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Forward Looking Lessons 
 IN U.S. History 
 
 UP - TO - DATE — ALIVE 
 FOR SEVENTH GRADE 
 
 W.J. SAVAGE 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF THE COLMA AND DALY CITY SCHOOLS 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 1919 
 
 HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
Em 
 
 1919 
 Copyrighted by W. J. Savage 
 
 m 22 1919 
 
 ^t^9 I 
 
£^ 
 
 C4J 
 
 How and Why These Lessons Were 
 Composed and Published 
 
 After trying to teach United States History in 
 schools of California for twenty years, using such texts 
 as were available, the writer felt that he had never 
 succeeded. 
 
 No matter what plan he followed, nearly one-half of 
 each class lost interest before the end was reached. 
 Seeking for improvement, these lessons were developed. 
 Each lesson was dictated to an average class, the pupils 
 writing in their blank-books. The comprehension of 
 the weaker members was constantly borne in mind. 
 
 The following day the recitation took place. The 
 abler ones gave it in their own language. It was con- 
 sidered no disgrace for the others to recite verbatim. 
 For all there was a steady increase of vocabulary and 
 history. When the usual questions were asked, all were 
 ready with complete answers. 
 
 At the end of the year the ability of the class, com- 
 pared to that of the many preceding ones, was agree- 
 ably surprising. More than ninety per cent of them 
 had retained interest in the study and were able to 
 speak and write upon almost any topic fluently and 
 correctly. 
 
 For ten years past the lessons have been used, in 
 different localities, by seventh and eighth grade teach- 
 ers, and all report decided success. 
 
 The best eighth grade teacher the writer has known 
 said that she had always felt she was a failure in teach- 
 ing United States History until she tried these lessons. 
 With them her pupils were so enthusiastic and anxious 
 to discourse on the subject, she knew she had become a 
 success. 
 
 Another eighth grade teacher said if she should be 
 superseded she would take every history blank-book 
 away with her and that then her successor could never 
 reach the high standard she had attained. 
 
Besides a knowledge of history and the expression 
 of it, these lessons develop love of country, considera- 
 tion for others and independence of thought. 
 
 In conclusion, the lessons have been found to be so 
 helpful to the teachers and pupils who have used them 
 that the writer has complied with a steadily increasing 
 demand and they are published. 
 
 The lessons are offered in two books — one for the 
 seventh grade of thirty-seven lessons, each lesson being 
 considered ample for a week's work; the other for the 
 eighth grade of one hundred nine lessons, each for 
 a day's work. 
 
 Sufficient time for frequent reviews of the more 
 important subjects and outside reading of history 
 remains. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 W. J. SAVAGE. 
 
Publisher's Foreword 
 
 These lessons in United States History 
 for the Seventh and Eighth Grades, written 
 by W. J. Savage, have been thoroughly tried 
 out by practical teachers. The results have 
 been so satisfactory that the lessons are pre- 
 sented in permanent form. The topical 
 method, the simple language, the narrative 
 style, the use of a few words to tell the im- 
 portant facts, will certainly appeal to teach- 
 ers. The publishers believe that this book 
 will be of real service to the schools. 
 
Contents 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 
 
 Lesson 10. 
 
 Lesson 11. 
 
 Lesson 12. 
 
 Lesson 13. 
 
 Lesson 14. 
 
 Lesson 15. 
 
 Lesson 16. 
 Lesson 17. 
 Lesson 18. 
 Lesson 19. 
 Lesson 20. 
 Lesson 21. 
 Lesson 22. 
 Lesson 23. 
 
 Lesson 24. 
 Lesson 25. 
 Lesson 26. 
 
 Lesson 27. 
 Lesson 28. 
 Lesson 29. 
 Lesson 30. 
 Lesson 31. 
 
 Lesson 32. 
 Lesson 33. 
 Lesson 34. 
 
 Lesson 35. 
 
 Lesson 36. 
 Lesson 37. 
 
 Earliest Discoveries 7 
 
 Earliest Settlements 9 
 
 The Indians 10 
 
 English Explorers 12 
 
 The Thirteen Colonies 14 
 
 Virginia 15 
 
 Massachusetts 17 
 
 New York 19 
 
 Pennsylvania * 20 
 
 Rhode Island 22 
 
 Maryland 24 
 
 Connecticut 25 
 
 Georgia 26 
 
 The French in North America 28 
 
 The Struggle for the Ownership of the Missis- 
 sippi Valley 29 
 
 The Wars Between the French and English 30 
 
 First Half of the French and Indian War 32 
 
 Second Half of the French and Indian War 34 
 
 Results of the French and Indian War , 36 
 
 The Cause of the Revolution 37 
 
 The Beginning of the Revolutionary War 39 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill 40 
 
 George Washington Became Commander-in- 
 Chief 42 
 
 The Continental Congress 44 
 
 Campaign Around New York City 45 
 
 Washington Wins Battle of Trenton and Re- 
 stores Confidence 47 
 
 The Battle of Quebec 48 
 
 Philadelphia Falls Into the Hands of the British.. 49 
 
 Turning Point of the Revolution 50 
 
 Suffering at Valley Forge 51 
 
 The Americans Regain Philadelphia and the 
 
 Battle of Monmouth — Benedict Arnold 53 
 
 The Revolution in the South — Yorktown..... 54 
 
 Revolutionary War at Sea 56 
 
 How the Mississippi Valley Was Saved for the 
 
 Americans 56 
 
 The Treaty of Peace That Ended the Revolution- 
 ary War 57 
 
 After the Revolutionary War 58 
 
 The American Flag 58 
 
Earliest Discoveries 
 
 LESSON 1 
 
 Four hundred and fifty years ago only a small part 
 of our world was known to civilized people. The parts 
 that were known consisted of all of Europe, the north- 
 em part of Africa, and the western part of Asia. No 
 one knew anything about North and South America 
 and very little more was known about the southern 
 part of Africa and the eastern part of Asia. 
 
 Even the civilized people of that time were igno- 
 rant of many things that we know. They thought that 
 the world was flat, that if a ship sailed very far away 
 from land it would come to boiling seas, or a falling off 
 place, and they thought that the unknown lands were 
 inhabited by terrible beasts. 
 
 Finally the compass was invented and this gave the 
 sailors more confidence in themselves and they sailed 
 farther and farther from land. 
 
 Gradually a few wise men began to think that the 
 world was round and not flat. The leader of these wise 
 men, who believed the world was round, was Chris- 
 topher Columbus. 
 
 He noticed what great trouble the merchants had in 
 getting the rich products of Asia to sell in Europe. 
 He thought that Asia might be reached by saihng west. 
 He tried to explain this idea to the rulers of Italy, but 
 they would not listen to him. He was treated about 
 the same in Portugal. Then he went to the rulers of 
 Spain, and at first they laughed at him, there, too. He 
 was treated so badly in Spain that he started out for 
 France. He was not far on his way when he was 
 called back by messengers sent by Queen Isabella, 
 who was ready to give up her jewels in order to pro- 
 vide Columbus with ships and men to make the voysLge 
 across the unknown Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 With three small ships, he started out from Palos, 
 in Spain, and on October 12, 1492, he discovered the 
 
8 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 New World. The greatest benefit of the discovery of 
 Columbus is that it proved that the world was round ; 
 that there were no boiling seas; no falling off places; 
 and no terrible beasts. 
 
 After Columbus made his first famous voyage he 
 crossed the Atlantic three times more. During one of 
 these voyages he reached the mainland of South Amer- 
 ica in 1499. 
 
 John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing under the Eng- 
 lish flag, in 1497 were the first to see the mainland of 
 North America. They explored the coast from Lab- 
 rador almost to Florida. Upon their voyage and explor- 
 ation the English claimed all of North America. 
 
 For many years after the discovery by Columbus, 
 the people of Europe did not seem to care for the New 
 World. They cared a great deal more for the spices, 
 silks and jewels of eastern Asia. Their whole thought 
 was to find an easy way to get these articles to sell in 
 the markets of Europe. 
 
 Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese sailor, sailed around 
 Africa through the Indian Ocean, reached India and 
 brought back a shipload of spices and silks in 1499. So 
 Vasco de Gama found the easy way to get the goods 
 from eastern Asia. 
 
 In 1501 Americus Vespucci, a Portuguese navigator, 
 explored the coast of South America. When he re- 
 turned home he wrote an account of his trip and de- 
 scribed the land he had seen. A German making a 
 geography, about the same time, and having read Ves- 
 pucci's account, called the New World, America, after 
 the writer. This is the way America got its name. No 
 one intended to rob Columbus by not giving the new 
 land his name. The other name was given by accident. 
 
 In 1513 Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean, after 
 crossing the Isthmus of Panama. He called it the 
 South Sea because he first saw it in that direction. 
 
 In 1513 Ponce de Leon, a Spaniard looking for the 
 "fountain of youth," discovered Florida on Easter 
 Sunday. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 9 
 
 In 1519 Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, left 
 Spain, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, passed through the 
 Straits of Magellan, entered the Pacific Ocean, and 
 sailed northward to the East Indies. From there a few 
 of his men and one ship went back to Spain by sailing 
 through the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good 
 Hope and through the Atlantic Ocean. This was the 
 first trip around the world. It took nearly three years 
 and cost the life of Magellan and most of his men, still 
 it was worth all that it cost, because it proved beyond 
 doubt that the world was round. It was Magellan that 
 gave the name Pacific to the ocean that Balboa had dis- 
 covered. He called it so on account of its smoothness 
 compared to other oceans. 
 
 In 1519 Cortez conquered Mexico. In 1539 Ferdi- 
 nand de Soto discovered the Mississippi River. 
 
 Earliest Settlements 
 
 LESSON 2 
 
 By discovery we mean when a place is seen for the 
 first time by civilized men. 
 
 By exploration we mean when a person travels over 
 a place that has already been discovered in order to 
 find out about its soil, climate, inhabitants and animals. 
 
 By settlement we mean when the people start homes 
 in which to live in the new land. 
 
 After the New World had been discovered and 
 partly explored, several nations began to prepare to 
 establish settlements or colonies in the new land. The 
 nations that took part in this work were Spain, Eng- 
 land, Russia, Holland, Sweden, France and Portugal. 
 
 The Spanish made their colonies in the West Indies, 
 Mexico, California, Florida and South America. 
 
 The Russians made their colony in Alaska. 
 
 The Dutch made their colonies in what is now New 
 York. 
 
10 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Swedes made their settlements in New Jersey. 
 
 The French made their colonies in Canada and in 
 the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 The Portuguese made their colony in what is now 
 Brazil in South America. 
 
 Each one of these nations founded its colonies for 
 at least three reasons: to trade with the Indians, to 
 look for gold, or to get more land for the mother 
 country. 
 
 The first settlements in the United States were 
 made by the Spanish, the first one being at St. Augus- 
 tine in Florida in 1565 and the second one at Santa Fe 
 in New Mexico in 1582. 
 
 The first English settlement in the United States 
 was made at Jamestown in 1607 and the second Eng- 
 lish settlement at Plymouth in 1620. 
 
 Sir Henry Hudson, in 1609, discovered the Hudson 
 river for the Dutch and shortly after that the Dutch 
 started a settlement there, so that they could trade 
 with the Indians. The Dutch were great traders. 
 
 The French began their settlement along the St. 
 Lawrence river as early as 1605. 
 
 The Indians 
 
 LESSON 3 
 
 Columbus, thinking that he had reached India upon 
 his first voyage, called the natives whom he saw at San 
 Salvador and Cuba, Indians. 
 
 This name, although given through mistake, is the 
 one by which the original natives are called to this day. 
 
 The Indians whom Columbus and the other discov- 
 erers met upon their first voyage, were gentle and 
 friendly to the strange visitors. The Indians offered 
 presents such as fruit, bows and arrows, and other 
 trinkets that they cared for to show their friendliness. 
 The early discoverers did not care much for the pres- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 11 
 
 ents that the Indians offered, but were looking anx- 
 iously for gold. 
 
 As the years went by, a number of the explorers 
 treated the Indians, in different places, cruelly. This 
 treatment changed the nature of the Indians, and at 
 last they became the enemies of the whites. 
 
 The natives were not all alike. In the far north they 
 were called Eskimos and were not much inclined to 
 fight. 
 
 The most civilized were the Aztecs of Mexico and 
 the Incas of Peru. These Aztecs and Incas had gov- 
 ernments, cities and towns. They obtained gold from 
 the mines and they cultivated the land. There were 
 many of them. 
 
 The noble redman, or real Indian, lived in what is 
 now the United States. The redmen had no cities or 
 towns or government. They gathered in tribes and 
 lived in villages composed of tents called wigwams. The 
 strongest and bravest man of the tribe was called the 
 chief and all the others obeyed him. 
 
 These red men were very warlike, never being con- 
 tented except when at war. They fought tribe against 
 tribe, or against the whites, almost all the time. The 
 remarkable thing about the redmen is the way in which 
 they would suffer pain without letting anyone know 
 their feelings. No Indian ever cried or groaned and 
 it may be said that he did not laugh, or even smile very 
 often. They were cruel to their enemies, taking scalps 
 in battle, and sometimes burning their prisoners at the 
 stake. They were very good to their friends and never 
 forgot a kindness. They believed strongly in taking 
 revenge for any unkindness. 
 
 In battle they believed in taking every advantage 
 of the enemy. They would sneak upon him at night and 
 dash his brains out with a tomahawk while he slept. 
 They would ambush behind trees and rocks and would 
 shoot the enemy with a bow and arrow when he least 
 expected death. 
 
12 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The noble redmen treated their women as slaves 
 and compelled them to do what little work was to be 
 done. 
 
 We will close now with a few words which the 
 Indians used. They called our books ''talking leaves," 
 our ships ''white winged birds/' our whiskey "fire- 
 water," our President "the big chief," our heaven the 
 "happy hunting grounds," our God "the great spirit," 
 and ourselves "the palefaces." 
 
 English Explorers 
 
 LESSON 4 
 
 For about eighty years after the discovery of the 
 New World by Columbus in 1492, Spain steadily became 
 a stronger and stronger commercial country. For a 
 time the Spaniards were the leading commercial people 
 of Europe. Spain had immense colonial possessions. 
 She ruled nearly all of South America, Mexico, the 
 southern part of what is now the United States, the 
 East Indies and the West Indies. 
 
 The people of England didn't seem to take much 
 interest after the Cabots made their voyage, until the 
 reign of Queen Elizabeth, who was one of the greatest 
 queens of England. Under Queen Elizabeth the Eng- 
 lish people began to wake up and to increase the great- 
 ness of their country in commerce, in literature and in 
 many other ways. 
 
 When England began to improve so rapidly the 
 Spanish people became jealous of her and determined 
 to crush her. So a great fleet of Spanish warships was 
 gathered together to destroy England. This great 
 fleet was called the Invincible Armada. The Annada 
 sailed from Spain to England. The English sailors, in 
 such ships as they had, bravely met and fought the 
 Spaniards. Although the Spaniards thought them- 
 selves invincible, the Armada was scattered by the 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 13 
 
 English. A big stonn at sea completed the destroy- 
 ing of the Invincible Armada. 
 
 After the destruction of the Armada, England be- 
 came the rival of Spain in commercial enterprises. 
 
 Sir Francis Drake, one of the captains who fought 
 the Armada, was the first Englishman to sail around 
 the world. On his famous trip he visited the coast of 
 California and spent a winter at a place called Drake's 
 Bay. He named the land around the bay New Albion 
 and claimed it for England. Sir Francis Drake did not 
 care for new lands. He wanted to capture Spanish 
 ships and their cargoes. On this famous trip it is said 
 that he captured twenty tons of silver and eighty 
 pounds of gold from the Spaniards. The Spanish sail- 
 ors were much afraid of Sir Francis Drake and called 
 him the "Scourge of the Seas." 
 
 The first attempt by the English people to found a 
 colony in the New World was made by Sir Humphrey 
 Gilbert. With his sailors he sailed across the Atlantic 
 from England and landed on the dreary shore of Lab- 
 rador. His attempt to start a colony had to be given 
 up on account of the extreme cold. On the return trip 
 all were lost. 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh, who was a half-brother of Sir 
 Humphrey Gilbert, and a great favorite of Queen Eliz- 
 abeth's, resolved to make a success where Sir Hum- 
 phrey Gilbert had failed. Profiting by the knowledge 
 gained about the cold climate in Labrador, Raleigh sent 
 his settlers to some place on the shore of North Caro- 
 lina, where the climate was mild. The ships that 
 brought the settlers remained until the little colony 
 seemed to be started. It was there, when the ships 
 returned to England, but nobody knows what hap- 
 pened to it. So Raleigh's attempt to found a colony 
 was just about as bad a failure as Gilbert's. 
 
14 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Thirteen Colonies 
 
 LESSON 5 
 
 The thirteen colonies are of great interest to every- 
 one who loves history, because they are the most im- 
 portant colonies ever founded by man. 
 
 These colonies were situated in the eastern part of 
 North America, along the Atlantic Coast, between 
 Maine on the north and Florida on the south. 
 
 Their names are, beginning on the north and going 
 toward the south: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. 
 
 There is a delightful story connected with the found- 
 ing of every one of these thirteen great colonies. The 
 first settlers of each one had a great many adventures 
 and not a few hardships to put up with. They had to 
 build log houses for themselves, clear the land of brush 
 and trees, and always be on the look-out for hostile 
 Indians. While these early settlers had to endure many 
 hardships, there were numerous pleasures for them 
 also. The young men found great enjo3mient for them- 
 selves in hunting wild game and even young ladies took 
 an interest in starting new homes in the wilderness. 
 In the next few lessons we will learn how the English 
 Cavaliers settled Virginia, how the English Puritans 
 settled Massachusetts, how the Dutch traders settled 
 New York, how the English Quakers settled Pennsyl- 
 vania, how the English Catholics settled Maryland, how 
 Roger William's followers settled Rhode Island and how 
 the English debtors settled Georgia. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 15 
 
 Virginia 
 
 LESSON 6 
 
 For the purpose of settlement the King of England 
 granted the land in North America to two companies 
 and they were called the London Company and the 
 Plymouth Company. The money to carry on the work 
 of these two companies was subscribed by the mer- 
 chants of London and Plymouth and thus they got 
 their names. 
 
 The Pljmiouth Company was granted all the land 
 from Nova Scotia to New York and westward to the 
 Pacific Ocean. The London Company was granted all 
 the land from the Potomac River to the Cape Fear 
 River and westward to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The London Company was the first to begin the 
 work of settlement. In 1607 one hundred and fifty 
 colonists were sent out. They landed in Virginia and 
 started a settlement which they called Jamestown. The 
 first settlers in Virginia were not the right kind of 
 men to make a colony successful. They considered 
 themselves gentlemen and too good to do hard work. 
 Instead of building cabins and gathering a winter's 
 supply of food for themselves, they wandered around 
 looking at the beautiful country and thinking what fine 
 people they were. 
 
 When the winter came there was no shelter for 
 them and nothing to eat. More than one-half of them 
 died. All of them would have died if it hadn't been 
 for good and brave Captain John Smith. He made a 
 rule that those who would not work should not be given 
 anything to eat. That rule compelled them to go to 
 work. 
 
 Captain John Smith was working all the time find- 
 ing out about the country and getting food from the 
 Indians. Once he was captured by the Indians and 
 was going to be put to death. He was stretched on 
 the ground and his feet and hands tied to four stakes. 
 
16 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 A big rock was placed under his head. A stout warrior 
 with a large war club was appointed to beat out his 
 brains. Just as the first fatal blow was about to be 
 struck the chief's daughter, Pocahontas, rushed for- 
 ward and saved Captain Smith's life. 
 
 After the first hard winter Jamestown prospered. 
 Many other settlers came over from England. Each 
 one was given a particular piece of ground to take care 
 of. Tobacco and corn were the principal crops. For 
 awhile tobacco was used instead of money. The cost 
 of bringing over the first women was paid in tobacco. 
 After the women came the colonists did better work 
 and lived more in contentment. 
 
 In 1619 the people of Virginia started the first rep- 
 resentative government in America. It was called the 
 House of Burgesses and consisted of representatives 
 from each of the several settlements of Virginia. This 
 House of Burgesses made all the laws necessary for the 
 colony. 
 
 In 1619, the same year that free government was 
 introduced in America, the first slaves were brought to 
 Virginia. These slaves were negroes brought from 
 Africa by a Dutch trading ship. The slaves were bought 
 by the Virginians and worked so well in the com and 
 tobacco fields that afterwards there was a great de- 
 mand for more slaves. 
 
 Virginia was nearly always a royal colony — that is, 
 its governor was appointed by the King of England. 
 So, sometimes, they had a good governor and more 
 times a bad one. One of the worst was Governor Berke- 
 ley. He wanted to get rich fast by trading with the 
 Indians. He wouldn't protect the colonists against the 
 Indians. The people became dissatisfied and under 
 Nathaniel Bacon they rose against the Indians and 
 drove them away. Then they went after Governor 
 Berkeley and frightened him as much as they did the 
 Indians. Just as they had control of the colony Na- 
 thaniel Bacon died and Bacon's rebellion was at an end. 
 Governor Berkeley returned to power and put several 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 17 
 
 of his people to death. For this he was recalled by the 
 king. From the time of Bacon's rebellion, Virginia, on 
 account of its rich soil and fine climate, steadily grew 
 in wealth and population. At the beginning of the Rev- 
 olutionary War it was perhaps the most prosperous 
 colony. 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 LESSON 7 
 
 Massachusetts was settled by the Puritans, some- 
 times called Pilgrims. They were called Puritans be- 
 cause they were so pure in their religious belief and 
 they were called Pilgrims because they traveled about 
 from place to place. 
 
 The native land of these Puritans was England. 
 All things of an English nature were dear to them. 
 The only thing they objected to was the English 
 Church. They did not like the ceremonies of the 
 church and they did not like the liberty that this church 
 gave its people, such as dancing, going to the thea- 
 tres and having a good time on Sunday. 
 
 The Puritans thought that this was all wrong and 
 that people should not have any good times at all, but 
 should spend all the time at work or worshiping God. 
 
 The people of the English Church didn't like to have 
 the Puritans finding fault with them and their church 
 and talking about them. They were stronger than the 
 Puritans and so they gave the Puritans a rather hard 
 time. It may be said that they persecuted them. 
 
 So a large number of the Puritans went over to 
 Holland to find a place where they could worship God 
 as they pleased. They had been in Holland only a few 
 years when they decided to leave that place. They left 
 Holland because they didn't want their children to for- 
 get the ways, manners, and customs of old England 
 and especially the language. 
 
18 FORWARD LOOKINK LESSONS 
 
 When they decided to leave Holland they all thought 
 of starting a new and a free home for themselves in 
 North America. They obtained permission from the 
 London Company to found a colony in the New World. 
 
 In the * 'Mayflower" and another vessel they left 
 Holland and went to England to bid their friends there 
 "good-bye." From England in the "Mayflower," alone, 
 about one hundred of them crossed the Atlantic, tak- 
 ing sixty-three days to make the trip. They intended 
 to land on the coast of New Jersey, but instead they 
 landed on the coast of Massachusetts. Here in 1620 
 they founded Plymouth, the beginning of the great 
 State of Massachusetts. 
 
 Their first Governor was John Carver. Miles Stand- 
 ish was their captain. William Brewster was another 
 one of their great men. The first winter in the New 
 World was a very hard one for them. They had neither 
 shelter nor food. More than half of them died. 
 
 Fortunately the Indians, called the Wampanoags, 
 were kind to them. The chief, Massasoit, did all he 
 could to help them. He gave them com and venison to 
 eat and showed them how to plant and raise com. 
 
 When the Puritans had their settlement fairly well 
 started they held the first Thanksgiving feast. All the 
 people and a number of Indians were present. They 
 had roast turkey, com cakes and corn pudding and ven- 
 ison. They gave thanks to God for being allowed to 
 live in a land where they could worship God as they 
 pleased. 
 
 Afterwards many other settlers came to Massachu- 
 setts and at the time of the Revolutionary War it was 
 perhaps the leading colony in the great struggle for 
 Hberty. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 19 
 
 New York 
 
 LESSON 8 
 
 By the discovery and exploration of Sir Henry Hud- 
 son, who sailed under the Dutch flag, the Dutch people 
 obtained a right to claim New York and the surround- 
 ing country. When Sir Henry Hudson went back to 
 Holland he told the people about the Hudson River and 
 the new land he had seen. He also told about the In- 
 dians and the furs that could be purchased from them 
 for little or nothing. When the Dutch people learned 
 about the furs they were very anxious to establish 
 trading posts in the new land. 
 
 In 1614 a number of traders landed in New York, 
 which they called New Amsterdam, in honor of their 
 native land. These traders established trading posts 
 along the Hudson from its mouth, as far north as where 
 Albany now stands. The trading in furs was very 
 profitable and natui'ally more and more traders came 
 over from Holland. A company of these traders bought 
 the island of Manhattan from the Indians for trinkets 
 worth about twenty-four dollars. This island of Man- 
 hattan is where the great city of New York now stands. 
 This land is now worth far more than $2,400,000,000. 
 
 All the first settlers in New York were traders. 
 After awhile, though, an effort was made to get farm- 
 ers to come over and settle there. To encourage the 
 coming of farmers it was decided to give any person, 
 who would settle fifty persons who would farm, a piece 
 of land sixteen miles along a river bank. The head of 
 one of these farming settlements was called a Patroon. 
 In this way the rich land of New York valleys was per- 
 manently settled. 
 
 There were many Dutch Governors, but the best of 
 them was Peter Stuyvesant. He conquered the Swedes 
 in Delaware, made treaties of peace with the Indians 
 and in many ways strengthened the colony. 
 
20 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 In 1664 the English, who controlled all the other 
 colonies, decided to take New York away from the 
 Dutch. A small fleet was sent over and it appeared be- 
 fore New Amsterdam and demanded its surrender. 
 Peter Stuyvesant wanted to fight the English, but his 
 people wouldn't help him, so the colony was surrendered 
 to the English. 
 
 The English king gave the colony to his brother, 
 the Duke of York, who changed the name from New 
 Amsterdam to New York, in honor of himself. The 
 Dutch people were hard working and very saving. They 
 made New York the leading colony for commerce and 
 even today it leads all the other States in wealth and 
 population. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War the people of New 
 York did their best to help win our independence. 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 LESSON 9 
 
 Several of the colonies were settled in order to make 
 homes for people who were persecuted on account of 
 their religion. 
 
 The Quakers were a peculiar religious sect. They 
 called themselves Friends, but the other people called 
 them Quakers. They did not beUeve in any title of no- 
 bility. They did not even believe in "Mr." and "Mrs." 
 They addressed each other using the word "friend." 
 They were opposed to all kinds of war. If a person 
 struck one of them on the cheek, he would turn and let 
 him hit him on the other. The men kept their hats on 
 even in the presence of the king. In their meeting 
 houses or churches there were no priests or ministers. 
 They would go to church, sit down, and wait until the 
 spirit moved someone to speak. Nowadays when a 
 company of people sit silent in a parlor someone is sure 
 to call it a "Quaker's meeting." William Penn was one 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 21 
 
 of the greatest leaders of the Quakers. He felt very 
 sad to notice how his people were treated in England. 
 At last he decided to establish a home for them in the 
 New World. 
 
 The King of England owed William Penn's father 
 eight hundred pounds ($4,000) for services rendered 
 as an English admiral. When his father died William 
 Penn inherited this claim. The king did not have any 
 money to spare. William Penn agreed to take land in 
 the New World instead of the money. He was given 
 what is now Pennsylvania. Although William Penn had 
 bought and paid for the land he did not forget that the 
 Indians were the real owners. 
 
 When William Penn first came to the New World 
 with a large company of Quakers, he bought the land 
 a second time from the Indians and made a treaty of 
 peace with them under a tree which is known as Penn's 
 Treaty Tree. 
 
 The Indians were so pleased with the gentle and 
 honest ways of the Quakers that they said they would 
 live in peace with the children of William Penn as long 
 as the sun and moon would shine, or as many years as 
 there were leaves on the trees. This treaty was kept 
 because the Indians never shed a drop of Quaker blood. 
 After the treaty was made with the Indians, the city of 
 brotherly love, Philadelphia, was laid out and there the 
 first settlement was made. The whole colony was called 
 Pennsylvania, which means "Penn's woods." William 
 Penn wanted to call it Sylvania, but the king added the 
 word *Tenn" making it Pennsylvania. 
 
 From the very beginning the Quakers prospered in 
 their new homes. Every one of them worked hard and 
 the Indians helped them all they could. Good laws were 
 made for the government of the colony. People of all 
 religions were free to come and settle there. At the 
 time of the Revolutionary War, Pennsylvania was a rich 
 and populous colony. While the people did not believe 
 in war, they did what they could, because it was a 
 struggle for liberty. They loaned money to carry on 
 
22 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the war, and, also, one of the wisest men of the time, 
 Benjamin Franklin, made the colony his home. In con- 
 clusion we may say that it is a good thing for this 
 country that the Quakers settled in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 LESSON 10 
 
 The early settlers in Massachusetts were very strict 
 about their religion. They had left England because 
 the people of the English Church had persecuted them. 
 They had come to the New World to find a place where 
 they could worship God as they pleased. While they 
 wished to worship in their own way, they were so nar- 
 row-minded that they would not let people of other 
 rehgions do the same. They persecuted Quakers and 
 Free Thinkers just the same as they had been perse- 
 cuted themselves. These Puritans of Massachusetts 
 passed laws requiring that a person living in the colony 
 must go to church regularly, and that no one could 
 vote there unless he was a member of the church. 
 
 Among the settlers, who came in 1631, there was a 
 young man named Roger Williams. This man was well 
 educated and liberal-minded and so he was not allowed 
 to say what he believed. He was such a good speaker 
 that they made him minister of one of the churches. 
 As a minister he felt that it was his duty to tell the 
 people the truth. He said that people should be allowed 
 to vote whether they belonged to a church or not ; that 
 there should be freedom for all religions; that all the 
 land belonged to the Indians and should not be taken 
 without giving something in return. When the nar- 
 row-minded leaders of Massachusetts learned that 
 Roger Williams had said these things, they became very 
 angry and charged Roger Williams with disloyalty and 
 called him a heretic. When Roger Williams heard of 
 the charge against him he knew that his enemies in- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 23 
 
 tended to banish him or drive him from the colony. So 
 he went away himself with a few companions into the 
 wilderness. He was not afraid of the Indians. He be- 
 lieved that they would treat him right, even if the Puri- 
 tans would not. He was not mistaken — Massasoit and 
 the other Indians gave him food and shelter. 
 
 After a while he founded Providence Plantation, 
 which was the first settlement in Rhode Island. In this 
 settlement, like in Pennsylvania, every person was free 
 to worship in whatever religion he liked. The Indians 
 were paid for their land and the little colony prospered. 
 
 A few years later another settlement, called Ports- 
 mouth, was made by Anne Hutchinson, who was driven 
 from Massachusetts, also on account of her religious 
 belief. When they drove her away quite a number of 
 her friends followed, and the settlement grew rapidly. 
 
 When the Pequot Indian War broke out and the 
 Indians made up their minds to destroy all the settle- 
 ments of Massachusetts, Roger Williams showed that 
 he could return good treatment for very bad treatment. 
 He sent messages to the people of Massachusetts, warn- 
 ing them of what the Pequots intended to do, and he 
 risked his own life, going through the wilderness in the 
 winter to the Council of Narragansetts, where he suc- 
 ceeded in keeping that tribe from joining the Pequots, 
 and thus saved Massachusetts from destruction. 
 
 We owe a great deal to Roger Williams. He was 
 the first man to fight for religious liberty in this coun- 
 try. He was the first man to say that religion should 
 have nothing to do with politics. His ideas have been 
 adopted by all the people of our great country. Rhode 
 Island is the smallest State, but if it had never done 
 anything except to make a home for Roger Williams, 
 every American should be proud of it. Roger Williams' 
 ideas are the right ones for us all to follow — even today. 
 
24 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Maryland 
 
 LESSON 11 
 
 Maryland is another colony that was settled on ac- 
 count of religious persecution. About the time of the 
 settlement of the colonies the Catholics of England 
 were persecuted severely. They were not allowed to 
 have church service on account of their religion. Their 
 children were not allowed to go to Catholic churches or 
 schools. They were not allowed to own land or carry 
 firearms of any description. One of their leaders was 
 Lord Baltimore. Like William Penn, he made up his 
 mind to found a home for his persecuted people in 
 America. 
 
 When he went to the King of England and explained 
 to him what he intended to do, the king received him 
 in a friendly manner and willingly granted him land 
 south of Pennsylvania, on the shores of the Chesapeake 
 Bay. This was very fine land for his colony, as the soil 
 was rich and the climate warm. All he had to give the 
 king for this was two arrows each year and a small 
 part of the gold that was found. 
 
