NGLANDandjts rulers wx<>x<;<,< ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS CONCISE COMPENDIUM OF THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND ITS PEOPLE BY If H. POMEROY BREWSTER ANU GEORGE H. HUMPHREY /" CHICAGO ) Z3^/X; / S. C. GRIGGS AND COMPANY I 1892 'C [the library I |eFC01IGRESS| WASHIMOTOMM Copyright, 1892 By S. C. CRIGGS AND (^OMPANY i'^ «riK ILnkfsilir pnss R. DONNELl.KY \- SONS CO., CHICAGO TABLE OF CONTENTS. Fore-words, . ... Chronological Table of Notable Events pn:or: h) THE Norman Conquest, .... Rulers prior to the Norman Conquii-t, Rulers After the Norman Conquest, Genealogy of English Sovereigns, . • . Table Showing the Succession to the Crown of Eng- land, ....... Chronolo(;ical Table of Notable Events Connected WITH British Rule in India, . Memorable Naval Engagements in English History, Lord Chancellors or Lord Keepers of Englatid, English Universities and CoLi.rr • , Celts and Romans, ...... Saxons and Danes, .... Historical Memoranda of ttt Paxo:i Li::r. . Norman Conquest, .... William I., .... . William II., .... Henry I., .... . Stephen of Blois, Historical Memoranda of the Norman Ijtnf, The Angevins or PLANTAcrrrT!^, Henry If, Richard I.. . John, Henry III., Edward I., Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Historical Memoranda of THE PlANTAGENET LiNE, X xii xvm xxii xxvii xxxii 1 9 23 . 29 29 36 41 . 40 49 . 52 52 . 58 63 . 69 74 . 79 81 . 87 90 IV ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. House of Lancaster, . . . . . .97 Henky IV 97 Hf.nry v., 101 Henky VI., lt>G House op York, . . . . . . .111 Edward I\ . . . . . . . HI Edward V., ...... ll-"> Richard III., ..... HO Historical Memoranda of thr Houses o"^ Tv\n'v\ster AND York, . . . . . .119 House of Tudor, ...... 1-- Henry VII., 122 Henry VIII., 128 Edward VI., ...... l.'U) Mary I., 14.'} Elizabeth, ....... 110 Historical Memoranda of the House of Tudor, . 157 House of Stuakt — First Epoch, .... 100 James I., of England and VT. of Scotland . 100 Charles I., ...... lOS The Commonwealth, ..... 170 The Protectorate, ...... 178 Oliver Cromwell, ..... 178 Interregnum, ....... 183 House of Stuart Second Epncn, . . . 186 Charles II., 186 James II 197 William III. and Mary II 201 Anne 210 Historical Memoranda of the House of Stuart, . 210 House of Hanover, ...... 223 George I., 223 George II 227 George III.. ...... 23.'3 George IV 248 William IV 2.-)2 Victoria, ...... 257 Historical Memoranda of the House of Hanover, . 277 FOEE-WOKDS. The following pages have been written only after long and patient individual study and research, followed by careful and critical comparison of our personal notes. There are so many ways in which the history of a nation may be written, that a few words in refer- ence to our plan and object may be advisable. AVe have adopted an entirely novel plan, for the especial purpose of meeting the wants of that large class of American readers who have not the time or opportunity to read an extended and exhaustive history of the Mother Nation, yet who desire a practical and comprehensive knowledge of its more important features. Hence we have written, not with a purpose of showing the causes which have led to events, or their results, though when it could be done concisely we have furnished that information; but with the idea of disengaging from the great mass of facts, those which relate to the permanent forces of the Nation, and of recording them in a clear, terse and succinct manner, thus indicating some of the more marked features connected with the story of Great Britain, its rulers and its people. AVith this in view we have given special attention to the jrrowth or decline of the monarchy, the aris- VI ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. tocracy, and the democracy; tt) the agricultural, manufacturing and commercial interests; and to the origin and constantly increasing power of Parliament, and the influence of the Church. A carefully compiled Index of the events named, and a very com[)lete list of notable persons will, we think, enable students, scholars, writers for the press, and all persons interested in English History, to locate on the instant any fact or personage they may be in search of, and thus add very materially to the value of the book. THE AUTHORS. Rochester, N. Y., April, 1892. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF NOTABLE EVENTS PKIOE TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. B. C, First invasion of Britain l)y the Romans under Julius Ciesar, . . . . . . .55 Second invasion of the Romans under the same nionareh, 5i Cunobelin, King of Camulodunum, ... 4 A. D. Invasion under Claudius. Emperor of Rome, . . 4.3 Nine years War between the Romans and Britons, . 4.3 to .52 Caractacus, the British Leader, is carried in chains to Rome, 52 Suetonius Paulinus, in the reign of Nero, landing on the Isle of Anglesey, destroys the altars and groves of the Druids, ...... Gl London is burned by the Britons under Queen Boadicea. Romans defeat Queen Boadicea, who poisons herself, Gl Roman Rule finally established in Britain by Julius Agricola, ....... 78 Stone Wall and Rampart built from the Tyne to the Sol- way Frith l)y the Emperor Adrian, . . 120 1 Second Wall and Rampart built between the Friths of Clyde and Forth, . . . . , ,1.38 Lucius (St.) First Christian Prince of Britain, dies, . 179 The See of York, founded, according to tradition, about 180 Wall of Severus (sixty-eight miles long, twelve feet high, eight feet tliick,) built, ... 205 to 207 Severus holds court at Eboracum [York] . . . 207 Carausius usurps the power in Britain, . . . 286 AUectus kills Carausius and usurps the imperial title, 294 Constantius Chlorus (father of Constantino the Great) defeats Allectus and recovers Britain, . . . 29G Roman Legions withdraw from Britain to defend Rome from the Goths, ...... 410 Vlll ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. The Saxons, under Hengist and Horsa, land in Britain, 449 Horsa is killed at the Battle of /Eglesford, Kent, . 455 Hengist becomes King of Kent, .... 457 Ella becomes King of South Saxony or Sussex, . , 490 Cerdic becomes King of West Saxony, or Wessex, . . 519 Ercenwin becomes King of East Saxony, or Essex, . 527 Ida, or Idda, becomes King of Northumbria, . . . 547 Uffa becomes King of East Anglia, . . . 575 Cridda becomes King of Mercia, and the Saxon Heptarchy is thus formed, ...... 582 St. Augustine arrives in Britain. .... 597 Ethelbert, King of Kent, the first Christian Saxon King. reigns from ..... 5()0 to G15 University of Cambridge founded by Sebert.King of East Anglia, . . . . . . G44 Danes first invade Britain, ..... 787 Egbert becomes King of Wessex, .... 800 Egbert becomes the first King of all Britain, . . 827 Saxon Heptarchy ends, ..... 828 Danes defeated at Isle of Thanet, ... 857 Danes conquer Northumberland, .... 8G7 Alfred the Great defeats the Danes, . . . 872 Alfred retires to Isle of Athelney, .... 879 University of Oxford founded by Alfred the Great, . 886 Danes invade Britain a second time, .... 891 Danish Invasion under Svveyn; Ethelred II., bribes them to retire, . . . . . . .986 Massacre of the Danes, . . . . . 1002 Danes, under Sweyn, conquer Britain, . . . 101.3 Edmund Ironsides fights six battles with Canute, the Danish King, and divides the Kingdom, . . 1016 Saxon line restored, ..... 1041-42 Edward III., the Confessor, first attaches the " Broad Seal " to Royal Grants, ..... 1048 Rebellion of Earl Godwin, ..... 1051 W^illiam, Duke of Normandy, visits England, . . 1051 Dane-gelt is abolished, ...... 1053 RULERS PRIOR TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. AX(;i,0-SAXOXS. Egbert,* . Ethelwolf, . Ethelbald, Ethelbekt, . Ethelred I.. Alfred, Edwarothk Eldek, Athklstank, . EoMUNl), I., Edred, Edwyn, Edgar; Edward II., or tlu' Martyr, Ethelred II., Edmund Ironsides, BEIGNED. 827 - 8.36 836 -857 8r)7 - 860 86() 866 866 - 871 871 901 901 - 925 925-941 941 - 947 947 - 955 955 - 959 959 - 975 975 - 978 978 - 1016 1016 DANES. Sweyn, Canute, Harold, Hardicanute, 1013 to 1014 1014 to lo:56 1().3() to 1039 1039 to 1041 SAXONS. Edward III., or the Confessor, Harold II., son of Godwin, Earl of Kent, 1041 to 1005 1006 *Was descended from Cerdic, the first King of Wessex, 519; whose father, a Saxon peneral, arrived in Britain, A.D., 495. Tlie Kings of England descend from him in tho male line of Edward the Confessor, and in the female line, to her present Majesty. RULERS AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST. NOUMAX. Wflliam 1 1000-1087 William II., 1087-1100 Henry I., 1100 li:}5 Stephen [Houho of L-.-is. | . . . ll.'3.j-ll;M • VLXSTM.KSKT. Henry II 1154-1189 Richard 1 1189-1199 John, 1199 1216 Henry III 121G - 1272 Edward 1 1272-1307 Edward II., 1.'507 - 1327 Edward III 1327-1377 Richard II., 1377-1399 LANCASTER AND YoKK. Henry IV 1399 - 1413 Henry v., 1413-1422 Henry VI., 1422-1461 Edward IV., 1461-1483 Edward V 1483-1483 Richard III., 1483-1485 Henry VII 1485-1509 Henry VIII., 1509-1547 Edward VI., ...... 1547 - 1553 Mary I., 1553-1558 Elizabeth, 1558-1603 RULERS AFTER THE NORMAN CONQUEST. XI STUAKT, FIRST EPOCH. James 1 1G03 - 1625 Charles 1 1G25-1649 coMMoNWKAi/ni. 1649-1653 PROTECTORATE. Oliveu CuoMWELFi, ..... 1653-1658 i;U ||Ai;i> CKOMWKI.I. AM> PARLIAMENT. 10.58-1660 STl'ART, SECOND El'oCII. Charles II 1660-1685 James II 1685-1681) STI:ART ami NASSAU. William III., 1 (16S9-1702 and [ ] Mary II., ) (1689-1694 Anne 1702-1714 HANOVER. George I., 1714-1727 George II., ...... 1727 - 17(K) George III. 176C-1820 George IV 1820 -18:W William IV 1830-1837 Victoria, ...... 1837 GENEALOGY OF ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. FROM EGBERT TO VICTORIA. 1. Egbert. Descended from Cerdic. "li'J. 2. Ethelwolf. Son of Egbert. 3. Etheluald. "1 4. ETHELnEKT. !- Sons of Egbert. 5. Ethelued I. 6. Alfred [The Great]. 7. Edw.vrd I. Tlio Elder. Son of Alfred. 8. Athelst.w. 1 9. Edmund I. i Sons of Edward 1. 10. P]dred. J 11. Edwy. ) ^„ „ > Sons of Edmund 1. 12. Edgar. ^ 13. Edward II, The Martyr. ) ,, „ ,, > Sons of Edgar. 14. Ethelred II. ) 1.-). SwEYN. The Dane. 16. Edmi'nd II. Ironsides. Son of Ethelrod II. 17. C^ANLTE, The Dane. 18. Harold I. ,. „ ( Sons of Canute. 19. Hardicaxcte. 20. Edward III. [The Confessor.] Surviving sou of Ethelred II., and Emma, who was the daughter of Richard I., Duke of Normandy. 21. Harold II. Last of the Saxon Kings. Son of Earl (xodwiu, whose daughter married Edward III. 22. William I. [The Conquerer.] A second cousin of Edward III., son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, grandson of Richard II., Duke of Normandy ; and great-grandson of Richard I., Duke of Normandy, the father of Emma, wife of Ethel- red II. Matilda or Maud of Flanders, wife of William I., being a direct descendant of Alfred The Great. GENEALOGY OF ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS. Xlll 23. William II. Son of William I. 24. Heney I. do. His wife, Matihia or Maud of Scotland, being a descendant of Edmund II. [Ironsides]. 25. Stephen. [Of Blois.] Grandson of William I. 26. Henry II. Son of Matilda or Maud, who married Geoffrey Plantagcnet, fount of Anjou ; after the death of her first husband, Henry V., Emperor of Germany. 27. RiCH.VKD I. Sons of Henry II. 28. John [Lackland] 29. Henry III. Son of John. 30. Edward I. Son of Henry III. 31. Edward II. Son of Edward 1. 32. Edward III. Son of Edward II. 33. Richard II. Son of Edward The Black Prince and grandson of Edward III. 34. Henry IV. Son of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and grandson of Edward III. a5. Henry V. Son of Henry IV. ;%. Henry VJ. Son of Henry V. and Catharine of Valois. 37. Edw.vkd IV. St>n of Ricliard, Duke of York ; grandson of Richard, Earl of Cambridge [who married Anne Mortimer]; great- grandson of Edmund Langley, Duke of York, who was a son of Edward III. 38. Edward V. Son of Edward IV. Murdered by Ricliard III. in the Tower of London. 39. Richard III. Brother of Edward IV. He married Anno Neville, widow of Edward, Prince of Wales [son of Henry VI.]. Killed at Tewkesbury. 40. Henry VII. [Called Henry of Richmond or Henry of Lancaster.] Son of Edmund Tudor, Earl of Richmond ; grandson of Owen udor, who married Catharine of Valois after the death of Henry V. Henry VII., by his marriage with Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV., united the Houses of Y'ork and Lancaster. Lady Jane Grey was descended from Henry VII. 41. Henry VIIL Son of Henry VII. 42. Edward VI. Son of Henry VIII. and Jano Seymour. 43. Mary. Daughter of Henry VIII. and Catharine of Aragon. 44. Elizabeth. Daughter Oi Henry VIII. and Anno Boleyn. XIV ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. 45. James I. [Stuart.] Son of Mary, Queen of Scotland, and grandson of James V.. [Stuart] of Scotland. Great-grandson of James IV., [Stuart] of Scotland who married Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. 46. Charles I. Son of James I. Beheaded. 47. Charles II. Son of Charles I. 48. James II. Son of Charles I. 49. Mary. Daughter of James II., who married William II. of Orange, known as William 111. of England. 50. Anne. Daughter of .Jamos 11. James, known in history as tlie "Old Pretender." was son of James II. Charles [The Young Pretender] was son of James, the Old Pretender. 51. George I. Son of the Elector of Hanover and Sophia, youngest daughter of the Elector Palatine and Elizabeth, a daughter of James I., who married Frederick, Elector Palatine, who later became King of Bohemia. 52. George II. Son of George I. 53. George III. Son of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and grandson of George II. 54. George IV. Son of George III. 55. William IV. Son of George III. 56. Victoria. Daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, who was son of George III. TABLE SHOWING THE SUCCESSION TO THE CROWN OF ENGLAND, AFTER QUEEN VICTORIA. ARRANGED IN THE ORDER OF DESCENT. DESCENDANTS OF QUEEN VICTORIA. 1. The Prince of Wales, son. 2. Prince George, grandson. 3. Duchess of Fife, granddaughter. 4. The Lady Alexandra Duff, great-granddaughter. 5. Princess Victoria, of Wales, granddaughter. 6. Princess Maud, of Wales, granddaughter. 7. The Duke OF Edinburgh, son. 8. Prince Alfred of Edinburgh, grandson. 9. Princess Marie, of Edinburgh, granddaughter. 10. Princess Victoria Melita, of Edinburgh, granddaughter. 11. Princess Alexandria, of Edinburgh, granddaughter. 12. Princess Beatrice, of Edinburgh, granddaughter. 13. The Duke of Connaught, son. 14. Prince Arthur, of Connaught, grandson. 15. Princess Margaret, of Connaught, granddaughter. 16. Princess Victoria Patricia, of Connaught, granddaughter. 17. The Duke of Albany, grandson. 18. Princess Alice, of Albany, granddaughter. 19. The Empress Frederick, of Germany, daughter. 20. The German Emperor, grandson. 21. The Crown Prince of Prussia, great-grandson. 22. Prince William Frederick of Prussia, great-grandson. 2;?. Prince Adalbert of Prussia, great grandson. 24. Prince August of Prussia, great-grandson. 25. Prince Oscar of Prussia, great-grandson. XV XVI ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. 26. Prince Joachim Franz Humbert of Prussia, great-grandson. 27. Prince Henry of Prussia, grandson. 28. Prince Waldemar of Prussia, great-grandson. 29. The Hereditary Princess of Saxe-Meiningen, granddaughter. 30. Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen, great-granddaughter. 31. Princess Frederika of Prussia, granddaugliter. 32. The Crown Princess of Greece, granddaughter. 33. Prince George of Greece, great-grandson. 31. Princess Margaretta of Prussia, granddaughter. 35. The Hereditary Grand Duke of Hesse, grandson. 36. Princess Loui.se of Battenberg, granddaughter. 37. Princess Victoria Alice of Battenberg, great granddaughter. 3«. Princess Louise Alexandra of Battenberg, great-granddaughter. 39. The Grand Duchess Sergius of Russia, granddaughter. 40. Princess Henry of Prussia, wife of No. 27. granddaughter. 41. Princess Victoria Alice Helena of Hesse, granddaughter. 42. Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, daughter. 43. Prince Christian Victor of Schleswig-Holstein, grandson. 44. Prince Albert of Schleswig-Holstein, grandson, 45. Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, granddaughter. 46. Princess Franziska of Schleswig-Holstein, granddaughter. 47. The Marchioness of Lorne, daughter. 48. Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg, daughter. 49. Prince Alexander Albert of Battenberg, grandson. 50. Prince Leopold of Battenberg, grandson. 51. Prince Donald of Battenberg, grandson. 52. Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg, granddaughter. descendants of king GEORGE III. 53. The Duke of Cumberland, great-grandson. 54. Prince George of Cumberland, great-great-grandson. 55. Prince Christian of Cumberland, great-great-grandson. 56. Prince Ernest of Cumberland, great-great-grandson. 57. Princess Mary of Cumberland, great-great-gran -"daughter. 58. Princess Alexandra of Cumberland, great-great-granddaughter. 59. Princess Olga of Cumberland, great-great-granddaughter. 60. Princess Fredrica of Hanover, Baroness von Pawel Rammingen, great-granddaughter. 61. Princess Mary Ernestina of Hanover, great-granddaughter. 62. The Duke of Cambridge, grandson. SUCCESSION TO THE CROWN OF ENGLAND. XVll 63. The Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, granddaughter. 64. The Hereditary Grand Duke of Mecklenburg, great-grandson. 65. Prince Frederick George of Mecklenburg, great-grandson. 66. Princess Victoria Mary of Mecklenburg, great-granddaughter. 67. Princess Augusta of Mecklenburg, great-granddaughter. 68. The Duchess of Teck, great-granddaughter. 69. Prince Adolphus of Teck, great-grandson. 70. Prince Francis of Teck, great-grandson. 71. Prince Alexander of Teck, great-grandson. 72. Princess May, great-granddaughter. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF NOTABLE EVENTS CONNECTED WITH BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. Attenij)t made to roach India by the Nortliwcst passage, . 1496 Attemj^t made to reach India by the Nortlicast passar:c, 1553 Sir Francis Drake's expedition, .... 1577 First adventure from England, .... 1591 First charter to the East India company, . . . 1602 Second charter to the East India company, . . 1609 Calcutta purchased, ...... 1698 Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowlah, . . 1756 Surajah Dowlah imprisons 140 British sul)jects, of whom 123 perish in the Black Hole, . . . May 19, 1756 Calcutta retaken by colonel, afterwards Lord Clive; who defeats Surajah Dowlah, at Plassey, . June 20, 1757 Warren Hastings becomes governor of Bengal, April 13, 1772 Warren Hastings, First Governor General of India, . 1771 Pondicherry surrenders to Sir Eyre Coote, . Jan. 17, 1761 The strong fortress of Gwalior taken by Major Popham, Aug. 4, 1780 Hyder AH overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the British, . Sept. 10, 1780 Arcot taken by Hyder Ali, . . . Oct. 31, 1780 Lord Macartney arrives as governor of Madras, . June 22, 1781 Hyder Ali signally defeated by Sir Eyre Coote, July 1, 1781 Death of Hyder Ali, and accession of his son, Tippof) Saib, Dec. 11, 1782 Trial of Warren Hastings begins, . . Feb. 13, 1788 Definitive treaty with Tippoo; his two sons hostages, March 19, 1792 Government of Lord Mornington, afterwards Marquis of Wellesley, May 17, 1798 TABLE OF NOTABLE EVENTS. XIX Seringapatam stormed, and Ti^jpoo Saib killed, . May 4, 1799 Victories of the British; the Carnatic conquered, . 1800 Victories of Sir Arthur Wellesley at Assaye, . . 1803 Marquis Cornwallis assumes the government, . July 30, 1805 Act by which the trade to India is thrown open; that to China remaining with the company, . July 31, 1813 Lord Amhersfs government, . . . Aug. 1, 1823 Lord William Bentinck arrives as governor-general, July 4, 1828 Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, etc., to China, forming a new era in British commerce, . Aug. 28, 1833 Lord Auckland, as governor-general; leaves England, Sept. 1835 Battle of Ghuznee; victory of Sir John, afterwards Lord Keane, July 23, 1839 Soujah Shah restored to his sovereignty, he and the British army enter Cabul, . . Aug. 7, 1839 Dost Mahomed surrenders to England, . . Nov. 5, 1840 General rising against the British at Cabul; Sir Alexander Burns and other officers murdered, . Nov. 2, 1841 Lord EUenborough is appointed governor-general, Oct. 13, 1841 Sir William Macnaghten treacherously assassinated. Dec. 25, 1841 The British, under truce, evacuate Cabul, placing Lady Sale, etc., as hostages, in the hands of Akbar Khan; a dreadful massacre ensues, . . . Jan. 6, 1842 Ameers of Scinde defeated by Sir Charles Napier; Scinde is afterwards annexed to the British Empire, Feb. 17, 1843 Battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar; the strong fortress of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the East," taken, Dec. 29, 1843 Sir Henry Harding is appointed governor-general, . May 2, 1844 The Sikh troops cross the Setlej river, and attack the British post at Ferozeporc, which is held by Sir John Littler, Dec. 14. 1845 Battle of Aliwal; the Sikhs are defeated, . Jan. 28, 1846 Battle of Sobraon; the enemy is defeated with immense loss in killed and drowned, . . . Feb. 10, 1846 [The Sikhs lose 10,000 men, the British 2,338 in killed and wounded,] The citadel of Lahore is occupied by the British under Sir Hugh Gough, Feb. 20, 1846 Great battle between the British under Lord Gough, and the Sikhs under Sheere Singh, at Ramnuggur, Nov. 22, 1848 XX ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Moultan taken, after a long siege, . . Jan. 3, 1849 Sheere Singh is defeated by Lord Gough, . Feb. 21, 1849 The Punjaub formally annexed to the British crown, March 29, 1849 The Sepoys of the Bengal Army mutiny and war begins at Barrackpore, .... March, 1857 It is followed by a mutiny at Meerut near Delhi, May 10, 18.")7 Martial law is proclaimed in India . May, 1857 Mutiny begins at Lucknow, .... May 30, 1857 Sir Henry Lawrence anticipating the revolt fortifies and provisions the garrison at Lucknow to which he retires with his troops and all the English inhabi- tants, ' July 2, 1857 Cawnpore being garrisoned by native troops under Sir Hugh Wheeler, they revolt and are joined by Nana Sahib, who captures the place June 2G, 1857, and on the 28th, massacres great numbers of the British without regard to age or sex. Cawnpore is retaken by General Havelock, . . . July IG and 17, 1857 Cawnpore is again immediately besieged by the mu- tineers. Assault of Delhi begins, Sept. 14; the city is taken, Sept. 20; and the king captured Sept. 21; his son and grandson being slain by Colonel Hudson, . Sept. 22, 1857 Havelock marches to Luckncnv and relieves the besieged residency; he retires and leaves Outrani in com- mand; Neill is killed, . . . Sept. 25, 26, 1857 Sir Colin Campbell [since Lord Clyde], is appointed com- mander-in-chief, July 11 and arrives at Cawnpore, Nov. ;}, 1857 Havelock dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, . Nov. 2.5, 1857 Trial of the king of Delhi who is sentenced to transport- ation. .... Jan. 27. to March 9, 1858 Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, Feb. 11; the siege commences March 8; it is taken by successive as- saults; the enemy retreats; Hudson killed, March 14-19, 1858 The government of the East India Company ceases, Sept. 1, 1858 The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good Hope, Dec. 4-11 but the colonists refuse to receive him; he is sent to Rangoon, ..... 1858 TABLE OF NOTABLE EVENTS. XXI Earl Canning is appointed first Viceroy to India, . 1858 Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by General Horsford, ..... Feb. 10, IS.")',) Thanksgiving in Englandforthe pacification of India, May 1, ISr/J East India Company dissolved, . . . Jan. 1, 1871 The Herati Army of Ayub Khan revolts and defeats a British brigade; but in turn, during the same year, are subjugated under General Sir Frederick Roberts, 1880 The following were Viceroys of India: Earl of Elgin 18G2 Sir John Lawrence, ...... 18G1 Earl of Mayo, 1SG9 Earl of Northbroke, ..... 187"J Earl of Lytton, . . . . . . . 187G Marquis of Flipon, ...... 1880 MEMORABLE NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS ENGLISH HISTORY, Alfretl, vvitli ton galleys, defeats oOO sail of Danish pirates off the Dorset and Hampshint coasts. See Asser's life of Alfred, . . . . . .897 Near Sluys; Edward III., defeats a French fleet of 400 sail, sinking them all, 30,000 French are killed in this engagement, ...... 1340 Between the English and Flemings, tlie latter being signally defeated, ..... 1.371 Between the English and French, the; latter power losing 80 ships, ...... 1,389 Near Milford Haven: The English take 14 and destroy 15 French ships, ...... 140."> Off Hartieur, when the Duke of Bedford takes 500 French ships, ....... 1416 In the Downs; the French fleet being captured by the Earl of Warwick, ...... 1459 In the Bay of Biscay; between the Englisli and French, the latter being defeated, .... 1512 Sir Edward Howard defeats the French under Prejeant, 1513 In the English Channel, the British defeat the French fleet with great loss, ..... 1.545 The Spanish Armada is driven from the English Channel to the roads of Calais; in a running fight the Span- iards lose 15 ships and 5,000 men. Defeated again, they are obliged to bear away for Scotland and Ire- land, where their fleet is dispersed by a storm, caus- ing a further loss of 17 ships and 5,000 men, July 19, 1588 Dover Straits; between the Dutch Admiral, Van Tromp, and Admiral Blake. The Dutch surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engaging 40 English, six of MEMORABLE NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS. xxiii which are taken or destroyed. The Dutch Admiral sails in triumph through the Channel, with a broom at his masthead, to denote that he had swept the English from the seas, . . .June 29, 1652 In the Downs; same admirals, and nearly same loss, Sept. 28, Oct. 28, and Nov. 29, 1652 The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet oflf Ports- mouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp is the Dutch, and Blake the English admiral, . . . Feb. 10, 1653 Again, near Portland, between the English and Dutch, the latter defeated, .... Feb. 18, 1653 Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and English fleets are nearly 100 men-of-war each. Van Tromp commands the Dutch; Blake, Monk and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships are taken, 11 are sunk, the remainder run into Calais roads, June 2, 1653 Again, off the coast of Holland, the Dutch lose 30 men-of- war, and Admiral Van Tromp is kill(>d, July 31, 1653 At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000.000 pieces of eight, are taken by the English, . . Sept. 16.56 The Spanish fleet is vanquished, and then burnt in the harbor of Santa Cruz, by Blake, . . April, 16.57 Between the English and French; 1.30 of the Bordeau.x fleet being destroyed by the Duke of York, Dec. 4, 1661 The Duke of York [afterwards James II.,] defeats the Dutch fleet off Harwich; the Dutch admiral blown up with all his crew; 18 first class ships taken and 14 destroyed, . . . . . June ,3, 1665 The Earl of Sandwich takes 12 men-of-war and 2 Indian ships, ..... Sept. 4, 1665 A contest maintained for four days between the Dutch and English fleets; the English losing 9, and the Dutch i5 ships, ..... June 14, 1666 Decisive engagement fought at the mouth of the Thames between the Dutch and English, when the English gain a glorious victory; the Dutch losing 24 men- of-war, with 4 admirals and 4,000 officers and seamen killed, ..... July 26, 1666 An English fleet of 16 sail, defeats a French fleet (jf .30, near Martinico, ...... 1667 XXIV ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Off the coast of Holland; when Prince Rupert, on May 28, June 4, and Aug. 11, defeats D'Etrees and Ruyter, 1G73 Several actions to the disadvantage of the Dutch, who agree to strike to the English colors in the British seas, ....... 1673 Off Tangiers, battle between the English and Moors, last- ing 11 days, ...... 1C79 Ofif Beachy-head; the English and Dutch being defeated by the French, .... June 30, 1G90 The combined English and Dutch fleets gain a signal vie tory over the French fleet, near Cape La Hogue; 21 of the largest French men-of-war being destroyed, May 19, 1692 Off St. Vincent; the English and Dutch squadrons, under Admiral Rooke, are defeated by the French, June 10, 1693 Off Carthagena, between Admiral Benbow and the French fleet, commanded by Admiral DuCasse, Aug. 19, 1702 The English and Dutch fleets, under Sir George Rooke, engage and defeat the French fleet [having Spanish galleons in convoy] in the port of Vigo. They take 9 out of 13 galleons, laden chiefly with silver, and G men-of-war ; the other galleons, and 14 men-of-war are destroyed, . . . Oct. 12, 1702 In the Mediterranean, when Admiral Leake captures GO French vessels laden with provisions, . May 22, 1708 The Spanish fleet of 27 sail is totally defeated by Sir George Byng, near Messina, .... Aug. 11, 1718 Battle of Toulon; Matthews and Lestock engage the fleets of France and Spain. The victory is lost by a mis- understanding between the English admirals, . 1744 Off Cape Finistere, the French fleet is taken by Admiral Anson, ...... May .3, 1747 In the East Indies; the French are driven back to Pondi- cherry, ....... 1747 Off Ushant, Admiral Hawke takes seven French men- of-war Oct. 14, 1747 Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet commanded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay; and thus prevents a pro- jected invasion of England, . . Nov. 20, 17.^9 Keppel takes 3 French frigates, and a fleet of merchant- men, Oct 9, 17G2 MEMORABLE NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS. XXV Near Cape St. Vincent, between Admiral Rodney and Admiral Don Langara, the latter is defeated and taken prisoner, losing 8 ships, . . Jan. 8, 1780 At St. Jago; Mens. Sutfrein is defeated by Commodore Johnston, ..... April 16, 1781 Admiral Rodney defeats the French sailing to attack Ja- maica, takes 10 ships of the line, [1 being sunk, and 3 blown up.] The French admiral. Count de Grasse, is sent a prisoner to England, . . April 12, 1782 The British totally defeat the fleets of France and Spain, in the Bay of Gibraltar, . . Sept. l.^, 1782 Off Cape St. Vincent; the Spanish fleet is defeated by Sir J. Jarvis; 4 line of battle ships captured, Feb. 14, 1797 Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz by Admiral Nelson, . July 24, 1797 Off Camperdown where the Dutch are signally defeated by Admiral Duncan, lij ships of war, with the admiral [De Winter] being taken, . . Oct. 11, 1797 Nile; Toulon fleet defeated by Sir Horatio Nelson, at Aboukir; 9 ships of the line are taken, 2 are ])urnt, and 2 escape, ..... Aug. I, 1798 Gibraltar bay; engagement between the French and Brit- ish fleets; the Hanniljal, carrying 74 guns, is lost, July G, 1801 Off Cadiz; Sir James Saumarcz obtains a victory over the French and Spanish fleets; 1 ship is captured, July 12, 1801 Off Ferrol, Sir Robert Calder, with 1.5 sail, takes 2 ships, out of 20 sail of the combined French and Spanish fleets, July 22, 1805 Off Trafalgar; (a memorable battle,) in which Lord Nelson defeats the fleets of France and Spain, and in which he receives his mortal wound, . Oct. 21, 1805 Off Cape Ortugal, Sir R. Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 French ships of the line, . . Nov. 4, 1805 In the West Indies; the French are defeated by Sir T. Duck- worth; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on shore, Feb. G, 180G Sir John Borlaso Warren captures the French fleet under command of Admiral Linois, . . March 1.3, 180G Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the Dardanelles, . Feb. 19, 1807 XXVI ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. The Copenhagen fleet of 18 ships of the line, 15 frigates, and 31 other vessels, surrenders to Lord Catheart and Admiral Gambier, . . . Sept. 7, 1807 U. S. frigate Chesapeake is fired upon by the British ship Leopard, for refusing to be searched, . . . 1807 A Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, surrenders to the British, .... Sept. 3, 1808 U. S. frigate President vs. British sloop, Little Belt, May IG, 1811 U. S. frigate Constitution captures British frigate Guer- riere, Aug. 13, 1812 Captain Elliott captures two British frigates on Lake Erie, .'•.... Oct. 8, 1812 U. S. sloop Wasp captures British sloop Frolic, Oct. 18; both vessels are captured by British 71, Poictiers, Oct. 20, 1812 U. S. frigate United States, Captain Decatur, captures British frigate Macedonian, . . . 1812 U. S. frigate Constitution, Cajitain Bainbridgc, captures British frigate Java, . . . Dec. .30, 1812 U. S. frigate Hornet, Captain Lawrence, captures British ship Peacock, Captain Peake, . . Feb. 24, 1813 The Chesapeake, United States frigate, captured by the British frigate Shannon, . . June 12, 1813 Algiers is bombarded by Lord Exmouth, . Aug. 27, 181G In the Bay of Navarino; the British, French and Russian squadrons, defeat and annihilate the Turkish Navy, Oct. 20, 1827 Action between the British ships Volage and Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war junks, which are defeated, Nov. 3, 1839 Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British squadron, under Admiral Stopford, achieve this triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians lose 2.000 killed and wounded, and 3,000 prisoners, . . Nov. 3, 1840 LORD CHANCELLORS OR LORD KEEPERS OF ENGLAND. Thomas a Becket, Gr.oFFREY Plantagenet William Longchamp, Herbert, Archbishop of Canti Walter de Gray, Richard de Marisco, Ralph de Neville, Simon de Mont fort, Ranulph Briton, Silvester de Everdon, John Maunsel, . John de Lexington, Queen Eleanor, William Kilkenny, Henry de Wengham, Nicholas de Ely, Walter de Merton, Thomas de Cantilupe, Walter Giffard, Godfrey Giffard, . John de Chishull, Richard de Middleton Walter de Merton, Robert Burnel, John de Langton, William de Grenefield, William de Hamilton, Ralph de Baldock, John de Langton, Walter Reynolds, . John de Sandale, l>ui-y, about 1154 1181 1189 1199 1206 1214 1227 1244 1244 1244 1246 1249 12r).3 12r>4 1255 1256 1261 1265 1265 1266 1268 1269 1272 1274 1292 1304 1.307 1307 1307 1310 1314 XXVlll ENGLAND AND ITS IIULERS. John de Hotham, John de Salmon, Robert de Baldock, Adam de Oulton, John de Hotham, Henry de Burwash, John de Stratford, Rh:hard de Bury, Tvohkut de Stratford, John de Stratford, Sir Robert Bouchier, Sir Robert Parnyn(;i:, Robert Sadynoton, . John dr Offord, John de Thoresby, William de JjDDington, Simon de Lanoham, William op Wickham, . Sir Robert Thorpe, Sir John Knivet, Adam de Houghton, Sir Richard le S(;roi'e, William Courtenay, Robert de Braybroke, Michael de la Pole, Thomas de Arundel, William of Wickham, Thomas de Arundel, . Edmund Stafford, . John Searle, Cardinal Thomas Beaufoi Thomas Lon(;ley, Cardinal Thomas Beaufor Thomas de Arundel, . Cardinal Thomas Beaufoi; Thomas Lonoley, Bishop op Winchester, Archbishop Kempe, John Stafford, Lord Cardinal Kempe, 1318 1320 1323 1327 1327 1327 1330 13;M 1337 1340 1340 1341 1343 1345 1349 1356 1363 1367 1371 1372 1377 1378 1381 13S2 i:383 1386 1389 1391 1396 1399 1403 1405 1410 1412 1413 1U7 1425 1127 1132 1454 LORD CHANCELLORS OR LORD KEEPERS. XXIX Earl of Salisbury, . William Warnflete, . George Neville, Robert Stillington Henry Bouchier, Lawrence Booth, John Alcock, John Russell, .- . • = Cardinal Morton, . Henry Deane, .... Archbishop Wareham, Cardinal Wolsey, .... Sir Thomas More, ..... Sir Thomas Audley, .... Thomas, Bishop of Ely, .... Lord Wriothesley, .... Lord Paulet St. John, .... Lord Rich, . . ■ • • Thomas Godrich, Bifhop of Ely, Stephen (tAKniNER, Bishoj) of Winchester, Nicholas, A rc-hbishop of Vi)rk, Sir Nicholas Bacon, .... Sir Thomas Bromley, .... Sir Christopher Hatton, Sir John Puchering, .... Sir Thomas Egerton, afterward Lonl Ellesmere, Reappointed l)y James IV., . Sir Francis Bacon, afterward Lord Verulam, J. Williams, Bishop of Lincoln, . Sir Thomas Coventry, afterward Lord Coventry, . Sir John Finch, . . • • Sir Edward Lyttleton, afterward Lord Lyttleton, Sir Richard Lane, L. K., . In Commission, ..•••• Sir Edward Herbert, .... Sir Edward Hyde, Afterward Earl of Clarendon, Sir Orlando Bridgeman, L. K., . Earl of Shaftesbury, . . . . • Sir Heneage Finch, afterward Earl of Nottingham, Sir F. North, L. K., afterward Lord Guilford, 1454 14.56 1460 1467 147.3 147,3 1477 1483 14B7 15(K) 15C)2 1515 1529 1533 1.534 1545 1.547 1.547 1.551 1.5.53 15.56 1559 1579 1587 1.592 1.596 1603 1617 1621 1625 1640 1641 1645 1649 1653 . 1660 1667 . 1672 1673 . 1682 XXX ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Sir George Jeffreys, Lord Jeffreys, . . . 1685 In Commission, Sir J. Maynard, and other Commis- sioners, ....... 1690 Sir John Trevors, Sir William Rawlinson and Sir George Hutchins, L. K., .... 161)0 Sir John Somers, afterward Lord Somers, Commissioner, 1093 Sir Nathan Wright, L. K., . . . . 1700 Lord Cowper, L. K., . . . . . 1705 In Commission, Sir J. Trevor and otliers, Commissioners, 1710 Lord Harcourt, ...... 1710 Lord Cowper, L. K., . . . . . . 1714 In Commission, Sir R. Tkacy and others. Commissioners, 1718 VisoouNT Parker, afterward earl of Macclesfield, . 1718 In Commission. Sir J. Jkkyll and others, Commissioners, 1725 Sir Peter Kinc;, L. K., afterward Lord Kin^^ . . 1725 Lord Talbot, 1733 Philip, Lord Hardwicke, ..... 17.37 In Commission, Sir J. Willes and others. Commissioners, 17.56 Sir Robert Henley, afterward Lord Henley, . . 1757 Charles Pratt, Lord Camden, .... 1766 Hon. Charles Yorke; took office Jan. 18, died next day, 1770 In Co.mmission, Sir S. S. S.mvthk and others. Commis- sioners, ....... 1770 Henry Bathurst, Lord Apsley, succeeded as Earl Bath- urst, ....... 1771 Lord Thurlow, ....... 1778 In Commission, Lord Loughborough and others. Commis- sioners, ....... 1783 Lord Thurlow, ....... 1783 In Commission, Sir J. Eyre and others. Commissioners, 1792 Lord Loughborough, afterward Earl Rosslyn, . . 1793 Lord Eldon, ....... 1801 Lord Erskine, ....... 1806 Lord Eldon, ..... . 1807 Lord Lyndhurst, ...... 1827 Lord Brougham, ...... 18.30 Lord Lyndhurst, ...... 18.34 In Commission, Sir C. C. Pepys and others, Commissioners, 18,35 Lord Cottenham, ...... 18.36 Lord Lyndhurst, ...... 1841 LORD CHANCELLORS OR LORD KEEPERS. XXXI Lord Cottenham, ...... In Commission, Lord Langdale and others, Commis- sioners, . . . . . . . Sir Thomas Wilde, afterward Lord Truro, . Sir Edwin Sl'oden, afterward Lord St. Leonards, Robert Mousey Rolfe, afterward Lord Cranworth, Sir Frederick Thesiger, afterward Lord Chelmsford, John, Lord Campbell, Richard Bethel, Lord Westbury Lord Cranworth, Lord Chelmsford, Lord Cairns, Lord Hatherley, Earl of Selborne, . Earl Cairns, Earl op Selborne, . Lord Herschel, Lord Halsbury, who at present holds the position. Jan uary, 1892, 1846 1850 1850 18.52 18.52 18.58 1859 18G1 18G5 1866 1868 1868 1872 1873 1880 1886 1886 XXXll ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. 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K P Q O H I— ( OQ w I— I ;?; P w w a P a pLn P5 O H O a P CO O tr be ■ ■ ^^^ W P5 Q H CO o 03 in ^ c S C 4^ ir' o W i 3 o ^ a cc a 5 o ^3 .2 " P5 rt ^ o 00 QO > (M I— ( 5^ a iJ I-l 1—1 a P o -H W c w o > TJ J2 a o I— 1 . a o J ° re o j; «i o ,,. _ pin O sn o h- 1 CM Q ° H £ fa -s o -a I— I "u CO S > § p fa a fa 1% " w B 02 J t-i f^ H H 02 02 H * * 02 -73 1— 1 a > a o fa s 1-5 >> ,Q ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES. XXXVll m o 1-1 o ^3 0) 02 £3 -l H & )— 1 o be OQ Ph cd > O t— 4 ^ :::; D 3 ^ H M S H E-i cu o ^ w m >» 42 92 Q P3 W pq O H I— I CQ P3 > I— I o w K W ^ C t-i G O cs o 1c H ^ a '■ 'S -^ H W Q, eo o be -S o .2 « m o lO 5i3 I— 1 1—1 o o r2 ■^ w O o H D o5 Q fa O >H H >— 1 CQ P5 sq > d H- 1 u ^H Q 1-1 C3 H o O Hi O O Q P5 I— I fa o H I— I m D5 > I— I O w cS 'TS ^ d O — ' :3 CO ^^ _ o 00 1—1 CO m ^ ^ d Cu be ID Ui t< I— I 2 «*- rd O o ^ OQ >» , , -^ •a 'OD d U 03 15 'd 1— 1 l:^ d to o d d OS o d T5 W CELT AND ROMAN. FROM B. C. 500 TO A. D. 450. Geologists have shown clearly that Great Britain was not always an island, but long centuries ago formed part of the continent. This was many thou- sand years before history gives, us a glimpse of it. Its climate was then like that of Greenland now, affordino- a home for the reindeer, the mammoth, the wild horse and other animal inhabitants of polar regions. Passing the rough stone age when man, little better than the brute, existed in caves in utter degradation, we reach the age of polished stone, in which dwelt a higher race, who took possession of Britain, then an island. They brought with them the knowledge of grinding stone, and forming from it hatchets, chisels, spears and other weapons and uten- sils. They began to raise cereals, and brought from other countries the ox, sheep, horse and dog. We come next to the bronze age when men knew how to melt and mingle copper and tin, making the bronze axe and the bronze sword. With these they invaded Britain, and the superiority of their weapons enabled them about the year 500 B. C. to conquer the island. They lived in settlements under chiefs, and had a form of government of a rude kind. Their 1 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. villages were built above ground ; their dwellings were like the Avigwams of the Indians, built of wood chinked in with clay, with pointed reed-covered roofs, with an opening to let out the smoke and let in the sun. The villages were defended by moats, palisades and felled trees. They kept sheep and cattle. They raised grain which they deposited in winter in under- ground store-houses. They attained considerable skill as workers in gold, of which they made necklaces and bracelets, as well as in the manufacture of Avoolen cloth of various textures and brilliant colors. They spoke the same Celtic language throughout the island. Pythias, a famous Greek navigator, visited Britain about 300 B. C. He says he saw plenty of grain growing, and that the farmers gathered their sheaves at harvest into large barns, where, on account of the uncertainty of the weather, they threshed it under cover. He also says that the farmers of that day had learned to make beer, of Avhicli they were very fond. The southern part of the island was famous for its tin mines, and the inhabitants carried on a brisk trade in their products with merchants of the Mediterranean. Indeed, tradition says that King Hiram, the friend of Solomon, obtained his supplies of tin from the British isles. About the year 300 B. C. a Greek writer spoke of the country as then well known, calling it Albion, or the "Land of the White Cliffs." Iron began to be used about one hundred years after, and rings of it were employed for money in the northern part of the island. Gold and silver coins. CELT AND EOMAN. 6 however, were even as early as that day used in the southern parts of Britain. The religion of the primitive Britons was as rude as their environment. They had some dim faith in an overruling providence and in a life beyond the grave. Their priests were Druids, who wor- shiped the sun and moon. They dwelt in the depths of the forests, where they raised their altars and acted as prophets, judges and teachers. They not only judicially decreed the guilt of an offender, but acted as ministers of justice in his punishment. Lucan declared that he envied them " their belief in the indestructibility of the soul, since it banished the greatest of all fears, the fear of death." Coesar says, " they tlid much inquire, and liand down to the youth concerning the stars and their motions, concerning the magnitude of the earth, concerning the nature of things, and the might and power of the immortal gods.'' Says Montgomery, " It is well to bear in mind that all the progress which civilization has since made is built on the foundations which they slowly and pain- fully laid during unknown centuries of toil and strife. It is to them that we owe the taming of the dog, the horse and other domestic animals, the first working of metals, the beginning of agriculture and mining, and the establishment of many salutary customs." In the year 55 B. C. Britain became acquainted with a higher civilization through the ambition of Julius Csesar, who three years before had organized his first campaign against the tribes north of the 4 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. Alps, determined to crush a power always dangerous to Rome. He sought in that Avay to promote his military fame, and to gain moneys to sustain his armies, and maintain and increase his power. Late in the summer he resolved to subdue Britain, because it had been, as he says, always an ally of Gaul. From the place now known as Boulogne, he embarked with a force of about 8,000 men, in eighty small vessels, crossed the channel and landed near Dover. Here he was met by a considerable force, which was soon routed. A few weeks after, having accomplished this only, he returned to Gaul. The next year he made a second invasion, with a much larger force, and penetrated the country to a short distance north of the Thames, but })efore the autumn gales made navigation dangerous he re- embarked for the continent. The only result of his invasion was a knowledge of the island, and a long train of captives carried as slaves to Bome. As Tacitus says: "He did not conquer Britain; he only shoAved it to the Bomans." The first really important invasion of Britain was ordered by the Emperor Claudius, A, D. 43. His forces met a brave and determined resistance, and it was tmly after nine years hard fighting that the Britons were subdued. Caractacus, their leader, in company with many prisoners, was taken in chains to Bome. He refused to beg for life or liberty. A. D. 52 he was led in triumph through the streets of that great city, and as he calmly surveyed its splendor exclaimed: "Alas, is it possible that a nation possessed CELT AND EOMAN. 5 of such magnificence should covet my humble cottage in Britain." The Emperor, struck with the dignity and manliness of his bearing, ordered him set free. The first Roman colony was planted at what is now Colchester, where was built a temple, and in it was placed a statue of the Emperor Claudius, which the soldiers worshiped as a representative of the Bom an State. One famous place the army had conquered, a little village on the Thames, consisting of a few huts known as Llyndin, or the Fort-on-the-Lake, which was pro- nounced by the Romans London, now the wealthiest and greatest of the world's cities. The destruction of the Druids, who constantly inflamed the nation to revolt, and who maintained firm resistance to the Roman authority because utterly ruinous to their own, soon became a necessity, and a war of extermination against them was organized. The work was thorough, a blow being struck at Druidism from which it never recovered. The priests were slain, their consecrated groves leveled to the ground, and their altars given to the flames. While Suetonius was engaged in his campaign against the Druids, Boadicea, wife of a native chieftain who had been treated with cruel incrt in Normandy in 1077, William besieged the castle of Gerberoi. AVJiile the siege Avas in progress Robert engaged a knight enveloped in full armor. After a severe struggle he unhorsed his antagonist, and was al)out to folloAv up his advantage Avhen accident disclosed the fact that his oi)ponent was his father. The tears and entreaties of his mother finally effected a reconciliation. " The very spirit of the ' sea wolves,' " says one THE NOltMAN CONQUEST. 