.<^ ^/ z .^-' ^G ' -^ ^ X "^^ /\ - ,, . o or •"" - %/ ■>,<^ .V ^.% ^^ ^ 't ?- ] •. .^' 9 1 /^ ^ t. V» c "cT- 'a. ■ 0' ^ A 1 /i ^ >£=3li 1 te=i-' - •>* c.^ rVW >?i$s. ///I o ^ r -'yy ~ --" r;-^ 3 N .^^' J" "A in a i 1" a, L fo (KToinpany /he Hor/(\ RY OP. rinwAM. Ail iltfO IS OO /POO ZOOO 21 JO JZao 23 OO 24 OO 23 -^^O 42 d v^t „ THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. ^ 7 CYCLOPEDIA OF CHEONOLOGY OR THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: DICTIONARY OF DATES, WITH LAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND AN HISTORICAL CHART. EDITED BY GEORGE f. PUTNAM. REVISED EDITION. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR 51 & 53 JOHN STEEET. 60I.D BY BOOKSBLLBns, GBNERALLY, THROUGHOUT IHK UNITED BTAT«». 1860. Hi- 13 \lU 11^)11 Jl oil 2(^lo /9 "^n^f"' J'^f 'iloo 'iWo u .«Trr| Hi.lor|'i''»«i'i>r>) WlOryijn ' ^'Arf ! I ; KM/'/ni: OP THK. "• i , -IHI. /o ,nvoi„/>„iiy III,' "Hnrlds /'nx/ri'sy" j r i :--f'"""'^' .V ' I - -"f ^ ! 1 >^-^r , Xx/A^rA-.»:v 1 TTM ^',113!' '^M«r« r^iv^ifi j^'fcii. M>,. /j.[.,i ;y.,'j,[„, .,,„ „|,„ l:rji gcnilV II \yu ij_;; Go%i, fc V' • >•> irrio is Oil g.otio J,>\,>o J;7l),> .«li<. isxa .Uoo tt^in -■., ^ L— "f ^ ii,-.M.,tn(i AIS...0 i;,„i...r I'M a I .icrif^'^" ~~4»'•■v^v^i !'<,%''- '•''''^"i'^''^'^V••'''^^^ ^ I /-W. /.r/.-.V ^ ^_\i rb=r.-j -r-l__/!-«.V.l-CiF f rrinu.. Huns, Suevi Golhs, t'audalsSaxona r I poviiiii "Kivpl ■ Moiuvou ::— •Piii-iufni J;;nr..p,-,.ul.„-k..v I— '11.11. Ihu'llic.i .\,..l...K,m,,.i=' 3Ki|j!lii>._rf^. Sni-aiiiin ,,j- 'I'u s ra n\- 1' ..(..• .1.1 txir\^»\- iiou''ui>'i '''"'"' \> J' > TIVr,-|Kiiglnii.l| I'" H.Vin.is)/'' ii«.-irYorki»lH.lrll''< rcn.» Pif,,,,,!'" vj,„., ..._ _.,,„. llu A.vi<), J J«. I 1,A I.'-*- " llril. AiiuTjra. I'" Aij.-..ih.Mi..i.in.. ' .*•* \>ii .1. > ^■i> '^'^ THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. '7 ■>? CYCLOPEDIA OF CHRONOLOGY OB THE WORLD'S PROGRESS: DICTIONARY OF DATES, WITH TABULAR VIEWS OF GENERAL HISTORY, AND AN HISTORICAL CHART. EDITED BY GEORGE P. PUTNAM. (11 REVISED EDITION. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR 51 & 53 JOHN 9TEEET. S01.D BY BOOKSELLERS, GENERALLY, THROUGHOUT THB UNITED STATB*. 1860. 311 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, Br A. S. BAENES & CO., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New Yorlc. TRANSFER ':2 OCT 4 1943 ierjal Recoru Division TltLiliriDfofDonsrtit Oapy THE HOME CYCLOPEDIA. OR LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. IN EIGHT VOLUMES, EACH COMPLETE IN ITSELF. I. History and Cheonologt. The World's Progress. By G. P. Putnam. II. General Literatuee and the Fine Arts. By George Kipley and Bayard Taylob. [II. The Useful Arts — including Agriculture, Domestic Economy, &c. By Dr, Antiset,!,. ly. Universal Biography — a Eecord of the Names of Eminent Persons, By Pakkb Godwin. V' V. Universal Geography — a Comprehensive Gazetteer of the World. By T. C. Calli- cott. VI. Science — including Natural History, Botany, Geology, Mineralogy, «fec. By Profeesor Samuel St. John, of Western Eeserve College. In Press. VII. Architecture — Historical, Descriptive, Topographical, Decorative, Theoretical, and Mechanical. By Eobert Stuart. iTIII. Cyclopedia of Europe — a Manual of European Geography — embracing valuable Sta- tistics concerning every important place. By F. L. Ungewittee. *^* Theso volumes are intended to comprise a comprehensive view of the whole circle of human knowledge — in other words, to form a General Cyclopedia in a portable ahape, for popular reference, for Family Librariei, foi Teachers and School Libraries, and for tb" "eneral reader. NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & BURR \ ? 51 & 53 JOHN STEEET. "%!.. »0L» BY BOOKSELLERS) OKNKRALLV, THEOL'GHOUT THE UMTBD 8TATB*, 1860. PREFATORY NOTE TO THE TWELFTH EDITIOIT. The favorable reception of the former editions of this work hag mduced the new proprietors to have it revised and brought down to the close of 1854. A slight departure from the original plan will be observed in the continuation ; the events which in the first part were placed under the heads of their respective countries, being now arranged in the supplement to the Chronological Tables. Of the various sources from which the materials have been drawn, particular mention is due to the "American Almanac," the "State of the Union," and some valuable articles in the "New York Tribune." The articles upon the British Museum, and Education in Europe, are taken, with the permission of the editor, from "Norton's Literary Almanac," a work which ought to be upon the table of every one who feels the importance of accurate information upon education and bibliography, New York, August, 1855. PREFACE. While revising a chronological manual, in compiling which I had, at the age of fifteen,* employed many midnight hours, I have found material assistance in the tables prepared by my late friend, D. A. Talboys, publisher, of Oxford, England, usually called the Oxford Chronological Tables. In the alphabetical part of the volume, the comprehensive and useful Dictionary of Dates, by Haydn,t has been incorporated almost entire, with such additions relating to the United States as were necessary to its completeness, and with continuations to the present year. The contemporary tables which I had formerly prepared, had cost much diligent application, and I was glad to find on collating them with the more recent works, that some slight additions only were needed to make them as full and complete as was desirable for the purpose in view, viz. : a convenient and portable volume for refer- ence, not over-burdened with details, but indicating to the intelligent reader all the great landmarks of history in their order of succession ; and showing also what was going on at the same time in different countries. To render this glance more comprehensive and clear, many of the details in the former tables are now omitted, as they are given more at large in the alphabetical part of the volume. To a reader of history the utility of such a glance at contempo- rary persons and events, is too obvious to need illustration : but while the more elaborate and ponderous works of Blair, Talboys, and * Chronology— Kxi Index to Universal History, &c. 12mo. Leavitt, New- JTork, 1833. The volume has been long out of print. t Fourth edit. 8vo. Lond., 1847. That work needs no praise here. IV PREFACE. others J are available to the historian or the merely literary man, they are usually repulsive to the general reader, for the very reason that they contain too tnuch for ordinary purposes ; their very elaborate- ness serves to puzzle and to mystify. What is here aimed at is simply to indicate, in brief and sugges- tive terms, the succession of the prominent occurrences and of the governments in the chief nations of the world — enough merely to recall to the reader of history the full pictures of these events, and to enable him to classify them correctly in his memory. The alphahetical part of the volume gives, in most cases, more full and ample references to the same historical facts ; but still the whole work is but an index to the sources of knowledge— a Diction- ary of Dates. It has been planned so as to facilitate access to the largest amount of useful information in the smallest possible compass. . There are some discrepancies among the authorities, as to names and dates — especially in the Middle Ages — and in some instances the dictionary varies from the tables ; but these instances are not numerous or important. The Biographical List at the close of the volume will contribute it is presumed, to render the contemporary tables far more variously useful than would be at first supposed. By ascertaining from it the dates of birth and death of any eminent person, the tables will show at a glance what events happened, and what other eminent per- sons lived during the life-time of that individual. It would be superfluous to say more by way of explanation. That such a volume can be quite free from imperfections is not to be supposed ; but the compiler trusts that it will be found to answer all reasonable expectations, as a compact manual of reference to the World's Progress in Arts, Literature, and Social Life, as well as in Politics and Government. Gr. P. P. EXPLANATION OF THE CHART OE HISTORY, Representing, in a Chronological Scries, the Rise, Revolutions, and Fall f (ht principal Empires of the World. OK THE PLAN OF DR. J. PRIESTLEY. Ii IS necessary to notice, that the space allottea .0 each country is rather according toils relative political nnpoitance, than to its geographical extent The spaces between the vertical lines which cross the chart, represent time, viz., each a cen- tury or lUO years ; those between the horizontal lines represent countries, tlie names of which are espressed at the end of the chart. By examining the vertical columns, we ascertain the contemporary state of different nations at the period we fix upon. For instance: about 1500 years before Christ, we see stales forming iu Greece; the Israelites in Egypt (from whence they depart nine years after); the Egyptian, Assy- rian, Persian, Chinese, and other kingdoms had been founded several centuries previous — but tlieir history uncertain and obscure. At the time of Christ, we find the Roman Empire spread over a greater part of the then known world, but the Parthians, Britons, and Germans, as yet unsubdued by them. 700 years after, this empire exists only in Turkey, and its former territories are under barbarians: the Heptarchy in England; the Lombards in Italy, the Franks in Gaul; the African provinces, and a large part of Asia under the Saracens. In 1500 we find the Eastern or Greek Empire fallen under the Turks; the Tartars powerlul in Asia: many of the modern states of Europe founded; America discovered by the Europeans, &c. &c. On the other hand, the revolutions of each country may be seen in continuation by lookmg along the chart horizontally : the Persian empire is founded in remote antiquity ; uniied with that of the Medes, about 600 b. c. ; is extended by Cyrus into Assyria, Asia Minor, and Egypt, 53G; falls in turn, under the Macedonians, Parthians, Saracens, Turks, and. Tartars, successively. — The Israelites in Egypt from 1706 to 1491 b. c. ; in Canaan 1-151 ; under the Judges about 1300; under Kings, 1095 ; Ten Tribes separated, 975 ; t/iei/ave conquered, 721, and Judah, 588, by the Assyrians ; restored by the Persians, 535 ; under the Macedonians, 330 ; restored to independence by the Mac- cabees, 150; conquered by the Romans, 63; by the Saracens, a. D. 622; afterwards by the cru- saders, Mamelukes, and Turks, successively. — England subdued by the Romans in the first cen- tury; relinquished by them, A. D. 410; subdued by the Saxons, 500; by the Danes, 860; by the Normans (receiving French territories), 1066 ; united with Ireland, 1170; with Wales, 1280; with Scotland, 1600. — Itali/ in antiquity possessed by several petty tribes ; by the Romans from 300 — 200 B. c. to 480 A. D., then by the Herulii, Ostrogoths, Lombards, and Franks, successively ; — in modern times, divided into several small republics and principalities ; joined to the French empire about 1600, and now divided chiefly between Austria, the Grand Dukes of Tuscany, Modena, &c., the Pope, and the King of Naples. " They are rather melancholy reflections which the view of such a chart of history is apt to excite in the minds of persons of feeling and humanity. What a number of revolutions aro marked upon it ! What torrents of human blood has the restless ambition of mortals shed, and in what complicated distress has the discontent of powerful individuals involved a great part o( their species ' "—Priestley. s-¥ CONTENTS. TABULAR VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, IN CONTEMPORARY COLUMNS. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. Pbriod I.— The Antediluvian (1656 years) ... .3 Period II.— Dispersion of Mankind (427 years).— Tiie Deluge lo Abraham 4 I'eriod III.— The Abrahamic or Patriarchal (430 years).— Abraham to Moses . , 6 Period IV.— The Mosaic or Theocratic (396 years).— Moses to Saul . . 8 Period V. — The Monarchical (489 years).— Saul to Cyrus . . . .14 Period VI. — The Persian (322 years).— Cyrus to Alexander . , 21 Period VII. —The Grecian (184 years). — Alexander to the Fall of Greece . , 2C Period VIII.- Tlie Roman (146 years).— Fall of Greece to the Christian Era . Jf8 II. MODERN- inSTORV. Period I. — (306 years). — From the Christian Era to the reign of Constantine , . 48 Period II. — (170 years.) — Coastantine (o O.ioacer .... 58 Period III.— (146 years.)— Odoacer to Mahomet . . . . .62 Period IV.— (178 years.)— Mahomet to Charlemagne ... 68 Period V.— (266 years.)— Charlemagne to William the Conqueror . . .72 Period VI, — (233 years.) — William the Conqueror to Othman I. . . 86 Period VIL — 154 years.)— Othman to the Fall of the Eastern Empire . . 102 Period VIII. — (145 years.) — Fall of Eastern Empire to the Edict of Nantes . 112 Period IX. — (120 years.)— Edict of Nantes to the death of Charles XII., of Sweden . 122 Period X— (97 years.)— Charles XII. of Sweden to the Fall of Napoleon • • 134 Period XI.— (40 years.)— Napoleon to the year 1850 ...... 146 il. DICTIONARY OF DATES 145 III. LITERARY CHRONOLOGY G(i9 IV. HEATHEN DEITIES, &c , . . 64« V BIOGUAPIHCAL INDEX . . .657 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. PAUT I. TABULAE VIEWS OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY. I. Ancient CHRONOLoaY — ^from the Creation to the Birth of Christ — 4004 years. II. Modern Chronology — from the Birth of Christ to the present time — 1850 yeara I. ANCIENT CHKONOLOaY. DIVIDED INTO EIGHT PERIODS. 1. From the Creation, to the Deluge, 2. From the Deluge, to the Call of Abraham, 3. From the Call of Abraham, to the Exode from Egypt, 4. From the Exode, to the Kingdom of Saul, 5. From Saul, to the Captivity of Israel, B. C. 4004 2348. , 1656 years The Antediluvian Period. . 427 years The Dispersion Period. . 430 years The Patriarchal Period. 2348 1921... 1921 1491... 1491 1095 396 years The Theocratic Period. 1095 58S, 507 years. ....... .The Monarchical Period. , . 258 years. The Persian Period. to the Subjugation of Greece, 146 ........ 184 years The Cfreetan Period, . . 146 years .The Roman Period, 6. From the Captivity, to Alexander the Great, 7, From Alexander, 330. 330 8 From the Subjugation of Greece, 146 to the Birth of Christ, 0. • From the Creation to the Christian era, the dates are reckoned BEFORE CHRIST. They are then changed to A. n.—the Year of our Lord. THE world's progress. FIKST PERIOD— (^7«e Antediluvian)— IQ56 years. B.C. 4004 3875 3874 3769 3679 3609 a544 3aS2 3317 3130 3074 3017 2948 2468 2348 THE CREATION OF THE WORLD.— (Hebrew Pentateuch.) [Hales places it 5411 B. c* The fall of man, and the promise of a Saviour. The birth of Cain, the first-born of woman— a husbandman. The death of Abel, the first subject of death. He was a shepherd Seth born, the third son of Adam. Enos born. Cainan born. Mahalaleel bom. Jared " Enoch " Methuselah " (lived 969 years.) Lamech " Death of Adam, aged 930 years. Enoch translated. Noah born. The building of the Ark commenced. THE DELUGE. [Hales places it 3154 B. c] Enoch born, the first son of Cain.t Cain builds a city, which he calls Enoch. He in troduces the use of weights and measures. — Ja- sepkus. Tytler. Irad. Mehujael. Methusael. Lamech — polygamy introduced Jabal, The first to build a Tent for habita- tion, and to Jubal He invent- ed the Harp and the Or- gan,or wind usecaltle for ^and stringed purposes of instruments husbandly. | of music. Tubal-cain. He discov- ed the mode ofpreparing and using iron, brass, and other Metals. Naamah. She intro- duced the artsof^Spzn- ning and Weaving. * See alphabetical portion of this volume for the various dates of the chronologists. The Sa- maritan Pentateuch places the Creation B. c. 4700 ; the Septuagint, 5872 ; Josephus, 4658 ; the Talmudists, 534.^ ; Scaliger, 3950; Pe/at-zMS, 3984 ; and Dr. Hales, 5411. The last named enu- merates above 120 various opinions on this subject, the difference between the latest and remotest date of which is no less than 3268. The Hebrew account is followed by Usher, and is here adopted as the most generally received standard. t No dates are assigned in Scripture to the names here placed in the right-hand column.— They are however contemporary with those in the other column. Remarks.— The Antediluvian Period was nearly as long as the whole period that has elapsed eince the birth of Christ. Of the progress of knowledge and the arts, during that period, nothing ia known beyond what is given above, except that ship-building, calking, and the use of pitch, or paint, of measures by cubit, &c., and of doors and windows, were known. They imply, in their adaptation to the use of man, other arts, ard a considerable advance in science and the mechanical powers. ^r3r-THE TABtLAR V I E W S ABB CONTINtJED ACROSS TWO PAGES AT TBI SAME TIME. THE WORLDS PROGRESS. SECOND J^EmOD— (Dispersion of Mankind. y - B.C 2347 2247 2231 2122 2100 2095 Progress op Society and the Arts. Wine made by No?ih from the grape. Bricks made, and cement used to unite them. Confusion of languages at Babel. AstroTunnical observations begun at Babylon. 2347. The descendants of Noah dispersed through the earth : those of Shem probably in Asia, of Ham in Africa, and of Japhet ia Europe. 2347. The curse pronounced upon the descend- ants of Ham. 2247. The building of Babel.* 2245. BABYLON founded by Nimrod, son of Cush, and Grandson of Ham. NINEVEH founded by Ashur, son of Shem. Athotes (son of Menes) invents hieroglyphics. Sculpture and Painting employed to com- memorate the exploits of Osymandyas. Pyramids and Canals in Egypt. The science of Geometry begim to be cultivated. fi)98 Ching Hong teaches the Chinese the art of Husbandry, and the method of making Bread from wheat, and wine from rice. SACRED HISTORY. 1996. Abraham bom. 1921. The call of Abraham. * The chronology here adopted is that of the Hebrew Pentateuch. The Samaritan placet Babel 531 years after the deluge. Our knowledge of Grecian chronology begins in 776 b. o. —the first recorded Olympiad. Till then we give the most approved mythological dates. THE world's progress. 427 years. — TJie Deluge to Abraham. . c. PROFANE HISTORY.— (/n this ■period traditional and uncertain.} Asia. 2207 CHINA. The first imperial dynasty of Hia begins. Folii (who is perhaps Noah him- self) is mentioned as the first Chinese monarch. 2124 2069 2059 2017 IJelus reigns in BABYLON. — [Some suppose Belus to be the Nimrod of Scripture. If so, there is a discrepancy of 121 years between the sacred and profane chronologies.] The origin of the kingdoms of Babylon and Nineven, and of the Assyrian empire, is variouslystated by the chron- ologists. See Sacred Hist.] Ninus, son of Belus, reigns m Nineveh. He establishes the ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Semiramis enlarges and embel- lishes Babylon, and makes it the seat of empire. [By others placed 2107 B.C.] 1975 Semiramis invades Lybia,Ethi- opia, and India. 1937 The Arabs seize Nineveh. (1) Africa. EUBOPB. 2188. Misraim (Mcnes), the son of Ham, builds Memphis, in EGYPT, and begins the E- gyptian monarchy. 2111. THEBES founded by Busiris. 2100. Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, and conquers Bactria 2085. Egypt conquered by the shepherd kings of Phenicia, who hold it 260 years. 1938. Lake Moeris constructed. 2089. SICYON, the first king- dom of GREECE, founded by Egialus, or Inachus. 2048. A colony of Pheniciana land in Ireland. (?) 2042. Uranus arrives in Greece. Revolt of the Titans War of the Giants. 6 / THE world's progress. THIRD PEHIOD— (T/ie Ahrahamic or Patriarchaiy SACRED HISTORY. B.C Progkess of Society and the Arts. B. c. The Jews. 1921. Abraham called. 1920 Gold and silver first mentioned as money. 19:20. — goes into Egypt. 1912. —delivers Lot from captivity, and Tfr ceives the blessing of Melchizedec. 1909. Ishmael born. 1897. Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed. God renews his covenant with Abraham. 1896. Isaac born. 1891 Letters first used in Egypt by Syphoas. 1871. Abraham commanded to offer Isaac in sacrifice. 1856. Isaac married. 1836. Jacob and Esau born. 1824. Abraham dies, aged 172. 1822 Memnon invents the Egyptian alphabet. 1759. Jacob marries Leah and Rachel. 1739. His name changed to Israel. 1729. Joseph sold into Egypt. 1715. Is made governor under Pharaoh. 1706. Jacob and his family settle in Egypt. 1702. End of the seven years' famine. 1699. Death of Jacob. 1635. Death of Joseph. 15S8 Atlas, the astronomer. 1582 The chronology of the Arundelian marbles begins. 1580 The cymbal used at the feasts of Cybele. 1577. Israelites persecuted in Egypt. 1574. Aaron born. 1571. Moses born. 1534 Dancing to music introduced by Curetes. Book of Job written about this time. (?) 1531. Moses flees into Midian. 1513. The supposed era of Job. 1506 ThejZw/e invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian. 1497 Amphictyon gives interpretation to dreams and draws prognostics from omens. 1491 Ericthoneus teaches the Athenians husbandry. 1491. God appears to Moses m a burning bush at Horeb, and sends him to Egypt to delivei the Israelites. The Ten Plagues in E5:ypt. Institution of the Passover. , The EXODUS of the Isn '" " Egypt. THE world's progress. Abraham to Moses. — (430 years.) B.C. PROFANE mS>TOKY .—{^Still fc\bulous or uncertain.) Asia. Africa. 1766 China. The 2d Imperial dy- nasty begins. 1618. Sesostris reigns in Egypt. 1556. Rameses-Miamum reigns in Egypt. F.U'^.OPB. 1856. InachuB, the Phenician plants a colony in ARGOS. 1807. Phoronoui reigns in Argos. 1764. Ogyges reigns in Boeotia. 1707. Apis, king oJ Argos. 1732. The Ogygeaa Deluge in Attica. 1711. The city of Argos built by Argus, the son of Niobe. 1710. A colony of Arcndiana emigrate into Italy under CEnotrus.— CEnotria after- wards called Magna Grecia. 1641. Criasus succeeds hif father, Argus. 1556. ATHENS founded ly Cecrops. 1552. Triopas. king of Argoa The kingdom divided, Poly- caon reigning in Messenia. 1546. TROY founded by Scn- mander. 1529. Deluge of Deucalion it\ Thessaly. 1520. Corinth founded. 1516. Sparta founded, and tha kingdom of Laconia, or La- cedemon. 1507. The Areopagus establish- ed in Athens. 1506. Crotopas succeeds to th<» throne of Argos. 1504. Deucalion arrives in At tica. The kingdom of Mess* nia commenced by Polycaon 1493. THEBES in Boeotia founded by Cadmus, a Phe nician, who introduces tlxa alphabet into Greece. THE world's progress. FOURTH PERIOD.— (TAe Mosaic or Theocratic.)-- SACRED HISTORY. B.C. Progress of Society and the Arts> The Jews. 1491. Departure of the Israelites from Egypt. The law given at Mount Sinai. 1490 Crockery made by the Egyptians and Greeks. 1486 Ericthonius introduces the first chariot. The fabulous or traditionary Hermes- Tris- megistus placed about this period. 1471. Rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram 1453. Aaron dies. 1451. Moses writes the Pentateuch, and dies. 1451. Israelites enter Canaan under Joshua. Bacchus, god of wine. 1453 Olympic Games first celebrated in Greece. Apollo, god of music and poetry. 1443. Joshua dies. 1405. Othniel judges Israel. 1390. The tribe of Benjamin ilmost extinct. 1370 Bucklers used in single combat invented by Proetus and Acrisius of Argos. 1356 Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumol- pus. 1343. Eglon, king of Mpab, enslaves Israel. 1325. Ehud kills Eglon, and delivers Israel. 1317. Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an ox goad. 1305. Israel subdued by Jabin, king of Canaan. 1285. Deborah and Barak defeat the Canaan- ites — Sisera killed by Jael. 1284 Orpheus and Linus, sons of Apollo, skilled in music. 1263 The temple of Apollo at Delphi built by the council of Amphictyons. 1263 Jason leads the Argonautic expedition; the first naval expedition on record. MuscBus, a poet. 1252. Israel enslaved by the Midiantes. 1249. Gideon, with 300 men, defeats tha Mi- dianites. 1240 The axe_ wedge, wimble and. lever, also masts and sails for ships invented by Daedalus of Athens. 1224 1 he game of Backgammon invented by Pala- m Jdes of Greece. 1209. Abimelech judges Israel. 1206. Tola judges Israel. 1183. Jair, judge of Israel. THE world's progress. 396 years.-^Moses to Saul. PROFANE HISTORY.— (-S-iiW uncertain.) Asia. Dardanus, king of Troy, builds Dardania. Ericthonius reigns in Troy. Cushanrishathaim, kiiig of Mesopotamia. (See Scrip ture.) Teucer, king of Troy, Troas, king of Troy. IIus, son of Troas, founder of Ilium. Laomedon, king of Troy. Phenicia : TYRE founded. Second Assyrian Dynasty : Mithreaus or Ninus II. Troy taken by the Argonauts. Hercules arrives in Phrygia. Argon, a descendant of Hercu- les, first king of LYDIA. Priam, king of Troy. Tautanas, king of Assyria. The TROJAN WAR begins. Troy taken, 403 years before the 1st Olympiad. Teutaeus, kmg of Assyria. Trojans migrate into Italy. Africa. 1491. Pharaoh and his army drowned in the Red Sea. 1485. Egyptus reigns, and gives name to the country. Europe. 1376. Sethoa jeigns in Egypt. 1233. Carthage founded by the Tyrians Sthenelus reigns in Argoa. 1474. Danaus usurps the king- dom of Argos. 1463. Damnonii invade Ire- land. 1457. The kingdom of Mycene begins under Perseus, lata 'king of Argos. 1453. Olympic games first ce- lebrated at Elis. 1438. Pandion begins to reign at Athens. 1400. Minos reigns in Crete. 1397. CORINTH becomes a kingdom under Sisyphus. 1383. Ceres arrives in Attica. 1376. The Isthmian games in- stituted. 1356. Eleusinian mysteries in- troduced. 1283. ^geus reigns in Attica. 1266. CEdipus, king of Thebes. 1263. The Argonautic Expe- dition. 1257. Theseus unites the cities of Attica under one govern- ment. 1243. The Arcadians conduclei by Evanderinto Italy. — Mu- saeus, a poet. 1239. Latinus reigns in Italy 1225. First Theban War.— Euristhenes and Procle* kings of Lacedemon. 1222. Hercules celebiates the Olympic Games. 1216. War of the Epigonii, or 2d Theban War. 1213. Helen carried olT by Theseus, is recovereJ by Castor and Pollux, and mar- ries Menelaus. 1204. Helen elopes with Paris. 1182. ^neas lands in Italy. 1176. Salamis founded by Tcuccri 1170. Epii-us : Pyrrhus Neop- tolemus. 10 THE world's progress. Fourth Period. — ( The Mosaic or Theocratic.)- 1115 1100 Progress of Society and the Arts. SACIlliL) IIISTOIIY. The Jews. Mariner's compass said to be known in China. (1) A standard dictionary of the Chinese contain- ing 40,000 characters, completed by Pa-out- she. (7) 1161. Israel enslaved by the Philistines and Ammonites. — Samson born. — Eli judges a portion of Israel, 1143. Jephtha defeats the Ammonites, and becomes judge of a part of Israel. 1136. Samson slays 1000 Philistines with the jawbone of an ass. 1117. Death of Samson and Eli. 1116. Samuel, the last judge of Israel. 1096. The Philistines defeated at Ebenezer. 1095. Establishment of the HEBREW MO- NARCHY. — Saul anointed king of IsraeL THE world's progress." 396 years. — (Continued.) — Moses to Saul. tl 1141 1139 1122 PROFANE HISTORY.— (.S';j7//a6u/oiis or uncertain.) Asia, Temple of Ephesus burnt by t,he Amazons. Thineeus, king of Assyria. China :— 3d dynasty;— Tchcoo. 1109 Dercylus, king of Assyria. Africa. Europe. 1152. Alba-Longa built by Ascanius. 1124. JEolian migration. THEBES, the Capital of Bosotia, founded. 1104. Return of theHeraclidae. —End of the kingdom of Mycene. 12 THE world's progress. FIFTH PERIOD.— (T^ Monarchical.)— SACRED HISTORY. B.C Progress op Society and the Arts. The Jews. 1095. Saul, King of Israel. 1085. David bom. 1062. David kills Goliath. , 1055. Death of Saul. David reigns in Hebron over Judah ; Ishbosheth reigning in Maha- naim, over eleven tribes. 1048. Ishbosheth slain. David made king over all Israel. - 1043. David subdues the Philistines, Moab- ites, Syrians, and extends his dominions to the Euphrates, on the East, the Red Sea, on the South, and Lebanon, on the North. 1036. Solomon born. 1023. Revolt and death of Absalom. 1014. Conspiracy of Adonijah. 1015 Minos gives his lates to Crete. 1015. Solomon crowned in the presence of David. 1016. David dies. 1012. Solomon lays the foundation of the temple. 1004. DEDICATION OF SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 1000. Solomon extends his commerce, in con- nection with Hiram, king of Tyre, to India, via Red Sea, and to the shores of the Atlan- tic, via Straits of Gibraltar : builds Tad- mor (Palmyra) in the desert, Baalbec. and other cities. "'"'^-^ 985. He is seduced into idolatry by his wives. "j^S-.-V 975. —dies, and is succeeded by Rehoboam. JusAH. Israel. — i*j~/ - ,-■,. 975. Rehoboam, king. Jeroboam, king. 971. Shishak plunders the temple. 958. Abijah, king. 955. Asa, king. 954. Nadab, king. 953 Baasha, king. THE world's progress. 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. 13 PROFANE HISTORY. Asia. 1044 The Ionian emigrants settle in Asia Minor. Al^nce between Solomon and Hiram, king of Tyre. 986 Samos built. 971 Sh&hak plunders Jerusalem. Africa. Alliance between Solomon and Pliaraoh. 986. Utica built. 978. Sesac, (Shishak in Scrip- ture, and supposed Sesos- tris,) king of Egypt. Europe. 1088. End of the kingdom of Sicyon. 1070. Heremon, from Gallicia, conquers Ireland. 1069. Codrus devotes himsell for Athens. 1060. Athens governed by Archons. 976. Capy? Longa. reigns in &Jb4« 14 THE world's progress. Fifth Period. — {Tlie Monarchical) — SACRED HISTORY. B.C. Progress op Society and the Arts. The Jew s. JUDAH. 942. Asa defeats Ze- rah, king of Ethio- pia, with a million of men. 941. — makes a league with Benhadad, king Israel. of Syria, 930. 929. 918. Elah, king. Zimri, king. Omri, king. Aiiab, king. 937 Breastplates invented by Jason. Homer's poems brought into Greece. Lycurgus reforms the constitution of Sparta. Gold and silver coined by Phidon., tyrant of Argos. Prophecies of Jonah. Carpets in use for tents. The Corinthians employ triremes or vessels with three banks of oars. First recorded Olympiad and beginning of authentic chronology in Greece. Sculpture first mentioned in profane history — an Egyptian art. The first eclipse of the moon observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon. The Buddha religion introduced by Gautama into India. Roman Calendar reformed. The year divided, 12 months instead of 10 as before. Augurs instituted by Numa. Iambic verse introduced by Archilocus, Tyr- toius, and Evander, poets. Chess invented 914. Jehoshaphat, king. 907. Benhadad, king of Syria, besieges Sa- 898. Jehoshaphat as- maria, but is re- sists Ahab. pulsed. 894. War with Moab. 839. Jehoram, king. 897. Ahaziah, king. 896. Jehoram, king. 895. Elijah translated. 884. Ahaziah, king. 884. Jehu, king. Athaliah, queen ; usurps the throne, 856. Jehoahaz, king. 878. Jehoash, king. The Prophet Jo- S41. Jehoash, kin£ nah. 839. Amaziah, king, 810. Azariah, king. 758. Jotham, king. 742. Ahaz, king. 717. Hezekiah, king. 712. Sennacherib in- vades Judah. 711. His army (185,- 000) destroyed by a pestilence. 696. Manasseh, king. 825. Jeroboam, king. 784. Interregnum. 773. Zachanah, king. Shallum, king. 772. Menahem, king. 770. Pul invades Is-. rael, and is bribed to depart with 1000 talents. 762. Pekahiah, king. 759. Pekah, king. Interregnum, Hoshea, king. 721. CAPTIVITY OP ISRAEL. THE world's progress. 507 years, — Saul to C2^rz<55.— (Continued.) t5 PROFANE HISTORY. Asia. 97i Homer bom. (?) Africa. 840 Jonah preaches to the Nine- vites. 820 Arbaces, king of Assyria.— Media revolts. 797 Ardyssus, 1st king of LYDIA. 771 Pul, king of Nineveh. 767 Sardanapalus, king of Nine- veh. Media subjected to Assyria, 761 Alyattes, king of Lydia. 747 ERA OF NABONAZZAR.— Assyrian empire destroyed. — Meles, king of Lydia. 744 Pharnaces, king of Cappado- cia. 736 Ti^Iath-Pileser conquers Sy- ria and part of Israel. 735 Candaules, king of Lydia. 721 Shalmanezer king of Nine- veh, takes Samaria, and car- ries the Ten Tribes into captivity. riB Gyges usurps the throne of Lydia. 717 Sennacherib, king of Nineveh. 710 MEDIA becomes a kingdom under Dejoces. 709 Ecbatana founded by Dejoces. 680 Babylon and Nineveh under Esarbaddon. Europe. 869. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa. 825. The dynasty of the Ta- nites in Egypt ; begins with Peterbastes. 781. The dynasty of the Saites in Egypt. 737. Sebacon invades Egypt. 935. Bacchus, king of Corinth. 916. Calpetus, king of Alba- 903. Tiberinus, king of Alba. 895. Tiberinus drowned in tha river Albula, which is thence called the Tiber. 864. Romulus, king of Alba Longa. 845. Aventinus, king of Alba. 814. The kingdom of MACE- DON founded by Caranus. 808. Procas, king of Alba. 794. Numitor, " " 794. Amulius, « « Olam Fodia, king in Ire- land. (■?) 769. Syracuse founded by Archias of Corinth. 753. BUILDING OF ROME. Catania founded by a co- lony from Chalcis. 747. Union of Romans and Sabines. 743. 1st Messinian War. 716. Romulus murdered by the senators. 715. Numa Pompilius. 713. Gela in Sicily founded. 703. Corcyra built by the Co- rinthiars. 685. 2d Messinian War. m THE world's progress. Fifth Period. — {TJie Monarchical.)-^ Progress of Society and the Arts. Attempt to discover the primitive language of mankind ; Interpreters instituted by Psam- meticus ; children educated in the language and manners of Greece. Se-Matsien's history of China begins. The Spherical form of the earth and the true cause of lunar eclipses taught by Tholes, who discovers the electricity of amber. Periander encourages learning at Corinth. Draco frames his bloody code of laws at Athens. Pharaoh-Necho begins a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. The lives of 120,000 men lost in the attempt. He sends out a Phcenician fleet which, sailing through the Straits of Babelmandel, returned the third year by the Straits of Gibraltar, thus circumnavigating Africa. Sappho, AlccRUS, Pittacus, Bius, Chilo, My- son, Anacharsis, jEsop, Ilychis, Theognis, Siesichorus, Phocylides, and Cadmus (of Miletus), flourish at this time. Thales' prediction of a »olar eclipse accom- plished. — (See Asia.) Soloti's legislation in Athens, supersedes that of Draco. The Pythian Games at Delphi, SACRED HISTORY. The Jews. 677. Manasseh carried to Balylon, is After' wards restored. 640. Animon, king of Juc'iah. 641. Josiah. king of Judah. cho. Josiah killed at Megidco, oy Pharaoh JNe- 609. Jehoahaz, king, deposed and carried to Egypt. Jehoiakira, kmg. 606. CONQUEST OF JERUSALEM by Nebuchadnezzar. 598. Jehoiachin, king, reigns three montbt, and is carried captive to Bahylon. Zedekiah, king. 591. Ezekiel begins to prophesy in Chaldea. 588. CAPTIVITY OF J UD AH completed. JERUSALEM DESTROYED— the tem pie burnt. Ohadiah prophesies. xiE world's progress. 507 years. — Saul to Cyrus. — (Continued.) 17 PROFANE HISTORY. B.C. 676 658 648 647 634 631 626 624 619 612 Asia. C06 604 601 509 S96 Ardysus II., king of Lydia, Holofernes, Assyrian general. Phraortes, king of Media, Saracus, king of Babylon and Nineveh. Phraortes conquers Persia, Armenia, &c. Cyaxares, king of Media. Sadyattesj king of Lydia. Nabopolassar revolts from Sa- racus. The Scythians invade Lydia and Media. Alyattes II., king of Lydia. Nineveh a second time destroy- ed. Nabopolassar, king of Baby- lon. Africa. Pharaoh-Necho defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Circe- sium, on the Euphrates. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Ba- bylon. Daniel interprets the king's dream. A solar eclipse predicted by Thales — separates the Medes and Lydians in battle. iNew- ton's Chron.,5S5.) Birth of Cyrus. Astyages of Media drives out the Scythians. 660. Psammeticus, king of Egypt. — Memphis becomes the capital of the kingdom. Europe. 610. Pharaoh-Necho, king of Egypt. 600. Psammis, king of Egypt. 594. Pharaoh-Hophra, kiig of Egypt. 678. Argaeus, 1st king of Ma» cedon. 672. TuUus Hostilius, king oi Rome. 668. Messina in Sicily founded. 665. Alba destroyed. 664. Sea fight ' between the Corinthians arid Corcyreans. 658. BYZANTIUM founded. 640. Ancus Martius. — The port of Ostia built.— The Latins conquered by the Romans. — Philip, 1st king of Mace- don. 629. Periander rules at Co- rinth. 616. Tarquinius Priscus, king of Rome. 602. ^ropus, king of JlafB' don, conquers Illyrijw 594. Solon, Archor of Athsna 18 THE world's rROGRESS, SIXTH VE^lOD.—iTJie Persian.)- B.c Progress of Society. 685 578 3Iojiei/ coined at Rome hy Set- vius TuUius. 568 562 540 Depoenus and Scyllis open a school of statuart/ a.i Athens. Naucrates given to the Greeks by Egypt as a factory. Egypt possesses 20,000 inha- bited cities. Fii'st comedy acted at Athens on a cart, by Susarion and Dolon. Dials invented by Anaximan der of Miiems. Anaximenes, Cleobulua. 535 527 5Zi Jews. 559. Handwriting on the wall at Bclshazzar's feast. The Corinthian order of ar- chitecture invented by Cali- machus. Zoroaster^ the Persian Philo sopher. Simonides, Anacreon, poets. Thespis performs the first tri~gedy at Athens. Learning encouraged at Ath ens. — Firet public library founded. Confucius the Chinese philO' sopher. The Doric issued by Darxus. 536. Edict of Cyrus for the Re- turn of J,he Jews. Joshua, Zerubbabel. 535. Rebuilding of the tem- ple begins. Zechariah, Haggai, Asia. 582. Nebuchadnezzar invadei Elam— takes Susa. 572. Tyre taken by Nebuchad- nezzar. 569. Nebuchadnezzar losms his reason is deposed. New Tyre founded. 562. Croesus, king ot Lydia. Solon and ^sop at his court. 561. Evil-Merodach, king of Babylon. 559. Neriglissar or Belshazzar killed in the night. Cyaxares H. (Darius) king of Media. Cyrus the Persian assists him. Asia Minor subjected to Cros sus. 546. Sardis taken by Cyrus. — Croesus made prisoner. — The Lydian Kingdom end- ed. 538. BABYLON TAKEN by Cyrus. 536. PERSIAN EMPIRE founded by CYRUS, com- posed of Assyria, Media and Persia. 529. Cambyses, king of Per- sia. 522. Darius Hystasp«3, king of Persia. 516. Dedication of the second temple. THE world's progress. 19 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander the Great. Africa. 681 Egypt invaded by Nebuchad- nezzar. 571 569 536 ^5 Apries taken prisoner, and strangled in his palace. Amasis, king — connection be tween Greece and Egypt. Greece. 585. Death of Periander, tyrant of Corinth. 582. Corinth becomes a repub- lic. Pythagoras visits Egypt. Psammenitus, last king of Egypt. — Invasion of Cam- byses, who defeats the Egyptians at Pelusium, and takes Memphis. Egypt becomes a Persian Province. 560. Pisistratus, tyrant of Ath- ens. Rome, etc. 578. Servius TuUius, king of Rome. 567. Conque&t of the Etrurians by Rome. 565. First census of Rome: 84,700 citizens. 549. Temple of Apollo at Delphi burnt by the Pisis- tratidae. 547. Amyntas, king of Mace- don. 539. The Phocians emigrate to Gaul and build Massilia (now Marseilles). 527. Pisistratus dies. 522. Polycrates, tyrant of Sa- mos. 514. Hipparchus killed. 510. The Pisistratidre expelled. — Democracy estab Pished at Athens. — Statues erected to Harmodius and Aristogiton, leaders m the revolution. 534. Tarquinius Superbufl, king of Rome. 530. Cadiz built by the Car- thaginians (near the ancient Tarshish). 20 THE world's progress. Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)- B. c. Progress of Society. 509 Abolition of the Regal Govern- ment, and establishment of Republic at Rome. 507 500 HeracUtus, Theano, Prota- goras, Anaxagoras, philoso- phers. — Corinna, poetess. The Phmnician letters carried to Ireland from Spain. Pythagoras teaches the doc- trine of celestial motions. The temple of Minerva built. The Jews. 483 The Etrurians excel in music, tlie drama and architecture. 479 JSschylus, Pindar, poets. 4*7 Simonides, of Cos, obtains the prize at Olympia, for teach- mg a system oi Mnemonics., which he had invented. 473 Empirics instituted by Acron, of Agrigentum. 471 Thucydides born. 4^ Sophocles, the tragic, and Plato, the comic poet. 460 Voyage of the Carthaginians to Britain for tin 483. Joachim, High Priest. Asia. 508. Darius conquers India. 500. The lonians revolt from Persia and burn Sardis. 490. Darius sends an army of 500,000 men mto Greece. 487. Artabazes, king of Pon- tus. 486. Xerxes, king of Pereia. 481. The expedition of Xerxes into Greece. 480. The family of Archean- actes, from Mytilene, settle in Bosphorus (now Circas- sia.) 478. Death of Confucius.— China distracted by internal wars. 458. Esther. 457. Ezi'a goes to Jerusalem, collects the Jewish Scrip tures : and 453. —writes the Chronicles. 466. Persians defeated by sea and land. 465. Xerxes assassinated. 464. Artaxerxes I. (Longima- nus,) king of Persia. THE world's progress. 21 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 487 480 Africa. Egypt revolts — is subdued by Xerxes. Hamilcar killed in battle. Greece. 460 455 Rome and Italy. Egypt, under Inarus, revolts from Persia. All Egypt reduced by Megaby- BUS. 505. Lacedemonian War. 504. Lemnos taken by Milti- ades. 497. Alexander 1st, king of Macedon. Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela. 490. Invasion of the Persians under Daiis and Artapher- nes. Battle of MARATHON. 489. Miltiades imprisoned. 484. Herodotus born. 483. Aristides banished. 480. Battle of Thermopylae. Athens burnt by Xerxes. Battle of Salamis. 479. Mardonius a second time takes Athens. Defeat of the Persians at Platea and Mycale on the same day. (?) 476. Themistocles rebuilds Athens. — The Piraeus built. 470. Cimon son of Miltiades. — Themistocles banished. — The kingdom of the Odrysse extends over the most of Thrace. 466. The Persians twice de- feated at the Eurymedon by Cimon. 465. 3d Messinian War. 461. Ostracism of Cimon. — Pericles rises to great power. 459. Athens assumes to be the head of Greece. 456. Cimon recalled. 509. The Tarqums expelled fiom Rome. Brutcs and Collatinus first Consuls of Rome. 507. Second census of Rome, 130,909 citizens. The Capitol finished.— War against the Tarquins and their ally Porsenna. tor. Titus Lartius, firat Dicta- Tribunes of the people. 496. Posthumius, Dictator. 491. Coriolanus banished. 8. At the request of his mother, Coriolanus with- draws the Volsci from Rome. 485. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse. 483. Quaestors appointed. 480. The Carthaginians de- feated by Gelon. 479. Syracuse governed by Hiero. 477. The 300 Fabii slain. 467. Thrasybulus succeeds Hiero, and is expelled for his cruelty. Democracy in Syracuse. 461. Earthquake at Rome. 456. Cincinnatus Dictafcw THE world's progress. The Sixth Period. — (The Persian.) — 450 145 441 434 432 Pkogress of Society, etc. The Britons inflict punish- ment of death by drowning in a quagmire. Empedocles., Parmenides, Aristippus, and Antis- t/ienes, philosophers. — Phidias the finest sculp- tor of antiquity. — Euri- pides, gains the first prize in tragedy. The Battering Ram invented by Anemones. Aristophanes, prince of an- cient comedy. Meton begins his lunar cycle. Socrates, the greatest of hea^ then moralists. Hippocrates, of Cos, the father of medicine. Thucydides, Ctesias, histo- rians. Democritus, the laughing phi losopher. 414 410 The Jews. 445. Walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah. Sect of Samaritans. An eclipse of the sun causes the defeat'o/" the Athenians at Syracuse Thucydides' history ends, and Xenoplion's begins. Asia. 449. Persians defeated at Sa- lamis in Cyprus. Peace with Greece. 438. Spartacus takes posaiea- eion of the Bosphorus. 425. Xerxes 11. k. of Persia 424. Darius II. k. of Persia. 404. ArtaxerxesII. (IVuiemoQ.) king of Persia. THE world's PROGRESS. 23 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) B.C. Africa. Greece. Hi AmyrtsBUS, king of Egypt, shakes off the yoke of Per- 407 The Carthaginians send 300,- 000 men into Sicily. 454. Perdiccas, II. , king of Ma- cedon. 449. Cimon dies. 448. First Sacred War. 447. Athenians defeated at Che- roncea. 440. Pericles takes Samos, 437. Amphipolis planted by Athenians. 436. Corinth at war with Cor- cyra. 432. Revolt of Potidaea from the Athenian confederacy. 431. The Peloponnesian War. Invasion of Attica. 430. The Plague at Athens. 429. Pericles dies, having gov- erned Athens 40 years. 425. An earthquake separates the peninsula of Euboea from the main land. 424. Exile of Thucydides. Campaign of Brasidas in Tlirscc 420. The 90th Olympiad. Alcibiades effects a treaty between the Athenians and Argives. 416. Nicias, general of the Athenians. War in Sicily . 413. The Athenians alarmed by an eclipse. — Their army in Sicily destroyed. 413. Archelaus, king of Mace- don. 411. Athens governed by the 400.— Alliance of Sparta with Persia. 411. Alcibiades at the court of Tissaphemes. 410. Alcibiades defeats the Spartans. 408. Capture of Byzantium. 405. Lysander defeats the Athenians, 404, takes Athens, and establishes the 30 ty- rants. End of the Peloponnesian War. Death of Alcibiadea. Rome, etc. 451. Decemviri— the laws of the 12 tables. Virginia killed by her father. 446. Syracuse reduces Agri- gentum. 445. Military Tribunes. 444. Office of Censor insti- tuted. 440. Famine in Rome. 437. The Veil defeated. 434. War with the Tuscans. 433. The temple of Apollo de- dicated. 431. The Equi and Volsci d©« feated. 24 THE WOIILD'!? progress. The Sixth Period. — (The Persian.)- B. c. Progress of Society, etc. 399 396 388 The Jews. 380 377 Catapulted invented by Diony- sius. Cynics, sect of philosophers founded by Antisthenes. Plato, the philosopher. Philoxenes, the poet. Treatise on conic sections by Aristcsus. Diogenes, the cynic ; Isocrates and Isoius, orators. Asia. 401. Cyrus the younger de- feated.— Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon. 400. The city of Delhi found ed. 387. The Greek cities of Asia tributary to Persia. 383. BITHYNIA becomes a kinsrdom. Miihridates 1st, king oi PONTUS. 368 A celestial globe brought into Greece from Egypt. 360 Philippics of Demosthenes. Commerce of Rhodes with Africa and Byzantium 366. J.eshua slam by Johan- nan in the inner court of the temple, for which a heavy fine is laid on the daily sacri- fices. 362. AriobarzaneskingofPon- tus. — Revolt of the Persian governor in Asia Minor. 361. Darius Ochus. or Artax- erxes III. king of Persia. 360. CAPPADOCIA becomes a kingdom under Ariarathcs L THE world's progress. 25 258 years. — Cyrus to Alexander. — (Continued.) 379 362 360 Africa. The Carthaginians land in Italy. Tachog, king of Egypt. Agesilaus, the Spartan, aids The Egyptians. Voyages of the Carthaginians under Hanno. Greece. 401. Thrasyhulus expels the 30 tyrants. i>eath of Socrates. 399. Amyntas II., king of Ma- cedon. 396. Agesilaus goes into Asia. 395. Corinthian War begun. — Battle of Coronea. 382. Thebes taken by Phffibi- das. 380. Thebes delivered by Pelo- pides and Epaminondas. 100th Olympiad. 377. Spartan fleet defeated at Naxos. 372. Ellice and Bula in the Pe- loponnesus, swallowed up by an earthquake. 371. Battle of Leuctra. Alexander II., king of Ma- cedon. Predominance of Thebes. 370. Perdiccas III., king of Macedon. 364. Pelopidas killed in'battle. 362. Battle of Mantinea, death of Epaminondas. Decline op Quectan Republics. 360. Philip n., king of Mace- don. defeats the Athenians at Methone. The Macedonian phalanx. War of the allies against Athens. 358. Philip takes Amphipolis and loses his right eye by an arrow from Astor. 357. The 2d Sacred War. 356. Philip conquers Thrace and Illyria. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. ALEXANDER«the Great" bom. Rome and Italy. 400. Siege of Veil begun. 397. Lake Alba drained. 391. Camillus, Dictator, takes Veii, after a siege of ten years. 390. Rome taken and burnt by the Gauls, under Brennus — The Capitol besieged. — Camillus delivers his coun- try. 386. Damon and Pythias. 384. M. Manlius Capiiolinus thrown from the Tarpeian rock. 379. The Volsci defeat th« Romans. 376. Lucius Sextus, first ple- beian consul. Camillus, the fifth time Dictator. 371. The curule magistrates appointed. 362. Curtius leaps into a gulf in the Forum. 357. DionTsius, the younger expelloa from Syracutie. 26 ^ THE world's progress. ? SEVENTH PEEIOD.— (TAe Grecian.)— i.e. Progress op Society, etc- M3 342 Aristotle, the logician and piii- losoplier, founder of the Pe- ripatetics; JSschines, ora- tor. Demosthenes ; Icetas, of Syra- cuse. The Lyceum built in Attica. 336 335 Alexander spares the house of Pindar. The revolution of eclipses first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian. Caustic painting or the art of burning colors into wood or ivory, invented by Gau- sias, a painter of Sicyon. 328 320 The voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. Apelles, the painter ; Calis- thenes, philosopher. Menander, the inventor of the new comedy. Lysistratus invents moulds from which to cast wax figures. First work on mechanics, writ' ten by Ai'istotle. — Diving Bell first mentioned. The Jews. Asia. Alexander enters Jerusa- lem. — On seeing Jaddus, the High Priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had seen him in a vision, invit- ing him to Asia, and pro- mising him the Persian em- pire. He goes to the Tem- ple, offers sacrifices to Jeho- vah, and departs. 336. Mithriddtes II., kuisg ol Pontus. 334. Battle of the Granicus. 333. Battle of issioisons her brother and reigns alone Roman Esipire. East. 53. Crassus defeated and killed in Parthia. 48. Thessaly becomes the seat of war. — The Athenians de- clare for CaBsar against Pom- pey. Battle of Pharsaha: — Pom- pey, defeated by Caesar, flees into Egypt, and is slain there. 47. Caesar takes Alexandria, and conquers Egypt. — Cae- sar victorious at Zela, in Asia. 45. Corinth rebuilt by Csesar. West. 60. First Triumvirate :- - Pompey, Crassus, and Julius Caesar. Sciold, first king of Den- mark. — Boh, a fierce son of Odin. 58. Clodius procures the ban ishment of Cicero. — The Helvetii defeated by Julius Caesar. 57. Cicero recallei.. — S a 1 - lust expelled from tho senate. — Gylf, king of Swe- den. 55. Caesar passes the Rhine, defeats the Get- mans and Gauls, and In VADES Britain. 54. Caesar's second invasion of Britain. 52. Pompey, sole consul. 51. Caesar completes the con- quest of Gaul., which be- comes a Roman province. 49. Caesar passes the Rubicon, and in sixty days makes himself master of Italy— marches into Spain and forces Pompey's troops to surrender. 48. Battle of Dyrrhachium. 45. Caesar perpetual dictator — he subdues the two sons of Pompey, and acquires the sole power. 44. Caesar assassinated in the Senate House. 43. Second Triumvirate : — Octavius Caesar, Marc An- tony, and Lepidus. — Cicero proscribed and murdered. 42. The Battle of Philippi :— Antony and Octavius defeat Brutus and Cassius. 44 THE world's progress. The Eighth Pei'iod. — [The Rcmian.)- B. c. PRoaREss OF Society, etc. Golden age ..of Roman litera- ture. The revenue of the empire amounts to about 40 milhons sterling. — First standing ar- my in Rome. — Direct trade of Rome with India. — Silk and linen manufactories in the empire. Temple of Janus at Rome closed— there being now a general peace. Treasures of Egyptian art brought to Rome. — The Pan- theon built. Horace, Virgil, Tibtdlus, Propertius, poets ; Varrus and Tucca., critics; Livy., historian ; Maecenas, minis- ter of Augustus, patron of literature ; Strabo, geogra- pher; JEniilius Macer, of Verona, poet ; Agrijma, war- rior, and patron of the arts. Warship of Is is at Rome. Pantomimic dances intro duced on the Roman stage. Aqueducts constructed by Agrippa. Dedications of bioks first in- troduced. The Jews. 30. Herod kills Mariamne. Asia. 34. Antony takes possession of Armenia, which becomes a Roman province — leads an inglorious expeditioa against Parthia. 29. E p h e s u s , next to Alexandria, the chief place of trade in the Roman ens- pire. 19. The Temple rebuilt by Herod — he also builds Cy- pron, Antipatris, Pharscelis, and the to'wer of Phaseel in Jerusalem. The legions distributed over the provinces in fixed camps, which soon grew into cities — among them were Bon7i and Mayence. The calendar corrected by Augustus. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, historian ; and Dionysius, geographer. BIRTH OF OUR SAVIOUR, JESUS CHRIST, 4 years be- ] fore the Vulgar Era. 3. Archelaus succeeds Herod with the title of Etlmarch. Cyrenius taxes Judea. 20. Porus, king of India, soli- cits an alliance with Rome. Parthians defeated by Ti- berius. 14. Polemon coivjuers Bo» porus. THE world's progress. 45 146 years. — (Continued.) 36 34 31 Africa. Roman Empire. 30 Alexandria taken by Octavius. — Antony and Cleopatra de- stroy themselves. Egypt becomes 4 Ro- man province. Cleo^ itra obtains from An- tony a grant of Phoenicia, Cyrene and Cyprus. — I'eceives all Asia from the rylediterranean to the Indus. Cleopatra and Marc Antony defeated by Octavius, ai Actium. East. 21. Athens finally subjected to Rome. 20. CXCth Olympiad. 8. Tiberius at Rhodes. 5. Q. Varriis appointed gov- ernor of Syria, and Cyre- nius governor of Judea. West. 36. Sextus Pompey defeated in Sicily. 32. Antony quarrels with Oc- tavius. 31. By the BATTLE OF AC- TIUM Octavius acquires the empire. 30. THE REPUBLIC BE- COMES A MONARCHY. 29. Octavius s3 days triumph at Rome. Temple of Janus shut. Rome contains 4,101,017 citizens. 27. The titles of Augustus and Emperor conferred on Octa- vius lor 10 years. 23. Agrippa in Spain. 22. Conspiracy of Murasna. 21. Augustus visits Greece and Asia. 16. Lollius defeated by the Germans. 15. Cantabria, Austria, Rhoe- bia, Vindeleiicia and Mcesia become Roman provinces — being conquered by Dru- sus. 13. Augustus assumes the title of Pontifex Maximus. 12. Pannonia, conquered by Tiberius, becomes a Ro- man province. 11. Germany subdued rv Ger manicus. 4. Cymbeline, king of Britaia PAllT II. MODERN CHRONOLOaY, FROM THE CHRISTIAN ERA TO THE PRESENT TIME. Epochas or Periods. J. From the Christian Era ) Period of the Ten Persecutiona Of to the Reign of Constantine the Great, A. D. 306 \ Christians. " Extinction of the Western Empire, " 476 III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X XI. " Flight of Mahomet, « 622 •' Northern Invasions. " Justinian and Belisariua. " Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, " 800 \ P • - ,. „ ... rxT .- u irtRRt " New Western Empire. " Battle of Hastings, " 1066 ^ -^ « Foundmg of the Turkish Empire, « 1299 S " ^^« <^''«««^««- " iirq? " Tamerlane,WickIiffe,andSuB$. " Taking of Constantinople, " Edict of Nantes, " Death of Charles XII. of Sweden, « 1718 ' " Battle of Waterloo, * present time. <:1850.) i" The Reformation; Discoverien and Inventions. " The English Commonwealth and Wars of Louis XIV. " American and French RevolU' « 1815 < tions. { " European Revolutions Litero- \ ture and the Arts. 48 THE world's progress. MODERN CHRONOLOGY.— PERIOD 1st.— (TAe Ten Persecutions.)-- 26 30 50 Progress of Society, etc. Celsus, the physician; Phczdrus, the fabu- list ; VeUius Paterculus, Roman histo- rian. Sacred. The BIRTH OF CHRIST :— (see p. 44.) Herod Antipas being at this time tetrarch of Galilee. 8. Christ reasons with the doctors. The Druids in Germany. Philo, Alexandrian Jew, disciple of Plato. Seneca, moral philosopher. Valerius Maximus, historian. Appion, of Alexandria, erammarian, called the "Trumpet of the World." A census being taken by Claudius, the em- peror and censor, the inhabitants of Rome are found to amount to 6, 90lX,000.—i Univ. iy/sf.)— [More than three times the number of London at present.] Columella, born in Spain ; left twelve books on husbandry. 25. Pontius Pilate, governor or" Judea. 26. John the Baptist begins hSs ministry. 27. Christ baptized by John 23. — at the marriage in Cana. — Matthew called. 29. Twelve disciples sent abroad, "two and two." 30. CRUCIFIXION of our SAVIOUR, Fri- day, April 3, at 3 P. M. ; Resurrection, Sunday, April 5; Ascension, Thursday, May 4. 33. St. Peter baptizes Cornelius. 34. St. Paul converted to Christianity. 39. St. Matthew writes his gospel. 40. The disciples first called Christians ae Antioch. 41. Herod's persecution ; St. Peter imprisoned 44. . Progress of Society. 941 The mercantile character raised by a law of Athelstan, that a merchant who made three voyages over the high seas with a ship and cargo of his own, should enjoy the rank and privileges of a thane. The figures of arithmetic brought into Europe ky the Saracens. Silver mines in the Hartz Mountains. Manufactories of linens and woollens in Flanders, which becomes the seat of western commerce. Ecclesiastical. 946. Pope Agapetus II. 96] 978 931 982 Geber, Arabian astronomer. Suidas, grammarian and lexi- cographer. Rhazes, Arabian physician. The Saxon fleet, consisting of 360 sail, in three squadrons, makes the circuit of the island, under the command of king Edgar. 955. Baptism of Olga, and con- version of Russia to Chris- tianity. 958. Pope John XII. Quarrel with the emper- ors respecting investiture. 959. St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, attempts to reform the church— enforc- ing clerical celibacy. The influence of the monks greatly increased. 963. Pope Leo VIII. elected by Roman citizens. 964. Benedict V. elected by a council. 965. JohnXIIL Poland receives Christianity under Miecislus. 972. Pope Benedict VI. 973. Boniface VII. : deposed and banished for his crimes. 974. Domnus II. 975. Benedict VII. France, Germany, &c. 950. Germany :— Bohemia be- comes tributary to Otho. 953- The Hungarians sub- dued. 954. Fr. :— Lothaiie I.^ — confers the O'lkedoms of Burgundy ar.d Aquitaine on Hugh the Great. 957. Germany :— Otho defeat^ the Slavonians in Saxony, Abba, monk and astronomeJ. Albirunius, Arabian geogra- pher. Greenland discovered by the Norwesians. Aimoin, historian. Dublin much frequented for trade, also many places on the Baltic. 964. Italy united to the empira of Germany. Tuscany becomes a duke- dom. 973. Ger. :— Otho 11.^ subdues the Bohemians. 984. Pope John XIV. 985. " John XV. 989. Christianity propagated in Russia by Waldimir— they hold to the Greek church. 979. Otho at war with Lo thaire. 983. — O t h o III (3 years of age). 986. Fr.:— Louis V.,\^ (" the Slothful,") lastoltha Carlovingian race. 988. Fr. : H u gh Capet ,@ —founder of the third or Capetian line of French kings. ■Charlemagne to William I.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 959 963 9G7 969 975 980 Eastern Empire. Constantine III. retires into cloister. — R omanus II .^g — poisoned by his wife, Theo- phano. -Nicephorug II. -he recovers Cyprus and An- tioch from the Saracens. -is murdered by -John Zimisces.^§ — Basil and Constantine vm. W — Apulia and Calabria recover- ed and united to the empire. England, &,c. 946. E I d r e d@ governed by Dimsian, abbot of Glastonbury. 952. Scotland : — Malcolm I., kins. 955. Scotland :—Indulf, king. 955. E d w y ^ insulted by Dunstan, and deposed — his queen, Elgiva, put to death. 959. E d g a r ^- marries the beautiful El- frida, after the violenl; death of Athelwold, her lover. 960. Scotland :— Duff, king. Wolves expelled I'rom England and Wales, in con- sequence of a reward being offered for the purpose by the king. Violent disputes between tlie monks and the clergy. 975. -Edward^ (the martyr), murdered by his stepmother, Elfrida. 97S. —E their ed II.,W- (" the Unready.")— Dunstan still minister.— The people become discontented. 985. Danish invasion, under Sweyn. . The king purchases their retreat. The World, elsewhere. 950. Spain : of Leon. -Ordono III., king 955. Spain : — Sancho I. , king of Leon. 958. Italy ;-- War between thi Normans and Saracens. 951. Candia recovered fror.i the Saracens. 962. Poland : — Miecislas esta- blishes Christianity. 967. Spain:— Ramiro III., king of Leon. 968. The Northmen devastate Galicia, but are defeated and almost exterminated. 973. Hungary: — St. Stephen, first hereditary king, extends the kingdom eastward ; gives it a constitution and written laws. 976. Spain :— Hixem, caliph of Cordova. Almansor, regent, obtains many victories" over the Christians. 980. Russia: —Waldimir I; marries Anna, sister of the emperor Basil 11. 983. Italy : — Venice distracted by violent commotions. 985. Sweyn L, or Sweno, king of Denmark, invades Eng- land. 82 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. A.D. Phoguess of Society. Venice and Genoa carry on a flourishing trade between Asia tnd Westei-n Europe. Siephsj, duke of Hunga- ry, propagates Christianity among his subjects. 10(K Paper made of cotton rags. Spain, the seat of Arabian and Jewish learning. Churches first built in the Gothic style. Foundation of the House of Wisdom at Cairo. The French language first be- gins to be written. Leo, the grammarian. The arts faintly revive in Italy — paintings in fresco and mosaic. Literature, the arts and sci- ences,and commerce flourish at Ghizni. Musical scale, consisting of six notes, invented by Guido Aretino. Avicenna, a famous Arabian chemist and physician. Glaber Rad, historian. Cam}mnes, of Navarro, astro- nomer. Hermannus Contr actus, m.O'cik and mathematician. Ecclesiastical. 993. First canonization of saints. 996. Pope Gregory V. 997, " Jolin XVI. 999. Pope Sylvester IL Hungary a fief of the Romish church. 1003. Pope John XVIII. 1009. Pope Sergius. 1012. " Benedict VIII. Persecution of the Albi- genses in Languedoc. 1024. Pope John XIX. He gained his election by bribe- ry. He was not of the clergy, but consul and senator of Rome. 1033. Pope Benedict IX., (ten years old). "Peace of God," pub- lished by the bishops. France, Germany, «fcc. 995. Fr. : —Robert 11.,^ — (the Wise,) succeeds hia father Hugh. 993. — is excommunicated by the pope for marrying his cousin Bertha. 1002. Ger. :— H e n r y 1 1 . ,^ — (duke of Bavaria). Italy : — Ardoin, margrave of Ivrea, elected king. 1004. Italy :— Henry invited by the German party —Ardoin loses most of Italy and re- signs. — Pavia burnt in a quarrel between the troops and people. 1015. Germany :— The empe- ror receives an annual tri- bute from Poland. 1024. Ger. :-Conrad 11.^^ —(the Salic,) first of the Franconian line. 1025. Expedition into Italy. 1029. War with the Poles. 1031. Fr.:— Henry I.^^— 1032. Burgundy annexed to the empire. —Charlemagne to William /.] THE world's progress. 83 A.P. iOOO 1018 1028 1031 1034 Eastern Empire. Basil drives the from Thessaly. Bulgarians Bulgaria again redursd to a Grecian province. — Rom an us III..^g — (Argyrus). -expels the Saracens from Syria, -poisoned by his wife Zoe. --Michael IV England, •&c. 994. Scotland : — Constantine IV. slain by 995. Kenneth IV., (the Grim). 1002. Dreadful massacre of all the Danes in England — upon which Sweyn lands a large armament, and brings war and all its miseries upon the country. 1003. Scotland :— Malcolm II., an able, renowned prince. 1012. An annual tribute pro- mised to the Danes. 1013. The Danes, under Sweyn, become masters of England. 1016.— Edmund II.,W— (Ironsides.) fights six baules with Canute, king of Den- mark, with whom he finally divides the kingdom. 1016. Canute the Great, patronizes litera- ture and the church. 1027. Ireland : — Brian Boru, sole monarch. 1031. Canute penetrates into Scotland— subdues Malcolm. 1032. —performs a pilgrimage to Rome. 1034. Scotl'd :— Duncan, kin; 1035. — H a r 1 d I . (Harefootr) cruel anc popular — ruled by Godwin. The World, elsewhere. 995. Norway :— Olaf I. Christianity introduced. 997. Drontheim founded. Mahmud Sultan of Ghiz^ ni, adds Transoxiania, Ca- bul, and part of India to his dominions; patronizes litera- ture. 998. Spain : — Division of the Mohammedan kingdom of Cordova. 1000. Sancho III., (the Great,) king of Navarre, lakes the title of emperor. 1000. Savoy : — independent un- der Bervald, its first count. Poland : — Boleslas I., (the Lion-hearted). 1006. Pestilence in Europe for three years. 1012. Spain: — Suleiman, ca- liph. 1014. Denmark :— Harold III., king. 1015. >Iorway :— Olaf II. 1016. Denmark: — Canute XL, (the Great). 1019. Norway conquered by Canute. Venice, Genoa, and Pisa rise into importance. 1025. Poland :— Miecislas IL 1035. Spain :— Ramiro 1 _ king of Arragon. 1037. Ferdinand L, of Castile, in right of his wife succeeds to Leon ; successful against the Mohammedaas. 1036. Denmark : — Hardica- nute HI. 1037. Norway : — Magnus Lf (the Good). 84 THE world's progress. [Period F.— (a. d. 800-1066.)— 266 years. A.D. Progress of Society, etc. 1055 Fe'dusi, the Persian Homer. Franco, mathematician. George Cedrenus, historian. Ecclesiastical. Michael Psellus, a celebrated Greek philosopher and his- torian. English parents prohibited by law from selling their chil- dren. First age of scholastic philoso- phy. 1038. The Pope, for his scan- dalous conduct, driven from Rome, but re-established by the emperor, Conrad. 1044. —again driven from the throne, and succeeded by Sylvester III. After three months Benedict is restored by the Counts of Tusculum. But finding the people will not tolerate his crimes, he sells the papal chair to Gre- gory. — deposed for simony, by a council called by Henry HI. 1046. Pope Clement H. 1048. Damascus II., 23 days. " Leo IX., the first who kept a regular army. 1053. — is defeated and taken prisoner by the Normans. 1054. The papal chair vacant one year. Excommunication ofthe Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Greeks. 1055. Pope Victor 11. Hildebrand, the real head ofthe church from the time of Leo IX. The church improving in piety and dis- cipline. 1057. Pope Stephen IX. 1058. Nicholas IL Benedict X., (antipope). The election of pope transferred to a conclave of cardinals. 1059. Quarrel between the popes and the German em- perors, respecting investi- tures and nomination to the Holy See. 1061. Pope Alexander II. 1062. Berenger, a celebrated Fi'ench ecclesiastic. Alexander forbids the massacre of the Jews. 1066. Alexander deposes Ha- rold, and gives England to William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy. France, Germany. &c. 1039. Ger. :-H e n r y 1 1 1 .^ — defeats the Bohemiana and Hungarians — claims the right of nominating to the papal chair. 1046. France :— Dispute be- tween William the Con- queror and William of Arques, for the duchy oJ Normandy. 1053. Germany: — Henry III. causes his son, Henry, to be proclaimed king of the Ro- mans. This tiile was ap- plied, for several centuries, to the king's eldest son. Ger. :-Henry IV. ^^ — (the Great), aged six years, under the tutelage of his mother. 1058. Roger, duke of Apulia, becomes a vassal of the pope. 1060. Fr. .---Philip l.W- ^^Charlemasne to William I. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 85 A.D. 1G38 1011 1042 1042 1043 1054 1054 1056 1057 3059 Eastern Empire. Earthquakes and famine at Constantinople. M i c h a 8 1 V , (Calaphaies). — Z oe&Theodora. — C onstantine X., (Monomarchusy. First invasion of the Seljuk Turks. The Russians invade Thrace with 100,000 men, and are repeatedly defeated by the Greeks. -Theodora,! the last of Macedonian dy- nasty. The Greek church becoines independent. Michael VI. ,^ (Stra iotichus). -I s a a cl (Comnenus). — C onstantine XI. — (Ducas). England, &c. 1039. -H ardicanute .^g- Scot'd. : — Macbeth mur- ders Duncan, and usurps the throne. The Saxon line restored under ^^ 1042. E d w a r d® (the Confessor). The coun- try prospers under his mild sway. 1051. Rebellion of Earl God- win and his sons. William, duke of Nor- mandy, visits Edward. 1053. The Dane-gelt abolished. Earl Godwin dies The Welch and the Irish several times invade Eng- land, but are repressed by Harold, son of Godwin. 1054. Macbeth defeated and killed at Langfanan, by Siward, earl of Northum- berland. 1057. Scotland :— Malcolm III. 1066. —Harold 11.,^— elected king ; killed at the BATTLE of HASTINGS. WILLIAM I , W duke of Normandy, styled "the Conqueror." End of the Anglo- Saxon dynasty. Edgar Atheling flies to Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 1042. Denmark : — Magnus, (the Good,) of Norway, king. 1047. Denmark : — Sweyn Es- tritson, or Suenon IJ. 1050. The Pisans and Genoese take Sardinia and Corsica from the Saracens. 1055. The Turks reduce Bag- dad, and overturn the em- pire of the caliphs. 1059. Sweden : — Ingeldus or Ingo I., the first Christian king. 1060. Robert Guiscard, the Norman, is created by the pope, duke of Apulia. 1062. 70,000 Europeans are killed, or made prisoners by the Turks in Palestine. 1065. Jerusalem taken by ths Saracens. 1065. Castile and Leon:— Al phonzo, king. 86 THE world's progress. • PERIOD-. YL— The Middle Ages.— {Contirmed.)^- Progress of Society, etc. Feudal System introduced in England by the Normans. U*S Surnames first used among the English nobility. lOrJ! Knights errant in Spain. Tngulphus, historian, secre- tary to William the Con- aueror. Marianus Scotus. Booksellers iirst heard of. London B.Jdgs and Westmin- ster Hal) fev Jli 1081 1034 1090 1092 Lanfranc, archbishop of Can- terbury. Doomsday Book fowipJItxJ by order of Williaui Ju Con- queror. Ecclesiastical. Popery at the height of its power, claiming supreme dominion, teTn- poral and spiritual, over all the states of Christen- dom. William of Spires, mathep»a- tician. A rigid police established in England. — The curfew. Norman French taught in All the schools, and made use of in all legal proceedings. Literature patronized in the East by Melek Shah. Fortress of Newcastle, and of Carlisle built. France, Germany, «fc Spain. 1066. William, Duke of Nor- mandy, claims the crown of England, and makes war upon Harold to obtain it 1071. Philip engages in a war with Robert, count of Holland. 1072. Henry IV. of Germany, summoned before the pope, for selling the investiture of bishops. Treats the man- date with contempt. 1073. — summoned again by Gregory VII. 1073. Pope GregoryVII., (Hildebrand,) who attempts to free all the clergy from the civil jurisdiction. He quarrels with the emperor. 1074. Simony and celibacy forbidden. 1075. Tiie pope sends legates to the various courts of Eu- rope. 1076. — sends an ambassador to to depose the pope— is excom municated by Gregory. Goes barefoot to his holiness, makes humble submission, and kisses his feet. 1076. Tuscany and Genoa be queathed to the Holy See by the Empress Matilda. 1076. Spain :— The Cid. 1078. The pope sets up Ru dolph, of Bavaria, as anti- emperor. Rudolph dies in 1080. Ger. :— Henry IV. de- grades Gregory for his in trigues against him, and makes an expedition into Italy, and procures another pope to be elected. The war continues till 1084, when Henry triumphs over Gregory, who flees to Sa lerno, and dies in exile in 1085. 10^4. The order of the Carthu- sians instituted by Bruno. 1086 Pope Victor III. 1088. « Urban II. 1085. Spain :— Toledo taken from the Moors, by Don Rodrigo, the Cid, assisted by Raymond, count of Tou- louse. 1086. Spain:— The battle of Zalaca. 1087. France : — War with England : Robert, duke ol Normandy, opposes Wil- liam Rufus. THE world's progress. 1066-1299. — William the Conqueror, to Olhman I. Eastern Empire. -- Eudocia.^^ — She maiTies Romanus III., ^^ (Diogenes.)- He valiantly but vainly opposes the Turks — is defeated and taken prisoner by Alp Ars- lan, Emir of Omrah —Michael VII, (Parapinaces). Andronicus I -Constantine XII. Syria and Palestine subdued by Melek Shah. • Nicephorus, (Botoniates). — Alexius I.^^ (Com- nenus). The empire in- vaded by Robert Guiscard, the Norman, who defeats Alexius at Durazzo. After the capture of Jerusa- lem, by the Turks, the Chris- tian' pilgrims are insulted, robbed and oppressed; v/hich gives rise to the crusades. — Great struggle between Christianity and Mohamme- danism. England «fc Scotland. 1066. —William I.,W " THE Conqueror," tirstof the Norman line. 1068. Edgar Atheling, heir of the Saxon line, takes refuge in Scotland. His sister, Margaret, marries Malcolm III. 1070. The feudal system in- troduced by the king. All the offices o{ the government placed in the hands of Nor- mans. The Norman lan- guage introduced. Malcolm III. of Scotland, ravages Durham. 1072. Peace between the Nor- mans and the Scots 1076. Robert, the king's son, raises a rebellion in Nor- mandy. 1087. William invades France, and is killed at Mantes. 1037. —William II. ,@ (Rufus). Revolt of the Norman nobles. The World, elsewhere. 1067. Poland : — Boleslas II., — he conquers Russia. 1068. Poland :- genes. -Romanus Dio 1070. Norway : —Bergen built. 1074. Syria: — Melek Shah, (Emir,) extends his domin- ions from the Jaxartes to the Mediterranean. 1076. Denmark :— Harold IV. Palestine invaded and subdued by Melek Shah.— Jerusalem taken. 1077. Hungary: — Ladislas I. 1079. Poland :— Stanislas, bi- shop of Cracow, murdered. The king excommunicated and dethroned. 1079. Poland :— Uladislas I, 1083. Italy : — Rome taken after a siege of two years, by Henry IV. 1084. BOHEMIA erected into a kingdom by the empereor Henry IV. 1090. Sicily conquered by Roger the Norman, after a war of thirty years with itf masters, the Saracens. 88 THE WORLDS PR,OG-S.ESS. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— A.D. PRoanEss of Society, etc. 1095 1096 1099 1100 1118 1120 Ecclesiastical. Francs. Germany & Spain 1093. Conrad, son of the em- peror, rebels. The popes continue to struggle against the empire. 1094. Spain :— Pedro I., k. — of Navarre and Arragon. The Crusades : — Peter, the Hermit, preaches against the Turks in all the countriss of Christendom. . I I The Council op Clermont. The FIRST Cr».USADE ;— Peter the Hermit, and Walter, the Pennyless, set out vviih a vast rabble, 300, 000 of whom perish before the warriors are ready to start. Nathan Ben Jechiel, learned Jew. Knights of St. John insti- tuted. An7ia Comnena, daughter of Alexius I., Eastern emperor, historian. William of Poitou, first trou- badour. AbeJard, French scholastic. Jeffrey of Moninouih, histo- rian. The Knights Templars. Tograi., Hairi, and Abdallah Sharfaddin, Arabian poets. Scholastic Philosophy attains its highest pomt by the writings of Peter Abelard. Peter, the Lovibard, (master of sentences). The chieftains of the 1099. Pope Paschal 11. 1118. Pope Gelasius II. 1119. " Calistus II. 1123. First Lateran, or ninth general council. 1124. Honorius II. first crusade were, 1. G d f r e y of Bcuillor or Boulogne. 2. Hugh of Vermandois. 3. R b e r t of Normandy 4. Robert of Flanders. .5. Stephen of Chartrcs. 6. Raymond of Toulouse. 7. Bohemond. 600,000 warriors, 100,000 cavalry. 1104. Spain : — Alfonzo I., king of Navarre and Arragon. 1106. Ger.:— Henry V .^ — maintains the right of in- vestiture. 1108. Fr.:— Louis VI.,^ — I cus and Aleppo. 1255. Nice : — Theodore Lasca- ris, emperor. 1256. Hulaku enters Persia, becomes sultan — takes Bag- dad, and puts an end to the caliphate. 1258. Italy :— Dreadful naval war between Venice and Genoa. 1259. China :—Kublai Khan builds Pekin, and makes it his capital. 1261. Norway :— Iceland sub- jected. Italy : — Charles I. 1262. — becomes a papal fief. Greenland iributaiy to Norway. Norway : 1265. -Magnus 11.^^ Abaka Khan of Persia. 1266. Magnus, of Norway, cedes to Scotland the He brides and the Isle crf Man. 98 THE world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages,— 1272 1273 1276 1279 S85 Progress op Society, etc. Marco Polo travels in the East as far as Pekin. First patent of nobility grant- ed to his goldsmith by the kii?f? of France. This was designed as an attack upon the feudal barons, and all tlie landed and hereditary aristocracy. Literature and science flourish in Spain, under Alfonzo, the learned. Chivalry and the tournaments introduced into Sweden. University of Lisbon founded. Roger Bacon, of Oxford, the most learned man of the middle ages. Institution of the three great courts of law in England. Ecclesiastical. France, Germany, & Spaim 1272. Languedoc falls to tho crown. 1273. Ger. :— Rodolph.^ founds the house o i H a p s b u r g . 1274. I4th General Council at Lyons; first re-union of the Eastern and Western Churches. 1276. Pope Innocent V., 4 mos. " Adrian V., 1 mo. " John XXL, 8 mos. 1277. Nicholas III., enriching his family at the expense of the church — he introduces Nepotism. 1281. Pope Martin IV. 1285. Pope Honorius IV. 1288. Pope Nicholas IV, Nicholas IV. patronizes civil and religious literature, and improves and embellishes Rome. AWeit, the mathematician, and Provencal poet. 1276 France at war with Ca* tile. 1283. Germany Rodc.ph makes his son, Albert, duke of Austria. 1285. Fr.:— Philip IV. (the Fair.) 1286. Spain :— Alfonzo 111. king of ArragoG. 1066-1299.— Continued.J THE world's progress. 99 A.D. I Eastern Empire. 1273 1274 1277 ' Andronicas, (the Elder.) Union with the Latin church. Persecution of the Greeks. •esi Ochman establishes an inde- pendent rule, as chief of 400 families, in the north of A.s-'a Minor. England & Scotland. 1272. — Edward JM 1276. War between England and Wales. The World, elsewhere. 1272 Hungary: — — Vladislas VI. W — 12S3. Edward has a son born at Caernarvon, from which the title, Prince of Wales, descends to the eldest son of the king. Scotland :— Robert Bruce and John Balliol contend for the crown. 1289. Last payment of ti ibute to the pope. 1276. Sweden : — Magnus L Russia : — Hanseatic set- tlement at Novogorod. 1279. China :-Kublia Khan subdues the southern king- dom, and becomes the Great Khan. China visited by Marco Polo. 1279. Poland :— Lesco II. 1279. Portugal :— Dennis,^_ the farther of his coun- try. 1280. Norway :— Eric 11.^-— 1982. /Sicilian vespers. 1282. Denmark :— Parliament at Wurtemburg. Fu-st Handveste. 1285. Denmark :— Eric VI. 1289. The Mongols mvade Hungary and Poland. 1290. Hungary : —Andrew III. the Venetian. Poland : Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, takes Cra- cow, and becomes duke o Lesser Poland. 100 THE world's progress. [Period VI.— The Middle Ages.— ?99 Progress of Society, etc. Peter, of Albano, astrologer, physician, and naturalist. Joh7i HolyiDood. of England astronomer. Richard Middleton. Cimabue, the first of modern painters at Florence. Arnolf di Lapo, the father of modern Italian architecture. The Inf luence of the crusades was great expanding the mind of Eur op e — r e - fi ning the g eneral manner s — e xciti ng a spirit of geogra- phical research and adventur e — a nd pr o- 'm,oting impr ov ement in the arts and sci- ences — thus under First letters of marque grant- ed by Edward III. against the Portuguese. Ecclesiastical. 1292. Celestine V.— he abdi- cates. 1292. The papal chair vacant two years and three months. Institution of the order of the Celestines. 1294. Pope Boniface VIII. 1296. Strusgles with France. 1297. Canonization of Louis IX. mining instead of stre7igthening the power ofp apal Ro'tne, by advanciyig libe- ral ideas and fr e e - dom of thought. France, Germany & Spain. 1291. Germany: — Adolphus of Nassau. Spain: — James II. k, of Arragon. 1295. Spain : - Ferdinand IV. in Castile ar d Leon. Philip successfully in- vades Flanders. 1298. Germany : — Adolphua deposed by a Diet, which elects — Albert I.^ — son of Rodolph. — Adolphus slain in the struggle which ensues. 1066-1299.— Continued.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 101 1291 1292 1299 Eastern Empire. Capture of Acre by the 5Ia- melukes — end of the king- dom of Jerusalem. The Mongols drive the last sultan of Iconium from his throne. The Genoese obtain the trade of the Black Sea, and rise to great power Othman mvades Nicomedia, and establishes the Ottoman empire. England & Scotland. The World, elsewhere. 1291. Edward decides the Scottish dispute in favor of Baliol. 1292. A piratical warfare be- tween England and France. — Philip gets possession of Guienne. 1296. Ball.- 1 defeated; sub- mits to Edward. 1297. Scotland :— S i r Wil- liam Wallace . — S i r William Douglas, Robert Bruce, and other chiefs head a rebellion against the English. 1292. Hungary : — The pope sets up Charles Martel, crown prince ot Naples, as king. 1294. China:— Tymui Khan. 1295. Poland: — Premislas II.' 1296. Poland:— Less 11.^— 1299. —they are defeated at "1299. Foundation of the Falkirk by king Edward I. I OTTOMAN or TURKISH I EMPIRE in Bythinia, ua- r299>1453 :— 154 ygr^?-5.— Continued.] the world's progress. 109 1403 1413 1421 1425' Eastern Empire. Solyinan I., Sultan of the Turks. Mohammed I., Sultan of the Turks. Amui-ath II., Sultan of the Turks. John VII. peror. 1438 The emperor visits Italy to obtain help against the Turks — submits to the pope. England & Scotland. 1406. Scotland :— James I. 1413. -Henry V 1414. — claims the French crown. 1415. — gains the battle of Agincourt. 1420.Treaty of Troyes.-Henry marries Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and is de- clared heir to the French crown. 1422. Death of Henry V. — Henry V I .^M — 1424. The Duke of Bedford defeats the French at Ver- neuil. 1427. — besieges Orleans. 1429. The siege raised by the Maid of Orleans. 1431. — she is taken prisoner and burnt. 1435. Death of the Duke of Bedford, followed by the loss of all the English pos- sessions in France, except Calais 1436. W^ar with Scotland. 1437. Scotland : — James II. The World, elsewhere. 1406. Italy : — Pisa conquered by Florence. — Subjugation of Padua and Verona by Venice. 1412. Italy:— Sack of Roma byLadislas, king of Naples, Denmark, Norway, &c. : Eric VII., of Pomerania.^g 1415. Conquest of Ceuta, by the Portuguese. 1419. Bohemia : — Hussite war. 1420. Discovery of Madeira by the Portuguese. 1424. Bohemia :-Death of John Ziska, the Hussite leader. Italy : — War of the Duke of Milan against Florence. 1429. Florence:— Cosmo di Medici, patron of the arts and sciences. 1431. Italy :— Second war of Venice and Milan. 1434. Poland:— Vladislas III. 1436. Italy :— Third war be- tween Venice and Milan. 1437. Portugal : — Expedition into Africa. 1433. Portugal: — Alfonso V., 110 THE world's progress. {Period VII.— The Middle Ages. -^ Progress of Society, etc. 1444 Leonardo da Vinci, sculptor, architect, and painter — dis- covers perspective. 1446 Pet. Perugino, founder of the Roman school of painting, teacher of Raphael. 1147 library of the Vatican, found- ed. 1448 1450 The Azores discovered, Alain Chartica. French poet. Flourishing period of Flan- ders' trade.— All European nations have warehouses at Bruges and Ghent. — Book trade at Mayence. ler. Ecclesiastical. 1447. Pope Nicholas V. 1448. Concordat of AschafTen- berg, by which the liberties of the German church are compromised. France: Germany & Spain, 1438. Germany : — House of Austria: — Albert II.W — (king of Bohemia anoHun- gary.) 1440. Ger. :-F r e d e r i c III, France :— The dauphin, (Louis XL), rebels— but is pardoned. 1444. — establishment of the companies of Archers, the first national standing army. 1446. Germany : — War with Hungary, for refusing to give up the young prince, Vladislas. 1451. Expedition of Frederic to Rome. 1453. Austria made an hersdi- tary duchy by Frederic. End of the French aod English wars. 1 1299-1453— 154 y^ars— Continued.] the world's progress. ill 1U3 1444 Eastern Empire. Insurrection of Scandeberg — victory over the Turks near Nissa. Battle of Varna — Vladislas, king of Poland, defeated and killed by the Turks. England & Scotland. 1448 1451 1453 — Constantino XIT. ^^ (Palaeologus,) the last of the Greek emperors. Mohammed II., Sultan of the Turks. Siege and capture of Constantinople by the Turks: END OF THE EAST- ERN EMPIRE. 1444. Truce with France.— Marriage of Henry to Mar- garet, of Anjou. Ths World, elsewhere. 1440. Hungary ; chosen king.i • V.'adislaj 1447. Gloucester arrested for treason— dies suddenly. 1450. Insurrection of Jack Cac/e— calling himself Mor- timer. Civil Wars of "tlie Roses:" Richard, duke of York, claims the throne. Scotland :— Struf tween the king and cracy for power. gles be- aristo- 1441. Italy :— Peace of Marti- nego. 1443. Alfonso V., of Arragon, unites the crown of the Two Sicilies. 1445. Poland : Casimir IV. ^^ 1446. Tartary : — Ulugh Beg, patron of astronomy and geography. 1448. Denmark :— Christian L of Odenburg.^^ Sweden :— Charles VIII.^ 1450. Italy :— Francesco Sfor- za, duke of Milan. Norway : Christian crowned at Drontheim.^^ Delhi :— Behol Lodi en- larges the kingdom. 1453. Poland : — Coniirmation of the national liberty in the Diet of Petrikan. 112 THE world's progress. PERIOD VIIL— 1453-1598. A,D. Progress op Society, etc. 1460 U64 1466 1470 1471 Philip de Comines, French historian. Wood engraving invented. Post- Offices in France and England. Faust dies at Paris, whither he journeys ticice to sell his Latin Bible. Beerhard invents the pedal to the organ. Printing in England— Cax- ton. England. 1455. Battle of St. Albans. House of York: 1461. — Ed- ward IV. ^g— gains the battle of Towton. Scotland. 1460. III. James France. 1461. Louis XI. 1473 Printed musical notes. Hungary :— Mathias patroni- zes literature and the arts. Large library at O fen— 300 copyists of manuscripts. 1476 German ballads— war songs of Veil Weber. 1477 1481 1484 Watches first made at Nurem- burg. Mikrond and Rondemir, great Persian historians. Lady Juliana Berners, one of the earliest female writers of England. Hans Holbein, painter. Franchino Gafuvid, teacher in the first public school of music at Milan. Josquin de Prez, greatest mu- sical genius of his age. l469.Warwick banished. 1471. Battle of Barnet :— Warwick slain. — Hen- ry VI. dies in the Tower 1483. Ed ward V Richard, Protector. — The king & his brother murdered in the Tower. — R i c h - ard III. 1479. War with England . — Conspiracy of the no- bles ; — they take the king prisoner. 1485. -Henry, earl of Rich- mond, lands at Mil ford Haven. Battle o f B o s - worth Field Richard defeated and slain. Spain ani> Portugal. 1454. Spain: — Henry IV. of Castile. ^M. 1469. Marriage ofFerdinand, Civil war.— ; of Arragon, — Peace of Conflans. 1475. War be- tween Louis and Charles of Burgun dy, 1476. — who is defeated at Granson and Morat, and 1477. —slain at Nancy. Artois and Burgundy united to the French crown. 1483.— Char- les Vlll. with Isabel- la, of Cas- tile. 1479. Union of Castil e and Arra- gon under Ferdinand 1 1 . and Isa- bella. 1480. The I n- qu isi tion . — X i m e - n e s , bishop of Toledo. 1481. Port. :— John 11.® 1484. First au- da-fe at Se« ville. THE world's PROt^RESS. Othvian to the Edict of Nantes. 113 1462 1469 1472 .477 Germany. The emperor besieged in his court at Vienna — delivered by G. Podiebrad, of Bohe- mia. Invasions of the Turks. University of Ingoldstodt. Marriage of Maximilian and Maria of Burgundy. 1454. Struggle between Cos- mod da Me- dici and the aristocracy. 1458. The French rule in Genoa. Pope Pi- us II. 1463. War of Venice with 1464. Pietro de Medici at Florence. Pope Paul 11. 1466. Galeaz- zo, duke of Milan. 1469. L r e n - z o de Me- dici, suc- ceeds Pietro. 1471. Sixtus IV. pope. Power of the Medici increases. Learning flourishes. 1478. Conspi racy of the Pazzi at Flo- rence.— Giu- lio, brother of Lorenzo de Medici, slain. Ottoman Empire. •'^he World, elsewhere. 1455. Turks re- pulsed at Bel- grade. 1484. Innocent VIII., pope. the Turks. 1464. War with Hungary. of 1454. Poland :— War with the Teutonic Order. 1458. Hungary : Mathias Corvin,! :nakes hia country formidable to her neighbors. 1462. Russia:— Ivan I.^^ — the Great — takes the title it Czar. 1466. Peace of Thorn.— East Prussia a fief of Poland.— West Prussia ceded to Po- land. 1468. Uzun Hasan, master of all Persia. 1470. — forms an alliance with the Venetians and the duke Burgun dy against the Turks— con- quers Bagdad. 1472. Russia : — Ivan marries Sophia, niece of the Greek emperor. 1474. —shakes off the Tartar yoke, and captures Novo- gorod. 1477. Hungary — War with Frederic III. 1479. Fruitless attempt upon Rhodes. 1480. -capture and destroy Otranto. 1481. Bajazet the tirst un- warlike sul- tan. 1481. Denmark:—? -^n, ^^ — partially ackiwwiedged in Sweden. 1488. Hungary:- ^'^♦lif^ takes Vienna. 114 THE world's PROGE.ESS. [Period VIII.-^ Progress of Society, etc. Martini Bckaim, (Nurem- burg,) publishes a map of the toorld. DISCO VE R Y AMERICA. OF First printing press at Copen- hagen. The second voyage of Colwm- bus. — A Spanish colony at Hispaniola. The discoveries of John and Sebastian Cabot. Third voyage of Columbus. He discovers Trinidad and the Continent. Lisbon, the great seat of trade. — Venice declines. Maritime enterprises greatly extended. Sir Thomas Morels Utopia, published. Nicholas Machiavellt, states- man and historian. Amerigo Vespucius's voyage. Fourth voyage of Columbus. Raphael, Michael Angela, Ti- tian, Corregio, painters. St. Peter's, and other magni- ficent churches built. The celebrated tapestry, after Raphael ;— Cartoons woven in the Netherlands. L UTHER, Ersismus, Melancthoa , and other reformers. Roger Ascham, tutor of queen Elizabeth. Hans Sachs, founder of Ger- man drama. Copernicus, discovers the true system of the Uni- verse—his great work, De Orbium Coelestium Revolu- tionibus. First complete circumnavi- gation of the globe, by Ma- gellan England. House of T u d o r :— — H e n r v VII 1486. Imposture of Lambert Syranel. The Star Cham- ber established. 1493. Perkin War- beck, pretends to be Richard, duke of York — defeated on Blackheath. 1497. Cabot makes discoveries in A- merica. 1499. Earl of Warwick, last of the Plantage- nets, executed. 1509. H e n r y VIII .@ joins the League of Cambray. 1513. Invasion of the Scots. — Battle of Flodden — the king and chief Scots killed. 1515. W o 1 s e y , chancellor and car- dinal. 1520. The Emperor visits England. — Meeting of Henry and Francis at the "Field of the Cloth of Gold." 1521. The Reformed doctrines opposed by Henry, in his book in the Seven Sacrariients — he receives the title of " Defender of the Faith." Scot- land. 1487.: — James IV. 1503.: — James marries Marga- ret, of Eng- land. 1513.: — James V. France. 1491. Bretag. ne united to the crown by the king's marriage with Anne. 1494. Invasion of Italy. 1498.— Louis xii.W— 1499. m- vades Italy — conquers the Milanese Duchy. 1500. Treaty with Ferdi- nand, of Ara- gon, for the conquest and partition of Naples. 1510. The Council of Tours, to support the king against the Hoiy League. 1515.— Fran- cis I.^^ — — invades Italy — victory of Marigna- no — Genoa and Milan submit. 1516. Concor- dat with the pope, instead of pragma- tic sanction. 1521. First war with Char- les V. Spain and Portugal. 1492. Con- quest i Granada, by Gonzalo de Cordova. Discovery f A mer i- ca, by C 0- 1 u m b us . 1498. Vasco d e G a m a doubles the Cape of Good Hope, and reaches India. 1506. Colum- bus dies at Valladolid. 1507. Cardinal Ximenes. Board of American trade at Se- ville. 1516.— Char- king oi all Spain, and the Nether- lands. 1519. Con- quest of Mexico, by C o r t e 3 , •«Bi 1453-1598.] THE world's progress. 115 Germany. 149;j — M a X 1 m i I i a n I 502 150S 1512 1517 1518 1519 University of Wittenburc Maximilian enters Italy to be crowned by the pope. — ^joins the League of Cam- bray. —divides the empire into ten circles. Commencement of THE Reformation. Luther summoned before the diet of Augsburg. — Charles V .^M — of Spain. The archduke Ferdinand, mar- ries Anne, sister of Louis — whence the accession of Bohemia and Hungary to the House of Hapsburg. Diet of Worms. 1492. Pietro II. succeeds his father, Lo- renzo, in Flo- rence. Pope Alex- ander VI,, (Borgia.) 1494. Expedi- tion of Char- les VIII. in- to Italy. 1499. Amerigo Vespucius's voyage to America. 150U. Partition of Naples between France and Spain. 1502. Florence: Machiavelli, Secretary of State. 1503. Naples annexed to the Spanish Crown. Pope Pius III. Pope Ju- lius 11. 1508. League of Cajnbray against Ve- nice. 1510. Holy League to expel the French. 1511. Council of Pisa. 1513. Pope Leo X . (de Medici,) patron of li- terature and arts. The build- ing of St. Peter's com- menced. 1519. Cardinal de Medici holds rule in Florence. 1522. Po.pe Adrian VI. Ottoman I „ ,,, , , Empire. Tn'E. World, elsewhere. 1493. Wars with Egypt, Hungary, and Venice. 1503. Peace with Venice. 1505. War with Persia. 1512. Selim I., thrones and puts to death his father. 1514. The Per- sians defeat- ed at Kalde- roon. — Me- sopotamia and Kurdis- tan added to the empire. 1516. Cairo taken by storm. — Ma- meluke do- minions an- nexed to the empire. 1520. Soliman, W (the Magnificent.) 1521. Belgrade taken by storm. 1522. Rhodes capitulates. 1488. India : — Sekander Lodi, king of Delhi. 1492. Poland:— John Albert. AMERICA discovered by Co- lumbus. 1493. Spanish colony at Ilia paniola. 1499. Voyage of Amerigo Ves- pucius. — South American coast explored. ISOl.Poland :— Alexander.' 1502. Ismail Shah Soofi makes himself sole sovereign of Persia. 1506. Poland :— Sigismund I. ^g, (the Great.) 1509. Bohemia : — Louis,^^ — 3 years old. 1510. America : — Settlement at Darien. 1511. America : — Cuba con- quered. 1512. America : — Florida discovered. 1513. South Sea first reached by Balboa. 1516. Hungary and Bohemia: -Louis II.' Lodi, 1517. India :— Ibrahim king of Delhi 1 517. America :■ — First patent for importing Negroes— granted by Spain. 1518. Corsairs in Algiers. 1519. MEXICO conquered by the Spaniarr's, under Cor- tes. 116 THE world's progress [Period VIIL— 1527 1530 1533 1535 1537 1538 15iiO 1542 1545 1547 1548 Progress op Society, etc. Xavier plants Christianity in India. Ariosto^ Italian poet. Albert Durer. F.rst VY-ork on military archi' tecture. Jorgens invents the spinning wheel for spinning flax. Rabelais, French humorist. Botanic Gardens at Padua. Ignatius Loyola founds the order of the Jesuits. Papal bull declaring the Ame- rican natives to be rational beings. The diving bell invented. Calvin founds the Univer- sity of Geneva. Pins first used by Catharine Howard, queen'of England. John Knox, Scottish Refor- mer. A commercial treaty between Portugal and Japan. Needles first made. Vasalius's work on Anatomy. Revival of Stoicism, by Justus Lipsius. Palestrina, founder of Italian church music. Giacomo Carisimi. Orange trees introduced into Europe. England. 1529. Sir Thomas More, Lord Chan- cellor. — Rise of Cranmer, archbi- shop of Canter- bury. 1532. The king mar- ries Anne Boleyn. 1535. Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More beheaded. Henry excom- municated by the Pope 1536. — marries Jane Seymour. — Sup- pression of the smaller monaste- ries. 1-543. Henry invades France takes Boulogne. 1544. French fleet gain a victory over the English, off the Isle of \Vight. 1.547. Edward VI. ^ . Somerset invades Scotland — defeats the Scots at Pin- kie. Formal esta- blishment of Pro- testantism. Scot- land. 1536. : — Spread ot the Refor- mation. —Pro- testants persecu ted. 1542. : — Mary France. 1525. Francis defeated and taken pri soner at Pa- via. 1527. Second war with Charles V. 1529. Treaty of Cambray. — Great en- couragement given to arts and sciences. —The Lou- vre com- menced. 1532. Calvin preaches. Third French war. — Siege of Marseilles. Spain and Portugal. 1538. Truce of Nice— for 10 years. Attempt to recover pow- er in Italy ; hence the 1.542. Fourth French war. 1544. Peace of Crespy. France gives up Italy. 1547. Henry ' I'he fa- mous Catha- rine d e Medici, queen. 1536. Acquisi- tion of Mi- lan. 1540. Portu- gal : — Lis- bon,the mar- ket of the world. 1542. Com- mercial trea- ty between Portugal and Japan. 1453-1598.J THE world's progress. 117 1525 1526 1529 i538 Germany. Geueial insurrections of the peasantry, under Thomas Miinzer. Charles marries Isabella, of Portugal. Death ol Frederic, of Saxony. The Turks invade Germany. — Diet of Spires. — Luther- ans first called Protestants. League of Smalcald. Congress of Nice between the Emperor, the Pope, and the king of France, 1543 War m alliance with England against France. 1545 mi Diet of Worms. War of the Smalcaldists. Duke Maurice, elector of Saxo- ny. Italy. 1523. Clement VII., pope. 1525. Spain ac- quires the ascendency by the victo- ry of Pavia. 1527. The Me- dici expelled from Flo- rence. 1530. Medici restored. — Charles V. crowned at Bologna. 1534. Paul III., pope. 1537. Cosmo de Medici, duke of Tus- cany. 1540. Investi- ture of Mi- lan confer- red by Char- les V. on Philip. J.645. Council of Trent. Ottoman Empire. 1526. Invasion of Hungary. 1529. Invasion of Germany. —Siege of Vienna. The Otto- man navy formidable under the command of Barbarossa 1535. —who seizes Tu- nis. — The emperor, Charles V., restores the Moorish king. 1541. Destruc- tion of an ar- mament, led by Charles V. against Algiers. 1547. The Turks in vade Persia, and capture Ispahan. The World, elsewhere. 1523. Sweden: — Revolt under Gustavus Vasa . — The Danes expelled. — Union of Calmar dissolved. Denmark and Norway : — Frederic I.^§ 1525. Albert, duke of Prussia. 1530. Malta givec knights of Rhodes to the 1532. Union of Norway and Denmark. 1533. Conquest of Pe- r u , by Cortes. Russia :— Ivan IV., (the Terrible). 1536. Cortes discovers Califor- nia. 1543. First standing army ia Sweden. 1545. South America :—Mmes of Potosi discovered. 1548. Poland :— Sigismund 11^ ^S (Augustus). 118 THE world's progress. [Period VIII.-' JL.D. Progress of Society, etc. Scaliger, Philologist. Montaigne, French Essayist. 1558 1559 1560 England. Cardan, Italian philosopher. Sealing wax comes into use in Europe. Foundation of Jesuit Colleges in opposition to Protestant Schools. The first at Cn- imbra, in Portugal. Only two carriages in Paris — horses and litters generally used. SnulTfirst brought into France. —Knives first made in Eng- land. 1549. The English Liturgy comple- ted and establish- ed by act of Par- liament. 1553. Northumber- land intrigues to settle the crown on Lady Jane Grey, his daughter-in- law. — Mary .^^ — Catholicism re- stored. 1554. The queen marries Philip, of Spain.— Lord Dud- ley and Lady Jane Grey executed. 1555. Bloody perse- cution of Protes- tants. 1557. War with France to support Spain. — Calais lost. 1558. — Eliza- beth. ^M Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Secreta- tary of State. Protestantism established. The Puritans begin to rise. Torquato Tasso Guarini, poets. Camoens, Portuguese poet. Thomas Tallis, English mu- Bician. Scot. LAND. France. 1552. Fifth war with Char- les V. 1560. Ca- tholic- ism abo- lished by par- liament. 1.565. : — Mary marries Lord Darn- ley. 1565. : — Revolt ol' Pro- testants . 1567. : — Darnley murder- ed — the queen marries earl of Both- well — is dethron- ed and impri- soned at Lochle- ven. James Spain and Portugal. ^ 1568. —Mary, queen of Scots, takes re- fuge in England — and is imprisoned. 1570. Civil wars of the Desmonds in in Ireland. VI. 1.570. :— Lennox, regent. 1557. The French defeat- ed at St. Quentin. 1558. — at Gra- velines. 15.59. Peace of Chateau — Cambresis. F r a n c i I Duke of Guise, min- ister. 1560.— Char- lesIX.® 1562. Religious liberty grant- ed 10 the Hu- guenots. First civil religious war — Huguenots supported by England — de feated at Dreux. 1567. The se- cond war. — Huguenots defeated at St. Denys. 1569. —routed at Jarnac. — C o n d e killed. 1554. CcTCar^ in India, lost. 15-56. Charles abdicates — Philip II. 4 1557. Portu- gal : — Sebas- tian, ^m — 1564. Acquisi- tion of the Philippines. 1567. Duke of Alva, gover- nor of tha Netherlands. 1570. War with the Turks.— Na- val victory at Lepanta 1453-1598.] THE world's progress. 119 A.D. 1551 1556 1558 1564 Germany. Ottoman Empire. 1550. Julius Treaty of Passau secures reli- III., pope, gious liberty to the Protes- tants. Fruitless siege of Mentz. Charles abdicates. — F erdinand I .^g — king of Hungary and Bohe- mia. Coronation by the pope relin- quished. -Maximilian II. ^M — 1555. Marcel- lusll.jpope. Paul IV., (Caraffa) pope. 1551 . Tripoli taken from the Maltese knights. 1552. Invasion of Hungary. 1553. War with Persia. Building of the mosque of Solyman- yah, at Con- stantinople. 1559. Pius IV. (xMedici) pope. Peace of Chateau — Cambresis terminates the French wars in Italy. Tranquil- lity for 66 years. 1562. Council of Trent re- assembled. 1556. Pius v., pope. 1569. Florence, a grand du- chy. Cosmo d e Medi- c i , declared grand duke of Tuscany, by Pius V, 1570. War of Venice with the Porte. 1571. Cyprus reduced by the , Turks. I Battle of Lepanto. 1559. Naval victory of Galves, gain- ed by Dra- gut. Military power of the Turks at its greatest height, un derSoliman. 1565. Unsuc- cessful siege of Malta. 1566. Death of Soliman at the siege of Sigeth. Selim II. The World, elsewhere. 1553. New Mexico discevftrad by the Spaniards. 1456. India :—Jelaleddin Ak- bai', a patron of science and literature, aided by his min- isters, Abu Fazl and Sheikh Faizi. — raises the Mogul em- pire to its greatest splendor. 1559. Denmark and Norway: — Frederic II.^J • Decrease of the influence of the Hanse townts. 1560. Sweden :— Eric XIV. W 1562. War with Russia and Poland.— An English am- bassador in Persia. 1564. Coligny sends a colony of Huguenotp to Florida- destroyed by the Spaniards, 1568. Prussia:— Albert Frede- Sweden :- John III. 1270. Peace of Stetin, between Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. 1571 Russia devastated by the khan of Crim Tartary. — Moscow burnt. (20 THE "world's progress. [PeHod VIII.^ Progress op Society, etc. Cervantes, author of Don Quixotte. Titian, and Paolo Veronese, painters. Sir Francis Drake's voyage round the world. Sir Philip Sydney^ s Arcadia. Gregorian Reformation of the Calendar. Greenland discovered by Sir Francis Drake. Tobacco first brought to Eu- rope. First newspaper in England. England. Telescopes invented by Jan- sen, a German. Tasso, Italian poet. The Carracci, celebrated pain- ters. In England : — Spenser, Shakspeare, Beau- mont & Fletcher, Ben Jon- son.— Napier invents loga- rithms. Lord Bacon, celebrated phi- losopher. Lope de Vega, dramas and novels, Kepler, Tycho Brake, astro- nomers. Scot- land. 1578. The queen sends help to the revolted Nether- lands. 1583. Levant Com- pany chartered. 1534. Raleigh's co- lony in Virginia. 1585. War with Spain. 1586. Sir Philip Sidney killed at Zutphen. 1587. The Queen of Scots beheaded. 1588. The Spanish armada destroyed. 1589. Alliance with Henry II. in aid of Protestantism. — Troops seat to France. 1593. Act for reli- gious conformity. I59i. Sir John Haw- kins's Vovages. 1596. Cadiz taken, and the Spanish fleet burnt, by the earl of Essex. Sir Robert Cecil, minister. 1599. Troubles in Ireland : — Revolt of O'Neill, earl of Tyrone. 1581. :— Gow- rie's conspi- racy against the king, 1590. :— The king marries Anne, of Den- mark. France. 1572. Massacre of Sc. Bar- tholomew. 1573. Peace of Rochelle. 1574. — H e n - rylll.® Fifth war with the Hu- guenots. 1576. The Ca- tholic League. 1577. Sixth re- ligious war. Spain and Portugal. 1578. Port. :— Henry, ^g- 1580. Portugal falls under Spanish do- minion. 1588. Revolt of Paris. 1589. House of Bour bon : — H E N R Y 1590. Siege of Paris, raised by the Spa niards. 1593. Henry abjures Pro- testantism. 1594. Jesuits banished. 1595. War with Spain con- tinued. 1598. Peace of Vervius. Ministry of Sully: — restoration of order. Edict op Nantes — granting toleration to Protestants. 1588. Defeat of the Spanish armada. 1589. English volunteers under Drake and Norris, repulsed from Lisbon. 1598. Philip in. w — 1453-1598.] THE world's progress 121 ▲.D. 1576 Germany. Rodolph 11.^ — king of Bohemia and Hun- gary. 15^ The imperial authority disre- garded by the princes of the empire, who wage war among tlia xiselves. Union of Protestants at Heil- bronn. Italy. 1572. Gregory XIII., pope. 1573. Cyprus yielded to the Porte ; 1574. Florence: — Frances Ma- ria succeeds Cosmo. 1580. Charles Emmanuel, duke of Sa- voy. 1585. Sixtus v., pope, active and energetic — corrects abuses in the church ; restores the Vatican li- brary. 1590. Urban VII., pope. Gregory XIV., pope. 1591. Innocent IX., pope, two months. Clement VIII. , pope. 1592. The Ri- alto and Pi- azza di San Marco built at Venice. Ottoman Empire. peace with Ve- nice. 1574. — Mui-ad 1576. War with Persia. 1580. War with the Druses in Syria. 15S3. First trade with England. The World, elsewhere. 1589. Predato- I'y incur- sions of the Cossacks. Revolt of the Janiza- ries. 1593. War with the Empire in Hungary. 1594. The Grand Vi- zier takes Raab. 1595. Moham- med m.^ Turkibh power in Hungary de- clines ; de- feated at Gran — re- volt of Wal- lachia. 1597. Moham- med leads his troops, and defeats the Germans at Agria. 1574 Poland:— Henry, of Va 1575 Poland :— Stephen Ua- 1578. Alliance of Sweden and Poland against Russia. Iy79. Cornmencement f t h e Republic of HOLLAND, by the union at Utrecht : William, Prince of Orange, stadthol- der. 1584. North America: —First English colony found- ed in Vii^ginia, by Sir W. Raleigh. 1585. Persia acquires power under Abbas the Great. Holland : — Maurice, of Orange, stadtholder. 1586. Battle of Zntphen: death of Sir Philip Sidney. 1588. Denmark: -Christian 1592. Sweden : — Sigismund king of Poland. India:— Mizam Shah, re pulsed from Choul, by the Portuguese. 1594. The Falkland Isles dif covered by Hawkins. 1595. The Dutch first in Indii Sweden :— The regent as- sumes independent auth:> rity. 1598. Russia : —Boris Godu- -begins a nijw nov,^g^ dynasty. Sigismund lands in Swe den, to re-establish his pow- er — but is defeated, and re- turns to Poland. a 122 THE world's progress. PERIOD IX.— 120 years. Progress op Society, etc. English East India Compa- ny founded. Ezportation of Engash wool prohibited. Conference at Hampton Court. New Translation of the Bi- ble begun; (published 1611). Dr. Gilbert discovers the pow- er of electricity, and of con- ductors and non-conductors. Telescopes invented by Gali- leo. Coffee at Venice. Tobacco in Virginia. Bacon's Inductive Philoso- phy. Harvey discovers the circvJxi- tion of the blood. Thermometers invented by Drebel. Inigo Jones, celebrated archi- tect. Martin Opitz, German poet. Negro Slavery co 'ismenced in Virginia. Peter Paul Rubens, painter. Massinger, the dramatist. Kepler's " Astronomia Nova Celestis." Torricelli invents tlie barome- ter. The Parian marbles brought to England by the earl of Ar andei. Gazettes first published in Venice. America. 1604. — Acadia co- lonized by the French. 1606. — Discovery of Hudson's Bay. 1607.— E n g I i s h settlement at Jamestown, (1st permanent one in N. Ame- rica.) 1608. — Quebec founded. 1609. — .Jesuit mis- sions in Para- guay, 1616.— The Tobac- co plant introdu- ced into Virgi- nia. 1620.— Negro slaves first im- ported to Virgi- ni.H. Emigra- tion of Pu- ritans to New Eng- land. 1621. —.John Car- ver, 1st Gover- nor of N. E. 1624. New Am- sterdam set- tled by the Dutch. 1627. Boston found- ed. 1629. Wouter Van Twiller, gover- nor of New Am- sterdam. England. 1601. Earl of Essex be- headed. 1603. — James I.^^ — Union of ihe English and Scotch crowns. 1605. The Gunpowder Plot. 1612. English factories at Surat. 1615. Ministry of Villiers, duke of Buckingham. 1617. Sir Francis Bacon. lord chancellor. 1618. Sir Walter Ra- leigh's unsuccessful voyage to America — he is beheaded on his return. 1625.— C h a r 1 e s l.^ Buckingham, prime minister. France. 1510. Assassi- nation of Henry IV., by Ravail- lac. Louis XIII, .W (9 years old). Mary de Me- dici, regent. 1614. Last as- sembly of the States-gene- 1615.'Theking marries Anne, of Austria. Civil war : — C o n d e heads the Hugue- nots. 1624. Ministry of Cardinal Riche- lieu. 1627. War with France, in support of the Hugue- nots. Rochclle 1629. No parliament for reduced by eleven years. famine — af- 1630. Peace with France. ter a siege of ten raoji'.his. THE world's progress. W98-1718.~Edict of Nantes to the death of Charks XII., of Sweden. 123 Spain AND ^•°' Portu- gal. Germany. 1609 1613 Italy. Ottobian Empire. 1606. Truce of Co- morra, for twenty years, with the Porte. 1621 1625 IG25 1630 Expul- sion of the Moors. War of the Mont- ferrat succes- sion in Italy. Dutch war. — Spain sup- ports Austria. Philip Defeat o I Span- fleet off Lima, l)y the Duich. Naval war with Eng- land. Peace with Eng- land. 1608. Protestant union, under Fre- deric, the elector palatine. 1610. The Catholic _,^ . League, under thej —Cosmo II. duke ol Bavaria. 1612. Matthias. 1605. Leo XL, pope. Paul v., pope. The World, elsewhere. 1609.Tuscany: 1615. Truce of Co- morra confirmed. 1618. The Thirty Years' W a "r begins. 1619.— Ferdinand 1620. Victory of the White Mountain, near Prague. Massacre of Prague. —The Pro- testant religion to- tally suppressed. 1626. Victory of Til- ly over Christian IV., of Denmark, at Lutter. 1628.WalIenstein recovers all the shores of the Bal- tic, except Stral- sund. 1629. Gustavus Adol- phus lands in Ger- many. — Diet of Ratisbon. — Wal- lenstein dismissed, succeeded by Til- ly- 1605. Revolt in Syria and Caramania, under the pasha of Aleppo. 1606. Com- mercial treaty with France and Holland. Tobacco first brought to Turkey. 1604. Sweden : Charles IX. 1605. India : —Jehangir, stai- tan. Leghorn, the etiipori- um of the Levant trade. 1618. Conspi- racy of Bed- mar, the Spanish en- voy, to re- duce Venice under sub- jection to Spain. 1621. Gregory XV., pope. Tuscany : — Ferdinand II 1623. The fa- mous library of the Pala- tine at Hei- delberg, sent to Rome. 1628. General Italian war on the death of the duke ofMantua. 1617. — Musta- pha I.^^— 1618. — Osman Great Per- sian victory at Shibli. 1620 War with Poland, and unsuccess- ful invasion of Poland. 1623. Murad restores tran- quillity. 1625. Truce witli the em- pire renew- ed. 1609. India :— Arrival of Haw- kins, first English envoy from the East India Com- pany. Sweden : — G u s t a v u 3 A d o 1 p h u s . ^§ ■ 1611. Sweden : — War with Denmark.— Calmar and Ris- by lost.— Axel Oxenstiern, minister. — Russia devasta- ted by Poles and Tartars. Russia : — Michael Ro- manoff, czar. 1515. Denmark: — First stand- ing army. 1616. India :— Sir Thomas Roe. ambassador from .lames I., of England. Sweden predominates in the north. 1618. The Synod of Dorl— Arniinius condenmed. Settlement of Tanquebar, in Coromandel. 1621. Dutch West India Com- pany incorporated. 1622. Persia : — Ormuz gained from the Ponusuese by t.^e help of the English. 1625. Netherlands : — Hcrxy Frederic. — Breda, taken bj Spinola. 1627. Persia :— Shah Soofi I. 1629. Peace of Lubeck. 124 THE world's progress. [Period IX.^ Progress of 'Society, etc. Lotteries for money first men- tioned. Calico first imported into Eng- land. Edward Corce, the great ju- rist. Pedro Calderon de la Barca, Spanish dramatist. Flourishing period of flower trade in the Dutch cities. Rembrandt, Van Dyke, pain- ters. The Jansenists, founded by .lansenius, bishop of Ypres. Printing in America. First Swedish manufactories. Persin, Caspar, Daghet, and Claude Lorraine, French painters. Coffee brought to England by Nat. Conopius. Conde and Turenne, the great- est generals of the age. America. The Dutch sole masters of Bra- zil. 1632. Maryland settled by a colo- ny under Lord Baltimore. 1635. Connecticut .settled. — Guada- loupe and Mar- tinique, by the French. 1637. Maine and New Hampshire colonized. Harvai'd Col- lege founded. 1639. First print- ing office in Ame- rica, at Cam- bridge, by Sam. Green. 1640. Whole num- ber of emigrants to New England previous to this, 21,000. 1643. Confedera- tion of the colo- nies of New England, for mutual defence. England. 16.30. Wentworth, earl of Strafford, minister. Laud, archbishop of Canterbury. 1633. The king visits Scotland — is crowned at Edinburgh. 1637. Trcibles in Scot- land, caused by Char- les's plan to overilirow the Scotch presbyterian church, and enforce episcopacy. 1639. War with Scotland. 1640. Parliament assem- bled — dissolved with- out effecting any thing. The Scotch invade England— take posses- sion of Newcastle. The Long Parlia- ment, Nov. 3. Impeachment of Straf- ford and Laud. 1641. Strafford beheaded. — Courts ofStar Cham- ber and High Commis- sion abolished. — Rebel- lion of Roger Moore in Ireland. — "Massacre of Protestants by Irish Ca- tholics. 1642. Civil W a 1 and Revolution . Rise of Roundheads and Cavaliers, totli of the popular party. — Battle of Edgehill, inde- cisive. 1643. Royalists victorious at Curlsgrane — defeated at Newbury.— Solemn league and covenant be- twe'en the Scotch and English parliaments. France. 1631. Treaty with Svvo. den and the popular prin- ces against the emper- or. 1635. Alliance with Holland against Spain, for the par- tition of the Austrian Ne- therlands. 16-36. Alliance with Sweden against Aus- tria. Invasion of Gascony by the Span- iards, and of Picardy, by the Impe- rialists, who threaten Pa- ris. 1638. Invasion of Spain, siege of Fon- tarabira. 1640. Turin ta- ken by the F'rench. The first Louis d'ors struck. 1641. Alliance with Portu- gal against Spain. — Ca- talonia and Rousillon re- volt, and sub- mit to France. 1642. Cinq IMars and de Thou be- headed. 1643.-L u I a XIV. ^— (the Great.) An7ie, of Austria, re- gent. Victory of Roscroi over I he Span- iards, by Conde. Ministry o Cardinal Ma» zarine. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. .25 1639 1640 Spain A:>tD Portu- gal. Loss of the Ja- panese irade. Germany. 163L Sack of Mag- deburg, by Tilly. — G ustavus Adol- phus takes May- 1632. Defeat and death of Tilly, at Lech. — G ustavus takes Munich. Wallensiein again in command. — Bat- tle of Lutzen. — Victory and death of G ustavus Adol- phus. 1635.Peace of Prague with Saxony. 1636. Swedes victo- rious at Wittslock. 1637.— Ferdinand Galas successful against the Swedes. 1638. Bernhard. of Saxe Weimar, de- feats the Imperial- ists at Bheinfield — lake.^ Brisac. 1639. Battles of Ol- iiitz and Brandiez, gained by the Swe- dish general, Bau- ner. 164U. Prussia-— Fre- deric William. 1642. The Swedes de- feat the Austrians at Leipsic. 1643. —invade Hol- stein, and compel the Danes to desert Austria. Italy. 1631. Peace of Chierasco. — The influ- ence of France increases. Ottoman EllPIRE. 1634.Murart ir vades Pei- sia — takes Falreeze. 1636. Peace Avith Poland renewed. 1637. Troubles on the Tar- tar iVontier; Azoph taken by the Cos- sacks. Bagdad ta- ken by the Turks. All the con- questsof Ab- bas recover- ed. 1640. Ibrahim. 1642. Recap- ture of Azoph from the Cos- sacks. The World, elsewhere. 1632. Sweden : — Christina, queen. ^^ 1632. Sweden : — Oxenstiem, regent. Russia: — War with Po- land; twc years' siege of Smolensko.— Russian army capitulates, and the Polish king advances to Moscow. 