 Before the colony was settled Lord Baltimore died, 
 but his son carried out his father's plans. When they 
 came to Maryland they treated the Indians kindly and 
 made liberal laws for their government. One of the 
 laws was that people of all religions should settle there 
 in peace. The only trouble they had was with the peo- 
 ple of Virginia, who claimed Maryland as a part of Vir- 
 ginia. More than once they attacked the Marylanders 
 and once captured the whole colony and made a law that 
 no Catholic should live there. Fortunately the Virgin- 
 ians did not remain in control long. They listened to 
 the advice of their better men and stopped fighting 
 Maryland. 
 
 Maryland was named in honor of Mary, a Catholic 
 queen of England. Lord Baltimore is remembered to 
 this day by the beautiful city named Baltimore, which 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 25 
 
 is about as large as San Francisco. On account of the 
 rich soil and warm climate, Maryland increased rapidly 
 in wealth and population. At the time of the Revolu- 
 tionary War it was one of the strong colonies and the 
 people helped all they could to win our independence. 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 LESSON 12 
 
 While Connecticut does not stand out so promi- 
 nently in its early history as several of the other colo- 
 nies, still it is deserving of a short lesson. Its settle- 
 ment began shortly after 1630. Stories had been told 
 to the settlers of Massachusetts of the rich land in the 
 Connecticut River Valley. It had also been told that 
 the Pequot Indians, who lived there, were very war-like 
 and did not like the white settlers. 
 
 The thoughts of the good crops that could be raised 
 in the Connecticut River Valley overcame the fear of 
 the Indians, however. A large number of the colonists 
 who were disappointed with the stony soil of Massa- 
 chusetts went out to Connecticut and founded three 
 small towns there. One of these towns was Hartford. 
 From the beginning Connecticut settlements prospered, 
 although there was always danger of Indian attacks 
 and there was fear of the Dutch, too, as they claimed it. 
 At last the Pequots declared war against the whites 
 and all the settlements were attacked. Many homes 
 were destroyed and many lives were lost. For a time 
 it seemed as if the colony would be destroyed entirely 
 by the Indians. It was in this Indian War that Roger 
 Williams showed how to return good for evil. At the 
 risk of his own life he kept the Narragansetts from 
 joining the Pequots and thus saved not only Connecti- 
 cut but all the other New England colonies. 
 
 When the New England colonies formed a league 
 their army punished the Pequots severely by killing 
 
26 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 many of them and destroying their villages. After- 
 wards the Pequots were not able to do much harm. 
 
 When there was no more fear of the Indians, Con- 
 necticut increased rapidly in population and soon be- 
 came one of the most important colonies. 
 
 When Sir Edmund Andros, the tyrannical governor, 
 who was appointed by the king to rule all the New Eng- 
 land colonies, came to Connecticut and commanded the 
 people to surrender their charter to him, they refused. 
 While Sir Edmund Andros's proclamation was being 
 read the men of Connecticut beat their drums and made 
 a great uproar. During the confusion the charter was 
 taken away and hidden in an old tree, which was known 
 for many years afterwards as Charter Oak. The people 
 of Connecticut never surrendered their rights to the 
 tyrant. 
 
 It was in Connecticut that one of our first great 
 American colleges was established. It was called Yale 
 College and is today one of the most advanced and 
 largest colleges in the world. Harvard College is in 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 On account of the great struggle the people had 
 with the Indians they became fearless in all respects. 
 When the Revolutionary War came on they were anx- 
 ious to fight. They left their work in the field and 
 rushed to the scenes of war ready to give up everything 
 for the sake of liberty. From among them came Gen- 
 eral Israel Putnam and several other well-known great 
 leaders. Connecticut always did her part and did it 
 well. 
 
 Georgia 
 
 LESSON 13 
 
 It is not necessary for us to study in detail about 
 North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Delaware 
 and New Hampshire. All we need to remember is that 
 Delaware was settled by the Swedes, from whom it was 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 27 
 
 taken by the Dutch and then the English took it from 
 them. The Carohnas were settled by people of Vir- 
 ginia. New Jersey and New Hampshire were settled 
 mostly by the English people. 
 
 Georgia is the last colony we have to study about. 
 We have learned that Massachusetts was settled to 
 make a home for persecuted Puritans, Pennsylvania 
 for the Quakers, Maryland for the Catholics and Rhode 
 Island for the people that the Puritans of Massachu- 
 setts persecuted. All these people were persecuted on 
 account of their religion. The first settlers of Georgia 
 were persecuted in England, too, but not on account of 
 religion. According to the old laws of England, if a 
 man did not pay his debts he would be put into jail and 
 kept there until some friend paid what he owed. Very 
 few friends like to pay out their money without getting 
 some security in return. These people in jail had no 
 security to give and so they stayed in jail for years and 
 years. The jails were full of them. James Oglethorpe, 
 a member of Parliament, and a good-natured man, took 
 pity upon the poor debtors locked in jail. He got a 
 large number of friends to take an interest in helping 
 them. He obtained a charter from the king for a tract 
 of land in America, reaching from South Carolina to 
 the Altamaha River. He paid the debts of many of the 
 debtors, got them out of jail, and took them to the new 
 colony, which he called Georgia, in honor of King 
 George. In this way James Oglethorpe gave the debt- 
 ors a chance to begin a new life in a new land and in a 
 new way. 
 
 The land and the climate of Georgia were very good 
 and the colonists there should have prospered, but they 
 did not want to work. Besides, they were bothered a 
 great deal by the Spaniards, who lived in Florida. 
 
 After a while the people of Georgia learned how to 
 work and they got negro slaves to help them. They 
 raised big crops of cotton and com. Before the Revo- 
 lutionary War came on they had become prosperous and 
 did their part to win our independence. 
 
28 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The French in North America 
 
 LESSON 14 
 
 The French people were very active in exploration 
 and settlement in North America during colonial times. 
 
 For convenience we might place their claims under 
 three names. The first was New France, which in- 
 cluded all the valley of the St. Lawrence River. The 
 second was Acadia, which included Nova Scotia and a 
 part of Maine. The third was Louisiana, which in- 
 cluded all the land drained by the Mississippi River and 
 its branches. If France had been able to hold all the 
 territory included under these three names, she would 
 have been richer and stronger than any other Euro- 
 pean country. 
 
 The reason why the French explorers were able to 
 get control of all this land ahead of the other explor- 
 ers is this. The French people were great fur traders ; 
 having no fear of the Indians, they went far into the 
 interior in their search for furs. The fur traders were 
 obliged to make friends of the Indians in order to get 
 their trade. They learned the Indian language, lived 
 with them, fought their enemies and many of them 
 married Indian women. 
 
 In addition to fur trading as a means of making 
 friends of the Indians, there were missionaries among 
 the French explorers. These missionaries went among 
 the Indians, taught them the French language and bap- 
 tized a great many of them. 
 
 So you can see that the Indians had good reason to 
 be friendly to the French, while there was no reason 
 why they should be friendly to the English, who never 
 went among them except to get their land or to kill 
 them. 
 
 Three of the most noted French explorers are Cham- 
 plain, who explored the St. Lawrence Valley and dis- 
 covered Lake Champlain; Father Marquette, who ex- 
 plored the Great Lakes and started on the way to the 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 29 
 
 Mississippi ; and La Salle, who completed Father Mar- 
 quette's work by going down the Mississippi River to 
 its mouth and even to the shore of Texas. 
 
 La Salle was the greatest of the French explorers. 
 He went through terrible hardships for the glory of 
 France and in the end he was killed by one of his 
 treacherous followers. 
 
 Although the French lost all their land in North 
 America, traces of their work remain to this day. In 
 our own country the names **St. Louis" and "New Or- 
 leans" will always remind us of the French. In the 
 St. Lawrence Valley the people still talk French, and 
 as long as we read Longfellow's ^'Evangeline" we will 
 always be reminded that the French once lived in 
 Acadia, which is now called Nova Scotia. 
 
 The Struggle for the Ownership of the 
 Mississippi Valley 
 
 LESSON 15 
 
 This was the first bitter and bloody struggle in 
 North America. The prize was the great Mississippi 
 Valley, which is the best land in the world and now 
 contains millions of prosperous and happy people. 
 
 The English people claimed this land ; first, because 
 John Cabot had discovered all of North America, five 
 years after Columbus made his famous voyage. They 
 also claimed the valley because, when the colonies ob- 
 tained their charters from the king, they were granted 
 the land from sea to sea, that is, from the Atlantic 
 Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The French claimed the Mississippi Valley because 
 John Verrazani had explored North America along the 
 coast at an early date. They also claimed the valley 
 on account of the explorations of Father Marquette and 
 the great La Salle. 
 
30 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 It is plain to be seen that both the French and the 
 EngHsh were justified in claiming the Mississippi 
 Valley. 
 
 The French were the first to see the great value of 
 the disputed land and they lost no time in making good 
 their claims. They built a chain of forts from Canada 
 to New Orleans to keep the English away. We will 
 call to mind only one of these forts, and that is Fort 
 Duquesne, which was situated where Pittsburg now 
 stands. In addition to building the chain of forts, the 
 French encouraged the Indians to oppose the English 
 along the frontier. 
 
 When the thirteen colonies began to fill up with 
 people, it was quite natural for the enterprising set- 
 tlers to think of crossing the Appalachian Mountains 
 and starting new homes for themselves. You may be 
 sure these settlers received no encouragement from 
 the French. Both the French and the Indians pursued 
 them. 
 
 It was natural for the French and the English to 
 hate each other as they did. It was natural because the 
 French and the English were rivals in Europe; they 
 were also rivals for the fur trade in America, and, be- 
 sides, the French were Catholics and the English were 
 Protestants. The French people were so different to 
 the English people that it was impossible for them to 
 be friends. 
 
 The Wars Between the French and 
 English 
 
 LESSON 16 
 
 The struggle between the French and the English 
 for the control of North America was long and bitter. 
 It began in 1690 and did not end until 1763. During 
 this time four wars were fought and they are known 
 in history as King William's War, Queen Anne's War, 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 31 
 
 King George's War, and the last, by far the most im- 
 portant, the French and Indian War. 
 
 The first three of these wars were started on ac- 
 count of troubles in Europe. During each of them the 
 colonists in America sympathized with their mother 
 lands and made war here. The Americans captured 
 Acadia and the strong fort called Louisburg, but when 
 each of these three wars was over and the treaty of 
 peace was signed there was no gain nor loss worth 
 mentioning on either side and neither side was sat- 
 isfied. 
 
 About 1750 the French were getting very bold in 
 the Mississippi Valley. They were building more and 
 more forts and urging the Indians to drive back the 
 English, who were coming across the Appalachian 
 Mountains. Just about this time the English colonists 
 of Virginia made up their minds to check the French 
 and order them away from the land they called their 
 own. 
 
 When Governor Dinwiddie was asked to send a mes- 
 senger to the French at Fort Duquesne to tell them 
 that was English territory, he decided that George 
 Washington, then a young man, was the best person 
 to perform this important duty. 
 
 George Washington, with a few companions, started 
 out at once. He made his way through the wilderness, 
 reached the French camp, where he was received cour- 
 teously, and delivered his message. While the French 
 were polite to him, they would not tell him what they 
 were going to do, except to say that they had their 
 orders from France and would obey them. Washing- 
 ton had a hard time getting back to Virginia. He was 
 shot at by Indians and in crossing a stream on a raft 
 he slipped and fell off and nearly drowned in the icy 
 water, but, after all, he brought the news back to Gov- 
 ernor Dinwiddie that the French would never leave the 
 disputed territory until they were driven out. 
 
 The English colonists immediately began to prepare 
 for war. In all the cities and towns companies of sol- 
 
32 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 diers were formed. The English government ordered 
 an army under General Braddock sent over to help the 
 colonists. You may be sure that the French were just 
 as active as the English. There was great excitement 
 on both sides. Everyone knew that this war would 
 decide whether the English or the French would rule 
 in America. 
 
 The First Half of the French and Indian 
 
 War 
 
 LESSON 17 
 
 When you are studying about this war always re- 
 member that it was not one of the wars of our country, 
 because it took place before the United States was a 
 country. But be sure to remember that it was the most 
 important war between the English and the French 
 colonists. 
 
 At the beginning of the French and Indian War 
 there was great excitement on both sides, but espe- 
 cially on the English side. The English were deter- 
 mined to drive the French from North America. Each 
 of the colonies formed companies of soldiers and pro- 
 vided them with arms and ammunition. Virginia took 
 the lead and Washington was placed in command of her 
 soldiers. 
 
 In command of a small company, Washington 
 marched to the neighborhood of Fort Duquesne. It 
 was his plan to see if the French could not be induced 
 to leave that territory, but the French were firm and 
 would not move. When Washington found that the 
 French would not go away, he built a fort which he 
 called Fort Necessity. In this fort Washington re- 
 mained for a short time, but the French and the In- 
 dians surrounded him in such large numbers that he 
 was compelled to withdraw from it. Then he went back 
 to Virginia with his soldiers. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 33 
 
 About this time General Braddock arrived from 
 England with a fine, large English army. Then there 
 was great excitement again. Everybody expected 
 Braddock and his army would whip the French in a 
 few months. Braddock expected to do so himself, but 
 Washington was not so sure. It was resolved that 
 General Braddock and his army and Washington and 
 the colonial soldiers should all march together to Fort 
 Duquesne once more and capture the place at once. The 
 army started out very bravely, with colors flying and 
 bands playing. It looked as though they could conquer 
 anything, and Braddock was so proud and vain that he 
 thought so, too. Washington knew how the French and 
 Indians fought. He told General Braddock about them 
 and begged him to be careful. General Braddock 
 laughed at Washington and said : "The idea of a young 
 colonial soldier like you giving advice to a veteran old 
 general like me. If you are afraid, remember that I 
 am not." 
 
 Naturally, Washington, the young soldier, said no 
 more, because in war you must respect your superior 
 officer. 
 
 So the army marched on, heedless of the danger. 
 When they were within a few miles of Fort Duquesne 
 they were suddenly alarmed by the awful war whoop 
 of great numbers of Indians and French. Braddock 
 halted his army and looked for the enemy, but could 
 see none because they were hidden behind trees. After 
 the war whoop, the firing of bullets by the French and 
 Indians began and continued with such effect that a 
 great many of the English were killed. The few sol- 
 diers that were left were saved by the wisdom of 
 George Washington, who told them to get behind trees 
 and fight like the French and Indians had been fighting. 
 
 When Washington took what was left of the army 
 back to Virginia, there was great discouragement, you 
 may be sure. 
 
34 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 During the first part of the French and Indian 
 War all of the campaigns of the English were about 
 as bad as that of Braddock. The French remained 
 masters everywhere. 
 
 Second Half of the French and Indian 
 
 War 
 
 LESSON 18 
 
 As you have learned in the previous lesson, the 
 first half of the French and Indian War was a long 
 series of failures and defeats for the English. Under 
 the wise management of the great Marquis de Mont- 
 calm, the French won victory after victory, and it 
 seemed that they would be able to hold all the valuable 
 territory that they claimed. 
 
 The chief reason for the failure of the English was 
 a weak Prime Minister in England and poor generals, 
 chosen by him, in America. The common soldiers were 
 not to blame. They had done the best they could. 
 
 At last the people of England, becoming disgusted 
 on account of so many failures, demanded the appoint- 
 ment of a Prime Minister who had brains and energy 
 enough to accom.plish something. In response to this 
 demand, the Prime Minister was dismissed and the fa- 
 mous William Pitt was appointed in his place. 
 
 Just as soon as William Pitt began to manage af- 
 fairs, things changed in America. The weak generals 
 were removed and their places were filled by brave, 
 young and strong generals like General James Wolfe. 
 
 The Marquis de Montcalm recognized this change 
 as soon as any one. He saw that now the French 
 would have to fight hard to hold their own, and they 
 did fight hard. 
 
 In spite of the hard fighting of the French, the Eng- 
 lish began to win. Fort Duquesne and several other 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 35 
 
 important forts were captured and occupied by the 
 English. 
 
 Finally the French held only one important fort, 
 and that was Quebec, the strongest of them all. The 
 fortress of Quebec was situated upon a high cliff over- 
 looking the St. Lawrence River and was said to be the 
 strongest fort in North America. Upon the bluff and 
 behind the fort was a piece of level land known as the 
 Heights of Abraham. It was General Wolfe's task to 
 capture Quebec and it was the Marquis de Montcalm's 
 fate to defend it. The French did not believe that the 
 English would try to climb the bluff, but after study- 
 ing the situation very carefully General Wolfe decided 
 that was the only way for the English to capture 
 Quebec. So he embarked his army in boats, went up 
 the St. Lawrence River, landed his men, found a place 
 where they could climb the bluff and before the French 
 were aware of what he was doing he and his army were 
 on the Heights of Abraham. 
 
 When the Marquis de Montcalm saw the English on 
 the Heights he knew that he had been out-generaled, 
 but he was brave and he marched his army out of the 
 fortress to fight the English. When the two armies 
 met, a terrible battle followed. Both the English and 
 the French fought bravely and without fear. Wolfe 
 and Montcalm directed their efforts. In the end the 
 English won the victory. General Wolfe was mortally 
 wounded and while they were carrying him to a place 
 of safety he heard somebody cry, ''They run," and upon 
 asking who it was that was running he was told, "The 
 French." Then he said, "I can die happy." 
 
 Montcalm was also mortally wounded and when the 
 surgeon told him that he could not live more than a few 
 hours he said, "So much the better; I shall not live to 
 see the surrender of Quebec." 
 
 Thus ended the French and Indian War, with vic- 
 tory for the English. In the next lesson we will con- 
 sider the results of that victory. 
 
36 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Results of the French and Indian War 
 
 LESSON 19 
 
 The Battle of Quebec ended the French and Indian 
 War and also decided that the English flag should wave 
 in triumph over all the disputed land in North Amer- 
 ica. The power of the French was completely broken, 
 but evidence of their work remains even to this day. 
 Many of the people of Canada still speak the French 
 language and French manners and customs prevail in 
 many places. 
 
 By the treaty of peace, which ended the French and 
 Indian War, which was made in 1763, twelve years be- 
 fore the beginning of the Revolutionary War, it was 
 agreed by statesmen of both France and England that 
 France should give up her claim to all of Canada and 
 to all the land east of the Mississippi River. The land 
 west of the Mississippi was given to Spain. The Eng- 
 lish, having captured Havana during the war, Spain 
 was obliged to give up Florida in order to get Havana 
 back. 
 
 In the course of later years France again obtained 
 possession of the land west of the Mississippi, and 
 Spain once more controlled Florida. 
 
 When the treaty of peace was made and England, 
 through the wisdom of William Pitt, gained so much 
 territory, there was great joy in England. The Eng- 
 lish people had good reason then to believe that there 
 was no other nation in the world so strong as theirs. 
 Never once did they think that their great victory was 
 going to bring about their greatest loss. 
 
 The French and Indian War, which had lasted a long 
 time, had cost a great deal of money. In order to get 
 this money the English government had gone into debt. 
 The members of Parliament had to find ways to pay this 
 debt. Naturally they thought that since the thirteen 
 colonies had profited by the war they should pay for it. 
 So Parliament passed laws such as the Navigation 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 37 
 
 Laws, which required that all American goods should 
 be shipped in English ships and sold in English ports. 
 
 The people of the thirteen colonies did not Hke the 
 Navigation Laws and claimed that Parliament had no 
 right to interfere with their trade because the colonists 
 were not represented in Parliament. 
 
 Later, Parliament passed other laws such as the Tea 
 Tax and the Paper Tax, which were even more hateful 
 to the colonists than the Navigation Laws. 
 
 The colonists, wishing to remain friendly with the 
 mother country, sent letters and petitions to the king 
 and Parliament, begging them not to tax them with- 
 out giving them representation in Parliament. The 
 colonists declared that taxation without representation 
 is tyranny. 
 
 The feeling gradually became more and more bitter 
 between the English people and the colonists, until at 
 last they were both anxious for war. So you can see 
 that the French and Indian War helped to bring about 
 the struggle for our independence. 
 
 The Cause of the Revolution 
 
 LESSON 20 
 
 When we are asked to give the cause of the Revo- 
 lutionary War we may say that the cause was "taxation 
 without representation." 
 
 This taxation is shown by the English Parliament 
 passing such laws as the Navigation Acts, the Stamp 
 Act, the Townshend Acts, and the Tea Tax, compelling 
 the colonists to pay taxes. 
 
 We have already learned that the English people 
 thought it was right to tax the Americans in order to 
 help pay the debts caused by the French and Indian 
 War. 
 
 All the Americans were opposed to paying any tax 
 that was placed upon them. They felt that they had 
 
38 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 expenses enough of their own without paying Eng- 
 land's debts and, besides, they were not represented in 
 Parhament. 
 
 Instead of obeying the Navigation Acts, they be- 
 came smugglers and smuggled goods into and out of 
 the colonies. Instead of obeying the Stamp Act, that 
 compelled them to put stamps upon all their papers, 
 they concluded to get along without papers. Instead 
 of paying the tax on tea, they decided not to use tea, 
 much as they liked it. 
 
 The tea that was sent over was received in some 
 ports, where it was stored in damp cellars and allowed 
 to spoil. In Boston they had the famous Boston Tea 
 Party over it. There a company of young men dis- 
 guised as Indians went aboard the tea ship at night 
 and threw all the chests of tea into the sea. 
 
 The Boston Tea Party made the members of Parlia- 
 ment very angry and to punish Boston and her people 
 the Boston Port Bill was passed. This bill closed the 
 port of Boston against all shipping. This was a hard 
 blow to the merchants and all the people of Boston and 
 made them feel very bitter toward the mother country. 
 
 You may be sure the Americans were not still at 
 this time. Meetings were held in every colony to com- 
 plain against the treatment that England was giving 
 them. 
 
 Great orators like Samuel Adams of Massachusetts 
 and Patrick Henry of Virginia made eloquent speeches 
 against England's ideas of taxing the colonists. These 
 speeches let the Americans know their rights and 
 stirred them up to stand firm against England. 
 
 The Americans were not afraid of the English reg- 
 ular soldiers, because they had fought with them in 
 the French and Indian War and the Americans knew 
 that they were just as brave, if not braver, than the 
 English soldiers. 
 
 As if to stir up the bitterness among the Ameri- 
 cans still more, the English government sent English 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 39 
 
 soldiers over to the colonies to compel the people to 
 obey the unjust tax laws. 
 
 The Americans did not want to fight their mother 
 country, but they organized companies of soldiers called 
 Minute Men, who promised to be ready to go to war at 
 a minute's notice. 
 
 The Beginning of the Revolutionary War 
 
 LESSON 21 
 
 The Revolutionary War is the most important of 
 all wars to us because it is the one that gave us our 
 freedom. It also gave to the world the greatest and 
 best country, the country in which all men and all 
 women have an opportunity to do what is right in their 
 own way. 
 
 In the previous lessons we have learned that the 
 English government sent soldiers to the colonies to 
 make them obey the laws. We learned also that the 
 Americans had organized military companies called 
 "Minute Men," who were ready to go to war at a min- 
 ute's notice. Every American in the vicinity of Boston 
 was anxious to become a "Minute Man." Young men, 
 old men, and even boys, joined, all anxious to fight the 
 red coats. 
 
 This was the condition of affairs when General 
 Gage, the English general stationed at Boston, heard 
 that the Americans were gathering ammunition at 
 Concord. He resolved to send a company of soldiers to 
 destroy it. Of course, the Americans were on the look- 
 out for just such a move. They did not know whether 
 the British would go by land or by sea. You have 
 learned in Mr. Longfellow's poem how Paul Revere rode 
 through the country telling all the Minute Men that the 
 British were going to go by land. There was great ex- 
 citement that day. 
 
40 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The first British company met a band of Americans 
 at Lexington bridge. The British officer cried out to 
 them: ^'Disperse, ye rebels." When the Americans 
 did not disperse, as they were ordered, the British fired 
 upon them and several were killed. This firing upon the 
 Americans at Lexington was the beginning of the Rev- 
 olutionary War and it has been called "the shot that 
 was heard around the world." 
 
 Leaving Lexington the British marched on to Con- 
 cord, where they destroyed whatever was left of the 
 American military stores, but they had to pay dearly 
 for what they did. By the time they were marching 
 back to Boston the ''Minute Men" had gathered in large 
 numbers and were stationed along the road. With their 
 old flint locks, from behind trees and garden walls, they 
 fired upon the British with such telling effect that hun- 
 dreds of the red coats fell in their tracks and all of them 
 would have been killed or captured if General Gage had 
 not sent out more soldiers to meet and protect those 
 who were on the road. This fight on the road between 
 Concord and Boston is called the Battle of Concord and 
 was a victory for the Americans. 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill 
 
 LESSON 22 
 
 After the Americans had done so well in fighting the 
 British along the Concord Road, they were filled with 
 enthusiasm. They were still more encouraged by their 
 success in capturing Fort Ticonderoga and Fort Crown 
 Point, which gave them control of all of the Canadian 
 boundary and, what was more useful to them, by cap- 
 turing these forts they got 200 cannons and a large 
 supply of ammunition. Ethan Allen was the hero of 
 the capture of Ticonderoga. He took the British by 
 surprise and when he demanded their surrender they 
 asked, "By whose authority?" He replied, "By the au- 
 thority of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Con- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 41 
 
 gress." The British hardly knew what he meant, but 
 they surrendered. 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill was one of the most im- 
 portant battles of the Revolutionary War. A great 
 many regular British soldiers had gathered in the city 
 of Boston. There were no less than 10,000 of them. 
 The three British generals — Gage, Howe and Clinton — 
 were there also. They were consulting as to what 
 would be the best to do. At last they decided to for- 
 tify the hill back of Charlestown, which was very near 
 Boston. The Americans learned what they were going 
 to do and one night 1200 Americans marched to the 
 hill and fortified it before the British arrived. The 
 Americans carried out their plan, but by some mistake 
 fortified Breed's Hill and missed Bunker's Hill. Still 
 the battle that followed is called the Battle of Bunker 
 Hill. It was fought on June 17, 1775, and ever since we 
 celebrate June 17 as Bunker Hill Day. 
 
 When day dawned, that beautiful summer day of 
 June 17, 1775, the British were greatly surprised to see 
 the Americans planted on Breed's Hill. There was 
 nothing for the British to do except to drive them away. 
 By going up behind them the British could have suc- 
 ceeded easily, but instead General Gage ordered 3000 
 soldiers to march directly in front of the Americans 
 and drive them from their position. 
 
 General Putnam and Colonel Prescott, who were in 
 charge of the Americans, saw the British marching up 
 the hill in regular order. They told the Americans to 
 keep cool and reserve their fire until they could see the 
 whites of the British soldiers' eyes. When the British 
 were very close the Americans fired with such fatal 
 effect that the British lines were broken and they were 
 forced to retreat down the hill in disorder. 
 
 The British were brave, too. Their officers rallied 
 them and marched them against the Americans a sec- 
 ond time and again the Americans reserved their fire 
 until the British were about two rods away and then 
 
42 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 fired, causing the British to break and retreat for the 
 second time. 
 
 Still the British were brave and believed in trying 
 again. They marched up the hill for the third time. 
 This time there was no fire from the Americans. All 
 the ammunition was gone. They had nothing to fight 
 with except their empty muskets, which they used as 
 clubs. Gradually but surely the British drove them 
 from their breastworks and thus the Americans lost the 
 Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
 Dr. Warren, who was fighting as a private, lost his 
 life in the Battle of Bunker Hill. This death was a 
 great loss to the Americans because Warren was one 
 of their best men. 
 
 The Battle of Bunker Hill proved to all the world 
 that the Americans were cool and brave fighters and 
 that all they needed was ammunition. This battle 
 proved to England that before she could conquer the 
 colonists or the Americans, a hard struggle must take 
 place. 
 
 George Washington Became Commander 
 in Chief 
 
 LESSON 23 
 
 George Washington was the first commander-in- 
 chief of the American Army. He was appointed to this 
 important position by the Continental Congress. He 
 was on his way from his home in West Moreland 
 County, Virginia, to Boston when the Battle of Bunker 
 Hill took place. When he heard the story of how well 
 the Americans fought the red coats he was well pleased 
 and said that the liberty of the people was safe. Wash- 
 ington arrived in Boston, July 2d, and took command 
 of the army at Cambridge on July 3, 1775. 
 
 The Americans were overjoyed to have Washing- 
 ton appointed commander-in-chief. They knew that he 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 43 
 
 was the man who had ordered the French to leave the 
 Mississippi Valley and that he was the cool-headed of- 
 ficer who had saved the remnants of Braddock's army. 
 Everybody believed that he was the best man for the 
 place. 
 
 The Continental Congress promised to provide 
 Washington with an army of 20,000 men. Washington 
 found about 14,000, and such an army! The soldiers 
 had neither arms nor ammunition. They were dressed 
 as they came from the workshops and farms. They 
 did not know what discipline was. They were all willing 
 to fight, but knew nothing about prompt obedience such 
 as a soldier must know. So it was Washington's first 
 hard work to organize his army. He had to find offi- 
 cers, provide food, clothing, firearms and ammunition 
 for the army. Besides this he had to train the soldiers 
 so that they would know how to obey the commands of 
 their officers. To do all this took a long time and people 
 began to complain that Washington ought to do some- 
 thing. These complaints hurt Washington, but he 
 never said a word, but kept on improving his army. 
 In March, 1776, eight months after Washington took 
 command, the army was in a condition to fight. Siege 
 guns had been hauled on sleds over the snow from Ti- 
 conderoga. With these guns it was decided to attack 
 the British in Boston, who were now under command 
 of General Howe. 
 
 The Americans fortified Dorchester Heights, which 
 overlooked Boston. On these heights the siege guns 
 were placed. When General Howe saw the Americans 
 on the heights he knew that he had been out-generaled. 
 At first he thought that he would attack the Americans, 
 but he remembered what happened at Bunker Hill and 
 he changed his mind. He asked Washington to allow 
 him and his men to depart in peace. He said that if 
 the Americans would not let him do this he would burn 
 the city of Boston. 
 
 Washington consented to let Howe and his army go 
 and they went away. Thus Boston fell into the hands 
 
44 FORWAD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 of the Americans and there was great rejoicing 
 throughout the colonies. 
 
 The Continental Congress 
 
 LESSON 24 
 
 In the management of affairs of a civilized nation it 
 is always necessary to have a governing body of law- 
 makers. This body is composed of representatives 
 from all parts of the country. They control everything, 
 including the army. The first governing body of the 
 Thirteen Colonies was called the Continental Congress, 
 and met in Philadelphia, in 1774, for the purpose of 
 trying, by means of petitions, to get the king and Par- 
 liament to be more reasonable in their treatment of the 
 colonists. This Congress asked Parliament to reduce 
 the taxes and give the colonists the same rights as the 
 people of Great Britain enjoyed. The first Continental 
 Congress was made up of the best men from the colo- 
 nies. They asked for nothing but what was right. Very 
 little attention was paid to them. When they adjourned 
 they agreed to meet in 1775 at the same place. When 
 the time of the second meeting arrived, war had al- 
 ready begun between Great Britain and the colonies. 
 Lexington and Concord battles had been fought. So 
 there was much to be done at the second meeting of the 
 Continental Congress. It was necessary to provide for 
 the war, that could not be avoided. An army must be 
 raised and supplied with arms and ammunition. A 
 commander-in-chief and other officers had to be ap- 
 pointed. George Washington was appointed com- 
 mander-in-chief. Congress tried to supply an army for 
 him. There was no great success because Congress 
 could not get enough money to pay the expenses. There 
 was so much trouble that Congress was in session 
 nearly all the time. For a long time, even while the 
 fighting was going on, it was still hoped that the trouble 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 45 
 
 with the mother country would be settled and that the 
 affairs would go on in peace, the same as before. This 
 was the hope until July 4, 1776, when the Continental 
 Congress passed a resolution declaring "that these colo- 
 nies are and of right ought to be free and independent." 
 This resolution severed the bonds that joined the colo- 
 nies to their mother country. It changed the Thirteen 
 Colonies into a new nation, which is known to this day 
 as the United States of America. There was great joy 
 when the news of the Declaration of Independence 
 reached the people. Then they had their first Fourth of 
 July celebration. 
 
 Bonfires were blazing, cannons boomed, orators 
 spoke, and liberty bells rang in every town. The people 
 went wild over their freedom. In order to give the 
 world the reasons for the change of the colonies to a 
 nation, Thomas Jefferson and other members were ap- 
 pointed to write a declaration containing reasons for 
 the change. The result of Thomas Jefferson's efforts in 
 this respect is the famous Declaration of Independence, 
 which we are proud of to this day. At this time there 
 was no constitution or supreme laws to control and 
 direct Congress in its actions. In the place of the su- 
 preme law Congress adopted the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion. Those articles controlled the country, in a weak 
 way, until our present constitution was adopted. 
 