31 historian, "who had so long lived on the pillage of the world, seemed embodied in his gigantic form, his enormous strength, his savage countenance, his desperate bravery, the fury of his wrath, the ruthless- ness of his revenge." Even his enemies said, "that no knight under heaven was William's peer." But he had the Northman's cruelty, and at the close of his greatest victory he refused Harold's body a grave. " So stark and fierce was he," says an English chroni- cler, " that none dared resist his will." After the battle of Senlac he proceeded to London, Notable which suiTendered at once. His unquestioned empire was confined to so much of the island as lay east of a line stretched from Norwich to Dorsetshire. No change was made in law or custom, and the privileges of London were recognized by royal writ still preserved among the City's archives. Peace and order were restored, and the soldiery sub- jected to the severest discipline. The kingdom indeed seemed so tranquil that in a few months William left England in the charge of his brother Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, and his minister William Fitz-Osbern, and went to Normandy, Kevolts, however, soon arose throughout the kingdom, which required his imme- diate return, and which by his vigorous and prompt action were speedily subdued. But a more formidable issue was soon to be met, when, in 1()()S, the King of Denmark invaded the country, receiving aid from all Northern, Western and Southern England. So ably had the uprising been planned, and so well the secret ke[)t, that William 32 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. while hunting in the forest of Dean, heard tliat York was taken, and the three thousand Normans, who formed its garrison, slain. In an outburst of wrath he swore by "the splendor of God" to avenge himself on the North. He kept his promise with terrible severity, wasting with fire and sword the insurgent district, and so ravaging the coasts with fire that he reduced them to utter desolation, leaving no tempta- tion to the Danes to again attack them. An historian, " William of Malmesbury," who wrote only sixty years later, tells of the unbounded license given to the sol- diers, of their brutality, and the devastation they wrought by fire and sword. He says: "From York to Durham not one iidiabited village remained. Fire, slaughter and devastation had made it a vast desert, which remains to this day." The King's vengeance complete, he returned wdth his army in the severity of the winter to Yojk and Chester, and attacked a desperate band of patriots gathered round an out- huved leader. Hereward, the last of the Saxon chief- tains, at Ely. But after a more stubborn resistance than he had yet encountered, Ely w^as surrendered, and William became King of England by right of conquest. But he knew that his sovereignty, born of the sword, must be kept by the sword. He confiscated, to give to his own soldiers, manors and farms in Kent and in other regions, whose owners had conspired against him, and in return for the gifts the recipients became his vassals, bound to respond to any call for aid, and obliged at a moment's notice to come armed and equipped at the command of the sovereign. But THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 33 the King, warned l)y his experience in Normandy, to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of the nobles, divided his land-grants, so that no large possession was held by one person in any single shire. Nothing, however, can justify William's continued rapine. Upon his death-bed his conscience stung him bitterly, and he directed restitution to be made for the wrongs he had committed. But this late re- pentance did not save him from fierce denunciation, even at the hour he was being laid in the tomb. The Bishop of Evreux, the Norman prelate who officiated, had pronounced an eulogy upon the dead king when a voice from among the spectators cried out: "He whom you have praised was a robber. This very spot was the site of my father's house, of which he Avas unjustly deprived to build your church, and I summon the departed before the Divine tribunal to answer for this tyranny." A late historian says that the Bishop officiating declined to commit King William's remains to the grave until full restitution had been made for acts of wrong and robbery complained of. The reformation of the priesthood and the immu- nities tendered to the Jews, who became the money merchants of England and added much to its wealth, marked the earliest years of this reign. William's rule was stern, l)ut gave peace to the land. It is re- markable that so stern a warrior was so averse to shed blood by process of law. To his honor be it said that but one execution occurred during his reign. And 34 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEKS. still more honorable to liim was an edict abolishing the slave trade, which had long been carried on at the port of Bristol. Battle Abbey was erected in commemoration of the conquest. The White Tower, or ''Keep," of the Tower of London, the beginning of this famous structure, was built in 1078. The castles of Winchester, Nor- wich and Hereford were erected. The })orts of Dover, Hastings and others were fortified, and the New Forest laid out as a hunting park. For this park many villages were destroyed and thousands of per- sons made homeless. The islands of Jersey, Alderney and Tarn, were added to England. The curfev*^ bell (from the French coin-re fcti, cover fire) was intro- duced into England at the beginning of this reign, and was rung nightly at eight o'clock, when all fires and lights were extinguished. Edgar Atheling, the grandson of Edward II., abrogated his title to the Saxon throne, Hereward, sometimes called Herewald le Wake, the last of the Saxon chieftains, so noted in the ballad literature of that period, long maintained a stubborn resistance to the claims of the conqueror, but was at last completely subdued by William (1071), and in the surrender of Ely died the last hopes of English freedom. The income of AVilliam was re- ported to be one thousand pounds daily, an enormous sum when gold was worth three, and silver ten times the present value, but his confiscations of the estates of insurgent subjects, of which he retained the chief share, made him very rich. The land grants to the Norman followers of Will- THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 35 iam, and the creation of earldoms, or command of counties, for his favorites, was a marked feature of his reign. We note also the separation of the ecclesi- astical from the civil judicature, the founding of the Courts of Chancery and Exchequer, and the appoint- ment of Justices of the Peace. William successfully resisted the power of the Pope. He decreed three things: First, that neither the Pope, his representa- tives, nor letters from the Pope, should be received in England without his leave; second, that no meeting of Church authorities should be held without his direction; third, that no baron or servant of his should be expelled from the Church without his permission. In England alone, perhaps, of all the kingdoms of Europe, was this possible. Over the whole surface of the island the manors were burdened with their own customs, or special dues to the crown ; and to ascertain and record these the famous Domesday -book was prepared, setting forth the extent and nature of each estate, the names, num- ber and condition of its inhabitants, its value before and after the conquest, and the sums due from it to the crown. This celebrated book is written upon vellum, in two volumes, and is now preserved among the most precious archives of England. The next year after the completion of Domesday-book, which like the day of doom spared no one, William sum- moned all the nobles and chief landholders of the realm, with their vassals numbering about sixty thou- sand, to meet him at Salisbury plain, AViltshire. There he demanded the sworn allegiance of each of them. 36 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. All took an oath to fight always and everywhere for the King, even against his own loril. With Harold II., resulting in the conquest of Enorland at the battle of Hastinofs, October Wars. '=' * ' 14, lOGG. With his son Robert, Duke of Normandy, who rebelled against him, in 1077. With Philip I., of France, in 1087. The siege of the town of Mantes, lasting from July to September, when the accident occurred which resulted in William's death. With Scotland, 1068. Edgar Atheling {Edmund Ironsides) grandson of Noted Edmund II., Avho resigned his claim as the Persons. ^r^y^^w heir to the throne to William. Tavo Saxon Earls, Morea, or Morcar (created in 1065), and Edwin (created in 1070), 1005-1089. Ingul- phus. Abbot of Croyland, chronicler, 1080-1109. Aldred, Aired or Ealred, Bishop of Worcester, Arch- bishop of York, died 1069. Henry Halley, Norman lawyer, died 1088. Cospatric, Earl of Northumber- land, died 1067. Robert of Jamieges, Bishop of London, 1044, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1051, died 1070. Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and Earl of Kent, died 1082. (2.3) WILLIAM II. 1087 — 1100. William II., surnamed Ruber the Red (by some Birth and improperly termed Rupert or Rufus), was Parentage. ^^^^^^ j^^ Normandy in 1056, and was the third son of William the Conqueror and Queen Matilda. He was never married. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 37 By the will of AVilliam the Conqueror, Robert, bis Accession to eldest SOU, to wlioiu lie gave the Duchy of the Throne. ;Normandy, Avas set aside, and William, his third son, was named as his successor, and crowned at Westminster, London, September 20, 1087. His death occurred while hunting in the New Forest, Auo^ust 2, 1100, and was caused by Death. ' o ' ' J a '' quarrel," or cross-bow arrow, of a novel character, said to have been aimed at a stag, by his bowbearer, Sir Walter Tyrrel. AVh ether or not the result of accident, the arrow pierced the King's breast, and he died instantly. Tyrrel escaped by imme- diate flight; but so slight was the esteem in which the King was held, even by his own attendants, that it is said that his body was left where it fell uncared-for until the following day, when it was placed in the cart of a charcoal burner, and thus conveyed to W^inchester, where it was buried under the choir of the Cathedral, almost without cere- mony, and certainly unmourned. William I., made tyrannous game-laws, but he was indulgent in the en- forcement of them compared with AVilliam II. No man of Saxon descent dared to approach the royal preserves except at the peril of his life and danger of beinsT liunjr to the nearest tree, with his own bow- string. " Wood-keeper," and " Herdsman of the beasts," were the titles the peasants gave him. Their dislike for him was only 0(|ualed by their fear. In person AVilliam was much like his Personal Ap- i pearanceand father, exce[)t that liis hair was tinged with red, and liis conq)loxion muddy and became scarlet when angered; from which lu^ was called Ruber SS ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. or Red. Like the Conqueror lie Avas remarkable for his strength. His character may be briefly summed up. He was cruel, selfish, ambitious; violent in tem- per and intemperate in his habits. His unscrupulous greed led him to retain in his own hands large sums from the revenues of the Church, which, Avith the money he plundered from his subjects, lie lavished upon such of his worthless favorites as especially pandered to his appetites. While the wise Bishop Lan- franc lived, his influence in some measure restrained the rapacity of the King, but after this prelate's death his extortions Avere terrible. For years he left many Bishoprics unfilled, among them the See of Canter- bury. At last, overtaken by a sudden illness, he seemed to realize the necessity of a primate, and selected Anselm, a learned, devout and meritorious man. While death was imminent the King was repentant, and desired pardon for his conduct, vowing solemnly that if he recovered he Avould lead an exemplary life. He ordered his prisoners to be set at liberty, his debtors forgiven, and many penalties remitted; but Avith re- stored health he quickly lapsed into his old habits, and his persecution of the good Archbishop at length compelled Anselm to seek safety by a residence at Rome, AAdiere he remained until after the monarch's death. The nobility o[)posed the accession of William, but Notable Averc bribed into acquiescence, Avitli the ^^^"'^'- treasure left by the late King. The first crusade, or croisade (from the French word croix, a cross), was undertaken to rescue Palestine from the THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 39 Saracens (followers of Mahomet), and Peter the Her- mit, in 1094, travelled through Europe, exhorting every prince to take up the cross. It was considered a religious duty to join the crusade ; and those who did so thought that if they died in the Holy Laud their eternal destinies were secure. Kobert, Duke of Normandy, mortgaged his duke- dom to AVilliam for ten thousand marks (18s. 4d. each), in order to join in the holy wars, with a suitable retinue. Edgar Atheling formed one of his train. The crusaders assembled on the plains of Asia, num- bered seven hundred thousand men, who were distin- guished by a large cross worn on their dress. Those of the English were white, the French red, the Flemish green, the Germans black and the Italians yelloAv. Magnus, King of Norway, effected a landing on the Isle of Anglesea, but was repulsed by the Earl of Shrewsbury (1097). This was the last attempt of the Northmen on England. William built a w^all around the Tower, and also erected Westminster Hall (270 by 74 feet) for his dining room. It is thought to have been the largest room in Europe, and at that time was certainly one of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture extant. It was afterwards recon- structed, and became famous as the place where the trial of Charles I. took place. A very curious piece of needlework, called the Bayeux tapestry, said to have been the Avork of Queen Matilda, the mother of William II., is still in exist- ence at Caen, and contains portraits of the Conqueror and his family, as well as a series of pictures worked 40 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEES. in worsted, representing the history of the conquest of England. It is supposed that her granddaughter, tlie Empress Maud, added to this interesting piece of tapestry. The sea overfioAved four thousand acres of land, eleven hundred of which formerly belonged to Godwin, or Goodwin, father of Harold II., and by him bequeathed to the monks of Canterbury. Tlie latter neglected to keep the wall in repair, so that the sea broke through and submerged the entire trfvt, wliich is situated opposite Deal, and is now called the Goodwin Sands. This place often proves fatal to mariners. During this reign the first London l)ridge was erected. It was a Avooden structure, having houses on either side of it. Fuller says in substance that the monks were William's only historians, and that it was the King's great misfortune that his eneniic^s slionld lawc diawn the only picture of him which has come to us. Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, uncle to the King, assisted by the nobles, revolted, but they were soon Wars. "^ ' ' ^ suppressed. William, in IDIK), attacked Normandy, which be- longed to his brother Bobert, but without success. Malcolm III., King of Scotland, invaded England. Having reduced the castle of Alnwick, the besieged were obliged to surrender, and oidy requested that the King would in person receive the keys of the gates. The keys wore brought on the top of a spear by Bobert de Mowbray, who, standing within the THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 41 walls of the castle, thrust the lance through the King's eye as he started to take them (Nov. 13, 1093). For this exploit the governor received the name of Pierce- eye, now changed to Percy, which is still the family name of the Dukes of Northumberland. Peter [The Hermit), a French monk, who went to Noted the Crusades, died 1115. Godfey of Bou- Persons. logue, or Godefroid de Bouillon (Crusader), Duke of Lorraine, elected by the Crusaders King of Jerusalem. 1058-1100. AValter Tyrrel. (24) HENRY I. 1100 1135. Henry I., surnamod Beauclerc, or the Scholar, was Birtii md born at Selby, in Yorkshire, in 1070, and rarentape. ^as the youngcst son of the Conqueror and Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V., Earl of Flanders. He usurped the throne made vacant by the death Accession to of liis brother William, and thereby a thoTiirone. gQ^Qi^j time Kobert was deprived of his hereditary rights. He was crowned at Westminster August 5, 1100, and reigned until 1135. He married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., and niece of Edo^ar Atheling, thus uniting Marriage. ^ . r -i the Saxon and Norman interests. Matilda (or Maud)* was crowned at Westminster November 11, 1100. After her death Henry espoused Adelais of Brabant, daughter of Godfrey, Duke of Louvain, by ♦The nanios Matilda aud Maud seem at this period to luivo been used interchangeably. 42 ENGLAND AND ITS EULEES. whom lie had no issue. She was crowned Queen January 30, 1121,* at Westminster. William; and Matilda, who married, first, Henry V., Emperor of Germany, and afterwards Issue. J- . Geoifry, Earl of Anjou. His death occurred at St. Denis, in Normandy. His body was embalmed, brought to Enjj- land, and buried in Reading Abbey, Avhicli he liatl built. In personal appearance Henry was al)ove medium p stature, well proportioned and by historians po!ir;incoauci of his day Called handsome. He was a CJlitiriict'Gr* curious compound of character, Avhich has led to very diverse opinions regarding it. He was brave, accomplished and fond of literature, but avari- cious, cruel and violent. Strict in his ideas of equity, he did inucli towards the repression of ra|>ine and deeds of violence, so common at tliat j)eri()d in all parts of Europe. In his administration of justice, so highly beneficial to the country, he gained the title of the " Lion of Justice.'" He acquired the name of Beauclerc, or Scholar, from translating ^so[)'s fables for the first time into English. He was the first of the Norman Kings born and educated in England. For the period he had received more than an usual degree of education. Henry's first important act after assuming the Notable crowu Avas to issue a charter of liberties, Events. whereby he guaranteed: First, the rights of the Church; second, the rights of the nobles and land- holders to be free from extortion; third, the right of *Some authorities place this date January 29, 1129. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 43 all classes to be governed by the old English law, with William the Conqueror's amendments. A hun- dred copies were sent to the leading Abbots and Bishops for preservation in their monasteries and cathedrals. It was the first written guarantee of good government given by an English monarch to his subjects. His charter was not only a precedent for the great Charter, but was the first limitation im- posed on the despotism established by the conquest. He recalled Anselm, but had a fierce strugforle with him, against the power of the Pope, which was finally settled, Henry conceding to the papal authority the right of appointment of Bishops, but reserving the very important power of endoAving them, in return for which he was to receive their homage and oath of allegiance. In this way Henry retained his power over the Church. He also abolished the Curfew, and made many wholesome regulations. On returning from the cru- sades Kobert claimed the crown. The brothers, how- ever, at length agreed that Henry should retain the throne by paying an annual tribute of three thousand marks, but he shortly afterwards added Normandy to England, thus depriving Robert of his dukedom, as he had before wrongfully taken his kingdom. He is said to have died worth, according to the present value of money, three million pounds. In 1120, William, heir apparent, was shipwrecked off the coast of France, in a strait called the race of Alderney, when returning from Normandy, where he had been to receive the homage of the barons. More 44 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULERS. than one hundred and fortj^ noblemen, and several ladies of rank, perished; a butcher of Kouen, named Bertold, alone escaped by clinging to a mast. On the news reaching England it was kept from the King for some days; when, however, he was told that the prince and all on board the ship had j^erished he fainted, and it was long before his extreme grief abated. Indeed, the loss of his son so affected Henry that he was never after seen to smile. He had now only one legitimate child left, his daughter Matilda, and his highest ambition was to make her his suc- cessor as Queen; but in this Avish he was violently opposed by many of the nobles. A revolt of the barons, who aimed to throw off the obligations of fealty and submission to the King, im- posed upon them by the Conqueror, assumed a threat- ening aspect under Eobert of Beleseme, who raised an army and invaded England in 1105. He was met by the King with sixty thousand footmen, who speedily and thoroughly crushed this rebellion. A religious order called "Knights Templars," or pious soldiers, was established iu 1118. The King's speech on opening Parliament dates its origin from this reign. Woodstock Park was laid out. The first stone arch bridge was erected over the Lea by Queen Matilda, and from its circular form called Bow Bridge. The payment of rents was changed from kind into money. A standard of weights and measures was fixed, and the yard measure adopted, which was fixed by the length of Henry's arm. The manufacture of woolen stuffs was introduced THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 45 by a colony of Flemings, who settled at Worstead (near Norwich) ; hence the name of worsted stockings, etc. Surnames were first used in the reicrn of William the Conqueror, but their use was not common until this reign. Up to the time of the Normans people were generally called by one name, as Edwin, Harold, etc. People took their surnames from an event in their lives, or something remarkable in their dress, person, manners, etc. The possession of land furnished other names, as Preston, Ely, Grantham ; others were derived from trades and occupations, as Monk, Abbot, Mason, Glover and Carpenter; and others from employments now obsolete, as Falconer, Fletcher, Archer, etc. The power to bequeath property by will was con- firmed to English subjects in 1100. Kichard I. is credited in error with making the first will on record. Henry invaded Normandy, and defeated his brother at Tinchebray September 27, 110(3. He thus gained entire control of Normandy. Robert was taken prisoner, confined in Cardiff Castle, in Glamorganshire, and his eyes, it has been said, were cruelly put out. He remained in prison until his death, twenty-seven years later, and was buried at Gloucester. AVitli Louis VI., who restored to William, Robert's son, the Duchy of Normandy; — battle of Brenneville 11 L9. Anselm, or Anselmo, St., theologian, philosopher Noted and chronicler. Archbishop of Canterbury, Persons. 1033*-1109. Slmeou of Durham, a learned monk, mathematician and chronicler, 1001-1130.* 46 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. Osburn, Bishop of Exeter, in 1072, died 1103. Sir Hugh de Pagano, founder of the order of Knights Templars, died 1118.* Thomas, Arcld^ishop of York, in 1070, died 1114. Matikla, wife of Henrj I., died 1118. (25) STEPHEN OF BLOIS. 1135 — 1154. He was born at Blois, in 1105, and was grandson Birth and of the Couqueror, being second son of Parentage. Stephen, Earl of Blois, and Adela, daugh- ter of William I. Accession to He was crowncd at Westminster, Decem- the Throne. ^g^. 20^ 1135. He married Matilda, daughter of Eustace, Count of Boulogne. She was crowned Queen Marriage. " March 22, li;3t), at Westminster. Eustace, who died in his father's lifetime. William, Earl of Boulogne, and other children, none Issue. . succeeding to the throne. After a short illness Stephen died, at Dover, and was buried near his Avife in Feversham Death. Abbey, in Kent, which he had founded. He was tall, well made and muscular. His features _ , . were reijular, his hair dark auburn, sliofhtlv Personal Ap- o ' » ^ pearanceancl tinged witll red. Character. x i i i i • i in character iie Avas active and ener- getic, possesed of great courage and fortitude. During his Avhole reign, although engaged in scenes of great tumult and trial, not an act of willful oppres- THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 47 slon is recorded against him. As a King liis faults seem to have arisen from troubles in which he Avas involved by the acts of Matilda, the daughter of Henry I., and her adherents, among whom Eobert, Duke of Gloucester, her half-brother, was the most prominent. Stephen, on his accession, granted many privileges Notable to his subjects, permitting the barons to Events. fortify their castles, and to hunt in their own forests. In 113G, the City of London, from Aldersgate to St. Paul's, was destroyed by fire, and at the same time London Bridge was burned; this structure, as well as most of the houses, at that time being built of timber. Stephen was the first monarch to make the Tower a royal residence, after which it was fre- quently used as such until the time of James II. On February 2, 1140, Matilda, with her half-brother the Duke of Gloucester, landed in England, and de- feated Stephen at Lincoln, where he was captured and subsequently confined in Bristol Cattle. Matilda was crowned, with some pomp and ceremony, at Winches- ter, in 1141, but her conduct displeasing the nation, she was compelled to flee into Normandy, and Ste- phen regained the throne. Henry, Duke of Normandy, the son of Matilda, came to England in 1151 to claim his hereditary rights, and was supported in his demands by the barons. At a conference held at Wallingford, in Berkshire, a compromise was effected, by the terms of which Stephen was alloAved to retain the crown in 48 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. peace for life, and Henry to succeed to the tlirone, leaving Boulogne and his patrimonial estate to Ste- phen's son William. Sugar was first introduced during this reign. The barbarous custom of confiscating vessels wrecked on British shores, which had long existed, still continued, but a law was passed in the suc- ceeding reign, providing that if man or animal were found alive in the vessel it and its cargo should be restored to the owners. The useless practice of performing the coronation ceremony three times annually was discontinued after this reign. During this period England was a continued scene „, of bloodshed and horror. The barons and Wars. clergy rebelled, partly through loyalty to Matilda, but more from a spirit of independence. David I., King of Scotland, invaded the Northern counties in support of his niece Matilda, but Avas de- feated at North Allerton, in Yorkshire, Auofust 22 1138. This engagement is sometimes called the Battle of the Standard, from the fact that the English brought into the field a large cross bearing the em- blems of different saints. Hume says: "the conse- crated banners of St. Cuthbert of Durham, St. Peter of York, St. John of Beverley, and St. "Wilfred of Ripon, were erected by the English on a wagon, and carried along with the army as a military ensign." Battle of Lincoln, with Matilda and her adherents, February 2, 1140. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 49 Geoffrey of Monmouth, historian, 1100*-1154. Noted Henry of Huntington, chronicler, died 1168. Persons. Robert, Duke of Gloucester, natural son of Henry I., died 1146. William of Malmesbury, his- torian and chronicler, 1095*-1143.* HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH THE NORMAN LINE. The Normans, in many things, presented a marked contrast to the Saxons and the Danes, and were vastly superior in politeness, in taste and in refinement. Intoxication was almost unknown to them, while the Saxons were noted for their voracity and intemper- ance. The Normans were the courteous, polished gen- tlemen of the continent: brave, warlike, and skilled in all that makes good soldiers. Their subjugation of England Avas complete. But their rulers were still Frenchmen, and held Britain subordinate in their affections to their own country. Most of them had been born in France, and had spent the greater part of their lives there, and the high offices in their gift were almost invariably filled by Frenchmen. They were mighty warriors, and every conquest made by them on the continent only served to estrange them the more from their British subjects. The Anglo-Saxons were deemed an inferior race, and their degraded condition was enhanced by the cruelty with which they were treated by their Norman rulers. The spirit of chivalry which was displayed in this age, showing itself in tournaments between armed 50 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. knights, iiuder the auspices of royalty; the reward of success being some ornament bestowed by a fair lady, promoted courtesy and gentle manners, somewhat alleviating the harsh features of the feudal system, and tending to the elevation of women. Agriculture during the Norman dynasty was greatly advanced, husbandmen from France and Flanders in- troducing their own improved methods of cultivating the soil. The clergy also gave an impetus to art, in religious painting and sculpture, Avhile the illuminated missals and manuscripts, which have come down to us from that time, produced by the monks, are still sources of admiration and wonder. The simple habits of the Normans allowed them but two meals a day. The customary hour for dinner was nine in the forenoon, while supper was had at five P. M. It may be deemed one secret of their predominance over the Saxons that they were so temperate both in meat and drink. Eng- land began to be at this period a commercial nation, and the traders of London, as well as those of York, Bristol and other toAvns, grew rich by trade and ship- ping. The prevailing language was French, and the public records and edicts were in that tongue. Even William the Conqueror, never mastered the language of his subjects so as to speak it intelligibly. The Norman army included cavalry as well as foot- soldiers. The cavalry were known as Knights, who wore armor and a helmet, and carried a shield. The knight was thoroughly trained for his vocation, first following his master as a page and then as a squire. THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 51 After seven years in this service lie spent several days in church, engaged in religious rites, fasting and prayer. Then he took an oath to be loyal to the King, to defend religion, and to rescue every lady in danger or distress. Then, having had a sword blessed by the priest girded to his side, he knelt to the prince or noble Avho was to perform the final ceremony, who struck him lightly on the shoulder, saying: "In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I dub thee knight. Be brave, hardy and loyal." In case a knight was untrue to his oath he was publicly degraded. Knighthood was necessarily confined to the aristocracy, as only the wealthy class could afford the price of horse and armor. During the Norman period many monasteries were built. William established ecclesiastical courts em- powered to try all clerical offenders. All priests had a right to be tried in this court, and as the punish- ments inflicted were merely nominal, many, in fact nearly all, thus escaped the punishment due to tlunr offences. The arts of painting, sculpture and poetry, which had been cultivated to some extent by the priests, did not flourish under the Norman dynasty; but archi- tecture advanced greatly, and many specimens, like the cathedral of Peterborough, still command the admiration of mankind. 1154 — 1399. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. (2G) HENRY II. 1154 — 1189. Henry II., first of the line of Plantagenets, was Birth and bom at Mans, in Normandy, 1133. He was Parentage. ^|^g g^^^ q£ Geoffrey of Anjou, tiie Hand- some, and Matilda, daughter of King Henry I. Geof- frey had acquired the name of Plantagenet from his custom of Avearing in his helmet, plante-genet, or the golden-blossomed broom-plant. From his father came the title of Anafevin. Henry II., ascended the throne, and was crowned Accession to at Westminster December 19, 1154. Sub- the Throne, gequeutly the ceremony was repeated at the cathedrals of Lincoln and Worcester. „ . He married Eleanor, daufjhter of Will- Alarriage. _ ^ iam, Duke of Aquitaine, in 1152. Sons, Henry; William, who died in infancy; Ptich- ard; Geoffrey and John. Henry died from Issue. '' -' a fever, at Martel in 1183; Geoffrey was killed at a tournament at Paris, in 1185. King Henry also left three legitimate daughters: Maud, born in 115G, married Henry, Duke of Saxony; Eleanor, born in 11G2, married Alphonso, King of Castile; Joan, born in 11G5, married William, King of Sicily. 52 THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 53 He died at the castle of Cliinon, near Saumer, ill Normandv, July 6, 1189. Death. . - ' "^ . His compact, vigorous frame was adapted to one who proved himself the hardest „ , . worker of his time. His square, stout Personal Ap- i ' pearance and figure, fiery face, close cropped hair, prom- inent eyes, bull neck, and coarse, strong hands, indicated his stalwart, sturdy character. It was said of him: "He never sits down. He is always on his legs from morning to night." It was emphatically true of him, that " uneasy lies the head that wears a crown." His life was a continued struggle ; first, with the clergy ; then, with France and Scotland, and, finally, with his own sons, whose ingratitude at last " quite vanquished him." He seems to have been a born ruler. He was a rough man, of strong passions, obstinate in love or hatred, fond of his children, yet for long years har- assed by the unjust wars they waged against him. Often called on to arbitrate between the rulers of neighboring states, his keen sense of justice Avas re- spected by all. He did much to advance the interest of England by his reformation of the abuses of the Clnirch, as shown in the Constitutions of Clarendon, whereby the Clergy were shorn of their unjust powers, and made subject to the common law of the realm. He also initiated the rule of law, as distinct from that of despotism, and the commutation " of the right of the personal service " of his subjects for a limited time to a payment in money. First and foremost among the stirring events of 54 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. his reigu was the contest with Thomas Becket, Notable commoiily called Thomas d Becket, lastiii*^, Events. from 11G2, for more than eight years. Becket was a Londoner, born of humble parents, but, like King Henry himself, of marked capacity, courage and industry. Sent by Archbishop Theobald to Italy, he studied law at Bologna. On his return he was made Archdeacon of Canterbury, AVhen Henry be- came King a warm friendship sprang up between them. Henry first made him chancellor, and entrusted him with the education of the heir to the throne, and when the See of Canterbury became vacant by the death of Theobald, made him Archbishop. From that time the devouring although unselfish ambition of Becket knew no object except the aggrandizement of the Church, until Henry began to fear that the crown Avas in danger of becoming subordinate to the mitre. Henry, too, was determined that the clergy should be amenable to the common law, and subject to the same punish- ment as laymen. Becket bitterly resisted this. From that time forth the contest raged fiercely, until at length the King summoned him to a])pear before a council at Northampton. Becket then fled to France, not only to save himself from the enmity of the King, but in the hope of being able to induce Louis IL and the Pope to espouse his cause. But the sympathy of the people Avith Becket was so strong, and the power of the Church so great, that the King deemed it expedi- ent to avoid a contest wliicli would be attended with so mucli loss of life and waste of treasure. He therefore went to France, and personally urged Becket to return. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 00 The latter finally yielded, and the difficulty seemed com- promised ; but it was in fact only a hollow truce. The Church and Henry could not both rule England. The Archbishop of York, and the Bishops of London and Salisbury, had recently officiated at the coronation of Prince Henry at Westminster. The selection by the King of these dignitaries to perform so high an office, which by right belonged to Becket, had given him mortal offence, and therefore as soon as he reached England he excommunicated them. Henry was then at the castle of Bur, near Bayeux, and when he heard of this act of Becket his rage knew no boiinds, and in his anger he exclaimed, "Will none of the cowards who eat my bread rid me of that turbulent priest?" This hasty expression was misconstrued by Reginald Fitzurse, Hugh de Morville, Richard de Breton, and William de Tracy, courtiers in attendance, into an authority to kill the prelate, and soon after Becket returned to England they carried out their purpose, brutally murdering him December 29, 1170, in St. Benedict's Church, Canterbury. The Pope proclaimed Becket a saint. The cathedral, so long his care, was hung in mourning. Thousands of pilgrims came to his shrine from all parts of Christendom, creeping to it on their knees to gain his intercession. In its great charity, history absolves Henry from intentional guilt in Becket's murder, and the Pope, after many mis- givings, was also at length convinced. The monarch hastened his return to England; did penance at Can- terbury, remaining there a day and a night, submitting to be scourged by the monks after having walked 5() ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. three miles bare-footed to the tomb of Becket, before the pardon and absolution of the Pope was given him. The Kiug, having associated Prince Henr}^ with himself in the regal power (doubtless, to emphasize the act), did him homage by waiting upon him at table. The remainder of the King's life Avas embittered, and his death hastened, by the enmity of his only re- maining sons, Richard and John, Avho, with the aid of Louis of France, waged war against him. His devo- tion to his sons had been rewarded by tlie hatred and ingratitude of each of them, and this tlirew him into a lingering fever, of wliich he expired in the fifty- eighth year of his life, and the thirty-fifth of his reign. In 1173 the Queen Avas imprisoned for causing the death of Rosamond Clifford, a favorite of the King's. AVoodstock is celebrated as being the place Avhere " the fair Rosamond " Avas so carefully concealed by Henry. The reconstruction of London Bridge, tlien first built of stone, Avas begun in this reign, and tl>e course of the Thames Avas turned aside for that pur[)ose, by cutting a canal from Rotherhithe to Battersea. In 117G England Avas divided into six circuits for the adminis- tration of justice, and three judges Avere appointed to each. Charters were also granted to numerous toAvns. Glass AvindoAvs Avere first used in private houses in 1180. The Temple, in London, Avas built l)y the Knights Templars. Abbeys and Priories, for the edu- cation of youth, for the accommodation of travellers, THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 57 and the relief of the indigent, were very numerous at this period. Henry issued a new coinage of standard weight and purity. He drove beyond the seas the foreign mercenaries who had been harbored in England during the reign of Stephen. He seized the royal castles which had been usurped, and demolished those which had been reared for systematic plunder. To Henry belongs the honor of founding the sys- tem of trial by jury, afterwards perfected and fully established in England, and subsequently adopted by the whole civilized world. A grand jury of sixteen was chosen in every district to report to the judges, the criminals residing in them, who afterwards had a right to be tried by a petit jury. At first this jury was composed of persons supposed to be cognizant of the facts, but afterwards their duty was confined to hearing witnesses, who were summoned, and gave on oath their testimony. In 1172 Henry completetl the conquest of Ireland, annexed it to the English crown, and gov- Wsrs erned it by a Viceroy. He also gained ascendency over the AVelsh. His sons, supported by the kings of France, re- peatedly rebelled. William I., surnamed the Lion, of Scotland, invaded Northumberland with eighty thou- sand men, but was taken prisoner at Alnwick, by Glanville, September 28, 1174, and compelled to sub- mit to very humiliating conditions. This was the first ascendency over Scotland, Avhich now became subject to the English King, as lord paramount. 58 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Matilda, daughter of Henry I., wife of Henry V., Noted Emperor of Germany, 1102-1165. Thomas Persons. ^ Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1119- 1170. Eanulph de Granville, statesman, crusader and judge, died 1100. William, Earl of Pembroke [Stronghoiv) , Marshal of England, Seneschal of Ulster and Governor of Ireland, died 1191. Adrian IV. {Nicholas Brcukspcar), Pope (1154), 1092-1159, the only Englishman who has ever held the pontificate. (27) RICHARD I., SURNAMED CCEUR DK LION. 1189 — 1199. Richard, born at Oxford (1157), was the eldest Birth and Surviving son of Henry II. and Eleanor of Parentage. Aquitaine. Accession to He was crownctl at AVestminster Sep- the Throne, tember 3, 1189, and reigned until 1199. He was married on May 12, 1191, at Cyprus, to Berengaria, dauf^hter of Sanchez, King of Marriage. fc> ' o ^ ' & Navarre, and had no issue. When besieging the Castle of Chaluz, near Li- ^ , moges, in Erance, he Avas wounded in the Death. ^ ' ' shoulder by an arrow from the bow of Bertrand De Jourdain, and eleven days afterwards died, August 0, 1199. He desired his bowels to be buried at Chaluz, among the rebellious Poictevins; his heart at Rouen, in recognition of the loyalty of the citizens; and his body at the feet of his father atFond- Evrard, to express his sorrow for his unfilial conduct. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 59 Kichard, in person, was manly, engaging, tall; , . with broad shoulders, and hair of a bright Personal Ap- '-' pearanceand aubum, with Sparkling blue eyes. A tinge of romance must forever hang around the reign of this monarch, whose life was made up of a series of adventures in knight-errantry. They were but the natural outcome of a character composed of such antipodal qualities, at once so grand and groveling, so noble and mean; while the story of his life makes the lines of Dr. Johnson on Charles XII., of Sweden, peculiarly applicable to him, for: "His fate was destined to a foreign strand, A petty fortress and a dubious hand; — He left a name at which the world grew pale, To point a moral and adorn a tale." The graphic picture of this character by Mr. Tur- ner, in his History of England, is not overdrawn: " Haughty, irascible and vindictive, a towering and barbaric grandeur, verging at times into barbarian cruelty, distinguished his actions. Valiant beyond the measure of human daring, unparalleled in his feats of prowess; inferior to no man in hardihood, strength and agility; stern and inflexible in his temper; rapa- cious and selfish, yet frequently liberal to profusion; gorgeous to ostentation; often gay, familiar, satirical and jocular; unshaken by adversity; resolute to obsti- nacy, furious in warfare, fond of battle and always irresistibly victorious; his life seems rather the fiction of a poet's imagination than the sober portrait of authentic history. The surname he gained of Coeur de Lion was peculiarly fitting. But underlying all 60 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. these traits may often be seen tlie softening influence of liis love of literature, especially Provencal poetry." Yet witlial, truth compels the record that his reign added nothing to the civilization or pros})erity of the kingdom. The horrible story of the massacre of the Jcavs at Notable Ricliard's coronation is too shocking and Events. ^^^ ^^^y^ known to need repetition in de- tail here. The Jews in great numbers had especial reasons for being anxious to express their loyalty, and prepared Avith rich presents, which they knew would be acceptal)le to their sovereign, were endeavoring to approach him while the state dinner was in progress. A scuffle with some of the attendants ensued, which at once became an ungovernable riot. The Jews resisted this ill-treatment, which so inflamed the passions of the mob that nothing could restrain their violence, and it quickly extended, not only to the city, but throughout the country. Thousands of defenceless Israelites were ruthlessly massacred and plundered of their goods, and it was in vain that the soldiers tried to restrain the infuriated English mob until their ferocity and greed had been satiated. The King em- poAvered Glanville, the Justiciary, to inquire into this fearful disaster, but as it Avas found that too many of the more prominent citizens Avere involved, it Avas deemed Avise to drop the prosecution, and very fcAv suffered the punishment due to their great crime. Richard, having sold the vassalage of Scotland and extorted large sums from his subjects, engaged in the crusades, and joined Philip of France on the plains of THE ANGEVINS OK PLANTAGENETS. Gl Vizelay (1190). Ou his voyage to Palestine he took Isaac, King of Cyprus, a prisoner, and loaded him with silver chains (1191j. r^King Philip withdi-e\v his troops from Palestine, leavino- Kichard alone to encounter the Saracens, but disorders arising in England, he started for home, and learning that plans had been made for his capture, rashly resolved to pass through Germany in the dis- guise of a pilgrim. He was, however, shipwrecked at Aquileia, north of the Gulf of Venice, and being there recognized by the Duke of Austria, with whom he had quarreled in Palestine, was delivered into the hands of his enemy, Henry VI., Emperor of Germany. The fate of the King was long a matter of doubt, so closely Avas the secret of his place of confinement concealed. Its discovery, however, was, like so many events in Kichard's life, somewhat romantic. A French minstrel named Blondel, who had long been his serv- ant and friend, after weary wanderings through Pales- tine and Germany, in search of his royal master, one day seated himself l)eneatli the grated windows of a castle in lower Austria, and began to sing one of those ballads of Provence, which in the old days he had taught the King. He had just finished the first stanza when, to his surprise and delight, the refrain was caught up by a voice which he at once recognized as tiiat of Pilchard. After being a captive for fifteen months, he was ransomed for a sum of money, Avliich was raised by a general tax, according to the present value equal to two hundred and fifty thousand pounds, and returned to England, arriving there March 13, 02 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULERS. 1194. "The devil is loose, take care of yourself," wrote Philip to John, wheu he heard of the King's release. During his absence the Bishops of Durham and Ely had charge of the kingdom, but his brother John endeavored to gain the throne. Richard, on his re- turn, forgave him, oljserving, "I pardon him, and I hope I shall as easily forget his injuries as he will my pardon." In the battle of Gisors, 1108, Richard gave his army as a paroh; of the day, " Dieu et mon droit" (God and my right). Such signal success attended him in the contest that he made the watclnvord the motto of the royal arms, which they have since borne. During the crusade crests were introduced. Rich- ard adopted as his emblem three lions passant, which still mark the shields of England, and were later em- bodied in the coat of arms of the royal family. Only four months of the reign of tJiis King were passed in England, and in his absence the disorders of the country were so great as to baffle description in our short record of the time. No man's life or property were secure, and the country was infested by bands of robbers. AVith Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, battle of xVcre, July 12, 1191: of Ascalon. September 7, Wars. ./ ' 1 1191. Joppa, Cfcsura and other cities were subdued in 1192, when a truce was agreed upon, for three years, three months, three weeks and three days, a number supposed then to possess some magic virtues. With his vassal Vidomar, Lord of THE ANGEVINS OK PLANTAGENETS. 