holland, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. It is legal, but not' really used as yet, in India, ■ Books recommended. — Annuaire (Year-book) of the Bureau des Longitudes (Gauthier-Villars, i fr.). Crichton (F. A.), The Metric System and English Equivalents (Oakley, 1906). — The Metric System (Hughes Academy Belfast, 1913). MEURTHE-ET -MOSELLE. — This Department is all that is left us of Lorraine (see : Alsace-Lorraine). Its total length is 86 miles, and its width varies from 5 to 61 miles. Its general shape is that of a triangle prolonged northwards by a strip of ter- ritory, the Briey district. It is one of our smallest Departments, its total area being only 2,038 sq. miles. It adjoins Alsace-Lorraine in the E. ; Luxemburg and Belgium in the N. ; and the Departments of Meuse in the W. and Vosges in the S. It is fairly hilly, the altitude varying between 560 and 3,000 feet. It comprises 5 geological regions : i. Vosges, of hard " Vosgian " sandstone : 2. N. and N.-W. of Vosges, shell-chalk, divided from Vosgian sandstone by a strip of variegated sandstone ; 3. some wooded hills, East of Nancy, consisting of many-coloured clay, over beds of chalk ; 4. triassic soil (chalk, clay, and quartz) over practically the whole of Nancy arrondissement ; 5. oolithic forms the " Pays-Haut" (High Land) — a plateau extending to the Ardennes — as well as the Toul and Briey arrondissements. The main features of the relief are the two great valleys of the Meurthe and Moselle, and the extensive, monotonous, and fertile plain of the Woevre. The two valleys are characteristic : the rivers are lined with meadows ; then the gentle slope is covered with ploughed fields ; above these are vineyards, and higher still the woods. The rivers, besides Moselle and Meurthe, are the sluggish Seille (130 kil.), and the active Orne (86 kil.), and some minor streams. Ponds are numerous in the forest N. W. of Toul. The climate is harsh, and variable, but fairly dry. It is warmer than in the Vosges, especially in the W. of the Department, where grapes ripen 8 or 10 days sooner than in the eastern portion (see Climate). Snow seldom begins before November, and may still be on the ground in April. A feature of the Department is the importance of its forests; 27 are extensive, 10 of them have an area of over 40,000 acres each. The most common trees are, in order : oaks, horn-beams, beeches, and firs. - 147 — MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE (DEPARTMENT OF) Agriculture. — In 1900, the department numbered 51,000 horses, 94,000 head of cattle, 108,000 sheep, 100,000 pigs, 13,000 goats, and 18,000 bee-hives. Grain alone yields a revenue of about 8 million dollars a year (£ 1,600,000). In 1906, its main crops were: wheat: 515,000 bushels, barley : 33 times less, oats : 200,000 bushels more. Pota- toes, in 1900, gave 2 million cwt., beet -roots, one million and a half; clover: 208,000 cwt.; lucerne: 250,000; trefoil: 96,000; hay : over i million ; sugar-beet : 8,000 ; tobacco : 5,000 ; hops : 4,500 ; plums : 81,000, walnuts : 1,342 cwt. Oolithic soil is best for the vine, hence the excellent vineyards about Toul ; the wines of Bouillonville, Arnaville, Thiaucourt, Bruley, are the best known. The vintage of 1900 yielded 8 mil- lion gallons, a return of about 5 million dollars. Industry. — Meurthe-et-Moselle possesses important beds of iron-ore, the three centres being Nancy, Briey, and Longwy ; the output in 1913 was 20 million tons of ore, 9/10 of total France. (See page 151.) It is our premier Department in the production of cast-iron (i mill, tons in 1899), but depends largely for its coke on Germany. Other branches of metallurgy are active at Longwy, Pont-a-Mousson, Gorcy, Champigneulles, Nancy, and many other places. Six million tons of steel and cast-iron were produced in 1913. Salt is a very important product of the soil here. Beds of rock-salt extend all about Nancy and Luneville, and have been exploited ever since the 7th century : 629,000 tons in 1906, a value of 8,500,000 francs. Six factories of ceramics (Luneville is the best known) employ 1,800 workmen. Glass is manufactured in several places, espe- cially at the famous cut-glass works of Baccarat (founded 1766.) Other industries of note are : candles (Nancy, 400,000 kil.) ; matches (Blenod); tobacco (Nancy, 1,700 tons); gloves (Luneville, 1,200 workers) ; leather (37 tanneries, 10 million francs) ; straw- hats (Nancy, etc., 1,000 workers) ; hats and caps (Toul, etc.); wool and cotton mills (Nancy, Tomblaine, Briey, etc.) ; sugar (Luneville, 400 tons); boots, alcohol, etc. The fine printing-works of Berger- Levrault and Co., a model establishment, were transferred from Strasbourg to Nancy in 1871 (over 400 workers). Communications, within the limits of Meurthe-et-Moselle, are : 20 railway lines, with a total length of 582 kilometres. National roads, 450 kil. Departmental roads, 4-555 kil. Other roads, 5.058 kil. Waterways, 487 kil. The total population, in 1911, was 564,730 inhabitants ; the political divisions are 4 arrondissements : Briey, Luneville, Nancy, Toul, which include 29 cantons, consisting of 598 com- munes. The "chef -lieu" is Nancy, with a population of 110,600 inh. MEURTHE-ET-MOSELLE (DEPARTMENT OF) Arrondissements. Cantons. Briey . . . Audun-le-Roman, Briey, Chambley, Conflans, Longuyon, Longwy. ' Lun:£ville. Arracourt, Baccarat, Badonviller, Bayon, Bla- mont, Cirey, Gerbeviller, Luneville (N. and S.). Nancy. . . Haroue, Nancy (E., N., W., and S., ), Nomeny, Pont-a-Mousson, Saint-Nicolas, Vezelise. TouL. . . . Colombey-les-Belles, Domevre-en-Haye, Thiau- court, Toul (N. and S.). Population of certain places. — Auboue, 2,388 ; Baccarat, 7,000 ; Badonviller, 1,900 ; Bayon, 1,250; Bert rich amps, 1,078; Blain- ville, 1,600 ; Blamont, 1,600 ; Blenod-les-Pont-a-Mousson, 1,600 ; Blenod-les-Toul, 1,100; Bouxieres-aux-Dames, 1,122; Briey, 2,630; Chaligny, 1,528; Champigneulles, 3,544; Chavigny, 1,243 ; Cosnes-et-Romain, 1,184; Custines, 1,143; Dieulouard, 2,400; Ecrouves, 8,700 ; Essey-les-Nancy, 1,086 ; Foug, 1,232 ; Frouard, 4,180; Gerbeviller, 1,575 ; Gorcy,i,i24; Gondreville, 1,264; Herse- range, 1,498 ; Hussigny-Godbrange, 3,200 ; Jarville, 3,700 ; Joeuf, 7,300; Landres, 1,600 ; Laneuveville, 2,183 ; Lay-Sain t-Christophe, 1,143 > Liverdun, 1,600; Longuyon,3,25o; Longwy, 10,000; Ludres, 1,200; Luneville, 24,300 ; Malzeville, 3,400 ; Marbache, 1,100 ; Maxeville, 2,700 ; Mont-Saint-Martin, 3,290 ; Moutiers, 1,300 ; Nomeny, 1,300; Pagny-sur-Moselle, 2,100; Pexonne, 1,100; Pompey, 3,100; Pont-a-Mousson, 13,500; Pont-Saint-Vincent, 2,400 ; Saint-Nicolas, 5,732 ; Saint-Max, 2,400 ; Saulnes, 2,200 ; Tantonville, 1,006 ; Thil, 2,900 ; Tomblaine, 1,400 ; Toul, 13,700 ; Val-et-Chatillon, 1,700; Tucquegnieux, 1,100; Vandoeuvre, 2,600; Varangeville, 2,500 ; Vezelise, 1,300 ; Villerupt, 6,600. Among the many notable men and women who were born in Meurthe-et-Moselle, may be mentioned : Saint Loup, bishop of Troyes, born Toul, died 478 ; went to England, with Saint Germain, there to fight the Pelagian heresy — he it was who saved Troyes from Attila. Margaret of Anjou, who became Queen of England, and was the heroine of the War of the two Roses, was born at Pont-a-Mousson in 1429 ; Callot, the great engraver, Nancy, 1593; Clodion the sculptor, Nancy, 1738; IsABE Y the portrait-painter, Nancy, 1 767 ; Grandville the carica- turist, Nancy, 1803. Among the soldiers, who have been plen- tiful on this border-territory : Claude de Lorraine, the ancestor of the Guise family ; General Haxo, who fought the Vendee (1750-1794) ; another Haxo, who took Antwerp (1774-1838) Stofflet, a royalist general (i 750-1 796) ; Gouvion-Saint-Cyr Field-Marshal and War-Secretary under Louis XVIII ( 1 764-1 830) Marshal Duroc, Duke of Frioul ; Drouot, one of the best men of Napoleon (1774-1847) ; Admiral de Rigny, who commanded our fleet at Navarin (1783-1835). Etc. MINERALS Books recommended. — Meurthe-et-MoselU (P. Joanne, i £r.). — Imbeaux, Le\ eaux potables en Meurthe-et-Moselle (Beranger). — H. Joly, La Geologie ei les formes du terrain dans la region lorraine (lectures to officers) (Berger-Levrault, i fr. 50). — G. Maugras, La Cour de Luneville au XVIII'' siecle (Won, 7 fr. 50). — Pawlowski, he Nouveau Bassin minier de Meurthe-et-Moselle (Berger-Levrault, 3 fr.). See also : Information. MINERALS. — Just before the war, France produced about 40 million tons of Coal, and bought 22 from : England (11), Germany (6), and Belgium (5). - 150 - MINERALS Two thirds of our supply, and the best quahty, come from the North ; but coal lies deeper there than in English mines. aSuA. World's production of coal. U.K. Other Germany Austn Fr. Belg. Countries 38% 28% 19% 5% 4% 2,2% 3,8% Coal Production. 1901-1905 (Yearly average). GROUPS BASINS I.OOO METRIC TONS NoRD & Pas-de- Calais Loire Boulonnais and Valenciennes St-Etienne & three more Alais & two more Decize & three more Carmaux & three more Commentry & three more 20.965 3.601 1-954 1. 881 1.770 994 Gard Burgundy Tarn et Avey- ron BOURBONNAIS . . Important beds had bee^n found shortly before the war, in Normandy, and about Lyons. A German company had bought sites in Normandy for the opening of mines, and the creation of a special harbour ! The Sarre valley (now in German Lorraine), which was French until 18 1 5, and the mines of which were originally discovered and opened by Frenchmen, was turning out 20 million tons in 1914. Iron. — Lorraine contains huge deposits of excellent iron ore ; all are in German hands at present, either through the annexa- tions of 1 87 1, or late occupation (Briey). The annual output of the territory lost in 1871 is 21 million tons. Rich deposits have been discovered lately in Normandy (700 million tons of ore, giving 50 %, the best Lorraine yielding 42 %) ; also in Brittany, and Anjou. Old mines exist at Le Creu- sot, Montlu9on, Saint-Etienne, Bourges, and in E. Pyrenees and Dauphine. France should become after this war the great iron reserve of Europe : lowest estimates : 10 billion tons of iron-ore, — ni — MONTMARTRE We have small mines of : Copper, about Lyons ; Lead, in Auvergne ; Gold, in the West, Bai'xite (aluminium) is plentiful in Provence. Building materials are more plentiful and varied than metals. There is Granite in Brittany, etc. ; Sandstone in the Vosges ; Marble in the Pyrenees ; Slate in Anjou and Ardennes ; Limestone below and about Paris, etc. Kaolin feeds the porcelain industries of Limoges. Salt- Works exist in Jura and the Vosges, Salt-Marshes on the western and Mediterranean coasts. Our mineral springs, thermal or otherwise, are numberless. There are three in Paris alone ; Perrier is a spring in Lower Languedoc (See : Thermal stations). Another mineral resource is the one which we call " houille blanche " (white coal) — so named by A. Berges, who first built a hydraulic factory in 1869 — i.e. the hydraulic power from waterfalls. Many of our mountain villages have better and cheaper light than Paris, owing to the local torrent. The Midi Railway will shortly be electric throughout, thanks to the proxi- mity of the Pyrenees. This war, by reducing our coal output by 50 %, has induced our engineers to use white coal to an unprecedented extent ; and white coal has come to stay. " Green coal," the force of even-flowing rivers, is also used (in Normandy, etc.), but not so generally as it might be. Our total water-power is estimated at 8 or 9 million horse- power, equivalent to 80 or 90 million tons of coal annually. We used i million H.P. in 1917, 750,000 in 1914. Our mining engineers come from the " Ecoles superieures des Mines " of Paris, and Saint-Etienne. Books recommended. — A. de Lapparent, Traiie de geologie. Leans de Geo- graphic physique (Masson\ — De La,.nay, La science geologigue (Colin). — La conqwte mineral'. (Flammarion.) — A. Lacroix, Miniralogie de 1% France et de ses colonies (Baudry). — Works of Martel; and Catalogue of Beranger, Paris. See also : Information. MONTMARTRE. — About 30 years ago Montmartre was one of the curiosities of Paris. Its hill comprised at the time three dis- tinct regions. The summit was a place of pilgrimage, as it is at present, and has been for ages. The faithful visited two churches, and a Calvary. One church is the Holy Heart, a large new basilica, built in the Byzantine style ; its cupolas and white towers look strangely Eastern. The other church is the ancient parish-church of Montmartre, erected on the site of former temples to Mercury, and Mars, from which the holy hill was called Montem Mercuri, and Montem Martis, before it was called, in honour of the first Parisian martyrs, Montem Martyrum. The religion changed, MUSIC but the name still sounded much the same. The Calvary comes from the summit of Mont Valerien (W. of Paris). Around those centres of worship, small shops offering pious books and statues, rosaries, and tapers ; old houses, very poor and very provincial ; narrow streets, hard to climb, and run to weeds, composed the little city, which has not quite disappeared yet. Lower down, comes the " Butte " itself, with its very steep sides, some of which can be climbed only by flights of steps. This again was a very calm area, the houses were poor and small ; working people filled its winding streets morning and evening, on their way to or from Paris, but peace reigned supreme all day in that little accessible region. Further down still, come the gentle slopes extending from the Place Clichy and the Place Pigalle to Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. This was the merry youthful Montmartre, inhabited by artists and pretty girls, which soon became famous. In 1881, a man call- ed Salis, a wise Bohemian, asked some artists to come and crack their jokes in his establishment, instead of talking amongst themselves ; they assented, and the " Chat Noir " was founded. Other " cafes " and " brasseries " promptly followed suit, and attracted first the snobs, then the bourgeois, then the provincials, then foreigners. As they were more and more frequented, the local flavour, and the masonic understanding between guests and hosts, had to disappear. The fame of the establishments grew as their original life receded from them. Montmartre, the Mont- martre which has a reputation all over the world, lived from 1880 to 1895 ; it is now extinct, save in the memory of men. A young poilu was writing, not very long ago, to M. Wil- lette, one of the artists who made old Montmartre : " Say, father Pierrot, you'll give us back Montmartre after the war, just as it was to you twenty years ago. " But M. Willette is much too wise not to know that what is past is past for ever. The more accessible parts of Montmartre are now built with six-storied houses, where artists have no particular reasons to live ; the establishments still running in that region are businesses pure and simple ; Bohemia knows them not. . . Indeed Parisian Bohemia has no home to-day ; it is individualistic, and elusive. Books recommended. — A.Warnod, Le Vieux Montmartre. Bals, cafes, cabarets (Figuiere, 3 fr. 50 each). • — H. Sellier, Montmartre. MUSIC — The Celts are musical, and we had bards before we could build. Yet it is sometimes said of us that we owe what music we have to Italy and Germany. Now it is quite true that the French are more especially endowed with what Matthew Arnold called " a direct sense of the visible, palpable world " ; true again that, as a nation, we have never enjoyed melody for its own sake to the same extent as the Italians, laor harmony for its own sake to the same extent as the Germans, — 153 — MUSIC But from this to infer that we have no music in us is to go past the mark. The fact that we did learn so much from our neighbours proves that we appreciate music, while the fact that we refused to learn " too much " is evidence that we will not depart from a particular sort of music, namely our own. We have a music ; but it is like ourselves, precise and moderate ; it is, like all our activities, subject to reason. Of that temperate, sensible, intelli- gent music, we have produced a considerable amount, which all Europe has enjoyed. Thus much being suggested, and, we hope, granted, it must be admitted that " reasonable " music is not fully musical. The sounds used by man for purposes of self-expression range from the cry of the child — the instinctive inarticulate assertion of some physical condition — , to scientific combinations of voices and instruments, adapted to the deepest emotions and the most elusive moods and fancies. Between those extremes lies articu- late speech, the discussion of familiar or definable phenomena ; poetry hovering between speech and music, the highest poetry being often nearer to the latter, clamouring, in fact, one might say, for absorption into music... Now the French, as a nation, prefer the more definite modes of expression. A drama like King Lear is not congenial to us; still more does a symphony " plague and embitter our apprehension ". With us, save in quite recent times, speech always had to remain within the limits of the demonstrable, and music be the handmaid of speech or action, in song, drama, or dance. As a consequence, our music has developed exactly on the same lines as our literature : our popular tunes in the xiiith century corresponding with the popular mystery-plays of the time ; our complicated madrigals of the xvith with the elaborate ballads of our Renaissance ; the solemn music of LuUi with the rise of our classical stage ; the discoveries of Rameau in harmony, with the work of our Encyclopedists ; the "Marseillaise ' with the oratory of the Revolution... Only of late years has the full liberation of genius from the tastes of a class allowed poetry and music to part both from " literature " and from each other. Music has now asserted its particular method and mission. However, the change is more noticeable in the quality of the music produced than in the numbers of those who appreciate it. Music is after all the youngest of the arts, in France as elsewhere, and the least accessible. We still have twenty theatres to one concert-hall, and most Frenchmen, like most Europeans, could say, in the words of Lamb : " Those insufferable concertos... Words are something ; but to be exposed to an endless battery of mere sounds ; to gaze on empty frames and be forced to make the pic- tures for yourself ; to read a book, all stops , and be obliged to supply the verbal matter ; to invent extempore tragedies to answer to the vague gestures of an inexplicable rambling niime... " - 154 - MUSIC Our music in the Middle-Ages possessed two widely different traditions; one was liturgical, and originated mainly from the Gre- gorian plain-song introduced from Italy by Charlemagne in 787. The other was that of our ministrels, who sang their poems to ^hort melodies and lively rhythms ; its inspiration was popular, clear and simple. Between 1200 and 1600, both schools improved a good deal in technique, mainly owing to Belgium and Italy, and quite independently from each other. Yet, with the decline of Gothic art, and of mysticism, secular music began to invade the churches, in the form of hymns, many of which were just popular tunes of the time. The Renaissance, and Italy, provided us with an abundance of graceful original part-songs, as varied and full of life as the short lyrics of the period, but music did not reach real depth and breadth before the rise of our classical drama, and the " organization of the fine arts by Louis XIV. XVIIth century. — The Italians had kept ahead of us, in music as in painting ; it was therefore an Italian, Lulli, whom Louis called to Versailles. Lulli was an accomplished musician, and fully deserved to be the guide of our artists. As a result of his teach- ing, and of the development of our stage, Cambert, a French- man, gave us our first " operas " , while Campra, an Italian, cre- ated our "opera-ballet" (similar to the masque), of which Louis was very fond. The favourite instruments of our xviith century were the harpsichord, the organ, and the violin. Through the XVIIIth century, the French disciples of Lulli pro- duced innumerable melodies for the light operas, dances, and " romances " of their age ; their best compositions were those intended for the harpsichord ; their music was always elegant, sometimes witty, often shallow, partaking of the worldly, super- ficial, happy manner of the social life of those days. Two men rose shoulder-high above that clever host. One was Gluck, the Haendel of France, a German by birth, who had made France his home, and had been taught mostly by Italy and France. His pathetic sincere music was perfectly adapted to the noble themes and solemn tone of our classical dramas ; his recitatives show that he had studied Bach, while his arias, though Italian in construction, are free from the Italian roulades. Greater than he was Jean Rameau, the first French classic, who innovated so much, especially in harmony, that he seemed to his contempo- raries to have re-invented music. He produced his first opera in 1733, at the age of 50 (" Hippolyte et Aricie") ; twenty more were to follow which were received with great favour ; but the bent of Rameau was toward higher forms of music. The cen- tury ended, and our music declined, with Gr6try, M^hul, and Lesueur. In 1793, the " Convention " created our "Conser- vatoire National de Musique ", a high school of music in Paris ; it is supported by the State, and is entered by competitive ex£^,- ^155 - MUSIC mination ; the students who take the first places in the final examination are appointed to the "Opera" "and " Opera- Comique ". In the XlXth century, French music prospered as abundantly and in as many directions as French literature. A ' Romantic ' school began with BoiELDiEu, (1775-1834), Auber, and Harold ; asserted its power with Meyerbeer (" Les Huguenots", " Le Prophete " ) ; culminated with Berlioz, who had genius (" La Damnation de Faust "j, and Bizet, (" Carmen" ," L'Arlesienne") ; then declined with Lalo and Delibes. Semi-classical tradition was maintained by A. Thomas, who once ruled the stage (" Hamlet " , " Mignon ") , and Gounod, a Southerner who seldom departed from shallow perfection and smoothness, and whose inspiration was often mystical (" Faust ", •'Mors et Vita "). Offenbach, a German established in Paris, provided the Second Empire with " opereties " that may be regarded as models of their kind. Reyer ("Sigurd") was a brilliant disciple of Wagner, and his only imitator inFrance. Massenet (1842-1912) was, and still is extremely popular ; his art is perfectly adapted to our stage. Greater by far than any of the foregoing was C6sarFranck( 1822- 1890), a Belgian by birth, who lived in Paris as organist and teacher in girls' schools, and produced in utter obscurity the finest music composed since Beethoven ("Les Beatitudes", "Redemption", "Psyche" ). Like Berlioz, he expresses but himself; but while Berlioz is torn by the bitter passions of this world, Franck is filled with religious rapture ; his art combines innocent, unclouded bliss, infinite tenderness, with a most vigorous, modern, personal tech- nique. From him has proceeded the present movement in favour of pure music ; his foremost disciple has been M. Vincent d'Indy, composer, critic, and leader, the Frenchman who has worked hardest and best in the interests of our music, and our musicians. Some of the new talents however have followed in the footsteps of Debussy, an able technician and original composer, who has revolutionized the technique of his art. (" Pelleas et Meli- sande", 1902.) Other notable musicians still living or recently dead, are : Bordes, a friend of M. Vincent d'Indy, who revived religious song and our composers of the Renaissance ; Bruneau, who interpreted with more power than approval the poetry concealed under Zola's realism ; Chabrier, an original temperament, brimming over with life ; Chausson, a most refined and sensitive artist, who died prematurely in 1899 ; M. Duparc the first student of Franck ; M. Dukas (" Ariane " et " Barhe-Bleue ", 1905) a disciple of Debussy; M. D. de Severac, follower of M. d'Indy; M. Saint-Saens (born 1835), a master of technique, who has achieved success in every branch of his art ; M. Char- -156- Napoleon PENTiER, who described popular life in Paris (" Louise '', 1906) • GuiLMANT and M. Widor, organists and composers, etc. Homage should be paid here to one of our ablest young musi- cians, Alb^ric Magnard (the composer of "Berenice "), who was killed by the Germans in 191 4 in the following manner. He was still in Paris, not yet mobilized, when the Germans began to invade France. He made up his mind that they should not enter his home in the country as long as he was alive. When he reached his family house, in the neighbourhood of the Marne, the French had- already retreated beyond it ; he was alone between our troops and the Uhlans. When the first Uhlans appeared, he fired at them from his window. After a short siege, he was killed, and his house was burnt down. Books recommended. — Lavoix, La Musigue Franeaise (Quantin, 1890). Vincent d'Indy, Cesar Franck (Mean, 3 fr. 50). — P. Lasserre, L'Esprit de la musigue fraiifaise, Payot). Daly (W. H.), Debussy. A Study in Modern Music (Simpson, Edinburgh, 1908) NAPOLEON (Napoleone Buonaparte, later : Napoleon Bona- parte), was born in the Corsican town of Ajaccio, on August 15, 1769, only just one year after the addition of Corsica to the French Realm. 1779. At the Cadet-School of Brienne, as a bursar. 1784. Sent up by his masters to the Cadet-School of Paris. 1785. Second Lieutenant in the Artillery, at La FSre. 1793. Fights an old friend of his family, Paoli, who wants to hand over Corsica to the English. Paoli wins. The Buonaparte family must flee from Corsica, and remain stranded at Marseilles in utter poverty. The same year. Major Buonaparte takes in a few days the harbour of Toulon, and is promoted to General. 1795-96. Lives in Paris; employed on General Staff work. Seeing no possibility of further promotion, thinks of speculating on land, or trading in Constantinople... Studies social and poli- tical life. Marries. Is at last appointed Commander of the Home Forces. Quenches a rebellion in Paris, by using artil- lery against the mob. 1796-97. In command of the Italian expedition ; crosses the Alps and defeats Austrian army twice as numerous as his. More men are sent to him ; he defeats three other armies and their reinforcements. In ten months, with 55,000 men in all, he routs 200,000 Austrians, wins 12 great battles (among them Lodi, Arcole, Rivoli), obtains for France the whole of Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine, and makes Italy a free repub- lic. Meanwhile some troops sent by him from Livourne deliver Corsica from the English. — 157 — Napoleoi^ 1798. England remaining the only foe of France and the Revolu- tion, N. directs an attack against her in the East. Conquers Egypt. But the Fr. fleet is destroyed at Aboukir, and N. is checked in Syria. He destroys a Turkish army landed at Aboukir by the English, and — 1799. — returns to France, whose internal and external situation is critical again, leaving Kleber in charge of Egypt. The English are defeated in Holland by Brune, and the Rus- sians in Switzerland by Massena. Yet the situation remains ominous. On Nov. gth (i8 Brumaire), Bonaparte breaks up Parliament, and issues a new Constitution: the "Direcioire" is replaced by three " Consuls ", appointed for lo years, of whom N. is "Premier " . His first move is to sue for peace, which is refused. 1800. He crosses the Alps again, and defeats the Austrians at Marengo. 1801. Austria signs peace at Campo-Formio. 1802. Meanwhile the army in Egypt, Kleber having been murdered, is captured. England has no further anxieties , about India, and feels the strain on her purse : she signs peace at Amiens. Our Colonies are returned to us. Fr.has regained at the time her natural frontiers and all her Colonies. N. can re-organize the country. He recalls the exiled Royalists, re- establishes the Catholic Church (but under certain conditions : " Concordat "j, organizes the Departments by instituting " pre- fets " (see Political organisation), creates Courts of Appeal, ■ the 'Code Napoleon" , the Bank of France, the Legion of Honour, and the national system of education called the " Universite de France " . Peace, order, pros- perity, cause the nation almost to forget that the Republic is no more... After several attempts on his life, he is appointed " Consul for Life " (1802). 1804. The English, slow to execute the treaty of Amiens, open hostilities without previous declaration of war. They also contrive a plot against Napoleon's life. The Senate pro- claims him " Empereur Herediiaire " ; he is yet childless. He prepares an invasion of England from Boulogne, but fails to obtain mastery of the sea. Villeneuve, after a slight defeat by Calder, allows himself to be bottled up in Cadiz. N. at once turns his attention to the Continent. Italy being yet unfit for repu- blican life, and too weak to resist Austria unaid- ed, N. becomes King of Italy, his brother Joseph ha viiig refused the crown. The stepson of N. is made Viceroy. N. directs the foreign affairs of Switzerland , and has Swiss regiments in his armies, — 158 — Napoleon, in 1804 From the Corona- tion scene by David (Louvre Museum). NAPOLEON 1805. English gold and diplomacy raise a new Coalition : Swedes and Russians advance through Hanover; Russians and Austrians along the Danube; Austrians through N. Italy; Russians, Eng., and Neapolitans, in S. Italy. N. ignores the first and last groups, opposes 50,000 men to the 80,000 Austrians . in Lombardy, and marches against the Danube army. He cuts off the army of General Mack (80,000) from the great Russian army and the Austrian reserves, and besieges Mack in Ulm. The city surrenders after 13 days. The campaign had lasted 3 weeks (Villeneuve is defeated again, at Trafalgar, by Nelson). N. enters Vienna, and, with 60,000 men, defeats the main Austro-Russian force at Austerlitz (2 Dec). Prussia and Austria sue for peace. 1806. Central Europe is re-organized : Prussia loses all territories along the Rhine; Austria, all territories in Italy. The Confederation of the Rhine, a sort of German U. S., with N. as " Protecteur " , constitutes a neutral, semi-independent area between France, Russia, and Austria, the great military powers of the time. Joseph becomes king of Naples. The Batavian Commonwealth disappears, Louis Bonaparte becomes king of Holland. But England, nothing daunted, raises a new Coalition. Two Prussian armies are defeated at Jena and Auerstaedt in eleven days. N. enters Berlin. Hear'ng that the Russians are coming to the rescue of Prussia, he proceeds to Poland, beats the Russians five times on the Vistula, defeats them again at Eylau, and crushes them finally at Friedland. Russia sues for peace. 1807. Treaty of Tilsitt : Prussia had 9 million subjects ; she is reduced to 5. On the contrary, Russia receives Finland : N. wishes to secure the help of Russia against England, especially in the matter of the Continental Blockade. That . boycot by Europe of all English goods and shipping had been . initiated by N. in 1806. It lasted 7 years, and could not be enforced without war and diplomatic pressure. Therefore : — ■ 1808. — the King of Portugal is sent into exile. The King of Spain is replaced by Joseph, Murat taking Joseph's place at Naples; the Spaniards take arms, and defeat Dupont at Beylen. N. hastens to Spain and conquers. But Austria then rises again; N. crosses over to Austria, defeats the Archduke 5 times, and takes Ratisbon ; enters Vienna a second time, and crosses the Danube. • After a defeat at Essling, he wins Wagram. Peace of Vienna. 1809. He is then at the height of his power. Holland and the Pope having been too lax in enforcing the blockade, he dismisses his brother Louis from the Dutch throne, and makes the Pope prisoner. France has 130 " departements " , with 100 million inhabitants. The Kings of Spain, Naples, West, phalia, are the brothers of the Emperor; the Kings of Bavaria - 159 — NAPOLEON Wurtemberg, Saxony, and many more, are his vassals. ISfo European, since Cliarlemagne, had wielded such power. N. then originates an imperial nobility ; and, divorcing his wife, by whom he had no child still, marries the daughter of the Austrian Emperor. 1811. A son is born to him. He calls him " King of Rome ". Rome! Absolute power, universal peace through military supremacy, unity under one master, those dreams of all Euro- pean conquerors, the Roman eagle, the Roman law, haunt the mind of the Mediterranean soldier and law-giver... Yet, that very year, his weakest but justly unrelenting enemy, Spain, rises against him again. The English of course assist the Spaniards. 300,000 Fr. troops easily defeat the Spaniards in set encounters, but the latter give up regular fighting, and the whole country becomes a death-trap. That war was to hold the giant by the heel for 5 years. 1812. For several reasons, one of which is the obstinate diplo- macy of England, another the excessive power of N., the Czar becomes less friendly. N. is hurt, and Alexander declares war upon him. He defeats the Russians at first ; they withdraw slowly ; he enters Moscow ; they set it on fire ; Alexander refuses terms of peace offered. Winter sets in. N. is forced to withdraw in his turn. The terrible and famous retreat from Russia reduces his " Grande Avmee " of over 600,000 French, Germans, Swiss, Spaniards, Italians, Dutch, etc., to 30,000 men. 1813. Ever since Jena (1807) Prussia had been working hard a raising and driUing a great army, on a new model. Prussia, with only 5 million people, throws against us a splendid force of 250,000 men, filled with a passion for revenge and national freedom. The Emperor rapidly enlists the boys of France (no men were left), and defeats the Prussians 3 times, at Lutzen, Bautzen, and Dresden. But Austria joins in, and the Russians, still unbeaten, come to her help. 300,000 Austro-Russians are defeated by the 130,000 men of N. at Leipzig, after three days' uninterrupted fighting; but the French are exhausted. As practically every nation on the Continent was represented in that battle, it has been called the " Bataille des Nations ". N. retreats to France, all Germany rising behind him, and reinforcing the ranks of the armies at his heels. 1814. France is invaded. In spite of marvellous strategy, marches, and tactics, and three incredible victories, Paris is taken ! This is almost a relief to France, who cannot stand the pace any longer, and N. is declared fallen from the throne. A few days later, he accepts his fate (he had attempted suicide), and abdicates in favour of his son (April 18 14). He is exiled to Elba, Louis XVIII, a brother of Louis XVI, takes his place. The King's rule is unpopular. N. hears of it. — 160 — NAPOLEON 1815. N. escapes from Elba (an island off the coast of Italy), lands in the S. of France, and finds support at once, from his former officers and soldiers. Enters Pans, with his Guard, on March 20th. His prestige, the suddenness of his resurrection, his proclamation of liberal measures, the fact that the old King is but the nominee of obsolete enemy monarchies, inspire with fear or hope many who dislike the man. But the diplomats of Europe, still planning at Vienna the fate of " Europe well rid of the Ogre ", are dumbfounded and indignant. In vain does N. promise to be peaceful, and grant a new Constitution to France, by which he will relinquish part of his power : the "Allies" will not have him, and his French opponents soon rally against him. He levies an army with incredible speed, and proceeds to Belgium ; by war and victory alone can he hope to regain the confidence of the French, and save his dynasty. He beats the Prussians at Fleurus, but is defeated at Waterloo by the Anglo-Prussians (June 18; I2y, 000 " Allies " against 74,000 French). He abdicates again at Fontainebleau. The whole marvellous adventure had lasted just about 100 days {" les Cent-Jours "). N. first thought of sailing to America, but the seas were English. He therefore threw himself on the mercy of England. He was interned at Saint-Helena, where he died in 1821. His ashes were brought to France, and laid under the dome of the Invalides, in 1840. When they thought him mad. — Napoleon was the great- est man of action, and perhaps the greatest man absolutely, that ever lived. His greatness is but seldom realized even now. Here is a slight instance of his mental powers, at a time when some historians have maintained that he had grown mentally slow. It was in February 1814 ; Wellington was invading the South, while Austrians, Prussians, Bavarians, and Russians, poured in from the North and East ; Napoleon had only a handful of men left him, against 360,000 allies. He gave at the time the most extraordinary orders : either madly audaciousi or carrying imagin- ary numbers, far superior to the actual available forces. A whisper ran among his generals, that the great man had gone mad... " General Ricard, in particular, had been commanded to stand, with a Division reduced to 1,800 men, and with his back to the Seine, away from any possible reinforcements, right in the way of the enormous invading forces. When he read those instruc- tions, he could not help exclaiming : " But it is true, then, that he has lost his head ! " And he hurried to G. H. Q. — There he met Berthier, the A. D. C, and told him how impossible the orders were. Berthier rephed that such were the orders, that he knew no more ; that he would certainly not venture to place Ricard's objections before the Emperor ; but that Ricard naight do so if SAILLENS = 161 —«■ J I NAPOLEON he chose, Ricard asked to be heard, stated and explained his hesitation, and stood awaiting his answer, pained in advance at the mental decline which the answer was sure to reveal. Napo- leon put to him a few questions about the morale of the troops, which preoccupied him (the men began to desert in thousands shortly after), and then said : " This unpleasant moment will not last long ; reinforcements are coming ; sit down here, and write. " And at once, without any notes or reports, merely from memory, he dictated to him the names, strength, and compo- sition of nineteen detachments of all arms, which were to bring up his Division to a total of 6,550 men. He forgot neither the state of their armament and equipment, their marches, nor the dates on which they were to join Ricard. " Please read over, he said, and see if the total is correct. " It was. As to the position where he sent Ricard : " It must be occupied, he said ; an artillery- column is to pass there to-morrow, and may need help. I will send all these instructions to you before you have reached your camp. I am going to dictate them to Berthier. Take these notes with you, but go at once. " " Ricard was astounded, but still expected that the final instruc- tions might be somewhat different ; every figure and detail coincided. Then he thought that there might be errors in calcul- ation as to forthcoming events. But every detachment arrived, the artillery column passed by, the attack of the enemy was repulsed, exactly as the Emperor had foreseen. " (Comte de S6gur, Du Rhin a Fontainebleau.) A few thoughts of Napoleon. — From the moment when I became chief of the Government, my council was in my mind; I fared very well by it ; I began to make mistakes only when I listened to advisers. — It was not my soldiers who failed me ; it was I who failed my soldiers. — I have had three fine days in my life : Marengo, Jena, and Austerlitz, unless one wishes to include as a fourth one that day when I granted an audience to the Austrian Emperor in a ditch. — Numbers do not give victory. Alexander vanquished three hundred thousand Persians with twenty thousand Macedonians. Audacious undertakings have been especially favourable to me. — I made a mistake by not effacing Prussia from the map. — I hardly ever gave detailed instructions to my generals; I ordered them to vanquish. — The Prussians are bad soldiers; the English infantry did wonders at Waterloo. — Most of our Academicians are writers whom one admires with a yawn. — A true hero plays a game of chess after a battle won or lost. — I love the plain common-sense of the man in the street. — All nations need one another. — I made the mistake of my career in not removing the HohenzoUerns from the throne of Prussia when I had the opportunity. As long as this house reigns and until the red cap of liberty is erected in Germany, there will be no peace in Europe. — J arn the child of r— 162 NOBILITY destiny. — I do not believe in medicine, but I believe in Corvisart (a famous doctor of his time). As Cardinal Fesch was adjuring him one evening, in 1811, to be more respectful of religion, and of men, preaching to him moderation in a word, Napoleon went to the window, opened it, and pointed to the sky : " Can you see that star ? " he said (meaning his own). — "No, Sire, I cannot. " — " Look again. " — "I do not see it, " replied the Cardinal again. — "Well, " replied Napoleon, "I do! " Books recommended. — Henri Houssaye, 1814-1815 (Perrin, 3 fr. 50). — Fred. Masson, Sur Napoleon ; Napoleon inconnu ; Napoleon et les femmes (Ollendorff). — Albert Vandal, LAvdnement de Bonaparte (Plon, 8 vol). — Philippe Gonnard, Origines de la Legende napoleonienne (Paris, 1908) (English translation). — Col. Vachee, Napoleon en campagne (Berger-Levrault, (4 fr.). Lord Rosebery, Napoleon. — Rose (J. H.), Life of Napoleon (2 vols, 21 s., G. Bell & Sons, 1915). — Ellison. Napoleon the Great (Biography Books, 1908). — Gould (S.B.), The Life of Napoleon (Methuen, 1908). —Fisher (H. A. L.), Bona- partism (Clarendon Press, 1908, 33.6 d.). NOBILITY. — It must be difficult for a foreigner, especially for an American, to understand exactly what a French duke or count can be, why we should still have them in this Republic of ours, and how it is possible, and can still pay among us, to be a pacha. The institution of our nobility is so ancient (we had nobles before Roman days), and its organization and composition are therefore so complex, that no statement of its evolution or present situation can be clear unless we start from a few simple data. I. La Fayette was a French nobleman; the analysis of his full name and title : Marie- Joseph Motier, marquis de La Fayette, illustrates some essential points : Marie-Joseph : the Christian names, and the only personal names, of the individual man who fought in America ; Motier : the name of his ancestors and descendants in the male line ; his real family name ; Marquis : entrusted by the King with the defence of border territory ("marche") .■ a title given to one of the Motiers, either at some remote period because he actually was such a defender, or later for " important services rendered ; " De : owner " of ", or originating " from ". This, as shown below, is an important distinction : La Fayette : " the beech-copse " ; the name of some estate, perhaps bestowed oh the Motier family by the King, along with the office of marquis, or bought by the family, the title of marquis going with it, subject to the King's assent; or perhaps conquered by main force in early days, but retained by the original family with the King's approval. - 163 - NOBILITY Such a name is normal. Exact parallels to it are not far to seek. The full name of Louvois was : Michel Le Tellier marquis de Louvois (haunt of wolves). Colbert was a commoner ; his able son, being ennobled by Louis XIV, was : Jean-Baptiste Col- bert marquis de Seignelay. The King himself was a member of the Capet family (Louis XVI was tried under the name of " Ci- toyen Louis Capet ") ; at the same time he was a duke ; and his estate was Bourbon (named from a spring). A few more remarks will further clear up to some extent this question of names : a) Some families are so old that their original family names, if they ever existed, have become extinct, and they are named from their estates only ; such are the Montmorencies, who are all des- cended from one Bouchard, a baron of Hugues Capet. b) A nobleman might have no estate, and therefore no de to his name ; he simply added a title to his family name ] e. g. Baron Gros, the painter, and Comte Hugo, the poet. c) Some of our most common surnames, Dupont, Durand, Duval (our Smiths and Joneses) include the t^e, which implies nothing more here but origin, the original dwelling-place. The de is extremely common in noble titles, because as a rule land and title went together, but by itself it does not imply noble status. d) In a very few cases, the owner of an estate might have receiv- ed no title from the King, whom he hated and fought ; such was the " Sire de Coucy " , a Picard, whose proud motto was : " Je ne suisroy, ne prince ne due, ne comte aussi; Je suis Sire de Coucy " (I am neither king, nor prince nor duke, nor count either ; I am Lord of Coucy). II. As regards the history of our nobility : originally, all the land fell to them by right of conquest. But they had no sooner settled down than the necessities of defence created military duties and a certain amount of discipline (institution of chivalry) ; mere possession, the reward of past valour, now implied respon- sibility, valour in the future. Until the end of the Middle Ages, the possession of land, even when largely nominal, went with supreme social rank and civil authority, and was bestowed on the fighter. The nobleman was either a field-marshal (duke) ; a companion of the King, or what we should now call a stafi-ofiicer (count, viscount); a military governor (marquis, baron), or simply a mounted officer (chevalier) who led the infantry consisting of peasants. So strong was the bond between authority and title that even churchmen assumed noble rank. Laymen and non- combatants gradually managed to retain more and more of the fruits of their labours, but their possession of the soil remained precarious, being subject to the consent of their lord and protector, the fighting man. After the Middle Ages, the development of four important factors which was accompanied by no corresponding changes io — 164 — Nobility the habits of our nobles, opened a widening gap between them and the nation, and rendered their prerogatives ever less justified. The first of those factors was the unification of the nation. King and people coming into direct touch over the heads of the nobles (see Historical, page 88). The second was the growing impor- tance of the arts of peace, by which military efficiency ceased to deserve the highest distinction. The third was the rise of science, industry, and capital, by which the possession and cultivation of land ceased to be the main source of wealth. The fourth was the gradual assimilation of warfare itself to the arts of peace ; valour and strength came to be less essential, even for a military leader than a knowledge of mathematics ; one single engineer, Vauban, did more for the defence of the territory than the whole Montmo- rency family. Partly from loyalty to their ancestors and to the old conditions that had made their class, partly owing to the fact that the pos- session of the land enabled them to ignore actual struggle for life, our nobles failed to adapt themselves, as a class, to those momen- tous changes in their environment. As a class, they were always unable to unite, and to understand and guide the lower orders. As a class, they refused to turn from military or agricultural pur- suits; and even as soldiers or farmers, seldom departed from old methods and standards. It was therefore unavoidable that they should lose all control over public affairs ; their political failure is the central fact of our history, and its unfortunate consequences can hardly be over- estimated. Saint-Simon, one of the highest members of our aristocracy under Louis XIV, and the staunch supporter of his class against the tyranny of the absolute Monarch, could not help writing about his own people that they were " ignorant, light- headed, lazy, fit for nothing but getting killed, and wallowed in the most deadly uselessness ".