1634. Peace of Wiasma, disad- vantageous to Russia. 1639. Holland. —Great naval victory by Va7i Troinp, over the Spanish fleet in the Downs. 1640. India :— Madras fouided by the EnglLsh. .26 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period IX.— 120 yeai s.-' 1646 1548 1650 Progress of Society, etc. Des Caries, French philoso- pher. Air guns invented. Engraving in mezzotinto, im- proved by Prince Rupert. 654 (655 Railroads toith wooden rails, near Newcastle. Jeremy Taylor, Alger. Sid- ney, English writers. Le Seur and Le Brun, French painters. America. Great Britain. 1646. Thomas lilayhew, preach- er io the Indians, shipwrecked. 1647. Peter Stuy- vesant, governor of New Amster- dam. 1648. Cambridge platform adopt- ed. 1649. J. Witithrop, governor of Coii- necticut. 1650. Settlement of North Carolina- 1652. John Cotton died. Air pumps invented. About this time flourish Mo- liere, La Fontaine, Cor- neille. Madame de Sevig- ne, Rochefoucault, Racine, Boileau, and Pascal, in France. Velasquez and Murillo, Span- ish painters. 1655. E. Winslou; died. 1644. Battle of Marston Moor — royalists defeat- ed. 1645. Battle of Naseby. 1646. The king seeks re- fuge in the Scottish camp. 1647. —is delivered up to parliament for .£400,000. 1648. Cromwell routs the Scotch, under Hamil- ton. The Presbyte- rians expelled from parliament, which re- ceives the name of" the Rump." 1649. Trial and execution of the king. The CoarMONWEALTH. 1650. Cromwell subdues Ireland. The Scots proclaim Charles II. He 1651. enters England — is defeated at Worcester, and escapes to France. 16.52. Naval war with Holland. Blake, A s c o u g h , and P e n n , English ad- mirals. 1653. Long parliament dissolved by Crom- well. — " Barebone's par- liament " summoned. Oliver Crom- y^E LL,Lord Pro- tector. Milton, private secre- tary to Cromwell. 1654. Peace of Westmin- ster. Alliance with Holland. 1655. War with Spain. — .Jamaica conquered by Penn. 1658. Death of Cromwell. — R ichard Crom- well, Protector. Francs. 1645. : — Mar. shalTurenntt takes Treves. 1648. Factious of the Fron- de ; . dissen- sions foment- ed by Cardi- nal d e R e t z . 1649. Court re- moves to St. Germains. — Siege of Pa- ris. 1650. C nde , C o n t i , and L o n g u e - V i 1 1 e , im- prisoned. — Turenne flees to tlie Spaniards. 1652. Maza- rine retires to Sedan. Conde flies to Spain. 16.53. Mazarine enters Paris in triumph. 1659. Peace of the P y re- nees. — Mar- riage of Lou- is XIV. to Maria The- resa, of Spain. 1598-1718.] THE world's PFwOGRESS 127 Spain A.D. AND Portu- gal. Germany. Italy. Ottoman Empire. The World, elsewhere. 1644. Invasion of 1644. Innocent 1644. Naval victory of the Hungary, by Ra- X., pope. Swedes over the Danish coezi — the empe- fleet. ror forced to yield 1645. War with 1645. Sweden :— Peace of to the demands of Venice. Bromsebro with Denmark. the protestants. 1646. Revolt of Naples, un- der M a s - saniello. Candia, the theatre of war. 1647. Netherlands:— William II. China: — The Tartars place a prince of their own on the throne— the first of the present dynasty of Tsing. 1648. Peace op 164S. Moham- 1648. Poland:— The Ukraine Westpha- med IV. Cossacks revolt, and cut the lia, signed at Polish army to pieces. Munster, between tM^ France, the em- — John Cassimir.^g — ■ pire, and Sweden. — The principle of a balance of pow- er in Europe first recognized. •• 1650. Moham- med Riopri- li, grand vi- zier. 1653.Naval de- feat by the Venetians in the Archipe- lago. 1653. Holland : — J o h n d e Witt, Grand Pensionary ; D e R u y t e I , admiral. 1654. Defeat and death of 1654 Brazil recover- ed from the Trom p. Sweden :— Christina re- signs.— Charles X., 1st of Dutch. 1655. Alexan- the House of Deux Ponts.'^* 1655 War der VII., Poland :— War with Rus- with 1657. —Leopold pof.e. 1657. War with sia. Eng- Racoezi, for 1657. Denmark :— War against land. aiding Swe- den against Poland. the Swedes, v/ho overrun Denmark, and menace Co penhagen. 1658. Denmark : — Naval vic- tory over the Swedes. Denmark : — Peace of Ros kilde. 128 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period JA.— 120 7/ears.— Progress op Society, etc. Logwood first cut in the bay of Honduras. Salvator Rosa, landscape painter. HuT/gens, Dutch astronomer. Persecution of Jansenists in France. Chain shot invented by De Witt. Canal of Languedoc, from the Mediterranean to the Atlan- tic. Gobelin tapestry manufactory in Paris. Bayonets invented at Bay- onne. Orrery invented. Foundation of the Acade'rny of Architecture.^ and the Hotel des Invalides. at Pa- ris. Cassini, Italian astronomer and mathematician. D^Herbelot, Pascal, Bour- daloue, La Bruy'.re, Mai- branche, French Writers. Christopher Wren,, architect, commences St. Paul's. Ruysdael, celebrated Dutch painter. William Temple, historian. Butler, Waller, and Dryden, English poets; Henry More, Leighton, Baxter, Boyle. Mansart, architect ; Giradon, sculptor, of France. America. 1653. Canada made a royal colony. 1663. ElLioVs In- dian Bible prin- ted. 1664. New York occupied by the English. 1667. —ceded to them by the peace of Breda. 167r). Conclusion of the ' American treat} ' between England and Spain. 1675. King Phi- lip's War in New Enaland. 1677. Maine pur- chased by Massa- chusetts. England. 1659. Richard resigns. — Rump parliament call- ed, but soon expelled. Restoration of the Stuarts. 1660.— Charles 11.^ Hyde, earl uf Clarendon, chancellor and prime minister. 1661. New parliament. — Alliance with Portugal. 1662. Marriage with Ca- therine, of Portugal. Act ot Uniformity. Dunkirk sold to France. 1664. War with Holland. 1665. Naval victory by the duke of York. Great Plague in London. 1666. Great Fire in Lon- don. 1667. Peace of Breda.— New York ceded to England. Banishment of the earl of Clarendon. 1668.Triple league— Eng- land, Sweden, and Hol- land, against France. 1670. The Cabal min- istry. — Secret treaty with France. 1672. War with Holland in conjunction with France. 1673. Ministry of Danby. Test Act passed. 1674. Peace with Holland. 1678. The Popish Plot. France. 1661. Death oi Mazarine. Colbert, comptroller- general of finance. Lvonno, Le Tellier. 1662. Disputes with the pope. — 6000 troops sent against the Turks in Hungary. 1664. French East India Company. 1666. Acade- mie des Sci encesLouvois 1667. War with Spain. Lou- is claims Spanish Ne- therlands for his wife — in- vades Bel- gium. 1668. Peace o Aix la Cha pelle with Spain. 1672. War with Holland. 1673. French ambassador at Ispahan. 1674. The Dutch de- feated at the battles of Sinsheim and Mulhau- sen.— Tu- renne rava- ges the Pala- tinate. 1675. Death of Turenne at Sasbacli. Inliuenca of Peie la Chaise, the king's con- fessor. 1677. Victory over the Prince ot Orange at Mont-Cassel. 167S. Peace of N i m e ■ g u e n with Holland and Spain — re- stoi'es tiar' quillity to Europe. 1598-1718.] THE world's progress. 129 Spain AND Portu- gal. Invasion of Por- tugual. Portu- gal:— Revolu- tion at Lisbon. King de- posed. — Pedro Peace of Lisbon with Spain. Nitard, the Je- suit, dri- ven from Spain. War with France to pro- tect Hol- land. Germany. 1663. The Diet per- manent at Ratis- bon. 1664. Montecuculi victorious over the Turks at St. Go- ihard. 1665. The Tyrol uni- ted to Austria. 1673. War of Austria nnd France. 1675. Tarenne and Montecuculi op- posed on the Rhine. — Victory of Consarbruck over the French, under Crequi. — Treves taken. 1676. General revolt of Hungarians un- der Emeric. Italy. Ottoman Empire. 1661. War with Aus- tria. 1662. Invasion of Hungary. 1667. Clement IX., pope. 1659. Candia taken from Ve- nice by Kio- prili. Peace with the Porte. 1670. Cosmo III., grand duke of Tus- cany. — War betv/een Ge- noa and Sa- voy. Clement X., pope. 1674. Revolt of Messina in favor of France. 1676. Messina blockaded by the Dutch and Spanish fleets. Death of De Iluyter. Innocent XI. pope. Death of the atheist, Spi- noza. 1672. The Sul- tan invades Poland. 1673. —defeat- ed by Zo- briski, at Choezim. 1676. Peace of Zurawno with Poland. 1678. First war with Russia, on account of the Cos- sacks. The World, elsewhere. 1660. Demark :— Peace of Co penhagen. The Swedes restore Bornholm, and Dron- theim. Revolution in Denmark. Sweden :— Charles XI. ^^ Peace of Oliva. Prussia acknowledged in- dependent. 1660. Poland :— Great victory of Marshal John So b i e s t i over the Tartars 1657. Holland :— Peace of Bre- da : loss of New Nether- lands. 1668. First embassies from Russia to France and Spain. India:— Rise of the Mah- ratta power.— Sevajee takes and sacks Surat. ^. 1670. Den. :— Christian V.^ 1672. Sea fight between the Dutch fleet, under De Witt and De Ruyter, and the English and French fleets- Dutch defeated. Den. :— William III.^ 1674. Poland:— John Sobies- 1675. The Swedes invade Brandenburs. 1677. Battle of the Lund. 53e- tween the Swedes and Danes. 130 THE "WOE,LD S PP^OGRESS. [Period IX. — 120 years.-' Progress of Society, etc. Bernini, Italian sculptor. Museum for Natural History, at London. Jardin des Plantes, at Paris. Penny post established in Lon- don. Kempfer^s travels in Japan. John Bunyaiis " Pilgrim's Progress." Otto Von Guericks, inven- tor of the air-pump and electrical machine, died. Telegraphs invenled. Newton's Frincipia, publish- ed. G. Batt. Lully, fiom Flo- rence, founder of French opera music. Arch. Corelii, celebrated vio- I inist and composer at Rome. White paper first made in England. Leibnitz, German philoso- plier, founds the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. First opera in London. Purcell, English musician. Bank of England. Telescopes, first reflecting one made on the principles of Sir Isaac Newton. America. 1686. Sir Edmund Andros, governor of New England. 1688- General sup- pression of char- ter governments. 1689. Montreal de- stroyed by the Five nations. Leisler usurps the government of New York. 1690. The English settlements of Schenectady, N. York',Ca.sco, Me. and Salmon Falls, N. H., destroyed by a party of French. Port Royal, No- va Scotia, redu- ced by Sir Wil- liam Phipps. — Expedition against Canada, unsuc- cessful. 1691. Schuyler defeats the French at La Prairie. Witchcraft superstition in New- England. John Locke and Sir Isaac Newton in England. Boileau, Fenelon, and Bayle, in France. Bank of England. Phosphorus discovered. 1692. New Hamp- shire purchased by Allen. N. York : Leis- ler executed. 1693. N. York :— Episcopacy in- troduced. William and Mary's College founded. 1697. Kidd's pira- cies. 1699. French colo- ny in Louisiana. — Gold mines in Brazil. Great Britain. Rise of the names of Wliigs and Tories. 1683. "RyehnusePlot." Execution of Lord Russel and Algernon Sydney. In this reign the Roy- al Society of London was instiiuted by Wil- kins, bishop of Chester. — Bombay ceded to England. 1685.— J a m e s II .^§ Rebellion of Mon- mouth, in England, and Argyle, in Scoiland, both defeated and exe- cuted. Judge .lefFries. 1635. The king favors the Catholics. 1687. — re-establishes the Court of High Com- mission. 16aS. "Revolution OF 1688."— The Whigs and Tories unite in ap- plying to ihe Prince of Orange, who lands in England v/ith L5,0U0 men — the king flees to France. 1639.— William III. and Mary II .^^— War with France. James 11. laids in Ireland— besieges Lon- donderry. 1690. William in Ireland. — Battle of the Boyne. James deieated, returns to France. 1691. Limerick taken, and William acknowledged. 1692. Invasion of Eng- land undertaken by the French in favor of James. — Naval victory by the Dutch and Eng- lish. 1693. Bank of England in- corporated. 1694. Death of queen Mary. 1697. General peace 1 698. Fi rst partition treaty, between France, Eng land, and the Empire to dispose of tlie crown of Spain. 1699. Visit of Peter the Great. France. France, the most formi- dable power in Europe. 1633. Invasion of the Span- ish Neiher- liinds. 1634. Truce of Ratisbon for twenty years with Spain. 1685. Revo- cation of the Edict of Nantes. 1688. War ol Spain — the Empire, Hol- land, Sivoy, and England against France. 1689. Grand al- liance against France, head- ed by Wil. liam in. 1690 Naval victory over the Dutch and English off Dieppe. Victory of Luxemburg^ at Fleurus. 1692. Marshal Luxem- burg de- feats William at Steenkirk, and 1693. —at Ne- uvinden. Institution of the order of St. Louis. f Ry s wick — between France and the allies. 1598-1718.J THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 131 ^.D. 1689 Spain AND Portu- gal. 1691 1697 Revolt of Cata- lonia in favor of France. Germany. 1680. Great part of Alsace seized by France. 1683. Turkish war, siege of Vienna by the Turks — victory of the Germans and Poles, under Charles, of Lor- raine, and John Sobieski. Treaty of the Hague against France. 1686. League of Augsburg against France. 1686. Buda taken af- ter being held by the Turks 145 years. 1687. Decisive victo- ry of Mohaez : Croatia and Tran- sylvania subdued. Joseph I. crown- ed king of Hun- gary. 1689. Grand alliance ratified at Vienna. The Palatinate desolated by the French. 1690 Joseph I. elect- ed king of the Ro- mans by the Diet of Augsburg. — Victori'-s over the Turks. Incur- sion of the French into Aragon. Peace of Ryswick In- trigues 1697. Victory over for the the SuUan Musta- succes- pha at Zenta, by sion. the Prince Eugene. Italy. Ottoman Empire. 1682. War with Austria. 1683. Total rout before Vienna. 1684. Alliance of Venice with Poland, and the Empire against the Porte. 1689, Alexan- der VIU., pope. 1691. Innocent XII., pope. 1693. Battle of Marsaglia — the allies in Italy defeat- ed by the Marshal Ca- tinat. 1686. Russia declares war. 1687. Revolu- tion in Con- stantinople, Mohammed dethroned. Solyman 1689. Defeat at Nisa. 1690. Musta- pha Kiopri- li drives the Austrians across the Danube — re- covers Bel- grade. 1691. Ahmud Deleat and death of Kio- prili. 1694. Chio ta- ken by the Venetians. 1695. Musta- phall.W— 1696. — leads his own ar- my. — Victo- ry of Olach. 1699. Peace of Carlowitz. The Otto- man power broken. The World, elsewhere. 1680. Sweden :— Diet of Stock- holm. 1682. Russia:— Ivan and Pe- ter, ^^ their sister, So- phia, regent. 1683. Denmark :— The Code of king Christian published. 1686. India : — The Deickin cort quered. Golconda and Besapore. 1687. —The English factories in Bengal suppressed— after- wards restored. Prussia : — Frederic III. Russia : — Ivan resigns — Sophia is confined in a con- vent : 1689. Peter the Great __ 1692. Russia: — First trade with China. India : — Height of the Mo- gul power, annual revenue £32,000,000. China:— Great influence of Jesuits. 1693. Sweden :— The king de- clared absolute. 1695. Holland : Bombard- ment of Brussels by the French, under Villeroi. 1696. Poland :— Death ot So- bieski — succeeded by 1697. —Frederic Augu.^tus I. Sweden ;— C h a r l e s XII.^P -(15 years old.) Russia :— •IrJrndnction ol various maiuifaciures — equipment of a fleet, etc. 1699. Den. :— Frederic IV ^J Alliance of Denmark, Rus- sia, and Poland, againsi Charles XII. of Sweden. 132 THE world's PROGHLSS. [Period IX.— 120 years.- Progress of Society, etc. First manufactories in Russia and Denmark. Fenelon, Bossuet, Masillon, in France. National Debt of England commenced. Godfrey Kneller, English painter. First Russian newspaper. — St. Petersburg!! founded. Flourishing period of French literature. — Great splendor in the French court. A newspaper in America. Incorporation of the United British Sast India Com- pany. Prussic acid discovered by Diesbach. A post-office 171 A?nerica. The famous bull " Unigeni- tus " against the French Jan- senists. Rise of commerce in Austria ; first manufactories. Law^s bank at Paris. The monastery of Mafra, ' the wonder of Portugal,' built. Prior, Steele, De Foe, Addi- son, Q. lurish in England. First standing army in Eng- land. The coffee tree brouglit from ■'ava to Surinam. America. 1701. Yale College founded. 1702. Bice intro- duced into Caro- lina from Mada- gascar. 17U3. Apalachian Indians subdued. Maine ravaged by French and Indians. 1704. Captain Church's expe- dition against the Indians. Boston News- Letter, first Ame- rican p)eriodical. 1706. Carolina in- vaded by the French and Span- ish. 1707. Unsuccessful expedition against Port Royal. 170S.The Saybrook platform, form- ed. 1709. First paper money in New- Jersey. 1710. First post- office at New York. Fruitless expe- dition against Ca- nada. 1713. "Queen Anne's War " closed by the treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Indian war in South Carolina. 1717. New- Orleans settled by the French. Great Britain. 1700. A British fleet sent to assist Charles XII., of Sweden. Foundation of the national debt in this reign. 1701. War of the Spanish succession. 1702. The French nivade Holland, un- der Boufflers — re])ulaed by Marl- borough. France. Anne, ^m 1703. Methuen ueaiy of commerce with Portu- gal. 1704. Marlborough enters gains the battle of Gibraltar taken by Rooke. 1706. T reatyofunion with Scotland. Battle of Ramillies, feated. 1707. Victory of Almanza lish and Portuguese. The f i r s t United Parliament of Great 'Britain meets. 1708. Battle of Oudenarde, feated. Sardinia and Minor the English. Unsuccessful attempt of the Pretender to land in Scotland. 1710. Victory of V^endome Dr. Sacheverell's trial. —Collision of Whig and Tory principles. 1713. Peace ofUt Perpetual separation of France and Spain — quires Newfoundland, Hudson's Bay, also Mi braltar. The Rhine is between Germany and 1714. Factions at court — disgrace of Harley, chancellor of the exche- quer. Death of the queen. — H u s e o I H a n - ve r:— G e o r g e I .^^ — Pvobert Walpole, pre- mier. 1715. Insurrection of Ja- cobites. — Battles of She- riffmuir and Preston. War against Sweden. 1718. Quadruple al Emperor, England. Ho France against the desi 1702. Revolt o; the Hugue- nots suppress- ed by Mar- shal Villars. Germany, Blenheim. Villeroi de- over the Eng- — French de- ca captured by atVillaviciosa r e c h t . of the crownr England ac AcatAa, and norca and Gi the boundary France. 1714. Peace o Radstadt : thd Emperor ac knowledges Philip on the cession of Loniba)"- dy, Naples. and Sardmia.. 1715. Louis DuKe o( Orleans re- gent. — Du- bois, minis- ter. 1 i a n c e : ih* Hand, and gns of Spain. 1598-1718.] THE WORLD S PPcOGRESS. 133 Charles leaves Spain on. becom ing Em- peror. Barcelo- na taken by Ber- wick. Albero- ni, prime minis- ter of Spnin Germany. 1701. Grand alliance between England, the Empire, to pre of France and Spa 1702. Battles of Stol- .hafen, Hochsiedt. and Spires, gained by the French. Italy. 1710. Treaty of the Hague between England. Holland, and the Empire. 1711. — Charles Ministry of Count Linzendorf. 1713. Pragmatic sanctioyi, vesting the succession to Austria in the daughters of Char- les. 1714. Peace of Ras- tadt and Baden with France. 1718. Quadru- ple alliance against Spain. of the Hague, Holland, and vent the union in. 1702. Victory of Luzzace gained by the Flench over the impe- rialists. 1706. French di'iven from Italy by prince Eu- gene. 1707. All the Spanish pos- sessions in Italy aban- doned to the allies. Ottoman Empire, 1703. HI. Ahmed 1709. Charles XII. takes refuge at Bender — hence war with Russia. 1714. War of Venice the Porte. with 1715. Corinth taken by the Turks — the Emperor joins Venice — sie ge of Corfu raised on the news of their 1716. defeat at the battle of Peterwar- den. 1717. Defeat of Crusca — loss of Belgrade. 1718. Peace of Passarovvitz, between the Porte, Venice, and Hunga ry. The World, elsewhere. 1700. Russia : — Peter the Great invades Ingria — defeated by Charles XII., at Narva. War of the NortherB Powers. 1701. PRUSSIA erected into a kingdom under Frederic I.^^~ Charles XII. invades Po- land—is victorious at Riga 1702. —enters Warsaw — takes Cracow. 1703. Victory of Pultusk Poland:— The throne ds- clared vacant, and 1704. Stanislas Leetzinsk) elected king.^^ 1706. The Swedes victorious over the Saxons and Rus- sians at Traverstadt. 1707. Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Mazeppa. 1708. Charles invades Russia, crosses the Dnieper, and is 1709. defeated at Pultowa. Sweden at war with Den- mark. Poland :— Frederic Augus- tus re-ascends the throne. 1712. Victory of the Swedes al Gadebusche. 1713, Prussia :— Frederic Wil liam I.^^ 1714. Russia :— Naval victory over the Swedes. — Aland and Finland conquered. 1715. Netherlands Barrier treaty of Antwerp with Aus- tria. Sweden :— Return of Char- les— Prussia and England join the alliance against him. 1718. Charles XII. invades Norway ; is killed at the siege of Fredericshall. Sweden : — Ulrica Eleo nora.^P 134 THE world's progress. PERIOD X.~97 years.-* A..D. 1721 1724 1725 1728 1729 1733 1740 Progress op Society, etc. Cotton Mather, " Magnalia,^^ and Increase Mather, Hist. of War with Indians. Inoculation introduced by Lady Montague. The same year introduced into Boston by Dr. Boylston. Academy of Sciences at Peters- burs. The " Appellants," in France, headed by the Cardinal de Noailles, appeal from the bull ''Unigenitus," to a ge- neral council ; but without effect. Behring's Strait discovered. Balloons invented by Gusmac. In England : i In France : Pope, Swift, J. B. Rous- Young, seau, Le Thompson, Sage, Rollin, Watts, Lord Montesquieu. Boli7i£ broke, Doddridge, Chesterjield. Halley, astronomer. First Lodge of Freemasons in Irish linen manufactories, and English steel and cutlery flourish. L. Ilolberg, Danish drama- tist. America. 1719. First Philadelphia news- paper. 1721. First New- York news- paper. 1723. Vermont settled. Increase Mather, died. 1724. Trenton, N. J., founded. England. 1727. Great earthquake in New-England. 1719. Unsuccessful attempt to invade Scotland by the Span- iards. "The South Sea Scheme." 1720. "Bursting of the South Sea bubble." 1721. Sir Robert Walpole's ministry continues. 1728. Cotton Mather, died. Discovery of diamond mines in Brazil. 1729. The Carolinas separated, 1732. Birth of Washington. 1733. Savannah founded. Atnerica, at Boston. 1740. Tennessee first explored. 1742. Invasion of Florida by Indians and Spaniards — re- pulsed. 1725. Lea§)i e of Herrenhauser., 1727. George I. dies at Osna- burg. George 1 1 .^J 1728. Peace of Pardo wito Spain 1729. treaty of Seville, be 1731. Treaty of Vienna with Holland and the Empire. 173W. War with Spain. 1740. Porto Bsllo taken by Ad- miral Vernon. — Anson's voy- age round the world, and capture of the Manilla gaL leon. THE world's progress. 1718-1815.— Z)mi!A nj Charles XII. to Battle of Waterloo. 135 h>^ France. 1724 .1726 The Wng assumes tho fovemnient. Duke de Bouvbon, minister. i Congress of Cam bray between England, Fraac3, Prussia, and IlGlIand. Ministry oi' Cardi nal F 1 e u r y \T?B 733 i734 1740 1743 Congress of Sois- sons dissolved, without effecting any thing. tween England, France, and Hol- land. War of the Polish succession : France, Spain, and Sardi lia. Conquest of Lor- raine. War of the Aus- trian succession — Marshals Belle isle and Broglio : — defeated by the allies at Dettin- gen. Spain AND Portu- gal. Germany. 172.5. : Alliance of 1734. :~ Con- Quest of Nap',"«s andSici Iv by l>c>n Cailorf. 1739. :— War with Eng- land, for infrac- tions of the Asi- ento treaty. Vienna, Spam, rtnd Austria lf33. War of the Po- lish succession ; Austria, Russia, and Denmark. 173.5. Preliminaries of Viennarnot con- cluded till 173S 1740. War of the Aus- trian succession. Maria The- resa succeeds to the hereditary States. 1741. The French, Saxons, and Bava- rians, overrun Aus- tria, take Prague, and crown Charles VI. emperor. ^^ Treaty of Bres- lau with Austria. 1743. The French driven across the Rliine. The World, elsewhere. 1719. Italy :— Sicily invaded by the Spanish. 1720. Peace of Stockholm.— Tranquillity restored in the Bvrth. Sweden : — The quteri abdicates in favor of her husband. 1721. Italy :— Innocent XIII., pope. Frederic.^^ Peace of Nystadt v/uh Russia. Russia: — Peter assumes the title "Emperor of all the Russias." 1721. Turkey : — Mahommed Effendi, am- bassador to Paris. 1723. China: — Christians expelled. 1723. Italy:— John Gaston, (de Medici), grand duke of Tuscany. 1723. Turkey : — The Turks and Russians attempt to dismember Persia. 1724. Italy:— Benedict XIII., pope. 1725. Russia: — Catharine I., widow of Peter.® 1725. Turkey : — Partition treaty for seiz- ing the north and west provinces of Persia. 1726. Russia : — Alliance with Austria. 1726. Turkey : — First printing press brought fx-om Paris to Turkey. 1727. Russia: — Treaty with China. -Peter II. 1727. Turkey :— Peace of Bagdad. 1728. Denmark : — Fire at Copenhagen, destroys the public library. — colony of Danes in Greenland. 1730. Denmark :— Christian VI.^^ 1730. Italy — Clement XII., pope. Russia : — Anne.'^g 1733. Poland :— Frederic Augustus 11.^^ The diet elect Stanislaus, but are compelled by the Russian army to elec*. Frederic. 1734. Stanislaus besieged in Dantzic, es- capes to Koningsberg. 1734. Turkey :— Turks driven from Per- sia by Nadir Shah. 1736. —war with Russia and Austria. 1737. Italy :— Francis, of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany. 1739. India :— Invaded by Nadir Shah, who takes and plunders Delhi. 1739. Turkey :— Turks defeated near Choezim. 1740. Italy :— Benedict XIV., pope. Turkey :— The Turks invade Persia — are repulsed by Ashraf -peace of Belgrade. 136 THE world's PFwOGPcEbb [Period X. — 97 years. — Progress of Society, etc. Frederic the Great makes great improvements in miti- tanj tactics — introduces^y- ing horse artillery. Durante and Leo. celebrated musicians. Handel, and Seb. Bach., musi- cal composers. Indigo tirst produced in Caro- lina, America. 174.5. Louisburg and Cape Breton taken from France by the English. 1747. David Brainerd and Beiijamin Coleman, died. Great Britain, Mosheim, ecclesiastical histo- rian. Dr. Franklin'' s discoveries in electricity. England iniroduces the "New Style " Calendar. British Museum founded. British. A Ian Ram- say, Shenstone, Gray, Collins, Aksnside, Churchill. Helvetius, Fr Racine, Fr. Gellert, Ger. Winck'e- mann, Ger. John Rysbrach, sculptor. Hogarth, Wilson, ^' Joshua Reynolds, painters. Potatoes first planted in France, by Turgot. Niebuhr's travels in Arabia. Wesley 8f Whitejield preach. Philadelphia Medical School, first in America. Wallis and Carteret's voyage of discovery in the South Seas, 1749. English Nova Scotia. settlement in 17.52. Hostilities between En_ 1754. Washington's mission to the French. 1755. Defeat of Braddock. 1756. Oswego and Ft. Granby taken by the Fi-ench. 1757. Fort Wm. Henry cap- tured. 1758. Repulse of Abercrombie at Ticonderoga. Fort Du Quftsne taken. 1751). Invasion of Canada — death of Wolfe — Quebec taken. Capture of Niagara, Crown Point, and Ticonde- roga. 1763. End of the " Old French War." 1765. " American Stamp Act " resisted in Massachusetts and Virginia. First Colonial Congress at New- York. 1744. Naval victory over the French and Spanish fleets in the bay of Hieres. 1745. Scotch rebellion — Char- les Edv^ard lands in Scot- land. 1746. he is defeated at Cul- loden. 1747. Victories over the French off Belle-isle and Cape Finisterre. 1748. Peace ofAixIa mutual restitution of con 1752. The new style intro- duced; the ye-ar hereafter commences Jan. 1. land and France on the boun 1756 "Seven Years' Subsidiary alliance with Prussia. Ministry of W i 1 1 i a m Pitt, ihe elder. 17-57. Victory of Plassey, in India. 1759. Naval victories over the Lagros, and ofl" Brest. Surat, in India, taken from the Dutch. 1760.— G e o r g e III .^— 1761. Earl of Bute, premier. 1762. War with Spain. Conquest of Havana, Trinidad, and Manilla. 1763. Peace of Paria 1765. Bengal ceded to the East India Company by the treaty of Allahabad. 1718-1815.J THE world's progress. 131 1744 1745 1746 ;747 War declared against England and Austria. Battle of Fontenoy, allies defeated. The French victo- rious by land, but unsuccessful by sea. War with Holland. Germany. The World, elsewhere. C h a p 6 11 e quests. daries of Nova Sco- tia. 17531 Influence of Ma- dame de Pompa- I dour. War." Capture of Minor- ca from the Eng- lish. 1745. Charles dies at Munich. PI u s e of Lorraine: —Francis I.^^ husband of Maria Theresa. 1757 1758 17G0 17bl 1754 Invasion of Hano- ver. Defeat at Cr^feldt. on the Rhine. French off Cape Attempt to invade . Ireland. Loss of all Canada. The Bourbon Fa- mily Compact. Siege and capture of Belleisle, by the English. between France, Spain and Eng- land. Expulsion of the Jesuits. 1748 Peace of Aix la Cha- pelle; Spain, and Prussia the on ly gainers by the , war. 1756. Seven Years' War of Austria and Prussia. Invasion and conquest of Saxo- ny, by Frederic II. Alliance with France. 1757. Prussians vic- toiinus at Prague, Rossbach, Lessa, and Breslau. The French take Verdun and Bre- men. 1758. French defeated at Crefeldt, . 1759. and at Minden, Victory at Max- en over the Prus- sians. — Dresden re- taken. 1760. Great victory at Torgan, by Fre- deric. 1762.Pru3sians victo- rious at Freiburg. 1763. Peace of Hu- bertstrug. 1765. Joseph II. 1740. Prussia :— F rederic II .^g (the Great.) Prussia increases in lay portance. — War with Austria. Russia : — Ivan V. 1741. Sweden : — War with Russia. Swedes driven out of Finland. Russia : — Elizabeth. ^§ — - 1743. — Peace of Abo with Sweden. 1743. Turkey : — War with Persia. — Defeat near Erivan. 1744. India :— Hostilities between Frencik and English. 1744. Italy :— Savoy occupied by Frencii and Spaniards, who take 1745. — Parma, Milan, and Placentia. — Genoa bombarded by the English. ' 1746. — French and Spaniards driven from Lombardy. 1746. Denmark: — Frederic V.^§ 1747. Netherlands :— William IV. Persia: — Revolution: Nadir. Shah murdered. 1751. Holland :— William V. stadtholder. Denmark : — Ministry of Count Bern- storfF. Sweden :— House of Holstein Got- torp : — Adolphus Frederic. ^g 1754. Italy : — The Corsicans, under Paoli, revolt against Genoa. 1754. Turkey :— Othman III. 1755. First Prussian embassy to Constan- tinople. 1756. India:— Calcutta taken by the Na- bob of Bengal. 1757. Turkey :— Mustapha III. 1757. Prussia : — Russian invasion. 1758. —victory of Londorf 1758. Italy :— Clement X!II., pope. 17.59. Prussia:— The king defeated at Kunnersdorf 1760. —Battle of Liegnitz.— Berlin taken. India:— Shah Ali'm I!. Siege and capture of Pondicherry, by the English. Kingdom of Mysore founded by H y d e r A 1 i . 1762. Russia: Peter III. months). -(sis C a t h a r i n e 11.^ 1764. Poland :— Stanislaus Pomatowski. 1765. India ,— Treaty of Allahabad. —Establishment of a British empire 1765. Italy :— Peter Leopold, grand duka of Tuscanv- ^A^ 1766. Denmark :— Christian VIL ^ 1766. Power of the Mamelukes in Egyp^ revived under Rodvan and Ali Bey. 138 THE world's progress. IPeriod X— 97 years.-' Progress of Society, etc. Fii^t summing machine in England. Cook's first voyage of discovery. Bruce discovers the source of the Nile. Roijal Academy of Arts in England ; Joshua Reynolds, first president. Letters of Junius. Whitefield dies at Newburyport. United States. Great Britain. Captain Cook discovers New California. The Spinning- JENNY, invented by Robert Arkwright. The Improved Steam Engine, by Watt and Bolton. In England. Goldsmith, Warburton, Johnson, Littleton, Lovvih, Garrick, Hume, Robertson, Blackstone. Adam Smith, Home Tooke. Priestley, Horsley, Burke, Pitt, Fox, Cooper, Sheridan, McPherson, Burns. Kaimes, Reid. France. Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, Condillac, Jussien, Lavoisier, •La Harpe, Bartheleny, Buffon. Ger. Mosh- eim, Zimmerman, Kant, Klopstock, Lessing, Wieland, Herder, Goethe, Schiller, Sw. Linnasus, It. Metastasio. Rus. Kheras- kov, Kostrov. Deerhavin, Bogdanovich, Khemnitzee. 1768. Boston occupied by the British troops. 1769. Daniel Boone ex- plores Kentucky. yn2. Hancock, S. Adams, and P a - trick Henry, promote the revolu- tion. 1773. Tea destroyed at Boston. 1774. Continental Con- gress at Philadelphia. 1775. AMERICAN WAR: April 19, Skirmish at Lexington. June 17,"Battle of Bun- ker's Hill Prescott, Put- nam, «feWarren. WASHINGTON, commander-in-chief. Montgomery Montreal, and falls at 1776. The British troops evacuate Boston. Moultrie de Sullivan's Island. DECLARA- TION OF IN- DEPENDENCE, July 4. Americans (Sulli- van) defeated at Flatbush. Aug. Battle of White Plains. Battle of Trenton, Dec. 26-7. 1777. Arrival of Lafay- ette. Capture of Ticon 1766. American Stamp Act repealed. — New ministry under tha Earl of Chatham. 1767. First war with Hyder Ali in My- sore. 1770. Lord N j r t h , prime minister. 1771. The Falkland Islands ceded by Spain to Great Bri- tain. 1774. The Boston Port Bill passed. 1774. Wai'ren Hastings, governor general ol India. REVOLUTIONARY 1775. Lord North's " conciliatory mea- sures " rejected by the colonies. takes St. Johns and Quebec. 1776. The city of Lon- don remonstrates against 'he American war. feats the English at The British army takes possessicm of New-York. Hessians hired for service in America. dcroga by the British. July 5. 17] 8*1815.] THE world's progress. 139 S..D. 1768 1769 770 1773 1774 1 770 France. Genoa ceJes Corsica to France. Ministry of Due d'Aiquillon. Marriage of the dauphin with Marie Antoinette. Madame du Barri rules the king. L u i s XVI .^ Marie Antoinette, queen :— Maurepas, prim^ minister. N e c k e r , comptroller-gene- ral. Franklin in Paris. Germany. 1772. Joseph II. with the Emperors of Russia and Prussia, dis- member Po- land, divid- ing it be- tweea them- selves. The World, elsewhere. Discipline of the Ottoman troops Im- proved by Baron de Tott. 1767. Spain :— Jesuits expelled. India:— Hyder Ali resists the Eng- lish. 1768. War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. 1769. Pope Clement XIV. The' Russian army occupies W&Jachia and Moldavia. 1771. Sweden :—Gustavu3 Ill.^g 1772. First Partitionof Poland. 1773. Ottoman Empire :— The Russians cross- ing the Danube, are repulsed by Ghazi Pope Clement abolishes the order of Jesuits. 1774. India — Warren Hastings, first British governor-general. Russia :— Revolt of the Cossack Pugat- scheff, calling himself Czar Peter. Ottoman Empire :— Abdul Hamid.^^— 1775. Pope Puis VI. Spain .-—Able ministry of Florida Blan- ca. 1776. Bassora surrendered to the Persians. East Indies :— Lord Pigot, governor-ge- neral, imprisoned by his own council. 1777. Portugal :— Maria, queen. 140 THE world's progress. [Period X. — 97 years.—' I-'rogress op Society, etc. 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 Herschel's discovery of the Georgium Sidus. Prussic acid obtained in a se- parate state, by Scheele. Air balloon of Montgolfier. First American vessel in China. Institution for the deaf and dumb at Paris, by the Abbe de I'Epee. S'undai/ schools established in England, by Robert Raikes. Herschel's Telescopes. Stenography, by Taylor. Panoramas in London. First spinning machine in France. Talma, the celebrated trage- dian. United States. Great Britain. Battles of Bennington, 11, and S'illwater. Philadelphia taken by lis. Battle of German ceives B u r g o y n e ' s Articles of confederation, adopted Nov. 15. 1778. Alliance with France. Battle of Monmouth, Washington victorious, June 28. Arrival of the French fleet under D'Esiaing. Massacre of Wyoming. Scivannah taken by the English. 1779. Wayne recovers Sioney Point. Paul Jones's Victory off 1780. Battle near Camden: D e K a 1 b killed. Treason of Arnold. 1781. Battle of Cowpens, gain- ed by Morgan. Surrender of Co town, Oct. 17. 1782. Treaty with Holland, by J. Adams, Jay, Frank- lin, and Laurens. 1783. PEACE OF VERSA Aug. 16; Brandy wine, Sept. the English, under Cornwal town, Oct. 4.— Gates re- surrender, Oct. 17. 1778. Capture of Pondicherry, in India. Scotland. 1781}. War with Hyder All in India. War with Holland. rnwallis at York- 1781. Victory off the Dogger- bank. ILLES ; INDEPENDENCE of the UNITED STATES ac- knowledged by Great Bfi- tain. 1784. New-York Chamber r[ Commerce founded. 1785. John A d a m s , 1st States of America to Great Britain. 1786. Shay's insurrection in Massachusetts. 1787. General Convention at Philadelphia. Federal Con- stitution of the United Slates, adopted. 1783. Cotton planted in Geor- gia. 1789. George Wash- ington, first Presi- dent : Jefferson, Ha- milton, K n X , 11 a n - d o 1 p h , and Jay, form the cabinet. 1791. First United Siates Bank. 1792. Kentucky admitted to the Union. United States Mint esta- blished. 1784. Pitt, the younger, premier. Peace with Tippoo Saib. ambassador from the United 1735. Pitt's Sinking Fund. 1783. The k\ng insane. — Deatn of Charles Edward, the last pretendet. Trial of Warren Hast- ings. 1792. Provision for the f radua, abolition of the sSti » ?>'.*•. 1718-1815.J THE world's progress. 141 1773 Francb. Germany. A'liance witli America. 1779 Scheme to invade England from Normandy. 178C ,R c h a m b e a u sent to aid the Americans. 1781 178-2 1783 Necker resigns. Defeat of De Grasse in the West Indies, by Rodney. Peace of Versail- les. 1787 1789 179. 1792 La Pe7-ouse's voyage of disco- very. Financial difficulties — New taxation : Colonne, Brlenne, and Necker, ministers suc- cessively. FRENCH REVOLUTION begins. — Bastile taken and razed, July 14.— Lafay- ette , commander of the national guards. — M i r a • beau, leading orator. 1778. War of the Bavarian succession. — Bavaria seized by Germany. 1779. Congress and Peace of Teschen. The World, elsewhere. 1782. Punishment of death abolished. The Pope visits the em- peror, to dissuade him from hostilities against the church. 178-5. 2,000 religious houses suppressed by the emperor. 1783. The emperor attempts to control the Universities. 1790. Leopold II . W— Congress of Reichenbach. 1791. Conference of Pilnitz. Flight of the king to Varen- nes. — Lafayette resigns. ■ 1792. — F r a n c i s 1 1 .'^■— War with Germany : — The French take Spires, Mentz, and Longwy— Lafaye-tte im- France declared a prisoned at Olmutz. republic. Girondists and Mountainists^ 1780. Declaration of the armed neutrality — to protect neu- tral flags from ihe right ol search claimed by Britain. 1782. Italy: — Pontine maithea drained. India : — Rise of Sindia — T i p p o , Sultan. 1783. — alliance with th'i French. 1786. Prussia — Frederic Wil- liam II. 1787. Russia:— War wj'h the Porte. 1788. Spain :— Charles ?V. 1789. Ottoman Empire :— Se- lim II. 1790. Tuscany : — Fev4inand III. 1792. Sweden :— GustavKS IV 142 THE world's progress. [Period X. — 97 years. — A.n. Progress of Society, etc. United States. Tom Paine., Fisher Ames. HannahMore, Gainsboro' , Moreland. AlJieJ'i, Italian poet. Ghick, Haydn, Mozart, Albrechtsber- Bognslawski, Krasiki, Po- \BeetIioven. lish poets. ! 1799 ISOi iSU^ 1801 Pestalozzi, system of elemen- tary education. Mango Parkas travels in Africa, published. Iron railways in England. Polytechnic school in Paris. First book-fair in Neic- York. First Locomotive Steam En- gine used on the Merthyn Tydvil road in Wales. 1793. Washington re-elected. Neutrality in regard to France. Great Britain. 1793. First coalition against France, directed by ^Eng- land — all Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, and Tur- key. 1794. Com-mercial treaty with England, Commencement of the navy— 6 fri gates built. 1796. Washington resigns. 1797. John Adams, 2d president. Difficulties with France. 1798. Regular army organized, Washington commander-in- chief. 1799. Death of Washington. Tennessee becomes a State. 1800. Seat of government transferred to Washington, D. C. 1801. Thomas ,1 e f f e r- s n , 3d President. Exports of United States, $93,000,000. 1802. Ohio joins the Union ; it has 76,000 inhabitants. 1803. Purchase of Louisi- ana, for ^15,000,000. U. States frigate Philadel- phia, taken by the Tripoli- tans. 1804. Decatur i-ecaptures the Philadelphia. Preble bombards Tri- poli. Burr kills Hamilton. 1805. Jefferson re-elected Pre- sident : G e o r g e Clin- ton, of New- York, Vice- President. Biitish army defeated near Dunkirk. 1795. War with Holland. 1793. Second coalition against France. — Irish rcbellinn. — Nelson's victory at the Battle of the Nile. Wilberforce's motion to abolish the slave trade, lost, 87 to 83. 1800. Union land and — Malta taken. of E n g- Ireland. 1801. Battle of Alexandria.— Pitt resigns, succeeded by Addington. 1802. Peace of Amiens. 1803. Successful war in India. J I 1804. Pitt again premier. 1805. Nelson defeats the French and Spanish fleet* off Trafalgar. 1718-1815.J THE world's progress. 143 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 France. The king and queen beheaded. Reign of Terror. Germany. The World, ekewhere. 1793. First Coalition against France. Marat assassinated by Char- lotte Corday. Victories of P i c h e g r u ' and J o u r d a n —the allies every where driven back. Revolution of the 9th Thermi- dor. Robespiere guillotined. NAPOLEON BONA- PARTE, commander of the army ; quells an insur- rection in Paris. War in Italy. Battle of Lodi. Bonaparte's AustrianCampaig n— H o c h e and M o r e a u ' s cele- brated passage of the Rhine. Peace of Campo Formic. 1800 1801 Bonaparte's expedition to Egypt is defeated by Nelson at Aboukir, Aug. 1. The French enter Switzerland under Bernadotte and Jotirdan. — Return of Bona- parte.— R evolution of the 18 th Brumaire — Bonaparte, first consul. Battle of Marengo. 1798. Second Coalition against France. — M o r e a u ' s victory of Hohen linden. Peace of Lunevile. 1802 Bonaparte elected president of the Italian republic. Peace of Amiens. Legion of Honor instituted 1803 1804 1S05 War with Er^'and. Bank of France. Duke D'Enghien shot. Bonaparte crowned as NA- POLEON I., Emperor of the French. Marshals Soult, Murat, N e y , &c. Austrian Campaign, Napoleon Peace of Protector of the 1804. The emperor of Ger- many assumes the title of emperor of AUSTRIA. Batttle of Auster 1 i tz . Presburg. Confederation of the Rhine. 1793. Second Partition of Po- land by Russia and Prussia. H a y t i independent re- public, under T o u s s a i n t L'Ouverture. 1794. Poland:— Revolt at Cra- cow. — K o s c i u s k o , ge- neral-in-chief — Russians de- feated at Warsaw. 1795. Final partition of Poland — extinction of the kingdom. Batavian Republic :— Shi- melpennink. 1796. Russia :— Paul I. 1797. Switzerland :— General Revolution The French invade Berne —Helvetian Republic. Prussia :— Frederic Wil liam III.^^ 1798. India :— Marquis Welles- ley, governor-general. ■ 1799. Russians, under S u - w a r r w , defeated neaif Milan. 1800. Armed neutrality of the north. Pope Pius VII. Ionian Republic founded. 1801. Russia: Alexander. ^^ 1802. Italian Republic— Bona- parte pi'esident. 1803. India :— Great Mahratta War. 1804. Russia:— War with Per sia. 144 THE world's progress. [Period X. — 97 years.-" Planet Juno discovered. Lewis ^' Clark's expedition to the Rocky Mountains. Fulton's first success- ful TRIAL OF Steam- boats. General University established by Napoleon, to superintend national education. Lithography invented. In England : Flaxman, Westinacott, Chantrey, sculptors. France : La Grange, Mange, Hauy, Biot, B. St. Pierre, poet. First steamboat built in Eu- rope. American Board of Com- missioners tor Foreign Mis- sions, founded. Steam, carriages in England. Gas used for lighting the streets of London. Safety lamp invented by Sir Humphrey Davy. In England : H. K. White, Keats., Reg. Heber, Shelley, Crabbe, Sir W. Scott, Byron, Coleridge, Lamb, Blonigomery, Hogg. France : Mad. de Stael, Mad. (leGenlis. Chateaubriand (Juvier. Melendez Val- dez, Spanish poet. Bilderdyk, Dutch. German: W. Schlegel, F Schlegel, Kichter, Ko'zebue : Weber and Spohr, mu-si- cal compo- sers. Russia : Karamsin, Somorokor, Dmitrievj Krilor. 1S07. Embargo on all the ports of the United States. Trial of Aaron Burr for treason. Slave trade abolished. 1809. James Madison, 4th President. Embargo repealed ; the ' non-intercourse act passed. 181 L Engagement between the ' President ' and the 'Little Belt.' Indians on the Wabash, defeated by Gov. Harrison. Population of the United States, 7,239,903. 1805. Fourth Coalition against France. 1807. Bill for the abolition of the slave trade, passed. 1808. The English, under W e 1 1 e G 1 e y , enter Spain as allies. 1809. Fifth Coalition. Walcheren expedition. 1810. War with Sweden. IBll George, Prince of Wales, Prince Regent, (the king be- ing insane). Population of Great Bri- tain, 12,552,144. 1812. War with Great Britain. Invasion of Canada under Gen. Hull. Gen. Hull surrenders Detroit to the British. The Constitution captures the Guer- r i e r e : (First check of British naval supremacy.) Lord Liverpool, premier. Wool victorious at Queenstown, Oct. 12. Captain Jones, in the Wasp, captures the Frolic Oct. 18. The "United States," The Constitution, Captain Louisiana admitted into the Union. 1813. Perry's victory on Lake Erie. Battle of the Thames : TecumseJi killed. 1814. City of Washington burnt by the Bix" *"sli. Captain Decatur, captures the British frigate Macedonian. Bainbridge, captures the Bri tish frigate Java. 1813. Sixth Coalition against France — Prussia, Russia, Sweden, Great Britain, and Austria. 1814. Treaty of Chaumont be- tween Austria, Prussia, Rus- sia, and Great Britain. Peace of Ghent, signed Dec. 3. 1815. Battle of New-Orleans ; British defeated by General Jackson, Jan. 8. War against Algiers de- clared. 1815. Candy and Almora cap- tured. Wellington vic- torious at Waterloo. June 18. 1718-1815.J THE world's progress. 145' France. Germany. Victcry of Jena over the Prussians. Berlin dectee. War with Russia. Battle of Friedland. — P e a c e of Tilsit. Invasion of Portu- gal. French in Spain defeated at Vienna, by Sir Arthur Wel- lesley. Battle ofWasram- Napoleon marries Maria Lou- ise.— Continental peace ex- cept with Spain. Birth of the emperor's son; created king of Rome. Soult victorious in Spain — takes Badajos ; is defeated by the English at Albuesa. Russian Campaign. Battles of Sinolensko and Bo- rodino. Moscow entered by Napoleon's army — and bun }d by the Russians. Victories of L u t z e n , Bautzen, and Dres- den, over the allies. Battle of Leipsic — The allies enter Paris. Napoleon abdicates, and retires to Elba. House of Bourbon restored: Louis XVIII. Bonaparte returns from Elba. The hundred days. Napoleon victorious at Lisny. BATTLE OF WATERLOO. The allies enter Paris. llonaparie banish- ed to St Helena. Peace of Vienna. Metternich, minis- ter. 1812. Austria in alliance with France against Russia. 1813. War of German inde- pendence. Austria joins the Coali- lion. Bonaparte driven to the Rhine, loses his whole army. 1815. German League. Congress of Vien na. The World, elsewhere. 1806. Holland :— Louis Napo- leon, king. Prussia at war with France in aliiance with Russ4a. 18U7. Ottoman Empire : — Mus- tapha IV. 1808. Spain :— Ferdinand VII. " .Joseph Napoleon. Naples: — Murat. Denmark :— Frederic VI. Ottoman Empire :—Mah- moudll. 1809. Sweden :— Charles XIIL 1810. South America :— VE- NEZUELA declared inde- pendent. 1811. NEW GRENADA de- clared independent. 1812. Invasion of Russia by Napoleon.— BURNING OF MOSCOW. K u t o s o f f pursues the retreating r'rench. Poland :— Diet of War- saw : the Poles declared a nation by Napoleon. 1813. South America:— Bo 1 i V a r drives the Span- iards from Caraccas 1814. Union of Holland and Belgium. — Peace of Kiel Sweden, and England. Union of Sweden and Norway as two kingdoms under one monarch. 1815. Nciherlands :— William The "Holy Al 1 i a n c e ' '—Russia, Pni» sia, and Austria. 146' THE WOS-LD's progress. PERIOD XI.— 40 years. 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1821 1822 1S23 1824 1825 1826 New corn law in England. Polytechnic institution at Vi- enna. Manufactories introduced into Poland. The I'araily of Rothschilds conies into notice at Fra-nk- fort. Abolition of the slave trade by the congress of Vienna. Second United States Bank chartered for. 20 years, capi- tal $35,000,000. Public schools established throughout Russia. Belzoni penetrates the second pyramid of Gheza. Abolition of predial bondage in Bavaria and Wirtemberg. 1816. United States Bank in- corporated. Indiana admitted. 1817. James Monroe, 5th President. Mississippi ad- mitted. 1818. Illinois admitted. War with the Serainoles. First passage of the Atlantic by steam, by the Savannah- New- York to Liverpool. Rise of mechanic institutions in England. Hieroglyphics deciphered : — Chamiollion.—Sit William Hei'scnel died. Huskisson'3y?"ee trade system in England. First manufactory in Egypt, established by Mehemet Ali. Inland navigation of the United States : the great Erie Canal opened. Mail-posts in Prussia. — Steam navigation on the Rhine. General financial panic in England. Vast increase of periodical literature inEngland, France, Germany, Amei'ica, &c. Alexander Volta dies, disco- verer of the Voltaic battery. 1820. Maine admitted. 1821. Monroe re-elected. Missouri admitted. Slavery compromise. 1824. Lafayette's visit. Erie canal opened. Protective tariff. 1825. J. Q. A d a m s , 6th President. 1816. Bombardment of Algiers. — The Dey compelled to make peace and abolish slavery. 1817. Lord Exmouth's expe- dition to Algiers, 1820.- :jeorge IV .^— 1823. Canning ministry. The Ashantees in AfiicA defeated. 1825. Commercial treaty with Prussia. 1827. Treaty of London it favor of Greece. 1828. Wellington ministry. Disturbances in Ireland. m THE WORLD^S PilOORESS. 147^ 1815-1855. A.V. France. Austria, &c. : I The World, elsewhere. • 1816. Portugal r-JchaVI.^ in Brazi. Union of Naples and Sicily. 1817. Republic of the Ionian Islands. India :— The cholera com- mences its ravases. 1818. Sweden :— Cliarles XIV. Ills Congress of Aix la Chapelle. (Bernadotte.) —France joins the " Holy India:— The Mahratta Alliance." power completely over- • thrown, and the British suc- ceeds. 1819. South America:— Re- public of COLOMBIA:— Bolivar, President. 1821 Death of Napoleon at St. He- 1821. Congress of monarchs 1821. Hayti :— B oyer, em- Jena. at Laybach. — Insurrection peror. in Molilavia and Wallachia. South America :— PERU —Alexander Ypsilanti de- and GUATEMALA inde- feated and carried prisoner pendent. to Austria. 182^ BRAZIL declared inde. pendent. Mexico : — Iiurbide, em- peror. Greek Revolu- tion. Declaration of Indepen- 1824 Char lea X .^ dence. Massacre of Scio. 1823. lialv:— Leo XII.. pope, 1824. Death of Lord Byron at Missoionirld. 1825. Russia :— N i c h o 1 a » 182G. — War with Persia. Greece : — Missolonghi taken by the Turks. 1827. Treaty between Russia and the Porte respecting Greece. Greece :— E a 1 1 1 e of N a V a r i n . Portugal :— Maria de Glo- iSB7 Fleet sent to Algiers ria, queen, ^g —Rebellion in favor of Don Miguel as regent. 1828. War between Russia and the Porte. '148^ THE world's progress. [Perwd XL — 40 years. — PRoaasss of Society, etc. In England : France : Jersmy Ben- tliain, Thomas Chal- mers, Thomas Dick, W. Kirbij, Haitam, Lingarf!, WordsuDorth, Soitthey, Cainpbell, Moore, Leigh Hunt, Mrs. Hemans, Bulwer, '• Barry Corn- wall." Russia : Karamsin, Somorakov, Dmieiriev, Krilov. U. f N. Webster, Irving, Cooper, Flint, Wirt, Marshall, Cuvier, Talma, trage- dian, Segur, La Place, Beranger, Lamartine. Germany: Spohr, Mayerbep.r, Kotzebue, Gall, Spurzheim,. Sweden : Tegner, Dahlyren. Italy : Rossini, Paganini. ?. A. Wheaton, Kent, Story, Gallatin, Livingston, Channing. Liverpool and Manchester Railroad opened. The two Landers succeed in tracing the Niger from Lake Tchad to the ocean. The first newspaper in Con- stantinople. — The Faciory Bill in England, limiting the hilars oC labor for children. Reform Bill in England: — Kxtension of Suffrage. Trade unioyis in England, France, Germany, Svviizer- land, (fee. Girard College, at Philadel- phia, and the University of New- York, commenced. De 'Tocqueville's History of Democracy iti America. Inrjuisition abolished in Spain. Slavery abolished in the British colonies. Boston and Lowell Railroad conflicted. James Smithson, of London, bequeai lies .£100,000 to the United States for the esta- blishment of an Institution '■'■for the increase and diffu- sion of knowledge among men." The Luxor obelisk erected at Paris. United States. 1829. General Jack- son, 7th President of the United States. 1830. Treaty between the United States and the Porte. 18.3L The king of the Nether North Eastern Boundary, be 1832. War with the Winneba- goes and other Indian tribes. —Cholera in New- York. — Nullification in South Caro- lina. — General .Jackson's ce- lebrated proclamation. 1833. General Jackson re-elect- ed to the Presidency. Removal of the Depo- sites of the United States from the U. S Bank. 1834. The President censured by the Senate for removing the Deposites. 1835. Great Fire in New- York. 1836. The national debt of the United States being paid, the surplus revenue is divided among the States. Treaty with Morocco. 1837. The independence of Texas acknowledged. Martin Van Buren, 8th President. Great Britain. 1827. Treaty of London In favor of Greece. 1828. The Wellington minis- try. — Disturbances in Ire- land. 1829. Catholic emancipation. Captain Ross' voyage to discover a North West pas- sage. 1830.— William IV,' Earl Grey, flimsier. Difficulties with China. 183L Lord John R u s - s e 1 ' s Reform Bill intro- duced. Cholera first appears ia ' England. lands makes his award on the tween the United States and the British provinces. 1832. Reform Bill passed. 18-33. Captain Ross returna from his voyage of disco- very. 1834. Sir Robert Peel, Premier. — Difficulties in Canada. 1837. -Vistoria 4 1815-1855.J THE WOB^LD's progress. 149' 1S27 1829 1830 France. A French fleet sent. to Algiers. Algiers talc«in. AUSTEIA, &C. 1032 1835 1836 Three Days' Revo- lution, July 27, 28, and 29. Lalayette, commander of the National Guard. Charles X abdicates. — L ouis Philippe I. (House of Orleans. )^^ Ministry of Marshal S o u 1 1 , Death of Lafayette. In.'urrection attempted by Louis Napoleon at Stras- burg. The World, elsewhere. 1833. The Em- peror ol Uus- sia visits the Emperor of Austria. 1-829. Italy ;— Pius VTTL, pope. Algiers taken by the French. VENEZUELA independent, General P a e z , President. 1S30. BELGIUM revolts from Holland, anJ is declared independent in August. 1830. Polish struggle for nation^ a 1 i t y , begins November 19. Brazil : — Revolution ; Don Pedro 11.^ 1831. Belgium :— L e o p o 1 d I .^^ — The Pole.=? victorious at Prayo. Italy :— Gregory XVI., pope. Poland : — Warsaw capitulates to Rus- 1832. The kingdom of GREECE founded ; -O t h o I Piiland ;— The Insurrection crushed:' 5000 families sent to Siberia. — University of Warsaw abolished. 1833. Spain :— Isabella.^ — Don Carlos claims the throne. Portugal :— A constitutional monarchy. Egypt':— Mehemet Ali acknowledged by the Sultan. Mexico: — Santa Anna, President. 1834. Quadruple alliance— England, France, Spain, and Portugal, against Don Miguel and Don Carlos. - 1835. The Plague in Egypt. 1836 Spain :— The Queen Regent adopts the constitution. Texas :— Battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna taken prisoner. China:— A decree to expel all Britisl) and otlier barbarian merchants. I50» THE world's progress. [Peiiod XL — 40 years.--' 1837 1839 ISIO PuooRsss OF Society, etc. S . F . B . Morse takes out a patent for his Elec- tro-magnetic Tele- g r a p h, (invented 1832 ) Suspension of specie payments by the Banks in the United States, in May. The Daguerreotype invented in Paris. Improvement of the condition of the Jews in Russia. An Antarctic Continent disco Penny postage system m Eng- land. Persecution of the Jews at Damascus. Wheatstone's Electric Tele- graph patented in England. *Ml 1814 1815 1845 1846 The Crct >n Aqueduct in New- York completed. Bain's electro-magnetic Tele- graph patented in London. " Antirentism ^ o.oached in the Slate of New-York. A great defection from the Ro- mish church, under the pleaching of Range, in Ger- many. Lord Hesse's Telescope. Gutta Percha in use. Completion of the Thames Tunnel, March 25. The Planet Neptune, pre- dicted by Le Verrier, dis- covered by Dr. Galle, of Berlin, Sept. 23. United States. 1838. The Exploring Expedi- tion sails. 1839. Disturbances on the " disputed territory," be- tween Maine and New- Brunswick. vered by th* United States Exploring Expedition. 1841. W. II. Harrison, 9th President. He dies April 4, j ust one month after his inaugura- tion. John Tyler, .sue. ceedshim, as lOih Pre.->ident. Congre.ss meets in extra session, May 31. Sub-Treasury Act re- pealed, Aug. 9. Bankrupt Act passed, August 18. 1842. Tlie Dorr Insurrection in Rhode Island. Treaty between the Uni Great Britain. 1339. The British take poesaa> sion of Ghuzne. 1840. The uniform Penny Postage system esta'. iishea Marriage . f Queen Vic- toria to Prince Albert of Saxe Cobourg. War with Chiia, to en- force the opiuifi trade. War in Syria : — Great Britain takin? part with Austria and Turkey. Lord Palmerston's foreign policy excites the ill-will of France. 1841. The war wiih China ended : $6,000,000 received as a ransom for Canton 1844. Texas annexed to the United States. Anti-rent riots in New- York. 1845. Treaty with China. James K. Polk, 11 th President. 1846. War with Mexi- c o : Hostilities commence on the Rio Grande, April 24. Battle of Palo Alto, Mays. Battle of Resaca de la Palma, May 9. ted States and England, settling the north-eastern boundary. Treaty of peace China. with 1813. Great "Repeal" agitation in Ireland. The British gain posses- sion of Scinde. 1844. Daniel O'Connell's trial and iirprisonment — the sen- tence reversed by the IIouso of Lords. 1815. Sir John Franklin sail* in search of the north wtsi passage. 1815-1855.] THE world's progress. isr France. Talleyrand dies. Difficulty with Mexico: cap- ture ot San Juan d'UlIoa. Prince Louis Napoleon at- tempts a hostile descent on the coast of France, near Boulogne— is taken prisoner, and imprisoned at Ham. G u i z o t , minister for fo- reign affairs. The remains of Napoleon removed from St. Helena, and deposited with great honors at the Invalides, in Paris. The duke of Orleans, heir to the throne, killed by a fall from his carriage. The Duke de Nemours ap- pointed Regent, in the event of the king's death. Louis Napoleon escapes fr3m Ham, May 26. Austria, &c. 1838. New Treaty of commerce with Eng- land, July 3. * Ferdinand crowned at Milan, Sep- tember 6. The World, elsewhere. 1838. Mexico:— The Castle of San Juan d'Ulloa taken by the French. 1839. Peace between France and Mexico. China :— The Opium trade forbidden. Turkey at war with Egvpt. Tndia :— Ghuzne taken by li,e British. 1840. China : — Canton blockaded by the Eng- lish, to compel the renewal of the opium trade. Holland :— William I. abdicates : William H.^ Syria:— St. Jean d'Acre taker, by the English, Austrians, and Turks 1841. China:— Canton capitulates, 86,000,000 paid in one week, as a ransom for the city. Mexico : — Santa Anna enters the capi- tal, and places himself at the head of the government. 1812. India :— Insurrection in Affghanistan. 1843 Temporary surrender of the Sandwich Islands to Great Britain, compelled by Lord Geo. Paulet. Greece : — King Otho compelled to ac- cept a constitution, Sept. 15. The Society Islands seized by a French squadron— "es^tored by the govpr.'iment. India :—Scinde annexed to the British empire. 1846. Poland :— A powerful, but unsuccessful insurrection at Cracow, Feb. 23. Rome:— Pius IX., pope ; elected June 16. Poland :— Cracow deprived of its inde* pendence, Nov. 16. 152^ THE WORLD S PROGPwESS. [Period XI. — 40 year's.—' k.D. Prooress OP Society, etc. United S-tates. Great Britain. •\ 1846. The Oregon Trea tling the North- Western Bo Commodore Sloat takes possession of California. July 6. New Tariff ^11 passed, establishing ad valorem du- ties. Battle of Monterey, Sep- t y with Great Britain, set» undary, signed at London, June 18. tember 23. Tampico occupied, No- vember 14. 1847. Battle of Buena Vista. 1847. Severe famine in Ira- Feb. 22. land. Large supplii-e of food sent from the United Battle of Sacramento, Feb. 26. States. Vera Cruz surrenders, March 29. The Bogue forts in China Battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18. Battle of Contreras, Au- taken and destroyed, April 26. gust 20. Armistice, Aug. 24. . Hostilities renewed, Sep- tember 7. Battle of Molino del Rey, Sept. 8. Battle of Chepultepec, Sep, 12. Mexico surren- ders, Sept. 14. 1848. Treaty of Peace with Mexico, signed at Guada- loupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22. 1848. Civil war in Ireland. John Mitchell, tried and The cultivatio i of the Tea plant, in the United States, condemned to transporta- tion. May 26. commenced by J. Smith, near Greenfield, South Caro- lina. Postal convention betw een the United States and Great Britain. First deposit of Califor- Suspension Bridge at Nia- nia gold in the mint, Dec. 8. Habeas Corpus Act sus- gara Falls opened July 29. pended in Ireland, Julv 25. Emigration from Europe to America during ihis year, 300,0SO. Smith O'Brien arrested t and condemned, Aug. 5. Return of Ross's exp< dition, Nov. J815-1855.] THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. r.Q# 153 France. Reform Banquets in Stras- burg, Chartres, &c. Michelet's Leclures interrupt- ed by the ministers, Dec. Abd-elKader captured, Dec. 22. Debate on the Reform Bill, Feb. 8. Proposed Banquet a^ Paris, abandoned, Feb 21. REVOL UTIO> COM- MENCED, Fee. 22. Barricades erected, Feb. 23. Louis Philippe abdicates and flies, Feb. 24. Provisional government esta- blished. L a m a r t i n e , Provisional Pre.=i(lent, Feb.. 24. French Republic proclaimed, Feb. 26. Meeting of the National As- sembly, May 4. Bloody Insurrection in Paris, June 23-25. Cavaignac, military dictator, June 24. Paris in a state of siege. New Constitution adopted. Nov. 4. Louis Napoleon Bo- naparte, elected Pre- sidint, Dec. 10. AUST-RIA, &C. 1847. Austria takes posses- sion of Cra- cow. The World, elsewhere. 1847. Prussia :— Frederic William granta a constitution, Feb. 8. Hayti :— Soulouque, President, March 2. Algiers — Abd-el-Kadei made a prisoner to France, Dec. 22. 1848. Sardinia :— Charles Albert protests against the encroachment of Austria, and calls out an army of 25,000 men, Jan 10. Naples : — Rebellion at Palermo, Jan. 12. Sardinia :— Charles Albert pi-oclaims a constitution, Feb. 8. Bavaria: — Disturbances on account of Lola Montes — the king abdicates in favor of his son, -Maximilian II. March 22. Charles Albert The Ban Jella- chich ap- pointed gov- ernor of Hungary, Oct. 3. Incurred ion at Vienna, Oct. 6. 1S48. The Em- peror leaves the city. The Hungarian army advan- ces within 6 miles of Vi- enna, Oct. 11. Windisch- graiz ap- pointed com- mander of the imperial army. enters Milan, March 23. Denmark : — Revolt of Schleswig-Hol- stein, March 26. Sicily declared independent, April 3. Holland receives a constitution, April 17. Poland : — Unsuccessful revolt at Cra- cow, April 25. Sicily -.—The Duke of Genoa elected king, July 10. India : — Insurrection in Ceylon, Aug. 16. Armistice signed between Denmark, Prussia and Sweden, Aug. 26. India: — The Biiii.sh make an unsuc- cessful attempt on Moultan. Sicily : — Messina bombarded and taken, Sept. 2. Hungary :— K o s s u t h appointed Pre sidentof the Defence Committee, an I Dicta tor, Oct. 154* THE world's progress. \ Period XI. — 4^0 years — A neip j')'aiiet. dise',n%-ere;l by Gas2)uiis, at Naples. United States. [SA9. Zac h a r y Taylor 12iti Presideni. Masneiic Telearrapii lines in use in the United States in 1840, 10,000 miles. Tubular Bridge in Anglesea, England. Magnetic Clock, invented by Dr. Locite., at Cincinnati. Rail Roads 6.U00 " Emigration from Europe to America, during this year, at the rate of 1000 a day. Great agitation on ine Slavery Quesii(m in the United Si-fties Congress. The Pekin Monitor., a new paper, iirinted in China The Sidtun of Turkey, grants permission to the .lews to build a temple on Mount Zion. A University founded at Syd- ney, New South Wales. Deaths in 1850 : IT. S. A. EUROPE. A. Judson. Wordsworth, S. M. Fuller, .leffiey, M L. Davis. Neander, Zschokke, Berzelius, 'Balzac 1 850. John 0. Calhourt died at Washington. Attempted invasion of Cuba :— 600 adventurers un- der Lopez, repulsed at Car- denas, May. Death of Gen. Taylor, July 9. Millard F i 1 1 nj o r e , I3th President. Cali fornia ad- mitted, 31st State. Texas boundary settled, by the payment of 10,000,000 dollars to Texas. New-Mexico and Utah admitted as Territories. Bill for the arrest of fugitive slaves passed by Con gress. Slave trade in the District of Columbia abolished. Great BuiTAfN. 1849. Moultan. in India, taken Jan. 3. 1850. The war jii Lahore fin- ished, and th , Punjaub an- nexed to the British crown. A British fleet blockades the ports of Greece, to en- force the alleged claiOiS of British subjects. Sir Robert Peel dies July 2. Haynau. " the Austrian butcher," chastised by tb« draymen in London, Sept. 1815-1855.] THE world's progress. 155* France. I860 Austria, &C- The Emperor issues a pro- clamation against the city The World, elsewhere. Kossuth with -draws his army from Vienna, Oct. 27. Louis Philippe dies in Eng- land. The Imperial- ists take pos- session o I Vi- enna, Nov. 2. Ferdinand ab- dicates, Dec. — Francis Joseph ^^g 18-19. A new Constitution promulgated March 4. Brescia taken by Haynau, March 30. Rome :— M a z z i n i ' s proclamation, Oct. 29. ^ . Prussia:— The king prorogues the As- sembly, Nov. 9. —The Burgher Guard of Bc'limrefuse to give up their arms. The city in a state of siege, Nov. 12. Rome :— Count Rossi, the Pope's prime- minister, assassinated, Nov. 16. India:— Great battle near Ramnuggur, Nov. 22. . ,. . Rome :— The Pope escapes m disguise, Nov. 24. ^ ^ Hungary declared independent, Dec. 1849. India :—Moultan taken by the British, Jan. .3. ^ ^ Italy:— The Grand Duke of Tuscany flies. Provisional Government proclaimed, Feb. 9. , • .. 1, K Q Rome :— Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9. Sicily:— A new Constitution conceded by Naples, March 6. Sardinia :— Charles Albert defeated by Radeisky, March 21— again totally defeated at Novarra, March 23, he abdicates the tlirone in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel. India :— Tbe Punjuub annexed to tne British Empire, March 29. Italy :— Insurrection in Genoa, April 1. Russia comes to the aid of Austria against Hungary, April 26. Rome :— The French arm,y arrives un- der the walls of Rome, Ai)ril 29. Haynau takes command of the Austrian army in Hungary, Rome surrenders^to the French, July ^. Garibaldi leaves the city, July 3. , . . Rome :— The government placed in the hands of the Pope's commissioners, Aug. 3. Gorgey Iraitor-ously surrenders to the Russians, Aug. U. °' KosFUih escapes into Turkey. ; Venice capitulates to Radetsky, Aug. Zd. 1850. Rome :— The Pope returns, April. Greece disputes the claims of Great Britain for lo.=!se3 of British subjects: 13 forced to submit. China:— The Emperor Tau-Kwang, dies: Sze-hing ^g succeeds. 156* THE WORLD*S PROGRESS. [Period XL — iO years - Progress of Society, etc. 1850 On the subject of the Mobbing of Marshal Haynau during a visit to a London brewery, notes pass between Austria and Great Britain, termi- nating in a threat of retalia- tion on the part of the latter, Sept. — Nov. A Memorial for the annexa- tion of Canada to the U. S. received in five hours the signatures of 300 mercliants, landowners, and profes- sional men, in Montreal, Oct. 10. Woman's Rights Con- vention, held at Worcester, Mass., Oct. 23. North- West Passage discov- ered by Capt. McClure (Br. Navy) in the Investigator, Oct. 26. The British Consul at Charles- ton calls the attention of the Governor of South Ca- rolina to a law of that State, under which British sea- men (colored) arc impris- oned when they enter her ports for trade or in dis- tress, Dec. Deaths in 1850 : V. 8. A. J. C. Calhoun, Senator, U. S. Sam. Miller, D.D. Z. Taylor, President, IT. 8. A. United States. 1850. California admitted as a State, Sept. Fugitive , Slave Bill passed, Sept. DisunionMeetings held at Natchez (many present op- posed to disunion); at Yazoo City (resolutions proposed voted down), Oct. 7; at Nashville (this convention passed resolutions recom- mending a congress of slaveholding States), Nov. 19. Union Meetings held at Mobile, Dayton, and New York, in Oct. ; at Philadel- phia, and Wanchester, N. H., in Nov.; and at Bath, Me., in Dec. The Advance and Rescue, American vessels in search of Sir J. Franklin, com- pletely fastened in the ice, Sept. 13. In their northerly drift reach lat. 75° 23', Oct. 1. Conventions held to amend the Constitutions of theStatesof Indiana (Oct. 7), Virginia (Oct. 14), Maryland (Nov. 4), New Hampshire (Nov. (B). Lopez and others tried at New Orleans for engaging in an expedition against Cuba, Dec. 17. "Webster replies to Hiilse- mann on the rights of neu- tral nations, Dec. 21. Great Britain, 1850. Great excitement and agitation in England respect ing a dispute on doctrine be tween the Bishop of Exeter and the Rev. Dr. Gorham, one of his clergy. The Privy Councirs decision in favor of the latter afterwards rati- fied by the Courts. Searches for Sir J. Fr.ink- lin — the North Star returns to Spithead unsuccessful, Sept. 28. The Prince Albert arrives at Aberdeen with the intelligence that traces of his party had been found at Cape Reilly and Beechy Island, at the entrance to Wellington Channel, Oct. 1. Appointment by the Pope of several Roman Ca- tholic bishops and arch- bishops in England, causes great exciternent, and an indignant letter from Lord J. Russell, the premier, Nov. English forces defeated by the Caffres in South Africa, with considerable loss, and obliged to retreat to their fort, Dec. 29. 1815-1856.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 157* 1850 President creates his uncle Jerome a Marshal of Erance, Jan. 1. 800 Soldiers drowned at An- giers by fall of a bridge, Apr. 15. French Ambassador recalled from London, in conse- quence cf a difficulty con- nected with an English claim on Greece, May 16. New Electoral Law, restrict- ing the right of suffrage, passed, May 31. Arrangement with England on the Greek dispute, June 21. Dotation Bill, giving the Pre- sident 2,160,000 francs ($405,000) per annum, passed, Juno 24. 1850. Prussia:— The King takes the oath required by the Con- stitution, Feb. 6. Attempt to assassinate him, May 22. Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, Sax- ony, and Wurtemburg, to main- tain the German Union, Feb. 27. Wurtemburg denounces the insidious ambition of the King of Prussia, and announces a league between Wurtemburg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under the sanction of Austria, March 15. Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian league, June 30. Treaty of Peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2 A Congress of Deputies from the States i'ncluded in the Prus- sian ZoUverein opened, at Cas sel, July 12. Prussia refuses to join the restricted Diet of Frankfort, Aug. 25. Difficulties occurring in Hesse-Cassel, between theElec tor and his people, in regard to the mode of taxation, Austria and Prussia respectively send armies to the Electorate, to take opposite parts in the struggle, Sept.— Nov. Austrian ultimatum deliv ered at Berlin, directing that Prussia evacuate Hesse in eight days, dissolve theErfurtLeague, and recognize the Diet, etc., re- plied to by the Prussian King's signing the order calling out the whole military force of the mo narchy, Nov. 6. The Eussian Ambassador at Vienna announces that the Czar "would consider the continu- ance of the Prussian policy in the Electorate as a casus belli,'''' Nov. 11. Treaty of Amnesty an- nounced at Berlin, Dec. 3. France protests, and Great Britain remonstrates, at Vienna, against the proposed extension of the Germanic Confederation beyond the Alps, Dec. 1S50. Denmark: Bloody but indecisive battle of Idstedt, between the Danes and Schleswig- Holsteiners, July 25. Yucatan : — Battle, near close of the year, between the Whites and Indians ; latter vic- torious; 300 Whites killed. 158* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — iO years. — Fkoorbss of Society, etc. Jas. Richardson, the African traveller, dies at the village of LTnqurta, six days distant from Kouka, the capital of Bornou, March 4 A Company of Gipsies from England arrive in Cecil county, Maryland, U. S., bringing with them all their wandering habits and pecu- liarities, March. According to the evidence of Mr. Baines before a Com mittee of the House of Com- mons, there were in Great Britain 13,198 places of wor- ship dissenting from the tenets of the Established Church, to which may be added Roman Catholic Cha pels, 697, minor sects and Jews, 550; total noncon formist churches, 14,340. ^a;7ii6?'^o» of the "Works 6t Industry of all Nations inaugurated by Queen Yic- toria. May 1. Wyld's monster globe erected in London ; em ployed 300 men nearly 30 days in fitting up the inte Tior. Daguerre, the discoverer of the Daguerrean or Photo- grapMc Art, dies, aged 61, July 10. The Oath of Abjuration (Jew) Bill passes the British House of Commons, with only verbal protests from the objecting minority, July 3; but is refused a second reading in the House of Lords, July 17. United States. 1851. General Quitman of Mississippi arrested for al- leged violation of the neu- trality law of 1818, by set- ting on foot a military ex- pedition against Cuba. He resigns his office of Gover- nor, Feb. 3. Erie Canal Enlargement Bill defeated in the N. Y. Senate by the withdrawal or resignation of 12 democratic members, Apr. 16 ; but afterwards passed by a new Legislature. Minot's Ledge Light- house, Boston Harbor, car- ried away. It was last seen standing about 3 o'clock, P.M., April 16. Arrest of a notorious band of desperadoes in Mi- chigan, Apr. 21. Initial point of the Boun- dary between the United States and Mexico establish- ed on the right bank of the Rio Grande del Norte, in 32 22 north latitude, and 2)9.4 meters from the center of the bed of the river, by the American and Mexican Commissioners, and a mon- ument erected recording the same, April 24. President issues a procla mation, warning all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States not to aid or engage in any expedition against the Island of Cuba, Apr. 25. Convention of Delegates from the Southern Rights Associations of South Caro lina meets at Chai-leston, May 5; and adjourns after resolving that, "with or without cooperation, they are for a dissolution of the Union," May 8. Erie railroad opened from New York city to Dunkirk, 469 miles, by President Fillmore, Daniel Webster, etc.. May 15. Riot, with loss of life, at Hoboken, N. J., between Germans and "short-boy" rowdies from New York, May 26. Serious conflagrations in California. San Francisco alone suffers by them in May and June to the amount of $12,000,000. Gbeat Britain. 1851. A strong force of Caffres attacks Fort Wliite, Cape of Good Hope— repulsed, loss 20 killed. The Oaflfre chief, Hermanns, with a body of Caffres and Hottentots, at- tacks Fort Beaufort, but is repulsed, he and his son killed, his band completely routed. 3,000 Caffres attack the Colonists and their allies near Fort Hare ; driven back with the loss of 100 killed, Jan. ^ . Col. Somer- set captures and burns Fort Armstrong, 90 Caffres killed, 230 taken prisoners, Feb. 2:^. The Hottentots of the Theopolis Mission Station in Lower Albany, join in the insurrection. May 31. They are defeated in actions with the English troops on the 3d and 5th of June. The Russell Ministry re- sign, Feb. 22; but after- wards resume office, the Earl of Derby not having succeeded in forming a Cabinet. The Prohibited Affinity Marriage Bill lost in the House of Lords, Feb. 25; Lord Campbell and the Ec- clesiastical Bench voting against it. 1815-1855.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 159* Fkance. Ministry resign, Jan. 3. Presidential Dotation Bill, proposing an additional grant of 1,800,000 francs, rejected in the Assembly, Feb. 18. The Sub-Committee of the Assembly appointed by the Committee of Revision to authenticate petitions, re- ports, that up to July 1, the petitions had been signed by 1,123,165 persons, thus classified : For revision. 741,011 ; for revision and prolongation of powers, 370,511 ; for prolongation of powers, 12,103 — July 5. The question of revision of the Constitution again ta- ken in the Assembly, when a minority was declared 97 less than the three-fourths required by the Constitu- tion, July 19. AtJSTKiA, etc. The "Woeld, elsewhere. 1851. Denmark: — The Government of Schleswig-Holstein yields to the Com- missioners of the Germanic Confedera- tion, Jan. 10. The Austrians complete their mili- tary possession of Hamburg, Jan. 31 ; and the new government issues its pro- clamation, declaring its resumption of the seignorial rule of the King of Den- mark, Feb. 2. Danish mining operations in Green- land produce large quantities of copper ore, yielding about 60 per cent. The Austrian Government and the Ottoman Porte come to the following settlement respecting the Hungarian Refu- gees: Full and entire amnesty conditioned on their not attempting to enter Hungary. Eight excepted, among them Kossuth and Bathyany, Feb. 17. Charles L. Brace, an Am- erican, arrested and imprisoned in Hungary, on a charge of " being a m.em- ber of the de- mocratic com- mlttee, an agent of Uj- hazy and Cretz, and of travel- ing with revo- lutionary writ- ings, to spread revolutionary movements," May 23, Inauguration of Kauch's co- lossal statue of Frederick the Great at Ber lin, May 31. The Ger- manic Diet, in answer to Lord Palmerston's protest against annexing the non-Germanic provinces of Austria to the Germanic Fe- deration, says, " That no fo- reign interfe- rence should be allowed in a purely German question."July 17. Australia: — Discovery of large gold fields near Bathurst, Feb. East Indies :— Fort of the celebrated E irate Sultan of Soloo destroyed by the pauish Government of Manilla, Feb. 28. Hawaii: — The difficulties between the Hawaiian and French Governments are arranged according to tlie terms of a "mutual declaration," published at Ho- nolulu, signed by the minister of foreign relations and M. Perrin, the French commissioner, March 25, New Granada :— Congress adjourns. It passed a law abolishing slavery in the republic, to take effect January 1, 1852. May 29. Italy : — An earthquake destroys Mel- fl, a city of 10,000 inhabitants, about 100 miles S. E. of Naples, and other towns in its vicinity. Seven shocks occurred within 24 hours. Melfl was separated by a ravine from Mount Volture, upon which are many extinct craters. Not less than 3,000 persons are said to have perished. July 14. Ecuador : — Gen. Diego Novoa, Presi- dent of the Republic, seized and put on board a government vessel by Gen. Urbina, who assumes the administra- tion of the Government. July 17. 160* THE world's progress. [Period XL — 40 yvars.— - A.D. 1851 Pkogkess of Society, etc. The lord mayor of London, with, several of the alder- men and common council men, the royal commission- ers of the Exposition of In- dustry, etc., and the execu- tive committee of the royal commissioners, leave Eng- land for France, by invita- tion of the prefect of the Seine. They are entertained with dinners, balls, sham fights, and reviews of troops —Aug. 1. The inauguration of the rail- way between St. Peters- burg and Moscow, in Itus- sia, takes place Sept. 1. United States. lS5t. "Vigilance committee " at San Francisco hang a man for stealing, June 10, and another, July 11. Gov. McDougal of Cali- fornia issues liis proclama- tion, warning the citizens of the State against " vigi- lance committees," and calls upon all persons to aid in sustaining the law, July 21. Nicaragua route, be- tween New York and San Francisco, opened, Aug. 12. The people of Litchfield county, Connecticut, cele- brate the 200th anniversary of its settlement, Aug. 13 and 14. Great riot in New Or- leans, growing out of the Cuban expedition. Houses of Spanish residents at- tacked. The Spanish con- sul is obliged to ask protec- tion, and is placed in the city prison for safety, Aug. 21. Riot, with loss of life, at Christiana, Pa., upon an at- tempt to arrest a fugitive slave, Sept. U. IT. S. brig Dolphin sails on an expedition to run a line of soundings for tele- graphic purposes across the Atlantic, Oct. Cotton-planters' conven- tion (300 members) meets at Macon, Ga. Its object being to prevent fluctua- tions in the price of cotton. Little harmony of views or concord of action manifest- ed. Oct. U. S. steam frigate Mis- sissippi sent to Turkey for Kossuth, receives him on board in the Dardanelles. The French government re- fuses to allow Kossuth to pass through France. The Mississippi proceeds on her voj^age with Kossuth's com- panions, reaching New York Nov. 10. Kossuth arrives at New York in December. Ova- tions are offered him in the principal cities of the Union. He has an interview with the President, Sept to Dec, Great Beitain. 1851. " The great aggregate meeting" of Roman Catho- lics, from all ])arts of the United Kingdom, for the inauguration of the Catho- lic defense association, is held at Dublin, Aug. 19. The American yacht " America," at the regatta at Cowes, wins *' The cup of all nations," Aug. 22. Kossuth arrives by Eng- lish steamer from Gibraltar, at Southampton, Eng. Ova- tions are oijered him in va- rious pans of the country. He leaves for the United States, Nov. The submarine tele- graph between Dover and Calais completed, Oct. 17. Opened for public use Nov, 13. A fourth presidency contemplated for British India, and a proposal mad© to remove the seat of go- vernment from Calcutta to Lahore, Nov. I 181-6-1 866.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 161* A.D. 1851 Fbance. Atjstkia, etc. REvoLtmoN: L. N.Bonaparte by a coup d'etat seizes the reins of government; dis- solves the national assem- bly, declares a state of siege ; arrests the principal red-republicans and social- ists; constitutes an entire new ministry'. The Presi- dent orders an instant restoration of universal suf- frage; an immediate elec- tion by people and army of a President to hold office for ten years, to be sup- ported by a Council of State and two houses of Legisla- ture. The revolution" cre- ates an intense excitement. The vote of the army shows a large majority for L. N. Bonaparte. Resistance to the usurpation is shown in various parts of France, but the overwhelming power of the army, and a "state of siege" in 33 departments, crushes all opposition. The election, under various con- trolling influences, results in the confirmation of L. N. Bonaparte as President for ten years, by a vote of about seven out of eight millions. Doc. 1-20. 1851. Marshal Ra detzky, by pro- clamation from Monga declares the Lombardo- Yenetlan king- dom to be in a state of siege, July 19. By cabinet letterSjthe Em- peror ofAustria declares that his ministers "are responsi- ble to no other political au- thority than the throne," that "the Reichstadtisto be considered as the council of the throne," and the minis- ter president is to take " into ripe and seri- ous considera- tion the possi- bility of caM'y- ing out the Constitution of March 4, 1849." Aug. 20. Louis Kos- sutli and 35 of his country- men sentenced to death in contuw aciarti, at Pesth, for not appearing after citation, Sept. 22. The ques- tion of the ad mission of Jews to judi- cial office in Prussia, brought to a partial termi- nation by their permission to study law. Oct. The Woeld, elsewhere. 1S51. Russia:— Her troops repeatedly de- feated by the Circaesians. June. Nicaragua :— Gen. Munoz, ex-minis- ter of war, deposes President Pineda, and sends him and most of his cabinet prisoners to Tigre Islands and elects Albaunaz President. The Senate assem- bles at Grenada, and elects Montenegro President Aug. 4. "West Indies : — Yolcanic eruptions from eight craters in the mountains of Martinique, Aug. 5. Cuba : — Expedition against Cuba un- der General Lopez, 500 strong, sails from New Orleans Aug. 3, and Key West 10th ; efi'ects a landing at Cubanos, 11 th ; is routed on the 20th. Lopez is taken, . 29th, and publicly garoted, Sep. 1. His followers shot or condemned to ten years' labor in Spain. The funeral obse- quies of the Spaniards and Cubans who fell in the contest with Lopez, are cele- brated with great pomp at tiie Cathedral in Havana. .$70,000 are subscribed by the inhabitants of Havana, for the bene- fit of their widows and children, Sept. 9 Mexico: — General Mariana Arista inaxigurated President, Jan. 15 ; Canales, Carvajal, and others, issue pronuncia- mentos against the general govern- ment. Some fightinjr follows, with varied success, Sept. — Oct. — Nov. Greece : — Lord Palmerston's note to the Greek government produces a great sensation at Athens. Nov. Chili :— Earthquake at "Valparaiso — the most violent since that of 1822, few lives lost, but great destruction of pro- perty, April 2. Insurrection at Santiago, suppressed after two hours' street-fight- ing, April 20. Rebels under Cruz de- feated by Bulnes at Longomilla, Dec. 8, 162* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — iO yearn. A.T>, 1851 PK0aRE3S OF SOOIETT, etc. United States. The town of Lagos, on the coast of Africa, destroyed by an English force, with a loss of thirty killed, and 69 wounded, because the na- tive chief refused to sign a treaty for the effectual sup- pression of the slave trade in his dominions. The chief is deposed, and another sub- stituted in his place, Dec. 26-27. DeatJis in 1851, IT. S. EUKOPE. J. J. Audu bon, S. Olin, J. F. Cooper, T. H. Gallau- det, S. G. Morton, J. Pye Sfnith, Bexley, JoannaBaillie, Codrington, Shell, Lingard, Daguerre, Soult, Oersted, Jacobi. Immigration into California, U. S., from Asia is so large as to require special Legis- lation — April. Extensive fires in the Antilles, March 2 ; California, U. 8., June 17 and Nov. 2 (nearly destroying two cities;) Canada, (at MontrofiJ) July 1851. Principal room of the library of Congress destroy- ed by fire, together with paintings, statuary, models, and about 35,000 volumes of books, Dec. 24. By joint resolution, the Governor of Georgia is authorised and requested to withdraw the block of mar- ble contributed to theWash- ington monument by the resolution of the General Assembly of Febr'y, 1850, with the inscription, " The Constitution as it is ; the Union as it was," and to cause another to be pre- pared of Georgia marble, with the State arms thereon, and to be sent to the monu- ment, Dec. 31. Immigration, June 1, 1850, to Dec. 31, 1851, 658,000. 1852. Deputations from the various States, in behalf of the Irish exiles, wait upon President Filmore— Jan. 23. The Ohio State House entirely consumed by fire. Some of the papers saved, but a large mass of docu- ments destroyed— Feb. 1. Sefior Laborde, the Spanish Consul at New Orleans at the time of the Cuban riots, and who fled the city from fear of vio lence, arrives at New Or leans, is saluted, and re- sumes his duties as consul — Feb. 9. Gold Medal presented to Henry Clay by citizens of New York. Feb. 10. Memorial presented to House of Representatives of California, from 1,218 cit- izens of South Carolina and Florida, asking permission " to colonize a rural district with a population of not less than 2,000 slaves." Feb. 10. Hamoeopathic College at Cleveland, Ohio, mobbed and interior destroyed, in consequence of remains of subjects, taken from the burial-ground, being dis- covered near the Colleee. Feb. 16. ^ Gbbat Beitaik. 1852. Lord Granville, by his note to the American mi- nister, in relation to the firing into the Aaierican steamer Prometheus by the British man-of-war Ex- press, states to Mr. Law- rence, for the information of his government, that her majesty's government entirely disavow the act, and has no hesitation in offering ample apology for that which they consider to have been an infraction of treaty engagements. Jan. 10. Dr. Rao returns unsuc- cessful from his search for Sir John Franklin, down the McKertzie river, and from its mouth eastward, 500 miles. He was sent out in the spring of 1851 by the Hudson's Bay Company. Feb. % 1§15-1855.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 163* 1851 Atjstkia, etc. 1852 President Bonaparte orders the confiscation of the Or leans property, Jan. 22. The Woeld, elsewhere. 1852. The Empe ror of Russia visits the Em- peror of Aus- tria at Vienna, May 8. 1851. China: — Imperial court seriously alarmed at the progress of the disturb- ance in the Southern provinces. June. A large portion of the Chinese part of Hong Kong destroyed by fire : from 470 to 500 houses destroyed, including all the printing oflSces and the finest edi- fices and public buildings. Many lives lost. Dec. 26-28. 1852. Argentine Confederation :— General Urquiza, Commander of the liberating army, completes the passage of the Parana with 28,000 men, 50,000 horse, and 50 pieces of artillery, and prepares to approach Buenos Ayres, Jan. 8. Bat- tle of Santos Lugares, (10 miles from Buenos Ayres,) between Urquiza witli 30,000 men and 50 cannon, and the troops of Rosas, 25,000 men and 90 cannon ; re- sults in the total defeat of Rosas and liis flight to England. During the night, the city is saved from pillage by detach- ments from the various ships' of war of all nations in the harbor, Feb. 8. The allied army enters Buenos Ayres Feb. 18. — Urquiza, Director of the Argentine Confederation, deposed, Sept. 10. — The Chamber of Representatives of Buenos Ayres declares the river Parana open to the navigation of all na- tions, Oct. 13. Belgium:— Formation of a new mi- nistry at Brussels, of the moderate party tinder M. de Brouckere, Nov. 1. The law against the liberty of the press is adopted in the Chamber of Representa- tives, Dec. 1. Cuba : — The police of Havana disco- ver and capture the press of the paper, " The Voice of the People," with the materials and forms for the fourth num- ber. The proprietors and employes are arrested, Aug. 23. The barque Cornelia, having cleared at Havana, is brought to and boarded at the month of the harbor, and the mail-bags rifled, Sept. 23. A few days after, the United States mail steam- ship Crescent City is refused permission to land her passengers and mails at Ha- vana, and ordered to quit tlie port — Captain-General Canedo objecting to the purser of the vessel, Mr. Smith, alleged to be the reporter of false news to the New York papers. On Oct. 14, the Cres- cent City again enters Havana hari)or, with Mr. Smith as purser. Gov. Caiiedo refuses to allow passengers or mails to be landed, and forbids all intercourse be- tween the ship and shore. The Captain protests to the American Consul, and leaves the harbor. 164* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XL — AO years.-^ A.S. 1852 Pkogress of Society, etc. Great floods in the United States, March, April, Sept., and Dec. ; in England, Nov. and Pec; on the conti- nent of Europe, Sept. TelegrapJis across the Eng- lish Channel. Earthquakes in Cuba August 2 and Nov. 26 ; in Manilla and adjacent parts, Sept. 16, Oct. 18; at Acapuico, Dec. 4; in the Eastern Archipe- lago, Nov. 27 and Dec. 21. At Stafford House, in London, some English ladies, headed by the Duchess of Suther- land, adopt an address to the -women of America on the subject of negro slavery. It subsequently receives 576,000 signatures. Nov. 26. Punisliment of Death re- stored in Tuscany, Fall in England of the protec- tionist ministry of Lord Derby and Mr. Disraeli, after an existence of nine months — Dec. 20. DeatJis in 1852. U. S. . Europe. H. Clay, S. JSTott, M. Shiart, D. Drake, J. 11. Paine, II. Greenough, Amos LaxD- rence, Milledoler, J. Vanderlyn, D. Webster, J.L. Kingsley, J. P. Norton. Thos. Moore, Schwartzen- berg, Pradier, Wellington, Dr. Mantell, D"Orsay, Lee. United States. Gkeat Bkitain. 1852. Sonthern Eights conven- tion at Montgomery, Ala., passes resolutions against making resistance to the compromise measures an issue of their party, and against intervention, March 5. Eiot during election at St. Louis, April 5. First national agricultu- ral convention assembles at Washington, D. C, consist- ing of 151 members, repre- senting 22 States, and the District of Columbia, orga- nised by the choice of Marshal P. Wilder, of Mass., president. June 24. Convention for revising the Constitution of Louisi- ana, July 5. Kossuth continues to be feted in different cities, and finally quits the country under the name of Alexan- der Smith, July 16. Henry Clay dies, June 29. Obsequies celebrated at New York with great pomp and magnificence, July 20. Great Britain insists npon the convention of 1818,: re- specting North American fisheries, being carried out by the United States, and sends armed vessels to the coast of Nevv Brunswick, etc. The United States government dispatches the war steamer Mississippi, with Commodore Perry on board, to the disputed fishing grounds; some sixty fisliing vessels are boarded, and furnished with in- formation and advice. July — Aug. Commodore McCauley, commander of the United States naval forces in the Pacific, by proclamation, withdraws his protection from American vessels pro- ceeding to the Lobos Is- lands for guano, Oct. 18. This difficulty Avith Peru settled by the withdrawal of American pretensions, Nov. 15. 1852. Submarine telegraph wires coated with gutta percha, laid across St. George's Channel from Ho- lyhead, a distance of eighty miles, completing the com- munication between Lon- don and Dublin. June 1. Queen Victoria issues her proclamation against " Roman Catholic ecclesias- tics' wearing the habit of their order, exercising the rites and ceremonies of the Roman Catholic religion in highways and places of public resort." June 15. Daniel Webster dies, Oct. 24. Funeral solemni- ties celebrated at Boston with much state, Nov. 15. The United States de- clines the tri-partite con- vention respecting Cuba proposed by England and France, Dec. 1. imniigration, 876,000. ; Duke of Wellington dies, Sept. 14. His funeral obse- quies take place in London with great pomp, Nov. 18. Fall of the Protectionist ministry of Lord Derby and Mr. D'Israeli, after an exist- ence of nine months, Dec. 20. By a decree of the Go- vernor General of British India, the province of Po gu is ann-vvfld to the British dominions^ Dec 20. 1815-1855.]. THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 165* France. President Bonaparte . com- Tnences his tour tlirough Soutliern France, Sept. 16. Visits tlie Chateau D'Am- boise, and releases Abd-el- Kader,_ who had been- a prisoner for five years, Oct. 10. Eeturns to Paris, ma- king a pompous entry into the city, Oct. 16. A decree of the President convokes the Senate for Nov. 4, for the purpose of deliberating on the restora- tion of the einpira. Oct. 19. The Senate decrees the re- establishment of the em- pire, subject to the ratifica- tion of I he people, Nov. 7. Tlie vote is taken. through- out France and Algeria, Nov. 21 and 22; result— 7,824.189 in favor of reiistab- lishing the empire, against 258,145 negative, and 63,326 void ballots. The Senate goes in a body to St. Cloud; to announce offi- cially the result of the elec- tion to Louis Napoleon, and hail him Emperor, Dec. 1. At the Hotelde Ville, in Paris, Louis Napoleon is publicly proclaimed Empkror of TiiE Ffench, under the name of Napoleon III, Dec. 2. Austria, etc. The World, elsewhere. 1852. Greece: — Signing of a convention in London by the five powers, England, France, Prussia, Bavaria and Greece, in reference to the aff'airs of Greece. None but a prince of the Greek religion is hereafter to ascend the throne of Greece. Nov. 18. Hawaii: — Eruption of Mauna Loa; lasts several weeks. Feb. India:— The Burmese ev.acuate and burn Prome, Sept. 10. The British un- der Godwin take it with a loss of 38 men, Nov. 21. Italy :— The Grand Duke of Tuscany, refuses to give audience to an English Protestant deputation in favor of Eosa and Francisco Madiai, Oct. 25. — The punishment of death is rees- tablished in Tuscany, for treason, crimes against religion, murder, and robbery w'ilh violence, Nov. 10. — The Pope addresses a letter to the King of Siirdinia, strongly adverse to the bill under consideration in the Pied- montese parliament, permitting mar- riages without religious ceremonies; it is consequently withdrawn by the mi- nistry, Dec. 20. — At .Home, Bishop Ives, of North Carolina, U. S., formerly an Episcopa- lian, is received into the Catholic Church by the Pope, Dec. 26. Liberia :— President Eoberts attacks and gains possession of the native chief Boyer's principal town, Jan Ifi. A treaty of peace between the courts of Vienna and Eome is ratified, stipulating tliat the former shall main- tain in the territories of the Pope, 12,000 infantry and 1,400 cavalry, for whom $18,000 monthly are to be paid by the Papal government. Nov. 10. Mexico: — Carvajal attacks Camargo and is defeated, Feb. 21. The French Count Boulban de Ea- ousset, who led an enterprise upon So- nera, is defeated at Hermosillo, and hia expedition completely overthrown, Nov. 1. 1852. The Empe- ror of Austria visits the King of Prussia at Berlin, Dec. 17. Prussia : — The bill for bi- ennial parlia ments becomes a law, Dec. 23, Spain : — A priest, aged 63, attacks with a dagger, and wounds the Queen of Spain, on her return from celebrating at the cathedral a Te Denm for the birth of her child, Feb. 2. He is tried, convicted, degraded from his priestly office, and suffers death from the garote, 7th. —Ninety-five Americans belonging to the Lopez expedition, who had been sent to Spain, arrive at New York, March 13, having been liberated by the Queen. . —The Cortes dissolved by royal de- cree, for having elected De la Eosa, the anti-ministerial candidate, their presi* dent, Dec. 2. lee* THE world's progress, [Period XL — 40 years. — 1853 1'bogress of Society, etc. Firmans accorded to all sub- jects of the Porte (not Mus- sulmans) confirming their religious rights, June 22. The first Norwegian railway opened July 4. UNrrEO States. The American expedition un- der Com. Perry arrives at Japan, July 8. On the 14th he lands and delivers to the Imperial commissioners the letter from the American President ; a few days after leaves the island, to return in the spring. Over 60,000 pilgrims enter Aix-la-Chapelle, to visit the exhibition of tiie relics, Ju- ly 17. Gbbat Britain. 1853. Caloric ship Ericsson makes lier trial trip to the Potomac, Jan. 11, Adverse decision of Na- poleon, arbiter between the United States and Portugal, in case of the General Arm- strong, read at Washington. Jan, 17. Franklin Pierce and William E. King declared duly elected President and Vice-President for four years from 4th March next, Feb. ». W. E. King sworn in as Vice-President, at Cumbre, Island of Cuba, Consul Sharkey administering the oath, March 24. Second American Arctic expedition leaves New York, May 31. Important amendments to the city charter of New York, restraining the power of municipal officers in money matters, adopted by a Tote of 36,672 in favor, 8,351 against, June 7. Crystal Palace at New York opened in presence of the President of the United States, etc, July 14. 1853. Mr. Ingersol, American envoy, feted at Liverpool and Mianchester, Jan, 4-7. Sandilli and other Caffre chiefs send in their submis- sion to General Catbcart, tiiereby closing the war, Feb. 10. Peace concluded, March 9. Doncaster church, built in 1070, destroyed by fire, Feb. 28. Warlike stores, supposed to be for Kossuth, seized, April 14. Mrs. H. B. Stowe, au- thoress of " Uncle Tom's Cabin," received at Statford House by many. of the no- bility and statesmen ot England, May 7. Dublin Industrial Exhi- bition opened, May 12. The "strike" at Stock- port ceases, and 20,000 men resume labor, having ac- complished their object, an advance of ten per cent, in their wages, August 8. Si- milar strikes occur at Leeds, Kidderminster, and other cities. 1815-1856.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 167* ▲.D. Fbanck. The Pantheon at Paris re- opened as the Church of St. Genevieve, Jan. 3. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, at last acknowledge Napo- leon III. Emperor of the French, Jan. 11. Marriage of the Emperor and Eugenie de Montijo, Count- ess de Teba, celebrated at Catliedral of Notre Dame, Paris. Amnesty granted to 4,312 political prisoners and exiles, Jan. 30. General St. Priest, and many other legitimists, secretly arrested in Paris, on the charge of political commu- nication with the Count of Chambord, and some of having sent false intelli- gence to foreign journals, Feb. 5. Application is made by the French government to the English for Napoleon's will, Feb. 17. Subsequent- ly granted. Funeral of Mme. Easpail at Paris, the occasion of a formidable socialist demon- stration. 40,000 persons march in procession to Pere la Chaise, March 13. Fleet sent to Turkish waters, March 20. A peace address, signed by 4,000 English merchants, bankers and traders, is pre- sented to Napoleon III. at the Tuilleries, by English- men, March 28. A bill restoring capital pun- ishment for attempts on the life of the Emperor, or to subvert the Imperial go- rernment, ia passed, May 28. Attsteia, etc. 1853. Austria of- fers herself as a mediator be- tween the Turks and Montenegrins, Feb. 1. Attempt on the life of Em- peror of Aus- tria at the ram- parts of Vien- na, Feb. 18. Baden: — Prof. Gervinus tried for high treason,in pub- lishing his "In- troduction to the History of 19th century." Sentence, ten months' im- prisonment, and book to be destroyed, March 5. Prussia : — Democratic conspiracy dis- covered at Ber- lin, March 29. Austria re- cals her minis- ter from Berne, May 20. Tub Woblb, elsewhere. — «ft -^ 1852. Switzerland :— The Canton of Ticino suppresses the order of Capuchin monks, and expels all of that order under 65 years of age, Nov. 25. Turkey :— War breaks out between the Turks and Montenegrins, Dec. 15. 1853. Belgium : — A maritime congress as- sembles at Brussels, Aug. 23. — Marriage of the Duke of Brabant, heir-appai'ent of the throne, and the Arch-Duchess Maria, Aug. 23. Canada and New Brunswick:— Ga- vazzi lectures at Quebec and Montreal ; riots ensue; military called out; June 6-9. — The first sod of the European and North American Railroad turned at St. Johns, by Lady Head, assisted by the Lieutenant-Governor, in presence of 25,000 persons, Sept. 14. China : — Nankin taken by the rebels ; Tartar garrison (20,000) massahred; March 19. Amoy captured, May 19. Denmark: — Parliament prorogued, and a "fundamental" law issued, by which the government becomes liereaf- ter an absolute one, July 19. Hawaii : — Small-pox rages, having carried oflf since May 1,805 out of a po- pulation of 60,000 persons, Aug. 31. Holland : — The first chamber adopts the much-disputed law on religious li- berty, Sept. 8. India : — Battle of Donabew, in Bur- mah : Sir J. Cheape defeats Mea Toon, March 19. Italy: — An insurrection breaks out at Milan, but is vigorously suppressed by Eadetsky, Feb. 6. The property of the Lombardo- Venetian refugees seques- tered till they can prove they are not implicated in this outbreak, and 10,000 Ticinese expelled from Austrian Italy, Feb. 26. Protracted diplomatic contro- versies between Austria and both Sar- dinia and Switzerland, follow—Sardinia solemnly protesting, April 16. — The Pope prohibits the circulation of " Uncle Tom's Cabin" in his domini- ons. May 10. Guerazzi tried at Florence for high treason, and found guilty, June 11. — Conspiracy in Rome, 146 arrests, Aug. 15. — Order signed for immediate release of Miss Cunningham at Lucca, Oct. 9, — New church, built for the Wal- denses, opened and consecrated at Turin, Dec. 15. Mexico ; — New revolution ; Arista resigns the presidency, Jan. 5. — Santa Anna having been elected President, is received in Mexico with great enthusiasm, April 17. 168* THE^ world's progress, , ' IFeriod XD — iO years."-^ 1858 Progress of Society, etc. A great national horse-show at Springfield, Mass^ U. S., Oct. 19-21. The first Presbyterian Chinese church or^nized at San Francisco, U. S., Nov. 6. Duel between Sotil6 and De Turgot, American and Frencli ministers to Sjjain, Dec. 18. Cholera prevails In Europe. Several new asteroids discov' ered, raising the number to 27, between the planets Mars and Jupiter. U. S. Europe. 0. B. Adams, Junius Smith, W. R. King, B. Bates, Sim. Green- leaf. Arago, Von Buch, Dacres, Mrs. Opie, "Wardlaw. United States. 1853. Great heat throughout the country — thermometer every where 100" Fah. Deaths from it in New York city in four days, 400, Aug. 11-14. Eemaining portion of " Table Kock," at the Falls of Niagara, breaks ofi^. Sept 9. "Great Eepublic," ves- sel of 4,000 tuns, largest merchantman in the world, launched at East Boston, Mass., Oct. 4. Captain Gunnison and party massacred by the Indians in Utah, Oct. 26. Inauguration of the "Washington aqueduct. President Pierce turns the first turf, Nov. 9. A mob of men and wo- men demolish the railroad track near Erie, Penn., Dec. 9, and repeat the outrage, Dec. 27. Yellow fever epidemic in the States bordering on Gulf of Mexico, carries off from 12,000 to 15,000 per sons. Bcdini, the Papal Nun- cio, tries to influence the EomanCatholic laity to give up their church property to the Bishops, but does not succeed. He quits the country ignominiously. Immigration, 868,000. Great Britadt. 1853. Naval Review at Spit- head, in presence of the Queen, Aug. 11. Queen Victoria visits Ireland, Aug. 29. Deputation from the Protestant Alliance, headed by the Earl of Shaftesbury, waits upon Lord Clarendon, to state the case of Miss Cunninghani, arrested at Lucca for distributing Ita- lian Bibles, etc., and to urge the government to procure her immediate li- beration, Sept. 28, A depu- tation of clergymen and others, headed by Sir Cul- ling Eardley, wait upon Lord Clarendon and thank him and the government for the exertions which had been made, Oct. 27. Bronze statue of Sir Ro- bert Peel erected in front of the Koyal Infirmary at Manchester, Oct. 3. Captain Inglefleld, of the Phoenix, arrives from the Arctic regions, with the news of the discovery of the North-west Passage, on Oct. 26, 1850, by Captain McClure of the Investiga- tor, Oct. 7. The first stone of a Ro- man Catholic cathedral laid at Shrewsbury, by Bishop Brown— the young Eui'l of Shrewsbury giving £15,000 towards its erection —Dec. 12. The Dublin Exhibition building is formally opened as a winter garden, by the Lord Lieutenant and the Countess St 6ermainS| Dec. 16. 1815-1855.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 169* France. 1853 Plot to assassinate the Empe- ror, while on his way to the Opera Comique, discovered at Paris, July 7. Austria, etc. A Roman circus of great size discovered at Tours, Aug. 81. The Duke de Nemours, on behalf of the entire Oi-leans House, effects a reconcilia- tion with the Count de Chambord, Nov. 17. Inauguration of the statue of Marshal Ney, on the spot where he was shot, and the anaiversary of his execu- tion, Dec. 7. The 'WoELn, elsewhere. 1853. Persia :— Earthquakes destroy Shi- raz, (12,000 lives lost,) May 9 ; and Tehe- ran, July 11. Peru .-—Difficulty at Chincha Islands between Peruvian commandaut and American shipmasters, Aug, 17. 10 Portugal:— Maria eputati»n of " Friends" pre- sents to the Emperor of Russia a peace memorial, Feb. 10. CoroplGte equality before the law secured to all subjects of the Porte, without dis- tinction of creed, by treaty, March 12. Commercial treaty concluded between the United States and Japan, March 23. In Turkey, the possessions of the Mosques to be declared the property of the State from March 27. The first railway is- opened- in Brazil^ the Emperor and Empress being j^resent at the inauguration, April 30. The changes introduced in the Ottoman Empire by the in- fluence of the Allied Pow- ers, amount to a revolution in its social condition.^ Marked increase in the num- bers and prosperity of Christians in Turkey ; Mo- hammedan population, ex- cept in Bosnia, rapidly dy- ing out. Cross raised iti a Catholic burying ground belonging to the i^rench, in Turkey. Uniteb States, 1854. The steamer San Fran- cisco founders at sea; 240 U. S. troops washed over- board; the rest of 700 res- cued by the Three Bells, Kilby, and Antarcti^c, Jan» 6. Astor Library opened for use of the public, in New York city, Jan. 9. Outrages on the railroad near Erie, Pa., renewed by mobs of women, Jan. 17, 31 Skirmishes between U. S. troops and Apache and Utah Indians,. March 5, 30. Certain sections of the " Maine Liquor Law" deci- ded to be unconstitutional iu Massachusetts, Maixh 13. Miss Dix's bill for ame- liorating the condition of the indigent insane,. vetoed, April 20. Great flood in the Con- necticut river, hundreds driven from their dwel- lings, May 1. Mass meetings at Bos-- ton, Feb. 23 ; New Market, N. H., Feb. 27; New York, IVlay 13, against the Ne- braska bill, which, how- ever, becomes a law. May SO. Riots in Midiigan, April IT; at Boston, (attempt to rescue a fugitive slave,) May 26; at New Y'ork and Brooklyn, (papist interfe- rence with street-preach- ing,) May 28, June 4, 11. San Juan, Nicaragua, bombarded and burnt by the U. S. sloop-of-war,. Cy anc, July 18. Great Beitaix. 1854. Parliament opened by Queen, who expresses a de- sire thfit exertions for an amicable settlement of the Eastern difficulties should be persevered in, Jan. 31. The Queen reviews the fleet on its departure for the Baltic, March 11. A day of humiliation and prayer observed, April 26.- Launch of the "Royal Albert," the Queen chris- tening the vesselj. l\Iay 13. Crystal Palace at Sy- denham opened by the Queen, June 10, 1815-1855.] THE WORLDS PROGRESS. 171* A.D. 1854 Feai?cb. The Emperor and Empress attend tlie first agricultural exhibition ever held in Pa- ris, June 9. AtrsTEiA, etc. 1854. Alliance, offensive and defensive, be- tween Austria and Prussia, signed April 20. The Emperor reviews a di- vision of troops about to proceed to the Baltic, July 12. The World, elsewhere. 1854. Brazil :— San Salvador destroyed by an earthquake, causing a loss, in less tlian one minute, of 200 lives, and $4,000,000 of property, April IG. Canada:— Parliament House at Que- bec burnt, including government library and philosophical apparatus, Feb, 1. India: — The Ganges Canal, a work of vast magnitude opened, April 8. — Day of humiliation and prayer for success of the British arms, observed at Bombay and all over India, by the na- tives, as well as the Europeans, July 16. Italy: — Shocks of earthquake in the country between Florence and Eome, May. — Eailway from Lusa to Turin inau- gurated in j)resence of King and Queen of Sardinia, etc.. May 22. Mexico : — Battle of Guyamas, be tween some Frenchmen under Count Eaousset de Boulbon and the Mexicans, July 13. The Count is defeated, taken prisoner, and, Aug. 12, shot. Eussia: — An imperial ukase calls out nine men in 1,000 souls in eastern por- tion of the Empire, May 9. Spain : — Earthquake at Fiana, crum- bling down the greatest part of the Al- cazaba, an ancient castle of the Moors, and causing large chasms in nearly all the streets, Jan. 13. — Strike at Barcelona; 15,000 arti- zans demand of the municipal authorities that the j)rice of provisions be reduced, and wages increased, March 31. — T!;e insurrection of the people at Madrid (July 17) triumphs, and the Eivas ministry resign, July 19. Espar- tero enters the city, and is received with great enthusiasm, July 29. 3,000 defenders of the barricades defile before the Queen's palace, her Majesty present- ing herself on the balcony, July 31. — Dona Maria Christina, the Queen Mother, leaves Madrid for Portugal, un- der escort of ti'oops, but against the will of the people. She was indebted to the State 71,000,000 reals, Aug. 28. Turkey: — Fire at Constantinople; 400 houses destroyed, Jan. 1. — Fire at Salonica, destroys 600 build- ings, April 8. — Banquet given by the Sultan to Prince Napoleon, May 8. — Fire at Yarna, destroys ISO houses and vast quantities of military stores, Aug. 10. 172* THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [Period XI.— 40 years.-^ 1854 U.S. J^. B. Blunt, Jaadb Bur- nett, John Davis, Coin. Doiones, J. Harring- ton, last sur- vivor of bat- tle of Lex- ington. Mrs. E. Jud- son. Pkogress of Society, etc. The Sultan issues a firman for the constructioii of a church at Scutari, Sept. DeatM in 1854. Europe. Anglesea, Bodisco, Cockburn, Forbes, Janaeson, Maitland, Melloni, Montgomery, Paixhans, Pellico, Plunkett, Eubini, Schelling, Mme. Son tag, Mrs. 0. South- ey, Talfourd, Wilson. United States. 1854. Grisi and Mario, the two most renowned lyric ar- tists of the old world, arrive at New York, Aug. 19. Extensive drought pre- vails several weeks. Cholera prevails, June- Nov. ; yellow fever prevails, Aug.-Nov. Immigration, about 500,000. Great Bkitaij*. 1855. Visit of the Emperor and Empress of France, April 16. Death of Lord Eaglan, Commander-in-chief at Se» bastopol, June 28. 1815-1855.] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 173* Feanoe. Austria, etc. The Woeli), elsewhere. 1854. Venezuela: — Slaves emancipated, April 25. 1854. Saxony : — The King thrown from his carriage at Innspruck, and killed, Aug. 10. Easteen Affaies. — The Anglo-French fleet enters the Black Sea, Jan. 4. Tm'ks defeat Eussians at Citate, Jan. 6. Negotiations for peace continue through the Vi- enna Conference, Jan. Eussian ambassadors quit Lon- don, Feb. 6, Paris, Feb. 7. English and French ambassa- dors dismissed St. Petersburg, Feb. 16. England and France resolve to summon Eussia to evacuate the Prin- cipalities by the 30th April, Feb. 28. Eussians cross the Danube, March. Treaty of alliance concluded between England, France, and the Porte, March 12. Anglo-French ultimatum forwarded to St. Petersburg. Eussia refuses a reply. England and France declare war against Eussia, March 28. Counter declaration of war by Eussia against England and France, April 12. Convention between England and France, April 18. Odessa bombarded, April 22, Anglo-French fleet scours the Baltic, May, June. Austro-Turkish Convention, June 4. Eussians raise the siege of Silistria, June 23, and re-cross the Danube, July 7. Eussians defeated by Turks at Eutschuk, July 12 and 13. Are compelled to evacuate the Principalities and re- cross the Pruth, Aug. 16. Bomarsund capitulates to the Allied fleet and French army, Aug. 16. Austrian armies enter the Principalities, Aug. 20. Allies land in the Cri- mea, Sept. 14. Defeat the Eussians at the Alma, Sept. 20. Commence the siege of Sebastopol, Sept. 28. Fire opened, Oct. 17. Battle of Balaklava, Eussians repulsed, Oct. 25. Battle of Inkermann, Eussians again repulsed, Nov. 5. Siege of Sebastopol progresses, Dec. 31. 