03 Limoges; siege of Clialnz, au obscure castle in the province of Limousin, April 6, 1199. Saladin I. (Salali-Ed-Deen), Sultan of Egyj)t and Noted Syria, 1137-1102 or 3. Leopold (le Beau), Persons. ^|Jgj ]^q(j(. Bcrtrand de Jourdain. William Fitz Osbert {Long heard), executed for sedition. Michael Belet, judge, died 1189. Benoit, biographer and chancellor to Richard I., died 1200. Geoffrey Hose, judge in 1179, died 1199. Hugh de Morenic, judge in 1184, died 1190. Randolph Blundevil, Earl of Chester, judge, in 11*13. (28) JOHN, SURNAMED RANSTERRE, OR LACKLAND. 1199 — 121G. Born at Oxford December 24, 1100. He was the Birth and SOU of Henry II. by Eleanor, daughter of Parentage. ^ViHiam, Duke of Aquitain. Accession to He was crowucd at AVestminster May 27, the Throne. -| -j q() He was married three times. His last consort was Isabella, daughter of Aymer Tailleffer, Count of Angouleme, by whom only he had issue. Isabella was crowned at Westminster October 5, 1200. Henry; Jane, married to Alexander II., King of Scotland; Eleancu-, married to Simon de Montfort; Isabella; and Richard, elected Kinof of the Romans. Death. The fatigue of a tiresome march across the waste of Lincolnshire, during which, by the 64 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. rising of the tide, lie lost liis hao^ijaiTfe and reoralia, as well as the records of the kingdom, threw him into a fever, of which he died at Newark castle, in Notting- hamshire. His heart was deposited in a golden urn at Fort Edward, and his body buried at Worcester October 19, 1216. He was tall and corpulent, of great physical , . streuijth, with a countenance proud, fierce Personal Ap- & ' i ' pearancoand and repellent. It was a proverb of the time, "Foul as it is, hell itself is defiled bj^ the fouler presence of John." His insolence, selfishness, unbridled lust, cruelty and tyranny, joined to craven superstition and the most cynical indifference to honor or truth, made him feared and abhorred of all men. His profound ability, his inborn genius for war, and the rapidity and breadth of his political combinations, alone enabled him to maintain his position. The enemy of God and man, his reign was a perpetual war- fare against all that is lovely and of good report, a constant struggle against English freedom. London Bridge was completed, and the Cinque Ports endowed with additional ] privileges. A standing army for the first time was equipped. The annual election of a Lord Mayor and two Sheriffs of London dates from this reign. Chimneys in houses were first used, in 1200, but until the year 1300 only one, built in the center of each house, was provided. The Jews were held in great detestation, but had accumulated great Avealth in spite of unjust extortions and cruelties. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 65 John is said to have murdered, in the castle of Notable Eouen (1202), his nephew Arthur, who was Events. YieiY to the crown, and the only son of John's elder brother Geoffrey. He also imprisoned Arthur's sister Eleanor, called " the damsel of Brit- tany," in Bristol castle, Avliere she died in 1241. John's reign was chiefly occupied with three hardly fought contests, all of which resulted disastrously to him, but well for his realm. Piiilip of France accused John of the murder of Arthur, and commanded him, as Duke of Normandy (and hence under the feudal law his dependent), to present himself at Paris for trial. John failing to appear before the court, he was adjudged a traitor, and all his lands on the continent were declared for- feit. He finally made an effort to regain these posses- sions, but was thoroughly defeated. Philip seized Normandy, and deprived John of all his possessions north of the river Loire. A more humiliating defeat was that which resulted from his contest Avith Pope Innocent III., who had commanded the monks of Canterbury to choose Stephen Langton Archbishop, in place of a person nominated by the King. John forbade Langton to enter his kingdom. The Pope at once placed his realm imder interdict, and ordered all religious exercises suspended. The churches were draped in black and closed, no bells were rung, and for two years no sacraments were administered. The Pope then, by bull, excommuni- cated the King, but he avenged himself by ill-treating the priests, many of whom fled the laud. The Pope 00 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. then proceeded to extremities, deposed John, and di- rected Philip to seize the English crown. Then John, realizing his weakness and nnpopularity, already hav- ing alienated almost the entire nation, made haste to throw himself at the feet of the Pope's legate, and concede all that was asked. He healed the rupture by consenting that Lano^ton should assume the office of Archbishop, and by promising to Rome an annual tribute equal to about sixty-four thousand dollars in modern currency. Upon these most ignoble terms he was allowed to retain his crown. The terms of the remarkable covenant then made cannot be omitted. Tlic^ Avere as follows: '^'' I Jolni, by the grace of God. King of England, and Lord of Ireland, in order to expiate my sins, from my own free will and the advice of my barons, give to the Church of Rome, to Pope Innocent and his suc- cessors, the kingdom of England and all other prerog- atives of my crown. I will hereafter hold them as the Pope's vassal. I will be faithful to God, to the Church of Rome, to the Pope, my master, and to his successors legitimately elected. I promise to pay him a tribute of one thousand marks; to-Avit, seven hun- dred for the kingdom of England, and three hundred for the kingdom of Ireland." The third and most momentous contest was with the barons. He had exhausted their patience by wrongfully absorbing the revenues of the Cliurch, by unlawful extortions, and by gross attacks upon the lives, liberties and property of his subjects. Supported b}^ Langton, by the Church, and indeed by THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 67 the entire nation, the barons determined to seek re- dress. Tlieir first meeting was held at St. Albans, in the summer of 1213. It consisted of delegates from all parts of the kingdom, convened to consider what demand should be made of the King. The work of framing an expression of their demands was left to a committee supposed to be headed by the Archbishop. In the autumn of 1214 they met again at St. Edmunds- bury, and each at the high altar took a solemn oath to oblige John to concede the charter then adopted or to join in war against him. At Easter, 1215, the same barons, with two thou- sand armed knights, waited on the King, and presented to him the charter. He at first refused a direct answer, but the power of public sentiment was too great, and lie dared not resist it. He finally asked them to name the day and place for the ratification of the instrument. " Let the day be the fifteenth of June, and the place Runnymede," was the answer. "In the meadow called Runnymede, between Windsor and Staines, on the fifteenth of June, in the seventeenth year of our reign," so it reads, was signed and sealed Magna Carta, or the Great Charter. It contained sixty-three articles, tlwce of which have formed the foundation of all subsequent legislation, the corner stones of English freedom. The first provided that no freeman should be imprisoned except by lawful judgment of his peers or the law of the land; the second, that justice should neither be sold, denied or delayed; and the third, that all dues from the people to the King, unless otherwise distinctly specified, should be imposed only with the 68 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. consent of the Groat Council. " So highly was this Charter esteemed," says a late liistorian, " that it was confirmed no less than thirty-seven times." When Charles II. entered London he was asked again to ratify it; and all free peoples have incorporated its main provisions in their constitutions. The rest of John's reign was spent in efforts to overthrow the Charter, until death put an end to his perfidy. An old chronicle says of him: "He was a knight without truth, a king without justice, a Chris- tian without faith." AVith Philip II., of France, and with the barons who invited Louis, Philip's eldest son, to Wars. ' ^ .' come to England and offered to crown him. Arthur, Duke of Brittany, nephew of King John, Noted 1187^1202. Pantulph, judge in 1189, died Persons. ^^^^^^^^ 3^9 13. Hubert Fitzwalter, Bishop of Sarum in 1189, Archbishop of Canterbury in 1193, died 1205. Robert Fitzwalter, a general of the barons' army. John de Courcy, Earl of Ulster, a warrior, Governor of Ireland in 1185, famous for his strength and prowess. To him John granted the privilege, for himself and his descendants, of wearing their hats in the royal presence. Died 1199 or 1205. Stephen Langton, Statesman 1151-1228. Archbishop of Canterbury in 1207. He divided the Bible into chap- ters and verses. Gervais of Tilberry, historian and latin poet, 1133-1218. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 69 (29) HENRY III., SURNAMED WINCHESTER. 1216 — 1272. He was born at Winchester October 1, 1207, and Birth and was the eldest son of John, but being a Parentage, minor at the time of his accession to the throne, the Earl of Pembroke was made Protector. Henry was first crowned at Gloucester October 28, Accession to 1216, and a second time at Westminster the Throne, j^jj^^. -^r^ ;i^221. Hubert de Burgh succeeded the Earl of Pembroke in the guardianship of the young King, who attained his majority in 1227. He was married January l-l, 1236, at Canterbury, to Eleanor, daughter of Eaymond, Earl of Marriage. i f\ l Provence. She was crowned (^ueen at Westminster January 20, 1236. Edward; Edmund, Earl of Lancaster; Margaret, married to Alexander III., of Scotland; and other children who died young. Overcome with the infirmities of age, he died November 16, 1272, at St. Edmundsbury, Death. . . ... and was buried m Westminster Al)l)ey. He was of about medium stature, compact and mus- cular. His countenance had a peculiar cast, Personal Ap- pearance and owing to the fact that he had a drooping eyelid. Ho was weak, vacillating, and too easily influenced by the ambitious men of his court. He committed no great crimes, but was insincere, unwise and cowardly. Profuse and fickle, impulsive, unbridled in temper, his delight was in lavish and 70 ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. extravagant display, and his one idea of government was a dream of arbitrary power. In 1225 Magna Carta Avas confirmed. In 1254, Notable fit tlie instance of the Pope, Henry accepted Events. ^j^^ crown of Sicily for his son Edmund, but the ])urden of raising the requisite money to carry out tlie project widened the breach between the King and the people, and he was compelled to abandon the plan. The disagreements, however, were not settled. In 1258 the famous " mad parliament " was summoned at Oxford, to devise a plan for the reformation of the government. Twenty-four barons were selected, and conducted affairs for some years, until they quar- reled among themselves. In 12()2 the King made a fruitless attempt to escape from the power of the barons. Finally, the troubles were by agreement arbitrated upon by Louis IX., but the barons refused to submit, and in 1264, the King and his brother being taken prisoners, the administration fell into the hands of the Earls of Leicester and Gloucester, and the Bishop of Chichester. In 1270 Prince Edward, the King's eldest son, joined the crusade of St. Louis, and was highly distin- guished for his bravery. In 1220 Thomas d Becket's bones were enshrined in gold and jewels at Canterbury, and pilgrims from all parts flocked thither to worship and to offer |)rayers and gifts, a custom which contin- ued until 1531), in the reign of Henry YIIL, Avhen the shrine was pillaged and the martyr's bones were burned. This reign witnessed many improvements in domes- tic life; coal was discovered at Newcastle in 1233, THE ANGEVINS OR TLANTAGENETS. 71 and during this reign was substituted for wood, and a license was granted to the people of Newcastle to mine it. This is the first mention we have of this useful mineral. Candles came into general use, dis- placing the splinters of wood formerly used for lights. Leaden pipes, to convey water, were first used, and magic lanterns were introduced. The houses in London prior to this time Avere usu- ally thatched with straw, making them very inflam- mable; for this reason it was ordered that the houses of the city should be roofed Avith tiles or slate. The increasing wealth of the Church had produced the usual effect of rendering the monastic orders indo- lent and corrupt. They had almost ceased clerical work, and seemed only desirous of enjoying their riches in luxury and ease. But the evil led to its own reformation. A new order of monks called Friars (derived from the Norman-French Freres, or Breth- ren) sprang up, under vows of self-denial and devo- tion to all the duties of religion. They took the vow of poverty, and were maintained by the alms of the faithful. They preached the gospel, exhorted men to repentance, and their lives abounded in good works. The most famous of these friars was Roger Bacon, who endured hardship and suffering in ordor to i)r()- mote the intellectual culture of his felloAvs, and he may be called the first English scientist. His labors, so far Avas he in advance of his time, gave him a bad name. He Avas believed to be a magician, and Avas driven into exile and long imprisonment. His enthu- siasm, hoAvever, Avas not to be quenched, and in mathe- 72 ENGLAND AND ITS KULEliS. matics aud the sciences lie added largely to the world's store of knowledge. Bacon is credited with the inven- tion of the camera-obscura, the air-pump, the diving- bell, magnifying lenses and gunpowder. But hoAvever this may be, it is quite certain he was the first to call the attention of the English people to them. Gun- powder could not have been Bacon's invention, as mention is made of it B. C. 355, and the use of rockets by the armies in India even ante-dates this. Tacitus also mentions gunpoAvder. Silver coins had been in use from the time of the Saxons; gold coinage began i)i this reign. In 1204 Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, known as " Sir Simon the Eighteous," brother-in-law of the King, with fifteen thousand Londoners (whose grievances becoming intolerable had compelled them to take up arms) and a number of barons, met Henry in battle at Lewes and gained a decisive victory. The Earl of Leicester, altlicnigh holding Henry as a ca[)- tive, took no unfair advantage; but as the head of the State, on January 22, 1265, called a parliament com- posed for the first time of two citizens from each city, two townsmen from each borough, and two knights from each county, all of whom were summoned to London to join tlio barons and clergy. Then were the people as such first represented in parliament. Louis, reinforced with recruits from France, Avas defeated at Lincoln MaA' I'J, 1217, and com- AA ;irs. • ' ' pelled to leave England. The barons, being displeased at the King's par- tiality for foreigners, planned a reA'olt headed by Simon THE ANGEVINS Oil PLANT AGENETS. 73 de Moiitfort. The armies met at Lewes, Sussex, as before stated, when the King, his brotlier Richard and his sou Edward, were taken prisoners. Edward, however, effected his escape, collected an armj^ and fought the battle of Evesham, in "Worcestershire, August 4, 12(j5, in which De Montfort, together with his eldest son Henry and about one hundred and sixty knights and other gentlemen, were slain. The body of the fallen earl was frightfully mutilated, but his memory Avas long reverentially cherished by the English people, who regarded him as a martyr to the liberties of the realm. The battle resulted, how- ever, in the release of the King, and was followed by a reign of marked energy and vigor. Gilbert, Earl of Pembroke. Hubert de Burgh, Noted Earl of Kent, judge 121G, regent 1219, Persons. ^|-g^| 2243. Peter des Roches, a Poicteven, Bishop of Winchester 1205, died 1238. Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester 1200-1205, founder of the House of Commons. Roger Bacon, a philosopher 1214-1292 or 1294. Matthew Paris, a monk, famous as an historian, 1195*-1259. Robert de Gloucester, author of a History of England in rhyme 1230-1285.* Gilbert de Preston, a lawyer, judge 1272, died 1274. St. Thomas Aquinas, a monk 1224*-1274. Sir John Baliol, founder of Baliol College, Oxford, died 1209. Henry de Bracton, judge 1245, Archdeacon of Barn- staple, died 1207. Gerald Barry [Oeraldus Cambren- sis), prelate and historian, 1140*-1224.* Robin Hood, outlaw, 1109-1247. Robert de Arundel, hebraist, died 1240. Walter de Berslede, celebrated judge, 74 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULEKS, died 12G2. Hervins de Borliam, Dean of St. Paul's, 1274, died 127(1 Kalpli de Coggeshalle, monkish chronicler, died 1228. Kichard, Earl Cromwell, son of King John, elected King of the Romans, 1209- 1271. (.30) EDWARD I., SURNAMED LONGSHANKS. 1-272 — 1,307. He was l)orn at Winchester June IP), 1280, and Birth aud was the eldest son of Henry III. and Elea- Parentago. ^^^^, He was crowned at Westminster August 10, 1274, Accession to immediately on his i-eturn from the Holy He reigned until 1307. He married Eleanor, daughter of Ferdinand III., „ . of Castile, in 1253. On Sei)tember 12, 1200, he married Margaret, daugliter of Pliilip III., of France. Eleanor was crowned at the same time as Edward. By Eleanor he had four sons, including Edward II., who succeeded liim, and eleven daueh- Issuo. o ters, most of whom died young. By Mar- garet he liad Thomas, Edmund and Eleanor. He died of dysentery, at Burg-upon-Sands, July 7, jj^ 1307, while conducting his last campaign in Scotland, and was buried at Westminster. His last request was that his son Edward should push on the war. " Carry my bones before you on your THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGBNETS. 75 march" said the dying King, "for the rebels can't endure the sight of me, living or dead." He was very tall and majestic, with regular and comely features. He possessed courage and Personal Ap- •' ^ . . . , . . pearance and penetration, but was ambitious, vindictive Character. -, i and cruel. Edward I. is entitled to rank among England's greatest monarchs for military talent, sound judgment, vigor and promptness of action. His firmness and decision of character are recognized by all students of history; but those other traits, already mentioned, in Avhicli he so closely resembled William the Con- queror, and especially his insatiable ambition, cast a ch)ud over his character, while his unholy crusade against the independence of Scotland will forever leave an indelible ])lot on his memory. Hoping to extinguish the spirit of liberty which Notable was fostercd by the AVelsh bards, he called Events. ^j^g,^^ togctlier at CouAvay, and caused all who came to be massacred. The eighth and last crusade in the Holy Land un- dertaken by Edward previous to his coming to the throne, ended in 1270. Westminster Abbey was finished in 1285. When a dispute arose between Baliol and Bruce, for the crown of Scotland, they referred it to Edward, who claimed the crown for himself, and in 1292 gave it to Baliol, as his vassal. He in turn revolted, but was met and defeated by Robert Bruce, grandson of his competitor, who was crowned King in 1306, and became one of Scotland's greatest monarchs. 76 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. AVinclmills were introduced, and the mariner's com- pass invented by Flavio Gioia, of Naples. The art of making paper was brought from the east by the crusaders. Spectacles were first used in England. Wine was first sold as a cordial in the apothecaries' shops. In 1290 the Scottish regalia and crown jewels, and the coronation stone now in Westminster Abbey, were brought to England. In 128(3 Edward went to the continent to arrange terms of peace between Philip the Fair, of France, and Alonzo of Arag(m, and on his return, in 1289, found a sadly disordered kingdom. Robbery and violence prevailed, and Avent unpunished, owing to the corruption of the judiciary by bribery. To punish these judges a parliament was summoned, and heavy fines im[)osed upon them. Edward's reign will always be held iu dishonor for his tieatjuent of the Jews. Up to this time, "that unfortunate race had alwa3's been protected by the Kings of England, as men protect the cattle Avhich they fatten for slaughter." The ])opulace in 1290 demanded their expulsion, claiming that their extor- tions and usury were ruining the country. Edward yielded to this demand, and after stri[)[)ing the Jews of their property, drove them into exile. Sixteen thousand were sent into banishment, and many per- ished. For more than four centuries thereafter the Jews ceased to be a power in England. Eleanor, Edward's wife, who by her devotion to her husband had won his warm love, and Avhen he was assassinated by a poisoned dagger, heroically THE ANGEVINS OE PLANTAGENETS. 77 sucked the poison from the wound, died in 1290. The King testified to the affection ho bore her, by the thirteen crosses he erected to her memory. These were placed where her body was set down, in its transit from Grantham to Cliaring (now Cliaring Cross, the geographical center of London), its last station before gaining its final resting place in Westminster Abbey. Wax lights Avere kept constantly burning around her tomb for three hundred years. An additional clause was added to the great charter, forbidding the levying of taxes without the consent of parliament. Mei'chants from Lombardy settled in London, giv- ing the name to the street occupied by thorn. In 1'28'J England paid the last tribute money to the Pope. Parliament was in this reign remodeled into the form it has since retained. Improvements in commerce and agriculture, and the increase of the authority of commoners, are marked features of this reign. To conciliate the conquered Welsh, Edward had promised them a fellow-countryman to rule over them. His Queen being brought to l)ed at Caernarvon, the Avily King presented the son to Avhom she gave birth to the chieftains as their future prince. By the death of this prince's elder brother he afterAvards became King of England, and from that time the heir ap- parent to the throne has borne the title of Prince of Wales. With the Welsh Avas fouofht the battle of Lland- 78 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. ilovawr, in Carmarthenshire, December 11, 1292, when their prince, Llewellyn, was drawn Wars. _ ^ •' into an ambush and slain. Wales be- came annexed to England in 1282. With France, 1294; Peace, 1298. With Scotland, which was then nominally attached to the English crown as a conquered province. The battle of Falkirk was fought near Sterling, September 11, 1297, when Cressingham, the treasurer, and five thousand English fell. Llewellyn ap Gryfydd (or Llewellyn, Prince o£ Noted Wales) ^ 1224^1282. Eobert Bruce, King Persons. ^f Scotlaud, 1274-1329. Eleanor of Pro- vence, Consort of Henry III., 1221-1291. Sir William Wallace, Scotch warrior, 12(33 or 70-1305. Aymar de Valence and Hugh de Cressingham, Treasurer, lead- ers at Falkirk, where both were killed, 1297. So odious was Cressingham to the Scots, that they flayed his dead body, using his skin to make into saddles and girths. Richard Abyndon, Baron of the Exchequer, died 1307. John Baliol, claimant to the Scottish crown (1291-6), 1259-1314. AValter Giffard, Bishop of Bath in 1205, Archbishop of York in 1200, political writer, died 1279. William de Hamilton, Dean of York and Lord Chancellor 1304, died 1307. Johan- nes Duns Scotus, scholar and divine, 1265 or 72-1308. THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 79 (31) EDWARD II., SURNAMED CAERNARVON. 1307 — 1327. He was born at Caernarvon August 25, 1284, and Birth and was the eldest surviving son of Edward I. Parentage. ^^^| Eleauor o£ Castile, and the first Eng- lish Prince of Wales. Accession to He was crowned at Westminster July 8, the Throne. ^^gQr^^ ^i^^ j^y following his father's death. He married Isabella, daucjhter of Philip Marriage. . IV. of France, surnamed Le Bel, in 1308. Edward; John of Eltliam, who died young; Jane, married to David II., of Scotland; and Issue. Eleanor. He was atrociously murdered in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire, by order of Roger Morti- Death. . . mer. Earl of March, witli the connivance of his Queen " the she- wolf of France," and was pri- vately buried in Gloucestershire, September 21, 1327. In person he resembled his father, but in character , , inherited all his defects, without his virtues. Personal Ap- ' pearanceand He was cruel and illiberal, without valor or C/lmrnctcr • -»-« capacity. Fickle, indolent and irresolute, he owed his tragic end to the infidelity of Queen Isa- bella, and his partiality for worthless favorites. He made himself so odious to the barons, by pan- Notabie dering to the insolence and rapacity of his vents. grasping favorites, that they rebelled against him, and, aided by the Queen, drove him into Wales. There he was seized by the Earl of Leicester, impris- 80 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. oned in Kenilwortli Castle, and compelled to resign his crown. He was afterwards removed to Berkeley, where he was murdered. The infamous conduct of Queen Isabella had contributed even more to the dis- quiet of the realm. She escaped from England, and her residence in Paris became the sanctuai-y for Brit- ish malcontents, who flocked around her in great numbers, chief among them being Pvoger Mortimer, Earl of March, who had the disgraceful pre-eminence of being her paramour. Edward was the first English King who was de- posed by his subjects. In this reign the House of Commons began to impose conditions upon all bills by which they granted subsidies. This was the first material advance in the exercise of legislative author- ity. About this time Southwark, which had been the resort of desperadoes, was joined to London, and placed under the authority of the mayor and aldermen. The Lollards, a sect of religionists, who rejected the Boman Catholic rites of high mass, extreme unc- tion and penance, arose in this reign. Earthenware was introduced in 1309; the Knights Templars were suppressed in England and elsewhere in 1310, and the university of Dublin was founded in 1319. A serious famine occurred in this reign, and the people were left almost destitute. Interest upon money reached the fabulous rate of forty-five per cent, per annum. In 1314 the war ao^ainst Scotland was Wars. ^ renewed, and the famous battle of Bannock- burn, near Sterling, was won by the Scots June THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 81 25, of that year, under Robert Bruce, and Edward was utterly routed, with great loss. A rebellion, headed by the Earl of Lancaster, was quelled at Boroughbridge, in Yorkshire, March IG, 1322, and its leader executed. Pierre Gaveston, a favorite of Edward II., executed Noted 1312. Hugh Despencer (de Spencer), judge, Persons. .^^^j ill-fated favorite of Edward II., executed 132C. Henry, Earl of Lancaster, prime minister, 1281-13-45. Roger Mortimer, Earl of March, par- amour of Queen Isabella, born about 1287, hanged in 1330, reign of Edward III. Robert Barton, a Car- melite friar, poet-laureate and historian, whom Edward had taken to Bannockburn to celebrate his victory. He fell into the hands of the Scots, who compelled him to write verses upon Edward's being deposed. William, Earl of Pembroke, died 1321. W. de Ever- don, Baron of the Exchequer, died 1327. Thomas de la Hyde, judge in 1305, died 1315. (32) EDWARD III., SURNAMED WINDSOR. 1.327 — 1377. Edward III. was born at Windsor November 13, Birth and 1312, and was the son of Edward II. and Parentage. Isabella. Although a minor, he was by act of Parliament Accession to recoguized as the successor of his father, theTiirone. ^^^^j c^o^yi^ed at Westminster February 2, 1327, and by the same act a Privy Council of twelve 82 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. persons was named to direct the operations of the government. He married Pliilippa, daughter of William, Earl of Hainault and Holland, January 24, 1328. Marriage. . . She was crowned Queen at Westminster in April 1329. Edward, called the Black Prince, from the color of his armor; Lionel, Duke of Clarence, from Issue. ' ' whom sprang the House of York; John of Gaunt, or Ghent, the place of his birth, irom whom descended the House of Lancaster. He also had six other children. Edward, the Black Prince, died of consumption in ^ , June 1376. His father survived him only Death. _ *' a year, dying June 21, 1377, at Sheen, and was buried at Westminster. His death was doubt- less hastened by the loss of his favorite son. A large man, with broad shoulders, and a bright, , . encraofinff face. He was magnanimous and Personal Ap- & &> o ^ ^ » pearauceand merciful, virtues in that day very rare. The English regard with peculiar fondness this reign, as one of the longest and most glorious in their annals. Edward's success in France, as well as his domestic government, endeared him to his subjects. England, through the prudence and vigor of his ad- ministration, enjoyed a longer interval of domestic peace and tranquillity than she had been blessed with at any former period. He proved himself the greatest warrior that ever sat upon the English throne. Mr. Turner, in speaking of the reign of Edward IIL, says: " During this reign our navy established its pre- THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 83 ponderance over the most celebrated fleets that were accustomed to navigate the British channel; our Parliament enjoyed, in full and upright exercise, those constitutional powers which the nation has long learnt to venerate as its best inheritance; .... our manu- factures and commerce began to exhibit an affluence and an expanding growth; the lineaments of our prose literature became distinctly discernible; the pursuit of mathematical and natural sciences were successful; and our poetry assumed an attractive form." .... Sir Matthew Hale is the authority for saying that during this reign " law was greatly improved, and mostly reached its meridian," while the monarch him- self kept pace with the progress of the time, and left his country ennobled in the eyes of Europe, and capa- ble of realizing the glorious destinies which awaited her. During the King's minority his mother and Mor- Notabie timer governed, but the nation was so dis- Events. satisfied Avith their conduct that the Queen was imprisoned at Nottingham Castle, and Mortimer hanged, in 1330. Edward's first independent act was an attempt to raise Edward Baliol to the throne of Scotland; but in this he failed. The crown of France was his next ambition, in which he was opposed by Philip of Valois, son of a brother of the late King of France. Edward claimed the crown of France in right of his mother, 1337. According to English law the son of a daughter pre- 84 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. cedes the nephew in inheritance, but the French Salic law excluded females. The French state and lawyers decided in favor of PJiilip of Valois. Bv doing homage to Philip, for the duchy of Guienne, Edward gained the needed time to collect an army and treasure to invade Fi'ance i^sec W(irs). Calais surrendered to his arms August 4, 1347, after a vigorous siege of eleven months. John, King of France, Avas taken at Poitiers, brought to England in 1357, where he was detained a prisoner until his death, in the spring of 1304. David of Scotland was also prisoner in England for eleven years. Cannon were invented by Schwartz, a monk of Cologne, about 1330, and first used at Crecy for throw- ing iron projectiles. The order of the garter was instituted in DUD, and three ostrich feathers, with tlie words " Ich Dien " (I serve), introduced as the Prince of Wales' crest. Edward assumed the title of King of France (which British monarchs for some time retained), and quar- tered with his own arms the Jlcur de lis of France. A most terrible pestilence, called the "black death," raged throughout Euro[)e, doing more injury than the calamitous Avars. The art of Aveavi ng cloth Avas introduced from Flanders in 1349, and Thomas Blanket, of Bristol, made looms for weaving woolen cloths which still bear his name. St. Stephen's Chapel, used by the House of Commons, was erected, and the "Speaker" first appointed. The Lords and Commons until this time THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 85 had sat in the same room, but from that period occu- pied distiuct chambers. The order of Knights Templars having been suppressed in 1310, tlieir buihling, knoAvn as the Temple, was during this reign converted into a residence for law students, and ultimately became an " Inn of Court." Windsor was changed from a fortress to a roval residence. The Prince of Wales was s^iven the title of Duke of Cornwall, this being the first title of Duke conferred in England. Edward, the Black Prince, after a Spanish cam- paign in which he Avon the celebrated battle of Nava- rete, returned to England. Thirty years of Avar and exposure had so exhausted his naturally strong C(ui- stitution that he died of consumption in June 1370, in the forty-sixth year of his age. He acquired a lofty reputation for personal bravery, skill as a gen- eral, generosity as a knight, and Avisdom as a states- man. With the Scots, battle of HallidoAvn Hill, July 19, 1333, near BerAvick, Avhere thirty thousand Wars. ' ' •{ Scots, and fifteen thousand English fell. Battle of Neville Cross, in Durham, conducted l)y Queen Philippa, October 17, 1340, Avhen David II., King of the Scots, Avas defeated and taken prisoner. EdAvard sailed for AntAverp in July, 1338, and in the following year invaded France. His first cam- paign was unimportant, but having achieved a great naval victory June 22, 1340, he was inspired to march to Tournay, Avhich city he besieged Avith an array of one hundred thousand men. The siege, so ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. liowever, proved unsuccessful, and the English were compelled to retire. Seizing upon the disputed succession to the duchy of Brittany as a pretext, Edward again invaded France, in 134('), and a series of glorious triumphs for the English arms followed. The two famous battles of Cr^cy, August 25, 13-46, and Poitiers, September 19, 1356, distinguished this reign. In both these battles the French armies, on their own soil, were defeated by far inferior numbers. The English hosts were led at the battle of Cr^cy by the Black Prince, then only sixteen years of age. His success was largely due to the English archers, whose shots were so rapid " that it seemed as if it snowed," as well as to the employment of cannon, then for the first time used by the English in warfare. At the ])attle of Poitiers the British numbered eight thousand, and the French sixty thousand, and at Crecy the disparity was nearly as great. In this battle the slain of the French amounted to thirty-one thousand and two hundred, a nund)er ecpial to the Avhole English force. Joan [ilie fair Mnid of Kent), who married Ed- Notod ward, the Black Prince, about 1365, died rorsons. ^^3^5 Edw.'u-d [Jlw. Bluck Priiicc), 1330- 1376. Sir Walter Manny, warrior, founder of the Priory of Chartreux, su1)sequently Charter House Scliool, died 1372. Sir John Chandos, warrior, Con- stable of Guienne, died 1360. Sir John de Mande- ville, traveller an Edmund Plantagenet, fifth son Persons. of Edward III., Duke of York, 1341-1-402; Thomas Plantagenet, son of Edward III., Duke of Gloucester, 1355-1397, protectors. Robert De Vere, Earl of Oxford, the favorite of Richard II., died 1349.* William Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, 1374 and 1380. Wat Tyler, died 1381. William of AVykeham, 1324-1404, Chancellor and Bishop of AVinchester, founder of Winchester School, in 1387, and of Merton College, Oxford; he was also distin- guished for piety and love of learning and taste for architecture; he built a great portion of Windsor Castle. Froissart, 1337 to 1401, historian. John Wyckliffe, 1324-1387, '-the morning star of the re- formation." He was buried in his church, at Lut- terworth, Avliere his bones rested until 1428, when by an order from the Pope they were taken up and destroyed. Chaucer, "the poet of gladness," 1328- 1400. John Gower, 1320^1402. Anne, wife of Ptich- ard 11, 1307-1394. HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH THE LINE OF PLANTAGENET. It was during this period that the Constitution which exists to-day, and which has preserved its iden- tity through all changes, had its origin. The House of Commons, as representative of the people, held THE ANGEVINS OR TLANTAGENETS. 91 its first sittings, and the common law evolved into a science. At this time commenced the dominion upon the sea, which has made the flag of England respected ; and what is more important, some of the most ancient colleges which still exist, at both the great national seats of learning, were founded. " Then," says Ma- caulay, " was formed that language, less musical indeed than the languages of the South, but in force, in rich- ness, in aptitude for all the highest purposes of the poet, the philosopher and the orator, inferior to that of Greece alone. Then, too, appeared the first dawn of that noble literature, the most splendid and most durable of the many glories of England." Chaucer, as the first great poet of the nation, m-ade this period illustrious in literature. Robin Hood, in the twelfth century, lived in Sher- wood forest, tlien comprising nearly the whole of the northern |)art of Nottinghamshire. The band of this famous outlaw consisted of one hundred men, who for skill in archery and soldierly accomplishments were unequaled in England. Their dress was of Lincoln green, the color of the grass, which often enabled them to avoid discovery. They spared and protected the poor, levying tribute only on the rich. Robin Hood reached the ripe age of eighty-seven, when desiring medical attention, he sought it at the monastery of Kirkstall, in Yorkshire, but was be- trayed and bled to deatli by a monk. A glimpse at the rude style of living in the days of Henry II. is given by an old writer. He says that the apartments of Thomas & Becket, who rivaled royalty in 92 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEES. the splendor of his living, were every day strewn with clean straw or hay, and in summer with green boughs or rushes, lest the nobles and gentlemen who crowded to his presence, but could not obtain a seat at table, should soil their clothes- by sitting on the floor. Knowledge of all kinds, and even the arts of reading and writing, were confined almost entirely to the clergy, who consequently were the only lawyers and physi- cians, and who practiced their professions in such a way as to enrich themselves, both by the diseases and misfortunes of their parishioners. Their little knowl- edge gave them power over those who had none. Gardening and agriculture owed much to the monks. Every monastery had its garden, where grapes and fruits of all kinds were cultivated with great skill. The secret of these twin arts, brought from France, soon spread through England. Wine almost equal to that of the continent was manufactured at this time. Architecture also made great progress, as every one will admit who has gazed with admiration on the cathedrals of York, Salisbury and Winchester, and other Gothic structures of this period. In the fourteenth century, Queen Philippa, who was a native of the province adjoining Flanders, induced skilled Flemish workmen to come over, and establish woolen factories at Norwich, and other towns in the east of England. Thus was laid the foundation of one of England's greatest industries, and wool has from that time been considered a chief source of na- tional wealth. Later, as a reminder of it, a square THE ANGEVINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 93 crimson bag filled with wool, known as the "Wool- sack," became and continues to be the seat of the Lord Chancellor in the House of Lords. During the Angei^in period the Popes endeavored to introduce the canon law into England, but Parlia- ment refused to accept it, saying, " We will not change the laws of England." The papal dominion in England grew weaker and weaker, and the sending of money to support foreign ecclesiastics was almost entirely discontinued. Two military orders, Knights Hospitalers and Knights Templars, were established; the former to provide food for pilgrims going to Jeru- salem, and the latter to protect them. So great extravagance and luxury prevailed in dress, that Parliament passed laws to restrain it. The eccentric and fantastic dress of the English beau of the fourteenth century is very remarkable. His shoes had long pointed toes, turned upward and fastened at the knees by gold and silver chains. His coat was one half white and the other half blue or some fancy color ; his beard as long as nature consented to make it grow, and he wore a silk hood or helmet embroidered in colors representing birds, animals and grotesque figures. The ladies Avere equally remarkable. Their hair was drawn to a peak over a frame, shaped like the horn of a Unicorn. The use of the side - saddle by ladies was first introduced in the reia^n of Richard II. But aside from that, the art of living was most crude and primitive. The richest had hardly any furniture in tiieir houses, which were far from cleanly, and consequently proved a prolific cause 94 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEKS. of sickness. The streets of London were very narrow, iinpaved and unliglited. Pools of stagnant water, and piles of refuse in them, were not infrequent. Drain- age was not yet known, and the crows were the only scavengers. The houses were built with projecting stories, so that at the top they almost met over the streets. The great cities were nurseries of the plague, and subject to destructive fires by which they were often devastated. The home trade of the country was largely con- ducted at great fairs, which, by royal license, were carried on at regular times. Guilds of all kinds were formed, and associations of merchants, of craftsmen and traders, for common protection, Ivecame a neces- sity. The foundinfT of Merton College, bv Sir Walter de Merton, in 1204 (removed to Oxford in 1274), and of AVinchester College and New College, by William of Wykeham, in the reign of Edward III., gave a great im[)ulse to the cause of education. During the reign of Edward III. a book of travels by Sir John de Mandeville was published. He had journeyed in the East for more than thirty years, and when he returned to England he wrote, in Latin, an account of his experience. AfterAvards he translated it into French, that the nobles might read it, and lastly into English (the first prose written in that language), for the benefit of the common people. Soon after appeared Wyckliffe's translation of the bible from the Latin version, and Chaucer's Canter- bury Tales, the first great poem of the language. was THE ANCtEYINS OR PLANTAGENETS. 95 The wealth and power of the Church at this time so o-reat as to be almost incredible. One- fourth of the area of London is said to have been occupied by its churches, cathedrals, monasteries, con- vents and houses of various kinds. London had one hundred and twentj^ parish churches, besides religious houses. Norwich had sixty, York fifty-five, and other cities in proportion. Says Besant: "Every street had its parish church, with charities, fraternities and endowments; colleges, houses for priests; while alm- eries and hospitals were scattered all about the city. AYithin and without the wall were fifteen great houses whose splendor can be understood only by the ruins of Tintern, Glastonbury, Fountains, and Whitby. Every house Avas possessed of rich manors and broad lands; every house had its treasury, filled with title deeds as well as with heaps of gold and silver plate ; every house had its church crowded with marble monu- ments and adorned with rich shrines, and blazing altars and painted glass, such as we can no longer make." In the course of the fourteenth century the Anglo- Saxon gradually became transformed into what may be termed the English language, through the Normans coming in contact with the common people. Mr. Tytler says, "From evidence collected from original records, it appears that Eichard II. lived for many years in Scotland, and Avas supported at public expense in that country," after he was sup- posed to have perished in Pontefract Castle, by the "fierce hand of St. Piers of Exton," or by famine, 96 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. having escaped in disguise, and tied to the Scottish Isles; and that he died idtimately in Stirling Castle, and was buried there. Had not this singular legend been introduced in a history of Scotland, it would not here be named. 1399 — 1461. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. (34) HENRY IV., SURNAMKD BOLINGBKOKE. 1399 — 1413. Henry was born at Bolingbroke, in Lincolnshire, Birth and ^^^ 136(^ and was the eldest son of John Parentage, of Gaunt, aud grandson of Edward III. He Avas crowned at Westminster October 13, 1399. Accession to Tlie nearest heir to the throne was Edinnnd theThrouo. Mortimer, the lineal descendant of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III. The misgovernment of the kingdom by protectors, during the minority of Hichard II., induced Parliament to set aside the claim of Mortimer, and accept Henry's bold demand for the crown. He was twice married; first, in 1391:, to Mary de Boliun, daughter of Humphrey, Earl of Marriage. ^ ^ i ^ ' Hereford; she died before Henry came to the throne; and afterwards, in 1403, to Jane, or Joan, daughter of Charles the Bold, King of Navarre, and widow of John V., Duke of Bretagne. She died in 1437. By his fii'st wife only: Henry; Thomas, Duke of Clarence; John, Duke of Bedford: Issue. ' Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester; Blanche, and Philippa. 97 98 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Heart-sick with continued reverses, lie died, after intervals of unconsciousness, in the Jerusa- Death. lem Chamber, Westminster, March 20, 1413, and was buried at Canterbury. Whilst the King Avas supposed to be dead, Prince Henry removed the crown from the room. His father reviving, complained of the act, and when Henry expressed sorrow for the mistake, the King said: "Alas, my son, what right have you to the crown, when you know your father had none?" "My liege," answered the Prince, "with your sword you won it, and Avitli my sword I will keep it." " Well," replied the King, " do as you please, — I leave the issue to God, and hope he will have mercy on my soul." Robert Fabian, an alder- man, and sheriff of London, as well as a poet and historian, in his famous " Concordance of Stories," records the following in regard to Henry's last illness: " At length, Avhen he had come to himself, not know- ing where he was, freyned (inquired) of such as were there about him .... ' Whereunto it Avas?' They answered, 'that it (the chamber) was named Jerusa- lem.' Then the King said: 'Loving be to the Father of Heaven, for now I know I shall die in this chamber, according to the prophecy of me before said, that I should die in Jerusalem.' " Henry was of medium height, of a no])le, pleasant , , countenance, and was skilled in all warlike Personal Ap- ' pearanceand exercises. Crafty and subtle, Avith smooth and Avinning manners, a thorough soldier and politician, he Avas able to maintain by his skill and address that Avhich he had unlawfully ()])tained. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 09 He won the love of liis people by liis courtly manners, and liis evident desire for their happiness. The stain, however, upon Henry's rule was his fierce and inhuman urging of papal doctrines, and the persecution of the Lollards and the followers of Wyckliffe, who suffered at Smithfield. Full power was given to the Bishops to pursue even to the flames all persons infected with heretical teachings, and it was most cruelly and vigor- ously exercised. Soon after Henry's accession, a conspiracy was or- Notabie gauizcd to restore Richard, still a prisoner Events. -^^ Poutcfract Castle ; but it was soon sup- pressed. When a month later Richard was found dead, Henry had his ghastly remains brought to Lon- don, and exposed to view in St. Paul's cathedral, in order that the uselessness of further effort to restore him might be obvious to all. Henry brought to the stake, in 1401, the Rev. Sir William Sautre, rector of St. Oswytli, London, who was the first English martyr to suffer' death by fire. Henry, Prince of Wales, who was accustomed to associate with low com[)any, struck Chief Justice Gas- coigne with his sword for administering justice to some of Henry's robber friends. For this offence the Prince was reprimanded by Gascoigne, and sent to ]>rison. His father hearing it exclaimed, "Happy the King whose magistrate dares enforce the law, and still happier he who has a son willing to submit to it." The order of the Bath was instituted at Henry's coronation. In 1404 the right of a younger son to succeed as 100 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. ruler in case of the death of his elder brother, was recognized by Parliament. Cannon were first used in England at the siege of Berwick, in 1405. Thirty thousand persons died of the plague in 1407. The Scots making incursions into England, Robert III. Avas summoned to do homaije for his Wars. ^ crown, but refused. Thereujjon the Earl of Douglas invaded England, and was repulsed by the Percys of Northumberland; second battle of Halli- down Hill, September 25, 1402. The resentment of the Percys was excited by the King denying thom the privilege to liberate or ransom their pris- oners. The Perc3's, who considered themselves much ag- grieved by Henry's conduct toward them, assisted by Owen Glendower, the descendant of a Welsh Prince, rebelled in favor of Mortimer, Earl of March. But after an obstinate fight the rebels were defeated at Battlefield, near Shrewsbury, July 21, 1403, Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, being slain and his party dispersed. The King was accompanied by Prince Henry, his son, who on this field began his glorious military career. Scrope, Archbishop of York, and the Earl of Not- tingham, partisans of the Percy's, rebelled in 1405, but Avere taken prisoners by stratagem, and beheaded. The Earl of Northumberland, on hearing of the death of his friends, fled into Scotland, and thence to Wales. In 1408, however, he returned to the North, and made another attack on the power of Henry, but HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 101 was thoroughly defeated. Scrope was the first arch- bishop executed in England for treason. Guildhall, in the City of London, was commenced in 1411. Henry Percy, called Hotspur, 1854-1403. Sir Noted William Gascoigne, 1350-1413. The Rev- Persons. g^.^^^j gj^. William Sautre, executed 1401. (The title "Sir" was formerly given to clergymen who had attained a University degree.) Elizabeth of France, wife of Richard XL, 1389-1400. Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence, died 1404. Richard of Cirencester, historian, 1330-1401. John Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, executed 1400. John de Scarle, Lord Chancellor, died 1403. Richard Scrope, Prelate and Lord Chancellor, executed 1405. Edmund Plantagenet, Duke of York, fifth son of Edward III., 1341-1402. (3.-)) HENRY v., SURNAMED MONMOUTH. 1413 — 1422. Henry V., born at Monmouth in 1388, was the Birth and eldest SOU of King Henry IV., by his first Parentage. ^^^fg^ j^j.^^.y ^|g BollUn. Accession to He Avas crowned at AVestminster April 9, the Throne. . I4I Q He married. May 30, 1420, Catharine of France, who was crowned Queen at Westminster Marriage. , ^ ,„^ February 4, 1421. He had one son, Henry, afterwards Henry VI. 102 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Henry died at Yiiiceiiues August 31, 1422, His body was removed with great pomp to Eng- land, and buried at Westminster, where for nearly one hundred years tapers were constantly burned at his tomb. The exterior of this great prince was very attract- , . ive. His stature was above the middle size; Personal Ap- pearance and his countenance handsome; his well-made limbs were slender but full of vigor, and his form had been perfected by manly and warlike exercises. As a warrior and ruler he Avas superior to his pre- decessors. His boldness in conceiving enterprises was not less conspicuous than his personal valor in conducting them. He was a warm friend; a magnan- imous and forgiving enemy, and he secured the res[)ect of both English and French by his care in maintaining justice in his civil administration, and dis- cipline in his armies. He was a devout man, adding to his own and his army's courage by a strong faith in the divine protection, ever openly and clearly mani- fested. Ambition was united with modesty, and he presented the rare combination of royalty and humility. He was the favorite of his people, and his character is held in great esteem by all lovers of Eng- lish history. His youth, with Avliich Shakespeare has made us acquainted, was Avild and dissipated, but when he ascended the throne he assumed and ever maintained a character, sedate, noble and kingly. Notable % ^^^ treaty of Troyes, in 1420, Henry Events. agreed to espouse the Princess Catharine, leaving her father, Charles, in the enjoyment of the HOUSE or LANCASTER. 103 French crown during his life-time, with Henry as regent, and as the acknowledged successor to the throne, uniting France and England thereafter under one ruler. A few days later, he assumed command of the government of France, at Paris, and procured from Parliament and the Estates a ratification of the treaty of Troy es. {See Wars.) A ship one hundred and eighty-six feet in length was built at Bayonne, by order of Henry. The Eng- lish navy was greatly indebted to this monarch for his fostering care, which may be said to have laid the foundation of England's naval power. Before this time, Avhen a fleet was gathered, it was composed of merchant ships, or ships hired from abroad. A licfhted candle in a lantern was ordered to l)e placed over every doorway during the winter months, and from this ultimately came the custom of lighting the streets of London. Holborn, in London, was first paved witli stone. Guihlhall, in the city, was finally completed, and the Staple Inn became an Inn of Court. The King, to raise money for his foreign wars, pawned the crown jewels for twenty thousand pounds. The nobility began to build country residences, in place of their moated castles. These residences were of carved wood with spacious halls, hung with tapestry. The floors were covered with rushes, and in most cases the fire-])lace was in the middle of the room. A flock bed and bolster Avere considered to be the 10-i ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. height of luxury. The beds of the middle classes were of straw, covered Avith a sheet, and having a log of wood for a pillow. At the time of Henry's accession to tlie throne, France was devastated by the wars of Bur- vVars. *' gundy and Orleans. The City of Paris was a perpetual scene of blood and violence, where no man's rights of person or property were respected. Tlie weakness of both parties was so apparent, that Henry determined to improve so favorable an oppor- tunity for conquest; and he therefore determined to carry violent war into a kingdom Avliich he thought would be an easy prey. He demanded the hand of Catharine, the French King's daughter, together with three million six hundred thousand crowns, the sover- eignty of Normandy and other provinces, which Philip Augustus had ravished from England, all of which demands were declined. Henry thereupon assembled a great fleet and army at Southampton, l)ut, owing to a conspiracy of Sir Thomas Grey, the Earl of Cam- bridge, and Lord Scrope, he was detained several months, afterwards emljarking for Harfleur, with six thousand men at arjns and twenty thousand foot. On reaching Harfleur he besieged it, and took it Septem- ber 18, 1415. Thence, with an army much weakened, he started for Calais, but was met by the entire French army on the plains of Agincourt. With his forces reduced to less than half the number of the French, and weakened by famine and sick- ness, he nevertheless gallantly attacked them, and achieved a victory most complete and thorough. HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 105 The loss on the English side was very small, while the killed of the French fell little short of ten thousand men, who were the very flower of the French army. Henry followed up these successes, continuing the campaign at intervals, as his means would permit, until just as he had substantially completed the con- quest of France, a mightier conqueror called him away. Cardinal Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester (1405), Noted youngest son of John of Gaunt, and pro- Persons. ^^^^^^, ^^ Henry V. and YI., died 1447. Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, called " the English Achilles," 1373-1453. Tiiomas de Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, " the mirror of all martial men," died 1428. Walsingham, a monk of St. Albans, Avho continued the history of Matthew Prior, from Henry III. to Henry IV., died 1422. David Gam, Avho for his bravery at Agincourt was knighted, when dying of his wounds, 1415. Henry Chicheley, Archbishop of Canterbury, founder of All Souls College, at Oxford, 1302-1443. Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobliam, 1360-1417. John Huss, reformer and martyr, 1370, executed 1415. Jerome of Prague, 1378, died May 30, 1410; celebrated reformer. Thomas Arundel, Archbishop of York and Canter- bury, Lord Chancellor in 1407, 1353-1413. Jolm, Duke of Bedford, Lord High Admiral, died 1414. In this reign flourished Sir Bichard AYliittiugton, 1300-1425, " thrice Lord Mayor of London," who acquired great riches by trading in a vessel called the Cat, whence arose the stories of his 'remarkal)le adven- 106 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. tures. He was a great benefactor to Bartliolomew's and Christ's hospitals, and endowed some almshouses at Hisfhgfate. (.%) HENRY VI., SUKNAMED WINDSOR. 1422 — 14G1. Henry VI., only son of Henry V., was born at Rirth and AVindsor, Deceml)er (], 1421. When but nine Pareutage. j^ontlis old he Succeeded to the throne, his uncle Humphrey, Duke of Bedford, being appointed Protector, defender and chief counselor of the king- dom and of the English Church. He was crowned " King of England and France," Accession to at Westminster, November (>, 1420, and the Throne, j-eigned from 1422 to 14(31. At his accession Parliament ordered a new title, in which he was recog- nized as " King of England and France, and Lord of Ireland.'" He married Margaret, daughter of Ilene, Duke of „ . Anion, April 22, 1443 ;'" an excellent Marriage. J ' i mother and most heroic Queen; who was crowned at Westminster, May 30, 1445. Edward, whom historians represent as an amiable ])rince. He was taken prisoner at the battle Issue. '■ '■ of Tewkesbury, 1471, and having boldly asserted, in the presence of EdAvard IV., that the crown of England Avas lawfull}' his, he Avas stabbed by Rich- ard, Duke of Gloucester, EdAvard's brother. *Soine authorities make this date lUf), HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 107 In the year 1471. His remains were buried at Death. Cliertssy, Surrey. Of medium height, but with a face in- Personai Ap- dicatiug the weakness of disease, of inofiPen- pearance and . iiii ^^ n -i c n Character, ^ive manners, and better qualined tor the cloister than the throne. He was a lover of books, and had the most extensive library of his day. The campaign against France was continued, with Notable Varying fortunes but ever decreasing success, Events. ^^ ^.j^^ French became more and more deter- mined to throw off the yoke of England, until in 1450 the English were deprived of all their conquests ex- cept Calais, and expelled from France. In 1429 the north of France was reduced almost to a desert, and the husbandmen fled for refuge to the towns, until these, in fear of famine, shut their gates against them, and drove them to the woods in despair, to gain a livelihood by brigandage. In Paris alone one hun- dred thousand people perished from hunger and dis- ease. In this crisis arose the famous Joan of Arc. In 1453 "the hundred years of war" for the subjugation of France ended. The misery occasioned by this long and ruinous struggle roused the English people to fury. Jack Cade, an Irishman, a soldier who had served in the French wars, having returned to Eng- land, raised in Kent an army twenty thousand strong. After a victory at Sevenoaks in 1450, he entered London with complaints, demanding administrative and political reforms, asking for more careful expend- iture of royal revenue, and for freedom of election. 108 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEES. The complaints were received and considered, and some pardons were granted, and thus the insurrection was quelled. Cade had assumed the name of John Mort- imer, and claimed to be the legitimate heir to the throne. He was slain by the sheriff of Kent July 11 of the same year. In 1450 began the contest of the Duke of York and the Earl of WarAvick for the crown, known as the " Wars of the Roses." On November 9, 1153, John Norman, then Lord Mayor of London, went " by water " to pay his homage to royalty. This is the first record of the rendering of such tribute. In this reign the privilege of voting for members of Parliament, for counties, Avas limited to freeholders having lands of the annual value of forty shillings rental. Eton College was founded in 1140, and the same year King's College at Cambridge. The first Lord Mayor's show Avas established in 1450. The winter of 1434 was so severe tliat the frozen Thames bore heavy wagons as far as Gravesend. The national debt had its beorinninof in this reiijn. With France, Avhere the English eventually lost all „, their possessions except Calais. \\ ars. '■ ^ . • . . Battle of A^erneuil, Avliich rivaled the glory of Cr^cy and Poitiers, August 27, 1424. Battle of the Herrings, February 12, 1429, so- called because stores being conveyed by the Eng- lish force engaged, consisted chiefly of herrings for the use of Henry's army. Richard, Duke of York, descended from Lionel, third son of Edward III., asserted his prior claim to HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 109 the throne, and lience arose the civil wars between the houses of York and Lancaster, designated by " the red and the Avhite rose." The favorers of York wore the white rose as a badge, a red one being worn by the Lancastrian party. The principal battles were, first, battle of St. Albans (Herts), May 22, 1455. Though the King's army was led by Henry and his Queen, the Duke of York was successful, the Duke of Somerset being killed, and the King taken prisoner. Battle of Wakefield Green (Yorkshire), December 31, IIGO. In this engagement fell Eichard, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. and Richard III. The spot where he fell is still fenced off in the corner of a field near Sandal. Battle of Mortimer's Cross (Herefordshire), Febru- ary 2, 14<)1. This victory of the Yorkists led to the accession of the Earl of March (then become Duke of Y\irk) as King, under the title of Edward IV., on the following March 4, Avhich is reckoned as the last day of the reign of Henry VI., though he lived ten years afterwards. Humphrey StafPord, Duke of Buckingham, General Noted and Lord High Constable, died 1400. Joan Persons. ^£ ^^.^^ 1402-1431, a native of Domremi, in France. John Plantagenet, Duke of Bedford, Eegent of France, born 1389, died at Eouen, 1435. Hum- phrey Plantagenet, Duke of Gloucester, born 1391, was murdered at St. Edmundsbury, 1447. They were both sons of Henry IV., brothers to Henry V., and uncles to Henry VI. Duke of Suffolk, beheaded in an open boat off Dover, in his passage to France, 1451. Jack Cade, 1450. John Beaumont, the first English 110 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. viscount, Bicliard Plantagenet, Duke of York, father of Edward IV. and Eicliard III., 141G-1460. Nicholas Dixon, Baron of the Exchequer in 1123, died *1118. AVilliam Allington, Speaker of the House of Com- mons, died 1429. William Babington, Chief Justice of Common Pleas, died 1425. Kichard Flemming, Bishop of Lincoln in 1420, founder of Lincoln College, Oxford, in 1427, *ia()0-1431. William of Wynfete, Prelate and Lord Chancellor from 1456 to 1460, died 1486. 1461 — 1485. HOUSE OF YORK. (37) EDWARD IV. 1461 — 1482. Edward was born at Rouen, in 1441, and Avas the Birth and eldest son of Ricliard, Duke of York, and Parentage, tlie lineal descendant of Lionel, third son of Edward III. Accession to He was proclaimed King, March 2, 1461, the Throne, and crowned at Westminster, June 29, 1461. He espoused Lady Elizabeth Grey, May 1, 1464, daufjhter of Sir Ricliard Woodville, and Marriage. ^ ^ ^ widow of Sir John Grey, who was slain in the second battle of St. Albans, in 1461. Since the conquest, no king had before married a subject. She was crowned as Queen, at Westminster, May 23, 1465. Edward; Richard; Elizabeth, Avho mar- ried Henry VII. ; and other children. Edward died April 9, 1483, of a fever, at Westmin- ster, and was buried in the new chapel, at Death. ' _ '^ \ AVindsor, the foundation of which was laid by himself. He was called the handsomest man of his time. Personal Ap- ^c was endowcd with dauntless courage and poaranceand superb military skill; courteous and enafasf- Character. .^.,. "^ . ,,? mg m his manners, but voluptuous, bloody and cruel. The laurels he won in the field, were 111 112 ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. stained by so many cold-blooded atrocities, as to rob him of any claim to true greatness. The Avar of the red and white Roses, was continued Notable with ever increasing hate and ferocity, during Events. ^j^-g gj^^jj.g reign. No quarter was given on either side, and the contest more resembled the cruel warfare of a barbarous age, than the controversy of a civilized nation. AVarwick, the Kingmaker, displeased at the King's private marriage, while he was negotiating for a mar- riage with Princess Bonne of Savoy, rebelled, and re- leasing Henry VI., after three years imprisonment, pi'o- claimed him King. Warwick v/as slain at Barnet, and Margaret and her sons, were taken prisoners at Tewkes- bury, and she was long detained in the Tower. The wealth of the crown, increased to an enormous amount by the confiscations resulting from the civil war, en- abled the King to dispense with the two houses of Parliament, and his rule soon ripened into despotism. He exacted "benevolences" or enforced contributions, from the merchants of London, and interfered with the administration of justice. Since the reign of John, the people had not been so oppressed, nor their rights so utterly disregarded. The Duke of Clarence, the King's brother, being found guilty of treason, in 1478, was imprisoned in the Tower, and it is said that he was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. A tradesman was executed, for saying his son was " heir to the crown," meaning the sign of his house; and Robert Byfield, Sheriff of London, was fined for kneeling too near the King. In HOUSE OF YORK, 113 this reign lived tlie famous Jane Shore, perhaps " more sinned against than sinning," who yielded to the degrading propositions of the King, and became his mistress. After his death, she was treated by the populace with barbarous cruelty, being compelled among other things, to do penance in St. Paul's church-yard, dressed in a white sheet, and carrying a burning taper. She died in a ditch, in the district of London now called Shoreditch. Yew-trees Avere ordered to be cultivated in church- yards for making bows, and it was enacted that every Englishman, of whatever station, except the clergy and judges, should own a bow of his own height and keep it ready for use. It was also directed that every male child above seven years of age should be pro- vided with bows and properly instructed in their use. A plague, more destructive than the wars of the previous fifteen years, devastated England. William Caxton, a native of Kent, introduced from Bruges the art of printing, and erected within the precincts of Westminster Abbey, about 1474, the first printing press used in England. The first work printed in England, was called " The Game and Play of Chess," but the first book printed in the English language, was a translation by Caxton of " The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troy," pub- lished at Bruges in 1471. Printing began in Scot- land in 1508, and Ireland in 1551. Before that time, a New Testament alone, would have cost two years' wages, of the ordinary workingman. 114 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS, Caxton's translations of the iEneid, the writings of Boethius, of Cicero, and of other Latin authors tended to arouse interest among the small number who in that day gave attention to letters. Between the rival Roses. The first battle occurred at St. Albans, May 23, 1-155, Rich- ard, Duke of York, defeating Henry VI., who lost 5,000 men, while the Yorkists suffered but slightly. The second battle took place at Mortimer's Cross on Shrove Tuesday, February 2, 1101, the Earl of Warwick being in command of the Yorkists, and the Lancastrians being led by Queen Margaret of Anjou. Battle of Towton, Yorkshire, on Palm Sun- day, March 29, 14G1. It was a sanguinary engage- ment between the houses of York and Lancaster, in which 36,000 were slain, and the house of Lancaster defeated. After this battle the King remained some time concealed, but being discovered, was confined in the Tower of London. The Queen fled to Flanders, but returned with a considerable force, and gallantly fought the Battle of Hexham, May 15, 1164, but was again defeated, and she and her son were for some time homeless wanderers. Battle of Banbury, Oxfordshire, July 26, 1464. The Battle of Stamford was fought in Lincolnshire, March 14, 1470. The Battle of Barnet, in wliicli Richard Nevil, Earl of Warwick, was slain, took place in Herts and Middlesex, April 14, 1471. The Battle of Tewkesbury (Gloucestershire), May 4, 1471. HOUSE OF YORK. ' 115 George, Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., Noted 1419 - 1478 ; Kicliard Nevil, Earl of AVar- Pcrsons. ^^^^^ ^^^^g^l tlie Kingmaker, *1420-1471; William Caxton, first English printer, *1410 - 1491 ; Francis Littleton, magistrate and jurist, died 1481; Thomas de Littleton, judge and author, died 1487 ; Sir John Fortescue, judge (1442), 1395-1485; William Allington, Speaker of the House of Commons, died 1472; Lord Thomas Barowe, Keeper of the Great Seal, died *1485; Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward IV., died 1488 ; Robert Flemming, prelate, prothonotary apostolic, and Latin poet died 1483 ; John Harding, chronicler, 1378-1466; Thomas Kirkeby, treasurer of Exeter, Master of the Rolls in 1461, died 1476; Mar- garet of Anjou, wife of Henry VI., 1429-1482; Thomas Beckington, Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1443, *1385-1465; John Boucier, Earl of Essex, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, died 1483. (.38) EDWARD V. 148.3. Was the eldest son of Edward IV., whom he suc- Birth and ceeded at the age of twelve. He Avas born Parentage. ^^ Westminster, October 6, 1470, reigned only two months and twelve days of the year 1483, He was proclaimed King a few days after his father's death, but he was never crowned. His reign was the shortest, and his story the most pathetic in English annals. He and his younger brother Richard, Avere sent by their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, to 116 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. the Tower, under the pretence of waiting for the young King's coronation, but really to effect their deatli. They were smothered, and it is supposed buried at the foot of the staircase leading to their apart- ment, by Sir James Tyrrell and two associates. Tyrrell afterwards confessed his crime, and was exe- cuted in the reign of Henry YII. When making an alteration in one of the staircases of the ToAver in 1674, the bones of two youths were discovered in a wooden chest, and these remains were placed in a mar- ble urn, by order of Charles II., as those of the young princes, and were buried at Westminster, Avhere a monument to their memory designed by Sir Chris- topher Wren, is still to be seen. (39) IIICH.\RD III., SURNAMED CROOKBACK. 1483 — 1485. Richard was born at Fotheringay Castle, in North- Rirtii and amptousliire, October 2, 1452. He paved Parontago. J^s way to the tliroue by the murder of his ne[)hews, and was assisted in gaining it by the Duke of Buckingham. He was proclaimed King, in June, 1483, and Accession to crowucd July 6, 1483, at Westminster, the Throne, ^^gi^g j^\^q game arrangements which had been prepared for Edward V. He espoused Anne Nevil, the second daughter of the Earl of Warwick, and widow of Edward Marriage. Prince of Wales, in 1484. He is supposed to have caused her death which occurred suddenly at HOUSE OF YORK. 117 Tewkesbury, March 6, 1485, in order that he might marry his niece Elizabeth, whose claim to the throne Avas regarded with popular favor. But the match was so unpopular, he dared not consummate it. Edward, created Prince of Wales, in 1481:, when about twelve years of acjfe, but lie only lived Issue. "^ Y . . three months after receiving the title. Richard Avas killed in the Battle of Bosworth, ^ , Aujrust 22, 1485, while bravely though Deatli. p ' . ' . unjustly contending for the crown against Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Richard fought desperately, but without avail. His body, disfigured with wounds, and covered with blood and dirt, was found beneath the heaps of slain. It was thrown across a horse and carried to Leicester, where, after being ex- posed to public view for two days, it was buried with- out ceremony in the Church of the Grey Friars. His remains were exhumed by Henry VIII., and the stone coffin which had contained his body was used as a drinking trough for horses, at an inn in Leicester. His stature was short, and his features stern and „ , . forbidding; one arm was withered, and Personal Ap- ~ ' ' pearanceand one shoulder being higher than the other, gave him the name of " Crookback." He had great abilities, both for war and ])eace, but was ambitious, deceitful, remorseless, selfish, and utterly destitute of principle. The condition of the English people in this short Notable and Unhappy reign, is well shown by a peti- ^^"*''' tion of the citizens of London to the King, on his accession, in which they say: "We be deter- 118 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. mined, ratlier to commit us to the peril of our lives and jeopard}^ of death, than to live in such thraldom and bondage as Ave have lived long time heretofore, oppressed and injured by extortions, and new imposi- tions against the laws of God and man, and the lib- ei'ty and laws of this realm, wherein every Englishman is inherited." liichard met the appeal by convoking Parliament, but its numerous enactments were of no avail in checking the despotism of the King. The statutes of Richard were the first ex[)ressed in Eng- lish, those of former monarchs being either in Latin or French. They were also the first printed. The libi-ary of the University of Cambridge was founded in 1484. Post-horse stages, or regular resting places, Avere inaugurated. The office of British consul dates its origin from this reign. Battle of Bosworth in Leicestershire, between ^ Richard and Henry, resulting in the former's defeat, August 22, 1485. The engagement of Bosworth field was the last battle of the war of the Roses, which for over thirty years had been prosecuted with fearful hate and blood- shed, and cost not less than 100,000 lives. In all, eighty princes of the blood royal, and more than half the nobles of the realm, perished. Every individual of the great houses of Somerset and Warwick fell, either on the field or the scafPold. In the course of the struggle, the feudal baronage was broken up. In a majority of cases the estates of HOUSE OF YORK. 119 the nobles, for want of heirs, fell to the crown. At the end of this reign there were not enough of the nobles left to array themselves against the King in formid able numbers, and the land was ripe for the despotism which followed. Richard was the only monarch since the Conquest, who fell in battle, and the second who fought in his crown; which, falling off during the engagement, Avas afterwards found secreted in a hawthorn bush, and placed on Henry's head when Lord Stanley proclaimed liim King. Hence the device of " a croAvn and haw- thorn bush" on Henry VII.'s tomb in AVestminster Abbey. Edward, son of Richard III., and Anne of Warwick, jj^t^j 1474-1484; John Howard, Duke of Norfolk, Persons. diplomatist, died 1485; John O'Hedian, Bishop of Ossory in 1479, died 1480; Henry Stafford, favorite of Richard III., died 1483; Ralph Wolseley, Baron of the Exchequer in 1483, died 1485; Duke of Buckingham; Lord Stanley; Sir William Collingburn, executed, 1484 ; Sir Richard Ratcliff ; Sir William Cates- by, Speaker of the House of Commons in 1483, and Thomas Lovel, Speaker of the House of Commons in 1485 ("The Rat, the Cat, and Lovel the dog" ). HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH THE HOUSES OF LANCASTER AND YORK. Through the influence of the Catholic Church, all the bondsmen of the kingdom had been enfranchised. Macaulay says: "When the dying slave-holder asked i 120 ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. for the last sacraments, liis spiritual attendants regu- larly adjured him, as he loved his soul, to emancipate his brethren for whom Christ had died." The whole power of the Church was exerted for the further- ance of this great and beneficent object. The princi[)les enunciated by Magna Carta were a dead letter during this dynasty, and in the reigns of the last two monarchs, the rights of the people were recklessly and almost wholly disregarded. Some of the noblest colleges and public schools of England were founded in this period, although the civil Avars retarded education, which was confined almost entirely to martial science, or the art of war. King's College, Cambridge, and St. George's Chapel, Windsor, are admired specimens of the Gothic archi- tecture of this time. The destruction of buildings re- sulting from the wars of the Roses, gave impetus to building, and residences throughout England greatly imnroved in beauty and streni'th. The same cause, however, was ruinous to agriculture, as men had to leave the plow at the demand of their feudal superiors, and assume the sword and bow. This period was one em- phatically of devastating war and pillage; the struggle of Englishmen against Englishmen, -where every vic- tory was a defeat to the nation. We find, therefore, little of growth or progress in those arts which en- noble a nation. Gunpowder, although it had been used at Crecy, was not brought into effective employment, as a mili- tary resource, until the accession of the Tudors. It produced an immediate revolution in the art of war, HOUSE OF YORK. 121 aud gave to the Kings, avIio controlled the artillery, almost irresistible power. The bow, armor and forti- fications were of no avail against it, and it was for a time the right arm of despotic government. During the reign of Henry YI., the right of suffrage was limited to those having an annual income of forty shillings (equal to as many pounds in modern money), from freehold land. No apparent change, however, seems, in consequence, to have taken place in the character of members of Parliament. Purveyance, which continued until 1G()0, was a great grievance. By it the King's purveyors had the right to seize provi- sions and means of transportation for the King, aud his numerous attendants, during the royal progresses. It was really spoliation of the subject, as the price was always inadequate, and often wholly unpaid. The monks bitterly opposed the introduction of the art of printing, as it tended to deprive them of a source of large revenue. Before its use, all books had to be Avritten on either paper or parchment, at a price equal to about fifty cents per page, in modern money. Nearly all the work was done in the monasteries, and furnished profitable employment to their inmates. 1485 — 1603. HOUSE OF TUDOR. (iO) HENRY VII. 1485—1509. Henry VII., suniamed Tudor, was born at Pem- Birthanci broke Castle, January 21, 1455. He was Parentaf,'o. the son of Eduiuud Tudor, Earl of Rich- mond, who married Margaret, the great-grand- daughter of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the third son of Edward III., and grandson of Owen Tador, who married the D,)\vager Queen of Henry V. Henry Avas crowned at Westminster, October 30, Accession to 1-^85, Cardinal Bourchier, Archbishop of the Throne. Canterbury, performing the ceremony. He had the arguments sup[)orting his claim to the throne printed by Caxton, and scattered broadcast over the land. This was the first political appeal made through the press to the people. He was married, January 18, 1480, to Elizabeth, „ . daughter of Edward lY. By birth Eliza- Marnage. - beth was first, in the direct line of succes- sion to the throne, and Henry, by this marriage united the interests of the rival houses of York and Lancas- ter, which terminated the civil war. Issue, Arthur (Prince of Wales) ; Henry (afterwards Henry YIII. ); Margaret and Mary. 122 HOUSE OF TUDOE. 123 Arthur married Catliariue of Aragon, Infanta of Spain, Nov. 14, 1501, but lie lived only a few months thereafter. Margaret became the wife of James IV., of Scotland. Mary was first married to Louis XII., of France; but after his death, she took for her second husband, the Duke of Suffolk (Clarence Brandon). Henry VII., died at Eichmond, April 21, 1509. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, in Death. ^ '' what is now called, "Henry VII.'s Chapel," which was partially erected by himself. Henry VII., in person, was tall, and, though slen- der, Avel] proportioned, and of a grave and poarance and commanding presence. He was easy in man- ner, but his distrustful nature made him difflcult of approach. When he chose, however, none could be more suave and gracious than he. Person- ally parsimonious, even to meanness, he was liberal in matters pertaining to the publico welfare. He encour- aged commercial enterprises, both at home and with foreign countries, favoring the middle and trading classes, while preying on the great lords. He to some extent so improved the laws of the realm, that they became less galling to his subjects. Lord Bacon said: "His laws were deep, not vulgar; not made on the spur of any particular occasion for the present, but acts of prudence for the future, to render the estate of the people more happy; after the manner of legislators of ancient, heroic times." Henry was a law unto himself, notwithstanding Lord Bacon's flat- tery, there being no limit to his extortions, except his own will. His selfishness made him a shrewd 12-4 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. politician, far-sighted, and in advance of liis times, well skilled in state-craft, devoting much attention to public affairs. Foreseeing a possibility of a future union of England and Scotland, lie arranged the mar- riage of his eldest daughter, Margaret, with James IV., of Scotland. He bequeathed to his successor a hoard of two million pounds, which was for that day an enormous sum. His greed for the accumulation of wealth, became later in life almost a mania, and the hoard of money which he gathered through his finan- cial ministers, Empson and Dudley, was often hidden in secret places at Richmond. It was this trait in his character which made his favorite method of punish- ing offenders, the imposition of heavy fines. These extortions weighed heavily upon his mind as he lay wasting away with consumption, at Richmond; and he begged his son Henry, to make all possible restitution to the subjects he had so wronged; and himself paid all debts of persons then imprisoned, for " amounts under forty shillings." He was a sordid, selfish, merciless man; one who allowed no tenderness to touch his rigid nature, if Ave except the affection he displayed for his mother. His treatment of the Earl of Warwick, illustrates this. King Richard had created Edward Plantagenet, son of the Duke of Clarence, the last survivor of that line. Earl of Warwick. Henry's fear of the pretensions of the Earl to the throne, was the only possible reason that could be assiijned for confinintj him fourteen years in the Tower, and bringing him to an ignomin- ious death. The nobles were too Aveak to be a check HOUSE or TUDOR. 125 upon him; the clergy feared the Lollards, and the King, by prudently avoiding foreign wars, Avas not obliged to summon a Parliament or ask for money. He thus became independent of the people, Avith almost despotic power. Taken in its entirety, the career of Henry VII., must be regarded, owing to the absence of foreign wars, as a prosperous one for the country. The coronation of Henry VII., was signalized by Notable the raising of twelve knights and baronets Events. ^^ ^j-^g peerage. At the same time he insti- tuted the " Yeoman of the Guard," a body of fifty archers, men selected to secure his own safety. The organization was, later, made perpetual. These be- came a part of the royal household, and from their duties were called " buffetiers." This term has been corrupted into "beef-eaters." In 1492, the Bahama Islands and West Indies were discovered by Christopher Columbus. In 1498, he dis- covered the Continent of South America. In the preceding year Newfoundland had been discovered by John Cabot and his son Sebastian. The latter was born in Bristol, and published the first map of the world which contained both hemispheres. Vasco de Gama discovered the passage by sea to India, doubling the Cape of Good Hope, in 1497. Ocean charts were invented by the brother of Co- lumbus, and the first double-decked Avar ship, " The Great Henry," 1,000 tons burthen, Avas built. Shillings Avere first coined. The court of the Star-chamber is said to have been 126 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. originated during the reign of Henry VII., the name being derived from the room in tlie palace at West- minster where it met; its nominal object being little more than a desire to enforce order, by making the nobles amenable to the King's personal judgment. Mr. Hume, however, refers to the " lords sitting in star- chamber," and states that " in the reign of Edward III., the jurisdiction of this court had become so op[)res- sive, that various statutes were made to abridge and restrain it." Macaulay is authority for saying, that under Henry VII., though the Star-chamber was remodelled, and the Court of the High Commission created, "the former was a political and the latter a religious inquisition," whose exceptional powers (con- firmed by Parliamentary statutes), robbed the citizen of his right to be tried by his peers, and that they " daily committed excesses which the most distin- guished Royalists have condemned," and which made the Great Charter a dead letter north of the Trent. The highly ornamental, or florid style of architec- ture, known " as the Tudor style," of Avhich the " King's College Chapel " at Oxford, and the Henry VII. Chapel, at Westminster, are the best examples extant, was introduced. Peter, or Perkin Warbeck, the impostor, Avhom the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., endeav- ored to foist upon the English people, as Duke of York, and Lambert Simnel, who personated the Earl of Warwick, excited formidable revolts; but the latter Avas reduced to the position of a scullion in the royal kitchen, Avhile the former, after many strange adven- HOUSE OF TUDOR. 127 tares in Scotland and France, was hanged November 28, 1499, at Tyburn. It is said that Warbeck, when captured and confined in the Tower, saw the real Duke, wl)om he had counterfeited, for the first time, Lincoln's Inn was, originally, the palace of Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln; and was first converted into a residence for law students in 1310. The old Hall was built in 1500, when all the buildings were remod- elled into their present form. In 1013, the Chapel was built by Inigo Jones, architect. The new Hall was built in 1843. There were no wars of any importance with foreign nations durinor the reitjn of Henry VII. Wars. » » J The war with France, 1492, over the fief of Bretagne, was settled by the payment by Louis XII., of two hundred thousand pounds indemnity for expendi- tures, and a pension of twenty-five thousand crowns to Henry and his heirs. The early part of this reign, however, was much disturbed by domestic insurrections, in the main fos- tered by the Duchess of Burgundy; the Battle of Stoke, in Nottinghamshire, June 10, 1487, being the most noted of these conflicts. Sebastian Cabot "^llTT-^lyoT; Christopher Colum- ^^^^^ bus 1447-1500; William Caxton 1410-1491, Persons. the first printer in England; Sir Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, political agents of the late King, executed in 1510 by Henry VIII., for extortion; Margaret of Beaufort, 1441-1509; Thomas Frowyk, Chief Justice of Common Pleas (1502), "1400-1500; Edward Plantagenet, Earl of Warwick, and nephew of 128 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Edward IV., 1475-1499; James Stanley, Bishop of Ely in 1506, died 1515; David Williams, Master of the Kollsin 1487, died 1492; Thomas AVood, Chief Justice of Common Pleas in 1500, died 1502; Francis Lovel, rebel, 1486, died 1487. (41) HENRY VIII. 1509 — 1547. Birth aiui ^^ ^"^^^ ^^^^"^ ^^ Greenwich, in 1491, Parentage, and was the second son of the preceding monarch. Accession to ^^ ^^^^ crowned at Westminster, June the Throne. 24, 1509, together with his consort Cathar- ine, of Aragon. In domestic affairs, Henry's conduct is without a parallel in history, he had in succession Marriage. _ _ _ •' six wives, viz. : I. Catharine of Aragon, whom he, when only twelve years of age, married June 6, 1509, solely for political and mercenary reasons, she being the widow of his elder brother Arthur. After this marriage had lasted eighteen years, the King, on May 23, 1533, induced Cranmer (who for that purpose was made archbishop), to secure in his court a decision that the marriage with Catharine was illegal, her daughter Mary illegitimate, and that Anne Boleyn, to whom he had previously been privately married, on No- vember 14, 1532, before he had been divorced from Catharine, was the lawful queen. Anne Boleyn was crowned at Westminster, June 1, 1533. Catharine never HOUSE OF TUDOE. 129 recognized the sentence as legal; she lived a mel- ancholy and secluded life at Ampthill, near Woburn, till January 6, 1536, when she died. She was six years older than the King, and when he was crowned went through the form of a second marriage. 2. Anne Boleyn, to whom he was married Novem- ber 12, 1532, was crowned Queen three days after the issue of Cranmer's decree. She gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, before the close of the year 1533. Subsequently, the King seems to have formed a dislike for Anno, and she was committed to the Tower on false charges. May 2, 1530, unjustly tried, sentenced to death, and her daughter declared illegitimate. Anne was beheaded May 19, of same year, and on the following day. 3. May 20, 1530, the King married Jane Sey- mour. In 1537 she gave birth to a son, Edward, and a few days afterwards died. 4. The King had been shown a portrait by Hol- bein, of the Princess Anne of Cleves, in Germany, whom he married by proxy, January 6, 1540, but when he met her at Dover, and found she was not as beautiful as the picture represented, he induced Parliament, July 10, of same year, to declare the marriage void. Thomas Cromwell, avIio had suggested the marriage, was subsequently beheaded on other charges. 5. On May 8, 1540, he married Catharine Howard, (niece of the Duke of Norfolk,) whom on the charge of indiscretion, the King beheaded, Feb- ruary 12, 1542, and attainted her relatives. 130 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. 6. Though Henry had killed two wives, and di- vorced two others, he succeeded in obtaining a sixth, Catharine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer, whom he married July 12, 1553, who, by her extraordinary tact and wisdom, retained the King's favor till his death. Mary by his first queen; Elizabeth by Anne Boleyn; and Edward, by Lady Jane Seymour. The death of the King was greatly hastened by a disorder in his le^j, which had afflicted him Death. ^ \ many years. He died January 28, 1547, at Westminster, and was buried at Windsor. Worn out with debauchery, he had become a loathsome and helpless mass of corruption. No monarch who ever ascendc^l the English throne , . presents to us a trreater diversity, both as Personal Ap- i » J ■> poaranco aud to personal appearance and character, than Character. ^t i^ttt i • 1.1 Henry Vlli., as we see iiim the young, handsome, entertaining and agreeable man of 1500, and the old, battered, worn out monarch of 1547. Henry VIII., was the last monarch avIio was addressed as " Dread Sovereign." In youth he was of commanding figure, athletic, and a master of all manner of maul}- sports, as well as accomplished in drawing-room and boudoir manners. But as he advanced in years, with the accretion of fiesli he l)ecanie awkward, and careless in regard to liis personal ap[)earance and demeanor; and as the cares of state began to weigh upon him, and he found himself at times thwarted in his personal wishes, he became capricious, dictatorial and vindictive. He was HOUSE OF TUDOR. 131 of a vigorous mind, learned, and capable of temporary friendships, but vain, despotic and cruel. The first few years of his reign were devoted to such uninterrupted festivities, that he soon dissipated the greater portion of the immense wealth which he had inherited from his father. Then began a career of wanton self -indulgence, extortion and tyranny. His entire aim seems always to have been his own personal aggrandizement, and the gratification of selfish and sensual desires. He for that purpose made himself the head of the Church of Entjfland, controU- ing the funds, as well as dictating the doctrines of that great body. Benevolences were again extorted from the rich merchants of England, and justice in the ordinary courts was prostituted to the royal will. The whole machinery of government was perverted, and its officers were simply the tools of royal des- potism. The rights of the common people he dared not violate, but the wealthy and the noble, as well as the Church, Avere despoiled without hesitation. In fact, his character may be summed up as a bundle of contradictions; an eminent writer saying, " he was a clever, dishonest, good-natured, obstinate, selfish, ambitious, tempestuous, arrogant scoundrel. . . . Yet, withal, in liis young days, a great favorite, ... so tall, so trim, so stout, so good, so free with his money." Wolsey, the son of a butcher at Ti)swich, by his Notable great executive ability, attained unexampled Events. powcr and wealth. For twenty years he had been a favorite Avith Henry, Avho had loaded him 132 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS, with benefits. He became successively Archbishop of York, chief minister of England, the Pope's legate, and a cardinal. His official emoluments were enor- mous, and his pomp almost royal. With a small por- tion of his wealth he founded Cardinal Colleofe at Oxford, which upon his fall, was given its later title of Christ Church. His wealth and power, however, com- bined as it was with lavish display and ostentation, became so great that it excited the jealousy of the King. It Avas discovered, too, that he was plotting for the papacy, and for that purpose opposed the King's marriage with Anne Boleyn. The King and Anne, therefore, agreed upon his destruction. Legal proceedings were instigated against him, and he was accused of holding the office of papal legate con- trary to law. Wolsey bowed to the storm, and hoping to gain time for his vindication, gave up to the King all his immense possessions. He retireil to a castle in the North, but a year afterward was arrested on the charge of high treason. On his Avay to London to answer the accusation, he turned aside, to die broken- hearted, at Leicester Abbey, uttering the often quoted words "if I liad served my God with half the zeal I served my King, He would not in mine old age have left me naked to my enemies.'" In 1533, soon after the King's marriage with Anne Boleyn, the Pope ordered him to [)ut her away under penalty of excommunication. Parliament, within a twelvemonth, answered the demand by passing the Act of Supremacy, which declared Henry to be with- out reservation, the sole head of the Church of Eng- HOUSE OF TUDOR. 