- — At Saint-Simon's instigation, the Regent instituted Councils of Noblemen who were to replace the State Ministers ; the scheme failed : the nobles were too inefficient. Yet our nobles enjoyed, until the Revolution, certain prerogatives; they were practically exempt from taxation, had in their gift most of the higher posts in army and Church, and handed down from father to son influential or remunerative sinecures. Those " privileges " had become so unjustifiable that the representatives of the nobility assembled in Versailles in 1789, spontaneously gave up most of them in the famous night of the 4th of August. They were all suppressed by law the next year. But if our citizens refuse to grant material advantages to men who do not return material services in exchange, they have not ceased to respect noble names and persons as shown by the fact that French swindlers of ambition and attainments generally go by some noble name. The very word " noble " , and its oppo- site " ignoble ", have lost nothing of their power of suggestion. - 165 - NOBILITY the untarnished tradition of honour, courage, and generosity of our nobility has always appealed strongly to the national tem- perament. As an artistic nation, we have always valued the ser- vices of those men of taste and leisure. Then it should be remem- bered that if some nobles, unfortunately the most noisy and influential, were mere courtiers, and idle absentees, many lived on their estates, and discharged their duties to their people to the best of their ability. When noble estates were put up for sale during the Revolution, it often happened that the farmers bought the land for a nominal sum, pretended to take possession, and returned the land to its former owners, as soon as circumstances permitted. This is almost miraculous, to those who know the passion of the French farmer for land ; it took place in many parts of the South and the West, where noblemen as a rule lived on the land. Then we do not forget that many individual nobles have been distinguished citizens. One Duke of Richelieu practically built Odessa ; a duke of Levis held the forts of Canada after the death of Montcalm, against all hope ; it was his son who wrote the famous maxim : " Noblesse oblige " (Nobility is responsibility) ; a Marquis of Clermont-Tonnerre was an able Naval Secretary about 1820 ; we are proud to think that General Curieres de Castelnau bears a name that has been associated with our national life for six hundred years. Etc. III. As to the condition of our nobility since the Revolution : All the privileges have remained abolished since 1790. Estates were in most cases bought again privately under, or officially returned by, the various monarchical Govern- ments. The titles, wliich are, in decreasing order of importance : "due", "marquis" "comte", "vicomte", "baron", and "chevalier", were abolished in 1790, revived by Napoleon in 1806, abolished again in 1848, and again revived by Napoleon III, four years later. The present Republic does not countenance titles as such, since it never bestows any, but it does recognize their existence as part of the names of certain citizens. The Decree of 1852 is still in force ; it forbids any one to assume a name to which he is not entitled, " with a view to honorary distinction ". However, our Courts may allow a citizen : i. to bear a title bestowed by a foreign prince ; the Popes have made several French counts, and the Sultans a few pachas ; 2. to add the de to his name, if he can prove that his name included it at one time. Families ennobled by Napoleon I, the Bourbons, Louis-Philippe, and Napoleon III, compose the " new nobility ", as distinguished from the " vieille noblesse " (old nobility) dating from before 1789. Books recommended. — De Tocqueville, VAnden Regime et la Revolution. — The writings of Saint-Simon, La Bruyere, La Fontaine, etc., and more especially the Societe frangaise contemporaine (Perrin) of Vicomte B. de Montmorand. — 166 — NORD (DEPARTMENT OF) NORD (DEPART. OF). — This " departement " includes the former province of French Flanders. Its length is 200 kil. and its Wid h varies from 4 to 64 kil. It contains sand dunes in the N. ; marshes in the S. ; alluvia along the Lys ; clayish chalk about Lille; collieries around Valenciennes, and Douai ; Jurassic formations, hills and woods, about Avesnes. This last portion is called Ardennes; it is poor, sparsely populat- ed, and possesses one half of the total woodland of the " depar- terhent", whereas Flanders proper (N. and centre of Depart- ment), is one rich plain, continuously peopled and exploited, full of coal-beds and excellent plough-land. The total area of the " Nord " is 2,225 sq. miles ; 4/5 of it are under crops. The climate is cold and moist. The spring is late and short. The prevailing winds are from W., S., and N.-W. ; they all bring rain. The productions are the same as in Pas-de-Calais, but the pro- portions are different. Hops are freely cultivated, while wheat is not grown in sufficient quantities to supply the population ; the chicory of the " Nord ,' is sold all over France ; 564 " hectares " of tobacco produce 1,353,600 "kilos". Weaving and mining are the staple industries. Collieries alone occupy 52,089 " hect. ", and employ 17,000 men. But the ' •' departement " consumes 50 % more coal than it produces. The total population in 1906 was 1,896,000. The "chef-lieu" s Lille, with 216,000 ; Roubaix and Tourcoing together have about as many. There are 7 " arrondissements" , 67 "cantons", and 667 " communes " . Arrondissements. Cantons. Avesnes .... Avesnes, Bavai, Berlaimont, Landrecies, Maubeuge, Le Quesnoy, Solre-le-Chateau Trelon. Cambrai .... Cambrai, Carni^res, Le Cateau, Clary, Marcoing, Solesmes. Douai Arleux, Douai, Marchiennes, Orchies. DuNKERQUE. . . Bergues,Bourbourg, Dunkerque,Gravelines, Hondschoote, Wormhoudt. Hazebrouck . . Bailleul, Cassel, Hazebrouck, Merville- Steenvoorde. Lille Armentieres, La Bassee, Cysoing, Hau- bourdin, Lannoy, Lille, Pont-a-Marcq, Quesnoy -sur-Deule, Roubaix, Seclin, Tourcoing. Valenciennes . Bouchain, Conde, Denain, Saint-Amand-les- Eaux, Valenciennes. Population of certain places, in 1906 : Abscon : 3,050 ; Aniches : 8,300; Anzin : 14,400; Armentieres: 28,600; Avesnes : 6,000; Aves- — 167 — 0I§E (DEPARTMENT OF) nes-les-Aubert : 4,900; Bailleul : 13,600; La Bassee : 4,630! Bergues : 5,000; Bouvines: 589; Bruay : 7,500; Cambrai: 27,800; Cassel: 3,100; Le Cateau : 10,700; Chapelle-d'Armentieres : 4,436; Comines : 8,430; Conde-sur-l'Escaut : 5,320; Denain : 24,600; Douai : 33,250; Dunkerque : 38,300; Estaires : 6,610; Flers: 4,600; Fourmies : 14,000; Fresnes-sur-Escaut : 6,700; La Gorgue : 4,200; Gravelines : 6,300 ; Halluin : 16,200; Hazebrouck : 12,800; Hem: 4,800; Houplines : 7,600; Landrecies : 4,000; Loos: 10,640; Maubeuge : 21,500; Merville : 7,620; Nieppe : 5,850 ; Orchies : 4,450; Roubaix : 121,000; Seclin : 7,000; Sin-le-Noble : 9,300; Somain : 6,600; Steenvoorde : 4,200 ; Steenwerck : 4,000; Tour- coing : 81,700; Valenciennes: 31,800; Vieux-Conde: 7,800 ; Wat- treloos: 27,500; Famous personages born in the Department. — Alanus de Insulis, doctor universalis (1114-1203), b. Lille; Baudouin IX, Emperor of Constantinople, d. 1205; Froissart (1337-1410), b. Valenciennes; Ph. de Commynes (1445-1509), another chronicler; Father Trigault (1577-1628), b. Douai, first wrote on China; Jean Bart (1651-1702), b. Dunkirk; Dupleix (1690-1763); Watteau (1684-1721), painter, b. Valenciennes; Carpeaux (1827- 1875), b. Valenciennes {see " Sculpture "); General Faidherbe 1818-1889), b. Lille. Book recommended. — J. Joanne, Nord (Hachette, i fr.). OISE (DEPART. OF). — Named after the River Oise, and formed from 4 districts of Ile-de-France, and 3 districts of Picardy, in 1790. Its total area is 1,430,300 acres, comprising: Plough-land 996 no Pastures 68.615 Vineyards 950 Forests 204.280 Its greatest dimension is 75 miles, and its capital Beauvais is 40 miles from Paris as the crow flies. The Oise is in the main a "plateau" , divided by moderate valleys, and consisting of chalky, or tertiary ground. The "Pays de Bray" owes its rich pastures to the fact that the sea, long before the existence of man, washed away from that par- ticular area the bed of chalk which is the base of the hills of Normandy further West. The most attractive feature of Oise is the beauty of its forests ; those of Compiegne, Chantilly, Erme- nonville, Halatte, Hez, Laigue, are the best-known. The Forest of Compiegne covers 36,000 acres; that of Chantilly, half as many. The hills of Picardy send half the streams of the Depart, toward the North and the Somme, half toward the South and the Seine. They do not rise above 780 feet. — 168 — 51SE (DEPARTMENT 6P) The waterways are : the Oise, which takes its rise in Belgiuni (as a rule i,o6o eft. a second; at times, 21,500 c. ft.), and 10 tributaries; the Aisne (and 2 trib.); the Therain (7 trib.), the Epte, the Ourcq, and the Bresle. The climate is Parisian, rather cold,,darap, and foggy; 140 days of rain, a height of 18 inches (average for France : 31 inches). The history of this territory has been as dramatic as that of the Aisne Depart., for the same reasons; the original stock belonged to that Belgian nation which Caesar regarded as the most courageous of the Gauls, and they have always been familiar with war. The people about the Therain and the Oise were still resisting the English after Crecy and Poitiers ; Grand- Ferre (see Soldiers) lived near Compidgne; in 1435, the French, under Xaintrailles and La Hire, defeated the English, com- manded by Arundel, at Gerberoy. In 1472, as the troops of Charles of Burgundy were scaling the walls of Beauvais, a girl, Jeanne Laisne, climbed to the battlements, a hatchet in her hand, wrenched away the flag which the Burgundians had already planted on the wall, and used her hatchet to such effect that the citizens soon rallied to her, and the city was saved. History-books have preserved her nickname : Jeanne Hachette. Agriculture — The Depart., in 1903, possessed 50,000 horses, 135,000 head of cattle, 322,000 sheep, 35,000 pigs and 15,000 bee- hives. Beauvais has an " Institut normal agricole" , a private establishment of the first order. The output in cereals, in 1902, was I million quarters of wheat, over i million q. of oats ; mes- lin : 7,000; rye : 70,000; barley : 30,000. Potatoes amounted to I million cwt. ; sugar-beets : 10 million cwt; cider : 3 million gallons, etc. Cattle is mostly found in the west. The wine is mediocre and its production has become insignificant. The State owns 11 forests, yielding 100,000 c. meters of wood yearly (650,000 fr.), and consisting mostly of beech-trees, oaks, and horn-beams. Industries. — Peat : 7,000 tons; quarries of excellent freestone, clay, etc. (267 quarries in all, with 1,100 hands); 10 mineral springs (sulfurous, and ferruginous), articles of tabletterie (fans, dominoes, buttons, knife-handles, brushes, umbrella- handles, etc.) are manufactured in dozens of villages. Spinning and weaving afford labour to 5,000 people (50,000 spindles, 3,000 looms); Beauvais has remained one of our centres for carpets and tapestries, (see Decorative Arts). In 1902, the Oise produced 15,000 tons of iron, and 47,000 tons of steel. One mill turns out 500,000 fr. worth of paper ; 34 sugaries produce 69,000 tons. 600 workers produce glass to the amount of 2 1/2 mill. fr. Total steam-power of Oise : 2,438 engines; 33,344 HP.; to these should be added a large number of hydraulic engines. Oise imports 500,000 tons of coal, cotton, wool; and. exports stone clay, wood, cereals, and milk. — 169 — OlSE (DEPARTMENT OF) Communications : 33 railway lines 893 kilom. National roads 602 " Chemins vicinaux 2,982 " 2 Canals, and 2 Nav. Streams 168 " The population, in 1906, was 410,049 : 70 inhab. per sq. kilom. There were 950 Protestants, and 60 Jews. The "chef-lieu" is Beauvais, with 20,250 inhab.; there are 701 "communes' , grouped among the following. Arrondissements. Cantons. Beauvais. . . Auneuil, Beauvais N-E, Beauvais S.-W., Chau- mont-en-Vexin, Coufray-Saint-Germer, For- merie, Grandvilliers, Marseille, Meru, Nivillers, Noailles, Songeons. Clermont . . Breteuil, Clermont, Crevecoeur-le-Grand, Froissy, Liancourt, Maignelay, Mouy, Saint- Just-en- Chaussee. CoMPifeGNE . . Attichy, Compifegne, Estrees-Saint-Denis, Guis- card, Lassigny, Noyon, Ressons-sur-Matz Ribecourt. Senlis .... Betz, Creil, Crepy-en-Valois, Nanteuil-le-Hau- doin, Neuilly-en-Thelle, Pont-Sainte-Maxence ; Senlis. Places above 1,000 inhab. — Agnetz : 1,197; AUonne : 2,684; Auneuil: 1,517; Balagny : 1,157; Bethisy-Saint- Pierre : 1,810; Bornel : 1,225; Bresles : 2,067; Breteuil: 2,839; Bury: 2,428; Carlepont : 1,154; Cauvigny : 1,007; Chambly : 1,835; Chan- tlUy : 5,083; Chaumont-en-Vexin : 1,513; Chiry-Ourscamps : 1,636; Clermont: 5,488; Cires-les-Mello : 1,432; Compi^gne : 16,868; Coye : 1,463; Creil: 9,272; Crepy-en-Valois: 5,375; Crevecceur-le-Grand : 2,141; Guise-la-Motte : 1,174; Estrees- Saint-Denis: 1,621: Fitz-James : 1,215; Feuquieres : 1,232; For- merie : 1,385; Gouvieux : 2,817; Granvilliers : 1,692; Guiscard ; 1,425; Hermes : 1,491; Lacroix-Saint-Ouen : 1,728; Laigneville : 1,202; Lamorlaye : 1,055; Liancourt: 3,924; Margny-les-Com- piegne : 2,550; Marissel : 1,763; Meru : 5,466; Montataire : 7,141; Mouy: 3,454; Nanteuil-le-Haudouin : 1,454; Neuilly-en- Thelle : 1,592; Noailles : 1,375; Nogent-les-Vierges : 4,178; Notre-Dame-du-Thil : 1,858; Noyon : 7,336; Pierrefonds : 1,804; Pont-Sainte-Maxence : 2,418; Precy-sur-Oise : 1,064; Rantigny : 1,310; Ravenel : 1,077; Saint-Firmin : 1,195; Seinte-Genevi^ve : 1,521; Saint-Germer : 1,029; Saint-Just-des-Marais : 1,696; Saint-Just-en-Chaussee : 2,687; Saint-Leu-d'Esserent : 1,445; Saint-Maximin : 1,322; Saint-Sauveur : 1,003; Senlis: 7,126; Serifontaine : 1,494; Tracy-le-Mont : 1,882; Venette : 1,321; Verberie : 1,838; Verneuil : 1,077. — 170 — Minting Among the famous personages born within the limits of the Ois^ may be mentioned : Saint Guillaume (1105-1203), was Abbot in Denmark; La Ram6e (Ramus), philosopher and Professor at the College de France, was in favour of the Reformation and lost his Hfe on Saint Bartholomew's Day(i502-i572); Jean Calvin (1509-1564), b. at Noyon; R. Haiiy, mineralogist (1743-1822); also his brother V. Haiiy (see Sciences); Salomon de Brosse (1560-1626), etc. PAINTING. — French art in the Middle Ages, flourished but little outside the churches ; those were too dark at first, and later had too extensive windows, to offer surfaces favourable to pictor- ial art. Carved ornaments, and frequently statues, were painted, but such decoration has little to do with painting proper. Indeed all painting in the Middle Ages was mostly decorative. Orna- ment and colour-schemes prevail in the dehcate miniatures and the glorious windows (" vitraiix ") where the skill of our mediaeval decorators is best displayed. Rise of French painting. — As Gothic art declined, a new school arose at Tours, partly under Flemish influence. The master sculptor was Colombe, a Breton; the painter was Jean Foucquet (1415-1480), who combined the accuracy and colour of Flanders with the grace and restraint of France; from Italy he borrowed merely decorative details. He and his pupils promised a very fair future to our native painting. Italian influence But the influence of Italy was bound to develop unduly, when Charles VIII and Francis I invited to our country a number of the most able Itahans : Boccador, Cellini, Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarte, II Primaticio, etc. Those eminent men represented an already declining school : they easily supplanted our own painters, but failed to guide them. Clouet (Francis I), and Jean Cousin (1501-1589) repre- sented at the time the French tradition. French tradition established, — In the early part of the xviith century, our artists were still few, and had not the tech- nique of Flemish and Itahan painters. Kings and ministers organized and encouraged them in various ways, until they became numerous and skilful ; but at the same time they were subjected to uniform classical rules, and to the Royal taste. Artists who had studied from good masters or good models in Rome or Paris, were ascribed definite tasks by the King, Col- bert, or Le Brun. Realism, humour, caprice, were abhorrent to Louis XIV ; he was all in favour of the later sham-classical art of Italy, impersonal grandeur, and set rules. The result was that our national complexity could but faintly assert itself, and our two greatest painters then, Claude Lorrain and Poussin, however unlike in genius, both kept away from the Court, and did all their — 171 — Work in Italy. On the other hand, it must be said tliat ever! mediocre artists never fell short of a very fair standard. The greatest names of that stern methodical period, which began with Louis XIII and ended some time before the death of the Great King, are : the three brothers Le Nain, Callot, Philippe de Champaigne, Vouet, Le Brun (the task-master of all artists and artisans about the Court), Le Sueur, Mignard, Rigaud, Largilli^re. An Academy of Painting had been founded by Mazarin; the sculptors entered it in 1667; the musicians and architects in 1795 (see : " Academiefrangaise "). The school established in Rome by Colbert in 1666 still allows a number of our young artists to spend five years in Italy at the expense of the nation. Thus, ever since Mazarin (an Italian), the French State has always patronized the arts, and kept our artists in close touch with Italy and antiquity exclusively. Of late years however, a similar hostel has been established in Algiers. Rise of freedom.— Official, as well as public taste, had chang" ed a good deal in the xviiith century ; besides, the King was no more a task-master, but merely one of the many connoisseurs of the day. As a consequence, the painters worked for a wide intellectual circle, and could evince far more personality than their predecessors ; imagination, colour, sensibility, had more scope in their work. The best remembered to-day are Coypel, Boucher, Watteau, Lancret, Nattier, La Tour, Vernet, Fragonard. Two men ignored the Court, and depicted scenes of middle class life ; one was Chardin, the most sincere artist of his day ; the other was melodramatic, sentimental Greuze, who toiled for popularity, gained it, and died forgotten. Revival of tradition. — David and Gros cover the period of the Revolution and the First Empire ; they returned, on the whole, to the solemn tradition of the " grand siecle " . A young painter of genius, G^ricault (1791-1824), heralds romanticism. Romanticism. — Ingres and Delacroix open the xixth cen- tury as eminent representatives of two opposite tendencies. Repose, reality, and perfect draughtsmanship content Ingres, a Southerner ; while Delacroix, a man of the North and a disciple of Gericault, displays imagination and colour, passion, effort. But Ingres, although he keeps to the old rules, is as observant as any modern painter; while Delacroix, the chief of the romantic school, still belongs to the classical past in this : he works indoors. All our painters, so far, had mostly studied " the human form divine " and worked in their studios. Our arts, like our literature, looked down upon Nature. The technique of the painters suffered greatly thereby, as light and colour should be studied out of doors. Delacroix had borrowed some of his colour from the English, but applied indoors what he had learned from pictures, instead ol working straight from nature. — 172 — PARIS Freedom established. — Solitary Corot, soon followed by the two men of Fontainebleau, Rousseau and Millet, gave us our first proper landscapes. As we became more democratic, we began to love and study nature, as the democratic Flemings and English had done long before us. Upon this discovery of outdoor life followed Courbet's "naturalism", a regard for things and men as they are, irrespective of their supposed elegance or majesty. Those leaders were followed by the famous " impres- sionists ", who used touches of colour in such a way that the canvas gave the " impression " of being luminous. Meanwhile we had history painters, such as Meissonier, Detaille, De Neuville, J. -P. Laurens, Rochegrosse; painter poets like Gustave Moreau or Puvis de Chavannes; oriental- ists : Regnault, Benjamin Constant, Fromentin; portrait- painters : BoNNAT, Carolus-Duran, Fantin-Latour, Carri£;re, etc... The plea of the naturalists and impressionists for nature and the individual has been heard ; we have ceased to worship imper- sonal perfection ; we have come to see that the characteristic is worthy of observation and preservation. We condemn a priori no school and no individual. The catholicity of our present taste can give their due to the reliability of the old school as represent- ed by Bonnat, the deep quality of emotion and light of Carri^re, the lofty visions of Puvis de Chavannes, the compact delicate imagery of Gustave Moreau, etc., quite irrespective of schools and theories, and is ready to welcome any young talent who may do no more than delight or amuse us with some novel aspect of the visible. Books recommended. — C. Bellanger, La Peinture fran(aise (Gamier, 5 fr.). — Ph. de Chennevieres, Essais sur I'histoire de la Peinture franfaise (Paris, 1894). — Hourticq, Ars una. France (Hachette, 7 fr. 50). — L. Gonse, La Peinture (Paris, 1900). — Champeaux, Histoire de la Peinture decorative (Paris, 1890). — Muntz, La Peinture en France (3 vol.). Caffin, The Story of French Painting. — Eaton (D. C), Handbook of Modern. French Painting (Chatto & Windus, 1909). PARIS. — Paris numbers 3 million inhabitants ; with its imme- diate suburbs, i million more. It is not only the political capital, but also the greatest indus- trial centre of France, her largest emporium, principal railway- junction, and best-fortified city. It has remained an important harbour, owing to its situation on an important river, near the confluences of large navigable streams, the Yonne and Marne, flowing from E.-C, and the Oise and Aisne, from the N. In normal times there are regular sailings from Paris to England. If a proper canal was used instead of the Seine, which it is too narrow and shallow for modern navigation, Paris would probably become one of our chief sea-ports. The scheme is periodically broached under the name of " Paris port de mer ", - 173 — PARIS It was not the sea, however, but the rivers, that made Paris It was at first a poor community of wild fishermen and watermen, living on two large islands in the Seine ; the dense Gaulish forest of Ardennes spread all around them, covering the neighbouring hills. They worshipped the black goddess Isis, and had given her name to their tribe (Par-Isis) ; her cult had travelled from Egypt, through Greece, into Gaul, where she was worshipped as commonly as the Virgin is to-day. The Black Virgin of Chartres is an image of her. To-day, the Parisians worship " Notre-Dame " on the larger of the two original islands : " I'ile de la Cite " ; the other island is " I'tle Saint-Louis. When the Romans settled in Gaul, they made a city of this village of watermen. The Emperor Julian liked the soft water of the Seine, the figs grown in the district, and the local wines. He had a palace and baths built there for himself, on a hill overlooking the main island ; the remains of them are to be seen in fhe " Quartier Latin". Roman Lutetia had a theatre, arenas, walls and towers. Two main streets ran parallel across it : one was the present " Rue Saint-Jacques" , the continuation north- wards of 'the road from Rome, by which Saint James the Apostle, our first mis- sionary according to tradition, must have reached the city. The street paral- lel to this is now the " Boulevard Saint- Michel " ; (St-Michael is the patron saint of France, in whom Joan put her trust). Across the plain extending north of the river, the rue Saint-Jacques is continued by the "Rue" and "Fau- bourg Saint-Martin " ; (Saint Martin, was a Roman captain living in Gaul, who cut off with his sword half his cloak, to give it to a beggar.) The Bou- levard Saint -Michel, is continued north- wards, by the "Boulevard Sebastopol" due to Haussmann; parallel to this again run the old " Rue " and " Fau- bourg Saint-Denis, " leading to Saint- Denis, the burial-place of our Kings. Saint-Denis was missionary (about 250 A. D.) who was beheaded on the till of Montmartre and walked away with his head hunder his arm (See fresco in Pantheon). " Saint Denis" and " Saint Martin " are two patron saints of Paris. The thix A is " Sainte Genevieve ". After the Romans, Lutetia had kept on growing, living mostly on water, commerce, and — 174 - 1 it Si >em 0. i 1 i i ;:- -ytt m (Photo Hachette) Sainte Genevieve watching over her city. By Puvis de Chavannes. (Pantheon.) PARIS agriculture, when the Huns appeared. Then it was that a shepherd girl from a Parisian village, Nanterre, roused the courage of the people and their bishop. The Huns were driven back at Cha- lons, and thereafter Genevieve remained the favourite of " her dear people " of Paris. She died very old, surrounded with every mark of respect and affection. Her shrine is to this day the object of popular veneration ; it lies in the church of " Saint- Etienne-dn-Mont " (Saint-Stephen on the Hill), near the Pan- theon. The "Hill" is the " Moniasrne Sainte- Genevieve ". The PARIS Plan of Paris. Giving the basic structure of the town. — E.-W. axis : rue St-Antoine, rue de Ri- voli ; N.-S. axis : boul. Sebastopol, boul. Saint-Michel ; and the concentric boulevards. ruins of the Parisian arenas, and a tower built by Clovis, are close by. Under Prankish rulers, Paris shared the honour of being a capi- tal with Soissons, Treves, Tournai, Orleans, and Metz. Under the Romans, the capital had been Lyons. About 800, the Nor- mans appeared. They looted Paris twice ; their third attempt found the little city well-prepared ; it stood their siege one full year. When 9, cowardly King made terms with the Normans, — 175 - PARIS allowing them some money and the permission to loot Burgundy the Parisians indignantly kept their gates closed against the impu- dent pirates, never permitting them even to row past their islands up the river. The Normans had to carry their boats on their shoulders, and walk round. The defender of Paris had been Count Eudes ; he was rewarded for his patriotism by being elected to the crown. From that day, Gaul ended, France began, and Paris became the only capital. As the Capetians extended their power, Paris grew in wealth and culture. Abundance of timber from the surrounding forests, of limestone from underground, wheat from the plateaux of Beauce and Brie near by, all merchandise brought by the rivers, made Arms of the City of Paris The motto might be translated: " It is tossed by the waves, but does not sink. " it easy to build houses, and provide food and work, for a population of any number. The most important corporation remained that of the " Water- Merchants " ; they had monopolized the river-traffic within a considerable radius, and therefore could fix the prices of most commodities. They had become so powerful in the Middle Ages as absolutely to tyrannize over the city. Complaints were made to the Kings... but the ship in the arms of Paris to-day is but the crest of their greedy Guild. Philippe- Auguste, about 1200, established the " Etude de Paris, " the embryo of the University ; he had the streets paved for the first time, the first Louvre built, and the present Notre- Dame founded. Paris has always needed protection, being so near the N.-E. frontier. Indeed, one of the reasons of the Romans for making a city of it was its strategical value. Philippe-Augusta extended — 176 — PARIS its limits as a fortified city, in 1180 ; one tower of his wall is still standing. Charles V further extended them in 1370. The forti- fied area was increased fourfold in 17 84-1 791. The present forti- fications, rather obsolete as such, were built in 1 841 -1846. (As to the real fortifications of Paris to-day, see Frontiers.) The sites of past fortifications are now used as streets, which describe wide concentric circles, and are called " Boulevards " from the bulwarks which they have replaced. In spite of those defences, Paris was taken several times. Once, m 1430, it fell before the Burgundians and their English allies (see Joan of Arc). It was held by the Spaniards in 1593, when Henri IV was allowed to enter it only on condition that he became a patholic. He complied, saying : " Paris is well worth a mass... " The " Allies " entered it in 1814, and again in 1815. The Seine at Paris. The Prussians besieged it, but were not allowed to billet in it after Its surrender in 1 871. It was saved recently from their latest aggression, m Sept. 1914, by its Governor, General Gallieni, and the Battle of the Marne. The prestige of Paris is unique ; it is due to a unique coincidence of essential factors : a) It is the capital of the most thoroughly centralized nation in the world ; no other city is such a perfect mirror of any one nation, all that nation, and nothing but that nation. Modern Italy has hardly begun her life, and is represented in Milan better than in Rome ; London is far less the representative of England than the Metropolis of an Empire and the Premier Harbour of the world. b) The nation which Paris so exactly expresses has had the longest, most complex, and most dramatic history in modern Europe. Paris bears everywhere the impress of absolute monar- chy, and at the same time always led revolutionary movements • it is associated with all the stern aspects of war, and all the crea- tions and recreations of peace. f^i;,!iENS — 177 — 77 ?? PARIS c) Its site is quite exceptional in proportions and variety ; that of Concord (U. S. A.) is perhaps as good, but Concord's position on the world-map is not likely to make it an international rendez- vous. d) On the contrary, Paris is on the way from England to Italy, from Germany to Spain, and from Russia to America. e) It happens that the nation which built Paris is artistic, and has spent much money and pains on making and keeping it beau- tiful. f) Paris is now surpassed in size by London and New- York, but it was for a long time the most populous city in the West, and has a tradition of wide outlook and culture which is, to say the least, not surpassed anywhere yet. France and Paris react on each other, at all points, mostly in matters of art. France has made Paris beautiful, and Paris makes beauty for France, through that joint product of France and Paris, the Parisian. For instance, it is well known — • the experiment has often been tried — that those milliners and " couturier es "who impersonate French taste in fashion, must live in Paris : they soon lose their skill when transferred to other cities. In the same manner, our artisans and artists of all descriptions, to our very writers, owe part of their French taste to the atmosphere of Paris. Paris teaches them moderation, clearness, discipline, " divine propor- tion, " as Leonardo calls it. The scale of the city is moderate ; its river is wide, but it is a river, not an arm of the sea ; the buildings are sometimes extensive, but never high (the Eiffel tower of course is not a building : merely a lusus scienticB) ; the houses are not supposed to rise above a height exactly in proportion with the width of the street, and even when the street is very wide, never above sixty feet. All houses built on certain decorative avenues or places must be built and strictly preserved according to the uniform pattern specially designed by the architect who planned the avenue or place. (Note the houses along the " rue de Rivoli" , or around the " Arc-de-Triomphe ".) The individual is requested not to assert himself ; let the upstart or the eccentric build his " follies " elsewhere. Paris does not belong to him ; if he lives in Paris, he must obey Paris. For years, Paris did without trol- leys, because the wires would have spoilt the perspective of the streets ; there are some trolleys now, in outlying quarters, but they have learned to conceal their wires among the foliage of the bordering trees. No trains are allowed to smoke in Paris ; when they reach the wall, they must change their steam locomotives for electric ones, or turn their smoke into the engine. Paris has not even parks of natural grass, with trees growing as they please ; but geometrical gardens, with trees severely lopped, planted at equal distances ; if one dies, another of full-grown size takes its — 178 ^ PARIS place ; and the flower-beds in the never-trodden lawns are designs in colours, as geometrical as needle-work. Statues appear every- where ; some are inspired by patriotism more than by taste, and represent great or supposed great men ; but most are simply deco- rative, not intended to perpetuate anything but the undying power of art. A proof that Paris makes the Parisian, and is the product of all France, is that most Parisians were not born in Paris : out of loo people living in Paris, 51 were born in the provinces, 10 are foreigners, only 39 are born Parisians. Why such a large pro- portion of provincials ? Partly because Paris is steadily growing (xvith century : 250,000 ; xviiith : 500,000 ; 1817 : 714,000 ; 1840 : 900,000) ; partly because Paris works very hard, and its families die out rapidly. The visitor who "does " Paris, and confines his attention to the monuments and the amusements, finds Paris a " jolly place " ; but if he walked the streets about 7 a. m., instead of taking his " chocolat " and his " petit pain " in bed, he would soon find out that Paris works just as hard as any other great city. Indeed the tired pale faces, of the women especially, strike any one who returns from the French villages or provincial towns. Even schools begin at 8. a. m. There is no afternoon tea, and no Saturday afternoon for the workers. Paris is never quite at rest, never " dead ", as London is at regular intervals. One reason for this is that, while English cities pulsate " horizontally, " people rushing to and fro between suburbs and centres, French cities pulsate " vertically, " people coming down from their floor to the workshop, office, "cafe," or theatre, so that the streets are always filled, even in the centre. This is changing gradually, however, and Parisian, suburbs are more and more the residences of people working in Paris ; yet the fact remains that England developed her industries almost two hundred years ago, while we are still more agricultural than industrial, the paradoxical consequence being that we are far more urban when we live in cities at all because our cities are still of convenient extent. Indeed, to understand what Paris is to a Parisian to-day, one should remember certain pages of Charles Lamb, who lived in those days when a Londoner could spend his life within the precincts of London, walk home from his office at leisure, now and then having a look at some prints in a shop-window, or a talk with a friendly bookseller ; when a Londoner regarded London as his " home ", not merely as a colossal agglomeration of banks, warehouses, docks, tube-stations, theatres and tea-shops. Paris is coming nearer every day to a city of that pattern, but is still, in that respect, a good many years behind London; thousands of Paris- ians, like Lamb, have but a spasmodic or literary sympathy with the country, and most of them hate a suburb. They are still like Montaigne, who said : " I love Paris, to its very warts. " They feel that if they live too far from its centre, which is the very =- 179 — PAS-DE-CALAIS (DEPARTMENT OF) heart of France, they cease to be in touch with their country; oi France could be said what George Meredith said of Paris : " Light in light hands, yet vaUant unto death for a principle ; and therefore not light, in strong hands very steadfast rather; and oh ! so constantly entertaining. " Books recommended. — H. Cain, Promenades dans Pans (Flammarion). — Paris- Pittoresque series (Figuiere). — R. Seres et J. Aubry, les Parisiens pendant I'etat de siege (B.-Levr., 3 fr. 50). — See also the Works o£ Fournier; Ed. Drumont, Mon Vieux Paris; A. Daudet, 30 Ans de Paris; and catalogue of E. Flammarion. H. Robert, Paris's Effort (Bloud, o fr. 60). - Edwards (G.-F.), Old Time Paris (A. Doubleday & C, 2 s.). — Barnard (C.-I.), Paris War Days-Diary of an American (Little Brown C°, Boston, 1916). — Lucas (E.), A Wanderer in Paris. 13th Edition (Methuen, 1915). — Sherrard, Modern Paris (T. Werner Laurie, London, 1911). — Hyatt (A.-H.), The Charm of Paris (Chatto & Windus, 2 s. 6 d.) PAS-DE-CALAIS (Depart, of). — Corresponds roughly with the old province of Artois. Its population in 1906 was 1,012,466 inhabitants. Its " chef -lieu" is Arras (25,000). It contains 904 " communes ". The Department takes its name from the Straits of Calais ; Caesar embarked for Britain from a point of its coast ; the Roman route Rome-Lyons-Boulogne-Dover-London was one of the most important in the Empire ; Calais and Boulogne were long held by the English ; from Boulogne did Napoleon prepare a landing in England. The general formation of the Department is that of a plateau, the highest point of which is only 650 feet above sea-level. Some of its 41 rivers flow to the Channel, along the gentle southward slope ; others to the North Sea, through ravines in the steep northern edge, and are then deflected E. by the low hills of Flan- ders. The plateau is covered with red clay and flint, under which lies pure chalk. The wells have to be extremely deep, and the population is sparse on all rising ground. By Calais extends a plain of peat and more or less clayish sand, which lies beneath sea- level, and was under water in the third century. This replica of Holland is drained by channels called " wairingues ", or " wat- argands ", and protected from the tides by a system of dunes, and of sluices at the mouths of rivers. Those sluices are closed when the tides are running up. Two tides would suffice to ruin the plain. Jurassic formations exist about Boulogne. Coal was discovered in Pas-de-Calais in 1847, on the boring of a water-well. The coal bed of Nord extends into Pas-de- Calais over a breadth of 5 miles as far as Bethune. Beyond that town, it is only half as wide, and disappears about Flechinelles. It reappears 42 kil. further, at Flennes and Hardinghem. The climate is generally cold and damp ; the W. wind prevails . mists are frequent, on account of the low marshy levels in the W. The average temperature is 8.5° Cent., 2° below the Paris average. PAS-DE-CALAIS (DEPARTMENT OF) As a rule the soil becomes extremely muddy after rains, and dries rapidly again. There is little difficulty in riding or driving across country. The total area is (about 2,600 sq. miles) 666 . 425 Hectares distributed between : Plough-land, canals, railways, etc. . . . 514.293 — Pastures 43-387 — Woods, and osier land 35.408 — Orchards, hop-gardens, gardens .... 24.663 — Fallow land i5-440 — Marshes, peat -bogs 3-ioS — The soil, when fertile at all, is remarkably so. It produces a quantity of wheat, oats, beet-roots, also colza and other oil seeds. Beet-roots alone cover 35,000 hectares. Barley (24,000 hect.) pro- vides for the beer of the Department. Poppy and flax are of high quality. Tobacco is grown about Saint-Pol, Montreuil, and Saint-Omer, over 922 hectares producing 2 million kilos. Pas-de-Calais has 82 coal-pits, employing, in 1894,44,400 miners ; in 1895, the production was 11,097,807 tons. (Total for France m 1894 : 27,416,900 tons.) It possesses also 958 quarries, 65 of which give phosphates of lime (95.000 tons in 1894). Others supply sandstone, cement, sand, gravel, marble, limestone. The Department has 1,422 steam-mills, 43 sugar-factories, 516 breweries; blast furnaces at Isbergues, Marquise, Outreau; iron works at Isbergues, and Lens. Zinc, copper, lead, are work- ed at Biache, Saint-Waast, and Noyelles-Godault. The first " Artesian " well was bored in a convent of Tillers in the xiiith century. Arrondissements. Cantons. Arras . . . Arras, Bapaume, Beaumetz-les-Loges, Ber- tincourt, Croisilles, Marquion, Pas, Vimy, Vitry-en-Artois. B^THUNE . . Bethune, Cambrin, Carvin, Houdain, Laven- tie. Lens, Tillers, Norrent-Fontes. Boulogne. . Boulogne, Calais, Desvres, Guines, Marquise, Samer. Montreuil . Campagne, Etaples, Fruges, Hesdin, Hue- queliers, Montreuil. Saint-Omer. Aire, Ardre, Audruicq, Fauquembergues, Lumbres, Saint-Omer. Saint-Pol. . Aubigny, Auxi-le-Chateau, Avesnes-le-Comte, Heuchin, Le Parcq, Saint-Pol. Among the famous personages born in Pas-de-Calais, should be mentioned : Godefroy de Bouillon (1058-1100) and his bro- ther Baudouin, first Kings of Jerusalem; Suger (1082-1152), abbott of Saint-Denis, Prime Minister, and promoter of Gothic - 181 — t'ASTEUR architecture; Lef^vre cI'Etaples (i455-I537) one of the first Calvinists; Robespierre, b. Arras (1759-1794); Frederic Sau- VAGE, born atBoulogne (1785-1857) (See: Science and Invention); Sainte-Beuve (Boulogne, 1804-1869) (See : Literature) ; Mariette-Pacha (1821-1881), b. Boulogne (See : Science and Invention) ; A. Delacroix (1820-1868), b. Boulogne, painter; and Mr. Ribot, born at Saint-Omer in 1842. Population of certain places (1906). — Ablain-Saint-Nazaire : 1,155 ; Aire : 8,000 ; Arques : 4,500 ; Arras : 25,000 ; Azincourt : 320 ; Bapaume : 2,950 ; Berck : 9,650 ; Bethune : 13,600 ; Bou- logne-sur-Mer : 51,200 ; Calais : 66,600 ; Courrieres : 5,000 ; Desvres : 5,000 ; Etaples : 5,300 ; Prevent : 4,750 ; Guines : 4,400 ; Hebuterne : 800 ; Laventie : 3,750 ; Lens : 27,750 ; Lillers : 8,000 ; Marceuil : 1,456 ; Montreuil : 3,550 ; Mont-Saint-Eloi : 1,200 ; Neuve-Chapelle : 660 ; Neuville-Saint-Vaast : 1,250 ; Noeux-les-Mines : 8,300 ; Oignies : 4,050 ; Queant : 1,000 ; Riche- bourg-l'Avoue : 2,050; Saint-Omer: 21,000; Saint-Pol: 4,000; Saint-Venant : 3,500 ; Souchez : 1,500 ; Vimy : 2,400. Books recommended. — Joanne, Pas-de-Calais (Hachette, i fr.) See also : Information, and Somme. PASTEUR (Louis, 1 822-1 897) was essentially a chemist, who came to devote his time to practical research, in the interests of national industries, and the general welfare of mankind. It was he who said : " If science is of no country, the man of science must always bear in mind the glory of his country. In any great scientist you will always find a great patriot. " When he was offered a post at the University of Pisa, he said : " I should feel that I had committed the crime, and deserved the punishment of a deserter, if I left my coun- try for the sake of material profit. His first work was on the Symmetry of Crys- tals, his conclusion being that symmetry marked mineral formations, and dissymmetry organic life. This led him to the discovery of ferments. I . Sugar and amylic alcohol present such simi- Pasteur larities and differences of structure that Pasteur (ph. by Pierre Petit) thought there must exist between them an orga- nic link. The theory that fermentation is due to living organisms had been put forward by Leeuwenhoeck, in Holland, in the xviith century, and reasserted in France in 1835 by Cugniard de La Tour, but dismissed by the great German che- mist, Liebig. Pasteur proved by experimentation that the theory was true. 2. By intuition and experiment he found, and proved that fermentation is due in each case (milk, beer, etc.) to a different t^ASTEUit organism. He destroyed -such organisms by subjecting them t(t appropriate temperatures ("pasteurisation"). 3. Where did those organisms come from ? — Exclusion of air prevented fermentation ; air therefore must contain the microbes ; he denied and disproved spontaneous generation, and studied air-organisms. 4. He further found, and proved, that several diseases of higher animals are due to particular organisms. 5. He obtained vaccines that destroyed or combated those organisms. His discoveries in the infinitely small can only be compared to Newton's discoveries in the infinitely great. The work of Newton probably appeals more to the imagination ; but Pasteur has done far more for the happiness of mankind ; in this case, the French- man has been the more practical of the two. Pasteur's discove- ries have guided millions of men in the preservation of drinks and foods, have placed in a new light every industry and pursuit which micro-organisms can affect favourably or unfavourably, and last but not least have remained the guides of all investigators in medicine and surgery. Some of his principles have been applied with some exaggeration in certain cases, but his own experiments and conclusions are still unchallenged. Pasteur found the cure of anthrax in 1881, the cure of rabies in 1885, and the cure of hen-cholera in 1889. His treatment of the silk-worm he worked out in 1853, at the request of his master, J.