1855. Eussia :— Death of the Emperor Nicholas I., March 2. — The allies take possession of Kertch and the Sea of Azoph, May 24. — The allies repulsed in an assault on the outpost* of Sebastopol, June 18. DICTIONARY OF DATES. CHJEFLY FROM THAT OF JOSEPH HAYDN ; WITH REVISIONS AND ADDITIONS. AEBEYS AND MONASTERIES, were first founded in the third century, near the close of which the sister of St. Anthony is said to have retired to one. An abbey was founded by St. Anthony at Phaim, in Upper Egypt, a. d. 305. The first founded in France was at Poitiers, in 360. The first in Ireland was in the fifth century : see Clogher^ Elphin, Down. The first in Scotland was in the sixth century : see Isles. And the first in Britain was in 560 : see Bano-or. The abbey of Mount Cassino, near Naples, founded by St. Benet in 529, was esteemed the richest in the world, and furnished many thousands of saints to the church. 110 monasteries and priories were suppressed in England by order in council, 2 Henry V. I^IL— Salmon. The revenues of 193 abbeys which were dissolved at the Reformation amounted to i;2,653,000. These foundations were totally suppressed throughout the realm, 31 Henry VIII. 1539. See Monasteries. ABDICATION of KINGS. They are numerous in ancient history. Those in later times of most remarkable character and greatest political importance, and to which reference may more frequently be made, are the following :— Of Henry IV. of Germany, Of Stephen II. of Hungary, sumaraed Thunder., Of Albert of Saxony, .... Of Lestus V. of Poland, . . . . Of Uladislaus III. of Poland, Of Baliol of Scotland, . . . . Of Otho of Hungary, . . . . OfEric IX. of Denmark, . . Of Eric XIII. of Sweden, . Of Charles V. Emperor, . . • Of Christina of Sweden, Of John Casimir of Poland, . . . Of James II. of England, -v. . . . Of Frederick Augustus II. of Poland, . OfPhilipV. of Spain, . . . . Of Victor of Sardinia, . Of Charles of Naples, . , . . Of Stanislaus of Poland, 1080 1114 1142 1200 1206 1306 1309 1439 1441 1556 1654 1669 168S 1704 1724 1730 1759 1795 He again abdicates in favor of the Bo- naparte family. See Sj)ain. May 1, 1803 Of Joseph Bonaparte of Naples, to take the crown of Spam, . June 1, 1808 Of the same (by flying before the British from Madrid), . . July 29, 1808 Of Louis of Holland, . . July 1, 1310 Of .Jerome of Westphalia, . Oct. 20, 1813 Of Napoleon of France, . . April 5, 1814 Of Emanuel of Sardinia, . March 13, 1821 Of Pedro of Portugal, . . May 2, 1826 Of Charles X. of France, . Aug. 2, 1830 Of Pedro of Brazil, . . April 7, 1831 Of Don Miguel of Portugal (by leaving the kingdom), . . . May 26, ia34 OfWilliam I. of Holland, . Oct. 8, 1810 Of Christina of Spain, queen dowager and queen regent, . . Oct. 12, 184C Of Louis Phillippe of France, Feb. 24, 1848 Of Louis, king of Bavaria, . March 22, 1848 Of Ferdinand I. emperor of Austria, Dec. 2, 1848 Of Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, Aug. 1849 Of Victor of Sardinia, . . June 4, 1802 Of Francis II. of Germany, who becomes emperor of Austria only, . Aug. 11, 1804 Of Charles IV. of Spain, in favor of his son, . . . • March 19, 1808 ABEL ARD AND HELOISE. Their amour, so celebrated for its passion and misfortunes, commenced at Paris, a. e. 1118, when Helolse (a canon's daugh- ter) was under 17 years of age. Abelard, after sufiering an ignominious m- iury became a monk of the abbey of St. Denis, and died at St Marcel of grief which never left his heart, in 1142. HeloYse begged his body, and had / 4b THE world's progress. [ ACA it buried in the Paraclete, of which she was abbess, Avith the view of reposing in death by his side. She was famous for her Latin letters, as well as love, and died in 1163. The ashes of both v»^ere carried to the Museum of French Monuments in 1800; and the museum having been subsequently broken up. they were finally removed to the burying-g-round of Pere La Chaise, in 1817. I^BORIGINES, the original inhabitants of Italy ; or, as others have it, the nation conducted by Saturn into Latium, founded by Janus, 1450 b. c. — Univ. His- iory. Their posterity was called Latini, from Latinus, one of their kings ; and Rome was built in their countrj^ They were called Aborigines, being icbsque o'Hg-me, the primitive planters here after the flood. — St. Jerome. The word signifies without origin, or whose origin is not known, and is generally applied to any original inhabitants. ILBOUKIR, the ancient Canopus, the point of debarkation of the British expe- dition to Egypt under general Abercromby. Aboukir surrendered to the British, after an obstinate and sanguinary conflict with the French, March 18, 1801. The bay is famous for the defeat of the French fleet by Nelson, Au- gust 1, 1798. See NiU. ABRAHAM, Era of. Used by Eusebius ; it began October 1, 2016 b. c. To reduce this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and three months. A.BSTINENCE. St. Anthony lived to the age of 105, on twelve ounces of bread, and water. James the Hermit lived in the same manner to the age of 104. St. Epiphanius lived thus to 115. Simeon, the Stylite, to 112 ; and Kenti- gern, commonly called St. Mungo, lived by similar means to 185 years of age. — Spottiswood. A man may live seven, or even eleven, days without meat or drink. — Pliny Hist. Nat. lib. ii. Democritus subsisted for forty days by smelling honey and hot bread, 323 b. c. — Biog. Laert. A woman of Nor- mandy lived for 18 years without food. — Petrus de Aibano. Gilbert Jackson, of Carse-grange, Scotland, lived three years without sustenance of any kind, 1719. A religious fanatic, who determined upon fasting forty days, died on the sixteenth, 1789. — Phillips. A country girl, of Osna,bruck, abstained four years from all food and drink, 1799. — Hiifeland's Practical Journal. Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Stafibrdshire, supposed to have been an impostor, was said to have lived twenty months without food, Nov. 1808. At Newry, in Ireland, a man named Cavanagh was reported to have lived two years without meat or drink; Aug. 1840; his imposture was afterwards discovered in England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 1841. See instances in Halter's Elemental Physiologice ; Cornaro ; P richer s Surgical Library, &c. ; and in this volume, see Fasting. ABSTINENTS. The abstinents were a sect that wholly abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage ; and were a community of harmless and mild ascetics. They appeared in France and Spain in the third century ; and some autho- rities mention such a sect as having been numerous elsewhei'e in a. d. 170. — Bossuet. A BYSSINIAN ERA. This era is reckoned from the period of the Creation, which they place in the 5493d year before our era, on the 29th August, old style ; and their dates consequently exceed ours by 5491 years and 125 days. To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. At^ADEMIES, or societies of learned men to promote literature, sciences, and the arts, are of early date. j4.ca^em« was a shady grove without the walls of Athens (bequeathed to Hecademus for gymnastic exercises), where Plato first taught philosophy, and his followers took the title of Academics 378 B. c. — Stanley. Ptolemy Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- andria about 314 B. c. Theodosius the Younger and Charlemagne are also ilch] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 147 Darned as founders. Italy has been celebrated for its academies ; and Jarckiua mentions 550, of which 25 were in the city of Milan. The first philosophical academy in France was established by Pere Mersenne. in 1135. Academies were introduced into England by Boyle and Hobbes ; and the Royal Society of London was formed in 1660. The following are among the principal academies : — American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1780. American Philosophical Society, 1769. Ancona, ofthe Cagtinosi, 1624" Berlin, Royal Society, 1700 ; of Princes, 1703; Architecture, 1799. Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1637 ; Mathematics, 1690; Sciences and Arts, 1712. Brescia, ofthe Erranti, 1626. Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. Brussels, Belles-Lettres, 1773. Caen, Belles Lettres, 1750. Copenhagen, Polite Arts, 1742. Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. Dublin, Arts, 1749; Science and Literature, 1786; Painting, Sculpture, &c., 1823. Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. Faenza, the Fhiloponi, 1612. Florence, Beiles-Leltres, 1272 ; Delia Cms- ca, 1582 ; Antiquities, 1807. Geneva, Medical,* 1715. Genoa, Paijiting, &c., 1751 ; Sciences, 1783. Germany, Medical, 1617 ; Natural Kistorv, 1652; Military, 1752. Haerlem, the Sciences, 1760. Lisbon, History, 1720 ; Sciences, 1779. London : its variou.s Academies arc de- scribed through the volume. Lyons, Sciences'^, 1700; had Physic and Ma- thematics added, 1758. Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1730; Painting and the Arts, 1753. Manheim, Sculpture, 1775. Marseilles, Belles-Lettres, 17C6. Milan, Architecture, 1380; Sciences, 1719. IMunich, Arts and Sciences, 1759. Naples, i^ossana, 1540; Mathematics, 1560; Sciences, 1695; Hercuianeuin, 1755. New York, Literature and Philo;ophy,i814.* Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. Padua, for Poetry, 1610; Sciences, 1792. Palermo, Medical, 1645. Paris, Sorbonne, 1256 ; Painting, 1391 ; Mu- sic, 1543; French, 1635; Medals, 1663; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731 ; Mili- tary, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796. Parma, the Innominali, 1550. Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filirgiti. 1574. Petersburgh, Sciences, 1725; Military, 1732; the School of Arts, 1764. Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. Rome, Umorisli, 1611; Funtascici, 1625; Infecondi, 1653; Painting, 1665; Arcadi^ 1690 ; English, 1752. Spain, Royal, 1713; Military, 1751. Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles-Lettres, 1753; Agriculture, 1781. Toulon, Military, 1682. Turin, Sciences, 1759 ; Fine Arts, 1778. Turkey, Military School, 1775. Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. Venice, Medical, &c., 1701. Verona, Music, 1.543; Sciences, 1780. Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Sur- gery, 1783 ; Oriental, 1810. Warsaw, Languages and History, 1753. Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. Woolwich, Military, 1741. A-CCENTS. The most ancient manuscripts are written without accents, and without any separation of words ; nor was it until after the ninth century that the copyists began to leave spaces between the words. Michaelis, after Wetstein, ascribes the insertion of accents to Euthalius, bishop of Sulca, in Egypt, A. D. 458; but his invention was followed up and improved upon by other grammarians in the various languages. A.CHAIA. This countrj^ was governed by a race of kings, but even their names are all forgotten. The capital, Achaia, was founded by Achseus. the son of Xuthus, 1080 B. c. The kingdom was united with Sicyon or subject to the iEtolians until about 284 b. c. The Achfei were descendants of Achseus, and originally inhabited the neighborhood of Argos ; but when the Hera- clidge drove them thence, they retired among the lonians. expelled the na- tives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. Peleni, ^gira, u.^geum, Bura, Tri- taea, Leontiura, Rhypse, Ceraunia, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dym«, and Phara3. The Achajan league, . .B.C. 281 | Alliance with the Romans, . B. c. 2C1 Fortress of Athonreum built, . . 228 Defeat of the Achseans by the Spartans, " 226 220 and Lysiades killed. Battle of Sallacia, The Social war begun, Tlie Peloponnesus ravaged by the iEto- lians, .... Aratus poisoned at Mgmxn, . Battle of Mantinea ; Philopcemen defeats the Spartan tyrant Mechanidas, 219 215 Philopcemen defeated by Nabis. in a na- val battle, . '. . . 194 Sparta joined to the league, . l£l The Achasans overrun Messenia with fire and sword, . . .182 The Romans enter Achaia, 165 Metellus enters Greece, . . 147 The Achffian league dissolved, . 146 Greece subjected to Rome, and named the province of Achaia, . . 146 * Now extinct. 148 THE world's progress. [ada The constitution of the United States of America bears some analogy to that of the Achfean league ; and the Swiss cantons also had a great resemblance to it in their confederacy. A.COUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings, and the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the atmosphere, was probably first explained by Pythagoras, about 500 b. c. Mentioned by Aristotle, 330 b. c. The speaking-trumpet is said to have been used by Alexander the Great, 335 b. c. The discoveries of Galileo were made about A. D. 1600. The velocity of sound was investigated by Newton before 1700, Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve was demonstrated by Dr. Brook Taylor, in 1714; and further perfected by D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and La Grange, at various periods of the eighteenth century. See Sound. VCRE, St. Jean d'. Taken by Richard I. and other crusaders in 1192, after a siege of two years, with the loss of 6 archbishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300.000 soldiers. Retaken by the Saracens, when 60,000 Chris- tians perished, 1291. This capture was rendered memorable by the n..urder of the nuns, who had mangled their faces to repress the lust of the Infidels. Acre was attacked by Bonaparte in July 1798 ; and was relieved by Sir Syd- ney Smith, who gallantly resisted twelve attempts during the memorable siege by the French, between March 6 and May 27, 1799, when, baffled by the British squadron on the water and the Turks on shore, Bonaparte relin- quished his object and retreated. St. Jean d'Acre is a pachalic subject to the Porte ; seized upon by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted, July 2, 1832. It became a point of the Syrian war in 1840. Stormed by the British fleet under Sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bombardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing upwards of 2.000 in killed and wounded, and 3,000 prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 42 wounded, Nov. 3, 1840. See Syria and Turkeij. ACROPOLIS OF ATHENS. The citadel of Athens was built on a rock, and accessible only on one side : Minerva had a temple at the bottom. — Paus. in Attic. The roof of this vast pile, which had stood 2,000 years, was destroj^ed in the Venetian siege, a. d. 1687. — Aspin. The Acropolis of Mycenae was marked hj terraces, and defended by ponderous walls, on which were high towers, each a^ the distance of fifty feet. — Euripides. ACTIUM, Battle of, between the fleets of Octavianus Caesar on the one side, and of Marc Antony and Cleopatra on the other, and which decided the fate of Antony, 300 of his galleys going over to Cgesar; fought Sept. 2, 31 b. c. This battle made Augustus (the title afterwards conferred by the senate upon Ctesar) master of the world, and the commencement of the Roman empire is commonly dated from this year. In honor of his victory, the con- queror built the city of Nicopolis, and instituted the Actian games. — Blair. ACTRESSES. Women in the drama appear to have been unknown to the an- cients ; men or eiuiuchs performing the female parts. Charles II. is said to have first encouraged the public appearance of women on the stage in Eng- land, in 1662 ; but the queen of James I. had previously performed in a the- atre at court. — Theat. Biog. A ""TS OF PARLIAMENT. The first promulgated, 16 John, 1215. See P«;-- llavieiii. For a great period of years the number of acts passed has been annually large, although varying considerably in every session. Between the 4th and 10th of George IV. 1126 acts were wholly repealed, and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the consolidation of the laws by Mr. Peel (afterwards Sir Robert) : of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at large and 225 to Ireland solely. A.DAMITES. a sect that imitated Adam's nakedness before the fall, arose a. d. /ldm] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 149 130. They assembled quite naked in their places of worship, asserting that if Adam had not sinned, there would have been no marriages. Tiieir chief was named Prodicus ; they deified the elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not necessaiy to confess Christ. — Eusebms. This sect, with an addition of many blasphemies, and teaching from the text " increase and multiply," was renewed at Antwerp in the thirteenth century, under a chief named Tandeme, who, being followed by 3,000 soldiers, violated females of every age, calling their crimes by spiritual names. A Flandrian, named Picard, again revived this sect in Bohemia, in the fifteenth century, whence they spread into Poland and existed some time. — Bayle ; Pardon. ADMINISTRATIONS. Successive administrations of the United States, sinctf the formation of the government: — First Administration ;— 1789 to 1797 ;— 8 years. "Virginia^ Massachusetts, George Washington, John Adams, President. Vice President. Thomas Jefferson. Edmund Randolph, Timothy Pickering, Alexander Hamilton, Oliver Wolcott, Henry Knox, Timo'thy Pickering, James M'Henry, Samuel Osgood, Timothy Pickering, Joseph Habersham, Edmund Randolph, William Bradford, Charles Lee, Virginia, do. Pennsylvania, New York, Conneclicut, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Maryland, • Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Virginia, April 30, 1789 do. 1789 Appointed. Sept. 26, 3789 ; 2. 1794 lO; 1795 ^ 11, 1789 3, 1795 S 12, 1789 ) 2, 1795 > Secretaries of War. 27, 1796 ) 26, 1789 : Post Masters Gen." Jan. Dec. Sept. Feb, Sept. Jan. Jan. Sept. Nov. Feb. Sept. Jan. Dec. Secretaries of Slate. i Secretaries of the Treasury. 7, 1791 25, 1795 ' 26, 1789 27, 1794 10, 1795 ' Attorneys GeneraL Speakers of the House of Representatives Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, Jonathan Trumbull, Connecticut, Frederick A. Muhlenberg, Pennsylvania, Jonathan Dayton, New Jersey, Second Administration ;- 1st Congress, 1789. 2d do. 1791. 3d do. 1793. 4th do. 1795. John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Timothy Pickering, John Marshall, Oliver Wolcott, Samuel Dexter, .lames M'Hemy, Samuel Dexter, Roger Griswold, George Cabot.* Benjamin Stoddart, Joseph Habersham, Charles Lee, Jonathan Dayton, Theodore Sedgwick, 1797 to 1801 ;— 4 years. Massachusetts, March 4, 1797 President. Virginia, 1797 Vice President. Appointed. Pennsylvania, {contitiuedjn office.) ? Secretaries of Statet Virgmia, May 13, 1800 S Connecticut, (continued in office.) } Secretaries of the Massachusetts, . Dec. 31, 1800 s Treasury. Maryland, (continued in office.) ) Massachusetts, May 13, 1800 V Secretaries of War. Connecticut, Feb. 3, 1801 > Massachusetts, May 3, 1798 / Secretaries of the Maryland, May 21, 1798 S Navy. Georgia, (continued in office.) Post Master Gen. Virginia, (continued in office.) Attorney General. Speakers of the House of Representatives. New Jersey, 5th Congress, '. 797. Massachusetts, 6th do. 1799. President. Vice Presid?.nls. Third Administration;— 1801 to 1809 ;— 8 years. Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, March 4, 1801 Aaron Burr, New York, do. 1801 George CUnton, New York, do. 1805 Appointed. James Madison, Virginia, March 5, 1801 Secretary of State. Samuel Dexter, Mass. (continued in office.) } Secretaries ol the Albert Gallatin, Pennsylvania. Jan. 26, 1802 S Treasury. * Mr. Cabot declined the appointment. The Navy Department was established ir. 1798. 150 THE world's progress. [ ADSfi Henry Dearborn, Benjamin Stoddart, Roben Smith,* Joseph Habersham, Gideon Granger, Levi Lincoln, John llreckenridge, CcBsar A. Rodney, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, Nathaniel Macon, Joseph B. Varnum, Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 Secretary of War. Md. {continued in office.) { Secretaries of the Maryland, Jan. 26, 1S32 i Navy. Georgia, {continued in office.) I Post Masters Ge- Connecticut .Ian. 26, 1892 i neral. Massachusetts, March 5, 1801 i Kentucky, Dec. 23, 1805 V Attorneys General. Delaware, Jan. 20, 1807 S Speakers of the House of Representatives. North Carolina, 7th Congress, 1801. Massachusetts, 8th do. 1803. North Carolina, 9th do. 1805. Massachusetts, 10th do. 1807. Fourth Administration;— 1809 to 1817 ;— 8 ye^ra •Tames Madison, Virginia, March 4, 1809 George Clinton, New York, 1809, {died April 20, 1812) } Elhridge Gerry, Mass. 1813, {died Nov. 23, 1814) \ Appointed. Maryland, March 6, 1809 ) Virginia, Nov. 25, 1811 } Virginia, Feb. 25, 1815 \ Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) President. Vice Presidenta. Robert Smith, James Monroe, James Monroe,! Albert Gallatin, George W. Campbell, Alexander J. Dallas, William Eustis, John Armstrong, James Monroe, William H. Crawford, Paul Hamilton, William Jones, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Gideon Granger, Return J. Meigs, Cccsar A. Rodney, William Pinkney, Richard Rush, Tennessee, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, New York, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Feb. Oct. 9, 1814 6, 1814 March 7, 1809 ) 13, 1813 f Jan. Sept. 27, 1814 ( March 2, 1815 ) March 7, 1809 Jan. 12, 1813 Dec. 19, 1814 Secretaries of Stata Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War. Secretaries of the Navy. Post Masters Ge- neral. Connecticut, {continued in office.) ) Ohio, March 17, 1814 \ Delaware, {continued in office.) ) Maryland, Dec. 11, 1811 > Attorneys GeneraL Pennsylvania, Feb. 10, 1814 S Joseph B. Vamum, Henry Clay, Henry Clay, Langdon Cheves, Henry Clay, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Massachusetts, 11th Congress, 1809. Kentucky, 12th do. 1811, Kentucky, ? ,^, , 11812. South Carolina, \ ^"^"^ "°- J 1814. Kentucky, 14th do. 1815. James Monroe, Danic D. Tompkins, Fifth Administration ;- Virginia, New York, -1817 to 1825 ; -8 years. March 4, 1817 do. 1817 President. Vice President. John Q. Adams, William H. Crawford, Isaac Shelby,! John C. Calhoun, Benj. W. Crowninshield, Smith Thompson, Samuel L. Southard, Return J. Meig.s, John McLean, Richard Rush, William Wirt, Secretary of State. Secretary of Treaa Secretaries of Waf , Appointed. Massachusetts, March 5, 1817 Georgia, March 5, 1817 Kentucky, March 5, 1817 South Carolina, Dec. 16, 1817 Massachusetts, {continued in office.) i «?„„....+ :„„ «<• ♦!,« New York, ' Nov. t), 1818 i ^^^^^^t^."^' ""^ ^^^ New Jersey, Dec. 9,1823) ^^*^-^- Ohio, {continued in office.) (Tost Masters Oe- do. Dec. 9, 1823 ( neral. Pennsylvania, {continued in office.) i « t*„^„p„„ Qpneia Virginia, Dec. 16, 1817 \ -^"o^neys Geneift • Robert Smith was appointed Attorney General, and Jacob Croioninshield, of Massachusetts, li^.retary of the Navy, on the 2d of March, 1805, but they both declined these ap] -ointments; iin Mr. S?7iith continued in the office of Secretary of the Navy, till the end of Mr. Jeflbrson's adcii ftistration. t James Monroe was recommissioned, having for some time acted as Secretary of War. t Isaac Shelby declined the appointment. adm] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 151 ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Speakers of the House of Representatives Henry Clay, Kentucky, Heniy Clay, John \y. Taylor, Philip P. Barbour, Heury Clay, John Q. Adams, John C Calhoun, Henry Clay, Richard Rush, James Barbour, Peter B. Porter, Samuel L. Southard, John McLean, .William Wirt, John W. Taylor, Andrew Stephenson, Kentucky, New York, Virginia, Kentucky, 15th Congress 16th do. 17th 18th do. do. 1817, S 1819. 1 1820. 1821. Ib^. Sixth Administration;— 1825 to 1829, --4 years. Massachusetts, March 4, 1825 President. South Carolma, do. 1825 Vice President. Appointed. Kentucky, March 8, 1825 Secretary of State. Pennsylvania, March 7,1825 Sec'y of the Tieas'v Vu-gmta, do 1825 ) New York, May 26, 1828 \ Secretaries of War. New Jersey, (^continued m office.^ Sec'y of the Navy. Ohio, icojitimied in office.) Post Master Gen Virginia, (cotitinued in office.) Attorney Genera], Speakers of the House of Representatives. New York, 19th Congress, 1827. Virginia, 20th do. 1828. Andrew Jackson, Jolm C. Calhoun, Martin Van Buren, Martin Van Buren, Edward Livingston, Louis McJ,ane, John Forsyth, Samuel D. Ingham, Louis McLane, William J. Duane, Roger B. Taney, Levi Woodbury, John H. Eaton, Lewis Cass, John Branch, Levi Woodbury, Mahlon Dickerson, William T. Barry, Amos Kendall, John McP. Berrien, Roger B. Taney, Benjamin F. Butler, Seventh Administration;— 1829 to 1837;— 8 years. Tennessee, South Carolina, New York, New York, Louisiana. Delaware. Georgia, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Ohio, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Kentucky, Kentucky, Georgia, Maryland, New York, March 4, 1829 President. do. 1829 ; ,,- Tj - , , 1833 \ Presidenis. Appointed. March 6, 1829^ 1833 I Secretaries of State. 1835 J March 6, 18291 1831 o , . ^ ,, 1833 \ Secretaries of the 1833 I Treasury. 1834 J March 9, 1829 , „ , . . „, 1831 \ Secretaries of War. March 9. 1829 )^ ' 1831 > Secretaries of the 1834 S ^^''^• March 9, 1829 ( Post Masters Ge- 1835 \ neral. March 9, 1829 J 1831 > Attorneys General. 1834 > Andrew Stevenson, Andrew Stevenson, John Bell, Martin Van Buren, Richard M. Johnson, John Forsyth, Levi Woodbury, Joel R. 1 oinsett, ISIalilon Dickerson, Janids K. Paulding, Amos Kendall, John M. Niles, Benjamin F. Butler, Felix Grundy, Henry D. Gilpin, James K. Polk, Robert M. T. Hunter, Speakers of the House of Representatives. Virginia, 21st Congress, Virginia, 22d do. Pennsylvania, Eighth Administration ;— 1837 to 1841— 4 years. 1829. 1831. 1835. New York, 1837 President. Kentucky, 1837 Vice President. Appointed. Georgia, (^continued in office.) New Hampshire, {continued in office.) South Carolina, 1837) New Jersey, {continued in office.) > Secretaries of War New York, " 1838 S Kentucky, {continued in office.) ) Post Masters Ge- Connecticut, 1840 \ neral. New York, {continued in office.) ) Pennsylvania, C Attorneys General. Pennsylvania, 1839 \ Secretary of State. Sec'y of Treasuiy. Speakers of the House of Representatives. Tennessee, 1837. Virginia, 1839.' 152 THE WOR-LD'S progress [ ADIH ADMINISTRATIONS (United States) continued. Ninth Administration ; — 1841 to 1845 ; — 4 years. William II. Harrison, Ohio, Died one month after inauguration, and 1841 Fresid€ut. John Tyler, Samuel L. Southard, Willie P. Mangum, Virginia, New Jersey, North Carolina, Daniel Webster, Abel P. Upshur, Thomas Ewing, Walter Forward, John C. Spencer, John Bell, John C. Spencer, George E. Badger, Abel P. Upshur, David Henshaw, Francis Grander, Charles A. Wickliffe, John J. Crittenden, Hugh S. Legare, John Nelson, John White, John W. Jones, Massachusetts, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Tennessee, New York, North Carolina, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York, Kentucky, Kentucky, South Carolina Maryland, /Speakers of the House of Reepresentatives. Kentucky, Virginia, 1841 1841 1841 Appointed. 1341 1841 18411 1841 \ 1841 J 1841^ 1841 S 184n 1841 } 1841 J 1841? 1841 1841 1841 1811 Vice President, became acting Pres. Acting V. Pres. and Pree. Senate. Secretaries of Stato. Secretaries of the Treasury. Secretaries of War. Secretaries of the Navy. Post Masters Gen- eral. Attorneys General. 1841 1843 Tenth Administration ; - .Tames K. Polk, Tennessee, George M. Dallas, James Buchanan, Robert J. Walker, William L. Marcy, George Bancroft, John Y. Mason, Cave Johnson, John Y. Mason, Isaac Toucey, Pennsylvania, 1845 to 1849 ;— 4 years. 1845 1845 Appointed. 1845 John W. Davis, Robert C. Winihrop, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, New York, Massachusetts, Virginia, Tennessee, Virginia, Connecticut, Speakers of the House of Representatives, Indiana, 1845 1845 1845 1847 1845 1845 1847 Massachusetts, President. Vice President. Secretary of State. Secretary of Treas. Secretary of War. } Secretaries of the ^ Navy. Post Master Gen. i Attorneys General 1845. 1847. Eleventh Administration;— 1849 to 1853; — 4 years. Zachary Taylor, Millard Fillmore, John M. Clayton, William E Meredith, William B Preston, George W. Crawford, Thomas Ewing, Jacob CoUamer, Reverdy Johnson, Howell Cobb, Louisiana, New York, Delaware, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Georgia, Ohio, Vermont, Maryland, 1849 1849 Appointed. 1849 1849 1&19 1849 1849 1849 1849 Speaker of the House of Representatives. Georgia, President. Vice President. Secretary of State. Sec'y of Treasury. Sec'y of the Navy. Secretary of War. Sec'y of Interior.* Post Master Gen. Attorney General. 1849. ADMINISTRATIONS of ENGLAND, and of GREAT BRITAIN, from tlie accession of Henry VIII. The following were the prime ministers, or favor- ites, or chiefs of administrations, in the respective reigns, viz. : — Sir Thomas More and Cranmer . 1529 1509 Lord Audley, chancellor ; archbishop 1513 Cranmer .... 1532 king henry viii. Bishop Fisher and Earl of Surrey Cardinal Thomas Wolsey ' A new department, created by act of Congress, 1849. Note. The dates of the appointments of the principal executive officers, in the several adminis- trations, above exhibited, are the times when the several nominations, made by the Presidents, were confirmed by the Senate, as stated in the " Journal of the Executive Proceedings of the Senate of the United States." Am. Almanac, &c. ADM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 153 Anc? .ord CroiT,weIl (earl of Essex) . 1534 Dutfe of Norfolk, earl of Surrey, and bishop Gardiner . . , 1540 Lord Wriothesley, earl of Hertford . 1544 KING EDWARD VI. The earl of Hertford, continued Johii. duke of Northumberland aUEEN MARY. Bishop Gardiner QUEEN ELIZABETH. Sir Nicholas Bacon Sir William Cecil, qfterioards lord Burleigh; chief minister during al- most the whole of this long reign Earl of Leicester, a favorite . Earl of Essex .... Lord Burkhurst KING JAMES. I. Lord Burkhurst (earl of Dorset) Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk, and North ampton. Sir R. Carr, created viscount Roches ter, a^*ericards earl of Somerset Sir George Villiers, created earl, mar ruoss, and duke of Buckingham 1552 1553 1558 1564 1538 1601 1608 1612 1615 KING CHARLES 1. Duke of Buckingham continued Earl of Portland, archbishop Laud . 1628 Archbishop Laud, earl of Strafford, lord Cottington . . . 1640 Earl of Essex .... 1640 Lord \ is. Falkland, lord Digby . 1641 [The civil war commenced, and all went into confusion.] KING CHARLES II. Edward, earl of Clarendon ' . Dukes of Buckingham and Lauderdale Lord Ashley, Lord Arlinston, Sir T. Clifford, afterwards lord Clifford . Lord Arlington, lord Ashley, created earl Shaftesbury, and Sir Thomas O?borne .... Sir Thomas Osborne Earl of Essex, duke of Ormond, eaii qfterioards marquess of Halifax, sir William Temple Duke of York, and his friends 1660 1667 1667 1673 1674 1677 1682 KING JAMES II. Earls of Sunderland and Tyrconnel, sir George afterwards lord .Jeffries 1685 Lord .Jeffries, earl of Tyrconnel, lord Bellasis, lord Arundel, carl of Mid- dleton, visct. Preston . . 1G87 KING WILLIAM III. AND Q,rEEN MARY II. Sir John, afterwards lord Somers, lord Godolphin, earl of Danby, after- tvards duke of Leeds, &c. . . 1688 The earl of Sunderland, &c. . . 1695 Charles Montagu, afterwards earl of Halifax, ear! of Pembroke, viscount Lonsdale, earl of Oxford, &c. . 1697 aUEEN ANNE. Lord Godolphin, R. Harley, esq., lord Pembroke, duke of Buckingham 7* Duke of Marlborough, &c. . . 17tii. Lord Godolphin, lord Cowper, dukes of Marlborough and Newcastle . 170? R. Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford 171 (' Earl of Rochester, lord Dartmouth, and Henry St. John, esq. aftcricards visct. Bohngbroke ; lord Harcourt . 17l( Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, &c. . 17 1' KING GEORGE I. Lord Cowper, duke of Shrewsbury, marquess of Wharton, earl of Or- ford, duke of Marlborough, visct. . Townshend, &c. . . . i/i^j Robert Walpole, esq. . . ' 171= James, afterwards earl Stanhope '. 1713 Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . 1716 Robert Walnole, esq. afterwards sir Robert and earl of Orford . . 17?l KING GEORGE II. Lord Carteret, lord Wilmingtc.i, lord Bath, Mr. Sandys, &c. . . 1742 Hon. Henry Pelham, lord Carteret, earl of Harrington, duke of Newcastle . 174c! Mr. Pelham, earl of Chesterfield, duke of Bedford, &c. . . . i74(i Duke of Newcastle, Sir Thomas Rob- inson, Henry Fox, &c., lord Anson 1754 Duke of Devonshire, Mr. William Pitt, earl Temple, Hon. H. B. Legge . 1756 [Dismissed in April, 1757. Restored in June, same year.] William Pitt, Mr. Legge, earl Temple, duke of Newcastle, '&c. , .1757 KING GEORGE III. Earl of Bute, earl of Egremont, duke of Bedford .... 1761 Earl of Bute, hon. George Grenville. sir Francis Dashwood, &c. . .' 1762 Right hon. George Grenville, earl of Halifax, earl of Sandwich, duke of Bedford, &c. .... 1763 Marquess of Rockingham, duke of Grafton, earl of Shelburne, &c. July 1765 Duke of Grafton, hon. Chas. Towns- hend, earl of < ;hatham, &c. Aug. 17GG Duke of Grafton, right hon. Frederick, lord North, &c. . . Dec. 1767 Lord North, lord Halifax, &c. . , 1770 Lord North, lord Dartmouth, lord Stor- mont, lord Hillsborough, lord St. Germain, &c. .... ir/J Marquess of Rockingham,right hon'ble Charles James Fo'x, «&c. Mar. 30, 1782 Earl of Shelburne, William Pitt, lord Grantham, &c. . July 10, 1782 Duke of Portland, lord North, Mr. Fox, &c. (The Coalition Ministry. See '■^Coalition.") . AiDril 5, 1733 Rt. hon. William Pitt, lord Govver, lords Sidney, Carmarthen, and Thur- low, right hon. W. W. Grenville, Henry Dundas, lord Mulgrave, duke of Richmond, &c. . Dec. 27, 178r Mr. Pitt, lord Camden, marq. of Staf- ford, lord Hawkesburv, &c. . . 178< Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, duke of Leeds. lord Camden. &c. ' . . .' 179i' Mr. Pitt, lord Grenville, earl of Chat- ham, lord Loughborough, 30 [Earl Grey resigns May 9, but resumes office May 18,' 1832.] Viscoinn Melbourne, viscf>nnt Althorp, lordJohn Ru.ssel, viscts. I'almerstoiv and Duncannon, sir J. C. Hobhouse, lord Howick. Mr. S. Rice, Mr. Pou- lett Thomson, «kc. . July 14, 18»4 Viscount Melhournt's administration ri'" /."J. tae duke of Wellington .t.K:es the helm of slate provisionally, waiting the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy . . Nov. 14. 1834 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, lord Lyndhurst, earl of Aberdeen, lord Ellenborough, lord Rosslyn, lord WharnclifTe, sir George M urray, Mr. A. Baring, Mr. Herries, Mr. Goulburn, &c. . Dec. 15, 1834 Viscount Melbourne and his colleagues return to office . April 18, 1835 Q,UEEN VICTORIA. Visct. Melbourne and the same cabi- net, continued. Viscount Melbourne resigns May 7, 1839 Sir Robert Peel receives the queen's commands to form a new adminis- tration. May 8. This command is withdrawn, and lord Melbourne and his friends are rein- stated . . . May 10, 1839 Sir Robert Peel, duke of Wellington, earl of Aberdeen, earl of Haddnig- ton, earl of Ripon, lord Stanley, Mr. Goulburn, &c. . Ang. 7, 1841 Lord John Russell's administration July 6, 1816 ADJMIRAL. The first so called in England was Richard de Lucy, appointed by Henry 111. 1223. Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings had been previously the commanders of their own fleets. The first was appointed in France, in 1284. The rank of admiral of the English seas was one of great distinction, and was first given to William de Leybourne by Edward T. in 1297. — Spelman; Rymer. ADMIRAL LORD HIGH, of ENGLAND. The first officer of this rank was created by Richard II. in December 1385 ; there had been previously high admirals of districts — the north, west, and south. See Navy. ADMIRALTY, Court of, erected by Edward III. in 1357. This is a civil court for the trial of causes relating to maritime affairs. ADRIANOPLE. Battle of, which got Constantine the empire, was fought July 3, A.D. 323. Adrianople was taken by the Ottomans from the Greeks in 1360; and it continued to be the seat of the Turkish empire till the capture of Constantinople in 1453. Mahomet II., one of the most distinguished of the sultans, and the one who took Constantinople. Avas born here in 1430.-— APV j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 155 Priestleij. Adrianople was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, 1829 ; but was restored to the sultan at the close of the war, Sept. 14, same year. See Turkey. M)EIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of Venice wedding the Adriatic Sea was instituted in a.d. 1173. Annually, upon Ascension-day, the doge married the Adriaticum Mare, by dropping a ring into it from his'^bucentaur, or state barge, and was attended on these occasions by all the nobility of the state, and foreign ambassadors, in gondolas. This ceremony was intermitted, for the first time for centuries, in 1797. ADULTERY, ancient laws against it. Punished by the law of Moses with the death of both the guilty man and woman. — Leviticus xx. 10. This law was repealed, first, because the crime had become common ; and secondly, because God's name should not be liable to be too often erased by the ordeal of the waters of bitterness. Leo, of Modena, says that the husband was obliged to dismiss his wife for ever, whether he willed it or not— Calviet. Lycurgus punished the offender as he did a parricide, and the Locrians and Spartans tore out the offenders' eyes. The Romans had no formal law against adultery ; the emperor Augustus was the first to introduce a positive law to punish it, and he had the misfortune to see it executed in the persons of his own chil- dren. — Lenglet. Socrates relates that women who were guilty of adultery were punished by the horrible sentence of public constupration. In England the legal redress against the male offender has been refined into a civil action for a money compensation. — Lord Mansfield. ADULTERY, English Laws against it. The early Saxons burnt the adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, whereon they hanged the adulterer. — Pardon. King Edmund punished the crime as homicide. It was punished by cutting off the hair, stripping the female offender naked, and whipping her through the streets, if the husband so demanded it to be done, without distinction of rank, during the Saxon Heptarchy, a.d. 457 to 828. — Stowc. The ears and nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Ordained to be punished capitally, together with incest, under Cromwell, May 14, 1650 ; but there is no record of this law taking effect. In New England a law was ordained whereby adultery was made capital to both parties, even though the man were unmarried, and several suffered under it, 1662. — Hardie. At present this offence is more favorably viewed ; to divorce and strip the adulteress of her dower, is all her punishment among us ; but in Romish countries they usually shut up the adulteress in a nunnery. — Ashe. ADVENT. In the calendar it signifies, properly, the approach of the feast of the Nativity ; it includes four Sundays, the first of which is always the nearest Sunday to Saint Andrew (the 30th November), before or after.' Advent was instituted by the council of Tours, in the sixth century. ADVENTURERS, MERCHANT, a celebrated and enterprising company of merchants, was originally formed for the discovery of territories, extension of commerce and promotion of trade, by John duke of Brabant, in 1296, This ancient company was afterwards translated into England, in the reign of Edward III., and queen Elizabeth formed it into an English corporation in 1564. — Anderson. AD^TERTISEMENTS in NEWSPAPERS. In England, as now published, they were not general until the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penally of 50Z. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward with " No questions to be asked" for the return of things stolen, and on the printer, 25 Geo. II. 1754. — Statutes. The advertisement duty was fbrmerl}^ charged according to the number of lines ; it was afterwards fixed, in England at 8s. Qd., and in Ireland " at 25. 6f/. each advertisement. The duty was further reduced, in England to l5. 6rf., and in Ireland to Is. each, by statute 3 and 4 Will. IV. 1833. 156 THE world's progress. r AFP ^DILES, magistrates of Rome, first created 492 b.c. There were three degrees of these ofScers, and the functions of the principal Avere similar to our justices of the peace. The plebeian sediles presided over the more minute affairs of the state, good order, and the reparation of the streets. They procured all the provisions of the city, and executed the decrees of the people. — Varro. ENIGMA. The origin of the aenigma is doubtful : Gale thinks that the Jews borrowed their senigmatical forms of speech from the Egyptians. The philosophy of the Druids was altogether senigmatical. In Nero's time tlie Romans were often obliged to have recourse to this method of concealing truth under obscure language. The following epitaph on Fair Rosamond is an elegant specimen of the senigma : — Hie jacet in tomba, Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda; Non redolet, sed olet, quae redolere solet. .^OLI AN HARP. The invention of this instrument is ascribed to Kircher. 1G53 ; but Richardson proves it to have been kno\\Ti at an earlier period than his time. — Dissertation on the Customs of the East. There is a Rabbinical story of the aerial harmony of the harp of David, which, when hung up at night, was played upon by the north wind. — Baruch. AERONAUTICS. To lord Bacon, the prophet of art, as Walpole calls him, has been attributed the first suggestion of the true theory of balloons. The ancient speculations about artificial wings, whereby a man might fly as well as a bird, refuted by Borelli, 1670. Mr. Henry Cavendish ascertained that hydrygen air is at least twelve times lighter than common air, 1777. The true doctrine of aeronautics announced in France by the two brothers Mont- golfier, 1782. — See Balloon. iESOP'S FABLES. Written by the celebrated fabulist, the supposed inventor of this species of entertainment and instruction, about 565 b.c. ^Esop's Fables are, no doubt, a compilation of all the fables and apologues of wits both before and after his own time, conjointly with his own. — Plutarch. JETOIAA. This country was named after ^tolus of Elis, who, having acci- dentally killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the Peloponnesus, and settled here. The inhabitants were very little known to the rest of Greece, till after the ruin of Athens and Sparta, when they assimied a con- sequence in the country as the opposers and rivals of the Achagans, to whom they made themselves formidable as the allies of Rome, and as its enemies. They were conquered by the Romans under Fulvius. Therma, Xenia, Cyphara, and other cities, and destroy with fire all the counti-y they invade . B.C. "201 They next invite the kings of Macedon, The JEtolians begin to ravage the Pelo- ponnesus . . .B.C. 282 They dispute the passage of the Mace- donians at Thermopylae . . 223 Acarnania ceded to Philip as the price of peace .... 218 Battle of Latnia; the jEtolians, com- manded by Pyrrhus, are defeated by Philip of Macedon . . .214 With the assistance of allies, they seize Oreum, Opus, Tribon, and Dryne . 212 They put to the sword the people of Syria and Sparta, to coalesce with them against the Romans . . 195 They seize Calchis, Sparta, and Deme- trias in Thessaly . . ,194 Their defeat near Thermopylae . . 193 They lose Lamia and Amphissa . 192 Made a province of Rome . . 146 AFFINITY, Degrees of. Marriage Avithin certain degrees of kindred v/as prohibited by the laws of almost all nations, and in almost every age. Several degrees were prohibited in scriptural law, as may be seen in Leviti- cus, chap, xviii. In England, a table restricting marriage within certain near degrees was set forth by authority, a.d. 1563. Prohibited marriages were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful by the ninety-ninth Canon, in 1603. All marriages celebrated within the forbidden degrees of kindred are declared to be absolutely void by statute 5 and 6 Will. IV, 1836. AGR J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 157 AFFIRMATION of the QUAKERS. This was first legally accepted as an oath in England a.d. 1696. The affirmation was altered in 1702, and again altered and modified December 1721. AFGHANISTAN. Insurrection of the Afghans against the British power in India, January 5, 1842. — See India. A FRIC A, called Libya by the Greeks, one of the three parts of the ancient world, and the greatest peninsula of the universe, first peopled by Ham. It was conquered by Behsarius in a.d. -553 et $eq. In the seventh centmy, about 637, the Mahometan Arabs subdued the north of Africa ; and their descend- ants, under the name of Moors, constitute a great part of the present popu- lation. See the several countries of Africa through the volume. Among the late distinguished travellers in this quarter of the world, may be men- tioned Bruce, who commenced his travels in 1768 ; Mungo Park, who made his first voyage to Africa, May 22, 1795 ; and his second voyage, January 50, 1804, but from which he never returned. See Park. Richard Lander died of shot-wounds (which he had received when ascending the river Nunn) at Fernando Po, Jan. 31, 1834. The African expedition, for which parliament voted 61,000^., consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steam-ships, sailed in the summer of 1841. The vessels commenced the ascent of the Niger, Aug. 20; but when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, and they were successivelj^ obliged to return, the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, Sept. 28. The expedi- tion was, in the end, wholly relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hard- ships, Oct. 17. AFRICAN COMPANY, a society of merchants trading to Africa. An associ- ation in Exeter, which was formed in 1588, gave rise to this company. A charter was granted to a joint stock company in 1618 : a third company was created in 1631 ; a fourth corporation in 1662 ; and another formed by let- ters patent in 1672, and remodelled in 1695. The rights vested in the pre- sent company, 23 Geo. H. 1749. See Slave Trade. AGE : Golden Age, Middle Age, &c. Among the ancient poets, an age was the space of thirty years, in which sense age amounts to much the same as generation. Tlie interval since the first formation of man has been divided into four ages, distinguished as the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages ; but a late author, reflecting on the barbarism of the first ages, will have the , order assigned by the poets inverted — the first, being a time of ignorance, would be more properly denominated an iron, rather than a golden age. Various divisions of the duration of the world have been made by historians : by some the space of time commencing from Constantine, and ending J^vith the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the fifteenth century, is called the middle age ; the middle is also styled the barbarous age. The ages of the world may be reduced to three grand epochs, viz., the age of the law of nature, from Adam to Moses ; the age of the Jewish law, from Moses to Christ; and the age of grace, from Christ to the present year. AGINCOURT, Battle of, between the French and English armies, gained by Henry V. Of the French, there were 10,000 killed, and 14,000 were taken prisoners, the English losing only 100 men. Among the prisoners were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentlemen, and men more numerous than the British themselves. Among the slain were the dukes of Alengon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, Oct. 25, 1415. — Goldsmith. A-GRA, Fortress of, termed the key of Hindostan, siirrendered. in the war with the Mahrattas, to the British forces, Oct. 17, 1803. This was once the 158 THF world's progress, ("alb most splendid of all the Indian cities, and now exhibits the most magnificent ruins. In the 17th century the great mogul frequently resided here ; his palaces, and those of the Omrahs, were very numerous ; Agra then con- tained above 60 caravansaries, 800 baths, and 700 mosques. See Alaic- soleums. A.GRARIAN LAW, Agraria Lex. This was an equal division among the Ro- man people of all the lands which thej^ acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy, first proposed by Sp. Cassius, to gain the favor of the citizens, 486 b.c. It was enacted under the tribune libe- rius Gracchus, 132 b.c. ; but this law at last proved fatal to the freedom of Rome under Julius Cfesar. — Livy ; Vossius. A-GRICULTURE. The science of agriculture may be traced to the period im- mediately succeeding the Deluge. In China and the eastern countries it was, perhaps, coeval with their early plantation and government. Of the agri- culture of the ancients little is known. The Athenians pretended that it was among them the art of sowing corn began ; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians lay claim, the last with most probability, to the honor. Brought into England by the Romans, as a science, about a.d. 27. \GYNNIANS. This sect arose about a.d. 694, and alleged that God forbade the eating of flesh, assuming the first chapter of Genesis to be the authority upon which the doctrine was founded. A revival of this ancient sect now flourishes at Manchester and other towns in England, and has been public there since 1814. \IR. Anaximenes of Miletus declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of every thing created, 530 b.c. The pressure of air was discov- ered by Torricelli, a.d. 1645. It was found to vary Vvith the height by Pas- cal, in 1647. Halley, Newton, and others, up to the present time, have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experi- ments, and numerous inventions have followed from them ; among others, the air-gun by Guter of Nuremburg in 1656 ; the air-pump, invented by Otho Guericke at Magdeburg in 1650, and improved by the illustrious Boyle in 1657 ; and the air-j)ipe, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. See Balloon. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, PfiACE of. The first treaty of peace signed here wa«. between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche-Comt^, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, May 2, 1668. The second, or* celebrated treaty, was between Great Britain, France, Holland, Hungary, Spain, and Genoa. Bv this memorable peace the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirmed. Signed on the part of England by John Earl of Sandwich, and Sir Thomas Robinson, Oct. 7, 1748. A congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and France, was held at Aix-la-Cha- Delle, and a convention signed, October 9, 1818. The sum then due from France to the allies was settled at 265,000,000 francs. AL.A.BAMA. One of the United States ; most of its territory was included in the original patent of Georgia. It was made a part of the Mississippi ter- ritory in 1817 ; admitted into the Union as a State in 1820. Population m 1810 was less than 10,000 ; in 1816, 29 683; in 1820, 127,901; in 1830, 808,997 ; in 1840, 590 756, including 253,532 slaves. Exports of the State in 1840 amounted to $12 854 694 ; imports, to $574,651 ATiBA. Founded by*Ascanius, 1152 b.c, and called Longa, because the city nxtended along the hill Albanus. This kingdom lasted 487 years, and war ALB J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 159 governed by a race of kings, the descendants of^neas. When Amulius diithroned his brother, he condemned Ilia, the daughter of Numitor, to a life of celibacy, by obliging her to take the vows^and office of a vestal, thereby to assure his safety in the usurpation. His object was, however', frustrated; violence was offered to Iha, and she became the mother of twins, for which Amulius ordered her to be buried alive, and her offspring to be thrown into the Tiber, 770 b.c. But the little bark in which the infants were sent adrift stopped near Mount Aventine, and was brought ashore by Faustulus, the king's chief shepherd, who reared the children as his own, and called tbem Romulus and Remus. His wife, Acca-Laurentia, was surnamed Lupa ; whence arose the fable that Romulus and his brother were suckled by a she-wolf At sixteen years of age, Romulus avenged the wrongs of Ilia and Numitor, 754 e.g., and the next year founded Rome.— Farro. CLEAN'S, ST. The name of this town was anciently Verulam ; it was once the capital of Britain, and previously to the invasion of Julius Csesar was the residence of British princes. It takes its present name from St. Alban, who was born here, and who is said to have been the first person who suf- fered martyrdom for Christianity in Britain. He is hence commonly styled the proto-martyr of this country, and was decapitated during the perse- cution raised by Diocletian,' June 23, a.d. 286. A stately monastery was erected here to his memory by OfFa, king of Mercia, in 793. St. Alban's was incorporated by Edward VI. 1552. ALBAN'S, ST., Battles of. The first, between the houses of York and Lan- caster, in which Richard duke of York obtained a victory over Henry VI., of whose army 5000 were slain, while that of the duke of York suffered no material loss, fought May 22, 1455. The second, between the Yorkists under the earl of Warwick, and the Lancastrians, commanded by queen Margaret of Anjou, who conquered : in this battle 2500 of the defeated armv perished; fought on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1461. ALBANY, city, capital of the State of New- York, founded by the Dutch in 1623, and by them named Beaverwyck; capitulated to the English in 1664, and then received its present name in honor of the Duke of York and Albany, its proprietor. Incorporated in 1686. Population in 1810, 9,356 : in 1830, 24,238; in 1840, 33,721. ALBIGENSES. This sect had its origin about a.d. 1160, at Albigeois, in Lan- guedoc, and at Toulouse; they opposed the disciples of the Church of Rome, and professed a hatred of all the corruptions of that rehgion. Simon de Montfort commanded against them, and at Bezieres he and the pope's legate put friends and foes to the sword. At Minerba, he burnt 150 of the Albigenses alive ; and at La Vaur, he hanged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, drowning the governor's wife, and murdering other women. They next defeated the count of Toulouse, with the loss of 17,000 men. Simon de Montfort afterwards came to England. See Waldenses. ALBION. The island of Great Britain is said to have been first so called by Julius Csesar, on account of the chalky cliffs upon its coast, on his invasion of the country, 54 b.c. The Romans conquered it, and held possession about 400 years. On their quitting it, it was successively invaded by the Scots, Picts, and Saxons, who drove the original inhabitants from the plain coun- try, to seek refuge in the steeps and wilds of Cornwall and Wales; the Danes and Normans also settled at various times in England : and from a mixture of these nations the present race of Englishmen is derived. See Britain. — New Albion, district of California, was taken possession of by sir Francis Drake, and so named by him, in 1578 ; explored by Vancouver in 1792. • ALBUERA, Battle of, between the French, commanded by marshal Soult, 160 THE world's PROGRESft. [ ALE and the British and Anglo-Spanish army, commanded by marshal, now lord Beresford, May 16, 1811. After an obstinate and sanguinary engagement, the allies obtained the victory, justly esteemed one of the most brilliant achievements of the Peninsular war. The French loss exceeded 9O0O men previously to their retreat. ALCHEMY. This was a pretended branch of chemistry, which effected the transmutation of metals into gold, an alkahest, or universal menstruum, a universal ferment, and other things equally ridiculous. If regard may be had to legend and tradition, alchemy must be as old as the Flood : yet few philosophers, poets, or physicians, from Homer till 400 years after Christ, mention any such thing. Pliny says the emperor Caligula was the first who prepared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, but left it off because the charge exceeded the profit. Others say the Egyptians had this mystery ; which if true, how could it have been lost 1 The Arabians are said to have invented this mysterous art, wherein they were followed by Ramond Lullius, Paracelsus, and others, who never found any thing else but ashes in their furnaces. Another author on the subject is Zosimus, about A. D. 410. — Fab. Bib. Grces. A license for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals and minerals granted to one Richard Carter, 1476. — Rijmer's Feed. Doctor Price, of Guildford, published an account of his experiments in this way. and pretended to success : he brought his specimens of gold to the king, affirming that thej^ were made hj means of a red and white pow- der ; but being a Fellow of the Royal Society, he was required, upon pain of expulsion, to repeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and Woulfe; but after some equivocation, he took poison and died, August 1783. ALCORAN. The book which contains the revelation and credenda of Mahomet : it is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue, and as the Mahometans believe, inimitable b)^ any human pen ; hence they assume its divine origin. It is the common opinion of writers, that Mahomet was assisted by Batiras, a Jacobin, Sergius, a Nestorian monk, and by a learned Jew, in composing this book, most of whose principles are the same with those of Arius, Nes- torius, Sabellius, and other heresiarchs. The Mahometans say, that God sent it to their prophet hj the Angel Gabriel : it was written about a. d. 610. — See Koran, Mahometisvi, Mecca, &c. ALDERMEN. The word is derived from the Saxon Ealdorman, a senior, and among the Saxons the rank was conferred upon elderly and sage, as well as distinguished persons, on account of the experience their age had given them. At the time of the Heptarchy, aldermen were the governors of pro- . vinces or districts, and are so mentioned up to a. d. 882. After the Danes were settled in England, the title was changed to that of earl, and the Nor- mans introduced that of coitnt, Avhich though different in its original signifi- cation, yet meant the same thing. Henry III. may be said to have given its basis to this city distinction. In modern British polity, and also in the United States, an alderman is a magistrate next in dignity to the mayor. ALE and wine. They are said to have been invented by Bacchus ; the for- mer where the soil, owing to its quality, would not grow grapes. — Tooke's Pantheon. Ale was known as a beverage at least 404 b. c. Herodotus as- cribes the first discovery of the art of brewing barley-wine to Isis, the wife of Asyris. The Romans and Germans very early learned the process of pre- pai'ing a liquor from corn by means of fermentation, from the Egyptians. — ■ Tacihis. Alehouses are made mention of in the laws of Ina, king of Wes- sex. Booths were set up in England a.d. 728, when laws were passed for their regulation. Alehouses were licensed 1621 ; and excise duty on ale and beer was imposed on a system nearly similar to the present, 13 Charles 11. , 1660. See Beer, Win^.. ALG J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 161 A.LEMA.NNI, or All Men, (i. e. men of all nations,) a body of Suevi, defeated by Caracalla, a. d. 214. On one occasion 300,000 of this warlike people are said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, by Gallienus, at the head of 10,000 Romans. Their battles were numerous with the Romans and Gauls. They ultimately submitted to the Franks. — Gibboii. ALEXANDER, Era of, dated from the death of Alexander the Great, Novem- * ber 12, 323 b. c. In the computation of this era, the period of the creation was considered to be 5502 years before the birth of Christ, and, in conse- quence, the year 1 a. d. was equal to 5503. This computation continued to the year 284 A. D., which was called 5786. In the next year (285 a. ix), which should have been 5787, ten years were discarded, and the date l)e- came 5777. This is still used in the Abyssinian era, tohich see. The date is reduced to the Christian era by subtracting 5502 until the year 5786, and after that time by subtracting 5492. ALEXANDRIA, in Egypt, the walls whereof were six miles in circuit, built by Alexander the Great, 332 b. c. ; taken by Caesar, 47 e. c, and the library of the Ptolemies, containing 400,000 valuable works in MS., burnt. Conquered by the Saracens, whtn the second library, consisting of 700,000 volumes was totally destroyed by the victors, who heated the water for their baths for six months by burning books instead of wood, by command of the caliph Omar, a. d. 642. This was formerly a place of great trade, all the treasures of the East being deposited here before the discovery of the route by the Cape of Good Hope. Taken by the French under Bonaparte, when a mas- sacre ensued, July 5, 1798 ; and from them by the British in the memorable battle mentioned in next article, in 1801. Alexandria was again taken by the British, under General Frazer, March 21, 1807 ; but was evacuated by them, Sept. 23, same year. For late events, see Syria and Turkey. ALEXANDRIA, Battle of, between the French, under Menou, who made the at- tack, and the British army, under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, amounting to about 15.000 men, which had but recently debarked, fought March 21, 1801. The British were victorious, but Sir Ralph Abercrombie was mortally wounded. ALEXANDRINE VERSE. Verse of twelve feet, or syllables, first written by Alexander of Paris, and since called, after him. Alexandrines, about a. d. llP)L—Noiiv. Diet. Pope, in his Essay on Criticism, has the following well- known couplet, in which an Alexandrine is happily exemplified : — . " A needless Alexandrine ends the song, Tha* like a wound-ed snake, drags its slow length a-Iong." ALGEBRA. Where algebra was first used, and by whom, is not precisely known. Diophantus first wrote upon it, probably about a. d. 170 ; he is said to be the inventor. Brought into Spain by the Saracens, about 900 ; and into Italy by Leonardo of' Pisa, in 1202. The first writer who used algebra- ical signs was Stifelius of Nuremberg, in 1544. The introduction of sym- bols for quantities was by Francis Vieta, in 1590, when algebra came into general use.— ik/oreri. The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. ALGIERS. The ancient kingdom of Numidia, reduced to a Roman province, 44 B. c. It afterwards became independent, till, dreading the power of tho Spaniards, the nation invited Barbarossa, the pirate, to assist it, and he seized the government, a. d. 1516 ; but it afterwards fell to the lot of Tmv- -^ej.— Priestley. The Algerines for ages braved the resentment of the most powerful states in Christendom, and the emperor Charles V. lost a fine fleet and army in an unsuccessful expedition against them, in 1541. Algiers was reduced by Admiral Blake, in 1653, and terrified into pacific measures with England ; but it repulsed the vigorous attacks of other European pow- ers, particularly those of France, in 1688, and 1761 ; and of Spain, in 1775 162 THE world's PPwOGRESS. ^ alm 1783, and 1784. It was bombarded by the British fleet, under lord Eimonth, Aug-. 27, 1816, when a new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was abol- ished. Algiers surrendered to a French armament, under Bourmont and Duperre, after some severe conflicts, July 5, 1830, when the dey was deposed, and the barbarian government wholly overthrown. The French ministry announced their intention to retain Algiers, permanently, May 20, 1834, Marshal Clausel defeated the Arabs in two engag-ements (in one of whiclt the duke of Orleans was wounded), and entered Mascara, Dec. 8, 1836, General Damrcmont attacked Constantina {which see), Oct, 13, 1837;" since when various other engagements between the French and the natives, have taken place. Abd-el-Kader surrendered to General Lamoriciere, Dec. 22, 1847. See Morocco. ALT, Sect of. Founded by a famous Mahometan chief, the son-in-law of Ma- homet, (having, married his daughter Fatima,) about a. d. 632. Ali was called by the Prophet, " the Lion of God, always victorious ;" and the Persians follow the interpretation of the Koran according to Ali, while other Maho- metans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. It is worthy of remark, that the first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, Omar, Othman, and Ali, whom he had employed as his chief agents in establishing his religion, and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on that account he styled the " cut- ting sword'* of God," all died violent deaths ; and that this bloody impos- tor's family was wholly extirpated wiihin thirty years after his own decease. Ali was assassinated in 660. ALIENS. In England aliens were grievously coerced up to a. d. 1377. When they were to be tried criminally, the juries were to bo half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. They were restrained from exercising any trade or handicraft by retail, 1483. ALL SAINTS. The festival instituted, a. d. 625. All Saints, or All Hallows, in the Protestant church, is a day of general commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in honor of whom, individually, no particular day is assigned. The Church of Rome and the Greek church have saints for every day in the year. The reformers of the English church provided offices only for very remarkable commemorations, and struck out of their calendar altogether a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition. ALLEGORY. Of very ancient composition. The Bible abounds in the finest instances, of which Blair gives Psalm Ixxx. ver. 8, 16, as a specimen. Spen- ser's Faerie Queene is an allegory throughout; Addison, in his Spectator, abounds in allegories ; and the Pilgrim'' s Progress of Bunyan, 1663, is per- fect in its way. Milton, among other English poets, is rich in allegorj^. ALLIANCES, Treaties of, between the high European Powers : See Coalition, Treaties, &c. Alliance of Leipsic . . April 9, 1631 Alliance of Versailles . May 1, 1756 Alliance of Vieiina , May 27, 1657 Germanic Alliance . .July 23, 1785 Alliance, the Triple , , Jan. 28, 1668 Alliance of Paris . . May 16, 179. Alliance of Warsaw . March 31, 1683 Alliance, the Grand . . May 12, 1689 Allianco, the Hague .Tan. 4, 1717 Allance, the Quadruple . Aug. 2, 1718 Alliance of Vienna March 16, 1731 ^.LMANACS, The Egyptians computed time by instruments. Log calen- dars were anciently in use, Al-mon-aght, is of Saxon origin. In the Bri- tish Museum and universities are curious specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostrodamus, the celebrated astrologer, wrote an alm^anac in the style of Merlin, 1566. — Dufresnoy. The most noted early almanacs were : Alliance of Petersburg . April 8, 1805 Austrian Alliance ." March 14, 1812 Alliance of Sweden , March 24 iS12 Alliance of Toplitz . Sept. 9. 1313 Alliance, the Holy . Sept. 26, 181? 4LU J DICTIONARY OF DATES, 1Q3 ALINIAN A.CS, continued. Poor Robin's Almanrx , . 1G52 Lady's Diary . . . . 1705 Moore's Almanac . . . 1713 Season on the Seasons . . . 1735 Gentleman's Diary . . . 1741 Nautical Almanac . . . . 1767 Poor Riciiard's Almanac, (Franklin's, Pliiladelphia) .... 1733 Jolui Soraer's Calendar, written in Ox- ford 1380 Oni! in I.ambeth palace, written in . 1460 Fif.st printed one, published at Buda . 1472 First printe.! in England, by Richard Pynsou .... 1497 Tybault's Prognostications . . . 1533 Lilly's Ephemeris . . . . ''644 Of Moore's, at one period, upwards of 500,000 copies were annually sold. The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing, until 1790, in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to this com.pany, and the two universities. The stamp duty on almanacs was abolished in England. 1834. AI..MEIDA, Battle of, between the British and Anglo-Spanish army, com- manded by lord Wellington, and the French army under Massena, who was defeated with considerable loss, August 5, 1811. Wellington compelled Mas- sena to evacuate Portugal, and to retreat rapidly before him; but the route of the French was tracked by the most horrid desolation. ALPHABET. Athotes, son of Menes, was the author of hieroglyphics, and wrote thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 b. c— Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen inscriptions by Seth, the son of Adam ; though this is doubted, and deemed a mistake, or fabulous. The first lette\ of the Pha'-nician and Hebrew alphabet was aleph, called by the Greeks avpha, and abbi-eviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician. Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 b. c, brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece ; they were the fol- lowing : — A, B, r, A, I, K, A, M, N, O, n, P, ^, T, T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian char- acters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, 0, X, 4», H, about 1224 b. c. ; and Simonides added Z, ■»?, H, n, about 489 b. c.—Arimdelian Marbles. When the E was introduced is' not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of sixteen letters till 399 B. c, when the Ionic, of 24 characters, was introduced. The small letters are of late invention, for the convenience of writing. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of letters : — English . . 26 French . . 23 Italian . . 20 Spanish . . 27 ALPHONSINE TABLES • Celebrated astronomical tables, composed by com mand, and under the direction of, Alphonsus X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise.' This learned prince is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work, whose value was enhanced by a j)reface, written by his own hand : he commenced his reign in 1252. ALTARS, were first raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, who also insti- tuted and regulated marriages, 1556 b. c. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of those deities which were held in adoration in Egypt.— .Hero- dotus. Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus L in 135 ; and they were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The first Christian altar in Britain was in Q?,L—Stoiije. The Church of England, and all the reformed churches, discontinue the name, and have abolished the doctrine that sup- ported their use. ALCM, is said to have been first discovered at Rocha,, in Syria, about a. d. 1300 ; it was found in Tuscany, in 1460; was brought to perfection in England, in German . . 26 I Greek . . 24 Sclavonic . .27 Hebrew . . 22 Russian . .41 Arabic . . 28 Latin . . . 22 | Persian . . 32 Turkish . . 33 Sanscrit . . 50 and Chinese . . 214 164 THE world's progress, [ AME 1608 : was discovered in Ireland, in 1757 ; and in Anglesey, in 1790. Aliim is a salt used as a mordant in tanning ; it is used also to harden tallow, and to whiten bread. It may he made of pure clay exposed to vapors of sulphu- ric acid, and sulphate of potash added to the ley; hut it is usually obtained by means of ore called alum slate. AMAZONIA, discovered by Francisco Orellana, in 1580. Coming from Peru, Orellana sailed down the river Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing com- panies of women in arms on its banks, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, which had previously been called Maranon. AMAZONS. Their origin is fabulous. They are said to have been the descend- • ants of the Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands having made incursions, were alL-slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows, reflecting on the alarms or sorrows they under- went on account of the fate of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established themselves, they decreed that matri- mony Avas a shameful servitude ; but, to perpetuate their race, .hey, at stated times, admitted the embraces of their male neighbors. — Qumhis Curtmt, They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231 b. c. The Amazons were con- stantly employed in wars ; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, non and mamma. Their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, while he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, and cohabited with him, in the hope of having issue by so illustrious a warrior; three hundred females were in her train. — Herodotus. AIVIBASSADORS, accredited agents and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages, ^nd to almost all nations. In most coun- tries they have great and peculiar privileges ; and in England, among others, they and their servants are secured against arrest. The Portuguese ambas- sador in England was imprisoned for debt, in 1653 ; and the Russian, by a lace-merchant, in 1709, when a law, the statute of 8 Anne, passed for their protection. Two men were convicted of arresting the servant of an ambas- sador. They were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassa- dor, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months and the other fined, May 12, 1780. — Phillips, AMEER. Of great repute in the world from the earliest time ; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era : Theophrastus wrote upon it, 300 b. c. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. — Phillips. Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber, some refer- ring it to the vegetable, others to the mineral, and some to the animal king- dom; its natural history and its chemical analysis affording something in favor of each opinion. AMEN. This word is as old as the Hebrew itself. In that language it meang t'mejaiihful, certain. Employed in devotions, at the end of a prayer, it im- plies, so be it; at the termination of a creed, so it is. It has been generally used' both in the Jewish and Christian churches, at the conclusion of prayer. AMENDE Honorable, originated in France in the ninth century. It was first an infamous punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered into the hands of the hangman ; his shirt was stripped off, a rope put about his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he was then led into court, and was obliged to pray pardon of God, the king, and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed. Amende honorable is now a term used for making recantation in open court, or in the presence of the injured party. AMM J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 165 AMERICA: See Uiiited Slat-es. Discovered by Christopher Colombo, a Geno- ese, better known as Christopher Columbus, a.d. 1492, on the 11th of Octo- ber, on which clay he came in sight of St. Salvador. See Bahama Islands. This great navigator found the continent of America in 1497, and the east- ern coasts were found by Amerigo Vespucci ( Americus Vespucius) in 1498 ; and from this latter discoverer the whole of America is named. New England, the second, by the Ply- mouth company . . . lG2t New York, settled by the Dutch . . 16J4 [For other occurrences, see Tahular Vieics — United Slates. See also separate states, Maijie, &c. Newfoundland, the first British colony in this quarter ol' the world, discover- ed by Cabot, and by him called Prima Vista. .... 1497 Vii-ginia, the first English settlement on the main land . . . 1607 A.MERICA, SOUTH. The Spaniards, as being the first discoverers of this vast portion of the Western World, had the largest ar^d richest share of it. When thej' landed in Peru, a. d. 1530, they found it governed by sovereigns called Incas, who were revered by their subjects as divinities, but they were soon subdued by their invaders under the command of Francis Pizarro. The cruelties practised by the new adventurers w^herever they appeared, will be a reproach to Spain for ever.* Spanish America has successfully asserted its freedom within the present century. It first declared its independence in 1810 ; and the provinces assembled, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the people in July, 1814; since when, although the wars of rival and contending chiefs have been afflicting the country, it has released itself from the yoke of Spain for ever. Its independence was recognized first by the United States, chiefly through the influence of H. Clay ; by England, in 1823. et seq. ; and by France, Sept. 30, 1830. See Bro.zil, Colombia, Lima, Peru, &.a. AMERICAN LITERATURE. The American Almanac for 1840 gives a list of 776 names of American authors Avho had died previous to that j^ear. This did not include authors of mere pamphlets, Avhich would have swelled the number three-fold; but the "authorship " of many in the list was of very moderate amount or value. Of the 776 names, there were writers on Theo- logy. Sermons. &c., 259; Poetry, 57 ; History and Biography, 80 ; Pohtics and Law. 77. [In these numbers, writers on two or more of the subjects are repeated.] AMETHYSTS. When this stone was first prized is not known ; it M-as the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Issachar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet color, and according to Plutarch, takes its name from its color, resembling wine mixed with water. One M-orth 200 rix dollars having been rendered colorless, equalled a dia- mond in lustre valued at 18,000 gold crowns. — De Boot Hist. Gemmarum. Amethysts were discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1755. — Bitrns. AMIENS, Peace of, between Great Britain, Holland, France and Spain ; the prehminary articles, fifteen in number, were signed by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, Oct. 1, 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed on March 27, 1802, by the marquis Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schiaimelpen- ninck for Holland. AMMONITES. Descended from Ammon, the son of J..ot ; they invaded tlie land of Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but they were defeated ' Las Casas, in describing the barbarity of the Spania rds while pursuing their conquests, records many instances of it that fill the mind wi'th horror. In .Jamaica, he says, they hanged the unre- sisting natives by thirteen at a time, in honor of the thirteen apostles! and he has beheld them throw the Indian infants to their doss for food ! "I have heard them," says Las Casas, "borrow Jhe limb of a human being to feed their dogs, and have seen them the next day return a quarter of another victim to tire lender!" 166 THE world's progress. [ ANA by Jephtliah, 1188 b. c. They again invaded Canaan in the reign of Saul, with an intention to put out the riglit eye of all those they subdued, but Saul overthrew them, 1093 b. c. They were afterwards many times van- quished; and Antiochus the Great tookRabboath their capital, and destroyed all the walls, 198 b. c. — Josephus. AMNESTY. The word as well as the practice was introduced into Greece by Thrasybulus, the Athenian general and patriot, who commenced the expul- sion of the thirty tyrants with the assistance of only thirty of his friends : having succeeded, the only reward he would accept was a crown made with two branches of olive. 409 b. c. — Hume's Essays. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL : Established at Thermopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, which was composed of the wisest and most virtuous men of some cities of Greece, consisted of twelve delegates, 1498 b. c. Other cities in process of time sent also some of their citizens to the council of the Amphictyons, and in the age of Antoninus Pius, they were increased to the number of thirty. — Suidas. AMPHITHEATRES. They may be said to be the invention of Julius Caesar and Curio: the latter was the celebrated orator, who called the former in full senate " Omnium mulieruvi virum, et omnium virorum mulierem.'' In the Roman amphitheatres, which were vast round and oval buildings, the people assembled to see the combats of gladiators, of wild beasts, and other exhi- bitions ; they were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Caesar. The amphitheatre of Vespasian was built A. D. 79; and is said to have been a regular fortress in 1312. The amphi- theatre of Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes. AMSTERDAM. This noble city was the castle of Amstel in a. d. 1100 ; and its building, as a city wa'^ commenced about 1203. Its famous exchange Avas built in" 1634; and the stadthouse, one of the noblest palaces in the world, in 1618 ; this latter cost three millions of guilders, a prodigious sum at that time. It is built u])oa 13.659 piles, and the magnificence of the structure is, for its size, both in external and internal grandeur, perhaps without a parallel in Europe. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland in favor of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, Jan. 18, 1795. The ancient government was restored in November, 1813. See Holland. /MULETS, OR CHARMS. All nations . have been fond of amulets. The Egyptians had a great variety ; so had the Jews, Chaldeans, and Persians. Among the Greeks, they were much used in exciting or conquering the passion of love. They were also in estimation among the Romans. — Pliny. Ovid. Among the Christians of early ages, amulets were made of the wood of the true cross about a. d. 328. They have been sanctioned by religion and astrology, and even in modern times by medical and other sciences — witness the anodyne necklace, &c. The pope and Catholic clergy make and sell amulets and charms even to this day. — Ashe. ANABAPTISTS. This sect arose about a.d. 1525, and was known in England before 1519. John of Leyden, Muncer, Storck, and other German enthusi- asts, about the time of the reformation, spread its doctrines. The anabap- tists of Munster (who are. of course, properly distinguished from the existhig mild sect of this name in England) taught that infant baptism w'as a contriv- ance of the devil, that there is no original sin that men have a free will in spiritual things, and other doctrines still more wild and absurd. Miaister they called Mount Zi-on, and one Mathias, a baker, was declared to be the king of Zion. Their enthusiasm led them to the maddest practices, and ANG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 167 they, at length, rose in arms under pretence of gospel liberty. IMunster was taken about fifteen months afterwards, and they were all put to death. The anabaptists of England differ from other Protestants in little more than the not baptizing children, as appears by a confession of faith, published by the reiiresentatives of above one hundred of their congregations, in 1689. ANACREONTIC VERSE. Commonly of the jovial or Bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon, of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, about 510 b. c. The odes of Anacreon are much prized ; their author lived in a constant round of di unkenness and debauchery, and was choked by a grape stone in his eighty-tifth year. — Stanley's Lives of the Poets. ANAGRAM, a transposition of the letters of a name or sentence ; as from Mary, the name of the Virgin, is made aTviy. On the question put by Pilate to our Saviour. " Quid est Veritas?''' we have this admirable anagram, '^ Est vi?- qui adesty The French are said to have introduced the art as now practised, in the reign of Charles IX., about the year 1560. — HenauU. ANATHEMAS. The word had four significations among the Jews : the ana- thema, or curse, was the devoting some person or thing to destruction. We have a remarkable instance of it in the city of Jericho (sec Joshua vi. 17). Anathemas were used by the primitive churches, a. d. 387. Buch ecclesias- tical den-.inciations caused great terror in England up to the close of Eliza- beth's reign. — Rapin. The church anathema, or curse, with excommunica- tion, and other severities of the Romish religion, are still practised in Catholic countries to this day. — Ashe. ANATOMY. Tlie structure of the human body was made part of the philoso- phical investigations of Plato and Xenophon ; and it became a branch of medical art under Hippocrates, about 420 b. c. But Erasistratus and Hero- philus may be regarded as being the fathers of anatomy: they were the first to dissect the human form, as anatomical research had been confined to brutes only : it is mentioned that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 b. c. In England, the schools were supplied with subjects unlawfully exhumed from gi^aves ; and, until lately, the bodies of executed criminals were ordered for dissection. The first anatomical plates were designed hy Vesalius, about a. d. 1538. The discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. The anatomy of j)lants was discovered in 1680. — Freind's History of Physic. ANCHORITES. Paul, Anthony, and Hilarion were the first anchorites. Many of the early anchorites lived in caves and deserts, and practised great aus- terities. Some were analogous to the fakeers, who impose voluntary pun- ishments upon themselves as atonement for their sins, and as being accept- able to God ; and their modes of torture were often extravagant and crimi- nal. The order first arose in the fourth century. ANCHORS FOR SHIPS, are of ancient use, and the invention belongs to the Tuscans —Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis, the Scythian. — Strabo. Anchors were first forged in England a. d. 578. The anchors of a first-rate ship of war (of which such a ship has four) will weigh 90 cwt. each, and each of them will cost ^450. — Phillips. ANEMOMETER, to measure the strength and velocity of the wind, was in- vented by Wolfius. in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. See article Winds. ANGELIC KNIGHTS of ST. GEORGE. Instituted in Greece, a. d. 456. The Angdici were instituted by Angelus Comnenus, emperor of Constantinople, 1191 The Anseliccp, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa TonJli, A. D 1534. 168 THE world's progress. [ant ANGELS. Authors are divided as to the time of the creation of angels. Some will have it to have been at the same time with our world ; others, before all ages, that is, from eternity. This latter is Origen's opinion. — Cave's Hist. Literal. The Jews had ten orders of angels ; and the popes have re- cognized nine choirs and three hierarchies. ANGELS, IN COMMERCE. An angel was an ancient gold coin, weighing four pennyweights, and was valued at 6s. 8^. in the reign of Henry VI., and at IO5. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The angelot was an ancient gold coin, value half an angel, struck at Paris when that capital was in the hands of the English, in the reign of Henry VL, 1431. — Wood. ANGLING. The origin of this art is involved in obscurity ; allusion is made to it by the Greeks and Romans, and in the most ancient books of the Bible, as Amos. It came into general repute in England about the period of the Reformation. Wynkin de Worde's Treatyse of Fysshinge, the first book printed on angling, appeared in 1496. Isaac Walton's book was printed in 1653. ANIMAL MAGNETISM. This deception was introduced oy father Hehl, at Vienna, about 1774 ; and had wonderful success in France, in 1788. It had its dupes in England also, in 1789 ; but it exploded a few years afterwards. It was a pretended mode of curing all manner of diseases by means of sympa- thetic affection between the sick person and the operator. The effect on the patient was supposed to depend on certain motions of the fingers and features of the operator, he placing himself immediately before the patient, whose eyes were to be fixed on his. After playing in this manner on the imagina- tion and enfeebled mind of the sick, and performing a number of distor- tions and grimaces, the cure was said to be completed. — Haydn. ANGLO-SAXONS, or ANGLES. The name of England is derived from a vil- lage near Sleswick, called Anglen, whose population joined the first Saxon freebooters. Egbert called his kingdom Anglesland. Anglia East was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, a. d. 575 : the kingdom ceased in 792. — See JBritain. ANNIHILATION. The doctrine of annihilation was unkno^vn to the Hebrews, Greeks, and Latins : the ancient philosophers denied annihilation ; the first notions of which are said to have arisen from the Christian theology. — Dr. Burnet. ANNO DOMINI; in the year of our Lord; used by the Christian v/orld, and abbreviated a.d. This is the computation of time from the incarnation of our Saviour and is called the vulgar era ; first adopted in the year 525. See Jra. Charles III. of Germany was the first sovereign who added " in the . 130. Diophantus of Alexandria was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900 — into Spain, 1050 — into Eng- land, 1253. The date in Caxt'on's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic {de Arte Suppntandi) was bj'Tonstall, bishop of Dur- ham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested after the universal Deluge, 2347 b. c. But Apamea, in Phrj^gia, claims to be the spot ; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high ; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors — the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. Theie was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKANSAS, one of the United States, was a part of the Louisiana purchase. It was made a separate territory in 1819, and was admitted into the Union in 1836. Population in 1830, 30,388 ; in 1840, 97,574, includii-i^ 19,935 slaves. AjtM ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 175 ARMADA, The Invincible. The famous Spanish armament so called con- sisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 200C volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea. and endeavored to return to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines : the English fell upon them, took many ships, imd admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dis- persed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5,000 men ; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship. — Rapin, Carte, Hume. IHMAGH, See of, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. ARMED NEUTRALITY". The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers, against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780 ; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent pow- ers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms beins- contrarv to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Den- mark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alHance, and acknowledge the claim of England to the empire of the sea ; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 B. c. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Ar- menia fell to the kings of Sj^ia. The Armenians were the original wor ■ shippers of fire : they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis., to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, nrior to marriaere. — Martin's Memoires sur VArinenie. prior to marriage. Artaxias is deposed . . b. c. 30 He is restored to his throne, and dies. — Blair 1 City of Artaxarta built . . b. c. 186 Tigranes the Great reigns . . 93 He is called to the throne of Syria, as- sumes the fastidious title of " King of Kings," and is served by tributary Reign of Venones . . A. d. 16 Zenon reigns . . . .18 princes . . • • . 83 ' Tigranes IV. reigns ... 36 Ti"Tan8s defeated by LucuUus . 69 He is cited to Rome, and deposed . 37 A'^lin defeated, and lays his crov/n at Tiridates dethroned, and Roman power the feet of Pompey . . 66 ■ paramount in Armenia . . • 62 His son, Artavasdes, reigns . . 54 j Armenia reduced to a Persian province Artavasdes assists Pompey against .Tu- j under Sapor . . .365 lius Caesar . • • .48 Subdued by the Saracens . . 687 Artavasdes assists the Parthians against Irruption of the Turks . . 755 Marc Antony . • .36 Again made a Persian provmce, under Antony subdues, and sends him loaded | Uffan Cassanes . . . 1472 with silver chains to Egypt, to grace ! Subdued by Selim II. . . 1^22 his triumph . . • -34 Overrun by the Russians . . l^^a The Armenian soldiers crown his son, Surrender of Erzeroura . July 182? Artaxias 33 (See Syria.) ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, a. d. 552 : the Ecclesiastical vear on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days ; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their corre- spondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their 176 THE world's progress. [ AKM natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a framt It ia said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 b. c, ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England: especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil poweis. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I, favored the doctrines ol the Arniinians ; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1^^^.— Brandt. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their ban- ners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle a. d. 1100. The lines to denote colors in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Colum- biere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798— and again in 1808. ARMOR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence 'han the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used ; and brass and iron armor, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armor of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. — Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo- Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armor, a. d. 449. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III. 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and skull caps, same reign. Armor became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armor of plate commenced, 1407. Black armor, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armor of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armor ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armor than a large gorget, which is commem- orated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. — Meyrick. ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe. pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See tke vcij-iotcs weapons through the volume. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017, b. c. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 b. c. — Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standmg army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638 ; they Avere declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies : Spain 150.000 men ; Great Britain. 310.000 ; Prussia, 350.000 ; Tur- key. 450 000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 680,000. ARMY. BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United King- dom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary return.s and other official records : 17C0, Time of war ; troops of the line . . amount 110,000 men . . sum voted je7,847,000 1800, War . . . . . . ditto 168,000 men . . ditto 17,973,000 "i 810, War; army, including foreign troops ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 26,7-18,000 181.5, Last year of the war . . . ditto 300,000 men . . ditto 39,150,000 1820, Time of peace ; war incuttibrances . ditto 89,100 men . . ditto 18,253,000 1830, Peace . . . . . ditto 89,300 men . . ditto 6,991,000 In 1845, the aimy, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted was .£4,487,753. See MiZi^m and Volunteers. aSS j MCTIDNARY OF DATES. 177 ARTILLEPiY. The first- piece was a small one. contrived by Schwartz, a Ger- man cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpo^er, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341 ; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venitians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377. — Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists in Sussex, 1543. — Ri/mer's Fadera. jVIade of brass, 1635 ; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Iron. ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely — grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. — Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, waj> instituted in 1754 ; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition \)y the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Art- ists was instituted May 21, 1823 ; and their first exhibition was opened April 19,1824. — See British Maseiivi; British IiisLiiution ; National Gallery, ($^c. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES ; containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B. c, and said to have been sculptured 264 b. c. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and wore found in the Isle of Paras, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are Greek, of which there are two translations : by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676. — See Kidd's Tracts; and Porsori's Treatise, 1789. ASCALON, Battle of ; in Avhich Richard I. of England, commanding the Chris- tian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40 000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle ; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, a. d. 1192. — Ri/mer. ASH- WEDNESDAY. The primitive Christians did not commence their Lent until the Sunday, now called the first in Lent. Pope Felix III., in a. d. 487, first added the four days preceding the old Lent Sunday, to complete the mmiber of fasting days to forty ; Gregory the Great introduced the sprink- ling of ashes on the first of the four additional days, and hence the name of Dies Cineruni, or Ash- Wednesday : at the Reformation this practice was abolished, " as being a mere shadow, or vain show." ASIA ; so called by the Greeks, from the nymph Asia, the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, and wife of Japhet. Asia was the first quarter of the world peopled ; here the law of God was first promulgated ; here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth had their rise ; and from hence most of the arts and sciences have been derived. — Pardon. ASPERNE, Battle of, between the Austrian army under the archduke Clr.arles, and the French, fought on the 21st May, 1809. and two following days. In this most sanguinary fight, the loss of the former army exceeded 20,000 men, and the loss of theFrench Avas more than 30 000 : it ended in the defeat of Bonaparte, who commanded in person, and was the severest check that lie had yet received. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, and his retreat endangered ; but the success of the Austrians had no beneficial eftect on the subsequent prosecution of the war. ASSASSINATION PLOT. A conspiracy so called, formed by the earl of Ayles- bury and others to assassinate king William HI., near Richmond. Surrey, as a* 178 THE world's progress. [ ASS he came from Imni ing. The object of the conspiracy was to have been con- summated February 15, 1695-6, but for its timely discovery by Prendergast. — Hist. England. ASSASSINS. A tribe in Syria, a famous heretical sect among the Mahometans, settled in Persia, in a. d. 1090. In Syria, they possessed a large tract of land among the mountains of Lebanon. They murdered the marquis of Mont- ferrat in 1192 ; they a.ssassinated Lewis of Bavaria in 1213 ; the khan o/ Tartary was murdered in 1251. They were conquered by the Tartars in 1257 ; and were extirpated in 1272. The chief of the corps assumed tho title of ''Ancient of the Mou7itainsy ASSIENTO. A contract between the hing of Spain and other powers, for fur- nishing the Spanish dominions in America with negro slaves. — Burke. It began in 1689, and was vested in the South Sea Company in 1713. By tho treaty of Utrecht it was transferred to the English, who were to furnish 4800 negroes annually to Spanish America. This contract was given up to Spain at the peace in 1748. See Guinea. ASSIGNATS. Paper currency, to support the credit of the republic during the revolution, ordered by the National Assembly of France, April, 1790. At one period the enormous amount of eight milliards, or nearly 350 millions of pounds sterling of this paper were in circulation in France and its depen- dencies. — Alison. ASSUMPTION. A festival observed by the church of Rome in honor of the Virgin Mary, who, as the Catholics believe, was taken up to heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on August 15, a. d. 45. Mar3MS reported to have been in her 75th year. The festival is said to have been instituted in 813. ASSURANCE. See Insurance. The practice is of great antiquity. Suetonius ascribes the contrivance to Claudius Ctesar, a.d. 43. It is certain that assu- rance of ships was practised in the j^ear 45. The first regulations concern- ing it are in the Lex Oleron, by which it appears to have been known in Europe very generally in 1194. The custom of Lombard-street was made a precedent for all policies at Antwerp, and in the Low Countries; but the first statute to prevent frauds from private assurers was made 43 Elizabeth, 1601. — Molineaux's Lex Mercatoria. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. This is the earliest recorded empire— that of Bacchus wanting records. It commenced under Ninus, who was the Jupiter of the Assyrians, and the Hercules of the Chaldeans, 2069 b. c. It arose out of the union of two powerful kingdoms, Babylon and Assyria, or Nineveh, the latter founded by Ashur, and ending with Sardanapalus, 820 b. c. When this last- named prince was conquered by Arbaces, he shut himself up in his palace, with his concubines and eunuchs, and causing it to be set on fire, they all perished in the flames. On the ruins of the empire were formed the Assy- rians of Babylon, Nineveh, and the Median kingdom. — Lenglet. The tower of Babel built. — Genesis x. Babylon and makes it the seat of her 6 ; xi. 1. — Blair - - b. c. 2247 dominion. — Lenglet - b. c. 2017 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Semiramis invades Libya, Ethiopia, Astronomical observations begun by j and India. — Lenglet - - . 1975 the Chaldeans - - - 2234 i The Arabs seize I*\ineveh - - - 1937 Belus reigns .55 years. — Usher - 2124 I Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus, son of Bolus, reigns in Assyria, I Ninus. — Blair - - - -1446 and names his capital after himself - 2069 \ He makes liis daughter. Artossa, sur- Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having , named Semiramis II., his associate subdued the Armenians, Persians, ' on the throne - ... 1433 Bactrians, and all Asia Minor, estab- | Belatores reigns .... 1421 lishes what is properly the Assyrian | « * * * « monarchy,of which Nineveh was the The prophet Jonah appears in the seiit of empire. — Blair - - 20.59 ; si roets of Nineveh — Biair • ■ 840 Semiramis enlarges and embellishes Nineveh taken by Arbaces • - 820 kST ] THE WORLD S PROGRESS. 179 ASSYRIA, Proper. After the destruction of tlie first Assyrian monarchy, Phul, the last king's son, was raised to the throne by the Ninevites, 777 b.c, and the kingdom continued until 621 b. c, when Sarac, or Sardanapalus II., being besieged by the Medes and Babylonians, put his wife and children to death, and burnt himself in his palace, a fate somewhat similar to that of Sarda- napalus I. See preceding article. Nineveh was then razed to the ground, and the conquerors divided Assyria. — Blair. It was finally conquered by the Turks in 1637 a, b.— Priestley. Phul raised to the throne, about the year. — Blair - - B.C. 777 He invades Israel, hut departs without drawing a sword. — Blair; 2 Kiiigs XV. 19, 20 - - - - 770 Tialaih-Pileser invades Syria, takes iJamascus, and makes great con- • quests - - #• - 740 Shalmanezer takes Samaria, transports the people, whom he replaces by a colony of Cutheans and others, and thus finishes the kingdom of Israel. —Blair 721 He retires from before Tyre, after a siege of five years. — Blair • - 713 Sennacherib invades Judea, and his ge- neral, Rabshakeh, besieges Jerusa- lem, when the angel of the Lord in one night destroys 180,000 of his army, — Isaiah xxxvii. - e.g. [Commentators suppose that this mes- senger of death was the fatal blast known in eastern countries by the name of Safniel.] Esar-haddon invades Judea, and takes Babylon. — Blair He invades Judea — Blair - Holofernes is slain by Judith Saosduchinus reigns. — Usher 710 690 677 677 667 Nineveh taken, and razed to the ground 621 ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was invented by the Chaldeans, and hence was transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in France in the time of Catherine de Medicis, 1533. — Renault. The early history of astrology in England is very little known : Bede was addicted to it, 700 ; and so was Roger Bacon, 1260. Cecil, Lord Burleigh, calculated the nativity of Elizabeth ; and she, and all the European princes, were the humble servants of Dee, the astrologer and conjurer. But the period of the Stuarts was the acme of astrology in England. — Sir Walter Scott has made ample use of sir William Lilly, the noted astrologer, in his tales of this period; and it is certain that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. — Ferguson. / STRONOMY. The earliest accounts we have of this science are those of Babylon, about 2234 b. c. — Blair. The study of astronomy was much ad- vanced in Chaldsea under Nabonassur ; it was known to the Chinese about 1100 B.C.; some say man}'' centtu'ies before. Lunar eclipses were observed at Babylon with exceeding accuracy, 720 b. c. Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 b. c. Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, 500 b. c. Hipparchus began his observations at Rhodes, 167 b. c. — began his new cycle of the moon in 143, and made great advances in the science, 140 b.c. The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discov- ered, hj Ptolemy, a. d. 130. After the lapse of nearly seven centuries, during which time astronomy was neglected, it was resumed by the Arabs about 800 ; and was afterv/ards brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain, but not sooner than 1201, when they also introduced geography. The Alphonsine tables (which see) were The transit of Venus over the sun's disk composed - - • A. n. 1284 first observed by Horrox, Nov. 24 a. d. 1639 Clocks first used in astronomy, about • 1.500 Cassini draws his meridian line, after True doctrine of the motions of the pla- netary bodies revived by Copernicus 1530 The science greatly advanced by Tycho Brahe, about .... 1582 True laviTs of the planetarv. motions, by Kepler - - - ' - - 1619 Telescopes and other instruments used in astronomy, about - - ' - 1627 The discoveries of Galileo were made about ... - - 1631 Dante. — See Bologna ■ - - 1655 The aberration, of the light of the fixed stars discovered by Hon'ebow - 1659 Discoveries of Picart - - - 1669 Map of the moon constructed by Heve- lius 167C Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Halley - - - 1676 Discoveries of Huygens - - -1686 Newton's Principia published, and tb« 180 THE world's progress. [ATM ASTRONOMY continued. system as now taught incontrovertibly established • - - a. d. 1687 Gatalosue of the stars made by FJam- stead -- - ... 1688 Satellites of Saturn, &c. discovered by Cassini- - - - -1701 Aben'alion of the stars clearly explained by Dr. Bradley . - - - 1737 Celestial inequalities found by La Grange- - - - -1780 Cra;nus and satellites discovered by Herschel, March 13.— See Greorg^/MW Sidus - - - - 1781 Mecanique Celeste.^ published by La Place 1796 Ceres discovered by Piazzi, Jan 1 - 1801 Pallas, by Dr. Gibers, March 28 - 1802 Juno, by Hardins, Sept. 1 - - - 1804 Vesta, by Gibers" - - - 1807 Neptune, by Le Verrier - - - 1846 United States astronomical expedition to the South Hemisphere, under Lieut. Gillies, left Baltimore July 18 - - 1849 The distance of the fixed stars is supposed to be 400,000 times greater from us than we are from the sun, that is to say, 38 millions of millions of miles ; so that a cannon-ball would take near nine millions of years to reach one of them, supposing there were nothing to hinder it from pursuing its course thither. As light takes about eight minutes and a quarter to reach us from the sun, it would be about six years in coming from one of those stars ; but the calculations of later astronomers prove some stars to be so distant, that their light must take centuries before it can reach us ; and that every par- ticle of light which enters our eyes left the star it comes from three or four hundred years ago. — Objects of Science. ASYLUMS, OR Privileged Places. At first they were places of refuge for those who, by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build certain cities for this purpose. The posterity of Hercules is said so have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus built one at Thebes, aud Romulus one on Mount Palatine. A while after the coming of Christianity into England, superstitious veneration ran so high. that churches, monasteries, church-yards, and bishops' houses became asy- lums to all that fled to them, let the crime be what it would ; of which very ill use was made, both by the clergy and laity. In London persons were secure from arrest in particular localities : these were the Minories, Salis- bury-court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's-rents, Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, Deadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. This security was abolished a. d. 1696 ; but the last was not wholly suppressed until the reign of George I. — See Privileged Places and Sanctuaries. ATHANASIAN CREED and CONTROVERSY. The great controversy regard- ing the divinity of Christ, arose and extended between a. d. 333 and 351. Athanasius, who was a native of Alexandria, encountered great persecution at the hands of the Arians for his religious doctrines, and was exiled for them again and again. The creed which goes by his name is supposed by most authorities to have been written about the year 340 ; but it is affirmed by other writers to be the compilation of an African bishop in the fifth cen- tury. — Dii Pin. ATHEISM. This absurd doctrine has had its votaries and its martyrs. Spi- nosa, a foreigner, wa& its noted defender in the 17th century. Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Tou- louse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674 ; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienctares , because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. Many eminent men of various countries have been professors of Atheism, and even in England we have had writers tinctured with it. — Richardson. Ashe: "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly brings him back again to the belief of a God." — Lord fjar.on. " Sf ATT ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 181^ Dieiin'existait pasil faudrait Vivventer :^^ If a God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent one. — Voltaire. A-THENiEA. These were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honor of Minerva. One of them was called Panathenaea^nd the other Chalcea ; they were first instituted by Erectheus or Orpheus, 1397 b. c. ; and Theseus afterwards renewed them, and caused them to be observed by all the people of Athens, the first every fifth j^ear, 1234 b. c. — Plutarch. ATHENAEUM. A place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers declaimed and recited their compositions. The most celebrated Athensea were at Athens, Rome, and Lyons : that of Rome was of great beauty in its building, and was erected by the emperor Adrian, a. d. 125. — Tillemont's Life of Adrian. ATHENS. The once celebrated capital of ant.ent Attica, whose magnificent ruins ye*^ attest its former grandeur — the seat of science and theatre of valor. The first sovereign of whom we have any knowledge is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. In his reign a deluge took place (by some supposed to be no other than the universal deluge, or Noah's floods that laid waste the country, in which state it remained two hundred years, until the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was repeopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 b. c. The first state of Athens was under s.n-enteen kings, comprising a period of 487 years, but the history of its first twelve monarchs is mostlj^ fabulous ; in its second state it was governed by thirteen perpetual archons, a period of 316 years ; in its third state by seven decennial archons, whose rule extended over 70 years, and, lastly, in its fourth state by annual archons, who ruled for 760 years. Under this democracy Athens became unrivalled, and her people signalized themselves by their valor, munificence, and culture of the fine arts ; and perhaps not one other single city in the world can boast, in such a short space of time, of so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients, to distinguish Athens in a mo.