 Campaign Around New York City 
 
 LESSON 25 
 
 When the British were forced to leave Boston, the 
 Americans occupied the place and felt very much en- 
 couraged. Having secured Boston, the next move, 
 Washington thought, was to take possession of the 
 great city of New York and hold it against the British. 
 It was easy to get control of New York City, because 
 there were no British soldiers stationed there. But it 
 
46 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 was not easy to hold it, because there was a great many 
 of the people of New York City, called Tories, Ameri- 
 cans, who favored the British side. Washington took 
 the city and with an army of 18,000 men he decided to 
 fortify Brooklyn Heights in order to hold it against 
 British attacks. The British had no intention of let- 
 ting the Americans hold New York without a struggle. 
 They wanted to keep their Tories on their side. So 
 General Howe was sent with a large army to attack 
 Washington and a British fleet was sent into New York 
 Harbor to assist in the attack. In the first battle the 
 Americans were defeated and over 1,000 of them were 
 captured. This was discouraging, and Washington felt 
 that he must escape with his men from Brooklyn 
 Heights across to New York City or be completely sur- 
 rounded and compelled to surrender. To get across the 
 water from Long Island to New York City was a dan- 
 gerous undertaking, at that time, because the British 
 fleet was in the harbor. 
 
 Good luck favored Washington. A dense fog came 
 on and in the darkness of that fog Washington and his 
 army crossed unharmed. As soon as the British dis- 
 covered he was in New York City they pursued him and 
 he went up the Hudson River to a place called White 
 Plains, where he met another defeat and the Americans 
 were forced to retreat in a hurry. General Howe 
 thought that now only a crushing blow, to destroy the 
 Americans, was necessary. So he sent General Com- 
 wallis, one of his best officers, with a strong force to 
 capture Washington and his army. 
 
 Washington knew now that his only hope was to 
 get across New Jersey ahead of the British. Wash- 
 ington's army was too weak and broken-hearted to risk 
 a battle. The retreat of the Americans across New 
 Jersey was so well managed that the British, with all 
 their fine soldiers and excellent war gear, were disap- 
 pointed every time. The "Sly Fox,'' as they called 
 Washington, escaped at every turn. Even he, however, 
 felt relieved when the long race was over and the Amer- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 47 
 
 ican army crossed the Delaware River and landed safe 
 in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Washington Wins Battle of Trenton and 
 Restores Confidence 
 
 LESSON 26 
 
 Washington's loss of the City of New York and of 
 his being compelled to retreat, in a hurry, across New 
 Jersey was caused by General Lee, a vain and foolish 
 man who would not obey Washington. 
 
 General Lee was not an American, but came from 
 Europe to give his assistance. He was older than 
 Washington and in his vanity thought that he knew 
 more. When Washington ordered him to cross a river 
 to a certain point with his division of 1000 men, he 
 failed to do so. It was thus through Lee's disobedience 
 that Washington had to make his famous retreat across 
 New Jersey in order to save his army. Whenever a 
 great leader, like Washington, meets with defeat and 
 is forced to retreat the people lose confidence in him. 
 Often times many of the soldiers desert and go home, 
 and so it was with Washington. His army was daily 
 growing smaller. After all the desertions, he had less 
 than 7000 soldiers remaining and many of these were 
 discontented. 
 
 Washington plainly saw that it was necessary for 
 him to strike a thrilling blow or his army would go to 
 pieces entirely. It was in the middle of the winter and 
 was so cold that the Delaware was filled with blocks of 
 ice. Across that river were the Hessians, more than a 
 thousand of them, encamped in comfortable quarters. 
 These Hessians were German soldiers hired by England 
 to fight the Americans. They had heard how badly off 
 the Americans were and had no fear of them. 
 
 On Christmas night Washington decided to surprise 
 the Hessians. He knew their habits. He knew they 
 would be drinking and having a good time on Christmas 
 
48 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 night. So while they were enjoying themselves Wash- 
 ington and his army crossed the Delaware in boats and 
 completely surprised the Hessians. Before they knew 
 what was happening, 1000 of them were captured. Be- 
 fore Cornwallis could come to attack Washington, he 
 succeded in getting his prisoners across the river. This 
 is called the "Battle of Trenton" and did a great deal to 
 cheer the Americans when all things looked black. 
 
 In these campaigns around New York and New Jer- 
 sey, where Washington had so much trouble with Gen- 
 eral Lee, he became acquainted with a man named Alex- 
 ander Hamilton. Hamilton was only about twenty years 
 old. Yet, young as he was, he did more than any other 
 person to help Washington in those dark days and those 
 that followed. 
 
 The Battle of Quebec 
 
 LESSON 27 
 
 General Arnold and General Montgomery started 
 out with their army from northern New York. It was 
 winter time and the ground was covered with snow. 
 They had to go across Maine through the dense forests 
 of pine trees. On this march the soldiers suffered much 
 hardship on account of the extreme cold. They lacked 
 proper food and clothing. At last they reached Canada 
 and the army was formed into two divisions — one under 
 Montgomery, the other under Arnold. Montgomery was 
 to capture Montreal. Montgomery succeeded and 
 marched on to help Arnold capture Quebec, which as 
 we have already learned was the strongest fort in 
 America. Arnold and Montgomery met in the center of 
 Quebec. The night was dark and the snow was falling. 
 Arnold and Montgomery led their men, with matchless 
 bravery, up those steep bluffs that lead to the Heights 
 of Abraham, shouting, "Now on, my boys — one more 
 blow and Quebec is ours !" 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 49 
 
 The men were travel worn, but they would follow 
 such leaders anywhere. In the fight the brave Mont- 
 gomery was mortally wounded, and Arnold, who was 
 just as brave, was badly wounded. The leadership then 
 fell to General Morgan, but the men were discouraged 
 on account of their losses, especially of their leaders, 
 and they failed to capture Quebec. They had to retreat 
 to a place of safety, where they concluded to remain 
 until the arrival of reinforcements. The smallpox, a 
 terrible disease, broke out in their ranks and many of 
 them died. So we may say, in conclusion, that the at- 
 tempt to capture Quebec was a sad failure. 
 
 Philadelphia Falls Into the Hands of the 
 
 British 
 
 LESSON 28 
 
 The latter part of 1776 and the first part of 1777 
 were discouraging times for the Americans. They had 
 lost New York City. Montgomery and Arnold had 
 failed to capture Quebec and now the British resolved 
 to take Philadelphia. General Lee, the man who had 
 disobeyed Washington and who was now a prisoner, 
 proved himself a traitor by advising General Howe to 
 capture Philadelphia. 
 
 In the Battle of Brandywine, the famous French 
 general, Lafayette, distinguished himself trying to save 
 the day for the Americans. After the Battle of Brandy- 
 wine the British marched on to Philadelphia. 
 
 Washington gathered his shattered army together 
 again as best he could and opposed the British a second 
 time at Germantown. There the two armies fought a 
 second battle, which resulted in another defeat for the 
 Americans, who were now so badly off that they dared 
 not remain in the pathway of the British. There being 
 no more opposition, the British marched on to Phila- 
 delphia, which fell into their hands quite willingly. The 
 rich Tories, who lived there, were glad to have the Brit- 
 
50 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 ish take possession. At balls and parties the Philadel- 
 phians had jolly times with the British officers during 
 that season. These Tories thought that the war was 
 over and that Washington was whipped, but they were 
 sadly mistaken. 
 
 Turning Point of the Revolution 
 
 LESSON 29 
 
 In the spring of 1777, while Washington was meet- 
 ing with so many reverses in the neighborhood of Phila- 
 delphia, the British were very busy in Canada. 
 
 General John Burgoyne, who was the British com- 
 mander, organized a force of seven thousand men com- 
 posed of the British, Hessians, Tories and Indians. 
 With this force he intended to march southward and 
 join the forces of Clinton and Howe at New York City. 
 If he had done this the New England Colonies would 
 have been cut off from the other colonies and the plan 
 of American operations would have been broken up. 
 
 General Burgoyne and his army started out from 
 Canada in great hopes of success. They felt that there 
 was no American army to oppose them. They knew 
 that Washington could spare no great army to go 
 against them. Burgoyne first attacked Ticonderoga, 
 which he captured very easily. He then marched into 
 the northern part of New York State, where many 
 farmers lived. When the farmers heard that he was 
 coming they gathered from near and far as the ''Min- 
 ute Men" had done when the British were marching to 
 Concord. In addition to the farmers, Arnold's men, re- 
 turning from the attack on Quebec, and also the ''Green 
 Mountain Boys," gathered to help oppose Burgoyne. 
 Altogether there was quite a large number of Ameri- 
 cans to oppose Burgoyne. They were under the com- 
 mand of General Schuyler, General Arnold, General 
 Morgan and General Stark. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 51 
 
 The Americans were bitter enough against the Brit- 
 ish on account of the invasion, but this bitterness was 
 increased over the death of a beautiful American girl, 
 who was killed by one of Burgoyne's Indians. Every 
 American was ready to fight the British to his death. 
 
 General Schuyler kept the fighting off as long as he 
 could, because the longer he waited the stronger his 
 army became. Troops of American soldiers were com- 
 ing in every day, so he retreated slowly in front of the 
 British army. The country they were passing through 
 was swampy and forest clad. The Americans knew the 
 country and the British did not. The Americans de- 
 stroyed the bridges and cut down many trees so that 
 they fell across the roads, in order to make them dif- 
 ficult to pass for the British. So General Burgoyne 
 and his army were able to go only one mile a day, there 
 were so many obstacles in their way. Finally the Brit- 
 ish were very short of provisions and the Americans 
 had gathered big stores of food at a place called Ben- 
 nington. The British made up their minds to capture 
 this place and get the food. The Americans were de- 
 termined that the British should not get it. The Ameri- 
 cans were quite strong by this time. At Bennington, 
 before the fight began, Colonel Stark said to his men: 
 *Tf we do not win the fight today, Betty Stark is a 
 widow." Every American felt about the same and of 
 course they won. The British were forced to retreat in 
 haste. On October 17, 1776, Burgoyne and his British 
 army were forced to surrender at Saratoga. General 
 Horatio Gates claimed the honor of this American vic- 
 tory, but it belonged to General Schuyler and others. 
 
 Suflf ering at Valley Forge 
 
 LESSON 30 
 
 While the British and the Tories were having such 
 jolly times in Philadelphia, enjoying plenty of every- 
 thing, George Washington and his defeated army suf- 
 
52 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 fered at Valley Forge. Words cannot tell how badly 
 the Americans suffered that winter of 1777-1778. 
 
 The soldiers were in rags and they were without 
 shoes and blankets. It has been said of them that they 
 could be tracked by their bloody footprints on the snow. 
 This shows how much they needed shoes. Besides, 
 very often there was nothing for them to eat. They 
 built miserable huts to protect themselves from the 
 storms of winter. Behind one of these the great- 
 hearted Washington was found, one day, down on his 
 knees, in the snow, praying to God to help his suffering 
 soldiers. 
 
 When the Americans were in such great need of 
 everything, agents of the British tried to tempt them 
 to desert by offering them gold. These agents offered 
 General James Read $10,000 if he would desert Wash- 
 ington. He considered the offer an insult and gave this 
 reply to the agents: '1 am a poor man, but such as I 
 am, the King of England is not ruch enough to buy 
 me." Their belief in the right of Americans to be free 
 and their faith in the ability of Washington kept the 
 little army together. In spite of all their hardships 
 they continued their drilling. Marquis de Lafayette, 
 the Frenchman, and Baron Steuben, the German, both 
 of whom had come over from Europe, were helping 
 Washington all they could to train the soldiers how to 
 fight. 
 
 The darkest hour is just before the dawn. After 
 the Americans captured Burgoyne's army, the French 
 nation began to believe the Americans had a good 
 chance to win their independence. While Washington 
 and his army were suffering at Valley Forge, King 
 Louis XVI was thinking of having revenge upon Eng- 
 land by helping the Americans. Benjamin Franklin 
 was in France, urging him to help the Americans. In 
 February, 1778, he made a treaty, promising men, 
 money, warships and ammunition to help the Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 53 
 
 The help from France was the answer to Washing- 
 ton's prayers. It restored confidence at once and made 
 the i^ericans feel sure of victory and independence. 
 Not until the Great War took place did we pay our 
 debt to France. She helped us and we helped her, when 
 help was sorely needed. 
 
 The Americans Regain Philadelphia and 
 
 the Battle of Monmouth — 
 
 Benedict Arnold 
 
 LESSON 31 
 
 When the British learned that the French were 
 going to help the Americans, they decided to leave Phil- 
 adelphia and make New York City the center of their 
 operations. When they were moving toward New York 
 City, Washington with his army attacked them at Mon- 
 mouth. The Americans would have won a victory here 
 if it had not been for the disobedience of General 
 Charles Lee, who had been returned to the Americans 
 by exchange of prisoners. He failed to bring up his 
 soldiers to fight when Washington needed them and as 
 a consequence the Battle of Monmouth was lost. 
 
 Anyhow, this battle had the effect of a victory. The 
 British gave up fighting in the north and Washington 
 had an opportunity to improve his army and gather 
 supplies, which he needed very much. 
 
 General Benedict Arnold was one of the bravest of 
 the Americans. He was not afraid of anything, but he 
 was hot-headed and impulsive. He could not stand 
 being corrected or reprimanded. We have learned how 
 brave he was at the storming of Quebec with Montgom- 
 ery. He fought even more bravely at Saratoga when 
 he went into the battle on his black horse, without or- 
 ders, and did more than any other officer to force Bur- 
 goyne to surrender. Besides being a good soldier, he 
 
54 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 was popular in society. He married a Tory woman. He 
 spent his money recklessly and wasted some of the 
 money belonging to the American army. For this Gen- 
 eral Washington reprimanded him severely, but forgave 
 him on account of the good work that he had done. 
 Trusting him without hesitation, General Washington 
 placed him in command of West Point. 
 
 Arnold was still sullen. He turned traitor by letting 
 Sir Henry Clinton of the British army at New York 
 City know that he was willing to surrender West Point 
 to him. As a reward he was to receive 10,000 pounds 
 and a colonel's commission in the English army. Major 
 Andre of the British army was selected to make the 
 necessary arrangements between Clinton and Arnold. 
 While he was returning from West Point to New York 
 City, he was caught at Tarrytown by the Americans 
 and, on being searched, Arnold's agreement with Clin- 
 ton was found in Andre's boots. Andre was hanged as 
 a spy. Arnold escaped to a British warship on the Hud- 
 son River. When old age came on he lived in London 
 in poverty, despised by everybody. Just before he died 
 he begged the priest beside him to help him put on his 
 old faded American uniform. 
 
 The Revolution in the South — Yorktown 
 
 LESSON 32 
 
 In 1776 the British tried to capture Charleston in 
 South Carolina and a vain attempt was made to land 
 troops, but they failed. They tried again in 1778, with 
 no more success. Finally, in 1780, they succeeded when 
 they made the attack by land. General Comwallis was 
 left in command. It was his duty to over-run and sub- 
 due the South. 
 
 Patriotic bands under such leaders as Sumter, Lee 
 and Marion kept him busy. The patriots knew the 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 55 
 
 country well and would attack the British at unex- 
 pected times and always get away. 
 
 Comwallis defeated the Americans under General 
 Horatio Gates at Camden and again at King's Moun- 
 tain and Cowpens, but his losses were more than his 
 gains. 
 
 General Nathaniel Greene then took command of the 
 Americans and under him the Americans fought Com- 
 wallis and his army at Guilford Court-house, North 
 Carolina. It was another defeat for the Americans, but 
 the British lost so many soldiers that they gave up the 
 idea of the invasion. 
 
 At this time Lafayette was in command of the 
 Americans in Virginia. Lord Cornwallis determined to 
 capture him. He marched his army into Virginia and 
 built entrenchments at Yorktown between the York and 
 James Rivers. Washington made up his mind to go to 
 Virginia and fight Cornwallis at Yorktown. He was 
 strong now, as a French army under Count Rocham- 
 beau had come to his assistance. While he meant to go 
 to Yorktown, he had to make Sir Henry Clinton, who 
 was in New York City, believe he was going to attack 
 that place. He succeeded in deceiving Clinton and kept 
 him afraid to leave New York City. At the right time, 
 with the American and the French armies, he rushed to 
 Yorktown. While he made this move a strong French 
 fleet under Count De Grasse blockaded Comwallis so 
 that he could not escape by sea. With Americans and 
 French attacking him by land and the French fleet by 
 sea, there was no escape for Comwallis. He was forced 
 to surrender. This was a great victory for the Ameri- 
 cans and really ended the Revolutionary War, although 
 the British still held New York City and Charlestown. 
 The surrender of Yorktown took place in October, 1781. 
 
56 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Revolutionary War at Sea 
 
 LESSON 33 
 
 Holland and Spain followed France in declaring war 
 against Great Britain and their united navies helped 
 the Americans by keeping the British navy occupied 
 in protecting other possessions of the British Empire. 
 The Americans had no navy, but they permitted the 
 fitting out of privateers to capture British merchant 
 ships. John Paul Jones was the most noted American 
 naval hero. He fitted out a number of vessels in 
 France and did much damage to English shipping along 
 the coasts of England and Scotland. 
 
 In his flagship, ''Bonhomme Richard," he attacked 
 the British frigate ''Serapis" and captured it. While 
 this fight was going on the "Bonhomme Richard" be- 
 gan to sink and when the British captain asked Captain 
 Paul Jones if he was ready to surrender he (Jones) re- 
 plied, **We have not begun to fight yet." He lashed his 
 sinking ship to the *'Serapis" and the Americans fought 
 the British hand to hand and made them surrender. 
 Then the Americans sailed away in their prize, the 
 "Serapis," and their ship, the ''Bonhomme Richard," 
 went down. 
 
 How the Mississippi Valley Was Saved for 
 the Americans 
 
 LESSON 34 
 
 While the Revolutionary War was going on along 
 the Atlantic Coast, claiming almost everyone's atten- 
 tion, the rich Mississippi Valley was not forgotten. To 
 get possession of it and hold it was a task that fell to a 
 young Virginian, George Rogers Clark. He had ex- 
 plored the great valley and was determined to have it 
 for the Americans. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 57 
 
 With help from the Virginia government and a few 
 bold riflemen, he crossed the Allegheny Mountains, 
 went down the Ohio River to the Mississippi River and 
 up that river to Cahokia. He captured Kaskaskia. Then 
 he went across the swamp lands, suffering all kinds of 
 hardships, and without any difficulty captured Vin- 
 cennes, in what is now called Indiana. Thus he won 
 the Mississippi Valley for the Americans. 
 
 The Treaty of Paris That Ended the 
 Revolutionary War 
 
 LESSON 35 
 
 The commissioners who made the treaty of peace 
 had many questions to settle. Our country was repre- 
 sented by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John 
 Jay. They met the commissioners of Great Britain at 
 Paris. For two years the terms of settlement were dis- 
 cussed. Finally, in September, 1783, they came to an 
 agreement. At last the independence of the United 
 States of America was acknowledged by Great Britain. 
 At last our glorious flag, the stars and stripes, had an 
 unquestioned right to wave, inviting the oppressed of 
 every land to find a home under its protecting folds. 
 
 It was agreed by the Treaty of Paris that the United 
 States should include all the land from the Atlantic 
 Ocean to the Mississippi River and from the Great 
 Lakes to Florida. Canada was kept by Great Britain 
 and Florida and all the land west of the Mississippi 
 River were given to Spain. 
 
 After the eight years of fighting, from 1775 to 1783, 
 our country was free. 
 
 There was great rejoicing in all the thirteen States 
 when the last of the British ships sailed away. 
 
58 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 After the Revolutionary War 
 
 LESSON 36 
 
 We must not forget that to George Washington is 
 due more than to any other man the honor of the Great 
 RepubHc. We know how well he led our army through 
 many difficulties to victory, but we must honor him 
 more, going home to his Mt. Vernon, when the work 
 was done. Many people wanted him to be king, but he 
 refused the offer as an insult. If he had accepted, like 
 most men would, how different all things would be. We 
 must not forget that Robert Morris, the financier, by 
 getting money to buy supplies, helped to win as much 
 as any of those who fought. 
 
 We must not forget that Benjamin Franklin, by 
 prevailing upon the King of France to give us aid, per- 
 formed a great service. We must be grateful, always, 
 to the French people for their assistance. The follow- 
 ing foreigners are particularly deserving of remem- 
 brance for the assistance they rendered during the war: 
 Lafayette from France, Kosciuszko from Poland, De 
 Kalb from Bavaria, and Steuben from Germany. The 
 American women, like women always, denied them- 
 selves almost everything in order to help win our inde- 
 pendence. 
 
 The American Flag 
 
 LESSON 37 
 
 The American Flag, also called Old Glory and the 
 Red, White and Blue, is the most beautiful national 
 emblem that waves in the winds of this world. 
 
 When Americans say: "I pledge allegiance to my 
 flag and to the Republic for which it stands, one nation 
 indivisible, with liberty and justice for all," they fix 
 their eyes upon a harmony of colors that no other flag 
 possesses. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 59 
 
 Washington said : "We take the stars from heaven, 
 the red from our mother country, separating it by- 
 white stripes, showing that we have separated from 
 her, and the white stripes shall go down to posterity 
 representing liberty." 
 
 It is well for us to know what Washington said 
 about our flag, but when we salute it we think of the 
 white stars upon their field of blue as representing the 
 union of our great States and we think of the seven red 
 stripes and six white stripes as reminding us of the 
 thirteen colonies, whose brave people won our inde- 
 pendence, which please God shall never die. 
 
 We think of the red as standing for the bravery of 
 Americans, the blue for their loyalty, and the white for 
 their justice to all peoples. 
 
 Before our present flag was adopted by Congress, 
 the colonists had various other emblems like "the pine- 
 tree flag" and "the rattlesnake flag" bearing the warn- 
 ing, "Don't tread on me." The flag carried by Wash- 
 ington's soldiers, at first, was one containing the thir- 
 teen stripes, but instead of our stars in the upper left- 
 hand comer it bore the English crosses of St. George 
 and St. Andrew. 
 
 In June, 1776, Washington and a committee of Con- 
 gress planned our present flag. A woman named Betsy 
 Ross of Philadelphia is given credit for making the first 
 flag, but there is no evidence to prove this. 
 
 The flag planned by Washington and the committee 
 of Congress was adopted by Congress on June 14, 1777. 
 
 The first great victory in which our flag cheered our 
 soldiers on to greater effort was the Battle of Benning- 
 ton, which compelled Burgoyne to surrender his army 
 to the Americans. 
 
 After our independence was won, there was no 
 change in our flag until 1794, when Vermont and Ken- 
 tucky were admitted to the Union. Then two more 
 stars and two more stripes were added to the flag to 
 represent the new States. The people did not like this 
 
60 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 arrangement and, finally, in 1818, Congress decided to 
 return to the original thirteen stripes with a star for 
 every State. That arrangement has continued to the 
 present day. 
 
 Not only Americans, but also civilized people of every 
 part of this world, honor our flag. The oppressed of 
 every land long to live under its protecting folds. But 
 the greatest honor ever paid to our flag was our na- 
 tional song, 'The Star Spangled Banner," written by 
 Francis Scott Key while British cannons bombarded 
 Fort McHenry, over which our flag waved and contin- 
 ued to wave, because the brave defenders of the fort 
 did not surrender and the city of Baltimore was saved 
 from British capture. 
 
 Now, whenever that song is played or sung, all true 
 Americans stand at attention to show respect and 
 honor to our flag. 
 
 ** 'Tis the star spangled banner, O long may it wave 
 O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.'' 
 
Supplemental Text-Books for 
 Schools and Libraries 
 
 Thirteen Hundred Problems in Arithmetic. By S. P. 
 
 Robbins of the Oakdale School, Chico, Calif. Sup- 
 plements the California State Text-Book for seventh 
 and eighth grades, page by page. This book is a 
 real essential. Used in Butte, Fresno, Los Angeles, 
 San Diego, Alameda, Santa Clara and other counties. 
 Price 25c 
 
 Pacific History Stories. By Harr Wagner and Alice 
 Rose Power. For the fourth, fifth and sixth grades. 
 This book has been adopted for the use of pupils in 
 the beginning of the study of history in the fourth 
 grade, in San Francisco's new course of study in his- 
 tory, and Los Angeles county places it among the 
 required books for pupils to read in the fifth year. 
 
 "It deserves a place in every school library not only on account 
 of its historical information, but for the reason of its literary 
 charm." — Herbert Bashford, in San Francisco Bulletin. 
 
 "It is bound to be a huge success. It ought to be in every 
 California school." — Elizabeth Adams, Potter School, and pro- 
 fessor in University of California summer session. 
 
 "A great book. It has rare historical and romantic value." — 
 Carrol G. Pease, former president of the N. E. A., and editor 
 of The American School. 
 
 "A very compact, well illustrated, clearly and attractively 
 written volume." — George Douglas, in San PYancisco Chronicle. 
 
 Poems for Memorizing. Part I, for first, second, 
 third, fourth and fifth grades. Part II, for sixth, 
 seventh and eighth grades. Compiled by Alice Rose 
 Power from lists of Dr. Elwood P. Cubberley of Stan- 
 ford University. Each part, 25c; bound complete, 75c; 
 library edition $1.00 
 
 There has long been need of a book of memory selections 
 which may be put into the hands of pupils. This saves the 
 teacher the work of writing each selection upon the board. The 
 special edition of Poems for Memorizing is issued in two parts, 
 so that any poem required may be put into the pupils' hands at 
 a small cost. 
 
 All of the selections have been actually tried in the different 
 grades, and it is one of the best compilations obtainable. It 
 probably contains more poems commonly called for in courses 
 of study than are found in any single volume. 
 
The Story of Matka. By David Starr Jordan, Chan- 
 cellor and former President of Leland Stanford 
 Junior University. Price $1.00 
 
 Forward Looking Lessons in U. S. History. By 
 W. J. Savage, Superintendent of Colma and Daly 
 City Schools. Book I (for seventh grade history 
 study), paper 50c, board 75c; Book II (for eighth 
 grade history study), paper 70c, board 90c. 
 
 These topical lessons have been thoroughly tested 
 in actual school room work and v^ill meet the needs 
 of your pupils. 
 
 The Geography of California. By Dr. Harold W. 
 Fairbanks. Price $1.00 
 
 The object of this book is to give a simple but detailed descrip- 
 tion of the conditions under which we are living and to so 
 weave them into a whole that teachers and pupils may grasp 
 the elements of geographical knowledge of California. 
 
 The geography of California is extraordinarily varied and 
 interesting. Children should not leave school without some con- 
 ception of the origin and meaning of the physical features 
 about them, of the strongly contrasting climatic conditions and 
 the influence which these exert in our lives. 
 
 The author has written in a similar manner on those effects 
 and relations which should be known and appreciated by every 
 educated resident of California. 
 
 Topical Geography of Europe According to the Prob- 
 lem Methods, Showing the Changes Brought About 
 by the World War. By Dr. H. W. Fairbanks. This 
 book contains 110 pages of size 5 by 7, 8-point type. 
 Do you want to have your pupils think when they 
 study Europe? Then give them this book with up- 
 to-date Map of New Europe. Paper 50c; board.. ..75c 
 
 Indian Stories of the Southwest. By Elizabeth Jud- 
 son Roberts- True stories and legends of the Indians 
 of San Diego county and other sections of the South- 
 west. Illustrated. Price $1.25 
 
Civil Government Simplified. By J. J. Duvall, Prin- 
 cipal of the Columbia School, Fresno, as extended 
 and revised by Senator M. B. Johnson. Price, paper 
 40c ; board 60c 
 
 A text for pupils in Americanization. Original in arrange- 
 ment, graphic in its presentation. Teaching good citizenship by 
 the clear, definite, actual presentation of our form of State and 
 National Government, from the affairs of the School Trustee 
 to the President of the United States. 
 
 There are special pages on the Railroad, State Highway, In- 
 dustrial Accident and other Commissions, on County Library, 
 Farm Advisor, County Purchasing Agents, and other new fea- 
 tures of government as contained in new laws not readily 
 accessible in other forms. 
 
 There are special pages on the process of law making, of nat- 
 uralization. Americanization, and the latest 1919 list of the 
 most important State and Federal officials. 
 
 Study its 66 pages. You will want a book for every seventh 
 and eighth grade pupil in your school, and for every man and 
 woman in your locality who are not thoroughly familiar with our 
 Government in action. 
 
 Autobiography of Joaquin Miller. U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Bulletin No. 32, suggests this volume as 
 an excellent medium for the teaching of American 
 ideals. Price $1.50 
 
 This volume, in addition to his interesting autobiography, in- 
 cludes many of the author's best poems, "The Passing of Ten- 
 nyson," "The Fortunate Isles," "Cuba Libre," "To Those Who 
 Jail,^ The Bravest Battle," "Mother Egypt," "Don't Stop at 
 the Station Despair," "The Voice of the Dove," and "Death Is 
 Delightful." This book should be required to be read by every 
 child in the seventh and eighth grades. 
 
 The Western Journal of Education. Edited by Harr 
 Wagner. Established 1895. A, newsy, progressive 
 educational journal for the teacher, school trustee 
 and library. Price per year $1.50 
 
 Prices given are subject to the usual discounts to book-sellers 
 and to schools or individuals purchasing in quantity. The com- 
 pany welcomes your correspondence and will assure it prompt 
 attention. Books by western authors printed, published and 
 promoted. 
 
 HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 nil HEARST BUILDING, Third and Market Sts. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 
 
 Depository for the P. Blakiston's Son & Co. High 
 School and Reference Text-Books in the Science and 
 the American Red Cross Text-Books. 
 
 Press of The Hansen Company, S. F. 
 
Forward Looking Lessons 
 IN U.S. History 
 
 UP - TO - DATE - ALIVE 
 FOR EIGHTH GRADE 
 
 BY 
 
 W. J. SAVAGE 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF THE COLMA AND DALY CITY SCHOOLS 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 1919 
 
 HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
1919 
 Copyrighted by W. J. Savage 
 
How and Why These Lessons Were 
 Composed and Published 
 
 After trying to teach United States History in 
 schools of California for twenty years, using such texts 
 as were available, the writer felt that he had never 
 succeeded. 
 
 No matter what plan he followed, nearly one-half of 
 each class lost interest before the end was reached. 
 Seeking for improvement, these lessons were developed. 
 Each lesson was dictated to an average class, the pupils 
 writing in their blank-books. The comprehension of 
 the weaker members was constantly borne in mind. 
 
 The following day the recitation took place. The 
 abler ones gave it in their own language. It was con- 
 sidered no disgrace for the others to recite verbatim. 
 For all there was a steady increase of vocabulary and 
 history. When the usual questions were asked, all were 
 ready with complete answers. 
 
 At the end of the year the ability of the class, com- 
 pared to that of the many preceding ones, was agree- 
 ably surprising. More than ninety per cent of them 
 had retained interest in the study and were able to 
 speak and write upon almost any topic fluently and 
 correctly. 
 
 For ten years past the lessons have been used, in 
 different localities, by seventh and eighth grade teach- 
 ers, and all report decided success. 
 
 The best eighth grade teacher the writer has known 
 said that she had always felt she was a failure in teach- 
 ing United States History until she tried these lessons. 
 With them her pupils were so enthusiastic and anxious 
 to discourse on the subject, she knew she had become a 
 success. 
 
 Another eighth grade teacher said if she should be 
 superseded she would take every history blank-book 
 away with her and that then her successor could never 
 reach the high standard she had attained. 
 
Besides a knowledge of history and the expression 
 of it, these lessons develop love of country, considera- 
 tion for others and independence of thought. 
 
 In conclusion, the lessons have been found to be so 
 helpful to the teachers and pupils who have used them 
 that the writer has complied with a steadily increasing 
 demand and they are published. 
 
 The lessons are offered in two books — one for the 
 seventh grade of thirty-seven lessons, each lesson being 
 considered ample for a week's work ; the other for the 
 eighth grade of one hundred nine lessons, each for 
 a day's work. 
 
 Sufficient time for frequent reviews of the more 
 important subjects and outside reading of history 
 remains. 
 
 Respectfully, 
 
 W. J. SAVAGE. 
 
Publisher's Foreword 
 
 These lessons in United States History 
 for the Seventh and Eighth Grades, written 
 by W. J. Savage, have been thoroughly tried 
 out by practical teachers. The results have 
 been so satisfactory that the lessons are pre- 
 sented in permanent form. The topical 
 method, the simple language, the narrative 
 style, the use of a few words to tell the im- 
 portant facts, will certainly appeal to teach- 
 ers. The publishers believe that this book 
 will be of real service to the schools. 
 
FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Contents 
 
 Lesson 1. How the United States Was Governed During 
 
 the Revolutionary War 9 
 
 Lesson 2. The Northwest Territory and the Ordinance of 
 
 1787 9 
 
 Lesson 3. The Condition of Money, Business and Com- 
 merce After the Revolution and Before the 
 
 Constitution Was Adopted 10 
 
 Lesson 4. Troubles of Our Country Before the Constitu- 
 tion Was Adopted 11 
 
 Lesson 5. How the Constitutional Convention Came About 12 
 
 Lesson 6. The Constitutional Convention 13 
 
 Lesson 7. The Plans of the Constitutional Convention 14 
 
 Lesson 8. The Compromise of the Constitutional Con- 
 vention 15 
 
 Lesson 9. Congress 16 
 
 Lesson 10. The Executive Department 17 
 
 Lesson 11. The President's Cabinet 17 
 
 Lesson 12. The Judicial Department 18 
 
 Lesson 13. The Ratification of the Constitution 19 
 
 Lesson 14. Organization of the Government Under the 
 
 Constitution 20 
 
 Lesson 15. National Growth and European Interference 21 
 
 Lesson 16. The Origin of American Neutrality 22 
 
 Lesson 17. Citizen Genet, French Minister from France to 
 
 the United States 23 
 
 Lesson 18. The Jay Treaty 24 
 
 Lesson 19. Troubles with France 25 
 
 Lesson 20. The Alien and Sedition Acts 26 
 
 Lesson 21. More Troubles on Account of Commerce 27 
 
 Lesson 22. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 28 
 
 Lesson 23. Louisiana Purchase 29 
 
 Lesson 24. European Interference with American Com- 
 merce Again 31 
 
 Lesson 25. The War of 1812 32 
 
 Lesson 26. The American Army and Navy in 1812 32 
 
 Lesson 27. The War of 1812 on Land 33 
 
 Lesson 28. The War of 1812 on Sea 34 
 
 Lesson 29. The Treaty of Peace That Ended the War of 
 
 1812 35 
 
 Lesson 30. The Hartford Convention 36 
 
 Lesson 31. The Purchase of Florida 37 
 
 Lesson 32. The Monroe Doctrine 38 
 
 Lesson 33. The End of European Interference 40 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 Lesson 34. Hamilton's Financial Measures 41 
 
 Lesson 35. Some Objections to Hamilton's Plans 42 
 
 Lesson 36. The Tariff Laws 42 
 
 Lesson 37. The Missouri Compromise 43 
 
 Lesson 88. The Unity of National Feeling 44 
 
 Lesson 39. American Inventions 45 
 
 Lesson 40. The Election of Andrew Jackson 46 
 
 Lesson 41. The Spoils System 48 
 
 Lesson 42. Nominating Conventions, Platforms and Cam- 
 paigns 49 
 
 Lesson 43. The "Whigs and Democrats 50 
 
 Lesson 44. South Carolina and Nullification 51 
 
 Lesson 45. The Destruction of the United States Bank 53 
 
 Lesson 46. State Banks 54 
 
 Lesson 47. Surplus Government Money Given to the 
 
 States . . 55 
 
 Lesson 48. The Financial Panic of 1837 '. 56 
 
 Lesson 49. Independent or Sub-Treasury System 56 
 
 Lesson 50. The Oregon Country 57 
 
 Lesson 51. The Annexation of Texas 58 
 
 Lesson 52. The Mexican War 59 
 
 Lesson 53. The Settlement of Oregon and California. 61 
 
 Lesson 54. The Abolitionists 62 
 
 Lesson 55. The Compromise of 1850 63 
 
 Lesson 56. Kansas-Nebraska Bill 64 
 
 Lesson 57. The Dred Scott Decision 65 
 
 Lesson 58. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 66 
 
 Lesson 59. The Election of Abraham Lincoln as President.. 67 
 
 Lesson 60. The Civil War 68 
 
 Lesson 61. Why the South Had Little Chance to Win the 
 
 War 70 
 
 Lesson 62. The Battle of Bull Rim 71 
 
 Lesson 63. Emancipation Proclamation 72 
 
 Lesson 64. The Civil War in the East 73 
 
 Lesson 65. Civil War in the West 74 
 
 Lesson 66. Sherman's March to the Sea .^... 75 
 
 Lesson 67. Lee's Surrender 76 
 
 Lesson 68. The American Navy During the Civil War 77 
 
 Lesson 69. The Alabama Claims and the Geneva Awards.... 79 
 
 Lesson 70. The Monitor and the Merrimac 80 
 
 Lesson 71. Results of the Civil War 81 
 
 Lesson 72. Reconstruction 82 
 
 Lesson 73. The Tenure of Office Act — The Impeachment 
 
 of President Johnson 88 
 
 Lesson 74. The New South 84 
 
 Lesson 75. The Purchase of Alaska 85 
 
 Lesson 76. Tariff Questions in Recent Times 86 
 
FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Lesson 
 
 77. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 78. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 79. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 80. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 81. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 82. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 83. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 84. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 85. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 86. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 87. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 88. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 89. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 90. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 91. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 92. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 93. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 94. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 95. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 96. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 97. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 98. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 99. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 100. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 101. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 102. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 103. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 104. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 105. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 106. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 107. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 108. 
 
 Lesson 
 
 109. 
 
 Corporations 87 
 
 Labor Unions 88 
 
 Recent Application of the Monroe Doctrine 89 
 
 The Hague Tribunal 90 
 
 Spanish-American War 91 
 
 The Panama Canal 93 
 
 Presidents After Civil V/ar Up to 1896 94 
 
 Early History of California 95 
 
 Mexican Rule in California 97 
 
 California from the Mexican War to the 
 
 Present Time 98 
 
 American Inventions 99 
 
 American Railroads 100 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing 101 
 
 Commerce and Growth of Cities 102 
 
 The Advancement of Education 103 
 
 Noted Co-lleges 104 
 
 Presidential Campaign of 1896 104 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt 105 
 
 William Howard Taft 106 
 
 Conservation 107 
 
 The Reclamation Act 107 
 
 Election Reforms 108 
 
 Woodrow Wilson 109 
 
 Mexican Troubles Ill 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution 112 
 
 The Causes and Beginning of the World War.... 112 
 Our Country During the Beginning of the 
 
 World War 114 
 
 The World War from 1915 to March, 1918 115 
 
 Features of the World War 116 
 
 The Causes of Our War with Gennany 118 
 
 The United States Declares War Against Ger- 
 many — Preparations for the Contest 118 
 
 The End of the World War 120 
 
 The Peace Conference 121 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 9 
 
 How the United States Was Governed 
 
 During the Revolutionary War and 
 
 After the War Until the Constitution 
 
 Was Adopted 
 
 LESSON 1 
 
 At first our country was governed by Congress 
 alone. This Congress was composed of representatives 
 from the thirteen States. 
 
 The people thought that there ought to be a Su- 
 preme Law to direct the members of Congress. Con- 
 gress made up a system of laws called the Articles of 
 Confederation. When the States had adopted these 
 Articles they became the Supreme Law of our coun- 
 try and remained so until the Constitution was adopted 
 in 1789. 
 
 The Articles of Confederation were never satisfac- 
 tory. They did not hold the States together in a close 
 union and they did not give Congress any power to 
 collect taxes, raise and support armies, or to regulate 
 commerce. 
 
 Under the Articles of Confederation the country 
 continued to become weaker instead of stronger, and 
 the people poorer instead of richer. 
 
 The Northwest Territory and the 
 Ordinance of 1787 
 
 LESSON 2 
 
 The most important law enacted by Congress, under 
 the Articles of Confederation, was the Ordinance of 
 1787. The object of this ordinance was to govern the 
 land known as the Northwest Territory, which was 
 north of the Ohio River and between the Mississippi 
 River and the Appalachian Mountains. This territory 
 
la FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 had been claimed by Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vir- 
 ginia and New York, but they had given up their 
 claims to it and now it was in the hands of the general 
 government. 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787 is important for several rea- 
 sons. It was the beginning of territorial form of gov- 
 ernment and is in use to this day in our territories like 
 Alaska and the Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787 provided that the governor 
 of the territory was to be appointed by Congress but 
 that the territory should have a legislature composed 
 of men elected by its own people. It also provided that 
 when the territory increased in population it would be 
 divided into parts and each part would be admitted into 
 the Union as a State, with just the same rights as the 
 other States. 
 
 Out of the Northwest Territory the following States 
 were made: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and 
 Michigan. 
 
 By the Ordinance of 1787 it was enacted that there 
 should not be any slavery in the Northwest Territory 
 or in any State made from it. 
 
 The Condition of Money, Business and 
 
 Commerce After the Revolution and 
 
 Before the Constitution 
 
 Was Adopted 
 
 LESSON 3 
 
 This time in our history is the critical period, be- 
 cause everything was so uncertain. It was not known 
 whether our country would fail or succeed. 
 
 There was very little money, business or commerce. 
 All the hard money they had were the coins of Eng- 
 land, Spain and France. After the Revolution nearly 
 all the money they had went to pay for goods which the 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 11 
 
 English merchants sent over and which the Americans 
 needed very much. 
 
 The Americans did have paper money, which was 
 issued in large quantities during the Revolution to 
 carry on the war. At first the people received this 
 paper money and accepted it in pay for products, but 
 after a while they thought that Congress would never 
 be able to redeem it. When the people began to be- 
 lieve this, the value of the paper money became less 
 and less. Before the war closed it would take a hun- 
 dred dollars in paper money to buy as much as one 
 dollar in hard money. This shows us what little faith 
 the people had in their government at that time. 
 
 When there is no money and no faith in the govern- 
 ment, the people have hard times, and there is no busi- 
 ness or commerce. 
 
 Troubles of Our Country Before the 
 Constitution Was Adopted 
 
 LESSON 4 
 
 Congress could ask the States to collect taxes for 
 the support of the general government, but it could 
 not compel them to collect and pay it over to the United 
 states government under the Articles of Confedera- 
 tion. Since the States were not compelled to pay the 
 taxes, they did not pay them. As a consequence, there 
 was no money to pay the expenses of the general gov- 
 ernment and the nations of Europe would not respect 
 a nation that could not pay its debts. For awhile the 
 European people were inclined to ridicule our country 
 and would not make treaties with us. 
 
 The small States were jealous of the larger States 
 and sometimes were so angry with one another that 
 they threatened to go to war. It began to look as 
 though we had thirteen separate nations instead of 
 one great nation. 
 
12 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The different States made different tariff laws for 
 imported goods, and some States put a tariff on goods 
 coming in from sister States. Some of the tariffs were 
 low and some were high. Everything was in an unset- 
 tled condition. 
 
 In 1786 a rebellion broke out in Massachusetts 
 against the State government which was known as 
 Shay's Rebellion. More than 2,000 people started this 
 rebellion because the Legislature of Massachusetts 
 would not pass a paper money bill. It took 4,000 sol- 
 diers to put down Shay's Rebellion. All these troubles 
 and many others made it plain to the people that it 
 was necessary to have a stronger government than the 
 Articles of Confederation could give. 
 
 How the Constitutional Convention 
 Came About 
 
 LESSON 5 
 
 When the Revolutionary War was ended Washing- 
 ton resigned his commission as commander-in-chief of 
 the American army. He refused to accept even one 
 cent as pay for his services during the war. All he 
 asked was that Congress should pay him back what he 
 had spent out of his own pocket, and he gave Congress 
 a careful account of that. He knew that Congress had 
 very little money, so he said that he would wait for 
 what was coming to him. Then he hurried to Mt. 
 Vernon to spend another Christmas at home with his 
 friends. He intended to spend the rest of his life at 
 Mt. Vernon, one of the most beautiful places in Vir- 
 ginia. 
 
 While he was at Mt. Vernon, in talking with several 
 friends about the settlement of the Mississippi Valley, 
 he advised that Virginia and Maiyland should hold a 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 13 
 
 joint convention to decide about good roads across the 
 Appalachian Mountains. 
 
 Acting upon this advice, Maryland sent a letter to 
 Virginia asking the Legislature of that State to send 
 delegates to Annapolis and to ask other States to do 
 the same. When this convention met at Annapolis it 
 was found that only five States had sent delegates. 
 
 At this convention nothing was done except to ask 
 Congress to have all the States send delegates to a con- 
 vention to be held at Philadelphia. The States paid at- 
 tention to the request of Congress and their best men 
 were chosen as delegates. All the people took great 
 interest in the proposed convention and though the 
 constitution was never mentioned while the delegates 
 were being chosen, this convention became the Consti- 
 tutional Convention. 
 
 The Constitutional Convention 
 
 LESSON 6 
 
 The convention that met at Philadelphia in May, 
 1787, is known in history as the Constitutional Conven- 
 tion because it made the great Constitution of the 
 United States. It was the most important convention 
 ever held in America because its work was the great- 
 est that has ever been accomplished. 
 
 This convention was composed of fifty-five mem- 
 bers and all the States were represented except little 
 Rhode Island. All the States had sent their best men, 
 and never before or since had so many able men been 
 gathered together to improve the government. A few 
 of the leaders were George Washington, Benjamin 
 Franklin, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. 
 Washington was chosen president and Madison sec- 
 retary. The convention was held behind closed doors 
 and the curious public was not allowed to see or hear 
 what was going on. 
 
14 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 James Madison, the secretary, kept a full record of 
 everything that was said or done and this was not 
 given to the public until fifty years later. 
 
 The Constitution was not made in a day. It took 
 four months of debating and speechmaking before the 
 great work was accomplished. 
 
 The Plans of the Constitutional 
 Convention 
 
 LESSON 7 
 
 While the members of the convention were talking 
 about what was best to be done, the different States 
 suggested plans for making a stronger central gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 Several of the delegates thought that the people 
 would not be satisfied with a stronger central govern- 
 ment and they wanted to improve the Articles of Con- 
 federation, but Washington said that it would be bet- 
 ter to make a new constitution than to patch up the 
 Articles of Confederation. The convention took his 
 advice. Two plans were considered. The New Jersey 
 plan suggested a national legislature to consist of one 
 house, with its members elected by the State, and each 
 State to have the same number of members. This was 
 objected to because it gave the small States more rep- 
 resentation than they were entitled to. The people of 
 Virginia wanted a national legislature to consist of 
 two houses, an upper house and a lower house. They 
 wanted the members of the lower house to be elected 
 by the States and the members of the upper house to be 
 elected by the members of the lower house. This plan 
 was also objected to because it gave the larger States 
 more representation than they were entitled to. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 1« 
 
 The Compromises of the Constitutional 
 Convention 
 
 LESSON 8 
 
 A compromise is a settlement of a dispute, both the 
 disputing parties giving up a number of things they 
 were disputing for. By a compromise both sides are 
 satisfied. 
 
 The first compromise of the Constitutional Conven- 
 tion was in regard to the National Legislature. 
 
 It was decided to have two houses, the upper house 
 and the lower house. To satisfy the small States, every 
 State was to have two members in the upper house. 
 To satisfy the large States it was decided that the 
 States would be represented in the lower house accord- 
 ing to their population. 
 
 The second compromise was on the subject of slav- 
 ery. The southern States wanted the slaves counted as 
 population and the northern States did not want them 
 counted at all. This dispute was settled by allowing 
 five slaves to be counted as three white people, in esti- 
 mating the population. 
 
 The third compromise was on the subject of com- 
 merce and the importation of slaves. All the southern 
 States objected to Congress having control of com- 
 merce. A few of the southern States wanted to con- 
 tinue the importation of slaves. 
 
 All the northern States were opposed to this. It was 
 finally agreed that Congress should have entire con- 
 trol of commerce and that slaves might be imported 
 by the southern States until 1808. 
 
16 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Congress 
 
 LESSON 9 
 
 The three departments of our government, provided 
 for by the Constitution, are the Legislative Depart- 
 ment, the Executive Department and the Judicial De- 
 partment. 
 
 Congress is composed of two houses, the upper 
 house and the lower house. The National Legislative 
 Department or the National Legislature is called Con- 
 gress. 
 
 The upper house is known as the United States 
 Senate and the members of this house are elected by 
 the people, two from each State. 
 
 They hold office for six years. One-third of the 
 members of the United States Senate go in, new, every 
 two years, and the other two-thirds hold over, so that 
 the United States Senate is never entirely new. 
 
 The lower house, sometimes called the Popular 
 House, is known as the House of Representatives. All 
 of its members are elected by the people and all of them 
 hold office for only two years, so that every two years 
 it is entirely renewed. 
 
 The number of representatives that each State may 
 have depends upon the population. New York has many 
 representatives on account of its large population, while 
 Nevada has but one representative because its popula- 
 tion is so small. 
 
 Since the people vote directly for members of the 
 House of Representatives, and since the people can 
 change them all at one election, the lower house is said 
 to represent the people. 
 
 The United States Senate is said to represent the 
 States. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 17 
 
 The Executive Department 
 
 LESSON 10 
 
 The Constitution created a strong Executive De- 
 partment. The President is at the head of the Execu- 
 tive Department. He is not elected directly by the 
 people. That is, the people do not vote for anyone for 
 President, but they elect electors, whose only duty is to 
 elect a President and Vice-President. Both are elected 
 for a term of four years. 
 
 The President is commander-in-chief of the army 
 and navy. He appoints the members of the Cabinet, 
 the members of the Supreme Court, all the postmasters, 
 all the ministers to foreign countries and many other 
 officers. All his appointments must be ratified by the 
 United States Senate. 
 
 The President must sign all bills passed by Congress 
 that he wants to become laws. When he does not want 
 a bill to become a law, after it has been passed by Con- 
 gress, he vetoes it. 
 
 The only duty of the Vice-President is to preside 
 over the Senate, but should the President become un- 
 able to perform his duties, through absence, sickness, 
 death, or impeachm.ent, then the Vice-President takes 
 his place and has all his duties to perform. Several 
 Vice-Presidents have become Presidents through the 
 death of the President, but none of them in any other 
 way. 
 
 The President's Cabinet 
 
 LESSON 11 
 
 It is impossible for one man to perform all the 
 duties of the Executive of the United States Govern- 
 ment, so, in order to help the President, Congress has 
 divided the work into ten departments and at the head 
 of each of these departments there is a Cabinet of- 
 
18 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 ficer and their titles are as follows : Secretary of State, 
 Secretary of War, Secretary of Treasury, Secretary of 
 Navy, Postmaster General, Attorney General, Secre- 
 tary of Interior, Secretary of Agriculture, Secretary of 
 Commerce and Secretary of Labor. Under each Cab- 
 inet officer is a large number of men and women who 
 are employed to help do the work. 
 
 The ten Cabinet officers are known as the Presi- 
 dent's Cabinet. They are appointed by him and are his 
 political friends and advisers. The President often 
 calls them together to talk over public affairs, and get 
 the benefit of their advice. They are generally the 
 wisest public men in the country. Each one of the Cab- 
 inet officers gets an annual salary of $12,000 and the 
 terms of office depend upon the President. He can dis- 
 miss any one or all of them whenever he sees fit. 
 
 The Judicial Department 
 
 LESSON 12 
 
 The Constitution provides for a Judicial Depart- 
 ment as well as for other departments. 
 
 The Judicial Department consists of the Supreme 
 Court and such inferior courts as Congress may es- 
 tablish. 
 
 The Supreme Court consists of nine judges, one of 
 whom is called the Chief Justice. 
 
 The inferior courts are called Circuit Courts, Dis- 
 trict Courts, Court of Claims and Court of Appeals. 
 
 All the judges of the United States Courts are ap- 
 pointed by the President and all hold office for life, or 
 during good behavior, but each one of their appoint- 
 ments must be ratified by the United States Senate. 
 The duty of the Supreme Court is to interpret the laws 
 passed by Congress. If anyone thinks a law is unjust, 
 he takes the case before the Supreme Court and judges 
 look into the case, and whatever they decide must be 
 final. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 19 
 
 No personal trouble can be taken before the Su- 
 preme Court unless it amounts to more than $5,000. 
 
 The inferior courts have been established by Con- 
 gress to relieve the Supreme Court of work it has no 
 time to do. 
 
 The high character of the Supreme Court has made 
 it honored and respected all over the world. No other 
 nation has a court which has so much power. All 
 Americans are proud of their Supreme Court. 
 
 The Ratification of the Constitution 
 
 LESSON 13 
 
 We, naturally, think that the people should have 
 been overjoyed to get such a grand Constitution and 
 that they should have been only too willing to ratify 
 or adopt it as their own, but it was not so. The people 
 were very slow in adopting it and for awhile it was 
 thought that they would never adopt it. A great many 
 people were afraid to have a stronger central govern- 
 ment. They were afraid it would take away their lib- 
 erties, like the government in England had done. Such 
 people opposed the Constitution. 
 
 The Constitution could not become the supreme law 
 until nine States had adopted it. The people of each 
 State did not vote directly for the Constitution, but 
 they adopted it by means of a special State convention 
 or by the State Legislature. 
 
 The campaign for the ratification of the Constitu- 
 tion continued for several months. Debates about it 
 took place in all the towns. The people discussed it 
 everywhere. 
 
 Those in favor of it were called Federalists and 
 those who opposed it were called Anti-Federalists. 
 These were our first political parties. 
 
 The greatest upholders of the Constitution were 
 Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. These two 
 
20 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 great men did all in their power to teach the people 
 that the Constitution was the very best thing for them. 
 They published eighty-five articles in a newspaper 
 called the "Federalist," and they did a great deal to 
 convince the people the Constitution should be adopted. 
 The severest troubles over the Constitution took 
 place in New York, Massachusetts and Virginia. When 
 these three States finally ratified the Constitution, there 
 was great rejoicing throughout the nation. At last our 
 country was established on a strong foundation. 
 
 Organization of the Government 
 Under the Constitution 
 
 LESSON 14 
 
 When the Constitution was adopted or ratified, the 
 government under the Articles of Confederation came 
 to an end, and it was necessary to organize a new gov- 
 ernment. The first thing to be done was to elect a 
 President and a Vice-President, so an election was 
 held and sixty-nine presidential electors were elected 
 by the people. New York, Rhode Island and North 
 Carolina did not elect any electors, for they were not 
 ready to do so at the time the election was held. All 
 the sixty-nine electors voted for Washington for Presi- 
 dent and John Adams received the next highest number 
 and was made Vice-President. At that time the man 
 who received the highest number of votes was elected 
 President and whoever received the next highest num- 
 ber became Vice-President. Now each elector votes for 
 one man for President and one man for Vice-President 
 and both receive the same number of votes, and they 
 generally belong to the same party. This change was 
 made to have harmony between the President and the 
 Vice-President. 
 
 Now the President is inaugurated or put into office 
 on the 4th of March, but George Washington was not 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 21 
 
 inaugurated until the 30th of April, 1789, because Con- 
 gress was not ready until then. George Washington 
 chose as his Cabinet the following: Secretary of State, 
 Thomas Jefferson; Secretary of Treasury, Alexander 
 Hamilton; Secretary of War, Henry Knox; and Attor- 
 ney General, John Randolph. This is all the Cabinet 
 there was at that time. Congress passed all the neces- 
 sary laws for the formation of the Judicial Department 
 and John Jay was appointed Chief Justice. 
 
 And, now that the government was established 
 upon a firm foundation, the critical period of our his- 
 tory came to an end. 
 
 National Growth and European 
 Interference 
 
 LESSON 15 
 
 After the critical period comes the period of Euro- 
 pean interference and national growth. 
 
 By European interference we mean that the differ- 
 ent strong nations of Europe, especially England and 
 France, thought they could do as they pleased with 
 the commerce of the young republic. They were con- 
 stantly interfering with our sailors and in other ways 
 insulting our flag. 
 
 The United States was weak on account of the 
 Articles of Confederation and could not retaliate, but 
 the Constitution gave our country strength and the day 
 came when all the countries of Europe were compelled 
 to respect the stars and stripes. In the lessons that are 
 coming we shall find out all about this. 
 
 By national growth we mean that our country was 
 gradually becoming more and more united into a single 
 great nation under the Constitution. 
 
 At first each State thought it was an independent 
 part and could do as it wished without regard to the 
 
22 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 others. After many serious troubles the States found 
 out that in union there is strength, so they got into 
 the habit of sticking together and beheving that they 
 were one nation, and not thirteen nations. 
 
 The Origfin of American Neutrality 
 
 LESSON 16 
 
 By American neutraHty we mean the policy of the 
 United States in conducting our affairs so as not to 
 take part in the wars of other nations, in any way. 
 
 France was always quarreling with England and 
 expected the United States to help her. Many of the 
 Americans wanted our government to help France, but 
 Washington knew it would make never-ending trouble 
 for us if we did so and consequently he announced the 
 policy of American neutrality, which our nation has 
 followed ever since. 
 
 Just about the time the Constitution was adopted 
 the people of France were having a revolution — that 
 is, they were changing their government. For many 
 years the aristocrats, or rich people, had been treat- 
 ing the poor people in a cruel manner. The aristocrats 
 were living a life of idleness and splendor, while the 
 poor people were taxed so heavily that they had noth- 
 ing left with which to buy bread. Many of them were 
 starving. 
 
 At last the poor people rose against the aristocrats, 
 defeated them in many a battle and took possession of 
 the government of France. 
 
 As soon as they had power, they, too, became very 
 cruel. The king and queen of France and thousands of 
 nobles and aristocrats were beheaded. The poor people 
 did all this in the name of liberty and that is why many 
 Americans wanted to help them, but Washington's 
 policy of American neutrality kept them from inter- 
 fering. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 23 
 
 Citizen Genet, French Minister from 
 France to the United States 
 
 LESSON 17 
 
 By a minister, in history and civil government, we 
 mean a man who is sent by the government of his na- 
 tive land to represent his country in some foreign land. 
 A minister is generally a very able, pleasant and per- 
 suasive man. He speaks various languages and knows 
 how to make himself agreeable. 
 
 When the people of France took possession of the 
 French government and put so many nobles to death, 
 the other nations in Europe became greatly alarmed. 
 The nobles of every nation feared that the people 
 might rise against them and destroy their power, as 
 had been done in France, so all the other nations were 
 against the new government of France, especially Eng- 
 land. 
 
 England was so much opposed to France that her 
 Parliament declared war against France. It was then 
 that Citizen Genet was sent to the United States to get 
 aid for France from the Americans and the Americans 
 were only too willing to give her aid. When he 
 landed in New York he was received with great honor. 
 Large crowds gathered to hear and see him and every- 
 body cheered for France. The people wore French col- 
 ors and addressed each other using the word ''Citizen" 
 instead of ''Mr. and Mrs.," as they were doing in 
 France. 
 
 Citizen Genet judged by this that everything was 
 favorable for France. So he began to organize com- 
 panies of soldiers and gather together supplies of all 
 kinds to help France. He did this without presenting 
 his credentials to President Washington. The Presi- 
 dent considered that he had done wrong in doing so 
 much before presenting his credentials. Washington 
 forbade him to do any work for France in America and 
 demanded his recall by the French government. The 
 
24 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Americans criticised Washington very much for this, 
 as Citizen Genet was a very popular man ; but President 
 Washington could not have done anything else and live 
 up to American neutrality, which he announced at this 
 time. 
 
 The Jay Treaty 
 
 LESSON 18 
 
 When, the treaty of 1783, which ended the Revolu- 
 tionary War, was made wdth England and many ques- 
 tions betw^een the two nations were left unsettled, Eng- 
 land had failed to abandon her forts along the Canadian 
 frontier, as she had agreed to do, and American set- 
 tlers said that her agents urged the Indians to take 
 the warpath against them. England also claimed 
 the right to search American vessels in any port of 
 the world and take from them any sailor who was bom 
 in England. This "right of search" was very trouble- 
 some to the American merchants and they objected to 
 it. England also forbade our merchants to trade with 
 the French West Indies while the war with France was 
 going on. 
 
 All these questions caused a very bitter feeling in 
 the United States against England. These were the 
 same Americans who wanted to help France. 
 
 President Washington did not want war with any 
 country. He was not afraid, but he knew that peace 
 was best for the people. So he appointed John Jay, who 
 was Chief Justice, as a special minister to England to 
 settle all disputes and make a new treaty. The treaty 
 was made, but it was very unsatisfactory to the Ameri- 
 can people. England would not give up her "right of 
 search" and refused to show proper respect for our 
 country. 
 
 Washington was not very well satisfied with the 
 treaty, but he thought anything was better than war, 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 25 
 
 SO he asked the United States Senate to adopt the 
 treaty, which it did by a very close vote. Then all the 
 newspapers denounced him more than ever, saying that 
 he was afraid of England, yet Washington had done 
 the best he knew for our country. 
 
 Troubles with France 
 
 LESSON 19 
 
 When the Jay treaty was ratified it made the people 
 of France angry with the United States. This treaty 
 was a benefit to the commerce of England and an in- 
 jury to the commerce of France. 
 
 The French people said that Americans were un- 
 grateful to them, that the American people should have 
 remembered that the French people helped them when 
 they needed help and that now the Americans should 
 help instead of injuring them. 
 
 The feeling was so bitter that when the American 
 minister, Charles Pinckney, arrived in Paris the French 
 government refused to receive him. Another reason 
 for doing this was on account of Washington having 
 sent Citizen Genet back to France. 
 
 When the American people heard that the French 
 people had refused to receive their minister, all their 
 friendship for France turned to hatred at once, and 
 they wanted war declared against France to wipe out 
 the insults. 
 
 But John Adams, who was President, wanted peace 
 and he sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to join 
 Pinckney in France. These three men were instructed 
 by the President to make a new treaty with France in 
 order to preserve peace. 
 
 When they presented themselves before the French 
 Directory they were informed that they would not be 
 received unless they paid $250,000 to certain members 
 of the French government. In plain words, this was 
 
26 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 asking for a bribe, and Charles Pinckney told them for 
 an answer, **We have millions for defense, but not a 
 cent for tribute." 
 
 Afterwards, when President Adams spoke of this, 
 he referred to the men who asked for the money and 
 the whole trouble as the X Y Z affair. 
 
 The American ministers now left France and there 
 was a great clamor for war in America. Adams ap- 
 pointed three more ministers, but before they reached 
 Paris the French government was overthrown by the 
 French people and Napoleon Bonaparte took his place 
 at the head of the French government and sent word 
 that the American ministers would be received with 
 honor, and, after all, there was no war with France. 
 
 The Alien and Sedition Acts 
 
 LESSON 20 
 
 The administration of John Adams, which lasted 
 only four years, marks the end of the Federalist party. 
 At this time there was very bitter feeling in all the 
 States between the Federalists and the Anti-Federal- 
 ists. John Adams and Alexander Hamilton were the 
 leaders of the Federalists and Thomas Jefferson, who 
 was then Vice-President, and James Madison were the 
 leaders of the Anti-Federalists. 
 
 The Anti-Federalists were rapidly increasing in 
 number through immigration from Europe. In their 
 newspapers and speeches the Anti-Federalists severely 
 denounced all Federalists from the President down. 
 
 In order to check their growth and stop them from 
 writing and speaking so bitterly about the Federalists, 
 the Alien and Sedition Acts were passed by Congress 
 and signed by President Adams. 
 
 By the Alien Law the President could have any for- 
 eigner sent out of the country whom he thought unfit 
 to remain here. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 27 
 
 By the Sedition Law any person who wrote or spoke 
 anything against the President, or any other high of- 
 ficer of the government, could be arrested and, after 
 trial, he might be fined or imprisoned. 
 
 At the same time a new naturalization law was 
 passed by Congress which required a foreigner to live 
 in this country fourteen years, instead of five, before 
 he could become a citizen and a voter of this country. 
 
 Though these laws were never enforced to any great 
 extent, they caused the downfall of the Federalists and 
 the election of Thomas Jefferson as President of the 
 United States. 
 
 As soon as the Anti-Federalists got possession of 
 the government, these unpopular laws were repealed by 
 Congress and all the people rejoiced. 
 
 More Troubles on Account of Commerce 
 
 LESSON 21 
 
 England insisted upon her **right of search." In 
 1807 the British ship-of-war, ''Leopard," fired upon the 
 American ship-of-war, "Chesapeake," and compelled 
 the commander to give up three American citizens and 
 one British citizen. These four citizens were forced 
 into the British navy. 
 
 This act was a great insult to the United States, 
 and the English government apologized, but refused to 
 give up the right of searching American vessels. Four 
 years later the American warship "President" defeated 
 the English warship "Little Belt" in a sea fight. This 
 made the Americans feel good. They thought they 
 were even with the English. 
 
 Americans cannot read this part of our history 
 without a feeling of shame and humiliation. Our mer- 
 chants lost nearly all their trade and millions of dol- 
 lars and our country was insulted more than once. 
 
 Even the wise Jefferson made matters still worse 
 by having Congress pass the "Embargo Act." This law 
 
28 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 forbade American vessels to leave American ports ex- 
 cept to trade with other American ports. If obeyed, 
 the law would have destroyed all our trade with for- 
 eign nations. In order to enforce the Embargo Act, 
 the Enforcement Act was passed. This law laid heavy 
 restrictions on the coast trade of the United States and 
 created a bitter opposition, especially in New England. 
 The embargo was ruining the commerce of the United 
 States and doing but little harm to France and Eng- 
 land. It seemed to amuse Napoleon. He laughed at it. 
 In 1809, just before the close of Jefferson's second ad- 
 ministration, the Embargo Act was repealed and the 
 Non-Intercourse Act was enacted by Congress. This 
 act forbade trade with France and England and the 
 countries they controlled, but permitted it with the rest 
 of the world. 
 