-B. Dumas, who had had to report to Parliament on the matter. His first human case was a young Alsatian shepherd, Joseph Meister, who had been bitten by a mad dog in fourteen places. One day, while being received by his native city of Dole, he was delivering a speech just opposite the poor tanner's shop where his father had lived, when he burst into tears, saying: " O my father and mother, my dear departed, you who lived so modestly in this poor house, I owe everything to you. " He had had to work his way, as a bursar, then as an usher, from a popular school in his native town to the Ecole Normale in Paris. He was " Agrege " and Doctor by 1847, professor at the University of Strasbourg in 1852, taught in Lille for a time, and was appointed in Paris in 1857. He was made a member oithe" Academie des Sciences", "Academie Frangaise", and "Academie de Medecine". In 1870, he returned to the Germans all the honours they had conferred upon him, ' ' by token of his indignation at the slaughter of two great nations. " In 1874, a pension of £ 1,000, to revert to his widow and family, was granted him by Parliament. His jubilee was celebrated at the Sorbonne in 1895. The " Institut Pasteur " (Paris, rue Dutot) was founded in 1886, by international subscription, for the treatment of rabies. Another subscription created the " Institut Serotherapique " of Garches. Later annexes were the " Institut de chimie biologique " - 183 - and a special hospital. Similar establishments exist in Lille, Tunis, Constantinople, Annam, South America, etc... A popular referendum in the press some years ago proved that the nation is quite aware of the merits of its greatest son, and places him first in its estimation. (Victor Hugo ranked next.) Books recommended. — Vallery-Radot, vie de Pasteur (Hachette). Falkland (P.), Pasteur {1898). PEASANTS. — In many farms of France may be seen a little coloured print representing the main professions. At the top of some very ornate stairs stands a king with the motto : " I rule you all "'; on the step below is a priest who says : " I pray for you all " ; further down, a soldier with the words : " I defend you all ". — At the bottom of the steps stands a peasant, and his words are : " I feed you all ". Never before this war had so many people of the towns realized that brief vital truth ; and never before had so many of them come into touch with the man that feeds them. This war has been the triumph of democracies ; it has been the revelation of the French peasant, who is no less than France essential. Those who were surprised at the courage or stubborn- ness of our men, at their patience and ingenuity, were simply those who did not yet know the silent man of our country-side, the hard and skilful labourer whom we call " Jacques Bonhomme. " The deep sanity of the national mind, despite occasional glaring para- doxes, comes from him ; our national zest for honest work, habits of economy, and distrust of fresh air, which we call " draughts, " the hundred peculiarities of our character, good or bad, all come from the obscure ploughman, whom the British have now come to know personally. He is not clean ; he is fond of money, and " dour. " Those are the main reproaches levelled at him, and perhaps the only three. Although he is not entirely blameless on any of those counts, his defence might be framed somewhat in this way : First, as to his dirtiness : he is not so dirty after all, in peace- time (the tremendous difference should not be lost sight of ; he is " worn out with soldiers " as he puts it) ; in peace-time, his floors are clean, the bed-clothes are spotless, there is no dust on the furniture, and he is very particular about his food. It is true that his sanitary arrangements and bathing requisites are to say the least very scanty ; he will tell you that his sanitation is good enough for him, since no harm ensues, which is true enough ; as to his bathing, the men who have drawn buckets of chalky water from wells two hundred feet deep will perhaps pardon him... Many parts of France have a fertile but porous soil ; all the water comes from ponds, cisterns, and deep wells ; it is muddy, scarce, or hard to get at. Artois and Picardy lie on porous chalk ; they cannot be so clean as Flanders. Wind-mills, motors, PEASANTS tanks, etc. could provide the villages with water at a good deal of expense, but the philanthropist has not yet been found. And even then, would those people have time ? Time is money ; they work and have to work every minute of the day... They sweat, and change their linen ; they always have a good deal of linen, and wash it frequently. " Jacques Bonhomme" has often remarked that the cleanliness of the British soldier was that of a townsman who had plenty of water at his disposal, and relied on laundries. Tommy would wash his body with as much water as he could get, and then put on his dirty shirt again ; the son of " Jacques would have washed his shirt first, and then himself, with less water and better results... " Jacques " is sparing of everything, except his own exertions. His poverty is not realized, because statistics emphasize the wealth of agricultural France, and because " Jacques " manages to make both ends meet ; yet he earns less, with more labour, than the workman in the city. To say that we are a nation of landlords is gross exaggeration ; our proportion of land-owners, about i /5 of our population, is comparatively high, but does not imply that the peasant is not poor. We have 23.5 millions of peasants, say 7 million families. Out of 8 million holdings, 2 are over 15 acres, and therefore are not owned by " peasants ; " another 2 millions belong to the small " bourgeoisie " of our small towns. Therefore, out of 7 million pea- sant families, only 4 own their farms ; the rest consist of tenants, and of day-labourers who earn between 3 francs and i fr. 50 a day. Even those who have farms of 15 acres and over cannot be said to be well-off ; toil and frugality are inseparable from their condition. Their eagerness for money is therefore readily under- stood ; even when excessive, it partakes of childish ignorant greed, and a desire to feel safe, more than of genuine social ambition. The " real gentleman " who tips generously, is not regarded as grasping ; yet he seldom misses an opportunity of maintaining by political measures a social system which allows him to live on the fat of the land: the land of "Jacques." The best proof that the peasant is not a real money-maker is that he discards obvious possibilities of profit, such as association with neighbours, invest- ing, working in towns, etc. Long, cruel experience, age-long isolation, have taught him that the only two factors on which he can rely, are himself and his land. He hoards up his pence, not in a bank, but in a pot under his bed-post, merely in order to be sure of the morrow (you never can be too sure, with all those wars, and financial bubbles !), and be able to buy just another bit of land. He does not want, does not expect to be rich, he is too wise to entertain such hopes ; he merely desires to " round off his field " (" arrondir son bien "). He is hard on others at times ; but he is hard on himself at all times ; he owes everything to himself, to his hard work and parsi- mony. To him every one has been harsh time out of mind ; - 185 - PEASANTS tiobody ever took notice of him but to ask or exact things fronj him. Only one hundred years ago, he was not quite past serfdom yet. He has been looted again and again. Whenever kings and nobles had a family discussion, they used his fields as a battle- ground, and his sons as men-at-arms. Then, to recoup them- selves, victor and vanquished would burden him with taxes. He had to be mason and carpenter, cow-doctor, road-maker, and blacksmith. Soldiers destroyed his cabin periodically, some- times just for fun (whether friend or foe, the soldier must always destroy, just as the peasant always creates). Of course, when he built up his hut again, he just used sticks and mud; what else could he do ?... Azincourt was lost by the French partly because the horses of the noble knights floundered in the furrows freshly sown with good corn by " Jacques Bonhomme... " Another witness to the perpetual martyrdom of the French peasant, especially the man of Flanders, Artois, Picardy (the cock- pit of Europe), is the following statement of the old chronicler Amelgard. By the end of the xvth century, the cattle of Picardy had got so used to be taken to certain hiding-places, either in forests, or under ground (the chalk of Picardy is honey-combed with such refuges), that they had come to need no guidance, and no other signal but the ringing of the alarm-bell {" U tocsin "). Such was, even among the dumb beasts, " I' accoutumance du malheur". "From Abbeville to Laon, the land was absolutely barren, covered with bush and briar ; the people lived in the woods, in strongholds, or just under the walls of the cities, within sight of the sentries who kept watch in the steeples. " Two hundred years later, while Versailles dazzled the world. La Bruyere gave his famous description of the peasants of that time : " One sees about the land certain animals living on roots... " Young, about 1780, is almost as disheartening. When judging the French peasant, one should not compare him with the farming class of England or America, but with the slum-dwellers of the great cities in those countries, for he is, and has been for ages, our most unfortunate class. It is little wonder that he did well at Verdun, or quietly ploughs his land under shell-fire : he has faced for ages what is worse than occasional mortal danger : daily toil and want, daily anxiety and pain. And then, after all... his faults are those' of all true peasants. But his virtues are less wide-spread. The greatest perhaps is his intelligence. He has not only common-sense, wit, and humour, like most manual workers ; he has a quick, discerning, retentive mind. Several of our great men were born on farms. "Jacques" reads no books ; all his knowledge is traditional, or experimental ; but it is sound, and thoroughly assimilated. The guide and proof of his intelligence is moderation. The vein of wise scepticism that characterizes our literature and life is essentially the product of peasant observation and reflection. His religion he has nevei — 186 — PEASANTS denied, but always taken with several grains of salt. He appliei the same caution toward political or social creeds too precise or violent. The ne quid nimis which French nature teaches is the strong rule of his life and thought. He knows far too much to be tempted by the Kolossal. Of the insane invasion of the Hun, he says with a smile (for has he not seen the true and original Huns already, and those same Prussians in 1792, 1793, 1814, 1815, and 1870 ?) : — " Yes, of course, they simply swarm, and it is no use killing them just now. They are like field-mice ; when they nvade a district, you may do what you please : the more you kill, the more there seems to be. But then one fine morning, you find that they are gone... Things on that scale cannot last : they are not in nature. Another good point about "Jacques" is his courtesy, which has no touch of cringing about it. To a man who enters his house, and asks him a service without having said even "Good morning, " he replies with curt politeness ; he knows perfectly well when he is looked down upon. But a few kind words, and a smile, are enough to make him as hospitable as any gentleman on earth, with his scanty means, could well be. A great deal more could be said about his daily life, his love of the soil, his history, the part he has played in the political develop- ment of the nation, and about his future ; but we must confine ourselves to the essential : his character. The following quota- tions will show that there is no exaggeration in our praises of him. " From the grey solitudes of Brittany to the sunny hillsides of the Pyrenees, the peasants of France have kept the land under cul- tivation during two years and a half of war. Their young men have all gone to fight, and many of the men who are no longer young ; for no part of the population has given so generously to the active army as the peasants. " In consequence, the greater part of the work on the land has fallen to the lot of the women, helped by the old men and the children. What they have achieved is stupendous, and their endurance has been epic. The results of their work have necessa- rily varied with the difference in climate, soil, and experience ; but from end to end of the country there is only one thing to say of the French peasants : their effort in the war has been magni- ficently patriotic. " (M. E. Clarke, in the Cornhill Magazine.) " As I have walked about in Flanders, turning over thoughts about the onward movement of God's purposes in the world, I have met those matchless monuments of patient and unchang- ing daily toil, the peasants working in the fields. Harnessed into the perpetual cycle of seed time and harvest, what can this talk of movements and purposes in the great world be to them ?... " The old man in the fields — or is it the old wrinkled woman doing more than one man's work ? — know that life cannot be fully measured by the gauge of the individual's daily round. A — 187 — PEASANTS Word will bring pride and light to their eyes. It is " Vive la France ! " They are citizens of a world wider than their fields. They belong to " La Patrie ". Life is monotonous and cyclical, and yet it is more than that. Great changes do arrive in days of crisis and convulsion — yes, in days of judgment, and the vic- tims of changelessness are caught up by the movement. They are awakened out of the sleep of humdrum existence, and are asked to give proof, and proudly do give proof, that, plodders though they be, they belong to no mean city. " {Thoughtson religion at the front by Rev. N. Talbot, A. C. G., Macm. and C", 1917.) "Here the shell-holes were rather thick on the ground. But the women and the children and the old men went on with their work with the cattle and the crops ; and where a house had been broken by shells, the rubbish was collected in a neat pile, and where a room or two still remained usable, it was inhabited, and the tatter- ed window-curtains fluttered as proudly as any flag. And time was when I used to denounce young France because it tried to kill itself beneath my car -wheels ; and the fat old women who crossed roads without warning ; and the specially deaf old men who slept in carts on the wrong sidejof the road ! Now, I could take off my hat to every single soul of them, but that one cannot traverse a whole land bareheaded. " (France at woir ; Rudyard Kipling.) "... the saintliest labourers that aye Dropped sweat on soil for bread, took arms and tramped High-breasted to match men or elements. Or Fortune, harsh school-mistress with the undrilled ; War's ragged pupils ; many a wavering line. Torn from the dear fat soil of champaigns hopefully tilled. Torn from the motherly bowl, the homely spoon. To jest at famine, ply The novel scythe and stand to it on the field ; Lie in the furrows, rain-clouds for their tents ; Fronting the red artillery straighten spine ; Buckle the shiver at sight of comrades strewn ; Over an empty platter affect the merrily-filled ; Die, if the multiple hazards around say die ; Downward measure a foeman mightily sized ; Laugh at the legs that would run for a life despised ; Lyrical on into death's red roaring jaw-gape, steeled Gaily to take of the foe his lesson, and give reply. Cheerful apprentices, they shall be masters soon. " (G. Meredith, Odes in contribution to the Song of French History.) Books recommended : — Works of De Thou, Vauban, Turgot. — Henri See, Les Classes rurales en France au moyen age (Giard et Briere). — G. d'Avenel, Histoire economique de la propriete... depuis Van 1200 jusqu'en Van 1800 (Paris, 1894-98, 4 vol.) ; Paysans et ouvriers depuis sept cents a/ns (Colin, 4 fr.). PERONNE P^RONNE. — Across the strategic region lying between Ardennes and sea, the sluggish Somme, with its wide marshes and pit-bogs, is second only to the Seine as a barrier. Peronne, built on a hill by the Somme, among marshes, always had strategic value. It was, before the war, a " place de guerre de deuxieme classe ". It was a complete and thriving little town as well. With a popula- tion of no more than 4,000 it pos- sessed a Civil Court, a Justice of the Peace, Councils of Com- merce and Agri- culture, a college, tanneries, sugar- factories , salt - works, and was a prosperous mar- ket for linen- cloth, lawns, woollens, leather, cattle, etc. Its old Castle of sandstone, partly used before the war as an arse- nal, was closely associated with our history. A Prankish Queen, whose name was given to a neigh- bouring village, Sainte -Radegon- de, erected it about 550 A. D. — Saint -Fursy, one of the mis- "^ibuterne PAchiet I\G^ .,.-;5=S?S^ 3aume 01 2 3 1- S km Omon-^JBTHn ^^s ^^^"'"^ ■jH ^^Bt'""f /^^""S i^^^^H ^^^^^^Mt^")i ^' \ ""^ ^^Z Bray II f^^^^ BfiflllBr^WoNNE ^oph [viw j| ^^^^^■^4'x^ ^ r^ IJ DompiM. ^^^^^KM]iS..jb;r-^ f^».„^'J WBf ^~ Rosieres v^ ^ ^B-l I c Bataille de la Somme ; Ayanct rialisa par /es troupes franco angfaisics rjuillet-IO septtmlTWt^ msept-Woclobre fSSS lOoct. ■ IS novtmbrt nTTll 1916 Showing Bapaume and Peronne, just outside the area gained by the Battle of the Somme in 1916. sionaries of Picardy, built a church close by, in which he was buried ; his tomb became a place of pilgrimage ; a town soon spread around it, and a monastery rose by the old chateau. The Normans razed the town in 881. "But it was soon built again, and Charles III, one of the last Carolingians, died a prisoner in the Castle in 929. The Lord of Peronne who had made him prisoner - 189 - PERONNE rose against the newCapetian King, was besieged, captured, and hanged. In 1071, the place was "besieged again, and annexed to Picardy. After along war, the King of France was acknowledged liege of the cit3^ and gave it a charter in 1207. It was bought by Louis IX in 1266, and went to the King's son-in-law in 1409. The death of the King's daughter gave it back to the Crown in 1422 ; but the treaty of Arras (1439) handed it to the Duke of Burgundy with the rest of the dower. It was bought again by Louis XI in 1463, besieged and taken by the Duke in 1465. With the hope of getting it back by transaction, Louis XI went to see the Duke in Peronne ; the Duke shut him up in the Castle, and ex- torted from him a high ransom. Louis went back to Paris mad with rage, and found his " good city " full of little cages from which starlings unceasingly repeated " Peronne ! Peronne ! " He had all the birds killed, and waited. At last in 1477, the Duke died, and Peronne was his... In 1536, Charles V of Spain besieged it violently, but in vain. In 1577, its Governor made it a strong- hold of the " Ligue " of the Guises, which was called at first " Ligue de Peronne " . The city refused to acknowledge Henry IV as King until he had abjured ; he was not admitted within its walls before 1594. In 1641, Louis XIII signed a treaty at Peronne with the deputies of two new provinces. In 1654, Turenne took refuge under its walls against Conde and the army of the " Fronde. " Four years later, its Governor offered it to the Spaniards ; the plot was discovered just in time by Mazarin. In 1 815, Louis XVIII thought of assembling an army in Peronne against the man from Elba. After Waterloo, Wellington besieged the place. It was besieged again in Dec. 1870 by the Prussians, Shelled for 3 weeks, and taken. Peronne possessed several monuments of interest, among which a splendid church partly " flamboyant ", partly " Renaissance ", and a town-hall of the xvith century. Its best-known building was its belfrey 118 feet high, dating from 1396. The Germans occupied Peronne from Sept. 1914 until March 18, 191 7. The shattered walls of the church, a portion of the facade 6f the town-hall, and two towers of the Castle, are practically all that is left of the martyred city. It was in Peronne that some insane superman left that bewildering inscription : " Don't be angry, just admire. " But surely, if destruction can be admirable, the Normans, who worked just as thoroughly without the help of modern explosives, must have been " hyper-supermen ". From the history of Peronne a Junker might learn that his ideals are rather out of date, and too easy to reach. The destruction of a town is a matter of a few hours, and lacks originality. It takes centuries, brains, and a few other things, to build up a civilization. -^ 190 -^ PHILOSOPHY PHILOSOPHY. — (By Interpreter J. Chkvalier, LL. D.) — Is France a philosophic nation ? — Many have answered in the negative, and confined to Greece and Germany the metaphy- sical mind. To those who admire German philosophy, one in which obscurity and intricacy often do service for depth, the French genius seems all too clear and full of common-sense to be capable of the bold speculations of metaphysics. Yet, if the contention of Bergson be true : that common-sense is the foremost faculty of the mind, the one that education should chiefly endeavour to foster, because it gives us an accurate view of things, then must France, an eminently reasonable nation, in whom are balanced with almost perfect harmony the " esprit de geometric " and the " esprit de finesse, " appear as an eminently philosophic nation, or rather, to be quite precise, as the veritable leader and teacher of the philosophic mind in modern times. Indeed no other nation in the modern world, not even discerning, practical England, has displayed such power in the creation of new ideas, and their dissemination. The characteristic faculties of the French genius are already in evidence in the thinkers of the Middle Ages : a lofty wisdom, the perfect poise of deduction and intuition, of love and will-power, appear in all our Doctors of Divinity of the University of Paris. All-embracing comprehension is manifest in the " Mirror of the World" of a Vincent de Beauvais no less than in the vast sym- bolism of our cathedrals ; it does not exclude, but fosters rather, bold original thought, as in Abailart. This fine harmony of the Middle Ages seemed all but destroyed by the men of the Renascence: Rabelais, Montaigne, Calvin, and the humanists in their train. But, less than a century after them, the confiict of the new principles with the enduring traditions gave birth to Descartes' masterly " Discours de la Methode" (1637), which founded modern philosophy, just as his " Geometrie Ana- lytique" (to which the " Discours " was but an introduction) founded modern mathematics. The " Discours " begins by asserting that common-sense (" le bon sens ") is the thing most equally distributed in the world ; then it lays down the rules of a definitive method of enquiry, and of a provisional moral philo- sophy ; then it rises from the certainty of individual existence (Cogito, ergo sum), to the certainty of a God, on whom all reality is based. The whole treaty is an admirable model of that broad and really human rationalism, which assigns their proper places to all things : to the data of science and those of internal experience, to ethics, to religion ; it allies a most independent intellectual eagerness with the practical wisdom of a man bent on action, and therefore to a large extent ready to lean on tradition. The influence of Descartes has been boundless, although some disciples distorted or narrowed their master's views. It created in Holland the pantheism of Spinoza, beyond the Rhine the mighty r- ;9X ^ PHILOSOPHY encyclopedical philosophy of Leibnitz (who wrote in French, so undoubtedly was French, at the time the language of philosophy), in France itself the deep idealism of Malebranche (" Recherche de la verite "), an Oratorian priest who developed Cartesianism on lines which Berkeley was to follow. At the same time as Descartes, the fertile soil of France gave birth to Pascal, the highest representative of our race. There is hardly one modern idea whose first indication or perfect expression cannot be found in the " Pensees, " the uncompleted monument of the great Jansenist and great scientist who had intended to devote his labours to an " Ajjologie de la Religion Chretienne " : the two infinites between which we live, the infinitely small and the infinitely great ; nature, and habit ; human justice ; the para- mount importance of internal evidence (" le cceur ") ; the three orders : bodies, minds, charity... all those intuitions are still as glowing to-day as was the heart that conceived them. Two generations later, France misunderstood or contemned Pascal ; while it narrowed down the generous rationalism of Des- cartes. After the age of belief came the age of universal doubt. Yet our xviiith century certainly deserves praise for its wide- reaching, deep-searching curiosity. Montesquieu, Voltaire, d'Alembert, Condillac, Condorcet, Lamarck, disciples or masters of the English, advocated a number of new living ideas, about tolerance, progress, origins of societies and of species, etc., which the men of the Revolution were to make popular. Mean- time, beside them, J. -J. Rousseau (a Swiss by birth), by the importance he gave to sentiment, was preparing romanticism, the revival of mysticism in the xixth century, and the Practical Reason of Kant. The xixth century, through the eclecticism of Victor Cousin and his disciples, tried to conciliate all doctrines by extracting " the soul of truth " of each of them. But it also produced original thinkers who resumed and renovated the great philosophical tradition. Maine de Biran, an admirable psychologist, as well as a powerful metaphysician, was the true originator (with the Scotch) of modern psychology, a science soon enriched by the subtle and accurate observation of experimenters such as Charcot. — Claude Bernard, in his " Introduction a la mede- cine experimentale, " set forth the rules of experimentation, and stated its possibilities and its limitations. — Auguste Comte founded positivism, a doctrine that influenced every idea of his age, and was elaborated by himself and Littr6 into a mystical " religion of mankind ". — Cournot was the renovator of probabilism, and a powerful encyclopedic mind ; his great works are to our age what the Summa of Saint Thomas was to the Middle Ages, and the " Discours " of Bossuet to the xviith century. Lastly, the great spiritualist school is represented in our days byBouTROUX andBERCSON. Boutroux has fought the dogmatism ^ 193 — t^HILOSOPHY of science, by pointing out the contingency of the laws of nature, and has brought scientists (Henri Poincar^) to share his views. — Bergson, in a style gratefully admired by W. James, and with a wealth and depth of thought that has led to a variety of misin- terpretations, has based on a close criticism of science in the light of internal evidence, a vindication of the freedom of the individual, the immortality of the soul, and creation, and has further laid the foundations of a " metaphysique positive. " Some utterances of French thought illustrating the preceding Summary^ Montaigne (1533-1592). — If they say " I doubt ", they are instantly challenged to confess that they are sure at least of one thmg : their doubt. To say " I do not know " is just as self- contradictory. Wherefore I will stay by this interrogation : " What do I know ? ", which I bear as my motto, with a pair of scales in my coat of arms. — We never have any communication with real being, because all human nature is always in the mterval between birth and death. — It is credible that there should be laws in nature, but to us they are lost, so much does this fine human reason meddle with everything. — Laws have credit, not because they are just, but because they are laws... it is unsafe to trace them to their origins. — Reason is an intrument of wax and lead ; it can be stretched, bent, and adapted to any bias or measure. — To mock at philosophy, that indeed is philo- sophizing. — Emperors and cobblers are cast in the same mould, the desires of the former are as vain as our own, their power is greater ; the same appetites urge the elephant and the mite. — To philosophize is to learn how to die. Descartes (1596-1650). — The power to judge rightly and to distinguish true from false, which is properly called common- sense or reaon, is naturally equal in all men. — To seek after no other science but what I could find in myself or in the great book of the world. — I bethought myself that, the while I endeavoured to think of all things as unreal, it was una- voidable that I, who was thinking, should be real ; and, noticing that this truth, " I think, therefore I am, " was so firm and so assured that all the most extravagant suppositions of the scep- tics were not able to shake it, I judged that I might receive it as the first principle of that philosophy after which I was seeking. — I realized that I was some substance, the whole essence or nature of which was but to think; so that this " I ", that is to say the soul by which I am what I am, is entirely distinct from the body, nay is more easy to know than the body. — After the error of those who deny God, none is more likely to lead feeble minds astray from the road of virtue, than the conceit that the souls of beasts are of the same nature as ours, and that we need there- fore have no more hopes or fears for after this life than ants or SAILLENS _ igo J- PHILOSOPHY flies have. — The action by which God maintains the world at present is wholly the same as that by which He created it. Pascal (1623-1662). — Opinion is queen of the world, and force its tyrant. — "This dog is ours," said some poor children. " This is my place in the sun." Such are the beginning and the image of the usurpation of the whole earth. — All men hate one another naturally. — Self is hateful. — A very little comforts us, because a very little afflicts us. — Great and small suffer from the same accidents, the same vexations, the same pas- sions ; but the former are near the rim, the latter near the hub, of the wheel. — Time mends sorrows and quarrels, because we change, we are no longer the same persons. — Habit is second nature, and destroys first nature. I am very much afraid that this first nature may be but first habit. — We love the chase more than the capture. — All the unhappiness of man Pascal. comes from one cause, and that is being un- able to stay still in a room. — Csesar was too old, to play at conquering the world. The game might suit Augus- tus and Alexander ; they were young men. — Whoever desires to fathom the vanity of man, need but consider the causes and results of love. Its cause is a "I know not what " (Corneille) ; and its results are tremendous. This I know not what, so tri- fling that none can ascertain its nature, moves the whole earth, princes, armies, all the world. The nose of Cleopatra : had it been shorter, the whole face of the earth would have been diffe- rent. — Cromwell was about to ravage all Christendom ; the Royal family would have been lost, and his own forever powerful, had not a small grain of sand lodged in his ureter. Even Rome would have quaked before him, but this small gravel, which would have been nothing elsewhere, being placed just there, he died, his family was humbled, and the King restored. — One sees hardly anything just or unjust that does not change its quality when it changes its climate. Three degrees nearer the pole over- throws all jurisprudence. A meridian decides upon truth. A ludicrous justice indeed, to which a river or a mountain sets limits. Truth this side of the Pyrenees, error beyond them ! — Life is a dream, slightly less disconnected. What is man in Nature ? 'A mere nothing, if compared with the infinite : a whole, if compared with nothingness ; something half-way between all and nought. — Man is neither beast nor angel, and unfortunately, who tries to play the angel plays the beast. — Man is but a reed, the weakest being in nature, but he is a thinking reed. All our greatness consists in thinking. — Man is not worthy of God, but he is not unable to be made worthy of Him. — Man surpasses man infinitely. — 194 — PHILOSOPHY ^'^ The heart feels that there are three dimensions in spac6 and that numbers are infinite. Principles are felt ; propositions are inferred. It is the heart that feels God, not reason. — The infinite distance from bodies to minds is an image of the infinitely more infinite distance from minds to charity. All bodies, the firmament, the stars, the earth and its kingdoms, are worth less than the least of minds ; for the latter knows them all, and itself ; and the bodies, nothing. All the bodies together, and all the minds together, and all their productions, are worth less than the least working of charity. This belongs to an order infinitely higher. — There are three ways to belief : reason, habit, inspira- tion. We must open our minds to proofs, be strengthened by habit, but offer ourselves, through humiliations, to inspirations ; they alone can bring about the true and salutary result. — The ultimate effort of reason is to acknowledge that an infinity of things surpass it. Nothing is so conformable to reason than this denial of reason. — We are unable to prove, in spite of all dogmatism. We have an idea of truth, in spite of all scepticism. — Say what you please, you must admit that the Christian reli- gion has something wonderful in it. — That is because you were born a Christian. — Far from it ; I strive against it, for that very reason, lest the prevention might deceive me. Yet, although born within Christianity, I cannot help finding it wonderful. — I love poverty, because He loved it. — We should love only God, and hate only ourselves. — The streams of Babylon flow, and fall, and carry away. O holy Zion, where all is stable and nothing falls ! We should sit on the streams, neither beneath nor within them, but on them ; not stand, but sit : to be humble being sitting, and safe being on them. But our feet shall stand within thy gates, O Jerusalem. Malebranche. — The mind stands between God and the bodies. When it discovers some truth, or perceives things as they actually are, it sees them in the ideas of God. Therefore when a mind knows truth, it is united to God, it knows and enjoys God in some manner (1675). Montesquieu (1689-1755). — Laws are the necessary rela- tions deriving from the nature of things ; and in this sense all beings have their laws. — There is no liberty if the same man or the same body exerts all three of these powers : that of making the laws, that of executing public resolutions, and that of judg- ing the crimes, or adjusting the differences, of private persons. Voltaire (1694-1778). — • Liberty consists in depending on the laws only. — I shall always be persuaded that a clock proves a clock-maker and that the universe proves a God. ■ — Morality, being of God, unites all minds, and dogma, being of man, divides them. — If God has made us in his image, we have properly paid him back. — We want good ploughmen and good soldiers, good manufacturers, and as few theologians as possible. — Reli- — 195 — t^MlLOSOPHY giona are like the games of backgammon and chess : they cam6 to us from the East. — A system that is not demonstrated is but an ingenious piece of folly. — • Systems are like rats, that can pass through a score of small holes, and at last find two or three that will not admit them. — As soon as you dig, you find an infinite abyss. We must admire and be silent. — Men are mad indeed, but churchmen take the lead. — A miracle to-day is mustard after meat. — The Pope is an idol, we have bound his hands, and we kiss his feet. — Of all the systems that men have invented about God, which am I going to embrace, then ? None, except that of adoring him. " And, " said Candide, " we must cultivate our garden. " Helvetius — Ethics should be studied as a sort of experi- mental physics (1758). J. -J. Rousseau ■ — All things are good, when coming from the hands of the Maker ; they all degenerate in the hands of man. — Conscience, conscience ! thou divine instinct, thou immortal heavenly voice, thou sure guide of an ignorant limited being... (1762). Condorcet. — The perfectibility of man is really indefi- nite (1789). Maine de Biran. — Self is felt ; it is felt as a /ree power, asserting itself in effort (1813). Auguste Comte. — The fundamental revolution, charac- teristic of the virility of our intelligence, essentially consists in substituting at all points for the inaccessible determination of the causes of things, the simple research of their laws. — Live for others. — Mankind numbers more of the dead than of the living. — The great political and moral crisis of present day societies is due to intellectual anarchy. — For the new philoso- phy, order is the fundamental condition of progress, and in- versely progress becomes the necessary object of order (1844). Claude Bernard. — With the help of the active experi- mental sciences, man becomes a veritable foreman of creation. — Life is creation : what properly belongs to life, what belongs neither to chemistry nor physics, nor to anything else, is the guiding idea of that vital evolution (1865). Taine. — Vice and virtue are products, like sugar and vitriol ; all complex data arise from the conjunction of other original data, on which they depend (1863). Renan. — A nation is a soul (1871). — Gods pass away as men do, and it were not fit that they should be eternal (1883). Pasteur. — The infinite, eternal source of all greatness, all justice, and all liberty. — Looking above, learning beyond, trying to rise always (1883). — 196 — POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Renouvier. — The aim of man is the perfection of his nature. — Perfection is identical with happiness. — It is given to no man to save himself or lose himself alone ; no man is good enough, intelligent enough, nor happy enough, as long as other men are suffering. (" Manuel Repiibhcain de I'Homme et du Citoyen. ") Bavaisson. — Materiality induces forgetting. Lachelier. — The world is a thought that does not think itself, and hangs on a thought that does (1871). Boutroux. — Necessity rests on contingency. — The laws of nature are its habits (1874). Le Roy. — Science is valuable as a conquest, but not as an explanation (1899). — Truth is life; any veritable certainty is a faith (1904). Duhem. — The physical theory is not an explanation. A law of physics is a symbolical relation j it is properly speaking neither true nor false ; being an approximation, it is provisional and relative (1906). Henri Poincare. — Thought is but a flash of lightning in the depth of a long night. But that flash is everything. — There can be no scientific morals : if the premises of a syllogism are both in the indicative mood, the conclusion will be in the indicative also (1910). Bergson. — We call intuition the particular intellectual sympathy by which we transfer ourselves inside an object and coincide with what is unique and therefore unutterable in it. This intuition is the absolute. Metaphysics could be defined integral experience (1903). — Our body is an instrument for action, and for action only. — That there is a link between con- sciousness and the brain is not to be denied ; but there is a link between an article of clothing and the nail on which it hangs. Shall we say, on the strength of this, that the shape of the nail designs the shape of the coat ? — Conscience is synonymous with invention and liberty. — The animal leans on the plant ; man rides animality ; and all mankind, through space and time, is one countless host gallopping at the side of each of us, before and behind us, in an impelling charge, which can break down every resistance, and overcome many an obstacle, including perhaps death itself (1907). POLITICAL ORGANIZATION. — In January 1790, six months after the taking of the Bastille, the " Constituante " replaced a very awkward system of 32 unequal " Gouvernements " , overrun by a maze of local or obsolete organisms, by one central adminis- tration, in direct touch with the administrative and political machinery of fairly equal divisions : the " Departements ' (See : " Ddparfements "). — 197 — POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Every "Departement" is divided into "Arrondissements",a.nA each of these again into" Cflw^ows". A "CosMiow" consists of several "Communes". France comprises: 86 " Departements " ; 362 " Av- rondissements" ; 2,915 "Cantons " ; 36,295 "Communes ". The administrative centre of the Departement, Arrondissement, or Canton, is called " Chef -lieu. " The nation is a republic ; all laws are framed and passed by elected representatives of the citizens ; and there is no other authority in the land but those laws. Every male citizen, at 21 years of age, has one vote, unless he is on active military service ; at 25, any citizen is eligible to the Chamber of Deputies ; at 40, to the Senate. Government is in the hands of three powers : a) Legislative : Deputies and Senators. b) Executive : President ; Cabinet ; local administrators. c) Judiciary .■ The various Courts, and the Police. a) There are about 530 "Deputes" (i per 100,000 inhab. or fraction over, in each Arrondissement), who come for total direct re-election once every four years ; and 300 " Senateurs ", elected for nine years, i /3 of the House coming for indirect re-election every three years. Every seven years, the two Houses, which usually sit in Paris, adjourn to the Palace of Versailles, to elect (or re-elect) the President by secret vote. b) The President appoints the Ministers ; he is entitled, though he regularly avoids such conflicts, to nominate or maintain them against a vote of Parliament. The Ministers are about twelve. Administration, execution of the laws, and political supervision, are ensured by Government nominees, who may be recalled at any time : the " Prefets " (one per Department), and the " Sous- prefets " (one per Arrondissement). c) Judiciary power belongs to magistrates permanently appoint- ed by the President, through the Justice Secretary. We have : I Justice of the Peace in every Canton, I Civil and Police Court in every Arrondissement, I Assize Court per Departement, 26 Courts of Appeal, I Supreme Court in Paris, the " Cour de Cassation ", whose function it is to quash (" casser ") any sentence not given in conformity with the letter of the law. There are no circuit-judges. The oath is not religious. The poor are entitled to the services of a barrister free of charge. A defendant may refuse to answer any question in the absence of his counsel. The local political machinery of the various units is as follows : Every Commune (parish) has a " Conseil Municipal" , elected by the citizens ; the Conseil appoint some of themselves as — 198 — POPULATION AND DEPOPULATION " Maire " (Mayor) and " adjoints ". No councillor or mayol receives any salary or fee. In the Arrondissement , Government is represented by the "Sous-Prefet", and the people by the "Conseil d' Arrondissement" Every Departement is under a " Prefet " and a "Conseil de Prefecture" (nominees of Government), assisted by the "Conseil General" (elected by the citizens). ' Paris is an exceptional unit. It is divided into 20 Arrondisse- ments each consisting of 4 " Quartiers " , and numbered in a spiral, starting from the centre. Ksich. "Arrondissement" has its own Mayor and Council. For the whole city, there is a general "Conseil Municipal", of 80 members (i per " Quartier "); they belong ipso facto to the "Conseil General" for the Departmentof Seine. They receive a salary. Two important bodies help in the administration of the country. The "Conseil (i'£^ai", whose members are appointed for life, partly by the Government, partly through public competition, is the legal adviser of Government, the supreme authority in interpre- tation of laws, and in all suits of citizens against the State. The "Cour des Com^^es", another bodyofpermanentofhcials, sees that the funds expended by the various State Departments have been expended in conformity with the votes of Parliament. The legislative machine dates from 1875 ; the executive and judiciary have changed but little since Napoleon. Books recommended. — Poudra et Pierre, Organisation des pouvoirs publics (Paris, 1881). — P. Leroy-Beaulieu, L'F.tat moderne. — Boutmy, Etudes de droit cons- iitutionnel (Colin, 3 fr. 50). — Em. Faguet, Problemes politiques du temps present (Colin, 3 fr. 50). — G. Hanotaux, Histoire de la France contemporaine (Combet, 3 vol., 10 fr., eacli). — Bodley, France (Macmillan). Poincare, How France is governed. Transl. by Bernard Miall. (T. Fisher Unwin, 1913). — Davis (M.), Political History of France, 178^ to igio (Clarendon Press, 2 s. 6 d.) POPULATION AND DEPOPULATION. — A census of the popu- lation is taken every 5 years. The last one, in 191 1, gave a total of 39,600,000 (cf : Russia; 150 millions; Germany: 65. U. K. : 45). The density of the population is therefore 73 per sq. kil. (Belgium : 255 ; Holland : 176 ; U. K. , 144 ; Italy : 121 ; Germany: 120; U. S. A. : 11; Argentine: 2). But 73 is an average: the density varies very much with the economic resources ; in the Nord Department, it is 300 per sq. kil. The birth-rate is only 20 per 1,000 (Germ. : 34 ; Austria : 38 ; Russia : 49). The death-rate is very nearly the same. Both rates are declining ; the death-rate more rapidly. For the total period 1901-1911, our total increase had been 640,000. Russia increases yearly by 1,500,000. — 199 — POPULATION AND DEPOPULATION In 1700, Vauban estimated the population of France at 19,000,000. (our standing army at the time numbered 400,000). About 1789, Necker's estimate was 25,000,000 First regular census (Napoleon, 1800), gave. . . 27,445,000 In 1870, just before the war, we had 38,000,000 The loss of Alsace-Lorraine reduced us to . . . 36,100,000 Therefore, we have slowly regained since 1871 : 3.5 millions; Germany grew by 23 millions in the same lapse of time. Emigration makes us lose no more than 15,000 people a year (Germ. : 50,000 ; U. K. : 300,000 ; Russia : 400,000 ; Italy : over I million). Immigration gives us yearly about 30,000 new inhabitants. The census of 1911 numbered 1,132,000 foreigners, of whom 50 % were Belgians, and 25 % Italians. In France, as in the rest of Europe, cities grow faster than the country, and at their expense, but with us these increases are very slow on the whole. We have only 15 cities numbering more than 100,000 (U. K. has 38 ; Germ, has 41). In 1790, only 22 % of our population lived in towns ; in 1850, » 25 % » » » » in 191 1, » 40 % » » » » whereas in Germany the rural population has declined from 70 "^ in 1840 to 33 % in 1901, and in U. K. the rural population is only 23 % of the total (France : 60 %). The above figures show that we gain about 64,000 inhabitants a year. Therefore it is inaccurate to say that our population de- clines. Our birth-rate does, which is bad enough. It was 30 per 1,000 in 1800, 26 in i860. But we do not suffer as yet from depopulation properly so-called. Another point to be borne in mind is that this decline of our birth-rate has been slower and slower for several years, and the rate has now come to be almost invariable ; whereas in Germany, England, Scotland, the birth- rate, although higher than our own for the present, has been declining far more rapidly than ours for a good many years. Yet, this very low birth-rate, more insufficient than ever now, is (with alcoholism) the most ominous feature of our national life ; less than any other nation can we afford to be weak. What causes are responsible for that decrease of births ? Alco- holism is one of them ; the desire for an easy life, the decline of religious discipline, the employment of women in offices and factor- ies, certain diseases, late marriage owing to military service, are all against natural increase ; yet they are not characteristic of our country, and fail therefore to account for its exceptional con- dition. One great factor, more powerful in France than anywhere else, but seldom denounced because of its very popularity, is the pas- sion of the French for equality. All children, boys and girlg — 200 — POPULATION AND DEPOPULATION alike, are entitled in France to equal shares of their parents property. The daughters receive their portion, or a first instal- ment of it, on the dayoftheirmarriage (see "Doi"). Law, custom, parental affection, all work in the same direction. The tendency of French parents is therefore to ensure their children a maximum of comfort, and to their life-work a maximum of permanency, by dividing their property equally between a minimum of children. Even a fairly prosperous farmer cannot share his land equally between four or five children without leaving behind him as many poor labourers with as many scraps of land. And he could not bequeath his property to the eldest without " robbing " the others ; so he believes, and so says the law which he himself has made. Therefore numerous families are scarce in the middle classes ; only the very rich and the very poor can afford to have them. But the very rich and the very poor are rare among us. We call a " millionnaire " a person who has i million francs ($ 200,000) ; on the other hand, you seldom see in France a child going bare- footed, unless it be for his pleasure. Equality again. The differ- ences in fortunes are not very great, and every one has a fair chance of catching up with the man just above him, with labour, and economy. It cannot be said that such a condition is bad, since we have made several revolutions to reach it, and all civilized nations tend in the same direction; and yet, one certain consequence is the restriction of births. _ Le Play proposed that, without reviving the absolute birth- right of the eldest son, the law should allow a father to bequeath his property as he pleased. Another remedy has been suggested, and there is a tendency to recognize its merits, and gradually to apply it. Since a child is for many years a burden on its parents, while it is destined to add to the capital of the nation, why should not the nation, in one or several ways, compensate the individuals for their labour, and her gain ? Fixed premiums could be given for every birth, and small annuities for every child, special premiums being further possible when the child had passed certain examinations, or mas- tered certain crafts, thus proving his worth as a national capital... Books lecommended. — E. Levasseur, La Population fraiifaise (Paris, Rousseau, 3 vol., 1889-92). — Le Play, his works, and publications of his disciples in Revue de science sociale ; especially : La Reforme sociale en France (Tours, Mame, 4 vol.). — • Jacques Bertillon, Works on Statistics, Depopulation (Mean); Alcoholism (Lecoffre).^ Paul Bureau, La Crise morale des temps presents. — Galeot, L'Avenir de la race (Nou- velle Librairie Nationale). — Worms, Natalite et regime successoraHJP 3.yot, 3 fr. 50), Meline (F.-G.), The return to the land. — 201 — POSTAL SERVICE POSTAL SERVICE. — Inland rates have been raised 50 % for letters and cards, and 33 % for telephones and telegrams, since Jan. I, 1917, but correspondence to and from troops at the front has been postage-free ever since 1914. Postal rates are at present : Inland. Foreign. Letters (20 grammes onh') Fr. 0,15 0,25 (inland mails : o fr. lo for next 30 gr. , then o fr. 05 for every addit. 50 gr. ; max. weight : i kil. ; foreign : o fr. 20 fir next 20 gr. then o fr. 15 for every addit. 20 gr. ; no max.). Post-cards (incl. of stationery) 0,15 0,10 illustr. (address only) .... 0,05 0,05 (address & 5 words) . 0,10 Letter-cards (incl. of stationery) .... 0,15 0,25 Express messages in Paris : " pneuma- tiques " 0,40 Telephone calls in Paris (3 minutes) ... 0,20 Telegrams (inland minim, of 10 words). 0,65 " to U. K. per word 0,20 to U. S. A. (New York) per word 1,25 Money can be wired between France and U. K. to the amount of i.ooo fr. France has 13,000 post-offices (36,000 towns and villages) ; 16,000 public telegraphs ; 219,000 telephones. Shortly before the war the average number of letters, cards, wires, and parcels, sent yearly by every Frenchman was : 60 ; the corresponding figures in other countries were : Germany : 122 ; U. S. A. : 108 ; IJ. K. : 102 ; Russia : 8 ; Austria : 42 ; Italy : 26. French cables run to England, Canada, U. S. A., Corsica, Alge- ria, and French West Africa. Wireless telegraphy connects France with several countries, including North Africa. . War has reduced our postal staff by 10,000 units. This reduced personnel has had to deal with such an enormously increased traffic that, in spite of the gratuity and abundance of military correspondence, the increase in receipts from postal and telegra- phic services, in 191 7, has been £ 4,000,000 (20 million dollars) over former years. Parcel-post (Colis postaux) (handed in at Railw. Station). inland up to 3 kilos delivered at station. . . 0,60 » 3 » home delivery 0,85 3 to 5 » station 0,80 3 » 5 » home delivery 1,05 5 » 10 » station 1,25 5 » JO » home 1,50 — 202 — PROVINCES New York U. K. U. K. and up to 3 lbs. (i kil. 360) . . 2, » 1,25 U. S. A. up to 3 kilos 3,25 1,50 up to 5 kilos 4,15 2, » PROVINCES. — It is generally supposed that the " Provinces " were all brutally suppressed by one stroke of the pen at the time of the Revolution ; this being given in most cases as a proof of the rashness of the measures taken at the time. It is quite true that the Revolution introduced drastic changes in the administration of the land (see: Political Org.): it did sup- press the " Gouvernements " , but it neither tried nor wished to destroy the indestructible, or at any rate very slow-dying distinc- tions in physical structure, temperament, dialect, manners, customs, costumes, that marked certain regions from others. Some " Gouvernements " coincided with " Provinces " , and the latter in some cases owed their characteristics to natural condi- tions : Brittany, Corsica, Dauphine, are instances in point. But, in most cases, the distinctions and the groupings were irrational and simply stood in the way of national unification, for no valid reason. For instance, what reasons, except quite obsolete ones, could be given for distinguishing officially Artois from Picardy ? Their soil, population and history are practically the same. On the other hand, Orleanais, Auvergne, Languedoc, etc., extended over regions differing largely in climate, productions, populations, dia- lects, manners, etc. The accidents of war and feudal succession had made them, and their apparent unity often was of recent date. As the nation had progressed generally and toward unity, the old Gaulish clans and tribes had coalesced into Duchies, Counties, etc., those had constituted, singly, or jointly, the various Pro- vinces ; those again, singly or jointly, had come to be adminis- tered by the kings as " Gouvernements ". But the progress of the national unity could not halt there. The Revolution simply carried on the work of the declining dynasty, and achieved fur- ther political unity, because the time had come for it. Neither the Revolution, nor the Republican governments were really bent on destroying what did not impede general progress. Many Bretons, to the present day, cannot speak French ; old measures, weights, names of coins, survive everywhere with the old dialects, local dish»s, local songs... A Frenchman will still say with pride, or at least affection, that he is a " Champenois", or a" Vendeen". The name of his Depart- ment interests him so far as the G. P. O., the tax-collector, or the elections are concerned ; but he calls his native Province, or, when a Parisian, the Province of his parents, his " petite patrie " (the little father-land). A large number of associations work in various ways for the revival or the maintenance of provincial traditions ; there is a movement on foot in favour of a new dis- — 303 — PROVINCES tribution of France that would more or less combine the Depart- ments and the Provinces of old (in so far as the latter really repre- sented natural areas), by creating " Economic Regions ". The following list gives the names of the old " Gouvernements" ; their capitals ; the mode and date of the first annexation of their principal portion (several of them had to be conquered again and again) ; and their positions on the map. (See also Index.) 