^ peculiar manner, called it Astu, one of the eyes of Greece. — Plutarch. The Venetians got possession of Athens in a. d. 1204. and the Turks in 1687. — Priestley. It became the capital of Livadia, a pro- vince of European Turkey; and is now that of the new kingdom of Greece, and the seat of its legislature, established under King Otho I., January 25th, 1833. — See Greece. For events in the history of Athens, see Tables from B. 0. 1556 to B. c. 21. ATMOSPHERE. Posidonius first calculated the height of the atmosphere, stating it to be 800 stadia, nearly agreeing with our modern ideas, about 79 B.C. Its weight was determined by Galileo and Terricellius, about 1630; its density and elasticity by Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The composition of the atmosphere was ascertained by Hales, Black, Priestley, Scheele, Lavoisier, and Cavendish ; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. A ITAINDER, Acts of, have been passed in numerous reigns : two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 and 8 William III. 1694-5. — BUickstone. The attainder of Lord Russell, who Avas beheaded in Lincoln 's-inn-Fields, July, 21, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of king James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, Oct. 2, 1695. Several acts were reversed in subsequent reigns. Among the last acts so reversed, not the least interesting was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), July 1, 1819. \TTILA, surnamed the " Scourge of God,'' and thus distinguished for his con- quests and his crimes, ravaged all Europe, a. d. 447. He invaded the Ro~ 182 THE world's progress. [AUG man empire with an army of 500,000 Huns, and laid waste all the provincea. He died on the night of his nuptials with a beautiful virgin named lidico, about A. D. 453. — Goldsmith. ATTORNEY-GENERAl^ A great officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. It is among ^is duties to exhibit informations aud prosecute for the king in matters criminal ; and to file bills in Exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown, in inheritance or profit ; and others may bring bills agaiast the king's attorney. The first Attorney-General was William de Gisilham, 7 Edward I. 1278.-^Beatson. APTORNEYS. The number practising in Edward HI.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32d of Henry VI. 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in Eng- land, or registered, or retired, is about 13,000. The number sworn, and practising or retired in Ireland, is stated at 2000. A list of 19,527 ''practis- ing lawyers'' in the United States is given in the Lawyer's Directory, 1850. ATTRACTION. Copernicus described attraction as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter, about 1520. It was described by Kepler to be a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. In the Newtonian philosophy, it is an original power which restores lost motion ; a principle whereby all bodies mutually tend to each other. — See Astronomy. AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans. The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, in the East Indies, of the goods he had brought home with him. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. AUERSTADT, Battle of. In this most sanguinary conflict between the French and Prussian armies, they were commanded b)' their respective sovereigns, and Napoleon obtained a decisive victory. The Prussians were routed on every side, and lost 200 pieces of cannon, thirty standards, and 28,000 pri- soners, leaving 30,000 slain upon the field, Oct. 14, 1806. The French empsror immediately afterwards entered Berlin, from whence he issued his memorable Berlin decree. — See Berlin Decree. AUGSBURG CONFESSION of F.\ITH. The confession of articles of faith drawn up at Augsburg by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to the emperor Charles V. in 1530. It was divided into two parts, the first consisting of twenty-one articles, and the second of seven, directly opposed to the abuses that had crept into the Church of Rome. The elector of Sax- ony, his son. and several other princes of Germany, signed this confession, which was delivered to the emperor in the palace of the bishop of Augs- burg, and hence it is called the Confession of Augsburg. AUGSBURG, League of. A memorable treaty concluded between Holland and other European powers, which had for its object the causing the trea- ties of Munster and Mmeguen to be respected, 1686. — See Munster and Ni- megtten. AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Augurs instituted at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, by Nunia, 710 b. c. There was a com- munity of them, appointed to foretell events by the flight of birds, and other circumstances. The king Car, from whom Caria in Asia Minor is named, was the inventor of augury by birds.— Fos.sms. The augurs of Rome drew omens from the phenomena of the heavens, the chirping and flight of birds, and various strange casualties. — Livy. AUGUST. The eighth month of the year. It was dedicated to the honor of Augustus Cfesar,~from whom it was named in the year 8 b. c, because in this month he was born, was created consul, or chief magistrate thric© 4lU!3 1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 18S triumphed in Rome, subdued Egypt to the Roman empire, and made an end of the civil wars. It was previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March. AUSTERLITZ, Battle of, between the French and Austrian armies, gained by the former. Three emperors commanded at this battle, Alexander of Rus- sia, Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. The killed and wounded exceeded 40,000 on the side of the allies, who lost, besides, forty standards; 150 pieces of cannon, and many thousands of p^oners. This decisive vic- tory of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, which was signed Dec. 26, same year. The battle was fought Dec. 2, 1805. See Presburg. AUSTRALASIA, includes New Holland, Van Diemen's Land, New Guinea, New Britian, New Zealand, &c., mostly discovered within two centuries. Oi a population of twenty-two millions, the native inhabitants are not supposed to exceed one hundred thousand. Several settlements from Europe have been made since the commencement of the present century. Act to pro- vide for the government of Western Australia, 10 George IV. 1829. Act to erect South Australia into a British province, 4 and 2 William IV. 1834. New act, 5 and 6 William IV. 1835. Several companies and institutions con- nected Avith Australia have lately been formed in London. AUSTRIA, anciently the Belgic Gaul of the Romans. It was taken from Hun- gary and annexed to Germany,, when it received its present name, about a. d. 1040. This was after Charlemagne had re-established the Western Empire, Austria being a part of what was called Eastern France, which its name in the German language implies. Rodolpli, count of Hapsburg, seizes Austria from Bohemia, and makes himself archduke - - - 1273 Revolt of Switzerland from the house of Austria, in the reign of Albert I. -1307 Albert II. duke of Austria, succeeds to 1438 1477 1496 three crowns — the imperial, and those of Hungary and Bohemia; his family still possess the empire, Burgundy accrues to Austria by the marriage of Maximilian with the heiress of that province Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria with the heiress of Ara- gon and Castile Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and their dependen- cies, abdicates, and retires from the world, leaving his German dominions to his brother Ferdinand, and Spain and the Netherlands to his son, Philip II.— See Spain The Protestant princes of Germany, being oppressed by the house of Aus- ti-ia, call in the aid of Gustavus Adol- phus of Sweden, and this leads to the treaty of Westphalia - Leopold I reigns. — See Germany Accession of Francis, duke of Lorraine, who marries the celebrated queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa, daughter of the deceased emperor, Charles VI. - 1745 Reign of Joseph II. - - -1765 Religious toleration granted - - 1776 The emperor controls the pope - 1782 Raign of Leopold II. - - - 1790 Reign of Francis II. - - - 1792 Austria becomes a distinct empire, and Francis II. of Germany takes the title of I. of Austria " - Aug. 9, 1804 1557 1648 1658 The emperor issues his declaration against France - - Aug. 5, 1805 Napoleon, after many victories, enters Vienna - - - Nov. 14, 1805 Vienna evacuated by the French, Jan. 12, 1806 They again capture i: - May 13, 1S09 But "restore it at the peace Oct. 24, 1809 Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, the daughter of the emperor - - April 1, 181G Congress at Vienna - Oct. 2, 1814 Treaty of Vienna . Feb. 25, 1815 Death of Francis I., and accession of Ferdinand - ' - March 2, 1835 New treaty of commerce with Englanti July 3, 1833 Ferdinand is crowned with great splen- dor at Milan - - Sept. 6, 1838 Tumult at Vienna, agitation for re- forms ; Metternich resigns and flies ; freedom of the press and national guard granted by the emperor March 13, 1648 The emperor publishes, at Milan, abo- ; lition of the censorship and conven- tion of the states ; the people demand 1 more, and are refused March 18, " Milan revolts, and contends successfully I with the soldiery - March 23, " j Austrians retire to Mantua ; Milan en- tered by Charles Albert of Sardinia March 23, " Lombardy and the Tyrol in rebellion March, " The emperor retires to Innsbruck May IS, " Austrian army under Radetsky holds in check Charles Albert of Sardinia, in Lombardy - - May — " Is defeated and driven to Mantua May 29, •* 184 THE world's progress. [ Asa AUSTRIA, continued. Diet of the Croatian-Slav onic nation Ferdinand I. abdicates; his brother, summoned by the Ban of Croatia Francis Charles, declines the throne ; May 20, 1S18 it is taken by his son, Francis Joseph Insurrection at Rome ; order re-esta- Dec. 2, 1M6 blished after bombardment, June 12-15 " The emperor gives a new constitution Vicenza and Padua subdued by Ra- March 4-6, 1849 delsky - • - June " Haynau takes Brescia, after great Milan retaken - - Aug. 4, " slaughter, and sacks it March 30, " The emperor returns to Vienna " 12, " Bologna taken, after a siege of 8 days Insurrection at Vienna ; Count Latour, May 16, " minister of war, killed by the mob ; Haynau takes command of the Aus- the diet demands the retraction of the trian army in Hungary June — , " measures against Hungary, and a Ancona taken, after bombardment new ministry ; the emperor flies June 11, " Oct. 6, " Venice taken by Radetsky Aug. 22, " The Hungarian army advanced within Hungarian war finished by the surren- six miles of Vienna - Oct. 11, " derofGorgey - Aug. 11, " Prince Windischgratz appointed com- Followed by numerous executions. mander-in-chief, Oct. 16 ; and be- See Germany, Vienna, &c. sieges Vienna, 17th; bombards the city and mastei-s it Nov. 2, " Before the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine in 1806, Fran- cis ceased to be emperor of Germany, and became hereditary emperor of Austria, under the title of Francis I. Upon the formation of the Germanic Confederation in 1815, the emperor of Austria was declared hereditary head of that body. AUTHORS. For laws securing copyright; see Copijright and Literary Property. AUTO DA FE. See Inquisition. The punishment, often by burning alive, of a heretic. This is called an act of Faith, and is coeval with the Inquisition ; and since its first practice in a. d. 1203, more than one hundred thousand victims have been sacrificed by the sentence of the Inquisitions of Roman Catholic countries on the burning pile. One of the last executions of this kind was at Goa, where, for the glory of the Christian religion (!) and in vindication of the Catholic faith, twenty sufferers perished in the flames, 1787. These horrible sacrifices have ceased in Spain. — Ashe. AVIGNON, ceded by Philip III. of France to the Pope in 1273. The papal seat was removed for seventy years to Avignon, in 1308. It was seized several times by the French, by whom it was taken from the pope in 1769, but was restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Declared to belong to France by the National Assemblj^ 1791. Hon'ible massacres in October of that year. Continued to France by the Congress of sovereigns, in 1815. AXE, WEDGE, WIMBLE, &c. These instruments, with the lever, and vari- ous others of a coarse construction, and still in common use, are said to have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 b. c. AZORES, OR WESTERN ISLES, supposed to be the site of the ancient Ata- lantis : they were discovered by Vandenburg, a. d. 1439 ; and were settled by the Portuguese, in 1448. Martin Behem found one of them covered with beech-trees, and he called it therefore Fayal ; another abounding in sweet flowers, and he therefore called it Flores; and all full of hawks, and he therefore named them the Azores. A violent concussion of the earth took place here for twelve days, in 1591. A devastating earthquake, in 1757. Here are fountains of boiling water. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811, a volcano appeared near St. Michael's in the sea., where the water was eighty fathoms deep. An island called, Sabrina gradually disappeared, Dec. 1812. BAC] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 185 B. BABEL, THE Tower of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 b c. The temple of Belus, originally this celebrated tower, was the most magnificent in the world ; it had lofty spires, and was enriched with many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred Scriptures), who was deilied after death ; and in an adjoining apartment was a magnificent bed, whither the priests daily conducted a female, who, as they pretended, was there honored with the company *^f the god. — Blair. BABINGTON'S CONSPIRACY, formed in the cause of Mary against Elizabeth, for which the chief conspirator, with thirteen others, suffered death. Bab- ington was a gentleman of Derbyshire, and he associated with persons of hia own persuasion (the Roman Catholic), with a design to assassinate the queen, and deliver Mary. He seems to have been principally induced to this rash conspiracy by a romantic hope that Mary, in gratitude, would accept of him as a husband. 1586. BABYLON, Empire of, founded by Belus. supposed to be the Nimrod of holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, 2245 e.g. — Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established Avhat Avas properly the Assy- rian empire, by uniting the two soveicignties, 2059 b. c. According to Eusebius this empire existed 1240 years ; according to Justin, 1300 years ; according to Herodotus, 500 or 600 years. Of these opinions Blair has adopted the first, which calculates from the foundation of. the empire by Ninus, B. c. 2059, to the close of the reign of Sardanapalus, who was de- throned by his generals, and his kingdom divided into the Assyrian, Baby- lonian, and Median kingdoms, 820 b. c. — See Assyria. The tower of Babel b'jilt - b. c. 2247 The kingdom of Babylon begins - 2245 Ashur builds a city, afterwards called Nineveh - - - 2245 The astronomical observations are be- gun at Babylon by the Chaldeans. — Blair ; Lenglet - - - 2234 Belus, king of Assyria, extends his em- pire over the neighboring states, de- feats the Babylonians, and makes them tributary. — Usher - -2124 Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, i Taken by Darius. — Usher - • 511 The city of Babylon was, anciently, the most magnificent in the world; and in later times famous for the empire established under the Seleucidae. Its greatness was so reduced in succeeding ages, that Pliny says, in his time it Avas but a desolate wilderness ; and at present the place where it stood is scarcely known to travellers. — Rollings Ancient Hist. Bacchanalia, games celebrated in honor of Bacchus. They arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampus, and were there called Diomjsia, about 1415 b. c. — Diodorus. They were celebrated in Rome imder the name of Bacchanalia. BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried ^ men ; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. — Vossius. After twenty-five years of age, a tax Avas>laid upon bachelors in England, 12^. lOs. for a duke, and for a common person, one shilling, 7 William III. 1695. Bachelors were subjected to a double tax on their male and female servants, in 1785^ BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game (decidedly one of the oldest known to our times), about 1224 e. c. It is and names his capital after himself, Nineveh. — Lenglet - • b. c. 2069 Babylon taken by Ninus - • - 2059 The Assyrian empire ends - - 820 Belesis governs in Babylon • - 766 Babylon taken by Esar-haddon - - 680 Nebuchadnezzar reigns - - - 604 He takes Jerusalem. —Lenglet - - 587 He is driven from among meifeji^ - - 569 Babylon taken by the Medes 'WS. Per- sians, under Cyrus - - - 538 186 THE world's progress. [ BRl stated by somo to have been inv(;ntcd in Wales in the period preceding the Conquest. — Henry. BADAJOS, Shook of. This important l)arrier fortress had surrendered to tho French, March 11, 1811, and was invested by tl)0 British under lord Wel- lington on March 18, 1812, and stormed and taken on April 6, following. 'J'h'.s victory was not only a glorious military achievement in itself, but it obliged the French, who had entered Portugal for the purpose of plunder, to con)inence a preciintate retreat from that kingdom. BADICN, lloijsio OK, descended from Herman, son of Berthold I. duke of Zali- ringcin, who died a. n. 1074. From Christopher, who united the brandies of llochbcrg and Baden, and died in 1-527, proceed the brandies of Baden- Baden, and Baden-Dourlach. This family makes a most conspicuous figure in the annals of Germany, and is allied to all the principal families in the empire. BADEN, TiiKATV OP, between France and the emperor, when Landau was ceded to the former, Sept. 7, 1714. Baden was formerly a margravate; it was erected into a grand duchy, as a member of the Rhenish Conifederation, in 1806. Its territorial accpiisitions by its alliances with France, were gua- ranteed by the congi-ess o( Vienna, in 1815. The grand Duke granted his peojde freedom of the press, a burgher guard, trial by jury, and the right of public meeting, Feb. 20. Trooj)S revolt at Rastadt, May, 1849. Insur- rection at Ctirlsruhe ; — the grand Duke flees, May 13, 1849. Insurrection subdued by the Prussians, June, 1849. BAFFIN'S-BAY, discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, in 1616. The nature and extent of this discovery were much doubted until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his state- ment. These voyagers returned home in 1818. See article North West BAGDAD, built by Almansor, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, a. d. 762 — takcm by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. It has since been often taken by the Persians, and from them again by the Turks. — Blair. BAGPIPE. This instrument is supposed by some to be peculiar to Ireland and Scotland ; but it must have been known to the Greeks, as, on a piece oi Grecian sculpture of the highest {i,nti(iuity, now in Rome, is represented a bag{)iper dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, a.d. 51, BAHAMA ISLES. These were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by this great navigator on th(^ night of the 11th Octo- ber, 1402. — The Bahamas weni not known to the English tiiri667. Seized for the crown of England, 1718, when the pirates who inhabited them sur- rendered to Cai)tain Rogers. BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the Conquest, all Anionics were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute; and by the 3d Edward I. the ])()W('r of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away, 1274. Bail was further regulated, 23 Henry VI. ; 2 Philip and ]Mary and in later reigns. BAILIFFS on SHERIFFS, are said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire- rcve prior to the Conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counti(;s in England in 1079. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailids, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff. 1548. There arc still some places where the chief-magistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailifl'of Westminster. Tlie term Bum-bail/JJ' is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good be- havior, — Blackslotie. BAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 187 BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control ambition; tlic principle is said to bo a discovery of the Italian poli- ticians of the fifteenth century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France — RoberLso'ii. By the treaty of Munster, the principle of a balance of power was first recognized by treaty October 24, 1648. BALLADS. They may be traced in British liistory to the Anglo-Saxons. — Turner. Andhelme, who died a. d. 709, is mentioned as the first who intro- duced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, that those might sing Avho could." — Bcde. Alfred sung ballads. — Malmshury. Canute com- ])osed one. — Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV. ; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues, vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. — Viner. BALLADS, NATIONAL. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and 3^ou may make the laws." — Fletcher of Saltoun. A British statcsmai has said, " Give me the writing of the ballads of the country, and while I place at your com- mand every other species of composition, I will fix public opinion, and rule public feeling, and sway the popular sentiment, more powerfully than all your writers, political and moral, can do by any other agency or influence." The beautiful and frequently touching ballads of Dibdin, particularly those of the sea, inspired many a brave defender of his country in the late war ; Dibdin died Jan. 20, 1833. BALLETS. They arose in the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between Hen. Vlll. of Eng. & Francis I. of France, in the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520. — Gidccio.rdini. In the next century, they reached the summit of their glory in the splendid pomps of the courts of Tuscany and Lorraine ; and their most zealous patron, Louis XIV., bore a part in one, 1664. BALLOON. Galien of Avignon wrote on aerostation, in 1755. Dr. Black gave the hint as to hydrogen, in 1767. A balloon was constructed in France by MM. Montgolfier, in 1783, when Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes ascended at Paris. Piia,tre Dcsrozier and M. Roraain perished in an attempted voyage from Boulogne to England, the balloon having taken lire, June 14, 1785. At "the battle of Fleurus, the French made use of a balloon to reconnoilre the enemy's army, and convey the observations by telegraph, June 17, 1794. Garnerin ascended in a balloon to the height of 4,000 feet, and descended by a parachute, Sept. 21, 1802. Gay-Lussac ascended at Paris to the height of 23,000 feet, Sept. 6, 1804. Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night, and the balloon, being surrounded by fire- works, took fire, and she was pre- cipitated to the ground, and killed, July 6, 1819. BALLOON, Thk Nassau. The great Nassau balloon, of immense dimensions, and which had for some time previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of London in ref)cated ascents from Vauxhall gardens, started from that place on an experimental voyage, having three individuals in the car, and, after having been eighteen hours in the air, descended at Weilburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Nov. 7, 1836, BALTIMORE, the third city in population and fifth in commerce in the United States ; founded 1729 ; named from lord Baltimore, the proprietor of the Maryland ]iatent. In 1765 it contained but 50 houses ; chartered as a city in 1797. Population m 1790, 13 503; in 1810, 35,583; in 1830, 80,625; in 1840, 102r'^.13, including 3,199 slaves. A handsome monument in the city commemoraVc i its successful defence against the attack of the British under general Ross. ^ept. 12, 1814. BALTIMORE, Battlk of, between the British army under general Ross and the Americans; the British in making an attack upon the town were unsuc- i88 THE world's progress. [ BAfl cessful, and after a desperate engag-ement were repulsed "witli great loss; the gallant general who led the enterprise was killed, Sept. 12,. 1814. BANK. The first established was in Italy, a. d. 808, by the Lombard Jews, of whom some settled in Lombard-street, London, where many bankers still reside. The name bank is derived from banco, a bench, which was erected in the market-place for the exchange of money. The mint in the tower of London was anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until Charles T. laid his hands upon the money, and destroyed the credit of the mint, in 1640. The traders were thus driven to some other place of security for their gold, which, when kept at home, their apprentices frequently absconded Avith to the army. In 1645, therefore, they consented to lodge it with the goldsmiths in Lombard-street, who were provided with strong chests for their own valu- able wares ; and this became the origin of banking in England. — Bank of Venice formed - • -1157 i Bank of Hamburgh - -1619 Bank of Geneva - - - 1345 Bank of Rotterdam ' -1635 Bank of Barcelona - - -1401 Bank of Stockholm • ■ -1688 Bank of Genoa - - - 1407 Bank of England - - ■ -'694 Bank of Amsterdam - - -1607 1 Bank of the United States - 1791 and 1816 BANK OF ENGLAND, (See preceding article,) originally projected by a mer- chant named Patterson. It was incorporated by William III. in 1694, in con- sideration of 1.200,000Z., the then amount of its capital, being lent to gov- ernment. The capital has gone on increasing from one period to another up to the present time, as the discretion of parliament allowed ; and the same authority has also at different intervals prolonged the privileges of the bank, and renewed its charter. When first established the notes of the bank were at 20 per cent, discount; and so late as 1745, they Avere under par. Bank bills were paid in silver, 1745. The first bank post-bills were issued 1754 ; small notes were issued 1759 ; cash payments were discontinued February 25, 1797, when notes of one and two pounds Avere put into circulation. Silver tokens appeared in January, 1798 ; and afterwards Spanish dollars, Avith the head of George III. stamped on the neck of Charles IV., were made current. Cash payments were resumed partially, Sept. 22, 1817, and the restriction had altogether ceased in 1821. For a number of years the financial mea- sures of the crown have been largely aided by loans from this great reser- voir of wealth. The average amount of the Bank of England notes in cir- culation is as follows : — In 1718 (earliest account) - £1,829,930 In 1815 - - . - .£26,803,520 1778 .... 7,030,680 1820 - - . - 27,174,000 1790 - - - - 10,217,000 1830 - - - - 20,620,000 1800 .... 15,450,000 1835 . - . - 18,215,220 1810 .... 23,904,000 1840 - ... 17,231,000 The circulation of notes, in 1845, exceeded 27 millions, and the bullion in the bank fluctuated between 15 and 16 millions. The returns of issues, &c. are now made weekly. To secure the credit of the Bank it was enacted, " that no other banking company should consist of more than six persons," 6 Anne 1707. There are branch banks of the Bank of England in many of the chief towns of the kingdom ; as Birmingham, Bristol, Exeter, Glouces- ter, Hull, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Norwich, Swansea, &c., all formed since 1828. See Funds. BANK OF THE UNITED STATES, first one established 1791. Cap. $10,000,000. — A new one with cap. of 835,000,000, 1816. The act of Congress rechar- tering it vetoed by president Jackson, July 10, 1832. The "removal of the deposits " of the U. S. government from the bank, by order of presi- dent Jackson, signed by R. B. Taney, secretary of tlie Treasury, (W. J. Duane the late se'cretary having refused to sign the order.) Se})t.*23, 1833, Resolution of the Senate that the removal was uncalled for, and the respon- gibihty assumed by the president unconstitutional, &c., introduced by Mr BAP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 189 Webster and passed (26 to 20) March 28, 1834. Senate refused to enter on their journal the president's protest against their resohition, May 7, 1834. Noted resokition of the Senate "expunging" from their journals their reso- lution of 1834, passed 24 to 19, Jan. 16, 1837.— Sub-Treasury Bill passed Jan. 1840, repealed Aug. 9. 1841. The U. S. Bank newly incorporated by Pennsylvania, March»29, 1836: suspended payment Feb. 5, 1841. Bill for establishing a " Fiscal Bank of the U. S." passed the House of Representa- tives Aug. 6, 1841 ; vetoed by president Tyler Aug. 16. Another bill for a "Fiscal Corporation" vetoed Sept. 9, 1841, followed by a resignation of all the Cabinet, except Mr. Webster. BANKRUPTCY. Suspension of specie payments by the banks of New Eng- land and New-York, May 10—16, 1837 ;~legalized for one year by legisla- ture of N. Y. Banks of Philadelphia, Baltimore, &c., also suspended same month. General bankruptcy law passed by Congress Aug. 9, 1841. BANKRUPTS, in England, first law enacted regarding them, 35 Henry Vlfl. 1543. Again, 3 of Elizabeth, 1560 ; again, 1 James I. 1602 ; again, 1706 ; and more recently. It was determined by the King's Bench that a bankrupt may be arrested except in going and coming from any examination before the commissioners. May 13, 1780. The lord chancellor (Thurlow) refused a bankrupt his certificate because he had lost five pounds at one time in gaming, July 17, 1788. Enacted that members of the house of commons becoming bankrupts, and noi, paying their debts in full, shall vacate their seats, 1812. The new bankrupt bill, constituting a new bankrupt court, passed October 1831. — Statutes at Large. NUMBER OP BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 1700 1725 ■ 1750 1775- ... According to a return to parliament made at the close of February 1826,. there had become bankrupt in the four months, f receding, 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was, however, the period of bubble speculation, and of unprecedented commercial embarrassment and ruin. BANNOCKBURN, Battle of, between king Robert Bruce, of Scotland, and Edward II. of England; the army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 Scots, and that of Ednard of 100,000 English, of whom 52,000 were archers. The English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce having dug pits, which he had covered, they fell into them, and were thrown into confusion. The rout was complete, the king narrowly escaping, and 50,000 English were killed or taken prisoners, June 25, 1314. — Barbour. BANNS. In the feudal law, banns were a solemn proclamation of any thing, and hence arose the custom of asking banns, or giving notice before marriage. The use of matrimonial banns is said to have been introduced into the Galil- ean church, about a. d. 1210; and banns of marriage are proclaimed in the church of England to this day. BAPTISM. The-sacrament of admission instituted by Christ and practised by all sect^ ;professing Christianity, except Quakers. St. John, the forerunner of our'b^viour, is eminently called the Bafti&t, as being the first that publicly baptized with, a spiritual intention. Christ came from Galilee to Jordan, and was baptize(i> by John. a. d. 30. Originally the people were baptized in rivers ; but in the reign of Constantine, a. d. 319, in great cities they built chapels, or places specially to baptize in, which in the eastern countries was 38 1800 - 1339 1830 - 1467 416 1810 - - - 2000 1835 - . - 954 432 1820 - 1358 1840 - 1308 520 1825 - - - 2683 1844 • • - - 1064 190 THE world's progress. [ BAR by dipping the person all over. Now, in the western and colder parts, they use sprinkling ; at first every church had not a baptistery belonging to it ; our fonts answer the same end. — Pardon. BAPTISTS, OR Anabaptists, a sect distinguished from other Christians by their opinions respecting baptism, began their doctrine about a. d. 1525, but much earlier dates are mentioned. They suffered much" persecution in England in the sixteenth century. Rhode Island, America, was settled by Baptists in lGo5. Of Baptist missions, it may be said, that the Moravian brethren led the way to their benevolent enterprises, about 1732.— See Ayiabaptists. BARBADOES, the first English settlement in the West Indies. This mother plantation gave rise to the sugar trade in England about 1605; and was, with other Caribbee islands, settled by charter granted to tlie earl of Marl- borough, 2 Charles 1. 1627. Barbadoes has sufiered severely from elemental visitations : in a dreadful hurricane in 1780, more than 4000 of the inhabit- ants lost their lives. A large plantation with all its buildings was destroyed, by the land removing from its original site to another, and covering every thing in its peregrination, Oct. 1784. An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, May and Dec. 1796. Awful devastation, with the loss of thou- sands of lives, and of immense property, by a hurricane, August 10, 1831. The history of Inkle and Yarico, which Addison, in his Spectator, has re- corded for the detestation of mankind, took its rise in this island. BARBER. This trade was practised at Rome in the third century b. c. In England, barbers formerly exhibited a head, or pole, at their doors ; and the barbcr"s pole until lately used by them was a burlesque imitation of the former sign. BARBER-SURGEONS. Formerly the business of a surgeon was united to that of a barber, and he was denominated a barber-surgeon. A company wa.s formed under this name iu 1308, and the London companj'' was incorporated, 1st Edward IV. 1461. This union of profession was dissolved by a statute ofHjmy VIII. BARDS. The profession of bard appeared with great lustre in Gaul, Britain, and Ireland. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard by Homer ; Alexand not ascertained. . 3 Periodical ) 12 11 - 11 9 For six months -200 - 128 11 6 Total, 328. 212 THE AVORLD*S PROGRESS. [ BOl 240,000 men being engaged. Each party claimed the victory, because the loss of the other was so immense ; but it was rather in favor of Napoleon, for the Russians subsequently retreated, leaving Moscoav to its fate. The road being thus left open, the French entered Moscow, Sept. 14, with little opposition. But a signal reverse of fortune now took place, which preserved the Russian empire from ruin, and paved the way to the downfall of the French military power over Europe. See Moscow. BOROUGH. Anciently a company of ten families living together. The term has been applied to such towns as send members to parliament, since the election of burgesses in the reign of Henry III. 1265. Burgesses were first admitted into the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 — and into the Irish, 1365. BOROUGH ENGLISH. This was an ancient tenure by which the younger son inherits. Its origin is thus explained : in feudal times the lord is said to have claimed the privilege of spending the first night with the vassaFs bride, and on such occasions the land was made to descend to the next son, in con- sequence of the supposed illegitimacy of the elder. This kind of tenure is mentioned as occurring a. d. 834. It existed in Scotland, but was abolished by Malcolm III. in 1062. — Haydn. BOSPHORUS, now called Circassla. The history of this kingdom is involved in obscurity, though it continued for 530 years. It was named Cimmerian, from the Cimmeri, who dwelt on its borders. The descendants of Archean- actes of Mytilene settled in this country, but they were dispossessed by order of the emperor Spartacus, in 438 b. c. Mithridates conducted a pris- oner to Rome, by Claudius, and his kingdom soon afterwards made a pro- vince of the empire, a. d. 40. The strait of the Bosphorus was closed by the Turks, Sept. 8, 1828. It was blockaded by the Russian squadron under ad- miral Greig, Dec. 31, same year. See Dardanelles. BOSTON, the capital of Massachusetts, founded in August 1630. Here com- menced the American Revolution. British soldiers fired on the people, 1770. The celebrated " Tea-party" here, took place 1773. The port closed by par- liament 1774. British army evacuated Boston in March 1776. [See Lexing- ton and Bunker Hill.] The cause of American freedom was nowhere more actively sustained than by the peoj)le of Boston. Benjamin Franklin was born here, Jan. 17, 1706. John Hancock, the first signer of the Declaration of Independence, was a Bostonian. Boston incorporated as a city, 1822. Population in 1700, 7000; in 1790, 18.038; in 1810, 33.250 ; in 1820, 43,298; in 1830, 61,391 ; in 1845, 114,366. Tonnage of vessels in 1840, 220,243 tons. BOSWORTH FIELD, Battle of, the thirteenth and last between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., the former being slain, Aug. 22, 1485. The crown of Richard was found in a hawthorn bush, on the plain where the battle was fought, and Henry was so impatient to be crowned, that he had the ceremony performed on the spot with that very crown. In the civil con- tests between the "Roses," many of the most ancient fiimilies in the king- dom were entirely extinguished, and no less than 100,000 human beings lost their lives. BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder of the philosophy of botany. The Historia Plantaruvi of Theophrastus, written about 320 b. c. Authors on botany are numerous from the earlier ages of the world, to the close of the 15th century, when the science became better understood. The study was advanced by Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and others, between 1535 and 1600. — Melchior Adam. The system and arrangement of Linnaeus, the first botanist of modern times, made known about 1750. Jussieu's sy.s- BOU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 213 tern, in 1758. At the time of Linnseus's death, a. d. 1778, the species of plants actually described amounted in number to 11.800. The number of species of all denominations now recorded cannot fall short of 100,000. BOTANY BAY, originally fixed on for a colony of convicts from Great Britain. The first governor, Phillips, who sailed from England in May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in January, 1788. The bay had been discovered by cap- tain Cook in 1770, and the place took its name from the great variety of herbs which abounded on the shore. The colony was fixed at Port Jackson, al)0ut tliirteen miles to the north of the bay. See New South Wales and Transportation. BOTTLES, of glass, were first made in England, about 1558. — See Glass. The art of making glass bottles and drinking glasses was known to the Romans at least before 79 a. d., for these articles and other vessels have been found in the Ruins of Pompeii. A bottle which contained two hogsheads was blov>'n, we are told, at Leith, in Scotland, in January, 1747-8. BOULOGNE, Francb. Taken by the British in 1542, but restored to France upon the peace, 1550. Lord Nelson attacked Boulogne, disabling ten vessels, and sinking five. Aug. 3, 1801. Prince Louis Napoleon made a descent here with about fifty followers, Aug. 6, 1840. — See 7iext article and France. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA. This celebrated armament against England excited much attention for some years, but the grand demonstration v/sls made in 1804. In that year, Bonaparte had assembled 160,000 men and 10 000 horses, and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17. 000 sailors to invade England. The coasts of Kent and Sussex were covered with martello towers and lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult population of Britain was formed into volunteer corps. It is supposed that this French armament served merely for a demonstration, and that Bonaparte never seriousl}^ intended the inva- sion. BOUNDARY QUESTIONS, in the United States. Award of the king of the Netherlands on the boundary between Maine and the British possessions,- Jan. 10, 1831 (rejected by both parties). Collisions between the people of Maine and New Brunswick in the disputed territory on the Aroostook, 1838-9, suspended by a mutual agreement between sir J. Harvey, Governor of New Brunswick, governor Fairfield, of Maine, and general Scott, of the U. S. army, March 21, 1839. This boundary settled by the Treaty of Washing- ton, 1842. Oregon boundary — 49th parallel agreed upon as the northern boundary of the United States, in Oregon, by treaty signed at Washington, June 1846. BOUNTIES. They were first granted on the exportation of British commodi- ties — a new principle introduced into commerce bj^ the British parliament. The first bounties granted on corn, were in 1688. First legally granted in England for raising naval stores in America, 1703. Bounties have been granted on sail-cloth, linen, and other goods. — Eleme7its of Commerce. BOUNTY, MUTINEERS of the Ship. Memorable mutiny on board the Bounty, armed ship returning from Otaheite, with bread-fruit. The mutineers put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an open boat, near Annamooka, one of the Friendly Islands, April 28, 1789, and they reached the Island of Timor, south of the Moluccas, in June, after a perilous voyage of nearly 4000 miles, in which their preservation was next to miraculous. The mu.ti- neers were tried Sept. 15, 1792, when six were condemned, of whom three were executed. See Pitcairn's Island. BOURBON, House of. Anthony de Bourbon was the chief of the branch of Bourbon, so called from a fief of that name which fell to them by marriage with the heiress of the estate. Henry IV. of France and Navarre, justly 214 THE world's progress. [ BOI styled the Great, was son of Anthony, and came to the throne in 1589, The crown of Spain was settled on a younger branch of this family, and guaran- teed by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. — Rapin. The Bourbon Family Compact took place, 1761. The Bourbons were expelled France, 1791, and were restored, 1814. Re-expelled, and again restored, 1815. The elder branch was expelled once more, in the persons of Charles X. and his family in 1830, a consequence of the revolution of the memorably days of July in that year. — See France. BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese, in 1545. The French first settled here in 1672, and built several towns. The island surrendered to the British, July 2, 1810. It is near the Isle of France, and the two are styled the Mauritius. There occurred an awful hurricane here in February 1829, by which immense mischief was done to the shipping, and in the Island. See Mauritius. BOURDEAUX (or Bordeaux) was united to the dominions of Henry II. of England, by his marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine. Edward the Black Prince brought his royal captive, John, king of France, to this city after the battle of Poitiers, in 1356, and here held his court during eleven years : his son, Richard 11., (of Eng.) was born at Bourdeaux, in 1362. The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected in 1743. Bourdeaux was entered by the victorious British army, after the battle of Orthes, fought Feb. 25, 1814. BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Madame Antoinette Bourignon, a fanatic, who, in 1658, took the habit of St. Augustin, and travelled into France, Holland, England, and Scotland. In the last she made a strong partj^ and some thousands of sectarists, about 1670. She maintained that Christianity does not consist in faith or practice, but in an inward feeling and supernatu- ral impulse. This visionary published a book entitled the Light of the World, in which, and in several other works, she maintained and tauglit her pernicious notions. A disciple of hers, named Court, left her a good estate. She died in 1680. BOWLS, OR BOWLING, an English game, played as early as the thirteenth century, and once in great repute among the higher ranks. Charles I. played at it. It formed a daily share in the diversions of Charles II., at Tunbridge. — Memoircs de Gravimont. BOWS AND ARROWS. See Archery. The invention of them is ascribed to Apollo. Known in England previous to a. d. 450. The use of them was again introduced into England by the Conqueror, 1066 ; and greatly encour- aged by Richard I., 1190. — Baker's Chronicle. The usual range of the long- bow was from 300 to 400 yards ; the length of the boAv was six feet, and the arrow three. Cross-bows were fixed to a stock of iron or wood, and were discharged by a trigger. BOXING, OR PRIZE-FIGHTING, the pugilatiis of the Romans, and a favorite sport with the British, who possess an extraordinary strength in the arm an advantage which gives the British soldier great superiority in battles decid- ed by the bayonet. A century ago, boxing formed a regular exhibition, and a theatre was erected for it in Tottenham-court — Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, built 1742. Schools were opened in England to teach boxing as a science in 1790. Owing to the dishonest practices in the " ring," selling the victory, and one combatant allowing the other to beat him, &c., the fights have been fewer of late, and the number of the patrons of boxing have declined. BOYLE LECTURES. Instituted by Robert Boyle (son of the great earl oi Cork), an exceedingly good man and philosopher, distinguished by his genius, virtues, and unbounded benevolence. He instituted eight lectures in vindication of the Christian religion, which were delivered at St. Mary-le- BRA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 215 Bow church, on the first Monday in each month, from January to May, and September to November — endowed 1691, BOYNE, Battle of, between king William III. and liis father-in-law, James II., . fought July 1, 1690. The latter was signally defeated, his adherents losing 1500 men, and the Protestant army about a third of that number. James immediately afterwards fled to Dulilin, thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The duke of Schomberg was killed in the battle. BPv-ABANT. It was erected into a duchy a. d. 620, and devolved upon Lam- bert I. count of Louvain, in 1005, and from him descended to Philip 11. of Burgundy, and in regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In the seventeenth century it was held by Holland and Austria, as Dutch Brabant, and Walloon. These provinces underwent many changes in most of the great wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken by the French 1746 — again in 1794 by their Repubhc ; and it now forms part of the kingdom of Belgium, under Leopold, 1831. See Belgmm. BRACELETS. They were early worn and prized among the ancients ; we read of them in almost all nations ; those that were called armillcE, were usually distributed as rewards for valor among the Roman legions. — Nouv. Diet. Those of pearls and gold were worn by the Roman ladies ; and armlets are female ornaments to the present day. BRAGANZA, House of, owes its elevation to royalty to a remarkable and bloodless revolution in Portugal, a. d. 1640, when the nation, throwing off the Spanish yoke, which had become intolerable, advanced John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, on which this family continues to reign. — Abbe Vertot. BRAHMINS, a sect of Indian philosophers, reputed to be so ancient that Py- Miagoras is thought to have learned from them his doctrine of the Metemp- sychosis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philosophers went to India on pui'pose to converse with them. The modern Brahmins derive their name from Brahme, one of the three beings whom God, according to their theology, created, and with whose assistance he formed the world. They never eat flesh, and abstain from the use of wine and all carnal enjoy- ments. — Straho. The modern Indian priests are still considered as the de- positaries of the whole learning of India. — Holwell. BR ANDEN BURGH, Family of, is of great antiquity, and some historians say it was founded by the Sclavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, which signifies Giiard of the Forests. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, fortified Brandenburgh, a. d. 923, to serve as a rampart against the Huns. He be- stowed the gov(irnment on Sifroi, count of Ringelheim, with the title of Margrave, which signifies protector of the marches or frontiers, in 927. The emperor Sigismund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. of Nurem- berg, who was made elector in 1417. See Prussia. BRAND YWINE, Battle of, between the British royalist forces and the Ameri- cans, in which the latter were defeated with great loss, and Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors, September 11, 1777. BRASS. Its formation was prior to the Flood, and it was discovered in the seventh generation from Adam. — Bible. Brass was known among all the early nations. — Usher. The Britons from the remotest period were acquainted with its iise. — WhittaJcer. When Lucius Mumonius burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 b. c, the riches he found were immense, and during the confla- gration, it is said, all the metals in the city melted, and running together, formed the valuable composition since known under the name of Corinth- ian Brass. This, however, may well be doubted, for the Corinthian artists had long before obtained great credit for their method of combining gold 216 THE world's progress. [brb and silvei with copper ; and the Syriac translation of the Bible says, that Hiram made the vessels for Solomon's temple of Corinthian brass. Articles made of this brilliant composition, though in themselves trivial and insig- nificant, were yet highly valued. — Du Fresnoy. BRAZIL. It was discovered by Alvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, who was driven upon its coasts by a tempest in 1500. He called it the Land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently called Brazil on account of its red wood, and was carefully explored by Amerigo Vespucci, about 1504. The goldmines were first opened in 1684; and the diamond mines were discov- ered 1730 (see Diamo7ids). The French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the royal family and most of the nobles embarked for Brazil. A revolution took place here in 1821. Brazil was erected into an empire, when Don Pedro assumed the title of emperor, in November 1825. He abdicated the throne of Portugal, May 2, 1826 ; and that of Brazil, in favor of his infant son, now emperor, April 7, 1831, and returned to Portugal, where a civil war ensued. — See Portugal. BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, is reputed to have been the first who taught men (the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 1998 b. c. — Univ. Hlsi. Baking of bread was known in the patriarchal ages ; see Exodus xii. 15. Baking bread became a profession at Rome, 170 b. c. During the siege of Paris by Henry IV., owing to the famine which then raged, bread, which had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a pound, was at last made from the bones of the charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a. d. 1594. — Henault. In the time of James I. the usual bread of the poor was made of barley ; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, beaten to powder, is made into bread; and the poor use potato-bread in many parts of Ireland. Earth has been eaten as bread in some parts of the world : near Moscow is a portion of land whose clay will ferment when mixed with flour. The Indians of Lou- isiana C?) eat a white earth with salt ; and the Indians of the Oronooko eat a white unctuous earth. — Greig ; Phillips. BREAKWATER at PLYMOUTH. The first stone of this stupendous work was lowered in the presence of the army and navy, and multitudes of the great, August 12. 1812. It was designed to break the swell at Plymouth, and stretches 5280 feet across the Sound ; it is 860 feet in breadth at the bottom, and more than thirty at the top, and consumed 3,666,000 tons of granite blocks, from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841 ; and cost a million and a half sterling. The architect was Rennie. The first stone of the lighthouse on its Avestern extremity was laid Feb. 1, 1841. BREAST-PLATES. The invention of them is ascribed to Jason, 937 b. c. The breast-plate formerly covered the whole body, but it at length dwindled in the lapse of ages to the diminutive gorget of modern times. See Armor. BREDA. This city was taken by prince Maurice of Nassau in 1590 ; by the Spaniards in 1625 ; a-nd again by the Dutch in 1637. Charles II. resided here at the time of the Restoration, 1660. See Restoratio7i. Breda was taken by the French in 1793, and retaken by the Dutch the same year. The French garrison was shut out by the burgesses in 1813, when the power of France ceased here. BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this garment indicated slavery. It was worn by the Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations ; and in Italy, it is said, it was worn in the time of Augustus Caesar. In the reign of Ho- norius, about a. d. 394, the braccari, or breeches-makers, were expelled from Rome ; but soon afterwards the use of breeches was adopted in other conn- tries, and at length it became general. BRlJ DICTIONAPwY OF DATES. 217 BREMEN, a venerable Hanse town, and duchy, sold to George I. as elector of Hanover, in 1716. It was taken by the French in 1757 ; they were driven out by the Hanoverians in 1758 ; and it was again seized in 1806. Bremen was annexed by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its indepen- dence was restored in 1813. See Hanse Towns. BRESLAIT, Battle of, between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter under prince Bevern, who was defeated, but the engagement was most bloody on both sides, Nov. 22, 1757, when Breslau was taken ; but was regained the same year. This city was for some time besieged by the French, and sur- rendered to them January 5, 1807, and again in 1813. BREST. It Avas besieged by Julius Caesar, 54 b. c. — possessed by the English, A. D. 1378 — given up to the duke of Brittany, 1391. Lord Berkeley and a British fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the amount of some millions of pounds sterling, 1744. The marine hospitals, with fifty galley-slaves, burnt, 1766. The magazine again destroyed by a fire, July 10, 1784. From this great depot of the French navy, numerous squadrons were equipped against England during the late war. BRETHREN in INIQUITY. The designation arose from persons covenanting formerly to share each other's fortune, in any expedition to invade a coun- try, as did Robert de Oily and Robert de Ivery, in William I.'s invasion of England, 1066. BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with France at Bretigny, and by which Eng- land retained Gascony and Guienne, acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, Angoumois, aud Rovergne, and renounced her preten- sions to Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy; England was also to receive 3,000,000 crowns, and to release king John, who had been long prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. The breviary is a book of mass and prayer used by the church of Rome. It was first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; and both the clergy and laity use it publicly and at home. It was in use among the ecclesiastical orders about a. d. 1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and other popes. The qualit}^ of tjq^e in which the breviary was first printed gave the name to the type called brevier at the present day. BREWERS. The first are traced to Egypt. Brewing was known to our Anglo Saxon ancestors. — Tindal. " One William Murle, a rich maultman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses all traped with gold, 1414." — Slotve. There are about 1700 public brewers in England, about 200 in Scotland, and 250 in Ireland : these are exclusively of retail and intermediate brewers, of which there are in England about 1400; there are, besides, 28,000 victuallers, &c., who brew their own ale. In London, there are about 100 wholesale brewers, many of them in immense trade. Various statutes relating to brew^ers and the sale of beer have been enacted from time to time. See Beer. BRIBERY. In England an indictable offence to bribe persons in the adminis- tration of public justice. Thomas de Weyland, a judge, was banished the land for bribery, in 1288; he was chief justice of the Common Pleas. Wil- liam de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, was hanged for bribery in 1351. Another judge was fined 20,000^. for the like offence, 1616. Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the tower for bribery in 1712. Lord Strangford was suspended from voting in the Irish House of Lords, for soli- citing a bribe, January 1784. BRIBERY AT ELECTIONS, as in the preceding cases, made an indictable offence. Messrs. Sykes and Rumbold fined and imprisoned for bribery at 10 218 THE world's progress. [ BRi an election, March 14, 1776. An elector of Durham convicted, July 1803 ; and several similar instances have occurred since. BRICKS, for building, were used in the earliest times in Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Used in England by the Romans, about a. d. 44. Made under the direction of Alfred the Great, about 886. — Saxon Chron. The size regulated by order of Charles I. 1625. Taxed, 1784. The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 1820 W4is 949,000,000 ; in 1830, the number exceeded 1,100,000,000; and in 1840 it amounted to 14,000,000,000. See Building. BRIDAL CEREMONIES. Among the more rational ceremonies observed by Ihe ancients, was the practice of conducting the bride to the house of her spouse on a chariot, which was afterwards burned ; it originated with the Thebans, and was intended as a symbol of the bride's future dependence on her husband, from whom there was no chariot to convey her back to her parents ; it is mentioned 880 b. c. BRIDEWELL. Originally the name of a roj^al palace of king JoLn, near Fleet-ditch, London ; it was built anew by Henry VIII. in 1522, and was given to the city by Edward VI. in 1553. There are several prisons of this name throughout England. The first London Bridewell was in a locality near to Bride's well ; but this is no reason, as is justly observed, why simi- lar prisons, not in a similar locality, should have this name. BRIDGES. So early and general, and the expedients for their construction so various, their origin cannot be traced ; they were first of wood. The ancient bridges in China are of great magnitude, and were built of stone. Abydos is famous for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across the Hellespont. Trajan's magnificent stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, was built in A. D. 103. The Devil's bridge in the canton of Uri, so called from its frightful situation, was built resting on two high rocks, so that it could scarcely be conceived how it was erected, and many fabulous stories were invented to account for it. At Shaflfhausen an extraordinary bridge was built over the Rhine, which is there 400 feet v/ide : there was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubtful whether the bridge rested upon it ; a man of the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, yet wagons heavily laden passed over without danger. This bridge was destroj^ed by the French in 1799. Suspension bridge at Niagara Falls completed July 29, 1848. BRIDGES IN ENGLAND. The ancient bridges in England were of wood, and were fortified with planks and merlined ; the first bridge of Stone was built at Bow, near Stratford, a. d. 1087. Westminster bridge, then the finest erected in these realms, and not surpassed by any in the world, except in China, was completed in twelve years, 1750. The other London bridges are Blackfriars, completed 1770 ; London, (rebuilt) 1831 ; South wark, of iron, 1819. The first iron bridge, on a large scale, was erected over the Severn, in Shropshire, 1779. The finest chain suspension bridge is that of the Menai Strait, completed in 1825. Hungerford suspension bridge, 1845. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first great work of the kind in England, was begun by the duke of Bridgewater, styled the father of canal navigation in that couutrj^ in 1758 : Mr. Brindley was the architect. The canal com- mences at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at Barton-bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the navigable river Irwell ; its length is twenty-nine miles. BRIEF. A written instrument in the Catholic church, of early but uncertain date. Briefs are the letters of the pope dispatched to princes and others on public affairs, and are usually written short, and hence the name, and are without preface or preamble, and on paper ; in which particulars they are BRI J DICTIONARY OP DATES. 219 distinguished from bulls. The latter are ample, and always written on parchment ; a brief is sealed with red wax, the seal of the fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, and always in presence of the pope ; they are used for graces and dispensations, as well as business. BRIENNE, Battle of, between the allied armies of Russia and 'Prussia, and the French, fought on the 1st, and resumed on the 2d February, 1814. The ahies were defeated with great loss ; this was one of the last battles in which the French achieved victory, previously to the fall of Napoleon. tJRISTOL. This city, one of the principal in England, was built by Brennus, a prince of the Britons, 880 b. c. It was granted a charter and became a distinct county in the reign of Edward III, Taken by the earl of Glouces- ter, in his defence of his sister Maude, the empress, against king Stephen, 1138. Bristol was attacked with great fury by the forces of Cromwell, 1655. Riot at Bristol, on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the >ecorder, into the city, attended by a large police and special force, to open the .sessions. He being politically obnoxious to the lower order of the citizens, a riot en- sued, which was of several days' continuance, and which did net terminate until the mansion-house, the bishop's palace, several merchants' stores, some of the prisons (the inmates liberated), and nearly 100 houses were burned, and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831. Trial of the rioters, Jan. 2, 1832; four were executed, and twenty-two transported. Suicide of col. Brereton during his trial by court-martial, Jan. 9, same year. BRITAIN. The earhest records of the history of this island are the manu- scripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The Celts were the ancestors of the Britons and modern Welsh, and were the first inhabitants of Britain. Bri- tain, including England, Scotland, and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name of Britain being applied to all the islands collectively — Albion to only one. — Pliny. The Romans first invaded Britain under Julius Caesar, 55 B. c, but they made no conquests. Tho emperor Claudius, and his gen- erals, Plautius, Vespasian, and Titus, subdued several provinces after thirty pitched battles with the natives, a. d. 43 and 44. The conquest was com- pleted by Agricola, in the reign of Domitian, a. d. 85. First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under Julius Caesar - - b. c. 55 Cymbeline, king of Britain - - 4 Expedition of Claudius into Britain, a. d. 40 London founded by the Romans - 49 Caractacus carried in chains to Rome - 51 The Romans defeated by Boadicea; 70,000 slain, and London burnt - 61 A vast army of Britons is defeated by Suetonius, and 80,000 slain - - 61 Reisr. of Lucius, the first Christian king of Britain, and in the world - - 179 Severus keeps his court at York, then called Eboracum - - - 207 He dies at York - - - - 211 Carausius, a tyrant, usurps the throne of Britain - - - - 286 He is killed by Alectus, who continues the usurpation - - - . 293 Constantius recovers Britain by the de- feat of Alectus .... 296 Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York - ' - - - A. D. 306 The Roman forces are finally with- drawn from Britain - 420 to 426 The Saxons and Angles are called in to aid the natives against their northern neighbors the Picts and Scots - 449 Having expelled these, the Anglo-Sax- ons attack the natives themselves, driving them into Wales - - 455 Many of the natives settle in Armorica, since called Brittany - - - 457 The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven kmgdoms - - - 457 Reign of the renowned Arthur - - 506 Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and establishment of Christianity - - 596 Cadwallader, last king of ihe Britons, be-jfan his reign - - - 678 The Saxon Heptarchy ends - - 823 See England., and also Tabular Views, p. 75, &c. That Britain formerly joined the Continent has been inferred from the simi- lar cliffs of the opposite coasts of the English Channel, and from the con- stant encroachments of the sea in still widening the channel. For mstance, a large part of the cliffs of Dover fell, estimated at six acres, Nov. 27, 1810. Phillips's Annals. FTUTISH MUSEUM. The origin of this great national institution was tho 220 THE world's progress. [ BR» grant by parliament of 20,OOOZ, to the daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in pay- ment for his fine library, and vast collection of the productions of nature and art, which had cost him 50,000Z. The library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., and 69,352 articles of vertu were enumerated in the cat- alogue of curiosities. The act was passed April 5, 1753 ; and in the same year Montagu-house was obtained by government as a place for the recep- tion of these treasures. The museum has since been gradually increased to an immense extent by gifts, bequests, the purchase of every species of curiosity, MSS., sculpture and work of art, and by the transference to its rooms of the Cottonian, Harleian, and other libraries, the Elgin marbles, &c. George IV. presented to the museum the library collected at Bucking- ham-house by George III. — See Cottonian Library, and other collections. BROAD SEAL of ENGLAND, first affixed to patents and other grants of the crown, by Edward.the Confessor, a. d. 1048. — Baker's Citron. BROCADE. A silken stuff variegated with gold or silver, and raised and en- riched with flowers and various sorts of figures, originally made by the Chi- nese. — Johnson. The trade in this article was carried on by the Venetians. — Anderson. Its manufacture was established with great success at Lyons, in 1757. BROCOLI: an Italian Plant. — Pardon. The white and purple, both of which are varieties of the cauliflower, were brought to England from the Isle of Cyprus, in the seventeenth century. — Anderson. About 1603. — Burns. The cultivation of this vegetable was greatly improved in the gardens of Eng- land and came into great abundance about 1680. — Anderson. BROKERS. Those both of money and merchandise were known early in Eng- land. See Appraisers. Their dealings were regulated by law, and it was enacted that they should be licensed before transacting business, 8 and 9 William III. 1695-6. The dealings of stock-brokers were regulated by act 6 George I. 1719, and 10 George II. 1736. — Statutes at large. See Pawn- brokers. BRONZE, known to the ancients, some of whose statues, vessels, and various other articles, made of bronze, are in the British Museum. The equestrian statue of Louis XIV., 1699, in the Place Venddme at Paris, (demolished Aug. 10, 1792,) was the most colossal ever made ; it contained 60,000 lbs. weight of bronze. Bronze is two parts brass and one copper, and the Greeks added one fifteenth of lead and silver. BROTHELS, were formerlj^ allowed in London, and considered a necessary evil, under the regulation of a good police. They were all situated on the Bank- side, Southwark, and subject to the jurisdiction of the bishop of Winches- ter ; and they were visited weekly by the Sheriff's officers, and the severest penalties being enacted against keeping infected or married women, 8 Henry 11. 1162. — Survey of London. Brothels tolerated in France, 1280. Pope SixtTis IV. licensed one at Rome, and the prostitutes paid him a weekly tax, which amounted to 20,000 ducats a year, 1471. — Ital. Chron. BROWNISTS, a sect founded by a schoolmaster in Southwark, named Robert Brown, about 1615. It condemned all ceremonies and ecclesiastical distinc- tions, and affirmed that there was an admixture of corruptions in all other connnunions. But the foimder subsequently recanted his doctrines for a benefice in the church of England. — Colliiis's Eccles. Hist. BRUCE'S TRAVELS, undertaken to discover the source of the Nile. The illustrious Bruce, the " Abyssinian Ti'aveller,"' set out in June 1768, and pro- ceeding first to Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jidda, pa.ssed some months in Arabia Felix, and after various detentions, reached Gondar, the capital o/ Abys- '^UC ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 221 sinia, in Feb. 1770. On Nov. 14th, 1770, he obtamed the great object of hia wishes— a sight of the sources of the Nile. Bruce returned to England in 1773, and died in 1794, BRUNSWICK, House of. This house owes its origin to Azo, of the family of Este. Azo died in 1055, and left, by his Mife Cunegonde (the heiress of Guelph III., duke of Bavaria), a son who Avas Guelph IV., the great-grand- father of Henry the Lion. This last married Maude, daughted of Henry II. of England, and is always looked upon as being the founder of the Bruns- wick family. The dominions of Henry the Lion were the most extensive of any prince of his time ; but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., he drew the emperor's re- sentment on him, and in the diet of Wurtzburg, in 1179, he was proscribed. The duchy of Bavaria was given to Otho, from whom is descended the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony, to Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt ; and his other territories to different persons. On this, he retired to England ; but on Henry's intercession, Brunswick and Lunenburg were restored to him. The house of Brunswick has divided into several branches. The present duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel is sprung from the eldest ; the duke of Brunswick-Zell was from the second ; and from this last sprang the royal family of England, A revolution took place at Bruns- wick, when the ducal palace was burnt, and the reigning prince obliged to retire and seek shelter in England, Sept. 8, 1830. BRUSSELS, founded by St. Gery of Cambray, in the seventh century. The memorable bombardment of this city by Marshal Villeroy, when 14 churches and 4000 houses Avere destroyed, 1695. Taken by the French, 1746. Again, by Dumouriez, 1792. The revolution of 1830 commenced here, Aug. 25. — See Belgium. This town is celebrated for its fine lace, camlets, and tapestry. There is here a noble building, called the Hdtel de Ville, whose tur- ret is 364 feet in height ; and on its top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, which turns with the wind. Riot in Brussels, in which the costly furniture of 16 principal houses was demolished, in consequence of a dis- play of attachment to the house of Orange, 5th April, 1834. BUBBLE COMPANIES, in commerce, a name given to projects for raising money upon false and imaginary grounds, much practised, often with disas- trous consequences, in France and England, in 1719 and 1721. Many such projects were formed in England and Ireland in 1825. See Companies, and Law's Bubble. BUCCANEERS. These piratical adventurers, chiefly French. English, and Dutch, commenced their depredations on the Spaniards of America, soon after the latter had taken possession of that continent and the West Indies. The principal commanders of the first expedition were, Montbar, Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan, Avho murdered thousands, and plundered millions. The expedition of Van Horn, of Ostend, Avas undertaken in 1603 ; that of Gramont, in 1685 ; and that of Pointis, in 1697. BUCHANITES. Hundreds of deluded fanatics, folloAvers of Margaret Buchan, who promised to conduct them to the ncAv Jerusalem, and prophesied the end of the world. She appeared in Scotland in 1779, and died in 1791, AA'hen her folloAvers dispersed. BUCHAREST, Treaty of. The preliminaries of peace ratified at this place between Russia and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth should be the frontier limit of those empires, signed May 28, 1812. The subsequent war between those poAvers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. BUCKINGHAM PALACE, London. Buckingham-house, built 1703. Avas pulled down in 1825, and the new palace commenced on its site • and after 222 THE world's progress. [bxti. expenditure which must have approached a million sterling, it was com- pleted, and was taken possession of by queen Victoria, July 13, 1837. BUCKLERS. Those used in single combat were invented by Proetus and Acri- sius, of Argos, about 1370 b. c. When Lucius Papirius defeated the Sam- nites, he took from them their bucklers, Avhich were of gold and silver, 309 B. c. See article Armor. BUCKLES. The wearing of buckles commenced in the reign of Charles II. ; but people of inferior rank, and such as affected plainness in their garb, wore strings in their shoes some years after that period : these last were, however, ridiculed for their singularity in using them. BUDA ; once called the Key of Christendom. It was taken by Solyman II. at the memorable battle of Mohatz, when the Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of his subjects were carried away captives, 1526. Buda was sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put to the sword, and Hun- gary A\as annexed to the Ottoman empire, 1540. Retaken by the Imperial- ists, and the Mahometans delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. See Hungary. BUENA VISTA, Battle of, between the American force, of about 5.000 men, un- der general Taylor and general Wool ; and the Mexicans, about 20,000, under Santa Anna : the latter defeated with the loss of 2500 killed and wounded. American loss, 264 killed, 450 wounded. This victory securing to the Ameri- cans the whole of the northern provinces of Mexico, Feb. 22, 1847. BUENOS AYRES. The capital was founded by Pedro Mendoza, in 1535. It was taken by the British under sir Home Popham, June 21, 1806 ; and was retaken, after an attack of three days, Aug 12. the same year. The British suffered a great repulse here under general Whitelock, who was disgraced, July 6. 1807. Declaration of independence of this province, July 19, 1816: the treaty was signed February 1822. To put a stop to a war between Bue- nos Ayres and Monte Video, Englai>d and France blockaded the port of Bue- nos Ayres, Oct. 24, 1845; the troops of Buenos Ayres under general Rosas, defeated by the combined forces, Nov. 20, 1845. BUFFOONS. These were originally mountebanks in the Roman theatres. The shows of the buffoons were discouraged by Domitian, and were finally abol- ished by Trajan, a. d. 98. Our ancient kings had jesfe?-s, who are described as being, at first, practitioners of indecent raillery and antic postures ; they were employed under the Tudors. Some writers state that James I. con- verted the jesters into poet-laureates ; but poet-laureates existed long before ; Selden traces the latter to 1251. — Warton. BUILDING. The first structures were of wood and clay, then of rough stone, and in the end the art advanced to polished marble. Building with stone Avas early among the Tyrians ; and as ornaments and taste arose, every nation pursued a different system. The art of building with stone may be referred in England to Benedict, or Benet, a monk, about a, d. 670. The first bridge of this material in England was at Bow, in 1087. Building with brick was introduced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred encouraged it in England, in 886. Brick-building was generally introduced by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being then almost built of wood. The increase of building in London was prohibited within three miles of the city gates by Elizabeth, who ordered that one family only should dwell in one house, 1580. BULGARIANS. They defeat Justinian, a. d. 687 ; and are subdued by the emperor Basilius, in 1019. On one occasion, this emperor having taken 15,000 Bulgarians prisoners, he caused their eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his countrymen BUO] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 223 home, Bulgaria Vas governed by Roman dukes till 1186; subdued by Bajazet, 1396. — Univ. Hist. vol. xvii. BULL, OR EDICT of the POPE. This is an apostolical rescript, of ancient use, and generally written on parchment. The bull is, properly, the seal, deriving its name from bulla, 'and has been made of gold, silver, lead, and wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul ; and on the other, the name of the pope, and the year of his pontificate. The celebrated golden bull of the emperor Charles IV. was so called because of its golden seal ; and was made the fundamental law of the German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, a. d. 1356. Bulls denouncing queen Elizabeth and her abet- tors, and consigning them to hell-fire, accompanied the Spanish Armada, 1588. BULL-BAITING, or BULL-FIGHTING. This atrociously criminal sport of Spain and Portugal is somewhat equivalent in those countries to the fights of the gladiators among the Romans. It is recorded as being an amuse- ment at Stamford so early as the reign of John, 1209. Bull-running was a sport at Tutbury in 1374. In the Sports of England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls and huge bears were baited with dogs ;" and near the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amusement. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown out in the Commons, chiefly through the influence of the late Mr. Windham, who made a singular speech in favor of the cus- tom. May 24, 1802.^Butler. It has since been declared illegal. See Crii- elty to Animals. Bull-fights were introduced into Spain about 1260: abol-. ished there, " except for pious and patriotic purposes," in 1784. There was a bull-fight at Lisbon, at Campo de Santa Anna, attended by 10,000 specta- tors, on Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLETS. Those of stone were in use a. d, 1514 ; and iron ones are first mentioned in the Fadera, 1550. Leaden bullets were made before the close of the sixteenth century, and continue to be those in use in all nations for musketry. The cannon-ball in some Eastern countries is still of stone, instead of iron. — Ashe. BUNKER HILL, Battle of, (near Boston,) between the British under Howe, and the Americans under Prescott and Putnam, June 17, 1775. British loss, 1054 killed and wounded ; iVmerican, 453. The latter obliged to retreat for want of powder. But this, the first important battle of the revolution, has always justly been regarded as a great victory for the American cause, and is so commemorated by the granite obelisk on the battle-ground, of which the corner-stone was laid by general La Fayette, in 1825. " It was finished July 23, 1842, at the cost altogether of about $100,000, raised by voluntary contributions. The height is 220 feet. Its completion celebrated by a pro- cession, &c., and an oration by Daniel Webster ; president Tyler and 50,00C people present, June 17, 1843. BUONAPARTE S EMPIRE of FRANCE. Napoleon Bonaparte, the most extraordinary man of modern times, ruled over France, and subdued most of the nations of the Continent, in the early part of the present century. See his various military and other achievements under their respective heads "/hroughout the volume : — Napoleon bom at Ajaccio, in Italy, Deposes the French directory, and be- Aug. 15, 1769 comes first consul - Nov. 9, 1799 He first distinguishes himself in the Sends overtures of peace to the king of command of the artillery at Toulon - 1793 England - - - .Jan. 1, 1800 lie embarks for Egypt - May 10, 1798 His life attempted by an " infernal ma- Is repulsed before Acre • May 27, 1799 chine" - - - Dec. 21. 1800 He returns from Egypt - Aug. 23, 1799 je24 THE WOKLD's progress. [bur. BUONAPARTE'S EMPIRE of FRANCE, continued. Is defeated at Waterloo Elected president of the Italian, late Cisalpine, republic - Jan. 25, 1802 Elected consul for 10 years - May 8, 1802 Made first consul for life - Atig. 2, 1802 Accepts the title of emperor from the senate in name of the people May 18, 1804 Crowned emperor by the pope Dec 2, 1804 Crowned king of Italy - May 26, 1805 Divorced from the empress Josephine Dec. 16, 1809 Marries Maria Louisa - April 7, 1810 A son, the fruit of this marriage, born, and styled king of Rome - March 20, 1811 His overtures of peace to England re- jected - - - April 14, 1812 [The reverses of Bonaparte now follow in quick succession.] He renounces the thrones of France and Italy, and accepts of the Isle of Elba for his retreat - April 5, 1814 Embarks at Frejus - - April 28, 1814 Arrives at Elba • - May 3, 1814 Again appears in France ; he quits Elba and lands at Cannes - March 1, 1815 Enters Lyons - - March 10, 1815 Arrives at Fontainebleau March 20, 1815 Joined by all the army - March 22, 1815 The allies sign a treaty for his exter- mination - - - March 25. 1815 He abolishes the slave-trade March 29! 1815 June 18, 1815 Returns to Paris - June 20, 1815 And abdicates in favor of his infant son - - - June 22, 1815 Intending to embark for America, he arrives at Rochefort - July 3, 1815 He surrenders to Capt. Maitland, of the Better opho7i - - July 15, 1815 Transferred at Torbay to the Northum- berland,and sails for St. Helena Aug. 8, 1815 Arrives at St. Helena (where it is de- creed by the allied sovereigns he shall remain for life) - Oct. 15, 1815 The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from France by the law of am- nesty - - . Jan. '2, 1816 Death of Bonaparte - May 5, 1821 His will registered in England - Aug. 1824 His son, ex-king of Rome, dies July 22, 1832 The French chambers decree, with the consent of England, that the ashes of Napoleon be removed from St. Hele- na, and brought to France - May 12, 1 840 They are exhumed - Oct. 16, 1840 The Belle Poule, Fi'ench frigate, arrives at Cherbourg with the -«mains of Napoleon, in the care of :he prince de Joinville - - Nov. 30, 1840 They are interred with great solemnity in the Hotel des Invalides - Dec. 15, 1840 Leaves Paris for the army • June 12, 1815 BURGESS, from the French Bourgeois, a distinction coeval in England with its corporations. Burgesses were called to parliament in England a. d. 1265 ; in Scotland, in 1326 ; and in Ireland, about 1365. Burgesses to be resident in the places which they are elected to represent in parliament, 1 Henry V. 1413. — Vr/ier^s Statutes. See Borough. BURGLARY. Until the reign of George IV. this crime, in England, was pun- ished with death. BURGOS. Siege of. Wellington entered Burgos after the battle of Salamanca, which was fought July 22, 1812, and the castle was besieged by the British and allied army, and several attempts were made to carry it by assault, but the siege was abandoned in October, same year. The castle and fortifica- tions were blown up by the French in June 1813. BURGUNDY. This kingdom begins in Alsace, a. d. 413. Conrad II. of Ger- many being declared heir to the kingdom, is opposed in his attempt to an- nex it to the empire, when it is dismembered, and on its ruins are formed the four provinces of Burgundy, Provence, Viennes, and Savoy, 1034. Bur- gundy becomes a circle of the German empire, 1521. It falls to Philip li. of Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecutions cause a revolt in the Batavian provinces, 1566. After various changes, Burgundy annexed to France, and formed into departments of that kingdom. BURIAL. The earliest and most rational mode of restoring the body to earth. The first idea of it was formed by Adam, on his observing a live bird cover- ing a dead one with leaves. Barrows were the most ancient graves. See Barrows. Places of burial were consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in 210.— Eusehius. The first Christian burial-place was instituted in 596 ; burial in cities, 742 ; in consecrated places, 750 ; in church-yards, 758, Vaults were erected in chancels first at Canterbury, 1075. Woollen shrouds used in Eng- land, 1666. Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 1729; and woollen shrouds used, 1733. Burials were taxed, 1695 — again, 1673.. See Cemeteries. BURIALS. Parochial registers of them, and of births and marriages, were in- BUPv J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 225 stituted in Englapd by Cromwell, Lord Essex, about 1536.— 5^^^^^. A tax was exacted on burials in England : for the burial of a duke, £50 and foi that of a common person 4s., under William III., 1695, and Geo III 1783 — Statutes. See Bills of Mortality. BURKING. A new and horrible species of murder committed in England. It was thus named from the first known criminal by whom the deed was perpe- trated bemg called Burke. His victims were strangled, or made lifeless by pressure, or other modes of suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no marks of violence, were afterwards sold to the surgeons for the purpose of dissection. Burke was executed at Edinburgh in February 1829. The crime has been more recently perpetrated by a gang of murderers in London. Ihe monster named ^isAo;? was apprehended in November 1831, and exe- cuted with Williams., one of his accomphces, for the murder of a poor Italian boy, named Carlo Ferrari, a friendless wanderer, and therefore selected as being less likely to be sought after (they confessing to this and other similar murders), December 5, same year. BURMESE EMPIRE. Founded in the middle of the last century, by Alom- pra, the first sovereign of the present dynasty.— See India BURNING ALIVE. This punishment was inflicted among tlK Romans, Jews and other nations, on the betrayers of councils, incendiaries, and for incest m the ascending and descending degrees. The Jews had two ways of burn- ing alive : one with wood and faggots to burn the body, the other by pour- ing scalding lead down the throat of the criminal, combustio animce to burn the soul.— See Suttees. BURNING ALIVE, in England. Even in England (see preceding article) burn- ing alive was a punishment upon the statute-book. The Britons punished heinous crimes by burning alive in wicker baskets. See Stonehen^e. This punishment was countenanced by bulls of the pope ; and witches suffered in this manner.— See Witches. Many persons have been burned alive on ac- count of religious principles. The first sufferer Avas sir William Sawtree parish priest of St. Osith, London, 3 Henry IV., February 9, 1401 In the reign of the cruel Mary numbers were burned, among others, Ridley bishop of London ; Latimer, bishop of Rochester ; and Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury, who were burned at Oxford in 1555 and 1556. Numerous others suffered this dreadful death in Mary's reign.* BURNING THE DEAD. The antiquity of this custom rises as high as the The- ban war ; it was practised among the Greeks and Romans, and the poet Ho- mer abounds with descriptions of such funeral obsequies. The practice was very general about 1225 b. c, and was revived by Sylla, lest the relics of the dead m graves should be violated ; and to this day the burning of the dead IS practised m many parts of the East and West Indies. BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS. Their power was not unknown to Archimedes, but the powers of these instruments are rendered wonderful ,y,i^® modern improvements of Settalla: of Tchirnhausen. 1680; of Buffon 1747 ; and of Parker and others, more recently. The following are experi- ments of the fu.'*ion of substances made with Mr. Parker's lens or burning mirror : ' ^ »«^ -IJu *^°'PP"^^'^^' that during the three years of Mary's reign in which these shockin<^ violences ^Inl^ I'^^fn'^^'^^^'"^'^ on, t^ere were 277 persons brought to the stake; besides "those who ^b Ih^nf o{ ?i "^ ^•^P^-i^^T''''' ^'?^'' '-^nd ,co"fi>^cations. Among those who suffered by fire were 5 l)ishops, 21 clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers dLriTnd'BonneV^Thri^t J'^' unprincipled agents of this merciless queen were the bishopTGar: ^"k' nlSr^-n I^lS f^r.':^}LZr.t ^^^y-^ ^^h--^--' -^o seemed to d'enve a earage pleasure m witnessing the torture of the sufferers. 10* 226 THE world's progress. [ BYZ BURNING-GLASS and CONCAVE MIRRORS, continued. Substances fused. Weight. Timt A topaz ... 3 grains 45 seconds. An emerald - • 2 grains 25 seconds. A ci^stal pebble - 7 grains 6 seconds, Flint - - • - 10 grains 30 seconds. Cornelian - - 10 grains 75 seconds. Pumice stone - • 10 gi'ains 24 seconds. Substa/ices fused. Weight. Time. Pure gold - - 20 grains 4 seconds. Silver • - - 20 grains 3 seconds. Copper - - - 33 grains 20 seconds. Platma • - - 10 grains 3 seconds. Cast iron - - 10 grains 3 seconds. Steel - - - 10 grains 12 seconds. Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things, not capable of melting-, at once become red-hot like iron. BURYING ALIVE. A mode of death adopted in Boeotia, where Creon ordered Antigone, the sister of Polynices, to be buried alive, 1225 b. c. The Roman vestals were subjected to this horrible kind of execution for any levity in dress or conduct that could excite a suspicion of their virtue. The vestal Minutia was buried alive on the charge of incontinence, 337 b. c. The vestal Sextilia was buried alive 274 b. c. The vestal Cornelia a. d. 92. Lord Bacon gives instances of the resurrection of persons who had been buried alive ; the fa- mous Duns Scotus is of the number. The assassins of Capo d'Istria, Presi- dent of Greece, were (two of them) sentenced to be immured in brick walls built around them up to their chins, and to be supplied with food in this species of torture until they died, October, 1831. — See Greece. BUSTS. This mode of preserving the remembrance of the human features is the same with the hermcE of the Greeks. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the inventor of moulds from which he cast wax figures, 328 b. c. — Pliny. Busts from the face in plaster of Paris were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, about A. D. 1466. — Vasari. BUTCHERS. Among the Romans there w^ere three classes : the Suarii pro- vided hogs, the Boarii oxen, and the Lanii, whose office was to kill. The butchers' trade is very ancient in England ; so is their company in London, although it was not incorporated until the second year of James I. 1604. — Annals of London. BUTTER. It was late before the Greeks had any notion of butter, and by the early Romans it was used only as a medicine — never as food. The Chris- tians of Egypt burnt butter in their lamps, instead of oil, in the third cen- tury. In 1675, there fell in Ireland, during the winter time, a thick yellow dew, which had all the medicinal properties of butter. In Africa, vegetable butter is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from cow's milk. — Mungo Park. BUTTONS, of early manufacture in England ; those covered with cloth were prohibited by a statute, thereby to encourage the manufacture of metal but- tons, 8 George I. 1721. The manufacture owes nothing to encouragement from any quarter of late year.s, although it has, notwithstanding, much im- proved. — Phillips. BYRON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron left England, on his voyage round the globe, June 21, 1764, and returned May 9, 1766. In his voyage he dis- covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean which bears his name, Au- gust 16; 1765. Though brave and intrepid, such was his general ill fortune at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet, " Foul- weather Jack." — Bellchambers. BYZANTIUM. Now Constantinople, founded by a colony of Athenians, 715 B. c. — Eusebius. It was taken by the Romans, a. d. 73, and was laid in ruins by Severus in 196. Byzantium was rebuilt by Constantine in 338 ; and after him it, received the name of Constantinople. See Constantinople CAD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES, 227 c. CABAL. A Hebrew word, used in various senses. The rabbins were cabalists, and the Christians so called those who pretended to magic. In English his- tory, the Cabal was a council which consisted of five lords in administration, supposed to be pensioners of France, and distinguished by the appellation of the CabaL, from the initials of their names: Sir Thomas Chfford, the lord Ashley, the duke of Buckingham, lord Arlington, and the duke of Lauder- dale, 22 Charles II. 1670.— Hume. CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils in England so early as the reign of Ina, king of the West Saxons, a. d. 690; OfFa, king of the Mercians, 758, and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. The cabinet council, in which secret deliberations were held by the king and a few of his chosen friends, and the great officers of state, to be afterwards laid before the second council, now styled the privy council, Avas instituted by Alfred the Great, about a. d. 896. Spelman. The modern cabinet council, as at present constituted, was recon- structed in 1670, and usually consists of the following twelve members:* Lord president. Lord chancellor. Lord privy seal. First lord of the treasury. Chancellor of the exchequer. Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. President of the board of control. President of the boari of trade. Master of the mint. First lord of the admiralty. In 1841 the number was 14, and included the Secretary at War, the Woods and Forests, and Chief Secretary for Ireland, the Mint and the Board of Trade being united in right hon. H. Labouchere. The cabinet ministers of the various reigns will be found under the head Administrations of England. CABLES. Their use was known in the earliest times : a machine for making the largest, by which human labor was reduced nine-tenths, was invented in 1792. This machine was set in motion by sixteen horses, when making cables for ships of large size. Chain cables Avere introduced into the British navy in 1812, C ADDEE, OR League of God's House. The celebrated league of independence in Switzerland, formed by the Grisons, to resist domestic tyranny, a. d. 1400 to 1419. A second league of the Grisons was called the Grise or Gray league, 1424. CADE'S INSURRECTION. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a fugitive from his coun- try on account of his crimes, assumed the name of Mortimer, and headed 20,000 Kentish men, who armed "to punish evil ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." Cade entered London in triumph, and for some time bore down all opposition, and beheaded the lord treasurer, Lord Saye, and several other persons of consequence. The insurgents at length losing ground, a general pardon was proclaimed ; and Cade, finding himself de- serted by his followers, fled : but a reward being offered for his apprehen- sion, he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, 1451, CADIZ, formerly Gades, was built by the Carthaginians 530 b. c. — Priestley. One hundred vessels of the armament preparing, as the Spanish Armada, The term cabinet council is of comparatively modern date, and originated thus : the afiairs of state, in the reign of Charles I. were principally managed by the archbishop of Canterbury, the earl of Strafford, and the lord Cottington; to these were added tlie earl of Northumberland, for or- nament; the bishop of I^ondon for his place, being lord treasurer ; the two secretaries, Va;:?e and Windebank, for service and intelligence ; only the marquis of Hamilton, by his skill and interest, meddled just so far, and no further, than he had a mind. These persons made up the committee of Btate, reproachfully called the junto, and aftervvards, enviously, the cabinet council. — Lord Ciji- REND ON. 228 THE world's progress. [cal against England, were destroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake, 1587. Cadiz was taken by the English, under the earl of Essex, and plundered, September 15, 1596. It was attempted by sir George Rooke in 1702, but he failed. Bombarded by the British in 1797, and blockaded by their fleet, under lord St. Vincent, for two years, ending in 1799. Again bombarded by the British, on board whose fleet were 18,000 land forces, October 1800. Besieged by the French, but the siege raised after the battle of Salamanca in 1812. Massacre of the inhabitants by the soldiery, March 10, 1820. Cadiz was declared a free port in 1829. C^SARS, ERA OF the ; or Spanish Era, is reckoned from the first of January 38 B. c, being the year following the conquest of Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod held in 1180 its use was abolished in all the churches dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV., of Arragon, abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. John of Castile did the same in 1383. It continued to be used in Portugal till 1455. The months and days of this era are identical with the Julian calen- dar, and to turn the time into that of our era, subtract thirty-eight from the year; if before the Christian era subtract thirty-nine. CAI-FONG, in China. This city being besieged by 100,000 rebels, the com- mander of the forces who was sent to its relief, in order to droAvn the enemy, broke down its embankments : his stratagem succeeded, and every man of the besiegers perished ; but the city was at the same time overflowed by the waters, and 300,000 of the citizens were drowned in the overwhelming flood, A. D. 1642. CAIRO, OR GRAND CAIRO. The modern capital of Egypt, remarkable for the minarets of its mosques, and the splendid sepulchres of its caliphs in what is called the city of the dead : it was built by the Saracens, in a. d. 969. Burnt to prevent its occupation by the Christian invaders, called Cru- saders, in 1220. Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans, and their empire subdued, 1517. Ruined by an earthquake and a great fire, June, 1754, when 40,000 persons perished. Set on fire by a lady of the beglerbeg, Dec, 1755. Taken by the French imder Napoleon Bonaparte, July 23, 1798. Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French capitulated, June 27, 1801. CALAIS. Taken by Edward III. after a year's siege, Aug. 4, 1347, and held by England 210 years. It was retaken in the reign of Mary, Jan. 7, 1558, and the loss of Calais so deeply touched the queen's heart, historians say it occasioned her death, which occurred soon afterwards. Calais was bom- barded by the English, 1694. Here Louis XVIII. landed after his long exile from France, April 24, 1814. See France. CALCUTTA. The first settlement of the English here was made in 1689. It was purchased as a Zemindary, and Fort William built in 1698. Calcutta was attacked by a large army of 70,000 horse and foot, and 400 elephants, in June, 1756. On the capture of the fort, 146 of the British were crammed into the Black-hole prison, a dungeon about 18 feet square, from whence twenty-three only came forth the next morning alive. Calcutta was re- taken the following year, and the inhuman Soubah put to death. Supremo court of Judicature established 1773. College founded here 1801. — See Bengal and India. CALEDONIA. Now Scotland. The name is supposed by some to be derived from Gael or Gaehnen, or Gadel-doine, corrupted by the Romans. Tacitus, who died a. d. 99, distinguishes this portion of Britian by the appellation of Caledonia; but the etymology of the word seems undetermined. Vener- able Bede says, that it retained this name until a. d. 258, when it was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear Caledonian monarchy, said to have been founded by Fergus 1., about - b. c. 330 The Picts from the north of England settle in the southern borders - - 140 Agricola carries the Roman arms into Caledonia, with little success, in the reign of Galdus, otherwise called Cor- bred II. - - - a. d. 79 He is signally defeated by the forces of Corbred - - - - - 80 Christianity is introduced into Caledonia in the reign of Donald I. - - 201 fJAL ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 229 to have been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, avI,o passed over from the opposite coasts of Gaul. About the beginning of the fourth century of the Christian era, they were invaded (as stated by some autho- rities), by the Scuyths or Scythians (since called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into the north, settled in the Lowlands, and gave their name to the whole country. Hence the origin of that distinction of language, habits, customs, and persons, which is still so remarkable between the Highlanders and the inhabitants of the southern borders. The countiy is invaded by the Scuyths, or ^cots, and the government is over- thrown, about - - A. D. 30o The Caledonian monarchy is revived by Fergus II. - - . ..40^ After many sanguinary wars between the Caledonians, Picts, and Scots, Ken- neth II. obtains a victory over the Picts, unites the whoje country under one monarchy, and gives it the name of Scotland - - - 838 to 843 See Scotland. The origin of the Scots, it should be stated, is very uncertain ; and the his- tory of the country until the eleventh century, when Malcolm III., surnamed Canmore, reigned (1057) is obscure, and intermixed with many and improb- able fictions. CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. By means of this magnificent canal, the nautical intercourse between ihe western ports of Great Britain, and those also of Ireland, to the North Sea and Bal- tic, IS shortened in some instances 800, and in others, 1000 miles. A sum exceeding a million sterling was granted by parliament from time to time ; and this safe navigation for ships of nearly every tonnage was completed, and opened in 1822. CALENDAR. The Roman calendar, which has in great part been adopted by almost all nations, was introduced by Romulus, who divided the year into ten months, comprising 304 days, a. d. 738 b. c. The year of Romulus was of fifty days less duration than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less than the solar year, and its commencement did not, of course, correspond with any fixed season. Numa Pompilius, 713 b. c. corrected this calendar, by adding two months ; and Julius Csesar, desirous to make it more correct, fixed the solar year as being 365 days and six hours, 45 b. c. This almost perfect arrangement was denominated the Julian style, and prevailed gener- ally throughout the Christian world till the time of pope Gregory XIII. The calendar of Julius Csesav was defective in this particular, that the solar year consisted of 365 days, five hours, and forty-nine minutes : and not of 365 days six hours. This difierence, at the time of Gregory XIII. had amounted to ten entire days, the vernal equinox falling on the 11th, instead of the 21st of March. To obviate this error, Gregory ordained, in 1582, that that year should consist of 365 days only ; and to prevent further irregu- larity, it was determined that a year beginning a century should not be bis-^ sextile, with the exception of that beginning each fourth century : thus, 1700 and 1800 have not been bissextile, nor will 1900 be so ; but the year 2000 Mali be a leap year. In this manner three days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse of eleven minutes makes three days in about that period. The year of the calendar is thus made as nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar year ; and future errors of chronoloey are a scolded. See Neio Style. CALICO. The well-known cotton cloth, is named from Calicut, a city of India which was discovered by the Portuguese, in 1498. Calico was first brought to England by the East India Company, in 1631. Calico printing, and the 230 THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [ CAL Dutch loom engine, were first used in 1676. — Anderson. Calicoes were pro- hibited to be printed or worn, in 1700; and again, in 1721. They were first made a branch of manufacture in Lancashire, in 1771. See Cotton. CALIFORNIA, Lower, discovered by Grigalon, sent by Cortes, the conqueror of Mexico, 1534 ; explored by Cortes himself, 1536, and by his subordinate Ulloa, 1538. First settlement by Viscaino and a small colony sent out by Philip II. of Spain, 1596. Viscaino explored the coast and founded St. Diego and Monterey, and was the first Spaniard in Upper California, 1602. CALIFORNIA, Upper, discovered by sir Francis Drake, and named New Al- bion, 1596. The Spanish colonists having been expelled by the ill-used natives, the country was granted by Charles II. of Spain to the Jesuits, in 1697. Jesuit missions and Presidios established in New ""alifornia 1769. Eighteen missions established up to 1798. California a pro-vince of Mexico, 1824 ; the Mexican governor expelled from Monterey, 1836. California ex- plored by the United States expedition, under Wilkes, co-operating with that of Fremont, overland, in 1841-3. Another expedition under Fremont, 1845-6. Mexican war began 1845. San Francisco taken possession of by Com. Montgomery, July 8, 1845. Com. Stockton takes possession of Upper California May-August, 1846, and institutes United States military govern- ment. Movements of general Kearney, lieutenant Emory, &c., 1846. Cali- fornia secured to the United States by the treaty with Mexico, 1848. Gold placers first discovered on the grounds of captain Suter, February, 1848. Great emigration from the United States commenced November, 1848. Con- vention at Monterey for forming a state constitution, Aug. 31, 1849. Con- stitution adopted by popular vote, and P. H. Burnet chosen first governor, Dec. 1849. CALIPH. In Arabic, vicar, or apostle; the title assumed by the Sophi of Persia, in the succession of Ali, and by the Grand Seigniors as the succes- sors of Mahomet. The caliphat was adopted by Abubeker, the father of the Prophet's second wife, in whose arms he died, a. d. 631. In process of time the soldans or sultans engrossed all the civil power, and little but the title was left to the caliphs, and that chiefly in matters of religion. — Sir. T. Herbert. CALLIGRAPHY. Beautiful writing, in a small compass, invented by Callicra- tes, who is said to have written an elegant distich on a sesamum seed, 472 B. c. The modei'u specimens of this art are, many of them, astonishing and beautiful. In the sixteenth century, Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, creed, decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of the reign of queen Elizabeth, to whom he presented it at Hampton-court, all within the circle of a silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, and covered with crystal, so accu- rately done as to be plainly legible, to the great admiration of her majesty, the whole of the privy council, and several ambassadors then at court, 1574. — Holi7ished. CALLAO, IN Peru. Here, after an earthquake, the sea retired from the shore, and returned in mountainous waves, which destroyed the city, a. d. 1687. The same phenomenon took place in 1746, when all the inhabitants perished, with the exception of one man, who was standing on an eminence, and to whose succor a wave providentially threw a boat. CALOMEL. The mercurial compound termed calomel is first mentioned by Crollius, early in the seventeenth century, but must have been previously known. The first directions given for its preparation were those announced by Beguin, in 1608. It is said that corrosive sublimat-e was known somo centuries before. cam] dictionary of dates. ■ 231 CALVARY", Mount. The place where the Redeemer suffered death, a. d. 33. Calvary was a small eminence or hill adjacent to Jerusalem, appropriated to the execution of malefactors. See Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian at the time of his persecution of the Christians erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and a temple of Adonis on the mang-er at Bethlehem, a. d. 142. Here is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, whither pilgrims flock from all Christian countries. CALVINISTS. Named after their founder, John Calvin, the celebrated re- former of the Christian church from the Romish superstition and doctrinal errors. Calvin was a native of Noyon, in Picardy ; but adopting the princi- ples of the Reformers, he fled to Angouleme, where he composed his Insti- futio Christiana Religionis, in 1533, published about two years afterwards. He subsequently retired to Basle, and next settled in Geneva. Although he differed from Luther in essential points, still his followers did not consider themselves as different on this account from the adherents of Luther. A formal separation first took place after the conference of Poissy, in 1561, where they expressly rejected the tenth article of the confession of Augs- burg, besides some others, and took the name of Calvinists. CAMBRAY. The town whence the esteemed manufacture called cambric takes its name. This city was taken by the Spaniards by a memorable sur- prise, in 1595. Cambray was taken and retaken several times. In the war of the French revolution it was invested by the Austrians, August 8, 1793, when the republican general, Declay, replied to the Imperial summons to surrender, that " he knew not how to do that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." In the late war it was seized by the British under general sir Chas. Colville, June 24, 1815. The citadel surrendered the next day. and was occupied by Louis XVIII. and his court. CAMBRAY, League of. This was the celebrated league against the republic of Venice, comprising the pope, thQ emperor, and the kings of France and Spain ; and whereby Venice was forced to cede to Spain her possessions in the kingdom of Naples, entered into Dec. 10, 1508. CAMBRICS. A fabric of fine linen used for rufiies. — Shakspeare. Cambrics were first worn in England, and accounted a great luxury in dress, 22 Eliza- beth, Ib^^.Stowe. The importation of them was restricted, in 1745 ; and Avas totally prohibited by statute of 32 George II. 1758. Readmitted in 1786, but afterwards again prohibited : the importation of cambrics is now allowed. CAMBRIDGE, once called Granta., and of most ancient standing, being fre- quently mentioned in the earliest accounts of the oldest British historians. Roger de Montgomery destroyed it with fire and sword to be revenged of king William Rufus. The university is said to have been commenced by Sigebert, king of East Angles, about a. d. 631 ; but it lay neglected during the Danish invasions, from which it suffered much. Cambridge now contains thirteen colleges and four halls, of which first, Peter-house is the most ancient, and King's College the noblest foundation in Europe, and the chapel one of the finest pieces of Gothic architecture in the world. CAMERA LUCIDA. Invented by Dr. Hooke, about 1674— Wood's Ath. Ox. Also an instrument invented by Dr. Wollaston, in 1807. The camera ob- scura, or dark chamber, was invented, it is believed, by the celebrated Roger Bacon, in 1297 ; it was improved by Baptista Porta, the writer on natural magic, about 1600.— Moreri. Sir I. Newton remodelled it. By the recent invention of M. Daguerre, the pictures of the camera are rendered perma- nent ; the last was produced in 1839. CAMERONIANS. A sect in Scotland which separated from the Presbyterians, and continued to hold their religious meetings in the iie\ds.—Bur7iet. 232 THE world's progress. [ CAH CAMP. All the early warlike nations had camps, which are consequently most ancient. The disposition of the Hebrew encampment was, we are told, at first laid out by God himself. The Romans and Gauls had in- trenched camps in open plains ; and vestiges of such Roman encampments are existing to this day in numerous places in England and Scotland. The last camp in England was formed at Hyde Park in 1745. CAMPE ACHY-BAY. Discovered about a, d. 1520; it was taken by the Eng- lish in 1659 ; and was taken by the Buccaneers, in 1678 ; and by the free- booters of St. Doraingo, in 1685. These last burnt the town and blew up the citadel. The English logwood cutters made their settlement here, in 1662. CAMPERDOWN, Battle of. Memorable engagement off Camperdown, south of the Texel, and signal victory obtained by the British fleet under admiral Duncan, over the Dutch fleet, commanded by admiral de Winter ; the latter losing fifteen ships, which Avere either taken or destroyed, Oct. 11, 1797. CAMPO FORMIO, Treaty of, concluded between France and Austria, the latter power yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modena to the Cisalpine republic. This memor- able and humiliating treaty resulted from the ill success of Austria on the Rhine. By a secret article, however, the emperor took possession of the Venetian dominions in compensation for the Netherlands, Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA. This country was discovered by John and Sebastian Cabot, a. d, 1499, and was settled by the French, in 1608. but it had been previously visited by them. Canada was taken by the English, in 1628, but was re- stored in 1631. It was again conquered by the English, in 1759, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. This country was divided into two provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, in 1791 ; and it was during the debates on this bill in the British parliament, that the quarrel between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose. CANADIAN INSURRECTION. The Papineau rebellion commenced at Mon- treal, Dec. 6, 1837. The Canadian rebels came to an engagement at St, Eustace, Dec. 14, following. The insurgents surrounded Toronto, and were repulsed by the governor, sir Francis Head, Jan. 5, 1838. Lord Durham, governor general, Jan. 16, 1838. Lount and Mathews hanged as traitors, April 12, 1838. Lord Durham resigned, Oct. 9, 1838. Rebellion again man- ifested itself in Beauharnais, Nov. 3, 1838. The insurgents concentrated at Napierville under command of Nelson and others, Nov. 6 ; some skirmishes took place, and they were routed with the loss of many killed and several hundred prisoners. Sir John Colborne announced the suppression of the re- bellion in his dispatches dated Nov. 17, 1838. Lord Gosford, governor of Lower Canada, proclaims martial law, and a reward of .