 American commerce at once began to prosper, 
 though the French and English destroyed many of our 
 vessels. Madison, who had become President, like Jef- 
 ferson, loved peace, and, not wishing to go to war, was 
 determined to stop the insulting conduct of these two 
 nations without war. But the new Congress that met 
 in 1811, assisted in its war plans by James Monroe, was 
 determined to bring about an end to humiliation by 
 declaring war against either France or England. 
 James Monroe was convinced that these nations would 
 never respect the rights of the United States until they 
 were compelled to do so. 
 
 The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 
 
 LESSON 22 
 
 A set of resolutions is a series of thoughts passed 
 by any gathering of people to give expression to their 
 feelings. Such were the Virginia and Kentucky Reso- 
 lutions. They expressed the feelings of the people of 
 Virginia and Kentucky on the subject of the Alien and 
 Sedition Laws. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 29 
 
 The Kentucky resolutions were written by Thomas 
 Jefferson and passed by the Legislature of Kentucky. 
 
 The Virginia resolutions were written by James 
 Madison and passed by the Legislature of Virginia. 
 
 If these resolutions had only condemned the Alien 
 and Sedition Acts, then there would be no need to study 
 about them, but they went much farther than this. 
 These resolutions asserted that a State did not have to 
 obey laws passed by Congress unless it wanted to — 
 that the Constitution did not bind all the States to- 
 gether and compel them to obey all the laws passed by 
 Congress. These resolutions were the beginning of 
 States' Rights, which became one of the causes of the 
 secession of the Southern States and the Civil War. 
 
 If Jefferson and Madison could have imagined all 
 the trouble that their resolutions were going to bring 
 about, those great patriots would certainly never have 
 written them. 
 
 Nearly all the Northern States had their Legisla- 
 tures condemn the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 
 but many of the Southern States approved of what 
 Virginia and Kentucky had done. 
 
 This shows that the Northern States were in favor 
 of one strong central government and that the South- 
 em States considered the State Government superior 
 to the National Government. 
 
 Louisiana Purchase 
 
 LESSON 23 
 
 At the time that we are now studying there were 
 no railroads. Waterways were consequently very im- 
 portant. The American settlers in the Mississippi Val- 
 ley needed the Mississippi River to carry on their com- 
 merce. They needed it to ship their products and to 
 bring in foreign goods. 
 
30 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 At this time the United States did not own any land 
 west of the Mississippi River and at the mouth of this 
 river our country did not own any land on even the 
 eastern side, so it might be said that the Americans 
 did not have much to say about the Mississippi River. 
 Spain had granted to the United States, by a treaty, a 
 right known as the Right of Deposit — that is, the 
 Americans were allowed to ship their goods by way of 
 the Mississippi River. This right satisfied the Ameri- 
 cans until Spain ceded Louisiana to France. Then the 
 Americans became alarmed and feared they would lose 
 the privilege of using the Mississippi River. 
 
 Napoleon, who was at the head of France, had made 
 that nation one of the greatest in the world, and the 
 Americans feared that he would start another nation 
 in the New World. Thomas Jefferson, who was Presi- 
 dent, wished to settle the matter peaceably with France 
 so he sent James Monroe to Paris to join the American 
 minister and they tried to buy the territory known as 
 Louisiana. Napoleon refused at first, but after awhile, 
 fearing that England might take possession of Louisi- 
 ana, he changed his mind and concluded to sell Louisi- 
 ana to the Americans. The sale took place in 1803 and 
 the price paid was only fifteen million dollars. This is 
 the best bargain ever made, and when it was completed 
 the United States was greatly enlarged and the Ameri- 
 cans had full control of the great Mississippi. 
 
 Napoleon knew how much he was adding to the 
 greatness of the United States, because he said at that 
 time : "This day I have given England a rival that she 
 will never be able to conquer." 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 31 
 
 European Interference with American 
 Commerce Again 
 
 LESSON 24 
 
 From 1803 to 1815 England and France were con- 
 stantly at war with each other. This was at the time 
 of Napoleon's power in France. He had conquered 
 Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria and Russia. England 
 was the only nation that he could not conquer. The 
 reason why he could not conquer England was because 
 England had the strongest navy in the world and 
 France had a very weak navy. The French army was 
 very powerful, but Napoleon could never invade Eng- 
 land with it because the English navy watched the seas 
 closely. All the time that this war was going on be- 
 tween England and France American commerce suf- 
 fered greatly through the ''Orders in Council." Eng- 
 land forbade all nations to do any trading with France. 
 Napoleon, by proclamations called "decrees," warned 
 all nations not to trade with England. This left the 
 Americans without any place to trade with. If they 
 traded with England, the French would capture them. 
 If they traded with any other nation, England would 
 capture them. At this time, by Jefferson's advice, the 
 Embargo Act was passed by Congress. This Act re- 
 quired all Americans to stay at home and not trade with 
 any port unless it was an American port. The people 
 of New England suffered greatly on account of the Em- 
 bargo Act, because their people were largely engaged 
 in commerce. The Embargo Act destroyed what little 
 commerce France and England had left for the United 
 States. 
 
 Before Jefferson went out of office he had the Em- 
 bargo Act repealed and in place of it Congress passed 
 the Non-Intercourse Act. This Act forbade trade with 
 England and France or any of their allies, but permitted 
 it with all the rest of the world. Our commerce im- 
 proved rapidly under this Act. 
 
32 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The War of 1812 
 
 LESSON 25 
 
 A great change had gradually taken place in our 
 country. Nearly all the great men at the time of the 
 Revolutionary War had passed away. Their work was 
 done. Congress was now filled with young, ambitious, 
 and patriotic men who represented new ideas. These 
 men had faith in the future of their country. They 
 thought their country was just as strong as any other 
 country. Among them were such men as John C. Cal- 
 houn of South Carolina, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and 
 Daniel Webster of Massachusetts. These three men 
 were great orators and their influence was felt in the 
 affairs of our country for more than a quarter of a cen- 
 tury. Such men as these did not believe that their 
 country should let any other country insult her. 
 
 Of course the main cause of the War of 1812 was 
 England's **right of search." This was fully discussed 
 in Congress and at last Congress declared war against 
 England. 
 
 James Madison, who was President, was not in 
 favor of war because the country had no navy and no 
 army, but still he signed the declaration of war. 
 
 Another cause of the War of 1812 was that the 
 Americans had good reason to believe the English were 
 inducing the Indians to attack the American settlers 
 on the frontier. 
 
 The American Army and Navy in 1812 
 
 LESSON 26 
 
 Thomas Jefferson always believed that it was a 
 waste of money to build up a navy or keep an army. 
 He thought it was better to pay the debts of a nation 
 and that the men would be better employed making 
 their homes in the valley of the Mississippi. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 33 
 
 James Madison believed the same as Jefferson did 
 and so, under them, the army and navy were neglected. 
 
 On account of this neglect by Jefferson and Mad- 
 ison, there was hardly any army or navy on the Ameri- 
 can side to begin the War of 1812. Altogether the 
 Americans had less than twenty vessels, and of these 
 only six were first-class vessels, while England had 
 more than one thousand ships and two hundred of 
 them were among the best battleships in the world. 
 
 The American army consisted of a few thousand 
 men and they were scattered along the frontier to pro- 
 tect the American settlers from Indian attacks. 
 
 To make matters worse, many of the Federalists, 
 especially those who lived in New England, were op- 
 posed to the War of 1812 and did all they could to ham- 
 per the government. Nearly all the governors of New 
 England States refused to send the State troops out- 
 side of their States. At the beginning of the war 
 things looked very bad for the Americans, but they won 
 after all. 
 
 The War of 1812 on Land 
 
 LESSON 27 
 
 The War of 1812 on land is not very creditable to 
 the Americans. At the beginning of the war, the man- 
 agement of the army was placed in the hands of weak 
 generals. It was thought that they knew a great deal. 
 These three generals were General Dearborn, General 
 Hull and General Van Renssalaer. The armies con- 
 sisted of only fifteen thousand men and the generals 
 foolishly made up their minds to capture Canada. To 
 do this, at least one hundred thousand men were 
 needed, and able generals were needed, too. 
 
 The first disgrace came when General Hull sur- 
 rendered Detroit and all of Michigan without striking 
 a blow. The other two generals did not do much bet- 
 
34 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 ter, although they did not surrender. The first year 
 was a complete failure for the Americans on land. 
 
 During the next year the Americans did somewhat 
 better and kept the British from invading their coun- 
 try, although the British general, Ross, succeeded in 
 landing a force and capturing our capital, Washington. 
 The President and his Cabinet and the members of Con- 
 gress had to abandon Washington and General Ross or- 
 dered the destruction of the government buildings. 
 
 The Capitol and several other public buildings were 
 burned. The Americans felt this insult keenly and 
 blamed the British for uselessly destroying such valu- 
 able property. Among the things destroyed were mod- 
 els of inventions in the Patent Oflfice building. 
 
 The great redeeming feature of the war on land for 
 the Americans was the last battle of the war, the Bat- 
 tle of New Orleans. In this battle a large force of 
 British were completely defeated by General Andrew 
 Jackson and his backwoodsmen. General Jackson 
 placed his men behind breastworks made of bales of 
 cotton and when the British came on they were shot 
 down. General Packenham, the British commander, 
 was killed. The total British loss was more than two 
 thousand, while that of the Americans was only sev- 
 enty-one. General Jackson was the great land hero of 
 the War of 1812. The strange thing about the Battle 
 of New Orleans is this : it was fought after the treaty 
 of peace was signed. 
 
 The War of 1812 on Sea 
 
 LESSON 28 
 
 All the disgrace of the Americans on land in the 
 War of 1812 was wiped out by glorious American vic- 
 tories on the sea. 
 
 The British thought they ruled the sea and they 
 had very little respect for American sailors, but, 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 35 
 
 strange as it may seem, the Americans whipped the 
 British in nearly every sea fight and nearly always they 
 had to fight against stronger ships, more cannons, and 
 more men. 
 
 A few of the chief engagements were as follows: 
 "The Constitution," sometimes called "Old Ironsides," 
 captured the "Guerriere" and the "Wasp" captured the 
 "Frolic." There were many other sea fights, but these 
 will be enough to remember. 
 
 The Americans were helped a great deal by pri- 
 vateers, vessels owned by private persons and commis- 
 sioned by the government to fight the enemy. There 
 were hundreds of these privateers and they captured 
 many British ships. 
 
 One of the greatest naval victories is known as 
 Perry's Victory. This took place on Lake Erie, where 
 an English fleet was stationed. Perry was sent there 
 to see what could be done in opposition to the English 
 fleet. He was the kind of man who finds the way to 
 do things. He cut down trees in the forest and with 
 them made ships for himself. With these ships he met 
 the British fleet and, after a hard fight, captured them 
 all. There was great rejoicing when the people learned 
 of Perry's victory. He told the world about it in his 
 famous dispatch: "We have met the enemy and they 
 
 The Treaty of Peace That Ended the 
 War of 1812 
 
 LESSON 29 
 
 Every war is ended by a treaty of peace or an agree- 
 ment between the nations that have been at war. The 
 treaty is made by commissioners or representatives 
 from the nations that are interested. 
 
 The treaty that ended the War of 1812 is called the 
 Treaty of Ghent. It is called so because the commis- 
 
36 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 sioners signed this treaty in Ghent, a small town in 
 Belgium. 
 
 The strange thing about this Treaty of Ghent was 
 that the causes of the war were never mentioned in the 
 treaty. Though they were never mentioned, the war 
 really secured for the United States its commercial in- 
 dependence — that is, no nation ever again interfered 
 with the commerce of the United States. England 
 never again claimed the right to search American ships 
 and impress American seamen. The treaty did provide 
 for the settlement of boundary disputes. 
 
 In making the Treaty of Ghent the most important 
 American commissioner was Henry Clay, the great 
 compromiser. 
 
 The War of 1812 was a benefit to our country. It 
 made the people more united and the national govern- 
 ment stronger. 
 
 Another result of this war was that it started the 
 American people to invest their money more in manu- 
 facturing than in commerce. They wanted to be sure 
 that in case of another war they would have manufac- 
 tured goods of their own instead of depending upon the 
 people of Europe. 
 
 We shall remember the War of 1812 because it 
 stopped European interference with our commerce, 
 made our people love their country more, and started 
 the Americans to become manufacturers. 
 
 The Hartford Convention 
 
 LESSON 30 
 
 The Hartford Convention was a meeting of dele- 
 gates from the New England States. They met to com- 
 plain against Jefferson, Madison and the Anti-Federal- 
 ist party. 
 
 The people of the New England States were largely 
 engaged in commerce and when Jefferson had the Em- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 37 
 
 bargo Act passed their commerce was very much in- 
 jured and naturally they lost large sums of money. 
 They blamed the party of Jefferson for all their losses. 
 
 Although the people of New England said that Vir- 
 ginia and Kentucky were wrong when they passed their 
 famous resolutions, now the New England States 
 wanted to do almost the same thing — that is to say, 
 that they did not have to obey a law passed by 
 Congress and signed by the President unless they 
 wanted to. 
 
 The people of New England were also bitterly op- 
 posed to the War of 1812 and sarcastically called it 
 ''Mr. Madison's war." 
 
 As we have already learned that these States re- 
 fused to allow their State troops to go outside of their 
 States to assist the national government, we can see 
 that they did not help much in the war. 
 
 The Hartford Convention was held behind closed 
 doors and they passed resolutions declaring that when 
 the Constitution was violated by the acts of Congress 
 it became the duty of every State to refuse to obey 
 such laws. It also requested that a part of the money 
 collected by the national government should be given 
 back to the States for their defense. Commissioners 
 were sent to Congress bearing these resolutions. 
 
 When the war was over and peace v/as declared, the 
 whole matter was dropped and the delegates of the 
 Hartford Convention were justly ashamed of them- 
 selves. 
 
 The Purchase of Florida 
 
 LESSON 31 
 
 We have already learned that by the treaty which 
 ended the Revolutionary War Florida and Louisiana 
 were given to Spain. Afterwards, by a secret treaty, 
 Spain ceded Louisiana to France and later Thomas Jef- 
 
38 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 f erson bought Louisiana from Napoleon ; but Spain still 
 held Plorida at this time. Florida extended as far west 
 as the Mississippi River. At least Spain made this 
 claim and the Americans disputed it. This dispute 
 made hard feelings between the Spaniards and Ameri- 
 cans. 
 
 Spain was weak and could not govern Florida. It 
 became a hiding place for thieves, swindlers, and des- 
 peradoes of all descriptions. The Indians of Florida 
 were always urged by these bad people, and the Span- 
 iards, too, to cross over to the American territory to 
 kill the settlers and steal their horses and cattle. 
 
 At last General Andrew Jackson, with a small force 
 of men, was sent by the government to protect the 
 Americans. He was just the man for that kind of 
 work. He easily beat the Indians and pursued them 
 into Florida, where he captured and hanged a couple of 
 Englishmen who had been urging the Indians to go on 
 the warpath. 
 
 There was considerable excitement over what he did, 
 but our government said he did right in hanging the 
 English disturbers and to settle the whole trouble our 
 government offered to buy P^lorida from Spain. Spain 
 accepted the offer and our government paid her five mil- 
 lion dollars and the stars and stripes were raised over 
 Florida. Thus the second addition was made to the 
 United States. 
 
 The Monroe Doctrine 
 
 LESSON 32 
 
 In 1815 all the other nations joined together in 
 Europe and completely defeated Napoleon and the 
 French army in the famous battle of Waterloo. Napo- 
 leon was banished to the island of St. Helena, where 
 he was kept a prisoner until he died. The old line of 
 kings was restored in the government of France. The 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 39 
 
 monarchs of Europe had things their own way once 
 more in Europe. In order to keep themselves safe from 
 revolutions like that of France, they united and formed 
 what is known as the **Holy Alliance." The following 
 nations were in the ''Holy Alliance" : Russia, Germany 
 and Austria. This "Holy Alliance" felt strong enough 
 to manage the affairs of the world, including the New 
 World. 
 
 The first trouble came, concerning the "Holy Alli- 
 ance," when Russia claimed the Pacific coast as far 
 south as the fifty-first parallel of latitude. That claim 
 took some of our territory, so our Secretary of State, 
 who was John Quincy Adams at that time, by the direc- 
 tion of the President, made a strong protest to Russia 
 against her action on the Pacific Coast. Monroe said 
 that European nations should not extend claims in the 
 New World. A little later the South American coun- 
 tries began to throw off the yoke of Spain and set them- 
 selves up as free republics. The "Holy Alliance" did 
 not like this and wanted to help Spain put down the 
 South American republics. 
 
 The young republics asked the Great Republic to 
 assist them and it must be said that England said she 
 was willing to help them, too. 
 
 Just at this time, in 1823, James Monroe, in a mes- 
 sage to Congress, issued the Monroe Doctrine, which 
 is as follows: 
 
 First : That European nations will not be permitted 
 to establish any more new colonies in the New World, 
 nor will they be allowed to increase the territory of 
 those colonies already established. 
 
 Second: That no European nation will be allowed 
 to interfere with the South American republics. 
 
 Third: That the United States will not interfere 
 with the political affairs of Europe. 
 
40 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The End of European Interference 
 
 LESSON 33 
 
 For more than thirty years European nations had 
 been interfering with the affairs of the United States. 
 Sometimes they interfered with our commerce, as 
 France and England did, and sometimes with our ter- 
 ritory, as England, Russia and Spain tried to do. 
 
 By Washington's policy of American neutrality, 
 which was the wisest kind of a policy, our government 
 did not interfere in any European affairs. Our people 
 had enough to do to attend to their own affairs. 
 
 During these thirty years the United States had 
 been steadily growing in strength and her statesmen 
 now had great wisdom. The time had come for our 
 country to take a firm stand. Every American was 
 proud of James Monroe and his fearless doctrine. 
 
 They were all willing to uphold him in that doctrine 
 even if they had to go to war. Fortunately, England 
 was ready to uphold him, too. The nations of Europe 
 saw that it was foolish for them to oppose both the 
 United States and England, so they meekly submitted 
 to the Monroe Doctrine, but it was bitter medicine for 
 them. 
 
 Since then no nation has ever interfered success- 
 fully with an American republic. The United States 
 has been a sort of protector to all of the other Ameri- 
 can republics. Whenever a European nation attempts 
 to interfere the United States government says ''hands 
 off; remember the Monroe Doctrine." They all pay 
 attention. 
 
 Now that all the troubles were over, our people had 
 time to develop the resources of our country. They 
 went to work with a will and a time of great prosperity 
 followed, known as ''the era of good feeling." 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 41 
 
 Hamilton's Financial Measures 
 
 LESSON 34 
 
 Alexander Hamilton is one of the great characters 
 of American history. He was bom in the West Indies 
 and came to the United States just when the people 
 were talking about the Revolutionary War. He was 
 not twenty-one years old at the time, but he was an 
 enthusiastic lover of liberty and had great force of 
 mind. He helped to stir up the Americans to rebel 
 against England. During the Revolutionary War he 
 was the private secretary of George Washington, who 
 loved him as much as he would his own son. After the 
 war he became a great Federalist and did all he could 
 to get the people to ratify the Constitution. 
 
 When a new government was established and 
 Washington was chosen President, Hamilton was ap- 
 pointed first Secretary of Treasury. The appointment 
 was an honor, though the United States treasury was 
 empty at that time. It was Hamilton's work to find 
 ways to make the financial credit of the United States 
 as good as that of any other nation. His measures 
 were as follows: First, a slight increase in the duties 
 laid by the first tariff ; second, an excess or internal tax 
 to be placed on liquors; third, the refunding of the 
 national debt (by refunding we mean the old bonds 
 were called in and the new ones issued in their place) ; 
 fourth, the assumption of the State debts ; fifth, the es- 
 tablishment of the United States Bank. 
 
 It is not necessary to say any more on Hamilton's 
 financial measures. They all proved successful. He 
 filled the treasury with gold and made the credit of the 
 United States gilt edged. 
 
 It is too bad that such a great man as he could not 
 have lived to the natural end of his life. When he was 
 yet a young man he was shot down in a duel by Aaron 
 Burr, who was once Vice-President of the United 
 States. 
 
42 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Some Objections to Hamilton's Plans 
 
 LESSON 35 
 
 At first there was hardly any complaint against 
 Hamilton's plan, because the nation was deeply in debt 
 and even the States were in debt, and everybody was 
 glad when a way was found by Hamilton to pay the 
 debts. 
 
 But after awhile, when the United States Bank had 
 grown very strong and its stockholders very rich, many 
 of the other people, especially the Anti-Federalists, 
 feared that the bank would become stronger than the 
 national government and that in the end it might take 
 away the liberty of the people and change the republic 
 into a monarchy. The Anti-Federalists often said that 
 Hamilton wanted to make our government like that of 
 England. Later in history we will learn how the bank 
 was destroyed. 
 
 The Tariflf Laws 
 
 LESSON 36 
 
 The word tariff is derived from the word Tarifa, a 
 seaport town in Spain, where the people began to 
 charge a tax upon goods brought there from other 
 places. A tariff is a tax that must be paid on goods 
 brought to this country from other nations. All tariff 
 laws are passed by Congress and no State Legislature 
 can pass any tariff laws. 
 
 The first object of the tariff is to obtain money to 
 pay the expenses of the national government and the 
 national debts. The second object is to protect home 
 industry. By protecting home industry we mean the 
 placing of a tariff on goods, like those we manufacture 
 here, a tariff so high that goods of that kind will not 
 be imported. This shuts out foreign goods and leaves 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 43 
 
 the whole market free for our own manufacturers. 
 Many people object to a tariff for protection, saying 
 that protection gives our home manufactures an op- 
 portunity to charge more for their goods than they 
 ought to charge. Many others are in favor of a pro- 
 tective tariff, saying that it causes the people to invest 
 their money in manufacturing, thereby giving employ- 
 ment to thousands of people. 
 
 Even if we have to pay a little more for the goods, 
 we should not complain, because the people who work 
 in American factories get higher wages than they do 
 in Europe. A great many people who live in the agri- 
 cultural regions, like the Southern States, believe that 
 a tariff should be levied for revenue only on articles 
 used by the wealthy class. The first tariff was passed 
 by Congress in 1789 to raise money to support the gov- 
 ernment, but there was no protective tariff until 1816, 
 when the American people began to take an interest in 
 manufacturing. The Northern States, being the home 
 of factories, were nearly all in favor of a protective 
 tariff, while the Southern States, having few factories, 
 were in favor of a tariff for revenue only. They did 
 not want a protective tariff. 
 
 The Missouri Compromise 
 
 LESSON 37 
 
 When slavery was introduced in Jamestown in 1619 
 by the captain of a Dutch ship, no one thought that it 
 would become the most serious question that has af- 
 fected our country. The men who bought the slaves 
 were well contented with their bargain because the 
 slaves worked well in the cotton and tobacco fields. At 
 that time nobody saw any wrong in slavery and it 
 spread to all the colonies, both north and south. 
 
 In the North the people gradually turned against 
 slavery because the climate and the work of the North 
 
44 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 were not suitable to negroes. The climate was too cold 
 and the negroes could not stand it, and the work re- 
 quired more knowledge than they possessed. 
 
 In the South the climate was warm and just suit- 
 able for the negroes and the work on the plantations 
 could be done by them just as v/ell as by the most in- 
 telligent persons. Consequently slavery became more 
 popular in the South and unpopular in the North. In 
 fact, our country divided upon that question. 
 
 In Congress about half the members favored slav- 
 ery and the other half opposed it, so every time a new 
 State was to be admitted there would be a bitter dis- 
 pute as to whether it would be a slave State or a free 
 State. 
 
 When Missouri and Maine asked to be admitted the 
 dispute in Congress was very bitter. The question was 
 finally settled by the Missouri Compromise, which was 
 written by Henry Clay, the "great compromiser." 
 
 By the Missouri Compromise it was agreed that 
 Maine should be admitted as a free State, that Missouri 
 should be admitted as a slave State, and that there 
 should be no more slave States in the land of the 
 Louisiana Purchase, north of the line of 36 deg. 30 min. 
 north latitude. 
 
 This compromise settled the slavery question for 
 awhile, but not forever. 
 
 The Unity of National Feeling 
 
 LESSON 38 
 
 The great trouble at the time that our Constitution 
 was being made was that each of the thirteen States 
 considered itself a kind of separate territory. Nearly 
 all the people thought that the Constitution was only 
 a contract for holding them together and that they 
 could withdraw from it if they wanted to. 
 
 This feeling showed the need of a national unity, 
 without which our country could not become very sue- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 45 
 
 cessful. A few of the things that united our country, 
 made the people think and act as one, was the constant 
 interference with our affairs by European nations, the 
 success of the War of 1812, which showed what we 
 could do, the purchase of Louisiana and Florida, which 
 made the people feel proud of the way their country 
 was growing, the settlement of the West and the trav- 
 eling of the best men here and there throughout the 
 States. 
 
 The one thing that was against national unity and 
 getting worse all the time was the slavery question. 
 This curse was gradually dividing the nation into two 
 separate peoples — those of the North being bitterly op- 
 posed to slavery and those of the South just as much 
 in favor of slavery. 
 
 In the South the people were becoming more and 
 more aristocratic because their plantations were profit- 
 able, cotton was king and brought them plenty of 
 money, and the negroes did all the work and waited 
 upon their masters and mistresses just as if they were 
 aristocrats. 
 
 In the North the people were not aristocratic, be- 
 cause they had to work for their own living and there 
 was no money to spare to hire servants to wait upon 
 them. 
 
 American Inventions 
 
 LESSON 39 
 
 It seems strange that all the other nations in the 
 world should have left for the United States the honor 
 of nearly all the great inventions ; but such is the case. 
 Without the Americans, there would be no cotton gin, 
 no steamboat, no sewing machine, no mowing machine, 
 no telegraph and no ironclad vessels. This knowledge 
 alone ought to make us proud of being Americans. 
 
46 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney, a New 
 England school teacher, in 1793. Mr. Whitney was 
 spending a short time in Georgia and while there he 
 noticed that much of the time of the slaves was spent 
 in separating the seeds from the cotton. This was such 
 slow work that one slave could clean only seven or eight 
 pounds each day. So Mr. Whitney made a simple ma- 
 chine to separate the seeds from the cotton and it 
 worked so well that one slave could now clean six or 
 seven hundred pounds each day. 
 
 Though Eli Whitney never got much money for his 
 patent, it reduced the cost of growing cotton and made 
 the South richer than it had ever been. It made the 
 demand for slaves greater, too. 
 
 The question of transportation was a veiy impor- 
 tant one in the United States. How to navigate the 
 rivers was the great question. Flatboats or sailing 
 ships could go down the rivers, but it was very hard 
 for a sailing ship to go up the river against the cur- 
 rent. Finally, in 1807, Robert Fulton of New York 
 solved the question by inventing the steamboat. This 
 first steamboat was called the * 'Clermont" and sailed up 
 the Hudson as far as Albany, making the trip against 
 the wind and the current. Very few people wanted to 
 ride on the ^'Clermont" on that trip. They were all 
 afraid that it would sink, but it was a success, after all, 
 and in a few years steamboats were upon all the lakes 
 and rivers, carrying thousands of passengers and much 
 freight. It was not long until the steamers were cross- 
 ing the Atlantic Ocean. The other inventions came 
 after 1808 and will be discussed later. 
 
 The Election of Andrew Jackson 
 
 LESSON 40 
 
 The election of Andrew Jackson marks a great 
 change in the politics of our nation. He was the first 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 47 
 
 President who was really one of the common people 
 and he was the first one who came to the White House 
 from the land west of the Appalachian Mountains. His 
 election was a great victory for the West and for the 
 common people. 
 
 Andrew Jackson, like Lincoln, had a limited educa- 
 tion. He never went to school more than two or three 
 years and to very poor teachers. From boyhood he 
 was noted for a violent temper, unflinching honesty 
 and bravery. 
 
 During the Revolutionary War, when he was only 
 twelve years old, an English officer asked him to clean 
 his shoes. Jackson told him, with American pride, 
 though he was dressed in rags, that he would clean no 
 redcoat's shoes. This angered the English officer and 
 he struck Jackson with his sword, but it had no effect. 
 Jackson would have died rather than please such an of- 
 ficer. After that the officer never asked anyone to per- 
 form such an act for him. 
 
 When Jackson grew to be a man he was one of those 
 who moved across the mountains and settled in Ten- 
 nessee. We have learned how he distinguished himself 
 fighting the Indians in Florida and winning great fame 
 in the Battle of New Orleans. 
 
 Among the Western people he was known as "Old 
 Hickory" and it was a great joy to them to have their 
 favorite for President. The Presidents before Jack- 
 son were Washington, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Mon- 
 roe and John Quincy Adams. Of these men two were 
 Federalists and the others were Republicans, but not 
 like the Republicans of the present. These Republicans 
 were followers of Thomas Jefferson. All of these Presi- 
 dents were of the upper class. 
 
 With the election of General Jackson came in many 
 changes in the ways of managing politics. A new way 
 was introduced of nominating candidates for the office 
 of President, which has been followed ever since. 
 
 Just as soon as Jackson became President he 
 pleased the people of his own party by compelling his 
 
48 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 political enemies who were in office to give up their 
 places. He gave all the vacant places to his political 
 friends. In this way he put out more than fifteen hun- 
 dred office holders. He believed that he could get along 
 much better by having his friends in all offices under 
 him. 
 
 As an excuse for making so many changes he 
 proclaimed, "To the victor belong the spoils." 
 
 The Spoils System 
 
 LESSON 41 
 
 During Andre Vn^ Jackson's administration the "spoils 
 system" was introduced into national politics. By this 
 system, a successful candidate would give all the of- 
 fices under him to his political friends and supporters. 
 Before the days of President Jackson there had been 
 but few changes in the appointments of officers. The 
 holders of offices were allowed to remain in office as 
 long as they were able to do the work, no matter who 
 was President. 
 
 President Jackson believed, "To the victor belong 
 the spoils," which means that one had a right to all the 
 profits of the victory. So President Jackson put out 
 his enemies and replaced them with his friends. All 
 the Presidents since did the same until the Civil Ser- 
 vice Law was passed. 
 
 A Change in the Manner of Choosing 
 Electors 
 
 Up to the time of President Jackson's election the 
 people took very little interest in the election of a 
 President. The reason why they took so little interest 
 was because they did not have a chance to vote for 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 49 
 
 Presidential Electors. Before the days of Jackson, the 
 electors were chosen by the State Legislatures. 
 
 But in 1828 each party named a set of electors in 
 each State and the people voted on these sets to see 
 which one would carry the State. This way created so 
 much more interest in the election that there were 
 twice as many votes cast in 1828 as there were in 1824. 
 The people have followed the same way of electing 
 Presidents to this day. 
 
 Nominating Conventions, Platforms 
 and Campaigns 
 
 LESSON 42 
 
 Nominating conventions and platforms came into 
 political use during Jackson's administration and have 
 been in use ever since. Before Jackson's time the can- 
 didates for President and Vice-President were named 
 sometimes by a caucus of party leaders and at other 
 times by the State Legislatures. So you can see that 
 the people had little to say about the candidates. 
 
 Now this is all changed and the people do it by 
 means of delegates and conventions. First the primary 
 elections are held at the home town of the people and 
 delegates are elected. These delegates go to the County 
 Conventions, where State delegates are elected. The 
 State delegates meet in the State Convention and elect 
 delegates to the National Convention. The National 
 Convention chooses the candidates for President and 
 Vice-President. Each party does this, so you can see 
 there will be as many candidates for President and 
 Vice-President as there are parties. 
 
 The parties nominating the candidates at the Na- 
 tional Conventions issue a statement, telHng what each 
 party will do for the people, if its candidate should be 
 elected. This statement or promise of the party is 
 called a *'platfoi-m." 
 
50 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 After the candidates have been nominated and the 
 platforms adopted, then comes the time called the cam- 
 paign. The campaign lasts for two or three months 
 and during that time each party has its best speakers 
 to travel all over the country and make stump speeches 
 to the people trying to make plain what they intend to 
 do if they win. The faults of the opposing party are 
 sure to be shown up fully. If the party is rich enough, 
 there may be torchlight processions, fireworks and alto- 
 gether too much excitement. The time of the campaign 
 is a time of education and pleasure for the people. If 
 you are a good American you will never miss a cam- 
 paign meeting. 
 
 Through the passage by the State Legislatures of 
 Direct Primary Laws, during recent years, now the peo- 
 ple in nearly all the States vote directly for the candi- 
 dates for nominations from President down to the low- 
 est, instead of for delegates. The Direct Primary Laws 
 were passed in order to overcome the corrupt work of 
 political bosses, who had obtained too much control 
 of politics. 
 