32 MAIN « GODVERNEMENIS » Capitals Origins Dates & Kings. Situations Ile-de- France. . . Orl^anais Herri Paris. Orleans. Bourges. Arras. Amiens. Rouen. Tours. Le Mans. Angers. La Rochelle. Saintes. Toulouse. Troyes. Lille. Lyon. Grenoble. Limoges. Poitiers. Bordeaux. Perpignan. Aix. Dijon. Rennes. Moulins. Clerm.-Ferr. Gueret. Nevers. Pau. Foix. Strasbourg. Besangon. Nancy. Original. d" Purchased. Inherited. d" Confiscated. d° d" d" Conquered. d° d» Marriage. Conquered. Ceded. Purchased. Conquered. d° d" d° Inherited. d" Marriage. Confiscated. d° d» d» Inherited. do Conquered. d" Inherited. 987. Hugues Capet 987. d° 1060. Philippe I". 1180. Philippe II. 1180. d" 1204. d" 1204. d° 1204. d" 1204. d" 1224. Louis VIII. 1224. d" 1226. d" 1285. Philippe IV. 1304. d° 1313. d" 1349. Philippe VI. 1371. Charles V. 1371. d" 1453. Louis XL 1474. d" 1481. d" 1482. d" 1491. Charles VIII. 1527. Francois I" 1527. d° 1527. d" 1527. d» 1589. Henri IV. 1589. d" 1648. Louis XIV. 1678. d" 1766. Louis XV. N. C. C. N PiCARDIE Normandie Touraine Maine Anjou N. N. W. C. N. W. W. AUNIS w Saintonge Languedoc Champagne Flandres Lvonnais ....... Dauphine Limousin PoiTOU w. s. w. N. W. N. E. C. S. E. C. W. GUYENNE ROUSSILLON Provence bourgogne Bretagne bourbonnais .... AuVERGNE Marche s. w. s. w. S. E. E. W. C. c. c. Nivernais Bearn Gomte de Foix . . Alsace c. s. w. s. w. E. Franche-Comte. Lorraine E. E. 8 Minor « Gouvernements ». Paris. Metz & Verdun, conquered 1552. TouL d" Sedan ceded 1642. Saumur. Corsica purchased 1768. Boulogne. Le Havre. Jo these should be added : "Savoie" and" Comtede Nice", ceied in i86oby Piemont — 204 — "Otr ARTIER LATlM^^ Books recommended : — Ardomn-D\iTa,aet,Voyage en France (Berger-Levrault, 3 fr. 50 a vol.). — Berlet, Les Provinces au xm'^ sUcle, et leur division en departemenh (Bloud). — Cellerier, La Politique federaliste (Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 3 fr.) Also, the novels of Fabre (F.), Cevennes. — Cladel, Pouvillon, Cahors district. P. Arene, Provence. — Renard (J.), Nevers district. — Theuriet, Woodland, and provincial ways, especiaUy in the East. — Boylesve, Touraine — Bazin, Vendee, Alsace. — Le Braz, Le Goffic, Brittany. Peixotto (E.-C), Through the Fiench Provinces. ''• QU ARTIER LATIN. " — The name still given to a part of Paris which has been the home of French learning for 900 years. In the Middle Ages, all schoolmen spoke Latin, hence the name given to the district reserved to them at the time ; the use of Latin as a medium of conversation was all the more necessary in the University of Paris, as the proportion of our foreign students has always been high. The " Quartier Latin " in mediaeval times numbered from 15 to 20,000 students from all parts of France and Europe. Among them were Dante, Albertus Magnus, Roger Bacon, Duns Scot and Thomas Aquinas. The founders of our University were some learned clerics of Notre-Dame, who taught, as early as the xith century, whoever wished to hear them. They lectured either in the open air, or in some small room littered with straw, close by the church that preceded the present cathedral. Abailart was the most famous teacher of that early period. In 1200, the masters decided to leave the narrow island of the " Cite " and settle just outside the town, on the hill of Sainte- Genevifeve. Philippe-Auguste organized them into a regular guild, reserving to himself certain rights, and granting them certain privileges, among which was a power of jurisdiction over a large part of the left bank the Seine. There proper colleges for masters and students were built, the organization of the ear- liest of them, the Sorbonne (1250), being adopted by Oxford and Cambridge. Certain colleges were reserved to certain " nations " ; there was the " honourable nation of Gaul, " the " venerable nation of Normandy, " the " most loyal nation of Picardy, " the " most constant nation of the English, " etc. The students from Italy, Spain, Egypt, Syria, Persia, and Armenia, all belonged to the Nation of Bern (Bourges). There was a special " College des Escossois " ; a small street still bears its name. In the absence of a Parliament, the University soon became the most powerful association in the Realm, an institution that guided the Kings in many matters and many ways, especially in their contests against the High Clergy, and Rome. Later, that great power was abused by the clique of narrow pedants established at the Sorbonne, whom Rabelais fought savagely under cover of his wild novels. We have no colleges or hostels now (see : Instruction) ; also theology has been banished from the home of science. Our — 205 — RACES AND NATIONALITIES University buildings now consist of lecture-halls, examination rooms, and libraries. The most important is the Sorbonne, a new building standing on the site of the college founded under Saint Louis by a cleric born of very poor folk, in the village of Sorbon. Its chapel, built by Richelieu, (and containing his tomb) is now a parish-church. The Sorbonne is the home of the Faculty of Letters (3,107 students), and of the Faculty of Sciences (1,793 students). The Faculty of Medicine (4,435), the Faculty of Law (7,822), and the School of Pharmacy (672), are all in the neighbourhood, as well as the special High Schools (" Normale " , " Poly technique ", "Mines" , " Coloniale", etc.). The School of Arts is on the same bank of the Seine, but some distance away. The above figures are those of 1913. On a moderate estimation, Paris has 20,000 students, i /5 of whom are foreigners, i /3 of the latter being women. Books recommended. — A. Luchaire, VUniversUi de Paris sous Philippe- Augusie (Paris, 1899). — • Henri Murger, Seines de la vie de Boheme. — A. Musset, Frederic et Bernerette. H. Rashdall, Ths Universities oj Europe in the Middle Ages (Oxford, 1895, 3 vol.). RACES AND NATIONALITIES. — English actors and cartoonists have adopted a certain typical caricature of the Frenchman ; they represent him as a stoutish middle-sized man, with dark hair, heavy moustache and pointed beard, talkative and gay, easily excitable, and usually harmless. The caricature is quite legitimate, as this type of man does exist in France, and is not so common in other countries ; while the other French types are too similar to one or another of our foreign neighbours to be distinctive, as a caricature must be. Yet, if one were to ask what is the proportion of Frenchmen of that type, the only possible answer would be that the mental and moral elements of the picture are far more common among us than the physical. We have plenty of people who are not portly, because they are not forty ; plenty that are tall, fair, and muscular, because they are pure Norsemen, etc., and yet although certain differences in morale accompany the differences in physique, it is true that most Frenchmen are cheerful and voluble, and easily provoked, while free from malice. The moral and mental affini- ties of the various members of the French family could be further elaborated, but it is equally interesting to quote a passage of Strabo (ist century A. D.) which proves how the physique has changed, while the morale is very much what it was — due allow- ance being made for the differences between a primitive and a civilized society. " All the nations belonging to the Gallic race are madly fond of war, excitable and apt to come to blows, yet simple and devoid of malice ; upon the least provocation, they collect in numbers, and — 206 — RACES AND NATIONALITIES rush to the fray, but quite openly, and without any circ unispec- tion, so that device and miUtary art outdo them promptly. You have but to provoke them, when and where you please, and on the most futile occasion, you always find them ready to answer the call, and ignore danger, even if they should have no other arms but their strength and their courage. On the other hand, if you use persuasion, you can easily induce them to act wisely, as is proved by their present application to the study of letters and eloquence. Their strength is due partly to their physique, as the Gauls are all very tall men, but partly also to their great numbers. As to their aptness to gather in force to fight, it is due to their open generous nature, which causes them to resent an injury done to a neighbour as if they had suffered it themselves, and to side with the victim. At present however, those people being subjected to the Romans, have to obey their masters in all things, and live amongst themselves in perfect peace. " (Strabo, Book IV, Ch. IV.) There would seem to be, either in the soil and climate of the land, or in the spiritual prevalence of one race over all others, an influence which has preserved mental and moral unity in France in spite : I. of the lapse of years ; 2. of the admixture of other races. There is little doubt that the climate and soil (with all they imply, as for instance, food, wine, etc.) have had an enormous influence. Almost any man soon feels at home in France ; there- fore he " lets himself go, " and as a consequence is soon adapted. (The same phenomenon is notable in U. S. A. Compare, as an extreme opposite case, the strenuousness with which an English- man in India will fight the local influences, and remain strictly English. ) In the second place, the importance of invasions, ethnic- ally, must not be over-rated. The fundamental stock has remain- ed very much what it was. These general considerations will be partly borne out, partly supplemented, by the following brief notices on the several Races and Nationalities represented to-day within our frontiers. Iberians. — These men are short in stature, have a long, narrow skull, dark eyes, hair and skin. They used to extend over Europe, which they had entered probably from Africa ; they were gradually driven westward by various invaders, and now survive in Ireland, parts of W. England, S.-E. Wales, W. of Scotland, S.Brittany, W. andS.-W. France, and throughout Spain, which bore their name in Roman times. When Caesar conquered Gaul, he found them between the Pyrenees and the Garonne. The men of the plains, many of whom were not Iberians, sooned learned Latin, and are now the Gascons ; the men of the mountains were of purer stock, and preserved their language. They are called the Basques (Gascon, Basque, Viscaya, Biscay, Vasco de Gama, are all variants of the same word). — 207 — ^ACES AND NAtlONALltiEg The Gascons are known for their wits, and for hving by them. Henri IV was proud to be one. Bernadotte, who rose from private soldier to king, was a Gascon. The Gascon has a repu- tation for doing clever things and being very brave, and then spoiling it all by bragging about it. He spins enormous yarns (" gasconnades " ) , sometimes with a laugh; he does not wish to deceive you really, still less to extort anything from you ; he just " fancies " things for the sake of giving full play to his imagination and eloquence ; he is perfectly clear-sighted all the time ; what may surprise or shock the stolid Northerner, to him is merely harmless fun. He is an artist ; the true successor, and in some cases the lineal descendant of the cave-dwellers who drew those wonderful mammoths ; and he is an orator... Democracy is the hot-bed of oratory : the Northern Frenchman who merely " does things " and cannot talk, often finds himself at the mercy of Iberian politicians... (so he says, at any rate...). The Basques call themselves in their mysterious language " Euscaldunac " , the deft-handed men. They are indeed excel- lent sailors, fighters, and farmers, good business men, and wise politicians. Being probably the finest fishermen in the world, they were masters at whaling long ago, and the whale led them as far as America, which they discovered long before Columbus. Many of them to-day work South American farms in winter-time; and their own in summer. Their language they call " euskara " ; it is now no longer related to any other on earth, being probably the only survivor of the dialects spoken by the cave-dwellers. The Basques say that the devil once tried to learn euskara, and came to live among them for the purpose. After a few months he was able to say the word for " No " ; then he went on to learn how to say " Yes. " In an- other few months he had succeeded ; but he found then, to his dismay, that he had forgotten the word for " No... " and left ! The Basques are lively, and dance beautifully, to instruments of their own. They have a national game : the " pelote ". They are as clean and hardworking as they are religious. Voltaire flippantly defined them : " a little nation that dances at the top of the Pyrenees. " Both Gascons and Basques are temperant, frugal and wiry. Celts. — Sturdy men, with a round skull, and a coloration intermediate between the dark Iberian complexion and the white skin of the Scandinavians, madly brave, restless, careless, adapt- able and chivalrous, the Celts occupied, at the time of Csesar's conquest, the region between the Seine and the Garonne, and shared with Low-Germanic tribes the land from Seine to Rhine. Most Celts learned Latin very soon ; some of them became dis- tinguished poets in the new tongue ; others taught rhetoric in Rome ; they accepted Roman rule and most Roman customs only too readily and speedily. But Roman rule did not affect the — 208 — flAGES AND nationalities physiology or the temperament of the race ; the conquerors occu- pied Gaul as sparsely as the British occupy India : the Roman colonists were no more than 30,000 ; 3,000 men were enough to garrison the land ; the rest of the forces (100,000) were all on the N.-E. frontier. Roman influence was merely mental and political, at least outside the old Provincia (S.-E.). The strong love of the Gaul for personal independence, and equality, his rebellious envious tendency, therefore, could not but survive, however com- bated by the tradition of order and discipline handed down by the Romans. Hence the frequent conflicts between the French- man's instinct and his brain, his manners and his institutions, etc. A fresh Celtic stock was imported into Brittany from Britain in the vth century. Brittany and Auvergne, two parts of France which are poor, and out of the way of invasions, have remained very Celtic to this day ; the stock is purer in Auvergne , but the traditions have survived better in Brittany. Indeed the similarity between Brittany and the Scottish High- lands is curious. Bag-pipes, local differences in dress, devotion to the head of the clan, bhnd, entire sacrifice to a hopeless royal cause, a marked tendency to mysticism, are well-known traits of Breton life, history, and soul... to say nothing of a remarkable capacity for the absorption of strong fluids, and a genuine love of fighting ! Francis I had decreed that any Breton found drunk for the second time would lose both his ears at the hands of the execu- tioner ; the decree might have affected some ears, but certainly did not affect the drinking... Concerning the fighting qualities of the Breton there is no need to consult other records than those of this war. The Germans have surnamed the Breton regiments the " French Guard. " As to the Auvergnat, he has an extraordinary reputation for being hard as nails, looking after his pence, and getting on anywhere. There is a splendid typical portrait of an Auver- gnat in the novel of Balzac called " Le Cousin Pons " ; the man's name is Remonencq. He might have been born in Aberdeen. . . Nordic. — Tall, blond men, with a long skull, have always lived side by side with Celtic populations in what is now Flan- ders, Belgium and Holland. Gaul, before and during Roman occupation, included all three (see Map, page 84). The Barbarians having at last taken Rome in 476, the Germanic Visigoths could safely invade S. France from N. Italy, conquer Spain, and found an empire that comprised Provence, Languedoc, Guyenne, Spain, and had Toulouse for its capital. Meanwhile the Germanic Burgundians established at first in Savoy by the Roman general Aetius, extended their power N. and E. Another tribe, the Franks (probably Germanic), established by the Emperor Julian 100 years before, in Belgium, annexed what was left of Gaul. SAILLENS 209 14 JkACES AND NATIONALITIES All those conquerors however could not alter greatly the charact- eristics of the native races. The Visigoths, when they had crossed the Danube, did not number more than 80,000 ; the Bur- gundian colony was only 20,000. A horde is not a nation. The language was not changed ; the invaders soon became Chris- tians, etc. The main difference was that Imperial property chang- ed hands. Nordic also were the Normans. They began their raids in France, rowing up our rivers, about 804. Charlemagne was still alive, and the old fighter cried as he saw some of them pass in the distance. " I weep, " he said, " over the harm that these people will inflict on my Kingdom in days to come. " He died, and his Kingdom was divided ; the Norman raids became more frequent and bold. Paris was looted in 845, again in 856, besieged in vain for one year in 885. That last siege, and the ravages of the pirates far inland revealed the weakness of the declining Carolingians, and brought about the rise of the Cape- tians, one of whom, at last, resorted to an old stratagem, and turn- ed those anarchists into conservatives by making them landlords.; He gave them a portion of Neusiria (Non-East France), which thereafter was called " Normandie";th.e arch-pirate Rollo being, made Duke of the same (911). For a time the new-comers were busy learning French, their catechism, and Christian decencies, but as soon as those school- days were past, their rovers'blood rose again, and by iioo they had invaded N. Spain, established a kingdom in Sicily and S.Italy and another in England, and contributed in the taking of Jerusa- lem... The Nordic type is still in evidence in Normandy. The " Nor- mand " has a reputation in France for being extremely fond of going to law, and being as shrewd and guarded in his conver- sation as if he was a trained lawyer discussing a brief... Was that cautious legal mind born from a mutual tendency to cheating one's neighbours ? And might the latter be the modern attenuation of the piratical instinct ? Normandy ranks very high in the history of our literature ; Corneille was a Normand, like Flaubert, Maupassant, Mir- beau, and several other masters of straightforward manly style. Greeks. — In 600 B. C, 40 years before the fall of Babylon, the Greeks had settled in Provence, that replica of Greece. There they founded Marseilles {Massilia : the House of the Gaulish tribe of the Salyes), and planted about their new home the vine and the olive-tree. Gaul owed to their sailors and merchants the productions of the Mediterranean coast, the alphabet and pro- bably the use of coins. Massilia was purely Greek; Homer was taught in her schools, Artemis and Pallas were worshipped in her temples ; and Greek she remained, a world apart, during Roman occupation. Her influence over Gaul, especially before — 210 — RACES AND NATIONALITIES and after Roman times, can hardly be over-estimated. Indeed she invited Rome to come and occupy S. Gaul. Of Greek origin also are Nice (Niceia : Victory), Antibes (Anti- polis : the city opposite Nice), Agde (Agathe TycM : Good For- tune), Monaco, Aries, etc. The fishwomen of Marseilles and the girls of Aries, have been known for their Greek type of beauty until recent times. . Romans — They lived in numbers in the Gaulish cities of the South, and founded Aix ( Aquae Sextiae), in 122 B. C. Their roads, buildings, statues, are found everjrwhere; bull-fights still take place in their arenas of Nimes, and their theatres of Aries and Orange are still used... But their type was the same as the local one, and is not traceable. Huns. — When Attila was routed on the Marne in 451, some of his men remained in the country. They had entered it 18 years before ! — No trace would be left of them by now, if some districts of France had not been impossible to live in at the time : those were given up to the Huns, either as a free gift, or as " concen- tration camps, " and the people who live to-day in the yet marshy districts oithe"Bocage Vendeen" still havethe sallow complexion, high cheek-bones, and black lank hair of the Asiatic. Some of their customs savour more of pagan " joie de vivre " than of Christian restraint. Other groups of them seem to have lived in Champagne and Burgundy. One of our most eminent statesmen is a native of the " Bocage " ; his physionomy is plainly Asiatic ; it is at least a curious coincidence that he should have written a play, the hero of which is a Chinese sage, and that he should be an expert collector of Eastern curios. Arabs. — The " Saracens ",as they were called, raided France soon after their invasion of Spain in 711. The Gascons routed them at Toulouse in 721, but nothing daunted they marched up the Rhone valley and round the Central Range into the heart of France. A Frankish chief then routed them at Poitiers in 732. It took some time, however, before the South was rid of them, and a good many remained as Christians long after the defeat of their nation. Their long occupancy is still evidenced by proper names such as : " Jalaguier", •' Jallifier" (Jal: prince), "Castel- Sarrazin", " Montagnes des Mores", etc. ; and by the famous Tarbes horse, a cross of the Arab and the small Pyrenean breed (a fast hardy beast, invaluable to our light cavalry). Other Arabs came at other times, along the coast, from Spain, of from Africa across the sea. In 799 they had to be driven out or Corsica. It is certain that many more entered France at the time of the Crusades, as prisoners, servants, or artisans. Arab handi- work adorns many buildings in S. France. — 211 — RACES AND NATIONALITIES Jews. — The Jews in France belong to two great families : some came at various times from eastern Europe ; others in modern times from Spain and Portugal (which they had entered from N. Africa). The Jews in the Middle Ages, being neither French, nor Christ- ian nor European, were held in absolute subjection ; they were not allowed to own or to till any land, nor to carry on any industry, as they could not belong to any Guild. They had to adopt a profession which was forbidden to Christians : money-lending. Those various advantages and disadvantages caused many Jews to become Christians and some Christians to become Jews. The Church did not persecute the Jews, but the people had a wild hatred of them, and kings bled them periodically. Philippe- Auguste banished them and forfeited their goods in 1180; allowed them to return, for a price, in 1 198 ; they were all banished again in 1306 ; recalled ; banished in 1311 ; recalled ; burnt and massacred in 1321 ; expelled again in 1348 ; recalled ; expelled in 1357 ; recalled in 1359 ; spoliated and banished in 1394, all bonds signed by Christians being cancelled. From that date, our Jews lived abroad for a considerable time. As the law of the land became less liable to sudden changes, they gradually returned. But they were never regarded as proper citizens before the Revolution. In almost every provincial town, some narrow squalid street, still called " Rue des Juifs" , shows the emplacement of the old Ghetto. The suburb of Paris called " Villejuif " was one. English. — The English element is naturally not traceable in theN., but a number of tall, fair, quiet business men in Bordeaux claim descent from the English who held Guyenne until 1453. Under Louis XIV, a number of Jacobites served in the French army. Some belonged to the portion of the King's Guard called the " Gendarmes Anglais ", a company of English, Scottish, and Irish officers and men brought to France by George Hamilton, in 1667, and all of whom were Catholics. Others formed regiments of infantry, cavalry and dragoons. Scottish. — French history is interwoven with Scottish; simi- larities in temperaments, and the fact that for a long time we had the same interests, kept us in close touch at many points for long periods. Charles VII had a company of Scots Guards in 1450. Toward 1650, most of the men were French, and only one of the two lieu- tenants was a Scot. Even he came to be replaced by a French officer, who however was still called " le lieutenant ecossais ". In 1700, there was not one Highlander left in the Company ; yet, every man, on his name being called, would traditionally answer : " Hamir ! " (I am here). The names of Pierre Lescot (p. 239), Mac-Mahon, Macdonald (p. 249), de Lesseps, General Dodds (p. 250), and others, show that the Scottish stock has not suffered from transplantation. — 212 — RACES AND NATIONALITIES Irish. — After the dethronement and the flight of James Il.ovei 25,000 Irish troops followed him to France. They called them- selves the " Wild Geese ", and formed the famous Irish Brigade. Their numbers gradually diminished, and in 1789, our three " Irish Regiments " were mostly composed of Picards, Artesians, and Flemings. Spaniards. — The Pyrenees have proved an efficient bar against the mingling of Spanish and French blood in the South, the more so as the only two roads between France and Spain, situated at either end of the Pyrenean wall, between rocks and sea, are held by two nations which are neither French nor Spanish really, and are politically cut in two by the frontier : one is the Basque nation, the other the Catalan. Some Spaniards, however, did migrate to the South of France at various periods, some of them, at Toulouse for instance, making fortunes and leaving names still famous after 400 years. But Spanish blood is much more in evidence in the North, as the Spanish ruled and occupied Flanders for about 200 years, owing to the following circumstances : when Charles the Bold of ISurgundy died, in 1487, Flanders were part of his possessions ; his daughter Mary had married Maximilian the Austrian heir, and Flanders went to their son Philip ; as the latter eventually married the heiress to the Spanish throne, Austria, Spain, Burgundy, Provence, etc. and Flanders had for a long time the same rulers. The other French provinces were more speedily regained, but Flanders remained Spanish until Louis XIV reconquered them in 1668 (see Map on page 87). Spanish art has left its mark on many buildings in the North (e. g. a church at Fillers, and all those steeples which the peasants still call " clochers espagnols "). The strict faith of Flanders pro- bably owes a good deal to the Spanish Inquisition. Black hair and black eyes, and the sallow Spanish complexion, are common in many districts (about Lille for instance). Picardy and Arto s generally shared the fates of Flanders to some extent. Corbie was Spanish in 1636, Amiens in 1597... An even more curious trace of Spain is found in Normandy. The department of Calvados owes its name to a portion of the coast on which some ships of the Armada were wrecked, one of them, the " Salvador ", giving its name to the rocks that broke her. Spanish artisans, weavers in particular, settled centuries ago on the S. coast of Brittany, and on its desolate islands peopled only by fishermen. Italians. — Italian dialects are still spoken in Corsica and about Nice ; the former was annexed in 1768, the latter in i860. Italian merchants were invited to France by Charles V (ab. 1370) ; many of them settled among us, and gallicised their names : e. g. the Calcati, Macci, Guadagnabene, Pigazzi, Peruzzi, became Chay- — 313 — RAILWAYS chat, Maches, Gagnebien, Pigasse, Perruche, etc. Italians are numerous in Marseilles. Mirabeau, Gambetta, Gallieni, were of Italian descent. Bigoudens. — Anice ethnical problem is presented by a group of Bretons, the Bigoudens. Their yellowish complexion, high cheek- bones, short squat build, black hair, and love of gaudy colour, all point to an Asiatic origin. They have no history so far. Books recommended.-^ De Boisjolin, Les Peuples de la France (Perrin). — A. Longnon, Origines et formation de la nationalite franfaise (Nouvelle Librairie Nationale, 2 fr.). W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe (with bibliography, London, 1900). RAILWAYS. — French railways were first built by British engineers, on British plans (in 1836) : they still run on the left track, contrary to our national custom. Their total mileage is 40,000 kilometers, and their gross yearly takings 2,000 million francs. France has six great systems of railways ("reseaux de chemins de fer " ) : 1. Nord. — From Paris to Calais, or Boulogne (and England); Paris-Dunkirk ; Paris-Lille (and Belgium) ; Paris-Maubeuge (and N. Germany, and Rassia). (Paris-Berlin : 16 hours ; Paris-Petro- grad : 46 h.) 2. Etat. — (State-owned; all the other lines belong to private companies). — From Paris to Normandy, N. Brittany, and W. coast ; i. e. : Paris-Havre ; Paris-Cherbourg ; Paris-Brest ; Paris- Bordeaux ; Nantes-Bordeaux. 3. Est. ■ — From Paris, to Rheims, Mezieres (and Belgium and Luxemburg); to Nancy (and S. Germany and Austria, via Alsace); to Belfort (and Switzerland). (Paris-Munich: 14 h. ; Paris-Vienna : 22 h. ; Paris-Constantinople : 61 h. ; Paris-Basel : 7 h. ; Paris- Vienna : 34 h. ; Paris-Milan : 17 h.). 4. Orleans. — From Paris to Orleans ; then : a) Limoges ( Centre ) , and Toulouse ; b) Tours, Poitiers, Bordeaux ; c) Tours, Loire valley, and S. Brittany (" b " runs to Madrid, via Bordeaux, in 26 h. and to Lisbonne in 35 h.). 5. Midi. — Bordeaux to Bayonne (and W. Spain); Bordeaux to Agen, Toulouse, Narbonne, Cette, and Perpignan (and Barcelona). 6. Lyon (also: P. L. M. : Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee). — From Paris, to Dijon (and Switzerland), to Dijon, Macon, and N. Italy (Turin 19 h.) ; to Dijon, Macon, Lyon, Tarascon (and Nimes), Marseilles, Toulon, Nice (and Genoa) ; from Paris to Nevers, Cler- mont-Ferrand (Centre), Nimes, and Cette. We trust that the gentle reader, before indulging in the time- bonoured jokes about French railways, will be careful not tg — - 214 — RAILWAYS compare our " South Easterns " or " Eries", with his Bordeaux expresses ! The express Paris-Bordeaux-Spain travels at the average rate of 54 miles an hour. Again, from Paris to Marseilles (800 kil. : 500 miles) there is one day-express and one night- TOTAL U.S.A. MILEAGE : 242.885 miles Russia 37.500 tniles Germany 35.625 d: France 30.625 d.? U. Ki 23.125 d". IVIILEAGE £u AREA U. K. 18,8 «\iles to every 100 sq.tn. Grertnany 16.8 „ France 13,6 „ U.S.A. _» Rttssick *r / rr rr tf MILEAGE &, POPULATION U.S.A. 243 miles per lOO.OOO inhabitants France _7S „ Grex*tna.ny ^'■^ " "■ tf so ..' U.K. Russia f Comparative railway mileage of certain nations. - 215 — RAILWAYS express daily, doing the journey in 13 hours (over 40 miles au hour). Our trains seem long to Britishers : — but most trains run fairly long distances : the long distances account for the long trains ; they carry a maximum number of travellers with a mini- mum of labour. They seem light to Americans : they seldom derail, however, and our trains have not to be, as in America, houses on wheels : we cross France in 20 hours. — Most of our people travel very short distances, to the nearest market town, etc. ; this important point should never be lost sight of. French railways. Official figures for 1913. Double Track (miles) Single Track (miles) Total mileage Gross earnings in 1.000 (loll. Gross earnings in I.000.£ Or. earnings per mile in 1.000 (loll. fir. earnings per mile in 1.000 £ Nord.. 1.400 1 .000 2.412 64.894 12.978,8 26,8 5,36 Etat.... 2 . 000 1.820 3.545 5.810 62.287 1^.457,4 10,56 2,11 Est 600 3.005 57.984 11.596,8 17.2S 3.45 2,36 Orleans. 1.645 3 .220 5 .080 -60.564 12.112,8 11,84 10,8 Midi.... 730 1.680 2.800 29.391 5.878,2 2,16 P. L.M. 3.010 3.020 6 . 200 117.300 23.460,0 18,46 2.69 Various. 15.750 18.791 3-758,0 1,19 0,23 Tramways. 6.000 7-561 1.512,0 1.25 0,25 Totals . . 107605 13.065 47.057 Total ycaiij ( 425 million Iravellers. tralfic : ( 165 million Ions. The rate, 3rd class, before the war, was 0.05 per kil. (4 /5 ol British rate). The ist class rate was double. The rate Paris- Marseilles, in ist class, was therefore 80 fr. : 800 x 0,10. The tariff has been raised by 25 % since the war. The Nord Company, on Sept. 4, 1914, had lost 90% of its line, owing to enemy occupation. It now exploits 60 %. The enemy captured only 3 % of the engines. By January 1915, 24 % of the Nord's personnel were prisoners or missing. Book recommended. — Statistique des chemins de ler franfais, issued by thp Ministere des Travaux publics (Beranger). Collier (R.), French Railways (Smith Elder C, 1911),. RECREATIONS RECREATIONS. — Speak to an Englishman, or an America.n, about his business : his eyes will glisten with pleasure ; ask him why So and So is so keen on making money: hewillsay: "It's great fun ! " — And now, open with him some discussion about the latest match of golf or base-ball, and his voice will become solemn, his face will assume a stern expression, as if momentous issues were at stake. A Frenchman said, 500 years ago : " The English take their pleasure sadly... " No, but they do take it earnestly. We do not; our playing is playful ; we give it little thought and little time. Does the modern economic system press more heavily on our souls and hearts, or even on our bodies, than the " iniquit- ies " and " prejudices " of the Dark Ages ? Our peasants used to play far more than they do, at a time when they were poorer. It is perhaps precisely because they have a better chance in life to-day, that they do not waste much time on exertion that does not pay... The problem affects a whole nation and period, it is therefore many-sided, and admits of several answers.,. One point at least should be borne in mind : because none of our games is a national institution, it does not follow that we never play. We do amuse ourselves in many ways, one of our recreations being ari, and most of our games being games of skill or moderate calculation, rather than feats of sheer strength, or pure gambling. Our game of • • pauine" wa.sto us what foot-ball is to the English ; we were so madly fond of it that an Order in Council had to forbid it for a time (1400); one of our Kings died, in 1316, from a chill caught after a violent game of " paume " ; Henry of Na^^arre played "paume "on the top of Montmartre, while besieging Paris. Later, the game came to be so scientific that it was played in special buildings where people could sit and watch it as they now do billiards ; the side-walls only reached half-way up. The " Etats Generaux " of 1789 met in one of those halls. The game has practically died out to-dav, though it is often played in thCTm- /enes" (Paris). The ball' used is about three times as large as a foot-ball ; it is sent with the open hand (hence the name " palm ") and the rules are nearly those of tenns. It requires great skill, vigour, and agility. The "mail" is another outdoor game which we have ceased to play ; the green alleys along which the bowls were sent rolling to a little hoop, went by the same name. "Tennis" we play a good deal; we imported it from England, where it was imported from France, as is proved by its name, which is the old "Tenez" of former French tennis (" Hold! Catch ! "), an equivalent of the present " Ready ? ". We play croquet but in an informal way; we 'would never think of weighing the bowls or measuring the mallets. Of bowls and quoits we are very fond; players of this game can be ^ seen almost every day (in peace-time) in the " Bois de Boulogne " and the " Luxembourg " gardens, as well as in every village. — 217 — RECREATIONS Archery is much practised in the North, the target generally being a live pigeon tied at the top of a mast. Here it should be mentioned that the North is especially fond of homing-pigeons, fighting-cocks, and singing matches between chaffinches that have been blinded so as to make better singers of them. The law is against cruelty to animals, and forbids cock-fighting and the blinding of birds, but these are quietly tolerated in the North, just as bull-fights are in the South. A form of bull-baiting which is cruel only in some cases, and only to the men who practise it, is in great favour in the South ; when the marketing is over, the young men place waggons and carriages in a circle, and lead a bull into the ring ; the animal has a bunch of flowers fixed between its horns, the game consists in plucking those flowers, and brings into play much agility. The best players of this game are the nimble Iberians who live between the Pyrenees and the Bay of Biscay, The meetings are called " courses landaises " (See Index : Landes.) Parisians are extremely fond of horse-races ,whichwere introduc- ed from England, and have remained English in almost every res- pect ; most of the jockeys, grooms, and trainers are British. On one point only are they strictly French : the books are made by special officials, under Government control ; the book-maker is therefore the State, whose profit is a heavy tax levied on all bets, for the benefit of the official charitable institutions (" Pari mutuel "). Boxing we practise a little (Carpentier has shown what we can do in that line when we try) ; it is sufficiently known that our branch of the art includes the use of the feet. Wrestling is far more popular, and most of our men understand it. • Fencing and riding a,ve very much practised, owing to our milit- ary training. We have rowing and swimming-clnhs in all our great cities, and many of our townspeople can skate ; but none of those sports is so popular as either shooting, or billiards, our two great democratic recreations. Chess can boast of several French champions (Philidorwasone); Napoleon used to play chess at the "Cafede laRegence " — still a chess-cafe to-day — , and was often beaten because he always attacked eagerly. He found chess " too frivolous as an occupa- tion, and too exacting as a game. " Of course, we play draughts, dominoes, dice, and backgammon. Cards were introduced into France about 1350. Our upper classes borrow their card games from England, while our common people have games of their own. We play bridge in the salons, and " manille " in the little cafes. A revival of outdoor games has been noticeable for the last twenty years, and most of our " lycees " now have foot-ball clubs ; yet our boys as a rule have not much time for play ; they are quite satisfied, or have to be, with brief spells at their marbles or spinning tops, or short violent games of leap-frog, saddle-my- nag, or prisoner's base. — 218 — RED-LETTER DAYS As to the lassies, besides their dolls and skipping-ropes, they have their charming " rondes " : they walk or run in a circle holding each other's hands, and singing little songs of a dramatic or lyrical character, generally laden with old associations. One of them describes the siege of a grim impregnable tower by a growing host of gallant knights; another is all about a rose-tree and a rose ; another about the merry bridge at Avignon, where people " like this ", and " like that ", pass in succession. Those roundelays are part of our folk-lore, and have been carefully col- lected. We have borrowed from English the word "s^o;'i(", and have even coined a new adjective out of it : "sportif" ; it is interesting to notice that "sport" comes from the Old French "desport", an equivalent of diversion, recreation. Books recommended.^ I.«s sports modemes illustres (Laioasse 2 fr.) — A series of 9 volumes (Larousse, 2 fr. each) including : Boxe anglaise et franfaise, et lutte ; L'Escrime ; Jeux et concours de plein air a la campagne. — Also a series of pamphlets publ. by Nilsson, 40 centimes each. Leatham, Sport in five Continents (Blackwood & Sons, 1912). RED-LETTER DAYS. — On New Year's Day {"Jour de I' An"). we exchange compliments and presents, call on our employers and senior relatives, give " etrennes" to the postman, "concierge " , street-sweeper, and many others, and have a good dinner if we can. Millions of visiting cards travel all about the country at that time of the year ; many of them, with just the name and address, keep up year by year a faint but grateful connection between people who have no occasion to meet or correspond. On the 6th of January, in honour of the Three Wise Kings of the East {" Les Rois"), bakers offer to their customers a special cake (" galette"), in which a large bean or a diminutive china doll is concealed. Several friends are invited to partake of the cake, and of a dinner with it, and the one who finds the bean or doll in his or her piece of cake is King or Queen for the day ; he or she must elect a consort at once ; when either of them lifts his glass, every one round the table must pledge them. The King must offer the company a similar cake at an early opportunity. — Carnival begins on that day. It ends in February, when it is fallowed by a fast of forty days : "Car erne " ; all that time we are not supposed to eat any meat. So we enjoy life as much as we can before launching on that distressing period: on Shrove-Tuesday, the last day of Carnival, we always have pancakes ; sometimes we put on disguises and masks, throw confetti about, and watch the procession of the Fai^ec? Oat ("Boeuf gras"), which was orga- nized in mediaeval times by the Butchers' Guild. Next morning, on A,sh-Wednesday, a great many people go to church, and come out with small patches of ashes on their foreheads, in token of penitence. — 819 — RED-LETTER DAYS Mid-Lent (" Mi-Careme"), comes twenty days later, when the rejoicings of Shrove-Tuesday are repeated. Then comes Palm-Sunday ("le dimanche des Rameaux") ; people buy some twigs of box-tree, have them blessed by the priest with holy water, and fix them above their mantel-piece in place of those of the year before. The churches are full again on Good Friday (" Vendredi-Saini" ) , and the fasting is supposed to be very strict on that day as well as on " Jeudi- Saint and " Samedi-Saint" . At last comes Easter ("Pdques") ; the people wear new light dresses and straw-hats, in a blizzard as often as not, and offer eggs to one another. On the First of April, it is still fairly common to send puzzling messages to one's friends, or to offer them fishes of sugar or chocolate. Children get a fortnight's holiday at Easter, and another day off on Whitmonday. Fishing is permitted again about June 15th. On July J.^, there is a military review in the morning, all the natio- nal and municipal theatres have free performances in the after- noon, and in the evening there are fire-works, illuminations, and dances on the streets. The children receive their prizes on that day. Some time in September, comes the " ouverture de la chasse " : the shooting season begins. On the First of Novem ber, which is All-Hallows Day ( ' ' Toussaint' ' ) the people go to church and pray for their dead. The next day, they all bring flowers to the graves of those they loved. This is the day of the " Trepasses " , according to the Church (the day of the Souls in Purgatory), but we call it simply " le jour des morts ", it is to us the most solemn in the whole year. In December comes Christmas, of course, (we go to the Mass, and call the day "Noel" : the birthday, Natalem), but we do not make so much of it as our English neighbours. The children expect a present from "le Pere Noel'', when they are not old enough to attend the Midnight Mass ; this takes place on Christmas Eve, and is followed by a special dinner called "reveillon" (awakener). Birthdays and Fetes. — If a lady is called Anne, and was born on the 1st of May, it is modern and quite proper to send her one's good wishes on May i, but equally proper to celebrate the anni- versary of her patronymic saint, whose " fete " falls in July. The latter is the true Catholic custom, the meaning of which is this : Mrs. Anne came into this world on May i , but did not enter Christ- ian society, was not born into Christian society before she was christened. As she was, or is supposed to have been christened on St. Anne's day, it is proper and sufficient that she and her friends should celebrate that day exclusively. That is why, on most flower-stalls in Paris, a slate displays in chalk the name of the Saint for the day. The slate reminds the passer-by that he should offer some flowers to any Mrs. or Miss Anne with whom he is suf- ficiently intimate. — ?ZO — I^ELIGION The custom implies that French parents have hardly more thari 300 names to choose from. As to our Sunday, it is a day of freedom to such an extent that a man is free to work on that day of he hkes. Employers must give their employees one day's rest out of seven, but this rest may betaken in rotation, so that everyone may have his "repos hebdomadaire" and yet the place be continuously open. Such is the law ; as a matter of fact, all important businesses are closed on Sunday. — The " English week; i. e. one including an extra half-holiday, had made its appearance shortly before the war, in a few businesses, and in Paris mostly. RELIGION. — The vast majority of the French are, nominally at least, Roman Catholics. Towns are different, but villages con- form to this rule : one village, one church, and only one. Every "paroisse" is in charge of a "cure" who may be assisted by a "vicaire". The metropolis of Catholic France is Lyons, the old capital of Gaul, and the first city in France where Christianity was preached. — France has 7 cardinals. As to archbishoprics and bishoprics, see : Cathedrals. The Protestants are 600,000, Calvinists as a rule. Jean Calvin was not a Swiss ; he spent most of his life at Geneva, where he founded a theocratic commonwealth ; but he was born in Noyon (Picardy). See : Literature, and Oise. We have only 70,000 Jews, all town-dwellers, and generally holding eminent places in finance, trade, journalism, and the professions (See : page 212). In IQ05, the State ceased to support any form of worship. All Churches and religious brotherhoods were at the same time . bidden to regard themselves as " associations ", so far as the State was concerned, and comply with the common law regulating asso- ciations of all sorts : they must state their objects, rules and bye- laws, assets, revenues, membership, etc. The brotherhoods that refused to comply were declared illegal, and broken up. As a result of those measures, a good many convents were closed ; but all churches are open as before, and many brotherhoods and sist- erhoods still carry on their usual life. At the time of that separation we had 36,169 Roman Catholic priests. ■ — • We have now about 25,000 priests in our army, 300 of whom are chaplains. 