£1,000 for Papi- neau. Dec. 5, 1837. MLeod (charged Avith the destruction of the Caroline _ American steamer, at Schlosser, Dec. 30, 1837) acquitted at Utica, Oct. 12, 1841. President Van Buren's proclamation warning citizens of the United States against meddling v/ith the Canadian insurrection. Sir Charles Met- calfe, governor-general, 1844. Earl of Elgin appointed governor-general, took the oath, Jan. 30, 1847. Riots at Montreal, and burning of the Parlia- ment House by a mob (caused by the dissatisfaction about the act for paying losses by the late rebellion to some of the rebels themselves). Aug. 15, 1849. Movements in favor of annexation to the United States. Warning against such movements as high treason, proclaimed in the dispatch of earl Grey, the British colonial secretary, Feb. 1850. CANALS. The most stupendous in the world is a canal in China, which passes over 2000 miles, and to 41 cities, commenced in the tenth century. The canal of Languedoc which joins the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean CAN ] DICTlONAR-y OF DATES. 233 was commenced in 1666. That of Orleans, from the Loire to the Seine, com- menced in 1675. That between the Caspian Sea and the Baltic, commenced 1709. That from Stockholm to Gottenburg, commenced 1751. That between the Baltic and North Sea at Kiel, opened 1785. That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, commenced 1790. The first canal made in England was by Henry I., when the river Trent was joined to the Witham, a. d. 1134. That from the Durance to Marseilles, France, 83,000 metres, of which 17,000 are subterranean passages through the Alps, finished July 8. 1847. In Eng- land, there are 2800 miles of canals, and 2500 miles of rivers, taking the length of those only that are navigable— total, 5300 miles. In Ireland, there are but 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable rivers, and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below Limerick, making in all 510 miles.— Williams. CANALS IN THE UNITED STATES. Act for commencing the great Erie canal in New York, passed chiefly through the influence of De Witt Clinton, 1817. The canal (363 miles long) completed ; a grand celebration, 1825. Chesa- peake and Delaware canal opened, &c., July 4, 1829. CANARY ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients as the Fortu- nate Isles. The first meridian was referred to the Canary isles by Hipparchus, about 140 B. c. They were re-discovered by a Norman, named Bethencourt, A. D. 1402 ; and were seized by the Spaniards, who planted vines, which flourish here, about 1420. The canary-bird, so much esteemed in all parts of Europe, is a native of these isles ; it was brought into England in 1500. CANDIA, the ancient Crete, whose centre is Mount Ida, so famous in history. It was seized by the Saracens, a. d. 808, when they changed its name. Taken by the Greeks, in 961 ; sold to the Venetians, 1194, and held by them till the Turks obtained it, after a 24 years' siege, during which more than 200.000 men perished, 1669. CANDLE. The Roman candles were composed of strings surrounded by wax, or dipped in pitch. Splinters of wood, fatted, were used for light among the lower classes in England about a. d. 1300. At this time wax candles were little used, and esteemed a luxury, and dipped candles usually burnt. The wax-chandlers' company was incorporated, 1484. Mould candles are said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez of Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manufacture. The Chinese candles (see Candleberry Myrtle) are made from the berries of a tree, and they universally burn this wax, which is fragrant, and yields a bright light. CANDLEMAS-DAY. A feast instituted by the early Christians, who conse- crated on this day all the tapers and candles used in churches during the year. It is kept in the reformed church in memory of the purification of the Virgin Mary, who, submitting to the law under which she lived, pre- sented the infant Jesus in the Temple. Owing to the abundance of light, this festival was called Candlemas, as well as the Purification. The practice of lighting the churches was discontinued by English Protestants by an order of council 2 Edward VI. 1548 ; but it is still continued in the church of Rome. CANNtE, Battle of. One of the most celebrated in history, and most fatal to the Romans. Hannibal commanded on one side 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards ; and Paulus ^Emilius and Terentius Varro, 88,000 Romans, of whom 40,000 were ^IdJm.—Livy. The victor, Hannibal, sent three bushels of rings, taken from the Roman" knights on the field, as a trophy to Carthage. Neither party perceived an awful earthquake which occurred during the battle. The place is now denominated the field of blood ; fought May 21. 216 B. c. — Bossuet. CANNIBALISM has prevailed from the remotest times. The Greeks inform us that it was a primitive and universal custom, and many of the South 234 THE WORLD S r-ROG-RESS, [ CAJi American tribes anil natives of the South Sea Islands eat human flesh at the present day, and the propensity for it prevails more or less in all savage nations. St. Jerome says, that some British tribes ate human flesh ; and the Scots from Galloway killed and eat the English in the reign of Henry I. The Scythians were drinkers of human blood. Columbus found cannibals in America. See Anthropophagi. CANNON. They are said to have been used as early as a. d. 1338. According to some of our historians they were used at the battle of Cressy in 134S ; but this Voltaire disputes. They are said to have been used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347. Cannon were first used in the English service by the governor of Calais, 6 Richard II. 1383. — Rymer^s Fadera. Louis XIV"., upon setting out oh his disastrous campaign against the Dutch, inscribed upon his cannon, " The last argument of kings." See Arlillery. CANNON, Remarkable, The largest known piece of ordnance is of brass, case in India in 1685. At Ehrenbreitstein castle, one of the strongest forts in Germany, opposite Coblentz on the Rhine, is a prodigious cannon eighteen feet and a half long, a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and three feet four inches in the breech. The ball made for it weighs 1801bs. and its charge of powder 941bs. The inscription on it shows that it was made by one Simon^ in 1529, In Dover castle is a brass gun called queen Elizabeth's pocket- pistol, which was presented to her by the States of Holland ; this piece is 24 feet long, and is beautifully ornamented, having on it the arms of the States, and a motto in Dutch, importing thus, " Charge me well, and sponge me clean, I'll throw a ball to Calais Green." Some fine specimens are to be seen in the Tower. A leathern cannon was fired three times In the King's Park, Edinburgh, Oct, 23, 1788. — Phillips. CANON. The first ecclesiastical canon was promulgated, a. d. 380. — Usher. Canonical hours for prayers were instituted in 391. The dignity of canon existed not previously to the rule of Charlemagne, about 768. — Paschier. Canon law was first introduced into Europe by Gratian, the celebrated canon law author, in 1151, and was introduced into England, 19 Stephen, 1154. — Stowe. CANONIZATION of pious men and martyrs as saints, was instituted in the Romish church by pope Leo III. in 800. — Tallenfs Tables. Saints have so accumulated, every day in the calendar is now a saint's day. — Renault. CANTERBURY. The Durovernum of the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, who reigned a. d. 560, Its early cathedral was erected during the Heptarchy, and was several times burnt, and rebuilt. It was once famous for the shrine of Becket (see Becket) and Avithin it are interred Henry IV. and Edward the Black Prince, CANTERBURY, Archbishopric of. This see was settled by St. Austin, who preached the gospel in England a, d. 596, and converted Ethelbert, king of Kent. The king, animated Avith zeal for his new religion, bestoAved great favors upon Austin, Avho fixed his residence in the capital of Ethelbert's dominions. The church Avas made a cathedral, and consecrated to Christ, although it Avas formerly called St. Thomas, from Thomas k Becket, mur- dered at its altar, December 1171. The archbishop is primate and metropo- litan of all England, and is the first peer in the realm, having precedency ot all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction over Ireland, and the archbishop Avas styled a patriarch. This see hath yielded to the church of Rome, 18 saints and 9 cardinals ; and to the civil state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord treasurers. St, Austin was the first bishop, 596 The see was made superior to York, 1073. cap] dictionary of dates. 235 — See York. The revenue is valued in the king's books at ;e2816. l*; 5. 9<^.— Beatsnn. CANTHARIDES. A venomous kind of insects which, when dried and pulver- ized, are used principally to raise blisters. They were first introduced into medical practice by Aretseus, a physician of Cappadocia, about 50 b. c. — Freind's History of l*hijsic. CANTON. The only city in China with which Europeans have been allowed up' to the present time to trade. Merchants first arrived here for this pur- pose in 1517. Nearly every nation has a factorj^ at Canton, but that of Eng- land surpasses all others in elegance and extent. Various particulars relating to this city will be found under the article China. In 1822, a fire destroyed 15,000 houses at Canton ; and an inundation swept away 10,000 houses and more than 1000 persons in October 1833. CAOUTCHOUC, or Indian Rubber, is an elastic resinous substance that exudes by incision from two plants that grov/ in Cayenne, Quito, and the Brazils, called HcBvia caoutchouc and Siphonia elastica, and vulgarly called syringe trees. It was first brought to Europe from South America, about 1733. — See India Rubber. CAP. The Romans went for many ages, without regular covering for the >ead, and hence the heads of all the ancient statues appear bear. But a; one period the cap was a symbol of liberty, and when the Romans gave it to their slaves it entitled them to freedom. The cap was sometimes used as a mark of infamy, and in Italy the Jews were distinguished by a yellow cap, and in France those who had been bankrupts were for ever after obliged to wear a green cap. The general use of caps and hats is leferred to the year 1449 ; the first seen in these parts of the world being at the entry of Charles VII. into Rouen, from which time they took the place of chaperons or hoods. A statute was passed that none should sell any hat above 2M. (40 cts.) nor cap above 25. 8^. (66 cts.) 5 Henry VII. 1489. CAPE BRETON, discovered by the English in 1584. It was taken by the French in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again taken in 1745 ; and re-taken in 1748. It was finally possessed by the English, when the garrison and marines, consisting of 5600 men, were made prisoners of war, and eleven ships of the French navy were captured or destroyed, 1758. Ceded to Eng land at the peace of 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, settled by the Portuguese, in 1610: but it soon fell to the Dutch. It was demolished by admiral Holmes, in 1661. All the British settlements, factories, and shipping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch admiral, de Ruyter, in 1665. . This Cape was confirmed to the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE; the geographical and commercial centre of the East Indies : it was discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, in 1486, and was originally- called the " Cape of Tempests," and was also named the " Lion of the Sea/' and the "Head of Africa." The name was changed by John II., king of Portugal, who augured favorably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached the extremity of Africa. The Cape was doubled, and the paasage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama, Nov. 20, 1497. Planted by the Dutch, 1651. Taken by the English, under admiral Elphlnstone and general Clarke, Sept. 16, 1795, and restored at the peace in 1802 ; again taken by sir David Baird and sir Home Popham, Jan. 8, 1806 ; and finally ceded to England in 1814. Emigrants began to arrive here from Britain in March, 1820. The Caffi-es have made several irruptions on the British settlementai here ; and they committed dreadful ravages at Grahamstown. in Oct, 1834, Battle between the English and the Boors, Aug. 26, 1848. 236 THE world's progress. [ CAP CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS. These islands were known to the ancients under the name of Gorgades ; but were not visited by the moderns till discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator in the service of Portugal, a. d. 1416. CAPE ST. VINCENT, Battles of. Admiral Rooke, with twenty ships of war, and the Turkey fleet under his convoy, was attacked by admiral Tourville, with a force vastly superior to his own, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, June 16, 1693. Battle of Cape St. Vincent, one of the most glorious achievements of the British navy. Sir John Jervis, being- in command of the Mediterranean fleet of flfteen sail, gave battle to the Spanish fleet of 27 ships of the line off" this Cape, and signally defeated the enemy, nearly double in strength, taking four ships, and destroying several others, Feb. 14, 1797. For this victory Sir John was raised to the English peerage, by the titles of baron Jervis and earl St. Vincent, with a pension of 8000Z. a year. CAPET, House of, the third race of the kings of France. Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, the first of this race (which was called from him Cape- vigians), was raised to the throne for his military valor, and public virtues, A. D. 987. — Heiiault. CAPITOL, the principal fortress of ancient Rome, in which a temple was built to Jupiter, thence called Jupiter Capitolimis. The foundation laid by Tar- quinius Prisons, 616 b. c. The Roman Consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which precious metal the roof was composed, whilst its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. De- stroyed by lightning, 188 b. c. ; by fire, a. d. 70. The Capitoline games in- stituted by Domitian, a. d. 86. C APPADOCIA. This kingdom was founded by Pharnaces, 744 b. c. The suc- cessors of Pharnaces are almost wholly unknown, until about the time of Alexander the Great, after whose death Eumenes, by defeating Ariarathes H. became king of Cappadocia. Pharnaces is declared king - b. c. 744 His successors are unknown for nearly three centuries. * * * * * * Reign of Ariarathes I. - - - 362 Perdiccas takes Cappadocia, and Aria- rathes is crucified - - - - 322 Defeat of the Parthians - - - 217 Irruption of the Trocmi - - - 164 Mithridates, surnamed Philopator, as- cends the throne - - - 162 Orophernes dethrones Philopator - 161 Attains assists Philopator, and Oro- phei-nes dethroned - - - - 154 Philopator joins the Remans against Aristonicus, and perishes in battle - 153 His queen, Laodice, desirous of usurp- ing the throne, poisons five of her own children, the sixth and only remaining child is saved, and th^ queen put to death - - - - - 153 This young prince reigns as Ariarathes VII. 153 Gordius assassinates Ariarathes VII. - 97 Ariarathes VIII. assassinated - - 96 Cappadocia declared a free country by the senate of Rome - - -95 The people elect a new king Ariobar- zanes I. - - - . . " 94 His son, Ariobarzanes II. reigns • 65 He is dethroned by Marc Antony - 38 Archelaus, the last king of Cappadocia, dies, and bequeathes his kingdom to the Roman empire • a. d. 17 CAPRI. The Caprese of the Romans, and memorable as the residence of Tibe- rius, and for the debaucheries he committed in this once delightful retreat, during the seven last years of his life: it was embellished by him with a STunptuous palace, and most magnificent works. Capri was taken by sir Sidney Smith, April 22, 1806. CAPUCHIN FRIARS. A sort of Franciscans to whom this name was given, from their wearing a great Capuchon, or cowl, which is an odd kind of cap, or hood, sewn to their habit, and hanging down upon their backs. The Capu- chins were founded by Matthew Baschi, about a. d. 1525. Although the OAR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 237 rigors of this order have abated, still the brethren are remarkable for their extreme poverty and privations. — Ashe. CAR. Its invention is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, about 1486 b. c. The covered cars {curncs arcuati) were in use among- the Romans. Triumphal cars were introduced by Romulus, according to some ; and by Tarquin the Elder, according to others. CARACCAS. One of the early Spanish discoveries, a, d. 1498. The province declared its independence of Spain, May 9, 1810. In 1812, it was visited by a violent convulsion of nature ; thousands of human beings were lost ; rocks and mountains split, and rolled into valleys ; the rivers were blackened or their courses changed ; and many towns swallowed up, and totally destroyed. CARBONARI. A dangerous and powerful society in Italy, a substitute for freemasonry, which committed the most dreadful outrages, and spread terror in several states ; they were suppressed, however, by the Austrian govern- ment in Sept. 1820. CARDINALS. They are properly the council of the pope, and constitute the conclave or sacred college. At first they were only the principal priests, or incumbents of the parishes in Rome. On this footing they continued till the eleventh century. They did not acquire the exclusive power of electing the popes till A. D. 1160. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood, if required, for religion, and were declared princes of the church, by Innocent IV., 1243. Paul II. gave the scarlet habit, 1464 ; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1680 ; some saj^ in 1623. — Du Caiige. CARDS. Their invention is referred to the Romans ; but it is generally supposed that they were invented in France about the year 1390, to amuse Charles VI. during the intervals of a melancholy disorder, which in the end brought him to his grave. — Mezerai, Hist, de France. The universal adoption of an amusement which was invented for a fool, is no very favorable specimen of wisdom. — MaUcvi. Cards are of Spanish, not of French origin. — Da'mes Barrington. Picquetand all the early games are French. Cards first taxed in England, 1756. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825. the duty being then Is. Qd. per pack, less than 150,00i packs were stamped ; but in 1827, the stamp duty was reduced to Is., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs, in the year ending 5th Jan. 1840.— ParZ. Reports. ^CARICATURES originated, it is said, with Bufalmaco, an Italian painter: he first put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences, since followed by bad masters, but more particularly in caricature engravings, about 1330. — • De Piles. A new and much improved style of caricatures has latterly set in ; and the productions in this way of a clever but concealed artist, using the • initials H. B., aro political satires of considerable humor and merit. — Haydn. CARLISLE. The frontier town and key of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. The castle, founded in 1092, by William II.. was made the prison of the unfortunate Mary queen of Scots, in 1568. Taken by the parliament forces in 1645. and by the pretender in 1745. Carlsbad, Congress of, on the affairs of Europe : The popular spirit of emancipation that prevailed in many of the states of Europe against despotic government, led to this congress, in which various resolutions were come to, denouncing the press, and liberal opinions, and in which the great conti- nental powers decreed measures to repress the rage for limited monarchies and free institutions, August 1, 1819. CARMELITES, or White Friars, named from Mount Carmel, and one of thu four orders of mendicants, distinguished by austere rules, appeared in 1141. Their rigor was moderated about 1540. They claim their descent in an un- 238 THE world's progress. [car interrupted succession from Elijah, Elisha, &c. Mount Carmel has a monas- tery, and the valley of Sharon lies to the south of the mount, which is 2000 feet high, shaped like a flatted cone, with steep and barren sides : it is often referred to in Jewish histories. " See spicy clouds from lowly Sharon rise, And Carmel's flowery top perfumes the skies," — Pope. CAROLINA, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1550. A body of English, amounting to about 850 persons, landed and settled here in 1667 ; and Caro- lina was granted to lord Berkeley and others a few years afterwards. See N. tf* /S. Carolina. CARPETS They were in use, at least in some kind, as early as the days of Amos, about 800 b. c. — Amos ii 8, Carpets were spread on the ground, on which persons sat who dwelt in tents; but when first used in houses, even in the East, We have no record. In the 12th century carpets were arti- cles of luxury; and in England, it is mentioned as an instance of Becket's splendid style of living, that his sumptuous apartments were every day in winter strewn with clean straw or hay; about a. d. 1160. The manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV,, between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust went to England, and established the carpet manufacture, about 1750. There, as with most nations, Persian and Turkej^ carpets, especially the former, are most prized. The famous Axminster, Wilton, and Kidder- minster manufacture is the growth of the last hundred years. The manu- facture of Kidderminster and Brussels carpets has much advanced within fifteen years, at Lowell, Mass. and Thomsonville Conn. CARRIAGES. The invention of them is ascribed to Ericthonius of Athens, who j>roduced the first chariot about 1486 b. c. Carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. a. d. 1547 ; but they were of very rude construction, and rare. They seem to have been known in England in 1555; but not the art of making them. Close carriages of good workmanship began to be used by persons of the highest quality at the close of the sixteenth centurj^ Hen- ry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. Their construction was va- rious : t^ey were first made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and were then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; and the duke of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. They were first let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre; and hence their name. See Coaches. CARTESIAN DOCTRINES. Their author was Ren^ des Cartes, the French philosopher, who promulgated them in 1647. He was an original thinker : his metaphysical principle "I think, therefore I am," is refuted by Mr. Locke ; and his physical principle, that "nothing exists but substance," is disprov- ed by the Newtonian philosophy. His celebrated system abounds in great singularities and originalities; but a spirit of independent tiiought prevails throughout it, and has contributed to excite the same spirit in others. Des Cartes was the most distinguished philosopher of his time and country. — Duf?~esnoy. CARTHAGE founded by Dido, or Elissa, sister of Pygmalion, king of Tyre, 869 B. c. She fled from that tyrant, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage became so powerful as to dispute the eni]>ire of the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars, and the total dem-D- lition of that city. Taken by Scipio, and burned to the ground. 146 b. c. when the flames raged during seventeen daj^s, and many of the inhabitants perished in them, rather than survive the subjection of their country. The Roman senate ordered the walls to be razed, that no trace might remain of this once powerful republic, — Eusebius, CAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 239 CARTHAGE, continued. Dido arrives in Africa, and builds Byrsa — Blair ■ • - b. C First alliance of the Carthaginians with the Romans The Carthaginians in Sicily are defeated by Gelo ; the elder Hamilcar perishes. Herodotus, I. vii. They send 300,000 men into Sicily The siege of Syracuse The Carthaginians land in Italy , Their defeat by Timoleon 869 - 509 480 - 407 - 396 • 379 - 340 , Jhey are defeated by Agathocles, and ' immolate their children on the altar of Saturn, thereby to propitiate the gods - 310 The first Punic war begins - - 264 The Carthaginians defeated by the Ro- mans in a naval engagement - - 260 Xantippus defeats Regulus - - 255 Regulus is crucified - - - - 256 Asdrubal defeated by Metellus - - 251 Romans defeated before Lilyboeum - 250 End of the first Punic war - - 241 War between the Carthaginians and African mercenaries - - - 241 Hamilcar Earcas is sent into Spain; he takes with him his son, tlie famous Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first made him swear an eter- nal enmity to the Romans - b. c. 237 Hamilcar is killed in battle by the Vet- tones - ... - 227 Asdrubal is assassinated - - - 220 Hannibal subjects all Spain, as far as the Iberus - - - - 219 The second Punic war begins - - 21 8 First great victory of Hannibal - - 217 Hannibal crosses the Alps, and ^ters Italy with 100,000 men - - - 217 Great battle of Cannse (tvhich see) - 216 New Carthage taken by Pub. Scipio - 210 Asdrubal, brother of Hannibal, defeated and slain in Italy - - - 207 The Carthaginians expelled Spain - - 206 Scipio arrives in Africa, and lays siege to Utica 204 Hannibal recalled from ytaly - - 203 Great battle of Zama {uhich see) • 202 An ignominious peace ends the second Punic war .... 201 The third Punic war begins - - 149 Destruction of Carthage, which is burned to the ground - - - - 146 CARTHAGENA. or New Carthage, in Spain; built by Asdrubal, the Ca, tha- ginian general, 227 b. c. From here Hannibal set out in his memorable march to invade Italy, crossing the Alps, 217 b. c. Carthagena, in Colombia, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1584. It was pillaged by the French of .£1,200,000 in 1697 ; and was bombarded by admiral Vernon in 1740-1, but he M^as obliged, though he took the forts, to raise the siege. CARTHUSIANS. A religious order founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired from the converse of the world, in 1084, to Chartreuse, in the mountains of Dauphine. Their rules Avere formed by Basil VII., general of the order, and v^'ere peculiarly distinguished for their austerity. The monks could not leave their cells, nor speak, without express leave-; and their clothing was cwo hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak, all coarse. The general takes the title of prior of the Chartreuse, the principal monastery, from which the order is named. — Auberti; Mirai Origines Carthus. CA.RTOONS OF RAPHAEL. They were designed in the chambers of the Va- tican, under Julius II. and Leo X., about 1510 to 1515. The seven of them that are preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace, in 1629. These matchless works repre- sent— 1, The miraculous draught of Fishes; 2, the Charge to Peter; 3, Peter and John healing the Lame at'the gate of the Temple ; 4, the Death of Ana- nias ; 5, Elymas, the Sorcerer, struck with Blindness ; 6, the Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, by the people of Lystra ; 7, Paul preaching at Athens. CARVING. We have scriptural authority for its early introduction. See Ex- odus xxxi. The art of carving is first mentioned in profane history 772 b. c. and is referred to the Egyptians. It was first in wood, next in stone, and afterwards in marble and brass. Dipoenus and Scyllis were eminent carvers and sculptors, and opened a school of statuary, 568 b. c. — Pliny. See arti- cle Sculptures. Carvers of meat, called by the Greeks deribitares, are mention- ed by Homer. CASHMERE SHAWLS. The district from whence come these costly shawls is described as being "the happy vallej^, and a paradise in perpetual spring." The true Cashmere shawls can be manufactured of no other wool than that Thibet. They were first brought to England in 1666 ; but they were well imitated by the spinning at Bradford^ and the looms of Huddersfield. 240 THE world's progress. f CAT Shawls for the omrahs, of the Thibetian wool, cost 150 rupees each, about the year 1650. — Bernier. CASTEL NUOVO, Battle of. The Russians defeated by the French army, Sept. 29, 1806. Castel Nuovo has several times suflfered under the dreadful visitation of earthquakes : in the great earthquake which convulsed all Na- ples and Sicily, in 1783, this town was almost obliterated. It is recorded that an inhabitant of Castel Nuovo, being on a hill at no great distance, looking back, saw no remains of the town, but only a black smoke ; 4000 persons perished; and in Sicily and Naples, more than 40,000. CASTIGLIONE, Battle of. One of the most brilliant victories of the French arms, under general Bonaparte, against the main army of the Austrians, commanded by general Wurmser : the battle lasted live days successively, from the 2d to the 6th July, 1796. Bonaparte stated the enemy's loss in this obstinate conflict at 70 field-pieces, all his caissons, between 12 and 15,- 000 prisoners, and 6000 killed and wounded. CASTILE. The most powerful government of the Goths was established here about A. D. 800. Ferdinand, count of Castile, assumed the title of king in 1020. Ferdinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, and nearly the whole of the Christian dominions in Spain were united in one monarchy, 1474. See Arro.gon and Spain. CASTLES. Anciently British castles were tall houses, strongly fortified, and built on the tops of hills, with gates and walls. The castle of the Anglo Saxon was a tower-keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight oz steps in front. There were eleven hundred castles built in England by the nobles, by permission of king Stephen, a. d. 1135, and 1154: most of these were demolished by Henry II., who deprived the barons of such possessions, on his accession, in 1154. CATACOMBS; the early depositories of the dead. The name first denoted the tombs of Saints Peter and Paul at Rome, and afterwards the burial-places of all martyrs. They were numerous in Egypt ; and Belzoni, in 1815 and 1818, explored many catacombs both in that country and Thebes, built 3000 years ago : among others, a chef-d' auvre of ancient sculpture, the temple of Psam- maticus the Powerful, whose sarcophagus, formed of the finest oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured, he brought to England. Many other na- tions had their catacombs ; there were some of great extent at Rome. The Parisian catacombs were projected a. d. 1777. The bodies found in cata- combs, especially those of Egypt, are called mummies. See Embalming. CATANIA, OR C ATANEA. At the foot of mount Etna. Founded by a colony from Chalcis, 753 b. c. Ceres had a temple here, in which none but women were permitted to appear. This ancient citj^ is remarkable for the dreadful overthrows to which it has been subjected at various times from its vicinity to Etna, ^vhich has discharged, in some of its eruptions, a stream of lava four miles broad and fifty feet deep, advancing at the rate of seven miles in a day. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna, in 1669. By an earthquake which happened in 1693, Catania was nearly swal- lowed up, and in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins of the city. An earthquake did great damage, and a number of persons perished here, Feb. 22, 1817. CATAPHRYGIANS. A sect of heretics, so called because they were Phry- gians, who followed the errors of Montanus. They made up the bread of the eucharist with the blood of infants, whom they pricked to death with needles, and then looked upon them as martyrs. — Pardon. CATAPULTS. Ancient military engines for throwing stones of immense weight, darts, and arrows ; invented by Dionysius, 399 b. c. — Josephus. They ^^^1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 241 Tardon^^^^^ ""^ throwing darts and javelins of four and five yards )cngth.-, CATHOLIC MAJESTY. The title of Catholic was first given by pope Gre^ i'-^™l39'''^irSt^^^^ T thereupon furnameV^^rcSlt See Spain Catholv, was also given to Ferdinand V., 1474. CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Sergius L. Catiline, a Roman of noble family having squandered away his fortune by his debaucheries and eXvaZce' and having been refused the consulship, he secretly meditated the Svcf his country, and conspired with many of the most illustrious of t^ie Romans Romf on t."' T^'^^' '" "^"^P"'^ '^^ ^^"^^^' ^^''^^^' the trel^iy'^Z set Rome on fire This conspiracy was timely discovered by the consul Cicero ^rreTiS^?e'?e«rlt?o^rrt^' \"^ '\^-^^^"^ ^^^ ^^ his'accomS Slfr ' ^^®.^f ^f d to Gau , where his partisans were assembling an armv Cicero punished the condemned conspirators at home whilf PetreTus attacked Catiline's ill-disciplined forces, and routed them and the conspk ator was killed in the engagement, about the middle of December 63 bc His character has been branded with the foulest infamy, and to the violence l^ Tf'A^^ "" 7^.' ^^' ^^ ^^^^^ t^^ ^^^^'der of" his own brother and it is said that he and his associates drank human blood to rende? theh oathS more firm and inviolable.— ^«ZZ«5^. ^^®" ^^^^^ ^^P; ^Yk^?^ °'^- Termed as the " era destructive of the liberties of Rome " alone "ts^al^rtr '"'' and philosopher, considered freedom as that Xch alone sustains the name and digmty of man :" unable to survive the inde- pendence of his country, he stabbed himself at Utica. By this rash act of suicide mdependently of all moral considerations, Cato can led his pat? ot ism to the highest degree of political frensy: for Cato dead couirb of no use to his country; but had he preserved his life, his couS mL^^^ aSrtf t '^t:^^^^^^^^ '^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^-^ ^-^ '^ ^^ CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY. The mysterious plot of a gang of low and the'^'^w^wftrrv^ "^r^ '"^r' ^^^ ^^^ assas^atlon of thi minlstlrrof and he ovprlhinw T.T ^"^ ''"'^' sanguinary and indiscriminate outrages, 2? l^'^O .i^ Ti ^f the government: the conspirators were arrested Feb CAUCASUS. A mountain of immense height, a continuation of the ridg-e of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas, inhabited ancifntly by various savage nations who lived upon the wild fruits of the ea?th S JZf^lZf^T'' 'T""^ '1 r^^ P^^'^«' ^"^ i^ others was va^lgated with fiuitful orchards and plantations: its people were at one time supposed to gather gold on the shores of their rivulets, but they afterwards lived with- out making use of money. Prometheus w^s tied on the top of Caucasus bv Isls^V" T^^'"^""^^ ^'"?r ^ ^^ ""^^"^'^«' ^^^<^rding to'^ancienraXr^ 1045 B. c. I he passes near the mountain were called Caucasi^s Porta' and It IS supposed that through them the Sarmatians, called Z?s made M? way, when they invaded the provinces of Rome,' a. n. 4A1 .-Strabo h71 CAUSTIC IN PAINTING. The branch of the art so called is a method of burning the colors into wood or ivory. Gausias, a painter of S icy on was the inventor of this process. He made a beautiful painting of his mStress k/ds o/'flnT ^' ^'^Pf %^«ted as sitting on the ground, and making gar lands of flowers: and from this circumstance the picture, whici wai 242 THE world's progress. [ CEM bought afterwards by Lucullus for two talents, received the name of Stepha- noplocon, 335 b. c. — Plinii Hist. Nat. CAVALIERS. This appellation was given as a party name in England to those who espoused the cause of the king during the unhappy war which brought Charles I. to the scaffold. They were so called in opposition to the Round- heads, or friends of the parliament, between 1642 and 1649. — Hume. CAVALRY. Of the ancient nations the Romans were the most celebrated for their cavalry, and for its discipline and efficiency. Attached to each of the Roman legions was a body of horse 300 strong, in ten turmas ; the com- mander was always a veteran, and chosen for his experience and valor. In the early ages, the Persians brought the greatest force of cavalry into the field ; they had 10,000 horse at the battle of Marathon., 490 b. c. : and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 b. c. — Phitarch. CAYENNE. First settled by the French in 1625, but they left it in 1654. II was afterwards successively in the hands of the English, French, and Dutch. These last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809, but was restored to the French at the peace in 1814. In this settlement is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne pepper, so esteemed in Europe. CELESTIAL GLOBE. A celestial sphere was brought to Greece from Egj^t, 368 B. c. A planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 212 b. c. The celestial globe was divided into constellations after the age of Perseus. The great celestial globe of Gottorp, planned after a design of Tycho Brache, and erected at the expense of the duke of Holstein, was eleven feet in diameter : and that at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. Long, is eighteen feet. See Globes. CELESTINS. A religious order of monks, reformed from the Bernardins by pope Celestine V. in 1294. The order of nuns was instituted about the same period. CELIBACY, and the monastic life, preached by St. Anthony in Egypt, about A. D. 305. The early converts to this doctrine lived in caves and desolate places till regular monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected at the council of Nice, a. d. 325. Celibacy was enjoined on bishops only in 692. The Romish clergy generally were compelled to a vow of celibacy in 1073. Its observance was finally established by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Among the illustrious philosophers of antiquity, the follow- ing were unfriendly to matrimony: — Plato, Pythagoras, Epicurus, Bion, Anaxagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, and Diogenes ; and the folloAving among the moderns: — Newton, Locke, Boyle, Gibbon. Hume, Adam Smith, Harvey, Leibnitz, Bayle, Hobbes, Hampden, sir F. Drake, earl of Essex, Pitt, Michael Angelo, the three Caraccis, sir Joshua Reynolds, Haydn, Handel, Wolsey, Pascal, Fenelon, Pope, Akenside, Goldsmith, Gray, Collins, Thompson, and Jeremy Bentham, CEMETERIES. The ancients had not the unwise custom of crowding al) their dead in the midst of their towns and cities, within the narrow pre cincts of a place reputed sacred, much less of amassing them in the bosom of their fanes and temples. The burying places of the Greeks and Romans were at a distance from their tou'ns ; and the Jews had their sepulchres in gardens — John xix. 41 ; and in fields, and among rocks and mountains — Mattheio xxvii, 60. The present practice was introduced by.^the Romish clergy, who pretended that the dead enjoyed peculiar privileges by being interred in consecrated ground. The burying-places of the Turks are hand- some and agreeable, and it is owing chieflj'' to the many fine plants that grow in them, and which they carefully place over their dead. It is only ^^^] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 243 Within a very few years that public cemeteries have been formed in these countries, although the crowded state of our many churchvaiTls nnr th« danger to health of burial-places in the midst of SLse poprtS.rcalled for some sn^ilarnjstitutions to that of the celebrated pL t cLS at l\ ^^1 P-'^^'*" cemeteries have been recently opened in Son suburbs. The mclosed area of each of these cemeteries is pknted and la^S out m walks after the manner of Pere la Chaise.* There are similar ceme tenes m Manchester, Liverpool, and other towns; an n Ireland at cSk S't a?Mount lubm^' tl 'TTr''''''. V""^ ^"^^^^ StSfe^pecia f^ tliat at Mount Aubuin, near Boston (opened 1831), Laurel Hill Philadelphia (183-), and Greenwood, near New- York ClSSe^ arp f-.r rinVi lio^tf -f i • theirnaturalfeaturesthananyof thosiiarLondo^^ ""'"'''^^"^ ^" CENSORS. Roman magistrates, whose duty it was to survey and rate and correct the manners of the people; their power was also extended over S"; a;Sed'4S^^^^^^ extravagance. The two &st censo ^^ere appomted 443 b. c. The office was abohshed by the emperors ce™u'^%°84 "*'* ''"' '"'' ''"'' '*^ ^"^«'« 18". 1«21. ^d 183l" and tSe nTj CENTURION. The captain, head, or commander of a sutdivision of a Ro man legion, winch consisted of 100 men and was cM^li^l.iZi^ u distinguished by a branch of vine which he Inied in Ws haid IvThe CFNTrr™'^-!' ''* ^""^'^ °' *"« P^°P'^ ™^ called a .'"J'^b'o"' '"= Je^LSS, hLtrrra-^coX^^rromThe^'^L^^^^^^^^^ b^;S:rhL"SripUi-. " '^ " '--'°' "^'^' '^ particu\alJ^:e^Lrd^ ^^^M^ P- '^•"'* ^^''"''*' '''^'^^^ ^' ^"^^ 1^^ ^iles in diameter, was discovered bv M Piazzi, astronomer royal at Palermo, on the 1st. of Jan 1801 To the naked eye it is not visible, nor will glasses of a very SA mao-nifvW roibtrisitn/ta^er^^^^^^ ^^-^^- p'^^^'^^^^"^ ^^^J!:^^A J\^. """n ''f ""^^'"^ ^^'' *^"« ^'^^a^cl the seat of paradise • it was dis covered by he Portuguese a. d. 1505 ; but it was known to the Romans Tn Hollanders inSrof"'' ', '^ ^^^ '^^^ ^^i^^^^^' ^^^^^^^^^ wL taken by the hi/conSs;fr.''Hfdi?d^fnl70S-™^^^^^^^^ f ■^""' who^^a favorite oTT^Iii^^^nd this beautiful cemefery. I wa^ a praa1ce% L^h anHm,h^ ^^^"^^ ^^ "°^^ occupied by graves of the dead. The women in E^ypt % Sfv tc? Jv^n^'"""' ^''\^^^^ flowers about thi Uien usual to throw a sort of herb (ou/?weet bSh , mm Yhf IT'^ ^l•^° sepulchres, and it is Turkey in Europe, are also adorned e heTwi h the^ieave of the n.f^ T^'""^] '" f'''^ '^"""- ^"^ cypresses planted at the head and feet. BetS sLe oHh" n mh?t^"/''''^', ^°!'°'''-' "^ ^^^^'l^' o^ stone, filled with earth, in which are phmtedS,^^^^^^^ '' Placed a che?t of ornamented tivated by females, who assemble in Vroups brthahuv a a "''''''■ , ^^^'^ ^'''^ '-^Snlavly cul- which they diligently propagate, because they are b'auifn I f f '^^P''-' ''f'''^ Sfow many myrtles, tV.ir gvaves—Mailet; Chandler ■ Butler ''^^''"^"1' ^'^'^ le^am long green, to jut about 244 THE world's progress. [ CHA wero seized by the British ; Trincomalee Aug. 26, 1795, and Jaffnapatam, in Sept. same year. Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The British troops were treacherously massacred, or imprisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo, June 26, 1803. The complete sove- reignty of the island was assumed by England in 1815. CH-^^RONEA, Battles of. The Athenians are defeated by the Boeotians, and Tolmidas, their general, is slain, 447 b. c. Battle of Chasronea, in v\'hich Greece lost its liberty to Philip, 32,000 Macedonians defeating the confed- erate army of Thebans and Athenians of 30,000, Aug. 2, 338 b. c. Battle of Chseronea in Avhich Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, is defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians are slain, 86 b. c. CHAIN-BRIDGES. The largest and oldest chain-bridge in the world is said to be that at Kingtung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from the top of one. mountain to the top of another. The honor of constructing the tirst chain-bridge on a grand scale belongs to Mr. Telford, who commenced the chain-suspension bridge over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, July 1818. — See Meiiai Bridge. CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, and SHOT. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people intimately connected with the Belg« of Britain in the time of Cassar, 55 b. c. These cables came into modern use, and generally in the royal navy of England, in 1812. Chain-shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ships, was invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, in 1666. Chain- pumps were first used on board the Flora, British frigate, in 1787. CHAISE OR CALASH. The invention of the chaise, which is described as a light and open vehicle, is ascribed to Augustus Caesar, about a. d. 7. Aure- lius Victor mentions that the use of post-chaises was introduced by Trajan, about A. D. 100. The chariot was in use fifteen centuries before. See Chariot. CHALDEAN REGISTERS. Registers of celestial observations were commenced 2234 B. c, and were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B. c, being a period of 1903 years. These registers were sent by Callis- thenes to Aristotle. Chaldean Characters : the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebi'ewinto these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra. CHAMP DE MARS an open square space in front of the Military School at Paris, with artificial embankments raised on each side, extending nearly to the r'ver Seine, with an area sufficient to contain a million of people. Here was held, on the 14th July, 1790, the famous "federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the "patriot king" and new constitution. In the even- ing great rejoicings followed the proceedings ; public balls were given by the municipality in the Champs Elysees and elsewhere, and Paris was illumi- nated throughout. 1791, July 17, a great meeting of citizens and others held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the country" — left standing for some time afterwards — praying for the enforced abdication of Louis XVI. Another new constitution sworn to here, under the eye of Bonaparte, May 1, 1815, a ceremony called the Chavip de Mai. CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. The championship was instituted at the corona- tion of Richard II. 1377. At the coronations of English kings the champion still rides completely armed into Westminster-hall, and challenges any one that would deny their title to the crown. The championship is hereditary in tlip Dj'mocke family. CHANCELLORS LORD HIGH, op ENGLAND. The Lord Chancellor ranks after the princes of the Blood Royal as the first lay subject. Formerlj^, the office was conferred upon some dignified clergyman. Maurice, afterwards bishop of London, was created chancellor in 1067. The first personage who cha] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 245 1692 Sir John Somers, afterwards lord Somers. 1702 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K. 1705 Lord Cowper, L. K. 1710 In commission. 1713 Lord Harcourt. 1714 Lord Cowper again. 1718 In commission. 1718 Viscount Parker, afterwards earl of Macclesfield. 1725 Sir Peter King, L. K. afterwards lord Kins. 1733 Lord Talbot. 1737 Philip, lord Hardwicke. 1761 Sir Robert Healey, afterwards lord Henley, and earl of Norihington. 1766 Charles Pratt, lord Camden. 1770 Hon. Chas. Yorke, Jan. 18 ; died next day. 1770 In commission. 1771 Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley, succeed- j ed as earl Bathurst. I 1778 Lord Thurlow. 1 1783 Lord Loughborough and others was qualified by great legal education, and who decided causes upon his own judgment, was Sir Thomas More, in 1530, before which time the office was more that of a high state functionary than the president of a court of justice. Sir Christopher Hatton, who was appointed chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which accoimt the first reference was made to a master in 1588, In England, the great seal has been frequently put in commission ; but it was not until 1813 that the separate and co-existent office of Vice- Chancellor was permanently held. LORD CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND, I (From the time of Cardinal Wolsey.) \ 1515 Cardinal Wolsey. j 1530 Sir Thomas More (beheaded). I 1533 Sir Thomas Audley. } 1534 Thomas, bishop of Ely. 1545 Lord Wriothesley. | 1547 Lord St. John. i 1547 Lord Rich. 1551 Bishop of Ely again. : 1551 Sir Nich. Hare, Loi'd Keeper. I 1653 Bishop of Winchester. i 1555 Archbishop of York. 1559 Sir Nicholas Bacon. 1579 Sir Thomas Bromley. 1587 Sir Christopher Hatton. 1.592 Sir John Packering. 1596 Si *Thomas Egerton. 1616 Sir Francis Bacon, afterwards lord Verulam. 1625 Sir Thomas Coventry. 1639 Sir John Finch. 1640 Sir Edward Littleton, afterwards lord Littleton. 1645 Sir Richard Lane. 1648 In commission. 1653 Sir Edward Herbert. 1658 Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of Clarendon. 1667 Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K. 1672 Earl of Shaftesbury. 1673 Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 1682 Lord Guilford, L. K. 1685 Sir George Jeffreys, lord Jeffreys. 1690 In commission. 1690 Sir John Trevor, Sir William Rawlin- son, and Sir Geo. Hutchins, L. K. CHANCELLOR of IRELAND, LORD HIGH. The earliest nomination was by Richard I. a. d. 1186, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in Ireland, but not as a distinct appoint- ment, in the reign of Henry III., Geffrey Turville, archdeacon of Dublin, being so named, 1232. CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND. In the laws of Malcolm II. who reigned a. d. 1004, this officer is thus mentioned: "The Chancellar sal at al tymes assist the king in giving him counsall mair secretly nor of the rest of the nobility. The Chancellar sail be ludgit near unto the kingis Grace, for keiping of his bodie, and the seill, and that he may be readie, baith day and nicht. at the kingis command." — Sir James Balfour. James, earl of Seafield, afterwards Findlater, was the last lord high Chancellor of Scotland, the office having been abolished in 1708. — Scott. CHANCERY, COURT of. Instituted as early as a. d. 605. Settled upon a better footing by William I., in 1067. — Stowe. This court had its origin in the desire to render justice complete, and to moderate the rigor of other courts that are bound to the strict letter of the law. It gives relief to or against infants, notwithstanding their minority ; and to or against married (in commission) - April 9 1'83 Loi'd Thurlow again - - Dec. 23 1792 In commission. 1793 Lord Loughborough again. 1801 Lord Eldon. April 14 1806 Lord Erskine. - Feb. 7 1807 Lord Eldon again. March 25 1827 Lord Lyndhurst. - April 2C 1830 Lord Brougham. Nov. 22 1834 Lord Lyndhurst again Nov, 14 1835 In commission. 1836 Lord Cottenham. - Jan. 16 1841 Lord Lyndhurst again. - Aug. 31 1846 Lord Cottenham agaiii - July 6 1770 . Amount lodged 1780 ditto 1790 - ditto 1800 ditto 1810 - Amount lodged - je-26,212,000 1820 ditto - 34.208,785 1830 - ditto 38,38G,135 1840 ditto - 39.772,746 246 THE world's progress. [ CIIA women, notwithstanding their coverture ; and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confidence, for which there is no redress at common law, are relievable here. — Blackstone. EFFECTS OP StriTORS LODGED IN COURT AT THE FOLLOWING DECENNIAL PERIODS. £5,300,000 - 7,741,000 13,338,000 - 19,834,000 There are about 10,000 accounts. By the last official returns the number of committals for contempt was ninety-six persons in three years. — Pari, Returns. CHANTRY. A chapel endowed with revenue for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors. — Shakspeare. First mentioned in the commencement of the seventh century, when Gregory the great established schools of chant- ers. — See Chanting. CHAOS. A rude and shapeless mass of matter, and confused assemblage of inactive elements which, as the poets suppose, pre-existed the formation of the world, and from which the universe was formed by the hand and power of a superior being. This doctrine was first advanced by Hesiod, from whom the succeeding poets have copied it ; and it is probable that it was obscurely drawn from the account of Moses, by being copied from the annals of San- choniathon, whose age is fixed antecedent to the siege of Troy in 1193 b. •,":. See Geology. CHARIOTS. The invention of chariots, and the manner of harnessing horses to draw them, is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, 1486 b. c. Chariot racing was one of the exercises of Greece. The chariot of the Ethiopian officer, mentioned in Acts viii. 27, 28, 31, was, it is supposed, something in the form of our modei'n chaise with four wheels. Caesar relates that Cassi- belaniis, after dismissing all his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war chariots about his person. The chariots of the ancients Avere like our phaetons, and drawn by one horse. See Carriages, Coaches, (f-c. CHARITIES in the United States. — See Benevolence. In England there are tens of thousands of charitable foundations ; and the charity commission reported to parliament that the endowed charities alone of Great Britain amounted to £l 500,000 annually, in 1840. — Pari. Rep. Charity schools were instituted in London to prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman Catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 1687. — Rapin. CHARLESTON, S. C, was first settled in 1680. In 1690 a colony of French refugees, exiled in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled in Carolina, and some of them in Charleston : from them are de- scended many of the most respectable of the inhabitants. At the close of 1779, the city was taken by the British, and held by them until JNIay follow- ing. Population in 1790, 16,359 ; in 1810, 24,711 ; in 1820. 24,780 ; in 1830, 30,289; in 1840, 29,261— (a decrease of 1,028 in ten years) including 14,673 slaves. CHARTERS of RIGHTS. The first charters of rights granted by the kings of England to their subjects, were by Edward the Confessor, and by Henry I. A. D. 1100. The famous bulwark of English liberty, known &s Magna Charta or the great charter, was granted to the barons by king John, June 15, 1215. The rights and privileges granted by this charter were renewed and ratified by Henry III. in 1224, el seq. Sir Edward Coke says that even in his days it had been confirmed above thirty times. Charters to corporations were of frequent grant from the reign of William I. See Magna Charta. CHARTERS, to the American colonies. That to Virginia granted by James I., 1606 ; to Massachusetts, by the same, 1620, but withdrawn by Charles II., CHE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 247 1G84; that granted to Connecticut by Charles II., 1665, was concealed in an 0.1k to preserve it from the tyrannical Andros. General suppression of charter governments in America, 1688. CHARTER PARTY. The same species of deed or agreement as the ancient chirograph. A covenant between merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship and cargo. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry III., about 1243. CHARTISTS. The agitators for radical political reforms in England were so called from the Charter which they drew up and urged for adoption as the law of the land, 1838. The petition for it, signed by about 5,000,000 names. Proclamation against tumultuous assemblies of the Chartists, Dec. 12, 1838, Chartist attack on Newport, Wales, headed by John Frost, an ex-magistrate, defeated, Nov. 4, 1839. Frost and others taken prisoner, tried, and trans- ported. Another Chartist demonstration on Kennington Common, near London, exciting great alarm (chiefly because of the recent revolution in Paris), April 10, 1848. The six chief demands of the Chartists are : 1. Uni- versal suffrage. 2. Vote by ballot. 3. No property qualification. 4. Annual parliaments. 5. Payment of members. 6. Equal electoral districts. CHARTS. Anaximander of Miletus was the inventor of geographical and celes- tial charts, about 670 b. c. Modern sea-charts were brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, with a view to illustrate his brother's theorj^ respect- ing a western continent, 1489. Mercator's chart, in which the world is taken as a plane, was drawn, 1556. CHARYBDIS, a dangerous whirlpool on the coast of Sicily, opposite another whirlpool called Scylla. on the coast of Italy. It was very dangerous to sail- ors, and it proved fatal to part of the fleet of Ulysses. The exact situation of the Charybdis is not discovered by the moderns, as no whirlpool suffi- ciently tremendous is now found to correspond to the description of the ancients. The words Incidit in Scyllam qui vuU vitare Charybdim, became a proverb, to show that in our eagerness to avoid an evil, we fall into a greater. CHANTING, Chanting the psalms was adopted by Ambrose from the pa- gan ceremonies of the Romans, about a. d. 350. — Lenglet. Chanting in churches was introduced into the Roman Catholic service in 602, by Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church song. — Diifresnoy. CHEATS. The convicted cheat punishable by pillory (since abolished), impri- sonment, and fine, 1 Hawk. L. C. 188. A rigorous statute was enacted against cheats, 33 Henry VIII. 1542. Persons cheating at play, or winning at any time more than lOZ., or any valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 1711. — Black- stone's Comm. CHEESE. It is supposed by Camden and others that the English learned the process of making cheese from the Romans (who brought many useful arts with them) about the Christian era. Cheese is made by almost all nations. Wilts, Gloucester, and Cheshire, make vast quantities; the last alone, annu- ally, about 31,000 tons. The Cheddar of Somerset, and Stilton of Hunting- don, are as much esteemed as the cheese of Parma, and Gruyere of Switz- erland. In 1840 England imported, chiefly from the U. States, for home use, a quantity exceeding 10.000 tons. CHEMISTRY and DISTILLING. Introduced into Europe by the Spanish Moors, about a. d. 1150; they had learned them from the African Moors, and these from the Egyptians. In Egypt, they had, in very early ages, ex- tracted salts from their bases, separated oils, and prepared vinegar and wine? 248 THE world's progress. [ CHI and embalming was a kind of chemical process. The Chinese also claim an early acquaintance Avith chemistry ; but the fathers of true chemical philo- sophy were of our own country; Bacon, Boyle, Hooke, Mayow, Newton, &c. The modern character of chemistry was formed under Beecher and Stahl, who perceived the connection of the atmosphere and the gases, with the production of phenomena. Bergman and Scheele were cotemporary with Priestley in England, and Lavosier in France ; then followed Thomson, Davy, and other distinguished men. CHERRIES. They were brought from Pontus, to Lucullus, to Rome, about 70 B.C. Apricots from Epirus : peaches from Persia; the finest plums from Damascus and Armenia; pears and figs from Greece and Egypt; citrons from Media; and pomegranates from Carthage; 114 b. c. The cherry tree was first planted in Britain, it is said, about a. d. 100. Fine kinds were brought from Flanders, and planted in Kent, and with such success that an orchard of thirty-two acres produced in one year .£1000, a. d, 1540. See Gardening. CHESAPEA.KE, Battle of. At the mouth of the bsry of that name, between the British admiral Greaves, and the French admiral De Grasse, with the naval force sent to assist the United States ; the former was obliged to retire, 1781. The Chesapeake and Delaware were blockaded by a British fleet in 1812. The Chesapeake American frigate struck to the Shannon British frigate, commanded by captain Broke, after a severe action, June 2, 1818. CHESS, Game of. Invented, according to some authorities, 680 b. c. ; and ac- cording to others, in the fifth century of our era. The learned Hyde and Sir William Jones concur in stating (as do most writers on the subject) that the origin of chess is to be traced to India. The automaton chess-player was exhibited in England in 1769. CHEVALIER DEON. This extraordinary personage, who had been acting in a diplomatic capacity in several countries, and who was for some time a minister plenipotentiary from France in London, was proved upon a trial had in the King's Bench, in an action to recover wagers as to his sex, to be Si woman, July 1, 1777. He subsequently wore female attire for many years; yet at his death, in London, in 1810, it was manifest, by the dissection of his body, and other undoubted evidence, that he was of the male sex. — Bio. Die. CHILDREN. Most of the ancient nations had the uDnatural custom of expos- ing their infants — the Egyptians on the banks of rivers, and the Greeks on highways — when they could not support or educate them; in such cases they were taken care of and humanely protected by the state. The custom which long previously existed of English parents selling their children to the Irish for slaves, was prohibited in the reign of Canute, about 1017. — Mat. Paris. At Darien, it was the practice when a widow died, to bury with her, in the same grave, such of her children as vere unable, from their tender years, to take care of themselves. And in some parts of China, su- I)erstition has lent her hand to sanction the horrid deed of offering infants to the spirit of an adjoining river, first attaching a gourd to their necks to prevent them from immediately drowning. CHILI. Discovered by Diego de Almagro, one of the conqoerors of Peru. a. d. 1535. Almagro crossed the Cordilleras, and the natives, r^j^arding the Span- iards on their first visit as allied to the Divinity, collected lOr them gold and silver, amounting to 290,000 ducats, a present which led to .^L;? sul)sequent cruelties and rapacity of the invaders. Chili was subdued, bin not wholly, in 1546. The Chilians fought for liberty at various times, .aiv^ with various 8UccesS; until 1817, when, by the decisive victory gained by Pun ivlsrtin over CHl] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 249 the royal forces, Feb. 12, in that year, the province was released from its op- pressors, and declared independent, CHILTERN HUNDREDS. An estate of the crown in England, on the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west through the middle of Bucking- hamshire, the stewardship whereof is a nominal office, conferred on members of parliament when they wish to vacate their seats, as, by accepting an office under the crown, a member becomes disqualified, unless he be again returned by his constituents : this custom has existed time immemorial. CHIiMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use previous to the invention of chim- neys, Avhich were first introduced into these countries in a. d. 1200, when they were confined to the kitchen and large hall. The family sat round the stove, the funnel of which passed through the ceiling, in 1300. Chimneys were general in domestic architecture in 1310. The ancients made use of stoves, although Octavio Ferrari affirms that chimneys were in use among them ; but this is disputed. CHINA. This empire is very ancient, and the Chinese assert that it existed many thousands of years before Noah's flood ; but it is allowed by some author- ities to have commenced about 2500 years before the birth of Christ. By others it is said to have been founded by Fohi, supposed to be the Noah of the Bible, 2240 b. c. We are told that the Chinese knew the periods of the sun, moon, and planets, and were acute astronomers, in the reign of Yao, which is set down 2357 b. c. But dates cannot be relied upon until to\i€rds the close of the seventh century, b. c. when the history of China becomes more distinct. In the battle between Phraates and the Scythians 129 b. c, the Chinese aided the latter, and aftervi'ards ravaged the countries on the coasts of the Caspian, Avhich is their first appearance in history. — Lenglet. Jesuit missionaries endeavor to esta- The Chinese state their first cycle to have commenced - - b. c 2700 The first of the 22 Cliinese dynasties commenced .... 2207 ***** * In the history of China, the first dates which are fixed to his narrative, by Se-ma-tsien, begin - . . 651 Confucius, the father of the Chinese philosophers, born - - . 551 Stupendous wall of China completed - 211 The dynasty of Han - - - . 206 Literature and the art of printing encou- raged - - - - - 202 Religion of Ta tse commenced - - 15 Religion of the ,'bllowers of Fo, com- menced about - - A. D 60 Embassy from Rome - - . 166 Nankin becomes the capital - - 420 The atheistical philosopher, Fan-Shin, flourishes .... 449 The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach their doctrines - - - 635 They are proscribed, and extirpated - 845 The seat of the imperial government is transferred to Pekin - - • 1260 Wonderful canal, called the Yu Ho, completed about - - . 1400 Eur:;" sans first arrive at Canton . 1517 Macao is granted as a settlement to the Portuguese - . - - 1536 Jesuit missionaries are sent by the pope from Rome .... 1575 The country is conquered by the East- ern Tartars, who establish the pre- sent reigning house - - - 1644 An earthquake throughout China buries 300,000 persons at Pekin alone - 1662 11* blish Christianity - - - - 1692 The Jesuits are expelled through their own misconduct - - - 1724 ENGLISH INTERCOURSE WITH CHINA. Earl Macartney's embassy ; he leaves England , - - Sept. 26, 1792 He is ordered to depart from Pekin, Oct. 7, 1793 Edict against Christianity - - 1812 Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves England - - - Feb. 8, 1816 [His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, having refused to make the prostration o\' i\\e kou-tou, lest he should thereby compromise the ma- jesty of England.] The exclusive rights of the East India Company cease - April 22, 183>i Lord Napier arrives at Macao, to super- intend British commerce - July 15, 1834 Opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 7, 1831 Commissioner Lin issues an edict tor the seizure of opium - March 18, 1839 British and other residents forbidden to leave Canton - - March 19, 1839 The factories surrounded, and outrages committed - - March 24. 1839 The opium destroyed during several days by the Chinese - June 3, 1S39 The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of the emperor, and the last servant of the company leaves the country this day - - Dec. 6, 133? Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and intercourse with England for ever - - - Jan. 5, 1840 250 THE world's progress. [ciu CHINA, continued. Blockade of Canton by a British fleet of 15 sail and several war steamers, hav- ing 4,000 troops on board, by orders from Sir Gordon Bremer - June 28, 1840 Seizure of ('apt. Anstruiher - Sept. 16, 1840 Lin deprived of his authority, and finally degraded; Keshin appointed imperial commissioner - Sept. 16, 1840 Capt. Elliott declares a truce with the Chinese - - - Nov. 6, 1840 IIong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 6,000,0^0 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days to the British authorities - - - Jan. 20, 1841 Imperial edict from Peldn rejecting the conditions of the treaty made by Ke- shin - .- - Feb. 11, 1841 Hostilities are in consequence resumed against the Chinese - - Feb 23, 1841 Chusan evacuated - - Feb. 24, 1841 Rewards proclaimed at Canton for the bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive ; 50,000 dollars to be given for ring- leaders and chiefs - Feb. 25, 1841 Bogue Forts taken by Sir Gordon Bre- mer ; admiral Kwan killed, and 459 guns captured - - Feb. 26, 1841 • Sir Hugh Gough takes the command of the army - - March 2, 1841 Heights behind Canton taken, and 94 guns captured - - May 25, 1841 The city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, of which 5,000,000 are paid down, and hostilities cease - May 31, 1841 British trade re-opened - July 16, 1841 Arrival at Macao of Sir Henry Poltin- ger, who, as plenipotentiary, pro- claims the objects of his mission ; Capt. Elliott superseded - Aug. 10, 1841 Amoy taken, and 296 guns found and destroyed - * - Aug. 27, 1841 The Bogue forts destroyed - Sept. 14, 1841 The city of Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and the island of Chusan re-occupied by the British - Oct. 1, 1841 Chin-hae taken, with 157 guns, many of them brass - - Oct. 10, 1841 Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the CoritwuUis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, and Keying Elepoo and Neu-Kien on the part of the Chinese emperor - Aug. 29, 1842 CONDITIONS OF THE TREATY. Lasting peace and friendship between the two empires. China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, pait forthwith and the remainder within three years. The ports of Canton, Amoy, Foo-choo- foo, Ning-po, and Shang-hae to be thrown open to the British. Consuls to reside at these cities. Taritfs of import and export to be esta- blished, (fee. &c. The emperor signifies his assent to the conditions - • Sept. 8, 1842 Mr. Davis succeeds Sir Henry Poitinger as British commissioner • Feb. 16, 1844 Bogue Forts captured by Gen. Aguilar and Sir John Davis, 836 pieces of ar- tillery seized and spiked - April 5, 1847 Treaty between China and the Uci ted Slates negotiated by Caleb Gushing, American Commis- sioner - • July 3, 1844 ratified at Washington ^Jan. 16, 1845 Alexander H. Everett appointed commissioner to China from the United States - - - 1845 John W. Davis appointed commis- sioner from the United States - 1847 CHINESE EMPERORS. The following is a list of those who have reigned for the last two centuries : — Chwang-lei 1627 Shun-ciie - - - . - 1644 Kang-he 1669 Yung-ching .... 1693 Keen-lung 1736 Kea-ding 1796 Taou-kwang - - - - - 1821 Sze-Hing, present emperor - - 1850 The embassy of lord Macartney from England procured the first authentic information respecting this empire : it appears that it is divided into 15 pro- vinces, containing 4402 walled cities ; the population of the whole country is given at 333.000,600 ; its annual revenues at i;66, 000,000; and the army, in- cluding the Tartars, 1,000,000 of infantry, and 800,000 cavalry; the religion is pagan, and the government is absolute. Learning, Avith the ai-ts and sci- ences in general, are encouraged, and ethics are studied profoundly, and influence the manners of the people. See details in Williams's ''Middle. Kingdom." CHINA PORCELAIN. This manufacture is first mentioned in history in 1531 ; it was introduced into England so early as the sixteenth century. Porcelain was made at Dresden in 1706 ; fine ware in England, at Chelsea, 1752 ; at Bow in 1758; in various other parts of England, about 1760; and by the ingenious Josiah Wedgwood, who much improved the British manufacture, in Staffordshire, 1762 etseg. CHINESE ERAS. They are very numerous, iabulous, and mythological. Like the Chaldeans, they represent the world as having existed some hun- dreds of thousands of years; and their annals and histories record events CKO ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 25 1 said to have occurred, and name philosophers and heroes said to have hved, more than 27,000 years ago. By their calculation of time, which must, of course, differ essentially from ours, they date the commencement of their empire 41,000 years b. c. — Abbe Lenglet. CHIPPEWA, Battles of. The British forces under general Riall were de- feated by the Americans under general Brown, July 5, 1814. Another ac- tion with the British, commanded by generals Drummond and Riall ; the latter taken prisoner at Bridgwater, near Chippewa, July 25, 1814. CHIVALRY. Began in Europe about a. d. 912. From the twelfth to the fif- teenth century it had a considerable influence in refining the manners of most of the nations of Europe. The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his profession, as the champion of God and the ladies. He devoted him- self to speak the truth, to maintam the right, to protect the distressed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obligations, and to vindicate, in every perilous adventure, his honor and character. Chivalry, which owed its origin to the feudal system, expired with it. — Robertson ; Gibbon. CHIVALRY, Court of. It Avas commonly after the lie-direct had been given, that combats took place in the court of chivalry. By letters patent of James I. the earl-marshal of England had " the like jurisdiction in the court of chivalry, when the office of lord high constable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did jointly exercise," 1623. The following entries are found in the pipe-roll of 31 Henry I., the date of which has been fixed by the labors of the record commission : — " Robert Fitz Seward renders account of fifteen marks of silver, for the office and wife of Hugh Chivill. Paid into the exchequer four pounds. And he owes six pounds;" p. 53. "William de Hocton renders account of ten marks of gold that he maij have the xolfe of Geoffrey de Fancre in marriage, with her land, and may have her son in custody until he is of age to become a knight; he paid into the exchequer ten marks of gold, and is discharged." — Pari. Reports. CHOCOLATE. First introduced into Europe from Mexico about a. d. 1520. It is the flour of the cocoa-nut, and makes a wholesome beverage, much used in Spain. It was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establish- ment, 1650. — Taller. CHOIR. The choir was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canter- biu-y, A. D. 677. The service had been previously in use at Rome about 602. — See Chanting. The Choragus was the superintendent of the ancient chorus. — Warhurton. CHOLERA MORBUS. This fatal disease, known in its more malignant form as the Asiatic cholera, after having made great ravages in many countries of the north, east, and south of Europe, and in fne countries of Asia, where alone it had carried oflf more than 900,000 persons in its progress within two years, made its first appearance in England, at Sunderland, October 26, 1831. Proclamation, ordering all vessels from Sunderland to London, to perform quarantine at the Nore, December 4, 1831. Cholera first appeared at Edin- burgh, Feb. 6, 1832. First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, February 13 ; and in Dublin, March 3, same year. The mortality was verj great, but more so on the Continent ; the deaths by Cholera in Paris were 18,000 between March and August, 1832. Cholera first appeared on this continent at Quebec, June 8, 1832; and at New- York, June 27, 1832. Cho- lera again raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c. in 1836-7. It again appeared in Asia and the east of Europe in 1848, and raged in Lon- don, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and Paris at intervals, in 1848-9. First ap- peared again on this continent in 1849, on the Mississippi, in New York in 252 THE world's progress. [ CHS. May. and continued more or less in various parts of the United States until November of that year. CHRIST. See Jesus Christ. This name, so universally given to the Redeemer of the world, signifies, in Greek, The Anointed, being the same with Mes- siuh in the Hebrew, which the Jews called that Saviour and Deliverer whom they expected, and who was promised to them by all the prophets. This appellation is commonly put to our Jhsus (signifying Saviour), the name of the great object of our faith, and divine author of our religion. St. Clement, the earliest father, according to St, Epiphanius, fixes the birth of Christ on the 18th of November, in the 28th year of Augustus, i. e. two years before the Christian era as adopted in the sixth century. Cerinthus was the first Christian writer against the divinity of Christ, about a. d. 67. The divinity of Christ was adopted at the council of Nice, in a. d. 325, by two hundred and ninety-nine bishops against eighteen. CHRISTIAN. This name was first given to the believers and followers of Christ's doctrines at Antioch, in Syria, Acts xi. 26, in the year 38, accord- ing to Butler ; in the year 40, according to Tacitus; and according to other authorities in the year 60. The Christians were divided into episcopoi, presbyteroi, diaconoi, pistol, catachumens, or learners, and energumens who were to be exorcised, CHRISTIAN ERA. The era which is used by almost all Christian nations ; it dates from January 1st, in the middle of the fourth year of the 194th Olympiad, in the 753d of the building of Rome, and 4'7l4th of the Julian period. It was first introduced in the sixth century, but was not very generally employed for some centuries after. We style the Christian era A. D. 1. It was first used in modern chronology in 516. CHRISTIAN KING; Most Christian King; Christianissimus. This title was given by pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France in 1469 ; and never was a distinction more unworthily conferred. His tyranny and oppressions obliged his subjects to enter into a league against him ; and 4,000 persons were executed publicly or privately in his merciless reign. — He^ianlt : Fleury. CHRISTIANITY, Founded by the Saviour of the world. The persecutions of the Christians commenced a. d. 64. — See Persecutions. Christianity was first taught in Britain about this time ; and it Avas propagated with some success in 156. — Bede. Lucius is said to have been the first Christian king of Bri- tain, and in the world : he reigned in 179. But the era of Christianity in England commenced with the mission of St. Austin in 596, from which time it spread rapidly throughout the whole of Britain.* It was introduced into Ireland in the second century, but with more success after the arrival of St. Patrick in 432. It was received in Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about 201, when it was embraced by that king, his queen, and some of his nobility. Constantine the Great made his solemn declaration of the Christian religion a.d. 312 Christianity was established in France under Clovis the Great - - 496 In Helvetia, by Irish missionaries • 643 In Flanders in the seventh century. In Denmark, under Harold - - 827 In Bohemia, under Borzivoi • - 894 In Russia, by Swiatoslaf - • 940 In Poland, under Meicislaus I. - - 992 In Hungary, under Geisa • - 994 In Norway and Iceland, undet Olaf I. - 1000 In Sweden, between 10th and 11th centuries. In Prussia, by the Teutoric knights, when they were returning from the holy wars - - - a. d. 1227 In Lithuania, where Paganism was abo- lished, about - - - - 1380 In China, where it made some progress (but was afterwards extir])ated, and thousands of Chinese Chrislians were put to death) - - . . 1575 In Greece, where it was once more re- established .... 1628 * It is said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, chanced one day to pass through the slave-piarket at Rome, and perceiving some children of gi-eat beauty who were set up for sale, he inquired about their country, and findmg they were English Pagans, he is •aid to have cried out, in the Latin language, " Non Angli, sed Angeli,forent, si essent Christianif'* CHU ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 253 Christianity was propagated in various parts of Africa, as Guinea^ Angola, and Congo, in the fifteenth century ; and in America and India it made some progress in the sixteenth, and now rapidly gains ground in all parts of the world. CHRISTMAS-DAY. A festival of the church, universally observed in com- memoration of the nativity of our Saviour. It has been denominated Christ- mass, from the appellative Christ having been added to the name of Jesus to express that he was the Messiah, or The Ajiointed. It was first observed as a festival a. d. 98. Ordered to be held as a solemn feast, and Divine service to be performed on the 25th of December, by pope Telesphorus, about a. d. 137.* In the eastern primitive church, Christmas and Epiphany {vj/iich see) were detuned but one and the same feast ; and to this day the church universally keeps a continued feast within those limits. The he Uy and misletoe used at Christmas are remains of the religious observances of the Druids, and so with many other like customs. CHRONICLES. The earliest chronicles are those of the Chinese, Hindoos, Jews, and perhaps those of the Irish. After the invention of writing, all well-informed nations appear to have kept chroniclers, who were generally priests or astrologers, and who mingled popular legends with their records. — Phillips. CHRONOLOGY. The Chinese pretend to the most ancient, but upon no cer- tain authority. The most authentic, to which all Europe gives credit, is the Jewish ; but owing to the negligence of the Jews, they have created abun- dance of difficulties in this science, and very little certainty can be arrived at as to the exact time of many memorable events. The earliest epoch is the creation of the world, 4004 b. c. Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, was the first Christian chronologist, about a. d. 169. See the (liferent eras through the volume. OHURCH. It is said that a church was built for Christian worship in the first century; and some will have it that one was built in England, a. d. 60. See Glastonbury. In the small island of Whitehorn, Scotland, are the remains ol an ancient church, which was the first place of Christian worship, it is be- lieved, in that country, and supposed to have been built before the cathedral at Whitehorn, in Wigtonshire, where Nenian was bishop in the fourth cen- tury. The Christians originally preached in woods, and in caves, by candle- light, whence the practice of candle-light in churches. Most of the early churches were of wood. The first church of stone was built in London, in 1087. The first Irish church of stone was built at Bangor, in the county of Down, by Malachy, archbishop of Armagh, who was prelate in 1134. — Gor- don's Ireland. Church towers were originally parochial fortresses. Church- yards were permitted in cities in 742. CHURCH OF ENGLAND, (the present). Commenced with the Reformation, and M'as formallj established in the reign of Henry VIII. 1534. This church consists of two archbishops and twentj^-four bishops, exclusively of that of Sodor and Man ; and the other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest vicars; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, tftat IS, "they would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he waa struck with an ardent desire to convert that unenlightened nation, and ordered a monk, named Austin, or Augustin, and others of the same fraternity, to undertake the mission to Britain, in the year 596 — GoldsmUh. * Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes, to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the chuich to be set on fire, and six hundred perished in th<; burning pile. This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, A. n 303. 254 THE world's progress. [ CIN and chctpelries, make the number of preferments of the established church, according to the last official returns, 12,327. The number of churches for Protestant worship in England was 11,742 in 1818. CHURCH OF IRELAND. Called, in connection with that of England, the United Church of England and Ireland. Previously to the Church Tempo- ralities Act of William IV. in 1833, there were four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics in Ireland, of which several have since ceased; that act providing for the union of sees, and for the abolition of certain sees, accord- ingly as the present possessors of them die. There are 1,659 places of Prot- estant worship, 2,109 Catholic chapels, 452 Presbyterian, and 414 other houses of prayer. See Bishops. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. Presbyterianism is the religion of Scotland. Its distinguishing tenets seem to have been first embodied in the formuiary of faith attributed to John Knox, and compiled by that reformer in 1660. It was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567 ; was finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and was aftei'wards secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707. Previously to the abolition of episco- pacy in Scotland in 1688, there existed two archbishoprics and twelve bish- oprics, which were then dissolved ; but there are now six bishops. The Church of Scotland is regulated by four courts — the General Assembly, the Synod, the Presbytery, and Kirk Session. See Presbyterians. CHURCH MUSIC, was introduced into the Christian church by Gregory the Great, in a. d. 602. Choir service was first introduced in England, at Can- terbury, in 677. Church organs were in general use in the tenth century. Church music was first performed in English in 1559. See Choir: Chanting. CHURCH-WARDENS. Officers of the parish church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish Avere also appointed \>j the same body, and they continue now nearly as then consti- tuted. — Johnson's Canons. CHURCHING OF WOMEN. It originated in the Jewish rite of purification, A. D. 214. Churching is the act of returning thanks in the church for any signal deliverance, and particularly after the delivery of women. — Wheatley. It was a Jewish law that a woman should keep within her house forty days after her lying in, if she had a son, and eighty if she had a daughter, at the expiration whereof she was to go to the temple, and offer a lamb with a young pigeon or turtle and in case of poverty, two pigeons or turtles. See Purification. CIDER, Anciently this beverage, when first made in England, was called wine, about A. D. 1284. When the earl of Manchester was ambassador in France, he is said to have frequently passed off cider upon the nobility of that coun- try for a delicious wine. It was subjected to the excise regulations in England, 1763, et seq. A powerful spirit is drawn from cider by distillation. — Butler. CIMBRI. The war of the Cimbri, 113 b. c. They defeat the consul Marcus Silanus, 109 b. c. They defeat the Romans under Manlius. on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans are slain, 105 b. c. The Teutones are de- feated by Marius in two battles at Aquae Sextise (Aix) in Gaul, 200,000 are killed, and 70 000 made prisoners, 102 b. c. The Cimbri are defeated by Marius and Catullus as they were again endeavoring to enter Italy ; 120,000 are killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 101 b. c. Their name afterwards sunk in that of the Teutones or Saxons. ('INCINNATI. Ohio, the most populous city west of the Alleghanies in the United States, was founded in 1789, by emigrants from New England and CIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 255 New Jersey. Population in 1795, 600 ; in 1800, 750 ; in 1810, 2,540 ; in 1820, 9,6i2 ; in 1830, 24,831 ; in 1840, 46,338. CINCINNATI, Society of. Establislied by the officers of the American army, in 1783, after the Revolution, and still continued by them and their descend- ants. There was at one time a popular jealousy of this society as suggest- ing a sort of hereditary nobility or aristocracy ; but this has long since passed away, and the society is now but seldom mentioned. CIRCASSIA. The Circassians are descended from the Alanians. They contin- ued unsubdued, even by the arms of the celebrated "^imur ; but in the six- teenth century the greater part of them acknowledged the authority of the Czar, Ivan II. of Russia. About a d. 1745, the princes of Great and Little Kabarda took oaths of fealty to that power. One branch of their traffic is the sale of their daughters, famed throughout the world for their beauty, and whom they sell for the use of the seraglios of Turkey and Persia : the merchants who come from Constantinople to purchase these girls are gener- ally Jews. — Klaproth's Travels in the Caucasus and Georgia. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first in England, on a public plan, was opened by Samuel Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 1740. He had little encouragement in the undertaking, which in the end failed. — Fergu- soii's Blog. CIRCULATION of the BLOOD, and the motion of the heart in animals, con- firmed experimentally by William Harvey, the celebrated English physician and anatomist, between 1619 and 1628. See article Blood. By this dis- covery the medical and surgical art became greatly improved, to the benefit of mankind. — Freind's Hist, of Pity sic. CIRCUMCISION. A rite instituted 1897 b. c. It was the seal of the covenant made hy God with Abraham. — JosepJms. Even to the present day many of the Turks and Persians circumcise, although not regarding it as essential to salvation ; but in some eastern and African nations it is rendered necessary by a peculiar conformation, and is used without any reference to a religious rite. — Bell. The festival of the Circumcision was originally called the Octave of Christmas. The first mention found of it is in a. d. 487. It was instituted by the church to commemorate the ceremony under the Jewish law to which Christ submitted on the eighth day of his nativity ; it was introduced into the Liturgy in 1550. CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the greatest and most daring of human en- terprises was the circumnavigation of the earth at the period when it was first attempted, a. d. 1519.* The following are the most renowned of this illustrious class of men ; their voyages were undertaken at the dates affixed to their names. See Navigators. Magellan, a Portuguese, the first who entered the Pacific ocean - a. d. 1519 Groalva, a Spanish navigator - - 1537 Avalradi, a Spaniard - - - 1537 Mendana, a Spaniard - - - - 1567 Sir Francis Drake, first English - 1577 Cavendisli, his first voyage • . 1586 Le Maire, a Dutchman - - - 1615 Qui ros, a Spaniard - - - 1625 Tasman, Dutch - - • - 1642 Cowley, British - - - - 1683 Dampier, an Englishman - - 1689 Cooke, an Englisliman - - - 1708 Clipperton, British - - A. d. 1719 Roggewein, Dutch - • - 1721 Anson (afterwards Lord) - - - 1740 Byron (grandfather of Lord Byron) - 1764 Wallis, British - - - - 1766 Carteret, an Englishman - - 1766 Cook, the illustrious captain - - 1768 On the death of Captain Cook, h s last voyage was continued by King - J779 Bougainville, French - • - 1776 Portlocke, British - - ■ 178S Wilkes, American - - • - 1837 D'Urville, French - • -18.37 * The first ship that sailed round the earth, and hence determined its being globular, was Magellan's, or Magelhoen's ; he was a native of Portugal, in the service of Spain, and by keeping a westerly course he returned to the same place he had set out from in 1519. The voyage was com- pleted in three years and twenty-nine days ; but Magellan was killed on his homeward passage, at the Philippines, in 1521. — Butler. , 256 THE world's progress. [ en Several voyages have been since undertaken, and, among other nations, bj the Russians. The early navigators, equally illustrious, are named else- where. CIRCUS. There Avere eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at Rome ; the largest of them was called the Circus Maximus, which was built by the elder Tarquin, 605 b. c. ; it was of an oval figure ; its length was three stadia and a half, or more than three English furlongs, and its breadth 960 Roman feet. This circus was enlarged by Caesar so as to seat 150,000 persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. All the emperors vied in beautifying it, and Julius Caesar introduced in it large canals of water, which on a sudden could be covered with in infinite number of vessels, and represent a sea-fight. — Pliny. CISALPINE REPUBLIC. Founded by the French in June 1797. It was ac- knowledged by the emperor of Germany to be independent, by the treaty of Campo Formio {which see), Oct. 17, following. Received a new constitution in Sept. 1798. It merged into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; Napo- leon was crowned king in May following, and was represented by his vice- roy, Eugene Beauharnois. See Italy. CISTERCIANS. An order founded by Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh century. They became so powerful that they governed almost all Europe in spiritual and temporal concerns. They observed a continual silence, ab- stained from flesh, lay on straw, wore neither shoes nor shirts, and were most austere. — De Vitri. CITIES. The word city has been in use in England only since the Conquest, at which time even London was called Londonburgh, as the capital of Scotland is still called Edinburgh. The English cities were very inconsiderable in the twelfth century. Cities were first incorporated a. d. 1079. The institu- tion of cities has aided much in introducing regular governments, police, manners, and arts. — Robertson. CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a citizen of Rome. — Livy. In England a citizen is a person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on a trade therein. — Camden. Various privileges have been conferred on citizens as freemen in several reigns, and powers granted to them. The wives of citi- zens of London (not being aldermen's wives, nor gentlev,^omen by descent) were obliged to wear minever caps, being white woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks projecting three or four inches bej'^ond their foreheads; alder- men's wives made them of velvet, 1 Elizabeth, 1558. — Stouoe. The title of citizen, only, was allowed in France at the period of the revolution, 1792, et seq. CIUD AD RODRIGO. This strong fortress of Spain was invested by the French June 11, 1810; and it surrendered to them July 10, following. It remained in their possession until it was gallantly stormed by the British commanded by Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812. Wellington had made a previous attack upon Ciudad Rodrigo (Sept. 25, 1811), which ended in his orderly retreat from the position. CIVIL LAW. Several codes come under this denomination of laws. A body of Roman laws, founded upon the laws of nature and of nations, was first collected by Alfrenus Varus, the Civilian, who flourished about 66 b. c. ; and a digest of them was made by Servius Sulpicius, the Civilian, 53 b. c. The Gregorian laws were compiled a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian in 435 ; and tlie Justinian, 529-534. Many of the former laws having grown out of use, the emperor Justinian ordered a revision of them, which was called the Justinian code, and this code constitutes a large part of the present civil law. Civil law was restored in Italy, German}^, &c. 1127. — Blchir. Civil law was intro- duced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, who was afterwards CLE ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 257 archbishop of Canterbury, in 1138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only, and in maritime affairs. See Laios. CIVIL LIST IN ENGLAND. This comprehends the revenue awarded to the kings of England, partly in lieu of their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000^. and that of Charles I. was but 800,000/. After the Revolution a civil list revenue was settled on the new king and queen of 700,000/., the parhament taking into its own hands the support of the forces, both maritime and military. The civil list of George 11, was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of George III. in the 55th year of his reign, was 1,030,000/. By the act 1 Wilham IV. 1831, the civil list of that sovereign was fixed at 510,000/. By the act of 1 Victoria, Dec. 1837, the civil list of the queen was fixed at 385,000/. ; and Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from parliament of 30,000/. per ann. 4 Victoria, 1840. > r ^ CLANSHIPS. These were tribes»of the same race, and commonly of the same name, and originated in feudal times. — See Feiidal Lmos. They may be said to have arisen in Scotland, in the reign of Malcolm II., about 1008. Clanships and other remains of heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scot- land (where clans were taken to be the tenants of one lord), and the liberty of the English was granted to clansmen. 20 George II., 17iQ.—Bi(ffhead. The chief of each respective clan was, and is, entitled to wear two eagle's feathers in his bonnet, in addition to the distinguishing badge of his clan. — Chambers. CLARENDON, Statutes of. These were statutes enacted in a parliament held at Clarendon, the object of which was to retrench the then enormous power of the clergy. They are rendered memorable as being the ground of Becket's quarrel with Henry II. A number of regulations were drawn up under the title of the statutes or constitutions of Clarendon, and were voted without opposition, a. d. 1164. These stringent statutes were enacted to prevent the chief abuses which at that time prevailed in ecclesiastical affairs, and put a stop to church usurpations which, gradually stealing on, threatened the destruction of the civil and royal power. — Hume. CLARION. This instrument originated Avith the Moors, in Spain, about a. d. 800 ; it was at first a trumpet, serving as a treble to trumpets sounding their tenor and bass. — Ashe. Its tube is narrower, and its tone shriller than the common trumpet. — Pardon. CLASSIS. The name was first given by TuUius Servius in making divisions of the Roman people. The first of six classes were called classici, by way of eminence, and hence authors of the first rank came to be called classics, 573 B. c. CLEMENTINES. Apocryphal pieces, fable and error, attributed to a primi- tive father, Clemens Romanus, a cotemporary of St. Paul; some say he succeeded Peter as bishop of Rome. He died a. d. 102. — Niceron. Also the decretals of pope Clement V., who died 1314, published by his successor.— Bowyer. Also Augustine monks, each of whom having been a superior nine • years, then merged into a common monk. CLEMENTINES and URBANISTS. Parties by whom Europe was distracted for several years. The Urbanists were the adherents of pope Urban VI., the others those of Robert, son of the count of Geneva, who took the title of Clenaent VII. All the kingdoms of Christendom according to their various interests and inclinations were divided between these two pontiflTs ; the courts of France, Castile, Scotland, &c. adhering to Clement, and Rome, Italy, and 258 THE wop>.ld's progress. [clo England declaring for Urban. This contention was consequent upon the death of Gregory XL 1378. — Hwrne. CLERGY. In the first century the clergy M^ere distinguished by the title o^ presbyters or bishops. The bishops in the second century assumed higher functions, and the presbyters represented the inferior priests of the Levites: this distinction was still further promoted in the third century ; and, under Constantino, the clergy attained the recognition and protection of the secu- lar power. CLERGY IN England. They increased rapidly in number early in the seventh century, and at length controlled the king and kingdom. Drunkenness was forbidden among the clergy by a law, so early as 747 a. d. The first fruits of the then clergy were assigned by parliament to the king, 1534. The cler- gy were ^excluded from parliament in 1536. The conference between tho Protestant and Dissenting clergy was held in 1604. See Conferenct. Two thousand resigned their benefices in the thurch of England, rathei than subscribe their assent to the book of common prayer, including the thirty- nine articles of religion, as enjoined by the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2. The Irish Protestant clergy were restored to their benefices, from which they had been expelled, owing to the state of the kingdom under ^iames II., 1689. The Clergy Incapacitation act passed, 1801. See Church of England. CLERK. The Clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred order ; and the officers being cler- gy ; this gave them that denomination, which they keep to this day. — Black- stone's Comni. CLOCK. That called the clepsydra, or water-clock, was introduced at Rome 158 B. c. by Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them by Ctesi- bius, about 140 b. c. Said to have been found by Caesar on invading Britain, 55 B. c. The only clock supposed to be then in the world was sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a. d. 760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Verona, invented one in the ninth century. Originally the wheels were three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock of which there is any certain record, was made by a Saracen mechanic, in the 13th century. Thescapement, ascribed to Gerbert, A. D. 1000 I den) and the younger Galileo con- A clock constructed by Richard, abbot I structed the pendulum - a. d. 1641 of St. Alban's, about - - -1326; Christian Huygens contested this disco- A striking clock in Westminster - 1368 very, and made his'pendulum clock A perfect one made at Paris by Vick - 1370 I some time previously to - - 1658 The first portable one made - - 1530 i Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the In England no clock went accurately j pendulum, about - . - 1C59 before that set up at Hampton-court i Repeating clocks and watches invented (maker's initials, N. O.) - - 1540 by Barlow, about - - - 1676 Richard Harris (who erected a clock in ; The dead beat, and horizontal escape- the church of St. Pauls, Covent-Gar- I ments, by Graham, about - - -1700 The subsequent improvements were the spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex scapement invented by Dr. Hooke ; pivot holes jewelled bj^ Facio ; the detached scapement invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthoud, Arnold, Earnshaw and others. CLOCK, MAGNETIC. Invented by Dr. Locke of Cincinnati, 1847-8. CLOTH. Both woollen and linen cloth were known in very early times. Coarse woollens were introduced into England a. d. 1191 ; and seventy families of doth -workers from the Netherlands settled in England by Edward ITI.'s in- vitation, and the art of weaving was thereby introduced, 1331. — Rymer^s Fee- der a. Woollens were first made at Kendal, in 1390. Medleys were manu- factured, 1614. Our fine broad cloths were yet sent to Holland to be dyed, 1654. Dyed and dressed in England, by one Brewer, from the Low Coun- trieSj 1667. The manufacture was discouraged in Ireland and that of linen coa] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 259 countenanced, at the request of both houses of parliament, 1698. Woollen Cloth. See CLOVIS, Family of. Kings of France. The real founder of the French mo- narchy was Clovis I., Avho commenced his reign a. d. 481, and was a warlike prince. He expelled the Romans, embraced the Christian religion, and pub- lished the Salique law. On his being first told of the sufferings of Christ, he exclaimed, "O, had I been there with my valiant Gauls, how I would have avenged him !" Clovis united his conquests from the Romans, Germans, and Goths, as provinces to the then scanty dominions of France : removed the seat of Government from Soissons to Paris, and made this the capital of his new kingdom; he died in 511. — Henmdt. COACH. The coach is of French invention. Under Francis I., who was a co- temporary with our Henry VIII. , there Avere but two in Paris, one of which belonged to the queen, and the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550 ; and Henry IV. had one, but without straps or springs. The first courtier who set up this equipage was John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin, who could not travel otherwise on account of his enormous bulk. Previously to the use of coaches the kings of France travelled on horseback, the princesses were carried in litters, and ladies rode behind their squires. The first coach seen in England was in the reign of Mary, about 1553. — Priestley's Led. They were introduced much earlier. — Andrews'' Hist. Great Brit. They were introduced by Fitz- Allen, earl of Arundel, in 1580. — Slowe. And in some years afterwards the art of making them. — Anderson's Hist, of Commerce. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601.* — Carle. See Carriages, Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. COALITIONS. The great coalitions against France since the period of the French revolution, have been six in number ; and they generally arose out of the subsidizing by England of the great powers of the Continent. They were entered into as follows : 1st. The king of Prussia issues his ma- nifesto - - - June 26, 1792 2nd. By Great Britain, Germany, Rus- sia, Naples, Portugal, and Turkey, signed - - - June 22, 1799 3rd. By Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples - - Aug. 5, 1805 4th. By Great Britain, Russia. Prussia, and Saxony - - Oct. 6, 1806 5th. By England and Austria ■ April 6, 1809 6th. By Russia arid Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch - March 17, 1813 See Treaties. COALITION MINISTRY. This designation was given to the celebrated min- istry of Mr. Fox and lord North, and which was rendered memorable as an extraordinary union in political life, on account of the strong personal dis- like which had always been displayed by these personages, each towards the other. The ministry was formed April 5, 1783, and dissolved Dec. 19, same year. See Administrations. COALS. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coals, although they are not mentioned by the Romans in their notices of Britain, were yet in use by the ancient Britons. — Brandt. They were first discovered at Newcastle- upon-Tyne in 1234, some say earlier ; and others in 1239. Sea-coal was pro- hibited from being used in and near London, as being " prejudicial to human health ; " and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. — Stotce. Coals were first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 4 Richard IT. 1381. — Rymer's Fozdera. Notwithstanding the many previous complainls * In the beginning of the year 1619, the earl of Northumberland, who had been imprisoned ever Bmcc the Gunpowder Plot, obtained his liberation Hearing that Buckingham was drawn about with six hors&s in his coach (being the first that was so), he put on eight to his, and in that raannei passed from tins tower through the city. — Rapin. 1650 . - 160,000 chald. 1700 - 317,000 ditto. 1750 - - 510,000 ditto. 1830 - - l,e88,360 chald. 1835 - 2,299,816 toas. 1840 - - 2,638,256 ditto. 260 THE world's progress, \_coa against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in Lon- don in 1400 ; but coals were not in common use in England until the leign of Charles I., 1625. NUMBER OP CHALDRONS OF COALS CONSUMED IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS : 1800 - - 814,000 chald. 1810 - - 980,372 ditto. 1820 - - 1,171,178 ditto. The coal-fields of Durham and Northumberland are 723 square miles in extent ; those of Newcastle, Sunderland, Whitehaven, and other places, are also of vast magnitude ; and there are exhaustless beds of coal in Yorkshire. The coal in South Wales alone, would, at the present rate of consumption, supply all England for 2000 years. — Blakewell. It is supposed that there are now about 25,000,000 of tons consumed annually in Great Britain. — Phillips. Scotland teems with the richest mines of coal, and besides her vast collieries there must be vast fields unexplored. — Pennant. Fine coal is found in Kil- kenny, Ireland. The first ship laden with Irish coal arrived in Dublin from Newry, in 1742. — Burns. COALS IN THE United States. Lehigh coal from Mauch Chunk, Pennsylva- nia, first mined and used, 1806. According to Mr. Lyell, the coal strata in Pennsylvania, Ohio, &c., extend 700 miles. COCCEIANS. A sect founded by John Cocceius of Bremen ; they held, amongst other singular opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this Avorld, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith, 1665. COCHINEAL. The properties of this insect became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico, in 1518. Cochineal was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. — See Dyeing. The annual import of this article into England was 260,000 lbs. in 1830 ; and 1,081,776, in 1845. COCK-FIGHTING. Practised by the early barbarous nations, and by Greece. It was instituted at Rome after a victor}^ over the Persians, 476 b. c. ; and was introduced by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove Tuesday. Cock-fighting was prohibited, 39 Edward III., 1365; and again by Henry VIII. and Cromwell. Till within these few j^ears there was a Cock-pit Royal, in St. James's-park : but this practice is happily now dis- couraged hj the law. COCK-LANE GHOST. A famous imposition (7) practised upon the credulous multitude by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter. The contrivance was that of a female ventriloquist, and all who heard her believed she was a ghost : the deception, Avhich arose in a malignant conspiracy, was carried on for some time at the house, No. 33 Cock-lane, London ; but it was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, July 10, 1762. COCOA. Unknown in Europe until the discovery of America, about 1600. The cocoa-tree supplies the Indians with almost whatever they stand in need of, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, fiordage, nails, covering for their houses, &c. — Ray. CODES OF LAWS. The laws of Phoroneus were instituted 1807 e. c. : those of Lycurgus, 884 b. c. ; of Draco, 623 b. c. ; of Solon, 587 b. c. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 b. c. ; and Ser- vius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 b. c. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published a. d. 290 ; the Theodosian code in 435 • the celebrated code of the emperor Justinian, in 529 — a digest from C.'OI J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 26 1 this last was made in 533. — Blair. Alfred's code of laws is the foundation of the common lav/ of England, 887. — See Laws. CODICILS TO V/ILLS. C. Trebatius Testa, the civihan of Rome, was the first who introduced, the use of this supplementary instrument to wills, about 31 B. c. CCEUR DE LION, OR THE Lion-hearted. The surname given to Richard Plan- tagenet I. of England, on account of his dauntless courage, about a. d. 1192. Tiiis surname was also conferred on Louis VIII. of France, who signalized himself in the crusades and in his wars against England, about 1223. This latter prince had also the appellation of the Lion given irim. COFFEE. It grows in Arabia, Persia, the Indies, and America. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians.* It came into great repute in Arabia Felix about a. d. 1454 ; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence, in 1511, to Constantinople, where coffee-houses were opened in 1554. M, Thevenot, the traveller, was the first who brought it into France, to which country he retiirned after an absence of seven years, in 1662. — Chambers. Cof- fee was brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus. a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Baliol College, Oxford, in 1641. — Anderson. COFFEE AND TEA. The consumption in the United States at different periods is reported by the secretary of the treasury (see American Almanac. 1848) thus : — 1821 - Tea, 4,586.223 lbs. - Coffee, 11.886,063 lbs. 1830 - " 6,873,091 lbs. - " 38,.363.687 lbs 1885 - " 12,331,633 lbs. " 91,7.53;002 lbs. 1S42 - " 13,482,645 lbs. - " 107,-387 ;567 lbs. 1&1(5 - " 16,891,020 lbs. " 124,336,054 lbs. COFFEE-HOUSES. The first in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford, 1650. In that year, Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought home with him a Greek servant named Pasquet, who kept the first house for making coffee in London, which he opened in George-yard, Lom- bard-street, in 1652. Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. — Anderson. The Rainbow coffee-house, near Temple-bar, was represented as a nuisance to the neighborhood, 1657. Coffee-houses were suppressed by proclamation, 26 Charles 11. , 1675. The proclamation was afterwards suspended on the petition of the traders in tea and coffee. COFFEE-TREES. These trees were conveyed from Mocha to Holland in 1616 ; and wore carried to the V/est Indies in the j^ear 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch about 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732. COFFINS. The Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of the cedar tree ; ow- ing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. — Thucydid.es. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold : and glass coffins have been found in England. — Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us, is that of the buriaf of king Arthur, who was buried in an entire trunk of oak, hollowed, a. d. 542 — Asser. The patent coffins were invented in 1796. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money as existing 1184 b. c. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, who cherished commerce, and whose money • Some ascribe the discovery of coffee as a beverage to the prior of a monastery, who, being in- formed by a goat-herd that his cattle sometimes browsed upon the tree, and that they would then wake at night, and sport and bound upon the hills, became curious to prove its virtues. He ac- cordingly tried it on his monks, to prevent their sleeping at matiiis, and he found that it checked Iheir sluinbera. 