 The Whigs and Democrats 
 
 LESSON 43 
 
 We have learned that at first there were two parties, 
 the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. The Anti- 
 Federalists became the Republican party and up to 
 1816 the two parties were the Federalists and the Re- 
 publicans. In 1816 the Federalists carried three States 
 and then that paity ceased to exist, leaving one party 
 and that was the Republican party. 
 
 In 1824 the Republican party broke up into three 
 factions and each faction had candidates for Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President. The candidates were Andrew 
 Jackson, Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams. Though 
 they all belonged to the same party, they fought one 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 51 
 
 another bitterly. When the election was over, nobody- 
 was elected, because no candidates had received the 
 majority of electoral votes. Jackson had received the 
 greatest number, but not enough. 
 
 As the Constitution provides, the election of Presi- 
 dent then went to the House of Representatives, by 
 which John Quincy Adams was elected. This made 
 Jackson and his friends very angry and they united and 
 formed the Democratic party, which is one of the great- 
 est parties today. Those who were opposed to Jack- 
 son united also and foi-med the party called the Na- 
 tional Republican party, which changed to Whigs. 
 
 The Democratic party was opposed to the United 
 States Bank, to a protective tariff and to nullification. 
 The Democratic party rather favored slavery in the 
 South and believed in a strict construction of the 
 Constitution. 
 
 The Whigs were in favor of a United States Bank, 
 a protective tariff and internal improvements, like 
 roads and canals. On the subject of slavery the Whigs 
 did not take a stand. The two parties, the Whigs and 
 the Democrats, controlled politics from 1828 until the 
 election of Abraham Lincoln. 
 
 South Carolina and Nullification 
 
 LESSON 44 
 
 In 1828 Congress passed a tariff law that had so 
 many high and absurd duties that it was called the 
 Tariff of Abominations. This Tariff of Abominations 
 was passed by political trickery. The representatives 
 from the manufacturing districts wanted a high pro- 
 tective tariff and while the Democrats did not want 
 such a tariff they did not want to oppose it for fear it 
 would keep Jackson from being elected President. So 
 they added to the tariff bill higher duties on raw mate- 
 rials, thinking that the manufacturing men would vote 
 against the tariff bill on account of the high duty on 
 
52 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 raw materials. But to the surprise of all the Tariff of 
 Abominations was passed by Congress and became a 
 law. This tariff law did not suit any party or any part 
 of the country, but it was objected to most by the 
 people in the South, especially in South Carolina. 
 
 The bill did not affect Jackson's chances for Presi- 
 dent, because he was elected by a large majority. It 
 caused South Carolina to pass resolutions known as the 
 Protest and Exposition of South Carolina. In these 
 resolutions the people of South Carolina stated what 
 had already been said in the Kentucky and Virginia 
 Resolutions and in the Hartford Convention — that a 
 State was not bound to obey the laws passed by Con- 
 gress and that it could declare any such laws null and 
 void if its people so wished. This is known as the 
 Nullification Act of South Carolina. 
 
 The South Carolina resolutions were offered by John 
 C. Calhoun, who was perhaps the leading man in the 
 South at that time. His ideas were strongly opposed 
 by Daniel Webster, who was the leading man in the 
 North. Great excitement took place on account of the 
 South Carolina resolutions. The people of the South 
 began to disobey the tariff law and did so on the advice 
 of John C. Calhoun. 
 
 President Jackson did not care for the law himself, 
 but he believed that every person should obey every 
 law passed by Congress and he sent ten thousand sol- 
 diers to South Carolina to compel them to obey the 
 United States laws. He said that if that number was 
 not sufficient he would go there himself with ten thou- 
 sand more and make the people obey the laws. He also 
 threatened to hang John C. Calhoun or any other man 
 who would dare to oppose the government of the United 
 States. The firm stand of the President made the peo- 
 ple of South Carolina "draw in their horns" and meekly 
 obey the law. Thus nullification was settled for the 
 time. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 53 
 
 The Destruction of the 
 United States Bank 
 
 LESSON 45 
 
 We have already learned that the United States 
 Bank was established just after the Constitution was 
 adopted. The bank was a part of Alexander Hamil- 
 ton's financial scheme by which the country paid its 
 debts and gave itself good credit. You will also re- 
 member that the bank was established by the Federalist 
 party and that it was opposed by Thomas Jefferson and 
 the Republicans. Still when the Republicans got pos- 
 session of the government they did not interfere with 
 the bank because they thought it was doing much good. 
 
 The first charter of the bank, which lasted for 
 twenty years, expired in 1811. The bank could have 
 been stopped then, but a new charter was given to the 
 bank in 1816 and this would expire in 1836. The bank 
 had grown very strong and all its stockholders became 
 very rich because all the government money had to be 
 deposited in that bank and that bank would lend out the 
 money and had the interest for profit. President Jack- 
 son said that the bank was an un-American monopoly, 
 and that it interfered with politics and that if it were 
 not checked it would become stronger than the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 But the bank had many friends in Congress and 
 they passed a bill in 1832 to give the bank a new char- 
 ter. This was done four years before the time the 
 charter would expire, just to see what Jackson would 
 do. Jackson immediately vetoed the bill to give the 
 bank a new charter and it was impossible to get two- 
 thirds of Congress to vote for the bill, so the bank did 
 not get the new charter. 
 
 At the next Presidential election Jackson was a can- 
 didate for the second term. All the friends of the bank 
 fought him as hard as they could, but he was re-elected 
 by a tremendous majority. So Jackson concluded that 
 
54 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the people wanted him to destroy the bank. He de- 
 stroyed it in this way. He ordered his Secretary of 
 Treasury not to put any more money of the govern- 
 ment in the United States Bank and to draw out the 
 money that was in it, to pay the expenses of the gov- 
 ernment. In a short time there was no government 
 money in the United States Bank. 
 
 Jackson ordered that all the government money be 
 placed in the various State banks instead of the United 
 States Bank and he chose those banks that were 
 friendly to him. 
 
 State Banks 
 
 LESSON 46 
 
 The distribution of the government money among 
 the State banks caused a large number of these to or- 
 ganize because they were very profitable to their stock- 
 holders. When the government money was deposited 
 in them they were allowed to lend it and have the inter- 
 est just as the United States Bank had done. 
 
 In addition to lending money, these State banks 
 were allowed to issue paper money, which circulated 
 just the same as hard money — that is, gold and silver 
 coins. A great deal of this paper money was issued, 
 much more than ought to have been. Everybody took 
 the paper money willingly because they believed that 
 they could get hard money for it whenever they wanted 
 to make the exchange. 
 
 There was so much money in circulation, counting 
 all this paper money, that the times were very good. 
 The West was settled up rapidly. New cities and towns 
 were springing up like magic. The whole country was 
 booming and everybody was making money. 
 
 Just then a large number of people began to bor- 
 row money from the State banks to speculate with — 
 that is, to buy lands, bonds and farm products and to 
 hold them until the prices went higher and then sell 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 55 
 
 them and by so doing increase their fortunes. Many 
 of the speculations turned out to be failures and when 
 the State banks wanted their money returned they 
 could not get it. Gradually the people became alarmed, 
 especially those who had paper money, and they rushed 
 to the State banks to have their paper money ex- 
 changed for hard money, but the State banks had no 
 hard money to give them. 
 
 The value of paper money went down immediately. 
 The people would not receive it willingly any more. 
 Things looked very bad for the State banks. At this 
 time, to make matters worse, Jackson ordered that all 
 money received for public lands as tariff duties should 
 be hard money. 
 
 Surplus Government Money Given 
 to the States 
 
 LESSON 47 
 
 A few months after this Jackson commanded, by 
 the Specie Circular, that all government land and tariffs 
 should be paid for in hard money. Another thing hap- 
 pened which lowered still more the value of paper 
 money. By surplus money we mean the money remain- 
 ing over after the debts and expenses of the govern- 
 ment have been paid. 
 
 By 1835 the national debt was fully paid and the 
 United States had a big income from the sale of land 
 in the West and from tariff duties on imported goods. 
 So, in 1836, there was a surplus of $40,000,000. What 
 to do with the surplus money was a serious question, 
 but finally it was decided to distribute it among the 
 States. The Constitution did not give Congress any 
 right to do this, so the money was given to the States 
 with the understanding that they were never to pay it 
 back. 
 
56 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Financial Panic of 1837 
 
 LESSON 48 
 
 The Specie Circular and the removal of the govem- 
 money to the State banks almost ruined the business of 
 the country. Thousands of people took their paper 
 money to the State banks and begged for gold and sil- 
 ver, but the State banks had none to give them because 
 they had issued too much paper money. Many of the 
 State banks had to close their doors and the value of 
 paper money steadily declined. At last it was impos- 
 sible to get back the surplus or any hard money. Hun- 
 dreds of business firms failed. Thousands of men and 
 women lost everything they possessed and factories 
 closed everywhere. A great many people were in need 
 of food and clothing. A terrible financial panic had 
 taken the place of the good times. Martin Van Buren 
 was President at that time. 
 
 Independent or Sub-Treasury System 
 
 LESSON 49 
 
 We have learned how the government money was 
 kept in the United States Bank until 1833, when Jack- 
 son destroyed the United States Bank. We have learned 
 how Jackson took the United States government money 
 and put it into State banks and that when the State 
 banks issued too much paper money the surplus gov- 
 ernment money was ordered to be distributed among 
 the States as loans, with the understanding that it was 
 never to be paid back. 
 
 All this changing of government money brought on 
 the financial panic of 1837. Martin Van Buren, the 
 next President, had to bear all the blame, but he was 
 not responsible for it. He had to bear the blame be- 
 cause he was President. This financial panic swept the 
 country like a hurricane, but Martin Van Buren did not 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 57 
 
 run away from the trouble. He saw that a new way 
 had to be found for the safekeeping of the United 
 States money. He recommended that the United 
 States build sub-treasury buildings in the principal com- 
 mercial cities of the United States for the safekeeping 
 of our government money. These sub-treasuries simply 
 hold the money until it is needed. This method of gath- 
 ering and holding the government money is known as 
 the Independent Treasury System of the United States 
 and has been follow^ed with success to this day. There 
 is a sub-treasury building in San Francisco. 
 
 The Oregon Country 
 
 LESSON 50 
 
 By the Oregon Country we mean the land of which 
 the two States, Oregon and Washington, have been 
 made. We have learned that at the close of the Rev- 
 olutionary War the United States was bounded on the 
 north by Canada, on the east by the Atlantic, on the 
 west by the Mississippi, and on the south by Florida. 
 We have also learned that our country got a great deal 
 of fine land in the West and the control of the Missis- 
 sippi by the Louisiana Purchase. We have also learned 
 that our southern boundary was extended to the Gulf 
 of Mexico by the Purchase of Florida from Spain. 
 
 There was one great object left for our statesmen 
 to accomplish and that was to get an outlet to the 
 Pacific Ocean. This was the ambition of our great 
 statesman, Thomas Jefferson. When he was President 
 he had Congress set aside money to pay the expenses 
 of explorers to the West. He sent out Lewis and Clark 
 on the first expedition. They started from the present 
 city of St. Louis, which was only a trading station 
 then, in 1804. They went up the Missouri River as far 
 as they could, crossed the Rocky Mountains and then 
 went down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
58 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 An American named Gray had discovered the Columbia 
 thirteen years before. The discovery of Captain Gray 
 and the explorations of Lewis and Clark gave the 
 United States a right to claim the Oregon Country, but 
 England claimed it, too, because her explorers had vis- 
 ited the same land. 
 
 In 1818 the United States and England made a 
 treaty by which it was declared that both countries 
 should be allowed to settle in the Oregon Country with- 
 out interference by either country unless one year's 
 notice was given. This treaty is known as the Treaty 
 of Joint Occupation of the Oregon Country. It re- 
 mained in force until 1846, when the present northern 
 boundary of the United States was agreed upon and 
 our country obtained full possession of the Oregon 
 Country and had, at last, an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. 
 At this time Mexico claimed all the sea coast south of 
 Oregon. 
 
 The Annexation of Texas 
 
 LESSON 51 
 
 The question of slavery had much to do with the 
 annexation of Texas. This is how slavery brought it 
 about. The North was rapidly increasing in popula- 
 tion and as a consequence had a majority in the House 
 of Representatives. The Senate was evenly divided, 
 there being at the time just as many slave States as 
 free States. But the South could not hope that the Sen- 
 ate would remain evenly divided because the land of 
 the Louisiana Purchase had been divided by the parallel 
 36 deg. 30 min. and there were more people settling 
 north of that line than south of it, and naturally there 
 would be more free States than slave States coming 
 into the Union. So the South looked to Texas to hold 
 its power in Congress. The Southerners had to hold 
 their power because there was a growing feeling in the 
 North that slavery was wrong and the Southerners 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 59 
 
 feared that if they lost control of Congress laws might 
 be passed against slavery. 
 
 When Mexico obtained her freedom from Spain, a 
 large number of Americans settled in Texas, which was 
 then a part of Mexico. Nearly all of these became 
 slave holders, because Texas had the right soil and cli- 
 mate for slavery. In 1833 these settlers of Texas re- 
 belled against Mexico. After three years of fighting, 
 they won their freedom and made Texas the **Lone Star 
 Republic." 
 
 Texas was not long a republic before her people 
 asked to be annexed to the United States. They were 
 urged to do this by the Southerners, who were anxious 
 to get Texas into the Union because that would make 
 one more slave State and give them two more votes in 
 the United States Senate. 
 
 The North was very much opposed to the annexation 
 of Texas because the Northerners did not want to give 
 slavery any more power. This question was finally set- 
 tled by the election of President Polk, who favored the 
 annexation of Texas. When he was elected President 
 the bill was passed providing for the annexation of 
 Texas. Thus Texas was made a part of the United 
 States. 
 
 The Mexican War 
 
 LESSON 52 
 
 The Mexican War was caused by a dispute between 
 Mexico and the United States over the boundary line 
 of Texas. The United States claimed that the boun- 
 dary line was the Rio Grande. Mexico claimed that the 
 boundary was the Nueces River. This left a piece of 
 disputed land between the Rio Grande and the Nueces 
 River. 
 
 President Polk did not wait to settle the dispute by 
 peaceful means but sent an army under General Tay- 
 lor to hold the disputed territory. The Mexicans op- 
 
60 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 posed this invasion by the Americans and a small bat- 
 tle took place. American blood was shed on American 
 soil. President Polk reported the matter to Congress 
 and claimed that war had actually begun. Congress 
 accepted his report and active preparations were made 
 for war. 
 
 From the beginning to the end of the Mexican War 
 the Americans won a long series of easy victories. The 
 Mexicans never won a battle. Finally the Americans 
 captured the City of Mexico. 
 
 The principal American generals were General 
 Winfield Scott, General Taylor and General Kearny. 
 General Grant was a young officer in this war and said 
 in his memoirs that it was the most unjust war that 
 was ever waged by a strong nation. 
 
 When the Mexicans had lost everything and the 
 Americans were in possession of their capital a treaty 
 of peace was made. By this treaty it was agreed that 
 the Rio Grande was the southern boundary of Texas; 
 that California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, 
 and part of Colorado should be ceded to the United 
 States. It was agreed that the United States should 
 pay Mexico fifteen million dollars for this territory. In 
 addition the United States paid some three million five 
 hundred thousand dollars in claims our citizens had 
 against Mexico for injury to their personal property. 
 This treaty is known as the Treaty of Guadalupe Hi- 
 dalgo. It took its name from the little village where 
 it was made. 
 
 A fev/ years later another treaty was made with 
 Mexico by which the United States purchased a strip 
 of land along the northern boundary of Mexico. For 
 this ten million dollars more were paid and this strip 
 is known as the Gadsden Purchase, named after the 
 man who made it. 
 
 The Mexican War began in 1846 and ended in 1848. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 61 
 
 The Settlement of Oregon and California 
 
 LESSON 53 
 
 The settlement of Oregon and California is a little 
 different from that of the other Western States. Up 
 to this time, between 1845 and 1850, the people had 
 moved steadily westward, settling the land as they 
 came to it. But in order to settle California and Oregon 
 they skipped over more than one thousand miles of 
 unsettled country. This unsettled country included the 
 Rocky Mountains, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and 
 the great dry plains between these ranges. The route 
 of the settlers from the Mississippi Valley and the 
 Atlantic States was across the two ranges of moun- 
 tains and the dry plains. This was a hard and danger- 
 ous journey on account of the hot sun in summer, the 
 deep snow in winter, the steep mountains, and the war- 
 like Indians. 
 
 The people traveled in wagons called ''prairie 
 schooners," drawn by oxen or horses. There were long 
 trains of these and at night they made a circle of the 
 wagons for protection against the Indians. This way 
 of reaching Oregon is known in history as ''Crossing 
 the Plains." The attraction of Oregon was the rich 
 farming and grazing lands there. The attraction to 
 California was gold, which had been discovered here 
 shortly after the treaty of peace with Mexico had been 
 signed. The first gold was discovered by James Mar- 
 shall at Sutter's Fort, a place near Sacramento. While 
 the Mexican War was going on the few Americans in 
 California rebelled against Mexico and took possession 
 of the government. These Americans raised a flag with 
 the picture of a "grizzly bear" on it and the words 
 "California Republic." They intended to make a re- 
 public out of this land, but the treaty with Mexico made 
 California a territory of the United States. The news 
 of the discovery of gold by Marshall soon spread all over 
 the world. People of every land thought that they 
 
62 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 could pick up a fortune anywhere in California. More 
 than one hundred thousand came. By 1850 California 
 was ready to become a State and was admitted into the 
 Union as a free State by Congress on the 9th day of 
 September, 1850. Oregon did not become a State until 
 1859. 
 
 The Abolitionists 
 
 LESSON 54 
 
 The Abolitionists were people in the North who 
 believed that slavery should be abolished in all the 
 States. Among the leading Abolitionists were William 
 Lloyd Garrison, Elijah Lovejoy, Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
 Stowe, the authoress of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and Wen- 
 dell Phillips, the great orator. 
 
 The Abolitionists did all they could to stir up a feel- 
 ing among all the people against slavery. They tried 
 to make the people see that it was a great wrong and 
 a terrible disgrace to our country. They did this by 
 making speeches, writing poetry and stories and send- 
 ing pamphlets containing their ideas to people in all 
 parts of the country. The Abolitionists were intensely 
 hated by the people of the South, who claimed that their 
 work was causing the slaves to be discontented and 
 inclined to rebel and run away. The Southerners tried 
 to have the United States Post Office refuse to handle 
 the literature which the Abolitionists wanted to send 
 out. 
 
 Even in the North the Abolitionists made but lit- 
 tle progress at first. Everybody seemed to be satis- 
 fied that the negroes should remain slaves. Often the 
 leaders of Abolition were treated harshly by the North- 
 ern people. Garrison was led through the streets with 
 a rope around his neck. Lovejoy was shot and killed 
 while defending his printing press from destruction by 
 a mob. A school house, which had been put up in Bos- 
 ton to educate negroes, was torn down and destroyed 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 63 
 
 by another mob. All this shows that the Northern 
 people had no use for the Abolitionists at first. But 
 the time came when the feeling of the North against 
 the Abolitionists changed. 
 
 There were petitions sent to Congress against slav- 
 ery. These petitions annoyed the Southern members 
 and in order to stop them the Southern members and 
 their friends passed what is known as the Gag Resolu- 
 tions, by which Congress refused to receive any more 
 petitions against slavery. John Quincy Adams, who 
 was an old man at that time, denounced the Gag Reso- 
 lutions very bitterly. Instead of helping slavery, 
 the Gag Resolutions made many friends for the 
 Abolitionists. 
 
 The Compromises of 1850 
 
 LESSON 55 
 
 The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820, as we 
 have already learned. It settled the question of slavery 
 for almost thirty years, but not entirely. It didn't 
 keep the Abolitionists from spreading their ideas that 
 slavery was wrong and should be abolished in all the 
 States. These Abolitionists created such feeling that 
 the Southern people began to think that Congress would 
 stop slavery entirely. Up to 1850 there had been just 
 as many free States as slave States and, of course, just 
 as many members in the United States Senate for slav- 
 ery as against it. 
 
 But when California wanted to come into the Union 
 as a free State the Southerners were greatly alarmed, 
 for, should California be admitted as a free State, then 
 the power of slavery would be lost in Congress. So the 
 Southerners determined that California should not be 
 admitted. A long and bitter dispute followed and for 
 awhile it seemed as if the Union would be dissolved. 
 Finally the dispute was settled by a bill that is known 
 as the Compromise of 1850. This bill is known also as 
 
64 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the Omnibus Bill, on account of carrying so many pro- 
 visions. It was prepared and brought forward by the 
 great compromiser, Henry Clay. By the Compromise 
 of 1850 it was agreed that California should be admit- 
 ted as a free State ; that Utah and New Mexico should 
 be organized as territories without regard to slavery; 
 that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District 
 of Columbia; and that a fugitive slave law should be 
 enacted. By prohibiting the slave trade in the District 
 of Columbia it is meant that there should be no buying 
 or selling of human beings in that place. By a fugitive 
 slave law is meant a law that allowed a slave holder to 
 go anjrwhere in the United States to get his runaway 
 slaves, and the same law compelled all the people to 
 help the slave holder to catch the runaways. 
 
 The Abohtionists did not like any part of the Com- 
 promise of 1850 except that California should be ad- 
 mitted as a free State. 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
 
 LESSON 56 
 
 Though much was expected of the Compromise of 
 1850 in the way of settling the slavery question, it pro- 
 duced no quieting effect. It rather made trouble in- 
 stead of settling it. 
 
 When the fugitive slave law was passed by Con- 
 gress, the Southern people made a strong effort to en- 
 force it in the North. The Northerners, led by the 
 Abolitionists, fought the fugitive slave law as hard as 
 they could. They did this by helping the negroes to 
 escape to Canada. This was against the law, but they 
 claimed it was on the side of right and justice. 
 
 There was such a good system of helping the slaves 
 to escape from the South to Canada, where they were 
 free, that it was known as the ''Underground Railway." 
 It was no railroad at all, but a secret route for slaves 
 to pursue. While they traveled this secret route, food 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 65 
 
 and other necessities were provided for them by the 
 Abolitionists. When the Northern people thus helped 
 the slaves the Southerners became very angry and the 
 bitterness between the North and South continued to 
 grow. 
 
 While this bitterness was at its height Senator 
 Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois introduced into Congress 
 in 1854 a bill called the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. This bill 
 repealed the Missouri Compromise and organized the 
 territories of Kansas and Nebraska, giving the people 
 of those places the right to decide for themselves 
 whether they wanted slavery or not. 
 
 This way of settling slavery is known as Squatters' 
 Sovereignty. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill made much 
 more trouble. People from the North and people from 
 the South rushed into Kansas and Nebraska and each 
 side determined to have the States go its way, and 
 as a result there was civil war in Kansas and Nebraska 
 for a few years. This trouble kept the whole nation 
 stirred up on the question of slavery. 
 
 The Dred Scott Decision 
 
 LESSON 57 
 
 We have already learned that there is a Supreme 
 Court composed of one Chief Justice and eight Asso- 
 ciate Judges. This is the highest court in the United 
 States and it has more authority than any other court 
 in the world. When this court renders a decision that 
 decision must stand as final. Everyone must give heed 
 to it. 
 
 It was the Supreme Court of the United States that 
 rendered the Dred Scott Decision. Dred Scott was a 
 negro. His master took him into the free State of Illi- 
 nois and from there he was taken into territory which 
 was declared free forever by the Missouri Compromise. 
 On his return to Missouri he sued for his freedom on 
 
66 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the ground that he had been made free by his master's 
 taking him into a free State. This case finally went be- 
 fore the Supreme Court and the judges decided against 
 Dred Scott. Their decision was that a slave was prop- 
 erty, and that he had no more rights than a bale of 
 cotton or any other piece of property, in court ; that his 
 master might take him anywhere he pleased and that 
 he would be a slave wherever he went; that neither 
 Congress nor any State Legislature had any right to 
 make laws interfering with slavery. The people of the 
 South were overjoyed at the Dred Scott Decision. They 
 thought the question of slavery was settled at last in 
 their favor. In the North the Abolitionists were dis- 
 appointed, but they did not stop their work. They 
 fought slavery harder than ever and won more and 
 more people to their side until at last all the people of 
 the North took a stand with the Abolitionists against 
 slavery. 
 
 Even churches separated on the subject of slavery. 
 Down South they preached that slavery was right, 
 while throughout the North they preached that slavery 
 was wrong. 
 
 The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 
 
 LESSON 58 
 
 The Lincoln and Douglas Debate took place in Illi- 
 nois about one year after the Dred Scott Decision was 
 announced. It consisted of a series of speeches by Sen- 
 ator Douglas and Abraham Lincoln. Douglas was the 
 leader of the Democratic party and a candidate for re- 
 election as a United States Senator. Lincoln was the 
 leader of the Republican party and he was the candidate 
 of that party, in Illinois, for United States Senator. If 
 the Democrats won the majority in the State Legisla- 
 ture, Douglas would be chosen Senator. If the Repub- 
 licans won the majority, then Lincoln would become 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 67 
 
 Senator, so you can see that Lincoln and Douglas were 
 each trying to convince the people to believe in his 
 political ideas. 
 
 The debates attracted much attention. People came 
 from far and near to hear the two great orators. Lin- 
 coln spoke firmly against the extension of slavery into 
 the territories. He claimed that the Dred Scott De- 
 cision was unconstitutional and he said that this nation 
 could not expect to exist forever, half slave and half 
 free ; that it would have to be either all slave or all free. 
 
 Douglas did not take such a firm stand as Lincoln. 
 He tried to please both sides. He did not object to the 
 extension of slavery. He upheld the idea of "Squatter 
 Sovereignty" ; that is, that the people of the territories 
 should settle for themselves the question of slavery. 
 
 Douglas offended the South by criticising the Dred 
 Scott Decision and the Southern people never forgave 
 him for that. 
 
 It might be of some interest to know whether Doug- 
 las or Lincoln won the senatorship. Well, Douglas won 
 the honor and Lincoln made a reputation for himself 
 throughout the country, for a few years later he won 
 the great honor, the Presidency of the United States. 
 
 The Election of Abraham Lincoln 
 as President 
 
 LESSON 59 
 
 When the time came to nominate candidates for the 
 presidency in 1860 the people were greatly divided on 
 the subject of politics. This division was caused by the 
 bitterness over slavery. 
 
 The regular Democratic convention could not agree 
 on the subject. The Northern Democratic delegates 
 nominated Stephen A. Douglas for their candidate for 
 President. This displeased the Southern Democratic 
 delegates, because Douglas had criticised the Dred Scott 
 
68 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Decision. So these Southern delegates withdrew from 
 the regular convention and nominated Breckinridge for 
 President. They preferred him because he believed 
 that slavery was right and that the Dred Scott Decision 
 was constitutional. Thus you see that there were two 
 Democratic candidates for President. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was nominated by the new Re- 
 publican party and the platform of that party de- 
 manded that Congress should prevent the extension of 
 slavery in the western territories and the platform 
 stated further that the Republican party would not 
 interfere with slavery where it was. 
 
 In 1860 there was still another convention composed 
 of men from all parties and that convention nominated 
 a man named Bell for President. 
 
 During this campaign there were many speeches 
 made for and against slavery. The people were fully 
 informed upon the subject. They knew what to do 
 when they went to vote. They had faith in Lincoln's 
 speeches and he was elected President by the electoral 
 votes of all the Northern States. 
 
 The South believed that the election meant that 
 slavery should not be extended into any more of the 
 western States. The Southern people believed that if 
 they wished to preserve slavery any longer they would 
 have to withdraw from the Union and start another 
 republic with slavery for its foundation. The first State 
 to withdraw was South Carolina, and she took steps at 
 once to persuade the other Southern States to do the 
 same. 
 
 The Civil War 
 
 LESSON 60 
 
 The Civil War, which was perhaps the most ter- 
 rible civil war ever fought, began in 1861 and ended 
 in 1865. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 69 
 
 The chief causes of that terrible war were slavery, 
 States' rights and a want of understanding between the 
 North and the South. 
 
 By States' rights is meant, as we have already 
 learned, the rights claimed by States at various times 
 that they did not need to obey laws passed by Congress 
 and that they could even withdraw from the Union if 
 they wanted to. Under these so-called rights South 
 Carolina and other slave States seceded. The following 
 is a Ust of the Confederate States: Virginia, North 
 Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, 
 Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, Arkansas and Tennessee. 
 
 These States organized a new country, which thej^ 
 called the Confederate States of America. Their rep- 
 resentatives organized a new capital at Montgomery. 
 Later they made Richmond their capital. Jefferson 
 Davis was elected their President and Alexander 
 Stephens was elected Vice-President. They had a Con- 
 gress very much like our own. 
 
 The Confederate States prepared themselves for war 
 at once. They took possession of the United States 
 forts and arsenals in the South. This gave them a 
 large supply of arms and ammunition, because nearly 
 all the United States arsenals were in the South. The 
 South began the war by trying to get possession of 
 Fort Sumter, which was commanded by Major Ander- 
 son, who would not turn it over to the Southerners as 
 the other commanders of the other Southern forts had 
 done. He would not surrender the fort. The Confed- 
 erates bombarded it for three days with their cannons. 
 At the end of that time Major Anderson was compelled 
 to surrender, but he and his men were allowed to go 
 free and take with them their personal weapons. The 
 strange thing about the bombardment of Fort Sumter 
 was that though the walls of the fort were shattered 
 to pieces by the cannons yet not a man was killed on 
 either side. 
 
 The capture of Fort Sumter caused great excite- 
 ment in the North and South. Lincoln called for sev- 
 
70 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 enty-five thousand volunteers. People from every 
 Southern State flocked to the State capitals to form 
 armies. The people of the whole country began to be- 
 lieve that there would be no settlement on the subject 
 of slavery without war. 
 
 Why the South Had Little Chance to Win 
 the War 
 
 LESSON 61 
 
 It seems strange to us now that the South should 
 ever try to fight the North. It was like a twelve-year- 
 old boy trying to fight a man. 
 
 The South was very much weaker in population, in 
 means of transportation, in manufacturing, and in the 
 most necessary of all things, ''money." If the South- 
 erners had ever looked at it wisely they would have 
 remembered that the North had twenty million people 
 to their six million; that the North had all the rail- 
 roads and all the manufacturing, and that the North 
 had many times as much wealth as the South had. 
 
 Perhaps they were encouraged to start the war, as 
 all the nations of Europe, excepting Russia, sympa- 
 thized with the South, and perhaps they expected those 
 nations to help them. In fact, England did help by 
 giving them money, arms, and ships. 
 
 The Southerners also thought that they had many 
 friends in the North who might help them. During the 
 first year of the war the Confederacy won several vic- 
 tories because they got their armies together faster 
 than the North did. They had better leaders at first 
 and they had the benefits of the arsenals they had cap- 
 tured. But when the Union, or North, blockaded the 
 Southern coast so that no cotton could go out and no 
 supplies could come in, the Confederates gradually 
 weakened. There were times when neither the people 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 71 
 
 nor the soldiers of the South could get enough to eat, 
 let alone money. This was on account of the blockade, 
 which stopped all business. 
 
 The great wonder about the war is the remarkable 
 bravery shown on both sides and the way the South 
 could keep it up as long as her people did. We cannot 
 help but respect them for their bravery, although we 
 know they were fighting for a wrong idea. 
 
 The Battle of Bull Run 
 
 LESSON 62 
 
 The first important battle of the Civil War is known 
 as the Battle of Bull Run, being named after a little 
 river by that name. The commander on the Union side 
 was General Irwin McDowell. The commander on the 
 Confederate side was General Beauregard. 
 
 General McDowell was ordered by General Scott, 
 who was the commander-in-chief of the Union army, 
 to attack Beauregard. He did as he was ordered with 
 thirty thousand men and the Southerners received the 
 attack without flinching. While the fight was going on 
 a second Confederate army came upon the same field 
 and began to fight the Union army. Very soon the sol- 
 diers of the Union army broke their ranks and fled. 
 The Confederates hotly pursued them. 
 
 The Battle of Bull Run produced a great change in 
 the North, but gave the South altogether too much con- 
 fidence. It showed the North that there was some hard 
 work to be done, but it made the South feel that every- 
 thing would be easy. The cry of the South was "On 
 to Washington!" This meant that their intention was 
 to capture Washington. The cry of the North was **0n 
 to Richmond !" Richmond was the capital of the Con- 
 federate States of America. This meant that the in- 
 tention of the Union army was to capture Richmond 
 and destroy the Confederate government. If the Con- 
 
72 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 federates had not stopped to congratulate themselves 
 after the Battle of Bull Run, they might have captured 
 Washington, for they were within twenty miles of it. 
 