340 Protestant ministers ("pas- teurs" ) are in the ranks, and 68 are chaplains. The salary of a French archbishop before 1905 was £ 600 ($ 3,000) ; that of a bishop was £ 400 ($ 2,000). Village priests received about £ 32 ($ 160). Much has been said about that severance of our Churches from our State, and its consequences, it being often suggested and some- Religion times believed, that France had become ahti-rehgious, or that the measures had been prompted by anti-rehgious feehng. It is quite true that we have among us a distinctly " anti-reli- gious " party (it being remembered however, that for most French- men the word religion is synonymous with the name. of the only religion they know or care about : Roman Catholicism). But that party is not very large, and could have little influence, if the bulk of the nation was not resolutely " anti-clerical " . To us, the difference is quite clear in principle, though obscured or ignor- ed at times in petty politics, or from sheer necessity. Suffice it to say that the Protestant and the Jewish communities accepted the measures without a demur ; while many earnest Catholics tacitly approve of them, as giving to their clergy a less dependent, if less secure, position. That separation of Church and State, per se, does not mean infidelity, must be very clear to Americans (}eiierson's Religious Freedom Act, 1785). As to anti-clericalism, it should not shock Britishers, who disestablished the Roman Church at the time when they called it " Romish " ; the cry " No Popery ! " was in those days a sort of national motto ; it never meant " No Reli- gion ! "... France gives more men to foreign missions than any other country. Our religious psychology is complex, because our religious hist- ory is inextricably involved with our political history, and results from a conflict of tendencies : we have had to be Catholics, but always refused to be priest-ridden. A French Canadian statesman, on being asked what was the attitude of his countrymen toward the Roman Church, replied : " We do not even discuss her : she made us. When the French noblemen and officials all left Canada, nobody stayed behind with the poor peasants but the priest. He spoke French to them in church and school, guided them in daily life ; but for the Church, we should have lost our language, our mode of living, our racial unity and characteristics. " Of one of the villages between Albert and Bapaume, absolutely nothing remains to-day but one pillar of the church... In the same way, when Rome had disap- peared, the Church maintained in France that tradition of unity through centralization and absolute power, which to us meant national preservation. As soon as the Barbarians had spent themselves, she chose, guided, and seconded our first Kings." France was put into shape by absolute Kings, receiving their authority from God through the Church, and by a Church that could rely on the Kings' power in the enforcing of her moral and social discipline. The Kings burnt Jews and heretics for the reason; which made them hang their nobles ; later, they worried or banished the Protestants just as they fought the various " Leagues " of the aristocracy. Religion had little to do with it : their aim was to make France one, soul and body. Henri II, who started the- ftELlGiON persecutions against Protestants in France, supported with all his power the German Lutherans leagued against their Emperor. Richelieu was a Cardinal, ruthless in fighting the Huguenots so far as they were a State within the State ; yet he allied with Gustavus Adolphus, the champion of Protestant Europe, against the Catho- lic powers hostile to France. It was not a question of principle, as to what should or might have been, but a question of facts, the urgent necessities of our actual history and situation. Our country might have evolved toward a federative organization (Protestantism is federative), but it had not ; when Calvin appeared, what unity we had achieved depended on absolute central government, a political system naturally allied with Roman faith. Therefore our Kings, and most of their subjects, even when tolerant or indifferent at heart, could but discountenance any forms of worship involving a critical first stage of dissociation. Louis XIV was unnecessarily harsh, to the point of being cruel ; at the same time, when it is remem- bered that 30 years after obtaining a charter, the Huguenots still assisted the King's enemies, Louis' bitterness and distrust can be partly understood. Religious unity and absolute monarchy did lend each other mutual support, and did make France one solid mass. The Revolution of 1789 logically rejected both ; all Europe in arms was at our gates at once. Napoleon saved the situation by military genius first, but still more by coming back to absolute central government, and very soon had to appeal to the most powerful centralizing force in the world, by his " Concordat " with the Pope. Yet, in that very Concordat, the second tendency of our polit- ical tradition came into play. Neither Napoleon, nor any of his predecessors, could afford to do without the assistance of the Church ; but none of them either could afford to give her unlimited freedom. All our great rulers, in spite of their being "Most Christ- ian Majesties, " were " anticlericals " as well. Precisely because their great power made the Church so strong, they had to check her political influence. They were willing to maintain and use her organization, unwilling to tolerate her ambitions. In 1301, Pope Boniface issued a Bull to the effect that the autho- rity of Popes, coming from God, must be higher than that of kings. The French King, grandson of Saint Louis though he was, answered this by confiscating the property of the French bishops, sending an expedition against the Pope, having a French archbishop elect- ed Pope, and making Avignon the capital of Christendom, which it remained until 1378. This interesting attempt at founding a national Cathohcism did not succeed. One cannot destroy unity and have it. But it shows how a Most Christian monarch must and could teach the Church her lesson. In 1 51 6 Francis I obtained from the Pope, by a Concordat, the right for French Kings to have a voice in the nomination and administration of the French clergy. — 223 — RELIGION Louis XIV himself, and his great bishop Bossuet, both of them stern defenders of the Faith against all heretics, defended at the same time the privileges of the Church in Gaul from the encroach- ments of the Holy See. Perhaps we ought to have done like our British friends, who (after a good deal of persecution and bloodshed) managed to get rid of the interference of a foreign clergy in their national policies by instituting, or reviving, a national, non-Roman, Catholic Church. But Italian Queens and Ministers, English fleets, Aus- trian armies, always played too powerful a part in the discussion of our religious affairs. Always at war with one half of Europe, we never could indulge in serious religious reconstruction. Had we been left a little more to ourselves, there is no doubt that we should have evolved early some form of worship intermediate between our present Roman faith and Calvinism. The latter indeed would not have been called for. That our real latent national creed is not Roman, and was silenced by external in- fluences, could easily be proved. The heresies of the Albigenses and Valdenses had long preceded Calvinism ; they were born in France. Joan of Arc was a French Christian, who went by her Gospel ; she was condemned by laws importedfrom Rome. Gothic art was never appreciated beyond the Alps ; it savours too much of Gallicanism. Jansenism prospered on our soil ; it was stamped out by the disciples of the Spaniard Loyola, and by Rome Indeed, though the absolute dogmas of the Church had to be accepted as being part of a system indispensable to our political unity, their absoluteness never appealed to the national tempera- ment. A cautious common-sense, a vein of irony and healthy scepticism, have always mitigated our most " logical " systems, and our wildest enthusiasms, religious or otherwise. From the men who placed humorous or indecent statues in our cathedrals, to Rabelais, Montaigne, La Fontaine, Voltaire, Renan, a tradition of honest doubt has always taught us moderation. — Priest-rule is possible only when Nature and Reason (two Goddesses of ours), abdicate. Both always had their secret shrines in our nation. All extremes, in France, are of short duration, or on the surface. Very few Frenchmen really believe in eternal punishment (God, they say, cannot be so cruel as all that ; even if I were a criminal, which I am not...) ; and they listen to the priest (religion has never hurt any one...), but do not take him quite seriously (he is but a man after all...). To sum up : I. France is deeply religious in the general sense of the term ; her religion being a semi-conscious agnosticism, a tacit acknow- ledgment (and daily observance in more ways than one would think), of the great Gospel truths ; and a general earnest respect for " ideals " as opposed to " interests. " — 224 — " REVANCHE ^' 2. When those behefs take shape in confessional ceremonies or phrases, she is Catholic perforce, Roman Catholicism being the only form of worship associated with her life. 3. But she is neither Roman at heart, nor willing to be priest- ridden ; and while respecting the man who prays, cannot bear that religion should be used to temporal ends. Napoleon on his religious policy. — ■ In positive religions, I trace the workings of man at every step... yet... our religion is part of our fate. — When, at the time of the Concordat, some old re- volutionaries came and asked me to make France Protestant, I was shocked, as though they had suggested that I should cease to be a Frenchman, to become EngUsh or German. — In a well-governed country, there must be a dominant religion, and submissive priests.— The Church must be within the State, and not the State within the Church. — Perhaps I should have imitated Henry VIII, by making myself sole pontiff and head of the reli- gions of my Empire ; sooner or later, all monarchs will come to this. — Princes who have confessors are in contradiction with kiijgship. Books recommended.— habeTthonniere, !e CathoHcisme ef la SociStS (Collection Doctrines politiques, with bibliogr.) (Giard et Briere, 3 fr. 50). — Henri Bremont, Histoire du sentiment religieux en France (en cours de publication, Bloud). — Leca- nuet, on Montalembert (Poussielgue), and the Church in France under the 3rd Republic. — Piolet, Missions catholiques franQaises (Colin, 5 vol.). ^ A. Leroy- Beaulieu, les Catholiques liberaux (Paris, 1885). — See Blond's catalogue. Also Revue des Jeunes. — On Protestantism : Works of Bonet-Maury, Pasteur Wagner Raoul AUier (Fischbacher's catalogue). ' Duke (J. -A.), The Religions of our Allies. — Loisy, The War and Religion (Blackwell, 1915). — Sabatier (P.), France to-day. Us religious orientation (J.-M , Dent & Sons, 1913). — R. Saillens, The Soul of France (Morgan and .Scott). "REVANCHE." — This now famous word does mo^ mean " revenge " ("vengeance"), and implies no idea of hatred, cruelty, or even punishment. It is used every day by any man who has lost a game at cards or biUiards, and v/ishes to try his luck, or his skill, once more. "Jedemande ma revanche!" means no more than : "I'll play you another ! " If the loser of the first game wins the second one, his opponent will say : " Let's play la belle, " the third game that must decide. "La revanche" is a sportsman's expression ; we always believed that the Germans won too easily in 1870. Our unfortunate polit- ical situation told too heavily against us. Books recommended.— The works of Deroulede, especially his Chants dusoldat. — 225 ROADS ROADS. — Our masters in road-making were probably the Romans, whose routes we still follow in many cases. Our first Roman roads were built by Agrippa, under Augustus ; they radiated from Lyons, the capital, founded by Augustus, to Marseilles, the Rhine, Boulogne, Brest, and Bordeaux. A sixth road linked Marseilles with Bordeaux, via Narbonne and Toulouse. As a rule the traveller can assume that any perfectly straight road is of Roman origin. Roads of local gradual deve- lopment try to avoid hills ; but the Roman roads were essentially military. They were not intended primarily for the heavy cha- riots of the merchants ; their directness made them cheap to build, safe and short for men on the march, and their variations in level could only afford relief to the troops. (See Map, page 84.) After a period of barbary, an intelligent Prankish Queen of Visigoth birth, Brunehaut (Brunnhild), repaired a number of Roman roads and nionuments ; those are called to this day " Chaussees " (causeways), "Routes" , " Towrs "(towers), de "Bru- nehaut" (She died in 613.) There is a " Chaussee de Bnmehaut " near Souchez. Most of the main roads, like the railways, run from Paris to the frontiers. The " Avenue d'ltalie ", in Paris, is the beginning of the "Route N° 5", to Italy via Lyons. The former " rue d'Alle- magne ", now " Avenue Jean-Jaures ", from the point where it leaves Paris, becomes the " Route d'Allemagne. " All those roads from Paris are measured from Notre-Dame, distances between villages or towns being measured from church to church. Our absolute monarchy required, and permitted of, the creation and use of direct State-roads, in the Roman style. The " pave du Roy " (roads paved with cubes of granite or sandstone), was the King's property, used by his troops and his mails. His power allowed him to open roads across the land of any of his subjects. The winding roads of England reveal a totally different political life. French roads are of 5 sorts : 1. "Routes Nationales " (24,000 miles), link up Paris with the great centres, or the latter to each other. Kept in repairs by State-servants, at the expense of the nation. 2. "Routes Departementales" {18,275 miles), link "chefs-lieux"' Funds and staffs are provided by the Departments. 3. "Ckemins Vicinaux de Grande Communication" are fairly im- portant roads within the limits of Departments. Supported by the respective Departments. 4. "Chemins Vicinaux Ordinaires." Less important as a rule Depend on the communes. 5. "Chemins Ruraux." Country roads, opened and maintained by villages. — 226 -^ " SABOTS " Total length of road system : Routes nationales (macadam). 36.400 kilom. Routes nationales (paved) . . 2.000 — Routes departementales. . . . 30.000 — Chemins vicinaux of both cate- gories 600.000 — (Germany : 425.000 kilom.) 668.400 kilom. (417,750 miles) All roads and bridges are free of toll. State-roads are maintained by the " Service des Fonts et Chans- sees " , on the staff of which are special engineers trained in a special school (" Ecole des Pants et Chaussees "). For purposes of super vision and repairs the roads are divided into "cantons" , maintained by " cantonniers ". The "routes nationales" vary in width from 21 to 30 feet, not includ- ing ditches ; as a rule their width is 8 metres for the causeway, and 1.50 m. for each of the ditches, a total of 12 yards. A large sign of stone or cast-iron every kilom. shows, on the side facing the road, the num- ber of that road, and the number of kil. from its starting point ; on the sides, the names of, and distances to, the nearest localities. Small stones numbered i to 4, and 6 to 9, and one medium-sized stone giving "kil. 5", mark the deci- mal divisions of every kilometre. BRIVES BOS'? 7l 8 Kilometre and 100 metre POSTS. Books recommended. — Demoiins, Durand-Claye, Cours de routes (Beranger). Route crcatrice dn type social. — " SABOTS. " — Wooden-shoes, if unsuitable for walking long distances, are dry, warm, and cheap. They are much worn all over France, especially in Brittany and Auvergne. They are the normal foot-gear in all districts where mud and wood are equally plentiful. The Gauls used to wear them before they foolishly adopted the Roman sandals, unsuited to their climate. They are still regarded as indispensable in many trades, and French soldiers, especially cavalry-men in winter-time, greatly appreciate the " sabots " issued to them. It is not unusual for young boys of the best families, even in Paris, to go to school in" sabots" , and list-shoes. — 227 Science and invention " Sabots " vary with the seasons and the provinces, with classes and tastes, sex and age. Some are rough-hewn blocks of beech wood, coarsely hollowed out ; the cowherd who slips his bare feet into them lines them with straw or hay. Others are true works of art, combining thin soles and high heels with embroidered leather uppers, gay colours, and tiny brass-nails. The soldiers of the Revolution, the boys ofValmy, had to march away before they could be equipped, were mostly peasants, and wore " sabots ". They surely walked barefooted, on the good clean roads, as peasants always did at the time, keeping their clogs for the hard stones of the towns, or the dirty farm-yards of their billets. A French child does not put his stocking in the chimney, but his boot or his " sabot ". " Saint Nicolas " need not be so prodigal as Father Christmas. Intermediate between " sabots " and boots are the " galoches " i. e. leather boots with wooden soles. " Galoches" and " sabots " are generally hob-nailed ; as wood loses its grip on the nails in hot weather, the latter slip out, with disastrous consequences to passing cyclists, who would never expect nails to " litter " the ground, miles away from any town, forge, or factory. Wooden-shoes are representative of poverty and democracy ; hence the peculiar flavour of two folk-songs in which " sabots and royalty are associated ; the one about " Good Queen Anne " of Brittany, " la Reine en sabots " ; the other of a shepherd-girl who hopes to marry a Prince and become a Queen : " Avec mes sabots, dondaine, avec mes sabots. The Englishman says : " I came to London with a shilling in my pocket. " We say : " I came to Paris in my clogs. " " Sabots " being always somewhat clumsy, " sabote " has always been said of any " slip-shod "work. " Ce n'est pas fait, c'est sabote" = " This is not done, this is hacked through." Hence the well-known term of "sabotage" given to that form of strike in which workmen purposely turn out bad slow work, spoil their tools, etc. SCIENCE AND INVENTION.— It is quite true that we have not " sought out as many inventions " as our British or American friends. The reason for it is not far to seek : we have less need of inventions than America, with her shortage of labour, or England who turned from agriculture to industry as early as the xviiith century. Our people still manage to do much of their work, which is mainly agricultural, in the wrong old way. Nevertheless, we have had a host of inventors, and scientists of the first order. But it has often happened that our scientists or inventors knew or divined too much for the France of their life -time. Their ideas or engines were ignored by a non-industrial nation, just as the splendid work of our colonial pioneers remained — 228 — SCIENCE AND INVENTION unknown to the masses. In many cases, French inventions were only able to develop in the more favourable surroundings of England or America. Again, a distinction should be made between science and invention. Inventions are essentially of a practical nature, and must pay ; they are found by men with a practical turn of mind, and for the use of everybody. Scientific research is of the abstract order, is unproductive by itself, and appeals, or is possible, only to a chosen few. The life of our masses was unfavourable to inventors, whilst our mental training always gave us eminent rank in scientific research. Here follow two lists : the one, of French pioneers of science ; the other, of French inventors. Neither claims to be complete; the latter has been prepared with some difficulty, as no similar list seems to be extant or available : a fact that betokens all too clearly our indifference, as a nation, to our own inventors. Pioneers of Science. — Archaeology. — Assyria : Botta (1843). Cuneiform characters first deciphered : Oppert (1859) ; Chaldea : de Sarzec (1877) ; Persia : Dieulafoy (1882) ; Pheni- cia : Renan (i860) ; Greece : under Louis XIV ; Egypt : Cham- POLLION, De Rouge, Mariette ; Egyptian hieroglyphs deciphered by Champollion ; Roman Africa : since 1840. Biology. — The word was first used by Lamarck, in 1801 ; the same first clearly saw, and formulated evolution : « Nature, as she successively brought forth the various species of animals, gradually complicated their organization ; further, every species has received from the influences of its circumstances the parti- cular habits which it now follows, and the modifications of its parts whichit displays to our observation. » (1809). — A. Serres (1839) showed that the embryo repeats the evolution of the spe- cies. F. DujARDiN (1801-1862) first stated that animals and plants are all made of one substance, which he called sarcode (we now say protoplasm). Milne-Edwards (1858) first showed that all life tends to variation, variation answering to division of labour. American science (Cope, Packard) has revived of late the " design- theory " of Lamarck, in opposition to the "luck-theory" of Darwin (see also in England S. Butler) ; Le Dantec is thepresent leader of neo-Lamarckism in France ; he claims that higher forms of conscience are composite, every atom being conscious. Jordan (born 1834), had observed that variation could be sudden, a fact denied by Darwin, but lately established by De Vries. Naudin (1817-1899) was the original discoverer of the laws of heredity known as Mendelism. Botany. — Tournefort (i 656-1 708) proposed a practical clas- sification of plants, which was perfected by Linnaeus. B. de Jussieu and his nephew gave the first natural classification. A better one still has been given by Van Tieghem (1839-1914), — 229 — SCIENCE AND INVENTION who made important discoveries in palseobotany and plant-physio- logy. Paleeobotany was founded by Ad. Brongniart, in 1822. Celtic studies. — Began in Brittany, in 1499 : Breton-French- Latin Dictionary published at Treguier. D'Arbois de Jubain- viLLE (1827-1910). Chemistry. — Modern {i. e. quantitative) chemistry was found- ed by Lavoisier (xviiith century). The vocabulary of the new science, now universally adopted, was created by Guyton de Morveau, Fourcroy, and Berthollet. Chemical functions, and substitution, were discoveries of Dumas. Stereochemistry was founded by Le Bel. Synthesis in organic chemistry made immense progress owing to the genius of Berthelot. To Sabatier (Nobel Prize) is due hydrogenation by catalysis. Sainte- Claire Deville investigated dissociation. Osmond created metallography, etc. Some of the practical discoveries of our chemists are given further on, under New bodies and pro- cesses. Chinese studies. — Began in 1728, with the grammar of Father Premare ; other French Jesuits, Du Halde, Gaubil, Amiot, De Mailla (1735-1783), made Chinese civilization and history known in Europe ; A. Remusat and S. Julien led sino- logy from 1822 to 1870. Economics. — The words " Economie Politique " first appeared as the title of a book written by a French Huguenot in 1615. The science was founded by the French physiocrates of the xviiith cen- tury. The " Tableau Economique " of the physiocrat. Dr. Ques- NAY, came out in 1758 ; the work of Turcot, Formation and dis- tribution of wealth, is of 1766. (The famous work of Adam Smith appeared in 1776). The first complete Treaty of Economics was that of J.-B. Say, 1803. Education. — Its principles, as a science, were laid down by Rabelais and Montaigne. Entomology. — Insects have never been more closely or intel- ligently observed, nor more delightfully described, than by H. Fabre (1823-1915) called by Darwin "the matchless observer. " He did not believe in evolution. Geography and Travels. — No more complete and accurate description of the globe has been given than the works of E. Reclus, A¥ho published The Earth in 1865, the nineteen vol- umes of his New Universal Geography from 1875, and his Man and Earth in 1905. Travels. — - It is impossible to give here a full list of our travellers. Americans have heard of the explorer of Louisiana, Cavelier de La Salle. One of his companions, the Frenchman Hennequin, was the first white man who saw Niagara Falls. Bernier (i625-«[688) travelled 10 years in Egypt and 12 in India. Bougainville preceded Cook in several places. Levail- - 230 ^ SCIENCE AND INVENTION LANT explored (1753-1824) portions of S. Africa where even the Boers bad never travelled, etc., etc. Confining ourselves to recent times, the following travels may be mentioned : Everybody has heard of Stanley's expeditions, because he was a iournalist, and the whole Anglo-Saxon family was interested in his quest of the incomparable Livingstone. But several Frenchmen have crossed Africa from end to end, with far inferior resources; e. g. Capitaine TRiviER,in 356 days, on foot, ending i Dec. 1889 ; BouRG DE BozAS (1901-1902), with a detailed exploration of Ethiopia ;Versepuy and De Romans (1895-1896) ; F. Foa(i894- 1897) ; Foureau (i88/!-i896 and 1898-1900) : nine expeditions through Africa, atotal'of 13,000 miles, including 5,600 miles of new ground; De Rohan-Chabot (1913). etc.; to those travels should be added numerous military expeditions. Asia we have explored in all directions: Cotteau crossed from Russia to Japan in 1881 ; J . Martin visited Siberia, Tibet, etc., three times (i 849-1 892); G. Bonvalot and Prince Henry of Orleans travelled from Russia to Tongking (i 889-1 890) ; Marcel Monnier studied Indo-China and Japan, and crossed from Peking to Bassorah (1895-1898), etc. Gervais-Cour- tellemont entered Mecca as a pilgrim in 1894. Ch. Huber was murdered near Mecca in 1884, after exploring Arabia for 6 years. Dutreuil de Rhins and Grenard (1891-1894), travelled 8,700 kilom. in High Asia (4,000 kilom. of new territory), Dutreuil being murdered in Tibet. Corea was first crossed by Varat in 1888-1889. South America was patiently explored by Crevaux (1877- 1887), Thouar (1883-1887) and Coudreau (1881-1899). The Duke of Orleans (1905) and Dr. Charcot (1902, 1903- 1905,1908-1911) reconnoitred several thousand miles of Arctic coasts. Geology. — ^Bernard Palissy, in 1580, maintained that most rocks had been formed under water, and that the shells found in them must have lived where we find them, in salt or fresh water. Descartes, in 1644, stated that what we know of the earth is but the crust of incandescent minerals. Buffon (1749) first showed that the temperature rose continuously down the pits of mines, and in 1778, divided the history of the globe into 7 periods, extend- ing over 75,000 years, thus boldly rejecting the theories of sudden or rapid creation prevailing until then. Guettard , Bron- gniart, Lamarck, and others (1746 to 1823), contributed much to the rise of this science, which, however, became mainly English, on account of the development of mining in England.. A new classification, now generally adopted, has been proposed by A. DE Lapparent (1839-1898). L. DE Launay, a master of metallogeny, has formulated the law of the atomic distribution of the elements of the earth's crust. Stanislas Meunier has studied the geology of the solar system. — 231 — SCIENCE AND. INVENTION Indian studies. — Anquetil-Duperron, at 20 years of age, wen-t to India in 1754 as a volunteer in the service of tlie " Compagnie des Indes " , witli a view to reading the Vedas and the books of Zoroaster ; he returned to France 50 years later, with a perfect translation in Latin of a Persian version of the Sanskrit books. Meanwhile, Ch6zy had mastered Sanskrit in France. The contribution of Chezy's successor, E. Burnouf, to Indian scholarship, has not been surpassed. Mathematics. — Fermat (1601-1665) went further in the study of arithmetic than any man after him. Galois (1811-1838) reno- vated algebra. Lagrange discovered the calculation of varia- tions; Descartes founded analytical geometry; Pascal renovated the theory of conic sections ; Monge invented descriptive geo- metry ; nomography was invented by Lalande, cinematics by Ampere, molecular mechanics by Navier, etc., etc. The im- portance of Henri Poincar^'s work in several branches of mathematics has given him a world-wide reputation. Within the last 40 years, the progress of M. in France has been most extensive and varied, owing to the work of Chasles, Ber- TRAND, Hermite, Jordan, Darboux, Laguerre, Tannery, Halphen, Picard, Appell, Painleve, Borel, etc., whose names are well-known to specialists, but seldom reach the general pu- blic, owing to the high order of their investigations. Medicine and Surgery. — Opotherapy was invented by Brown- S6quard (1856); electrotherapy by d'Arsonval (born 1851) ; serotherapy originated with Raynaud, and was fully elucidated by Ch. Richet and H^ricourt in 1888. The serum against diptheria was found by Roux ; one against typhoid by Chante- MESSE in 1888 ; another by Vincent in 1914 ; one against the plague by Yersin in 1894. The cycle of malarial diseases was dis- covered by Laveran in 1895. Iodine was invented by Courtois in 1811, chloroform, b}^ Soubeiran in 1831. Pelletier and Caventou first prepared quinine in 1820. Laennec invented medical auscultation in 1822. Flourens discovered the anaesthetic property of chloroform in 1844 (See also : Pasieur). Neurology owes as much to Charcot (1825-1893) as physio- logy to Claude Bernard. Sero-diagnosis, discovered by Widal (born 1862). Asepsy recommended rather than antisepsy, by Terrillon (1892). Surgery. — Owns such names as P. Reclus (local anaes- thesia); Doyen (surgical instruments); Ollier (bone tissues); Labbe (ablation of the stomach) ;' Pinard ( gynaekology) ; Terrillon (liver operations) ; etc. Meteorology (Dynamics of) : first studied by Teisserenc de Bort (1855-1913). Mineralogy. — Originated from crystallography, which was preated by Abbe R.-J. Hauy, in 1783. The constancy of angles in — 23:? -^ SCIENCE AND INVENTION crystals had been studied by Rout de Lisle in 1771. As to petrography, it owes practically everything to A. FouQu6 and Ch. Michel-L^vy ('• Miner alogie Micrographique " , 1879), who showed that even primitive rocks are crystalline. Oceanography. — Founded by Audouin and H. Milne- Edwards (1826). Palaeontology. — Existence of fossils first maintained by Bernard Palissy (1580) simultaneously with Leonardo da Vinci. Twenty vears before William Smith, Giraud-Soulavie, in his " Histoire naturelle de la France meridionale ' ' , showed that fossils are distributed not according to geographical areas, but according to geological strata. The exceptional genius of Cuvier for comparative anatomy, allowed him to re-constitute from fossil bones 168 species of fossil mammals (1796-18 12) ; his work was carried on by Lamarck, and Geoffroy-Saint-Hilaire. Another school of investigators, instead of re-constituting the fossils, simply endeavoured to date them. It was reserved for A. Gaudry to associate the discoveries of both schools in his " Enchainements du Monde animal " (1878), which stated the laws of palaeobiology, a science first named by D'ARCHiAcin 1862. A modern classifi- cation of fossils was given by A. Brongniart (1876). Physics. — Hydrostatics were formulated by Pascal ; electro- statics and magnetism by Coulomb ; the motive power of heat was discovered by Carnot {1824) ; chromatic and rotary polari- zation, by Arago. Fresnel proved that light, contrary to New- ton's theory of emission, is due to vibration. Stirn measured the transformation of heat into work. Berthelot discov- ered synthesis in organic chemistry, and attempted to create che- mical mechanics. A. Cornu accurately measured the speed of light. Becquerel II investigated phosphorescence and fluores- cence. Becquerel III studied radiating bodies. Lippmann has discovered electro-capillarity. Perrin has measured mole- cules. Etc... Physiology. — Owes an incalculable debt to Claude Bernard (1813-1877) of whom Pasteur said : " I try to find his weak point, but I cannot. " His experiments on animals gave him the clue to capital problems; he had been preceded by Bichat (1771-1802), and Magendie (1783-1855). He has been followed by Paul Bert, Dastre, Ch. Richet, etc. Richet has discovered ana- phylaxy (1902), i. e. the growing indifference of the organism to serums. A. Carrel is famous in America for his success in the preservation, culture, and transplantation of living tissues ; he was born at Lyons in 1873. "Prehistoire", a branch of anthropology, originated in France, from the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes (1850) in the Somme valley ; its principles and methods were formulated by Lartet, De Mortillet, Commont, and Abbe de Breuil, — 333 — SCIENCE AND INVENTION Anthropological research in Spain originated with De Car TAILHAC (1886). Sociology. — Saint-Simon first stated that human societies are determinate phenomena like all natural organisms or families, and coined the phrase " social physiology. " The word " socio- logie " is due to Auguste Comte, who went so far beyond Saint- Simon as to regard all mankind as one phenomenon. His plan and aim were perhaps too ambitious ; his principles were applied by H. Spencer, in England, and Durckheim in France. Etc. — Inventors. — Motive power and Locomotion. — Salomon de Caus (161 5) used steam-power in a hydraulic machine. Riche- lieu shut him up in the lunatic asylum of Bicetre, where he died. — Denis Papin (b. 1647) invented the piston in 1688; built an exhaust -pump, a steam-chariot, a "digester" (i. e. a boiler in which temperature varied with the pressure applied on the safety- valve, another invention of Papin), etc. Being a Huguenot, he fled to Germany, and there navigated a steam-boat on the Fulda ; the German boatmen destroyed it (1707). He died in want and in exile in 1714. — Cugnot, in 1769, built a s^eaw-ca/ which soon came to wreck on the cobbles of Paris, and can now be seen at our " Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. " — S:feGUiN, in 1828, invented the tubular boiler, an indispensable component of the locomotive. — Monorail : Lartigue, 1864. First hydraulic turbine, imagined and built by Fourneyron, 1827. — First factory using water-power : A. Berg£;s, 1869. First transmission of electric power (Vienna Exhib.) Fontaine, 1873 (to a distance of two kilom.). — Problem of transmission on a practical scale, solved by Desprez (i 882-1 886) : 52 HP over a distance of 56 kilom. — Electric locomotive : Desprez, 1882. Cycles: first pedal-propelled bicycle built by Mich aux, 1842; first hollow rim and rubber tube : Truffault, 1875. Motor-cars : steam-cars of Lenoir (1864). Bollee (1867) ran 28 kil. an hour. Serpollet (1868) used superheated steam. Electric tricycle run by Trouv6 in Paris, in 1881. In 1889, the petrol-motor was invented by Forest, and by Belmont, both French, independently of each other. Light, photography, etc. — Lebon, in 1786, first discovered and recommended the possibilities of coal-gas as an illuminant. He was murdered in 1804 ; no notice was taken of his idea ; and gas- light returned to us from England in 1817. • — Carcel, in 1800, invented the famous " astral " or " carcel " lamp. — Che- VREUL (1811) invented the stearine or " composite " candle. ■ — - Fresnel, in 1829, invented the parabolic reflectors, used in light- houses. — In 1844, Foucault rendered practicable the use of elec- tricity as an illuminant, which Humphry Davy had recommended in 1804. — Acetylene : industrial production of carbide found by Bullier (1893) ; he was a disciple of Moissan, and used the elec- - 234 - SCIENCE AND INVENTION trie furnace invented by the latter. — Mercury, and neon lamps '. G. Claude, 1900. — Cold light : Dussaud (1910). In 1829, Daguerre, Chevalier and Niepce, invented helio- grapky (the first portraits were called daguerreotypes). — Photo- graphic revolver, inv. by Janssen, in 1874. — Photographic rifle and Chronophotogrdph, inv. by Marey in 1880. — Phonoscope, inv. by Dumeny in 1885. — (Photographs taken by Tissandier in a balloon at elevations of from 2,000 to 3,575 ft., in 1885.) — Cinematograph, by Dumeny and Lumiere Bros. 1895. — (The principle of the cinema had been applied to optic toys by Abbe NoLLET : 1765.) — Phonocinemato graph, invented by Capt. Couade, built by Path^;, in 1905. — Telephotography : invented byBELiN, in 1912. Colour 'photography : Lippman invented the first process, in 1 891 ; other processes were found by Ch. GROsandL. Ducros, R. DE Bercegal, and Lumiere Bros. 1904. Electricity, telephony, etc. — Ampere (1820) imagined the elec- tro-magnet. — Lesage (1874) put up an electric telephone at Geneva. He was a Frenchman. The principle of the electric telephone had been stated by Froment, then by Bourseul, in 1854. — Becquerel(i788-i878) invented permanent batteries. — In i860. Plants gave the principle of the accumulator. — Lartigue invented the electro-semaphore, for the use of railways, in 1864. — Electric telegraph constructed by Baudot in 1875. —The expe- rimental " cohereur " of Branly (1890) preceded by six years the wireless apparatus of Marconi. — The wireless telephone was invented by Colin and Jeance in 1909. Navigation. —In 1776, Jouffroy d'Abbans navigated a ^a^^ii/e- steamer on the Doubs, then another on the Saone at Lyons, in 1783. — Duguet had recommended, as early as 1693, the appli- cation of screw-propellers to navigation. Sauvage realized this about 1810 ; but Napoleon took no notice of his little boat on the Tuileries basin. — Ascon, in 1782, invented fire-proof armoured battleships. — Benjamin Normand invented first compound ship-engine (1859); adopted in England at once ; used in France 30 years later. — Z6de, in 1886, built the Gym- note, and Laubeuf, almost at the same time, the Narval; these two were the first practical submarines. Aeronautics. — 1783 : Montgolfier brothers, paper-makers, invented and used the first balloons. — Blanchard, aeronaut (1753-1803) invented the parachute. — Giffard (1852) applied steam to dirigible balloons. — Dupuy de Lome applied to them internal variable bladders (1872). — Tissandier (1883) used dynamo-electric motors. — Capt. Renard and Capt. Kreps (1884) reached 13 kil. an hour (electric motors). — Santos-Dumont (1901), by using a French motor (Dion-Bouton) obtained proper speed. — Lebaudy Bros., Julliot, Deutsch de la Meurthe, Tatin, Clement, etc., improved the dirigible ; its speed attained — 335 - SCIENCE AND INVENTION 40 miles an hour in 1914. — The rigid dirigible, first thought of in England in 1809, was first built in Fiance by Spiess in 1913- P^NAUD, between 1872 and 1877, invented the stabilizer used by Chanute ; and discussed fully all the problems of flying in " L'Aeronaute ", taking out, in 1876, a patent for an aeroplane very similar to that used by the brothers ' Wright ; it included planes, rudders, twin-propellers, and the use of a light motor (by Lenoir) . — Tatin (1879) flew an aeroplane worked by compressed air. — L. Mouillard published in 1881 his "Empire de I'air" ; Chanute made his acquaintance in Paris in 1889, kept in cor- respondence with him, and learned from him " gauchissement " (warping the planes), which Chanute was to transmit to the brothers Wright. — Tatin and Richet (1897) flew 140 metres. — Capt. Ferber had been planing since i8gg. — Santos- DuMONT (1906) flew 60 metres. — The brothers Wright flew in France in 1908. — The first real air journey was accomplished by Farman (French) in 1908 (27 kil. in 21 minutes). — Bl^riot crossed the Channel in July 1909. — Chavez flew over the Simplon in 1910. — Brindejonc des Moulinais flew from Paris to Warsaw, and Garros crossed the Mediterranean, in 1913. New bodies and processes. — Artificial Soda, prepared by Leblanc (1742-1806). — Artificial alum .• Chaptal(i8oi). Sulphuric acid extracted from pyrites, by Perret Bros. Lyons. Soda from sea-salt by Schloesing, 1855 (Solvay process). Steel, : new process found by Martin, in 1865. Synthesis of alcohol by Berthelot, then of acetylene, fat bodies, etc., from 1862. — Synthetic citric acid : Grimaux (1835- 1900). — Synthetic menthol, by Haller (b. 1849). Gallium, Samarium, Dyprosium, isolated by Lecoq de Bois- BAUDRAN (1875-1886). — Artificial ruby, first produced by Frj&my (1877). — Artificial ^Ma?'^^',by Hautefeuille(i878). — Fluor, first obtained by Moissan (1886). — Electric furnace, invented by MoissAN, 1892, produced carbide of calcium, artificial diamond, (1893); chlorate of potash, giving cheddite (produced at Cheddes, in Dauphine). Radiation of uranium, observed by H. Becquerel (1896); of thorium, observedbyMme Curie. ■ — Po/oMwm, isolated by Mr. and Mme Curie. — Chloride of I'a^iMw, by Mme Curie and Bl^mont (1899). — Actinium, isolated by Debierne (1900). — Radium, by Mme Curie and Debierne (1910). Compound ammonias, glycol, aldol, etc., prepared by Wurtz (1817-1884). — Nitrogen as food for plants, discovered by G. ViLLE ( 1 824-1 899), who first recommended the use of phos- phates in agriculture. — Microbes in agriculture ; how some of them fix nitrogen in the soil, found by Berthelot (1883). — Qreen crops as manures, first studied by Deh6rain (b. 1830). ■^ 236 — SCIENCE AND INVENTION Chemical dyes : fuchsine, extracted from coal-tar by Verguin (Lyons, 1859); blue of Lyons and imperial violet : Girard and DE Laire; violet of Paris : Lauth. " Portland " cement, inv. by Demarles and Dupont (Bou- logne), 1866. Liquefaction of "permanent" gases: Cailletet (1832-1914). Liquid air obtained by machinery : Claude (1901). Ozone obtained by electricity, by Berthelot. Artificial silk, invented by Chardonnet, 1889. Aluminium extracted by electrolytic process, by H^roult, 1889. Various, and Engineering. — Pascal (1623-1662) invented a calculating-machine, the hydraulic press (1649), the omnibus, the wheel-barrow, and the dray. Vaucanson(i709-i782) has never been surpassed in the making of automata ; a duck built by him could walk, swim, quack, eat, and... digest ! Hauy (Valentin) invented typography in relievo (1784) for the use of the blind. Jacquard : the famous loom bearing his name (1790). Chappe brothers, in 1794, constructed and used the first aerial telegraph, imagined by Amontons (1663-1705). CoNDAMiNE : first made caoutchouc known in Europe (1736). Montgolfier : hydraulic ram (1796). Robert : continuous paper-machine (1799). De Girard : flax jenny (1809). Gay-Lussac : alcolholmeter (1824). Braille : himself a blindman, inv. relievo writing {i8og-i8 52). Sommeillier : first rock-drill, for the cutting of Mont Cenis Tunnel (1857). Thimonnier : Sewing-machine (Lyons, 1850). Edoux r first hydraulic lift (1857). CouvREUx : excavators for Suez Canal (i860). TuRPiN : invented melinite, in 1877 : followed by panclastites, pyrodialites, etc. F^Lix and Chri^tien : electric plough (1879). ViEiLLE : smokeless powder (1880). Bertillon : anthropometry ; first applied in 1880. DussAUD : microphono graph (1897). Gaumont : chronophone (1907). Cotton and Mouton : ultra-microscope (ab. 1900) : objects no larger than i : 200,000th of a millimeter made observable. Tellier : (1828-1915), invented cold storage — and died in poverty ! Brunel ( 1 769-1 849) built the first tunnel under the Thames ; his son built the "Leviathan" and the " Great Eastern ". Tunnel under Mont-Cenis : 13, 400 yards (1857-1871) ; under Saint-Gothard: 16,390 yards (1872-1882) ; under Simplon : 21,720 yards (1898- 1905) ; Suez Canal(i859-i869) ; Panama Canal designed and begun - 237 — SCULPTUBE (1875-1889); Eiffel Tower : 390 feet(i889). — The most powerful lighthouse in the world was built at Penmarch (Brittany) in 1897 : 3 million burners; average visibility : 145 miles. Etc. — Books recommended : Histoire de France, 1870-1913 (Larousse) ; la Science jranfaise (2 vol. Larousse) — E. Picard, la Science moderne (Flammarion). SCULPTURE. — Our best architecture is not recent, our best music is not old, but we have always excelled in sculpture. The large quantity of suitable material found in most parts of France has done much to create and preserve the national taste for carv- ing. There is in Touraine, for instance, a variety of limestone which is soft when just extracted, and hardens after exposure to the air ; this probably accounts to a great extent for the delicate tracery and miniature carvings of so many chapels and chateaux by the Loire. The very farms in Touraine are generally adorned with sculpture ; a vine-branch laden with green or black grapes is often carved over the door of the vinegrower. Marble is found in the Pyrenees and the Alps ; Picardy and Artois lie mostly on chalk ; Paris is built over limestone ; Champagne is chalk. . . The soldiers who have spent any time in the Somme trenches may remember how inevitably they took to carving the badges of their regiments, then small guns or candle-stands, then fancy por- traits and more ambitious likenesses, out of the chalk of the trench. In the First Century A. D., a sculptor born in Marseilles, Zeno- DORUS, erected a gigantic statue of Mercury on the top of Puy-de- Dome (Central Range), and one of Nero, 100 feet high, in Rome. He was probably a Greek (although that statue in Auvergne to the favourite god of the Gauls proves that he was in close touch with the Celts); but this first name in the history of sculpture in France is worth recording here, because the tradition of Greek statuary never disappeared entirely from the South of France. When the great barbaric invasions had spent themselves, and feudal France arose, our art varied with the different provinces. Scanty, awkward, and devoid of beauty in Auvergne ; Byzantine at first, then realistic about Toulouse ; profuse but commonplace in the West, passionate but ignorant in Burgundy ; limited in the North to decoration borrowed from the vegetable world : such was our sculpture in the Romanesque period of our architecture. With the birth of Gothic, Northern statuary developed above all others. As in early Greek art, the pillars became statues, ungainly at first ; then a closer study of nature began : the statues began to live and move. Thousands of them peopled the cathe- drals. They owed little to antiquity ; South and North had little in common at the time ; they were just portraits of French people, by French " imagiers ". They are not exclusively figures of Saints, nor was the inspiration of their makers always ascetic. Those of Rheims are often world- — 238 — SCULPTURE ly those of Bourges are passionate. They were the picture-book of people who could not read, and described every aspect of life that could admit of spiritual interpretation. And the book had an ample margin for fancy... , , , Therefore the French family of those days, at work or at play, the Heavenly Hosts and the most unearthly monsters, scenes and implements of daily toil, illustrated pro- verbs, humorous or ri- bald details, amid a profusion of ornaments borrowed from leaf and flower, cover our ca- thedrals with such pro- digality, and are so clo- sely interwoven with the deep tympans, sharp gables, corners and cor- nices, arches and capi- tals, buttresses, win- dows and lanterns, that the Gothic church seems one enormous piece of sculpture. Upon this period of unfettered production, followed a brief respite of quiet realism, purely French also ( Michel CoLOMBE, seepage 171) giving us powerful bur- ial scenes, and life-like effigies on noble tombs. But the gradual evolu- tion from religious dreams to the two great earthly realities ; death and love, was to go further, and the sculp- tors of the Renaissance, partly under the gui- dance of Italy , were soon bent on affording joy to the senses by combining classical nudes with the suitable legends of pagan times. Sculp- ture deserted or desecrated the churches, and made the palaces and their gardens beautiful. Pierre Lescot, Jean Goujon, Ger- main PiLON, BoNTEMPs, Bachelier, of Toulouse, and Ligier Richer, of Lorraine, were the eminent sculptors of that period. Our Lady of Rheims A statue of the Xlllth century. The influence of Greek models is visible in the arrangement of the hair and drapery ; but the subdued smile and the e.xpression in general are modern and French. 239 SCULPTURE in the early part of the XVIIth century, statuary is still absent from the churches, and painting absorbs the efforts of our artists. Medals and busts (the latter an Italian importation) maintain among us a tradition of accuracy. Later, a masterly sculptor , CoYSEVox, and Girardon and Coustou, far less personal, mul- tiplied the royal effigies, and created the graceful Olympus cf Versailles, in that style of Louis XIV, which believed in the classical, aimed at the absolute, and rose but seldom above the impersonal. Meanwhile, a popular genius, Puget, sculptor, architect, painter, and engineer, carved vigorous figure-heads for the King's galleys at Toulon, or designed a new harbour for Marseilles. In the XVIIIth century, some of our sculpture acquired person- ality and subtlety, but less markedly than our painting. Our sculpture at the time ruled the Western world, with Bouchardon, two other Coustous, Clodion, Houdon, Falconet, Pajou, PiGALLE. Houdon was called to America, there to carve the portrait of Washington ; Falconet spent twelve years in Saint- Petersburg over his colossal statues of Peter the Great. Romanticism, with David d'Angers and Rude, tried to render contemporary passions and emotions without departing too far from classical canons; while Pradier simply persisted in the style of smooth soft statuary borrowed from Italy by men of the pre- vious generation. Barye, on the contrary, portrayed wild ani- mals with unusual force, thus re-introducing into his art the full energy of nature. Fecent statuary. The names of Barrias, Falgui^re, Fr^miet, Merci6, are familiar ; they mainly drew their inspiration from the statuary of Florence in the xvth century, and the whole spirit of their work is of the South. Carpeaux, a Northerner like Barye, studied human figure and human movement as he saw them in the France of his time (Opera, Luxembourg). Bartholdi, Dalou, Bartholom^, did not attempt to alter the technique of their art, but applied it to new objects: they work- ed for the masses. Bartholdi's statue of Liberty in New York Harbour has gained as wide fame as the "Marseillaise " for the same reasons. To Paris, Dalou gave the Triumph of the Republic, and Bartholome his Monument to the Dead, which expresses the feelings of modern man in the presence of death. As we write this page, the death is announced of Rodin, the greatest artist of our times (born : Paris, 1840). He eludes defi- nition ; he has been called a romantic because he was per- sonal — yet he was a worshipper of Greek art ; he had modelled for our Society of Authors a Balzac which they refused because it was so extravagantly distant from reality, — but his Bronze Age had been publicly reported as cast from life, because it was so perfectly realistic. If any one phrase may attempt to — 240 — SITUATION AND CONSEQUENCES give an idea of the man, let us say that he could have adorned a whole cathedral. He had intended to carve or cast a number of statues (the " Penseur " was to be one), for a gigantic Gate of the Inferno ; a truly mediaeval conception, which he never carried out. He was born too late ; only in the days of Saint Louis could his genius have had full scope. He said once to a friend, as they were looking toge- ther at some photographs of Rheims : •' We are now no more than the wreckage (" Nous ne sommes plus que des epaves "). The friend was Mr. Andre Mi- chel, the well-known art- critic, who understood, he says, how fully and bitterly Rodin realized that, by lack of a great national archi- tecture, his hfework was doomed to fragmentation and dispersion. Books recommended. — Hour- (Photo Bulloz.) ticq, Ars Una. France (Hachette, „ ^ ^ , „ 7 fr. 50).