183 land, and pronounced the penalties of high treason against all who should deny it. Thus England threw off the papal authority, dominant there for upwards of ten centuries. The King and Parliament were in substance the same, and soon after a law was pro mulgated making Henry, practically, the Pope of England, and giving him power by his own individual proclamation, to declare any opinions he disliked heretical and punishable with death. No more perfect despotism than this can be conceived, and Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher Avere executed because they could not conscientiously affirm that Henry was enti- tled to be called the head of the English Church. The Pope attempted to punish tliis judicial murder, by a bull of excommunication and deposition. Henry avenged himself by suppressing the monasteries in pursuance of a bill which he caused his servile House of Commons to pass. The spoliation of religious houses was complete; the stained-glass windows were broken; the chimes of bells were cast into cannon; and the libraries, some of them of very great value, sold for wrapping paper. To make his vengeance upon the Pope more signal, Becket's tomb at Canter- bury was broken open, and the saint summoned to answer a charge of treason. The case was actually tried (a farce half solemn, half ludicrous) at West- minster Abbey, and the martyr's bones, which had as much chance to be heard as others who had incurred the King's enmity, were sentenced to be burned, and his shrine was despoiled of its jewels and rich offerings. The destruction of the monasteries, by enriching the 134 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. King, made him more absolute than before. It caused great misery to thousands in the hind who had hereto- fore been maintained by the religious houses. Ulti- mately, however, by compelling them to labor, it proved to be a benefit. The extent of the spoliation may be seen in the fact that 045 monasteries, 2,374 chapels, 90 collegiate churches, and 110 charitable institutions Avere destroyed. By the Six Articles, an act called by Protestants the " Bloody Bill," the King established a religion which Avas substantially pa[)ac3\ with himself for Pope. He prohibited Lutheran doctrines, but caused the Bible to be translated, and a copy chained to a desk in every parish church in England. The clergy alone, how- ever, were permitted to interpret it. It was hard to know what to believe, and " the Catholic who denied the King's supremacy, and the Protestant who refused to believe that the blessing of a priest could miracu- lously change bread into the body of the Savior," were borne to death on the same hurdle. Henry issued an edict in 1542, in regard to read- ing the Bible, which is in part as follows: "A noble- man or gentleman may read it in his house, or in his garden or orchard, yet quietly, and without disturb- ance of order. A merchant may read it to himself privately; but the common people, women, artificers, a[)[)rentices, journeymen and servingmen are to be punished with one month's imprisonment, as often as they, are detected in reading the Bible, either privatelj'- or openly." Nearly all Avho had served Henry, in oflices of state, HOUSE OF TUDOR. 135 either to advance his authority or to aid his pleasures, were destroyed by him. Besides Cardinal AVolsey and others before named, he put' to death Thomas CromAvell, who had materially helped him in estab- lishing his authority, and who was, under various pretexts, beheaded July 28, 1540. The Earl of Surrey, an accomplished knight, and eminent as a poet, was beheaded January 10, 15-17. Among others we may name also the Duke of Buckingham, Higli Constable of England, who was beheaded for treason, May 17, 1521. The last person on whom the King decided to display his cruelty, was the aged Duke of Norfolk, father of the Earl of Surrey. He was con- demned to be beheaded on January 27, 1547, and liis life was only saved by the death of the tyrant the day before. Sir James Howard was the first Lord High Ad- miral a[)pointcd in the English navy. Mexico was conquered by Cortez, anil Ptiiii by Pizarro. St. Paul's School Avas founded in 1510. The College of Physicians was instituted by Dr. Linacre, in 1518. The entire Bible was first translated into English in 153U. Many kinds of fruit and vegetables, including cherries, apricots, apples and hops, were first culti- vated in England during this reign. Classical litera- ture began to be extensively studied, and the Greek language was for the first time taught at the uni- versities and endowed schools. Erasmus, though a native of Holland, was Greek teacher at Oxford, and did much to extend the progress of learning in Eng- land. The great work of his life was the translation 136 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULERS. of the Greek Testament into Latin. Wolsey com- menced building Hampton Court Palace, and Christ Church, Oxford. Thomas Wyatt is awarded, by common consent, the credit of having engrafted the sonnet upon Eng- lish poetry during this reign. Howard, Earl of Sur- rey, translated the first two books of Vergil, and used "blank verse" for the first time in English literature. The diving bell was introduced in 1509. The Strand, so named from its skirting the banks of the Thames, and one of the chief arteries of com- merce in London, Avas first paved in 1532. St. James Park, originally a marsh, Avith an irregu- lar brick building which Avas occupied as an lios[)ital for lepers, Avas converted into a beautiful [)ark, its revenues having been first sequestered for that pur- pose by Henry VIII., Avho caused the marsh to be drained. At the same time he pensioned part of the inmates, scattered the rest, destroyed the hospital, and erected the Palace of St. James. AVhitehall Palace Avas also l)nilt. Trinity House corporation Avas founded in 1512, by Sir Thomas Spert, the commander of the ship ''Harry Grace de Dieu." He Avas comptroller of the navy to Henry VIII. Trinity House building, hoAvever, Avas not begun until 1713 (Samuel AVyatt, architect), and Avas opened for business in 1705. Leaden conduits, for the conveyance of Avater, were substituted for AA'ooden ones previously used for that purpose. Cotton thread was invented. Henry's fifth Avife introduced pins from France, but they Avere con- HOUSE OF TUDOR 137 sidered an expensive luxury and were used only by ladies who, on their marriage, had a special allowance called " pin money." A pound sterling was first called a sovereign. The office of Secretary of State was instituted in 1529. Lord Cromwell, afterwards Earl of Essex, was the first to hold the office. The " Society of Jesus " was created in 1535, by Ignatius Loyola, a Spaniard, whose notable life Macaulay so graphically describes. Wales was first represented in Parliament. Arts and manufactures received some encourage- ment from Henry, and artisans from various parts of continental Europe began to enter England, settling at Sheffield and other manufacturing centers. Beof and mutton were sold for one half penny a pound. Three[)ence and fourpence per day were the ordinary wages for workmen. Henry invaded France; battle of Guinegate, Au- gust 1(), 1513. This action is called the Wars. ^ ' Battle of the Spurs, because the French made more use of their s])urs in running away, than they did of their weapons. Peace declared 1514. In 1522, Avar with France. Peace declared 1527. His brother-in-law, James IV., of Scotland, hav- ing embraced the cause of France, invaded the north- ern parts of England, but was defeated by the Earl of Surrey, and slain at Flodden, in Northumberland, September 9, 1513. The Scots under James V., were defeated at Solway, in Cund)orland, November 25, 1542. In December, of the same year, James V. died 138 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. of a broken heart, leaving one child, Mary, then only a few (lays old. Cardinal Thomas AVolsey, Bishop of Lincoln in Noted 1514, Archbishop of York, 1514, 1471- Persons. 1530; Tliomas Cromwell, Earl of Essex, the son of a blacksmith. Master of the Eolls in 1534, diplomatist, *1490-executed 1540; Howard, Earl of Surrey, poet and general, 1516-1547. In considera- tion of his services at Flodden, he was restored to the Dukedom of Norfolk, forfeited by his father, who was slain at Bosworth fighting for Richard. William Tyndale, reformer and martyr, ■^'1477, executed 1530; Miles Coverdale, Bishop of Exeter in 1551, *1487, executed *15G4, Both of these were translators of the Bible; Sir Thomas AVyatt, poet, 1503-1541 or 2; John Leland, antiquary, and author of ''The Itin- erary," *1506-1552; Martin Luther, 1483-1546; Ltt4ius Socinius, the Italian Unitarian, 1525-1562, Dcsiderius Erasmus, 1467-153(5, eminent scholars; Gustavus I., Yasa, 1496-1560; King of Sweden, 1523 to 1560, Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astrono- mer 1473-1543; Leonardo da Yinci 1452-1519 Italian painter; Sanzio di Urbino Eaffaelle, or Ra- phael, 1483-1520, Italian painter; Albert Durer, printer, engraver and architect, 1471-1528. The fol- lowing were chief administrators and advisers to Henry YIII. : In 1509, C;ii(linal and Bishop John Fisher (1459-1535) and the Earl of Surrey. In 1513, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. In 1523, Cardinal Wolsoy was succeeded by Sir Thomas More 1480, executed 1535. In 1532-3, Thomas Audley, Lord HOUSE OF TUDOR. 139 Audley of AValdeii (1488-1544). In 1533, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury 1489, burnt 1556. In 1534, Lord Thomas Cromwell. In 1540, Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk 1473-1554. In 1531, Howard, Earl of Surrey, and Stephen Gardiner, Bishop of Winchester (1483-1555). In 1544-7, Thomas AVriothesley, Earl of Southampton, died 1550, and Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, after- ward Duke of Somerset and Kegent of Edward VI, executed 1562. (42) EDWARD VI., 1547 — 155:5. Edward was born at Hampton Court, Middlesex, Birth and October 1'2, 1537, and was the only son of Parentage. Henry VIII., by Jane Seymour. Accession to "^^ ^^^^ crowucd at Westminster, Feb- theTiirone. ruary, 10, 1547. He was never married. He died of consumption, July 6, 1553, and was buried at Westminster. Some authorities Death. affirm that he met his death by poison, administered by the Duke of Northundjerland, his guardian, and Protector of the realm. His person was comely, and his features engaging, , . but ijivinff evidence of constitutional disease. Personal Ap- ^5 o pearanceand He was of mild temper, studious disposi- tion, gentle in his manners, and like a deli- cate hot-house plant in a forest of ancient oaks. His diary, still preserved in the British Museum, shows considerable leai'ning, acute observation, and a ripe- 140 ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. ness of judgment beyond his years, and has consider- able historical value. During the first six years of his reign, the govern- Notabie uicnt was administered as directed in his Events. father's will, by his uncle the Duke of Somerset. A conspiracy formed against Somerset by the Earl of Warwick, was successful, and he was executed on Tower Hill, January 22, 1552. The Earl of Warwick, who had become Duke of Northumber- land, succeeded him as protector. Great distress was occasioned in this reign, by the nobles, who seized the unenclosed lands of the coun- try, and fenced them in for themselves, making beg- gars of many who had derived part of their living from pasturing their domestic animals on these com- mons, which had heretofore been entirely free. This, and the greed of tlie mercantile classes for lands, raised rentals largely, and deprived thousands of the means of sustenance, producing Avide-spread misery. Edward made the National Church Protestant in doctrine. By his direction. Archbishop Cranmer compiled a Book of Common Prayer, chiefly a trans- lation from tlie Pioman Catholic lueviniT- He also prepared the thirty-nine articles and the catechism, now in use by that body. The liturgy thus framed was in 1591 made obligatory, by act of Parliament, on all the churches in England. It is, substantially, the same as that now in use in the Englisli Church, and is known as " King Edward's Prayer Book." The work of confiscating the property of the Roman Catholic Church was continued. The money thus realized was HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1J:1 devoted to the founding of schools, hospitals and other benevolent institutions. Among these were the hospitals of St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew in Lon- don, and the famous Christ Church hospital, the first Protestant charity school established in England, now popularly known as the Bluecoat school. Emerson said of his visit there, that it was as if the spectator by passing through a gateway had gone back more than three centuries. Coleridge, Lamb and many others noted in literature, were educated there, and have bequeathed us pleasant reminiscences of it. Chief and foremost among these, for delightful por- traiture, is Charles Lamb's essay entitled, " Christ's Hospital." The Scriptures were printed find largely circulated among the people. It was indeed a golden epoch for the Bible printers. During the six years of Edwaid's rule, fifty editions, principally of Coverdale's and Tyn- dale's versions, were issued, and no less than fifty- seven publishers were constantly engaged in their issue. Grapes were brought from France, and for the first time generally cultivated in England. Crowns, half- crowns and sixpences were introduced into the cur- rency of England; and trade commenced with Eussia. A naval expedition of three ships, under Sir Hugh AYilloughby, was sent out to discover a northeast passage to India, but the creAvs were frozen to death off Lapland. As directed by Henry's will, the Pro- Wars. . , tector endeavored to unite the crowns of England and Scotland by the marriage of Edward and 142 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Mary, Queen of Scots. The Scots, however, would not assent to the union, and the Protector advanced against theni and won the battle of Pinkie, near Mus- selburgh, September 10, lo-lT. Mary, for greater security, was sent to France, and was soon after be- trothed to the Dauphin. AYith France, in 1549. Peace made in 1550. Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, grandfather of •^,,^^^1 Lady Jane Grey, and favorite of Henry Persons. VIII., died 1545; Sir Hugh WiUougliby, celebrated explorer, died 1554" ; Nicolas Ptidley, Bishop of Piochester in 1547, of London 1550, executed 1555. He assisted Cranmer in preparing the church liturgy and catechism, published in English hy order of Parliament; Thomas Seymour (Lord Sudeley), Lord High Admiral, and liusband of Catharine Parr, widow of Henry VIII., executed 1549; William Kett, a tanner of Norfolk, wlio raised an insurrection and was hanged at Norwich in 1549; Lord Guilford Dud- ley, husband of Lady Jane Grey, executed 1554; Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford and Duke of Somerset, Ilegent to Edward VI., executed 1552. He was succeeded by John, Earl of AVarwick and Duke of Northumberland, as Regent and Lord Chancellor; Andrew Borde, poet and physician to Henry VIII., 1500"-1549; Catharine Bore, consort of Luther, 1499-1552; John Pilborough, Baron of the Exchequer in 1547, died 1548; Sir Eobert SouthAvell, Master of the Polls in 1547, died 1559; Sir John Baker, Speaker of the House of Commons in 1547, died 1558; Catharine Parr, sixth wife of Henry VIII., 1509-1548. HOUSE OF TUDOR. 143 (43) MARY I. 1553 — 1558. Mary, sometimes called " Bloody Mary," was born Birtii and ^^ Greenwich, February 11, 1516, and was Parentage, the daughter of Henry VIII., and Catha- rine of Aragon. Accession to ^he was crowued at Westminster, Sep- tbe Throne, tember 30, 1553. She married Philip II., of Spain, son of Charles, Emperor of Germany, at Westminster, Marriage. ^ ., . July 25, 1554, but had no issue. She died at London, of di'opsy, Novem- Deatb. ' ^ •" ber 17, 1558. Tall, with a face and figure indicating resolution; , . a chronic invalid; childless and unloved. Personal Ap- ' pearanceand She possessed great courage and firm- Character. , i pi i ,• • ness, and seemed alter her coronatnni to become infused with an unusual spirit of bigotry and cruelty, ruling with the single idea of bringing Eng- land into subjugation to the papal hierarchy. The penalty of reading the English Scriptures, or of offering Protestant prayers was death. Her reign has been characterized as " the years of the martyrs;" though her constant persecutions, gi-owing in cruelty and intensity, only tended to strengtlien the cause of Protestantism. In October, 1555, Latimer and Bishop Ridley were drawn from tlieir prison in Oxford, and In-ought to the stake. "Play the man, Master llidley," said the old preacher of the Beformation, as the flames shot up around him ; " We shall this day light 144 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. siicli a candle in Eu^laiid. as by God's grace, I trust shall never be pnt out." Crunnior soon followed them to execution, and his martyrdom was the death-ldow to Catholicism in England. In a single day, thirteen victims, two of them Avomen, were burnt at Stratford le Bow. Seventy-three Protestants of Col'ch ester were drajjtjed throuorh the streets of London, tied to a single rope. Even the universities Avere visited, and the corpses of foreign teachers wdio had found a rest- ing place there under Edward, Avere torn from their graves and reduced to ashes. But such a reign of cruelty soon proved too revolting to the English mind, and Mary, Avho to support Philip had drawn the nation into a Avar (Avhich ended in disgraceful disas- ter), Avas saved only l)y death, from confronting a general uprising of the people. Her reign Avas a con- tinued Avar against her Protestant subjects, Avhicli filled Enjifland Avith terror and dismay. Religious toleration Avas unknoAvn in her (hiy. The alternative otfered to the heretic was, " turn or burn." Lady Jane Grey, Avho, in opposition to her OAvn Notable Avishes, had been proclaimed Queen, Avas Events. seized on Mary's accession, and although she at once resigned all claim to the throne, Avas told to prepare for death, and Avas beheaded, together Avith her husband, February 12, 1554. The death of the Duke of Suffolk, her father, and other persons Avho had espoused her cause, followed soon after. Sir Thomas Wyatt excited a rebellion in her faA'or, but he Avas taken prisoncn- by Sir Maurice Berkeley and executed. HOUSE OF TUDOK. 145 Coaches are supposed to have been first used in England in this reign, although according to Stowe, the Antiquary, they were introduced in 1580, by Fitz- Allen, Earl of Arundel. Before their introduction, ladies rode in litters, sedan-chairs, or on horseback behind their squires. Hackney coaches, so called from the village of Hackney, near London, were not introduced till 1625. The manufacture of drinking- glasses was first begun in England. Flax and hemp were grown, and the use of starch discovered. With France, 1557; the loss of Calais occurred Jan- uary 7, 1558, after being for more than two centuries in the possession of the English, It was taken by the Duke of Guise, after a siege of only eight days. Cardinal Reginald Pole, Archbishop of Canter- Noted bury 1550, 1500-1558; Bishop Gardiner, Persons. 1483-1555; and Bonner, Bishop of London in 1540, *1495-1569, zealous supporters of the Pope; Cranmer, 1489-1556; Bishop Hugh Latimer, *1471, executed 1555; Bishop Nicolas Bidley, 1500, executed 1555; Sebastian Cabot, *1477-*1557, a noted merchant and navigator; Henry Bradshaw, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, died 1553; Richard Cooke, classical critic, died 1558; John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, Lord High Admiral, 1502, executed 1553; John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester in 1551, martyr 1495- 1555; Sir Richard Morgan, Chief Justice of the Com- mon Pleas, died 1556; John Philpot, Archdeacon of Winchester, martyr, executed 1555; Sir Thomas Pope, politician and founder of Trinity College, Oxford, 146 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. *1506-1559; Edward Courtney, Earl of Devonshire, who refused in 1553 to marry Queen Mary, died 1556; Sir Nicholas Hare, Master of the Kolls in 1553, died 1557 ; Clement Higham, Chief Baron of the Exchequer in 1558, died 1570; Albert, Earl of Mansfield, states- man, 1480-1560; Matthew Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury (1557), 1504-1575; Sir Anthony Saint Leger, Royal Commissioner in Ireland *1496-1559; Richard Yeoman, martyr, executed 1558. Bishop Gardiner was Chief Administrator during Mary's reign. (44) ELIZABETH. 1558 — 1603. She was born at Greenwich, September 7, 1533, Birtii and ^"*^ ^"^^^^ ^^^^ daughter of Henry VIII., and Parentage. Anne Boleyn. She was never married. Accession to ^^^^ ^^^^ crowncd at Westminster, Janu- the Throne, ary 15, 1559. Her death occurred March 24, 1603 (hastened as is supposed by the loss of her favorite, the Earl of Essex), at Richmond. She was buried at Exeter. AVhen Elizabeth ascended the throne, she was in Person 1 A ^^^^ twenty-fiftli year. In [)ers()nal beauty pearanceaud she surpassod her mother. Of command- ing form, with a face beaming with intelli- gence, her eyes full of fire, she looked every inch a queen. She Avas a bold horse-woman, a good shot, a graceful dancer, skilled in music, and scholarly beyond her age. Latin and even Greek were familiar HOUSE OF TUDOR. 147 to her, and slie loved to study the masters in both languages. The modern languages she spoke with fluency, and enjoyed the reading of Ariosto and Tasso. She had ever a smile and word of encouragement ior the great writers of her own age, while Shakespeare, Jonson and Spenser were doubtless inspired to higher efforts by the consciousness that their work was appre- ciated by their sovereign. Her address was frank and hearty; she loved her people and desired their love, and with dauntless courage sought always to promote their welfare. Her harsh and manlike voice, and even her hand, was sometimes lifted against her nobles, and she would treat her ministers with much sever- ity, but for her people she had only kindness. "Nothing" (slie said to her first Parliament), "no worldly thing under the sun is so dear to me, as the love and good-will of my subjects." Her yoke was sometimes galling to them, but they needed only to call her attention to a real grievance to gain at once relief. She knew how to choose her ministers and attendants, but she was acquainted also with the feel- ings of her people. She had a peculiar pride in their well-being, and knew how to promote it. She inherited from her mother a sensuous, self- indulgent nature. She loved splendor and pleasure. She delighted in gorgeous dress, in ornaments and jewels; in progresses from entertainment to entertain- ment, at lordly castles; in fulsome adulation; and whatever was beautiful in woman or man, was attrac- tive to her. She had, however, a nature hard as iron, and an intellect clear and sharp as a cimeter. 148 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Oiitwardly luxurious and pleasure-loving, she was frugal in her common life, and England had no more persistent worker. AVitli a council composed of emi- nent men she was the ruler of it, and her ministers knew that hers was the master-mind of them all, and that she had the keenest intuition. She showed her political tact in maintaining the peace of England, thus preserving the lives of lier subjects and the wealth of her citizens, without imposing the burden of sustaining a standing army upon the people. She enjoyed for almost half a century, in the boundless regard and devotion of her people, the highest reward that a sovereign can have. She cherished no resentments. Indifferent to abuse, her good humor was never disturbed, even by the calumnies of the Jesuits. She was absolutely in- sensible to fear, and knew hf)\v to conciliate both her Roman Catholic and Protestant subjects. She cared more for public order than for any religious difference, making this her first interest and supreme study. Says Mitchell: "She was one of the forces that went to endow what is called the English literature of her day; so instructed was she; so full of talent; so keen-sighted; so exact — a most extraordinary woman. We inust not think her greatness factitious, and at- tributable only to her because she was a queen. Tliere could be no greater mistake. . . . She would anywhere have made an atmosphere of intellectual ambition aV)out her; she would have struck fire from flinty souls; and so she did in her court; she inspired work, inspired ambition; may we not say that she inspired genius? " HOUSE OF TUDOR. 149 She had found England poor, ignorant and de- pressed, — she left it rich, honored, learned and pros- perous, sorrowful only in her death. The bloody persecution of the Protestants by Notable Mary, had produced its usual effect in Events. greatly strengthening that body, and rend- ering the Roman Catholics most unpopular. Eliza- beth's accession to the throne was hailed with joy, and under her administration the evangelical element be- came every day stronger, while the papal power steadily diminished in strength. At her coronation a petition was presented, stating that it was customary on such occasions to release a number of prisoners. The petitioners, therefore, en- treated her majesty to " restore to freedom Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, and also the Apostle Paul, who had been for some time shut up in a strange lan- guage.'' The English prayer-book, substantially as now used, was accordingly established. The clergy were required, by a statute of 1559, to use it exclu- sively, and the special court, called the " High Com- mission Court," was employed to try those refusing to sustain the established form of worship. Mary, Queen of Scots, daughter of the eldest sister of Henry VIII., a Avoman fascinating in her personal beauty, and of winning manners, very ambi- tious, but without regard for truth, had assumed the arms and title of Queen of England, and sought refuge within its limits, when dej)rived of the Scot- tish throne in 1507. But her intrigues for the Eng- lish crown being well known, she was imprisoned for 150 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. eighteen years in Fotlieringay Castle and elsewhere, but daring that time every attention Avas paid to lier personal comfort. Her ambitious claims and her strouj; attachment to the Roman Catholic reli- gion, made a most dangerous rival of this woman of powerful intellect, who had besides a grace and brilliancy of manner unequalled in the realm. In loSC), the people were excited by rumors of repeated attempts on the life of Elizabeth, made by fanatics Avho were believed to have acted by Mary's orders. It is certain that the latter knew and approved of a vow made by Anthony Babington and a band of young Catholics, for the most part connected with the royal household, to kill the Queen. The seizure of Mary's correspondence by AValsingham, made it clear that she was privy to the plot. She was tried by a com- mission of peers, and their verdict of guilty was received with expressions of joy throughout Great Britain. Parliament presented a petition for her exe- cution, and the council pressed eagerly for it. But Elizabeth shrank from inflicting the penalty of death, and absolutely refused tcj sign the warrant. Some months later, however, the pressure brought to bear upon her was so great, that a sullen consent was wrested from her. She flung the warrant on the floor, and declared that the council alone must l)e respon- sible for it. Mary died bravely, comforting her friends with cheering words, February 8, 1587. The destruction of the great Armada of Spain, by the English navy during this reign, gave to England power on the ocean; and the adventures of HOUSE OF TUDOR. 151 Sir Francis Drake, avIio penetrated the Pacific and swept tlie unguarded coast of Chili and Peru in 1587, returning with spoils of more than half a million, incited others to imitate his example. Whoever had means to fit out a ship, was at liberty to ravage the seas, and no nation had any rights which another was bound to respect. England gained at this time that supremacy in naval warfare which she kept for two centuries. With better ships and better seamen than other nations, she was long the terror of the seas. Drake was the first Englishman to make a voyage around the world, taking three years to accomplish it. He brought potatoes from Santa Fe, and planted them in Lancaster. Sir Walter Raleiijh has long: been cred- ited with the introduction of tobacco into England, but Stowe, in his Annals, states that tobacco came into England about the year 1577. Ralph Lane, the first governor of Virginia, in 1586, introduced the " imple- ments and materials of tobacco-smoking," which he handed to Paleigh, who by their use acquired the credit of bringing tobacco itself into England. The Bodleian Library, at Oxford, was founded. The East India Company was formed. The Irish rebelled again in 1509. The Earl of Essex was sent with a considerable force to subdue them, but entering into a truce with the rebels, he returned to England and fell under the displeasure of the Queen. His courage surpassing his wisdom, he incited an insur- rection against her, but it was soon quelled, and Essex was beheaded. Irelantl was a constant source of trouble antl expense during this reign. Sir John 152 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Parrott proposed as a remedy, that the laws of Eng- land should be extended to it, and bridges and roads built, and the inhabitants encouraged to develop the resources of the country. But unfortunately the plan was considered too expensive, and the project failed. Elizabeth's parliaments Avere summoned at intervals of three to five years, and then only in case of urgent necessity. Their power, however, was growing steadily, and when in 1601 they complained of the monopolies which the rulers of England had heretofore been in the habit of granting to their favorites and others, she thanked the House for its interference, and grace- fully surrendered this privilege. The ease with which money was made in this reign by privateers and merchants, led to improved modes of living as well as to extravagance. Pewter replaced wooden trenchers, and silver plate, to some limited extent, came into use. Carpets superseded the filthy flooring of rushes, and the Elizabethan architecture took the place of gloomy walls and serried battlements. Glass began to be freely used, letting in light and sunshine. The lavishness of new wealth caused a marked improvement in the dress of the period. The Queen had three thousand robes, and was brilliant in jewels, and "men wore a manor on their backs." The marked influence of Italian fashions in dress, man- ners, habits of life so far as climate and surroundings would permit, and in the literature of the period, is a feature not to be overlooked. The care of the poor, wlio had hitherto been a con- stant menace, ready for any lawless adventure, was HOUSE OF TUDOR. 153 provided for in 15(34. The act of ISd Elizabeth, per- fected a system caring for the indigent, and providing labor for the mendicant able to work. Its machinery proved efficacious, and was retained in successful operation until a recent period. The responsibility of first bringing negroes from Africa to be sold into slavery, rests upon Sir John Hawkins. The spread of commerce brought to England the luxuries of Italy, and all that was best on the con- tinent. Silk stockings were first worn by Queen Elizabeth. Pocket watches were introduced from Nuremberg in Germany. The Royal Exchange, in London, was founded by Sir Thomas Gresham, in 1556. The art of making paper from linen rags, was first practiced in England at Dartford, in Kent. West- minster School was founded by Queen Elizabeth, in 1590, and the same year Eugby School was founded by L. SherifPe. The Middle Temple was built 1562- 1572, and restored 1830 to 1832. Gray's Inn was built in 1560. The first covered buildings constructed for theat- rical representations, were the " Globe Theater " and the " Curtain " in Shoreditch, erected in the year 1570. Before these dates, the drama was presented, as in the Globe, in places open to the sky, and which could be used only in warm and pleasant weather. Telescopes were invented by Jansen, a spectacle maker at Middleburg, Holland. Knives were first made in London by one Matthew, on Fleet bridge, in 1560, though the " Sheffield whittle " ante-dates this. The .first newspaper published in London, called '" The \ 154 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. English Mercurie," and dated July, 1588, is still pre- served ill the British Museum. The population of the kingdom was 5,000,000, and of London about 160,000. Sunday was observed, as on the continent, as a day of recreation. Servile labor was forbidden, but amusements and theatrical representations were on that day visited by Elizabeth and her court, and were lawful at any time except during the hours of religious worship, Sunday being the Queen's favorite day for this purpose. Hops were first used in brewing in 1521. The first ships for commercial intercourse with India were fitted out in 1591. The first charter for the India trade was granted to a London company in 1602. Philip II., of Spain, soon after the death of his Avife Mary, Elizabetirs sister, made pro- Wars. . posals of marriage to the Queen, which she rejected. To avenge this affront, to promote the in- terests of the Pope, and to punish the depredations which had been made on his shores by English sea- men, he early in 1588 fitted out a fleet, which he called the Invincible Armada, for the invasion of England. It consisted of 150 large and small ships, with 2,650 cannon, 8,000 seamen, over 20,000 soldiers, and 2,000 volunteers. It was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, supported by the ablest staff of Spain's naval officers. The English fleet consisted of 80 small ships, some of them little larger than a yacht of the present day, Avitli 9,000 hardy soldiers, whose admiral was Lord Howard of Effing- ham, supported by Drake and Hawkins, and the HOUSE OF TUDOR. 155 best captains of the age. The fight lasted a week, from July 21, and one by one, galleon after galleon, was sunk. On the 29th of July, as the English sup- plies Avere giving out, Howard forced a general engage- ment and fired and sunk several of the enemy's ships, whereupon the Spaniards became demoralized and retreated just as victory would have been gained by patience. With a loss of 1,000 men they fled north- ward. The English vessels could not follow them as their supplies were exhausted, but the storms of the Northern seas destroyed the remnant of Spain's great navy, and 8,000 Spaniards perished between the Giant's Causeway and the Blankets. In 1597, a Spanish fleet again set sail for the Eng- lish coast, but as in the case of its predecessor, chan- nel storms proved more destructive than the English guns, and the ships were wrecked and almost destroyed in the bay of Biscay. Peace with Spain was declared in IGOl, Shakespeare 1564-1616; Francis Beaumont 1585- Noted 1*'^15' and John Fletcher 1576-1625, Persons. dramatic writers and colleagues; Philip Massinger *1585-1610, dramatist; John Ford, 1586- *1639, dramatist; James Shirley, 1591-1666, drama- tist, poet and scholar; Christopher Marlowe, 1564*- 1593, dramatist and poet; Robert Greene, *1560-1592, litterateur and poet; Edmund Spenser, *1553-1599, poet; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586, statesman and poet; Roger Ascham, 1515-1568, tutor to Queen Elizabeth; Michael Drayton, 1563-1631, poet; William Camden, 1551-1623, litterateur and antiquarian; James 156 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Crichton {The Admirable) 1560-1583; Kapliael Hol- inshed, historian, died 1580; John Stowe, 1525-1605, antiquarian and historian; John Knox, 1505-1572, re- former; Bishop Kichard Hooker, 1551-1600, Master of the Temple; Sir Francis Drake, *1515-1596, navigator; William Cecil, Lord Burleigh, Lord Trea- surer, 1520-1598; Bernard Andreas, poet laureate, died *1522; Archibald Angus, Earl of Douglas, hus- band of Margaret Tudor, died 1511; William Aubrey, scholar 1529-1595; Sir Rol)ert Bell, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, died 1577; William Bill, first Dean of Westminster, died 1560; John Birch, Baron of the Exchequer in 1563, 1515-1581; Robert Cooke, Clarenceaux King-at-arms, died 1592; William Cor- dell. Master of the Bolls in 1558, died 1581; Thomas Sackville Earl of Dorset, poet and statesman 1527- 1608. The following were Queen Elizabeth's chief administrators: Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper in 1558, 1510-1579; Sir AVilliam Cecil (Lord Burleigh) chief minister in 1564, and for the most part of this reign; Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester *1532- 1588; Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex 1567-1601, general and favorite ; Lord Buckhurst, Privy Councilor in 1601; Sir Thomas Gresham, 1519-1579, was famous as a merchant and as the founder of the Royal Exchange. HOUSE OF TUDOE. 157 HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. The wonderful growth of England, under the Tudors, is due to the cultivation, by this dynasty, of the arts of peace. The members of this royal house were noted for courage and force of will, and, while sometimes they exercised their power Avith vio- lence and cruelty, they were always loyal to England. Her welfare was always dear to them, being their first and greatest object. Kelying upon the loyalty of their subjects, they maintained no armed force, though they occasionally invaded the rights of the Church and the aristocracy. The freedom of England from the yoke of any religious body, owing to the increase of knowledge, whereby the laity became independent of tlie clergy, gave to the realm energy and growth. The Church of England was established and strengthened. Her prayers, her lessons and homilies were substantially tJie same as to-day. The advance in literature was indeed marvelous. A constellation of genius in all branches of letters, has given to this period the name, well deserved, of " the golden age of English literature." The insecurity of human life, especially at court, is notable. Henry VIII., in his pride, lust and greed, was the means of destroying all his prominent ministers, while a large proportion of the eminent men of his reign, ended their lives on the scaffold. The drama, in Elizabeth's time, attained an emi- 158 ENGLAND AND ITS liULEKS. nence never since equalled. The opportunity of see- ing the choicest plays acted in the best manner, was part of every Englishman's privilege. The theaters were accessible to all, the best places costing only a shilling, while a very good seat could be obtained for a penny in the money of that period. Great progress was made in the study of theology, also, under the guidance of Hooker and other eminent divines; while the Bible, (printed in vast numbers and sold at a Ioav price throughout the kingdom,) exerted a powerful influence in the advancement of the nation in all the arts of civilized life. Commerce made vast strides, and England became mistress of the sea; while the advance in her wealth resulting from a trade extending over the civilized world, enriched her with the products of other nations. Until the reign of Edward VI., foot-soldiers con- tinued to use the long boAv, but it was superseded at that time by match-lock guns and pistols; while can- non began to be effective. Henry VIII. established a permanent navy, and built several ships of upwards of 1,000 tons register. Under Elizabeth, the largest men-of-war carried forty cannon and a crew of several hundred men. Life in cities was luxurious, but the farmer was glad of a wooden trencher for his food. Vegetables and fresh meat were almost unknown to him. His cottage was built of sticks and mud, without a chim- ney, and was almost without furniture. The rich paid little attention to cleanliness, and when the filth and vermin in one of their mansions HOUSE OF TUDOR. 159 became unendurable, tliey left it, "to sweeten," as they called it, and sought another. A great variety of food was served to them, sometimes on silver dishes, but fingers were used in place of forks. They drank beer for breakfast and supper, having neither tea nor coffee. Carriages and wheeled vehicles were almost unknown. Journeys were performed on horse- back, and merchandise was transported in the same manner. 1G03 — 1649. HOUSE OF STUAKT. FIRST EPOCH. (45) JAMES I. OF ENGLAND, AND VI. OF SCOTLAND. 1603 — 1G25. James was born at Edinburgh Castle, June 19, Birth and 1^6(3, and was the son of Henry Stuart Parentage. (Lord Damley), and Mary, Queen of Scots, who was beheaded by Elizabeth. He was crowned King of Great Britain, at West- Accession to minster, July 25, 1603, and reigned until the Throne. 1G25. James succeeded to the throne by reason of the marriage of his grandfather, James IV. of Scotland, with Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. He married Anne, daughter of Frederick Marriage. II., of Denmark, August 20, 1589. Henry, who died in 1612, at the age of nineteen, in his father's lifetime; Charles; and Eliza- Issuo. betli, who married in 1613, Frederick, King of Bohemia. The crown was settled in case of failure of James' male issue, on Frederick's youngest daughter, Sophia and her heirs, because they were Protestants. Sophia married the Duke of Brunswick, from whom is descended the present reigning dy- nasty in Britain. He died March 27, 1625, of a tertian ague, at loO HOUSE OF STUART. 161 his palace Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, and was buried at Westminster. Queen Anne, his consort, died March 1, 1619, The son of Queen Mary and of Lord Darnley, the handsomest couple of their age, he was Personal Ap- , „ ^ . , . ,„^^ pearanceand lumpish, not to saj deformed m his peison, Character. ^^^^^^^^^. -^^ j^-^ ^j^.^ ^^^^ Ungainly in his man- ners. He had an awkward figure, a rolling eye, a rickety sidelong walk, nervous tremblings, a slob- bering mouth, and a boyishness of manner which formed a ludicrous contrast to the airs of dignity and regal state, which he was constantly laboring to assume. These imperfections, it is true, might be found in the best and greatest of men, and it is seldom indeed that nature is equally lavish in physical and mental endowments. But in this king, the ungainliness of his outward man was not redeemed by intellectual or moral qualities calculated to insure admiration or regard. He possessed some learning indeed, and wiUiin a narrow circle exhibited considerable ingenuity of speculation on subjects connected with government and morals. But his understanding was deficient alike in depth and in soundness; his principles were loose, vague, and undefined; his prejudices ridicu- lously gross; his credulity boundless; and his conceit only to be matched by his pedantry and imbecility. Asa king, he was perhaps the most extraordinary phe- nomenon that history has ever presented to the wonder of mankind. Wliat policy would have induced wise tyrants to conceal, James was continually obtruding on all who had the patience to listen to him. Des- 102 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. potic theories of government, and wordy pretensions to arbitrary power, were continually in his mouth ; and whilst he had not a regiment of guards to enforce his doctrines, he talked Avith more confidence than Hadrian would have judged it wise to assume, when at the head of eighty legions, and the master of the world. His boldness of speech was only equalled by his timidity in action. He had all the superstitions of the age, and one of liis first acts was to issue a law punishing witclicraft. His theories of kingcraft, and his determination to assert his absolute independence of Parliament and people, recognizing no law but his own will, led to that conflict which resulted in the downfall of his house. The whole Stuart regime was simply a struggle between the divine right of kings and the divine right of the people, in which the latter was victorious. Prior to 1007, so little importance had been at- Notabie taclicd to the proceedings of Parliament, Events. that uutil tliis year no regular journal of their transactions had been kept. The origin of the custom is due to Sir Edwin Sandys. The King having treated the Catholics rigorously, ruining them by enormous fines, and driving their priests from the country, aroused their enmity. One of the sufferers named Robert Catesby, with the aid of Guy Fawkes, a Yorkshire man, and about a dozen more, formed a plot to blow up Parliament House on the day when the King was to open the session, No- vember 5, 1005. The Gunpowder Plot, as it is called, was discovered, the conspirators executed, and HOUSE OF STUABT. 163 the Catholics treated thereafter with more severity than before. The present translation of the Bible, called King James' version, was perfected in three years (1()07- 1610) by forty-seven divines appointed by the King. It was printed in Roman type in 1611. The previous editions of the Bible had been printed in what is now called " Old English," but which, in reality, was type of the German character, brought by Caxton into Eng- land when he introduced the art of printing. The excellence to which tlie Eiifjlish languajxe had attained at this period through the labors of Shakespeare, Bacon, and the great English waiters of Elizabeth's time, is nowhere better shown than in this translation. The first permanent American settlement by the English was effected in this reign. In 1607, a Loudon joint stock company of merchants and adventurers established a colony on the coast of Virginia, at a place which they called Jamestown. It consisted of gentlemen, but negro slavery being introduced, large quantities of tobacco were raised for export, and in less than twelve years it had become a self-governing community, with power to make its own laws. In 1612 the first English factory in India was established at Surat. The famous Charter-house School was founded in 1611. Brick buildings were first erected in London. The King, as a means of raising money, created the title of baronet, which was sold for £1,000, or any large sum obtainable. Horse-racing was established at Newmarket. Log- arithms were invented by Napier in 1614. Copper 104 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. farthings and half-pence were introduced. In 1613, Sir Thomas Overbury was poisoned in the Tower by Robert Carr, Duke of Somerset, the King's favorite, for which he was banished (1615). George Yilliers took his place in the King's favor, and was created Duke of Buckingham, Lord High Admiral, etc. Cecil, Elizabeth's sagacious minister, served James wisely until his death in 1612. From that time the King maintained a bitter contest with liis Parliament, through their determination to support their own privileges and liberties against his claim to supreme power. He repeatedly violated their rights by reject- ing members who liad l)een legally elected, and im- prisoning those who dared to criticise his measures. Towards the end of his reign, the House protested vigorously, but the King, in gross violation of its liberties, seized its official journal and himself tore out the record of the protest. In 1614, the members refused all supplies of money to the King until he should redress their grievances. These instances of resistance should have warned the court, and the King's compliance would have saved the confusion and bloodshed of the next reign. By the accession of James, the crowns of England and Scotland were united under one sovereign, and he assumed the title of King of Great Britain. Each country, however, retained its own parliament, church and laws. In the first year of his reign a conspiracy was discovered, the object of which was to place upon the throne Lady Arabella Stuart, who was his first cousin, and equally descended from Henry VII. The HOUSE OF STUART. 