 A great many of the most important battles took 
 place in the neighborhood of Richmond. The most im- 
 portant leaders in the Union army were General W. 
 Scott, General G. McClellan, General Joseph Hooker, 
 General Burnside and General Grant, who was the best 
 of them all. On the Southern side, in the same neigh- 
 borhood, they had from the beginning General Robert 
 E. Lee, one of the greatest of generals, and under him 
 was the famous ''Stonewall" Jackson, the bravest of the 
 brave, and General Beauregard. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation 
 
 LESSON 63 
 
 When the Civil War began it was not the intention 
 of the Union side to interfere with the subject of slav- 
 ery. At first the principal object was to break up the 
 government of the Confederacy and force the seceded 
 States to come back into the Union. But after the war 
 had been going on for almost two years President Lin- 
 coln decided that he would issue his famous ''Emanci- 
 pation Proclamation," by which all slaves of the States 
 controlled by the Confederacy were set free. The proc- 
 lamation did not set the slaves free in Delaware, West 
 Virginia, Missouri, Maryland and Kentucky because 
 these States were not controlled by the Confederacy. 
 
 President Lincoln was a very just man and he was 
 willing to have our government pay for the freedom of 
 the slaves so that the Southerners would not lose so 
 much by having them set free, but the Southerners 
 were so hot-headed that they would not agree even to 
 sell their slaves. It would have been better for them 
 if they had sold them. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 73 
 
 When Lincoln issued the * 'Emancipation Proclama- 
 tion" the people of the North were very much pleased, 
 because it showed that Lincoln was determined to abol- 
 ish slavery. It produced an opposite effect in the Con- 
 federacy, because the Confederates knew that it meant 
 the end of slavery if the North should win, and it 
 seemed likely at this time that the North would win. 
 
 The Civil War in the East 
 
 LESSON 64 
 
 Several important battles took place in the vicinity 
 of Washington and Richmond. The Union soldiers in 
 the East numbered more than two hundred thousand 
 and they were known as the Grand Army of the Po- 
 tomac. This army had for its commanders one after 
 another Winfield Scott, George McClellan, John Burn- 
 side, Joseph Hooker and, at the close of the war, U. S. 
 Grant. 
 
 The Army of the Potomac was opposed by the Con- 
 federates, who had about one hundred and fifty thou- 
 sand men and they were known as the Army of North- 
 em Virginia. This army was commanded by Robert E. 
 Lee, who was ably assisted by "Stonewall" Jackson and 
 Beauregard. 
 
 A few of the battles that took place between the 
 Army of the Potomac and the Army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia were the first and second battles of Bull Run, Bat- 
 tle of Antietam, the Battle of the Wilderness, Battle of 
 Fredericksburg, Battle of Chancellorsville and the Bat- 
 tle of Gettysburg. 
 
 The South won the battles of Fredericksburg and 
 Chancellorsville, but in the other battles they lost be- 
 cause "Stonewall" Jackson had been killed by one of 
 his own men, thinking him one of the enemies, and also 
 because they were weaker in every way. 
 
74 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Battle of Gettysburg was the most important 
 battle of the Civil War. General Lee had decided to 
 take the war into the North and he marched his men 
 as far north as Gettysburg, a small town in Pennsyl- 
 vania. Here he was met by General Meade with a small 
 part of the Army of the Potomac. It was about the 
 first of July and the two armies met where the land 
 was covered with wheat. For three days a terrible bat- 
 tle raged. Great bravery was shown on both sides. 
 Fifty thousand men were killed and wounded, but the 
 Union army won and Lee was forced to retreat to the 
 South. There was never much hope for the Confeder- 
 ates after the Battle of Gettysburg. 
 
 Civil War in the West 
 
 LESSON 65 
 
 When the West is mentioned in the Civil War we 
 mean the Mississippi Valley, because there was very 
 little fighting west of the Mississippi Valley. The ob- 
 ject of the Union army in the West was to prevent such 
 States as Missouri and Kentucky from joining the Con- 
 federacy. These States were known as the doubtful 
 Confederate States and their people were greatly di- 
 vided on the war. In some families one brother would 
 wear the blue and the other the gray. That gives you 
 an idea of how divided they were. Another object of 
 the Union anny in the West was to get control of the 
 Mississippi River so that the Confederates could not 
 ship out cotton or bring in supplies. 
 
 The Confederates knew the value of the great river 
 and had it guarded by strong fortifications at New 
 Orleans, at Vicksburg and other forts like Fort Henry 
 and Fort Donelson. The Union forces of the West were 
 under command of General Grant, General Sherman 
 and General Thomas. The Confederate forces were 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 75 
 
 under the command of General Albert Sydney Johnson 
 and General Pemberton. 
 
 General Grant was very successful in the West. He 
 captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson and after a 
 hard fight won the Battle of Shiloh, where General 
 A. S. Johnson was killed. 
 
 General Grant's greatest victory, however, was the 
 capture of Vicksburg, which was a strong fort on the 
 Mississippi River and well defended. General Pember- 
 ton commanded it. General Grant laid siege for several 
 weeks trying to capture Vicksburg. During this time 
 he kept up a constant cannonade and allowed no sup- 
 plies to go to Vicksburg. Finally the Confederates 
 were forced to surrender on account of starvation. 
 When General Pemberton asked General Grant what 
 terms he would allow in the surrender, Grant replied 
 that his terms would be unconditional surrender. This 
 is how General Grant got the nickname of * 'Uncondi- 
 tional Surrender Grant." To reward Grant for this 
 great victory Lincoln made him commander-in-chief of 
 the Union army. After that the South won no more 
 victories. The surrender of Vicksburg took place the 
 day after the Union army in the East won the Battle of 
 Gettysburg. 
 
 Admiral Farragut captured New Orleans. The 
 Union side now had entire control of the Mississippi 
 and everybody knew that the power of the South was 
 completely broken. 
 
 Sherman's March to the Sea 
 
 LESSON 66 
 
 Next to General Grant, General Sherman was per- 
 haps the wisest Union general. Yet there were many 
 people, at that time, who said he was crazy, just as the 
 small boys used to say about Columbus. 
 
76 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 General Sherman, toward the close of the war, 
 thought it would be a good idea to destroy as much of 
 the property of the South as possible in order to dis- 
 courage the Southern people from continuing the war 
 any longer. 
 
 So General Sherman and his army started on their 
 famous march from Atlanta to the sea. His army was 
 spread out so that it stretched across a distance of fifty 
 miles. As the soldiers marched they destroyed every- 
 thing that was of any use to an army. They tore up 
 railroad tracks, burned bridges, com and hay, killed 
 horses and cattle and left a ruined country behind them. 
 The famous song, "Marching Through Georgia," should 
 always make you think of Sherman's March to the sea. 
 
 After Sherman and his army marched from Atlanta 
 to the sea, they marched northward through South 
 Carolina, destroying everything as they did in Georgia, 
 and finally they joined General Grant, who was now the 
 commander-in-chief of the Army of the Potomac in 
 Virginia. 
 
 Many people think that Sherman's march to the sea 
 and the destruction of property were very cruel things 
 to do, but in war ''all things are fair," and the march 
 was one of the necessities of war. It helped to bring 
 about the end. 
 
 Lee's Surrender 
 
 LESSON 67 
 
 The very same day that Sherman started on his 
 march to the sea General Grant, with the Army of the 
 Potomac, began his march to Richmond. At this time 
 the Aimy of the Potomac contained one hundred thou- 
 sand men, while Lee had in the Army of Northern Vir- 
 ginia from seventy to eighty thousand men. 
 
 Though the Confederate army was greatly out- 
 numbered by the Union army, which was far better 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 77 
 
 supplied with food and ammunition, the Confederates 
 had some advantages, because, during their last cam- 
 paign, their soldiers fought behind entrenchments. 
 There were many battles fought. Grant could not 
 break the Confederate line, so he would march around 
 them, or, as they say in war, he would outflank them. 
 Whenever Grant went by them they were compelled to 
 fall back to get between Grant and Richmond in order 
 to save their capital. These movements were con- 
 tinued for weeks, fighting and marching all the time. 
 Finally Grant compelled Lee to cross the James River 
 and he now began the siege of Petersburg and Rich- 
 mond. Up to this time in this campaign Grant had lost 
 fifteen thousand soldiers. The Confederates had lost 
 heavily, too, but not half so many. The Confederates 
 were in need of food, clothing, arms, and ammunition. 
 It is said that they went into more than one battle with 
 empty stomachs and empty cartridge belts as well. 
 
 General Lee tried to make General Grant retreat by 
 sending General Early with seventeen thousand men to 
 threaten Washington, but Grant had plenty of soldiers, 
 so he protected Washington and continued the siege of 
 Richmond. At last Richmond fell. The members of 
 the Confederate government escaped and General Lee 
 tried to do so, but he was stopped and compelled to sur- 
 render with his army. General Grant showed that he 
 was really a great man by not humiliating General Lee 
 and his soldiers. He gave orders that all the Confeder- 
 ates should be treated with the greatest respect. They 
 were given food and clothing and the Northern soldiers 
 took the Southern soldiers' hands in friendly grasp. 
 
 The American Navy During the Civil War 
 
 LESSON 68 
 
 When the Civil War began the American navy was 
 very small, because our government had not paid much 
 
78 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 attention to keeping up the navy for many years 
 before. 
 
 When the Civil War broke out it was necessary to 
 improve the navy and our government did improve it 
 very rapidly. New ships were built and many ships 
 were bought and armed with cannons. In a short time 
 the navy became quite powerful. The greatest use 
 that was made of the navy during the Civil War was 
 to blockade the Southern seaports and thus prevent the 
 Southern people from exporting their cotton, tobacco, 
 and sugar. When they were stopped from exporting 
 their products they could get no money to carry on 
 the war and the people were compelled to do without 
 manufactured articles, for they had no factories of 
 their own and they could not import on account of the 
 blockade. 
 
 Lincoln was the man who ordered this blockade. It 
 was no easy thing to blackade the South because it had 
 a sea coast of 25,000 miles. But President Lincoln 
 knew that if he stopped the South from getting money 
 and manufactured articles that this would help to 
 bring the war to an end. 
 
 During the first part of the war our country came 
 very nearly getting into trouble with England. The 
 Confederate government sent two commissioners named 
 Mason and Slidell to England to try to get help for the 
 South. They were on their way across the Atlantic 
 Ocean when they were captured by one of our warships 
 and taken back to the IJnited States. England was 
 very angry over this and threatened war. President 
 Lincoln did not want any more war, at that time, so 
 Mason and Slidell were given up and our government 
 apologized for taking them. England accepted the 
 apology and war with her was averted. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 79 
 
 The Alabama Claims and the 
 Geneva Awards 
 
 LESSON 69 
 
 While the Civil War was going on the government 
 of the Confederate States spared no efforts to do in- 
 jury to the commerce of the North. The Confederates 
 had no navy, so they did not try to blockade the North- 
 ern ports, but they got as many ships from England as 
 they could to engage in the work of capturing ships 
 belonging to the Northern merchants. These ships, 
 known as commerce destroyers, were obtained with the 
 help of the English government. The three that did 
 the most damage to our commerce were the "Alabama," 
 the 'Tlorida" and the "Shenandoah." Altogether the 
 Confederate commerce destroyers captured more than 
 2500 merchant ships and, besides, they frightened our 
 merchants so much that they sold more than half of 
 their other ships. This was a great injury to our 
 commerce. 
 
 Seven years after the war was over our country de- 
 cided that England should pay for a part of the dam- 
 age done by such ships as the "Alabama," because if 
 England had not helped the South to get these ships 
 the South never could have got them. 
 
 To avoid war our country agreed to settle the dam- 
 ages by submitting the claims to commissioners from 
 both countries. These commissioners met in Geneva, 
 a city in Switzerland. 
 
 After hearing evidence from both sides, it was de- 
 cided by the commission that England should pay 
 $15,500,000 to the United States for the injury that was 
 done by such ships as the "Alabama." 
 
 This is called the Geneva award, the settlement of 
 the Alabama claims. 
 
80 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Monitor and the Merrimac 
 
 LESSON 70 
 
 When the State of Virginia seceded the commander 
 of the United States navy yard at Norfolk sank the 
 American ships in the harbor rather than let them fall 
 into the hands of the Confederates. Afterwards the 
 Confederates raised one of these ships, called the 
 '"Merrimac," and covered it heavily with railroad iron, 
 thus making the first ironclad war vessel. 
 
 About the same time the Confederates were cover- 
 ing the '"Merrimac" with iron, John Ericsson of New 
 York was building an ironclad vessel called the '"Moni- 
 tor." The deck of the "Monitor" was almost level with 
 the water and in the middle of the deck was a round tur- 
 ret, revolved very slowly by machinery, giving the gun- 
 ners a good opportunity to use their cannon. 
 
 About this time a number of American ships were 
 in Hampton Roads, at the mouth of the James River. 
 All these ships were made of wood, like nearly all war- 
 ships at that time. The "Merrimac" attacked these 
 Union ships and destroyed the "Cumberland" and the 
 "Congress," which were two powerful warships. Then 
 the "Merrimac" went away and meant to come back 
 the next day and destroy the other Union ships. She 
 had nothing to fear because cannon balls could not 
 injure her. 
 
 There was great alarm in the North and the people 
 feared that the "Merrimac" would destroy the entire 
 Union navy. But during the night the "Monitor" ar- 
 rived and when the Confederates saw her they called 
 her the "Yankee Cheese Box" on a raft. 
 
 When the "Merrimac" returned the next morning to 
 finish her work of destruction the "Monitor" was there. 
 The two ironclads met and a terrible battle was fought. 
 Neither vessel was badly injured, but the "Merrimac" 
 was compelled to steam away from Hampton Roads 
 and the Union fleet was saved. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 81 
 
 This battle between the "Monitor" and the "Mer- 
 rimac" taught all the world that the day of wooden 
 warships was passed forever. 
 
 Results of the Civil War 
 
 LESSON 71 
 
 The principal result was the abolition of slavery. 
 Slavery was the only disgraceful condition that was 
 ever allowed to exist under the American flag and the 
 Civil War removed that stain. It made the United 
 States really a land of liberty. The Civil War caused 
 three amendments to be made to the Constitution of 
 the United States. These amendments are known as 
 the 13th, 14th and 15th. The 13th amendment gave 
 all the negroes their freedom. The 14th amendment 
 gave all the negroes all the rights of American citi- 
 zens, except the right to vote. The 15th amendment 
 gave them the right to vote. 
 
 Besides the above results, the Civil War showed the 
 whole world that the United States had the best and 
 bravest soldiers that ever lived. The Civil War did 
 away with the sectional feeling — that is, a feeling in 
 the North against the South, or vice versa. The coun- 
 try became more thoroughly one. The brave men of 
 the North forgave the brave men of the South, after 
 having fought each other as hard as they could. They 
 met on many a battle field in the years that followed the 
 war and talked over the times gone by in a friendly 
 manner. Only cowards who were afraid to go to war 
 tried to keep up the bitter feeling between the North 
 and the South. When the Spanish- American War 
 broke out the boys that wore the gray were just as 
 ready to fight for our flag as the boys that wore the 
 blue, and they did fight, side by side, although fighting 
 the Spaniard w^as only play for them. No war in all 
 
82 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the history of the world caused such a large number 
 of delightful stories as the Civil War. We never tire 
 while reading about heroes of the North and South. 
 
 Reconstruction 
 
 LESSON 72 
 
 In the history of the United States, Reconstruction 
 means bringing back the seceded States to the Union. 
 If Lincoln had lived there would not have been any 
 great trouble about this, because he was wise and kind 
 hearted, and he would have found a way agreeable to 
 both North and South. But just at the close of the 
 Civil War President Lincoln was assassinated, as you 
 know, and the Vice-President, Johnson, became Presi- 
 dent. President Johnson claimed that States could not 
 secede and that therefore they had never been out of 
 the Union. He thought that their Representatives and 
 Senators should be received in Congress just as they 
 had been before the Civil War. 
 
 Several members of Lincoln's Cabinet and of Con- 
 gress said that Johnson was wrong and that the Con- 
 federate States should be treated as conquered terri- 
 tory and that none of the people of these States should 
 be allowed to hold office without first taking the oath 
 of allegiance to the United States. This difference be- 
 tween President Johnson and Congress made a long 
 and dreary dispute, but finally Congress triumphed. 
 War Governors w^ere sent to the Southern States and 
 they had the assistance of government soldiers to main- 
 tain their authority. 
 
 Many others, rightfully called ^'Carpet Baggers," 
 went from the North to the South and got the negroes 
 to vote for them and put them into office, where they 
 made themselves rich by unfair means. The time after 
 the war was about as bad for the South as during 
 the war. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 83 
 
 After a number of years all the wrongs were righted 
 and the Southern people were given back their rights. 
 They took possession of all the offices, their Representa- 
 tives and Senators vv^ere received by Congress and re- 
 construction was accomplished. 
 
 The Tenure of Office Act— The Impeach- 
 ment of President Johnson 
 
 LESSON 73 
 
 President Johnson was a stubborn, selfish, and self- 
 willed man. When he thought he was right nobody 
 could change his mind. The dispute between him and 
 Congress became very bitter over reconstruction, but 
 there was a two-thirds majority against him in Con- 
 gress, which could do things in spite of his vetoes. 
 
 One of his bitterest enemies was Secretary Stanton 
 of Lincoln's Cabinet. Congress was afraid that Presi- 
 dent Johnson would remove Secretary Stanton, so the 
 two houses of Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act 
 in order to stop him from removing Stanton. 
 
 The Tenure of Office Act requires the President to 
 get consent of the Senate before he can remove any 
 officer whose appointment was subject to the approval 
 of the Senate. President Johnson paid no attention to 
 this act, saying that it was unconstitutional, and he 
 did remove Secretary Stanton. 
 
 For removing Secretary Stanton he was impeached 
 by the House of Representatives and tried by the 
 United States Senate, with the Chief Justice presiding. 
 There was considerable excitement over the trial. All 
 the Senators had to vote whether he was guilty or not 
 and a two-thirds vote was required to convict him. 
 Upon counting the votes it was found that they were 
 one vote short of a two- thirds majority. So President 
 Johnson was saved by one vote. And the man who cast 
 
84 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 that vote did not do so for Johnson, but for the United 
 States. It would be such a disgrace to throw the Presi- 
 dent of the United States out of office. 
 
 If Johnson had been found guilty, he would have 
 been put out in disgrace, and it is doubtful who would 
 have taken his place, because there was no Vice-Presi- 
 dent and there was no law of presidential succession at 
 that time, as there is now. 
 
 The New South 
 
 LESSON 74 
 
 Of course the South is just as old now as it ever 
 was, but the way of its people in making a living is new 
 to them. That is why we speak of the new South. 
 Before the Civil War the cornerstone of Southern so- 
 ciety was slavery. The black man did all the work. He 
 raised the cotton and carried it to market. He and the 
 people like him took care of all the beautiful homes in 
 the South. It was thought then that the people would 
 never be able to get along in that hot climate without 
 slaves. 
 
 But the Civil War and President Lincoln set all the 
 slaves free by the Emancipation Proclamation. Then 
 the Southerners had to start in an entirely new way. 
 They had little money to begin with because they had 
 lost it all in the war. They expected hard times, but 
 they were agreeably disappointed. Everything seemed 
 to improve. Many new railroads were built. Thou- 
 sands of new people settled there. The population in- 
 creased and in a few years the South was producing 
 twice as much cotton as it had produced before the 
 war. Now it produces four times as much. Before the 
 war all the cotton was shipped to the North or exported 
 to Europe to be manufactured. Now there are many 
 cotton factories located in the South and they turn out 
 great quantities of cotton goods. Having factories in 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 85 
 
 the South saves all the freight on cotton and makes a 
 great deal of work for the Southern people. Many coal 
 and iron mines have been discovered in the South also, 
 and these discoveries have helped to increase manufac- 
 turing. Down in Texas a petroleum district has been 
 discovered and it produces great quantities of coal oil. 
 Nearly every city of the South has improved. The 
 people seem to be glad that slavery is a thing of the 
 past. 
 
 The Purchase of Alaska 
 
 LESSON 75 
 
 We have already learned how Jefferson purchased 
 Louisiana from France for $15,000,000; how Florida 
 was purchased from Spain for $5,000,000; how Texas 
 became a part of the United States in 1845; how we 
 gained California, Nevada, New Mexico and other 
 places by treaty with Mexico after the Mexican War; 
 and how we gained the land known as the Oregon Coun- 
 try by treaty with England. Now we shall learn that 
 the United States bought Alaska from Russia for 
 $7,200,000, while Andrew Johnson was President, in 
 1867. 
 
 Just as the people said that Jefferson was foolish 
 when he bought Louisiana, so they said that Johnson 
 made a mistake when he purchased Alaska. Recent 
 events have shown that the purchase of Alaska was a 
 wise move for the United States. Alaska is very rich 
 in gold, copper, coal, furs and fish. 
 
 Treaty of Washington 
 
 The Treaty of Washington was the settlement of 
 the Alabama claims and several other disputes. We 
 have already learned how the Alabama claims were set- 
 tled and how the Trent affair was settled. By the 
 Treaty of Washington the present boundary between 
 
86 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the State of Washington and British Columbia was 
 agreed upon. It was also decided what rights Ameri- 
 can fishermen are entitled to when fishing in Canadian 
 waters. 
 
 Tariff Questions in Recent Times 
 
 LESSON 76 
 
 We have already learned that a tariff is a tax placed 
 upon imported goods for the general support of the 
 government, that all the tariffs are passed by Congress, 
 and that they must originate in the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. 
 
 We have also learned that there are two kinds of 
 tariffs — the revenue tariff and the protective tariff. 
 The revenue tariff is for the purpose of raising money 
 to conduct the government and for no other purpose. 
 The protective tariff is for the purpose of protecting 
 home industry — that is, to put such a high duty on ar- 
 ticles that may be manufactured here so that they can- 
 not be imported from other countries with any pros- 
 pect of profit. This is done to favor our own manufac- 
 turers, so that they may build factories here, employ 
 our working people, pay them a fair wage, and sell 
 their products at higher prices than they would get if 
 the duty on such goods was not so high. 
 
 Since the Civil War the principal difference between 
 the Republicans and the Democrats has been on the 
 subject of tariff. The Democrats believed in little pro- 
 tection, claiming that this government should be run 
 for the benefit of all the people and not for a few man- 
 ufacturers. The Republicans claimed that protection 
 is best for the country, saying that when the manufac- 
 turers are prosperous then all the rest of the people 
 are the same. 
 
 When Cleveland was President and both houses 
 were Democratic, the Wilson Tariff Bill was passed. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 87 
 
 This bill lowered nearly all the duties. Bad times fol- 
 lowed. The people changed the President and both 
 houses of Congress. When the Dingley Tariff Bill was 
 passed all the duties were raised. Times became better 
 almost at once and until Taft's term the people con- 
 tinued to vote for a high protective tariff. 
 
 During President Taft's administration another 
 tariff bill was passed. This bill lowered some duties 
 and raised others. It was called the Payne-Aldrich Bill. 
 The people were not satisfied with this bill and as a 
 consequence elected Woodrow Wilson and a Democratic 
 Congress. 
 
 When Wilson became President the Underwood- 
 Simmons Tariff Bill was passed. It was expected that 
 this bill would reduce the cost of living, but it failed to 
 do so. In 1919 the cost of living was higher than it ever 
 was before. But we must not blame tariff laws alone 
 for this. The great number of ships loaded with pro- 
 visions which were sunk by the German submarines in 
 the World War had something to do with it, too. Be- 
 sides, the purchasing power of money, on account of 
 its plentifulness, became much less. Wages went up 
 for everybody and so did everything else. 
 
 Corporations 
 
 LESSON 77 
 
 A corporation is an organization established accord- 
 ing to law, in which a large number of persons may 
 invest their money by buying shares and stock. A cor- 
 poration acts as a single individual. Corporations are 
 formed for the purpose of conducting large enterprises, 
 like the building of railroads, the construction of fac- 
 tories, the drilling of oil-wells and the developing of 
 mines. It takes large sums of money to do such things 
 and through a corporation people all over the world 
 may buy stock or shares and thereby put their money 
 
88 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 into a big enterprise. Nearly all the corporations, that 
 are good, pay their stockholders from five to ten per 
 cent a year. But many of the corporations are not good 
 and people should not buy stock in any of them unless 
 they know all about the corporation or have a good 
 adviser to direct them. 
 
 Trusts 
 
 To avoid fighting each other for business, some- 
 times a large number of corporations in the same line 
 of business form what is called a 'Trust." They do 
 this to control the prices of their products ; that is, if 
 they want to raise the price they can do so, and if they 
 wish to lower the price they can do so also. They raise 
 their prices to increase their profits, and when they 
 lower them it is for the purpose of destroying any com- 
 pany that tries to do business contrary to their wishes. 
 The principal trusts at the present time are Standard 
 Oil Trust, Sugar Trust, Meat Trust, Tobacco Trust, 
 Farmers' Machinery Trust, and the Steel Trust. Con- 
 gress has passed laws to regulate all trusts. 
 
 Labor Unions 
 
 LESSON 78 
 
 When the people who possess the money began to 
 form very large organizations, the working men, who 
 did their work, concluded that they would have to or- 
 ganize in order to protect themselves. These working 
 men formed unions in the cities or towns where they 
 lived. They sent delegates to the State meetings and 
 the State meetings sent delegates to the National meet- 
 ing. So, now, the working people have the American 
 Federation of Labor, which takes care of the affairs of 
 the working people in all parts of the United States, 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 89 
 
 Labor Unions have done a great deal of good in 
 shortening the day of labor, in increasing the wages, 
 in preventing children from working, and in compelling 
 the employers of labor to protect the health of the 
 working people. 
 
 Samuel Gompers, for several terms the president of 
 the American Federation of Labor, did more than any 
 other man to unionize the working people of this 
 country. 
 
 Recent Application of the 
 Monroe Doctrine 
 
 LESSON 79 
 
 We will recall to mind that the Monroe Doctrine is 
 not a law of the United States, but only a part of one 
 of the messages of President Monroe. In that mes- 
 sage President Monroe said that no part of the new 
 world was to be subjected to any future colonization by 
 Europe, and that no European country would be per- 
 mitted to interfere with the affairs of the American 
 republic. 
 
 This message was issued in 1823 for the purpose of 
 preventing the Holy Alliance from helping Spain to 
 gain possession of the South American republics. All 
 the European nations paid attention to the United 
 States and the South American republics were allowed 
 to exist. 
 
 During the Civil War an event took place which 
 brought the Monroe Doctrine into use. Vv^hile our coun- 
 try was very busy with our own troubles an army of 
 French soldiers was sent to Mexico. They started a 
 French Empire and drove the Mexicans from their cap- 
 ital. They made an Austrian nobleman, named Max- 
 imilian, emperor of Mexico. All this was contrary to 
 the Monroe Doctrine, but the United States could not 
 interfere because the Civil War was going on. When 
 
90 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the Civil War was over our country sent 50,000 soldiers 
 to the boundary of Texas and Mexico and our Secretary 
 of State asked the French government to respect the 
 Monroe Doctrine. The French soldiers were called 
 home at once. The Mexicans returned to their capital, 
 captured Maximilian, and executed him. Thus the Re- 
 public of Mexico was restored. Another trouble oc- 
 curred in 1895. At that time England and Venezuela 
 were having trouble over the boundary line between 
 British Guiana and Venezuela and our country asked 
 the English to settle the trouble according to the Mon- 
 roe Doctrine. President Cleveland took steps to find 
 out the right boundary and he notified England that 
 he would enforce the Monroe Doctrine. The English 
 government concluded to settle the trouble with Ven- 
 ezuela by arbitration — that is, by judges, as Cleveland 
 suggested. Thus the authority of the United States 
 was increased and the Monroe Doctrine was upheld. 
 
 Still another application took place in 1902. At that 
 time Germany, England and other nations wished to 
 collect some debts which Venezuela owed them. In 
 order to compel the payment of these debts England 
 and Germany blockaded the ports of Venezuela. 
 Through the influence of the United States all the 
 claims were settled by arbitration of The Hague. 
 
 The Hague Tribunal 
 
 LESSON 80 
 
 The United States has done a great deal toward 
 settling troubles through arbitration. By arbitration 
 we mean having each side that is interested in a dis- 
 pute appoint a certain number of judges, sometimes 
 called commissioners. These judges of both sides meet 
 together and hear evidence from both sides and then 
 render a decision and make a declaration stating what 
 they think is right. This generally settles the dispute 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 91 
 
 and thus much trouble is avoided. In this way the 
 trouble between Venezuela and England was settled. 
 The coal miners' strike was settled, in Pennsylvania, by 
 arbitration. 
 
 The idea of arbitration became international when 
 the Czar of Russia asked all the nations of the world to 
 send representatives to The Hague. The Hague is a 
 city in Holland and there these representatives formed 
 an international court which is known as The Hague 
 Tribunal. In this court all the disputes between nations 
 may be settled peaceably. It was hoped that by means 
 of The Hague Tribunal there would be left no more 
 cause for war. Instead of going to war about a dispute 
 it can be settled in The Hague Tribunal. Several very 
 troublesome disputes have already been settled by it, 
 but, strange to say, it could not settle the trouble be- 
 tween Russia and Japan and therefore could not pre- 
 vent that war. When the World War was beginning no 
 attention was paid to The Hague Tribunal. Like 
 treaties and everything else, it was not even thought of. 
 
 Spanish-American War 
 
 LESSON 81 
 
 The Spanish-American War took place in 1898. 
 Many people said that the cause of it was the blowing 
 up of the battleship "Maine" by the Spanish in the har- 
 bor of Havana, a city in Cuba. 
 
 Recently the United States went to the great ex- 
 pense of raising the "Maine" to investigate the cause 
 of the tragedy. It will be remembered that the sinking 
 of the "Maine" caused the death of more than two hun- 
 dred and forty sailors, and, although at the time it was 
 the general belief that the Spanish had blown up the 
 Maine, yet that was not the cause of the Spanish- 
 American War. 
 
92 P^ORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The real cause of the war was the sjonpathy of the 
 American people for the patriots of Cuba, who had long 
 been struggling against Spain for independence. On 
 account of the cruelty of the Spanish government to 
 these patriots, the Americans were always inclined to 
 help them. So when the "Maine" was blown up they 
 insisted that the United States should declare war 
 against Spain, and this was done by Congress. 
 
 The war was all one-sided — the case of a lion fight- 
 ing a mouse. Spain was weak and her army and navy 
 were the weakest in the world. Two naval fights were 
 won by the Americans, one at Manila by Admiral 
 Dewey and the other at Santiago harbor by Admirals 
 Schley and Sampson. These two fights, you might say, 
 decided the v/ar and destroyed the navy of Spain. The 
 Americans lost very few men and not a single ship, 
 while the Spanish lost everything. The battleship "Ore- 
 gon" made a famous trip around Cape Horn and 
 reached Santiago in time to take part in the great vic- 
 tory. The only land battle was on San Juan Hill, which 
 was won by the Americans. In this battle Ex-President 
 Roosevelt, then a colonel, distinguished himself. 
 
 By the treaty of peace which ended the war, Cuba 
 was given her independence and the United States took 
 control of the Philippines and Porto Rico. To give 
 Spain something to make up for her great losses, the 
 United States government paid her $20,000,000 for the 
 Philippines. 
 
 A few heroes of the Spanish-American War besides 
 all those mentioned are Richard Hobson, who risked 
 his life trying to bottle up the Spanish fleet in the har- 
 bor of Santiago, and General Wheeler, who was a Con- 
 federate. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 93 
 
 The Panama Canal 
 
 LESSON 82 
 
 For many years the commercial nations hoped to dig 
 a ship canal through the Isthmus of Panama. Two 
 routes were proposed, one to the north, known as the 
 Nicaragua route, and the other to the south, known as 
 the Panama route. 
 
 The first nation to seriously attempt the building 
 and digging of the canal was France, under the direc- 
 tion of the French civil engineer, De Lesseps, the man 
 who built the Suez Canal. 
 
 The French people labored there many years and 
 spent about $100,000,000. They finally had to give up 
 the work on account of bad sanitary conditions and the 
 want of more money. Much of their valuable machin- 
 ery remained there and rotted. 
 
 In 1902 the Americans concluded that they would 
 try and complete the canal, no matter how much it 
 cost. The Americans decided to take the southern 
 route by way of Panama, the same route the French 
 had tried. When the Americans began, Panama be- 
 longed to the Republic of Colombia and that republic 
 hindered the Americans in their work. Then the Ameri- 
 cans encouraged the people of the little strip, called the 
 Isthmus of Panama, to start a revolution against the 
 Republic of Colombia. The Americans advised them 
 and of course they won. Thus was born another small 
 republic and it is called Panama. The Americans then 
 gave France $40,000,000 for their rights and priv- 
 ileges. 
 
 All the nations being now satisfied, the Americans 
 began the great work and it continued until it was 
 finished. They built little towns along the line of the 
 canal, all supplied with good water and properly sew- 
 ered and kept in healthy conditions. These towns are 
 connected by railway. Nearly all the work was done 
 by steam shovels which were owned by Americans. All 
 
94 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 the labor was done by negroes and Japanese. The cost 
 was $300,000,000 and the expectation that the canal 
 would be completed in 1915 was fulfilled. 
 