— L. Gonse, la Sculpture Rodin's " La Pensee . franfaise (Paris, 1895). (Luxembourg Museum.) SITUATION AND CONSEQUENCES.— France is the only country in Europe where North and South have equal force : its ter- ritory extends from the North Sea to the Mediterranean. From this exceptional situation follow essential characteristics. One is that the productions of the land are extraordinarily varied : France is worth looting, or annexing, more than any other land in Europe ; it tempts the man from the South as much as the Northerner. France is a garden. Another is that practically any European country can best fight its enemies, or join hands with its allies, by using all or part of French territory as a causeway or a fighting-ground : France has enormous European strategic importance. France is a cross- roads. Thus is our history entirely dominated by one ever present fac- tor : invasion actual or imminent, occupation by friend or foe, WAR waged against us, by us, or amongst us. This might have led to the annihilation of France as a nation. SAILLEN3 — 241 — 16 SITUATION AND CONSEQUENCES Showing traditional trade-routes and centres (East), and main battle-fields (West). Engl. d. 1429; 1. Azincourt : English v. 1415. 2. Bapaume : Germans v. 1871 ; Germ. d. 19 17. 3. Beauvais : Burgund. d. 1472. 4. Bethune : Engl. v. 1710. 5. Bouvines : Germ., Engl. and Flemings d, 1214. 6. Calais : Engl. v. 1347; d. 1558. 7. Cassel : Flera. d. 1328 ; Dutch d. 1677 ; Germ, d. 1914. 8. Hondschoote : Engl. Dutch and.Austr. d. 1793. 9. CrtScy Engl. v. 1346. 10. Fontenoy ; Engl. d. 1745, 11. Fumes : Flem. d. 1297. 12. Charleroi : Germ, v. 1914, Malplaquet : Engl. v. 1709. Mons : Engl. v. 1709 ; Germ. V. 1914. Mons-en-Pev61e : Flem. d. 1304. Rocroy : Spanish d. 1643. Saint-duentin : Span. v. 1557. Soissons : Romans d. 486 ; Neustrians d. 719 ; Germ. d. 1914. Waterloo : Engl. v. 1705, 1815, 1914. Ypres : Span. d. 1628 , Germ. d. 1914. Jarnac ; Protestants d. 1 569. Marne valley : Huns d 450 ; Austro-Germ. d, 1S14; Germ. d. 1914. 242 23. Orleans Germ. v. 1S70. 24. Paris : see Paris. 25. Patay : Engl. d. 1429 ; Germ. v. 1S70. 26. Poitiers ; Arabs d. 732 Engl. V. 1356. 27. Rheims : Germ. d. ri24 ; d. 1914. 28. Taillebourg : Engl.d. 1242. 29. Valmy : Prussians d. 1792- 30. Vouille : Visigoths d. 507. 31. Castillon ; Engl, d 1453. 32. Toulouse : Albigenses d, 1218 ; Engl. V. 1814. 33. Lyons; 34. Marseilles; and 35. Champagne fairs (see Fairs). SITUATION AND CONSEQUENCES ' 600 feet Showing main war-routes (and the great battle area) in the West. Situationandconsequences.— Thismap.and the precedent, show how geogra- phy will assert itself in the life of a nation. — I. On the trade-routes followed by the Pheniciaiis and the Greeks, our fairs in the Middle Ages were located (see page 77) ; it is still our main trade-route, as is shown by the earnings of our rail- ways (see Nord, Est, P. L. M., page 216). — II. The long plain extending between our mountains and our West coast is at the same time the most complete garden in Europe, and the great battle-field of the West. The great battles of to-day are still fought in the same N.-W. area as those in the days of Attila. — III. A glance at this map suffices to show why the neutrality of Belgium and Holland is essential to the peace of Europe; also the terrible consequences to us of German mastery over the left bank of the Rhine (see page 78.) For particulars >i the battles, see precedent page; (d = defeated ; v = victorious). Our list is far from complete; the English alone, in Flanders alone, and in the xviith and xvntih centuries only, fought on at least 55 points. — 243 — Situation and consequences But that exceptional situation has some redeeming consequences as well : a) The productions being so varied, the Frenchman has always been a comparatively rich and skilful peasant ; he has always had more capital and more ingenuity on his side, man for man, than any other European. b) Besides, it paid him to remain on the land, and therefore the military resources of his country were always fairly high : a good farmer makes a good soldier {ex agricultura strenuissimi milites, so Pliny said, and a Roman's opinion on the subject is worth having). c) Again, the variety of climates implies a complex, elastic race. What was lost or endangered through the undue prevalence of one ethnical or psychological element, was regained or saved by another : France is the land of surprises, and of balance. d) Lastly, precisely because we are in a central position, we always found some neighbour who could and would help us against the enemy of the time being. The autonomy of France is essential to the liberties of Europe ; no European nation can afford to allow another to annex that " Central Junction " and " Premier Gar- den " of the Old World. Always in danger, therefore, and yet always able to find help, France has never been allowed to live in isolation, " splendid " or otherwise. Her neighbours have ahvays interfered with her national development ; and whereas the English Revolution of 1648 was almost a family affair, the French were not allowed to deal with their own " traitor-king, " 150 years later (!) without giving an account of themselves to the whole of Europe in arms. There is, we believe, another and less selfish reason, for the some- times painful interest which our neighbours have always taken in our doings, small or great. Because we are in the heart of Europe, because our land has been the meeting place of nations, and because invasions, immigrations and differences of climates, have made our race a fairly mixed one, the ideas and forces prevailing in the various parts of Europe are all represented in our midst. We are, we believe, the sensorium commune of the civilized world, the testing-chamber of its social experiments, the best judges all round of European arts and literatures. Therefore we do exert an influence, whether we like it or not, on our neigh- bours' affairs and pleasures, and it might be said that what is French is not merely French, but European also. We glory in it sometimes ; there is no doubt that we have paid for it dearly. Those few essential facts explain most of the characteristics of our national life and history, from our famous cooking, to our no less famous revolutions (conflicts between the most advanced ideas in Europe, and the strong conservatism and centraliza- tion necessary to our safety), from our apparent levity to our — 244 — ' SOIXANTE QUINZE " quiet earnestness, from our excitability to our incredible patience... In a word, the fertile contrasts of our national temperament and the paradoxes of our history can best be explained, directly or indirectly, by our exceptional situation, our exceptional blend- ing of North and South. One recent opinion on our immediate fiittive. — " The France of to-morrow will be the France of to-day, because to-morrow she will be faced by the same implacable dilemma : either subordinate all things to military effort, or die. It can never be repeated often enough : the present war is but one hor- rible episode of a relentless struggle which our enemies will never desist from. " The present conflict can end but in one of the three follow- ing manners. Either we shall be victorious this time, and the Germans will never cease till they have their revenge. We may render this difficult by breaking up the unity of the Empire, but the full strain of all our might will barely suffice to keep it thus divided. Or again it will be a drawn game, and it will have to be played over again. Or lastly... But I will not face this last hypothesis. It is in such an eventuality most of all that the French would have to be nothing else but soldiers. Whether we like it or not, the France of to-morrow will have to be a military France." (Junius, in the Echo de Paris.) " SOIXANTE-QUINZE " (" Le glorieuxys "). — We invariably designate our guns by the diameter of their bore at the muzzle in millimeters; our light field-gun has a bore of almost exactly three inches. It was invented in 1890 by Lieutenant-Colonel Deport, with the assistance of Commandant Rimailho and Capitaine Sainte- Claire-Deville. Rimailho worked more especially on, and gave his name to the well-known hydro-pneumatic brake, which brings back the gun exactly to its first position after every discharge. The gun being laid, it can fire 20 shots a minute, on good ground, as accurately as one. More remarkable still, if less widely known, is the device called " hausse indipendante " [independent sight), which allows one to aim at objectives situated on a slope as easily as if they were on level ground. Every part of the gun is remarkably robust and reliable. The destructive power of the gun is unusual. It fires two sorts of shells : i. shrapnells, containing about 300 bullets of 12 grammes ; 2. high explosives, holding about 26 oz. of "melinite " , i. e. picric acid rendered practicable by an ingenious process due to M. Turpin. Its maximum range used to be 6,500 metres ; it has been carried to about 8,000, — 245 — SOLDIERS The " 75 " has proved invaluable to us in this war, partly because its excellence, partly... because we had practically no other gun in the early stages of the war. The victory of the Marne was largely due to its rapid action and the power of its high explosives. Books recommended. — p. Lintier, Ma piice {Plon, 3 fr. 50). — Th. Schloe- sing, Le " 73" (Berger-Levrault, o fr. 40). — F. Marre, Notre " 75" (Bloud, o fr. 60). SOLDIERS. — The Roman conquest was opposed for several years by Camulog:6;ne, who was finally defeated by Caesar's lieu- tenant, Labienus ; and by Vercingetorix, a gallant fighter of noble blood and great ability, who, being forced to surrender at last in Alesia, in 52 B. C, was taken to Rome and beheaded there, after 6 years' emprisonment, on the occasion of Caesar's triumph. Roman occupation was fought by two Gaulish chiefs, Julius Florus, and Julius Sacrovir, about 21 A. D.; also by Sabinus, in 70 A. D. — Sabinus, being defeated, lay in hiding for nine years under ground ; his wife Eponine kept him supplied with food. He was discovered, and sent to Rome, Eponine following him ; both were put to death by order of Vespasian. King Clovis, King Dagobert, Charles Martel, P^pin le Bref, Charlemagne (See page 91, and Index). Roland and Olivier: nephews of Charlemagne; Roland perish- ed in a valley of the Pyrenees, killed by the Arabs (See page 124). Robert le Fort (Duke) fought the Normans; killed in battle 866. EuDES, his son, defended Paris from the Normans in 886 ; King in 887. Henry of Burgundy, and his son, founded the Kingdom of Portugal, 1095-1140. GuiLLAUME de Normandie, conquered England 1066. GoDEFROY de Bouillon (Duke) led the First Crusade, and took Jerusalem (1097-1099); refused title of " King of Jerusalem, " as he would not " wear a crown of gold where Jesus had worn a crown of thorns ; " consented to being made " Baron of the Holy-Sepul- chre. Philippe-Auguste, King (See page 92). Baudouin, Count of Flanders; led 4th Crusade, 1 202-1 204, and took Constantinople ; made " Emperor of the East. " Simon de Montfort, a ruthless Northerner, led Crusade against Albigenses; conquered the South ; died before Toulouse 12 16. Saint Louis, King (See page 92). Charles OF An J ou, brother of Saint Louis, conquered Naples and Sicily ; King of both in 1266. Robert of Artois (Count), nephew of Saint Louis, conquered Flanders 1297 ; lost it and died, at Courtrai, 1302 (Fl. reconquered 1304)- — 246 — SOLDIERS Beaumanoir (Sire de), captain of Josselin, in Brittany, challeng- ed Bembro, English Governor of Ploermel. 30 English and 30 Breton knights fought until all were killed or disabled. Bembro was killed, and the English defeated. Beaumanoir, grievously wounded, asked for a draught of water. " Drink thy blood, " answered his friend Dubois ; the saying has remained famous, as indicative of the savage single-mindedness of the combatants (1352). Grand Ferre;, a peasant of gigantic size and strength, who killed 45 English with his pole-axe in one encounter. As he lay ill in bed, 12 English came to murder him. " My poor Grand Ferre, " said his wife, " here are the English come to kill you! " He rose from his bed, took his pole-axe, killed five men ; the others fled. The giant then drank a little cold water, lay down again, and died. (1360). (See page 169.) DuGUESCLiN, a Breton, a hard fighter, and a great heart ; a popular hero (1321-1380). He was besieging a town in central France which the English Governor had promised to surrender by a certain date if no succour had been sent to him. On the day named the Goyernor marched in state to the tent of Duguesclin ; the latter was dying. The Governor put down the keys of the city on Duguesclin's bed, and said : " Here are the keys of the city entrusted to my defence by the King of England ; I surrender them to the most gallant knight who has lived for more than a hundred years. " He was buried in Saint-Denis Abbey, with our Kings. Olivier de Clisson, a Breton, first an opponent, then the loyal second of Duguesclin, whom he succeeded as Lord High Con- stable. DuNOis, La Hire, Xaintrailles fought the English under Charles VII. Dunois took Bordeaux in 1451. Charles le T^mi^raire (Chariest he Bold of Burgundy) (See Peronne, Index : Burgundy, and read Walter Scott's Quentin Durward.) La Tr^moille, La Palisse, Louis d'Ars, Bayard were the captains of Louis XII. Bayard was born in Dauphine in 1476, and died in Italy in 1524, after serving three kings: Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I. He was the " chevalier sans peur et sans reproche " by whom Francis insisted on being knighted on the battle-field of Marignan. The military genius of the period was Gaston de Foix, a nephew of Louis XII, who died at 22, in 1512, after a lightning campaign in Italy. MoNTLUc, a captain of Francis I, defeated Charles V at Cerisoles, in Italy 1544. Franqois de Guise defended Metz, against Charles V in 1552, and recovered Calais from the English in 1558. Conn:6table de Montmorency and Admiral de Colignv saved Paris from, the Spanish in 1557. — 247 — SOLDIERS CoNDi; (Prince of — , Louis I de Bourbon), born 1530, led the Huguenot armies, and xiied in 1569, at Jarnac. CoND6(Prince of — .Louis II de B.surnamed"/e Grand Condi") great-grandson of the preceding, born Paris 1621, defeated the Spanish at Rocroj? (1643), the Bavarians at Freiburg (1644), and the Austrians at Nordlingen (1645) and Lens (1648). Joined the " Fronde " , and served Spain, with little success ; was pardoned, defeated William of Orange at Senef (1674) and retired, after a last successful campaign in Alsace, to his Chateau of Chantilly, where he died in 1686. Henri de Guise (Duke — , son of Francois) led the Catholic " Ligue " against the Huguenots and Henry of Navarre; was defeated at Coutras in 1587, and was murdered the following year by order of the King. The King, being also murdered in 1589, was succeeded by : Henri de Navarre, a brave, shrewd, genial man, altogether popular in France to the present day. He was a complete soldier, and had to fight his way to the crown. One of his favourite cap- tains was Crillon, to whom he wrote one day, after an important engagement : " Hang yourself, gallant Crillon ; we fought, and you were not present. " Rohan (Duke), leadet of the Protestant armies against Riche- lieu ; 1628-1629. Montmorency (Duke, and Field-Marshal), victorious inPiemont (1630), Rose against Richelieu, was defeated at Castelnaudary, and beheaded at Toulouse in 1632. Richelieu (Cardinal), 1583-1642, was a strategist as well as a diplomat, and effaced all the French generals of his time, though no soldier himself. His lieutenants were Chatillon, Rantzau, d'Harcourt, Guebriant, Fabert ; besides, he enlisted the services of Bernard, Duke of Saxe- Weimar, who conquered Alsace for him in 1638, while the Swedish generals Gustavus Adolphus, Torten- sen. Banner, served him against the German emperor. TuRENNE (Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, Viscount, Field, — Marshal). Born at Sedan 1611, killed at Salzbach 1675. Our greatest soldier after Napoleon ; Napoleon said that Turenne was second only to Hannibal. Fought and defeated disloj^al Conde. Several remarkable campaigns in Germany and Flanders. He was much loved by his men, of whom he took affectionate care. When he died, struck by a cannon-ball, his men cried, saying : " We have lost our father. " Louis XIV wanted to have him buried at Saint-Denis with Duguesclin. He had been born a Huguenot, and was converted to Catholicism by Bossuet. It was he who said one day, as he was riding to battle : " Do you tremble, body of mine ? Well, you would tremble indeed, if you knew where I am taking you ! " i" Tu trernbles. carcasse/... ") ^ 248 ^ SOLDIERS Catinat (Field-Marshal) was another general of Louis XIV. His men had nicknamed him " le Pere la Pensee " (Old Think- Hard). Able and reliable, he was, Louis said, " the only person in my Kingdom who has never askedme for anything. " B. 1637 ; d. 1 71 2. Victorious at Staffarde and Marsaille, over the duke of Savoy. Vauban (S. Le Prestre, Seigneur de — , Field-Marshal, 1633- 1707), one of the greatest engineers of modern times; he " pould take any fortified place, and then make it impregnable. " He presented to Louis XIV, toward the end of his reign, a scheme for a lighter and fairer taxation of the poor ; Louis waved the scheme aside, and Vauban disappeared from the Court. He had been born in a one-room cottage. VEND6ME(Duke, Field. Marshal), 1654-1712, a great-grandson of Henry IV, and one of the best generals of Louis XIV. Victory of Villaviciosa, over Spanish and English armies (1710) ; victorious expedition in Italy, etc. ViLLARS (Duke, Field-Marshal), 1 653-1 734. Saved us from invasion, at Denain (Nord) in 171 2, when all hopes were gone. Germany, in 1702, 1703 ; died in Italy, after a brilliant campaign. Luxembourg (F. de Montmorency, Duke, Field-Marshal), 1628-1695. Had been nicknamed " le tapissier de Notre-Dame, " on account of the frequent occasions on which flags taken by him adorned Notre-Dame. BouFFLERS (Duke, Field-Marshal). Held Lille two months against Prince Eugene, never surrendering before he had received a written order from Louis XIV, who made him Peer of the Realm. Chevert, a native of Verdun, rose by sheer merit from pri- vate to general, under Louis XV ! (See : War-French " Poilu "). NoAiLLES (Duke, Field-Marshal), and Maurice de Saxe were the two best soldiers of Louis XV, the latter being a foreigner in his pay. — Dupleix and Montcalm were unfortunate, but distinguished. La Fayette and Rochambeau led French troops in America under Louis XVI. The best-known generals of the Revolution were : Carnot, Dumouriez (Valmy), Hoche, Jourdan, Kellermann, Kl^ber, Marceau, Bonaparte, etc. Napoleon was seconded by Augereau, Bernadotte, (later King of Sweden), Berthier, Bessi^res, Brune, Junot, Lannes, Lef^byre, Macdonald, Mass^na, Murat (King of Naples), Ney ( " le brave des braves "), Moncey, Moreau, Mortier, Mouton-Duvernet, Soult, Oudinot, etc. General Maison, in 1828, led the French expedition to Greece GiRAUD and Haxo took Antwerp in 1837. Marshal Clausel and the Due d'Orl^ans; then General BuGEAUD, the Due d'Aumale and the Prince de Joinvillb conquered Algeria, 1836-1847. — 249 —• SOMME (DEPARTMENT OF) The names of Pelissier, Canrobert, Mac-Mahon, are asso- ciated with the expedition to the Crimea ; and Mac-Mahon at Magenta (1859) ended Austrian rule in Italy. Mac-Mahon, Faidherbe, Bourbaki, Chanzy and Colonel Denfert-Rochereau, fought gallantly and long against heavy odds in 1870-1871. Since then, our Colonies have been conquered, explored, pre- served, or administered, by Archinard (fought Ahmadou and Samory, 1888-91); Binger (exped. to Niger, 1888); Bonnier, (occup. of Timbuctoo, 1894); Borgnis-Desbordes (Niger, 1880-81); Bri^re de l'Isle (Senegal, 1875 ; Tuyen Quan, 1885); Chanzy (organized Algeria, 1873-1879); Admiral Courbet (Tongking, 1883); Dodds (Dahomey, 1892-94); Domin:6 (defence of Tuyen Quan, 1885); Duchesne (Madagascar, 1895) ; Flatters (Sahara, 1881) ; Gallieni (Ahmadou and Samory, 1886-88 ; Governor of Madag. 1896-1905) Galliffet (El Golea, 1872-73); Gentil (Tchad, 1897-1900) ; Joffre (See page 115) ; Mangin (Marrakech, 1912) ; Marchand (from Congo to Nile, 1897-98) ; Moll (Ouadai, 1910) ; Monteil (Tchad, 1891) ; N^grier (Tongking, 1885); Saussier (S. Algeria, 1881), etc. The best -known generals in this war, besides Field-Marshal Joffre, are : Anthoine (i860) ; Balfourier (1852) ; Cordonnier (1858) ; CuRi^RES DE Castelnau (1851) ; Dubail (1851); Duch^ne (1862); Foch(i85i); Franchet d'Espi^rey (1856) ; Gallieni (1849-I916); GOURAUD (1867); LANGLE DE CaRY (1849); LiAUTEY (1854); Mangin (1861); Maunoury (1847); Pau (1848); P^TAIN (1856); SaRRAIL (1856). Books recommended. — On the French soldier in the past : the Memoires dii Sergent Bourgogne (1812), and the tales of d'EsparMs. On the Fr. soldier in this war : Barbusse : le Feu ; Benjamin : Gaspard ; d'Esparbes : Ceux de Van 14 ; Boudon : Avec Charles Peguy (Hachette, 3 fr. 50). SOMME (DEPART. OF). — This Department coincides very nearly with the old Province of Picardy. Its "chef-lieu" is Amiens. It has the shape of a long rectangle, stretching N.-W. to S.-E. ; it takes its name from the river that crosses it lengthwise. Its general formation is that of a plateau rising from 250 to 500 feet, cut by up marshy valleys. Characteristic of the Department are little terraces found in the dry valleys ; those " rideaux " are serious obstacles to the progress of troops across country, as the difference in levels often reaches 6 feet. The valleys are gene- rally covered with peat-bogs ; the pits cut in them, called " entailles " , often preclude the crossing of valleys except along the roads. The sub-strata is chalk, which is apparent everywhere on the sides of hills and at the bottom of valleys. Over it lie deposits of clay and gravel, which are never more than 36 feet deep. Those — 250 — SOMME (DEPARTMENT OF) . deposits are fertile. As they are porous as well, the people who live on the plateau have to depend on very deep wells, or on cisterns. The water of rivers, having as a rule passed over beds of peat, is not free from sediment, but it is innocuous, and exclusively used in many villages. The climate belongs to the N.-W. regime ; it is damp, variable, yet temperate as a rule, on account of the low altitude, and the proximity of the sea. The winds from the West prevail in the spring and late autumn ; from the N.-W. in the spring ; from the E. in winter and summer. The marshy valley of the Somme is sometimes flooded, every such overflow being followed by a period of intermittent fevers. Average of winter temperature : 3° C. ; of summer : 20" ; of extreme temperatures: 25° to — 10°. (In the winter of 1916-1917 the temperature went down to — 25°). The agricultural productions are chiefly : grain, beet-roots, and potatoes. Less important are colza, poppy, hemp, flax, apples, vegetables. The mineral resources are peat, lignites, pottery clay, chalk, and stone for the roads. The Somme industries are weaving (of wool, silk, flax, hemp, and cotton), sugar, paper, tanning, soap and glue. The total population in 1906 was : 532,567 (5 " arrondisse- ments " ; 41 "cantons" ; 8^6 " communes "). Arrondissements Cantons Abbeville. . Abbeville, Ailly-le-Haut-Clocher, Ault, Crecy, Gamaches, Hallencourt, Moyenneville, Nouvion, Rue, Saint-Valery-sur-Somme. Amiens . . . Amiens, Boves, Conty, Corbie, Hornoy, Molliens-Vidame, Oisemont, Picquigny, Poix, Villers-Bocage. DouLLENs. . Acheux, Bernaville, Domart, Doullens. MoNTDiDiER. Ailly-sur-Noye, Doullens, Montdidier, Mo- reuil, Rosi^res, Roye. P^RONNE . . Albert, Bray, Chaulnes, Combles, Ham, Nesle, Peronne, Roisel. Population of certain places. — Abbeville : 20,700 ; Albert : 7,000 ; Amiens : 91,000 ; Beauval : 3,000 ; Bray : 1,200 ; Buire- sur-l'Ancre : 300 ; Cayeux-sur-Mer : 3,650 ; Corbie : 4,400 ; Doullens : 5,400 ; Flixecourt : 3,450 ; Ham : 3,250 ; Crecy-en- Ponthieu : 1,527 ; Lucheux : 800 ; Martinsart : 400 ; Montdidier : 4.450; Naours : 1,150; Peronne: 4,525; Poix: 1,150; Roye: 4,400 ; Saint-Valery-sur-Somme : 3,650 ; Thiepval : 230 ; Villers- Bretonneux : 4,650. Among the famous personages born in the Department may be named : Fredegunda (d. 507) ; saint Auschaire (801-864), who was Archbishop of Bremen, in Germ, and missionary in Scandi- navia, b. at Fouilloy; Pierre l'Hermite (b. Amiens, d. in 5), who — 251 — TAXES AND MONOPOLIES preached the First Crusade; Voiture (1598,-1648), see Literature', Lamarck (1744-1829), see Science; Mr. Paul Bourget (b. Amiens 1852). Origin of some place-names. — Amiens has retained the name of the Gaulish tribe whom Caesar found in Picardy : the Amhiani. It is supposed that to Picardy has been applied the name of the dialect of Poix (" patois picard"), one of the great dialects of the North. Corbie (the city was founded about 600 A. D., by Sainte-Bathilde, a French Queen of Anglo-Saxon blood) is the old name of the river, which later was called Ancre ; that name of Ancre was the name of the city which is now called Albert. The district of Santerre (sana terra), the old city of Therouanne (terra avence), the villages of Avesnes, Bouchavesnes, are on good land, where oats {" avoine") grow easily: while Barly and Bar- LEux, like Berles in Pas-de-Calais, may be so named from a Prankish equivalent of barley, or from the old German Wehrlein, the original of Berlin (little fort). Talmas is Templum Martis. One of the 56 rivers is called " I' Allem-agne " another is " I'Avre " (cf. Avon). Numerous are the names in "court. " This ending, like the noun " cour " , means a close, an enclosure, and is derived from L. cohortem, a word closely allied with hortum, cf. : Gr. chortos, E. gard-en, yard. Names ending in " ville " and " villiers " are memorials of the Roman chateaux and their farmers. The strangest name in the Department is " Trou a Mouches " ; it is likely that the B. E. F. have met the place more than once, whatever the name might be. Books recommended. — Joanne (as for Nord, etc.). — Ardouin-Dumazet (Infor- mation). — Demangeon, La Picardie (Colin, 12 fr.). TAXES AND MONOPOLIES. — Previous to the Revolution, the French peasant used to pay, in taxes of all kinds, about 95 % of his poor income. The national capital was then 1/5 (12 billion doll.) and the budget 1/3, of what they were in 1913. Out of a popula- tion of 650,000, Paris numbered 120,000 paupers. The ' ' Constituante " of 1 790 abolished the old taxes, and removed even their names ; we no longer speak of " impots " (imposed by royal decree), but of " contributions " : the voluntary offerings of free citizens. Our present system of taxes is far from perfect : it has remained very much what the "Constituante" made it 130 years ago. Our " Contributions " are of two sorts : direct, i. e. nominative ; and indirect, i. e. levied on certain goods and transactions. I. Direct. — a) " de repartition " (apportionment) ; the defi- nite amount accruing from such revenue being fixed for the coming year, the total is apportioned between " departements ", " arrondissements ", " communes ", and individuals. These are : the personal and habitation tax, calculated on the rent; a special — 252 -- TAXfiS AND MONOPOLIES tax on land which has not been built iipon; and the door and window tax. b) " de quotite ", varying with the circumstances. These are the buit land tax, and the trade-licenses (" patentes "). II. Indirect. — Levied on receipts, mortgages, bonds and shares, the manufacture of stearine and candles, the sale of vinegar, railway-tickets, all vehicles, publicans' licenses, alcohol, playing- cards, sugar, gun-powder, etc., etc. Custom-duties are partly indi- rect taxation, partly protection. Our Monopolies are merely extreme forms of indirect taxation. All our friends know of, and most of them probably dislike, our state-monopoly of tobacco. Its great disadvantage is that it practically forces on the smoker the particular varieties of the weed that the State chooses to prepare. Its great advantage to the smoker is that, wherever he goes, he is sure to find the same . grades of tobacco, sold at the same prices. The sale of tobacco had been made a monopoly by Colbert in 1674, and suppressed in 1791. It was revived in 18 10. Napoleon, between two campaigns, was trying to mend our finances. One evening, at a ball, a very finely dressed lady, covered with diamonds, attracted his notice. " Who is she ? he asked, " and what is her husband ? " — " Sire, she is Mrs. So and So, and her husband is a tobacco-manufacturer... " Next morning, or a little earlier, the sale was a monopoly again, and the manufacture became one. The State buys its tobacco partly from abroad, partly from French farmers. Tobacco is grown mostly in the North. To pre- vent fraud, a State-official visits every tobacco-field and estimates the coming crop. This can be done very accurately : so many rows, so many plants in a row, so many leaves to a hundred plants. The French tobacco crop in 1913 was 26,000 tons; we consume 75.000. Tobacco was sold by Colbert at i fr. a lb. and yielded a profit of 600.000 fr. It now brings in 500 million francs, and is sold at 10 fr. a lb. There is this to be said for our matches : the people who make them are properly paid and properly looked after. Why do we still use the sulphur-match ? There is one possible explanation of that enigma. — It may be that our large farming population, people who live much out of doors, need a (comparatively) cheap match that will not easily go out in a wind ; the smell is unimpor- tant in the open. Matches were first taxed in 1871 ; their manufacture became a State-monopoly in 1872. The State now buys a large part of its stock from abroad. A very awkward form of taxation is the municipal indirect tax called " octroi ". At the gates of all cities and towns (except — 253 — TAXES AND MONOPOLIES Lyons, which has at last set the example) the municipality levies small taxes on any quantity of wine or beer, to a bottle, on meat and fish, timber and stone, fowls and butter, etc... Our municipal finances have been, ever since Colbert, under the control of the State; therefore the fixation of " octroi " duties by any town or borough is subject to the approval of the Finance Secretary in Paris. But it seems that this control is not strict enough, as rates vary a good deal for no tangible reason, and in many cases are merely harmful. To take one instance. — " octroi " duties on fish, in most inland cities, vary from 15 to 50 % of its value, whilst meat is seldom taxed more than 12 %. Such taxation ultimately affects : i. fish consumers, who are fewer than they might be, since fish, owing to the tax, remains a luxury ; 2. the distant fishermen, who have no votes in those inland townships ; the tax penalizes their craft. The nation would be better fed (See Cooking, consumption of horse-flesh), our fishing would develop, and local and national budgets (the State takes its share of " octroi " revenues) would lose nothing if the tax was levied on the net profits of ship-owners and fish-merchants. (See : Victor Cambon, La France au travail.) On the whole, our system of taxation is far too indirect : instead of gauging and tapping the actual income it is content with levying a toll on every expense (rent, purchases, etc.). Therefore it encourages the national passion for economy, and discourages the creation of industries. A direct income-tax, on the English model, has been established since this war ; it is as yet on a very moderate scale, but it probably will develop steadily, as did its predecessor, the tax on legacies, also a direct hit at actual wealth. Budgets of certain States from 1892 to 1907 BUDGETS 1892 1907 INCREASE of: (million fr.) (imllionfr.) per cent Austria-Hungary Belgium France , Germany Great Britain Italy Japan Russia United States Totals 19.841 35-448 79 % — 254 — 2.300 3.642 58 % 412 598 44 % 3-473 3-832 10 % 4.600 9.760 113 % 2.272 3-782 66 % I-57I 1.946 24 % 395 1.540 290 % 2.903 6.645 129 % 1-915 3-683 92 % Taxes and monopolies National debts of same States during same period DEBTS IN 1892 IN 1907 INCREASE of: (million fr.) (million fr.) percent Austria-Hungary 13.000 15.900 24 % Belgium 2.150 3.610 72 % France 30.000 30.000 — Germany 13.500 21.000 55 % Great Britain 16.500 19.500 18 % Italy 12.300 13.000 5 % Japan 1-475 4-830 227 % Russia 15-500 24.000 54 % United States 2.925 3 -790 29 % Totals 107.450 135-630 26 % French finances DURING THIS WAR. From Official Statement Nov. 1917. (in million francs). RECEIPTS E XPENSES ESTIMATES ACTUAL ESTIMATES ACTUAL 1-914 4.781 under i . 900 5. 191 12.000 I9I5 lA total of 81.318 for the 3 years, including : j 51.271 Fr. money. >68. 380 from loans j 17. 109 for. money. ^ and . 111.938 from taxation. 22.800 I9I6 32.891 I9I7 42.123 I9I8 * 7.809 7.808 Budget no longer- includes temporary receipts or expenses. The Bank of France alone has advanced to the French Treasury; 3.500 million fr. in 1915 4.700 " 1916 4755 " 1917 — 255 — Thermal stations French loans (in million francs). Amounts required 1 87 1 2.000 1872 3 .000 I .000 350 500 939 265 805 10 000 Covered 2 1/2 times. 12 14 1/2 ; 3 21 17 24 40 II 860 mill, fr 9 800 " 10. 276 " 1886 I89I I90I I9I4 I9I5 I9I6 I9I7 Loans to our allies, since 1914 : 6 billion francs. Books recommended. — F. Combat, Application de I'impoisur le revenu (Ber- ger-Levrault, 1917, i fr. 25). — Marion, HzstoiVe fmanciere de la France, ijis-iy8g (1915). — Langlois, Essai sur les monopoles d'Etat (1915). Ashley (P.), Modern Tariff History. France (J. Murray, 1910). — Stanwell (C.-H ), British Consols and French Rentes (King & Son, 1909). THERMAL STATIONS. — Thermal springs are among the most precious resources of France not only because they are extremely numerous, and some of them, like Vichy or Cauterets, are exceptionally active, but still more because their extraordi- narily varied scale of waters meets every therapeutic requirement : German and Austrian spas possess but one uniform type of mineral water. The most famous are the following : Pyrenees : Amelie-les- Bains, Bagneres-de-Luchon, Bagn6res-de-Bigorre, Bareges, Caute- rets, Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-Chaudes, Dax. — Central Plateau : Mont-Dore, La Bourboule, Bourbon-l'Archambault, Vichy, Royat, Chaudes-Aigues, Vals, Lamalou. — Alps : Aix-les-Bains, Evian. — Vosges and Faucilles : Plombieres, Luxeuil, Contrexeville, Vittel, Martigny, Bourbonne-les-Bains. — Nord : Saint-Amand- les-Eaux. — Normandy : Forges-les-Eaux. If we confine ourselves to those of Centre and S.-E. France, which are served by one and the same Railway Company (the P.-L.-M.), this is how Professor Robin distributes them : Stomach affections (dyspepsia, gastritis) : Chatel - Guyon, Evian, Montrond, Pougues, Royat, Sail-sous-Couzan, Saint-Alban, Saint-Gervais, Thonon. Affections of the intestines (enteritis, constipation, etc.): Aix-en- Provence, Brides, Chatel-Guyon, Evian, Royat, Saint-Gervais, Thonon. Liver complaints (lithiasis, cirrhosis, paludism) : Amphion, Brides, Chatel-Guyon, Evian, Pougues, Sail-sous-Couzan, Saint- Alban, Thonon, Vals, Vichy. — 256 — TREES AND FLOWERS Cardio-vascular complaints : Balaruc, Bourbon-Lancy, Chau- desaigues, Royat, Sail-les-Bains, Saint-Gervais. _ Skin diseases : Aix-en-Provence, Allevard, Challes, Charbon- ni&res, Greoulx, La Bourboule, Les Fumades, Menthon-Saint- Bernard, Royat, Sail-les-Bains, Saint-Gervais, Uriage, Vals, Vichy. Bone and articular affections, and wounds : Aix-les-Bains, Balaruc, Besangon-Mouilliere, Bourbon-Lancy, Bourbon-l'Ar- chambault, Greoulx, Guillon-les-Bains, Le Martouret, Lons-le- Saulnier, Salins-du-Jura, Salins-Moutiers, Sallieres, Uriage. Affections of the respiratory organs (bronchitis, asthma, laryngitis, etc.): Aix-les-Bains, Allevard, Challes, La Bourboule, Le Mont-Dore, Les Fumades, Menthon-Saint-Bernard, Royat, Saint- Gervais, Saint-Honore, Uriage. Chloro-anemia : Amphion, Charbonnieres, La Bauche, La Bour- boule, Royat, Saint-Didier, Saint-Nectaire. Diabetes and Gout : Amphion, Evian, Sail-sous-Couzan, Saint- Alban, Thonon, Vals, Vichy. Nervous affections : Aix-en-Provence, Bourbon-Lancy, Bour- bon-l'Archambault, Neris, Saint-Gervais. Women's complaints : Aix-en-Provence, Chaudesaigues, Neris, Salins-Moutiers. Rhumatism : Aix-les-Bains, Bourbon-Lancy, Bourbon-l'Ar- chambault, Neris, Saint-Honore, Vals, Vichy. Scrofula and lymphatism : Aix-les-Bains, Besan^on-Mouillieres, Bourbon-l'Archambault, La Bourboule, Lons-le-Saulnier, Uriage. Book recommended. — Jacquot and Willm, Eaux minerales de la France (Beranger). TREES AND FLOWERS. — Out of five acres of French soil, about one is woodland. (Nearer proportions are the following : 24.7 million acres out of 132.4 ; or : more exactly still : 9,886,701 hectares out of 52,951,940.) Out of those 25 million acres of forest, the French State owns 3 ; .the communes and certain pubhc estabhshments — hos- pitals, etc. — 5 ; and private persons : 17. It is not possible to ascertain the profits accruing to our popu- la,tion from forests ; the State-owned forests (" foretsdomaniales ") yield over 6 million dollars every year (£ 1,200,000). 1855 : 36,614,298 francs. 1875 : 37.648,714 1895 : 28,918,620 " 1912 : 33,850,710 This regularity in their exploitation is due to the appUcation of the " Code forestier " estabhshed by Colbert, which forbids wanton destruction of timber, and provides for its reconstitution within gAILLENS '— 3^7 17 TREES AND FLOWERS carefully measured periods. All State-owned forests, and a good many more, are in charge of special officials, " Conservateiirs " and ." Inspecieurs des Eaux et Forets ", who received their training at the "Ecole Nationale des Eaux et Forets " oiNancy. Anotherschool at Les Barres (Loiret) trains the lower personnel {"gardes", etc.)- At the extreme end of the Bay of Biscay, from Bordeaux to the Pyrenees, lies a great plain of 10,000 sq. kilometres, on which a fever-sticken population of 10,000 barely lived, among rolling dunes and moving sands. It was in the " Landes " that shep- herds used to watch their flocks from the vantage-point afforded by stilts six foot high. The " Landais " can still use their stilts to advantage, but they are now 300,000 healthy, prosperous people, and the moving sands have ceased to threaten their inland cities. The change was due to three men originally : Desbiey (1775), Villers (1778-1781) and their famous successor Bremontier. The " Landes " are now covered by a forest of pine-trees, live oaks and cork oaks, which yield (beside timber and fuel), resin, turpentine, corks, tar, and have increased the national capital, within the last 50 years to the amount of 3 billion francs (600 million doll. ; 120 million pounds). Forests are still extensive in the Alps, Pyrenees, Jura, Vosges, Ardennes, on the upper reaches of the Seine and Loire, and in the Parisian region (Forests of Orleans, Compiegne, Fontainebleau). The most densely wooded of our Departments is that of Vosges with 440,000 acres of forests. (See map, page 84.) The five great divisions of the terrestrial flora are : the Arctic zone ; the forest zone, the Mediterranean ; the desert ; and the tropical. We have trees and flowers belonging to the first three. Canadians have been surprised to find on our high mountains some plants which they had met only in their country. Our hills and Elains possess all the trees found in England. Our South coast as the flora of Spain and of Italy. Owing to the influence of the Gulf-Stream, our West (Nantes, etc.), has palm-trees and magnolias. A consequence of the variety of our geology is that certain plants grow far more to the North or to the South than would be expected. The forest of Fontainebleau (about 50 miles from Paris) is largely Mediter- ranean, because it lies on warm dry sandstone, not on chalk, or clay, like the villages around it. The oak is one of our national trees ; it was held in special veneration by the Druids. No other country in the world pos- sesses oak forests equal to those of Perche (W.) and Bourbonnais (Centre). The old State forest of Trongais, reserved to the Crown since Colbert (1670) contains areas planted with oaks as smooth and straight as church-pillars, measuring 6 ft. in diame- ter, and 80 ft. from the ground to the first branches. The "revo- lution " of this and similar forests is 180 years ; no tree is touched before it is 180 years old. The timber wa§ worth before the wajt about 4 s. per cubic foot. - 258 — TREES AND FLOWERS Four trees call for special notice, because they have been the staple resources of some parts of our South for a very long time : they are the chestnut-tree, the olive, the mulberry, and the vine. Between them, they provide man with food, drink, clothing, and of course, lodging. There is no need to return to the vine (in 72 Departments out of 87); suffice it to say that it slowly displaces the olive, perhaps as a consequence of the very gradual decline of temperature (See Climate). The olive (13 Depart.) and chestnut (62 Depart.) are mentioned under A qriculture. As to the mulberry, it is cultivated in 21 Depart- ments, all in the South East. Our mulberries produced in 191 3 1,400 tons of leaves, valued at over 6 million francs. Thanks to ■ 90,517 " sericicuUeurs " (silk-growers), they fed silk- worms producing 4,400,000 cocoons, which were worth 15,650,000 francs. Silk is produced in 22 Departments. It was Henry IV, and his great minister Sully, who made the mulberry-tree and the silk-worm popular, and silks a national industry. Before them, we had to buy from Italy or China. The father of all French acacias, imported from America in the xvith century, is still alive ; it may be seen at the Jardin des Plantes (founded 1626) in Paris. In the same garden is also the first cedar tree imported into France, It was brought from Lebanon by Jussieu (xviiith cen- tury). From Australia we imported the eucalyptus, which does very well in our South (and in Algeria), and from Japan has come the varnish tree (or ailanthus)vfh\ch. grows all too easily on oursoil. A favourite tree with us is the poplar. It not only yields useful timber in a very short time, but it changes marshy ground into grazing-land as well. (See Balzac's "Eugenie Grandet "). On Recount of its name (L. populus), it was the symbolical tree of the Revolution ; we planted one in every village ; and poplars planted by the soldiers of Napoleon were still found in Germany only 20 years ago. As to flowers, we grow them extensively in the South East, especially in the famous district of Grasse, where great distil- leries turn their perfumes to commercial use. We have two National schools of horticulture, one at Versailles, another at Fays-Billot (Haute-Marne). The French are known for their geometrical gardens, " jardins a la franfaise, " in which the rules of our architecture are observed. We do not understand the " rockery ", or the " wilderness ", a garden to us being essentially a triumph over nature. The English appreciate nature more than we do, as a rule; partly, perhaps, because they live further away from it. We can find real wildernesses easily, when we want them^. Books recommended. — J. Chevali-.r et G. Raffignon, Notice sur la Foret de Tronfais (Limoges, 1912), — A. Jacquot, la Foret (Berger-Levrault, 3 fr. 50, with bibliog.), - 359 — VERDUN VERDUN. — Is a prosperous city of 22,000 inhabitants ; its chief productions are sugar-plums (" dragees "), jams.Uqueurs, ar- tistic woodwork, flour, spirits, beer, fancy-trimmings... Its main asset however is its strategic position. It faces Metz, and is one of the strong cities on the Meuse, like Mezieres, Namur, and Li6ge (See 98-99). Verodunum was a stronghold of the JRo- mans. The old citadel rises on a steep hill in abend of the river, which protects it on all sides, save the West. General view of Verdun. (Photo Marchal) The partition of the Empire of Charlemagne, in 843, by the Treaty of Verdun, gave Verdun with Lorraine to the German Emperor (See map, page 85). When we captured it from Charles V, in 1552, with Metz and Toul, the three cities had long been under French influence ; they were independent bisho- prics, under Bishop Princes. The " Princerie, " the old palace of the former "Pnnces-Eveques, " has been only partly destroyed by the German shells. The fine cathedral, dating from the xiith century, has suffered far more. In the xviith century, Vauban fortified the city, and a new town-hall was built. The statue ofChevert (Seepage 249) is still intact. The city was taken in two days by the Prussians in 1792; and again taken by them in 1870, — 260 — Verdtjn — 261 — VERDUN Its present fortifications include part of the works of Vaubari ', but they mostly consist of the forts built in 1874 (See page 78) The forts of 1874 are over 30 in number and cover a front of 30 miles; alineof forts connects VerdunwithToulin the south, whileto the north extend the neutral frontiers of Luxemburg and Belgium. The Kronprinz engaged large forces against Verdun in 1916. The attackbegan on the gth of February. His army was so strong, he had so many and such large guns, that he felt sure of success, and made every preparation for a triumphal entry on March i. But the " poilus " had made up their minds that the Prussians should not pass. (" ILS nepasseront pas!") Defences and trans- port facilities were used to the utmost, and partly improvised. For want of proper railways, an endless train of lorries running at three minutes' intervals, on roads kept in repair day and night by whole regiments, poured into Verdun men, food, and munitions. The " Boches " used gas, liquid fire, pushed their attacks, in wave after wave, charging over the bodies of their dead, and combined the brutality of the " 42 cm. " with the cunning of the hidden machine-guns ; but the Kronprinz had to retire with no better results than the taking of some outlying forts, and the destruction of some buildings. In October, we re-took Douaumont and Vaux. By December, the "Boches" had been driven back to their original position. In those 300 days, they had lost 700,000 men. On September 14, 1916, the heroic city received from President Poincare the following decorations : The Russian Cross of Saint- George, the British Military Cross, the Italian Medal for Military Valour, the Belgian Cross of Leopold, the Serbian and Montene- grin Medals, the Legion of Honour, and the French Military Medal. The Emperor of Japan sent a Sword of Honour. Vaux was taken after a siege of several months and attacks of incredible violence, in June 1916. The Germans had used gas, fire, heavy shells, and besieged the fort so closely that the only issue by which it could receive supplies and report to H. Q. was a steep path under constant shell-fire. Every day, some men offered themselves for the perilous journey ; out of five, only two would return. At last, even that issue was cut off, and the garri- son was soon without food or water. They fought seven days more, and surrendered. They were 400. The Germans were 100,000. Four months later, Vaux was retaken in a few hours. The names of Generals Petain, Nivelle, Mangin, are associated with the defence of Verdun ; that of Commandant Raynal, with the defence of Vaux. Books recommended. — G. Jollivet, VEpopee de Verdun (Hachette, 3 fr. 50.) — H. Bordeaux, Les Derniers jours du Fort de Vaux (Plon). — M. Genevoix, Sous Verdun (Hachette, 3 fr. 50). Genevoix, Neath Verdun (with a preface by Lavisse), Trans : by H.-G. Richards (London 1916). — Campbell (G.