262 THE world's progress. [ COl was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Phidon tyrant of Argos, 862 B. c. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullins, about 573 b. c. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian, of the fifth century b. c. ; but others are believed to be more ancient. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 b. c. (when Fabius Pictor Qoined silver), a sign that little correspondence was then held with the East, where gold and silver were in use long before. Gold was coined 206 b. c. Iron money was used in Sparta, and Iron and tin in Britain. — Dufresyioy. Julius Ciesar was the first who obtained the express permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. In the earlier and more simple days of Rome, the likeness of no living personage appeared upon their money: the heads were those of their deities, or of those who had re- ceived divine honors. (JOIN IN ENGLAND. The fiist coinage in England was under the Romans at Camulodunum, or Colchester. English coin was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, Avhen round coin only was used. Groats were the largest silver coin until after a, d. 1351. Coin was made sterling m 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and maney was found only in the coffers of the barons. — Stowe The first gold coins on certain record, j end to the circulation of private lead- struck, 42 Henry III. - a. d. 1257 Gold florin first struck, Ed. HI. {Cam- den) ■ - ■ - - 1337 First large copper coinage, putting an en pieces, «kc. - - - - 1620 Halfpence and farthings coined - 1665 Guineas first coined, 25 Char. II. - 1673 Sovereigns, new coinage - - 1816 Half-farthings - - - - 1843 Gold coin was introduced in six shilling pieces by Edward III. and nobles followed, at six shillings and eightpence, and hence the lawyer's fee: after- wards there were half and quarter nobles. Guineas were of the same size ; but being made of a superior gold from sovereigns, guineas passed for more. SeeGutJieas. English and Irish money were assimilated Jan. 1. 1826. See Gold. MONEYS COINED IN THE FOLLOWING REIGNS, AND THEIR AMOUNT. Elizabeth - - £5,83-2,000 James I. - - 2.500,000 Charles I. - - - 10,503,000 Cromwell - - 1,000.000 Charles II. - - 7,524,100 George III. and regency, gold - - i;74,501,5S6 George IV. - - 41.782,815 William IV. - - 10,827,603 Victoria, to 1848, 32.370.814 .lames II. - - £3,740,000 William III. - - 10,511,900 Anne - - - 2.691,626 George 1. - - 8,725,920 George II. - - 11,966,576 The coin of the realm was about twelve millions in 1711. — Davenant. It was estimated at sixteen millions 1762. — Anderson. It was supposed to be twen- ty millions in 1786. — Chalmers. It amounted to thirty-seven millions in 1800. — PMltips. The gold is twenty-eight millions, and the rest of the metallic currency is thirteen millions, while the paper largely supplies the place of coin, 1830. — Dioke of Wellington. In 1841, it may be calculated as reaching forty-five millions. See Gold. COIN OF THE U. S. The U. S. Mint was estabhshed in 1792. The coinage ft-om that time to 1836 was thus: — Pieces. Value. Gold - - 4,716,325 - - #22,102,035 Silver - - - 115,421,762 - - 46,739,182 Copper - - 77,752,965 - * . 740,331 Total - 197,891,502 - - $69,581 ,.549 1837 to 1848 inclusive 145,389,748 • - $81,436,165 Totalin 56 years - 343,281,250 pieces. - $151,017,714 The gold coinage consists of double eagles i$20, eagles, half eagles, quarter eagles and dollars. Gold dollars were first coined in 1849. The first de- posit of California gold for coining, was made by Mr. David Carter, 1804 ounces, Dec. 8, 1848. COL J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 263 COINING. ITiis operation was originally performed by the metal being placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill was invented by Antonie Brucher, and introduced into England in 1562. An en- gine for coining was invented by Balancier in 1617. The great improvements of the art were efi'ected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho. 1788, and subsequently. The art was rendered perfect by the creation of the present costly machinery at the mint, London, commenced in 1811. OOLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same percep- tions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost 1740. a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg, after an elegant model, and in the just proportions of Augustan architecture. — Greig. Perhaps the cold- est day ever known in London was Dec. 25, 1796, when the thermometer was 16" below zero. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow Jan. 13, 1810. See Frosts, Ice. COLISEUM. The edifice of this name at Rome was built by Vespasian, in the place where the basin of Nero's gilded house had previously been a. d. 72. The splendid Colisasum of London, and one of its most worthy objects of admiration, is built near the Regent's Park, and was completed in 1827-8. COLLEGES. University education preceded the erection of colleges, which were munificent foundations to relieve the students from the expense of liv- ing at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate or academic degrees are said to have been first conferred at the University of Paris, a. d. 1140; but some authorities say, not before 1215. In England, it is contended that the date is much higher, and some hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they were the first doctors of those universities. Cambridge, Oxford, &c. Cheshunt College Ibunded - a. d. 1792 Doctor's Commons, civil law - - 1670 Durham University - - - * * Edinburgh Universily - - - 1580 Eton College 1441 Glasgow University • - - 1451 Harrow - - • - - 1585 Mareschal College, Aberdeen - a- d. 1593 Maynooth College - - - 1795 Physicians, London - - - - 1518 Sion College - . . . 1329 Sion College, re-founded - - - 1630 Surgeons, London - - - 1745 Trinity College, Dublin - - - 1591 Highbury College - - - 1826 i University, London - - - 1826 King's College, Aberdeen - - - 1494 | Winchester College - - - - 1387 King's College, London - - - 1529 OQLLEGES IN THE United States. The first established was Harvard, at Cambridge. Mass., by John Harvard, 1638; and this is now the most im- portant and best endowed in the United States. The second M-as William and Mary, in Virginia, 1693. Third, Yale, at New Haven, 1700. Fourth, College of New Jersey. Princeton, 1746. Fifth, Coluvibia, New- York, 1754. Sixth, University of Pennsylvania, Philadeli^hia, 1765. Seventh. Brown University, Providence, 1764. Eighth, Dartmouth, at Hanover, N. H., 1769. Ninth, Rutgers. New Brunswick, N. J., 1770. These were all prior to the Revolution. The first medical school was that at Philadelphia, founded 1764. The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Conn., 1782. la 1849 there were 118 colleges in the United States ; 42 theological schools ; 12 law schools ; 36 medical schools. See list in American Almanac. Girard College opened Jan. 1, 1848. COLOGNE. A member of the Hanseatic league, 1260. The Jews were expelled from here in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, and it has since fallen into ruin. Cologne was taken by the French, under Jourdan, Oct. 6, 1794. In the cathedral are shown the heads of the three Magi ; and in the church of St. Ursula is the tomb of that saint, and bones belonging to the 11,000 vir- gins said to have been put to death along with her, COLOMBIA. A republic in South America, formed of states which have 264 THE world's progress. [col declared their independence of the crown of Spain ; but its several chiefi have been contending one against another, and each state has been a prey to civil war, and the stability of the union is far from assured. New Grenada, discovered by Colum- i Battle ofCarabobo, the Royalists wholly bus - - - - A. D. 1497 Venezuela discovered - - - 1498 1 he Caraccas formed into a kingdom, under a captain-general - - 1547 The history of those provinces under the tyranny and oppression of the Spa- niards, presents but one continuous scene of rapine and blood. overthrown - - June 24, 1821 Bolivar is named Dictator bv the Con- gress of Peru - - Feb. 10, 1821 Alliance between Colombia and Mexico formed - - - June 30, 1824 Alliance with Guatimala - March 1825 Congress at Lima names Bolivar Pre- sident of the republic - Aug. 1826 Bolivar's return to Bogota - Nov. 1826 He assumes the dictatorship - Nov. 23, 1826 Padilla's insurrection - April 9, 1823 Conspiracy of Santander against the life of Bolivar - Sept. 25, 1828 Bolivar resigns his office of president of the republic - - April 11, 1829 He dies - - - Dec. 17, 1830 Confederation of Venezuela - - 1810 Independence formally declared - - 1811 Defeat of General Miranda - - 1812 Bolivar defeated by Boves - - - 1816 Bolivar defeats Morillo in the battle of Sombrero - - - Feb. 1818 Union of the States of Grenada and Ve- nezuela • - - Dec. 17, 1819 Santander dies - - May 26, 1840 COLON. This point was known to the ancients, but was not expressed as it is in modern times. The colon and period were adopted and explained by Thrasyniachus about 373 b. c. — Siddas. It was known to Aristotle. Our punctuation appears to have been introduced with the art of printing. The colon and semicolon were both first used in British literature, in the sixteenth century. COLONIES OF GREAT BRITAIN. They are described under the name of each. The white and the free colored population, as far as it has been ascertained, amounts to about 2,500,000, and the slaves at the period of their emancipa- tion, were 770,280. The number of convicts in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land, is 36,267 ; the aborigines of the latter place have not been ascertained. The act for the abolition of slaverj'' throughout the British colonies, and for compensation to the owners of slaves (.£20,000,000 sterling) was passed 3 & 4 William IV. 1833. By the provisions of this statute all the slaves throughout the British colonies were emancipated on August 1, 1834. COLONIZATION. The American Colonization Society, for colonizing free people of color on the coast of Africa, founded December, 1816, at Wash- ington, chiefly through the exertions of Rev. Robert Finley. [Plan advo- cated by Jefferson as early as 1777, urged by Dr. Thornton, 1787, and by the legislature of Virginia, 1801.] First president of the society, Bushrod Washington; succeeded by Charles Carroll, James Madison, and Henry Clay Liberia purchased 1821. COLOSSLS OF RHODES. A brass statue of Apollo, seventy cubits high, erected at the port of Rhodes in honor of the sun, and esteemed one of the wonders of the world. Built by Chares of Lindus, 290 b. c. It was thrown down by an earthquake 221 b. c. ; and was finally destroyed by the Saracens .on their taking Rhodes in a. d. 672. The figure stood upon two moles, a leg being extended on each side of the harbor, so that a vessel in full sail could enter between. A winding staircase ran to the top, from which could be discerned the shores of Syria, and the ships that sailed on the coast of Egypt. The statue had lain in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and had never been repaired ; but now the Saracens pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 lbs , to a Jew, who is said to have loaded .900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria — Dii Fresnoy. COLUMBIA, District of. A tract of country 10 miles square, ceded by Vir- ginia and Marylaiid to the United States, for the purpose of forming the seat of government. It included the cities of Washington, Georgetown, OOM J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 265 and Alexandria ; but in 1843 the latter was re-ceded to Virginia. Popula- tion in 1800, 14,093 ; in 1840, 43,712, including 8,361 free colored persons, and 4,694 slaves. COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon were the inventors of theatrical exhibitions, 562 b. c. They performed the first comedy at Athens, on a wagon or movable stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded with a basket of figs and a cask of wine.— Arundelian Marbles. Aristophanes was called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 B. c, and Menander that of new, 320 b. c. Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he flourished 220 b. c. Statins Csecilius wrote upwards of 30 come- dies ; he flourished at Rome, 180 b. c. The comedies of Laelius and Terence were first acted 154 b. c. The first regular comedy was performed in Eng- land about A. D. 1651. It was said of Sheridan, that he wrote the best comedy (the School for Scandal)^ the best opera (the Duenna)^ and the best after- piece (the Critic)^ in the English language. — See Drama. COMETS. The first that was discovered and described accurately, was by Nicephorus. At the birth of the great Mithridates two large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy-two days together, and whose splen- dor eclipsed that of the mid-day sun, and occupied forty-five degrees, or the fourth part of the heavens, 135 b. c. — Justin. A remarkable one was seen in England, 10 Edward III., 1337. — Stoioe. These phenomena Avere first rationally explained by Tycho Brache, about 1577. A comet, which terri- fied the people from its near approach to the earth, was visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680. The orbits of comets were proved to be ellipses, by Newton, 1704. A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passed within two millions of miles of the earth. One still more brilliant appeared in Sept., Oct., and Nov., 1811, visible all the autumn to the naked eye. Another brilliant comet appeared in 1823. — See the three next articles. COMET, BIELA'S. This comet has been an object of fear to many on account of the nearness with which it has approi,ched, not the earth, but a point of the earth's path : it was first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, Feb. 28, 1826. It is one of the three comets whose reappearance was pre- dicted, its revolution being performed in six years and thirty-eight weeks. Its second appearance was in 1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was Nov. 27. Its third appearance was in 1889, and its fourth in 1845. COMET, ENCKE'S. First discovered by M. Pons, Nov. 26, 1818, but justly named by astronomers after professor Encke, from his success in detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, like the preceding, one of the three comets which have appeared according to prediction, and its revolu- tions are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. COMET, HALLEY'S. This is the great and celebrated comet of the greatest astronomer of England. — Lalande. Doctor Halley first proved that many of the appearances of comets were but the periodical returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, of 1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute observation of the first mentioned comet, and being struck by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, first fixed the identity of comets, and first predicted their periodical returns. — Vince's Astronomy. The revolution of Halley's comet is performed in about seventy-six years : it appeared in 1759, and came to its perihelion on March 13 ; and its last appearance was in 1835. COMMERCE. Flourished in Arabia, Egypt, and among the Phoenicians in the earliest ages. In later times it was spread over Europe by a confed- eracy of maritime cities a. d. 1241. — See Hanse Towns. The discoveries of Columbus and the enterprises of the Dutch and Portuguese, enlarged the 12 266 THE WORLD S I'ltUGlvt-feS. ^ "^^^ sphere of commerce, and led other nations, particularly England, to engage extensively in its pursuit. — See the various articles connected with this subject. COMMERCE. See Navigation. COMMERCE, New- York Chamber of, instituted 1783. COIMMERCJAL TREATIES. The first treaty of commerce made by Eng- land with any foreign nation, was entered into with the Flemings, 1 Edward I., 1272. The second was with Portugal and Spain, 2 Edward II. 1308. — Anderson. See Treaties. COMMON COUNCIL of LONDON. Its formation commenced about 1208, The charter of Henry I. mentions the folk-mote^ this being a Saxon appella^ tion, and which may fairly be rendered the court or assembly of the peoijle, COMMON LAW of ENGLAND. Custom, to which length of time has given the force of law, or rules generally received and helJ as law, called lex non scripta, in contradistinction to the written law. Common law derives its origin from Alfred's body of laws (which was lost), a. d. 890. The common law of the United States is founded on that of England. — See Custom. Laws. COMMON PRAYER. Published in the English language by the authority of parliament, in 1548. The Common Prayer was voted out of doors, by par- liament, and the Directory {vjhicli sec), set up in its room in 1644. A pro- clamation was issued against it, 1647. See Directory. COMMONS; House of. The great representative assembly of the people of Great Britain, and third branch of the Imperial legislature, originated with Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who ordered returns to be made of two knights from every shire, and deputies from certain boroughs, to meet the barons and clergy who were his friends, with a view thereby to strengthen his own power in opposition to that of his sovereign Henry III. This was the first confirmed outline of a house of commons ; and the first commo^js were summoned to meet the king in parliament 42 & 43 Henry III. 1258. — Goldsmith. Stotoe. According to other authorities, the first parliament formally convened was the one summoned 49 Henry III., Jan. 23, 1265 ; and writs of the latter date are the earliest extant. Some historians date the first regularly constituted parliament from the 22d of Edward 1. 1294. The first recorded speaker, duly chosen, was Petre de Montfort in 1260 ; he was killed at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. The city of London first sent members to parliament in the reign of Henry III., while Westminsur was not represented in that assembly until the latter end of Henry VIII's life, or rather in the first House of Commons of Edward VI. The following is the constitution of the House of Commons since the passing of the Reform Bills {which see,) in 1832 : — English and Welsh - 500 Scotch. — County members - 30 Cities and Boroughs - - 23 53 Irish. — County members - - 64 University - - - - 2 Cities and boroughs - - 39 — 105 English and Welsh - 500 Total (see Parliament) • 658 COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND. This was the interregnum between the decollation of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. The form of the government was changed to a republic on the execution of Charles I. Jan. 30, 1649. Oliver Cromwell was made Protector, Dec. 12, 1653. Richard Crom- well was made Protector, Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored in the person of Charles II., who returned to London May 29, 1670. See England. COMMONWEALTH of ROME. See Rome. The greatest and most renown- ed republic of the ancient world. It dates from 509 b. c, when the goveriv English. — County members - 144 Universities - - • 4 Cities and boroughs - - 323—471 Welsh. — County members - - 15 Cities and Boroughs - - 14 — 29 CON ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 267 mentof kin^-s ceased with the expulsion of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last king of Rome, and the election of consuls. After this revolution Rome advanced by rapid strides towards universal dominion. The whole of Italy received her laws. Sicily, Sardinia, Spain, Carthage, Africa, Greece, Asia, Sy- ria Eo-ypt, Gaul, Britain, and even a part of Germany, were successively sub- dued 1)y her arms : so that in the age of Julius Caesar this republic had the Euphrates, Mount Taurus, and Armenia, for the boundaries in the east; Ethiopia, in the south; the Danube, in the north; and the Atlantic Ocean, in the west. The republic existed under consuls and other magistrates un- til the battle of Actium, from which we commonly date the commencement of the Roman empire, 31 b. c. COMMUNION. It originated in the Lord's supper, and was practised early in the primitive church. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have its rise in the west, under pope Urban II. 1096. The fourth Lateral! council decreed that every believer shall receive the communion at least at Easter, 1215. The communion service, as now observed in the church of England, was instituted by the authority of council, 1548. COMPANIES. Anions- the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the Steel-yard society, established a. d. 1232. The second company was the merchants of St. Thomas k Becket, in 1248.— S^ow^. The third was the Merchant Adventurers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Thvre are ninety-one city companies in London ; the first twelve are 1 Mercers 2 Grocers - 3 Drapers 4 Fishmongers 5 Goldsmiths 6 Skinners - COMPANIES, BUBBLE. Ruinous speculations coming under this name have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's Bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in Great Britain in 1824 and ]825, and most of them turned out to be bubbles; and owing to the rage for taking shares in each scheme as it was projected, immense losses were in- curred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. See Law's Bubble, and Bankmpts. COMPASS, The MARINER'S. It is said to have been known to the Chinese, 1115 B. c ; but this seems to be a mistake. They had a machine which self- moved, pointed towards the so^dh. and safely guided travellers by land or water; and some authors have mistaken it for the mariner's compass, the invention of which is by some ascribed to Marcus Paulus, a Venetian, a. d. 1260; while others, with more seeming justice, assign it to Flavio Gioja, of Pasitano, a navigator of Naples. Until his time the needle was laid vipon a couple of pieces of straw, or small split sticks, in a vessel of water ; Gioja m- troduced the suspension of the needle as we have it now, 1302. Its variation was discovered by Columbus, in 1492. The compass-box and hanging com- pass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English di- vine and natural philosopher, in l&^S.—Biog. Die. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Byng, of Hesse, in 1602. CONCEPTION OF THE VIRGIN. This is a feast in the Romish church in honor of the Virgin Mary having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. The festival was appointed to be held on the 8th of Dec. by the church, in 1889. Conceptionists, an order of nuns, estabhshed 1488. A. D. 1393 7 Merchant Tailors - A. D. 1466 - 1.345 8 Haberdashers - 1447 -1439 9 Salters - - - 1558 - - 1384 10 Ironmongers - - 1484 - 1327 11 Vintners - - - 1437 . . 1327 12 Clothworkers - • 1482 268 THE world's progress. [ con CONCERT. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford, in 1665, when it was attended by a great number of personages of rank and talent from every part of England. The first concert of like kind perform- ed in London was in 1678. Concerts afterwards became fashionable and frequent. CONCHOLOGY. This branch of natural history is mentioned by Aristotle and Phnj^, and was a favorite with the most intellectual and illustrious men. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major of Kiel, who published nis classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was t)u.blished in 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. ' DNCLAVE FOR THE ELECTION of POPES. The conc'ave is a range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope at Rome, where the cardinals usually hold their meetings to elect a pope. The word is also used for the assembly, or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a pope. The conclave had its rise in a. d. 1271. Clement IV. being dead at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years imable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were upon the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventure, then at ViterbO; shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals in the pontifical pi^lace till they agreed. Hence the present custom of shutting up the cardinals while they elect a pope. CONCORDANCE to the BIBLE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words in the Bible, and also a chronological account of all the transac- tions of that sacred volume. The first concordance to the Bible was made under the direction of Hugo de St. Charo, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, a. d. 1247. — Abb^ Lenglet. CONCORDAT. The name given to an instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The celebrated concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., whereby the then French consul was made, in effect, the head of the Galilean Church, as all ecclesiastics were to have their appointments from him, was signed at Paris, July 15, 1801. Another concordat between Bonaparte and the same pontiff" was sign- ed at Fontainbleau, Jan. 25, 1813. CONCUBINES. They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, a. d. 1132. Cujas observes, that although concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity and civil effects, yet concubine was a reputable title, very different from that of mistress among us. This kind of union, which is formed by giving the left hand instead of the right, and cnWe^ half -marriage, is still in use in some parts of Germany. CONFEDERATION at PARIS. Upwards of 600,000 citizens formed this memorable confederation, held on the anniversary of the taking of the bas- tile, at which ceremony the king, the national assembly, the army, and the people, solemnly swore to maintain the new constitution, July 4, 1790, See Chavvp de Mars, Bastile. CONFEDERATION of the RHINE, or League of the Germanic States form- ed under the auspices of Napoleon Bonaparte. By this celebrated league, tl?e minor German princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and they established a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806. See Germanic Confederation. CONFERENCE. The celebrated religious conference held at Hampton Court palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, 2 James I. 1004. This conference led to a new translation of the Bible, which con] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 269 was execnted in 1607-11, and is that now in genert* ( use in England and the United States ; and during the meeting some alterations in the church liturgy- were agreed upon, but this not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was ^ done. A conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers with the same view was held in 1661. CONFESSION. Auricular confession in the Romish church was first instituted about A. D. 1204, and was regularly enjoined in 1215. It is made to a priest, in order to obtain absolution for the sins or faults acknowledged by the pe- nitent, who performs a penance enjoined by the priest; and if this be done with a contrite heart, the sins thus absolved are supposed to be absolved in heaven. At the reformation, the practice was at first left wholly indifferent, by the council ; but this was the prelude to its entire abolition in the clKirch of England. — Burnet. CONFIRMATION. One of the oldest rites of the Christian .hurch; it was used by Peter and Paul; and was general, according to some church au- thorities, in A. D. 190. It is the public profession of the Christian religion by an adult person, who was baptized in infancy. It is still retained in the church of England ; but to make it more solemn, it has been advanced into a sacrament by the church of Rome. CONGE DELIRE. The license of the king, as head of the church, to cha|)- ters, and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, particularly bishops. After the interdict of the pope upon England had been removed in 1214, king John had an arrangement with the clergy for the election of bishops. Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 26 Henry VIIL, 1535. CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or ministers, or meeting for the settle- ment of the affairs of nations, or of a people. Several congresses Avere held during the continental wars ; but the following were the most remarkable congresses of Europe : — Congress of Soissons - June 14, 1728 Congress of Carlsbad • Aug. 1, 1819 Congress of Antwerp - April 8, 1793 Congress of Radstadt - Dec. 9, 1797 Congress of Chatillon - - Feb. 5, 1814 Congress of Vienna - Nov. 3, 1814 Congress of Troppau - Oct. 20, 1820 Congress of I.aybach - May 6, 1821 Congress of Verona • Aug. 25, 1822 See Alliances, Conventions, Sfc. CONGRESS, U. S. A. .The first Colonial Congress, composed of the delegates from nine of the colonies (Mass., R. I., Conn., N. Y.. N. J., Pa., Del., Md., S, Ca.), met at N. Y. Dec. 7, 1765 .-Tim. Ruggles, Prest, The Continental Congress met at Phila. Sep. 5, 1774: again May 10, 1775: adopted Dec. Indep. July 4, 1776; met at Bait. Dec. 20, 1776; at Phila. March 4, 1777; at Lancaster, Pa. Sep. 27, 1777; at York, Pa. Sep. 30. 1777 ; at Phila. July 2, 1778; at Prince- ton, June 30, 1783; at Annapolis, Nov. 26, 1783; at Trenton, Nov. 30, 1784; at N. York, Jan. 1785; and that continued to be the place of meeting until the adoption of the constitution, 1789 : removed to Phila. 1790 : to Wash- ington, 1800. CONVENTION, The, for forming the Constitution of the U. S. met at Phila. May 10, 1787 ; in session till Sep. 17, same j^-ear, CONGREVE ROCKETS. Invented by general sir William Congreve, in 1803. They were used with great effect in the attack upon Boulogne, in Oct. 1806, when they set a part of the town on fire, which burned for two days; they were employed in various operations in the late war with much success, dis- charged by a corps called rocket-men. CONIC SECTIONS. Their most remarkable properties were probably known to the Greeks four or five centuries before the Christian era. The study of them was cultivated in the time of Plato 390 b. c. The earliest treatise was written by Aristseus, about 380 b. c. Appolonius's eight books were 270 THE world's progress. [ CON written about 240 b. c The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo j the ellipse to the orbit of planets, by Kelper. CONJURATION and WITCHCRAFT. They were declared to be felony by various statutes, and the most absurd and wicked laws were in force against them in England in former times. See Sivticle Witchcraft. Conjuration was felony by statute 1 James I., 1603. This law was repealed 9 George II., 1735 ; but pretensions to such skill was then made punishable as a misde- meanor. — English Statutes. CONNECTICUT. One of the U. States: first settled in 1633, at Windsor, by a colony from Massachusetts. Hartford, settled by the English in 1635, the Dutch having previously built a fort there, which they did not permanently hold. English colony founded at New Haven, 1638. The two colonies of New Haven and Hartford unitedby a charter of Charles II., in 1655. This char- ter, when in danger from the tyranny of Andros, was preserved in an oak, near Hartford, since called the Charter Oak. Conn, took an active part in the revolution; a number of its towns, Danbury, N. London, &c., burnt by the British during that struggle. It became one of the original 13 states, adopting the constitution of the Union in 1788. by a vote of 128 to 40. Pop- ulation 1713, 17,000: 1790, 237,946; 1810, 261,942; 1830, 297,655; 1840, 309,978. c!ON QUEST, The. The memorable era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II., at the battle of Hastings, and obtained the crown which had been most unfairly bequeathed to him by Edward the Confessor (for Edgar was the rightful heir) Oct. 15, 1066. William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England by compact. He killed Harold, who was himself a usurper, and defeated his army, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him, and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the laws and cus- toms of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. For- merly the judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who casually gave him the title of William the Conqueror, instead of Wil- liam I. — Selden. CONSCRIPT FATHERS. Patres conscripti was the designation given to the Roman senators, and used in speaking of them, in the eras of the republic and the Csesars : because their names were written in the registers of the senate. CONSECRATION. Tha' of churches was instituted in the second century, the tempfe of worship being dedicated with pious solemnity to God and a patron s^vint. Tl>? consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admit- ted in the reforrLcd religion. The consecration of bishops was ordained in the la^tor church in 1549. — Stowe. CONSISTORY COURT in England. Anciently the Consistory was joined with the Hundred court, and its original, as divided therefrom, is f3und in a law of William I. quoted by lord Coke, 1079. The chief and most ancient Con- sistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches. CONSPIRACIES and INSURRECTIONS in GREAT BRITAIN. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remark- able. They are extracted from Camden, Temple, Hume, and other authori- ties of note : — Of Anthony Babington and others, ikgainst Elizabeth - - a. d. 1.586 T' J Gunpowder Plot iwhich see) - 1605 Iii'currection of the fifth monarchy men cgainsr, Charles II. - - - 1660 O* Blood and his associates, who seized the Duke of Ormond, wounded him, and would have hanged him ; and who afterwards stole the crown - 1671 The pretended conspiracy of the Frencli, Spanish, and English .Jesuits to assas- sinate Ch. II. revealed by the infa- con] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 27 i mous Titus Gates, Dr. Tongue, and others - - - - - 1678 The Meal-tub plot 1679 The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house plot) .... 1683 Of Simon Fraser. lord Lovat, against Queen Anne. ' - « - " . 1703 Of Colonel Despard and others, to over- turn the government - . - 18U2 Of Robert Emmett in Dublin, v/hen lord Kilwarden was killed - July 23, 1803 Of Moreau, Pichegru, and Georges, against Bonaparte . l-'eb. 15, 1804 Of Thistlewood, to assassinate the king's ministers. (See Cato-streef) ■ 1820 CONSPIRACIES, in or relating to the United States. Burr's trial for conspiracy to divide the United States .... 1807 John Henry's secret mission from the British government, to undermine the American union, exposed, Feb. 25, 1812 CONSTANCE, Council of. The celebrated council of (^m?tes (!) which con- demned the pious martyrs John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be burnt alive, a sentence executed upon the first on July 6, 1415, and on the other, on May 30, following. Huss had complied with a summons from the coun- cil of Constance to defend his opinions before the clergy of all nations in that city, and though the emperor Sigismund had given him a safe-conduct, he was cast into prison. Jerome of Prague hastened to Constance to defend him, but was himself loaded with chains, and in the end shared the fate of his friend. This scandalous violation of public faith, and the cruelty and treachery which attended the punishment of these unhappy disciples of Wickliffe, our great reformer, prove the melancholy truth, that toleration is not the virtue of priests in any form of ecclesiastical government. — Hume. CONSTANTINA. The former capital of Numidia. It has become known to Europeans but very recently, they being strangers to it until the French occupation of Algiers. Here was fought a great battle between the French and the Arabs, Oct. 13, 1837, when the former carried the town by assault, but the French general, Daremont, was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE. So called from Constantino the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, a. d. 328. Taken by the western crusaders who put the emperor Mourzoulle to death, first tearing out his eyes, 1204. Retaken by Michael Palteologus, thus restoring the old Greek hne,' 126l! Conquered by Mahomet II., who slew Constantino Palseologus, the last Christian emperor, and 60,000 of his people, 1453, The city, taken by as- sault, had held out for fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, on seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conquer- or. This put an end to the Eastern Empire, which had subsisted for 1125 years, and was the foundation of the present empire of Turkey in Euro[/e See Eastern Empire and Turkey. CONSTANTINOPLE, Era op. This era has the creation placed 5508 years b. c. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins September 1, and the ecclesias- tical year towards the end of March; the day is not exactly determined. To reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from September to the end. CONSTELLATIONS. Those of Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth, are mentioned by Job, about 1520 b. c. Homer and Hesiod notice constel- lations; but though some mode of grouping the visible stars had obtained in very early ages, our first direct knowledge was derived from Claud. Ptolem^us, about a. d. 140. CONSTITUTION of ENGLAND. See Magna Charta. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which 272 THE world's progress. [con it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. — Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government, in this respect — that the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times : and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. — Lord Bolingbroke The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power ; on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognizes his superior in the LAW. — Sheridan. CONSTITUTION of the U. S. Adopted by the general convention of dele- gates from all the (then) states, May, 1787. Ratified by the several states at different times. See the respective states. The 50th anniversary of Washington's inauguration, was celebrated in New York as a jubilee of the constitution, and John Quincy Adams pronounced an oration before the Hist. Soc'y, April 30, 1840. CONSTITUTION and GUERRIERE. The American frigate Constitution, capt. Hull, after an action of 30 minutes, captured the British frigate Guer- riere, capt. Dacres, Aug. 20, 1812. American loss 7 killed, and 7 wounded, British loss 100 killed and wounded. The English attribute the victory to the superior force of the American frigate. As this was the first important naval victory of the U. S.. it caused a strong sensation. For others see Naval Battles. CONSULS. These officers were appointed at Rome, 509 b. c. They possessed regal authority for the space of a year : Lucius Junius Brutus, and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, the latter the injured husband of Lucretia, were the first consuls. A consular government was established in France, November 9, 1799, when Bonaparte, Cambac^re, and Lebrun, were made consuls ; and subsequently Bonaparte was made first consul for life. May 6, 1802. Com- mercial agents were first distinguished by the name of consuls in Italy, in 1485. CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary. In the two last wars voluntary contributions to a vast amount were, several times made by the British people in aid of the government. The most remarkable of these acts of patriotism was that in 1798, when, to support the war against France, the contributions amount- ed to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others, sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000^. ; and 200,000/, were transmitted from India in 1799. CONVENTICLES. These were private assemblies for religious worship, and were particularly applied to those who differed in form and doctrine from the established church. But the term was first applied in England to the schools of Wicklifte. Conventicles, which were very numerous at the time,, were prohibited 12 Charles II., 1661. CONVENTIONS. See Alliances, Treaties, &c. in their respective places through- out the volume. CONVENTS. They were first founded, according to some authorities, in a. d. 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. — Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, when Ethelreda took the veil, in 670. They were founded earlier than this last date in Ireland. Convents were suppressed in England in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII., and comparatively few now exist in Great Britain. More than 3000 have been suppressed in Europe within the last few years. The emperor of Russia abolished 187 convents of monks, by a ukase dated July 31, 1832. The king of Prussia followed his example, and secularized all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal, in 1834, and Spain has lately abolished 1800 conA^ents. OOP ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 273 rON"\ICTS. The first arrival of transported convicts from England, at Botany Bay, was in 1788. Convicts are now sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk Island, Sydney, in New South Wales, &c. See New South Wales and Trans- portation. COOK'S VOYAGES. The illustrious captain Cook sailed from England in the Endeavor, on his first voyage, July 30, 1768 ;* and returned home after hav- ing circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Spithead, July 13, 1771. Sir Joseph Banks, afterwards the illustrious president of the Royal Society, accompanied captain Cook on this voyage. Captain Cook again sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, July 1772, and returned in July 1775. lu his third expedition this great navigator was killed by the savages of O-wliy hee, at 8 o'clock on the morning of February 14, 1779. His ships, the Reso- lution and Discovery, arrived home at Sheerness, Sept. 22, 1780. COOPERAGE. This art must be coeval with the dawn of history, and seems to have been early known in every country. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. COPENHAGEN. Distinguished as a royal residence, a. d. 1443. In 1728 more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its famous palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 per- sons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arse^ial, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, 1795. Copenhagen was bom- barded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker : and in their engagement with a Danish fleet, of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, April 2, 1801. Again, after a bom- ])ardment of three days, the city and the Danish fleet surrendered to admi- ral Gambler and lord Cathcart, Sept. 7, 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun- boats, and immense naval stores. — See Denmark. COPERNICAN SYSTEM. The system of the world wherein the sun is sup- posed to be in the centre, and immovable, and the earth and the rest of the planets to move round it in elliptical orbits. The heavens and stars are here imagined to be at rest, and the diurnal motion, which they seem to have from east to west, is imputed to the earth's motion from west to east. This system was published at Thorn, a. d. 1530; and may in many points be regarded as that of Pythagoras revived. — Gassendus. COPPER. It is one of the six primitive metals ; its discovery is said to have preceded that of iron. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold. — Ezra viii. 27. The great divisibility of this metal almost exceeds belief; a grain of it dissolved in alkali, as pearl ashes, soda, &c., will give a sensible color to more than 500,000 times its weight in water ; and when copper is in a state of fusion, if the least drop of water touch the melted ore, it will fly about like shot from a gun. — Boyle. The mine of Fahlun, in Sweden, is the most surprising artificial excavation in the world. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and copper now forms an immense branch in the British trade : there are upwards of fifty * A memorial was presented to the king by the Royal Society in 176S, setting forth the advan- tages which would be derived to science if an accurate observation of the then approaching transit of Venus over the sun were taken in the South Sea. The ship Endeavor was, in consequence, prepared for that purpose, and the command of her given to Lieutenant .lames Cook. He sailed m .July 176S, touched at Madeira and Rio de .Janeiro, doubled Cape Horn, and after a prosperous voyage reached Otaheite, the place of destination, in April 1769. By a comparisf;n of the observa- tions made on tliis transit (June 3. 1769) from the various parts of the globe, on which it was viewed by men of science, the system of the universe has in some particulars, been better understood ; the distance of the sun from the earth, as calculated by this and the transit in 1761, is now settled at 108,000,000 miles, instead of the commonly received computation, of 95,000,tX)0. — Butler. 12* 274 THE world's progress. [ GOl mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of Wil. liam 111, COPPER-MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money. — See Coin. In England, copper-money is of extensive coinage. That proposed by sir Robert Cotton was brought into use in 1609. Copper was extensively coined in 1665. It was again coined by the crown, 23 Charles II., 1672. Private traders had made them previ- ously to this act. In Ireland copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in Scot- land in 1406 ; in France in 1580. Wood's coinage in Ireland {which see) com- menced in 1723. Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively used, 1797. COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. This species of printing was first attempted in Germany, about a. d. 1450. Rolling-presses for working the plates were in- vented about 1545. Messrs. Perkins of Philadelphia, invented, in 1819, a mode of engraving on soft steel which, when hardened, will multiply cop- per-plates and fine impressions indefinitely. — See Engraving. COPPERAS. First produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPYRIGHT ON BOOKS, &c. in ENGLAND. The decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, a. d.1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. An ordinance forbidding the printing of any work without the consent of the owner, 1649. Copyright further secured by a statute en- acted in 1709. Protection of copyright in prints and. engraving, 17 George III., 1777. Copyright protection act, 54 George III., 1814. Dramatic au- thors' protection act, 3 William IV., 1833. The act for preventing the pub- lication of lectures without consent, 6 William IV., 1835. The act of the 17th George III., extended to Ireland, 7 William IV., 1836. International copyright bill, 1 Victoria, 1838. Copyright of designs for articles of manu- facture protected, 2 Victoria, 1839. For important act of 1842, see Literary Properly . — Haydn . COPYRIGHT IN UNITED STATES. The first act for the protection of literary property in the United States passed chiefly through the influence of Noah Webster, the lexicographer. May 31, 1790. Another act in relation to it, April 29, 1802 — granting copyright for 14 years, subject to renewal for 14 years if the author is living. Memorial of 56 British authors asking for International Copyright, presented in the Senate by Mr. Cla3^ Feb. 1, 1837. Act to establish the Smithsonian Institute, requiring that copies of books to secure the copyright must be deposited in there as well as in the library of Congress and office of Sec. State, Aug. 10, 1846. COPYRIGHT, Produce of. The following sums are stated to have been paid to the authors for the copyright of the works mentioned. POETRY. Byron's Works (in all) - - j620,000 Moore's Lalla Rookh - - - 3,000 Rejected Addresses - - - 1,000 Campbell's Pleasures of Hope (after ten years' publication) - - 1,000 Campbell's Gertrude, after ditto - 1,500 FICTION. It was estimated that Scott's novels produced for copyright at least - 250,000 Bulwer received for his novels, each 1,200 to 1,500 Marryatt, do. do. 1,000 to 1,200 Goldsmith's " Vicar" was sold by Dr. Johnson for - - - - 63 Fragments of English History, by C..T. Fox- - - - ^£5,000 History of England by Sir J. Mackin- tosh - - - . . 5,000 Ditto, by Lingard - - - - 4,633 Life of iSfapoleon, by Sir W. Scott - 18,000 History of England, by Macaulay, vol. 1 and remainder, j6600 per annum for ten years, say - - - 3,000 Prescott's Historical Works are said to have produced to the author (who yet owns the copyright) before 1850 - $100,000 BIOGRAPHY. Life ofWilberforce - - - je4,000 In yielded by it to Great Britain. Cotton manufacturers' utensils were prohibited from being export- ed in 1774. — Haydn. HISTORY OP COTTON, FOR OVER ONE HUNDRED YEARS. The following brief items of the history of cotton, from 1730 to 183G, are taken from a South Carolina paper : — 1730. Mr. Wyatt spins the first cotton yarn in England by macliinery. 1735. The Dutch first export cotton from Surinam. 1742. First mill for spinning cotton erected at Birmingham, moved by mules or horses; but not successful in its operations. 1749. The fly shuttle generally used in England. 1756. Cotton velvets and qmltings made in England lor the first time. 1761. Arkw^right obtained the first patent for the spinning frame, which he further improved. 1768. The stocking frame applied by Hammond to making of lace. 1773. A bill passed to prevent the export of machinery used in cotton factories. 1779. Mule spinning invented by Hargrave. 1782. First import of raw^ cotton from Brazil into England. 1782. Watt took out his patent for the steam-engine. 1783. A bounty granted m England on the export of certain cotton goods. 1785. Power-looms invented by Dr. Cart- wright — steam engines used in cotton fac- tories. 1785. Cotton imported into England from the United States. 1786. Bleaching first performed by the agency of the oxymuriatic acid. 1787. First machinery to spin cotton put in operation in France. 1789. Sea Island cotton first planted in the United States ; and upland cotton first cul- tivated for use and export about this time. 1790 Slator, an Englishman, builds the first American cotton factory, at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 1792. Eli Whitney, an American, invents the cotton gin, which he patents. 1798. First mill and machinery for cotton erected in Switzerland. 1799. Spinning by machinery introduced into Saxony this year. 1803. First cotton factory built 'in New Hampshire. 1805. Power-looms successfully and widely introduced into England. 1807. The revolution in Spanish America begins to furnish new markets for cotton manufactures. 1810. Digest of cotton manufactures in the United States by Mr. Gallatin, and another by Mr. Tench Coxe, of Philadelphia. 1811. Machinery to make bobbin lace pa- tented by John Burn. 1813. The India trade more free, and more British manufactures sent thither. 1814. The power-loom introduced into the United States ; first at Waltham. 1818. Average price of cotton 34 cents — higher than since 1810. New method of preparing sewing cotton by Mr. Holt. 1819. Extraordinary prices for Alabama cotton lands. 1820. Steam power first applied with suc- cess extensively to lace manufactures. 1822 First cotton factory in Lowell erected. 1823. First export of raw cotton from Egypt into Great Britain. 1825. In New Orleans cotton at from 23 to 25 cents per pound. 1826. Self-acting mule spinner patented in England by Roberts. 1827. American cotton manufactures first exported to any considerable extent. 1829. Highest duty in the United States on foreign cotton manufactures. 1830. About this time Mr. Dyer introduced a machine from the United States into Eng- land for the purpose of making cards. 1832. Duty on cotton goods imported inti the United States reduced ; and in England it is forbid to employ minors in cotton mills, to work them more than ten hours per day, or more than nine hours on a Saturday ; in consequence they work at something else. 1834. Cotton at 17 cents. 1835. Extensive purchases made of cotton lands by speculators and others. 1836. Cotton at from 18 to 20 cents. cou] DICTIOiNARY OF DATE%. 279 v.OTTONIA]\ LIBRARY. Formed by great labor and with great iudgment by sir Robert Cotton, a. d. 1600 et seq. This vast treasury of knowledge alter having been with difficulty rescued from the fury of the republicans during the protectorate, was secured to the public by a statute, 13 William III. 1701. It was removed to Esse^i-house in 1712; and in 1730 to Deau's- yard, Westminster, where, on Oct. 23, 1731, a part of the books sustained damage by fire. The hbrary was removed to the British Museum in 1753. COUNCILS. An English council is of very early origin. The wise Alfred to whom we are indebted for many excellent institutions, so arranged the busi- ness of the nation, that all resolutions passed through three councils The first was a select council, to which those only high in the king's confidence were admitted ; here were debated all affairs that were to be laid before the second council, which consisted of bishops and nobles, and resembled the present privy council, and none belonged to it but those whom the king was pleased to appoint. The third was a general council or assembly of the na- tion, called in Saxon, Wittenagemot, to which quality and offices gave a right to sit independent of the king. In these three councils we behold the origin of the cabinet and privy councils, and the antiquity of parliaments; but the term cabinet council is of a much more modern date, according to lord Clar- endon.— See Cabinet Council, Common Council, Privij Cotmcil^ &c. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH, The following are among the most memorable Christian councils, or councils of the Church of Rome. Most other councils (the list of which would make a volume) either respected national churches or ecclesiastical government. Si?- Harris Nicolas enumerates 1604 councils Of the Apostles at Jerusalem - a. d Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to suppress the Donatists ; three fathers of the English church went over to attend it - The first CEcuinenical or General Ni- cene, held at Nice, Constantiiie the Great presided ; Arius and Eusebius condemned for heresy. This council composed the Nicene Creed - At Tyre, when the doctrine of Athana sius was canvassed The first held at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy gained ground At Rome, concerning Athanasius, which lasted eighteen months At Sardis ; 370 bishops attended Of Rimini ; 400 bishops attended, and Constantine obliged them to sign a new confession of faith The second General at Constantinople ; 350 bishops attended, and pope Da- masius presided The third at Ephesus, when pope Ce lestine presided Fourth at Chalcedon ; the emperor Mar- cian and his empress attended The fifth at Constantinople, when pope Vigilius presided The sixth a! Constantinople, when pope Agatho presided Authority of the six general councils re established by Theodosius The second Nicene council, seventh Ge- neral ; 350 bishops attended - Of Constantinople, eighth General ; the emperor Basil attended The first Lateran, the ninth General ; the right of investitures settled by treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor Henry V. - -11^ 50 314 - 335 in - 337 342 347 359 381 - 431 451 553 680 - 715 787 - 869 The second Lateran, tenth General, In- nocent II. presided ; the preservation of the temporal ties of ecclesiastics, the principal subject, which occa- sioned the attendance of 1000 fa- thers of the church - - A. D. 1139 The third Lateran, eleventh General ; held against schismatics - - 1179 Fourth Lateran, twelfth General ; 400 bishops and 1000 abbots attended; Innocent III. presided - - - 1215 Of Lyons, the thirteenth General, under pope Innocent IV. - - . 1215 Ot Lyons, the fourteenth General, under Gregory X. - - - -1274 Of Vienne in Dauphine, the fifteenth General ; Clement V. presided, and the kings of France and Arragon at- tended. The order of the Knight Templars suppressed - - - 1311 Of Pisa, the sixteenth General ; Gre- gory XII. and Benedict XIII. deposed, and Alexander elected - '. 1409 Of Constance, the seventeenth General ; Martin V. is elected pope ; and John Huss and Jerome of Prague con- demned to be burnt - - - 1414 Of Basil, the eighteenth General - 1431 The fifth Lateran, the nineteenth Gene- ral, begun by Julius II. - - 1513 Continued under Leo X. for the sup- pression of the Pragm.atic sanction of France, against the council of Pisa, &c. till - - . . . 151, Of Trent, the twentieth and last Gene- ral council, styled CEcumenical, as re- garding the affairs of all the Chris- tian world ; it was held to condemn the doctrines of the reformers, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin.—Abbe Lenglet 154* 280 THE» world's progress. [ CQV COUNCILS, French Republican. The council of Ancients was an assembly of revolutionary France, consisting of 250 members, instituted at Paris, Nov. 1, 1795, together with the council of Five Hundred ; the executive was a Directory of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five Hundred at St. Cloud, Nov 9, 1799, declaring himself, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls pro- visoires. — See Prance. COUNSEL. See Barristers. Counsel who were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284. Coun- sel were allowed to persons charged with treason, by act 8 William HL 1696. Act to enable persons indicted of felony to make their defence by counsel, 6 & 7 William IV., Aug. 1836. COUNTIES. The division of England into counties began, it is said, with king Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names a century before. The division of Ireland, into counties took place in 1562. County courts were instituted in the reign of Alfred, 896. Counties first sent members to par- liament, before which period knights met in their own counties, 1259. — See Commons^ and Parlia7nent. COURIERS OR POSTS. Xenophon attributes the first couriers to Cyrus ; and Herodotus says that they were common among the Persians. But jt does not appear that the Greeks or Romans had regular couriers till the time of Augustus, when they travelled in cars, about 24 b. c. Couriers or posts are said to have been instituted in France by Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. The couriers or posts for letters were established in the early part of the reign of Louis XL of France, owing to this monarch's extraordinary eager- ness for news. They were the first institution of the kind in Europe, a. d. 1463. — Henault. COURTS. Courts of justice were instituted at Athens, 1507 b. c. — See Areopa- gitce. There were courts for the distribution of justice in Athens, in 1272 B. c. — Blair. They existed under various denominations in Rome, and other countries. COURT OF HONOR. In England, the court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable was a judge, was called Curia Militaris in the time of Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honor. In the States of Bavaria, in order to prevent duelling, a court of honor was instituted in April. 1819. In these countries, Mr. Joseph Hamilton has ardently labored to establish similar in- stitutions. COVENANTERS. The name which was particularly applied to those persons who in the reign of Charles I. took the solemn league and covenant, thereby mutually engaging to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king ; it was entered into in 1638. The covenant or league between England and Scotland, Avas formed in 1643 ; it was declared to be illegal by parliament, 14 Charles II., 1662. (JOVENTRY, PEEPING TOM of. The great show fair of Coventry owes its origin to the following tradition: — Leofric, earl of Mercia, had imposed such heavy taxes on the citizens, his lady, Godiva, moved by their entreaties, importuned her lord to remit them, and he consented on the condition of her riding naked through the city at mid-day. Her humanity induced her to consent, and she so disposed her flowing tresses as to hide her person ; and ordering all the inhabitants, on pain of death, to close their doors and win- dows, she rode quite naked through the town. One person, yielding to curiosity, stole a glance at the countess, and was struck dead ; and has been famed ever since under the name of Peeping Tom, and his effigy is shown to this day. To commemorate this event, a. d. 1057, at the great show fair the mayor and corporation walk in procession through the town, accom- cre] dictionary of dates. 281 panied by a female on horseback, clad in a linen dress closely fitted to her limbs. COW-POCK INOCULATION. This species of inoculation, as a security against the small-pox, was introduced by Dr. Jenner, and it became general in 1799. The genuine cow-pox appears in the form of vesicles on the teats of the cow, and was first noticed by Dr. Jenner, in 1796. He was re- warded by parliament with the munificent grant of i;10,000, June 2, 1802. — See Inoculation^ Small-Pox, Vaccinatio7i. CRACOW. The Poles elect Cracus for their duke, and he builds Cracow will the spoils taken from the Franks, a. d. 700, et seq. Taken by Charles XII, in 1702 ; taken and retaken by the Russians and confederates on the one side and the patriotic people on the other several times, Kosciusko expel- led the Russian garrison from the city, March 24, 1794. It surrendered to the Prussians, June 15, same year. Formed into a republic in 1815. Occu- pied by 10,000 Russians who followed there the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831, Its independence extinguished ; seized by the emperor of Austria, and in- corporated with the Austrian empire, November, 1846. — See Poland. CRANES. They are of very early date, for the engines of Archimedes may be so called. The theory of the inclined plain, the pulley, &c, are also his, 220 B. c. — Livtj. CRANIOLOGY, The science of animal propensities. Dr. Gall, a German, started this new doctrine respecting the brain, in 1803, Dr. Spurzheim fol- lowed, and by his expositions gave a consistency to the science, and it seems to be rapidly gaining ground ; it has now many professors, and in almost all countries craniology is countenanced by learned and enlightened men. The science assigns the particular locations of certain organs, or as many differ- ent seats of the most prominent operations of the mind. CRANMER, LATIMER, and RIDLEY. Illustrious names in the Hst of Eng- lish martyrs of the reformed religion. Ridley, bishop of London, and' Lati- mer, bishop of Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, Oct. 16, 1555»; and Cran- mer, archbishop of Canterbury, March 21, 1556, His love of life had in- duced Cranmer, some time previously, in an unguarded moment, to sign a paper wherein he condemned the Reformation ; and when he was led to the stake, and the fire was kindled round him, he stretched forth his right hand, with which he had signed his recantation, that it might be consumed before the rest of his body, exclaiming from time to time, '• This unworthy hand !" Raising his eyes to heaven, he expired with the dying prayer of the first martyr of the Christian church, "Lord Jesus, receive my spirit!" CRAPE. A light kind of stuff" like gauze, made of raw silk gummed and twisted on the mill. Its manufacture is of very early date, and it is said some crape was made by St. Badour, Avhen queen of France, about a. d. 680. It was first made at Bologna, and in modern times has been principally used for mourning. CRAYONS. They were known in France before a, d. 1422— improved by L'Oriot, 1748. CREATION OF THE WORLD. It was placed by Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy, 4004 B. c. Josej^hus makes it 4658 years. — Whiston. The first date agrees with the common Hebrew text, and the vulgate Latin translation of the Old Testament. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the creation : some place it 3616 years before the birth of our Saviour. Plato, in his dia- logue entitled Crilias, asserts his celebrated Atalantis to have been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before the age in which he wrote. The Chi- nese represent the world as having existed some hundreds of thousands of years ; and we are told that the astronomical records of the ancient Chal- 282 THE world's progress. [CRi deans carried back the origin of society to a period of no less than 473,000 years. CREATION, Era of the. In use by many nations. This era would be found convenient, by doing away with the difficulty and ambiguity of counting before and after any particular date, as is necessary when the era begins at a later period ; but, unfortunately, writers are not agreed as to the right time of commencing. This epoch is fixed by the Samaritan Pentateuch at 4700 B. c. The Septuagint makes it 5872. The authors of the Talmud make it 5344 ; and difierent chronologers, to the number of 120, make it vary from the Septuagint date to 3268. Dr. Hales fixed it at 5411 ; but the Catholic church adopted the even number of 4000, and subsequently, a cor- rection as to the birth of Christ adds four years : therefore, it is now gener- ally considered as 4004 years, which agrees with the modern Hebrew text. CREED. The Apostles' Creed is supposed to have been written a great while after their time. — Pardon. It was introduced formally into public worship in the Greek church at Antioch, and subsequently into the Roman church. This creed was translated into the Saxon tongue, about a. d. 746. The Nicene Creed takes its name from the council by whom it was composed, in A, D. 325, The Athanasian Creed is supposed to have been written about 340. — See Apostles\ Nicene, arid otiicr creeds. CRESSY, OR CRECY, Battle of. Edward III. and his son, the renowned Ed- ward the Black Prince, obtained a great and memorable victory over Philip, king of France, Aug. 26, 1346. This was one of the most glorious triumphs ever achieved by English arms. John, duke of Bohemia ; James, king of Majorca ; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes) ; a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very small. The crest of the king of Bohemia was three ostrich feathers, with the motto '"/cA Dien" in English, "I serve ;" and in memory of this victory it has since been adopted by the heirs to the crown of Eng- land. — Froissart, Carte, Hume. CRESTS. The ancient wai-riors wore crests to strike terror into their enemies by the sight of the spoils of the animals they had killed. The origin of crests is ascribed to the Carians. In English heraldry, are several represen- tations of Richard I., 1189, with a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers ; and after his reign most of the English kings have crowns above their helmets ; that of Richard II., 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dignity. In later reigns, the crest was regularly borne as well on the helmet of the kings, as on the head-trappings of their horses. CRETE. Now Candia, lohich see. This island was once famous for its hundred cities, and for the laws which the wisdom of Minos established about 1015 B. c. Some authors reckon the Labyrinth of Crete as one of the seven won- ders of the world. Crete became subject to the' Roman empire, 68 b. c. It was conquered by the Saracens, a. d. 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; passed into the hands of the Venetians, 1194 : and was taken from them by the Turks, in 1669. — Priestley. CRIME. "At the present moment," observes a popular English writer, "a one-fifteenth part of the whole population of the United Kingdom is sub- sisting by the lowest and most degrading prostitution ; another fifteenth have no means of support but by robbery, swindling, pickpocketing, and every species of crime ; and five-fifteenths of the people are what are denomi- nated poor, living from hand to mouth, and daily sinking into beggary, and, as an almost necessary consequence, into crime." A comparative view of foreign countries ,with Great Britain demonstrates the effects of poverty and ignorance on the great mass of the population. In North America pauper- ism is almost unknown, and one fourth of the people are educated ; pre- CRO j DICTIONARY OF DATES. 283 meditated murder is alone capital ; imprisonment for debt has, in several states, been abolished, and crimes, particularly of enormity, are exceedingly rare. The Dutch, who possess a competency, and are generally educated, are comparatively free from grave offences ; and France affords a remark- able illustration in the same way. But in the United Kingdom, the differ- ence is painfully exemplified : — Scotland. England. Ireland. Instruction to the people - - - 1 in 11 - 1 in 20 - 1 in 35 Criminals among the people - 1 in 5093 - I in 920 - 1 in 468 There was recently a revision of the English criminal code, and several acts have been passed calculated to reduce the amount of crime, and miti- gate the severity of its punishment. An act for improving the criminal law of England, passed 8 George IV., 1827. An act for consolidating and revising the laws relating to crime, conformably with Mr. Peel's digest, passed 9 George IV., 1828. Hanging criminals in chains was abolished by statute 4 William IV., 1834, See Executions, Hanging, Tria'u^ &c. — Haydn. CRIMEA. The ancient Taurica Chersonesus. Settled by the Genoese, in 1193. The Genoese were expelled by the Grim Tartars, in 1474. The khans were tributary to the Turks until 1774. The Russians, with a large army, took possession of this country, in 1783 ; and it was ceded to them the following year; and secured to them in 1791. CRISPIN. The name sometimes given to shoemakers. Crispin and Crispianus were two legendary saints, born at Rome, from whence, it is said, they tra- velled to Soissons, in France, about a. d. 303, to propagate the Christian religion ; and because they would not be chargeable to others for their main- y tenance, they exercised the trade of shoemakers ; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians ordered them to be decollated. On this account, the shoemakers, since that period, have made choice of them as their tutelar saints. CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 b. c. — Blair. Of this class were Varro, Cicero, Appolonius, and many distinguished men. In modern times, the Journal de Scavans was the earliest work of the system of period- ical criticism, as it is now known, It was originated by Dennis de Sallo, ecclesiastical counsellor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, May 30, 1665, and continued for nearly a century. The first work of this kind in England, was called the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being invented by himself) published in Feb. 1703. The Wai^s of Litera- ture was commenced in 1714, and was discontinued in 1722. The Monthly Review, which may be said to have been the third work of this nature in England, was published 1749. The Critical Review appeared in 1756; the Edinburgh Review, in 1802 ; and London Quarterly in 1809. The American Revievj, established in N. Y. 1799, was the first Review in the U. S. The North American Review was established by Wm. Tudor in 1818 ; the Ameri- can Quarterly, by Robert Walsh, at Phila., 1827; the New York Review, by Prof C. S. Henry, 1835; the Southern Quarterly, at Charleston, 1842. See Periodicals. The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was de- termined in favor of the defendant, on the principle that criticism, however sharp, if just and not malicious, is allowable. See Reviews, &c. UROCKERY^. In use, and made mention of, as produced by the Egyptians and Greeks, so early as 1390 b. c. The Romans excelled in this kind of ware, many of their domestic articles being of earthen manufacture. Crockery, of a fine kind, in various household utensils, was made at Faeuza, in Italy, about A. D. 1310; and it is still called /ayewce in French. See Earthenware- 284 THE world's progress. [ CTJL CROWN. "The ancientest mention of a roj'^al croAvn is in the holy story of the Amalekites bringing Saul's crown to David." — Selde7i. The first Ro- man who wore a crown was Tarquin, 616 b. c. The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ; afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and also of stuffs adorned with jewels. The royal crown was first worn in En- gland by Alfred, in a. d. 872. The first crown or papal cap was used by pope Damasius II., in 1053; John XIX. first encompassed it with a crown, 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second crown in 1295 ; and Benedict XII, form- ed tlic tiara, or triple crown, about 1334. The pope previously wore a crown with two circles. — Rainaldl. CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution common among the Syrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Jews, and esteemed the most dreadful on account of the shame attached to it : it was usually accompanied by other tortures. Among early accounts may be mentioned, that Ariarathes of Cap- padocia, when vanquished by Perdiccas, was discovei«;d among the prison- ers ; and by the conqueror's orders the unhappy monarch was flayed alive, and then nailed to a cross, with his principal officers, in the eighty-first year of his age, 322 b. c. Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued by Constan- tine, A. D. 330. — Lenglet. See Death, Punishment of. CRUSADES, OR Holy Wars. (In French, Croisades.) Undertaken by the Chris- tian powers to drive the infidels from Jerusalem, and the adjacent countries, called the Holy Land. They were projected by Peter Gautier, called Peter the Hermit, an enthusiast, and French officer of Amiens, who had quitted the military profession and turned pilgrim. Having travelled to the Holy Land, he deplored, on his return, to pope Urban II. that infidels should be in possession of the famous city where the author of Christianity first promul- gated his sacred doctrines. Urban convened a Council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at which the ambassadors of the chief Christian poten- tates assisted, and gave Peter the fatal commission to excite all Europe to a "general war, a. d. 1094. The first crusade was published; an army of 300,- 000 men was raised, and Peter had the direction of it, 1095. — Voltaire. The holy warriors Avore a red cross upon the right shoulders, with the name of Croises, Crossed, or Crusaders; their motto was Volonte de Dieu, "God's will." The epidemical rage for crusading now agitated Europe, and in the end, these unchristian and iniquitous wars against the rights of mankind, cost the lives of 2.000,000 of men. — Voltaire. CUBA. Discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, in 1492. It was conquered by Valasquez, in 1511, and settled by the Spaniards. The Buccaneer Mor- gan took Havana in 1669. See Buccaneers. The fort here was erected by admiral Vernon, in 1741. Havana was taken hy admiral Pococke and lord Albermarle in 1762, but was restored at the peace, in 1763. Attempt of Lopez and his 400 followers, landing at Cardenas, to stir up a revolution, defeated May, 1850. CUBIT. This was a measure of the ancients, and is the first measure we read of; the ark of Noah was made and measured by cubits. — Holien. The Pe- brew sacred cubit was two English feet, and the great cubit eleven Eng' vsh feet. Originally it was the distance from the elbow, bending inwards to ihe extremit^^ of the middle finger. — Calmet. CUCUMBERS. They grew formerly in great abundance in Palestine and Egypt, where, it is said, they constituted the greater part of the food of the poor and slaves. This plant is noticed by Virgil, and other ancient poets. It was brought to England from the Netherlands, about 1538. CULLODEN, Battle of. In which the English, under William duke of Cum- berland, defeated the Scottish rebels headed by the young Pretender, the last of the Stuarts, near Inverness, April 16, 1746. The Scots lost 2500 men CYc] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 285 in killed upon the field, or in the slaughter which occurred in the pursuit while the loss of the English did not far exceed 200. The duke's army prac- tised great cruelties upon the vanquished, as well as upon the defenceless inhabitants of the adjacent districts after the hattle.— Smollett. Immediately after the engagement, Prince Charles sought safety by flight, and continued wandering among the frightful wilds of Scotland for six months, while 30,- OOOZ. were offered for taking him, and the troops of the conqueror were constantly in search. He at length escaped from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix. and died at Rome, in 1788. CURACOA. In the Caribbean Sea, seized by Holland, in 1634. In 1800, the French having settled on part of this island, and becoming at variance with the Dutch, the latter surrendered the island to % single British frigate. It was restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1802, and taken from them by a British squadron, in 1807, and again restored by the peace of 1814. CURFEW BELL. From the French couvre feu. This wj.s a Norman institu- tion, introduced into England in the reign of William I., a. d. 1068. On the ringing of the curfew at eight o'clock in the evening, all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a severe ^enaXiy. —Rap'm. The curfew was abolished 1 Hen. I., a. d. 1100. CURRANTS. They were brought from Zante, and the tree planted in England 1533. The hawthorn currant-tree {Ribes oxyacanthoides) came from Canada in 1705. CUSTOM. This is a law, not written, but established by long usage and con- sent. By lawyers and civilians it is defined lex non scripta, and it stands opposed to Lex scripta. or the written law. It is the rule of law when it is derived from a. d. 1189, downwards. Sixty years is binding in civil law, and forty years in ecclesiastical cases. CUSTOMS. They were collected upon merchandise in England, under Ethel- red II., in 979. The king's claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- lished 3 Edward I., 1274. The customs were farmed to Mr. Thomas Smith, for 20,000Z. for several years, in the reign of Elizabeth.— >S/^^ ^^^^ the sion of the Book of Common Player TLlewpi"'^''^'''"' ^^*"^' ^^^^ «"PPres- whichwere to be managed at discretion fn^ff '^"'"^ ^^^'"^^^^^ form of prayer, nor manner of externa wof^hin ^"-^-^t.^^T prescribed no make any responses, except ^^;tfUTi?P'.''°' ''''J^^'^"^ ^^'^ People to ordinance of the parliament in S -^Sl^^'ISr ''"' ^^^^^^^^^^^d by an DIRECTORY, French. The French "nn-P.. embourg, at Paris, nnder a neTcoS itS ^f.^^^^^^^^^ at the little Lux- 1, 1795, and held the execntivl preJ foir ve^ '^' government, November members, and ruled in connection wuVh, 7 f x. ^*^ '^^^ composed of five cients and Council of FivrE red ,1>^ ^^^^^^rs, the Council of An- with Cambaceres and Si^yfs bSr^tf^'r ^'^""''^ ^>' Bonaparte, who, models of church governmfn andXciS^ Th'^^"'^^ from the RonLsh the name of Puritans, on account of th?^^.% !l^ ^""'^^ reproached with worship and conduct andTe IgorL '^^^^^^^^^ "^'T''} ^^ ^'^"^^°^^« beth and James I. led multitndS nf +h . "^^^^^^^^'^d under Eliza- those reigns. The fiiTi. Iopp nf f f" l"" emigrate to this country in establishe'd atWandstrtCn^V^tV:; ^^iT?' ^^ ^"^^^"^ -- don alone, the number of chaDels me^t^^'a-^T ^'}^'V ^"^ "o^^' "^ ^on- senters^ amounts to near 20^ The Se2aorf.?'.t''' ^"r f "^^^^^« ^^ f^^^- from civil and religious disabilities^ wJ. ^t //'^"^ ''"^^^^^ «^ Dissenters c. 17. By this act callerl tha r!^ ' J-^ *^^® statute passed 9 George IV the several acts of rarliLent o^Kr^d"^ ^''' ^'^'''' ^^t' «° ^^cV of sity of receiving the sacr^S of th^p ? . i'"^c "^'^"^ ^' ^""'P^'^^^ ^^^^ ^^^es- certain offices, Ic. was repeS May 9 S ^Z^^'^^l^^^^^^^^^tior, for oratmg effect have been since passed '^^ ''*^^'' ^^^^ °f ^^eli- ''''i™n'!- anS ft'fs m'iltloTeciry Itt 7t'''' "-^^f ^^ ^^^^--* kinds of tainedinthe hands of t ^m-iesi and nrSf/'"'''''!^^^^^^''- ^^ ^^^^ i'^- augurs, and oth.r hke ])rofessi s tilMhpr •^'''^'; ^^^ '''^^i, soothsayers, trines of Christianity and the snir of nhir'^'f ^f ^•^"'^' ^^^^^" the doc^ opinions. The oracles of DelTll^L^i^STj ^T'^'"'^ ^""^ ^^«^^"^^>^ DIVING bTl "T '/^' ' '■ '^^ ^■^^^^^^^'' ""''' ''''''^'' it is said, the first who by niea 7of f^ ^- ^f?/'^^ *^"' machine, and was, at the bottom of the sea ^ Etof apn iTed^ttf ' ^^^/^^^^^^ «« clry ground down air. Mr. Spalding and hlfa -^isirr f . 3 ^^^^^nsmg-pump tS force Ireland, were drowned June 1 178^1 t I "'f ^^''^^ ^" ^ diving-bell in was sunk off Portsmouth L 1782 was fetfrX'^r?^ man-of-wa1-, which bell, m May 1817 Jatplv ^r,ri 7- , \ ^"i^eyed by means of a divitjc- in sub-marfne su^^^vey; 'the fili'l^-inttf^ ^ '''.?' '' ^^^ ^^^^ «"^p"omJ DIVORCES FOR ADULTERY Of +t. t . • ^ cal and civil law, among tie ancients " Fh-s ^^^f^'^'^'^oth in ecclesiasti- vihus at Rome, 231 b.\.-X> At S f S^ "" ^'^f '"^ ^^ SP^^"^« ^^^r- that 3000 prosecutions for adulteiy^^reem^^^^^^^ Xn' '"'"' '° ^^^^^^^«^' J were enrolled. Divorces were attempted- 296 THE world's progress. I DOG to be made of more easy obtainment in England, in a. d. 1539, The bill to prevent women marrying their seducers was brought into parliament in 1801. DOCKS OF LONDON. They are said to be the most extensive and finest con- structions of the kind, for the purposes of commerce," in the world. In Lon- don there are a number of these docks, of which the following are the principal: — The West India docks, the act for whose formation passed in July 1799 ; they were commenced February 3, 1800, and were opened Aug. 27, 1802, when the Henry Addington West Indiaman first entered them, decorated with the colors of the different nations of Europe. The London docks were commenced June 26, 1802, and were opened January 31, 1805. The East India docks were commenced under an act passed July 27, 1803, and were opened August 4, 1806. The first stone of the St. Katherine docks was laid May 3, 1827 ; and 2,500 men were daily employed upon them until they were opened, Oct. 25, 1828. DOCTOR. This rank was known in the earliest times. Doctor of the church was a title given to SS. Athanasius, Basil. Gregory Nazianzen, and Chryso8- tom, in the Greek church ; and to SS. JeromCj Augustin, and Gregory the Great, in the Romish church, a. d. 373, et seq. Doctor of the law was a title of honor among the Jews. The degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 1207. — Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, was the first that obtained the degree at Cambridge, about a. d, 725. See Collegiate Degrees. DOCTORS' COMMONS. The college for the professors of civil and canon law residing in the city of London ; the name of Commons is given to this col- lege from the civilians commoning together as in other colleges. Doctors' Commons was founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, whose original college was de- stroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after some years it was rebuilt on the old site. The causes taken cognizance of here are, blasphemy, divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, mortuaries, probate of wills, &c. See article Civil Law. DOG. The chien de berger, or the shepherd's dog, is the origin of the Avhole race. — Buffon. Buffon describes this dog as being " the root of the tree," assigning as his reason that it possesses from nature the greatest share of instinct. The Irish wolf-dog is supposed to be the earliest dog known in Europe, if Irish Avriters be correct. Dr. Gall mentions that a dog was taken from Vienna to England ; that it escaped to Dover, got on board a vessel, landed at Calais, and after accompanying a gentleman to Mentz, returned to Vienna. DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days, commence on the 3d of July, and end on the 11th of August. Common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the dog-star,* with the sun, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The star not onl)' varies in its rising, in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later and later every year in all latitudes, so that in time the star may, by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow. — Dr. HtUton. DOGE. The title of the duke of Venice, which state was first governed by a * Mathematicians assert that Sirius, or the Dog Star, is the nearest to us of all the fixeJ stars ; and they compute its distance from our earth at 2,200,000 millions of miles. Thoy maintain that a sound would not reach our earth from Sirius in 50,000 years, and that a cannon ball, flying with its usual velocity of 480 miles an hour, would consume 523^211 years in its passage ther-ce *o our flobe. DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 297 prince so named. Anafesto Paululio, a. d. 697. The Genoese revolted against their count, and chose a doge from among their nobility, and became an aristocratic republic, 1030-4. The ceremony of the doge of Venice marrying the sea, "the Adriatic wedded to our duke," was instituted in 1173, and was observed annually on Ascension-day, until 1797, when the custom was dis- pensed with. See Adriatic. DOMINGO, ST. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. The city y>^as founded in 1494. The town of Port-au-Prince was burnt down, and nearly destroyed by the revolted negroes, in Oct., Nov., and Dec, 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture governed the island, on the expulsion of the French colonists, after this till 1802, when he was entrapped by Bonaparte, and died in prison. His successor, Dessalines, recommended the blacks, by proclama- tion, to make a general massacre of the whites, which was accordingly ex- ecuted with horrid cruelty, and 2500 were butchered in one day, March 29, 1804. Dessalines proclaimed himself emperor, Oct. 8, 1804. See Hayii. in which article particulars will be found up to the independence of St. Do- mingo., acknowledged by France, in April, 1825. DOMINICA. Discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, in 1493. This island was taken by the British in 1761, and was confirmed to them by the peace of 1763. The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it at the subsequent peace in 1783. It suffered great damage by a tremendous hur- ricane in 1806 ; and several devastating hurricanes have more recently occurred. DOMINICAL LETTER. Noting the Lord's day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, reckoned as beginning on the 1st of January, are designated as by the first seven letters of the alphabet, A, B, C, D, E, F, G; and the one of these which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If the year begin on Sunday, A is the dominical letter ; if it begin on Monday, that letter is G ; if on Tuesday, it is F, and so on. Generally to find the dominical letter call New Year's day A, the next day B, and go on thus till you come to the fii'st Sunday, and the letter that answers to it is the dominical letter ; in leap 5''ears count two letters. DOMINICANS. A religious order whose power and influence were almost uni- versal. They were called in France Jacobins, and in England Blackfriars, and were founded by St. Dominick, approved by Innocent III. in 1215 ; and the order was confirmed by a bull of Honorius III. in 1216, under St. Austin's rules, and the founder's particular constitutions. In 1276 the corporation of London gave them two whole streets by the river Thames, where they erected a large and elegant convent, and whence that part is still called Blackfriars. DOOM'S-DAY OR DOME'S-DAY BOOK. Liber Jiidiciarins vel Censualls AnsUce. A book of the general survey of England, commenced in the reign of William I. a. d. 1080. The intent of this book was, to be a register whereby to determine the right in the tenure of estates ; and from this book the question whether lands be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still decided. The book is still preserved in the Exchequer, fair and legible, consisting of two volumes, a greater and lesser, wherein all the count'ies of England, except Northumberland and Durham, are surveyed. It was fin- ished in A. D. 1086, having been completed by five justices. "This dome's- day book was the tax-book of kinge W\\\\a.m"— Camden. The taxes were levied according to this survey till 13 Henry VIII. 1522, when a more accu- rate surve}- was taken, and was called by the people the new Doom's-day book. DORIC Ordkr of Architkcture. The most ancient of the five, the invention of the Doriaqs, a people of Greece. The Dorians also gave the nanif Kc 13* 298 THE wop^ld's progress. I^dra the Doric muse. The migration of this people to the Peloponnesu! i took place 1104 b. c. Tliey sent, in their vast spirit of enterprise, many colonies into different places, which afterwards bore the same name as their native covmtry. DORl , Here happened an awfal inundation of the sea, a. d. 1446. It arose in tlie breaking down of the dj^kes ; and in the territory of Dordrecht 10 000 persons were overwhelmed and perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dul- lart, in Friesland and in Zealand. In the last two provinces upwards of 300 villages were overflowed, and the tops of their towers and steeples were for ages after to be seen rising out of the water. Dort is famous for the Prot- estant synod held in 1618 ; a general assembly, to which deputies were sent from England, and from all the Reformed churches in Europe, to settle the differences between the doctrines of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, princi- pally upon points of justification and grace. The synod condemned the tenets of Arminius. — Aitzema. DOUAY, IN France. Erected into a university by Philip II. of Spa,in, who founded here the celebrated college of Roman Catholics, a. d. 1569. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV. in person, in 1667. It was taken by the duke of Marlborough, in 1710; and retaken by the f^'rench next year. This town gives its name to the Catholic edition of th. Bible, which continues in almost universal use by the consent of the sucv,essive popes among the members of that communion, as the only English version authorized by Catholics ; its text being copiously explained by the notes of Catholic divines, DRACO, Laws of. Draco, when he exercised the office of archon, made a code of laws, which, on account of their severity, were said to be -written in letters of blood : by them idleness was punished with as much severity as murder; the smallest transgression, he said, deserved death, and he could not find any punishment more rigorous for more atrocious crimes, 623 b. c.^ Sigonius de Repub. At ken. DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth, No. 13, 1577, and sailing round the globe, returned to England, after many perilous adventures, Nov. 3, 1580. This illustrious seaman was vioe-admiral under lord Howard, high-admiral of England, in the memorable conflict with the Spanish Armada, July 19, 1588. His expeditions and victories over the Spaniards have been equalled by modern admirals, but not his gene- rosity ; for he divided the booty he took in proportional shares with the common sailors, even to Avedges of gold given him in return for his presents to Indian chiefs. — Stoive. Rapin. DRAMA. We owe both forms of composition, tragedy and comedy, to the Greeks. The first comedy was performed at Athens, by Susarion and Dolon, on a movable scaffold, 562 b. b. See Comedy. The chorus was introduced 556 B. c. See Chorus. Tragedy was first represented at Athens, by Thespis, on a Avagon, 536 b. c. Arund. Marb. Thespis of Icaria, the inventor of tra- gedy, performed at Athens Alcestis, this year, and was rewarded with a goat, 536 b. c. — Pliny. Anaxandrides was the first dramatic poet who in- troduced intrigues and rapes upon the stage. He composed about a hun- dred plays, of which ten obtained the prize ; he died 340 b. c. DRAMA IN ROME. The drama was first introduced into Rome on occasion of a plague which raged during the consulate of C. Sulpicius Peticus and C. Lucinius Stole. The magistrates to appease the incensed deities insti- tuted the games called Scenici, which Avere amusements entirely new. Actors from Etruria danced, after the Tuscan manner, to the flute 364 b. c. •Subsequently came satires accompanied Avith music set to* the flute; and DRO J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 299 afterwards plays were represented" by Livius Aiidronicus, who, abandoning satires, wrote plays with a regular and connected plot, 240 b. c. — Livy, Andronicus was the first person who gave singing and dancing to two differ- ent performers ; he danced himself, and gave the singing to a yonnger exhibitor. — Lvvy. DRAMA, Modern. The modern drama arose early in the rude attempts of minstrels and buffoons at fairs in France, Italy, and England. — Warton. Stories from the Bible were represented by the priests, and were the origin of sacred comedy. — Idem. Gregory Nazianzen, an early father of the church, is said to have constructed a drama about a. d. 864, on the Passion of Christ, to counteract the profanities of the heathen stage, and thus to have laid the foundation of the modern romantic drama ; but this is not clearly proved. Fitzstephen, in his Life of Thomas a Becket, asserts that " London had for its theatrical exhibitions holy plays, and the representa- tion of miracles wrought by holy confessors." The Chester Mysteries were performed about 1270. Plays were performed at Clerkenwell by the parish clerks in 1397, and miracles were represented in the fields. Allego- rical characters were introduced in the reign of Henry VI. Individual characters were introduced in Henry VII.'s reign. The first regular drama acted in Europe was the " Sophonisba" of Trissino, at Rome, in the pre- sence of pope Leo X., 1515. — Voltaire. The English drama became perfect in the reign of Elizabeth. The first royal license for the drama in England was to master Burbage, and four others, servants to the earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bankside, 1574. A license was granted to Shak- speare, and his associates, in 1603. Plays w^ere opposed by the Puritans in 1633, and were afterwards suspended until the Restoration in 1660. Two com.panies of regular performers were licensed by Charles II., Killegrew's and Davenant's, in 1662. Till this time boys performed women's parts. DRESDEN, Battle of, between the allied army under the prince of Schwar- zenberg, and the French army commanded by Napoleon, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813. The allies, who were 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his posi- tion at Dresden, and the event had nearly proved fatal to them, but for an error in the conduct of general Vandamme. They Avere defeated with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle general Moreau received his mortal wound while in conversation with the emperor of Russia. DRESS. Excess in dress was restrained by a law in England, in the reign of Edward IV., 1465. And again in the reign of Elizabeth, 1574. — Stowe. Sir Walter Raleigh, we are told, wore a white satin-pinked vest, close sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a brown doublet finely flowered, and embroidered with pearls. In the feather of his hat, a large ruby and pearl drop at the bottom of the sprig, in place of a button. His breeches, with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the end, all white ; and buff shoes, which on great court days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones, as to have exceeded the value of 6600/, ; and he had a suit bf a-rmor of solid silver, with swoi'd and belt blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. King James's favorite, the duke of Buckingham, could afford to have his diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally les Dames de la Cour. DROWNING PERSONS. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons were first instituted in Holland, a. d. 1767. The second society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fcx'Hh at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. Similar societies 300 THE world's progress. [ DUK have been instituted in other countries. The motto of the Royal Humane Society in England is very appropriate : — Laieat scintillula forsan — a small spark may luric unseen. DRUIDS. A celebrated order among the ancient Germans, Gauls, and Britons, who from their veneration for the oak (Drys) were so called. They acted as priests and magistrates ; one of them was invested occasionally with supreme authority. In England they were chosen out of the best families, that the dignity of their station, added to that of their birth, might pro- cure them the greater respect. They were versed in sciences ; had the administration of all sacred things ; were the interpreters of the gods ; and supreme judges in all causes. The Druids headed the Britons who opposed Csesar's first landing, 55 b. c. They were cruelly put to death, defending the freedom of their country against the Roman governor, Suetonius Pau- linus, who totally destroyed every mark of Druidism, a. d. 59. — Rowland's Mona Antiqua. DRUNKARDS. The phrase " Drunk as a lord," arose out of an older proverb. " Drunk as a beggar;" and we are told that it was altered owing to the vice of drunkenness prevailing more among the great of late years. Drunken- ness was punished in many of the early nations with exemplary severity. In England, a canon law restrained it in the clergy so early as a. d. 747. Constantine, king of Scots, punished this offence against society with death. He used to say, that a drunkard was but the mimic of a man, and differed from the beast only in shape, a. d. 870. Drunkenness was restrained in the commonalty in England in 975 ; and by several later laws. DUBLIN. This city, anciently called Aschcled, built a. d, 140. DUCAT. First coined \>j Longinus, governor of Italy. — Procopius. First struck in the duchy of Apulia. — Dii Cange. Coined by Robert, king of Sicily, in a. d. 1240. The ducat is so called because struck by dukes. — John- S071. It is of silver and gold, the value of the first being 4s. 6d., and that of the gold 95. 6d. — Pardon. DUELLING AND KNIGHT-ERRANTRY, took their rise from the judicial com- bats of the Celtic nations. The first duel in England, not of this character, took place a. d. 1096. Duelling in civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. The present practice of duelling arose in the challenge of Francis I. to the emperor Charles V.. 1527. The fight with small swords was intro- duced into England, 29 Elizabeth 1587. Proclamation that no person should be pardoned who killed another in a duel, 30 Charles II., 1679. Duelling was checked in the army, 1792. — See Battle, Wager of; Co?nbat, <^c. As many as 227 official and memorable duels were fought during my grand cli- macteric. — Sir J. Barrington. A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 individuals were killed and 96 wounded : in three of these cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the survivors suffered the sen- tence of the law. — Hamilton. DUKE, originally a Roman dignity, first given to the generals of armies. In England, during Saxon times, the commanders of armies were called dukes, duces. — Camden. The title lay dormant from the Conquest till the reign' of Edward III., who conferred the title on his eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, by the style of duke of Cornwall, a. d. 1336. Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and duke of Ireland, 9 Richard II., 1385. The first duke created in Scotland was by king Robert III., who created David, prince of Scotland, duke of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to the king's eldest son, a. d. 1398. DUKE, Grand. The Medici family was one of extraordinary greatness and immense wealth. Of this family, Alexander de Medicis was acknowledged EAR j DICTIONARY OF t)ATES. 30 1 the chief of the republic of Tuscany in 1531 ; he was stabbed in the night ; and his son, Cosmo, was created grand duke, the first of that rank, by pope Pius V. in 1569. DUNBAR, Battle of, between the Scottish and English armies, in which John Baliol was defeated by the earl of Warrenne, and Scotland subdued, by Ed- ward I., fought April 27, 1296. Battle between the Scots and English under Cromwell, who obtained a signal victory, September 3, 1650. DUNKIRK. This town was taken from the Spaniards by the English and French, and put into the hands of the English, June 24. 1658, the last yeai of Cromwell's administration. It was sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., in 1662. The French king made Dunkirk one of the best for- tified ports in the kingdom ; but all the works were demolished, and the basins filled up, in consequence of the treaty of Utrechf in 1713. DUNSINANE, Battle op. Celebrated in dramatic story by the immortal Shakspeare. On the hill of Dunsinane was fought the renowned battle between Macbeth, the thane of Glammis, and Seward, earl of Northumber- land. Edward the Confessor had sent Seward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father, Duncan, the thane and usurper had murdered. Macbeth, who was signally defeated, fled, and was pursued, it is said, to Lumphanan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 1057. The history of Macbeth is the sub- ject of Shakspeare's incomparable drama. DURHAM, Battle of, between the English and Scottish armies, fought at Nevill's-cross, near Durham. The former army was commanded by queen Philippa and lord Piercey, and the latter by David Bruce, king of Scotland, who was vanquished, Fifteen thousand of Bruce's. soldiers were cut to pieces, and himself, with many of his nobles and knights, and many thou- sand men, were taken prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DYEING, Art of. The discovery of it attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own cloths, the English were so little skilled, that their manufactures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low Countries in 1608. "Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of England) 1628. E. EAGLE. The standard of the eagle was first borne by the Persians ; and the Romans carried figures of the eagle, as ensigns, in silver and gold, and sometimes represented with a thunderbolt in its talons, on the point of a spear ; they adopted the eagle in the consulate of Marius, 102 b. c. When Charlemagne became master of the whole of the German empire, he added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to denote that the empires of Rome and Germany were united in him, a. d. 802. The eagle was the im- perial standard of Napoleon; and is that of Austria, Russia, and Prussia. It is also the national emblem of the United States of America. EARL. An honor which came from the Saxons, and continued for many ages the his!;hest rank in England, until Edward III. created dukes, and Richard II. created marquesses, both having precedency assigned above earls. They had, anciently, for the support of their state, the third penny out of the sheriff's court, issuing out of the pleas of the shire whereof they had their title, as in ancient times there were no counts or earls but had a county or shire for his earldom. Upon the increase of earls their revenue ceased, and their powers were abridged. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute for king. 302 THE WORl.D'S PROGRESS. EAR EARTH. The globular form of the earth was first suggested by Thales of Miletus about 640 b. c. Its magnitude was calculated from measuring &n arc of the meridian by Eratosthenes, 240 b. c. The Greeks taught the sphericity of the earth, and the popes believed it to be a plane, and gave all towards the west to the kings of Spain. The first ship that sailed round the earth, and thence demonstrated that its form was globular, was Magel- lan's, in 1519. The notion of its magnetism was started by Gilbert in 1576. Tlie experiments of M. Richer, in 1672, led Newton to prove the earth to be in the shape of an oblate spheroid. The variation of its axis was dis- covered hj Dr. Bradley in 1737. See Globe. E A.RTHENWARE. Vessels of this ware were in use among the most ancient nations. Various domestic articles M-ere made bj^ the Romans. 715 b. c. The art was revived and improved in Italy, a. d. 1310. Wedgewood's patent ware was first made in 1762. His pottery in Staftbrdshire was extended to a variety of curious compositions, subservient not only to the ordinary pur- poses of life, but to the arts, antiquity, history, &c., and thereby rendered a very important branch of commerce, both foreign and domestic. See China. — Porcelain. EARTHQUAKES. The theory of earthquakes has not yet been formed ^rith any degree of certainty. Anaxagoras supposed that earthquakes were pro- duced by subterraneous clouds bursting out into lightning, which shook the vaults that confined them, b. c. 435. — Diog. Laert. Kircher, Des Cartes, iand others, supposed that tliere were many vast cavities under ground which have a communication with each other, some of which abound with waters, others with exhalations, arising from inflammable substances, as nitre, bitu- men, sulphur, &c. These opinions continued to be supported till 1749-50, when an earthquake was felt at London, and several parts of Britain. Dr. Stukeley, who had been engaged in electrical experiments, then began to suspect that a phenomenon of this kind ought to be attributed not to vapors or fermentations generated in the bowels of the earth, but to electricity. These principles at the same time were advanced by Signer Beccaria, with- out knowing any thing of Dr. Stukelej^'s discoveries, and the hypothesis has been confirmed by the experiments of Dr. Priestley. In many cases, how- ever, it appears probable that the immense power of water converted into steam by subterraneous fires must contribute to augment the force which occasions earthquakes. Among those which are recorded as having been the most destructive and memorable, are the following, which are quoted from the best sources : it would be impossible to enumerate in this volume all that have occurred : — One which made the peninsula 'of Eubof a an island - - b. c. 425 Ellice and Bula in the Peloponnesus, swallowed up ... 372 One at Rome, when, in obedience to an oracle, M. Curtius, armed and mounted on a stately horse, leaped into the dreadful chasm it occasion- ed {Livy) - ■ - - 358 Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; and twelve cities in Campania also buried - - 345 Lysimachia totally buried, with all its inhabitants .... 283 Awful one in Asia, which overturned twelve cities - - - a. d. 17 One accompanied by the eruption of Vesuvius ; the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum buried - 79 Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, a. id two in Galatia, overturned • - 107 Antioch destroyed - - a. d. 114 Nicomedia, Caesarea. and Nicea in Bithynia, overturned - - 126 In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 citiej and towns damaged. - - 357 Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants buried in its ruins - 35S One felt by nearly the whole world - 543 At Constantinople ; its editices destroy- ed, and thousands perished - - 553 In Africa ; many cities overturned ■ 560 Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 500 cities Vv^ere de- stroyed, and the loss of lil'e surpass- ed all calculation - - - 742 In France, Germany, and Italy - 801 Constantinople overturned, and all Greece shaken - - - 936 One felt throughout England - •- 1083 One at Antioch ; many towns destroy- EAS] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 303 EARTHQUAKES, contmued. • ed : arn^ng them, Mnriseum and Ma- mistria - - - a. d. 1114 Catania in Sicily overturned, and 15,000 persons buried in the ruins - 1137 One severely felt ai Lincoln - - 1142 At Calabria, when one of its cities and all its inhabitants were overwhelm- ed in the Adriatic Sea - - 1186 One again felt throughout England - 1274 At Naples, when 40,000 of its inhabit- ants perished .... 1456 One feft in London : part of St. Paul's and the Temple churches fell - 15S0 In Japan, several cities made ruins, and thousands perished - - 1596 Awful one at Calabria - - - 1638 One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried in Pekin alone - - 1662 One severely felt in Ireland - - 1690 One at .lamaica^ which totally destroy- ed Port Royal, whose houses were ingulfed forty fathoms deep, and 300 persons perished - - - 1692 One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, and 300 villages. Of Catania and its 18,000 inhabit- ants, not a trace remained; more than 100,000 lives were lost - - 1693 Palermo nearly destroyed, and 6000 persons perished - - - 1726 Again in China; and 100,000 people sv/allowed up at Pekin - - 1731 One in Hungary, which turned a mountain round - - - 1736 Lima and Caliao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried in the ruins Oct. 28, 1746 One at Palermo, which swallowed up a convent ; but the monks escaped 1740 In London, the inhabitants terrified by a slight shock - Feb. 8, 1750 Another, but severer shock, March 8, 1750 Adrianople nearly overwhelmed - 1752 At Grand Cairo, half of the houses, and 40,000 persons swallowed up - 1754 Quito destroyed - - April, 1755 Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes most of the houses, and upwards of 50,000 inhabitants, were swallowed up, and whole streets buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and Kraga, sutfered dread- fully, and St. Ubes was wholly over- turned. In Spain, a large part of Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Morocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 Arabs perished there. Above half of the island of Madeira became waste : and 2,000 houses in the island of Meteline, in the Archipelago, were overthrown : this awful earthquake extended 5000 miles, even to Scotland Nov. 1, 1755 One in Syria extended over 10,000 square miles : Balbec destroyed - 1759 One at Martinico, when 1600 persons lost their lives - . Aug. 1767 At Guatemala, which, with 80,000 in- habitants, was swallowed up Dec. 1773 1780 1783 1784 1789 1791 - 1794 1794 1800 1804 - 1805 1810 A destructive one at Smyrna - a. D 1778 AtTauris : 15,000 houses thrown down, and multitudes buried One which overthrew Messina and a number of towns in Italy and Sicily : 40,000 persons perished Archindschan wholly destroyed, and 12,000 persons buried in its ruins - At Borgo di San Sepolcro, an opening of the earth swallowed up many houses and 1000 persons - Sept. Another fatal one in Sicily One in Naples, when Vesuvius issuing forth its flames overwhelmed the city of Torre del Greco In Turkey, where, in three towns, 10,000 persons lost their lives The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama destroyed, including the cities of Cusco and Quito, 40,000 of whose people were, in one second, hurled into eternity - - - ]79i3 One at Constantinople, which destroy- ed the royal palace and an immen- sity of buildings, and extended into Romania and Wallachia. A violent one felt in Holland - Jan. In the kingdom of Naples, where 20,000 persons lost their lives At the Azores : a village of St. Mi- chael's sunk, and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place - Aug. Awful one at Caraccas {which see) - 1812 Several felt througlmut India. The district of Kutch sunk ; 2000 persons were buried with it - - June 1819 In Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns ; great damage sustain- ed, and thousands perished - - 1819 One faiil, at Messina - - Oct. 1326 One in Spain, which devastated Mur- cia, and numerous villages ; 6000 persons perished - March 21, 1829 In the duchy of Parma ; no less than 40 shocks were experienced at Bor- gotaro ; and at Pontremoli many houses were thrown down, and not a chimney was lelt standing Feb. 14, 1834 In many cities of Southern Syria, by which hundreds of houses were thrown down, and thousands of the inhabitants perished Jan. 22, 1337 At Martinique, by which nearly half of Port Royal is destroyed, neai'ly 700 persons killed, and the whole island damaged - Jan. 11, 1839 At Ternate : the island made a wasted almost every house destroyed, and thousands of the inhabitants lose their lives - - Feb. 14, 1S40 Awful and destructive earthquake at Mount Ararat ; in one of the districts of Armenia 3137 houses were over- thrown, and several hundred persons perished - - July 2, 1840 Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons perished Oct. 30, .1840 EASTER So calloci in Eng-land from the Saxon goddess Eosire. The festival of Easter was instituted about a. d. 68 ; the day for the observance of it ^ was fixed in Eng-land by St. Austin, in 597. It was ordained by the council 304 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. ECL of Nice to be observed on the same day throughout the whole Christian world. Easter is the first Sunday after the first full moon that occurs after the 21st of March. EASTERN EMPIRE. Commenced under Valens, a. d. 364, and ended in the defeat and death of Constantine XIII., the last Christian emperor, in 1453. Mahomet II. resolved to dethrone him, and possess himself of Constan- tinople ; he laid seige to that city both by sea and land, and took it by assault after it had held out fifty-eight days. The unfortunate emperor, seeing the Turks enter by the breaches, threw himself into the midst of the enemy, and was cut to pieces ; the children of the Imperial house were massacred by the soldiers, and the women reserved to gratify the lust of the conqueror ; and thus terminated the dynasty of the Constantines, and com- menced the present empire of Turkey, May 29, 1453. See Tabular Views, in this vol. from page 61. See also Turketj. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS. There existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical courts in England until after the Norman conquest, a. d. 1066, The following are the causes cognizable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordinations, institutions to be- nefices, matrimony, divorces, bastardy, tithes, incests, fornication, adultery, probate of wills, administrations, &c. — Blackstone. ECCLESIASTICAL STATE or STATES of the CHURCH. See Rome. In A. D. 1798, this state was taken possession of by the French, Avho erected it into the " Roman Republic." They obliged the pope, Pius VI., to remove into Tuscany, and afterwards into France, where he died in 1799. In the same year a conclave was permitted to be held at Venice ; and, in 1800, cardinal Chiaramonti, who was elected to the papal chair, took the title of Pius VII., and resumed the dominion of the Ecclesiastical State. This power was held until 1809, when he was deprived by Bonaparte of his temporal sovereignty, and reduced to the condition of bishop of Rome ; but in 1814 the pope was restored. For succession of popes, see p. 50 et seq. ECLECTICS. Ancient philosophers, also called Analogeiici, and Pkilaletkes, or the lovers of truth. Without attaching themselves to any sect, they chose what they judged good from each : founded by Polemon of Alex- andria, about A. D. 1. — Dryden. Also a sect, so called in the Christian church, who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable to the spirit of the doctrine of the Christian. ECLIPSES. The theo^-y of eclipses was known to the Chinese at least 120 B. c. — Gaubil. An eclipse was supposed by most of the eastern nations to be the effect of magic; hence the custom among them of drumming during its continuance. The first eclipse recorded, happened March 19, 721 b. c. at 8' 40" p. M. according to Ptolemy ; it was lunar, and was observed with accuracy at Babylon. — See Astronomy. The following were extraordinary eclipses of the sun and moon : — OF THE SUN. That predicted by Thales ; observed at Sardis (PZmz/, /26. ii.) - b. c. One at Athens {Thucydides, lib. iv.) - Total one ; three days' supplication de- creed at Rome ( Livy) On-3 general at the death of Jesus Christ (Joscphus) ■ - - A. D. One at Rome, causing a total darkness at noon-day {Livy) One observed at Constantinople !n France, when it was dark at noon- day iDu Fresnoy-) - June 29, 1033 585 424 33 291 968 In England, where it occasioned a total AaiXknQssXWvi. Malmsb.) • -1140 Again ; the stars visible at ten in the mornmg (Camden) - June 23, 1191 The true sun, and the appearance of another, so that astronomers alone could distinguish the difference by their glasses (Comp. Hist. Eng.) • 1191 Again ; total darkness ensued (idem) - 1,331 A total one ; the darkness so great that the stars shone, and the birds went to roost at noon ( Oldmixon's Annals of Geo. I.) - . April 25. 1715 EDU J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 305 Again, in Asia Minor {Polyhius) • 219 One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gallus {Livy, lib. xliv.) - - 16S One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their revolt (J'aci'ius) a. d. 14 ECLIPSES, continued. Remarkable one, central and annular in tlie interior of Europe - Sept. 7, 1820 OF THE MOON. The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon {Ptolemy ^ lib. iv.) - b. c. 721 A total one, observed at Sardis {Thu- cydidesjlib. vii.) - - - 413 The revolution of eclipses was first calculated by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B. c. The Egyptians say they had accurately observed 373 eclipses of the sun, and 832 of the moon, up to the period from Vulcan to Alexander, Avho died 323 b. c. EDEN., GARDEN of. The question about the site of Eden has greatly agi- tated theologians ; some place it near Damascus, others in Armenia, some in Caucasus, others at Hillah, near Babylon, others in Arabia, and some in Abyssinia. The Hindoos refer it to Ceylon : and a learned Swede asserts that it was in Sudermania ! Several authorities concur in placing it in a peninsula formed by the main river of Eden, on the east side of it, below the confluence of the lesser rivers, which emptied themselves into it, about 27° N. iat., now swallowed up by the Persian Gulf, an event which may have happened at the Universal Deluge, 2348 b. c. The country of Eden extended into Armenia. — Calmet. The Almighty constructed EdeuAvitha view to beauty, as well as usefulness ; not only every plant there was good for food, but such also as were pleasant to the eye, were planted there. — Genesis ii. 8, 9. EDGEHILL, Battle of, also called Edgehill Fight, between the Royalists and the Parliament army, the first engagement of importance in the civil war ; Charles I. was personally present in this battle. Prince Rupert commanded the royalists, and the earl of Essex the parliamentarians. Oct. 23, 1642. EDICT OF NANTES. This was the celebrated edict by which Henry IV. of France granted toleration to his Protestant subjects, in 1598. It was re- voked by Louis XIV., Oct. 24, 1685. This bad and unjust policy lost to France 800,000 Protestants, and gave to England (part of these) 50,000 industrious artisans. Some thousands, who brought with them the art of manufacturing silks, settled in Spitalflelds, where their descendants yet remain: others planted themselves in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art of making crystal glasses, and various fine works in which they excelled ; among these, jewelry, then little understood in England. — An- derson's Orig. of English Commerce. EDILES. These were Roman magistrates, like our mayors, and there were two ediles at a time. They had the superintendence and care of public and private Avorks and buildings, baths, aqueducts, bridges, roads, &c. ; they also took cognizance of Aveights and measures, and regulated the mar- kets for provisions ; they examined comedies before they Avere acted, and treated the people Avith games and shoAvs at their OAvn expense. The duties of ediles have suggested similar offices in our OAvn polity, and served in many instances as models for our magistracy. — Pardon. EDINBURGH. The metropolis of Scotland, and one of the first and finest cities of the empire. It derives its name — in ancient records, Dun Edin, signifying the "hill of Edin"— from its castle, founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northumbria, Avho, having greatly extended his dominions, erected it for the protection of his newly-acquired territories from the incursions of the Scots and Picts, a. d. 626. But it is said the castle was first built by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 b. c. It makes a conspicuous appearance, standing at the Avest end of the town, on a rock 300 feet high, and before the use of great guns, Avas a fortification of considerable strength. 306 THE world's progress [egy EDUCATION IN U. S. See Colleges and Schools. American Institute of In- struction organized at Boston, Aug. 19, 1830. Literary Convention at New York, Oct. 20, 1830. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. A grant of 30,000Z. for national education, pro- posed in parliament by Lord John Russell and passed, 275 to 273, July 9, and the House of Lords went in a body to ask the Queen to rescind the grant, July 11, 1839. EGALITE. Equality. The surname assumed by Philip Bourbon Capet, the infamous duke of Orleans, to ingratiate himself with the republicans, on the abolition of monarchy in France, Sept. 11, 1792. He voted for the death of Louis XVI. his relative; but this did not save him from a like doom. He was guillotined Nov. 6, 1793. EGYPT. The dynasty of its Pharaohs or kings commenced with Mizraim, the son of Ham, second son of Noah, 2188 b. c. The kingdom lasted 1663 years ; it was conquered by Cambyses, 525 b. c. In a. d. 639, this country was wrest- ed from the eastern emperor Heraclius, by Omar, calif of the Saracens. The famous Saladin established the dominion of the Mamelukes, in 1171. Selim I., emperor of the Turks, took Eg3q3t in 1517, and it was governed by Beys till 1799, when a great part of the country was conquered by the French, under Bonaparte. In 1801,' the invaders ^vere dispossessed by the British, and the government was restored to the Turks. — See Turkey., for modern events. See Tabular Views, in this vol. page 5 et seq. Mizraim builds Memphis (Blah-) b. c. 2188 Egypt made four kingdoms, viz. : Up- per Egypt, Lower Egypt, This, and Memphis (^66,3 Lenglef, Blair) Athotes invents hieroglyphics - Busiris builds Thebes ( Usher) Osymandyas, the first warlike king, passes into Asia, conquers Bactria, and causes his exploits to be repre- sented in sculpture and painting (Usher, Lenglet) The Phoenicians invade Lower Egypt and hold it 260 years ( Usher) The lake of Moeris constructed The patriarch Abraham visits Egypt to avoid the famine in Canaan - 1921 Syphoas introduces the use of the com 2125 2122 2111 2100 2080 1938 mon letters {Usher) country, hitherto called Mizraim, is now called Egypt {Blair) - b. c. Reign of Thuoris (the Proteus of the Greeks) who had the faculty of as- suming whatever form he pleased, as of a lion, a dragon, a tree, water, fire ..... [These fictions were probably intend- ed to mark the profound policy of this king, who was eminent for his wisdom, by which his dominion fiounshed.— Blair.] Pseusennes enters Palestine, ravages Judea, and carries otf the sacred ves- sels of the Temple The dynasty of kings called Tanites begins with Petubastes (Blair) 1485 1189 Memnon invents the Egyptian letters (Blair, Lenglet) - - - 1822 Amenophis I. is acknowledged the king of all Egypt (Le?z^/eO - - 1821 Joseph the Israelite is sold into Egypt as a slave (Lenglet) - - - 1728 He interprets the king's dreams - 1715 His father and brethren settle here - 1706 Sesostris reigns ; he extends his do- minion by conquest over Arabia, Pei-sia, India, and Asia Minor (Leng- let)' 1618 Settlement of the Ethiopians (Blair) 1615 Rampses, who imposed on his sub- jects the building of walls and pyra- mids, and other labors, dies (Leiiglet) 1492 Amenophis I. is overwhelmed in the Red Sea, with all his army (Lenglet, Blair) 1492 Reign of Egyptus, from whom the 1891 j The dynasty of ^a«7es (Sto/r) Sebacon invades Egypt, subdues the king, Bocchoris, whom he orders to be roasted alive ( Usher) Psammetichus the Powerful reigns - He invests Azoth, which holds out for 19 years, the longest siege in the an- nals of antiquity ( Usher) Necho begins the famous canal be- tween the Arabic gulf and the Medi- terranean sea (Blair) This canal abandoned, after costing the lives of 120,000 men (Herodotus) Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon deposes Apries ( Usher) Apries taken prisoner and strangled in his palace (Diod. Siculus) • The philosopher Pythagoras comes from Samos into Egypt, and is in- structed in the mysteries of Egyp- tian theology ( C/s/ier) 971 825 781 737 660 - 647 610 609 681 571 535 * The epoch of the reign of Sesostrisi is very uncertain ; Blair makes it to fall 133 years later. As to the achievements of this monarch, they are supposed to have been the labors of several kings, ittributed by thj Egyptian priests to Sesistris alone, whose very existence, indeed, is doubted. ELE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 307 EGYPT, continued. The line of the Pharaohs ends in the murder of Psamznenicus by Camby- sesiBiair) . . B. c. 526 Ureadlul excesses of Cambyses- he puts the children of the grantees, male and lemale, to death, and makes the country a waste (Herodotus) - 524 He sends an army of 50,000 men across the desert to destroy the temple of Jupuer Ammon, but they all perish m the burning sands (Justin) . 524 Egypt revolts from the Persians ; a-^ain subdued by Xerxes (Blair) - - 487 A revolt under Inarus (Blair) - . 453 Successful revolt under Amyrtfeus, who IS proclanned king (Lenglet) - 414 Egypt agam reduced by Persia, and its temples pillaged (C7s/zer) - . 350 Alexander the Great enters Eo-ypt wrests it from the Persians," and builds Alexandria (Btor) - - 332 Philadelphus completes the Pharos of Alexandria (Blair) - . . 283 The Septuagint version of the Old Tes- tament made about this time - 283 The famous library of Alexandria also dajes about this period (Blair) - 283 Ambassadors first sent to Rome - 269 Ptolemy Euergetes overruns Syria, and returns laden with rich spoils and 2500 statues and vessels of gold and silver, which Cambyses had taken from the Egyptian temples (Blair) . . - - 246 Reign of Philometer and Physcon - 151 At the death of Philometer, his brother I'hyscon marries his queen, and on the day of his nuptials murders the mlant son of Philometer in its moth- er's arms .... j^g He repudiates his wife, and marries her daughter by his brother (BteV) 130 | "ESSES? f|^"--»^«^ prevaiTed foi spvpi .1 ^Z. • •' ?^^ ^"^'^'^ ^^'^ ^^°^^"«e and anarchy which *^io-Vif ir. TT'T'T J ui xictiiuver, in ib\)A. Ihe number was reduced to Tii ^ilnf^'7-' ^""^ '""f increased to ten at the peace of Lunevilir n 1801 His subjects, wearied with Ms cruel- ties and crimes, demolish his stat- ues, set fire to his palace, and he flies from their fury (Blair) b. c He murders his son by his new queen ; also his son by her mother, sendin'^ the head and limbs of the latter as a present to the parent on a feast day Yet, deleating the Egyptian army, he recovers his throne ; and dies Pestilence from the putrefaction of vast swarms of locusts ; 800,000 per- sons perish in Esrypt - - . Revolt in Upper Egypt ; the famous city of Thebes destroyed after a sie^-e of three years (Diod. Sicidus) - Auletes dying, leaves his kingdom to his eldest sou, Ptolemy, and the fa- mous Cleopatra (Blair) During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleofatra, Alexandria is be- sieged by Csesar, and the famous library nearly destroyed by fire (Blair) Cffisar defeats the king, who, in cross- ing the Nile, is drowned; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleopatra reign - - . . . Cleopatra poisons her brother (only 14 years of age) and reigns alone She appears before Mark Antony, to answer for this crime. Fascinated by her beauty, he follows her into Egypt ..... Antony defeated by Octavius Ceesar at the battle of Actium (Blair) Octavius enters Egypt; Antony and Cleopatra kill themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman prov- ince - . . . 1^ 129 128 128 82 J\ 47 43 40 31 30 308 THE world's progress. [ EM« was proved by Dr. Franklin, about this period. The electricity of the AU' rora Borealis was discovered by means of the electric kite, in 1769. ELECTRO-GALVANISM. It owes its origin to the discoveries of Dr. L. Gal- vani, an eminent Italian philosopher, in 1789. Volta pursued the inquiries of this good man (for he was alike distinguished by his virtues and genius), and discovered the mode of combining the metals; constructed what is very properly called the Voltaic pile; and extended the Avhole science into a system which should rather be called Voitaism than Galvanism, ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. Analogies between electricity and magnetism were discovered by Oersted of Copenhagen, in 1807. This analogy was established in 1819, and was confirmed by subsequent experiments in England, France, Germany, the United States and other countries ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Experiments in electricity, >aving more or less bearing upon its practical use in telegraj)hic communication, were made by Winclder, atLeipsic,1746; La Monnier, in Paris ; Watson, in London, 1747; Lomond, in 1781; Betancour, at Madrid, 1798. Galvani's discovery of ''Galvanism," at Bolonga, 1791. Prof Volta's "Voltaic Battery," at Pavia, 1801; Soemmerring, at Munich, 1807. The practical use of Galvanism in telegraphs, as prophesied by John Redman Coxe, of Phila., in 1816. Great advance made by Prof Oersted at Copenhagen, in 1819. The electro-mag- netic agency first fully developed and applied by Prof. Morse, 1832, patented 1840. The first telegraph by this agency in the United States, was between Washington and Baltimore, in 1844. Cooke & Wheatsone's patent in En- gland, 1840. Bain's patent in England, first, 1842 ; applied in United States in 1849. House's in 1848. The telegraphic lines in the United States, in Jan. 1850 extended 6,679 miles. — See Supplement. ELEPHANT. This animal, in the earliest times, was trained to war. The his- tory of the Maccabees informs us, that "to every elephant they .appointed 1000 men, armed with coats of mail, and 500 horse ; and upon the elephants were strong towers of wood," &c. The elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked to fight by showing them the " blood of grapes and mulber- ries." The first elephant said to have been seen in England, was one of enormous size, presented by the king of France to our Henry III., in 1238. — Baker's Chron. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES. A great festival under this name was observed by the Athenians and other nations : these mysteries were the most celebra- ted of all the religious ceremonies of Greece, and were instituted bj' Eumol- pus, 1356 B. c. They were so superstitiously observed, that if any one revealed them, it was supposed that he had called divine vengeance upon him, and he was put to death. The mysteries were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, and lasted about 1800 years, and were at last abolished by Theo- dosius the Great, a. d. 389. ELGIN MARBLES. These admirable works of ancient art Avere derived chiefly from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens, of which temple they formed part of the frieze and pediment, built by Phi- dias about 500 B. c. Lord Elgin began the collection of these marbles during his mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802 ; they were purchased of him by the British government for 36,000Z., and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. EMBALMING. The ancient Egyptians believed that their souls, after many thousand years, would come to reinhabit their bodies, in case these latter were preserved entire. Hence arose their practice of embalming the dead. The Egyptian manner of preserving the dead has been the admiration and wonder of modern times. They rendered the body not only incorruptibl©. EMP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 309 but it retained its full proportion of size, symmetry of features, and personal likeness. The}^ called the embalmed bodies micmmies, some of which, buried 3000 years ago, are perfect to this day. The art of such embalming is now lost. When Nicodemus came with Joseph of Arimathea, to pay the last duties to our Saviour after his crucifixion, he brought a mixture of myrrh and aloes to embalm his body. — Jok7i xix. 38. EMBARGO IN ENGLAND. This power is invested in the crown, but it is rarely exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes as a prelude to war. The most memorable instances of embargo were those for the preven- tion of corn going out of the kingdom in 1766; and for the detention of all .Russian. Danish, and Swedish ships in the several ports of the kingdom, owing to the armed neutrality, Jan. 14, 1801. See Armed Neutrality. EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all ■ essels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Re- pealed and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812. EMBER WEEKS. Observed in the Christian church in the third century, to implore the blessing of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and fasting. Ember Days, three of which fall in these weeks, and in which penitents sprinkle the ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. Four times in each year were appointed for these acts of devotion, so as to answer to the four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. EMBROIDERY. Its invention is usually ascribed to the Phrj^gians; but we learn from Homer, and other ancient authors, that the Sidonians particu- larly excelled in this decorative species of needle- work. Of this art very early mention is made in the Scriptures. — Exodus xxxv. 35, and xxxviii. 23. An ancient existing specimen of beautiful embroidery is the Bayeux tapes- try, worked by Matilda, the queen of William I. of JEngland. See Bayeux Tapestry. EMERALD. The precious stone of a green color is found in the East and in Peru; inferior ones in other places. It has been alleged that there were no true emeralds in Europe before the conquest of Pern ; but there is a gen- uine emerald in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of pope Julius II., Avho died in 1513, and Peru was not conquered till 1545 ; hence it is inferred that this emerald was brought from Africa, or the East. EMIGRATION. Of late years emigrations from Britain have been considera- ble. In the ten 3^ears ending 1830, the emigrations to the North American colonies, West Indies, Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales. Swan River, Van Diemen's Land, &c. were, according to official returns, 154 291. In the decennial period to 1840, the emigrations advanced to 277,696, exclusively of the vast numbers settling in the United States of America. The num- ber of emigrants to the United States in one year ending Sept. 30, 1848, were registered as born in Great BritaLi and Ireland - 148,212 Denmark - 210 Germany - 58,0] 8 Switzerland - - - 319 France . - 7,748 Other countries or unknown - -3,043 Sweden and Norway 903 EMIR. A title of dignity among the Turks and Persians, first given to caliphs. This rank was first awarded to the descendants of Mahomet bj^ his daughter Fatima, about a. d. 650. — Ricaut. To the emirs only was originally given the privilege of wearing the green turban. It is also given to high officers (another title being joined). EMPALEMENT. This barbarous and dreadful mode of putting criminals to 310 THE world's progress. 1 ENO death is mentioned by Juvenal, and was often inflicted in Rome, pai ticularly by the monster Nero. The victim doomed to empalement is spitted through the body on a stalce fixed upright ; and this punishment is still used in Turkey and Arabia. The dead bodies of murderers Avere sometmies staked in this manner, previously to being buried, in England—Southern. Wil- liams (who committed suicide) the murderer of the Marr family, m Rat- cliffe Highway, London, Dec. 8, 1811, was staked in his ignominious grave. This practice has since been abolished there. See Burying Ahve. EMPEROR. Originally a title of honor at Rome, conferred on victorious ge- nerals, who were first saluted by the soldiers by that name. Augustus Csesar was the first Roman emperor, 27 b. c. Valens was the first emperor of the Eastern empire, a. d. 364. Charlemagne was the first emperor of Germany crowned by Leo EI. a. d. 800. Ottoman I., founder of the Turk- ish empire, was the first emperor of Turkey, 1296. The Czar of Russia was the first emperor of that country, 1722. Don Pedro IV. ot Portugal was the first emperor of Brazil, in 1825. EMPIRICS. They were a set of early physicians Avho contended that all hy- pothetical reasoning respecting the operations of the animal economy was useless, and that experience and observation alone were the foundation of the art of medicine. The sect of Empirics was instituted by Acron of Agrigentum, about 473 b. c. ENAMELLING. Tlie origin of the art of enamelling is doubtful. It was practised by the Egyptians and other early nations ; and was known in Eno-land in the times of the Saxons. At Oxford is an enamelled jewel whtch belonged to Alfred, and which, as appears by the inscription, was made by his order, in his reign, about a. d. 887. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, known to the ancients. This very beautiful art, after having been lost, was restored by Count Caylus and M. Bacheher, a. D. 1749. ENCYCLOPEDIA. The first work to which this designation was expressly given was that of Abulfarius. an Arabian writer, in the thirteenth century. Many were published as early as the fifteenth century, but none alphabet- ically Chambers' Dictionary was the first of the circle of arts and sciences, in England first published in 1728. The great French work. Encydopedu Methodiq'ue, to which Voltaire. Diderot. D'Alembert, and other savans contri- buted was pubhshed in 1182 eiseq., in 200 quarto volumes. The British En- cyclopedia printed in Philadelphia in 1798, by Thomas Dobson, was the first in the United States. The Edinburgh Encyclopedia, edited by Sir David Brewster was published, 1810 el seq., and republished in the United States\ Rees' Cvclopedia republished in the United States m 1822. The cost of the 7th edition of Encyclopedia Brilannica.. edited by Professor Napier, and pubhshed by A. & C. Black. Edinburgh, in 1840 etc., was stated to have been £\2^ 000 of which £22, 000 were paid to the contributors. This was pro- bably the most costly undertaking ofthe kind ever achieved by private enter- prise The Encyclopedia Melropolitanavf&s commenced m 1815 and finished in 1845. Both of these works comprised articles by the most distinguished writers in Great Britain. The German Conversations Lexicon, published 1796-1830. and upon the basis of this the Encyclopedm f ^"^'■^^^''.'■«^^^'^«, JJf * menced in Philadelphia in 1829-30. Penny Cycl. (Knights) finished 1844. ENGINEERS This name is of modern date, as engineers were formerly called Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham ofiiciated as trench-master m 1622. The chief ene-ineer was called camp- master-general m l^'^^^.^^PH;" . Thomas Ruddhad the rank of chief engineer to the kmg about 1650. 1 he corps of engineers was formerly a civil corps, but was made a military force and directed to rank with the artillery, A\>vi\ 25, 1/87. It has a ENG ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 311 colonel-in-chief, and a second, and five colonel-commandants, and twenty colonels. The Association of civil engineers was established in 1828. The Bureau of Topographical Engineers of the U, S. Army, established at Washington. ENGLAND. See Britain. So named by order of Egbert, first king of Eng- land, in a general council held at Winchester, a. d. 829. This appellative had been used as far back as a. d. 688, but had never been, until then, rati- fied by any assembly of the nation. It came from Angles, a tribe of Saxons, and lond, the Saxon for country. For English history and succession of Sovereigns, see Tabular Views, beginning on p. 75 in this volume. England and Wales were united a. d. 1283, and Scotland was united to both in 1707, and the three were then styled Great Britain. Ireland was incorporated with these countries by the Act of Legislative Union, January 1, 1801, and the whole called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ENGLAND, NEW. See New England. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. See article Lang^iages. From the High Dutch or Teutonic sprung (among others) the English language, now one of tho most copious and beautiful of Europe. Law pleadings were made in En- glish by order of Edward III. instead of the French language, which had been continued from the time of the Conqueror, a. d. 1362. The English tongue and English apparel were ordered to be used in Ireland, 28 Henry VIII. 1536. The English was ordered to be used in all lawsuits, and the Latin disused. May 1731. ENGRAVING. The engraving of gems is a branch of art of the highest an- tiquity. The earliest writers make mention of engraved seals and seal rings, and there still exist many antique engravings equal to later produc- tions of similar artists. Engraving from plates and wood is chiefly of mo- dern invention, having its origin about the middle of the fifteenth century. Engraving on glass was perfected to an art by Boudier of Paris, 1799. The art of engraving, in various styles, has made great progress in the United States during the last ten years. ENGRAVING on COPPER. Prints from engraved copper-plates made their appearance about a. d. 1450, and were first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Finiguerra, was the first Italian artist in this way. 1450. The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 1461. Rolling presses for working the plates were invented in 1545, and many improvements of it followed. Of the art of etching on copper by means of aquafortis, Francis Mazzouli, or Parmagiano is the reputed inventor, about a. d. 1532.— De Piles. ^ ENGRAVING, Lithographic. This is a new branch of the art, and Alois Sennefelderniay be regarded as the inventor of it. It was first announced on the Continent in 1798, and became more known as polyautography in 1808. It was introduced into general use in England by Mr. Ackermann of London in 1817. ENGRAVING, Mezzotinto. The art was discovered by Siegen, and was im- proved by prince Rupert in 1648 ; Sir Christopher Wren further improved it m 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662 ; he com- municated his invention to Le Prince. Barrabe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiaro-oscuro en- graving originated Avith the Germans, and was first practised by Mair one of whose prints bears date 1491. See Zvncogra.phy, i^c. ENGRAVING ON STEEL. The mode of engraving on soft steel, which, after it has been hardened, will multiply copper plates and fine impressions, in< 312 THE world's progress. [ epi definitely, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, in 1819. ENGRAVING on WOOD, took its rise from the brief maklers, or manufacturers of playing-cards, about a. d. 1400 ; and from this sprung the invention of printing, first attempted by means of wooden types not movable. See Printing. The art is referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to Reuss, a German ; it was greatly improved by Durer and Lucas Van Leyden in 1497 ; and was brought to perfection in England by Bewick, his brother, and pupils, Nesbett, Anderson, &c., 1789. et. seq. The earliest wood en- graving which has reached our times is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant Jesus over the sea ; it bears date a. d. 1423. ENTOMOLOGY. This branch of natural history cannot be regarded as rank- ing as a science until the arrangement of Linnseus, a. d. 1739. The London Entomological Society was instituted in 1806 ; it is directed chiefly to the study of insects found in Great Britain ; and inquires into the best methods of destroying noxious insects, and making known such as are useful. ENVOYS. They enjoj'' the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys Extraordinary are of modern date. — Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, a. d. 1639. EPHESUS. Famous for the temple of Diana, which magnificent structure was one of the seven wonders of the world ; it was 425 feet long and 200 broad, and cost 220 years of labor. Ctesiphon was the chief architect, and 127 kings contributed to its grandeur. The temple was burnt by Erostratus, solely to perpetuate his memory, 356 b. c. — Pliny. It rose from its ruins, and was richer and more splendid than before ; but it was again burnt a. d. 260. — Univ. Hist. EPHORI. Powerful magistrates of Sparta, first created by Theopompus to con- trol the royal power, 760 b. c. They were five in number, and acting as censors in the state, they could check and restrain the authority of the kings, and even imprison them, if Ihey were guilty of irregularities. EPIC POETRY. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey the first epic poems. See Homer. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, was the founder of it, about 300 b. c. and taught that the greatest good consists in a happiness, springing not from sensual gratifications or vicious pleasures, but from virtue, and consisting in the peace and harmony of the soul with itself His disciples had all things in common ; and the pleasantness of his system, and its ease and luxury, made him many followers. EPIGRAMS. They derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on their tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the celebrated Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a. d. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern, in the tasteful and pointed epigram. The follow- ing Latin epigram on the miracle of our Saviour in turning water into wine at Cana (John iii.) is a beautiful example : — " Videt et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." And Dr. Johnson has declared that the subjoined English epigram, by Dr. Doddridge, on the words Dum vivimus vivamus, is the finest specimen in our language : — " Live while we live !" the epicure will say, " And taste the pleasures of the present day." " Live while we live !" the hoary preacher cries, /' And give to God each moment as it flies." Lord ! in 7ny view let both united be, We live in pleasure when we live to thee. — Doddridge. '€. era] dictionary of dates. 313 EPIRUS. Known by the great warlike achievements of Pyrrhiis. Its early history is very obscure, and it is only during the reign of this E^overeign, who was the last, that it becomes interesting. The first Pyrrhus (Neopto- lemus) settled in Epirus after the Trojan war, 1170 b. c. He was killed in the temple of Delphi, about 1165 b. c. Reign of the great PyiThus - B.C. 306 He enters into a league against Deme- trius ; the battle of Beraa - - 294 Expedition into Italy ; he gains his first battle agains^ the Romans - - 280 He gains another great battle - - 279 His conquest of Sicily - - - 278 His last battle with the Romans - 274 He takes Macedon from Antigonus • 274 Expedition against Sparta -B.C. 272 He enters Argos, and is killed by a tile, thrown at him from a house-top by a woman .... 272 Philip unites Epirus to Macedon • 220 Its conquest by the Romans - - 167 ******* Annexed to the Ottoman empire a. d. 1466 EPISCOPACY. The government, by its bishops, of the Christian church. It may be said to have been instituted a. d. 33, when Peter sat in the bishop's chair at Rome. — Butler. Episcopacy commenced in England in the second century ; in Ireland about the same time ; and in Scotland in the fourth cen- tury ; but historians dispute with theologians upon this point. See Bishops. In Scotland, episcopacy was finally abolished at the period of the revolution, 1688-9. The sect called Episcopalians first appeared about the year 500. — Burnet. EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the United States. Episcopacy estabhshed in New- York by law, 1693 ; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were bishop White of Penn- sylvania and Provost of New- York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New- York, Nov. 2, 1832. EPITAPHS. They were used by the ancient Jews, by the Athenians, the Ro- mans, and most of the nations of antiquity; their date is referred in Eng- land to the earliest times. In the epitaphs of the ancients arose the epigram. — Boileau. EPITHALAMIUM. Tisias, the lyric poet, was the first writer of a nuptial complimentary song, or epithalamium. He received the name of Stesicho- ru,s from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, 536 b. c. — Bossiict. EPOCHAS. These are periods in history Avhich are agreed upon and acknow- ledged by the respective historians and chronologers, and which serve to regulate the date of events. The following are the epochas thus particu- larly adopted. — See Eras. Creation - • - • B. c. 4004 Deluge .... .t>2348 Calling of Abraham • • • 1921 Argonautic expedition - - • 1225 Destruction of Troy - - - 1184 1st Olympiad - - . - 776 EQUINOX. The precession of the equinoxes was confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets were discovered by Ptolemy, a. d, 130. When the sun in his progress through the ecliptic comes to the equinoctial circle, the day and night are equal all over the globe : this occurs twice in the year ; once in the first point of Aries, which is called the vernal equinox ; next in the first point of Libra, which is the autumnal equinox. — Blair. EQUITY, COURTS of. To determine causes according to the rule of equity and conscience, rather than according to strict law, a. d. 1067. — See Chan' eery. ERAS. Notices of the principal eras will be found in their alphabetical order, a few only need be mentioned here. The era of Nabonasser, after which 14 Building of Rome • • -B.C. 753 Nabonassar . - . . 747 The Seleucidas - • - - 312 The battle of Actium - - - 38 The Christian era • - a. d. 1 Diocletian .... 284 314 THE world's progress. ( EMB the astronomical observations made at Babylon were reckoned, began Feb. 26, 747. The era of the Seleucidse (used by the Maccabees) commenced 312 B. c. The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date from the year 776 B. c. ; but they subsequently reckoned by Indictions, the first beginning A. D. 313 : these, among chronologers, are still used. — See Indictions. The Ro- mans reckoned from the building of their city, 753 b. c. ; and afterwards from the 16th year of the emperor Augustus, which reckoning was adopted among the Spaniards until the reign of Ferdinand the Catholic. The disci- ples of Mahomet began their Hegira from the flight of their prophet from Mecca, which occurred a. d. 622. ERAS OF THE CREATION and REDEMPTION. The Jews and Christians have had divers epochas ; but in liistorical computation of time are chiefly used the most extraordinary epochs, which are two, the Creation of the World, and the appearance of our Redeemer, which last the Christians havo made their era. They did not adopt it, however, until the sixth century, when it was introduced by Denys the Little, a Scythian, who became abbot of a monastery near Rome : he was the first who computed time from the birth of Christ, and fixed that great event according to the vulgar era. — Cassiodoms Chron. This computation began in Italy, a. d. 525, and in Eng- land in 816. It is the only one now in general use, and is that observed in this work. — See Creation^ and Chi-istian Era. ESCURIAL. The palace of the kings of Spain, one of the largest and most magnificent in the Avorld. It was commenced by Philip II. in tlie year 1562 ; and the first expenditure of its erection was 6,000,000 of ducats. It forms a vast square of polished stone, and paved with marble. It may give some notion of the surprising grandeur of this palace to observe, that, according to the computation of Francisco de los Santos, it would take up more than four days to go through all its rooms and apartments, the length of the way being reckoned thirty-three Spanish leagues, which is alcove 120 English miles. Alvarez de Colnienar also asserts, that there are 14,000 doors, and 11,000 windows belonging to this edifice. ESQUIRES. Among the Greeks and Romans, esquires were armor-bearers to, or attendants on, a knight. — Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collar of S S, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. A British queen is recorded as having married the armigerum, or esquire, of her deceased husband. The distinction of esquire was first given to persons of fortune not attendant upon knights, a. d. 1345. — Stowe. Meyrick's Ancient Armor. ETHER. It was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first dis- covered by Kunkel, in 1681 ; and muriatic ether was first made from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and hydriodic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The phosphoric was obtained by M. Boullay. Ether is said to have been first applied to the purpose of causing insensibility to pain by Dr. Horace Wells, of Connecticut, in 1846. This, however, is disputed, for about the same time Dr. C. T. Jackson, of Boston, well known as a geologist and chemist, suggested the use of ether in surgery ; but to Dr. Morton, of Boston, probably belongs the credit of first demonstrating, by actual experi- ment, the use of ether in dentistry and surgery, as an annihilator of pain. It was used in surgical cases, in that year, by Drs. J. C. Warren, Channing, and Morton, of Boston, who afterwards published the results of their experi- ments. The practice was first copied in Europe by Dr. Robertson, of Edin- burgh, and Dr. Booth, of London, the same year. The sulphuric ether is inhaled from an apparatus with flexible tube, &c. Etherization was first used in operative midwifery, in the United States, May, 1847. The substance EVE J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 315 called chloroform, orig-inally discovered hj Soubeiran, in 1831, was also first employed for similar purposes in 1847, by professor Simpson, of Edinburgh. ETHICS. The doctrine and system of morality ; a science which is scarcely more inculcated by rehgion and virtue, than it is influenced by manners and government: the Chinese, who are said to have been acquainted with astronomy at least 3000 years before the birth of Christ, were so refined in the earliest ages, that they studied ethics, we are told, a thousand j^ears before that event ; and hence they must have lived at that time under not only civilized and enlightened, but refined and moral governments. E'JNA, MOUNT. Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops ; and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 b. c, and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring, 731, 477, and 425 b. c. There were e-uptions, 125, 121, and 43 B. c.—Livy. Eruptions a. d. 40, 253, and 420.— Carrera. One in 1012.— Geoffrey de Viterbo. Awful one which overwhelmed Catania, when 15.00C inhabitants perished m the burning ruins, 1169. Eruptions eoually awful and destructive, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, and in 1669; when tens of thousands of persons perished in the streams of lava which rolled ovgr the whole country for forty days. Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May 1830, when several villages were destroyed, and showers of lava reached even to Rome. Another violent eruption, and the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 18, 1832. EUCLID, Elements oi^. Euclid was a native of Alexandria, and flourished there about 300 b. c. The Elements are not wholly his, for many of the invalu- able truths and demonstrations they contain were discovered and invented by Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others ; but Euclid was the first who reduced them to regular order, and who probably interwove many theo- rems of his own. to render the whole a complete and connected system of geometry. The Elements were first printed at Basil, by Simon Grynseus, in A. D. 1533. EUNUCHS. This species of mutilation is first mentioned among the Egyptian and Assyrian nations; and eunuchs in the earliest times were attendants in courts. The first princess who was waited upon by eunuchs in her cham- ber, was Semiramis, queen of Assyria and Babylon, about 2007 b. c— Lens- let. Numbers of this class of persons are in the quality of attendants on the ladies of the Seraglio in Turkey. EUSTATIA, ST. This island Avas settled by the Dutch in 1632 : it was taken by the French in 1689 ; by the English in 1690 ; and again by the British forces, under admiral Rodney and general Vaughan, February 3, 1781. It was recovered by the French under the marquis de Bouille, Nov. 26, same year; and was again captured by the British in 1801, and 1810; but re- stored in 1814. EVANGELISTS. Mark and Matthew wrote their Gospels in a. d. 44 ; Luke in 55; and John in 97. In 95, John was thrown into a caldron of boiling oil at Rome, whence, being taken out unhurt, he was banished to the Isfe of Patmos, and there, in the year 96, he wrote the Apocalypse, and died in 100. —Butler. At the council of Nice in 325, there were 200 varied versions of the adopted Evangelists. EVESHAM, Battle of, between prince Edward, afterwards Edward L. and Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, in which the barons were deft>ated, and the earl, his son, and most of his adherents slain. Henry III. at one period of the battle was on the point of being cleft down by a soldier who did not know his rank, but was saved by his timely exclamation, " Do not 316 THE world's progress. [ EXE kill me, soldier, I am Henry of Winchester, thy king !" This victory broke np the treasonable conspiracy of the barons ; fought August 4, 1265. EXCHANGE. One called Collegium Mercatonim, existed at Rome, 493 b. c. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reckoned the finest structure of the kind in the world. Many edifices of this name in the United Kingdom are mag- nificent. The exchange of London was founded by sir Thomas Gresham, June 7, 1566, and was called Royal, by Elizabeth, on her paying it a visit in Jan. 1571. Destroyed by fire in 1666 and in 1838 : rebuilt and v pened in 1844, EXCHANGE (Merchants') in NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1836, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846. EXCHEQUER. An institution of great antiquity, consisting of officers whose functions are financial or judicial : the chancellor of the exchequer is the first of these, and he formerly sat in the court of exchequer above the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de Faucon bridge, bishop of Lon- don, in the reign of Henry III., about 1221. The exchequer stopped pay- ment from Jan. to^ May the 24th, Charles II. IQIS.—Stowe. The English and Irish exchequers were consolidated in 1816. EXCISE. The excise system was established in England by the Long Parlia- ment ; was continued under Cromwell and Charles II. ; and was organized as at present in the Walpole administration. It was first collected and an office opened in 1643, and was arbitrarily levied upon liquors and provisions to support the parliament forces against Charles I. The excise office was built on the site of Gresham College, in 1774. The officers of excise and customs were deprived of their votes for members of parliament in 1782 See Revenue. AMOUNT OF THE EXCISE REVENUE OF GREAT BRITAIN IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS^ 1744 Great Britain - - ^£3,754,072 1786 Ditto - • - 5,.540,114 1808 Ditto - - - 19,867,914 1820 Ditto - - - 26,364,702 1827 United Kingdom - - 20,995,324 EXCOMMUNICATION. An ecclesiastical anathema, or interdict from Chris- tian communion. It was originally instituted for preserving the purity of the church ; but ambitious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an en- gine for promoting their own power. Some suppose excommunication to be of Hindoo origin in the Pariah caste, and that it was adopted by the Jews (who had three degrees of it), and from these latter by the Christian churches. The Greek and Roman priests and even the Druids had similar punishments in aid of their respective veWgions.— Phillips. EXCOMMUNICATION by the POPES. The Catholic church excommuni- cates by bell, book, and candle.— See Bell Book, and Candle. The popes have can-ied their authority to such excess as to excommunicate and depose sovereigns. Gregory VII. was the first pope who assumed this extravagant power. He excommunicated Henry IV. emperor of Germany, in 1077, ab- solving his subjects from their allegiance ; and on the emperor's death, " his excommunicated body" was five years above ground, no one daring to bury it. In England were many excommunications in Henry II. 's reign ; and king John was excommunicated by Pope Innocent III. in 1208, when all England lay under an interdict for six j^ears. The citizens of Dublin were excommunicated by Clement IV. in 1206. Bulls denouncing hell-fire to queen Elizabeth accompanied the Spanish Armada, and plenary indul- gences were offered to all ^vho should assist in deposing her. EXECUTIOiVS. See Crime. In the reign of Henry VIII. fthirty-eight yean;) 1830 United Kinsdom - jE18,644,385 1834 Ditto " - - 16,877,292 1837 Ditto - - - 14,518,142 1840 Ditto - - - 12,607,766 1845 Ditto - - - 13,585,583 EXP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 317 it is shown that no less a number than 72 000 criminals were executed.— Stotce. In the ten j^ears between 1820 and 1830, there v/ere executed in Eng- land alone 797 criminals ; but as our laws became less bloody, the number of executions proportionally decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the executions in England and Wales amounted to 312 ; in the three yeara ending 1830, they were reduced to 178 ; and in the three years ending 1840, they had decreased to 62. — Pari. Returns. In the year 1820 - 43 In the year 1825 - 17 In the year 1830 - 6 EXECUT10>S IN LONDON IN THE FOLLOWING YEARS. nil 2 1 In the year 1838 In the year 1839 In the year 1840 In the year 1841 - 1 In the year 1642 - 2 In the year 1843 - 1 In the year 1 835 - ml In the year 1836 - ?dl In the year 1837 - 2 EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war; Peacock, ditto: Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, IJ. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antarctic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. At- tack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers. July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July 1841. The Vincennes (flag-ship) returned to New York,, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. Imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the ex- pedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS, AND IMPORTS of the United States from 1791. Years. Imports. Exports. 1791 - $52,200,000 - #19,012,041 1792 - 31,-500,000 - 20,753,098 1793 - 31,100,000 - 26,109,572 1794 - 34,600,000 . 33,026.233 1795 - 69,756,268 • 47,989,472 1796 • 81,436.164 - 67.064.097 1797 - 75,379;406 - 56,850,206 1798 - 68,.551,700 - 61,-527,097 1799 - 79,^68,148 - 78,665,522 1800 - 91,252,768 - 70,971,780 1801 - 111.36.3,511 - 94.115,925 1802 - 76,333,333 - 72,483,160 1803 - 64,666.666 - 55,800,033 1804 - 85,000,000 - 77,699,074 1805 - 120,000,000 - 95,-566,021 1806 - 129.000,000 - 101,536,963 1807 . 138;500,000 - 108.343,150 1808 - 56,990,000 - 22;439,960 1809 - 59,400,000 - 52.203.231 1810 - 85,400,000 - 66,757;974 1811 - 53,400,000 - 61.316,831 1812 - 77,030,000 - 38,-527,236 1813 - 22,005.000 - 27,855,997 1814 - 12,965.000 - 6,927,441 1815 - 113,041,274 - 52,557,753 1816 - 147,103,000 - 81,920,452 1817 - 99,250.000 - 87,671,569 1818 - r21,750;000 - 93,281,133 1819 - 87,125,000 EXPORTS, Great BRrrAiN Years. 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 18:32 1833 1834 1835 1836 18-37 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 Imports. 74,450.000 - 62,585,724 83.241,541 - 77.579,267 80,549,007 - 96,-340,075 84,974,477 - 79,484,068 88.509,824 - 74,492,527 70!876,920 - 103,191,134 101,029,266 - 108.118,311 126,-521,-332 - 149.895,742 189,980,035 - 140,989,217 108,486,616 . 121,0-:8,416 131.571,9-50 - 127,946,177 100,162,087 - 64,753,799* 108,435,035t - 117,2.54,5641 121,691,797t - 146.545,6.381 154,977,876t s encouraaren Exports. 69,691.669 - 64,974,'3S2 72,160.281 - 74,699,030 75,986,657 - 99,535,388 77,595,322 . 82,324,827 72,264,686 • 72,-358,671 73 849,-508 - 81,310,583 87,176,943 - 90,140,433 104,336,973 - 121,693.577 128,663,040 - 117,419,376 113,717,404 - 162,092.132 104,805:891 - 121,851,803 104,691,534 - 84,346,480* 111,20G 046t - 114,64e ,606t 113,48^5161 - 158,64t ,622t 154,032 .131t ent of trade, 70,142,521 Edward III., by hi turned the scale so much in favor of English merchandise, that by a balance of trade taken in his time, the exported commodities amounted to294,000Z., and the imported to only 38,000Z. VALTJE OF EXPORTS FROM GREAT BRITAIN TO ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ : — _ --- - - -£102,180,517 - 100,260,101 - 117.877,278 - 131..564,.503 • 1-34,509,11(1 In 1700 In 1750 In 1775 In 1800 In 1810 i;6,097,120 10,130,991 16,326,363 38,120,120 45,869.839 In 1820 In 1830 In 1835 - In 1840 In 1841 - £51.733,113 - 66:735,445 - 78.376,732 - 97;402,72G - 102,705,372 In 1842 In 1843 In 1844 In 1845 In 1846 * Only nine months of 1843. f For the year ending June 30, 318 THE world's progress. [fal The amounts above given relate to the exports of the United Kingdom of British and Irish produce only. The total exports, including foreign and colonial produce, were, according to official returns, as follov/s : In 1811 - -^ei 16,479,678 I 111 1813 - - £113,844,259 I In 1845 - -;£ 145,961, 749 In 1842 - - 116,903,668 | In 1844 - - 131,833,391 \ In 1846 - - 150,879,986 In the year ending 5th January 1846, the amount of imports into the United Kingdom was 85,281, 958Z; and the balance of trade in favor of Eng- land, deducting this sum from her exports, was 65.598,028Z. But even this great balance has been exceeded in recent years, as, for instance, the year immediately preceding, when it mounted to upwards of seventy millions. — Brit. Revenue Returns. EYLAU, Battle of, between the French and Russians, one of the most bloody of Napoleon's Avars : it terminated in favor of Napoleon, who com- manded in person ; but both armies by this and other recent battles were so much reduced, that the French retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the Pregel : the loss to the victor was 15,000 men, and the Russian loss in slain alone was 20.000. Feb. 8, 1807. FABII. A noble and powerful family at Rome, who derived their name from faba, a bean, because some of their ancestors cultivated this pulse : they were said to be descended from Fabius, a supposed son of Hercules, and were once so numerous that they took upon themselves to wage war Against the Veientes. They came to a general engagement near the Cremera, in which all the family, consisting of 306 men, were slain, b. c. 477. There only remained one, whose tender age had detained him at Rome, and from him arose the noble Fabii in the following ages. FABLES. " Jotham's fable of the trees is the oldest extant, and as beautiful as anj^ made since." — Addison. Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collectionof fables extant is of east- ern origin, and preserved in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnoo Sarma, called Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the most ancient, in the world. — Sb' William Jones. The well-known ^sop's fables (which see), were written about 540 years b. c. — Plutarch. FACTIONS. Among the Romans, factions were parties that fought on cha- riots in the cirque, and who were distinguished by their different colors, a green, blue, red, and white ^ to which Domitian added two others, one in coats embroidered with gold, a second wearing scarlet, about a. d. 90 Both the emperors and people had generally greater inclination for some parti- cular color than the rest; but upon a quarrel happening in Justinian's reign, between the blue and green, when 40.000 were killed on both sides, the name of faction was abolished. With us, faction means a party or sect in religious or civil matters, and is always taken in an ill sense. FAIRS AND WAKES. They are of Saxon origin, and were first instituted in England by Alfred, a. d. 886. — Spelman. ThejMvere established by order of Gregory VII. in 1708, and termed Fericz, at which the monks celebrated the festival of their patron saint ; the vast resort of people occasioned a great de- mand for goods, Avares. &c. They were called wakes from the people making merry during the vigil, or eve. Fairs Avere established in France and Eng- land by Charlemagne and William the Conqueror, about a. d. 800 in the first, and 1071 in the latter kingdom. The fairs of Beaucaire, Falaise, and Leipsic, are the most famous in Europe. FALKIRK, Battle of, between the English under Edward I. and the Scots, commanded by the heroic Wallace, in which 40,000 of the latter Avere slain; PEU j DICTIONARY OF DATES. . 319 the whole Scotch army Avas broken up, and was chased off the field with dreadful slaughter, July 22, 1298. FAMINES, AND SEASONS of REMARKABLE SCARCITY. The famme of the seven years m Egypt began 1708 b. c— Usher ; Blair. In a fiimine that raged at Rome thousands of the people threw themselves into the Tiber, 436 B. c. Livy. Awful famine in Egypt - a. d. 42 i voured the flesh of horses, dogs, cats, A.'i Rome, attended by plague - - 262 In Britain, so grievous that people ate the bark of trees - - - 272 In Scotland, and thousands die - - 306 In England, where 40,000 perish - 310 Awfutone in Phrygia - - - 370 So dreadful in Italy, that parents ate their children {Diifresnoij) - - 450 and vermin - - - a. d. 1315 One in England and France {Rapin) • 1353 Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern roots {Stoiee) - 1438 Awful one in France ( Voltaire) - 1693 One general in Great Britain - - 1748 One which devastates Bengal - - 1771 At the Cape de Verds, where 16,000 per- In England, Wales, and Scotland - 739 ' sons perish .... 1775 Again, when thousands starve - - 823 | One grievously felt in France - - 1789 Again, which lasts four years - - 954 1 One severely felt in England - - 1795 Awful one throughout Europe - - 1016 In England and France ; this famine leads to a pestilential fever, which lasts from 1193 to - - -1195 Another famine in England - - 1251 Again, so dreadful, that the people de- Again, throughout the kingdom - - 1801 At Drontheim, owing to Sweden fiier- cepting the supplies - - - 1813 Scarcity of food, severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 1816, 1822, and - 1845-6 FAN, The use of the fan was known to the ancients : Cape hoc flabelhtvi et ventulnvihuic sic facito. — Terence. The modern custom among the ladies was borrowed from the East. Fans, together with muffs, masks, and false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, and were brought to England from France. — Stowe. The fan was used by females to hide their faces in church. — Pardon. FARCE. This species of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their buffoons in the open street. These w^ere introduced into our theatres in a ludicrous and more refined form; and they are now only shorter, but often superior to the pieces called comedies. See article Drama. , FASTING, AND FASTS. They were practised and observed by most nations from the remotest antiquity. Annual fasts, as that of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular occasions, begun in the Christian church, to appease the anger of God, in the second century, a. d. 138. Retained as a pious practice by the reformed churches. — Eusebius. FEASTS AND FESTIVALS. The feast of the Tabernacles was instituted by Moses in the wilderness, 1490 e. c, but was celebrated with the greatest magnificence for fourteen days, upon the dedication of the temple of Solo- mon, 1005 b. c. — Josc'pkus. In the Christian church, those of Christmas, Easter, Ascension, and Pentecost or Whitsuntide, were first ordered to be observed by all Christians, a. d. 68. Rogation days were appointed in 469. Jubilees in the Romish church were instituted by Boniface VIII. in 1300. See Jubilees. For fixed festivals observed in the church of England, as set- tled at the Reformation, ct seq.^ see Book of Common Prayer. FEBRUARY. The second month of the year, so called from Februa, a fea^T which was held therein in behalf of the manes of diseased persons, when sacrifices were performed, and the last offices were paid to tiie shades of the dead. This month, with January, was added to the year, which had pre- viously but ten months, by Numa, 713 b. c. See Calendar, and Year. FSRRARA. A city in the papal dominions, evacuated by the Austrians, ex cept the citadel, Dec. 23, 1847. FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land, by suit or service to the lord or owner of it, was introduced into England by the Saxons, about a, d. 600. The S2C ♦ THE world's progress, [ FIR slavery of this tenure was increased under William I. in 1068. This was done by dividing the kingdom into baronies, and giving them to certain persons, requiring them to furnish the king with money, and a stated num- ber of soldiers. These laws were discountenanced in France by Louis XL in 1470. The vassalage was restored, but limited by Henry VII. 1495. Abol- ished by statute 12 Charles II. 1663. The feudal system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. in 1008 ; and was finally abolished in that kingdom 20 George II. 1746. — Littleton ; Ruffkead ; Blackstone. FEUILL ANS. Members of a society formed in Paris to counteract the intrigues and operations of the Jacobins, named from the Feuillan convent, where their meetings were held, early in the revolution. A body of Jacobins invested the building, burst into their hall, and obliged them to separate, Dec. 25, 1791. FEZ. The ancient Mauritania, founded by Edrus, a Barbary farmer, about A. D. 696. It soon afterwards became the capital of all the western M; rocco States. Leo African us describes the Mauri tani as containing more than seven hundred temples, mosques, and other public edifices, in the twelfth century. FICTION LAW. Invented by the lawyers in the reign of Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one court to another, whereby the courts became checks to each other. — Hume. Memorable declaration of Lord Mansfield. in the court of King's Bench, emphatically uttered, that " no fiction of law SHALL EVER SO FAR PREVAIL AGAINST THE REAL TRUTH OF THE FACT, AS TO PREVENT THE EXECUTION OF JUSTICE," May 21, 1784. This constitutional maxim is now a rule of law. FIEF. In France we find fiefs-men mentioned as early as the age of Childebert I., A. D. 511. They Avere introduced into Italy by the Lombards, Into Spain, before the invasion of the Moors, a. d. 710. Into England by the Saxons (see Feudal Laios). Into Scotland, directly from England, by Malcolm II., 1008. FIELD OF THE CLOTH of GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked at Dover to meet Francis I. of France, at Ardres, a small town near Calais in France,' May 31, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms here displayed their magnificence with such emulation and profuse expense, as procured to the place of interview (an open plain) the name of The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Many of the king's attendants involved themselves in great debt^ on this occasion, and were not able, by the penury of the rest of their lives, to repair the vain splendor of a few days. A painting of the embarkation, and another of the interview, are at Windsor Castle. — Butler. FIFTH MONARCHY-MEN. Fanatical levellers who arose in the time of Cromwell, and v/lio supposed the period of the Millennium to be just at hand, when Jksus should descend from heaven and erect the fifth universal monarchy. They actually proceeded to elect Jesus Christ king at London ! Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. FIGURES. Arithmetical figures (nine digits and zero), and the method of computing by them, were brought into Europe from Arabia, about a. d. 900.. They Avere first known in England about the year 1253. previously to which time the numbering by letters Avas in use there. See Arithmetic. FIRE. It is said to have been first produced by striking flints together. The poets suppose that fire Avas stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Zoroaster, king of Bactria, Avas the founder of the sect of the Magi, or worshi])pers of Fire, since knoAvn by the appellation of Guebres, still numerous in the coun- tries of the East, 2115 b.c. — Justin; Pliny. Heraclitus maintained that the world was created from fire, and he deemed it to be a god omnipotent, and FIR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 321 taught this theoiy about 506 b. c. — Nouv. Diet. In the Scriptures God is said often to have appeared in, or encompassed with fire — as to Moses in the burning bush, on mount Sinai ; and to the prophets Isaiah, Ezekiel, and St. John. The wratli of God is described by a consuming fire, and the angels, as his ministers, are compared to it. See the Bible. FIRE-ARMS. Small arms were contrived by Schwartz, a. d. 1378; they were brought to England about 1388. Fire-arms were a prodigious rarity in Ire- land in 1489, when six muskets were sent from Germany as a present to the earl of Kildare, who was then chief-governor. Muskets were first used at the siege of Rhegen, in 1525. The Spaniards were the first nation who armed the foot soldier with these weapons. — Ulloa. Voltaire states, that the Venetians were the first to use guns, in an engagement at sea against the Genoese, in 1377 ; but our historians aflSrm, that the English had guns at the battle of Cressy, in 1346 ; and the j^ear following at the siege of Calais. See Artillery. FIRE-ENGINES. The fire-engine is of modern invention, although flie forcing pump, of which it is an application, is more than two centuries old. The fire-engine, to force water, was constructed by John Vander Heyden, about the year 1663 ; it was improved materially in 1752, and from that time to the present. The fire-watch, or fire-guard of London, was instituted November 1791. The fire brigade was established in London in 1833. FIRE-SHIPS. They were first used in the sixteenth century. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the English navy was by Charles, lord Howard of Effingham, after- wards earl of Nottingham, lord high admiral of England, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. — Rapvn. FIRE-WORKS. Are said to have been familiar to tlie Chinese in remote ages : they were invented in Europe at Florence, about a. d. 1360; and were first exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. At an exhibition of fire-works in Paris, in honor of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., the pas- sages being stopped up occasioned such a crowd, that the people, seized with a panic, trampled upon one another till Va^y lay in heaps ; a scaffold erected over the river also broke down, and hundreds were drowned ; more than 1000 persons perished on this occasion, June 21, 1770. Madame Blanchard ascending from Tivoli Gardens, Paris, at night, in a balloon surrounded by fire-works, the balloon took fire, and she was precipitated to the ground, and dashed to pieces, July 6, 1819. See Balloon. FIRES. Some of the most noted and destructive in North America. In New York, destroying 600 warehou- ses and f^operty to amount of $20,- 000,000 - - - Dec. 16, 1835 At Washington, destroying the General Post Ofiice and Patent Office, with 10,000 valuable models, drawings, &c. - - - Dec. 15, 1836 New York, destroying 302 stores and dwelling-houses, and property worth $6,000,000—4 lives lost - .hily 19, 1845 St. .John's, Newfoundland ; nearly the whole town destroyed — 6,000 people made houseless - - .Tune 12, 1846 Quebec Theatre Royal ; 47 persons At Charleston, S. C. ; 145 acres and burned to death - - June 14, 1846 1,1.58 buildings destroyed - April 27, 1833 New York ; 46 buildings ; loss. $10,- 000,000 - - - Sept. 6, 1839 Philadelphia ; 52 buildings ; loss, $500,000 - - - Oct. 4, 1839 Pittsburgh, Pa. 1,000 buildings, and property valu(;J about $6,000,000 ' April 10, 1845 Quebec, Canada ; 1,500 houses burnt, immense loss of property, and se- veial lives. May 2S, 1845. Another, burmnr 1,300 dwellings; in all, two Nantucket ; 300 buildings, valued $800,000 - - - .July 13, 1846 Dupont's powder mills, Md., exploded, 18 persons killed - April 14, 1847 At Albany ; 600 buildings, besides steamboats &c., 24 acres burned over. loss, $3,000,000 - Aug. 17,' 1849 At Brooklyn, N. Y., 200 houses, value, $7.50,000 - - - Sept. 9, 1848 At St Louis; 23 steamboats and 15 blocks of houses destroyed, loss about $3,000,000 - - May 17, 1849 thi-ds of the city ■ .Tune 28, 1845' At Philadelphia, 300 houses July t>, 1850 14* 3^2 THE world's progress. [ FLO F^FxE OF LONDON, the GREAT. Destroj^ed in the space of four days eighty- nine churches, inckiding St. Paul's ; the city gates, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House. Guildhall, Sion College, and many other public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying waste 400 streets. This conflagration happened (not without strong suspicion of treason), Sept. 2, 1666, and continued three days and nights, and was at last only extinguished by the blowing up of houses. — Hume; Rapin; Carte. FIRST FRUITS. Primitice among the Hebrews. They were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First fruits were instituted by pope Clement V., in a. d. 1306; and were collected in England in 1316. The first year's income of every church benefice in Eng- land was given to the popes till the 27th of Henry VIII., 1535, when the first fruits were assigned, by act of parliament, to the king and his succes- sors. — Carte. Granted, together with the tenths, to increase the incomes of the poor clergy, by queen Anne, Feb. 1704. Consolidation of the ofTices of First Fruits, Tenths, and queen Anne's Bounty, by Statute 1 Vict., April 1838. FLAGELLANTS, Sect of. They established themselves at Perouse, a. d. 1260. They maintained that there was no remission of sins without flagel- lation, and publicly lashed themselves, while in procession, preceded by the cross, until the blood flowed from their naked backs. Their leader, Conrad Schmidt, was burnt, 1414. FLANDERS. The country of the ancient Belgae; conquered by Juhus Caesar, 47 B. c. It passed into the hands of France, a. d. 412. It was governed by its earls subject to that crown, from 864 to 1369. It then came into the house of Austria by marriage ; but was yielded to Spain in 1556. Flanders shook off the Spanish yoke In 1572; and in 1725, by the treaty of Vienna, it was annexed to the German em\nve.— Priestley. Flanders was overrun by the French in 1792 and 1794, and was declared part of their Republic. It was made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands in 1814, and was erected into the kingdom of Belgium in 1831.— See Belgium. FLAX. The flax seed was first planted in England in a. d. 1533. For many ages the core was separated from the flax, the bark of the plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax yielded to a water-mill which was invented in Scotland about 1750. See article Hemp. FLODDEN FIELD, Battle of, between the English and Scots. James IV. of Scotland, having taken part with Louis XII. of France, against Henry VIII. of England, this battle was one of the consequences of his unfortunate policy; and James, and most of his chief nobles, and upwards of 10 000 of his army were slain, while the English, who were commanded by the earl of Surry, lost only persons of small note. Henry VIII. was at the time besieging Terouenne, near St. Omer ; fought Sept. 9, 1513. FLORENCE. It is said to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla. and en- larged by the Roman Triumviri. It was destroyed by Totila, and was re- buflt by Charlemagne. This city is truly the seat of the arts. In its pal- aces, university, academies, churches, and libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculpture and painting in the world. The Florentine acad- emy, and the Accademia della Crvsca, were instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany ; the latter is so named because it rejects like braji all words not purely Tuscan. Florence was taken by the French in July 1796, and again in March, 1799 ; and was restored in 1814. FLORIDA, now one of the United States was discovered by Sebastian Cabot sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adven« TLO ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 523 turer from Hispaniola, explored the country in 1512 and 1516. In 1539 Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the penin- sula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut oft^ a few j^ears after. In 1763 Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain in exchange for Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when general Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare there commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup, general Taylor, and others, were engaged in it The Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34 723 • m 1840, 54,477 including 25,717 slaves. > - - FLORIN. A coin first made by the Florentines. A fioren was issued by Ed- ward III, which was current in England at the value of 6s., in 1337 —Cavi- den. This English coin was called floren after the Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best gold.— ^sAe. The florin :f Germany is in value 2s. U. ■ that of Spain 4s. i^d. • that of Palermo and Sicily 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland 2s.—Ayliffe. FLOWERS. The most delightful and fragrant among the ornaments of our gardens are of foreign production. The modern taste for flowers came, it is said from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence to Europe for the first time m the sixteenth century ; at least many of the productions of our gardens were conveyed by that channel— Beckvmim. With what good- ness does God provide for our happiness and enjoyments, by making even the most remote countries contribute towards them \— Sturm From the reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth, our present common flowers were for the most part, introduced into England. The art of preserving flowers in sand was discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them from the effects of frost m winter, and hastening their vee-etation in summer, was invented in America, by George Morris, in 1792. Among the flowers, the periods of whose_ introduction to English gardens have been traced, Haydn gives the following: — * FLOWERS, PLANTS, &C. Acacia, N. America, before - j Allspice shrub, Carolina - Anniseed tree, Florida, about - Arbor Vitas, Canada, before Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope Auricula, Switzerland Azarole, S. Europe, before Bay, royal, Madeira Bay, sweet. Italy, before Camellia, China Chaste tree, Sicily, before Christ's thorn, Afi'ica, before Canary bell-flower, Canaries - Carnation, Flanders Ceanothus, blue. New Spain • Canary convolvulus, Canaries Convolvulus, many-flowered - Coral tree, Cape Cora] tree, bell-flowered, Cape Coral tree, tremulous. Cape Crjeper, Virginian, N. America Dahlia, China Dryandra, New Holland Evergreen thorn, Italy Everlasting, great-flowered. Cape Everlasting, giant, Cape - Fernbush, sweet, N. America - Fox-glove, Canaries Geranium, Flanders Gillyflower. Flanders D. 1640 - 1726 - 1766 - 1596 - 1774 - 1667 - 1640 - 1665 - 1548 - 1811 - 1570 - 1.596 - 1696 - 1567 - 1818 - 1690 - 1779 - 1816 - 1791 - 1789 - 1603 - 1803 - 1803 - 1629 - 1781 - 1793 - 1714 - 1698 - 1534 - 1567 Gold-plant, .Japan - . . 1783 Golden bell-flower, Madeira - - 1777 Hawthorn, American, from N. Amer- ica, before - • . . 1683 Heath, ardent, Cape - - - 1800 Heath, beautiful. Cape - . - 1795 Heath, fragrant, Cape - . - 1803 Heath, garland, Cape - - . 1774 Heath, perfumed. Cape - . 1803 Honeyflower, great. Cape - - - 1688 Honeysuckle, Chine.se, China - - 1806 Honeysuckle, fly, Cape - - . 1752 Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America - 1656 Hyssop, south of Europe, before - - 1548 Jasmine, Circassia, before - - 1548 Jasmine, Catalonian, East Indies - - 1629 Judas-tree, south of Europe, before - 1596 Laburnum, Hungary - - - 1576 Laurel, Alexandrian. Portugal, before 1713 Laurestine, south of Europe, before - 1596 Lavender, south of Europe, before • 1563 Lily, Italy, before - - . . 1460 Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales . 1800 Lily, red-colored. South America - - 1623 Loblolly-bay, N. America, before - 17-39 Lupine tree, Cape, about - - - 1793 Magnolia (see Maffnolia), N. America 1688 Magnolia, dwarf, China - - - 1786 Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America - 1734 Maiden-hair. Japan - • - . 1714 Mignionette, Italy - . . 1529 324 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [fo» Rose, tube, from Java and Coylon Rose without thorns, N. America, be- fore - - - - - Rosemary, south of Europe St. Peter's wort, North America • Sage, African, Cape Sage, Mexican, Mexico - - - Sassafras tree, N. America, before Savin, south of Europe, before Snowdrop, Carolina Sorrel tree, N. America, before - Sweet bay, south of Europe, before - Tamarisk plant, Germany - Tea tree, China, about - Tooth-ache tree, Carolina, before - Trumpet-flower, N. America - Trumpet-flower, Cape Tulip, Vienna . . - - Virginia creeper, N. America, before Virgin's-bower, Japan - Weeping willow, Levant, before - Wax tree, China Winter ben-y, Virginia - - - Youlan, China . - - - 1629 1726 1548 1730 1731 1724 1663 1584 1756 1752 1548 1560 1768 1739 1640 1823 1578 1629 1776 1692 1794 1736 1789 FLOWERS, continued. Milk-wort, great-flowered, Cape • • 1713 Milk-wort, showy, Cape - - 1814 Mountain tea, N. America, before - - 1758 Mock orange, south of Europe, before 1596 Myrtle, candleberry, N. America - - 1699 Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China - - 1776 Nettle-tree, south of Europe, before - 1598 Olive, Cape, Cape - - - 1730 Olive, sweet-scented, China - - 1771 Oleander, red, south of Europe - 1596 Paraguay tea, Carolina, before - - 1724 Passion-flower, Brazil - - - 1692 Passion-flower, orange, Carolina - - 1792 Pigeon-berry, N. America - - 1736 Pink, from Italy - - - - 1567 Ranunculus, Alps - - - 1528 Roses, Netherlands - - - - 1522 Rose, the China, China - - 1789 Rose, the damask, Marseilles, and south of Europe, about - - 1543 Rose, the Japan, China - - - 1793 Rose, the moss, before - - - 1724 Rose, the musk, Italy - - - 1522 Rose, the Provence, Flanders - - 1567 Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 1821 FLUTE. Invented by Hyagnis, a Phrygian, the father of Marsyas. — Plutarck. The flute, harp, lyre, and other instruments were known to the Romans ; and the flute was so prized in antiquity, that several female deities lay claim to its invention. It was in far more general use as a concert instru- ment than the violin, until early in the last century, when the works of Co- relli came over. — See Music. FLUXIONS. Invented by Newton, 1669. The differential calculus by Leib- nitz, 1684. The finest applications of the calculus are by Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. FLYING, Artificial. It has been attempted in all ages. Friar Bacon main- tained the possibility of the art, and predicted it would be of general prac- tice, A. D. 1273. Bishop Wilkins saj^s, it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his loings when he is going on a journey, as it is now to hear him call for his boots, 1651. We apprehend that many ages will pass away pre- viously to the accomplishment of these predictions. FONTAINEBLEAU, Peace of, concluded between France and Denmark in 1679. Treaty of Fontainebleau between the emperor of Germany and Holland, signed November 8, 1785. Treaty of Fontainebleau between Na- poleon and the royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807. Concordat of Fon- tainebleau between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. January 25, 1813. Fon- tainebleau was entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814. And here Napoleon resigned his imperial dignity, and bade a farewell to his army, April 5, 1814. FONTENOY, Battle of, near Tournay, between the French under count Saxe, and the English, Hanoverians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the duke of Cumberland. The battle was fought Avith great obstinacj^, and the carnage on both sides was considerable, the allies losing 12,000 men, and the French nearly an equal number of lives ; but the allies were in the end defeated. Count Saxe, who was at the time ill of the disorder of which he afterwards died, was carried about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops that the day would be their own ; April 30, 1745. FONTS. Formerly the baptistry was a small room, or place partitioned ofl* in a church, where the persons to be baptized (many of whom in the early FOX? J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 32,'l ages were adults), were submerged. Previously to these artificial reser- voirs, lakes and rivers were resorted to for immersion. Fonts for the initia- tion into Christianity were instituted in a. d. 167. FOOLS, Festivals of, at Paris. They were held on the first of January, and were continued for 240 years. In their celebration, we are told, all sorts of absurdities and indecencies were committed, a. d. 1198. Fools or licensed jesters were kept at court in England (as they were at other courts of Eu- rope), and were tolerated up to the time of Charles I. 1625. FORESTS. There were in England, even in the last century, as many as 6S forests, 18 chases, and upwards of 780 parks. The New Forest in Hamp- shire was made by William I., who for that purpose destroyed 36 parishes, pulled down 36 churches, and dispeopled the country for 30 miles round, a. d. 1079-85. — Stowe. FORGERY IN England. The forging of, or giving in evidence forged deeds, &c., made punishable by fine, by standing in the pillory, having both ears cut oft" the nostrils slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and perpetual imprisonment, 5 Elizabeth, 1562. Forgery was first punished by death in 1634. FORGERY", Remarkable Executions for. The unfortunate Daniel and Ro- bert Perreau, brothers and wine-merchants, were hanged at Tyburn, Jan- uary 17, 1776. The rev. Dr. Dodd was found guilty of forging a bond, in the name of Lord Chesterfield, for 4,200Z. : the greatest interest was made, and the highest influence was exerted to save him, but when the case came before the council, the minister of the day said to George IIL, " if your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have murdered the Perreaus ;" and he was hanged accordingly, June 27, 1777. Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, a London banker, Avas hanged, November 30, 1824. Joseph Hunton, a quaker mer- chant, suftered death, December 8, 1828. The last criminal hanged for forgery at the Old Bailey, was Thomas Maynard, December 31, 1829. FORKS. They were in use on the Continent in the 13th and 14th centuries. — Voltaire. This is reasonably disputed, as being too early. In Fynes Mory- son's Itinerary, reign of Elizabeth, he says, " At Venice each person was served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem it ill manners that one should touch it witli his hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and adds, "I myself have thought it good to imitate the Italian fashion since I came home to England," a. d. 1608. FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were the first people who had fortified cities. Apollodorus says that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were afterwards erected to him. The modern system was introduced about A. D. 1500. Albert Durer first wrote on the science in 1527 ; and improve- ments were made by Vauban, towards 1700. FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire. Built a. d. 1408. Here Richard III. of England was born in 1443 ; and Mary queen of Scots, whose death is an indelible stain upon the reign of our great Elizabeth, was beheade" ♦.he Council at Athens The sea-fight at Cnidus • Battle of Mantinea Sacred war ended by Philip, who takes all the cities of the Phoceans Battle of Chreronea Alexander, the son of Philip, enters Greece; subdues the Athenians, and destroys the ciiy of Thebes - Commencement of the Macedonian or Grecian Monarchy Alexander goes to Susa, and sits on the throne of Darius 743 085 070 668 664 658 508 504 496 490 480 480 479 476 465 459 455 448 445 394 633 348 338 335 331 330 395 Alaric invades Greece - - a. d. The empire under Nicephorus com- menced - - - - 811 Greece mastered by tlie Latirs - • 1201 Re conquered - " - - - 1201 Invaded by the Turks - - - 1350 Its final overthrow. See Etisfern Em- pire 1353 [This country, so long illustrious for the military exploits, the learning, and arts ol its people, became of late years the scene of ilosperate con- flicts with the Turks, in onler to re- gain its independence, and the coun- cils of the groat powers of Europe were friendly to the design.] Great struggle for indepondence - J770 m ore] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 343 GREECE, continued. The first decided movement in these lat- ter times, by the Servians - a. d. ISOO The Servians deleat ilv; Turks at Nyssa April 2, 1807 100,000 Turks, under Chourshid Pasha, overrun the country, committing the most dreadful excesses - - 1813 Insurrection in Moldavia and Walla- chia, in which the Greeks join - 1821 Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake ofl'the Turkish yoke March, 182] The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople - April 23, 1821 10,000 Christians perish in Cyprus, al- though not engaged in the revolt - 18'21 Massacre of the inhabitants of Bucha- rest ; even the women and children not spared .... 1821 Independence of Greece formally pro- claimed - - Jan. 27, 1S22 Siege of Corinth - - . - Feb. 1822 Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible massacre recorded m modern history' - April 23, 1822 Victories of the Greeks at Larissa, Thermopyloo, and Salonica, - July 8, 1822 National Congress at Argos - April 10, 18:^3 Victories of Marco Botzaris - June, 1823 Lord Byron lands in Greece, to devote himself to its cause - August. 1823 Lamented death of Lord Byron, at Mis- solonghi - - April 19, 182-1 Signal defeat of the Capitan Pacha, at Samos - - August 16, 1824 The Provisional Government ol Greece instituted - - Oct. 12, 1824 The Greek fleet defeats that of the Ca- pitan Pacha - - June 2, 1325 The Provisional Government of Greece invites the protection of England July 24, 1825 Siege of Missolonghi : the besieging Turks are defeated in a formidable attack upon it - August 1, 1826 The Greeks disperse tlie Ottoman fleet Jan. 28, 1826 Ibrahim Pacha takes Mistolonghi by assault - - April 23, 1826 The Greeks land near Salonica; battle with Ona'^r Pacha - June 1, 182fi Ibrahim Pacha signally defeated by the Mainotes - August 8 and 9, 1826 Redschid Pacha takes Athens, Aug. IC'l 1326 Ticaty of London, between Great Bri- tain, Russia, and France, on behalf of Greece, signed - July 6, 1827 Battle of Navarino {which see); the Turkish fleet destroyed - Oct. 20, 1827 Count Capo d'Istria arrives as Presi- dent of Greece - - Jan. 18, J 828 The Panhellenion or Grand Council oi' Siate established - Feb. 2, 1828 National Bank founded - Feb. 14, 1828 Greece divided into departments, viz. Argolis, Acliaia, Elis, Uppei Hcsse- nia. Lower Messenia, ijaconxa, and Arcadia, and the islands formed also _into departments - April 26, 1828 Final evacuation of tlie Morea by the Turks - - - Oct. 30, 1828 Missolonghi surrenders - May 17, 1829 Greek National Assembly commences its sittings at Argos - July 23, 1829 The Porte acknowledges the indepeijG- ence ol' Greece - - April 25, 1830 Prince Leopold finally declines the so- vereignty - - May 21, 1830 Count Capo d'Istria, President of Greece, assassinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, a Mainote chief, whom he had imprisoned Oct. 9, 1831 The assassins put to death Oct. 29, 1831 Otho I. elected king of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 Colocotroni's conspiracy - Oct. 27, 1833 A bloodless revolution at Athens, to en- force ministerial responsibility and national representation, is consum- mated - - - Sept. 14, 1843 The king accepts the new constitution March 16, 1844 [See Athens, Macedon, Sparta^ Thrace, and other states of Greece.] GREEK CHURCH. A difference arose in the eig-hth century between the eastern and western churches, which in the course of two centuries and a half terminated in a separation : this cliurch is cahcd Greek in contradis- tinction from the latter, or Roman church. The Greek church claims prior-' ity as usmg the language in which the Gospel was first ])romulgated. and many of its forms and ceremonies are similar to those of the Roman Catho- lics ; but it disowns the supremacy of the pope. It is the established reli- gion of Russia. GREEK FIRE. A composition of combustible matter invented by one Calli- nicus, an ingenious engineer of Heliopolis, in Syria, in the seventh century, * The slaughter lasted 10 days; 40,000 of both sexes falling victims to the sword, or to the fire which raged until every house, save those of the foreign consuls, was burned to the ground. 7000 Greeks, who had fled to the mountains, were induced to sureender by a promise of amnesty, t'uar- anteed by the consuls of England, France and Austria, yet even they were, every n)an of rnem, butchered I The only exception made during the massacre was in favor of tlie young and more beautiful women and boys, 30,000 of whom were reserved for the markets. The narrative of plun- der, violation, and crime, while the infidel army was let loose upon the captured citv. is too loiig and too shocking for transcrijition here. 344 THE world's progress. I ttUA in order to destroy the Saracens' ships, which was effecttd by the g-cneral of the emperor Pogonat's fleet, and 30.000 men were killed. The property of this fire was to burn briskest in water, to diffuse itself on all sides, ac- cording to the impression given it. Nothing but oil, or a mixture of vine- gar, urine, and sand, could quench it. It was blown out of long tubes of copper, and shot out of cross-bows, and other spring instruments. The in- vention was kept a secret for many years by the court of Constantinople ; but it is now lost. GREEK LANGUAGE. The Greek language was first studied in Europe about A. i). 1450 — in France, 1473. William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, a learned English professor of this language, travelled to acquire its true pronuncia- tion, and introduced it at Oxford, where he had the honcf to teach Erasmus, 1490.— Wood's Athen. Oxon. GREENLAND. Discovered by some Norwegians from Iceland, about a, p. 980, and thus named on account of its superior verdure compared with the latter country. It was visited by Frobisher, in 1576. The first ship from England to Greenland was sent for the whale fishery by the Muscovy Company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, and suffered incredible hardships till the following year, when the company's ships brought them home. — Tindal. The Greenland Fishing Company was incorporated in 1693. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. Built at the solicitation of sir Jonas Moore and sir Christopher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flamstead-hill, so called from the great astronomer of that name, who was the first astro- nomer-royal here. The English began to compute the longitude from the meridian of this place, 1675; some make the date 1679. This observatory contains a transept circle by Troughton ; a transit instrument of eight feet by Bird ; two mural quadrants of eight feet, and Bradley's zenith sector. The telescopes are forty and sixty inch achromatics, and a six-feet re- flector ; and among other fine instruments and objects is a famous camera obscura. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. Ordained to be adopted by pope Gregor^ XIIL, from whom it derives its name, a. d. 1582 ; and introduced into the Catholic states of Europe in that year; into most other states in 1710; and adopted by England in 1752. To the time of Gregory, the deficiency in the Julian ca- lendar had amounted to ten days ; and in the year 1752 it had amounted to eleven days. See Calendar, and JS^ew Style. GRENADA. Conquered by the Moors, a. d. 715; it was the last kingdom pos- sessed by them, and was not annexed to the crown of Castile until 1491 ; the capital of this province is magnificent. New Grenada was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536. Grenada, in the West Indies, was settled by the French, 1650 ; it was taken from them by the English in 1762, and was ceded to England in 1763. The French possessed themselves of it again, in 1779 ; but it was restored to the English at the peace of 1783. In 1795 the French landed some troops and caused an insurrection in this island, which was not finally quelled till June, 1796. GROCERS. One of the oldest trades in England. The word anciently meant " ingrossers or monopolizers," as appears by a statute, 37 Edward III. The Grocers' Company is one of the twelve chief companies of the city of Lon- don, incorporated in 1429. GUADALOUPE. Discovered by Columbus, a. d. 1493. It was colonized by the French in 1635. Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794. and 1810; and in order to ailure GUY ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 345 the Swedes into the coalition against France, gave them this island. It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored to France in 1814. GUELPHS AND GHIBELINES. These were party names, and are said to have been derived from Hiewelf and Hiegibliu, the names of towns. The desig- nation began in Italy, a. d. 1139, and distinguished the contending armies din-ing the civil wars in Germany; the Guelphs were for the pope, and the Ghi])eUnes were for the emperor. Guelph is the name of the present roj^al family of England.— See Brunswick. The Guelphic order of knighthood was instituted for the kingdom of Hanover, by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1816. GUILLOTINE. An engine for decapitation, which has made an otherwise obscure name immortal. A similar instrument, but of ruder form, may be seen in an engraving accompanying the Symbolicce Questiones of Achilles Bocchius, 4to, 1555 (see the Travels of Father Labat in Italy) ; it is there called the Maymaia. In Scotland, also at Halifax, England (see Halifax ; Maiden), soon after it was in use, and served to behead its introducer, the regent Morton. Dr. Guillotin, about 1785, recommended its use in France, from motives of humanity, as a substitute for the more cruel gibbet, and his name was applied to it, at first from mere waggishness. Its unwilling god- father was imprisoned during the revolutionary troubles, and ran some hazard of being subjected to its deadly operation ; but he (contrary to a prevailing opinion) escaped, and lived to become one of the founders of the Academy of Medicine at Paris. He died May 26, 1814, aged seventy-six, enjoying to the last the esteem of all who knew him, for his mild virtues. GUINEAS. An English gold coin, so named from their having been first coined of gold brought from the coast of Guinea, a. d. 1673. They were then valued at 305. and were worth that sum in 1696. They were reduced in currency from 22s. to 21s. by parhament in 1717. Broad pieces were coined into guineas in 1732. The original guineas bore the impression of an elephant, on account of their having been coined of this African gold. GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder is generally ascribed to Ber- tholdus or Michael Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of Bruns- wick, in Germany, about a.d. 1320. But many writers maintain that it was known much earlier in various parts of the world. Some say that the Chi- nese possessed the art a number of centuries before. Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned by our own famous Roger Bacon, in his treatise Da Nullitate Magiot, which was published at Oxford, in 1216. GUNPOWDER PLOT m ENGLAND. The memorable conspiracv known by this name, for springing a mine under the houses of parliament, and des- troying the three estates of the realm— king, lords, and commons— there assembled, was discovered on Nov. 5, 1605. This 'diabolical scheme was projected by Robert Catesby. and many high persons were leagued in the enterprise Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the House of Lords, preparing the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were killed ; sir JEverard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet, a Jesuit, and others, died by the hands of the executioner, as did Guy Faux, January 31, 1606. The vault called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators lodged the barrels of gunpowder, 'remained in the late houses of parliament till 1825, when it was converted into offices. GUY'S HOSPITAL. This celebrated London hospital is indebted for its origin to Thomas Guy, an eminent and wealthy bookseller, who. after having be- stowed immense sums on St. Thomas's, determined to be the sole founder of another hospital. At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced the erection of the present building, and lived to see it nearly completed. It 15* 346 THE world's progress. [haq cost him 18,793i., in addition to which he left to endow it, the immense sura of 219,499/, A splendid bequest, amounting to 200,000Z. was made to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to provide additional accommodation for 100 patients ; his will was proved Sept. 24, 1829. GYMNASIUM, a place among the Greeks, where all the public exercises were performed, and where not only wrestlers and dancers exhibited, but also ])hilosophers, poets, and rhetoricians repeated their compositions. In wrest- ling and boxing, the athletes were often naked, whence the word G3'mna- siniw—gtimnos, nudus. They anointed themselves with oil to brace their limbs, and to render their bodies slippery, and more difficult to be grasi)ed. The first modern treatise on the subject of Gymnastics was published in Germany in 1793. London society formed, 1826. GYPSIES, OR EGYPTIANS. A strange commonwealth of wanderers and pecu- . liar race of people, who made their appearance first in Germany, about a. d. 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the des- cendants of a great body of Egyptians who revolted from the Turkish yoke, and being defeated, dispersed in small parties all over the world, while their supposed skill in the black art gave them an universal recej, tion in Miat age of credulity and superstition. Although expelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe, as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have con- trived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles I. thirteen persons were ex- ecuted at one assizes for haring associated with gypsies for about a month, contrary to the statute. The gypsey settlement at Norwood, near London, was broken up, and they were treated as vagrants, May 1797. There were in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120 000 gypsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England ; and notwithstanding their intercourse with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance, wholly unchanged. H. HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' PFrz/5 of Right, passed for the security and liberty of individuals. May 27, 1679. This act is next In importance to Magna Charta, for so long as the statute remains in force, no subject of En- gland can be detained in prison, except in cases wherein the detention is shown to be justified by the law. The Habeas Corpus Act can alone be sus- l^ended by the authority of parliament, and then for a short time only, and Avhen the emergency is extreme. In such a case, the nation parts with a portion of its liberty to secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected persons may then be arrested without cause or purpose being assigned. — ■ Blackstone. HACKNEY COACHES are of French origin. In France, a strong kind of cob- horse {haquenee) was let out on hire for short journeys : these were latterly harnessed (to accommodate several v/ayfarers at once) to a plain vehicle called coche-h-haqiienee : hence the name. The legend that traces their ori- gin to Hackney, near London, is a vulgar error. They Avere first licensed in 1662, and subjected to regulations, 6 William and Mary, 1694. — Survey of London. Tlie number plying in London fixed at 1000, and their fares raised, 1771. The cabriolets are of Parisian origin; but the aristocratic taste of Englishmen suggested the propriety of obliging the driver to be seated on the outside of the vehicle. HAGUE. Once called the finest village in Europe : the place of meeting of the Stat<^-s-General, and residence o^ the former earls of Hvlland, the rriur;e8 of ^^^1 DICTIONARY OF DATES. 347 Holland &c. Here the States, in 1586, abrogated the authority of I>hiliD II. of Spam, and held a conference in 1610 upon the five avtiolp^ nf Mi ^ monstrants, which occasioned the synod of ^Zt Treatv^^^^^^^ entered into with a view to preserve \he equilTbrium ofll No^^h fe li^t"^uk^2Sr67^^^^^ fff' ''''■ .^« Wittwasto'fin pfe es «rv 170^"= I ' ] L- T^ie Fjench took possession of the Ha^ue in Janu- ary, 1/95; favored by a hard frost, they marched into Holland Vw?il mhabitants and troops declared in their favor'^^eneral re Xion^^^^^^^^ :L'ape'tf Sn'r' \t '^^'^^"^^ '^^'^ compdledTo'l^iv^'tltc'im ^"L^^^^ ^^:^n:C^^^^^^^r '--'' -Comm^erce^r;ren HAIR JR. By the northern nations, and in Gaul, hair was much esteemerl nnrl hence the appellation Gallia comata; and cutting off trhai^was hfflicted as a punishment among them. The royal family of France hadtt as a mr Z h.ir?.rn "T^'^f '^.'^'' ^'^'S' '^"^ P^"^«e« of ?he Wood to weai" ong hair, artfully dressed and curled. The clerical tonsure is nf nnn«?niti W ha^rn tr^ f''T^''- ^'^' AnicetS forbfd'eX rrg.f^ofea long hail, AD. 155 Long hair was out of fashion during the Protectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Bound-heads. It was a? ai out of fashTon "se S^lk'o'S: m5T; "^^ '^^ r'' ^^ ''''■ Hafe PoX SamelX whicS yieLdtoloOof,'.?!:™ ^"' "^^^ ^^^-^^"^ ^^^"^^ '' - E"^^-^' ^^JfJ^^, "^^w'. ''' f i^tiquity, implied seven days before and as manv after the winter solstice, because the halcyon laid her egffs at Xs tfm?^of ti?p year and the weather during her incubation was atitysJn The phrl e was aftenvards employed to express any season of transient prosneriv or of brief tranquillity, the septem placidi dies of human lifel-^S^'^ ^ ' HALLipON HILL. Battle op, near Berwick, between the En<^lish and Spof^ m which the latter were defeated with the loss of 13.000 S whtle a com' q 1 qo|^^ fr" P"^^'^^^- «f «^^ English sufiered, reign of E Iwa'c III jX Scottd.4^'r.'^^^^^^ ^'^^^^^^ '^'^'^^ Edward^Bahol on the Ihron'e'lff ^"^.^Jfn^tn ' ^°^J^^«^^^- Here prevailed a remarkable law. The woollen ma- nutacture being very great, and prodigious quantities of cloths IcerseTs to^nTt Us firs't^^^ '"^"r "^ ^" '""'''^''^^ -^^ liable to be sto!;ir?he Toun, at Its hist incorporation, was empowered to punish caiutahv anv crim mal convicted of stealing to the value of upwards of thirteen peiShal^ Jln^sTTn Sle^et iro??^ I'lr-^'^' *'^ offender in a'mcSfbu^ki^'g tt'o^^diai^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ "s;?.S.r^^ ^^^'^^^ '-'- '' '-- -^- HALLELUJAH and AMEN. Hebrew expressions frequently used in the meaniL^??f '■ r'T '^'^ ^^^''^f ''''^ ^^'^^« ^"^^ ^^e ChSL' c urch The J.J;/r7 !? byHaggai, the prophet, about 584 b.c: and their intro- oneTth'irrimrti W ^^"^'"^ ^^^"^'^^^ '' ^^^'^ ^o St! JeJon "e one 01 tne pnmitive Latin fathers, about a. d. 390.— Care's Hist. Lit. ^^v^^^^f\ '^J^ company of Hambro' merchants Avas incorporated in 1296 France declared war upon Hamburgh for its treachery in giving up Napner Tandy, (see iV«;,;..,-T«;.^7/.) October 1799. British propef y seqiFesulted March 1801. Hamburgh taken by the French after the baVe of ^enah^ 1806^ Incorporated with France, January 1810. Evacuated by the Fi en oh on the advance of the Ru.ssians into Germany in 1813? and relto^dfo^te S48 THE world's progress. [ HA? independence by the allied sovereigns, May 1814. Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- tinued for three days. May 4, 1842, HAMPTON-COURT PALACE. Built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the manor-house of the Ivnights-hospitallers. In 1526, the cardinal presented it to his royal master, Henry VIII. Here Edward VI. was born, and his mother, Jane Seymour, died ; and Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and others of our sovereigns, resided. Most of the old apartments M^ere pulled down, and the grand inner court built, by William III. in 1694. In this palace was held, in 1604, the celebrated conference between the Presbyterians and the members of the Established Church, v/hich led to a new translation of the Bible. See Conference. HANGED, DRAWN, and QUARTERED. The first infliction of this barbar- ous punishment took place upon a pirate, named William Marise, a noble- man's son, 25 Henry III., 1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for treason, and at the place of execution were hanged, cut down alive instantly, then stripped naked, and their bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned, 25 Henry VI. 1447. — Stovjc. The punishment of death by hanging has been abolished in nu- merous cases by various statutes. See Death, punishment of. Hanging in chains was abolished 4 William IV., 1834. HANOVER. This country had no great rank, although a duchy, until George I. got possession of Zell, Saxe, Bremen. Verden, and other duchies and principalities. Hanover became the ninth electorate, a. d. 1692. It was seized by Prussia, April 3, 1801 ; was occupied by the French, June 5, 1803 ; and annexed to Westphalia, March 1, 1810. Regained to England by the crown prince of Sweden, November 6, 1813. and erected into a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814. The duke of Cambridge appointed lieutenant governor, in November, 1816. Visited by George IV. in October, 1821. Ernest, duke of Cumberland, succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; he granted freedom of the press and other concessions, March 17, 1848. HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION, established by law, June 12, 1701, when an act passed limiting the succession of the crown of England, after the demise of William III. and of queen Anne (without issue), to the princess Sophia, of Hanover and the heirs of her body, being protestants, she being the granddaughter of James I. George I. the son of Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick Luneburgh, elector of Hanover, and of Sophia, ascended the throne, to the exclusion of the exiled family of the Stuarts, August 1, 1714. HANSE TOWNS. A commercial union called the Hanseatic league, was formed by a number of port towns in Germany, in support of each other against the piracies of the Swedes and Danes : this association began in 1164, and the league was signed in 1241. At first it consisted only of towns situate on the coasts of the Baltic Sea, but its strength and reputation in- creasing, there was scarce any trading city in Europe but desired to be admitted into it, and in process of time it consisted of sixty-six cities. They grew so formidable as to i)roclaim war on Waldemar, king of Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Erick in 1428, with forty ships, and 12.000 i-egular troops besides seamen. This gave umbrage to several princes, who ordered the merchants of their respective kingdoms to withdraw their effects, and so broke up the greatest part and strength of the association. In 1630, the only towns of note of this once powerful league retaining the name, were Lubeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. HAPSBURGH, House of. One of the most illustrious families in Europe. Hapsburgh was an ancient castle of Switzerland, on a lofty eminence, near Schintznach. This castle was the cradle, as it were, of the house of Austria. ^^^ J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 349 ^^^^''1? "f^f ^''''^ ™^^ ^"^ ^'■'''^^^ ^^ck *« the beginning of the 13th century when Rodolph, connt of Hapsburgh, was elevated to the empire of Germany and archduchy of Austria, a. d. 1273. See Gerinamj. ^«rmany HARLEQUIN. This term is derived from a famous and droll comedian who so much frequented Mr. Barley's house, that his friends and acquaintance used to call him Harleq^dno, little Harley.-M...«^^.. Originally the name implied a merry andrew, or buffoon ; but it now nfeans anixpe/t dancer at a piay-nouse. HARLOTS. Women who were called by synonyma conveying the meaning of ifj^Zfr'^-'l''^ among the Jews, Greeks, and Romanl The celebra- teu Laks of Corinth, a beautiful courtesan, but remarkable for her vicious amours, was assassinated in the temple of Venus, by the women of Thes- saly m order to prevent her corrupting the fidelity of their husbands, about doO B. c. It IS affirmed that the mother of Wilham I., of England a fur- rier s daughter of Falaise, whose name .was Arlotta, was of so infamous a character diat our odious term harlot is derived from her name.-/)/- Jokn- ^''"'^ ^J-n England, harlots were obliged to wear striped hoods of party -olors and their garments the wrong side outwards, by statute 27 Edward III' HARMONIC STRINGS. Pythagoras is said to have invented harmonic strings m consequence of hearing four blacksmiths working with hammers in har- mony, whose weights he found to be six, eight, nine^ and twelve: or rather by squai;es, as thirty-six, sixty-four, eighty-one, and one hundred and forty- four. The harmonica, or musical glasses, airs from the tones of them were first formed by an Irish gentleman named Puckeridge.— i^/-«7a-Zwi The in- vention was improved by Dr. Franklin in 1760. HARP. It is traced to the earliest nations. David played on the harn before Saul^l Sam. xvi 23. The lyre of the Greeks'^is the harp of th? moderns. The Romans had their harp ; so had the Jews, but it had very few strings The Cirabri or English Saxons had this instrument. The cele- brated Welch harp was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE. Mv. Harrison's first instrument was invented in l/ob ; his second m 1739 ; his third in 1749 ; and his fourth, which procured him the rewai;d of 20,000Z., advertised 13th Anne by the Board of lSS- fectedln?772 '" ^ ^'^'' ^^^^'^ ^'' celebrated time-piece wa^ pfr- ^^^In^^^t.^^?^I^c^T^^'' ^^' celebrated convention of delegates from ^^Z'^tSi'i^'^''''' '^ ^^^^^'^^^^^ '^ ^^^ administration of HASTINGS, Battle of, one of the most memorable and bloody, and in which Z7 '^TJ^lr^'^ ^^^T""^. 7r^'^ '^^^"' f^^^ght between Harold 11. SfXg land, and William, duke of Normandy, in which the former lost his life ami - nf o?VnI'"r''' ^T 'r^f '^ '^'' Conqueror, was soon after crowned kmg of England, and introduced a memorable epoch, known as the Con- quest, m the annals of the country, Oct. 14, 1066. HASTINGS, WARREN, Trial of. Mr. Hastings, governor-general of India tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and iSemLnors but acquitted, although he had committed many acts during his governmen which. It was thought, ought to have led to a different resSlt. Among othe n«hT%^ffT^ liim, was his acceptance of a present of 100 OOOZ. from he nabob of Oude, and this was not a solitary instance of his irregular means of accumulating wealth. The trial lasted seven years and tl^^rmmX b50 THE \VOPi.LD's progress. [" HEQ 1788-95. Sheridan's celebrated speech, on the impeachment of Mr. Has- tings, attracted universal admiration. HATS. See article Caps. First made by a Swiss at Paris, a. d. 1404. They are mentioned in history at the period when Charles VII. made his trium- phal entry into Rouen, in 1449. He wore a hat lined Avith red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. It is from this reign that the use of hats and caps is to be dated, which henceforward began to take place of the chaperoons and hoods that had been worn before in France. Hats were lirst manufactured in England by Spaniards, in 1510 : before this time both men and women wore close-knit woollen caps. — Slowe. Very high crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers ; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty was laid upon hats in Eng- land in 1784, and again in 1796 ; it was repealed in 1811. HAVRE-DE-GRACE. This place was defended for the Huguenots by the English, in 1562. It has been bombarded several times by the British navy, in 1759, in 1794, in 1795 and in 1798. Declared to be in a siate of blockade, Sept. 6. 