10)5 plot was, however, soon ended. Sir Walter Haloigli, convicted of having been engaged in it, was sentenced to death; but the sentence being suspended, he was imprisoned for thirteen years in the Tower. After that he was employed in an expedition against the Spaniards in South America, from which the King expected rich spoils. It however proved a failure, and on his return, in violation of all legal forms, as well as the rules of justice, Kaleigh was beheaded in pursuance of his former sentence, October 29, 1018. During his imprisonment in the Tower, he wrote the History of the World, a work more praised than read. The night before his judicial murder, he wrote on the fly-leaf of his Bible the following: "Even such is time, that takes on trust, Our youth, our joys, our all we have, And pays us but with age and dust: Who in the dark and silent grave, When we have wandered all our ways, Shuts up the story of our days: But from the earth, this grave, this dust, My God shall raise me up, I trust." The circulation of the blood M-as discovered by Harvey in 1019. Lord Bacon, Chancellor of Eng- land, was committed to the Tower, and fined £40,000 for receiving bribes (1021) ; but he was shortly after- wards released, his fine remitted, and he was awarded a pension of £1,200 a year. The persecution by James of the Puritans, when, at the beginning of his rule, he declared he " would make them conform, or harry them out of the land," had driven many of them in 1008 into Holland, where 166 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. all men Lad freedom of religious ojunions. In 1620, these Pilgrims embarked in the Mayflower, under Bradford and Brewster, and landing at Plymouth, in Massachusetts, established a colony on the basis of " equal laws for the general good." Ten years after, John Winthrop followed Avitli a small company and settled Salem and Boston. In the next decade no less than twenty thousand persons sought a home in the walds of America. Ireland was colonized by settlers from Scotland and England. The King granted to settlers the greater part of the Province of Ulster, which had been the scene of rebellion in Elizabeth's time, and had been seized by the crown. The city of London founded a colony there, called Londonderry, and Prot- estantism in this way gained and has since retained a foothold in the north of Ireland. James took part with the high churchmen as to the observance of Sunday, and issued a book of sports recommending certain games as lawful and desir- able on the Lord's day. Every minister was ordered to read the declaration in favor of Sunday pastimes, from the pulpit. Lambeth Palace, the residence of the Archbishops of Canterbury, dates back to the 13th century; but its noble library was founded in 1604, by Archbishop Bancroft. Robert Carr, Earl of Somerset, favorite of James i^o^g^j I., 1589-1638; George Yilliers, Duke of Persons. Buckingham, favorite of James I., 1592- 1628; Edward Sackville, Earl of Dorset, 1590-1652; HOUSE OF STUART. 167 William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, poet, 1580-1630; Lord Edward Herbert of Cherbury, politician, 1581- 1648 ; Sir Hugh Middleton, engineer and projector of New River water conduit, *1565-1631; Inigo Jones, architect, 1572-1652; Ben Jonson, poet, 1574-1637; Dr. William Harvey, discoverer of the circulation of the blood, 1578-1657; William Camden, anti- quarian, 1551-1623; George Chapman, poet and first translator of Homer, 1557-1634; AVilliam Parker Monteagle, the reputed discoverer of gunpowder plot; Guy Fawkes, conspirator, died 1(506; Robert Burton {Ancdomy of Melancholy) 1576-1639; Sir Walter Raleigh, navigator, statesman and historian, 1552- 1618; John Calvin, divine, 1509-1564; John Dee, mathematician and astrologer, 1527-1608; John Donne, poet, 1573-1631; Michael Drayton, poet, 1563-1631. The administrators and advisers of James I., were in 1608, Lord Buckhurst (Earl of Dorset), Earls of Salisbury, Suffolk and Northumberland; in 1612, Sir Robert Carr (Viscount Rochester and Earl of Somer- set) ; in 1615, Sir George Villiers (Duke of Bucking- ham); Francis Bacon (Lord Verulam and Viscount of St. Alban's), was Lord Chancellor in 1618. 168 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULEKS. (46) CHARLES I. 1625^1049. Charles was born at Duufermline, iii Fifesliire, Birth and Scotlaud, November 19, 1600, and was the Parentage, the eklest Surviving son of James I. Accession to ^^ ^^''^^ croAvned at Westminster, Feb- the Throne, ruarj 2, 1625, He espoused Henrietta, daughter of Marriage. *■ _ Henry IV., of France, June 13, 1(525. Charles, Prince of Wales; Mary, married to the Prince of Orange; James, Duke of York; Issue. Henry, Duke of Gloucester; Elizabeth; Ann and Henrietta, afterwards Duchess of Orleans. He was executed before the Banqueting House, Whitehall, January 30, 1619. His body Death. ... was exposed to public view in one of the apartments, and afterwards privately buried in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. Charles was the ninth English monarch who had died a violent death since 1066. Charles was of middle stature and well propor- , . tioned; his hair was dark, his forehead high, Personal Ap- ' ' " ' pearancoand and his couuteuauce grave and melancholy. He was by nature courteous and polite; in his private relations conscientious and without re proach. But as a king, he deemed himself above those laws which control the individual. He was untruthful, without fidelity to either his friends, his subjects, or the realm. The people could not trust him, and as Carlyle has said: ''A man whose word HOUSE OF STUART. 169 will not inform you what lie means or will do, is not a man you can make a bargain with. You must get out of that man's way, or put him out of yours." He was not more an enemy to the English people than to himself and his family. Shortly after his accession, Charles married Hen- Notabio rietta Maria, a French Catholic princess, Events. wliose religion was odious to a majority of the people, and whose habits were most extravagant. To meet her demand for money, and to raise funds lo carry on war with Spain, he was obliged to ask Parlia- ment for means. That body refused the requisite subsidies unless he would redress certain grievances, whereupon he dissolved it. Necessity soon compelled tlie summoning of a new Parliament, which at once drew up articles for the impeachment of the King's favorite and adviser, the Duke of Buckingham, a man generally distrusted and disliked. The King, to save his friend, dissolved this Parliament also, and pro- ceeded to supply his wants by illegal taxes and en- forced loans. John Hampden, a noble patriot and statesman, refused to submit to the imposition, saying, that he feared to incur the curse pronounced in Magna Carta on all asIio should infringe it. Hampden and many others, were imprisoned, and the violation of their rights produced general discontent and indignation. But illegal taxes did not satisfy the wants of the King, and he Avas forced again to assemble Parliament, and to his chagrin, Hampden, and others who sympatliized with him, were elected. Their first 170 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. act was to present to the King a jjetition of right, affirming the chief provisions of Magna Carta. The spirit of the movers is shoAvn by the language of one of their number who declared: "We say no more than a worm trodden on would say, if he could speak: I pray you, tread on me no more/' Charles reluctantly, because he could raise money in no other way, signed it. But he at once violated it by restoring monopolies, whereby he granted to certain persons, in consideration of large sums, the exclusive privilege of dealing in nearly all the necessaries of life. A more oppressive measure can hardly be con- ceived. Said a member of Parliament, " The mo- nopolists have seized everything. They sip in our cup, they sup in our dish, they sit by our fire." For the next eleven years, or from 1629 to 1()41, no Parliament met, and the King in the meantime determined to govern by the use " of those means which God had put in his hands." Buckingham had been assassinated August 23, 1628. His successor was Thomas Wentworth, who in 1640 became Earl of Strafford. Strafford was the worthy tool of a tyrant; determined to make Charles absolute, with the privi- leges of a complete despot, in which he was aided by Bishop Laud, who soon became Archbishop of Canter- bury. A reign of tyranny never equalled in England ensued. Those who refused to pay illegal demands for money were imprisoned, and those who would not conform to the Established Church, were punished with severity. John Elliott, a leader in the Parlia- mentary party, was in 1629 sent to the Tower, for HOU.se of STUART. 171 asserting [)opiilar rights, and died there tliree years afterwards, the first martyr for English liberty. The King, to obtain means to equip a standing army, forced the whole country to pay a tax known as ship-money; plainly illegal, because levied without consent of Parliament. John Hampden, again refus- ing to pay, was tried and sentenced to imprisonment. AVith his cousin, Oliver Cromwell, he embarked on a vessel in the Thames, designing to join the Puri- tans in America, but the King, unhappily for himself, thwarted this design. In 1633 the King visited Scotland and was crowned at Edinbui-gh. In 1()37 the King prohibited the publication of newspapers, and the same year he determined to compel the Scots to use the English Prayer-book, a measure most offensive to them. The people through- out Scotland resisted it with tumult and riot, and solemnly bound themselves by a covenant to resist any attempt to change their religion. The King was resolved to enforce compliance at the point of the SAvord; but for this purpose money was needed, and accordingly, in 1040, the famous Long Parliament was summoned. The spirit of this body was utterly opposed to the King, and in Avarm sympathy with the people, as many of their own number had been oppressed beyond endurance. Their first act was the impeachment of Strafford, who was convicted and executed in 1011. Laud's impeachment, trial and execution soon followed. In 10)11 the Star Chamber and High Commission Court were abolished, and a bill was passed requiring 172 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. triennial parliaments, and that tlie one in session should not be dissolved without its own consent. It being rumored that Parliament was about to impeach the Queen for having conspired to destroy the liberty of the country, Charles determined to terminate its authoriljy by seizing Pym, Hampden, Hollis, Haselrig and Strode, leaders of the opposition. With an armed force the King invaded the House of Parliament, and attempted to arrest them, but they had found a refuge in the city, and the King was baffled in his purpose. Seeing that London was wholly in favor of popular rights, and therefore no safe place for him, in 1642 he left it. Parliament insisted that the King should give up to it the control of the militia. He refused to do so and appealed to arms. The civil war commenced in the year 1042, with the battle of Edgehill, Warwickshire, when the Cava- liers, so-called from their dashing horsemanship, under Prince Rupert, defeated the Parliament men, known, from their hair being cut short, as "Roundheads," under Essex and Fairfax. Cromwell realizing the inefficiency of the Parliamentary army, consisting, as he said, "of a set of poor tapsters, and town apprentices," proceeded to organize his famous regi- ment of " Ironsides." This regiment was never defeated. It could pray as well as fight, and soon became the most formidable force in England. In 1644, the Roundheads gained the battle of Mars- ton Moor. The next year they triumphed in the decisive battle of Naseby, which practically ended the war. Naseby's victorious field was won June 14, HOUSE OF STUART. 173 1645. When the battle seemed lost, Cromwell's brigade turned the tide of defeat and wrested a victory from the King and Rupert, which ended the war. The royal artillery and baggage, even the ro}al papers, fell into the hands of Cromwell, and five thousand men surrendered. Among the papers were found docu- ments showing that Charles intended to betray those who were negotiating with him for peace, and was arranging for the aid of foreign troops. This dis- covery was more disastrous to him than his defeat at Naseby. After this battle, Charles fled to Scotland, but he was surrendered by the Scots to Parliament and taken to Holmby House, Northamptonshire. Ft)r two years his opponents sought to negotiate with him, but his obstinacy was invincible, and in 1048, finding that he was raising funds in Eni/land to iiiaujjurate another o o o campaign, they resolved to bring him to trial. Parliament was purged by Colonel Pride, who drove from it all those who were opposed to that measure, leaving only a remnant of about sixty members which was derisively called the " Pump Parliament.''' A high court of justice, consisting of one hundred and thirty- four persons, of which John Bradshaw was chief, was named by this body to try the King, and on January 20, 1049, he Avas brought into court, and a week later sentence of death was pronounced upon him " as a tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy." Throughout the trial he maintained an attitude of dignity and self-control. He was beheaded January 30, 1049, in front of the Poyal Palace of AVhitehall, London. 174 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Duriii<^ the years of tyranny Avhicli followed the close of the first Parliament of Charles, a great Puri- tan emigration peopled the states of New England. The State of Maryland received its name from Hen- rietta Maria, Queen of Charles I. A small band of Pilerim fathers had embarked in the Mayflower from Southampton, and landed, January 22, 1020, on a spot on the coast of Massachusetts, giving to this place the name of Plymouth, in memory of the last Eng- lish port at which they touched. In the same year Charles granted the cliarter which established the colony of Massachusetts. With Spain in 1025. With France, 1625-27, for the relief of the Huguenots at Rochelle. Wars. . . . * . . This expedition resulted in a disastrous fail- ure. Siege of Rochelle, October, 1027. Peace with France 1()30. With his subjects: Battle of Edgehill, Warwickshire, October 23, 1012, the first between the forces of Charles and the Par- amentarians, or Roundheads, Avlien great numbers fell on either side, and both parties claimed the victory. Battle of Chalgrove Field, near Oxford, June 18, 1043. Battle of Atherton Moor, near Bradford, June 30, 1043. Battle of Lansdown, Somersetshire, July 5, 10)43. Battle of Newbury, Berkshire, September 20, 1043. The King was present in these two battles. Battle of Marston Moor, Yorkshire, July 2, 1044. By this fight the scale was turned decisively against HOUSE OF STUART. 175 the King and the Cavalier party. Oliver Cromwell was the principal leader of the Parliamentarian army, which included 21,000 Scots. Battle of Naseby, Northamptonshire, June 14, 1645. This was the last of the battles fought by the Royalists for Charles. Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, Marshal and Noted patron of arts, acquirer of the Arundel Persons. marbles, *1580-1646; AVilliam Laud, Arch- bishop of Canterbury (1633), 1573-1645; Thomas Wentworth, Earl of StrafPord, 1593-1641; John Hampden, patriot, 1594-1643; John Selden, states- man and archaeologist, 1584-1654; Sir Edward Coke, Lord Chief Justice, 1549-1634; Oliver Cromwell, 1599-1658 ; Lucius Cary, Viscount Falkland, Secre- tary of State, 1610-1643; Prince Rupert, 1619-1682; Isaac Walton, 1598-1683; "Ben" Jonson, poet laureate and dramatist, 1574-1637; Sir W. Davenant, dramatist, 1605-1668; John Digby, Earl of Bristol, 1580-1653; Francis Quarles, 1592-1644; Joseph Hall, Bishop of Exeter, 1629, of Norwich, 1641, 1574-1656. The ministers of Charles I. were, in 1625, George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham ; in 1()28, Earl of Port- land and Archbishop Laud; in 1640, Archbishop Laud, Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Straiford, and Lord Cottington ; in 1641, Lucius Cary, Viscount Falkland, and John Digby, Earl of Bristol. 1^Q ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. THE COMMONWEALTH. 1649 — 1G53. Immediately after the execution of Charles, the House of Commons passed a statute dissolving the Constitution both civil and ecclesiastical. A few weeks afterward they abolished the House of Lords. England was now governed by a Council of State, of which John Bradshaw was president, and John Milton foreign secretary. Fairfax and Cromwell commanded the army. Cromwell, as its real chief, exercised a sway powerful as any monarch. The use of the Eng- lish Church service was forbidden, and the statues of Charles Avere torn down and destroyed. The great seal was broken, and a new one adopted, having a map of the British islands on one side, and on the other a representation of the Commons in session, with the legend, "In the first -year of freedom, by God's blessinij restored, 11)48.'" The new Council was composed of too many ex- tremists, "Levellers," " Comeouters," "Communists," " Adventists," and half crazy fanatics, and therefore lacked the elements of stability. In Ireland, the Ptoyalists had proclaimed Prince Charles King. Cromwell was deputed to reduce that country to order, and with his " Ironsides," descended on the unhappy island " like a whirlwind of fire and slaughter." This war, like that of the ancient Jews, was one of exter- mination, and very few of the devoted Irishmen were left to tell the story. To this day, the direst impre- THE COMMONWEALTH. 177 cation a southern Irishman can utter, is, " the curse of Cromwell on ye." Prince Charles found friends in Scotland, who at- tempted to aid him, under the leadership of the gallant Montrose, but they were defeated, and their leader beheaded. In 1050, a Scottish force under Leslie, was completely routed at Dunbar. Twelve months later was fought the battle of Worcester, where Charles suffered an overwhelming ajid decisive defeat. The Prince escaped into Shropshire, where he hid for a day in an oak at Boscobel. After many hair-breadth escapes he found refuge in France. 178 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. THE PROTECTORATE — OLIVER CROMWELL. 1653 — 1658. Oliver Cromwell was born at Huntingdon, April Birth and '^'^' 1599, and was the son of a private Parentage, gentleman. In 1653, by Act of Parliament, he was made Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland, which position he held until his death. He married Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Marriage. r> t-> • -< > ">/\ James Bouchier, ot Essex, in l()z(). Kichard, born October 1, 1(52(5; Henry; Bridget, married to Henry Ireton, and afterwards to Issue. Lieutenant General Fleetwood; Elizabeth, married to John Claypole; Mary, married to Lord Viscount Faulconbridge ; and Frances, who was mar- ried to Robert Ptich, and subsequently to Sir John Russel. He died of a tertian ague, on the 3rd of Sep- tember, 1()58, the anniversary of his vic- tories at Dunbar and Worcester. He was interred with great magnificence at Westminster. Cromwell's religious enthusiasm combined with a , . strona: intellect, steady courage, and all the Personal Ap- p ' J » ' pearanceand qualities necessary to make a great soldier, rendered him invincible. He prayed with his men before he drilled them, and imparted to them his own valor and trust in a higher Power. After the battle of Marston Moor, when he completely routed Rupert's troopers (July 2, 1644), he wrote, "God THE PROTECTORATE. 179 made them as stubble to our swords." A courtier of that day describes him as plainly dressed, his linen not very clean, with a speck or two upon his little band; his stature of good size; his countenance swol- len and reddish; his voice sharp and untunable, and his eloquence full of fervor. His contemporaries called him " Ironsides," which well expressed his character. April 20, 1G53, the Rump Parliament Avas driven Notable ^^^^ ^^J Cromwoll and his soldiers, who told Events. them, "It is not fit you should sit here any longer. You should give place to better men." Cromwell, as Captain General of the forces, was obliged temporarily to maintain public order, but was thoroughly sustained by the people in expelling the Rump Parliament. " AVe did not hear a dog bark at their going," he said. Eight officers of high rank and four civilians, with Cromwell at the head, were made a provisional Council of State, and by them was assembled the Convention of 150 men, called from one of their numljer, known as Praise-God Barebone, the " Barebone's Parliament." But such were their internal dissensions that in December, 1653, they abdicated and restored to the Lord-General Cromwell, the power received from him, and he was given the title of Lord Protector. A Parliament was con- vened again in 1654, which consisted of 400 members from England, 30 from Scotland, and 30 from Ireland. Cromwell announced that no member should be suffered to enter the house without signing an engage- ment not to alter the government, as it is settled in 180 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. a single person and a parliament. Only one Inm- dred members refnsed to sign, but as the House disputed his authority and hotly contested the ques- tion whether he should have the power of veto, Cromwell dissolved Parliament. Henceforth until his death his reign was substantially a despotism, although his power was wielded witli singular wisdom and success. In IGoC), a Parliament, again convened in Cromweirs interest, .offered him the crown, which lie declined. On June 2(), lODT, the Protector was given power to name his successor, but afterwards the office was to be an elective one. The remainder of his life was memorable in the annals of England on account of his successful European campaign. He was an honest man, a brilliant Christian soldier, and a sincere, strong-minded patriot. Piichard, the eldest son of Oliver, was proclaimed Protector on his father's decease; but he soon signed his abdication, retiring first to the continent and afterwards to his paternal estate at Cheshunt. Ho had no sympathy with the Puritan or so-called " godly party," and such a life as his fathers, from his expe- rience of it, Avas not likely to be congenial to him. He, therefore, joyfully laid down the cares of state, to obtain release from a burden too heavy for him to bear. To the people he was familiarly known as "Tumbledown Dick.'' The nation gave him a moderate pension, and his life though quiet, was far happier than his father's had been. It is said that years after his abdication, he visited Westminster, and THE PROTECTORATE. 181 when the attendant, who did not recognize him, showed him the throne, he exclaimed, "Yes; I have not seen that chair since I sat in it myself in 1G59." He died at Cheshunt July 13, 1712. Eobert Blake, 1599-1657; Sir William Penn, jj^^^^ M. P., 1621-1670; Von Tromp, a Dutch Persons. admiral, 1597-1653; General George Monk, 1608-1670; Charles Fleetwood, died 1692; Sir Harry Vane, statesman, 1612-1662; Edmund Waller, poet, 1605-1687; Abraham Cowley, poet, 1618-1667; Sir John Denham, Irish poet, 1615-1668; Thomas Hobbes, political writer, 1588-1679; Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, 1608-1674, Lord Chancellor and historian; Thomas Otwa}-, dramatist, 1651-1685; Sir W. Dugdale, antiquarian, 1605-lf)86; Thomas Fuller, royalist and biographer, 1608-1661; Sir Matthew Hale, Chief Justice of King's Bench in 1671, 1609- 1676; James Usher, Bishop of Meath in 1621, of Carlisle 1642, historian and chronologer, 1580-1656; Eobert Herrick, poet, 1591-1674; George Fox, a shoemaker, born at Drayton, in Lancashire, 1624- 1690, founder of the sect called Quakers; James Gra- ham, Marquis of Montrose, born 1612, espoused the royal cause, and was hanged and quartered by the Covenanters at Edinburgh in 1650; Jeremiah White, chaplain to Oliver Cromwell, 1629-1707; John Milton, 1608-1674, Avas private secretary to Cromwell, and lived with him at Whitehall during the Protectorate. Among the parliamentary generals were Henry Ireton (son-in-law of the Protector) 1610-1651; Lord Thomas Fairfax, 1611-1671; Sir William Waller, 1597-1668; 182 ENGLAND AND ITS RULEKS. John Harrison, one of the judges of Charles L, and himself executed in 1G60; John Lambert, 1«V20- 1692; Edmund Ludlow, *1620-1G93, one of the judges of Charles I. INTERREGNUM. 183 INTERREGNUM. 1659-1660. Oliver Cromwell was, as already stated, succeeded in office as Protector, by bis eldest sou Eicbard, wbo immediately convened a Parliament, to wbom tbe army presented a petition of remonstrance, demanding tbat some one in wbom tbey bad confidence sbould be put in command. Tbe House, bowever, voted not only tbat tbe remonstrance, but tbe meeting at wbicb it bad been formulated, was unlawful. Notbing could bave been more unfortunate for tbe permanency of tbe government tban tbis. Tbe army at once became a mob, and surrounding Ricbard's bouse, com- pelled bim to dissolve Parliament. Tbis act was soon followed by bis own abdication and tbe resigna- tion of bis brotbcr Henry, tben in command in Ireland. Tbis was tbe beginning of tbe end of tbe " Com- mon Avealtb.'" Tbe army restored tbe Rump Parlia- ment; but wben tbat party in turn endeavored to bum- ble and control tbe army, one of tbose " solemn fasts," wbicb generally preceded or attended eacb overt act, took place, and tbe army again rose and proceeded to elect a committee of twenty-tbree persons, seven of wbom were military men, and the remainder were loyal to tbe army. Tbis committee was invested witb sovereign power, and immediately establisbed a mili- tary government, wbicb gave every promise of being more tyrannical to tbe people tban any wbicb bad 184 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. preceded it, and with less prospect of any redress for grievances, Jolm Lambert, a parliamentary officer, being one of its leading spirits. General George Monk (Earl of Albermarle), also a parliamentary general, a man of undoubted courage and ability, at once rose to the gravity of the situa- tion and placing himself at the head of an army of eight thousand A'eteran soldiers, marched from Scot- land to London. Everywhere, while en route, the gen- try flocked round him, expressing their desire for a new Parliament; but Monk was taciturn, reticent and non-committal. Meanwhile, after arriving in Lon- don, he succeeded in restoring a certain degree of order and securing the presence in Parliament of some expelled members; a renewal and enlargement of his own commission from that body and its dissolution after arranjjfinj' for callin 1 Edward, Duke of Kent; Ernest, Duke of Cumberland; Augustus, Duke of Sussex; Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge; and Octavius and Alfred who died young. The daughters were Charlotte, Queen of AVurtemburg; Augusta Sophia; Elizabeth, married to the Prince of Hesse Homberg; Mary, married to her cousin, the Duke of Gloucester; Sophia and Amelia. After a protracted mental affliction, he expired at Windsor, January 29, 1820, and was Death. , , •' buried in St. George's chapel. Clear of purpose and obstinate in the pursuit of it; Personal ^^^^^ wretcliedly educated, and without great Appearance natural powers ; a good father and husband, he had no qualities to make a great monarch. He resolved to govern, freed from the dictation of parliaments and councils, and to be himself the first minister of the State. He employed for that end all 236 ENGLAND AND ITS IIULEES. the power, patronage and influence of the crown. Bribery was recklessly employed. Under Bute's min- istry, an office Avas opened at the Treasury, for the purchase of members, and twenty -five thousand pounds are said to have been disbursed for that purpose in a single day. The combination of Aveakness, pride, sel- fishness and ambition in this monarch was an incubus on the progress and strength of the realm, which flourished, however, in spite of it. His favorite policy is said to have been, "government for, Imt never by, the people." George was a fine looking man, rather above the ordinary size, Avitli a pleasant face and dignified manners. His reign extended over a period of sixty years, and he attained an age seldom before vouchsafed to any monarch, being, Avhen he died, eighty-two years of age. During liis sovereignty England lost her posses- Notabio sions in America; but the victories of Gib- Events, raltar and Trafalgar, and the still greater victory of Waterloo, make the reign illustrious. The national debt became, in consequence of the great wars, so large as to render the burden of taxation almost intolerable. The two greatest reforms of the period Avere, first, the abolition of the slave-trade in 1807, and the mitigation to some extent of the laAvs punish- ing debt and crime. The application of steam as a motor for manufacturing purposes and navigation, was introduced. Through the influence of John Wilkes, and the author of the famous letters of Junius (supposed to be Sir Philip Francis), the element of secrecy began HOUSE OF HANOVER. 237 to be removed from the sessioiis of Parliament, and the freedom of the press recognized. In 1768, AVilkes was returned as a member of Parliament from Mid- dlesex, but as he had published a severe attack on the government in the " North Briton " newspaper, he was declared disqualified, and not permitted to take his seat. Four consecutive times he was returned, but Colonel Luttrell, who had not one fourth of his vote, was as often allowed to exclude him. This course of action made Wilkes a popular favorite, and gave to his utterances on behalf of reform great weight. From the accession of the Georges, imperfect reports of the proceedings of Parliament Avere made pul)lic until in 1771, the Commons issued a procla- mation forbidding the publication of debates, and six printers who defied it Avere brought before the House. The magistrates of London disregarded the procla- mation, and released the printers. Thereupon the Lord Mayor of London Avas sent to the ToAver, but so overpoAvering was the outburst of public indignation, that he Avas soon released, and thereafter no attempt made to hinder the publication of Parliamentary proceedings. The importance of this change gave a poAver to the press which had never before existed, and the first great English journals, the Mornino- Chronicle, the Morning Post, the Morning Herald and the Times, became a power stronger than Parlia- ment to form and control public opinion. In 1780, there occurred fearful anti- Catholic riots, in which a mob burned the Koman Catholic chapels, broke open prisons, and committed other unlawful 238 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. acts. Many of the rioters were hanged; and Lord George Gordon, the leader of the mob, was tried but acquitted on the ground of insanity. Lunardi, ascended in a balloon, being the first at- tempt of the kind in England, on September 15, 1784. In 1788 the King became insane. In the same year the celebrated trial of Warren Hastings began. He was tried for alleged crimes while Governor of India. The trial was adjourned from time to time until the year 1794, when ho was acquitted. The following newspapers were begun: The Morn- ing Chronicle, in 1770; the Times, in 1788; and the Sun, in 1792. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded in 1768. The Linnean Society founded in 1788, was chartered in 1802. In 1797, the Bank of England suspended cash pay- ments, issuing notes of one pound and two pounds each. The Bank did not resume cash payments until an act was passed and provision made therefor, twenty- three years afterwards. Illuminating gas was introduced in Cornwall, 1792. HigliAvay robberies Avere very frequent during this reign, and many persons suffered death from hanging, the death penalty being imposed for trivial offenses. Fifteen persons expiated their crimes on the gal- lows in a single day, on the Ifith of June, 1785. Macklin, the dramatist, died in 1797, aged one hun- dred and seven years. In the dealings of Great Britain with America, the want of wisdom in the King was obvious. The HOUSE OF HANOVER. 239 colonies were unwilling to be taxed without repre- sentation. Their claims had been recognized as just; and all duties except that on tea had been abandoned. In 1773, some English ships laden Avith tea arrived in the port of Boston. A mob, disguised as Indians, boarded the vessels and flung the contents into the sea. Although the act was regretted by Americans, the King resolved to use it as a pretext for rigorous measures. The port of Boston was closed against all commerce, and the State of Massachusetts punished by having its charter revoked, and its government transferred to officers appointed by the Crown. Pro- vision, too, was made for sending those engaged " in the late disturbance " to England for trial, and Gene- ral Gage was appointed Governor of the State. Lord Chatham, and the leading merchants of London and Bristol, aided by the masterly eloquence of Edmund Bui'ke, pleaded earnestly for conciliation and a repeal of the obnoxious measures, but the King was firm, and thereupon began the great revolutionary struggle, which ended eight years later, in the independence of the United States of America. Edmund Burke, Charles James Fox and William Pitt, eminent not more for their exalted statesmanship and patriotism than for the absolute stainlessness and uprightness of their lives, by their ability, eloquence and learning, made Parliamentary debates at this time so notable. Their love of England was their life, and showed itself in constant efforts for her development and growth, which were too often thwarted by the narrow and selfish ambition of the 240 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. King. The bench also attained eminence during this reign through Lord Mansfield and other learned judges, and perfected that jurisprudence which now so thoroughly protects the rights of Englishruen. Through the influence of Pitt, a union w^as effected in July, 1800, between England and Ireland, wdiereby one hundred Irish representatives were added to the English House of Commons, and 32 Irish peers (twenty-eight temporal and four spiritual) to the House of Lords. Commerce between the two coun- tries was freed from all restriction, and every trading privilege of the one thrown open to the other; while taxation was proportionately distributed between the two peoples. Pitt also desired to remove all religious tests, and to give to religionists of all kinds equal rights: but the plan was too advanced, and enmity toward the Roman Catholics too strong, to permit its adoption; consequently Pitt resigned in June, 1801. In 1805, Napoleon I., Emperor of France, planned the destructioji of the English fleet, confident that the control of the English Channel would give him the mastery of the world. But on the 21st of October, 1805, off Cape Trafalgar, the English fleet under Lord Nelson, who gave as his last famous signal, " Eng- land expects every man to do his duty," attacked the French fleet and, at the cost of his own life, gained the brilliant victory which saved England from attempted invasion. The last public words of Pitt, speaking of this triumph, were, " England has saved herself by her courage, she Avill save Europe by her example." HOUSE OF HANOYER. 241 The publication of the Edinburgh Keview was begun in 1802, as the exponent of Whig principles. England claimed the right to search American ships, and to seize English seamen found therein. The enforcement of this claim had resulted in great abuses, and led to a declaration of war by the United States against Great Britain, in 1812. The former was suc- cessful in two naval engagements, and in the follow- ing year, 1813, the American forces cleared Lake On- tario, captured Toronto, destroyed the British flotilla on Lake Erie, and mastered Upper Canada. In 1814, General Ross, with 4,000 troops, captured Washing- ton, and destroyed its public buildings. A force of nine thousand veterans in vain assailed Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain; and General Jackson overcame a force under General Pakenham, which sought the capture of New Orleans, and lost half its numbers. By this time both countries were anxious for peace, and the treaty of 1814, settled the dispute. Admirals John Byron, Wallis, Captain Sir George Carteret, and Captain James Cook, successively, sailed around the world. The national debt in 1815, had increased to £860,- 000,000. The Prince of Wales, in consequence of the men- tal alienation of his father, was made Regent in 1811. Telegraphing by signals was first used by the Eng- lish. Prime Minister Perceval was shot, by a maniac named Bellingliam, in May, 1812. The allied sove- reigns took possession of Paris, when Bonaparte re- tired to Elba, in 1814. Peace was restored to 242 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Europe, and Louis regained the throne of France. The Emperor of Eussia and other potentates visited England, In 1815, Bonaparte landed in France, was defeated at Waterloo, and was banished to the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821. This reign is made illustrious by many remarkable inventions. James Watt made great improvements in steam machinery. James Hargreave, a carpenter, in- vented the spinning jenney. Kichard Arkwright pro- duced the spinning frame, and Mr. Cranipton the power loom used in weaving. The attempt to intro- duce this machinery was at first bitterly opposed by the mechanics as tending to diminish the demand for labor, and occasioned many riots and much destruction of property. The East India trade, which had been in the hands of the East India Company, under Acts of 1773 and 1781, regulating it, was in 1813 opened to English merchants. Gaming was carried on to a frightful extent by persons of every rank. Even AVilber force dealt faro at White's, while Pitt and Lord Chesterfield habitually indulo^ed in jjamblinij. In London the places of amusement were the opera, the theaters, Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens, and the exhibition of the Academy. The fashionable watering- places were Bath, Tunbridge Wells and Margate. W ars. *=" The war with France and Spain contin- ued; Belle Isle, off the coast of France, Pondi- cherry in the East Indies, many of the French West HOUSE OF HANOVER. 243 India islands, Havana in the island of Cuba, Manilla in the Pliillipine islands were surrendered to the British, and the peace which was declared February 10, 17(33, ended the Seven Years War. The American colonies renounced their allegiance. The battles of Lexington April 19, 1775, of Bunker Hill, June 17, 1775, and the attack on Quebec, where General Montgomery fell, December 25, 1775, were followed by many others, the more important being those of White Plains, October 28, and November 30, 1770; of Bennington, August 1777; of the Heights of Saratoga, when Burgoyne was surrounded by an American Force under General Gates and compelled to surrender October 17, 1777 ; Monmouth, June 28, 1778; Camden, August 16, 1780, and April 25, 1781, until on October 19, 1781, General Cornwallis was obliged to surrender at Yorktown. This substantially decided the contest, and the Peace of Paris, Novem- ber 30, 1782, ensued. War with France was declared February 6, 1778, continuing until the Peace of Paris, January 20, 1783. The war with S[)ain, which Avas begun April 17, 1780, also closed January 20, 1783. On December 20, 1780, war with Holland commenced; peace signed September 2, 1783. Lord Bodney gained a victory over the French off Guadaloupe, in the West Lidies, April 12, 1782. The historic and memorable siege of Gibraltar by the Spaniards and French, whose combined armies amounted to over 40,000 men, with 1,000 pieces of artillery, aided by 47 ships of the line, and ten floating 244 ENGLAND AND ITS EULERS. batteries mounting 212 guns, besides gun and mortar boats, were successfully resisted from July, 1779, to February, 1782. The gallant General Eliott was raised to the Peerage as Lord Heathfield, Baron Gibraltar, for his conduct of the defense. The French Revolution occurred in 1789, when Louis XVI. and his queen were beheaded. War was immediately declared by Great Britain, which ended with the battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815. The following are the most important battles of the reign: Battle of the Nile, in Egypt. August 1, 1798. Repulse of Bonaparte at Acre, March 30, 1799. Battle of Alexandria, in Egypt, March 21, 1801. Engagement near Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. Battle of Trafalgar, October 21, 1805. Battle of Maida, Italy, July 0, 1806. Battle of Vimiera, in Portugal, August 21, 1808. Battle of Corunna, in Galieia, January 10, 1809. Battle of Talavera, in Spain, July 28, 1809. Battle of Barossa, near Cadiz, March 5, 1811. Battle of Albuera, near Badajos, May 10, 1811. Battle of Salamanca, Spain, July 22, 1812. Battle of Yittoria. in Biscay, June 21, 1813. ]5attle of Waterloo, near Brussels, June 18, 1815. Bombardment of Algiers, August, 27, 1810. William Pitt, 1759-1806, Edmund Burke, 1730- x<,to.i 1~'^"'' Charles James Fox, 1749-1806, PerM.ns. Richard Brinsley Sheridan, 1751-1816, statesmen; Captain James Cook, 1728-1770, Mungo Park, 1771-1805, celebrated discoverers: HOUSE OF HANOVER. 245 Drs. John Hunter, 1728 - 1793, John Abernethy, 1763 - 1831, noted physicians ; David Hume, 1711-1776, Edward Gibbon, 1737-1794, Dr. Tobias Smollett, 1721-1771, Kobert Henry, 1718-1790, William Eussell, 1741-1793, and William Kobertson, 1721-1793, historians; Sir Francis Chantrey, 1782- 1841, and John Flaxman, E. A., 1754-1826, sculptors; Sir J. F. W. Herschel, 1792-1871, Sir Humphrey Davy, 1778-1829, Charles Hutton, 1737-1823, Joseph Priestley, 1733-1804, Dugald Stewart, 1753-1828, and Sir Thomas Brown, 1778 -1820, philosophers ; Sir Will- iam Blackstone, 1723-1780, jurist; Sir William Jones, 1746-1794, Drs. Samuel Johnson, 1709-1784, Samuel Parr, 1746-1825, Oliver Goldsmith, 1728-1774, Syd- ney Smith, 1771-1845, John Abererombie, 1781-1844, and Duke of BridgeAvater, 1736 - 1803, celebrated writers; William CoAvper, 1731-1800, James Beattie, 1735-1803, Kobert Burns, 1759-1796, Robert Bloom- field, 1766-1823, Henry Kirke White, 1785-1806, Mrs. Barbauld, 1743-1825, Percy Bysshe Shelley, 1792-1822, John Keats, 1795-1821, famous poets; Bishops Porteous, 1731-1808, Newton, 1704-1782, Horsley, 1733-1806, Reginald Heber, 1783-1826, John Whitefield, 1714-1770, Charles Wesley, 1708- 1788, and John AVesley, 1703-1791, prelates and divines; John Howard, 1726-1790, philanthropist; James AVatt, 1736-1819, and John Rennie, 1761-1821, engineers; Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1723-1792, Gains- borough, 1727-1788, painters; David Garrick, 1716- 1779, J. P. Kemble, 1757-1823, Foote, *1720-1777, and Quinn, 1693-1766, actors; Matthew Boulton, 246 ENGLAND AND ITS EULER8. 1728-1809; Lord Kicliard Hill, Commander-in-chief of the army in 1828, 1772-1842. William White- head 1715-1785. Thomas Warton, 1728-1790, and Henry James Pye, 1745-1813, were poets laureate dur- ing this reign. The following were ministers of George III. : In 175, and was the third son of George III. Accession to He was crownod at Westminster, Sep- the Throne, tember 8, 1830. He married Adelaide, daughter of the Duke of ,. . Saxe Coburi^ Meininjjfen, on July 11, 1818, Marriage. '^ » ' J ' ' by whom he had two dauofhters; both died Death. . . p & ' m infan(;y. He died at Windsor, June 20, 1837. „ , , Of medium heiijht, well formed, and Personal Ap- o ' pearanceand with a pleasaiit couiiteiiance. His truthful- Character. 1 P 1 1 T • ness, manly irankness and generous disposi- tion, united with a sincere love of his country, and a HOUSE OF HANOVER. 253 thorough devotion to its interests, won not only the affection of his people, but the respect of posterity. Everything that looked to the advantage of England had his unwavering, steadfast aid and influence. Heal reform found in him a friend and advocate. Soon after William became King, the Duke of Notable Wellington, his Prime Minister, having re- Events, fused all concession to the claims of the reformers, was compelled to resign; and Earl Grey commenced his brilliant administration. Lord John Ilussell in, March, 1831, introduced his Reform Bill, but it was defeated. Earl Grey, in May, 1832, intro- duced his Reform Bill, which was also defeated, but he finally secured the passage of a bill for Parlia- mentary reform June 4, 1832, whereby the right of representation was taken away from fifty-six " rotten boroughs," giving the 113 members so gained, to counties or large towns heretofore unrepresented. The bill also established a ten-pound householder qualifica- tion for voters in boroughs, and extended the county franchise to leaseholders and co[)yliolders. October 18, 1833, Captain Ross returned to Hull, after an absence of four years in search of the North- west Passage. On the resignation of Lord Grey, in 1834, the ministry was reconstructed under the leadership of Viscount Melbourne; and though this administration was soon dismissed by the King, the new election restored a Whig Parliament, and replaced Lord Mel- bourne in ofiice. He ably continued the good work inaugurated by Lord Grey. In 1833, the system of 254 ENGLAND AND ITS KULEES. slavery which still existed in the British colonies, was abolished at a cost of twenty millions sterling, and August 1, 1834, no less than 770,280 slaves became free men. Quite as important were the laws for ameliorating the condition of women, and children of tender years, who had been compelled to work far be- yond their strength in manual employments. This slavery of women and children Avas terminated l)y laws forbidding their employment in collieries and factories. The commercial monopoly of the East India Company was abolished, and the trade with the East thrown open to all merchants. In 1835, the Municipal Corporations Act restored to the inhabitants of towns those rights of self gov- ernment of which they had been deprived since the fourteenth century. 1834 saw a system of national education inaugu- rated, by an annual grant, devoted to the erection of schools, which was the foundation of the present free- school system in England. The first electric telegraph was established from Paddington to Brayton, in 1835. The new London Bridge was opened by the King in person, August 1, 1831. The government School of Design was founded in 1837. The first lucifer match was made in 1829. Both Houses of Parliament Avere destroyed by fire which broke out early in the evening of October IG, 1834, and continued with great violence during the night, and was only extinguished after the lapse of several days. This reign was remarkable for the entire absence HOUSE OF HANOVER. 255 of war. A railway from Liverpool to Manches- ter, was constructed in 1830, by that eminent engineer George Stephenson. The motive power was his new locomotive, " The Rocket," which first introduced the tubular boiler, and employed the exhaust, or escaping steam, to increase the draft of the fire. Five ySars after, all the prominent commercial cities were united by steam railroads; while steam navigation had doubled the vessels and tonnage of the country. John Loudon Mac A dam, a Scotch surveyor, con- structed in the south of England a number of very superior roads, made of gravel and broken stone. His process soon extended over the civilized world, and " macadamized " highways are now known everywhere. George John, Earl Spencer, 1758-1834; James Noted Saumerez, 1757-1830, Viscount Keith, 1746- Persons. 