-S.), Verdun to the Vosges (E. Arnold, London, 1916). — Burke (K,), The white Road to Verdun (Hodder & Stou^hton, 1916). — 262 — VERSAILLES VERSAILLES. — The wonders of antiquity were only seven, The modern world could boast of the Panama Canal, the Cathedral of Chartres, the London Houses of Parliament, the Victoria Falls, the Canadian Pacific Railway, the Taj Mahal at Agra, the Seine in Paris, the Indian Civil Service, and a few other marvels ; the Palace of Versailles would certainly figure on such a list, and not very far down either. Versailles is due to the inspiration of one man, in whom a whole extraordinary dynasty, a system, and a nation, had breath and motion. Louis XIV did not care for the Louvre ; Paris was too dirty, narrow, and unruly; — nor for the palace of Saint-Ger- main : it had been the home of too many kings before him. He therefore chose a sandy solitary plateau, cut up by marshes, and covered with woods where his father had often hunted ; and around the simple pavilion of brick and stone, built by Louis XIII, he erected a residence worthy of the " roi-soleil " . The best artists of his day, long years of patient toil, money in profusion, were employed on this glorification of a man and a nation. Hundreds of rooms accommodated a population of courtiers and their servants ; two large wings housed the State Ministers and all their offices ; the stables held 2,500 horses. A vast garden, filled with noble statues and marble basins, extended its geo- metrical alleys and lines of symmetrical trees to a park, around which spread the forest. The heart of this city was the King's apartment, which could be reached only through three railings of gilt iron ; but even in this stronghold the Great King could have no peace. A town soon grew around the palace (it has now 55,000 inhabitants) ; the throng of the courtiers was ever at his heels ; hundreds of petitioners drove to Versailles furiously ("a cercueil decouvert", " in open coffins ", as they said) just to see the King one second... So Louis the Great soon felt the need of a more private resi- dence, and bought the hamlet of Trianon, where he built a smaller palace (Louis XV was to build the Little Trianon). Even there, however, he could not have sufficient solitude. From a village on the Seine, Marly, a special machine, run by the river, sent up water to Versailles, 5 miles away. (The machine is still running to-day, and provides with water not only Versailles, but Saint-Cloud, and Saint-Germain.) In an- other village of the same name, a cluster of poor houses lost in the woods, 6 miles from Versailles, Louis had a third retreat built for him, the chateau of Marly-le-Roy, with its twelve pavilions ; nothing of it remains to-day but the two horses by Coustou now erected at the lower end of the Champs-Elysees. Those three palaces and that township were the centre of France, and, for a time, the centre of Europe. Versailles was imitated by several European monarchs, including the king of Prussia even Siam possesses a replica of the wonderful place. — 263 — The Palace and Park of Versailles. Showing the severe majesty of Versailles, and the taste of the " grand sUcle " for abstract, geometrical perfection. Victor hugo place. It was a sort of permanent exhibition of French art, which even our enemies could not but admire. The hunting-box of Louis XIII, still visible to-day in the very centre of the enormous building, had been put up in 1624. Levau began to build for Louis XIV in 1661 ; Mansart, in 1676 ; the Palace received Louis in 1682. Louis XV, intended to rebuild Versailles entirely in the style of his time ; he could only complete the " Gabriel wing " in 1772. Napoleon resumed the task, but could only undertake a pavilion that was not terminated before 1820. The treaty concluding the American War of Independence was signed at Versailles ; in 1788, the Assembly of Notables, followed by the " Etats Generaux ", met there also. The Conven- tion sold all the furniture for the needs of the nation ; only part of it found its way back, in less troubled days. The Prus- sians looted the place in 181 5. In 1870, they made it their head- quarters, and there Bismarck crowned his King Emperor of Germany. It is now the most complete monument of a characteristic period of our past, and a unique museum of decorative art. Part of it is reserved for our Parliament (See page 198) Books recommended. — a. Perate, Versailles (4 fr.) — P. de Nolhac, Les Jardins de Versailles. — ■ Sec also : Catalogue of L. Bernard, rue Hoche, Versailles. Farmer, Versailles and the Court under Louis XIV (New York, 1905). — Bradlej (G.-F.), The Great Days of Versailles (Smith Elder, 1906). VICTOR HUGO. — Born at Besangon, 1802 ; died in Paris, 1885. The greatest word-artist in our literature, and our highest epic and lyrical genius. His father was one of the generals of Napoleon ; at the age of 9, the boy joined the General in Spain : Spain, and the Napoleonic pageant, lived in his imagination ever after. Though he always was a liberal, and became a democrat. Napoleon remained his favourite hero. In this, as in all things, he was true to the instinct of his race. France admired Napoleon for his greatness to the point of pardoning him his tyranny ; yet she did not like tyranny. Hugo had to rue for this apparent contradiction, when Prince Napoleon, embolden- ed by the popularity of his uncle, to which Hugo had largely contributed, found himself victor Hugo opposed by a Republican party, of which Hugo in 1870. was a leader. . . (Photo by Carjat.) For the poet was a politician as well. He regarded men of genius as the spokesmen of God, and poets as the guides and High-Priests of mankind. At the ageof 20, under Louis XVIII, he was a loyal liberal royalist, and a Catholic,with a personal admiration for Napoleon. Under Louis-Philippe, who made him Senator and Peer of the Realm, a very liberal royalist, with an enthusiasm — 265 -- Victor hugo for Napoleon. In 1848, he was a Republican : Napoleon III banished him. For 18 years he lived abroad, mostly in Guernsey, returning to France only after the fall of the Empire. The war was not half-finished yet; the Parisians gave him a royal recep- tion ; he went with them through the siege, and wore a uniform like the rest. He was 68. His production, which had begun 53 years before, went on practically unabated to the last. His popularity was greater than that of any man since Napoleon. Men who could not read knew that he had been their champion His evolution had been continuous ; he had begun life as a royalist and a Catholic ; he ended it as a socialist and an agnostic. At his express desire, he was borne to his grave on a pauper's hearse ; but his funeral was the most splendid and impressive ever seen in France since the return of the ashes of Napoleon. He is most admired abroad as a prose-writer, (" Notre-Dame", " Les Miserables" , The Toilers of the Sea) because verse, especially his, suffers so much in translation. But to us he is a poet first of all, and perhaps nothing else than the typical poet. The writers of his time, whom he had led to the attack of the sham-classica school, and above whom he towered, did not even dream of dis- cussing him, and simply called him " le Pere ". A younger poet, however, Leconte de Lisle, cruelly said of him : " As stupid as the Himalaya. " But even that epigram did not deny Hugo's greatness. He was the first of our poets who understood the sea. Whatever was great appealed to him, and the simplicity of the sublime is often found in his work, as fresh and grand as in Homer, despite an unfortunate tendency to mere cleverness and bombast. We think he is at his best in the " Legende des Siecles " (epic), and the "Contemplations" (lyrical). His passages of real poetry, like all great poetry (and like the Himalaya), do not; speak to the mind by the utterance of distinct thought, but by pictures and echoes that fill and rouse the imagination... He had uncommon physical vigour, though short of stature. He could draw remarkably well, and cabinet-making was his hobby. He had all the economy of a Frenchman, and was a shrewd man of business. Maupassant once said of him : " When the French language disappears, Hugo's writings may be forgott- en ; but it will be remembered that he was one too many for his publishers. " For three years, despite his hard-working habits, he was unable to write, owing to the death by drowning of his favourite daughter and her husband shortly after their marriage. He was ah excellent father and grandfather (See " I' Art d'etre Grand-Pere "). His family is not extinct. The well-known tra- veller Dr. Charcot married his grand-daughter; a grandson and a great-grandson served with distinction in the present war. Books recommended. — Edmond Eire, Victor Hugo (5 vol., Paris, 1869-1893). — Ch.- Renouvier, Victor Hugo (Paris, 1889-1893). — Also : Brunetiere, Evolution de la poesie lyrique, and Faguet's XIX" si^cle. Swinburne (A.-C), A study of Victor Hugo (1886). — 266 — ■War-frencH WAR-FRENCH. — It were difficult to say whether Mr. Atkins of " Jacques Bonhomme "( the French peasant), is the worse hnguist ; yet there is Uttle doubt that the two have come to an understand- ing, through the joint creation of a French "patois " consisting of a few nouns, a few verbs in the infinitive, a little specially manufact- ured slang..., and a good deal of Enghsh. , Here follow some spe- cimens : (A farm-house somewhere in France ; enter a member of the B..E. F. He opens the door sharply.) B, E. F. — " Ouf! " (This is an exclamation which in proper French expresses relief ; but the farmer understands " eggs ("ceufs"), and immediately returns :) Farmer. — " Ow much ? " B. E. F. — " Dooce. " (This can mean but " deux ", number twelve, " douze " , being never expressed except by signs.) Farmer (having complied, and stating his price) : — " Cinq pinces " (literally : five pincers). But B. E. F. has soon found the small greasy note expected. The following was actually heard by a Town-Major. Two sol- diers were coming to a farm, in quest of milk. " Can't talk French ? " said one to his companion ; "all right .• I'll fix him up ! " {Him of course being the Farmer.) — To the Farmer: " Monsoo! Compris milk ? ' Farmer. — "Yes ". Soldier. — " Wellthenolechaplet's'av'tup'nyworth !..." Farmer " Non compris that. " Soldier. — " Compris two! ?... pence! ? " Farmer. — " Yes. " The exchange of milk for coin was duly made ; then the linguist turned to his mate in modest triumph with : " Why ! there you are ! " " Compris ", " compris that ", " non compris " are indispensable to the pursuit of prolonged conversation, e. g. : Batman. — " Madame! Capitaine wants his washing... Compris washing? Non com/?ns washing!... Look here ! (taking up some article of linen, then another)... This is washing! Compris that?... This washing... washing again... washing... washing... Madame. — " Compris that ! linge, linge... " Batman. — "Bong! Call it what you like. Capitaine wants his washing to-morrow... Non compris to-morrow ? " etc., etc. An obliging Australian noticed that the cow of some good woman had slipped her rope and was straying away. He ran to the house at once to inform the lady of the fact, never thinking that the words might fail him. They did not. " Madame, " he said, — " Lait ! " — " Promenade ! " She caught his meaning at once, nor did her smile as she thanked him betray anything but sincere gratitude. — 267 — WAR-FRENCH Well-known favourites are : bong, no bong (also : bonn, no bonn), finish! zig-zag (drunk), tootsweet, picanninny, fiancey, " promenade " , " apres la guerre " . They convey more than one would suppose, when properly used. The growing precision and fervour of the following " declaration de guerre cannot be missed : " Alio ! Mademazelle ! Bonn, tres bonn Mademazelle. Vous fiancey moi ?... Apr^s la guerre ? No bonn apres la guerre. Tootsweet tres bonn. Promenade cet soir fiancey ?... Oh no ! vous promenade sergeant no bonn ! Vous promenade moi trds bonn !... " Napoo has had a remarkable fortune. It is a corrupt abbre- viation of a corrupt abbreviation ; it comes from " n'y en a p'us ", which means "il n'y en a plus" (there is no more of it). Perhaps because it always had an unpleasant sound in the ears of the hun- gry or thirsty man whose hopes it shattered, humour, that mental product of courage, has played on it marvellously, e. g. : "I proposed to her, but she gave me the napoo ". "My dear chap, I am simply napooed. " " 1 went round all the napoos, but they hadn't got none. " " So long, and if we don't meet again, well napoo." Snaffer conveys more pleasant associations. It comes from the polite answer of the farmer or his wife when Mr. Atkins has apologized for some trifling inconvenience. They said to him : " fa ne fait rien " (it is no matter)' which he heard as "sanferien". Every language has its literature. This lingo has the song : "Apres la guerre finie, Tous les Anglais partis," etc., which will be remembered by most members of the B. E. F. however insignificant it may be. It would be all the more difficult to name the author of the words, or even state his nationality, as there seem to be more than one version of the song. As to the tune, it is that of a sad music-hall rigmarole which was in vogue when the war began : " Sous les ponts de Paris. " These remarks on what might be called ' ' Tommy-French ' ' do not exhaust the subject ; the " poilu " has his own War-French. Any account of this " Poilu- French " must begin with : — ' ' Poilu ' ' : the word is now more than famous ; it is immortal, the nickname of the men in pale blue being now as inseparable from the history of the Great War as that of the " grognards " from the history of Napoleon. Yet its first meaning is little known abroad. We hope that its popular, not to say trivial origin, will shock nobody's feelings. First, it should be remembered that we preserve in French the distinction made by the Romans between capillos (" cheveux "), hair growing on the head, and pilos (" poils "), hair growing on the face or body of man, or on animals. Therefore " poilu ", in ortho- dox French, simply means " hairy " {pilosus) ; it is as regularly formed as " chevelu " (capillosus), " barbu " (bearded), " fourchu ' — 268 — WAR-FRENCH (forked), " fourbu " (foundered), etc. In the second place, popular belief associates hairy arms and chest with ; a) vigour ; b) manliness ; c) courage. The word existed before the war with that meaning, as one of those thousand images, ever changing and little known, of Parisian slang. From Paris, it had passed to the barracks. The war made it popular throughout the army ; it pleased the men, as humour- ously, grotesquely indicative of their own valour. From the army it spread to the papers, polite conversation, and literature... It should be noted that this association of " hair " and " man- liness " (probably as old as the world, cf. Esau and Samson), was already part of our military history. Every child in France knows how brave Colonel Chevert (a native of Verdun), stormed Prague in the days of Louis XV. One night, Chevert called the sergeants of his regiment, and said to them : " My friends, I know that you are all brave men ; but I must have a " brave " with a triple coat of hair ! . . . You are the man I want, ' ' he said to one ser- geant. " Comrade, you'll scale the wall first; I follow you. (Yes, Colonel.) As you go up, a sentry will shout : "Who goes there ? " Don't answer him. (Yes, Colonel.) He will call out a second time ; don't answer ; then a third ; just go on, don't speak a word. Then he will fire at you, and miss you. (Yes, Colonel.) Then you fire at him, and shoot him. I'll be there. " (Yes, Colonel.) The " brave a trois polls " did as he was told. Thus did Prague fall to us in 1741. " Boche " comes from Parisian slang " Alboche " (" Allemand "), which had been formed like " fantoche" (puppet), "moche'' (ugly), "caboche" (head), " rigolboche" (i-anny), etc., the ending " oche " being pejorative. For short, the first syllable was dropped, and the last quaint syllable then spread rapidly. " Cagna " , " guitoune ", " gourbi ", mean either a small tent or a dug-out. The word "creche" (crib) applies to a dormitory, in barracks or elsewhere. " Marmite " (cooking-pot) is the name of the heavy shells from over the Rhine. A verb has been derived from it : " marmiter", also the abstract noun : " marmifage ". "Pinard" is wine. This word again was part of Parisian slang before the war) ; it was derived from the name of a famous variety of wine, " vin pinot ". In the same manner " aramon " was formerly used, because of a district called "Aramon", where vineyards are numerous, and the wine fairly good " for the price ". In French as in slang, " ard " is a pejorative ending. " Toto " is the name given to a small child, a pet diminutive. The " poilus " apply it to the insect-pest inseparable from trench- life, and from woollen underwear... "The heavy valise which " follows " a man everywhere, even in a charge, although it often weighs over forty pounds, the men call "Azor", a favourite name for dogs with us. The rifle is 'Mdlle, Lebel ", or more commonly " le flingot ", or " le flingue "; — 269 — WATERWAYS the former name is that of the inventor, the latter a corruption of German Flinte. The bayonet goes by the mock-poetic name of "Rosalie". Bully beef is simply " /e singe" (monkey); ordinary meat is " barbaque" (a tough sound), or "bidoche" {' "bidet" = nag). The machine-gun is a " motilin a cafe " (coffee- mill), or a " machine a coudve " (sewing-machine). Of course, these are only samples of the " Poilu" idiom; the men have at least one word of their own for almost every object and act of their profession. Books recommended. — Dictionnaire des iennes militaires ei de I'argot foilu (Larousse). — Sainean, L'argot desiranchees (Fontemoing, 2 fr.). WATERWAYS. — Most of our rivers are navigable, over long distances, the two notable exceptions being the capricious Garonne, and the upper half of the Loire; but in these two cases, lateral canals have improved on nature. The most important of our navigable rivers are : North : the Escaut (Scheldt), Somme. Seine, Oise, Marne. East : the Meuse, Moselle, Saone. Centre : the Cher, Maine, and tributaries of latter. West : the Charente. The whole length of our navigable streams is 8,500 Km. (5,300 miles). Our canals are not sufficient in number, and were not built at the same period ; neither are they all connected with the general water-system. The depth of the older canals is only i m. 20 (4 feet) ; that of the newer ones being 2 metres (6 feet i /a), with locks 126 feet by 27. The barges are, as a rule, towed along by horses or mules, and the goods are loaded and unloaded, the sluices worked, etc., by hand only, when electricity should do it all. In a country where water is abundant, it is a pity that the rail- ways should, as a rule, have fought the canals so successfully, instead of expecting from their just development the direct benefit of the public and the indirect benefit of the railways. The great industrial region of the North shows that railways lose nothing by the progress of canals; their profits per mile in that district are by far the highest, while the Northern canals and rivers are extensively used, and run on modern lines. The total length of our canals is 5,000 Km. (3,125 miles). As things are now, it is possible for a barge or light boat to per- form the following journey : from Brest, across Brittany, to Nantes; then up the Loire, to the Seine, through Paris, up the Oise, into Belgium; or up the Marne, then across Chmpagne, to the Rhine, and down the Rhine into Germany ; or again from the Marne to the Saone. Down the Saone to Lyons; then, down ^- 270 — WHAT OTHERS HAVE SAID . . . the Rhone, to Marseilles; from Marseilles to Bordeaux, via Ceite and Toulouse. Our canals are all State property and the use of most of them is free of charge. The Bordeaux-Cette canal, connecting the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, was the life-work of an engineer in the xviith cen- tury, RiQUET,who received little encouragement from the Govern- ment, and spent is fortune on is work. If this canal wass made capable of admitting sea faring ships, the world's commerce would gain immensely thereby. Water traffic : between Lyons and Marseilles. 400.000 tons. On the Seine . 5.000.000 " Total for France, in 1880 . . 1.500.000.000 fr. in 1914 . . 6.000.000.000 ". (Cf. Water traffic on the Rhine alone : 22.000.000 tons.) Books recommended. — Statist ique de la Navigation inter ieure, issued by the "Ministcre des J ravaux Publics" (Beranger). — Canals and irrigation in foreign countries, Consuls' reports 'Washington, 1901). — J. Barbier, Le Canal des Deux-Mers (Ber- ger-Levrault, i fr.), WHAT OTHERS HAVE SAID OF US. Cato the elder. — "Fond of soldiering and of eloquence (rem militarem and argute loqui) (2nd century B. C). Horace. — " Non paventis funera Galliae" (Gaul, unafraid of death.) Strabo. — "It seems as though a guardian Providence had raised those mountains, drawn together those seas, traced and guided the courses of so many rivers, so as to make that country one day the most flourishing place on this earth. " Mediaeval literature. — "La douce France." (Sweet, pleasant France.) Charles V of Spain. — " Speak Spanish to God, Italian to your sweetheart, English to your birds, German to your horses, and French to your friends. " Shakespeare : And France, whose armour conscience buckled on, Whom zeal and charity brought to the field. As God's own soldier... [King John, speaking of King Philip.) Grotius. — " The most beautiful kingdom after the Kingdom of Heaven. " Sir William Temple. — " That noble and fertile kingdom, more favoured by Nature than any other in the world. " Benjamin Franklin. — " Every man has two mother- countries : his own, and then France. — 271 ^ WHAT OTHERS HAVE SAID . . . Heine — " The patriotism of the Frenchman consists in this: his heart warms up, and becomes wider, he takes to his heart not only his immediate friends, but the whole of France, all civiliza- tion ; whereas the patriotism of the German makes his heart shrink, like leather in a frost, he ceases to be a citizen of the world, a European, and becomes merely a narrow German. " Elizabeth Browning : The English have a scornful insular way Of calling the French light... This noble France, this poet of the nations.., G. Meredith : An orb of nations, radiating food For body and for mind alway... ... The Shape in glad array ; The nervous hands, the front of steel. The clarion tongue... Nietzsche. — " There is no other culture beside the French. " Vandervelde. — " Much as I love and admire the great nations around us... yet I am entitled to say that from the point of view of intellect, for the last thirty years especially, i. e. since she has been tried by war, France has given more great men to mankind than any other country. And when some happen to blacken the French character, I merely say to myself that the Beotians, when they spoke of Athens, used to boast : " We are stronger, we are more moral, we know not the vices and weaknesses of civilization. " But twenty-five centuries have gone by, and the Beotians are no longer remembered but for their dull brains. Twenty-five centuries have passed, and Athens is still shining over the whole human race. And France also remains a great nation, a great race. " (igoi.) RuDYARD Kipling : First to face the Truth and last to leave old truths behind, France beloved of every soul that loves and serves its Kind! (I9I3-) " Every aspect and detail of life in France seems overlaid with a smooth patme of long-continued war ; — everything except the spirit of the people, and that is as fresh and glorious ds the sight of their own land in sunshine " ( 1 9 1 5 . ) Edison. — "France is the flag nation of the world " (1917). The English and the French compared by an American. — "The two nations present a continual contrast and seem to value themselves upon being unlike each other ; yet each have their peculiar merits, which should entitle them to each other's esteem. The French intellect is quick and active. It flashes its way into a subject with the rapidity of lightning, seizes upon remote concliisiong with a sudden bound; and its deductions =- 373 — WHAT OTHERS HAVE SAID . . . are almost intuitive. The English intellect is less rapid, but more persevering ; less sudden, but more sure in its deductions. The French... speak and act more from immediate impressions than from reflection and meditation ; they are therefore more fond of society, and of public resorts and amusement. An Englishman is more reflective in his habits. He lives in the world of his own thoughts, and seems more self-existent and self- dependent... " The French are great optimists ; they seize upon every good that flies, and revel in passing pleasures. The Englishman is too apt to neglect the present good in preparing against the possible evil... " The Frenchman has a wonderful facility at turning small things to advantage. No one can be gay and luxurious on smaller means ; no one requires less expense to be happy. He practises a kind of gilding in his style of living, and hammers out every guinea into gold-leaf. The Englishman, on the contrary, is expensive in his habits, and expensive in his enjoyments... What- ever display he makes, the depth is sure to equal the surface. " The Frenchman's habitation, like himself, is open, cheerful, busthng, and noisy... All is clatter and chatter. He is talkative and good-humoured with his servants, sociable with his neigh- bours, and complaisant with all the world... He lives in part of a great hotel, with wide portal, paved court, a spacious dirty stair- case, and a family on every floor. The EngHshman, on the con- trary, ensconces himself in a snug brick mansion, which he has all to himself ; locks the front door ; puts broken bottles along his walls, and spring-guns and man-traps in his gardens ; exults in his quiet and privacy, and seems disposed to keep out noise, daylight and company... shrouds himself with trees and window-curtains... Yet, whoever gains admittance is apt to find a warm heart and a warm fireside within. " The French excel in wit, the English in humour ; the French have gayer fancy, the English richer imagination. The former are full of sensibility, easily moved, and prone to sudden and great excitement, but their excitement is not durable. The English are more phlegmatic, not so readily affected, but capable of being aroused to great enthusiasm... The vivacity of the French is apt to sparkle up and be frothy, the gravity of the English, to settle down and grow muddy. When the two characters can be fixed in a medium, the French kept from effervescence and the English from stagnation, both will be found excellent. " Washington Irving (1783-1859). 273 — 18 WILD ANIMALS WILD ANIMALS. — The following piece of information appear- ed in the "Petit Parisien " of January 22nd, 1917^: " Wolves in Burgundy. — Dijon, 21 Jan. — The ground about here bein"' now under several centimetres of snow, wolves are begin- nino-'\o visit our villages at night, there to find the pittance which they fail to get in the woods. The foot-marks of one of them have been traced about the yards of several houses of Nuits-Saint- Georges, in the street leading to the railway-station. " Until battues have been made, in order to rid us of those dan- gerous visitors, farmers are going to keep a close watch over thei stables. " As agriculture progresses, wolves tend to disappear ; but we have too many mountains and forests, especially on our frontiers, for the total disappearance of wolves to be possible before long. A certain number of sportsmen and of&cials are " Officiers de Louve- terie " ; their task is to arrange for beats and hunts now and then, mostly for the destruction of wolves; hence the name of those officials: "wolf" = "loup", "she-wolf" = " louve" . There are bears in the Pyrenees ; their flesh is much appreciated by gourmets. Boars are numerous in the East. " Chamois " live in our Alps; and "izards", very similar to the "chamois", but smaller, and dark, haunt the Pyrenees. We have of course badgers, weasels, ferrets, otters, hares, and rabbits: deer and partridges, quails and even beavers. Eagles are still to be found in the Alps ; many other birds of prey prosper in our mountains. Ravens have become so sca,rce that the ubi- quitous rooks, choughs, and crows, are often mistaken for them, people having lost the possibility of comparing, and the raven surviving in their minds owing to his old reputation. The right to shoot or hunt in the forests owned by the State is granted to private persons for periods of 6 or 9 years, against payment. Those special hcenses bring in £ 72,000 a year to the Treasury. Land being so equally divided in France, most Frenchmen shoot. Certain means of destruction are illegal; greyhounds and falcons are forbidden at all times ; the season is off in sprmg and summer, and we must have a gun hcense, costing a few francs. These are the only conditions. Needless to say, every village has its poacher. The general result is a fairly high standard of marksmanship among our soldiers. But our etiquette of sport is not so strict as that of the British : we share the aristocratic privilege, and have dropped the aristo- cratic distinctions : to our peasants a fox is no fetish, but merely the arch-enemy of poultry, and they shoot it at sight without a,ny compunction. Punch pubhshed some years ago this amusing skit which well displays the innocent ruthlessness of some of our sportsmen : "Don't fire at that pheasant," says the English — 374 — ■ WOMEN "host to his French guest, " don't you see it is running ? " — " AH right, " says the guest. " I vait till he stop. " Books recommended. — H. Coupin, Animaux de nos pays, 660 illustr. (Colin, 6 fr.). — Gastine-Renette, La Chasse d, tir (Larousse, 2 fr.). — De Moriencourt, La Chasse (Nilsson, o fr. 4(). WINES. — See Drinks. WOMEN. — The quahties of the Frenchwoman, her part in the life of the nation, and her legal status, may all be summed up or explained by three great facts : The first is the remarkable approximation of the sexes in France ; in no other part of Europe are men and women so nearly ahke. To the Englishman, the Frenchman will sometimes appear almost womanly; he "wears his hair too long", is too refined or too sentimental, too "polite", too sensitive. The Frenchwoman, on the other hand, will often appear to him to know too much, to be too actively employed, to have an almost inordinate capacity for business ; and in some cases her voice or action will seem to him too virile to be pleasant. His impres- sions do not quite mislead him : several books have been written about our soldier-women ; the first of modern emporiums, the "Bon Marche ", was founded by a French woman, Madame Bou- cicaut ; there is hardly a profession that our women have not followed with success, long before feminism was dreamt of; whilst our men still provide the world with its best cooks, perfumers, hair-dressers, and dress-makers. Another fact accounting for woman's position in France is the regard for women which is a natural consequence of their effi- ciency in our case, and of Northern traditions in general. Our women have not only very much the same gifts of intelligence and courage as our men, but they are allowed to display them to the full. The influence of our women over all our activities, in literature, business, art, daily life, has alwa^^s been very great, and very seldom combated. It is often the case with us, that the wife, having more leisure, or doing less exhausting work, is the accountant, cashier, manager, and scholar, of the house- hold. A shrewd and friendly observer, Mr. Barrett Wendell, has been amused to see how submissively one cobbler in a French village, to whom he had brought some boots for repair, began his work when his wife told him to, and had to work for nothing, because Madame had decided that Mr. Barrett Wendell, coming from America, and being a friend of her cousin in New York (so he chose to say at the time), was not to pay a centime. The dutiful husband was quite content not to have any responsi- bilities at home ; politics were his domain and compensation... The third factor is the influence of the South on our legislation. Napoleon was a Mediterranean : his reliance on woman was of the slightest. Most of our laws were framed under southerq WOMEN influences ; we are mainly ruled by Roman Law^and the Roman Church. Hence the paradoxical situation of woman among us, from the legal point of view. A wife can neither sue in law, give, alienate or mortgage, buy or sell, without due consent of her husband. The husband alone may administer the property of the family. Only since 1907 can the wife dispose as she pleases of her personal earnings or savings. If she opens a business under her name, she must obtain consent from her husband. And of course she is excluded from the vote. She has more than a right to work, and is expected to pay her taxes, but has no say in the voting of those taxes, or in labour legislation. When established in business, however, she elects the special judges of the Commercial Courts. The Frenchwoman is no feminist as yet. She has little faith in the political systems devised by mere men, and thinks' she wields far more power in her informal way than she could ever exert if she was an elector. This war, however, by forcing so many women to leave their home occupations, and take their chances in the modern world of labour, has slightly accelerated the tendency of working women to group together and obtain more equitable salaries, calculated not upon their sex, but upon their actual output and requirements. What Frenchwomen have accomplished during this war can never be stated fully (See : The Living Present, by G. Atherton, New York; and M! Benoit, " L'energie fetninine pendant la guerre " , Nilsson). Perhaps the most remarkable example of courage and intelligence was given by Mme Macherez, a lady of 60, who remained in Soissons when the Germans entered it, in 191 5, and the municipal authorities had fled from the town, as well as most of the citizens. She became the "Mayoress" of the group left behind, and showed such tact and firmness that Soissons was saved from fire and destruction. When Soissons was French again, and the citizens returned, Mme Macherez resumed her ambulance work. Mme FiQUEMONT, school-teacher at T. on the firing-line, acted as Mayoress for several months (in 1914). Mile Sellier was the devoted assistant of Mme Macherez. Sisters Ignace (Alsace), Julie (Gerbeviller), Gabrielle (Argonne), Henriette (Longwy), were awarded the Legion of Honour, for exemplary courage and devotion during the war, etc. The 3 great societies constituting the French Red-Cross num- bered, by July 1915, 35,000 Nurses, and 40,000 women auxiliaries, working in over 1,500 hospitals. It is not, however, in actual war- work that Frenchwomen have mostly distinguished themselves, but in the maintenance of the economic conditions. "One of the most striking things to anyone who comes nowadays to France from America or England is the absence of women in uniform that are to be seen everywhere in the two latter countries. Except for nurses in the picturesque French ' — 276 — WORKMEN costume, there is nothing comparable to the khaki or blue-clad figures one meets at home. Yet it must not be thought for a moment that the Frenchwoman is not taking her part in the war like her English and American sisters. On the contrary she is taking a greater part and has done so from the outset, but she has done it so much as a matter of course that she never saw the necessity for emphasizing it in any way. Alone of the three nations France, all France, men, women and children, realized from the beginning, from the first day of mobilization what war meant, and from that very day she flung her whole weight into the struggle. Already women in France — for all the " Feminist " movement was practically inexistent — played a very large part in the national life. In every village store, in every cafe or barber shop it was Madame la Patronne who had charge of the accounts and kept the money. To her women especially, France owes her national habit of thriftiness. In the fields women of France have always worked. In the close-knit life of the French family it was the old mother who did the cooking while the wife and daughter helped the men at their labour. So when the war came there was no real change. The women of France worked harder that was all. And that seemed to them so natural as to require no additional emphasis. " (Franco-American Weekly). Books recommended — Mdme F.-F. Goyau, La Femme au foyer et dans la cite (Perrin). — Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femmes. Loliee, Women of the Second Empire (J. Lane, 1907). — Hutchiu, Labour Laws for Women in France. WORKMEN. — It is not easy to speak of our workmen with any amount of accuracy without going into elaborate detail, or confining oneself to broad remarks. For obvious reasons, we have to adopt the latter course. The first observation, >vhich is one proof of the difficulty of the subject, is the variety of conditions ; some men earn i fr. 50 a day by working in the fields ; others as much as 25 in skilled special occupations ; some are their own masters, or have worked for the same employer ever since childhood, and are practically members of his family ; others "get a job" when andwhere they can, either because they have learned no particular craft, or be- cause their branch of industry is liable to periodic crises... As a rule, dissatisfaction is greater where capital is more modern, i. e. less responsible ; and, other things being equal, in parts of France where they think more willingly than they work. (V. Cambon, La France au travail.) We have 71,000 fishermen; 8 million labourers in field or forest; trade employs i i /a million people; the liberal profes- sions number 340,000 members ; State and other officials are 690,000 ; mines and quarries are worked by 227,000 hands ; — 277 — ■WORKMEN 712,000 are engaged on transport ; and industries proper employ 5,400,000 workers. The negative forms of socialism have temp- tations only for portions of the last three of those categories, an aggregate of 6,300,000 individuals, (33 % are girls and women, and II % are boys not over 18), out of a total 18,500,000 wage- earners, and a total population of 97 millions, including our Colonies. Alcohol and improvidence are the two curses of our workman ; manual skill (which really has its origin in intelligence), and a passion for justice (as a rule in the form of equality), are his great virtues. Other nations may think that we are temperate, because a drunken man is such a rare sight among us, and because drink is no part of our -feradition. But the French system is to take " something" every hour or so, with the consequence that a man will suddenly commit some crime, and be removed to an asylum, although he may have been drunk but a very few times in his life. How a good clean workman goes down that road of drink, in France, has been admirably told by Zola in his " As- sommoir " . The improvidence of the French workman is also in contradic- tion with what is known of French thrift ; yet it is undoubted. In many cases the workman was a peasant who left his village precisely because he desired to enjoy the good things of the town ; his wish is to earn and spend ; but more often still, he is descend- ed from generations of workmen, and the belief is ingrained in him that it is no use saving ; that being born a workman, like his fathers before him, he cannot escape remaining one; that the man who owns, land or capital (peasant or bourgeois) can never be caught up by the man who has " nothing but his two arms to work with, " as we say. Another and quite different reason is that when the workman does save, he soon ceases as a rule to be a workman. It should be noted that both intemperance and improvidence are so far almost exclusively male attributes ; even the working woman is fairly free from both, still more so the workman's housewife. His skill is evidenced by the success of our decorative arts, which ultimately owe quite as much to the artisan as to the ar- tist. Our scientists and inventors have often been surprised to see how quickly and adequately the French workman, the Pari- sian workman in particular, understood their intentions, and worked out unaided the details of some apparatus, of which they had merely given the broad outlines. It was not sentiment or chance which induced a Santos-Dumont to have his flying- machines built in France ; well he knew that for a perfectly new engine, he had better see the French workman. The develop- ment of the motor-car in France is due partly to our roads and our situation, but far more to the skill of our mechanics ; Mr. B. Shaw also knew what he was doing when he chose to make his ■' Superman " French. — 278 — WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE As to his passion for equality and justice, it is the one that allows some of his leaders to do him so much harm. Certain words hft him above himself, make him capable of crime or the most sublime sacrifice. But for that magic power of abstract terms over him, he would long ago have improved his situation, instead of cutting his own throat. Because he was sometimes dissatisfied before the war, and thought that he had a policy, some people believed that he might refuse his services to his country, in the name of the " Interna- tionale, " and of anti-militarism, anti-clericalism, anti-capitalism, anti-patriotism, and other negations. But the moral position of France was so clearly unassailable, that even that incorrup- tible judge, who would burn down his own house on principle, never hesitated. He saw that Germany meant murder, that he could not get a clear statement from the German socialists, that he must let his views bide their time, and think of nothing but instant action. He might have cursed the callousness of the old country in peace-time, but he was not going to trust any "Boche " to improve on the methods of the Mother of Revolutions. He reaUzed in time that the Germans were the only ones in Europe who had never shed their own people's blood for the sake of a principle. They were always ready to fight others, for more food, but had never fought amongst themselves for more free- And no man in France answered the call more readily, did his duty with more skill or passion, than the working man. It is probable that, after the war, the French world of labour will leave to Germany the negative theories of Marx, and return to forms of socialism born in France, such as the " Associa- tionisme" of Ch. Fourier. Strikes have been tried (60 % had for their object a rise in salaries) but their number was decreasing before the war, while Trades' Unions were powerful, and growing in power. The general trend was toward co-ordination. Much remains to achieve in that direction : we have hardly any Mas- ters' Unions yet, and our co-operative organizations are still in a state of infancy. Books recommended. — E. Levasseur, Questions ouvrieres et industrielles en France sous la 3" Repiiblique. See also : Peasants, Industries. WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE. — So vast a conflict as the pre- sent one cannot be ascribed to any one cause exclusively ; it con- sists indeed of a number of wars, waged it is true simultaneously upon the same group of nations, but by allies whose motives and aims are not exactly the same. The motives and aims of France in this war are as simple as imperative ; we are fighting for our existence. — 279 — WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE This is how Celarius, a Roman general, warned the Gauls against the German peril, over 1,500 years ago : " The self-same motives for invading Gaul will ever endure among the Germans : love of pleasure and love of money. Ever will they be seen to relinquish their heaths and bogs and rush to your fertile plains, with a view to rob you of your fields and make slaves of you... " German school-boys to-day are taught that the six sons of the Germen are entitled to the land of the French farmer's only son... Then it is the boast of the German that he is an undefiled Barbarian (Prussia was not evangelized before the xiiith century), whose mission it is to rejuvenate " effete civilizations " by periodical blood-letting. It is our claim on the other hand that our civilization is as old and complex as any in the modern world : we are therefore to the German the prey " par excel- lence. " And we happen to be his immediate neighbours ! Our history is therefore that of a ceaseless conflict between our intelligence and German brutality, our desire to enjoy and perfect what we have, and German envy, jealousy, or hunger ; a conflict between people who plant and build, and people who plunder and burn down. To take only the latest phase of that struggle, the phase of which this war is the conclusion, this is how it could be summed up : In 1 871, Germany might have been content to become a nation, and to annex three of our Departments ; other conquerors might have asked no more. But jealousy and barbaric greed went fur- ther : she exacted a ransom of 5,000 million francs (a very large amount at the time), in gold! Germany'shope was to ruinus for ever. She was much aggrieved when she saw how easily we manag- ed to pay up, and how by 1875 we had so far recovered as still to have a future before us. Bismarck wanted to strike again, and finish us for good ; but this time England and Russia stayed his hand. He submitted, seeing that we were peaceful after all, and merely bent on acquiring colonies ; he thought that colonial enterprise could only weaken our arms in Europe, and set England against us ; he himself would have no colonies for Germany. This acquiescence to our plans in 1879 (Madrid Conference) and in 1885 (Berlin Conference) did not prevent him however from threat- ening us again in 1887. The German bully likes to remind us periodically that he is very strong, and that we live only on suffer- ance. At last Bismarck went, and Germany became modern. For several years her young Emperor seemed to think of nothing but peace, industry, trade, and sea-power. He repeatedly tried to make friends with us : the new course adopted by Germany made her the opponent, not of France, but of England. We could not meet his wishes : Alsace-Lorraine stood in the way; and then we only could have been a pawn in the German game, which would have meant subjection to Germany in another form. Our estrangements from England over Egypt, the Boer war, Fachoda, — 280 — WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE gave hopes to William at moments, but he was soon undeceived, thanks to King Edward and Delcasse, and returned to the Gallo- phobia of Bismarck. By that time, his empire had become thoroughly commercial, and had awakened to the necessity of colonies for European nations — rather late, since the colonial world was practically all divided between England and ourselves ; but, as we refused to ally with Germany against England, our colonies would compensate Germany for her long neglect. Our long-established influence in North Africa (dating from Louis XIII) had spread at last to Morocco, and we had made arrangements with England about the matter, in 1904, without consulting Germany. The following year, the Kaiser called in great pomp on the Sultan of Morocco (Tangiers, 1905), to show that Germany had to be reckoned with ; at the same time, the German press led violent campaigns against us ; so that, in 1906, Germany managed to be represented at the Conference of Algeciras. From that time, we had no free hand in Morocco; our own people there had to let the Germans take precedence, and when we tried to assert our undoubted rights, either we had " incidents " (Casablanca, 1907-1908), or Germany simply sent a man-of-war (Agadir, 1911). Our enemies made full preparations against a war, while their hand was certainly at work in disorders which might be fatal to us (vinegrowers' riots in S. France, 1907 ; antimilitarist propaganda, same year ; post- men's strike, 1909 ; railways' strike, 1910 ; vinegrowers' riots in Champagne, 191 1). The Agadir incident was a revelation to us ; the same year, things came to a worse pass, when Germany exacted a portion of our Congo, explored and colonized by our- selves ! The Caillaux cabinet fell ; Poincare was elected Presi- dent ; it had become clear that we must either expect gradual impudent robbery, or face war. Germany was not unwilling to fight, thinking that she ran no great risks ; yet she did not care to assume openly the moral responsibility. Her attitude had been exactly the same in 1870, when Bismarck altered a French dispatch so as to make it mean war instead of peace. This time, as soon as she felt quite ready (after her new preparations of 1912), she tried to make us lose our patience by : allowing a Zeppelin to wander over our terri- tory, and alight on it ; sending officers in mufti to insult civilians publicly at Nancy ; starting a campaign of calumny against the Foreign Legion (all this in 191 3) ; lastly, by bullying Alsace so brutally, that even the Germans in Alsace protested (1914). We refused to fall into those ignoble traps, and went on with our own preparations ; all too slowly, for we still hoped for peace against all hope : Russia was to. have built ceictain strategic railways by 1916 ; these might have insured peace. Germany was at a loss what to do : she would not have peace, would not declare war, and could neither wait much longer, nor manage to have us — 281 — WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE declare war... At last, the golden opportunity arrived, and she embraced it eagerly. In 1 91 4, an Austrian prince was murdered in Bosnia by a Ser- bian student ; — there are strong reasons to believe that the hand of the German police was in that crime. — A week later, a special Conference was held on the subject... in Berlin ! And there the elaborate scheme was laid, which has now ended in universal warfare : Austria was to make the whole Serbian nation respon- sible for that individual crime committed on Austrian territory, and declare war upon her, or annex her. Russia, the natural pro- tector of Slav nations, would have to step in ; if Russia, then France ; poor innocent Germany, of course, would be bound to help her Austrian sister, and... invade France "before any declara- tion of war... When England asked for explanations, Germany stated that she did not mean to annex any portion of French territory, but just our colonies, and quietly offered England her share of the spoils ! (Of course, she omitted to say that the crime of the Serbian student had removed the strongest opponent of German influence over Austria ; that the assimilation of Austria meant an all-Ger- man route from Hamburg to the East ; and that she regarded the North and East of France as Germanic territories, to be " reco- vered " as soon as possible.) Such is our view of the war, our part in it, our stake. All we desire is to vindicate our right to live and work, and reap the fruits of our labour. We have no wish to annex one inch of Ger- man soil, or even to destroy German trade ; we should be only too happy if Germany could live and let live. But we desire no less than what is our own ; and we regard as our own not only our colonies, but Alsace. — Alsace still more than our colonies, for she is part of the home of our race. (See : Alsace-Lorraine.) To the conscience we have of the perfect justice of our cause must be attributed the energy we have displayed in this war. What we have achieved in spite of our smaller population, our less complete preparedness, the loss of our mines and part of our population and railways from the very first, can only be explained by the fact that never did the people, the great masses, cast a look behind ; they knew that their hands were clean, and so their hands were strong. This is what Captain Andre Tardieu, our envoy to the United States, reported after three years' war : " France has very close to three million men in the active zone to-day. This is more than she has had at any other time. Her men coming of age and her colonial resources in man power will enable her to keep up the prgsent number but probably not to increase it. There are no reserves that will not be used. " In artillery and munitions the French situation is good. Of the 739 kilometers of line on the Western front the French hold — 282 — WORLiD-WAR AND FRANCE French output of liirar tnaterialat various — period/ since xnobilization — July i^^6 guns *7uy i^ts X-caneh r^/6 — 283 — WORLD-WAR AND FRANCE 574 kilometers, the British 138 kilometers, and the Belgians 27 kilometers. "This," says an American paper, " is the record of a country of only 39 million people after the third year of war, a country which, besides its own effort, has reorganized and rearmed the Serbian, Belgian, and Greek armies and is now helping us make good our deficiencies in artillery and other equipment. " We had, in 1914, 25.500 metal-factories, occupying 534.000 hands ; we had 41.500 in 1917, with 1,417.000 workers. French harbours handled 42 million tons in 1912 ; in 1917, 57 million tons. See also pages 150, 216, 245, 255 ; and Index. Books recommended. — E. Hovelaque, Les Causes profondes de la guerre (Alcan) (Engl. Iranslai. publ. by Grant Allen). — M. Legendre, La Guerre prochaine el la mission de la France (Riviere, 1913, 3 fr. 52). — E. Gosse, Inter arma. — H. Bergson, La Force qui s'use et la Force qui ne s'use pas (Bloud, o fr. 60). — J. Bainville, Histoire de deux peuples (Nouvelle Librairie Nationa'.e, 3 fr. 50). — E. Boutroux, I'Allemagne et la guerre (Berger-Levrault, o tr. 40). — P. Verrier, La Haine allemande contre les Franfais (Berger-Levrault, o fr. 40). — P. Giraud, Causes connues et ignorees de la guerre (Berger-Levrault, o fr. 40). — Lieutenant- colonel d'Andie, Les Forces morales (Berger-Levrault, r fr.). — 284 APPENDIX A BRIEF CALENDAR OF THE WAR June 1914. — 28. Austrian Archduke murdered at Serajevo Bosnia (Austrian territory), by Serbian student. July. — 6. Special conference held in ... Berlin (denounced in Germ. Pari., by Deputy Haase, 19th July 1917; no denial from Germ. Gov.). After conf., Kaiser leaves for cruise round Noi^way, but keeps in constant touch with Vienna by tele- graph, from July 10 to 22. — 23. Austr. makes whole Serb, nation responsible for murder, and demands full com- pliance with most humiliating ultimatum, within 36 hours. (See next page.) Russia, advised by Fr. and Engl., recommends to S. strict compliance; Austr. ambassador in S. leaves Bel- grade same night, thereby making any discussion impossible. Germany and Austria insist on France and Russia leaving Serbia severely alone. King George and Russia ask Germ, to help them find the way to an understanding; Germ, returns evasive answers. — 28. Austria declares war upon Serbia. — 29. Belgrade shelled by Austrians. Russia mobilizes at once, on Austr. frontier only, assuring Germ, that this mobilization is not aimed in any way at Germ. Czar suggests arbitration by Hague tribunal. Kaiser sends no reply; he had already signed that very day the order for mobilization. (Czar's telegram suppressed in Germ, diplomatic records.) Germ, ambassador in Petrograd asks Russia to remove her troops from Austr. frontier within 12 hours. R. refuses to let Austr. crush Serbia. — 30. At the instigation of Germ. Foreign Office, the Berlin newspapers state that Germany mobilizes. Russ. ambassador in Berlin wires at once to Petrograd; Russia orders full mobilization at once. Germ. Government denies the statement two hours after its publi- — 285 — APPENDIX cation. — 31. Germany mobilizes, under pretext that Russia has done so. We know that war is inevitable. Jaures is murdered. August. — I. France orders mobilization for next day. Germany violates Luxemburg. Looting, shooting of civilians. Belgium mobilizes. Germany declares war on Russia. Italy notifies she will remain neutral, as neither Germany nor Austria has been attacked. — 2. Germans invade French territory, looting, and shooting civilians. All our active troops have been moved back where necessary, so that none of them should be less than 10 kil. (6 1/2 miles) from Gerraan frontier; we want to show that we do not desire war, and to avoid incidents. England asks Germany whether Belgian neutrality will be respected; no reply; British fleet is mobilized. Ger- many sends ultimatum to Belgium, asking for right of passage. — 3. German ambassador in Paris notifies war. The Germans troops have already raided our territory at 29 different points and Luneville has been bombed by German aeroplanes. Belgium indignantly refuses right of passage. — 4. Belgium violated ; civilians shot. French villages burnt down. Algerian ports shelled by German men-of-war. Belgium appeals to England and France. England mobilizes her army, and declares war upon Germany. Thanks to heroic resist, of Liege, Maubeuge can be organized, so as to hold against 60,000 Germans and super-heavy artillery through critical fortnight : Aug. 25-Sept 8. Memoranda. (= To Be Remembered!) I. The Austrian Note to Serbia (July 23, 1914) .