1803. The attempts to burn the shipping here failed, August 7, 1804. HAYTI, OR Haiti, the Indian name of St. Domingo, discovered by Columbus ^n 1492. Before the Spaniards finally conquered it, they are said to have de- stroyed in battle or cold blood, 3,000,000 of its inhabitants, including women and children. Toussaint established an independent republic in St. Domingo, July 22, 1801. He surrendered to the French, May 7, 1802. Des- salines made a proclamation for the massacre of all the whites, March 29, 1804. See St. Domingo. Dessalines was crowned king, by the title of Jac- ques I., Oct. 8, 1804. ^He died Sept. 21, 1805. Henry Christophe, a man of color, became president in Feb. 1807, and was crowned emperor by the title of Henry I., in March 1811 ; while Petion ruled as president at Port-au-Prince. Numerous black nobility and prelates were created same year. Petion died, and Boyer was elected in his room, in May 1818. Christophe committed suicide in Oct. 1820. Independence declared at St. Domingo, in Dec. 1821. Decree of the king of France confirming it, April 1825. Souloque elected president, March 2, 1847 ; proclaimed emperor of Hayti, August 24, 1849. HEBRIDES, NEW, discovered by the navigator Quiros, a. d. 1606. Bourgain- ville visited them in 1768, and found that the land was vol connected, but composed of islands, Avhich he called the Great Cyclades. Cook, in 1774, ascertained the extent and situation of the whole group, and gave them the name they now bear. HECATOMB. This was a sacrifice among the ancients of a hundred oxen; but it was more particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a hundred capital cities. In the course of time this sac- rifice was reduced to twenty-three oxen; and in the end, to lessen the expense, goats and lambs Avere substituted for oxen. — Potter. HECLA. Its first eruption is recorded as having occurred a. d. 1004. About twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Olasson and Paulson. The most dreadful and multiplied convulsions of this great volcanic mountain occurred in 1783. See Iceland. HEGIRA, Era of the, dates from the flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, which event took place in the night of Thursday the 15th July, a. d. 622; the era commences on the following day, viz : — the 16th of July. Many chronologists have computed this era from the 15th July; but Cantemir has given examples proving that, in most ancient times, the 16th Avas the first day of the era ; and there is now no doubt it is so. See Mahometism and Medina. DOR ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 351 HEIDELBERG, and HEIDELBERG TUN. Heidelberg, in Germany, on the river Neckar, was formerly the capital of the Palatinate : the protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a bloody war ensued, in which the famous castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mann- heim. Here was the celebrated HeildelbergTun, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine. The University ol' Heidelberg, one of the most celebrated in Europe, was founded in 1346, contained in 1840, 622 students. HELEN, Rape of, which caused the Trojan war, 1204 b. c. Helen was the most beautiful woman in the world, and even in her childhood was so very lovely, that Theseus stole her away in her tenth year. From him, however, she was released, yet innocent, by her brothers ; and after her return to the court of Sparta she was eagerly sought in marriage by the princes of Greece, and Ulysses persuaded the suitors to bind themselves on oath to abide by the uninfluenced choice of Helen, and to defend her person and character from that time. The princes took the oath, and Helen then made choice of Menelaus. Paris coming soon after to the court of this king, abused his hospitality by corrupting the fidelity of Helen: carrying her away, though not an unwilling captive, to Asia Minor. At Troy, the father of Paris. Priam, received her in his palace without difficulty ; and Menelaus, assembling the princes of Greece, reminded them of their oath : and the siege and destruc- tion of Troy followed, 1184 b. c. Paris was previously married, his wife being CEnone, who lived with him in happiness on Mount Ida; and at his death by one of the arrows of Hercules, then in the possession of Philoc- tetes, he desired in his dying moments to be carried to CEnone, whom he had so basely deserted ; but he expired on the way. The nymph, however, still mindful of their former happiness, threw herself upon the body, bathed it with her tears, and then plunged a dagger in her heart. HELENA. St. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, on the festival of St. Helena, a. d. 1502. The Dutch were afterwards in possession of it tintil 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India company settled here in 1651 ; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch, until 1673, when Charles II. on Dec. 12, assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was made the place of Napoleon's captivity, Oct. 16, 1815, and it became the scene of his death, May 5, 1821. HELIGOLAND. This island formerly belonged to the Danes, from whom it was taken by the British, Sept. 5, 1807, and formed a dep6t for British mer- chandise intended for the Continent during the war. Confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, the same treaty by which Norway was ceded to Sweden. Though a mere rock, this is an important possession of the British crown. HELIOMETER. a valuable scientific instrument for measuring the stars, in- vented by M. Bougner, in 1774. The helioscope was invented by Ch'jisto- pher Scheiner in 1625. HELMETS. They were worn, it is said, by the most savage tribes. Among the Romans the helmet was provided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the eyes, and a bever to lower for eating; the helmet of the Greeks was round; and that of the Romans square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; and after this monarch's reign most of the English king? had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. — Givillim. HELOTS. The people of Helos, against whom the Spartans bore desperate 352 THE world's progress. [ HEK resentment for refusing to pay tribute, 883 b. c. The Spartans, not satisfied v/ith the ruin of their city, reduced the Helots to the most debasing slavery; and to complete their infamy, they called all the slaves of the state, and the prisoners of war, by the degrading name of Helotce, and further exposed them to every species of contempt and ridicule, 669 b. c. But in the Pelo- ponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were reward ed with their liberty, 431 b. c. But this act of justice did not last long; ana the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to the Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. IIEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown for fishing-nets, a. d. 1533. Bounties were paid to encourage its cultivation in 1783 ; and every exertion should be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were im- ported from Russia in British ships, 17^695 tons of hemp and flax. — Sir John Sinclair. The annual importations of these articles now amount to about 100,000 tons. More than 180,000 lbs. of rough hemp are used in the cordage of a first-rate man-of-war, including rigging and sails, HEPTARCHY. The Heptarchy (or government of seven kings) in England was gradually formed from a. d. 455, when Hengist became the king of Kent, and that kingdom was erected. The Heptarchy terminated in a. d. 828, when Egbert reduced the other kingdoms, and became sole monarch of England. For the several kingdoms of the Heptarchy, see Britain. HERACLID^E, The, or the return of the Heraclidse into the Peloponnesus : a famous epoch in chronology that constitutes the beginning of profane his- tory, all the time preceding that period being accounted fabulous. This return happened 100 years after they were expelled, and eighty years after the destruction of Troy, 1104 b. c. HERALDRY. Signs and marks of honor were made use of in the first ages of the world. — Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; the Thracians, Mars ; the Romans, an eagle : the Goths, a bear ; the Flemings, a bull ; the Saxons, a horse ; and the ancient French, a lion, and afterwards the fleur-de-lis, lohich see. Heraldry, as digested into an art, and subjected to rules, may be ascribed in the first instance to Charlemagne, about the year 800; and in the next, to Frederick Barbarossa, about the year 1152 ; it began and grew with the feudal law. — Sir George Mackenzu. It was at length methodized and perfected bv the crusades and tournaments, the fqrmer commencing in 1096. HERCULANEUM. An ancient city of Campania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, b}^ an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, a. d. 79. Herculaneum was buried under streams of lava, and successive eruptions laid it still deeper under the surface. All traces of them were lost until a. d. 1711, from which year many curiosities, works of art, and monuments and memorials of civil- ized life have been discovered to the present time. 150 volumes of MSS. were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and many antiquities were purchased by sir William Hamilton, and re-purchased by the trustees of the British museum, where they are deposited ; but the principal antiquities are preserved in the museum of Portici. HERETICS. Formerly the term heresy denoted a particular sect ; now here- tics are those who propagate their private opinions in opposition to the Ca- tholic ohurch. — Bacon. "Tens of thousands of them have suffered death by torture in Roman Catholic countries. — Burnet. See Inquisition. Simon Magus was the first heretic; he came to Rome a.d. 41. Thirty heretic? came from Germany to England to propagate their opinions, and were HIG-J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 353 branded in the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring to reheve them, they died of hun- ger and cold, 1160. — Speed. In the reign of Henry VIII. to be in possession of Tindal's Bible constituted heresy. The laws against heretics were re- pealed, 25 Henry VIII., 153.4-5. HERMITS. The name first given to those that retired to desert places, to avoid persecution, Avhere they gave themselves up to prayers, fasting, and meditation. They were also called anchorets ; and commonly lodged in dark caves, wiiere their food was such roots as nature bestowed freely with- out culture. From these came the monks, and almost all the sorts of reli- gious assemblies that live in monasteries. In the seventh persecution of the Christians, one Paul, to avoid the enemies of his faith, retired into Thebais, and became the first example of a monastic life, about a. d. 250. HERO AND LE ANDER : their amour. The fidelity of these lovers was so great, and their attachment to each other so strong, that Leander in the night frequently swam across the Hellespont, from Abydos to Sestos, to have secret interviews with Hero, a beautiful priestess of Venus, she 'Ji-. recting his course by a burning flambeaux. After many stolen interviews, Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night, and Hero threw herself from her tower, and perished in the sea, 627 b. c. — Liv]i, Herodotus. HERRING-FISHERY. It was largely encouraged by the Scotch so early as the ninth century. The herring statute was passed in 1357. The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was discovered about 1390, and gave rise to the herring fishery as a branch of commerce. — Anderson. The British Herring Fishery Company was instituted Sept. 2, 1750. HERSCHEL TELESCOPE, The. Herchel's seven, ten, and twenty-feet re- flectors were made about 1779. He discovers the Georgium Sidus {loMch see\ March 21, 1781. He discovers a volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; and about this time laid the plan of his great forty-feet telescope, which he completed in 1787, when he discovered two other volcanic moun- tains, emitting fire from their summits. In 1802, he by means of his teles- copes, was enabled to lay before the Royal Society a catalogue of 5000 new nebulae, nebulous stars, planetary nebulae, and clusters of stars which he had discovered. HESSE, House of. Its various branches derive their origin from Gerberge, daughter of Charles of Lorraine, uncle of Louis V. of France, who was descended from Louis the Courteous. She was married to Lambert II. earl of Louvain, from whom the present landgraves of Hesse-Cassel, by Henry v., first of the family who bore the title of landgrave, are descended. There is no family in Germany more noble by their alliances than this ; and it gives place to none for the heroes and statesmen it^ has produced. Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in consequence of an invasion being expected, in 1756. The sum of 471,000Z. three per cent, stock, was transferred to the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in the American war, at 30Z. per man, Nov. 1786. The Hessian soldiers were again hired hj England, and served in Ireland during the memorable rebellion there in 1798. HIEROGLYPHICS. The first writing men used was only the single pictures and engravings of the things they would represent. — Woodward. Hiero- glyphic characters were invented by Athothes, 2112 b. c. — Usher. The earliest records of them were the Egyptian, the first step towards letters, and some monuments whose objects were described by exaggerated tradi- tion, or when forgotten, imagined. — Phillips. HIGH CHURCH and LOW CHURCH PARTIES. These were occasioned by 354 THE world's progress. [ HOI the prosecution of Dr. Sacheverel, preacher at St. Saviour's Southwark, for two seditious sermons, the object of which was to rouse the apprehensiona of the people for the safety of the Church, and to excite hostility against the dissenters. His friends were called High Church, and his oi)ponents Low Church, or moderate men, 8 Anne, 1710. The queen, who favored Sa- cheverel, presented him with the valuable rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. HIGH TREASON. The highest offence known to the law, and in regulating the trials for which was enacted the memorable statute, so favorable to British liberty, the 25tli of Edward HI. 1552. By this statute two living witnesses are required in cases of high treason ; and it arose in the refusal of parliament to sanction the sentence of death against the duke of Somer- set — it is that which regulates indictments for treason at the present day. By the 40th George HI. 1800, it was enacted that where there v/as a trial for high treason in which the overt act was a direct attempt upon the life of the sovereign, such trial should be conducted in the same manner as the case of an indictment for murder. See Trials. HIGHNESS. The title of Highness w^as given to Henry VII. ; and this, and sometimes Your Grave^ was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; but about the close of the reign of the latter mentioned king, the title of High- ness and " Your Grace " were absorbed in that of Majesty. HINDOO ERA, or Era of the Calij-ug, began 3101 b. c. or 756 before the De- luge, in 2348 : and the Hindoos count their months by the progress of the sun through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 57 b. c. : and the Saca era, A. D. 77 : they are all used by the Hindoo nations. HISTORY. Previously to the invention of letters the records of history are vague, traditionary, and erroneous. The chronicles of the Jews, the Parian Chronicle, the histories of Herodotus and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the foundations of early ancient historj''. Later ancient history is con- sidered as ending with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, a. d. 476 ; and modern history dates from the age of Charlemagne, about a. d. 800. There was not a professorship of modern history in either of the English universities until the years 1724 and 1736, when Regius professor- ships were established by George I. and George II. A professorship of historj'' founded at Harvard College, was filled by Jared Sparks, who was succeeded by Francis Bowen, 1850. HOHENLINDEN, Battle of, between the Austrian and French armies, the latter commanded by general Moreau. The Imperialists were defeated with great loss, their killed and wounded amounting to 10,000 men, and their loss in prisoners to 10,000 more, November 3, 1800. HOLLAND. The original inhabitants of this countrj^ were the Batavians, who derived their origin from the Catti, a people of Germany. Having been obliged to abandon their country on account of civil wars, they came and established themselves in a morass, formed by the waters of the Rhine and the Waal, which they named Bettuive, or Batavia, from Batton, the son of their chieftain. To these have since been added a pretty large proportion of Francs and Frisians. Sovereignty nundeJ by Thierry, first count of H ■'Jand - - a. d. 868 The county o Holland devolves to the counts of Hainault - - - 1299 It falls to the crown of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy - - - 1436 100,000 persons are drowned by the sea breakms in at Dort - - 1446 Burgundy and its dependencies become a circle of the empire - - - 1521 They fall to Spain, whose tyranny and religious persecution cause a revolt in Batavia - - ■ - Icofl The revolted states with William, prince of Orange, at their head, en- ter into a treaty at Utrecht - - 1579 HCi DICTIONARY OF DATES. 355 HC, A.ND, continued. They elect William as Stadlholder - 1579 The Stadlholder, William, is assassi- nated - - ... 1584 The Dutch East India company found- ed 1602 After a struggle of thirty years, the king of Spain Is obliged to declare the Ba- tavians free • - - - 1609 The republic wars against Spain in the East, and in America ; the Dutch ad- miral, Peter Hen, takes several Spa- nish galleons, value 20,000,000/. ster- ling . . - - - 1635 Cromwell declares war against Hol- land, and many naval battles are fought; Blake signally defeats Van Tromp .... - 1653 William, prince of Orange, having married Mary, daughter of James II., is called to the British throne - I6S8 Tlie office of Stadtholder is made here- ditary in the Orange family - - 1747 Era of the civil war - - - 1787 The French Republican ai'my march into Holland ; the people declare in their favor - - - - 1793 The Stadtholder expelled Jan. 15, 1795 He arrives in England - Jan. 21, 1795 Battle of Camperdown, Duncan sig- nally defeats the Dutch - Oct. 11, 1797 The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with thirteen Indiamen, surren- dered to the British admiral Duncan, without firing a gun - Aug. 28, 1799 A new constitution is given to the Ba- tavian republic ; the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpennick) takes the title of Grand Pensionary - April 26, 1805 Holland erected into a kingdom, and Louis Bonaparte declared king June 5, 1805 Louis abdicates - - July 1, 1810 Holland united to France - July 9, 1810 Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium annexed to its dominions Nov. 18, 1813 The prince of Orange is proclaimed so- vereign prince of the United Nether- lands - - - Dec. 6, 1813 He receives the oath of allegiance from his subjects - March 30, 1814 And takes the title of king as William I. - - - March 16, 1815 The revolution in Belgium (ichich see} commenced - - ■ Aug. 25, 1830 The Belgians take the city of Antwerp iwhic/. . ee) - - Oc 27, 1830 Belgium is sepa;.'ated from HoLi.nd, and Leopold of Cobourg is elected kmg - - - July 12, 1831 Holland renews the war against Bel- gium - - - Aug ?j 1831 Conference in London on the alTairs ot Holland and the Netherlands termi- nates, see Belgium - Nov. 15, 1831 Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in London - April 19, 1839 Abdication of William I. in favor of his son - - - Oct. 8, 1S40 Death of the ex-king - Dec. 12, 1844 The king promises his assent to all re- forms passed by the chambers March 14, 1848 New constitution appears, April 17, 1848 Death of William II. - March 17, 1849 STADTHOLDERS, ETC. A.D 1554 William the Great succeeds his cou- sin Rene, to whom the United Pro- vinces owe their foundation and glo- i-y : killed by an assassin, hired by Philip of Spain. 1584 Henry Philip William. 1618 Maurice, a consummate general. 1625 Frederick Henry. 1647 William IT. 1650 William III. made stadtholder in 1672, and king of England in 1689. 1702 John William Frizo, drowned in pass- ing a ferry in Holland. 171 1 Charles Henry Frizo. 1747 William IV., first hereditary stadt- holder. 1751 William V. KINGS. 1813 William I. 1840 William II 1849 William IIL, present king, (1852.) See Belgiu-rn. HOLi^AND, NEW. It is not clearly ascertained when this country was first discovered. In 1605, et seq.^ various parts of the coast were traced by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and English. What was deemed till lately the south extremity, was discovered by Tasman, in 1642. The eastern coast, called New South Wales, was taken possession of, in his Britannic majesty's name, by captain Cook, in 1770. See Botany Bay, New South Wales, and Van Dicmen^s Land. HOLY ALLIANCE. A league so called between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by which they ostensibly bound them- selves, among other things, to be governed by Christian principles in all their political transactions. This alliance was ratified at Paris, Septem- ber 26, 1815. HOLY WATER is said to have been used in churches as early as a. d. 120.— AsJie. 356 THE world's progress. [ HOP HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY. The misfortunes of Troy furnish xce two most perfect Epic* poems in the world, Avritten by the greatest poet that has ever lived ; about 915 b. c. The subject of the first is the wrath of Achilles ; the second recounts the voyages and adventures of Ulysses after the destruction of Troy. Among the thousands of volumes burnt at Con- stantinople, A. D. 477, were the works of Homer, said to have been written in golden letters on the great gut of a dragon, 120 feet long. — Univ. Hist. The works of Homer are supposed by some to have done great injury to mankind, by inspiring the love of military glory. Alexander was said to sleep with them always on his pillow. — Darwin. HOMICIDE. This crime was tried at Athens by the Areopagites, 1507 b. c. He that killed another at any public exercise of skill, or who killed another that lay perdue to do a person mischief of a grievous nature, was not deemed guilty. He who killed a man taken with another's wife, sister, daughter, or concubine, or he who killed a man who, without just grounds, assaulted another violently. Was not deemed a homicide. Among the Jews, wilful murder was capital ; but for chance-medley, the offender should fly to one of the cities of refuge, and there continue till the death of the high priest. In the primitive church, before the Christians had the civil power, wilful homicide was punished with a twenty years' penance. Our laws dis- tinguish between justifiable homicide and homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and circumstances of provocation and wilfulness. See Murder, HONEY-MOON. Among the ancients, a beverage prepared with honey, such as that known as mead, and as metheglin, in England, was a luxurious drink. It was a custom to drink of diluted honey for thirty days or a moon's age, after a wedding-feast, and hence arose the term honey-moon, of Teutonic origin. Attila, the devastating Hun, who ravaged nearly all Eu- rope, drank, it is said, so freely of liijdroniel on his marriage-day, that he died in the night from suffocation, 453 a. d. His death is. however, ascribed to another cause. See Attila. *' HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE." It is said that the countess of Salis- bury, at a ball at court, happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., took it up, and jjresented it to her with these words: " Honi soit qui mal y pense,'" " evil be to him who evil thinks." They afterwards became the motto of the Garter ; but this statement of the origin of the motto is un- supported by sufficient authority. — Goldsmith. HONOR. Honor was a virtue highly venerated by the ancients, particularly among the Romans, and temples were ultimately erected to Honor by that people as a divinity. The first temple was built by Scipio Africanus, about B. c. 197 ; and others were raised to her worship \)j C. Marius, about 102 B. c. These temples were so constructed that it was impossible to enter that to Honor without going through the temple of Virtue ; and Marius ordered his edifices not to be built too much elevated or too lofty, thereby to intimate to the worshippers that humility was the true way to honor. HOPS. Introduced from the Netherlands into England, a. d. 1524, and were used in brewing ; but the physicians having represented that they were un- wholesome, parliament was petitioned against them as being a wicked weed, and their use was prohibited in 1528. — Anderson. At present there ax& between fifty and sixty thousand acres, on an average, annually under the * The epic poems of Homer and Vikgil, the Gierusalemine of Tasso, the Paradise Lost oi Mi;>TON, and the Henriade of Voltaire, are the jioblest that exist; and Milton's is considered to rank next to Homer's. ," Paradise Lost is no; the greatest of epic poems," observes Dr Toan- BOK, " only because it is not the first." — Butler. HUD ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 357 culture of nops in England. They are grown chiefly in Hereford, Kent, and Worcestershire. HORATII AND CURATII, The Combat of the, 669 b. c. The Romans and the Albans contesting for superiority, agreed to choose three champions on each side to determine toAvhich it belonged; and the three Horatii, Roman knights, and the three Curatii, Albans, being elected by their respective countries, engaged in the celebrated combat which, by the victory of the Horatii, united Alba to Rome. HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excellent equestrians, and probably were the first, among the Greeks at least, w^ho rode upon horses, and broke them in for service in war ; whence arose the fable that Thessaly was ori- ginally inhabited by centaurs. And Solomon had 40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 horsemen. — 1 Kings, iv. 26. The power of the horse is equal to that of five men. — Smeaton. A horse can perform the work of six men. — Bos&uet. The Greeks and Romans had some covering to secure their horses' hoofs from injury. In the ninth century, horses were only shod in the time of frost. The practice of shoeing was introduced into England by William I., 1066. In England there are two millions of draught and pleasure horses, and one hundred thou^and agricultural horses, which consume the produce of seven millions of acres. The horse- tax was imposed in 1784, and was then levied on all saddle and coach horses in England. The existing duty upon " horses for riding " onlj^ in England, amounts to about 350,000/. per year. See Race Horses. HOSPITALLERS. Military knights of the order of St. John, of Jerusalem, who were under religious vows ; instituted by opening a hospital for the reception of pilgrims at Jerusalem, in a. d. 1048. They became a monastic order in 1092 ; and a military order in 1118. See Malta. HOSPITALS OF LONDON. Several of these most valuable and merciful in- stitutions are of ancient date, and richly endowed. One of the most muni- ficent erections by a single individual is that of Guy's Hospital, Southwark, a London bookseller of that name having built it at the cost of 18,793Z., and endowed it, in 1724, by a bequest of 219,499/. See Infirmaries. HOST, Elevation of the. Introduced in Roman Catholic worship, and pros- tration enjoined, in a. d. 1201. Pope Gregory IX. was the first pontiff" who decreed a bell to be rung as a signal for the people to betake themselves to the adoration of the host, v/hich is done to this day. — Dr. A. Rees. HOURS. The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 b. c, when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Previously to the invention of water-clocks Qiohich see), 158 b. c, the time Avas called at Rome by jjublie criers. The Chinese divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two divisions of twelve hours each, as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult : one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax-candles burning twenty-four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, clocks and hour- glasses not being then known in England, a. d. 886. HUDSON'S BAY. Discovered by captain Henry Hudson, when in search of a North-West passage to the Pacific Ocean, a. d. 1610 ; but in fact, this part of North America may more i)roperly be said to have been discovered by Frobisher in the reign of Elizabeth, although Hadson ventured further north. The latter, passing the winter in this bay on his fourth voyage, was, with four others, thrown by his sailors into a boat, and left to perish. The Hudson-Bay Company obtained chartered possessions here, in 1670. The forts were destroyed by the French in 1686 and 1782. 358 THE world's progress. S uvn HUE AN]) CRY. The old common-law process of -prij-Jxi/ ' wit a 't' m and with voice," from hundred to hmidred, and county to co<'xity, all / jhbera and felons. Formerly the hundred was bound to make good all lobo occa- sioned by the robberies therein committed, unless the felon were taken ; but by subseq^^ent laws it is made answerable only for damage committed by riotous assemblies. HUGUENOTS. This word is of uncertain derivation. It was used, as a term of reproach, by the French Catholics, to nickname their countrymen of the reformed churches, or Protestants of France, and had its rise in 1560. The memorable massacre of the Huguenots of France, on the festival of St. Bartholomew, took place on Aug. 24, 1572. — See Bartholomew, St. A con- siderable number of Huguenots emigrated after that event to North Ame- rica, and settled on the Delaware, and in the Carolinas. HUMILIATI. A congregation of religious in the church of Rome, which was formed by some Milanese who had been imprisoned under Frederick I., 1162. This order had ninety monasteries ; but it was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope Pius V., and their houses were given to the Domini- cans and Cordeliers, in 1570. HUNGARY. The Pannonia of the ancients, and subject to the Romans, 11 B. c, and kept possession of by them until, in the fourth century of the Christiar era, the Vandals drove them out of it. About forty years after- wards, the Vandals migrated towards Gaul, and their deserted settlements were occupied by the Goths, who in the beginning of the fifth century were expelled by the Huns, a ferocious tribe of Scythians, headed by Attila, whose dreadful ravages obtained him the appellation of "The Scourge of God." — In more recent times, the Hungarians have been much intermixed with Sclavonic nations, as Bohemians, Croats, Russians, and Vandals; be- sides German settlers, as Austrians. Styrians, Bavarians, Franks, Swabians, Saxons &c. Hungary \vas annexed to the empire of Germany under Char- lemagne, but it became an independent kingdom in 920. Stephen receives the title of Apostolic king from the pope - - a. d. 997 The Poles overrun Hungary - - 1061 Dreadful ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Jenghis Khan, throughout Hungary,Bohemia,and Russia, 1226 et seq. Victories of Louis the Great in Bulga- ria, Servia, and Dalmaiia - ' - 1342 Louis carries his arms into Italy - 1342 He dies, and the history of Hungary now presents a frightful catalogue of crimes - - - - - 1378 Charles Duras is murdered ; Elizabeth, queen of Louis, is drowned, and kin^" Mary, their daughter, marries Sigis- mond, marquis of Brandenburg, and causes the rivers of Hungary to flow with blood - - - - 1378 The unhappy Hungarians call the Turks to their assistance - - 1380 Sultan Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond in battle . . . . 1389 Sigismond recovers from this blow, and makes Wallachia and Moldavia tributary to him • - - 1390 He obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is elected emperor of Germany - 1410 Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of Hungary, thus laying tlie founda- tion of the subsequent power and greatness of the house of Austria - 1437 It passes to the king of Poland - 1439 Solyman II., emperor of the Turks, in- vades Hungary, and takes Buda ; battle of Mohatz (w/tich see) - - 1526 Buda sacked a second time by the Turks, and all the inhabitants put to the sword .... ]540 Sclavonia taken by the Turks - - 1540 Temeswar taken by them - - 1552 Transylvania seized by Solyman - 1556 The duke of Lorraine loses 30,000 men in a fruitless attempt to take Buda from the Turks - - - 1684 He at length carries Buda by storm, and delivers up the Mahometans to the fury of the soldiers - - 1683 Temeswar wrested from the Turks by prince Eugene .... 1718 * The Hungarian people have an irreconcilable aversion to the name of queen ; and conse- quently, whenever a female succeeds to the throne of Hungary, she reigns with the title of kins: Thus, in 1383, when Mary, the daughter of Charlos Duras, came to the crown, she was styleJ King Mary. HUN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 359 HUNGARY, continued. Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace of Belgrade - - 1739 Temeswar incorporated with the king- dom of Hungary - - -1778 The struggle for independence com- menced in - - . . 1848 Count Lomburg, Austrian commission- er, murdered at Pesth Sept. 27, The Hungarian Diet dissolved by the emperor of Austria ; martial law- proclaimed; .Tellachich, Ban of Cro- atia, appointed to the supreme gov- ernment, - - Oct. 3, 1848 I Kossuth appointed by the Diet presi- I dent of the defence committee and | dictator- - - . Oct, 1848 I [Insurrection of Vienna, Oct. 6.] I Hungarian army advances within six i miles of Vienna; /ellachich also ad- vances there, Ocuber ]1; Kossuth retreats to Hungarian territory, 17th, Hungary declares itself an independent republic - . . Dec. 1843 Kaab (Dec.) and Buda Pesth, entered by Windisgratz - - Jan. 5, 1849 Ukase of Russiar. emperor Nicholas, declaring his purpose of aidins: Aus- tria against Hungary - April 26, Gorgey, commander-in-chief, surren- ders the Hungarian army to the Aus- trians at Villargos - Aug. llj 1919 The war ended by the complete subju- gation of Hungary, and the flight or execution of her leaders. See Germany. KINGS OP HUNGARY. . D. 997 Stephen, duke, assumes the title of kin°- 1038 Peter I., deposed. 1041 Otto, killed in battle. 1044 Peter again ascends the throne ; is again deposed, and has his eyes put out. 1047 Andrew, assassinated by his brother Bela. 1059 Bela, killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 1063 Solomon, deposed by his son. 1073 Geiga I. 1076 St. Ladislaus. 1095 Coloman. 1114 Stephen II., surnamed Thunder; turn- ed monk. 113] Bela 11. ; he had his eyes put out by his uncle Coloman, so that his queen ruled the kingdom. 1141 Geiga II. 1161 Stephen III. 1173 Bela III. 1191 Emeric. 1200 Ladislaus II. 1201 Andrew II. 1235 Bela IV. 1275 Stephen IV. 1278 Ladislaus III., murdered. 1291 AndrevvT III. 1301 Wenceslaus. 1304 Olho. 1309 1342 1383 1389 1437 1440 1444 1458 1490 1516 1526 1527 1534 1539 1561 1573 1609 1618 1625 1647 1656 1687 1711 1740 1780 Charles Robert. Louis I. tlie Great. Mary. Mary, and her husband Sigism. hd. Albert ; he died of a surfeit of melons. Ladislaus IV., killed in battle with the Turks. Ladislaus V., poisoned while an infant. Matthias I., son of Huniades, late re- gent. Ladislaus VI. Louis II. drowned whilst fighting the Turks. John Sepusius, deposed. Ferdinand, king of Bohemia. John Sepusius, again. JohnIL Maximilian, afterwards emperor 0/ Germany. Rodolphus. Matthias II. Ferdinand II., emperor of Germany. Ferdinand III., ditto. Ferdinand IV. Leopold, emperor of Germany. Joseph, ditto Charles VI , ditto. Maria Theresa. Joseph, her son, emperor of Germany. See Germany. On the death of Charles VI., in 1740, his daughter, Maria Theresa, who had married into the house of Lorraine, was in danger of being deprived of her father s hereditaiy dominions by France, and also by Bavaria ; but at length overcoming all difficulties, her husband was elected emperor, and Hungary Austria, and Bohemia are at this time governed by their descendants. See Germany. HUNS. A fierce and warlike nation, occupying eastern Tartary nearly 1200 years ; they were almost wholly exterminated by the Chinese, in a. d 93 and tlie remnant^s settled on the Volga, and attacked the Roman allies on the Danube, m 0/6 ; but having been subsidized under Attila, they turned their arms towards Germany. The latter country and Scythia were conquered by them, about a. d 433. 100 000 of them were slain on the plains of Cham- pagne m_447. They were defeated by Charles the Great in several battles during eight years, and were almost extirpated, and soon ceased to appear as 360 THE world's progress. f lAM a distinct nation after 780. When they settled in Pannonia, they gave it tho name of Hungary, wliicli see ; see also Altila. HUSS, JOHN ; His Martyrdom. The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics, Huss, who had been zealous to promote a i-efor- mation, was cited to appear before a council of divines at Constance to give an account of his doctrines. To encourage him to do so, the emperor Sigis- mund sent him a safe conduct, and engaged for his security. On the strength of this pledge he presented himself accordingly, but was soon thrown into prison, and after some months' confinement was adjudged to be burned alive. He endured this dreadful death with magnanimity and resig- nation, July 6, 1415. The same unhappy fate was borne with the same fortitude and constancy of mind by Jerome of Prague, the intimate com-" panion of Huss, who came to this council with the generous design of sup- porting and seconding his persecuted friend : he, too, suffered, May 30, 1416. See Cranmer, and Martyrs. HUSSARS. This species of force originated in Poland and Hungary ; and as they were more fitted for a hasty enterprise than a set battle, they are sup- posed to have taken their names from the huzzas or shout they made at their tirst onset. They were generally opposed to the Turkish horse, "and were oddly clothed, having the skins of tigers and other wild beasts hanging on their backs, against bad weather, and wore fur caps, with a cock's feather," — Pardon. HYDROMETER. The oldest mention of the Hydrometer occurs in the fifth century, and may be found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor of it, though no proofs of it are to be found. — Beckmann. Hypatia was torn to pieces, 415 a. d., and Archimedes was killed 212 b. c. Hydraulic chemistry became a science in 1746. HYDROSTATICS were probably first studied in the Alexandrian school, about 300 B. c. The pressure of fluids was discovered by Archimedes, about 250 B. c. The forcing-pump and air-fountain were invented by Hero, about 120 B. c. Water-mills were known about the time of the birth of Christ. The science was revived by Galileo, about a. d. 1600. The theory of rivers was scientifically understood in 1697. The correct theory of fluids and oscilla- tion of waves, explained by Newton, in 1714. A scientific form was given to hydrodynamics, by Bernoulli, 1738, HYMNS. Religious songs, or odes, were at first used by the heathens in praise of their false deities, and afterwards introduced both into the Jewish and Christian churches. St. Hilary, the bishop of Aries, in France, is said to have been the first who composed hymns to be sung in Christian churches, about a. d. 431. The hymns of the Jews are usually accompanied with trumpets, drums, and cymbals. I. IAMBIC VERSE. lambe, an attendant of Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta, when trying to exhilarate Ceres, while the latter was travelling over Attica in quest of her daughter Proserpine, entertained her with jokes, stories, and poetical eff'usions ; and from her free and satirical verses have been called Iambics. — ApoLlodorus. Iambic verses were first written, about 700 B. c, by Archilochus, Avho had courted Neobule, the daughter of Lycam- bes ; but after a promise of marriage, the father preferred another suitor, richer than the ppet; whereupon Archilochus wrote so bitter a satire on Iho old man's avarice, that he hanged himself — Herodotus. :D0 ] DICTIONARY OP DATES. 361 ICE. Galileo was the first who observed ice to be lighter than tht water which composed it, and hence ice floats, about 1597. Ice produced in summer by means of chemical mixtures, prepared by Mr. Walicer and others, in 1782. Leslie froze water under the receiver of an air-pump by placing under it a vessel full of oil of vitriol. One part of sal-ammonia and two of common salt, with five of snow, produce a degree of cold twelve degrees below the zero of Fahrenheit. Five parts of muriate of lime and four of snow freeze mercury ; and mercury can be solidified by preparations of sulphuric acid, so as to bear the stroke of a hammer. See Cold. ICE TRADE, The, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. ICELAND. Discovered by some Norwegian chiefs who were compelled to leave their native country, a. d. 871; according to some accounts, it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian pirate. It was peopled by the Norwegians, in 874. In 1783, there occurred here the most tremendous vol- canic eruption on record ; it was accompanied by violent wind and rain, and a darkness of the heavens ; and it was feared that the island would fall to pieces. Three fire spouts broke out of Mount Skapta, which, after rising to a considerable height in the air, formed a torrent of red-hot lava that flowed for six weeks, and ran a distance of 60 miles to the sea, in a broken breadth of nearly 12 miles : 12 rivers were dried up ; 21 villages totally overwhelmed by Are or water ; and 34 others were materially injured. ICELANDIC LITERATURE, Royal Society of, in Copenhagen. Their library, containing 2000 Icelandic MSS. and many books, burnt, September 26, 1847. ICONOLOGY. The science that describes men and deities, distinguished by some peculiar characteristic, and the doctrine of picture or image represen- tation. Thus, Saturn is represented as an old man with a scythe ; Jupiter with a thunderbolt, and an eagle by his side ; Neptune with a trident, in a chariot drawn by sea-horses ; Mercury, with wings on his hat and at his heels ; Bacchus, crowned with ivy ; Pallas, leaning on her tegis ; Venus, drawn by Swans or pigeons ; Juno, riding in a cloud, &c. Heathen mytho- logy gave rise to the later worship of the sun, moon, stars, and other objects ; and to the representation of the true God in various forms ; and to images. The Iconoclastic schism rent asunder the Roman Catholic church in the early part of the eighth century. See Idols. IDES. In the Roman calendar, the ides meant the thirteenth day of each month except in March, May, July, and October, in which months it was the fifteenth day, because in these four it was six days before the nones, and in the other months four days. The ides of March was the day on which Julius Caesar was assassinated in the senate house by Casca and other conspirators, 44 b. c. IDIOTS. It is shown by the latest returns, that exclusive of lunatics (see In- sanity), there are in England, pauper idiots, or idiots protected by national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 3893 ; total, 7265. In England there is one lunatic or idiot in every 1033 individuals ; in Wales, there is one in every 807 ; in Scotland, one in 731 ; and in Ireland, one in 812. IDOLS, AND IDOLATRY. The public worship of idols was introduced by Ni- nus, king of Assyria, 2059 b. c. — Vossius. Idols are supposed to have origi- nated in the pillar set up by Jacob, at Bethel, about 1800 b. c. — Dufresnoy. Constantine, emperor of Rome, ordered all the heathen temples to be de- stroyed, and all sacrifices to cease, 330 a, d. — Dufresnoy. In Britain, the 16 3tJ2 THE world's PROGflESS. [ JMf religion of the Druids gave way to the more gross and barbarous supersti- tions of the Saxons, who had their idols, altars, and temples, and they soon overspread the country with them : they had a god for every day in the week. See Week. The idolatry of the Saxons yielded to Christianity after the coming of St. Augustin. See Christianity. D^IUM. A city was built here by Dardanus, and called Dardania, 1480 b. c, Troy (which see), another city, was founded by Troas, about 1341 b. c. ; and IIus, his successor, called the country Ilium. This kingdom existed 206 years from the reign of Dardanus, Priam being the sixth and last king. The Trojan war was undertaken by the united states of Greece to recover Helen, whom Paris, son of Priam, had borne away from her husband, Menelaus, king of Sparta, 1204 b. c. See Helen. More than 100,000 warriors engaged in this expedition ; and the invaders, having wasted many defenceless towns and villages, laid siege to the capital, 1193 b. c. Troy was taken after ten years' war by stratagem, and burnt to ashes by the conquerors, who put the inhabitants to the sword, or carried them off as slaves, 1184 b. c. — Apo^io- dorus. ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Caho- kia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other states since 1800. In 1789 it was part of the North-West territory. In 1809 it was made a separate terri- tory, and in 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d state. Population in 1810, 12,282 ; in 1830, 157,575 ; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free state and has always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn ; it has in- exhaustible lead-mines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. ILLUMINATI. These were heretics who sprang up in Spain, where they Avere called Alumbrados, about a. d. 1575 ; and after their suppression in Spain, they appeared in France. One of their leaders was the friar Anthony Bou- chet. The chief doctrine of this sect was, that they obtained grace, and attained perfection, by their own sublime manner of prayer. A. secret society bearing this name was founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776. ILLUMINATED BOOKS and PAGES. The practice of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of great antiquity; and illuminated pages are,many of them, exquisitely painted. Varro wrote the lives of 700 illustrious Romans, which he embellished with their likenesses, about 70 b. c. — Plin. Hist. Nat. IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment by the commons house of parlia- ment, and the first of a lord chancellor, was in 1386. By statute of the 12th and 13th of William and Mary, it was enacted, that no pardon under the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment by the commons in parlia- ment, 1699 and 1700. Memorable impeachment of Warren Hastings, Feb. 13, 1788; the trial lasted seven years, ending April 25, 1795, in an acquittal. Impeachment of lord Melville, April 29, and his acquittal, June 12, 1806. Inquiry into the charges preferred by colonel Wardle against the duke of York, commenced Jan. 26, and ended March 20, 1809, in his acquittal. Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains and penalties, be- fore the house of lords, commenced Aug. 16 ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's defence, Oct. 3 ; and the last debate on the bill took place, Nov. 10, 1820. See Qtteen of George IV. IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT. By the Union with Ireland, the parliament of Great Britain became Imperial; and the first Imperial parliament, admit- ting 100 Irish members into the commons, and 28 temporal and 4 spiritual peers into the house of lords, was held at Westminster, January 22, 1801. IMP J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 363 The Imperial parliament is now constituted thus : in the Commons, since the passing of the Reform Bill (ivhick see), in 1832, there are 471 English ; 29 Welsh ; 105 Irish ; and 53 Scotch members— in all 658. In the Lords, 459 members, of whom 28 are temporal, and 4 spiritual representative peers of Ireland ; and 16 representative peers of Scotland. See Commons, Lords, Parliament, and Reform. IMl ORTS OF MERCHANDISE in the UNITED STATES. Table, p. 317. See Exports, &c. In 1710 1750 1775 VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, ^£4,753,777 I In 1800 7,289,582 1810 ■ 14,815,855 j 1820 .£30,570.605 41,136;i35 36,514,564 In 1830 1840 1845 jE46,21.5,2il 62,004,0(X) - 85,281,953 IBIPOSTORS. The names and pretensions of religious, political, and other im- postors, would fill a volume ; they have been, of course, found in every country, and have existed i.n every age. The following are selected from various authorities, as being among the most extraordinary : — Boleyn. She and her confederates were hanged at Tyburn, 24 Henry VIII, 1534.— Rapin. In the first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with Philip of Spain, Elizabeth Croft, a' girl of 18 years of age, was se- creted in a wall, and with a whistle, made for the purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the queen and the priux,?, and also against the mass and confession, for which she was sentenced to stand upon a scaffold at St. Paul's cross, during ser- mon-time, and make public confession of her imposture, 1553 : she was called the Spirit of the Wall. — Baker's Chron. William Racket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and was executed for blasphemy, 34 Eliz., 1591. James Naylor, personated our Saviour; he was convicted of blasphemy, scourged, and his tongue bored through with a hot iron on the pillory, by sentence of the House of Commons, under Cromwell's administration, 1656. '^''alentine Greatrakes, an Irish impostor, who pretended to cure all diseases by stroking the patient; his imposture de- ceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm disputes in Ireland, in 1665, and in England, where it fell into disrepute, in 1666, upon his examination belbre the Royal Society, after which we hear no more of him. Birch's Memoirs of the Roy. Society. Dr. Tiius Gates. See Conspiracies. Mary Tofts, of Godalming, by pretending she bred rabbits within her, .so imposed upon many persons (among others, Mr. St. Andre, surgeon to the king), that they espoused her cause, 1726. The Cock-lane ghost imposture by WiMiani Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 1762. Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed hei conception of the Messiah, and hndamul titude of followers ; she died in Dec. 18li IN THE UNITED STATES. Matthias, alias Matthews, v/ho professed to be the Messiah, New- York. 1830-31. Joseph Smith. See article Morfnons. Aldebcrt, who, in the eighth century, pre- tended he had a letter from the Redeem- er, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and deserts, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist. Gonsalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel Michael ; he was burnt by the inquisition of Spain, in 1360. George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled himself the nephew of God, sent into the world to adopt children worthy of heaven; he denied the resurrection, preached against marriage, in favor of a community of women, and taught that the body only could be defiled by'sin ; he had many followere ; died at Basle, 1556. Demetrius Griska Eutropeia, a friar, pre- tended to be the son of Basilowitz, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had put to death ; but he maintained that ano- ther child had been substituted in his place : he was supported by the arms of Poland ; his success astonished the Rus- sians, who invited him to the throne, and delivered into his hands Fedor, the reign- ing czar, and all his family, whom he cruelly put to death : his imposition beins discovered, he was assassinated in his palace, 1606.— D' Alembe7-t' s Revolutions of Russia. Sabbala Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Turks and .Jews a long time at Con- stantinople and other places, by person- ating our Saviour, 1666. IMPOSTORS EXTRAORDINARY IN BRITISH HISTORY. Two men crucified, both pretending to be the Messiah ; and two women executed for assuming the characters of the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen, 5 Henry III., 1221. ° ' J ? Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy maid of Kent, spirited up to hinder the Reforma- tion, by pretending to inspirations from heaven, fortelling that the king would have an early and violent death if^he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne IMPRESSMENT of SEAMEN. Affirmed by Sir M. Foster to be of ancient 364 THE world's progress. ^Iind practice. The statute 2 Richard II. speaks of impressment as a matter well known, 1378. The first commission for it was issued 29 Edward III. 1355. Pressing-, either for the sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the Bri- tish parliament, Dec. 1641. None can be pressed into the king's naval service above 55, nor under 18. No apprentice nor landsmen who have not served at sea for 3 or 2 years. No masters of merchants' ships, first-mates of 50 tons, and boatswains and carpenters of 100 tons. No men employed by the pub- lic boards, and none except by an oflScer with a press-warrant. INCENDIARIES. The punishment for arson was death by the Saxon laws and Gothic constitutions. In the reign of EdAvard I. incendiaries were burnt to death. This crime was made high treason by statute 8 Henry YI,, 1429; and it was denied benefit of clergy, 21 Henry VIII., 1528. IN(JEST. It has been looked upon with horror by most nations, but Persia and Egypt are exceptions. The history of the latter country abounds with in- stances of incestuous marriages among its sovereigns. Physcon married his brother's queen, then repudiated her, and married her daughter by his brother, and murdered his children by both wives, 129 b. c. See Egypt. In our own country, Vortigern, a king of South Britain, married his own daughter, a. d. 446. The instances are numerous in Portugal. Maria, queen of Portugal, married her uncle, the prince of Brazil, June, 1760; and the son of that incestuous marriage, Joseph, then in his sixteenth year, mar- ried his aunt, the princess Mary, Feb., 1777. The present Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece. Donna Maria, by procuration at Vienna, in Oct. 1826, she being then only seven years of age. In England, incest was early punished with death ; and was again made capital by a law of the Commonwealth, in 1650. INCOME TAX IN ENGLAND. This is not. as some suppose, a new impost In 1512, parliament granted a subsidy of two fifteenths from the commons, and two tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to enter on a war with France. — Rapin. This tax was attempted in 1793, and 1799 : and again in 1802; but was abandoned. In 1803. it was revived, at the rate of 5 per cent, on all incomes above 150/., and lower rates on smaller incomes. In 1805, it was increased to 6^ per cent. ; and in 1806 was raised to 10 per cent, embracing the dividends at the bank. It produced — In 1804, at \s. in the pound - jE4,650,000 I In 1806, at 2s. in the pound - jGll, 500,000 In 1805, at Is. Zd. ditto - • 5,937,500 | And subsequently - - 16,548,985 The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, &c., 8.657.937Z. ; from fund- ed and stock properties, 2.885,505Z. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088Z. and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/. ; total, sixteen millions and a half. Repealed in March, 1816. Sir Robert Peel's bill, imposing the present tax of 2/. 18s. Ad. per cent, per aim., to subsist for three years, passed June 22, 1842; it produced about 5.350,000/. a year. This tax was renewed for three years more, in March, 1845. INDEPENDENTS. Sects of Protestants, chiefly in England and Holland. They are such as hold the independency of the church, or that each congregation may govern itself in religious matters. They say there is no absolute occa- sion for sjmods or councils, whose resolutions may be taken to be wise and prudent advice, but not as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; they affirm that one church may advise or reprove another, but has no authority to ex- commimicate or censure. Their first meeting-house founded in England was that by Henry Jacobs, 1616. INDEX EXPURGATORY. A catalogue of prohibited books in the Church of Rome, first made by the inquisitors, and approved by the council of Trent. iND] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 365 The index of heretical books, by which the reading of the Scriptures was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, vv^as confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 1595, It enumerated most of the celebrated works of France, Spain, Germany, and England, and which are still prohibited. — Ashe. INDIA. Known to the ancients, many of whose nations, particularly the Ty- rians and Egyptians, carried on much commerce with it. It was conquered by Alexander, 827 b. c, and subsequently the intercourse between India and the Roman empire was very great. The authentic history of Hindoostan is reckoned to commence with the conquests of Mahmud Gazni, a. d. 1000. — Rennel. Irruption of the Mahometans, under Mahmud Gazni - - a. d. 1000 Patna, or Afghan empire founded - 1205 Reign of Jenghis Khan, one of the most bloody conquerors of the world ; 14,000,000 of the human race perish by his sword, under the pretence of establishing the worship of one god : he died 1237 The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of the celebrated Timour, or Tamer- lane, invade Hindostan - - 1398 Tamerlane takes the city of Delhi ; de- feats the Indian army, makes a con- quest of Hindostan, and butchers 100,000 of its people - - -1399 The passage to India discovered by Vasco da Gama - - - 1497 Conquest of the country completed by the sultan Baber, founder of the Mo- gul empire .... 1,525 Reign of the illustrious Acbar, the greatest prince of Hindostan - - 1555 Reign of Aurungzebe ; his dominions extendmg from 10 to 35 decrees in latitude, and nearly as much m longi- tude, and his revenue amounting to 32,000,000/. sterling - - - 1660 Invasion of the Persian, Nadir Shah, or Kouli Khan - - - . 1738 At Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 persons perish - - 1738 He carries away treasure amounting to 125,000,000/. sterling - - 1739 Defeat of the last imperial army by the Rohillas - - - - 1749 [The Mogul" empire now became mere- ly nominal, distinct and independent sovereignties being forme I by nu- merous petty princes. The empe- rors were of no political consequence from this period. BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. Attempt made to reach India by the noi'th-east and north-west passages - 1528 Sir Francis Drake's expeditions - 1579 Levant company make a land expedi- tion to India - - . - 1589 First adventure from England - - 1591 First charter to the London company of merchants - - - -1600 Second charter to the East India com- pany . . - - . 1609 Calcutta purchased - - - 1698 Capture of Calcutta by Serajah Dowla. See Calcutta. - - - - 1756 He imprisons 146 British subjects, of whom 123 perish in one night. See Blackhole. - - May 19, 1756 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards lord Clive ; he defeats the soubah, at Plassey - - June 20, 1757 Warren Hastings becomus governor of Bengal - - - April 13, 1772 India Bill. See hidia Bill June 16, 1773 Supreme court established - - 1773 Pondicherry taken - Oct. 11, 1778 The strong fortress of Gualior tajcen by major Popham - Aug. 4, 1778 Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the British • Sept. 10, 1780 He takes Arcot - - Oct. 31, 1780 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras - - - June 22, 1781 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre i Coote - - - -July 1,178) Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo Saib - Dec. 11, 1782 Trial of Warren Hastings. See Hast- ings, Trial of - Feb. 13, 1783 Definiiive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages - - March 19, 1792 Government of lord Mornington, after- wards marquis Wellesley May 17, 1798 Seringapatam stormed, and Tippoo Saib killed - - May 4, 1799 Victories of the British ; the Carnatic conquered .... 1800 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley - 1803 Marquis Cornwallis resumes the gov- ernment • - July 30, 1805 Act by which the trade to India was thrown open ; that to China remain- ing with the company July 31, 1813 Lord Amherst's government - Aug. 1, 1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as go- vernor-general - - July 4, 1328 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, iege, Jan. 3, 1849 Sheere Sing defeated by Lord Gough Feb. 21, 1849 The Punjaub formally annexed to the British crown - March 29, 1849 INDIA COMPANY, thk E-ast. The first commercial intercourse of the En- glish with the East Indies, was a private adventure with three ships fitted out in 1591 ; only one of them reached India, and after a vo3'age of three years, the commander, captain Lancaster, Avas brought home in another ship, the sailors having seized on his own ; hut his information gave rise to a capital mercantile voyage, and the Company's first charter, in Dec. 1600. Their stock then consisted of 72,000^., and they fitted out four ships, and meeting with success, have continued to trade ever since. India stock sold at 500/. for a share of lOOZ., in 1683. A new company was formed in 1698; and both were united in 1702. The India-house was built in 1726, and en- larged in 1799. Board of control instituted 1784. INDIA BILL. The bill placing the company's affairs under the control of the British government, and re-organizing the various departments in India, passed Jiine 16, 1773. See East India Bill. Mr. Fox's celebrated bill passed in the commons, but was thrown out in the lords' house, 1783. Mr. Pitt's bill constituting the Board of Control passed August 13, 1784. INDIA RUBBER. Also called Caoutchouc, first brought to Europe from South America, about the beginning of the eighteenth century. Several plants produce various kinds of elastic gum ; but that in commerce is chiefly the juice of the Si'phonia ElasLica. or syringe tree. Incisions in the bark of this tree give vent to a liquid which forms India rubber. No sub- stance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so exceedingly elastic; it oozes out under the form of a vegetable milk, from incisions made in the tree, and is gathered chiefly in the time of rain, because it flows then most abundantly. — M. Macquer. INDIANA, one of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the French ; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641 ; in 1820, 147,178 ; in 1840, 685866. INDIANS, North American. The origin of the aborigines of this continent continues to be a matter of speculation among the ethnologists. They have gradually but now almost entirely disappeared before the track of the white man east of the Mississippi, and even in the far west their numbers IND } DICTIONARY OF DATES. 367 are yearly becoming smaller. King Philip's Indian war in New England, 1675. Indians joined the French against the English colonies, 1690. At- tacked bv Capt. Church, 1704; burned Deerfield, Mass., 1704; and Haver- hill, N. H., 1708 ; Indian war in South Carolina, 1715 ; again joined the French, 1754-9 ; Cheroicees subdued, 1761 ; Indians besieged Detroit, 1763. [During the revolutionary Avar the Indians were employed at times on both sides, but chiefly by the British.] Treaty with the Choctaws, 1786 ; with the Creeks, 1790; Gen. Harmer defeated by the Indians near Chilhcothe, 1790; Gen. Butler defeated by the Indians on the Miami, 1791; treaty with Six Nations, &c., 1794 ; with the Delawares, 1804 ; Gov. Harrison de- feated hostile Indians on the Wabash, May 16, 1811 ; Creek war in Florida, Gen. Jackson, 1813 ; treaty with Choctaws, Cherokees, &c., by Gen. Jack- son, 1816 ; Indian land in Ohio ceded to the United States, 1816 ; war with Seminoles, 1817 ; bill for removing the Indians west of Mississippi, passed May 27, 1832 ; war with Winnebagoes, 1832 ; Black Hawk captured, Aug. 27, 1832; Winnebagoes subdued by Gen. Scott, 1832; war against the Indians in Florida, Alabama, and Georgia, conducted by Gens. Scott, Gaines, Jessup, &c., 1835-40. In 1836 the Secretary of War reported as follows : Number of Indians emigrated from the Atlantic States to the lands provided for them west of the Mississippi - ..... 31,357 Number yet to be removed -.-----■- 72,181 Number of Indians of indigenous tribes, between tho Mississippi and the Rocky- Mountains ■ " .... 150,341 Total within the territory of the United States • - 352,879 Treaty with the Sioux, they relinqui-Sihing 5,000,000 acres west of Missis- sippi for S1,000,000, Sept. 29, 1837 ; with Winnebagoes, Oct. 1, 1837; Powell alias Osceola, the Seminole chief, with 50 warriors, taken prisoners in Flo- rida, Oct. 20, 1837 ; great mortality from small-pox among the Mandans, Mintarees, Blackfeet, and other Indians in Missouri territory— the Mandans tribe entirely destroyed— Nov., Dec, 1837; fight in Arkansas between the Ross and Ridge parties and Cherokees— Ross and about 40 others killed, June 28, 1839; 150 Chippewas treaclierously massacred by the Sioux, at a meet- ing for a treaty at the Falls of St. Anthony, July 1, 1839 ; Cayuse Indians in Oregon having attacked and murdered 15 persons, and carried off 64 pri- soners from a missionary station, are chastised by the settlers in a severe engagement, Nov. 29, 1847. INDIGO. Before the American colonies were established, all the indigo used in Europe came from the East Indies ; and until the discovery of a passage round the Cape of Good Hope, it was conveyed like other Indian products, partly through the Persian Gulf and partly by land to Babylon, or through Arabia and up the Red Sea to Egypt. The real nature of indigo was so little known in Europe, that it was classed among minerals, as appears by letters-patent for erecting works to obtain it from mines in the prhicipality of Halberstadt, dated Dec. 23, 1705 ; yet what Vitruvius and Pliny call indicum is supposed to have been our ixxAigo. —Beckmann. The first men- tion of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. The first brought to Europe was procured from Mexico. Its cultivation was begun in Carolina, in 1747. The quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840, was 5,831,2691b., and in 1845, it was 10,127,4881b. INDULGENCES. They were commenced by Leo. III., about a. d. 800; were much used by Urban II. 1090 ; and were subsequently conferred by the Ro- man pontiffs 'in the twelfth century as rewards to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 1517, Leo. X. pubhshed general indulgences throughout Europe, when the prac- tice led to the Reformation in Germany, in 1517, and to the Reformation in 368 THE world's progress. [ INQ England, in 1534. — Bower s Lives of the Popes. Indulgences were for the pardon of sins, and were sometimes so extensive as to be for the past, pre- sent, and to come. They were written upon parchment, and sealed and signed by the pope or his delegates. — Ashe. INFIRMARIES. Ancient Rome had no houses for the cure of the sick. Dis- eased persons, however, were carried to the temple of .^sculapius for a cure, as Christian believers were taken to churches which contained wonder- working images. Benevolent institutions for the accommodation of tra- vellers, the indigent, and sick, were first introduced with Christianity, and the first infirmaries or hospitals were built close to cathedrals and monaste- ries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries situated on mountains to be visited, a. d. 855. In Jerusalem the knights and brothers attended on the sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constantinople, in the 11th cen- tury. The oldest mention of physicians and surgeons established in infir- maries, occurs in 1437. — Beckmmin. See Hospitals. INFORMERS. This tribe was once very numerous in Greece and Rome, they being countenanced by wicked princes. The emperor Titus punished in- formers by banishment, and sometimes death ; and Pliny gives praise to Trajan for the like good policy. In England, and particularly in London, numbers of unprincipled men obtain large gains as informers against per- sons whose slightest infractions of the law, often unconsciously committed, subject them to the poM^er and exactions of this despised class. INK. The ancient black inks were composed of soot and ivory-black, and Vitruvius and Pliny mention lamp-black; but they had likewise various colors, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Red ink was made by them of ver- milion and various kinds of gum. Indian ink is brought from China, and must have been in use by the people of the east from the earliest ages, most of the artificial Chinese productions being of very great antiquity. . It is usually brought to Europe in small quadrangular cakes, and is com- posed of a fine black and animal glue. — Beckmann. INNS OF COURT. A number of inns of court were established at different periods, in some degree as colleges for teaching the law. The Temple (of which there were three societies, namely, the Inner, the Middle and the Outer) was originally founded in the Temple church, built by the knights Templars, 32 Henry II. 1185. The inner and Middle Temple were made inns of law in the- reign of Edward III., about 1340 ; the Outer not until the reign of Elizabeth, about 1560. — Stoioe's Survey. INOCULATION. Lady Mary Wortley Montague introduced inoculation in England from Turkey. In 1718 she had her own son inoculated at Adrian- ople, with perfect success ; and she was allowed to have it tried, for the first time in England, on seven condemned criminals, 7 George I. 1721. The practice was preached against by many of the bishops and other clergy from that period until 1760.* Vaccine inoculation was introduced by Dr Jenner, January 21, 1799; he had discovered its virtue in 1796, and had been making experiments during the intermediate three years. He was , voted 10,000Z. as a reward by parliament, June 2, 1802. The emperor Na- poleon valued this service of Dr. Jenner to mankind so highly that he libe- berated Dr. Wickham, when a prisoner of war. at Jenner"s request, and subsequently the emperor liberated whole families of English, making it a * Inoculation was deemed a very precarious affair ny our grandfathers. The Londo7i Daily Advertiser (Nov. 7, 1751) has this paragraph : — " We hear that the son and daughter of Thomaa Davison, esq., of Blakestone, have been inoculated in this town (Nev/castle), and that they are both well recovered." Dr. Mead practised inoculation very successfully up to 1754, and Dr Dimsdale of London inoculated Catharine II., empress of Russia, in 176-8. ' See Small Pox. mS ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 369 point to refuse him nothing that he asked. Innoculation introduced in the United States by Dr. B. Waterhouse, 1800, See Small Poxaxvd Vaccination. INQUISITION. Before the conversion of Constantino the Great, the bishopa only examined into doctrines, and punished heresy with excommunica- tion ; but after the emperors became Christians, they ordained that such as were excommunicated should be also banished and forfeit their estates. This continued till about the year 800, when the western bishops' power was enlarged to the authority of citing persons to their courts, both to con- vict and punish them by imprisonment, penances, or death. In the twelfth century, heresy, as it was then called, was much increased ; and the inqui- sition arose in the persecution of the Albigenses and Waldenses. It was instituted by pope Innocent III., in 1203 , and Gregory IX. in a council held at Toulouse in 1229, gave it its final form, committing the management of it to the bishops ; but afterwards thinking these too indulgent, he gave the direction of his inquisition to the Dominicans. It was established in P'^rance, by St. Louis, in 1226 ; and in the four Christian kingdoms "of Spain. It was established in Portugal in 1536. The last great Auto da Fe was celebrated in 1781 ; and although the rack and faggot are not now employed in the work of torture and death, yet the power of the Holy office is still .exer- cised in encouraging vexations ; enjoiningjridiculous penances and priva- tions ; prohibiting liberal institutions ; and interdicting useful books. INSANITY. In England within twenty years, insanity has more than tripled. In France it is more extensive in proportion to its population than it is in most other countries. The total number of lunatics and idiots in England is as follows: lunatics 6806 — idiots 5741 — together 12,547; but allowing for defective returns, the number may be taken at 14,000 — an ave- rage of one to every tliousand of the population. In Wales : lunatics 133 — idiots 763 — total 896; and adding for parishes that have made no returns, they may be set down at 1000— a proportion of one to eight hundred. Scotland has 3652 insane persons — or one to about seven hundred. In Ireland the num- ber of lunatics and idiots exceeds 8000, as shown by returns, which, however, were not cjampleted. — Sir Andrew Halliday. The number of insane persons and idiots'in the United States, in 1840, was 17,434. There were 23 asylums capable of containing 2840 patients. Great advances have been made of late years in the treatment of insanity. The late Dr. A. Brigham of Utica, formerly of Hartford, was an able and successful philanthropist in this cause. INSOLVENCY in the UNITED STATES. In May, 1837, a ' commercial crisis' was at its height. The 'heavy' failures, in two months, in New York alone amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1. 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie pay- ments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately after. INSOLVENCY. The first Insolvent Act in England was passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation; a number of acts of more extensive operation were passed at various periods, and particularly in the reign of George III. The benefit of the act known as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England, by 50,733 insolvents, from the time of its passing in 1814, to March 1827, a period of thirteen years. Since then, the acts relating to insolvency have been several times amended. Persons not traders, or, being traders, whose debts are less than 300Z., may petition the Court of Bankruptcy, and propose compositions, and have pro tern, protection from all process against his per- son and property, 6 Vict., 1842. Act amended, 8 Vict., Aug., 184-4. INSURANCE ON SHIPS and MERCHANDISE. Suetonius conjectures that 16* 370 THE world's progress. [ mv Claudius was the first contriver of it, a. d. 43. Insurance was in general use in Italy in 1194, and in England in 1560. Insurance policies were first used in Florence in 1523. The first law relating to insurance was enacted in 1601, Insurance of houses and goods in London began in 1667. This was the year following that of the great fire of London. An office was then set up for insuring houses and buildings, principally contrived by Dr. Barton, one of the first and most extensive builders of the city of London. The first regular office set up in London was the Ha7id-i7i-Ha7id, in 1606. A duty was laid on insurances of Is. Qd. per hundred pounds insured, in 1782 : this duty was increased in 1797, and was variously altered since. The date of the first in- surance office in the United States, has not been ascertained, INSURRECTIONS in the UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massa- chusetts (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insur- rection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. INTEREST OF MONEY. It was twenty per cent, in Europe in the twelfth cen- tury. Fixed at twelve pei- cent, in Spain, Germany and Flanders, by Charles V. in 1560. — Robertson. Till the fifteenth century, no Christians were allow- ed to receive interest of money, and Jews were the only usurers, and, there- fore, often banished and pefsecuted. Interest was first settled by law in England at ten per cent., 37 Henry VIII., 1546. This law was repealed by Edward VI. ; but it was restored by Elizabeth. In those days the monarch could not borrow without the collateral security of the metropolis. Interest was reduced to eight ^er cent., and the word first used instead of usury, 21 James I., 1624. Reduced by the Rump-parliament to six per cent. ; and so confirmed at the Restoration. Reduced to five per cent., 13 Anne. 1714, at which rate it remains. The rate in Ireland is six per cent. ; regulated 14 George III.. 1773. All interest above the legal standard of Britain is usiuy, and punishable by the statute. — Blackstone. The law does not now apply to bills having only 60 days to run. See Usury Lavjs. INTEREST OF MONEY in the UNITED STATES. The rates vary in differ- ent States, viz: — In La. five pr. ct., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N. Ca., Tenn. Kent., Ohio, Ind., Illin., Misso., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y,, S. Ca., Mich., and Wise, seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Mississ., and Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Me., Conn., N, Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury, and double, treble, the usury, in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark. INUNDATIONS, It would be impossible to record in this volume the numerous catastrophes which class under this head ; the following are among the most remarkable: — An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more than 400 families, 738. — Fordun. Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and harbor of Ostend totally immersed, 1108. The present city was built above a league from the channel where the old one lies submerged. — Ilistoire de Flandre. At the Texel, which first raised the com- merce of Amsterdam, 1400. The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder Sea (see Dort), April 17, 1446. The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried away men, women, and children, in their beds, ar.d covered the tops of many mountains ; the waters settled upon the lands, and were called The Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 1483.— HoUinshed. A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in Holland, 1530 ; the number of drowned said to have been 400,000. At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons pei'ish- ed, 1617. An inundation at Yorkshire, when a rock opened, and poured out water to the height of a church steeple, 1686. — Vide Phil. Trans. Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were drowned, and incredible damage waa done at Hamburg. 1717. At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility lOM' J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 371 tMINDATIONS, continued. and other persons of distinction perished, 1723. — Du Fresnoy. In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by the torrents from the mountains, Sept. 1787. At Pest, near Presbiirg, the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabitants were swept away, April 1811. By the overflow of the Danube, a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a small island near Widdin, were surprised, and met instant death, Sept. 14, 1813. In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin of the French army under Macdonald was accelerated by the floods ; also in Po- land 4000 lives were supposed to have been lost, same year. In Germany, 119 villages were laid under water, and great loss of life and property was sustained, in March 1816. Awful inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula breaking through some of its dikes, by which 10,(300 head of cattle and 4000 houses were destroyed, and numerous lives lost, April 9, 1829. At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its in- habitants laid under water, Feb. 1830. 10,000 houses swept away, a?' id e,bout lOOO persons perished, at Cantor', ir. China, in consequence of an ir. t:r.dation, occasioned by incessant rains. Equal or greater ca- lamity was produced by the same cause in other parts of China. Oct. 1833. Awful inundation in France ; the Saone poured its waters into the Rhone, brok-j through its banks, and covered 60,000 acres ; Lyons was inundated, in Avignon 100 houses were swept away ; 218 houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and IMismes ; the Saone had not attained such a height for 2-38 years, Oct. 31 to Nov. 4, 1840. Inundation of the Mississippi at New Or- leans, 160 squares and 1600 houses flood- ed, May 12, 1849. The inundations of the Ohio, Mississippi &c., at difierent time.s, have caused greai destruction of property, and (at times) of life. INVOCATION OF THE VIRGIN and SAINTS. The practice of the Romish church of invoking the intercession of saints with God, particularly the praj^ers to the Virgin, has been traced to the time of Gregory the Great, about A. D. 593. — Ashe. The Eastern church begun (in the fifth century) by calling upon the dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in the di- vine offices ; but the Western church carried it so far as frequently to ca- nonize those they had any regard for, though the wickedness of their lives gave them no title to any such honor, to make processions, masses, litanies, prayers and oblations for and to them. IODINE. This most important substance was discovered by M. de Courtois, a manufacturer of saltpetre at Paris, in 1812 ; the discovery was pursued with great advantage by M. Clement, in 1813. Iodine is very active ; it is of a violet hue, easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees ; changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven-thousandth part converts water to a deep yel- low color, and starch into a purple. Five volumes of oxygen and one of iodine form iodic acid. IONIAN ISLANDS. They were subject to Venice until ceded by the treaty of Carapo-Formio to France, in 1797. By a treaty between Russia and Great Britain they were placed under the protection of the latter power, November 5, 1815. A constitution was ratified by the prince regent of England for the government of these islands in 1818. The Ionian Islands are now among the free states of Europe. Corfu is the principal, and the seat of government. , IONIC ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE. This order which is an improvement on the Doric, was founded by the lonians, about 1350 b. c. — Vitruvius by PerrauU. IONIC SECT OF PHILOSOPHERS. Founded by Thales of Miletus, 570 b. c. This sect distinguished itself for its deep and abstruse speculations, under the successors and pupils of the Milesian philosopher, Anaximander, Anax- imenes, Auaxagoras. and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French posses- sions, and was included in the vast tract of country purcha3ed in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a ter- ritory, 1838. Admitted into the Union, Dec. 1846. Population in 1840, 43,111. 372 THE world's progress [IRO IPSUS, Battle of, by which Seleucus is confirmed in his kingdom by the de- feat and death of Antigonus, king of Asia. On the one side were Antigo- nus and his son ; on the other Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cas- sander. The former led into the field an army of above 70,000 foot, and 10,000 horse, with 75 elephants. The latter's forces consisted of 64,000 in fantry, besides 10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Anti gonus and his son were defeated, 301 b. c. — Plutarch. IRELAND. It is disputed by historians from what nation this country wai originally peopled. It seems, however, to be satisfactorily shown that the first colonists were Phoenicians. The Partholani landed in Ii'eland about 2048 B. c. The descent of the Damnonii was made about 1463 b. c. This was followed by the descent of Heber and Heremon, Milesian princes, from Gali- cia, in Spain, who conquered Ireland, and gave to its throne a race of 171 kings. sacre the Protestant settlers in Ulster, to the number of 40,000 persons, com- menced on St. Ignatius's day, Oct. 23, 1641 Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island to obedience between 1649 and 1656 Landing of king William III. at Car- rickfergus - - June 14, 1690 Battle of the Boyne ; the Duke of Schomberg killed - .July ], 1690 Memorable Irish rebellion commenced May 4, 1798, and was not finally sup- pressed until the next year - - 1799 Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland - - - Jan. 1, 1801 Emmett's insurrection - July 23, 1803 Roman Catholic emancipation. (See Roman Catholics) - April 13, 1829 Great repeal movement ; meeting at Trim. (See Repeal) - March 19, 1843 O'Connell's trial. (See Trials) Jan. 15, 1844 O'Connell died at Genoa, ffit. 72, May 15, 1847 Famine and great distress in Ireland throughout .... 1847 Relieved by England, and by voluntary gifts from the United States. Bill for suppression of crime in Ireland passed parliament - Dec. 20, 1847 Mitchell convicted of treason - May 26, 1848 Habeas Corpus act suspended, July 25, 1848 Smith O'Brien arrested, and the rebel- lion put down - - Aug. 5, 1848 Arrival of Heremon - -B.C. 1070 A colony from Spain bring with them the Phoenician letters, about - - 500 Arrival of St. Patrick - - a. d. 448 The renowned Brian Boiroimhe is crowned at Tara - - - 1002 Battle of Clontarf, which terminates the power of the Danes - -1039 [In the twelfth century Ireland is divi- ded into five kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Connaught, and Munster ; besides a number of petty principalities, whose sovereigns con- tinually war with each other.] Adrian IV permitted Henry II. to in- vade Ireland, on condition that he compelled every Irish family to pay a carolus to the Holy See, and held it as a fief of the church - - 1157 Henry II. lands near Waterford, and re- ceives the submissions of the kings and princes of the country, settles the government upon a footing similar to that of England, and makes his son John lord of Ireland - - - 1172 Ireland wholly subdued - - - 1210 English laws and customs introduced by king John - - - - 1210 Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, . instead of Zo?-rf of Ireland - -1542 The Catholics enter into a conspiracy to expel the English, and cruelly mas- IRON. It was found on Mount Ida by the Dactyles, owing to the forests of the mount having been burnt by lightning, 1432 b. c. — Anmdelian Marbles. The Greeks ascribed the discovery of iron to themselves and referred glass to the Phoenicians ; but Moses relates that iron was wrought by Tubal-Cain. Iron furnaces among the Romans were unprovided with bellows, but were placed on eminences with the grate in the direction of the prevailing winds. Swedish iron is very celebrated, and Daunemora is the greatest mine of Sweden. British iron was cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baude, in Sussex, in 1543. — Rymer's Fmdera. Iron-mills were first used for slitting iron into bars for smiths by Godfrey Bochs, in 1590. Tinning of iron was first introduced from Bohemia in 1681. There are upwards of 800,000 tons of iron produced annually in England.* For iron vessels, iron war-steamors, &c., see Steamers. * Tnere is iron enough in the blood of forty-two men to make a ploughshare weighing twentr- four pounds. — Anon. ITA ] DICTIONARY OF DATES. 373 IRON-MASK, THE MAN of the. A mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask, and closely confined, under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol, Suinte Mar- guerite, and afterwards at the Bastile. He was of noble mien, and was treated with profound respect; but his keepers had orders to dispatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in his presence. Some conjecture him to have been an Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from Constantinople, although he died ten years before the mask ; others that he was the count de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV., although he was reported to have perished in the camp before Dixmude. More believe him to have been the celebrated duke of Beaufci t, whose head is recorded to have been taken off before Candia ; while ?till more assert that he was the unfortunate James, duke of Mon- mouth, who, in the imagination of the Londoners, at least, was executed on Tower-hill But there are two better conjectures ; he is said to have been a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis XIIL, his father being tte duke of Buckingham ; or the twin-brother of Louis XIV., whose birth was con- cealed to prevent civil dissensions in France, which it might one day have caused. The mask died after a long imprisonment, Nov. 19, 1703. ISLAMISM. The religion of Mahomet, planned by him in a cave near Mecca, where he employed a Persian Jew, well versed in history and laws, and two Christians, to assist him. One of these latter was of the Jacobite, and the other of the Nestorian sect. With the help of these men he framed his Koran, or the book which he pretended to have received at different times from heaven by the hands of the angel Gabriel. At the age of forty he publicl}^ assumed the prophetical character, calling himself the apostle of God, A. D. 604. See Koran, Mecca, d^-c. [SLE OF FRANCE. Discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. The French formed their establishment at Port Louis in 1715. This island, together with six French frigates and many Indiamen was taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. They retain pos- session of it, and it is now a fixed British colony. SeeMauritius. ISMAEL, Siege of, in Bessarabia. After a long siege by the Russians, who lost 20,000 men before the place, the town was taken by storm, December 22, 1790 ; when the Russian general, Suwarrow, the most merciless and sa- vage warrior of modern times, put the brave Turkish garrison, consisting of 80,000 men, to the sword ; every man was butchered ; and Suwarrow, not satisfied with this vengeance, delivered up Ismael to the pillage of his ferocious soldiery, and ordered the massacre of 6000 women, who were murdered in cold blood, ISSUS. Battle of. Alexander defeats Darius in this, his second great battle with him ; Darius loses 100,000 men, and his queen and family are cap- tured, 333 B. c— Plutarch. The Persians lost 100,000 foot and 10,000 horse in the field ; and the Macedonians only 300 foot and 150 horse. — Diodorus Siculus. The Persian army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 foot and 100,000 horse, and 61,000 of the former, and 10,000 of the latter, were left dead on the spot, and 40,000 were taken prisoners. — Jiislin. ISTHMIAN GAMES. These were combats among the Greeks, and received their name from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were observed, insti- tuted in honor of Melicerta, 1326 b. c. — Lenglet. They were re-instituted in honor of Neptune by Theseus, and their celebration was held so sacred and inviolable that even a public calamity could not prevent it. 1259 b. c, — Aru7idelian Marbles. ITALY. The garden of Europe, and the nurse of arts as well as arms. It re- ceived its name from Italus, a king of the country, or from Italos, a Greek word signifying an ox. The aborigines of Italy were the progeny of BU THE WORLD'S PROGRESS. [JAO Meshech, the sixth son of Japheth. In process of time, the Gomerites oi Celts, who inhabited the greatest part of Gaul, sent several colonies into Italy, while other colonists arrived from Greece, and the country was di- vided into three grand parts, viz. — Cisalpine Gaul, the settlement of the Celts; Italia Propria, the residence of the first inhabitants; and Mag'na Gra^cia, the seat of the Grecian colonists. The modern inhabitants of Italy may be derived from the Goths and Lombards, who contributed so largely to the overthrow of the Roman empire, and who founded on its ruins the kingtloms of Italy and Lombardy. For Roman empire, see Tabular Vieics 476 553 568 596 697 774 800 Rome taken and plundered by the Visi- goths under Alaric. See Roine a. d. 410 The Huns ravage the Roman empire under Attila, " the Scourge of God" - iA7 The Western Roman empire is de- stroyed by the Heruli, whose leader, Odoacer, erects the kingdom of Italy The reign of Totila, who twice pillages Rome, and reduces the inhabitants to such distress, that the ladies and peo- ple of quality are obliged to beg for bread at the doors of the Goths - 541 to 552 The power of the Goths destroyed, and their kingdom overthrown by the ge- nerals of the Eastern empire - Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards from Germany into this country .... The Lombards overrun Italy Venice first governed by a doge Charlemagne invades Italy - He repairs to Rome, and is crowned emperor of the West - [During the reign of Charlemagne, the pope of Rome, who had hitherto been merely a spiritual minister, finds means to assume a temporal power, not only independent of, but superior to all others.] Pope Damasius II. is the first who caus- es himself to be crowned with a tiara 1053 Pope Gregory VII., surnamed Hilde- brand, pretends to universal sove- reignty, in which he is assisted by the countess Matilda, mistress of the greater part o^Italy, who makes a do- nation of all her estates to the Church 1076 Disputes between the popes and empe- rors, relative to the appointment of bishops, begin about 1106, and agitate Italy and Germany during several centuries. The Venetians obtain many victories over the Eastern emperors - - 1125 Tuscany becomes independent - - 1208 The duchies of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio are created - - - 1228 Milan erected into a duchy - - 1277 The papal seat removed for seventy years to Avignon, in France - - 130£ The cardinals not agreeing in the elec- tion of a pope, they set fire to the con- clave, and separate, and the papal chair is left vacant for two years - 1314 Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, witli the title of imperial vicar .... 132S Lucca becomes an independent repui. lie 1370 Naples conquered by Ciiarles VIII. - 14S2 The republic of Venice loses all its Ita- lian provinces in a single campaign, assailed by the pope, the emperor, and the kings of Spain and France - 1503 Leo X. having exhausted all his finan- ces, opens the sale of indulgences and absolutions, which soon replenishes his treasury .... 1517 Parma and Placentia made a duchy - 1545 Cosmo de Medicis made grand-duke of Tuscany by Pius V. - - - 1569 Pope Gregory XIII. reforms the calen- dar. See Calendar - - - 1582 Ambassadors from Japan to the pope. See JedcZo - - - -1619 The Corsicans revolt from the Genoese, and choose Theodore for their king. See Corsica .... 1736 Milan vested in the house af Austria by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle - 1748 Division of the Venetian states by France and Austria - - - 1797 Italy overrun, and Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte - - - - - 1798 The Italian republic - - - 1802 Italy formed into a kingdom, and Napo- leon crowned .... 1805 Eugene Beauharnois made Viceroy of Italy 1805 The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon - - - - 1814 [The various other events relating to Italy will be found under the respec- tive lieads of Genoa., Lombardy. 3Ii- lan, Naples, Rome., Venice, Sfc] The population of the whole of Italy proper now amounts to 23.677,000.— Alvi , de Gotha. /. Introduced into the alphabet by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1660. — Du Fresnoy. JACOBINS. The name given to one of the principal parties in the French re- volution. The Jacobin club originated from a small and secret association of about forty gentlemen and men of letters, who had united to disseminat* /AN J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 375 political and other opinions ; the members were called Jacobins from their meeting in the hall of the Jacobin friars at Paris. The club became nii« merous and popular, and fraternal societies were instituted in all the prin- cipal towns of the kingdom. From its institution, one principal object was, to discuss such political questions as seemed likely to be agitated in the national assembly, in order that the members might act in concert. They are represented as having been determined enemies of monarchy, aristo- cracy, and the Christian religion, and may be regarded as the first grand spring of the revolution. They were suppressed October 18, 1794. The religious sect called Jacobins are those of both sexes who follow the rules of St. Dominick. See Domi7iicans. JACOBITES. A sect among the eastern Christians, so called from Jacob Ba- radasus, a Sj^'rian, whose heresy spread to a great extent in the sixth and seventh centuries. In England existed a political party called Jacobites. They were the partisans of James II., and were so named after his expul- sion in 1688. Those who openly appeared in arms for, or who expressed their wishes to restore the abdicated family, were called Jacobites ; the dis- tinction is now entirely lost. • JAFFA. Celebrated in Scripture as Joppa, the port whence Jonah embarked, and the place where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead. In profane history, the place whence Perseus delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by Bona- parte in February 1799 ; and the French were driven out by the British in June, same year. Here, according to sir Robert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners by Bonaparte : but this is reasonably doubted. JAMAICA. Discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1495. It was conquered from the Spaniards by admiral Penn, and the land forces commanded by Venables in 1655; the expedition had been planned by Oliver Cromwell against St. Domingo. An awful earthquake occurred here in 1692; and the island was desolated by a furious hurricane in 1722 ; and again 1734 and 1751. In June 1795, the Maroons, or original natives, who inhabit the mountains, rose against the English, and were not quelled till March 1796. Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, vessels wrecked, and a thousand persons drowned, October 1815. An alarming insurrection, commenced by the negro slaves, in which numerous plantations were burned, and property of immense value destroy- ed. Before they were overpowered, the governor, lord Belmore, declared the island under martial law, Dec. 22, 1831. Awml fire here, Aug. 26, 1843. The Cholera in 1850. JANISSARIES. This order of infantry in the Turkish army was formerly reputed to be the grand seignor's foot guards. They were first raised by Amurath I. in 1361 ; and have several times deposed the sultan. Owing to an insurrection of these troops on the 14th June, 1826, when 3000 of them were killed on the spot, the Ottoman army was reorganized, and a firman was issued declaring the abolition of the Janissaries two days afterwards. JANSENISM. This sect was founded by Cornelius Jansen, bishop of YpreSj about 1625. Jansen was a prelate of piety and morals, but his "AugusH- nus," a book in which he maintained the Augustine doctrine of free grace, and recommended it as the true orthodox belief, kindled a fierce contro- versy on its publication in 1640, and was condemned by a bull of pope Ur- ban VIII. JANUARY. This month, the first in our year, derives its name from Janus, a divinity among the early Romans. See next article. January was added to the Roman calendar by Numa, 713 b. c. He placed it about the winter sol- stice, and made it the first month, because Janus was supposed to preside over the beginning of all business. This god was painted with two faces, 376 THE WORLD S PROGRESS. [ JEJ* because, as some persons have it, on the one side the firstof January looked towards the new year, and on the other towards the old one. On the first day, it was customary for friends and acquaintances to make each other presents, from whence the custom of new year's gifts, still retained among us, was originally taken. JANUS, Temple of, at Rome. Was erected by Romulus, and kept open in the tmie of war and closed in time of peace. It was shut only twice, during above 700 years, viz : — under JSTuma, 714 b. c. and under Augustus, 5 b. c, ; and during that long period of time, the Romans Avere continually employed in war. JANVILLIERS, Battle of, between the French and Prussians, in which, after an obstinate engagement, Blucher, who commanded the latter army, was driven back to Chalons with considerable loss, February 14, 1814. About this period there were many battles fought between Napoleon and Blucher, and Napoleon and prince Schwartzenberg, until the capitulation of Paris, March 31, 1814. JAPAN. TMs island was first made known to Europe by Marco Paulo ; and was visited by the Portuguese about 1535. The Japanese are as fabulous as the Chinese in the antiquity of their empire, but the certain period begins with the hereditary succession of the ecclesiastical emperors, from the year 660 B. 0. The English visited Japan in 1612. There was once a great num- ber of Christians in different parts of the empire ; but, in 1622, they under- went great persecutions, insomuch that they were all extirpated. See Jeddo. JAVA. The atrocious massacre of 20 000 of the unarmed natives by the Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to possess their effects, took place in 1740, and for its cruelty and cowardice fixes an indelible stain not only upon their nation, but upon man. The island capitulated to the British, August 8, 1811. The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 1813. Java was restored to Holland in 1814. 3EDD0. The capital of Japan, containing about 1,680,000 inhabitants, a num- nearly equal to London. In 1619, ambassadors from Japan arrived at the court of Paul V. to do him homage as the head of the Christian religion, Avhich their mastef had embraced through the preaching of the Jesuit mis- sionaries ; but the misconduct of the Jesuits, who were endeavoring to over- . turn the Japanese government, caused them to be expeJed in 1622, and the inhabitants relapsed into their former idolatry. The emperor's palace is of indescribable magnificence ; its hall of audience is supported by many pillars of massive gold and plates of gold cover its three towers, each nine stories high. Several other costly palaces, belonging to the emperor, empress, con- cubines, and vassal kings, enrich this great eastern city. rEMMAPPES, Battle of, one of the most obstinate and bloody of modern times ; 40,000 French troops forced 28,000 Austrians, who were intrenched in woods and mountains, defended by forty redoubts, and an immense number of cannon ; the revolutionary general Dumouriez was the victor in this battle, whi3h lasted four days. According to the most authentic accounts, the number of killed on the side of the Austrians amounted to 10,009, ou that of the French to 12,000, Nov. 5, 1792. JENA, Battle op, one of the most sanguinary of modern times, between the French and Prussian armies; the one commanded by the emperor Na- poleon, and the other by the Prussian king, who was signally defeated, with the loss of 30,000 slain, and nearly as many thousands made prisoners. In JE8 J DICTIONARY OF DATES. 377 this battle the Prussians lost 200 field-pieces, and Napoleon advanced to iJerlin, Oct. 14, 1806 JERSEY, GUERNSEY, SARK, and ALDERNEY, appendages to the duchy of Normandy, were united to the crown of England, by William the Con- queror, in 1066. Jersey was attempted by the French in 1779 and 1781. A body of French troops surprised the governor, made him prisoner, and compelled him to sign a capitulation ; but major Pierson, the commander of the Enghsh troops, refusing to abide by this' forced capitulation, attacked the French, and compelled them to surrender prisoners of war; but he was killed in the moment of victory, Jan. 6, 1781, JERUSALEM. Built 1800 b. c. The first and most famed Temple was found- ed by Solomon, 1015 b. c. ; and was solemnly dedicated on Friday, October 30, 1004 B. c, being one thousand years before the birth of Christ —Blair ; Usher; Bible. Jerusalem was taken by the Israelites, 1048 b. c. and by Nebuchadnezzar, 587 b. c. Razed to the ground by Titus, a. d. 70, after one of the most remarkable sieges in history. More than 1,100,000 of the Jews perished on this occasion. A city was built on the ruins of the former by the emperor Adrian, a, d. 130. The walls were rebuilt by the empress Eu- doxia in 437. Jerusalem was taken by the Persians in 614; by the SaiAcens in 636; and by the crusaders, when 70,000 infidels were put to the sword, 1099. A new kingdom was founded, which lasted 88 years. Taken from the Christians by Saladin, in 1187 ; and by the Turks, who drove away the Saracens in 1217. Jerusalem was taken by the French under Bonaparte in February 1799. See Jews. JESTER. In some ancient works, a jester is described as "a witty and jocose person, kept by princes to inform them of their faults, and those of other men, under the disguise of a Avaggish story." Several of the early English kings kept jesters, and particularly the Tudors. There was a jester at court in the reign of James I., but we hear of no licensed jester afterwards. JESUITS. The order was founded by Ignatius Loyola (who was canonized), a page to Ferdinand V. of Spain, and subsequently an officer of his army. Loyola having been wounded at the siege of Pampeluna, in both legs, a. d. 1521, devoted himself to theology while under cure, and renounced the mi- litary for the ecclesiastical profession. His first devout exercise was to dedi- cate his life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; he next made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his return laid the foundation for his new order in France. He presented the institutes of it in 1539, to pope Paul III. who made many objections to them; but Ignatius adding to the three vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit submission to the holy see, the institution was confirmed by a bull, September 27, 1540, by which their number was not to exceed 60. That clog, however, was taken off by another bull, March 14, 1543 ; and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII., granted them such great privileges as rendered them pow- erful and numerous. But though FrauQois Xaviei', and other missionaries, the first brothers of the order, carried it to the extremities of the habitable globe, it met with great opposition in Europe, particularly at F.iris. The Sorbonne issued a decree in 1554, by which they condemned the institution, as being calculated rather for the ruin than the edification of the faithful Even in Romish countries, the intrigues and seditious writings of this order, have occasioned it to be discountenanced. The Jesuits were expelled Eng- land by proclamation, 2 James I. 1604, and Venice 1606. They were put down in France by an edict from the king, and their revenues confiscated, 1764 ; and were banished Spain 1767. Suppressed by pope Clement XIV. in 1773. Restored by Pius VII. in 1814 ; and since tolerated in other states, 378 THE world's progress. [ JEMr and e"ven where not tolerated, the body, as now in England, possesses a se- cret and extensive existence. JESUS CHRIST. Born on Monday, December 25, a. m. 4004, in the year of Rome 752 ; but this event should be dated four years before the commence- ment of the common era. See Nativity. Christ's baptism by John, and his first ministry, a. d. 30. He celebrated the last passover, and instituted the sacrament in its room, on Thursday, April 2. He was crucified on Fri- day, April 3, at three o'clock in the afternoon. He arose, April 5 ; ascended to heaven from Mount Olivet, on Thursday, May 14, following : and hia Spirit descended on his disciples on Sunday, the day of Pentecost, May 24, A, D. 33. JEWELRY. Worn by most of the early nations. So prodigious was the ex- travagance of the Roman ladies, that Pliny the elder says, he saw Lollia Paulina wearing ornaments which were valued at 322.916^. sterling. Jewels were worn in France by Agnes Sorel, in 1434. The manufacture was ex- tensively encouraged in England in 1685. See article Dress. JEWISH ERA. The Jews usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the fifteenth century, when a new mode of computing was adopted by them. They date from the creation, which they consider to have been 3760 years and three months before the commencement of our era. To reduce Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. JEWS. A people universally known both in ancient and modern times. They derive their origin from Abraham, with whom, according to the Old Testa- ment and the Jewish writers, God made a covenant, 1921 b. c. See Tabular Views, p. 6 to p. 42. JEWS, Modern History of. Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple are sacked and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews perish, multi- tudes destroying themselves a. d. 70 100,000 Greeks and Romans are mur- dered by the Jews about Gyrene - 115 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem, and erects a temple to Jupiter - - - 130 More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the Romans, in 135 and - - 136 [They are now banished from Judea by an edict of the emperor, and are for- bidden to retunij or even to look back upon their once flourishing and be- loved city, on pain of death. From this period, the Jews have been scat- tered among all other nations.] GENERAL HISTORY. Jews first arrive in England - - 1078 Thinking to invoke the divine mercy, at a solemnization of the Passover, they sacrifice a youth, the son of a rich ti-adesman at Paris, for which the criminals are executed, and all Jews banished France - - - 1080 The Jews massacred in lyondon, on the coronation-day of Richard I., at the instigation of the priests - -1089 500 bemg besieged in York castle by the mob, they cut each other's throats to avoid their fury - - - 1190 Jews of both sexes imprisoned ; their eyes or teeth plucked out, and num- bers inhumanly butchered, by king John 1204 They circumcise and attempt to cruci- fy a child at Norwich ; the offenders are condemned in a fine of 20,000 marks 1235 They crucify a child at Lincoln, for which eighteen are hanged - - 1255 700 Jews are slain in London, a .lew having forced a Christian to pay him more than 2s. per week as interest upon a loan of 20s. — S'towe - - 1262 Statute that no Jew should enjoy a free- hold, passed .... 1269 Every Jew lendmg money on interest compelled to wear a plate on his breast signifying that he was a usu- rer, or to quit the realm - - 1274 267 Jews hanged and quartered for clipping coin - - . - 1277 They crucify a child at Northampton, for which fifty are drawn at horses' tails and hanged - - - 1282 15,660 Jews are apprehended in one day, and are all banished England. — RapiJi - - - . - 1287 Massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the peasantry ; 500 defend themselves in a castle, where, for want of weapons, they throw their children at their en- emies, and then destroy one another 131 A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they are suspected of having poison- ed the springs, and 1,500,000 are mas- sacred. — Lehglet. - - - 1348 500,000 Jews are banished Spain, and 150,000 from Portugal - - 1492 They are banished France - - 1494 After having been banished England 365 years, they are re-admitted bv Cromwell, in virtue of a treaty with Manasseh Ben Israel - • • 1652 m ,^^JSL. jtjd] dictionary of dates. 379 land, lost on the second reading, by a majority in tlie Commons, 228 against 165 - - - May 17, 1830 Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff of London ; and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on whom that honor has been conferred, Nov. 9, 18J7 Ukase of the emperor of Russia, per- mitting the title of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew who ren- ders himself worthy of it - - ISiQ Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a persecution of the Jews be- gan at Dan ascus. — See Damascus Feb. 1, 1&40 JEWS, continued. Statute to naturalize them in England, passed ----- 1753 This act repealed on the petition of all the cities in England : - - 1754 The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avisnon are declared to be citizens of France - - . - 1790 Sitting oJ'the great Sanhedrim, of Paris, convened by the emperor Napoleon Jan. 20, 1S07 London Society for promoting Christi- anity among the Jews - - 1808 Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph to converted Jews, Sept. 1, 1820 Bill for Jewish emancipation in Eng- | JOAN OF ARC, OR MAID OF ORLEANS. The young and celebrated heroine of France. The English under Bedford closely besieging Orleans, .loan of Arc pretended she had a divine commission to expel them, and Charles VII. intrusted her with the command of the French troops. She raised the siege, and entered Orleans with supphes, April 29, 1429, and the En- glish who were before the place from October 12, preceding, abandoned the enterprise. May 8, following. She captured several towns in the possession of the English, whom she defeated in a battle near Patay, June 10, 1429. In her various achievements no unfeminine cruelty ever stained her conduct. She was wounded several times herself, but never killed any one, or shed any blood with her own hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, May 25, 1481 ; and to the great disgrace of the English, was burnt for a witch five days afterwards at Rouen, in the 22d (some say 29th) year of her age. — Voltaire's Pucelle d" Orleans. JOHN DOE AND RICHARD ROE. Names, as pledges to prosecute, well known in the law. Magna Charta demanded witnesses before trial, and since the reign of Edward III. the fictitious names of John Doe and Richard Roe are put into writs, as pretended witnesses. JUBILEE. By Mosaic institution the Jews celebrate a Jubilee every fifty years. Among the Christians a jubilee every century was instituted by ipope Boniface VIII., in the year 1300. It was celebrated every fifty years by command of pope Clement VI. ; and was afterwards reduced by Urban VI. to every thirty-third year ; and Sixtus V. to every twenty-fifth year, at which period it is now fixed, JUDGES. On the Norman conquest the judges had the style of Justiciarius Anglice : these judges continued until the erection of the Courts of King's Bench and Common Pleas. The last who had the office of Justiciarius Anglus was Phillip Basset, in 1261. Judges punished for bribery, 17 Edward I, 1288, when Thomas de Weyland was banished the land; and in 1351, Wil- liam de Thorp was hanged. John de Cavendish was beheaded by the Kent- ish rebels, 1382. Tresylian, chief justice, was executed for favoring des- potism, and other judges were seized and condemned, 1388. The prince of Wales was committed by Judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the bench 1412. Sir Thomas More, lord chancellor, was beheaded, July 6, 1535, Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley taken off the bench and committed by the commons, 1641. Three impeached, 1680. Most of them dismissed for not allowing the legality of a dispensing power in the crown, 3 James II. 1687. The celebrated Judge Jefferies was committed by the lord mayor to the Tower, where he died, 1689. The independence of the judges in England was established by making their appointments patents for life, 1761, Judges were sent to India, 1773. Three additional judg