1823, Viscouut Exmoutli, 1757-1833, ad- mirals; Lord John Shore Teignmouth, 1751-1834, Gov- ernor-General of India; Sir John Malcolm, 1769- 1833 ; John Scott, Earl of Eldon, Lord Chancellor, 1751- 1838; Sir James Mackintosh, 1765-1832; William Wilberforce, 1759-1833; Thomas Stothard, R. A., 1755-1834, historical painter; Mrs. Siddons, 1755- 1831, Edmund Kean, 1787-1833, tragedians; Mrs. Hannah More, 1745 - 1833, Lord Ager Ellis Dover, 1797 - 1833, Charles Lamb, 1775 - 1834, Samuel Tay- lor Coleridge, 1772-1834, George Crabbe, 1754- 1832, James Hogg, 1772-1835, Miss Landon, " L. E. L.," 1802-1838, Mrs. Hemans, 1794-1835, authors James Smith, 1775-1839, humorist; William God- win, 1756-1836, John Gait, 1779-1839, Jeremy 250 ENGLAND AND ITS UULERS. Bentliam, 1748-1832, literateurs ; 8ir Astley Paston Cooper, 1708-1841, physician; Adelaide, wife of William IV., 1792-1849; John Loudon MacAdam, improver of road^vays, 1756-1836. The following were the Ministers of William IV. On accession the Duke of Wellington and his Cabinet continued. November 22, 1830, Earl Grey, Viscounts Althor[), Melbourne, Goderich and Palmerston, Mar- quis of Lansdowne, Lord Holland, Lord Auckland and Sir James Graham. Earl Grey resigned May 9, but resumed office May 18, 1832. July 14, 1834, Vis- counts Melbourne, Althorp, Palmerston and Duncan- non. Lord John Russell, Sir John Cam Hobhouse, Lord Howick, Messrs. Rice and Thomson. November 14, 1834, Viscount Melbourne's ministry was defeated and the Duke of Wellington acted awaiting the return of Sir Robert Peel, then in Italy, who, on December 14, 1834, took office with the Duke of Wellington, Lord Lyndhurst, the Earl of Aberdeen, Lords Ellen- borough, Rosslyn and Wharnclitfe, Sir George Murray, Messrs. Baring, Harris and Goulburn, as members of his Cabinet. April 18, 1835, Viscount Melbourne resumed office with his Cabinet of July 14, 1834. HOUSE OF HANOVER. 257 VICTORIA. From June 20, 1837. In portraying the events of Queen Victoria's reign, one most pleasant to study and contemplate, we pic- ture a jieriod renowned for the victories of war, but even more for those of peace. The Princess Alexandriiia Victoria, was the only child of Edward, Duke of Kent, the most Lineage, Birth and esteemed of the sons of George III., and his wife, Mary Louisa Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Saxe Coburg Saalfeld, widow of Henrich Charles, Prince of Leiningen, and sister of Prince Leopold. The " H®pe of Great Britain" was born at Ken- sington Palace, May 24, 1819, at four o'clock A. M., and an hour after, was presented to the Privy Coun- cillors and Ministers of State, who were in waiting in the adjoining room. These were the Duke of Sussex, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Duke of Welling- ton, the Marquis of Lansdowne, Earl Bathurst, the Bishop of London, and Bt. Hon. George Canning, soon to become Prime Minister. The royal infant Avas of illustrious ancestry, and her descent is clearly traceable through the Guelphs, the Stuarts, the Tu- dors, the Plantagenets, the Normans and Saxons, to Alfred the Great, and Egbert, first sole monarch of England. She was baptized, with much splendor, in the grand salon of Kensington Palace, June 24, 1819, by the 258 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Archbishop of Canterbury, and christened Alexaudrina Victoria. She was happy in the love of her mother, the Duchess of Kent, who became a widow in February, 1820. By this wise mother, with whom she lived at Kensington Palace, she Avas inured to simple and regu- lar habits. She breakfasted at eight, had luncheon at two, and after an early dinner, retired to rest at nine. She was trained to obey those laws which give a sound niiiid to a sound body. She became not only profi- cient in dancing, music and drawing, but also a good French, German and Latin scholar, Avith some knowl- edge of Greek and Italian ; and very important also, she was instructed in the art of good housekeeping. Her travels through England were extensive, and she gained thereby culture, manners, as well as a knowledge of the country. One who saw her in youth, says she had a clear, open face, fair hair, can- did blue eyes, frank lips, and white pearly teeth. May 24, 1837, she attained her legal majority, and Accession to as slio had already won the affections of the Inditr*^'"'' English people, the day was everywhere Incidents. observed with joy and festivity. June 20, 1837, King William died, and at five in the morning it was announced to the waiting Princess, that she was Queen of Great Britain. The solemn sense of responsibility for a moment overcame her, but she soon rallied. The next day she met the Privy Council, took the usual oath, and delivered her first State utterance, Avhicli concluded with the promise, ever sacredly kept, that she would " steadily HOUSE or HANOVER. 259 protect the rights, and [)r()inote to the utmost of her power the happiness and welfare of all classes of her subjects." The Queen, in first signing her name as sovereign, simply wrote the word " Victoria.'" The designation then assumed, she has since retained, and has made it respected throughout the world. By the operation of the Salic law, the Kingdom of Hanover, after the lapse of many years, now became separated from that of Great Britain, and the Duke of Cumber- land succeeded to the throne of the former. Victoria's formal proclamation as Queen of Eng- land, was made in the court-yard of St. James Palace, June 21, 1837. November 20, 1837, the Queen opened her first Parliament, which voted her the yearly sum of three hundred and eighty-five thousand i)ounds for the sup- port of herself and family. June 28, 1838, she was crowned at Westminster Abbey, Avith great j)onip and splendor, and with evidences of popular devotion never before equalled. Tickets of admission to the Abbey sold for twenty guineas each; and well they might, for the venerable structure had never wit- nessed a more impressive ceremony. After the usual religious rite, the oath was administered by the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, and her Majesty, laying her right hand upon the Gospels said, kneeling, " The things which I have heretofore promised, I will per- form and keep, so help me God." Then followed the usual anointing; the Queen sitting in the famous chair of King Edward the Confessor, the Archbishop anointing her hands and head, and using the cus- 260 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS, tomary formula, "Be thou anointed with holy oil as kings, priests and prophets were of old anointed!" The Archbishop having then consecrated and blessed the crown, placed it on the royal head. The enthron- ing and homage followed, completing thus the most imposing coronation of which history gives us any record. The ruby worn in the helmet of Henry V., at the battle of Agincourt, of priceless value, enriched the croAvn, while the value of the other precious stones which adorned it was one hundred and twelve thousand seven hundred and sixty pounds. Victoria's character has been one eminently befitting a Christian monarch. Her reliijion, broad ( baracter. _ _ ^ _ tolerant, and rooted in charity, has impelled her always to seek the welfare of her subjects. She has ever had " a tear for pity, a hand open as day for melting charity.'" Tempering justice Avith mercy, she has feared nothing so much as to inflict an injury. It may be said of her, that nothing relating to England's meanest subject has been unin- teresting to her. February 10, 1840, she married Prince Albert, second son of Ernest I., Duke of Saxe- Marriage. Coburg, and of the Princess Louise, daugh- ter of the Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg. He was born at the Rosenau, near Coburg, August 24, 1819, being therefore just three months younger than the Queen. He was tall, with a well-developed and manly figure, a countenance most engaging, a broad, expansive forehead, auburn hair and blue eyes. He proved a sterling acquisition to the nation, as well as HOUSE OF HANOVER. 201 to the Queen. Integrity and rigliteonsness Avere liis sword and shield, while fidelity to his high trust made him always a favorite with the English people, and esteemed everywhere. Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, born November 21, 1840; Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, November 9, 1841; Alice Maude Mary, April 25, 1843; Alfred Ernest Albert, August 0, 1844; Helena Augusta Victoria, May 25, 184G; Louisa Caroline Alberta, March 18, 1848; Arthur William Patrick Albert,' May 1, 1850; Leopold George Duncan Albert, April 7, 1853; and Beatrice, April 14th, 1857. In 1839, was established the uniform penny post, Notable wliicli increased the number of letters Events. transmitted from 75,000,000 to 380,000,000. The author of this plan Avas Mr. Rowland Hill. A partial system of |)enny postage existed in 1081, but in 1794, the rate was increased to twopence. A few months after the Queen's marriage, when driving with her husband up Constitution Hill, a youth named Edward Oxford, twice discharged a pistol at her, but fortunately, neither shot took effect. He was arrested and proved insane. This was the first of many similar efforts, which only a Divine shield seems to have rendered futile. November 9, 1841, the Prince of Wales was born. The tidings of his birth, gladdened the hearts of Eng- lishmen everywhere. But joy was soon changed to sorrow by the news of the disasters in Afghanistan, the fatal march from Cabul, and the loss of the army in Khyber Pass. Subsequently Sindh, and 202 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. ai'terwai'tls the Piiujaul), ;uul the Kingdom of Oudh, were added to British India. In 1840, the work of rebuilding the Houses of Parliament was begun under the supervision of Charles Barrj, architect. They were not, however, fully completed until the winter of 1852-3. In August, iSll, Lord Melbourne, the Queen's favorite minister, went out of office, aiul was succeeded by Sir Robert Peel. During his administration many oppressive duties Avere abolished, and an Income Tax imposed. In Ireland O'Connell, cliarged Avitli sedition, was convicted, and Avhile he was soon after released, never regained his infliience. The Thames tunnel, commenced in 1825 under the direction of Sir I. Brunei, was completed August 12, 1841, and Avas opened throughout for foot })assengers, March 25, 1843. Its total cost was £()30,000. In 1S42, there Avas much suffering in England, Avitli rioting in the mining districts, occa- sioned by the duties on imported breadstuffs, which enhanced the price of the necessaries of life, leading ultimately to the abolition of all duties thereon. October 28, 1844, the Queen opened the ncAvly rebuilt Royal Exchange, which bears on its facade the inscription suggested by Prince Albert, " The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof." Sir Ilol)ert Peel and Lord Aberdeen resigned in July, 184(). Lord John Ptussell succeeded Peel as Prime Minister, and under his administration the principle of free trade prevailed generally in every department of British commerce except as to wine, HOUSE OF HANOVER. 263 spirits and tobacco. These, as Napoleon said, have broad backs and can comfortably carry the heaviest taxes. In July, 1847, the Prince Consort Avas installed as Chancellor of Cambridge University, in a brilliant manner Avorthy of tJiat venerable institution. The year 1848, was one of revolution in France. King Louis Philippe was deposed and tied, February 24, to England, and a republic was proclaimed, of which Louis Napoleon was made President. It was only through the consummate wisdom and con- stant labor of Victoria's ministers, that England pre- served herself, during this fearful revolution, from war and insurrection. No fewer than 28,000 dis- patches were sent out this year from tlie foreign office alone. In September, 1848, her Majesty made her first visit to Balmoral, which has since been her favorite abode. During this year, also, died Lord Melbourne, the Queen's honored friend and adviser, and her main- stay during the first two and a half years of her reign. In 1849, the objioxious Corn laws Avere finallv repealed. September 24, 1850, Pius IX., issued a "letter apostolic," re-establishing the Eoman Catholic hier- archy in England, and September 30, raised JoLn Henry NoAvman to the dignity of Cardinal. This action created great excitement throughout the h'lnd, but such Avas the advance in public sentiment, that it soon subsided, and the Roman Catholic Church has ever since had a steady growth. 264 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS, In 1850, occurred the death of Sir Robert Peel, and Louis Philippe. May 1, 1851, the Queen, Avith splendid pomp, opened the Great Industrial Exhibition in Hyde Park, London. This Avas a grand success, and reflected much credit on its originator, Prince Albert, to whose courteous and constant attention, as Avell as that of the Queen, it Avas largely due. England achieA^ed for science and art, in this exhibition, a triumph greater than she had ever gained from the laurels of Avar, and men to-day recalling it, are filled Avith Avonder. The exhibition Avas A'isited by more than six million people, and lasted 188 days. The roof alone contained seventeen acres of glass. The materials of th(^ building Avere sold, for £17,000, in the latter part of 1851, to the Crystal Palace Company, Avhicli at once proceeded to erect the present gigantic structure at Syden- ham, Surrey, It is designed as a place of pernjanent recreation for the citizens of Ijondou, not only exceeding the former palace in size and beauty, l>ut being surrounded by gardens and promenades and adorned by the finest fountfuns in England. In the fall of 1852, died England's greatest hero, the Duke of Wellington, Avhose mastery of tiie art of Avar makes him facile princcps, among the great Avar- riors of England. This year a slight earthquake shock Avas felt in England. History records no less than 255 earthquakes in the country. In March, 1854, England declared Avar against Russia in the interest of Turkey, and of Europe generally. Under the pretence of protecting Christi- HOUSE OF HANOVER. 265 anity in Turkey, Emperor Nicholas laid claim to the allegiance of two-thirds of the Turkish people; the difference which had arisen between the Greek and Latin Churches as to the control of the holy places in Palestine, lying behind this, as a moving cause, England and France joined in resisting the claims of Russia. The fall of Sebastapol was followed by the Treaty of Paris, March 30, 1850, ending what is known in history as the Crimean War. In this campaign Florence Nightingale made herself im- mortal as a minister of love, who, with a devoted band of nurses, did so much to alleviate the extreme sufferings of the British soldiers. England, in 1857, was shocked by the terrible mutiny which broke out at Meerut, India. Delhi was taken, and its capture was folloAved by the horrible massacre of Cawnpore, by Nana Sahib, Avhicli at- tended the mutiny of the Sepoys. Eventually, Luck- now Avas relieved by General Havelock, and the mutiny suppressed by Lord Clyde. In 1858 the East India Company was dissolved, and the government of India transferred directly to the English crown. January 25, 1858, the Princess Royal became the wife of Frederick William of Prussia. In 1859, an uneasy feeling having arisen as to France, volunteer forces were organized, and on June 23, 1860, her Majesty held the first volunteer review at Hyde Park. Twenty thousand volunteers were on the ground; and a similar grand display of Scottish volunteers was reviewed by her soon after, at Queen's Park, Edinburgh. 200 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS, The policy of Lord Palinerston, Avliicli has been described as one of masterly inactivity, was certainly wise. His whole energies were successfnlly directed to preserving the peace of the nation, and preventing entanglement in the strifes which agitated Europe and convulsed America. In preserving a calm temper amid many irritations, he doubtless promoted the wel- fare of the nation by saving it from waste of life and treasure, always an incident of war. The honored Duchess of Kent died in March, 1861, tenderly loved and cared for to the last by her royal daughter. But a greater affliction was in store for Queen Victoria and England. Oji December 14, 1861, the Prince Consort passed away. The nation mourned for him, as for a personal friend, and his death touched the hearts of Englishmen and Americans alike. His blameless life, lit up with so inucli of for- bearance, integrity, and loving sympatliy, had en- deared him to all who came under his influence. July 1, 186'i. Princess Alice was mariied to Prince Louis of Hesse Darmstadt. March 10, 1863, the Prince of Wales was married to the Princess Alexandra, of Denmark, in St. George's Chapel, Windsor. Americans will never forget the touching letter written by the Queen to Mrs. Lincoln, after the as- sassination of her husband, the great President, April 15, 1865. It came home to every American's heart, and will be always cherished with love, as a polished link in the chain which binds the two great English- speaking nations. HOUSE OF HANOVER. 267 In the autumn of 1SG5, Lord Palmerston died, and on the 9th day of December, the Queen's uncle, King Leopold, also died. The first session of the seventh Parliament was opened February T), 18()(). In March was instituted tlie Albert medal for the saving of life at sea. The Abyssinian war, caused by the ill treatment of British subjects by Theodore, King of Abyssinia, in- duced the sending of forces from Bombay, under the command of Sir Robert Napier, to obtain redress. April 13, 1808, Magdala, Theodore's fortress, was stormed, the King killed, his troops utterly routed, and his fortress razed to the ground. Sir Robert Napier's signal success in this enterprise raised him to the peerage, with the title of Lord Napier of Magdala. In May, 18(')8, was laid the foundation of St. Thomas' Hospital. The Holborn viaduct was opened November (3, 18t)9, and the next year the new build- ings for the University of London. In 18G8, Mr. Gladstone became Prime Minister, and iinder his administration many important reforms were instituted. The claims of the non-conformists were conceded in 18G8, in the abolition of compul- sory church rates, and in 1871, by the abrogation of all reliijrious tests for admission to office, or degrees in the universities. The Franco-German war, resulting in the utter ruin of the Imperial regime in France, broke out in 1870. The plan of the army was entirely reorganized, and the system of promotion by purchase ended in 1871. In 1872, a measure was passed Avliich 268 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. secured secrecy in votiug. In tlie year 1876, was passed the act known as the "Royal Titles Act," by which the title of Empress of India Avas conferred on Queen Victoria. Lord Beaconsfield was, from the commencement of his political career, a favorite with the Queen — one wdiom she delighted to honor. Her thorough a})preciation of his eminent servi- ces, is shown by the fact, that soon after his death, which occurred April 19, 1881, she caused to be placed in Hughenden Chapel, a monument with an inscrip- tion, whose concluding words are, "erected by his grateful and affectionate sovereign and friend, Victoria R. I. Kings love him that speaketh right." His motto, "Peace with honor," well illustrates the policy of his ministry. Oil December 14, 1878, the anniversary of her father's death, the lamented Princess Alice died. The famous obelisk, Cleopatra's needle, was brought by steamer from Alexandria, and set up at Westminster, January 26, 1878. In A[)ril, 1S82. an attempt was made on the Queen's life at Windsor, by one Roderick Maclean. He Avas tried, convicted, and sentenced to be confined during her Majesty's pleasure. In 1885, occurred the annexation of Burmah. In 1886, the Royal Hollo- Avay College, for the education of women, Avas opened by the Queen ; and the great Colonial and Indian Ex- hibition, one of the greatest the AvorJd has eA^er seen, gigantic both as to space and the character of its pro- ducts, was held at Queensland. Early in 1887, upper Burmah, Avhich had long HOUSE OF HANOVER. 269 been in a state of revolt, was completely subdued by the English army under Sir Frederick Eoberts. During the same year, Americans exhibited an im- mense collection of their national productions at West Kensington, covering an area of about twenty-four acres. The year 1887, being the fiftieth anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession to the throne, was cele- brated throughout the British Empire as a Jubilee year. It began in India on February lOtli, with great pomp and ceremony, accom|)aniod by the release of a large number of civil and military prisoners. On June 21, the Queen, with her children and grand- children, attended a sjjecial Jubilee service at AVest- minster Abbey. Many foreign sovereigns were pres- ent or ^Vere represented by special envoys, and the day Avas given np to national rejoicing. A " double-florin," and other special Jubilee coins, were struck ofp at the mint, and at night, beacon lights upon the headlands from Shetland and Orkney to Lands End, were simultaneously fired. On the 29th of the same month, the Queen paid a visit to Kensing- ton Palace, where she was born, and Avhere she re- ceived the news of her accession. March 29, 1887, the five hundredth anniversary of the laying of the first stone for AYinchester Col- lege, was celebrated with great enthusiasm. The Crimes Bill (Ireland) excited great atten- tion. April 11, 1887, a mass-meeting of 150,000 peo- ple assembling in Hyde Park to oppose the measure. Similar meeetings were held in many parts of Eng- 270 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. land and Scotland, but on June 17, it was reported to the House of Commons, and finally passed August 11, 1888. August 9, 1887, the five hundredth anni- versary of the birth of Henry V. was specially celebrated at Monmouth, the distinguishing feature being the ringing of the bells of St. Mary's Church, which King Henry V. originally brought over from France. The final ceremonial of this Jubilee year took place in December, when a special envoy was sent by the Queen to the Vatican, to congratulate the Pope upon his Jubilee. This is the first instance since 1G89, when Lord Castlem.aine represented James II., in a similar capacity. In February, 1888, the Fisheries treaty was finally agreed upon and signed by tlie United States and England. The historic Temple Bar, which some years before had been removed fi'om Fleet street as an obstruction to traffic, was set up as the gateway at the entrance of the park at Theobald, a residence made famous by James I., and his wife. The most noted event in })(jlitics of 1889, was the defeat in the House of Commons of the bill to abolish hereditary legislation. On October 14, ls89, Mans- field College, the first non-conformist college at Ox- ford, was opened with Dr. Fairbairn as principal. A charter was granted this year to the British South African Company. The Shah of Persia also visited England. In 1890, was celebrated the semi-centennial of the "penny post." June 23rd, Albert Victor, son of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, and heir apparent HOUSE OF HANOVER. 271 to tlie throne, was created Duke of Clarence and Avondale, and took his seat in the House of Lords. In January, 1891, postage to India was reduced from five pence to two pence half-penny, large reduc- tions being at the same time made to many colonial points. The greatest exhibition of the naval power of England ever made, took place this year at Ports- mouth, in presence of the Queen and the Emperor of Germany. A remarkable interchange of courtesies took place at Portsmouth, in August, 1891, when the English fleet entertained a squadron of the French navy, in return for the attention shown to English men-of-war during the previous year at Toulon. Charles Dickens, 1812-1870, William Makepeace Noted Thackeray, 1811 - 18G3, Charlotte Bronte Persons. (^Curvev Bcll) 1816-1855, Anne Bronte {Adon Bell) *1820-1849, Emily Jane Bronte {Ellis Bell) *1818-1848, Marian C. Evans {George EViot) *1820-1880, Edmund H. Yates, born 1831, William Black, born IS-tl, novelists; Thomas Babington Ma- caulay, 1800-1859, Thomas Carlyle, 1795-1881, essay- ists and historians; Sir Charles Edward Trevelyan, 1807-1880, Andrew Lang, born 1844, Edmund W. Gosse, born 1849, Isaac Disraeli, 17G6-1848, eminent writers; William E. Gladstone, born 1809, Benjamin ])israeli, Earl of Beaconsfield, 1805-1881, statesmen; Alfred Tennyson, born 1809, Matthew Arnold, 1822- 1888, H. A. Dobson, born 1840, poets; Charles R. Darwin, 1809-1882, Thomas H. Huxley, born 1825, Herbert Spencer, born 1820, scientists; Canon H. P. 272 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Liddon, 1830-1800, Charles H. Spurgeon, 1834-1892, divines; Sir David Wilkie, R. A., 1785-18-11, painter; Dr. Thomas Arnold, 1795 - 1842, teacher and histo- rian; Theodore Edward Hooke, 1788-1841, journalist; Wm. Coke, Earl of Leicester, 1757 - 1839, agricul- turist; AVilliam Beckford, 1700-1844, author; Rich- ard Grosvenor, Marquis of AVestminster, 1795-1869, statesman; Robert Southey, 1774-1843, poet laureate; J. Foster, 1770"-1843, essayist; Thomas Campl)ell, 1777 —1844, poet and originator of the London University; Thomas Hood, 1798-1845, humorist and poet; George Craikshank, 1792-1878, humorous designer and illus- trator; John C. Loudon, 1783-1843, botanist; John Dalton, 170(5-1844, chemist and meteorologist; Sir Augustus W. Callcott, R. A., 1779-1844, landscape and marine painter; Sir Robert Smirke, R. A., 1780- 1867, architect; Robert Smirke, 1752-1845, artist; Mrs. Elizabeth Fry, 1780-1845, philanthropist; Thomas Clarkson, 1760-1846, philanthropist; Ben- jamin Robert Haydon, R. A., 1786-184(), portrait painter; Dr. John Bostock, 1774-1846, physicist; George Byng, 1762-1847, politician; Thomas Dibden, 1772-1S42, dramatist; Thomas Frognall Dibdin, 1770- 1847, bibliographer; Caroline Lucretia Herschel, 1750- 1848, astronomer, sister of Sir John ; Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick, 1783 - 1848, antiquarian ; George Stephenson, 1781-1848, railway engineer and inventor of locomotive; Robert Stephenson, 1803-1859, engi- neer; Maria Edgeworth, 1767-1849, novelist; Richard Mant, 1776 1848, Irish prelate; Margaret Power, Count- ess of Blessington, 1789-1849, authoress; Sir Mark L HOUSE OF HANOVER. 273 Brunei, 1769-1849, naval engineer and engineer of the Thames tunnel ; Isambard Kingdom Brunei, 1806-1859, engineer of the steamship Great Eastern; William Wordsworth, 1770-1850, poet; William Kirby, 1759- 1850, entomologist; Sir Kobert Peel, 1788-1850, Prime Minister and statesman; Kichard Lalor Shell, 1791-1851, Irish politician and orator; John Lingard, 1771-1851, divine, publicist and historian; Benjamin Wyon, 1802-1858, medalist; William Wyon, R. A., 1795-1851, engraver and medalist; Joseph S. Wyon, 1836-1873, chief engraver of seals to Queen Victoria and medalist; Joseph M. William Turner, E. A., 1775-1851, landscape painter; Thomas Moore, 1779- 1852, Irish poet; Augustus Pugin, 1769-1832, noted architect; Augustin Welby Pugin, 1811-1852, cele- brated ecclesiastical architect; Edward Welby I'ugin, 1834-1875, architect and author; Dr. Gideon Alger- non Manhill, 1790-1852, geologist; William Conyng- ham. Lord Plunket, 1764-1854; Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, 1769-1852, field marshal, com- mander-in-chief of army, and statesman ; Sir Charles J. Napier, 1782-1853, general; Sir George Thomas Napier, 1783-1855, Governor of Cape of Good Ho})e; Sir Charles Napier, 1786-1860, vice admiral; Sir William Francis Napier, 1785-1860, general and his- torian; Robert Napier, 1791-1876, noted ship-builder. Walter Besant, author, born 1838; George Hamilton Gordon, Earl Aberdeen, 1784-1860; William Lamb, Viscount Melbourne, 1779-1848; Lord John Riissell, 1792-1878; Edmund Geoffrey Smith Stanley, Earl of Derby, 1799-1869; Algernon Percy, Duke of North- 274 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS, umberlaiid, 1792-1865; Henry John Temple, Vis- count Palmerston, 1784—1865 ; Lord Kobert Monsey Rolfe Cranworth, 1790-1868; Hon. Algernon Herbert, 1792-1855; Sir James Eobert George Graham, 1792- 1861; statesmen and cabinet officers, Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence, 1864-1892; John Bright, statesman, 1811-1889; George Leveson Gower, Earl of Granville, statesman, 1815-1891; Piobert Browning, poet, 1832-1891; Henry Irving, actor, born 1838. The following have been the cabinet ministers of Queen Victoria: Upon her accession to the throne, Lord Melbourne's ministry continued in office until its resignation May 7, 1839. On the 8th of May, the Queen requested Sir Piobert Peel to form a new admin- istration, but on the 10th, withdrew her command and Lord Melbourne's cabinet remained in office. August 7, 1841, Sir Kobert Peel, the Duke of Wellington, the Earl of Aberdeen, the Earl of Haddinurton, the Earl of Ripon, Lord Stanley and Mr. Henry Goulburn as Secretary of State, took office. July 6, 1846, Lord John Russell became Prime Minister, with the Earl of Aberdeen and others. They resigned in February, but resumed office again in March. In February, 1852, Earl Derby as Prime Minister, with Mr. Disraeli, Mr. Spencer H. Walpole, the Duke of Northumberland and others came into power. In De- cember of the same year, however, the Earl of Aberdeen, Viscount Palmerston, Lord John Russell and others succeeded them. January, 1855, Viscount Palmer- ston and Lord Cranworth, with Mr. Gladstone, the Hon. Algernon Herbert, Sir James R. George Gra- HOUSE OF HANOVEE. 275 liam and others took office. But the three latter resigned in February, and Viscount Palmerston, with Lords John Russell, Cranworth, and others, came into power February 2-1:, holding it until February 7, 1858, when on a vote of censure they resigned, and Febru- ary 26, 1858, Earl Derby, with Mr. Disraeli, AVal- pole, Stanley and others, assumed the reins of gov- ernment. They, also, on vote of want of confidence resigned, and June 18, 1859, Viscount Palmerston, Avith Lord John Russell and others, resumed office, retaining the same until the death of Lord Palmer- ston in October, 18()5. December, 1805, Earl RusselUs ministry, with Mr. Gladstone as Chan- cellor of the Exchequer, Lord Cranworth, Earl Granville and others were in power. But June 10, 1800, came Earl Derby's ministry with Mr. Disraeli as Chancellor of the Exchequer, Lord Stanley and others. December 2, 1808, on the resignation of Mr. Disraeli, Mr. Gladstone formed a new ministry. Feb- ruary 21, 1874, Lord Beaconsfield's ministry again assumed power, with Sir Hugh McCalmont Cairns, Sir Stafford Northcote, R. A. Cross, Earls Derby and Salisbury, Earl of Carnarvon, Sir M. H. Beach and others. April 28, 1880, saw a Gladstonian ministry again in power with Lord Selborne, Mr. Childers, Earls Kimberly, Derby and Granville, Sir W. Har- court. Marquis of Hartington and others. June 25, 1885, the Salisbury ministry came into office; Mar- quis of Salisbury, Prime Minister, Lord Halsbury, Sir M. H. Beach, Sir R. A. Cross, Col. Stanley, Lord Randolph Churchill and others. July 0, 1886, 270 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. Mr. Gladstone was called into power as Prime Minis- ter, with Lord Herscliel, Sir W. Harcourt, Mr. Cliilders, Lord Roseberry, Earls Granville and Kim- berly, and Mr. John Morley. August 3, 188(), the Salisbury administration took office, with the Marquis of Salisbury as Prime Minister, Lords Halsbury and llandolpli Churchill, Mr. Goschen, Lord Idtlesley, Mr. Henry Matthews, Hon. E. Stanhope, Lord Knuts- ford, Mr. James Balfour, Mr. W. S. Jackson and Viscount Cross. HOUSE OF HANOVER. 277 HISTORICAL MEMORANDA CONNECTED WITH THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. George I. knew little, and cared less, about Eng- land. He could not speak a word of English, and even tlie coronation service had to be translated to him iu such broken Latin as his ministers were able to use. He ate, drank, smoked his pipe, and allowed Sir Robei't Walpole to manage the country in his own way. Sir Robert, who became Premier in 1721, chose his own cabinet, a custom Avhicli has since continued to be observed. Lady Mary Montagu, in the early part of the reign of George I., introduced from Turkey, the sys- tem of inoculation for small-pox. It was first tested on criminals in Newgate, and proving eminently suc- cessful, was tried even on members of the royal family. The medical profession opposed it as an " invention of Satan, intended to counteract the purposes of an all- wise Providence," but the new practice gradually gained ground until it was superseded by the art of vaccination, discovered by Jenner in 1700. During the reign of George IL, in the year 1715, the Young Pretender, Charles Edward, made his last attempt on the English crown, but was, as we have seen, utterly routed with great slaughter at the Bat- tle of Culloden. Fleeing to France, the last of the House of Stuart died at Rome, in 1788. The condition of the people in the reign of George III., is well portrayed, in all its coarseness and brutality, by Hogarth and Fielding. Intoxication, with its con- 278 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. comitaiit ills, prevailed to a frightful extent every- where. The brijxhtest and the most noble feature in George Ill's reign, was the great religious movement instituted under the leadership of the Wesleys. " A movement which founded schools, checked intemper- ance, and brought into vigorous activity all that was best and bravest in a race that when true to itself is excelled by none." In til is reign, also, the first canal for the trans- portation of goods, Avas built in the north of England. Canals now form a network all over the land. In 17(51), James AVatt obtained his first patent for an improved steam-engine. He took a working model to the King. His Majesty patronizingly asked him, " AVell, my man, what have you to sell?" The in- ventor proni[)tly answered, " What kings covet — may it please your Majesty — poAver." In 1811, however, such was the increase of machinery driven by steam, and so great the improvements made by Hargreaves, Ark- wright, Crompton and others in machinery for spin- ning and weaving, that great distress arose among the working classes. They saw their hand labor super- seded by patent monsters of "fire and iron." Driven almost to starvation, they attacked the mills, broke the machinery, and sometimes even burned the buildings. They Avere led by a man named Ludd. Much damage was done before these riots were suppressed and the leaders executed. In lG9r), Thomas Savery obtained a [)atent for a steam-engine "to be Avorked by fire, for driving mills and raising Avater." HOUSE OF HANOVER. " 279 In 1736, letters patent were issued to Jonathan Hulls for propelling ships by means of a steam-engine acting on Savery's principle. In 1769, came James Watt's invention of an improved steam-engine. Will- iam Symington ])uilt a boat and experimented with the application of steam power to it in 1788, but with only partial success. Nothing further was done until 1801, Avlien Lord Dundas constructed a steamboat to tow barges on the Forth and Clyde Canal. " The Charlotte Dundas " was the parent boat as far as the use of steam for paddle wheels is concerned. Its trial trip in March, 1803, precedes the discovery of Fulton, who came to Scotland in 1805, made drawings of her, and completed his boat, " the Clermont," in 1807. In 1811, tlie Comet was built by James Bell. It was designed to ply between Glasgow and Greenock. Her first trip was made in August, 1812. Armed paddle- wheel steam vessels were first introduced into the royal navy in 1832. In 1774, Dr. Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen, which laid the foundation for modern chemical science. Toward the close of the reign of George III., London was first lighted by gas. Its streets could hardly be said to have been lighted before. The new light, as Miss Martineau observed, did more to pre- vent crime than all that government had ever done since the time of Alfred the Great. In the reign of George IV., London had a popu- lation of 1,500,000; but up to that time did not pos- sess an efficient police force. Sir Robert Peel, in 1830, procured the passage of a bill organizing a new 280 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. and capable body of police, who were properly equip- ped and uniformed. The progress of banking is shown by the fact that sixty years ago only one public banking house existed in London, while at the Bank of England private accounts were at that time rarely opened, and then with the greatest difficulty. The first railroad opened in England in 1825 for tlie conveyance of freight and passengers, using steam traction, was the Stockton and Darlington, which was followed September 15, 1830, by the Liverpool & Manchester Railroad, both roads having only a mile- age of eighty-six miles; while in 1871 there were 15,000 miles, and in 1880, 10,000 miles of road in successful operation. Ten miles an hour also was, for some time after the first date, considered a dan- gerous rate of speed, while to-day the " Flying Dutchman " train, connecting London and Bristol, makes 118^ miles in the same number of minutes. Mr. Charles Pearson, solicitor to the city of London, originated the system of underground metropolitan railways in 1837, and the first section of the line from Paddington to Farringdon Street, was opened in Janu- ary, 18()3, conveying, in 1877, over 56,000,000 passen- gers, or more than one million a week, at an average rate of about twopence per mile. Over the quadruple part of the line, between Farringdon and Moorgate Streets, 586 trains noAv run every day. The first photographs were produced in England in 1802, but were not perfected until 1811. The history of the advance made in this art, would require of it- HOUSE OF HANOVER. 281 self a volume. Louis J. M. Daguerre invented the process of daguerreotype in 1839. The original idea, however, is traceable as far back as the time of Kos-er Bacon. Postage stamps were first used in England in the year 1840. Lithography, invented by Alois Senefeld, in 1817, came into general use in England in 1837, but it has been vastly improved during the two last decades. The first complete sewing-machine was patented by Elias HoAve, Jr., in 1846. The building occupied by the British Museum, was commenced in 1823, and only completed in 1852. Nearly a million people visit it annually. The largest ship ever built, the Great Eastern (recently broken to pieces and sold to junk dealers), was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunei, and con- structed by Scott Russel, at Maxwell, on the Thames. Work on the great vessel was commenced in May, 1854. She Avas successfully launched January 13, 1858. The launching occupied two months and ten days. Her total length Avas 600 feet, breadth 118 feet, and total burden 12,000 tons. The electric light Avas invented by Lodyguin and Kossloff, at London, in 1874. In February, 1881, electric lights of 2,000 candle poAver were used for lighting the Waterloo Station of the London & South- western Railway Company, and in 1884 electricity Avas first used for lighting railroad trains. In 1858, the Avorks of the neAv Westminster Bridge, London, Avere illuminated by Watson's electric light, and the fol- 282 ENGLAND AND ITS KULERS. lowing year tlie magneto-electric light, invented by Prof. Holmes, was successfully tried at the lighthouse at Dover, The incandescent light Avas invented in 1876. The first attempt to use electricity as a motive power was made in September, 1842, and a S2)eed of four miles an hour attained. The system of ocean telegraphy, inaugurated in 185(), after three unsuccessful attempts was finally perfected in 18()G, and tAvo cal)les laid along the bed of the Atlantic, united England and America. Soon after cables were laid across the Persian Gulf, bring- ing India and Enghand into telegraphic conununica- tion. Tlie discovery of anaesthetics during the latter part of this dynasty, has done much to alleviate human suffer- ing. The value of chloroform for that purpose was first suggested by Dr. Guthrie, in 1831, but it was not re- duced to practice until November, 1817, Avlien it was successfully tried by Sir James Y. Simpson, and the dis- covery of its anfcsthetic properties announced to the world. On the lUth of December, 181(3, ether was first used as an ansGsthetic in extracting teeth by Mr. Rob- inson, a dentist of London, and January 19, 1817, by Sir Janies Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in obstetrics. Laughing or nitrous oxide gas Avas first used to deaden sensibility to pain in 1844, but the name of its inventor remains unknown, although Priestly dis- covered many of its properties in 1770. Cocaine, a discovery of the last fcAV years, is now extensively used in producing local anaesthesia. It was first in- HOUSE OF HANOVER. 283 trocluced to general notice about 1885, by Albert Niemau, of Goslar. The progress of steam navigation will appear from the following facts: The first steamboat in Great Britain, called the Comet, built to navigate the Clyde, was launched in 1812. The first ocean steamboat cross- ing the Atlantic, was the Savannah, an American built vessel, Avliich in 1819 made the passage from Savan- nah, Ga., to England, in twenty-six days. The first ocean steamer launched in London, was the Syrius, whose first voyage was made from London to New York, in 1838, in seventeen days. In 1838, the famous Cunard Line was organized. The first ocean steamer built of iron, was the Great Britain, which made her first voyage in July, 1883. " The Royal Sovereign," tlje largest war steamer in the world, was launched in February, 1891, having a capacity of 14,150 tons; being 380 feet in length by 75 in width, able to make 17i knots an hour. It is protected by steel armor, and carries 14 guns, of a weight and power more formidable than any hitherto known. About the same time also the Cunard Steamship Company contracted for three steamers, each being of 14,000 tons burden, and designed to make the passage from New York to Liverpool in five days. Steamers of other companies already are approximating this proposed standard. The long distance telephone, the typewriter, the phonograph, stenography, and other facilities for transacting all kinds of business, have been in- vented. The improved printing press has also pro- 284 ENGLAND AND ITS RULERS. diiced a revolution in the production of books and newspapers; the great dailies being now issued, in numerous editions, not as a sheet, but a volume. The largest anvil in the world was recently con- structed at the Woolwich Arsenal. Its weight is sixty tons, and tlio block on Avhich it rests weighs 103 tons. The principal reforms instituted during this dynasty, may be briefly summarized as follows: The criminal code has been thoroughly revised and adapted to the advanced thought of the century. The poor laws have been radically reformed, and the monopoly of the Corn laws swept away. The labor of English workmen has been better appreciated, and the natural rights of wo- men and children protected. Education, books, news- papers and periodicals have been placed within the reach of all. The penny post has made communi- cation l)y letter a privilege of the poor as well as the rich. Steam and electricity have brought the inhabitants of Christendom closer together. Work- men labor fewer hours for higher wages. Toleration has put an end to religious grievances, and church rates have been done away with. The universities are now o})en to all classes. Flogging in the army, and promotion by purchase no longer exist. Crime of all kinds has diminished, and the various religious bodies have increased in power and influence. The same progress is noticeable in the British colonies — in India, Canada and Australia. Their rapid development and increased attachment to Eng- land is remarkable. The power and freedom of the HOUSE OF HANOVER. 285 press has grown immensely. The House of Commons, too, has become the representative of the people, and the exponent of English thought and will. Thackeray, Macaulay, Tennyson, Dickens, Carlyle, George Eliot, Charlotte Bronte and a host of others eminent in literature, have shed the light of letters on Victoria's reign. The improvement in the social condition of the people is also very marked. The average wealth of the country has greatly increased, the deposits in sav- inors banks showin<]f that the laborinij classes are r> o o acquiring habits of thrift. Free libraries, reading- rooms and art galleries are open to them. Sanitary regulations protect the health of all classes, and have nearly obliterated many of the diseases once produced by bad ventilation and defective sewerage. Prison discipline has ceased to be, as it once was, a terror and to a marked extent a demoralizing influence, while the wants and interests of the convict are guarded by benevolent organizations formed for that purpose, England has become emphatically the home of freedom and progress, having a government the ultimate object of whose institutions is the happiness and welfare of her citizens. To appreciate the priv- ileges she now enjoys, we need only contrast the present time with the dark days of her youth and early age. With a press at once lofty in tone, erudite and brilliant, to guide and control public sentiment, her course hereafter must be onward and upward. INDEX. Abbeys: St. Albans 0; Battle 34; Fevershain 4G; Glaston- burvlO; Leicester 132;Reaci- in«,'"42; Westminster 12, ±J, 2:i, 75. Ahbevs used for schools 50. Ahercrombie, yohn, M. D. 245. Aberdeen, LoVd 25-2, 250, 202, 273, 274. Abernethy, Dr. John 245. Abyndon, Richard 78. Abyssinian War 267. Academy of Arts 2:^. Addiiij^ton, lh)n. Henry 247. Addison, Joseph 215. Adela, D;uii,rhler William I. 40. Adelaide, Queen 252, 250. Adelais of Brabant 41. Administrators or ministers to the Crown 138, 139, 140, 150, 167, 175, 196, 201, 209, 215, 216, 226, 234. 240, 247, 248,252, 250, 274. 275, 270. Admiral, First High appointed i;r). Adrian IV., Pope 58. Adrian or Hadrian, Roman Emperor 27. Adventists 176. Aetius, Roman Consul 9. Afghanistan 261. Agricoia, Roman General 6, 27. Agriculture 2, 12, 26. 50. 92, 120. 218. Akenside, Mark 233. Alban, St. Martyr 0, 27. Albans, St. Origin of the Ducal House of 194^ Albert Edward, Prince of Wales 201, 266. Albert Victor, Prince, Son of Prince of Wales 270, 274. Albert, Prince, Husband of Queen \'ictoria 260. 262. 263, 200. Albert medal 207. Albioti, The name 2. Alcuin, Tutor of Charlemagne 28. Alderney, Island of 34. Aldhelm, or Adelm, The first British poet 28. Aldred or Aired, Archbishop .30. Alexander II. of Scotland 03. Alexander III. of Scotland 09. Alexandra, Princess of Wales 200. Alfred, or Aleric, Historian 28. Alfred Ernest Albert, Prince 261. Alfred, Son of Ethel red II. 22. Alfred, The Great 14 et seq. Alice, Princess 261, 266, 268. Allegiance, Oath of 222. Alliance, Quadruple 224. Alliance, Saxon 9. Allingtoii, William, Speaker 110. Alonzo of Aragon, Peace with 76. Alphonso of Castile 52. Althorp, (see Spencer). Amelia, Princess 235. America 125, 163, 236, 238, 239, 241, 243. Anaesthetics 282. 287 288 INDEX. Andreas Bernard, Poet Lau- reate 156. Angeln 9. Angevins, The name 52. Angles 9, 10, 11. Anglia East, Kingdom of 10. Anglo-Saxons 25. Angus Archibald, Earl of Douglas 15G. Anlass, Danish General 18. Ann, Daughter Charles I. 168. Anne of Cleves 129. Anne of Denmark, wife of James I. 160, 161. Anne, Queen 197, 199, 210. Anne Hyde, wife of James II. 197. Anne of Luxembourg, wife of Richard II. 87, 90. Anne Neville, of Warwick, wife of Richard III. 116, 119. Anselm, Bishop 38, i3, -15. Anson, Lord George, Admiral 228, 233, 234. Apollo, Temple of 12. Aquinas, St. Thomas 73. Archbishop, The first executed for treason 101. Architecture 25, 39, 51, 92, 120, 126, 152. Argvle, Earl of, Rebel 200,201. Ark'wright, Richard 212. Arleites, Mother of William I. 29. Arlington, Earl of 196. Armada, Spanish 150, 154, 155. Arms 158. Army 172, 184, 204, 218, 265. Arnold, Matthew, Author 271. Arnold, Thomas, Historian 272 Art, 137, 220. Art, National Gallery of 250. Art, Royal Academy of 238. Art School of Design 254. Arthur, Duke of Brittany 65,68. Arthur, Prince of the Silures 11. Arthur, Son of Henry VII. 122. 