• Serbia must agree, before July 25th, 6 p. m. to the following terms : a) the publication, on the first page of the Official Gazette of Serbia to be issued on July 25th, of a statement denouncing the propaganda against Austria, expressing regret that Serbian officers and officials should have taken part in it, etc. ; b) the dissolution of a Serbian patriotic a,ssociation, the Narodna Obradna, and the confiscation of the means of propa- ganda of that and other similar societies; c) rigorous measures to be taken against officers and officials above mentioned; d) (!) the acceptation of the co-operation, within Serbia, of Austrian officials, towards the suppression of the anti-Austrian propaganda ; e) the opening of a judicial enquiry against the authors of the plot leading to the death of the Archduke on June 28th; in this enquiry Austrian officials will co-operate (!). Serbia agreed to every clause, except (e), which was anti- constitutional and illegal, and renewed her offer to place the >vhole matter before the Hague Tribunal. -^ 286 ^ APPENDIX 2. Austria's reply on July 28th : " The Royal Government of Serbia not having answered in a satisfactory manner... the Imperial and Royal Government finds itself in the necessity of safeguarding its own rights and interests, and to have recourse to the force of arms... " 3. From the German ambassador's memorandum to President Poincare (August 3.) " Mr. President, the German administrative and military autho- rities have ascertained a certain number of clearly hostile acts committed on German territory by French military airmen. Several of the latter have evidently violated the neutrality of Belgium by flying over the territory of that country; one has attempted to destroy buildings at Wesel..., another has thrown bombs near the railway at Karlsruhe and Nurnberg. (All this has been abundantly disproved, and is now admitted to be false even by official Germany.) I am charged therefore, and have the honour, to inform your Excellency, that in presence of these aggressions, the German Empire regards itself as being in a state of war with France, through the act of the latter Power. " 4. Germany' s shameful proposal, and brutal threat, to Belgium (Aug. 2, igi4) : a) Germany intends no act of hostility against Belgium. If B. consents, in the war about to begin, to take an attitude of ' friendly neutrality toward G., the German Government promi- ses, on its. part, to maintain the Kingdom and its dominions to their full extent, when the war ceases ; b) Under the aforesaid condition, G. promises to evacuate B. territory as soon as peace is concluded; c) If B. maintains a friendly attitude, G. is willing to pay cash for whatever her troops may require, and to compensate any damages caused in B ; d) If B. should behave in a hostile manner against the G. troops, and, in particular, should hinder their advance by opposing to them the fortifications on the Meuse, or by destroying any roads, railways, tunnels, or other works of art, G. will be obliged to regard B. as an enemy. " In that case, G. will not assume any engagements as regards the Kingdom, but will leave the settlement of the relations of the two States toward each other to the decision of arms... " ! To this incredible message, Belgium replied next day, Aug. 3 : 5. " ... The note has been a matter of deep and painful as- tonishment to the King's Government... The intentions imputed to France are in contradiction to the formal declarations made to us on Aug. I in the name of the Gov. of the Republic. Besides, if, contrary to our expectation, any violation of the B. territory came to be committed by Fr., Belg. would fulfil all APPENDIX her international duties, and her army would oppose the invader with the utmost energy... B. has always been faithful to her international obligations... No strategical interest can justify the violation of right. The B. Government, if it accepted XQl^ BELGIUM Aug. — 4. Vise des- troyed ; Liege be- sieged. — 8. Germ, march on Brussels. — 17. Liege talcen. — 18. Fr. V. atDi- nant. — 20. Germ, enter Antwerp. — 20-23. Mons, Char- leroi. — 24. Retreat begins. Sept. — 14. Belg. V Malines. Oct. — 9. Antwerp forts all taken. — 12. Belg. Gov. at Ha- vre. — 17. Battle of Yser(Fr.) begins 6,000 Fr. marines hold 7 days. — 24. Relief arrives. ■ — 2i.BattleofYpres (Br.) begins. Nov. — 10. Germ, take Dixmude. • — 16. Germ, give up Ypres. Dec. — Trench -war- fare . Positions main ■ tained. NORTH FRANCE . Germ, raids be- gin. — 25-26. Cam- brai and Cateau. — 28-29. About Me- zieres. — 29-30, Fr. V. at Guise. EAST FRANCE . Fr. take Altkirch — 8. Fr. takeMul- house. — 9. Mul- house lost. — 20, Mulhouse re-taken — 30. Mulhouse lost again. 5-12 September : MARNE . G. take Soissons. — Battle of Picardy ( Roye , Peronne , Albert, etc.) and Battle of CalaiSjor Flanders (Lens,La Bassee, etc.) great strategic moves re- inforce the line from the sea to Arras. 12. Nancy saved, — 20. Rheims cath on fire. — Battle of the Aisne (Craonne, Souain Berry-au-Bac, Pa- roches, etc.) — G. take St-Mihiel, and threaten Verdun 6. Arras shelled. — Daily Germ, attacks driven back. Trench - warfare . — Positions maintain- ed. — 20, Given- chy (Br.). Fr. progr. about Verdun, St-Mihiel, Nancy, LuneviUe, Belfort, etc. Slight progress in Al- sace. — Trench- warfare. RUSSIA 1 7 . Russians enter East Prussia. — 20. R. v. at Gum- binnen. — 27-29. R. defeated at Tannenberg. . R. take Lemberg — 23 . R. take la- roslaw. Russians victo- torious at Augus- tovo. — 20. R. beat Hindenburg and resume siege of Przemysl. 9. R- take Soldau (E. Pr.). — 25.R. take Czernowitz. Heavy German los- ses, in Poland. — Trench- warfare. — 2«« — Appendix those proposals, would sacrifice the honour of the nation, and betray at the same time its duties to Europe... The Gov. of Belgium is firmly resolved to repel by all the means within its power any attempt upon her right. " 1 Ol^ BALKANS Aug. — 15-21. Serbs vict. on Tser, Ja- dar, and at Cha- batz. Sept.— 5. Serbs Adar (4,500 pris.). — 8. Serbs V. Rat- cha. — 13. Serbs V. Koulihovo. — 21. Serbs beat 200,000 Austr. in Bosnia Oct. — 3-9. Serbs and Monten. invade Bosnia. — Driven back. Nov. — Serbs, ex- hausted, lose Vale- vo, Delpar, etc. AFRICA Dec.— 2. Austr. take 15. Br. shell Dar-es R^l(TrQ/1o m o_i Belgrade Serbs re-conquer all their territory. Roudnik (30,000 prisoners) . . Lome (G. Togo- land) occupied by Br. — 20. G. attack Belg . Congo . — 20. G. S.-W. Afr. occupied.-Togoland occupied. ASIA & PACIFIC 16. Japan's ultim. to G. — 25 . Jap. shells Tsing Tao. — 2 8. Japanese besiege Kiao- Tcheou. NAVAL 17. Fr. sink Austr. battle-ships off Antivari. — 27. Br. sink Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse off Rio de Oro. Franco-Br. enter G. Cameroon. — 2 ' . Fr. re-occupy former Fr. Congo, ceded in 1911. -27. Maritz rebellion in Br. S. Afr. — 28. Dewet rebellion begins. 18. Botha enters S-W. Germ. Africa. — 23. Dewet rout- ed. — 25. G. re- pulsed on Niger. 16. N. Zeal, force occupies Samoa. — Austral, occupy N. Guinea. o. Jap. occupy Ca- roline Isl. — 31. Austral, occ. Bis- marck Islands. 4. Fall of Tsmg-Tao. — 7. Fallof Kiao- Tcheou. — 17. Jap. sink 8 Germ, men- of-war at Tsing - Tao. — 21. Br. oc- cupy Bassorah. 22. G. subm. sinks 3 Br. cruisers in N. Sea (Aboukir, Ho- gue et Cressy). i5. Fr. m. - of - w. defeats Austr. fleet in Adriatic. — 17. H. M. S. Undaun- ted sinks 4 G. des- troyers. — 28. G. men-of-war shell Tahiti. . Fr.-Br. shell Dar- danelles. — 8. Br. annex Cyprus. — 5. Br. sink G. cruiser York. Sal am. II. Jap. masters of Kiao-Tcheou rail- way. — 289 — . Falkland Islands : Br. sink 4 Germ, men-of-war. 10 APPEND I5C lOlS BELG. & N. FR. EAST FRANCE Jan. — 8-14. G at- tack Soissons. — i7.Br.v.LaBassee. Feb.— I . Br. V. Cuin- chy. — 14. G. shell Ypres, Arras, Sois- sons. Mar. — 10-12. Br. take Neuve - Cha - pelle . Fr . prog . about Arras. April. — Ypres and Passchfindaele . — 23. G. use gas. May. — 8. Begins 2nd ofiensive ol Artois. June. — rg. Ends 2nd offensive. Ju ly . — 9 . Attacks on Arras, Souchez,etc. Aug. — Fr. progr. in Artois. — 25. 7 shells on Compie- gne. Sept. — 25-27. 3rd offensive in Artois (Souchez, Vimy, La Bassee). Oct.— 6. Ends 4th offensive (25,000 prisoners). — 9. Br. " check G. at Loos. Nov. — Br. success Givenchy. Dec. Fr. prog, in Alsace. 16. Fr. offensive in Champagne. — 24. 1,500 shells on Rheims. -6. Fr. pr. in Ar- gonne and Vosges. — 18.. Champ, offen- sive ends. 9. Les Eparges ta- ken (G. lose 30,000 men). — 30. 500 shells on Rheims. Fr. take Le Bois-le- Pretre. 23. Fr. take Met- zeral (Alsace). G. prOg. in Argonne, — Fr.pr.inAl.-Lor. Heavy G. attacks repulsed. — Fr. prog, in Vosges. 25. Fr. offensive in Champagne (Massiges, Tahure) . 3. End of Champ, offensive (25,000 G. prisoners ) . — 7. Fr. progr. in Champagne. Fr. take Hartmanns- willerkopf (Alsace) . ITALY 23. Italy comes in. Invades Trentino. 13. It. cross Isonzo. Italians capture 6,000 Austr. in 7 days. Austr. att. repulsed . Italian success on Isonzo. BALKANS 8. Austr. shell Bel- grade. :g'. Montenegrins take Scutari. Austr. att. repulsed by Serbs and Monten . Fr. land at Salo- nika. — 8. Serbs evac. Belgrade. — 9 . Mackensen cr Danube. — 13. Bulg. att. Serbs. — 30. Austr. take Gora (Monten.). 4-13. Fr. v. on Cerna — 8. Austr. inv. Montenegro. 4 . Bulg.takeMonastir — Serbs crushed. — 290 — APPENDIX -- -- lOlS RUSSIA EAST AFRICA NAV. & AV. Jan.— Progr.in Cau- casus, Bukovina and Carpathians. H. M. S. Formi- dable sunk. — 24.BattleinN.Sea. Feb. — R- driven back in E. Prussia; v. in Carpathians. ,Lose Bukovina. Turks driven back from Suez canal (El Kantara). 8. Fr.-Br. shell Dardanelles. — Calais, Metz, Col- chester bombed. Mar. — 22. R. take Przemysl {120,000 prisoners). I. Allies land at KoumkaIeh(Dard.) G. retreat in Belg. and Fr. Congo. 1 9 and 22. Zeppsover Paris. April. — R. V. at . Bartfeld and in Carpathians. 25-28. Allies land in Gallipoli. — Br. beat Turks near Bassorah. Libau shelled. — Zepp . bombs Nancy. — Belg. bomb Bruges. May. — 2. Begins Mackensen's oiien- sive. Allies progr .in Gallip . Botha master of G. S. W. Afr. 8. Lusitania (1,300 d.), 3 Br.m.-o.-w. sunk. June. — 4. R. lose Przemysl. — 22. R. lose Lemberg Br. take Amara. R. active in Bl. Sea. — Warneford dest. Zepp. July. — R. vict. at Krasnik. — R.' vict. on Vistula. Br. v. on Euphrates. — ■ Fr . take 6 Unes in Gallipoli. Allies progr. in Ca- meroon. Triest shelled. — G. fail to take Riga. Aug.- 6. G. take War- saw. — 18. G. take Kovno. — 26. G. take Brest-Litowsk. Br. land Suvla Bay. Arabic sunk. — 3. Zepp. raids on England. Sept. — 7. Czar at Russian G.H.Q.— 18. G. take Vilna. 27. Br. v. atKut-el- Amara. Belgian Congolese in Rhodesia. 4. Hesperian sunk. Oct. — German at- tacks repulsed. Belg. V. near Lake Tanganayka. 43 U-boats destr. since Aug. 1914. — ■ 24 Zepp. raids over Engl, since Dec. 25 19T4. Nov. — Riga safe. 21-26. Ctesiphon won and lost. Br. hospital-ship sunk in Channel. Dee. — R. off. in Galicia ; A u s t r . driven back. 20. Br. leave Suvla Bay. Russ. shell Varna. — 291 APPENDIX loie 1 BELG. &N. FR. EAST FRANCE ITALY BALKANS Jan. — G. attack on Yser mouth : 20,000 shells on 35th. Serbs evac. Aluania Mont en. crushed. Feb.— G. take Frise. 21. VERDUN begins. It. capture Collo Mountains. It. leave Durazzo. Mar. — Br. take over Arras sector. VERDUN . April. VERDUN. (lull by end of month ) It. blow up Collo d Lana. Julg.-Germ. enter Greece. May. VERDUN. Rupel fort surrenders to Bulgarians. June. VERDUN. (G. take Vaux.) 26. Austr. drive! back. July. — I. Battle of SOMME (Fr. and Br.). VERDUN. Bulg. threaten Salo- nika. Aug.— SOMM£. VERDUN. 9. It. offensive Goritzia taken. Rouman. invade Hungary. Sept.— SOMM£. — 25-26. Fr. -Br. take Combles. 29 . G. give up VERDUN. Fr. drive back Bulgar. — Serb, offensive. — Roum.beat Mac- kensen. Oct.- SOMME. — 18. Fr. take Sailly- Saillisel. 24. Fr. re-take Douaumont (6, coo prisoners). 12. It. adv. on Carso 8 Aug. 12 Oct. = 30,000 prisoners. Serbs adv. on Cerna. Roum. lose Kons- tantza. Nov. — SOMME. — 18. Br. take Beau- mont-Hamel. 2 . Fr. re-take Vaux. 2. It. take Faiti- Hrib. 20. Fr. and Serb? take Monastir. Ro' m. repulsed Dec. — July-Nov. : 105,000 prisoners (see page 189). r5. Fr. re-take Lou- vemont (see page 261). It. gains : 132 towns and villages, and 85,000 pris. since May 1915. I. Fr. sailors murd. in Athens. — 5. Roum . lose Bu - carest. — 292 — APPENDIX lolG RUSSIA EAST AFRICA NAV. & AV. Jan. — R. progr. ill Poland, take Czer- nowitz. AlLes leave Gallipoli- — R. prog, in Ar- menia. K. Ediv. VII sunk. — Fr. destroy 2nd Zepp. Feb. — R- take Uscieczko. R. take Erzeroum. — ' R takeKermanchah (Persia). Cameroon conquered Dogger Bank skir- mish. — Serbs all removed by Fr. fleet : no losses. Mar. — R- offensive in Poland. Br., Belg., Portug attack Germ. E Africa. 25. Br. bomb Schles- wig. — 35 G. planes destr. by Fr. — 13 Fr. planes destr. by G. April. R. take Trebizond. 9. Br. lose Kut-el- Amara. Engl, coast shelled and bombed. May. G. evacuate Congo. 20. 120 bombs on Dunkirk. — 31. Battle of Jutland. June .— R ■ take Snya- tin, Lutzk, Czerno- witz, Kimpolung (205,000 prisoners) . Arabia independent. U. M. S. Hampshire sunk. Death of Kit- chener. July .-R . take Brody. 25. R. take Erzind- jian. Aug. — R. take Sta- nislau. R. occupy Armenia Sept. Germ. E. Afr. con- quered. Oct. 12 December. Germany offers peace. 18 December. Pres. Wilson asks Allies to state their aims. Galha (Fr.) sunk. — G. raid in Channel. Nov. 2 Zepps destroyed (Engl.). —26. Suffren sunk. Dec. 20. Br. take El- Arish. G. shell Funchal ; sink Gaulois and Regina Margheriia. — 293 APPENDIX 1 o 1 -^ BELG. & N.FR. EAST FRANCE ITALY BALKANS Jan. 6. G. take Braila. Feb. — From the 24 th. — Germans evacuate 920 sq. - Mar. miles about the ends on 13 th March Bulg. driven back. — Fr. take Fiorina. April. — 9-12- Vimy (Fr.-Br.). — Br. take Monchy. — Gi- venchy, Lievin, Aisne ofiensive. — Fromi6th:Vailly, G. attacks in Maced. (11,000 pris.). 5 th : Craonne (30,000 pris.) May. — Br.takeBul- lecourt. 23. It. takejamiano. 5 . Venizelists beat Bulg. — Allies progr. June. — 7-8. Messines (7,400 pris.) French and British : 64,500 pris. ; 500 gi 27. Germ, attack Mort-Homme. 15 Apr.— 30 June: ins ; 1,300 m. guns. 12. Fr. land at Co- rinth. — 12. Kmg of Gr. abdicates. July. — Batt. of Flan- ders, begins on 31 : Bixsohoote 19-24. Chemin des Dames.— 18. Hill 304- Aug. — - Batt. of Fl. 16. Langemarck. 20. Fr. take Mort- homme(Deadman's Hill). It. V. Bainsizza. G. attack Rouman. Sept. — Batt. of Fl. 20. Inverness. — 26. Zonnebeke. — Ends Batt. of Fl. 8. Caurieres Wood. Br. prog, on Vardar. — Roum . resistance firm. Oct. — 4,9. I2and22: 4Brit.offens. N.E. Ypres {9,125 pris.). 2 . Chemin des Da- mes (3 kil. adv. 8,000 pris.). 24. Germ, offensive begins.' Scotch take Homon- dos. Nov. — 5. Br. take Passchendaele. — 20. Off. on Cambrai (8,000 pris.). 2 . Fr. beyond Ch. des Dames. — 21. Fr. adv. Juvencourt. 5. G. hold Taglia- mento. — 9. Austr. take Asiago. — 12. G. cross Livenza. — 16. G. cross Piave. Dec. — 4-5- Br. lose some ground ab. Cambrai. 1-5 G. att. in Woevre and Meuse. Allies in Italy. — It. success at M. Aso- lone. 294 — APPENDIX lOl -^ RUSSIA Jan. — R. V. on Dvina and in Bu kovina. Feb. Mar.— 15- Tsar ab- dicates. April. — 3. R- d. on Stockhod. May. June. July. — 9- R- take Halicz. — 24. G. take Stanislau and Tamopol. Aug. — 3. G- take Czernovitz. Sept. — G. take Kiga. — R. Livonia — KornUof against Kerenskv. Oct. — CEsel Island occupied. Nov. — 12. Kerensky defeated by Maxi- malists. Dee. — 3. Maxim. open up negocia- tions with Germany ASIA . Anzacs take Rafah. 24. G' Maude takes Kut- el- Amara 8. R. t. Hamadan, — II Br. take Bagh- dad. . Br. join Russ. in Mesop. — 23. Br. reach Samarra. AFRICA NAV. & AV. (1914 — Jan. 1917). — Allies losses: 4,500,000 tons. — Built and captured : 5,312,000 tons. 2. G. statement on ruthless s u b m . - warfare. — Br. shipping loses 500,000 tons. Br. shipping loses 536,000 tons. Allies lose 850.000 tons. Febr. 5 : U.S.A. break off diplom - relations with Germ. March i 4 : China declares war on Germany. April 5 U.S.A. » » » » Dec. 8: Revolution in Portugal. Allied and neutral shipping Aug. i, 1914: 41,800,000 tons. » 1. « » May 20, 1917: 40,900,000 tons. 29. Br. take Rama- dieh (3,000 pris.). 31. Br. attack Beer- sheba. 7. Br. take Gaza. ^ — 9. Br. take Askalon.^- 17. Br. take Jaffa. 1 1 . Br. enter Jeru- salem, — 295 Ital. success in Tri- poli. G. East Afr. surren- ders (last Germ. Colony) . 22. Br. shell Ostend. — -18-29. 4 raids on London. — Death of Guynemer. G. cities bombed. — Drake sunk. Alcedo{\J.S.A.) sunk. — Br. raids off Helgoland and in Kattegat . Essex bombed — Jacob Jones {V .S. A.) sunk. APPENDIX To be filled in \ ^^ 1 5H» ^^ ^^'^ reader. BELGIAN & PORTUG. BRITISH FRONT AMERICAN FRONT FRENCH FRONT ITALY Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. — 296 APPENDIX To be filled in 1 £) 1 ^3 by i'he reader BALKANS RUSSIA OUTS. EUROPE NAVAL AVIATION Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dee. — 297 — INDEX Numbers between parentheses : (17) refey to maps or illus- trations. — Words and Numbers in fat type : 74 refer to the more important passages. Abolition of slavery : 48. Absinth : 71. Absolute monarchy : 12, 20, 34, 75. (87), 88, 94. 121, 125, 132, 162, 165, 222, 226, 263. Academies : 1, 2, 3, 58, 109, 119, 125, 162, 172. Actors : 52, 156. ' Aeronautics : 235, 236, 278. Agriculture : 3, s, 9, 45, (45), 58, 148, 151, 167, 169, 181, 228, 241, (242), 251, 2S^, 274, 277. Aisne : 8, 65, (98), 173- Aix : 38, (84), 211. AIbi, 38, 42, 81. Albigenses : 92, 224, 246. Alcohol : 5, 71, 140, 148, 200, 236, 237, 259, 260, 278. Algeria : 4, 6, 15, 49, 53, 66, 67, 70, 71,249, 2=ig._ Algiers : 43, 44, 97, 135," 172. Alps : 4, 7, 30, 44, (45), 64, 65, 71, 78, 81, 82, 106, 238, (242), 256, 258, 274. Alsace : 64, 8t, (87), 94, 97, 100, 143, 204, 248, 28T. Alsace-Lorraine : n, 30, 64, 81, (85, 87), 94, 97, 100, 143, 200, 280, 282. Aluminium : 104, 152, 237- Amiens : 6, 22, 38, 40, 42, 43. 82, {85), 92, 94, (98), 105, 137, 158, 213, 251. Angers : 43, 82. Angouleme : 43, 83, 105- Animals, (domestic) : 3, 66, 148, 211 ; (wild) : 240, 274. Anjou : 6, 82, 91, 92, 105, 151, 152. Anniversaries : 220. Arabs : 91, 120, 211, (243). Architects and architec- ture : 19, 40, 42, 51, 171, 213, 224, 241, 263, 265. Ardennes : 66, 78, 82, 152, (242), 258. Aries : (84), 211. Army : i8, 25, 30, 49, 58, 74, 78, 108, 164, 226, 228, 282. Arras : 32, 38, 43, 60, 94, (98), 180, 190. Arrondissemenis : 198. Artisans (see Workmen) Artois : 4, 7, 9, 44. 45, 66, 73. 94, (98), 119, 180, 182, 186, 203, 204, 213, 238, 2+7. Arts : 31, 40, 59, 153, 171, 206, 238, 244. Athletics : 72, 218- Australia : 105, 259. Austria : 11, (86), 91. 93, 118, 159, 247, 250, 254, 256, 282. Auvergne : 7, 19,44,(45)1 C6, 82, 117, 152, 203, 204, 209, 227, 238. — 299 — Avignon : 6, 7, 43, 82, 91, 204, 223. Balance : 13, 23, 32, 33. 34, 154, 178, 186, 187, 191, 224, 239, 244, 245, 259. 264, 273. Balzac (the critic) : 25 ; (the novelist) : 127, 128, 2'to, 259. Bapaume : 32, (189, 242, 244). Basques : 91, 119, 208. Bastille : 14, 33, 89, 96. Bathing : 184. Battles : (243), (244), etc. see wars. Bayonet : 33. Bayonne : 33, 38, 43, 81, 92, 135, 214. Beauce : 4, 66, 82, 176. Beauvais : 38, 42, 62, 64, (98), 105, 168, 169. Beer : 4, (7°), 7i. 181, 260. Bees : 73. 148. Belfort : (33), 34, 78, 81, (99), 105, 118, 214. Cl. Bernard : 192, 233. 233. Berri : 67, 105, 204, 203. BesanQon : 43, 78. (84), 105, 265. Beziers : 70, 91. Birds : 55, 218, 274. Birthdays : 220. Boots : 10, 105, T48. Bordeaux : 5, 6, 38, 42, (45). 55, 66, 69, 81, 84, 100, 135, 212, 214, 226, 247, 271. INDEX Bossuet : 3, 125, 192, 224, 248. Boulogne : 43, (84), 13^, 134, 158, 180, 204, 214, 226. Bourbonnais : 151, 204, 258. Bourbons : 74, 118, 164. Bourgeois : 34, 185, 201, 278. Bourges : 38, 42, 43, 81, {84), 104, 151, 239. Brest : 43, (45), 81, {84), 132, 135, 214, 270. Brie : 4, 7, 66, 176. Briey : {99), 147, 148, 151. Bnsques : $g. Brittany : 4, 5, 6, 7, 20, 44, (45), 66,67,71,(87), 91, 92, 105, 119, 152, 187, 203, 204, 209, 213, 214, 227, 230, 247, 270. Burgundy : 5, 13, 19, 55, 69, 70, 80, (87), 90, 93, 151, 175, 190, 204, 209, 213, 238, 246, 274. Butter : 7, 3, 55. Cables : 202. Caen : 43, 82, 134- Cafes : 36, 218. Cahors : 65, (84), bibl. 205 ; see Quercy. Calais : 43, 94, 105, 134, 180, 214, (242), 247. Calorie : 146. Calvados : 65, 71, 213. Calvin : 125, 171, 221, 223. Cambrai : 38, 43, (86), (98), 167. Canada : 46, (82), 94, 249, 258. Canals: 46, 134, 237, 263, 270. Candles: 10, 148, 234, 253. Cantons: 198. Capetians: 13, 19, 74, (87), 88, 91 et seq., 164, 175, 190, 2O4. Capital ciUes : 8, 173, 175, 226. Carcassonne: 38, 43, 65, 81, 83. Carnots: 100, 233. Carpets: 62, 105. Cars; 234, 278. Cathedrals: 8, 37, 62, 239- Catholicism (Roman) (see R. C. Church). Cattle; 7, 66, 148. Celts: (12), 19, 90, 119, ,120, 121, 153, 208, 230, 238. Cement: 105, 237. Central France : 5 (45) , 67, 82, 85, 105, 209, 211, 238, 256,258; also:Au- vergne, Berri, etc. (see 204). Centralisation : see Absolute Monarchy; Unity. Ceramics: 64, 148, 152. Cereals: 4 ; (5), 9, 45, 49, 53, 148, 181, 252, 260. Cette: 43, 70, 135, 271. Cevennes : 7, 67, 82, 104, 205 bibl., (242). Champagne : 5, 9, 67, 69, 70, 77, 92, (98), 105, 137,144, 204, 238,(242), 281. Charente (river): 82, 270 ; (Dept.): 65, 69. Charlemagne: i, 8, 10, 86, 91, 122, 155, 210, 260. Charleroi : (98), 136, 139, (242). Charles VII: 22, 93, m, (113), 212, 247. Charles X : see Restoration. Charles V of Spain : 32, (86), 93, 190, 247, 271. Chartres : 22, 24, 38, 40, 42, 174, 263. Chateaux: (21), 22,(22), 23. Cheese : 7, 53. Chefs-lieux : 198. Chemists: 14, 230, 237. Cherbourg: 43, 81, 132, 133, 134. Chevrons: 59. Chivalry : 72, 91, 164, 247. Christianity : 37, 38, 40, 90. Christmas : 220, 228. Cider : 7, 71. Cities : 43, 80, 179, 200. Class distinctions : 35, 166. Classical (art) : 23, 155, 172, 240 (literature) : 125. Cleanliness: 44, 184. Clermont-Ferrand: 43,(45), (84), 212, 214. Climate : 8, 31, 44, (45); 55, 67, 147, 180, 244; 251, 259. Clogs : 227. Clovis: 8, 10, 43, 90. Coal : 10, 53, 134 et seq., 148, (150), 167, 180, 181. Cock-fighting : 218. Coffee: 36, 53, (70). Cognac: 69, 83. Coins: 73, 146, 267. Colbert: I, 35, 61, 94,129, 133, 171, 253, 257, 258. Colonies : 46, (53), 59, 92, 100, loi, 115, 132, 134, 250, 274, 278, 281, 282. " Comedie-Frangaise " : 51. Commerce;: 34, 36, 43, 49, 52, 77, 134, (242), 253, 271, 276, 277. Communes : 8, 35, 91, 100, 122, 198, 226, 254, 257. Complexity: ig, 20, 31, 44, 55, 66, 75, 76, 205 et seq., 222, 275, 276. A. Comte : 192, 196, 234. Concordats: 158, 223. Condes: 11, 55, 94, 103, 248. Cind^rcet: 126, 192, 196. Conscription: 28, 143. Conservatism : 2, 52, 72, 75, 80, 146, 203, etc. Conservatoires: 52, 155, 234- Constituante: 8, 11, 95, 145, 197, 252. Constitutions : 100, 197 ; also 56. Consulat : 97. Continental B'.ookade : 105, Convention: 1, 51, 97 j 109, 155, 265. Cooking : 29,55, 67,203, 219, 245. Copper : 10, 152, 181. Corbie : 94, 213, 252. Corneille: i, 52, 125, 194, 210. Corsica: 65, 66, 35, 157, 203, 204, 211. Cotton : 9, 53, 105, 148, 251. Creusot : 104, 151. — 300 — Critics : 14, 102, 125, 128, 129, 182, 241, 244, 252, 266. Crockery : 105, 148. Crusades: 88, 91 et seq., 168, 181, 246, 252. Culture: 11, 14, 52, 109, 124, 244, 272. Dagobert: i ), 77, 86, 91. Darwin : 126, 229. Dauphine : 78, 105, 106, 112, 151, 203, 204, 247. Decorations : 58, 262. Decorative arts : 4°. 59, 228, 278. Democracy : 13, 35, 88, 112, 154 — see Equality. Denain : 95, {98), 104, 131, 249. ** Departements " : 65, 109, 159, 197, 226. Depopulation : 200. Descartes: 125, 191, i93. 231, 232. Dialects: 119, 203, 252, 267. Dictionaries : i , 3 bibl. ,121, 122 bibl. Dieppe : 43, (98), 134. Dijon : 43, 78, (86), (99), 214. Directoire: 97 ; (Style) : 63. Directories : 106. Distilleries : 70. Divines : 171, 191. Dogs: 7.66. Domestic animals : 66. Donkeys : 55, 66. Dordogne : 5, 65, 82, (242). Dot : 68, 201. Drama and dramatists: i, II. 34, 36, 52, 126. Drinks : 36, 69 (7°)- Duels : 72, 247- Dunkirk : 43, 79. (98), 105. 120, 134, 167, 214. East France : 4, 5, 45. 65, 69, 144, etc., see Alsace, Champagne, and 20th, Economists: 126, 201,230, 234, 249 ; also : Sociolo- gists. Education : 35, 109, 122 230. Eggs : 7, 53, 55. Egypt : 46, 48, 64, 97 loi, 280. 1NDE5C Emblems (national) : 73- Emigration : 15, 17, 200. Empire (First) : 157-162 ; (style) : 63. Empire (Second) : 100 ; see Napoleon III ;( style) : 64. Enamel : 64. Encyclopedie : 126, 154. Engineering and engineers 258, 271. England and Fr. : 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 45, 48, 52, 64, 66, 69, 75, 76, 81, 88, loi, 120, 123, 135, 151, 192, 205, 225, 228 (243), 254, 258,272,274, 275 ;also: French and E. ;Wats ; etc. Epics : 124, 246, 266. Epigrams : 3, 28, 46, 58, 72, 73, 208, 266, 271. Epinal: 43, 78, (99). io5- Equality : 24, 28, 68, 75, 89, 109, 200, 201, 274, 279. Etiquette : 72, 75, 80, 274. 275- Etrennes : 219. Etymologies : 36, 67, 70, 73, 77, 102, 119, 145. 164, 198, 214, 228, 252, 268, 269, 274. Examinations : no. Exhibitions : 77. loo-ioi. Explosives : 237, 246 (283). Exports : (53), 54, I34. i6g. Fairs : 77,(242). Family relations : 46, 68, 79, 102, 266, 275, 277. Fasting : 220. Fecamp : 71, 134. Federalism: 97, 205 bibl., 223. Feminism : 69, 278. Festivals : 36, 77, 220. Feudalism : n, 13, 22, 34, (86), 88, 238. Finances (national) : 133, 252. Fine champagne : 70. Fisheries : 134, 254, 277. Flags : 74, i34. 254- Flanders : 7, 20, 44. 60, 62, 66, 71, 77. 82, 86, (87), 92. 94, (98), 155, 167, 171, 184, 186, 187 — 301 — 204, 213, (242, 243), 246, 247. Flax : 7, 9, 53, 105, 251. Fleur-de-lis : 73, 74. Flora : {45), 71, 258. Flowers : 80, 259. Foch : 137, 140, 250. Fonciionnarisme : 48. Food : 6, 7, 105, 106, 254, 259, 270 ; also Cooking. Foreigners in F. : 25, 29, 49, 78, 96, 179, 206, 210- 213. Foreign Legion : 30, 281 . Forests : 3, 9, 45. (84), 147, 167, 168, 181, 257, 263, 274, 277. Fortifications (21), 32, 40, 78, 177- Fourrag^re : 59. Fowls : 7, 67. France (defined): 241, 271- 273 ; (its name) : 85 ; (shape) : '81) ; (size) : (82) ; (growth) : (87), 91- loi ; (since 1914) '■ 6, 7. 13, 73, 146, 150, 202, 216, 276, 284 ; (future) : ' 16, 50, 151, 245. Francis I : 32, 44, (86), 93, 171, 204, 223, 247. Frankish rule : 12, 19, 34, 84, (85). 90, 124, 175, 189, 209, 211, 226, 252. B. Franklin : 117, i43. 271. French and Latin : 119, 252, 268 ; see Etymolo- gies. French and English : 102, no, 121, 225, 228, 244, 252, 270. French at the front : 267. Frogs : 55- Fronde : 88, 190, 240. Frontiers : 78, 81, 83, (243). 271- Fruit : 6, 7, 71- Funerals : 79. 266. Furniture : 59. Games : 36, 218, 225, Gardens : (22), 103, 178, 259, 263. Garden produce : 6 ; see Vegetables. Garlic : 6, 55. INDEX Garonne : 4, 6, 82, 207, (242). Gascony : 4, 66, 67, 82, 208. Gaul : 8, 12, 19, 20, 64, 69, 78, 83, (84), 90, 119, 146, 174, 203, 205, 206, 227, 238, 246, 258, 260, 271, 280. Gendarmes : 106. Geographical : 81, pas- sim. Geology of France : 70, 108, 147, 167, 168, 180, 238, 250. Germany : 4, 7, 11, 30, 52, 77, 78, 81, 105, 151, 199, 227, 234, 245, 248, 254, 259, 271, 272,279, 280, 282. Glass : 9, 22, 105, 148. Gloves : 105, 148. Goats : 66, 148. Gothic : 19,40, 171, 181, 224, 238. Gouvernements : 197, 203. Government : 198. Grains (see Cereals). Grammar : 121. Greek influence : 70, 77, go, 120, 124, 174, 210, 238, (239), 240, (242), 249, 278. Grenades : 83. Grenoble : 78, 105. Guide-books : 108. Guilds : 42, 175, 205, 219. Guises : 9, 93, 94, 190, 247, 248. Gulf-stream : 6, 44, {45), 46, 258. Guyenne : (87), 91, 92, (113), 204, 209, 212. Hannibal : 90, (243), 248. Harbours : 132, 240. Havre : 43, 44, 105, 133, 134, 204, 214. Health : 45, 66, 69, 257, 258. Hemp : 7, 9, I05, 251. Henry IV : 61, 88, 94, 103, 128, 177, 208, 217, 248, 249, 259. Historical : 83. Holidays : no, 220. Home : 101, 277. Horses : 55, 66, 211. Hospitality : 56, 76, 102, 187. Houses : 23, {60), 64, 103, 106, 148, 253, 273. Hugo (see Victor Hugo). Huguenots : 103. Huns : 90, 91, 174, 211, (243). Ile-de-France : 7, 20, 105, 204. Immigration: 15, 171, 200, 244. Imports : 7, 53, 134, 169. India : 48, 56, 95, 232, 249. India corn : 4, 5, Individualism : 3, 46, 89. Industries : 52, 104, 148, 167, 181, 236, 251, 254, 260, 278, 280. Information : 106. Insignia (military) : (26), (27), 59. Institut : i. Instruction : 109. Intelligence : 20, 32, 123, 154, 272, 275, 278. Invalides : 24, 161. Invasions: 8, 32, 71, 90 et seq., 211 et seq., (243), 244. Inventions : 20, 234 et seq. Irish in F. : 213. Iron : 9, 24, 104, 148, 151, 169, 181. Italian influence : 23, 24, 62, 64, jy, 120, 124, 155, 171, 213, 239, 240, 259. Jam : 7, 260. Jansenism : 192, 224. Jews : 8, 18, 49, 170, 212, 221. Joan of Arc : 42, 88, 93, 111, 174, 214. Joffre : 58, 115, 136. Jura : 5, 78, 81, 82, r44, 152, (242), 258. Kaolin : 152. Kilns : 106. La Fayette : 74. 96, 100, 117, 144, 163. La Fere : 10, 79, (98), 157. La Fontaine : 11, 125, 126. Lamarck.: 192, 229, 231, 233, 252. Land-values : 3, 4. Landes : 135, 218, 258. Langres : 78, 84, (99). Language : 2, 32, 76, 79, 82, (87), 109, 119, 219, 225, 228, 252, 270 ; also : etymologies, and French. Languedoc : 4, 19, 70, 82, 92, 105, 203, 204, 209. Laon : 9, 10, 42, 43, 79, (98). La Rochelle: 38, 43, 133, 135. Law : 34, 68, 72, 92, loi, 198, 206, 221, 257, 276. Le Mans : 43, 67, 65 (see Maine). P. Lescot : 23, 212, 239. Letter-writing : 75. Libraries : 122. Licenses : 253, 274. Light : 44, 234-236. Lighthouses : 234, 238. Ligue : 11, 32, 88, 94, 190, 248. Lille : 43, 79, 94, (g8), 104, 105, 143, 167, 214, 249. Limoges : 38, 43, 92, 105, 152, 214. Limousin : 4, 92, (113), 204. Liqueurs: 71, 260. Literature : 2, 40, 102, 123, 154, 266. Loire : 4, 5, 23, 82, 104, 151, (242). Lorient : 43, 135. Lorraine : 11, 45, 64, 66, 71, (85), 91, 95, (99), 104, III, 147, 151, 204, 239, 247, 260. Louis IX (see St Louis). Louis XI : 22, 32, 88, 93, 124, 190, 204. Louis Xni : 62, 94, 263. Louis XIV : i, 20, 23, 51, 55, 61, 62, 75, 78, 83, 88, 94, 103, 121, 125, 128, 155, 171, 204, 223, 224, 229, 249, 263. Louis XV : 24, 63, 65, 89, 95, 133. 204, 249, 265. Louis XVI : 5, 63, 95, 117, 118, 133, 164, 249, Louis XVII : 97. — 302 — INDEX Louis XVIII : see Resto- ration. Louis-Piiilippe : 64, 73, 100, 265. Louvre : 23, 61, 62, 92, 176, 263. Love and marriage : 68. Lycees : 58, 110, 218. Lyons : 5, (37), 38, 43, 44, 62, 64, 77, 82, (84), 90, 92, 97, 104, 105, 151, 152, 175, 204, 214, 226, 236, 244. Lys r 78, 79. (98). Mail : 131, 217. Mails : 202, 226. Maine (river) : 82, 270; (province) : 43, 67, 71, 91, 92, 105, 204. Man with the iron mask : 130. Maps : (107), 108. Marines : 25, 30, 120, 139. Maritime : 132. Marne (river) : 4. 8, 82, (98), 173, 270; (Dept.): 65 ; (battle) : 136, i57, 246. Marriage : 68, 80, 201. Marseillaise : 96, 143, 154- Marseilles : 38, 43, 44, 45, 64, 77, 82, (84), 90, 105,133, 144,157,210, 215, 226, 240, (242), 271. Matches : 253. Maubeuge : 43, 79, (98), 104, 214, 286. Mayors : 35, 106, 143, 198. Mazarin : 24, 88, 129, 133, 172, 190. Meaux : (98), 105, 142. Medals : 58, 59, 249. Metallurgy : 10, 53, 106, 151. Metric system : 145. Metz : 11, 43, 78, (86), 93, (99), 100, 117, 138, 175, 204, 247, 260. Meurthe-et-Moselle : n, 147. Meuse : 8, 11, 78, (98), (242), 260, (261), 270, 287. Mezieres : 43, (86), (98), 214, 260. Middle nges : 20, 34, 38, 60, 62, 64, 73, 74, 75, 77, 123, 171, 2og, 219, 238, 241, (242). Milk : 7, 66, 267. Minerals : 148, 150, 169, 181, 232, 236, 238, 251, 277. Ministries : 3, 6, 52, 58, 227, 254. Misiral : 44, also : 119. Moderation : see balance. Modem art : 24, 64, 156, 172, 240 ; (literature) : 128. Moliere : 2, 34, 51, 129. Monopolies : 253. Mons : (98), 136, (242). Montaigne : 125, 193,230. Montesquieu : 126, 192, 195. Montmartre : 152, 173, 217. Monuments : 19, (37), {41}, 51, (84), 152, 174, 183, 217, 238, 240, (241), (260), 263. Morality : 2, 102, 272. Moselle : 11, 78, (242), 270. Mottoes : 75, 164. Mountains : 44, 71, 82, 237, (242),- 271. Mourning : 80, 220. Mules : 66. Mulhouse : 13, 43, (99), 288. Mushrooms : 6. Music and musicians : 56, 143, 153, 203,219, 228. Names : 120, 152, 163, 173, 220. Nancy : 38, 43, 78, 81, 82, 97, (99), 105, 132, 135, 138, 148, 214, 281. Nantes : 6, 38, 43, (81), 82, 97, 105, 132, 135, 214, 258, 270. Napoleon I. : 4, 14, 28, 30, 33, 42, 48, 52, 58, 63, 73, 78, 83, 97, 109, 118, 129, 130, 133, 157, (158), 166, 200, 223, 225, 235, 248,- 249, 253, 259, 265, 275. Napoleon III : 14, 24, 28, 58, (87), 100, 166, 265. Napoo : 268, Narbonne : 70, 214, 226^ National army: 25. — capital : 3, 226, 242, 252, 298! — debt : 255. — education : 109. — emblems : 73. Navarre : 74, 92, 94, 204, 248. Navig ;tion Companies : k6. 134. Navy : 117, 130, 132. Nevers : 43, 64, 82, 93, 105, 204, 205 bib'. Newton : 183, 233. Nice : 43, 67, 78, 81, (87), 93, 100, 204, 211, 214. Nimes : 19, 24, 38, 43, 78, 81, 82, (84), 91, 211, 214. Nobility : 12, (22), 25, 34, 56, 65, 80, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 112, 163, 222, 231, 235, 246, 263. Nord (Dept.) : 167 ; (railw.) : 214, 216; also Flanders, N. France, etc. Normandy : 7, 45, 66, 67, 71, 82, (85), 92, 105, 133, 151, 204, 205, 213, 214, 256. Normans : 19, 91, 175, 189, 210, (243), 246. Norih France : 4, 5, 7, 8, 20, 31, 45, 53, 55, 65, 69, 77, 104, 105, 106, 119, 123, 151, 208, 209, . 218, 238, 241, 253, 258,' 275- Notre-Dame of Paris : 20, 21, 22, 37, 92, 205, 226, 249, 266. Novelists : 2, 11, 102, 125, 127, 128, 252, 278. Octroi : 254. Official publications : 6, 50, 108. Officials : 34, 35, 46, 52, 79, 109, III, 132, 198, 218, 274, 277. Oil : 7, 53, 55. Oise : 8, 79, 82, (98), 168, 173, (242), 270. Olive : 7, 45, 55, 210, 259- Orange : 19, (84), 211. 303 — INDEX Orators : 2, 11, 14, i5. 16, 28, 51, 96, 97. 98, 100, 154, 182, 214, 271, 279. Origins of French. Orleanais and Orleans : 43, 175, 203, 204, 214, (242), 258. Ostriches : 67. Ouicq ; 8. Painters and painting : (l), II, 14, 3i> 62. 149. 153, 168, 171, 182. B. Palissy : 64, 231, 233. Paper mills : 10, 105, 251. Parcel-post : 203. Paris : i, 6, s, 24, 34, 42, 43, 44, 45, 51. 55. 59, 60, 64, 74, 77, 79. (84), 86, 91, 92,93, {98), 100, 119, 122, 132, 142, 152, 160, 173, 183, 199, 204, 217, 218, 226, 234, 236, 252, 259, 263. Parliament : 14, 35, 95, 122, 198. Parties (political) : 89. Pascal : 125, 192, 194, 232, 233, 237. Pas-de-Calais : 180. Pasteur : 182, 196, 233. Pastures : 3, 9, 168, 181. Patriotism : 14, 84, loi, 102, 187, 203, 272, 279. Paume : 131, 217. Peasants : 3> 25, 34, 35, 42, 46, 55, 59, 66, 67, 85, 89, 92, 104, 119, 166, 184,201, 228, 243, 252, 268, 277, 278. Peat : 9, 250. Perfumes : 259. Perigord and Perigueux : 7, 55.65, (84), 92, (113)- Peronne : 32. (98), 131, 189. Perpignan : 38, 43, 81, 214. Perry : 71. Persecutions : 103, 212. Petain : 250, 262. Philippe-Augusta : 88, 92, 133. 176. Philanthropy : 2, 24, 218, 237, 252, 257, etc. Philosophers and philo- sophy : 125, 168, 191- 197. Phoenicians : 77, {242). Photography : 235. Picardy : 4, 7, 8, 20, 44, 45. 71, 77, 82, 93, 94, (98), 119, 120, 184, 186, 203, 204, 205, 213, 221, 238, 250, 252. Pigeons, pigs : 7, 67, 148. Piqueite : 71. Poetry ?nd poets : 11, 14, 119, 123, 265. Poilus : 103, 262, 268. Poincares : loi, 197, 232, 262, 281. Poitiers and Poitou : 19, 35. 38, 42, 43. 66, (84), 91, 92. (113). 169, 204, 211, 214, (242). Police : 106. Political organisation : 35, 65, 197, 276. Population : 8, 10, 16, 49, 83, 148, 167, 179, 199, 200, 251, 258. Porcelain : 64, 105. Postal : 202. Potatoes : 5, 135. Prefets : 199. Presidents : 100, 101, 143, 198. Primeurs : 6. Protection : 52, 253. Protestantism : 8, 12, 94, 103, 130, 170, 182,221, 230, 231, 233, 240. Provence : 7, 19, 55, 77, 82, 90, 119, 152, 204, 210, 213. Provinces : 203. Prussia : 11, 28, 48, (86), 92, 159, 162, 177, 187. 260, 262, 265, 280. Pyrenees : 5, 66, 70, 78, 85. 115. 152, 187, 207, 213, 238, 256, 258, 274. Quartier Latin : 174,205. Quercy : 92, (see Cahors). Quintal : 146. Rabelais : 125, 205, 230. Races : n, (12), 17, 31, 206, 244. Railways : 6, 10, 14, 148, 152, 170, 214, 226, 234, (242), 253. 281. Radium : 236. — 304 — Recreations : 2x7. Ked-Cr' ss : 276. Red-letter days : 36, 219, 228. Religion : 13, '4. 102, 109, 188, 220, 221, 225, 228. Renaissance : 22, 60, 61, 62, 68, 124, 154, 155, 239- Renan : 127, 196, 229. Rennes : 43, 65, 82, 204. Republic set up : 73, 89, 240. Republic (Second) : 73, 100, 265. Republic (Third) : 58, 62, 73. 75, 100. Restaurants : 36. Rfstoration : 42, 73, 74, 97, 160, 190, 265. " Revanche " : 225. Revenue : 252, 257, 274. Revolutions (general) : 35, 245 ; (prior to 1789) : 34, 35, 91; (of 1789) : 13, 51. 73, 75, 95, 133, 154, 165, 172, 223, 228, 244, 249, 259; (of 1830) : 14, 29, 73, 100, 122; (of 1848) : 14, 73, 100, i65. Rheims : 8, 10, 22, 38, 42, 43, 54,78, (84), 91, (98), 105, 129, 138, 214. Rhine : 78, (84, 87), 97, 144, 226, (242, 243), 270. Rhone : 5, 44, 45, 82, 134, 211, (242). Richelieu : i, 32, 33, 44, 72, 88, 94, 128, 130, 133, 223, 234, 241. Rivers : 8, 11, (82), 147, 168, 180, 270. Roads : 9, 1°, (84), 148, 226, 262. Rochambeau : 117, 144. Rochefort : 43, 83, 105, 132. R. C. Church : 12, 14, 19, 24, 35, 38, 72, 74, 80, 91, 95, 100, loi, 114, 120, 123, 125, 158, 177, 212, 219,221, 260, 275. Romanesque : 19, 238. Roman influence : 8, 12, 19, 20, 23, 34, 38, 59, 64, 73, 77, 83, (84), 86, 119, 124, 160, 205, 207, INDEX 209, 211, 226, 227, 252, 275- Romanticism : 21, 127, 172, 192, 240. Rondes : 219. Roubaix : 43, 53. 105, 167. Rouen : 10, 24, 38, 42, 43. 53, 64, 82, 91, (98), 105, 114, 134. Rousseau : 126, 192, 196. Roussillon : 5, 6, 70, (87), 94, 204- " Sabots" : 227. Sailors : 48, 93, 117, 133, 149, 168. Saints (favorite, or French) : 10, 74, 77, 91, III, 149, 228, 251 ; (patron) : 148, 174, 220 ; (Saint-Cloud) : 67, 77, 263 ; (Saint-De- nis) : 22,58, 74, 77,91, Q3, 94, 174, 247, 248; (Saint-Etienne) : 43, 104, 105; (Saint -Germain) : 148, 265 ; (Saint-Gobain) : 9, 10; (Saint-Louis) : 43, 72, 92, 122, 124, 241 ; Saint-Malo) : 135 ; (Saint- Nazaire) : 43, 105, 135; Saint-Quentin) : 8, (86), (98), 105, 131, (242). Saint-Simons (memoria- list : 125, 131, 165 ;(social reformer) : 234. Saintonge and Saintes : 66, (84), 91, 92, 204. Salaries, etc. : 3, 4, 6, 7, 29, 57, 69, no, 276, 277. Salic law : 92. Salt : 148, 152. Salutations : 76, 80. Sambre : 78, 79, (98). Saone : 4, 77, 82, (242), 270. Saumur : 5, 204. Savoy : 65, (87), 93, 94, 100, 144, 204, 209, 249. Scheldt : 8, 78, 79, (98), 270. Scholars : 168, 171, 182, 230-232. Schools : 13, 14, 18, 24, 28, 109, no, 115, 132, 206, 218, 220, 227, 258, 259. Science and scientists : 2, 24, 171, 182, 192, 206, 228-234, 259. Scots : 29, 92, 122, 192, 205, 212. Sculptors and sculpture : 14, (23), (3^). 34, 73, 149, 168, 238, (239), 240, (241), 263. Sedan : (99), 100, 105, 204. Seme: 4, 82, 174, (242), 263. " Seventy-five " : gun 141,245, (283). Shakespeare : 123, 271. Sheep : 7, 49, 67, 148. Shipp'ng : 133-136. Shooting : 218, 220, 274. Silk : 9, 53, 54, 62, 105, 239, 251, 259. Situation and conse- quences : 241. Sk.ll : 20, 32, 59, 62, 242, 278, 279. Slang: 119, 121,228, 269. Snails: 55, 57. Soap : 105, 251. Socialism : 16, 228, 266, 276, 278, 279. Sociologists : 9, 126, 201, 230, 249, 274. Soissons : 8, 10, 38, 42, 90, (98), 175, 276. Soldiers : n, (30), 33, 34, 49, 90, 104, 124, 134, 137, 140, 149, 168, 181, 190, 214, 242, 245, 246, 259- Somme : 8, 90, (98), 189, 233, 238, 250, 270. Sorbontip : 24, 77, 92, 205. Sou h Africa : 104. Soutb France : 19, 23, 31, 55, 65, 66, 67, 69, 119, 123, 151, 166, 208, 211, 218, 219, 238, 241, 246, 258, 259,275- Spain : 19, 32, 48, (86), 97, 177. 190, 207, 213, 224, 247, 248, 265, 271. Sports : 131, 217, 274. States General : 13,35,48, 95, 217, 265. Statesmen : 9, 10, 14, 35, 46, 83, 91, 93, 95, 100, 117, 143, 181, 182, 200, 214, 259, 281. — 305 — Statistics : 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 25, 42, 49, 52, 67, 105, 134, 136, 150, 151, 152, 167, 181, 200, 202, 215, 216, 226, 227, 247, 252,. 257, 271, 277. Steam-power; 10, 106,135^ 169, 181, 234, 235, 237. Steel : 10, 104, 236. Stills : 70. Stone : g, 19, 152, 181. Strasbourg: 12, 43, 93, (99), 143. Streets : 36, 43. Stress in F. : 120. Suffrage : 254, 276. Sugar : 7, 9, 10, 53, (70),. .. 91, 105, 148, 251, 253. Sundjy : 221. Surgery : 232. Taine : 127, 196. Tapestry : 59. Taxation : 218, 249,252, 274, 276. Telephone: 202,235. Textiles: 33, 105, 167, 251,, 259- Theatres: 24, 51, 211. Thermal (springs): 9, 152; (stations) : 256. Thrift: 67, 71, 254,266,. 273, 277, 278, etc. Tinned (fish) : 135 ; (fruit) 7 ; (vegetables) : 6. Tobacco : 7, 148, 167, 253 Toul : 43, 78, (86), 93, (99), 147, 204, 244, 260. Toulcn : 43, 132, 157, 214, 240. Toulouse : I, 7, 19, 38, 43,. 55, 67, 77, 81, 82, (84), 90, 105, 204, 209, 211, 214, 226, 238, 239, (242), 246, 248, 271. Touraine : 91, 119, 204, bibl. 205, 238. Tourcoing : 43, (98), 105. lours : 7, 38, 43, 82, 204, 214. Travellers : 48, 230, 231. Trees (notable) : 7, 71, 135, 258, 259. Troyes: 65, 82, (98), 204. Truffles : 7, 55. Turgot : 35, 126, 230. United States and Fr. : 6, 18, 44, 45, 48, 52, 66, 75, 76, 103, ii5, 117, 143, 144, 151, 178, 199. 207, 228, 230, 233, 236, 240, 249, 254, 255, 259, , 265, 271, 272, 279, 282. Unity : i, ix, 13, 20, 23, 32, 33, 59, 74- 83-89, 97, 124, 131, 144, 179, 225, 226, 245, 254. Universities : 49, 77, 9-, 109, 122, 158, 176, igi, 205. Valenciennes: 43, 64, (98), 105, 167. Valmy : 96, (98), 100, 288, (242). Vauban : n, 32, 33, 165, 200, 249, 260, 262. Vegetables : 5, 6, 9, 103. Vendee : 70, 82, 97, 211. Verdun : 38, 50, 78, 85, (86), 93, 96, (99)- 120, 137, (138), 143, 186,249, 260. Verdun partition : 12,(85), 91, 260. Versailles : 20, 24, 38, 40, 43, (62), 63, 88, 95, 100, 118, 165, 1S6, 259, 263. Victor Hugo : i, 21, 123, 124, 127, 128, 164, 184, 265. Vienne (R.) : 82, (242}; (city) : 105, (84). Vinegar : 10, 55, 253. INDEX Vineyards : 3, 4, 9, 45, 55, 70, 168, 210, 259. Volcanoes : 44, 82. Voltaire : 46, (51), 123, 126, 192, 195, 208. Vosges : 11, 44, (45), 78, 81, 82, 105, 147, r52, (242), 256, 258. Wars (in general) : 13, 55, 177, 186, 241, (243), 245, 246, 272 ; (100 years') : 8, 25, 10, 82, 92, 111, 186, 247; (in Italy) ; 23, (86), 93, 247; (of reli- gion) : 93, 103, 248; (30 years') : 94, 248; (Louis XIV) : 94-95, 248-249 ; (Louis XV) : 95, 249, 269: (Indep.ofU.S. A.): 95, 117, 249, 265; (Re- volutionary) ; 96-97, 143, 249; (Naonleon'c) : 8, 32, 78, 157-161, 249, 265 ; (Indep. of Greece) : 97, 249 ; (Indep. of Bel- gium) : 100, 249 ; (In- dep.' of Italy) : 100, 250; (the Crimea) : 100, 250; (of 1870-71) : 8. 11, 32, 34, 50, 59> 100, 225, 250, 253, 256, 260, 265, 280; (c 'lonial) : 48, 100- 101, 250; (present) : see world-war. War-French : 267. Wat?r-power : 106, 152, 234, 237. ■Waterways : 8, 10, 82, 148, 270. Weshts and measures :, 145, 203. Western France : 7, 45, 55, 65, 69, 82, 152, 166, 209, 210, 211, 258, etc. ; see : Briltauy, Maine, Nor- inandv, Vendee and 204. What others have said : 27X. Wild animals : 274. William of Normandy : 20, 88, 246. Wines : 4, 5,9, 36, 49, 53, 69, (70), 135, 147, 148, 269. Woevre : (99), 147, (261). Women : 10, 42, 58, 68, 75, 75, 92, 149, 169, 187, 188, 211, 226, 251, 252, 267, 275. Wood industr.es : 106, 260. Wool; 9, 46, 53, 54, 105, 148, 251. Workmen : 34. 59, 69,75, r79, 185, 277. Writers ( arious) : i, 3, 119. 125, 127, 168, 182, 191, 210, 224, 252, etc., and Biblioo:raphies. World-war and Fr. : 78, 1^6. 261, 279, and Ap- pendix. 306 Prmieci by ;MORRISON & GiBB LIMITED Edinburgh ^^ ^ s ^ .« o s g m — i 1 1 II ■! LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 030 227 659 6