123. Arthur Prince, Son of \'ictoria 261. Arundel Robert de, Hebraist 73. Arundel, Thomas, Archbishop, 105. Arundel, (see Howard). Ascham, Roger 155. Ashburton, (see Baring). Ashley Lord 196. Ashmole, Elias 209. Asser, Bishop 15, 28. Atheliv, Fort 14. Atheling. Edgar .34, .30, 39. Athelstan, Son of Edward I. 17. Atterbury, Bishop Francis 226. Atterbury, Lewis 215. Aubrey, John, Antiquarian 209. Aubrey, William, Antiquarian 156. ■ Auckland, Lord 256. Audley, Lord Thomas 138. Augusta, Princess, Daughter George II. 227. Augusta Sophia, Daughter of George III. 23-'). Augustine, Saint 11. Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex 235, 257. B Babington, Anthony, Conspira- tor 1.50. Babington, William, Chief Jus- tice 110. Bacon, Francis, Lord Verulam 165, 167. Bacon, Sir Nicholas 156. Bacon, Roger, Philosopher 71, 73. Bahama Islands Discovered 125. Baker, Sir John 142. Baldwin v! of Flanders 29. Balfour, James 276. Baliol, Edward, Claims Scottish Crown 83. Baliol, John, Claims Scottish Crown 75, 78. Balliol, .Sir John, Founder Bal- liol College, Oxford 73. Balloons 2.38. Bank of England 206,220,238, 280. INDEX. 289 Banking 280. Barbauld, Anne Letitia 245. Bare-bones Parliament 179. Baring, Alexander, Lord Ash- burton 256. Barometers 220. Baronet, Title created- 1G3. Barons, Revolts of 44, 48, 67, 72, 73. Barowe, Lord Thomas 115. Barrow, Dr. Isaac, Prelate 196. Barrj, Gerald, Prelate 73. Barton, Robert 81. Bath, Order of, Instituted 99. Bathurst, Earl, 247 257. Battle Abbey, built 34. Battles: Acre 62, 244; Agin- court 104; Albuera244; Alex- andria 244; Algiers 244; Al- manza 214; Alnwick 40, 57; Ascalon 62; Atherton Moor 174; Banbury 114; Bannock- burn 80; Barnetll4; Barossa 244; Bennington 243; Blen- heim 214; Bosworlh F'ield 117, 118; Both\vell Bridge 195 ; Bo \- n e 205, 208 ; B r e n li e - ville 45;' Bunker Hill 243; Camden 243; Carlisle 232; Carthagena 232; Chalgrove Field, 174; Copenhagen 244; Corunna 244; Crecy 86; CuUodcn 233; Dena'in 215; Dettingen 232; Dunbar 177; Edgehill 172, 174; Evesham 73;>alkirk (1297), 78; Falkirk (1746), 233; Flodden 137; Fon- tenoy 232; Gibraltar 214; 236,243; Gisors 62; Guine- gate or Spurs 137; Hailidown Hill (1333) 85 ; Hailidown Hill (1402) 100; Hastings 23, 30, 36; Hengesdown 13; Herrings 108; Hexham 114; La Hogue 208; Lansdown 174; Lewes 72, 73; Lexington 243; Lincoln (1140) 48; Lin- coln (1217) 72; Llandilovawr 78; Maida 244; Malplaquet 215; Marston Moor 172, 174, 178; Minden 233; Mon- mouth 243; Mortimer Cross 109, 114; Nasebj 172, 173, 175; Navarino 251; Naver- ete 85; Neville Cross 85; Newbury 174; New Orleans 241; Nile 244; North Aller- ton 48; Oudenarde 214; Pinkie 142; Plassy 229; Plattsburg 241; Poitiers 86; Porto Bello 232; Pres- ton 225; Preston Pans 232; Quebec 233,243; Ramilies 214; Salamanca 244; Sara- gossa 215; Saratoga 243; Sedgemoor 200; Senlac 31; Seven Oaks 107; Sheriff- niuir 225; Shrewsbury 100; Solwav 137; Southwold Bay 195; Spurs or Guinegate 137; St. Albans 109, 114 Standards 48; Stamford 114 Stoke 127; Talavera 244 Trafalgar 236, 240, 244 Tewksbury 114; Towton 114 Verne uil "108; Vigo 214 Vimiera 244; Vittoria 244 Wakefield Green 109; Water- loo 236, 242, 244; White Plains 243; Worcester 177; York 23; Yorktown 243. Baxter, Richard 200. Bajeux Tapestry 39. Beatrice, Princess 261. Beattie, James 245. Bcauchamp, John, Admiral 87, 89. Beaufort, Cardinal Thomas 105. Beaumont, Francis, Dramatist 155. Beaumont, John, First English Viscount 109. Becket, Thos. a 54. 55, 58,133. Beckford, William 272. Beckington,Bishop Thomas 115. Bede or Baeda, Historian 16, 28. Bedford, John, Duke of 105. Bedford (see Russell). Beef Eaters 125. Beer 219. Belet, Michael, Judge 63. 290 INDEX. Belknap, Robert, Chief Justice 86. Bell, James, Ship Builder 279. Bell, Sir Robert, Baron of Ex- chequer 156. Benoit, Biographer 63. Bentham, Jei emv, Divine 256 Bentley, Dr. Richard 226. Berengaria, Queen 58. Berkeley, Sir Maurice, Tudge 144. Bernard, Edward, Astronomer 209. Bernardi, John, Adherent of James 11:209. Berslede, Walter dc, Judge 73. Bertha, wife of Ethclbert I. 11. Besant, Walter 273. Bihl.% The 17. 18, 134, 1.T), 141. 143, 158, 1G3. Bill of Rights 204. Bill, William, First Dean of Westminster 156. Bills of Exchange 89. Jiirch, John 156. Black, William 271. Blackstone, Sir William 245. Blair, Dr. Hugh 23.3. Blake. Robert, Admiral 181. Blanche, Daughter Henry IV. 97. Blanche, Wife John O'Gaunt 87. Blank Verse, First written 136. Blankets, First woven 84. Blessington, Countess of 272. Blood, Circulation of disco\- ered 165. Bloodv-Bill, The 134. Bloonifield, Robert 245. Blue-coat School 141. Blundcvil, Randolph, Earl of Chester 63. Blunt, Sir John 226. Boadicea. Queen 5, 6. Bohun, M.irv de. Wife of Hen- ry IV. 97." Bofevn, Anne 128, 129, 132. Bolingbroke (see .St. John). Bolingbroke, Henrv, .After- ward Henry IV. count Stair 233. Dalton, John 272. Damsel of Hrittuuv (>cc Elea- nor). Danegelt 20, 22. Danes 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 25, 31. Danish Supremacy 20, 21, 22, 23, 24. Darn ley. Lord 160. Dartmouth, Lord William, Sec- retary of State to Queen Anne 216. Dartmouth, Lord, Minister to George III. 246. Darwin Charles R. 271. Dasiiwood, .Sir Francis 246. Davenant, Sir William 175. David I. of Scotland 48. David IE of Scotland 79,84,85. Davy, Sir Humphrey 245. Deaf and Dumb Asylum Founded 231. Debt, National 108, 206, 225, 236, 241. Dee, John 167. DeFoe, Daniel 226. Denham, Sir John 181. Denmark, King of 21. De Ruvter, Dutch Admiral 195. Derby," Earl of 273, 274, 275. Devereaux, Robert, Earl of Essex 146, 151, 156. Devonshire, Duke of. States- man 234. Dibdin, Thomas, Dramatist 272. Dibdin, Thomas Frognall, Bib- liograi^her 272. Diana, Temple of 12. Dickens, Charles 271. Digby, John, Earl of Bristol 175. Diocletian, Roman Emperor 6. Disraeli, Benjamin, Ear' of Beaconsfield 268, 271, 274, 275. Disraeli, Isaac, Author 271 Dixon, Nicholas, Baron of Ex- chequer 110. Dobson, Henrv Austin 271. Docks, St. Catharines 250. Doddridge, Dr. Piiilip 234. Dodsley', Robert 233. Domesday Book 35. Domestic Animals Among Early Britains 1. Donne, Dr. John 167. Dover 34. Dover, Lord 255. Drake, Sir Francis 151,154, 156. Drainage of London, early 94. Drama, Elizabethan 153, 154, 157. Drayton, Michael 167. Dread Sovereign, Title of 130. Dress (see Living). Druids 3, 5. Drunkenness 277, 278. Durer, Albert 1,38. Dryden, John, Poet 196. Drvden, lohn. Son of Poet 209. Duels 221. Ducking stool 221. Dudley, Edmund, Political Agent Henry VII. 124, 127. Dudley, Lord Guilford, Hus- band Lady Jane Grey 142. Dudley, John, Duke of North- umberland, Lord High Ad- miral 145. Dudley, Earl, Statesman 252. INDEX. 295 Dudley, Robert, Earl of Leices- ter 156. Dugdale, Sir William 181. Duke, Title First Conferred 85. Duncan, King of Scotland 23. Dundas, Henrv, Viscount Mel- ville 247, 279. Duns Scotus, Johannes 78. Dunstan, St. 19,27. Earl, Title Created 11. Earldoms ,'J5. Earthenware Introduced 80. Earthquakes 2;}1, 204. East Anglia 10. Ecclesiastical Commission of James II. 20;5. Eddvstone Lighthouse 214 Edgar, The Peaceable 19. Edgeuorth, Maria 272. Editha, Wife of Edward the Confessor 22. Edmund I. Son of Edward the Elder 17, 18, 19. PZdmund II. (Ironsides) 21. Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, Son of Henry III. 69, 70. Edred, Son of Edward the El- der 19. Edric, Saxon Duke 21. Education Bill 254. Education of Women 268. Edward I. (The Elder) 17. - Edward II. (The Martyr) 20. Edward III. (The Confessor) 22, 2'}. Edward I. "After the Con- quest " 69. 74. Edward II. 74, 79. Edward III. 79, 81 Edward IV. 111. Edward V. Ill, 115. Edward VI. l.'iO. i;«). Edward, Duke of Kent, Son of George III. 235,257. Edward, The Black Prince 82, 85, 86. Edward, Son of Richard III. 117, 119. Edward, Son of Henry VI. 106. Edwin, Saxon Earl 36. Edwv, Son of Edward the El- der 19. Egbert, First King of England l2, 13. Egremont, Sir Charles 246. Eleanor, " Damsel of Brittanv" 65. Eleanor, Daughter Edward I. 74. Eleanor, Daughter Edward II. 79. Eleanor, Daughter llenr\ II. 52. Eleanor, Daughter of John (53. Eleanor of Aquitainc 52, 63. Eleanor of Castile 74, 76, 77, 79. Eleanor of Pro\ence 69, 78. Electricity 254, 281,282. Eldon, Lf)rd 247, 25.5. Elfrida, Plots the Assassination of her Stepson Edward 11.20. Elgiva, Wife of Edwy 19. Elizabeth, Daughter of Charles I. 168. Elizabeth, Wife of Henry VII. Ill, 117, 122. Elizabeth, Queen 129, 1.30, 146, 147, 148. Elizabeth, Daughter of James I. 160. . , Elizabeth, Daughter of George III. 23.5. Elizabeth of France, \V'ife of Richard II. 101. Ella or Eli, King of .Sussex 10, 27. Ellenborough, Lord 2.56. Eliot (see Evans). Kmanciii.'ition Act 2,50. Emma, Wife of Ethelred II. 20, 22. Empress of India, The Title 26S. Empson, .Sir Richard 124, 127. England, Name 9, 10. English or Episcopal Church (see Church). Erasinus, Deciderius 135, 138. Eboracum, Roman Name for York 27. 296 INDEX. Ercenwin or Erchenwin. King of East Saxony. 10. 27. Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick, Father George I. 160, 223. Ernest, Duke of Cumberland, Son of George III. 235. Erskine, Lord 247. Essex, Earl of, Minister Charles II. 196. Essex, Earl of, Parlianientarv General 172. Essex, Earl of. Minister of Elizabeth 146, 151, 156. Este, Mary Beatrice Wife of lames if. 197. Es'trange, Sir R. L' 192. Ethelbald, Son of Egbert 13. Ethelbert, Brother of Alfred 13, 17. Ethelbert, King of Kent 11. Ethelred I., Son of Egbert 13. Ethelred II. (The Unready) 20. Ethelwald (The Monk) Son of Alfred 17. Ethelwald, Son of Ethelbert 17. Ethehvolf, Son of Egbert 13. Eustace, Son of Stephen of Blois 46. Eustace, Count of Boulogne 46. Evacuation of England bv the Romans 8. E\ans, Marion C. (George Eliot) 271. Evelyn, John, Diarist 209. Everdon W. de. Baron of Ex- chequer 81. Exclusion Act (Against James) 190. Exhibition, Colonial 268. Exhibition, Indian 268. Exhibition, The Great London, 1851 264. Exmouth, \'iscount. Admiral Fairfax, Lord Thomas, Parlia- mentary General 172, 176, 181. Famine in Reign of Edward II. 80. Farr, John, Earl of Westmore- land 247. Farquhar, George 215. Faulconbridge, \'iscount 178. Fawkes, Guv 162, 167. Ferdinand I'll, of Castile 74. F\-versham, Earl of 200. Feudal Svstem 26. 118. Fielding," Henry 234. Firearms 158. Fire of London 189, 190. Fisher, John, Cardinal 133, 138. Fisheries Treaty 270. Fitz Allen, Earfof Arundel 145. Fitz Osbern, William 31. Fitz Osbert, \\'iiliani. Executed for Treason 63. Fitzroy, Henry Duke of Graf- ton 246. Fitzurze, Reginald 55. Fitz Walter, Hugh, Archbishop 68. Fitz Walter, Robert, General of the Barons' Arm^- 68. Five Burghers (Danes) 17. Five Mile Act 191. Flamstead, John 208. Flax 1J5. Flaxman, John 245. Fleetwood, Charles 178, 181. Fleming, Robert, Prelate 115 Fleniming, Bishop Richard, Founder of Lincoln College 110. Fletcher, John 155. Florida 231. Foote, Samuel 245. Ford, John 155. Fortescue, Sir John, Judge 115. Foster, John 272. Fox, Charles James, Statesman 239, 244, 247. Fox, George, Quaker 181. Fox, Henry, Lord Holland 231. France, Crown of 83, 102, 103. Francis, Sir Philip 236. Freemen or Ceorls 18. Frederick, Duke of York, Son of George III. 235. Frederick II. of Denmark 160. Frederick III. of Denmark 210, INDEX. 297 Frederick, King of Bohemia 160. Frederick, Prince of Wales, Son of George II. 227, 235. Frederick William, King of Prussia 223. Froissart, Jean 90. Frowvk, Tiiomas, Chief Justice 12?: Fry, Mrs. Elizabeth 272. Fuller, Thomas 181. Fulton, Robert 279. G Gainsborough, Thomas R. A. 245. Gait, John 255. Gam, David, Knighted at Agin- court 105. Gama, \'asco de, Discoverer of Sea Passage to India 125. Game Laws, Under William I. and II. 37. Gambling 242. Gardiner, Bishop Stephen 1.39, 145, 146. Garrick, David 245. Garter Oriier Created 84. Gas Illuminating 238, 249, 279. Gascoigne, Sir Crisp, Lord Mayor London 231. Gascoigne, Sir William, Lord Chief Justice 101. Gaveston, Pierre 81. Gaunt, or Ghent, John of 82, 90, 122. Gay, John 226. Gazette, The London 19,3. Genealogy of English Sover- eigns, Table XII. Geoffrey of Anjou 42, 52. Geoffrey, Son of Henry II. 52. Geoffrey of Monmouth 49. George I. 223, 277. George 11.22.3.227,277. George III. 235, 238, 277. George IV. 1'3'), 248. George, Prince of Denmark 210. George, Son of Queen Anne 210. Georges St. Chapel Windsor 120, 188. Germain, Lord St. 246. Gervais of Tilberry 68. Gibbon, Edward 245. Gibraltar, see Battles — . Giddas, Historian 27. Giffard, Bishop Walter 78. Gilbert, Earl of Pembroke 73. Gioia, Flavio, Inventor Marin- er's Compass 76. Gladstone, William E. States- man 267, 274, 275, 276. Glass 25, 56, 145, 152. Glendower, Owen, Welsh Chieftain 100. Globe Theater 1,53. Gloucester, Duke of, Son of Charles I. 168. Gloucester, Duke of. Son of Henry IV. 97, 109. Gloucester, Duke of After- ward Richard III. 106, 115, 116. Gloucester, Robert de 7,3. Goderich, \^iscount 252. Godfrey of Boulogne, Crusader 41. Godfrey, Sir Edmunberry, Magistrate 19.3. Godoiphin, Earl of 209, 215. Godwin, Earl of Kent 22, 23, 40. Godwin, William, Political Economist 255. Goldsmith, Oliver 245. Good Hope, Cape of, First Doubled 12.5. Good, Dr. John Mason 251. Goodwin, Sands 40. Gordon, Lord George 237, 238. Gordon (see Aberdeen). Gosse, Edmund W. 271. Goschen, George J. 276. Goths 7. Goulburn, Henry 256, 274. Gower (see Granville). Gower, John, Poet 90. Gower, Lord John, Statesman 246. 298 INDEX. Grant, Charles 252. Grafton, Origin of Ducal House of 193. Graham, Sir James Robert George 256, 274. Graham, James, Marquis of Montrose 177, 181. Grantham, Fletcher Nortf)n 21G. Granville, Earl 274, 275, 27G. Gran\ illc, John Cartaret, States- man 2-'}4. Gran\ille, Ranulph de, Cru- sader 58 Grapes Introduced 141. (irav, Thomas 2'.V,i. Greece 250. Greek, First Taught in England 135. Greene, Robert 155. Gregorian Calendar adopted 228. Gregory I. 11. Gren\ille, George, Statesman, 240. Grenville, William Wvndham, Minister George III. "240, 247. (ircsham. Sir Thomas 153, 150. Grey, Charles llowick, 247,253, Grev, Elizabeth Woodville,\Vife of Edward IV. Ill, 115. Grey, Lady Jane 144. Grimstone, Sir Harbottle 184. Guildhall 101, 103. Guilds <)4. Gunpowder 120. Gunpowder-plot 102. Gustavus I. of Sweden 138. Guthrum or Guntrum, Danish General 14, 27. Gwynne, Nell 194, 195. H Habeas-corpus Act 190. Habits of People (see Living). Haddington, Earl of 274. Hadrian (see Adrian.) Hale, Sir Matthew 181. Halifax (see Montague). Hall, Bishop Joseph 175. Hall, Robert," Divine 251. Hallev, Edmund, Astronomer, 234: Halle\-, Ilenrv, Norman Law- ver'30. Halsbury, Lord 275, 270. Hamilton, Dean William de, Lord Chancellor 78. Hampden, John 109, 172, 175. Hampton Court Palace 130. Hanover, House of 223. Han way, Jonas 221. Harcourt,"Sir W. 275, 270. Hardicanute, Son of Canute 22. Harding, .Sir Henrv, Statesman, 252. Harding, John, Chronicler 115. Hare, Sir Nicholas 140. Ilartleur 104 (see Naval Engage- ments Table xxii). Hargreave, James 242, 278. Harlev, Robert, Earl of Oxford, 215," 210. Harold I. (llarefoot) 22. Harold II. Last Saxon King 23, 30, 30. Harrington, Earl of 231. HaiMison, John, Parliamentary General," 182. Harrowby, Lord 247, 248. Hai-tington, Mareiuis of 275. Ilarvev, Sir Milliam 105, 107. Hasclrig, Charles, 172. Hastings, Danish Naval Com- mandei" 10. Hastings, Warren, Governor India 238. Hastings 23, 34. Hastings (see Battles). Havana 243. Hawke, Lord Edward, Admiral 233. Hawkesbury, Lord 247. Hawkins, Sir John 154. Havdon, Benj. Robert 272. Ileathcote, Sir Gilbert 231. Heber, Bishop Reginald 245. Helena, Princess 201. Hemans, Felicia Dorothea 255. Hengist, Saxon Chief 9, 10, 27. Henrietta, Wife of Charles I. 168. INDEX. 299 Henrietta, Daughter Charles I. 168. Henry I. (Beauclerk) 29, 41, 42, 45. Henry II. 47, 52, 53, 55 to 57. Henrv 111.63,69,70, 72,74. Henry IV. 97 to 99. Henry V. 97, 101, 102, 104, 105, 270. Henry VI. 101, 106, 107. Henry VII. 122 to 125. Henry VIII. 122, 128 to 131, 157. Henry IV. of P>ance 168. Henry V. Emperor of Germany, 42. Henry, Duke of Gloucester, Son Charles I. 168. Henry, Duke of Sa\ony 52. Henrv, Son of Henry II. 52, 56." Henry, Son of James I. 160. Henry of Huntington, Chron- icler 49. Henrv, Robert, Historian 245. Heptarchy, Saxon 10,12. Herbert, Algernon, Historian, 274. Herbert, Lord Edward, Philoso- pher, 167. Herbert, William, Earl of Pem- broke 167. Hereditarv Legislation 270- Hereford," Duke of 88, 89. Hereward or Herewald le Wake 32, 34. Herrick, Robert, 181. Herries, John Charles 252. . Herschel, Caroline Lucretia272. Herschcl, Sir J.F. W., Astrono- mer 245. Herschel, Lord, Statesman, 276. Hertford (see Seymour). Hervey, James 233- Hesse-Homberg, Prince of 235. High Commission Court 126, 149, 171, 198. Higham, Clement, Chief Baron Exchequer 146. Hill, Rowland 261. Hill, Lord Richard 246. Hillsborough, Earl of 246. Historical Memoranda : An- gevins or Plantagenet 90; Hanover 277; Lancaster and York 119; Norman 49; Saxon and Dane 23; Stuart 216; Tudor 157. History of the World, Raleigh 165. Hobbes, Thomas 181. Hobhouse, Sir [ohn C. 256. Hogarth Williani 230, 234. Hogg, James 255. Holborn, first paved 103. Holland, Lord 256. Holies, Thomas Pelham, Duke of Newcastle 228, 2.34. HoUinshed Raphael 1-56. Ilollis, Patriot 172. Holmby House, Ciiarles I. con- fined there 173. Honorius, Roman Emperor 8. Hood, Robin, Outlaw 91. Hood, Tliomas, Poet 272. Hooke, Theodore Edward, 272. Hooker, Bishop Richard 156. Hooper, Bishop John 145. Hops, L^^sed for brewing 154. Horsa, Saxon Chief 9, 27. Horslev, Bisliop Samuel 245. Hose, Geoffrey, Judge 63. Hospitals: Bartholomew 141; Chelsea 208; Christ Church 141; Foundling 232; Green- wich 208; St.Thomas 141,267. Hospitalers, Knights 93. Houses of Parliament 254,262. House of Commons 84, 90. House of Hanover 223. House of Lancaster 82, 97. House of Stuart 160. House of York 82, 111. Howard, Catharine, Wife Henry VIII. 129. Howard, Henrv, Earl of Surrey 136, 138, 139'. Howard, Sir James, Admiral 135. Howard, John, Duke of Norfolk, Diplomate 119. Howard, John, Philanthropist 245. 300 INDEX. Howard, Lord, Admiral 154. Howard, Thomas, Earl Arun- del 175. Howard, Thomas, Duke of Nor- folk 139. Howe, Elias Jr. 281. llowick (see Grej). Huguenots 171. Hughes, Peggy 192. Hume, David 215. Humphrey, Duke of Beaufort, Chief Counselor of Henrv \'. lOG. Humphrey, Duke of Glouces- ter 97. Humphrey, Earl of Hereford 97. Huns, The 7. Hunter, Dr. John 245. Huskisson, William 251, 252. Muss, John 105. Hutchins, Sir George 209. Hutton, Charles 245. Huxley, Thomas H. 271. Hvde, Anne, First Wife James 11. 197. Hvde, Edward, Earl of Claren- don 181, 196, 197. Hyde, Thomas, de la. Judge 81. I Ida, or Idda, King of Northiun- bria 10, 27. Iddesley, Eord, ISIinister of Victoria 270. Indemnity Act 189. India 141," 151, 154, 1G3, 218, 225, 229, 231, 242, 254, 262, 265. India (see Table xviii.) Indies, West 125. Ingulphus, Historian 36. Innocent III., Pope 6.5, 06. Inns of Court, Ciray's 153; Lin- coln's 127; Staple 103; Mid- dle Temple 85, 153. Insurrections Reign W^illiam I. 31; Henry I. Barons 44; John, Barons 66, 67; Henry III. Barons 72, 73; Lancaster (1322) 81; Wat Tyler (1381) 88; Jack Cade (1450) 107; Warwick (1461^) 112; War- beck (1499) 126, 127; Irish (1599)151; Jacobite (1715)224. Interregnum 183. Invasions 3, 4, 9, 13, 14, 16, 17, IS, 20, 21, 31, 39, 40, 48, 72, 100, 191, 206, 224, 225. Ireland 57, 1.51, 166, 176, 205, 240, 262, 269. Ircton, Henry, Parliamentary General 178, 181,189. Iron, Early Mention of 2. Ironsides 172, 176. Irving, Henry 274. Isabella, Wife of Edward II. 79 to 81. Isabella Wife of King John 63. Isabella, Second Wife of Rich- ard 11.87. Italian Fashions, Influence of 152. Jackson, Andrew, American General 241. lackson, W. S., Minister 276. Jacobites 204, 224. lames I. 160 to 165, 223. "lames II. 168,197 to 199,204, 205, 207, 217. James I. of Scotland 216. "James II. of Scotland 216. "lames III. of Scotland 216. James IV. of Scotland 123, 137, 160, 216. James V. of Scotland 137, 216. James, Francis Edward (Old Pretender) 197. 217, 224, 225. James, Duke of Monmoi;th 200. Jane, Daughter of Edward II. 79. Jane, Daughter of King John 63. Jane, or Joan, Wife of Henry IV. 97. Jansen Z. Inventor of the tele- scope 153. Jeffreys, Judge 200, 201, 221. Jenkins, Henry 195. Jenkinson, Charles, Earl of Liv- erpool 247, 248, 251. INDEX. 301 Jenkinson, Robert Banks, Earl of Liverpool 251, 252. Jenner, Dr. E. Discoverer of Vaccination 251. Jerome of Prague 105. Jersev, Island of 34. Jerusalem Chamber 98. Jesuits 137. Jews 33, 60, 76, 176. Joan of Arc 107, 109. Joan, Daughter llenrv II. 52. Joan (Fair Maid of Kent) 86, 87. Joan (see Jane). John, Henry St. Viscount Bol- ingbrokc 216, 225. John, Duke of Bedford, Son of Hcnrj IV. 97, 105. John, Son of Edward II. 79. John, Son of Hcnrv 11.52,63, 64, 67. John IV. of Portugal 186. John Frederick, Margrave of Anspach 227. John of Gaunt 82, 90, 122. John, King of France 84. Johnson, Dr. Samuel 245. Jones, Inigo, Architect 127, 167, 217. Jones, Sir William, Orientalist 245. Jonson, Ben 175, 217. Journal of Parliamentary Pro- ceedings 162. Jubilee S'ear 269. Judith, Wife of Ethehvolf 27. Junius Letters of 236. Jury, Trial by 57. K Kean, Edmund, Actor 255. Keats, John, Poet 245. Keith, Viscount George, Ad- miral 255. Kemble, John Philip 245. Kepler, Johann 217. Kett, William 142. Kimberh', John Wodchouse, Earl 275, 2"76. King, Danish 20, 21, 22; Eng- lish 12; of France, Title As- sumed bv the English 84; Saxon 10 et seq. Kingmaker, Warwick, the 112, 115. King's Evil, first touched for 22. Kirk, Col. Percy 200. Kirkby, Thomas 115. Knights, Norman 51. Knights Hospitalers 93. Knights Templars 44,46, 56, 80, 85, 93. Knives, 153. Kno.x, Jolin 156. Lamb, Charles 141, 255. Lamb, William, Viscount Mel- bourne 253, 256, 262, 263, 273, 274. Lambert, John 182, 184. Lambeth Palace 166. Lancaster, Henr\ ,Earl of, Prime Minister of Edward II. 81. Lancaster, Thomas, Duke of Clarence 97. Lancaster, House of 82, 95, 97. Land Grants by William the Conqueror 32 to 35. Landon, Letitia E. 255. Lane, .Sir Ralph, Governor of \'irginia 151. Lanfranc, Bishop 38. Lang, Andrew 271. Langton, Stephen, Archbishop 65, 68. Language 50, 95, 163. Lansdowne, Marquis of 256, 257. Lanterns, Magic 71. Latimer, Bishop Hugh 143,145. Latimer,Lord, Husband of Cath- arine Parr 130. Laud, Archbishop 170, 171, 175. Lauderdale (see Maitland). Law, John 226. Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 251. Laws 15, 118, 123, 236, 254. Leaden condiuts 136. Leeds, Duke of 247. 302 INDEX. Legge, Heneage 234. Leicester, Robert Dudley, Earl of 156. Leicester, William, Earl of 272. Leland, John, Antiquarian 138. Leoif, Assassin of Edmund L 19. Leopold (le Beau) G3. Leopold, Prince 2C1. Levellers 176. Libraries: Bodleian 151; Brit- ish Museum 231; Cambridge 118; Lambeth 166;F>ee285. Liddon, Canon 271. Lighthouses 214, 232. Linacre, Dr. Thomas 135. Lincoln, Abraham 266. Lincoln's Inn 127. Lingard, John 273. Linnean Society founded 238. Lionel, Duke of Clarence 82. Literature 16, 135, 136,'148, 157, 217, 218, 219, 232, 241. Lithography 281. Littleton, Frances, Judge 115. Liturgy, The Ciuirch 140. Liverpool, Charles Jenkinson, Earl of 247, 248, 251. Li\erpool, Robert Jenkinson, Earl of 251, 252. Li\ing: Habits, Manners, Dress, etc., of the People 3. 26, 89.91 to 93, 103, 117. 137, 152. 1.58, 159. 193, 219, 221. 229, 2.30,242. Llewellyn, Prince of Wales 78. Locke, John, Philosopher 217. Locomotives, .Steam 250, 255. Logarithms 163. Lollards, The 80, 125. Lombard Merchants 77. London 5, 7, 31, 50, 94. Londonderry 166. Lords, Hous'e of 176. Lotteries 207. Loudon, John C, Botanist 272. Loughborough, Lord 247. Louise, Princess 261. Louis II. of France 54. Louis XII. of France 123. 127. Louis XIV. of France 192, 205, 207. Louis of Hesse Darmstadt, Prince 266. Louvain, Godfrey, Duke of 41. Lovel, Francis 128. Lovel, Thomas, Speaker 119. Loyola, Ignatius 1.37. Ludlow, Edmund 182. Luther, Martin 1.38. Lutheran Doctrines 134. Luttrell, Col. 'j37. Lyndhurst, Lord 252, 256. M M acadam, John Loudon 255 256. Macaulav, T. Babington 271. Macbeth" 23. Maclean, Roderick, Attempts to kill Queen Victoria 268. Mackintosh, Sir James 255. Macklin, Dramatist 238. Magazines 2.32, 241. Magic Lanterns 71. Magna Charta 66, 67, 70, 77, 120, 169. Magnus, King of Norway .39. Maitland, John, Duke of Lau- derdale 196. Malcolm III. of Scotland 41. Malcolm, Sir John 25.5. Malmesliurv, William of .32, 49. Mandeville," Sir John 86, 94. Manhiil Dr. Gid'eon A. 27.3. Mannv, Sir Walter 86. Mansfield, Albert, Earl of 146. Mansfield, William Murray, Earl of 240. Mansion House 2.31. Mant, Richard, Irish Prelate 272. Maps 125. March (see Mortimer). Margaret of Anjou 106, 114, 115. Margaret of Beaufort, Mother of"^Henry VII. 122, 127. Margaret, "Daughter Henry VII. 122, 123, 124,160. Margaret, Daughter Henry HI. 69. Margaret, Second Wife of Ed- ward I. 74. INDEX. 303 Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of '211, 213, 215, 226. Marlow, ChristophLM- 155. Marvel, Andrew 200. Marv, de Bohun, Wife of Henry IV. 97. Marv, Queen, Wife of William III. 1G8, 199, 201. Marv, Daughter of James II. 197. Marv, Daughter of Henrv VII. 122, 123. Mary I., Daughter of Henrv Vill. 130, 143. Mary, Daughter of George III. 235. Mary, Queen of Scots 149, 216. Marv Louisa Victoria, Motlier of' Queen Victoria 257, 2G6. Maryland 174. Martyrs, First Christian 6. Martyrs, First burned 99, 101. Martyr, Justin, Christian Ajiol- ogfst 27. Masonry, Stone 25. Masques 217. Massachusetts 166, 174. Massacres: Danes 20; Jews 60; Northumbrians .32; Welsh Bards 75. Massinger, Philip 1.5.5. Matches Lucifer 254. Matilda, Wife of William I. 29, 36, 39. Matilda, Wife of Henry 1.41, 46. Matilda, Wife of Henry V. 42, 47, 58. Matilda, Wife of Stephen of Blois 46. Matthews, Henrv, Statesman 276. Maud, Daughter of Henrv II. 52. Mayflower, The 166, 174. Mayor, Lord of London 108 Medina-Sidonia, Duke of 154. Melbourne, (see Lamb) Melville, Robert, Viscount 252. Melville, Henrv Dundas, Vis- count 247, 279. Menai Straits Bridge 249. Methodists 230. Meyrick, Sir Samuel Rust 272. Mexico, Conquered by Cortez 135. Microscopes, Solar 232. Middleton, Sir Hugh, Engineer 167. Milton, John, 176, 181. Ministry Caliinet 206. Mitford, William, Historian 251. Monasteries 11, 51, 133, 134. Monk, General 181, 184. Monmouth, Origin of The Ducal House of 194. Monmouth, James, Duke of 200. Monopolies Granted bv Charles I. 170. Montacute, John, Earl of Salis- bury 101. Montagu, Charles, Earl of Hali- fax 209. Montague, Edward, Earl of Sandwich 184. Montague, Lady Marv Wort- ley 234, 277. Monteagle, William Parker, Discoverer of the Gunpow- der Plot 167. Montcalm, General 229. Montford, Simon de, Earl of Leicester 63, 72. Montrose, James Graham, Mar- quis of 177, 181. Moore, Mrs. Hannah, Authoress 255. Moore Thomas 273. Morals of the Court of Ciiarles II. 193. Morals, Reign of George II. 229, 230. Mordaunt, Charles, Earl of Peterborough 215. More, Sir Thomas 133, 138. Morea, Saxon Earl 36. Morenic, Hugh de 63. Morgan, Sir Richard 145. Morley, John, Statesman 276. Mortinier, Edmund, Earl of March 97, 100. 304 INDEX. Mortimer, Edmund Roger, Earl of March 89. Mortimer, Roger, Earl of Mareh, Paramour of Queen Isabella 79, 80, 81, 83. Morville, Hugh de. One of Becket'.s Assassins 55. Mowbray, Robert de. Founder of the Percy Family 40. Moxson, John 209. Mulgrave, Earl, Statesman 247. Municipal Corporation Act 254. Murray, .Sir George 252, 256. Museum, Ashmole 209. Museum, British 154, 231, 232. Mutiny, Indian, Table xviii. N Napier, Sir Charles 273. Na]iier, Sir Charles James 273. Napier, Sir George Thomas, Governor Cape (Jood Hope 273. Napier, or Neper, John, Invent- or of Logarithms 163. Napier, Rot)ert, Viscount Mag- da la 207. Napier, Robert, Noted Ship Builder 273. Napier, .Sir William Francis, Historian 273. Napoleon I. Bonaparte 240, 241, 242. National Debt 108, 225, 241. National Gallery of Art 250. Naval Engagements, Table xxii. Navigation 15, 255, 283. Navv 15, 103, 150, 151, 158, 200, 218, 240, 243, 244, 271, 279. Neville, Anne, (see Anne of Warwick.) Neville, Richard, Earl of, (Kingmaker) 112, 115. Newcastle, John Holies, Duke of 216. Newcastle, Thomas Pelham Holies, Duke of, Statesman 228, 234. New Forest 34. Newfoimdland 125. Newman, Cardinal 263. Newspapers 153, 154, 171, 192, 214, 232, 237, 238, 285. Newspaper Stamps 211. New River 167. New vStvIe for Computing Time 228. Newton, Sir Isaac 217, 226, 245. New York Ceded to England 195 Nightingale, Florence 265. Nonconformists (see Church and Religion). Norfolk, John Howard, Duke of 88. Norfolk, Thomas Howard, Duke of, .Statesman 1.35. Norman, fohn. Lord Mavor of London 108. Normandv 30,40, 45, 104. Normans 20, 29, 49, 50. North, Lord Fredeiick, Earl of Guilford 246. Northcote, Sir Stafford 275. Northmen 2.5, 39. Northumberland, Duke of, Statesman, James I. 167. Northumberland, Duke of, .Statesman, \'icloria 273, 274. Northumberland, Cospatric, Earl of .36. Northumberland, Earl of (Hot- spur) 100. Northumberland, John Dudlev, Duke of 145. Northumberland, John, Duke of. Lord Chancellor 142. Northumbrian Massacre 32. Norway Conquered by Canute 21. Norwegians 25. Nottingham, Robert, Earl of, 100. "^ Nova Scotia 2.31. Gates, Titus 193. Observatorv Cambridge 250. INDEX. 305 Ocean Cable Laid 28"2. Odo, Bishop of Bayeaux 31, 3G, 40. O'Hedian Bishop 119. Oldcastle, Sir Tohn 105. Olnev Island 21. Orford (see Russell and Wal- pole). Osberga, Wife of Ethelwolf 13. Osborne Thomas, Duke of Leeds 196. Osborne, Thomas, Earl of Dan- bj 19G. Osburn or Osbern, Bishop of Exeter 46. Otho of Bavaria, King of Greece 250. Otvvav, Thomas, Dramatist 181. Otwav, Bishop 200. Overburv, Sir Thomas 164. Oxford ("see Harlev). Pagano, Hugh de. Founder of the Order of Knights Tem- plars 46. Pakenhani, General 241. Palaces: HamYjton Court 1.36; Lambeth 166; St. James 136; Westminster 89; Whitehall 136. Palev, Dr. William 233. Palmerston, Lord, Statesman, 247, 256, 266, 267, 274, 275. Pantulph, Hugh dc 68. Paper-making 76, 153, 214. Paris, Allies in 241. Paris, Matthew, Historian 73. Park, Mungo, Explorer 244. Park, St. James 136, 192. Park, Woodstock 44. Parker, Matthew, Archbishop 146. Parliamentary records 162. Parnell, Thoiiias, Poet 226. Parr, Catherine, Wife Henry VnL130, 142. Parr, Samuel, Author 245. Parrott, Sir John 152. Paterson, William 220. Paul's St. Cathedral 12, 190,214. Pearson, Charles, Projector of Underground Railway 280. Peel, Sir^Robert, Statesman 252, 256, 262, 264, 273, 274. Peer, Title bestowed by patent 89. Pelham, Sir Henry 234. Pembroke, Gilbert, Earl of 69, 73. Pembroke, Thomas, Earl of, Statesman 215. Penn, Sir William 181. Penny-post 193, 261. Pepys, Samuel 195. Perceval, Spencer 241, 247. Percv, Family Name 41. Percv's Rebellion 100. Peru 1.35, 151. Pestilence 84. Peter the Great 207. Peter the Hermit 39, 41. Peters-pence 13. Philip I. of France 30. Philip n. 65, 68. Philip nr. 74. Philip IV. 76. 79. Philip of Valois 83, 84. Philip II. of Spain 14.3, 154. Philippe, King Louis of France 263, 264. Phillippa, Daughter Henrv IV. 97, Phillippa, Wife Edward III. 82, 92. Philpot, John, Archdeacon, 145. Photographs 280. Picts 6, 9. Picts-wall 27 Pilborough, John, Baron of the Exchequer 142. Pilgrims 166, 174. Pillory 221. Pin-money 137. Pins 136 ' Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham 228, 2.33, 234. Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham (The Younger) 239, 240, 244, 246, 247. Pius IX. Pope 263. 306 INDEX. Pizarro, Conqueror of Peru 135. Plague in London 100, 113, 189. Plantagenet, Name of 52. Plantagenet, Edmund, Earl of Kent 87. Plantagenet, Edmund, Duke of York 90. Plantagenet, Edward, Earl of Warwick 1"24, 127. Plantagenet, John, Duke of Bed- foid'l09. Plantagenet, Richard, Duke of York 110. Plantagenet, Thomas, Duke of (iioucester 87, 88, 90. Plunket, Eord 273. Plymouth Colony 16G, 174. Poet, First British 28. Pole, Cardinal 115. Police of London 251, 279. Pollock, Robert 251. Pope, Alexander 215. Pope, The only English 58. Pope and Canon law 93. Pope and Henry VIIL 132, 133. Pope and Tribute Monev paid to 77. Pope and William I. 35. Pope, Sir Thomas, Founder of Trinity College, Oxford 145. Population 154, 218, 279. Poor, First Laws Regarding the 152. Porteous, John 228. Porteus, Bishop of Chester and London 245. Portland, Duke of, Statesman 246, 247, 252. Postage 193, 271, 281. Potatoes, Introduction of 151. Pound Sterling 137. Power-loom 242. Prayer-book, The 140, 149, 171. Presbyterian Clergy 191. Preston, Gilbert d'e^ Judge 73. Pretender (Old and Young), (see Stuart). Pride, Colonel, Parlianientarv leader 173. Prideaux, Ilumphrev, Dean of Norwich 22G. Priestley, Joseph 245. Prince of Wales, First title of 77. Printer, First English 113. Printing 113, 121. 122, 103. Printing press 283. Prior, Alatthew 215. Priories 56. Promissory notes 214. Protectorate 178. Protestant Church, etc. (see Church). Protestantism 143, 149, 199, 203. Public Schools, First mentioned 16. Pulteney, William, Earl of 234. Puritans, The 165, 174, 190. Purveyance 121. Pye, Ilenry, Poet Laureate 246. P\in, John 172. Pythias, Greek Navigator 2. Quarles, Francis, Poet 175. Quinn, James, Actor 245. Querouaille, Louise de 194. R Radcliffe, Mrs. Ann 251. Raffles, .Sir Stamford, Governor of Java 251. Railways 255, 280. Raleigh, Sir Walter 151, 165, 167. Ramparts, Tyne to Sohvay Frith 27. Ramsey, Allan, Poet 215. Ratcliff, Sir Richard 11,9. Raymond, Earl of Provence 69. Rees, Dr. Abraham 251. Reform P>ill 25,3. Regency of George III. 241. Religion (also see Church) 3, 51, 157, 191, 230. Rene, Duke of Anjou 106. Rennie, John, Engineer 245. Restoration of Charles II. 185 to 188. Rents 44. INDEX. 30^ Reynolds, Sir Joshua, Painter 245. Ricardo, David, Banker 251. Rich, Rohert 178. Richard I. 52, 56, 58 to 62. Richard II. 87,89,95,99. Richard III. 106, 116 to 119. Richard, Duke of York 111. Richard, Son of King John, Elected King of the Romans 63. Richard, Son of William I. 29. Richardson, Samuel, Novelist 231. Richmond, Duke of 247. Richmond, Ducal House of 194. Ridlev, Bishop Nicholas 143, 145." Rights Bill of 204 Riots, The Gordon 237. Ripon, Earl of. Statesman 274. Roads, Early 7, 26. Robert of Belseme 44. Robert (Curthose) son of Will- iam I. 29, 37. Robert, Duke of Gloucester 47, 49. Robert, Duke of Normandv 29, 30, 36, 39. 43. Robert of Jamieges, Archbishop 36. Robert II. of Scotland 216. Robert III. of Scotland 100, 216. Robert, Sir James, Statesman 274. Roberts, Sir PVederick, Gov- ernor General of India 269. Robertson, William, Historian 245. Robin Hood, Outlaw 73. Robinson, Sir Thomas 233, 234. Rochester (see Carr and Wil- mot). Rockingham (see Wentworth). Rodnev, Lord, Admiral 243. Roman Catholics Excluded from the Ro\'al Succession 204. Romans 1, 5, 7, 8. Rooke, Sir George, Admiral 215. Rosamond (The Fair) 56. Roscoe, William, Litterateur 251. Rosebcry, Lord 276. Ross, Sir John, Arctic Explor- er 253. Rosslyn, James, Earl of 256. Rotteville, John, Architect 89. Roundheads 172. Rowe, Thomas, Litterateur 215. Royal Academv of Arts 238. Roval Exchange The 153, 190, 262. Royal Society The 192, 220 Royal Title Act 268. Royalists 176. Rulers Prior to the Norman Conquest, Table ix. Rulers After the Norman Con- quest, Table x. Rupert, Prince of Bavaria 172, 175, 220. Russell, Edward, Earl of Or- ford 209. Russell, John, Duke of Bedford 234, 246. Russell, Lord lobn, Statesman 253,2.56,273,274, 275. Russell, Sir John, Son-in-law of Oliver Cromwell 178. Russell, Lord William 191, 195. Russell, William, Historian 245. Russia, Emperor of, in England 242. Ruvter, Van de, Dutch Admi ral 195. Ryder, Richard 247, 248. Rye House Conspiracy 190. Sacheverel, Henry, Divine 213. Sackville, Edward, Earl of Dor- set 166. Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset, Poet 156. Sailors 15. Saint Leger, Sir Anthonv 146. Saladin I. Sultan of Egvpt 63. Salem 166. Salic Law 84. 308 INDEX. Salisbury (see Cecil.) Sanchez, King of Navarre 58. Sandwich, John Montague, Earl of 24(). Sandvs, Sir Kdward 1G2. Santa Fe 151. Sauniarez, James, Admiral 255. Sautre, Sir William, Burned 99, 101. Savage, Richard 233. Savery, Thomas, Inventor 278. Saville, George, Earl of Hali- fax 19G. Saxe-Coburg, Ernest, Duke of 2G0. Saxe-Coburg, Duke of 257. Saxe-Coburg Meiningen, Duke of 252. Saxe-Coburg, Prince of 248. Saxons 9, 10, 11, 24, 25, 26. Saxon V, East, West and .South 10. Scarle, John de. Lord Chancel- lor 101. Schools: Blue Coat 141; Char- ter House 8G, 1G3; First Pub- lic IG; Rugby 153; St. Paul's 135; Westminster 153; Win- chester 90. Schwartz, Inventor of Cannon 84. Science 217, 220. Scotland 10, 57, GO, 75, 171, 211. Scots G, 9, 17. Scott, John, Earl of Eldon 247, 255. Scott, Sir Walter, Novelist 251. Scottish Crown 75, 7G. Scroggs, .Sir William, Chief Justice 221. Scrope, Archbishop 100, 101. Seal, The Great 176. .Sebert or Sebba, King of Essex 12, 27. Secretary of State The, Office Created 137. Selbourne, Earl of 275. Selden, John, Archx-ologist 175. Sewing Machines 281. Sevenis, Lucius Septimus, Ro- man Emperor 27. Seymour, Edward, Duke of Somerset 139, 140, 142. Sevmour, Jane, Wife Henry VIII. 129. .Sevmour, Thomas, Lord Sude- fev 142. Shaftesbury, Earl of 209. Shah of Persia 270. Shakespeare William 155. Sharpe, Archlnshop 195. Sheffield-Whittle 153. Sheil, Richard Lalor 273 Shelburne Henry, Earl of 24G Shelley, Percy B. 245. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley 244. Sheriffe I>. Founder of Rugby School 153. Sherlock, Bishop 215. .Shillings First Coined 125. Ship >Ioney 171. .Ships and Shipping 15, 48, 125, 154, 158, 281. Shirlev, James, The Dramatist 155.' Shore, Jane 113. Shovel,\Sir Cloudsley 214, 215. .Shrewsbury, Charles, Duke of 216. vShrewsbury (see Talbot). Siddons Mrs. 255. Sidmouth, Viscount 247, 248, 252. Sidn'ey, Algernon 190, 191, 195. .Sidney, Lord 246. Sidnev, Sir Philip, Statesman 155." Sieges: Algiers 244; Alnwick 40; Calais 84; Carlisle 232 Chaluz 58; Gibraltar 214, 243 Harfleur 104; Mantes 30,36 Quebec 233, 243; Rochelie 174; Tournev 85. Silures or Wefsh 11. Silver-plate 152. Simeon of Durham 45. .Simnel, Lambert 126. Six Articles or the Bloodv-Bill 134. Siward, Earl of Northumber- land 23. Slavery 7, 18, 153, 236,554. INDEX, 309 Sloane, Sir Hans 234. Small-pox 277. Sincaton, John, Engineer 234. Sniiike, Robert, Architect 272. Smith, James, Humorist 255 Smith, Svdnev 245. Smollett," Dr. Tobias 230, 245. Sobieski, John, King of Poland 224. Society of Jesus 137. Society, The Royal 192. Socinius, Lotlius 138. Somers, Lord John 209. Somerset, Robert Carr, Ear! of 167. Somerset (see Sevmour). Sonnet, First English 136. Sophia, Daughter of George I. 223. Sophia, Dorothea, Wife of George I. 223. Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick 160. South African Company 270. South, Dr. Rol)ert 226. " South-sea Speculation 225. Sou they, Robert 272. South \vark 80. Spanish Netherlands 192. Spanish Succession War 208. Speaker House of Commons, first appointed 84. Spectacles first used 76. Spencer, Charles, Earl of Sun- derland, Statesman George I. 226. Spencer, Charles, Earl of Sun- derland, Statesman William HI 209. Spencer (de Spencer) Fa\orite of Edward H.Sl. Spencer, George John, Viscount Althorp, Statesman William IV. 255, 256. Spencer, Herbert, Scientist, 271. Spencer, Robert, Earl of .Sun- derland, Statesman James II. 201. Spenser, Edmund 155. Spert, Sir Thomas 136 Spinning Frame and Jenny 242, 278. Sports, King James' Book of 166. Spurgeon, Rey. Charles H. 272. Stafford, Edward, Duke of Buckingham High Constable 1.^5. Stafford, Humphrey, Duke of Buckingliam 109. Stafford, Henry, Fayorite of Richard HI. 119. Stafford, William Howard, Vis- count 193. Stafford, Marquis of, .Statesman George HI. 247. Stamps, Postage 281. Stanhope, Hon. Edward 276. .Stanhope, James, Earl of, States- man George I. 226. .Stanhope, Philip de, Earl of Chesterfield 234. Stanley, Bishop 128. .Stanley, William Owen 275. .Stanley (see Derby). Staple'lnn, Holborn 89. Star-Chamber 125, 171. Starch 145. Steamboat, The first 279. Steam Machinery and Motors 214, 236, 242, 249, 250, 255, 278, 279. Steele, Richard 215. Stepiien of Blois 46. Stephen's, St. Chapel 84. Stephenson, George, Engineer, 255, 272. Stephenson, Robert, Engineer, 255, 272. Stereotyping 232. Sterne, Lawrence 233. Stewart, Dugald, Philosopher 245. Stillingfleet, Bishop 200. Stockings, Silk and Worsted 45, 153. Stone Age 1. Stone Churches First Built 25, 26. Stormont, Lord William 246. Stothard, Thomas, R. A. 255. 310 INDEX. Slowc, John, Antiquarian 151, 156. Strafford, Thomas Wcntwortli, Earl of 170, 171, 175. Strand, London loG. Straw, Jack 88. Street Lighting, etc. 103, 219. Strode, John, Parliamentary Leader 172. Stuart, Lady ArabeUa IGl. Stuart, Charles Edward (^'oung Pretender) 217, 224, 232, 233, 277. .Stuart, Ilenrv, Cardinal York 224. Stuart, Ilenrv, Lord Darnley IGO Stuart, House of IGO, 186, 216, 277. Stuart, Janies Francis Edward (Old Pretender) 197, 217, 224, 225. Stuart, Marv, Queen of Scots 146, 149, 160, 216. Stuart, John, Earl of Bute, Statesman 236, 246. Succession to Crown regulated 204. Succession to the Crown, Rights of 99, 100. Succession to Crown, Table xv. Suetonius, Roman Emperor 5. Suffrage, Rights of 121,253,268. Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of 142. Suffolk, Charles Brandon, Duke of, Fatherof Ladv Jane Grcv 144. Suffolk, Clarence Brandon, Duke of 12:5. Suffolk, William, Duke of 109. Sunday Observance and .Sports 154, '166. Sunderland (see Spencer). Supremacy Act 1,32. Surrev, Earl of, First writer of blaiik verse 135, 136, 1.38. .Sunderland, Earl of 226. .Sweden 21, 25. Swevn, Danish King 20. Swift, Dean 215. Symington, William, 279. Talbot, Charles, Earl of Shrews- bury, .Statesman 226. Talbot, John, Earl of Shrews- burv 105. Talbo't, Richard, Earl of Tvr- connel 201, 205, 208. Tarn, Lsland of 34. Taxes and taxation 19, 22, 169, 207. Taylor, Bishop Jeremy 195. Tea introduced 221. Teignmouth, Lord John -Shoi^e 255. Telegraphing 241, 254, 282. Telephone 283. Telescopes 153, 217. Telford, Thomas 249, 2.50. Templars, Knights, Order of 44, 40,85,93. Temple Bar 270. Temple, Earl 2.34. Temple, Sir William 19-5, 196. Temple, The Middle 56, 85, 153. Tennvson, Lord Alfred 271. Test-act 191, 250. Thackerav, William Makepeace 271, Thane or Nobleman 18. Thanet, Island of 9. Theatres 1.53, 154, 157, 158, 192, 242. Theobald, Archbishop 54. Theobalds, The Palace of 161, 270. Theodore, King of Abvssinia 267. Theology 158. Thirty-Nine Articles 140. Thistle wood, Arthur 249. Thomas, Archbishop 46. Thomas, Lord Clifford 196. Thomas of Lancaster, Duke of Clarence 97, 101. Thomas, Son of Ed^vard I. 74. Thomson, James 233. Thornhill, Sir James 226. Thread, Cotton 1.36. Thurlow, Lord 246. INDEX. 311 Tierney, George 251. Tile, First used for Roofs 71. Tiilotson, Archbishop 200. Time Measured by CandlesTS. Times Newspaper 238. Tobacco, Introduced 151. Tosti, Brother of Harold II. 23. Tournament 49. Tourvillo, Comte de 206. Tower of London 34, 39, 47, 112. Townshend, Charles, Viscount 226. To« nshend, Charles, States- man George III. 246. Tracy, William dc. One of Becket's Assassins 55. Trafalgar (see Battles.) Translations 12, 16, 42, 94, 113, 136, 167. Trevelvan, Sir Charles Edward 271. ■' Treaties of Aix laChapelle 233; with America 241; of Breda 195; with Holland 232; of Limerick 205; of London (1827) 250; of Pardo 232; of Paris, (1763) 2.33; of Paris (1782- 1 783) 243; of Parti- tion with France and Ger- many 207; with Prussia 250; of Ryswick 207, 208; of Se- ville "232; (Secret) of Dover 192; with Spain 155; with States General 192; of Troves 102; of Utrecht 215; with United States (1SS8) 270. Trinity House 136. Tudor, House of 122, 157. Tudor, Edmund, Earl of Rich- mond 122. Tudor, Owen 122. Tunnel Thames 262. Turner, Joseph M. W. 273. Tvler, Wat 88, 90. Tvndale, William 138. T\ pe 163. Tyrrel, Walter Sir 37, 41. Tyrrell, Sir James 116. u Uffa, King of East Anglia 10,27. Ulster 196. Umbrellas, Introduced 221. Underground Railway 280. Uniformity Act 191. Union of England and Scotland 164, 211, 212. L^niversities Cambridge 12, 263; Dublin 80; London 250, 267; Oxford 15. Universities, Table xxxii. Uslier, James 181. V accination 277. alence, Aymar de 78. anbrugh. Sir John 217. ane. Sir Harrj' 181. asa, Guslaxus I. of Sweden 138. ansittart. Right Hon. Nicho- las 248. an Tromp, Admiral 181. illeins or Slaves 18. ere, Robert de. Earl of Ox- ford 90. ernon, E^dward, Admiral 233. entilators 232. ictoria. Queen 257 et seq. illiers, Barbara, Duchess of Cleveland 194. illiers, George, Duke of Buckingham 195, 196. illiers, George, Duke of Buck- ingham, Favorite of James I. 164. 166, 167, 169, 175. inci Leonaido di 138. irginia 163. oltigern, Chief of Kent 9. olunteers (see Army.) w Wages 220. Wales 57, 78, 137. Wales, Prince of, Title 77. Wallace, Sir William 78. Waller, Edmund 181, 312 INDEX. Waller, Sir William, Parlia- mentary General 181. Wallingford Conference 47. Wallis, Samuel, Navigator 241. Waipole, Horace, Earl of Or- ford 2;},'}. Waipole, Robert, Earl of Or- ford 224, 225, 22G. Waipole, Spencer 11. Statesman 274, 27.'). Walsingham, Sir Francis 150. Walsingliam of St. Albans, Monkish Historian 105. Walters, Lucy 194. Walton, Isaac 175. Walworth, William, Lord May- or of London 88, 90. Wantage Celebrates Alfred's Anniversary 17. Warbeck Perkin 126, 127. War Shijis 125. Warton, Thomas, Poet Lau- reate 24G. Warwick, Edward Plantagenet, Earl of 124, 127. Warwick, John, Duke of Nor- thundierland 140, 142. Warwick, Earl of 18. Warwick, Richard Neville (Kingmaker) 112, 115. Watches Introduced 153. Watt, lames, Inventor 242,245, 278." Watts, Dr. Isaac, Divine 226. Weaving Introduced from Flanders 84. Weights and Measures Regu- lated 44. Welsh Bards Massacred 75. Welleslev, Arthur, Duke of Wellington 252, 253, 256, 257, 264, 27.3, 274. Wellore, David de 87. Wentworth, Charles, Marquis of Rockingham 246. Wentworth, Thomas, Earl of Strafford 170, 171, 175. Weslev, Charles and John 230, 245. ■ West, Benjamin, Painter 251. Westminster Abbev 12, 22, 23, 75, 126. Westminster Hall 39, 89. Westmoreland, Earl of 247. Wharncliffe, Lord 256. Wharton, Thomas, Marquis of 226. White, Gilbert, Anticpiarian, 233. Wliite, Henry Kirke, Poet 245. White, Jeremiah, Chaplain to Oliver Cromwell 181. Whitefield, [ohn 245. Whitehall Palace 17.3. Whitehead, William 246. Whittle, the Shetlleld 1.53. Whittington, Sir Ricliard 105. Wilberforce, William 242,255. Wilkes, John 2,36,2.37. Wilkie, Sir David 272. Will, Power to Bequeath By 45. William I. (The Conqueror) 23, 29 32 33 35. Wni'iam'll'. 29, .36 to-.38. William III. 198, 201 to 207. William IV. 235, 252. William, Duke of Aquitaine 52. William, Earl of Hainault 82. William, Earl of Pembroke 58, 81. William, King of Sicily 52. William, Infant Son Henry II. 52. William, Son of Henry 1.42,43. William, Son of Robert, Duke of Normand\- 45. William, Son of Stephen of Blois 46. William I. of Scotland 57. Williams, David, Master of Rolls 128. Willoughby, Sir Hugh 141, 142. Wilmington, Lord 234. Wilmot, John, Earl of Roches- ter 195. ^Vinceslaus, Emperor of Ger- many 87. Windham, William 247. ^VindInills 76. Windsor 85, 120. Wine 76. INDEX. 313 Winifred, St. 25. Win.stanlev, William, Architect Eddystone liglithouse 214. . Winthrop, John IGC Witan Council 2(3. Wolfe, General 229, 233. Wolsev, Cardinal 131, 132, 135, 13G, "138. Wolseley, Raljih, JJaron of the Excliequer 11',). Woodstock Park 5(). Woodville, Klizahelh 111, 115. Woodville, .Sir Richard 111. Woolens, Flemish 44, 93. Woolsack 93. Wool-tratric 89. Wordsworth, William 273. Wren, Sir Christopher 190, 196, 214, 215, 217. Wriotheslev, Thomas, Earl of Southampton 139. Wvatt, Samuel, Architect of the Trinity Mouse 130. Wvatt, Sir Thomas, Poet 136, 138, 144. Wvcherlev, William 200. WVckliffe; John 90. Wvkeham, William of 90. WVnetlete, William of 110. W\on, Henjamin, Joseph S. and William, Medalists 273. Yates, Edmund 271. Yeoman, Richard, Martyr 146. Yeomen of the s^uard 125. Yewtrees 113. Youn<^, Edward 233. York ^7, 10,32. York, Mouse of 82, 111. i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 020 946 175 4