 Its completion was celebrated by the famous 
 Panama-Pacific International Exposition. This great 
 exposition took place in our own city, San Francisco. 
 
 Colonel George W. Goethals, a great civil engineer, 
 directed the construction of the canal and Dr. William 
 Gorgas controlled the sanitary system with wonderful 
 success. 
 
 The completion of the Panama Canal made shipping 
 from Europe to the Pacific Ocean ports much cheaper 
 and faster. It saved the shippers the long and danger- 
 ous trip around Cape Horn. It made San Francisco 
 a greater commercial city and increased its population. 
 It is one of the great achievements of modern engineer- 
 ing and will remain forever a monument to the enter- 
 prise of our country. 
 
 Presidents After Civil War Up to 1896 
 
 LESSON 83 
 
 General U. S. Grant, a Republican, served two 
 terms, from 1868 to 1876. 
 
 To succeed Grant the Republicans nominated 
 Rutherford B. Hayes and the Democrats Samuel J. Til- 
 den. The election resulted in a dispute, both parties 
 claiming the victory. The trouble was settled by a 
 commission of fifteen members, seven Democrats and 
 eight Republicans, appointed by Congress. Hayes was 
 declared elected. 
 
 In 1880 the Republicans elected James A. Garfield 
 and he was assassinated in 1881. His Vice-President, 
 Chester A. Arthur, completed his term. 
 
 In 1884 the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine 
 and the Democrats Grover Cleveland. After an excit- 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 95 
 
 ing campaign, Cleveland was elected. He received 
 many "mugwump" Republican votes. 
 
 In 1888 Benjamin Harrison, the Republican candi- 
 date, defeated Cleveland, but in 1892 the Democrats 
 succeeded in defeating Harrison by electing Grover 
 Cleveland for a second term. 
 
 Presidents Assassinated 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes 
 Booth on April 14, 1865 ; James A. Garfield by Charles 
 J. Guiteau in July, 1881 ; and William McKinley by Leon 
 Czolgosch in September, 1901. 
 
 Early History of California 
 
 LESSON 84 
 
 After Cortez conquered Mexico and found so much 
 gold there, which he took away from the Aztecs, the 
 Spaniards became greedy for more gold and sent out 
 many expeditions to seek other lands where the 
 precious metal might be found. 
 
 One of these expeditions was under the command 
 of Juan Cabrillo, who was the first European to set eyes 
 on the coast of California. This was in 1542. No par- 
 ticular name was applied to California at that time. It 
 was thought of as a worthless stretch of land because 
 no gold was found there and much of it seemed to be 
 a desert. 
 
 The name California was first used in a Spanish 
 romance. It was the name of an imaginary land where 
 all the inhabitants had all their weapons and utensils 
 made out of gold. This imaginary land was supposed 
 to be occupied by a fierce race of women called Amazons 
 and the men there had no say. 
 
 In the course of time they gave this name (Califor- 
 nia) to the land that Cabrillo had discovered. 
 
96 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Little did they think that the discovery of gold in 
 California later would make the country worthy of the 
 name in the romance. 
 
 The second person to explore the coast of California 
 was Sir Francis Drake, an Englishman, who was mak- 
 ing a trip around the world. He is supposed to have 
 spent a winter in Drake's Bay. He named the land 
 ''New Albion," in honor of England, which the poets 
 called Albion. 
 
 California remained a Spanish province, unsettled, 
 for many years. About the time the thirteen colonies 
 were getting ready to fight for liberty, in 1769, the 
 first settlement was made at San Diego by the Spanish 
 missionaries, called Franciscans, under the leadership 
 of Father Junipero Serra, who was an energetic chris- 
 tianizer of the Indians. 
 
 Through the efforts of Father Junipero Serra, a 
 chain of missions was established from San Diego to 
 San Francisco. 
 
 All the beautiful names we are now so proud of were 
 given to different places in California by these mis- 
 sionaries. 
 
 A few of the names are San Francisco, San Mateo, 
 Santa Clara, San Jose, Santa Barbara, San Luis Obispo, 
 Ventura, San Diego, Santa Cruz and Los Angeles. 
 
 Wherever the missionaries established a mission 
 they built it of sun-dried adobe bricks. They always 
 built a number of these buildings together for the hous- 
 ing and keeping of the Indians. 
 
 These Indians were christianized and taught how to 
 raise grain, grow vegetables and herd cattle and sheep. 
 
 The Indians were spoken of as the children of the 
 missions. 
 
 Before the period of the missions ended, many 
 Spanish and Mexicans settled in the rich valleys of 
 California, where they lived an easy, delightful life, 
 almost like royal families. 
 
 The work was done by the Indians. The principal 
 products were wool, hides and tallow, which they sold 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 97 
 
 to traders who called on occasional visits when on their 
 way down the coast. 
 
 Mexican Rule in California 
 
 LESSON 85 
 
 Mexico became a republic in 1822 — that is, her peo- 
 ple threw off the yoke of Spain at that time. As soon 
 as Mexico became a republic many envious people be- 
 gan to spread the report that the missionaries in Cali- 
 fornia were not loyal to the republic and still preferred 
 the rule of Spain. This caused the Mexican govern- 
 ment to confiscate all the missions — that is, the Mexi- 
 can government took all the property belonging to the 
 missionaries. The Fathers then left the missions and 
 there was no one to look after the Indians, so gradu- 
 ally they drifted back to their wild ways. The land of 
 California was given to the new settlers in grants called 
 Mexican Land Grants. This was done to encourage 
 people from Mexico to settle in California. The people 
 who held these grants called themselves Californians, 
 but they were only Mexicans and a few Spaniards from 
 old Spain. 
 
 Half-breeds called greasers made up a large part of 
 the population. 
 
 All the people led a careless, lazy life. They were 
 fond of music, dancing, gambling, fine clothes and beau- 
 tiful saddles. 
 
 Their women were very beautiful when young but 
 homely when age came on. The same might be said 
 about the men. 
 
 They made their money by raising cattle and sheep. 
 They paid little attention to agriculture. They used 
 wooden plows and a bough of a tree for a harrow. 
 
 The Californians did not do as much good as the 
 missionaries. They spent too much of their time in 
 
98 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 enjoyment, such as smoking, riding, and gambling. 
 The Indians did what httle work that was done. 
 
 These Mexican people held California up to the 
 time of the Mexican War, when California became a 
 part of the United States of America. 
 
 California from the Mexican War to the 
 Present Time 
 
 LESSON 86 
 
 The Americans had long been looking toward Cali- 
 fornia with hungry eyes. They wanted it so that they 
 might have an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. One noted 
 explorer had traveled through California before the 
 Mexican War and urged the few American settlers he 
 saw to take possession of the land. This explorer was 
 John C. Fremont. Nothing was done until the war 
 broke out and then they raised the "Bear Flag" and 
 took possession of the good land California. 
 
 When the Mexican War ended it was decided that 
 California should become a part of the United States. 
 This was one of the agreements of the treaty of peace 
 that ended the war. 
 
 Strange to say, in less than one year after the 
 treaty was made gold was discovered by James Mar- 
 shall at Sutter's Fort, a place near the city of Sacra- 
 mento. 
 
 Marshall and his friends tried to keep their discov- 
 ery a secret, but the great news got out all over the 
 world. 
 
 California was really a gold State. People flocked 
 in from every other State and country. 
 
 Towns and cities sprang up as if by magic. The 
 miners found a great deal of gold, yet many were dis- 
 appointed and turned their attention to the rich lands 
 which were worth more than the gold. Those who got 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 99 
 
 possession of large tracts of land and held them be- 
 came very wealthy. 
 
 In 1850 California was ready to become a State 
 and was admitted to the Union on the 9th of September 
 of that year. It was never an organized territory. 
 
 The first governor was Peter Burnett. 
 
 In the early days there was much trouble on ac- 
 count of bad people who came here attracted by the 
 gold excitement. These people did as they pleased 
 until the good people organized a "vigilance commit- 
 tee." This committee hanged a few bad men and 
 thereby made things respectable in San Francisco. 
 
 The first transcontinental railroad reached San 
 Francisco in 1869. Before that time the passengers 
 were carried in stage coaches and the mail went by 
 "Pony Express." 
 
 California was advancing before it became a part 
 of the United States and it is still advancing. It has 
 led the world in gold, fruits, and many other products. 
 
 American Inventions 
 
 LESSON 87 
 
 Our first great inventor was Benjamin Franklin, 
 who invented a fuel-saving grate and by means of a 
 kite discovered that lightning was only electricity. 
 
 We have already learned that Robert Fulton in- 
 vented the steamboat, that Eli Whitney invented the 
 cotton gin, that Elias Howe invented the sewing 
 machine. 
 
 Now we shall learn that Samuel F. B. Morse in- 
 vented the telegraph system and Cyrus W. Field suc- 
 ceeded in laying a cable under the ocean from the 
 United States to Europe, making it possible to send 
 messages from the new to the old world in a few sec- 
 onds of time. 
 
100 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Then came the electric lights, invented by Thomas 
 A. Edison. Next Edison invented the electric motor, 
 which made electric cars possible. 
 
 The moving pictures and the phonograph are also 
 inventions of Thomas A. Edison. A few other Ameri- 
 can inventions are the submarine by Holland, the ma- 
 chine guns by Lewis and Browning, the aeroplanes by 
 the Wrights, the telephone by Bell, the airbrake by 
 Westinghouse, and the wireless telegraphy by Mar- 
 coni, who is partly American. 
 
 We have shown the people how to do their sewing, 
 reaping, how to light their houses, send their messages, 
 and, as if they could not sing and talk enough them- 
 selves, we have given them the pleasure of the phono- 
 graph, filling every home with choice music and giving 
 the little dog an opportunity to hear his master's voice. 
 
 American Railroads 
 
 LESSON 88 
 
 The first railroad in the United States was built 
 in 1830. It was a very simple affair, but it showed 
 the possibilities of the iron rail. American promoters 
 were quick to take advantage of this. Gradually the 
 means of locomotion were improved. 
 
 Short lines were built at first, connecting the prin- 
 cipal cities of the Atlantic Coast, such as New York, 
 Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston. 
 
 Then it was thought impossible to run a railroad 
 successfully across even the Allegheny Mountains, 
 much less the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 All the obstacles of the mountains have been over- 
 come. The first transcontinental railroad was com- 
 pleted in 1869 and is known as the Southern Pacific. 
 Leland Stanford, C. P. Huntington, Charles Crocker, 
 and Mark Hopkins were the great promoters of the first 
 transcontinental railroad. Now there are five other 
 such lines. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 101 
 
 There are branch railroads running through every 
 State where it pays to have them. There are more 
 miles of railroad in the United States than in all the 
 rest of the world put together. 
 
 Railroads have done much good in settling the coun- 
 try by carrying products back and forth, and they make 
 traveling safe, rapid and delightful. 
 
 By means of railroads you may sit on a velvet cush- 
 ioned seat and be carried over plains, mountains, and 
 rivers, giving you views of beautiful scenery, while 
 you go at the rate of forty miles an hour, and all for 
 three cents a mile. 
 
 Mining and Manufacturing 
 
 LESSON 89 
 
 The United States has so many different products 
 and occupations that even if our coasts were blockaded 
 for years the people would never suffer for any neces- 
 sity of life. 
 
 We have mining regions that would produce all the 
 minerals we needed. We have factories all over the 
 country to supply us with manufactured articles. The 
 farmers would produce foodstuffs sufficient to keep us 
 from starvation. 
 
 Large quantities of coal and iron are mined in the 
 Appalachian Mountains. Petroleum wells are numer- 
 ous in Pennsylvania, California, and Texas. We get 
 our supply of copper from the shores of Lake Superior, 
 Montana, Colorado, and Arizona. Nevada, California, 
 and Colorado are noted for gold and Alaska produces 
 gold. The most important quicksilver mine is in New 
 Almaden, California. 
 
 There was not a great amount of manufacturing 
 until the people found out in the War of 1812 that if 
 they did not manufacture what they needed they would 
 have to go without in time of war. This caused them 
 to invest their money in manufacturing. 
 
102 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 At first most of the manufacturing was done in the 
 New England States and the Middle Atlantic States, 
 where water power was easily obtained, but since the 
 introduction of steam power and electric power manu- 
 facturing has spread all over the United States. 
 
 Wherever you find a good harbor or railroad center 
 you will also find many people engaged in manufac- 
 turing. 
 
 Commerce and Growth of Cities 
 
 LESSON 90 
 
 The great increase of agricultural, mining, and man- 
 ufactured products has naturally made a widespread 
 increase in the commerce of our country. There have 
 been times when it has been impossible for the railroads 
 to obtain cars enough to carry the products which the 
 people wanted shipped to various points. 
 
 Our foreign commerce has steadily increased since 
 the War of 1812 and especially since the Civil War. For 
 many years past our country has exported more goods 
 than it has imported, leaving the balance of trade with 
 us. This helps to give our country prosperity. 
 
 The principal exports are cotton, tobacco, machin- 
 ery, cars, locomotives, canned fruits, flour, canned fish, 
 lumber, meat, and many other things. 
 
 The principal imports are silk, tea, coffee, sugar, 
 coal, tin, wines, crockery, diamonds, hemp, toys, india 
 rubber, and many other things. 
 
 While the country has been increasing in manufac- 
 turing and commerce the people have been gradually 
 gathering together in great cities. They soon began to 
 enjoy life in the cities better than they did life in the 
 country. Many wise men think that this is not best 
 for the welfare of our country. The farming and the 
 stock raising must be kept up in order that the people 
 may have an abundance of food. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 103 
 
 After the Civil War New York had less than one 
 million population, now it has five millions and is the 
 largest city in the world. 
 
 The Advancement of Education 
 
 LESSON 91 
 
 Nearly all the perfect system of education in the 
 United States has grown up since the Civil War. Of 
 course there were schools before the war, and many 
 good ones, too, but there were none of such general ex- 
 cellence as we have now. 
 
 Before the Civil War many of the teachers were 
 men who could get nothing else to do. They were 
 broken down soldiers or cripples who could not make 
 their living in the hard struggle with able-bodied men. 
 
 Many of these did not have legal certificates. The 
 schools were run in the winter time, when very little 
 work could be done on the farm on account of the rain 
 or snow. The few summer schools were for young 
 children who could not work. Many of the older chil- 
 dren attended school for the fun they might have. 
 Many books tell how the unfortunate teachers were 
 tormented. 
 
 No able-bodied men would teach school because the 
 wages were so low. The women worked for ?15 per 
 month. They would board around and put up with what 
 they could get to eat. 
 
 Now all is changed. Teachers are well paid and no- 
 body is allowed to teach without a high class legal cer- 
 tificate. The children are compelled to go to school 
 nearly all the year. Everyone has a chance to obtain a 
 good education. 
 
 There are three grades of schools in this system — 
 the grammar school, the high school, and the State uni- 
 versity. No one is charged at these schools, except for 
 board. All things needed are provided for by the State 
 
104 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 and county taxes. Sensible children should go through 
 the grammar school at least. 
 
 Noted Colleges 
 
 LESSON 92 
 
 There is no other country that has so many noted 
 colleges as ours. Almost every State has one or more. 
 The following are a few of the most famous: Har- 
 vard College, in Massachusetts; Yale College, in Con- 
 necticut; Princeton College, in New Jersey; Cornell 
 College, in New York ; Ann Arbor College, in Michigan ; 
 Chicago University, in Illinois; and California Univer- 
 sity and Stanford, in California. 
 
 All these great institutions of learning will com- 
 pare favorably with the great schools of Europe. 
 Among our greatest educators are Horace Mann, who 
 did a great deal to introduce the present system of edu- 
 cation; Colonel Parker, who improved the methods of 
 teaching, and David Starr Jordan, who was the first 
 president of Stanford University. 
 
 Presidential Campaign of 1896 
 
 LESSON 93 
 
 The Republican candidate was William McKinley of 
 Ohio and his Democratic opponent was William J. 
 Bryan, a great orator of Nebraska. The principal sub- 
 jects of discussion were Free Coinage of Silver and the 
 Gold Standard. The Democrats upheld the former and 
 the Republicans the latter. Bryan went from city to 
 city expounding his ideas to immense gatherings of 
 people, while every day trainloads of people went to 
 Canton, Ohio, to hear McKinley speak. 
 
 In the election the Republicans won and William 
 McKinley became President. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 105 
 
 During McKinley's first term good times returned. 
 Wages began to improve and likewise the prices of all 
 products. There was no more discussion about Free 
 Coinage of Silver at the ratio of 16 to 1. 
 
 McKinley was a great advocate of the protective 
 tariff system. And under his direction a model tariff 
 bill was passed. This satisfied all the manufacturers. 
 
 In 1900 W. J. Bryan was his principal opponent 
 again, but the people showed their contentment with 
 McKinley's ideas by re-electing him for a second term. 
 Much was expected of him, but his career was ended 
 by assassination in September, 1901. The whole nation 
 mourned him. 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
 LESSON 94 
 
 When McKinley was assassinated Theodore Roose- 
 velt, who was Vice-President, became President. 
 
 Roosevelt had spent his early manhood on cattle 
 ranges out West. He had organized the Rough Riders 
 for the Spanish-American War and he had distin- 
 guished himself in this war at San Juan Hill. He was 
 greatly admired by the rank and file all over the coun- 
 try. He was looked upon as an assertive man who was 
 not afraid to stand for what he believed was right. 
 
 He was a writer and speaker of great force. He 
 loved to appeal directly to the people. 
 
 Completing McKinley's second term, he felt obliged 
 to carry out McKinley's plans, and did so to the best of 
 his ability. 
 
 The people elected him President in 1904 to give 
 him a term entirely his own, and in 1908 a great many 
 of his friends wished him to run again, but he declined 
 and suggested that William Howard Taft be given the 
 great honor. 
 
106 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Roosevelt's administrations are particularly mem- 
 orable for his successful beginning of the Panama 
 Canal, the sending of our fleet of sixteen battleships 
 around the world to impress all nations with our inter- 
 est in world affairs, and the passage of the Reclamation 
 Act, and also by adding to our national forests an area 
 of forty-three million acres. 
 
 William Howard Taf t 
 
 LESSON 95 
 
 Taft was elected President in 1908. His opponent 
 was W. J. Bryan, who thus made his third unsuccessful 
 campaign for the Presidency. In this respect Bryan 
 was like the Great Compromiser, Henry Clay, and, like 
 him, he could say: "I would rather be right than be 
 President." 
 
 Taft as President meant well, but the people were 
 restless on account of the constantly rising cost of liv- 
 ing. They believed that someone was to blame and nat- 
 urally they blamed the President. The Progressive Re- 
 publicans turned against him and helped the Democrats 
 to elect an opposition House of Representatives in 
 1910. 
 
 His tariff law, the Payne- Aldrich Bill, was not pop- 
 ular and after much trouble with Congress in getting 
 his reciprocity plan with Canada passed it was rejected 
 by Canada. 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt, his friend, turned against him, 
 became the leader of the Progressive Republicans and 
 was so much in earnest as such that in 1912 he divided 
 the Republican party and ran for President as the can- 
 didate of the Progressive Republicans. 
 
 Taft was the candidate of the regular Republicans, 
 but the division in his party gave the victory to the 
 Democratic candidate, Woodrow Wilson. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 107 
 
 Conservation 
 
 LESSON 96 
 
 On account of its apparently unlimited resources, 
 our country has earned the reputation of being care- 
 less and wasteful of its natural wealth. 
 
 Forests have been cut away without any regard for 
 the future. What the lumber-makers did not destroy 
 forest fires finished. No one thought of planting trees 
 to replace those that had been cut down. 
 
 The winter freshets have been permitted to do much 
 damage to the rich soil. Much of it has been cut up 
 with ditches and washed away. 
 
 The deposits of minerals have been exploited almost 
 as recklessly as the forests. The idea seemed to be to 
 get all that was possible and leave nothing in return. 
 
 Gradually, far-seeing, thoughtful men began to rec- 
 ognize the harm that was being done. Among these 
 were Gifford Pinchot of Pennsylvania and Senator 
 Francis Newlands of Nevada. 
 
 Through their efforts, assisted by Theodore Roose- 
 velt, laws were passed to conserve the forests, minerals, 
 and the water. 
 
 No greater thing was ever done for the benefit of 
 posterity. The thoughtless exploiters are now under 
 control. 
 
 The Reclamation Act 
 
 LESSON 97 
 
 This law was passed June 17, 1902. It is a law for 
 redeeming the desert lands of the West. It permits the 
 money obtained from the sale of lands by the Federal 
 government to be used in the building of dams to hold 
 surplus water. Francis Newlands was the author of 
 this law. 
 
108 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Under this law great dams, capable of holding im- 
 mense quantities of water, have been built. 
 
 This water is distributed through pipes and ditches 
 to the dry regions where there is considerable fertility. 
 Hundreds of thousands of acres in this way are irri- 
 gated and readily produce fine crops of alfalfa, grain, 
 fruit, vegetables, and almost everything that grows. 
 This irrigation is carried on extensively in Colorado, 
 Utah, the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, Nevada, Ari- 
 zona, New Mexico, and California. 
 
 Thus many new homes are made for the people and 
 the wealth of the country is greatly increased. 
 
 The most noted of these dams for the reclamation 
 of the arid regions are the Arrowrock Dam on the Boise 
 River and the Roosevelt Dam in Arizona. 
 
 Election Reforms 
 
 LESSON 98 
 
 The Australian ballot is used now in nearly all the 
 States to preserve the secrecy of the ballot. Under 
 this system the ballots are given to the voters at the 
 voting precinct by the election officers and each voter 
 has the opportunity to secretly mark on his ballot just 
 what he wants and nobody can tell afterwards how he 
 voted. 
 
 The Initiative gives the private citizens an oppor- 
 tunity to draw up any bill they may wish and if they 
 secure the required percentage of signatures it must 
 be submitted to all the people at an election. If it re- 
 ceives sufficient votes, it becomes a law, regardless of 
 the Legislature. 
 
 The Referendum gives citizens the right to get up 
 a petition and thereby compel the submission of any 
 bill passed by the Legislature to the voters for their 
 approval or rejection. If it fails to get a majority of 
 the votes, it is rejected and is not a law. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 109 
 
 The Recall gives citizens the right to get up a peti- 
 tion, signed by the necessary percentage of voters, 
 against any public officer with whom they are dissatis- 
 fied, and compel him either to resign or submit himself 
 at a new election to the judgment of the people. 
 
 The Direct Primary gives the voters the privilege 
 of choosing at the polls their own leaders and candi- 
 dates. Nearly all the States have given up the con- 
 vention and now make their nominations by means of 
 the direct primary. Instead of voting for delegates to 
 the convention, the people vote directly for the person 
 whom they desire to be their candidate, from the Presi- 
 dent down to the lowest officer. 
 
 Woman Suffrage has been a political question for 
 many years, but the justice of giving women the right 
 to vote was not recognized until recently. Many promi- 
 nent men and women have always advocated that they 
 should be given this privilege, because "taxation with- 
 out representation is tyranny." 
 
 Wyoming, in 1889, was the first State to permit 
 women to vote. Utah was the next. Then came Colo- 
 rado. The other States were slow to follow in this 
 respect. California adopted woman suffrage in 1911. 
 In 1919 an amendment to the Constitution granting 
 suffrage to all eligible women was passed by Congress 
 and submitted to the States for adoption. 
 
 Woodrow Wilson 
 
 LESSON 99 
 
 When the Democratic delegates met at Baltimore in 
 1912 they felt they had the opportunity to nominate a 
 candidate who would be elected President. Their fa- 
 vorites for the nomination were Champ Clark of Mis- 
 souri and Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey. Both were 
 deserving men and, at first, the former had the advan- 
 tage of more supporters in the convention. 
 
110 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 W. J. Bryan, who changed his support from Clark 
 to Wilson, turned the tide and Woodrow Wilson was 
 nominated. 
 
 On account of the division in the Republican party, 
 the regulars supporting William H. Taft and the Pro- 
 gressives Theodore Roosevelt, it was a certainty that 
 Woodrow Wilson would be elected. He carried forty- 
 four States, receiving the largest electoral vote ever 
 given to a presidential candidate. 
 
 To add to his victory he carried with him a majority 
 in each house of Congress. After many years the en- 
 tire government was in the hands of the Democratic 
 party. 
 
 Woodrow Wilson had been president of Princeton 
 College and had resigned that position to become gov- 
 ernor of New Jersey. Like Roosevelt, he was a writer 
 of history and an able public speaker. He was well 
 fitted to carry out his forward-looking ideas. • 
 
 Immediately after his inauguration, March 4, 1913, 
 he began his work. In his first message to Congress 
 he disregarded presidential precedent by delivering his 
 message personally to the members of both houses of 
 Congress. 
 
 Under his direction the following were passed and 
 became laws : The Underwood-Simmons Tariff Bill, the 
 Income Tax Law, the Clayton Law, and the Federal 
 Reserve Law. 
 
 The Underwood-Simmons Bill reduced the tariff on 
 many important commodities in the hope of reducing 
 the high cost of living. 
 
 The Income Tax Law provided for a tax on large 
 incomes to make up for what might be lost by reduc- 
 ing the tariff. It took part of the burden from the 
 poorer people and laid it on the richer. 
 
 The Clayton Law broke up the great monopolies 
 and trusts by forbidding unfair methods of business 
 and the same law gave protection to labor unions by 
 declaring that labor was not a commodity and that 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 111 
 
 labor unions must be allowed freedom to carry out 
 their plans. 
 
 The Federal Reserve Law created a new banking 
 system, reducing the power of great banking centers 
 and endeavoring to make it impossible for any combina- 
 tion of capitalists to bring about a financial panic. 
 
 The greater part of Wilson's first term was harassed 
 by the troubles of the World War. Wilson did his best 
 by international correspondence to keep this country 
 out of the war in an honorable way. 
 
 In 1916 Woodrow Wilson was renominated by the 
 Democrats. The united Republicans nominated Judge 
 Charles E. Hughes, an Associate Justice of the United 
 States Supreme Court. After an exciting campaign 
 Woodrow Wilson was re-elected and became the great 
 war President. 
 
 Mexican Troubles 
 
 LESSON 100 
 
 Woodrow Wilson fell heir to Mexican troubles. They 
 began during Taft's term. In 1911 a revolution broke 
 out there and General Porfirio Diaz, who had ruled 
 Mexico for many years, was forced to surrender the 
 government. Francis Madero, his successor, was as- 
 sassinated shortly after he assumed office. Then Gen- 
 eral Huerta became the dictator. 
 
 The trouble in Mexico affected the people of the 
 United States. Many of them had big investments 
 there in mines, oil wells, and tracts of land. These 
 investors suffered greatly through the destruction of 
 their property. President Wilson refused to recognize 
 Huerta and he sent an expedition to Vera Cruz, which 
 made Huerta give up his dictatorship. 
 
 Then Carranza was elected president of Mexico and 
 Villa, the bandit, began his operations, going so far as 
 to murder Americans in New Mexico. 
 
112 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Divisions of our regular army were sent to the Mex- 
 ican border and General John Pershing was instructed 
 ^ to capture Villa. The Americans pursued him far into 
 Mexico, but they did not succeed in capturing him. 
 Greater troubles, brewing in Europe, forced the Ameri- 
 cans to give up the pursuit. President Carranza had to 
 take entire control of his country's affairs. 
 
 In 1919 there was still trouble along the frontiers 
 and over property rights in Mexico. 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution 
 
 LESSON 101 
 
 The sixteenth amendment gives Congress the right 
 to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever 
 source derived. 
 
 The seventeenth amendment provides for the elec- 
 tion of two United States Senators from each State, 
 elected by the people thereof for six years. 
 
 The eighteenth amendment prohibits the manu- 
 facture, sale, or exportation from, within the United 
 States, of all intoxicating liquors for beverage pur- 
 poses. This amendment is proclaimed to take effect 
 January 16, 1920. The nineteenth amendment pro- 
 vides for woman suffrage throughout the United 
 States. This amendment was passed by Congress in 
 1919, but at this date awaits adoption by the States. 
 
 The Causes and Beginning of the 
 World War 
 
 LESSON 102 
 
 On June 28, 1914, the Crown Prince, Archduke 
 Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hun- 
 gary, was assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 113 
 
 Austria claimed that the murder was committed by 
 Serbian revolutionists and sent an ultimatum with 
 terms impossible of acceptance, July 23, 1914, and on 
 July 28 declared war. 
 
 Montenegro came into the war as an ally of Serbia. 
 
 Russia at once protested against Austria-Hungary's 
 action and at once mobilized her troops. 
 
 On August 1, 1914, Germany, as an ally of Austria- 
 Hungary, declared war on Russia and on August 3, 
 1914, Germany declared war on France. 
 
 On August 3, 1914, Germany began to invade Bel- 
 gium. Great Britain joined with France and Russia as 
 an ally and declared war on Germany on August 4, 
 1914. 
 
 When the Germans invaded Belgium they expected 
 no serious resistance. Much to their surprise the Bel- 
 gians resisted them bravely at every step. For days 
 the Belgian forts at Liege impeded the German ad- 
 vance, but at last, with their heavy cannons, they bat- 
 tered the forts to pieces and overran the country. 
 
 The English landed 100,000 men across the channel 
 to help the French. Still the Germans moved steadily 
 forward in their first drive for Paris. 
 
 The battle line was two hundred miles long. Seven 
 hundred and fifty thousand men were engaged. For 
 weeks the fighting was continuous. The German artil- 
 lery seemed to be irresistible and all-powerful. 
 
 The French and the English armies were steadily 
 forced back. The French government moved from 
 Paris to Bordeaux. On September 3, 1914, there was 
 talk of the surrender of Paris throughout the world. 
 
 The only hope for the Allies was that the Germans 
 would wear themselves out in their eagerness to cap- 
 ture Paris. 
 
 On the east the Russians assailed the Austrians and 
 the Germans with Cossack fierceness, captured the 
 province of Galicia and menaced eastern Germany. 
 
 The Japanese declared war on Germany and laid 
 siege to the German stronghold in China. 
 
114 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Between September 11 and September 15, 1914, the 
 Allies won their first great victory, the Battle of the 
 Mame. General Joffre of the French army was the 
 hero of the hour. Paris was saved. The Germans were 
 forced to retreat. The Allied world rejoiced. 
 
 While these moves were taking place on land, the 
 British navy drove every German vessel from the seas. 
 They fled to home ports or were interned in neutral 
 harbors. Others were captured or sunk. 
 
 The British navy began the blockade on Germany, 
 which was maintained to the end of the war. 
 
 Our Country During the Beginning of the 
 World War 
 
 LESSON 103 
 
 During the terrible turbulence in Europe, from Au- 
 gust 1, 1914, to April 6, 1917, our country, under the 
 wise direction of President Woodrow Wilson, remained 
 serene and at peace. 
 
 The President asked all the people not to take sides 
 in discussing the war. He enjoined everyone to be care- 
 ful in this respect. 
 
 On September 3, 1914, the President asked Con- 
 gress to impose war taxes sufficient to produce $100,- 
 000,000 to overcome the deficit in the United States 
 Treasury caused by the cessation of importation, the 
 countries at war having ceased to export. 
 
 At the beginning of the war the people of this coun* 
 try were somewhat fearful and business was checked 
 for awhile, but when the Allies began to draw their sup- 
 plies of food and ammunition from this country our 
 people enjoyed great prosperity. 
 
 In spite of the President's warning, the people nat- 
 urally took sides concerning the war. From the be- 
 ginning the majority favored the Allies, but the Cen- 
 tral Powers had many strong supporters among those 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 115 
 
 whose ancestors came from Germany or Austria and 
 also among those who had an inborn hatred of England. 
 There is evidence that the German government 
 maintained a propaganda in this country to influence 
 our people in favor of the Central Powers and against 
 the Allies, but it did not accomplish its purpose. 
 
 The World War from 1915 to March, 1918 
 
 LESSON 104 
 
 The year 1915 brought Portugal, Italy, and San 
 Marino to the side of the Allies and Bulgaria to the side 
 of the Central Powers. Turkey had gone against the 
 Allies late in 1914. 
 
 The Allies, with the combined fleets of Great Britain 
 and France, tried to enter the Dardenelles and capture 
 Constantinople, but failed after suffering serious losses. 
 
 Britain's great leader. Earl Kitchener, was lost at 
 sea, June 5, 1916. Lloyd George rose up, ably filled his 
 place, and became Premier. 
 
 George Clemenceau was the great civil leader of 
 France. 
 
 A few of the leaders of the Central Powers were 
 Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, Carl I of Austria-Hun- 
 gary, Von Hindenburg, Von Mackensen, Von Luden- 
 dorff , and Von Hertling. 
 
 Vittorio Orlando was the great Premier of Italy. 
 
 The greatest naval battle was fought when the Ger- 
 man fleet came out into the North Sea and met the 
 British fleet in the battle of Jutland, May 31, 1916. The 
 fighting was fearful while it lasted. Both the British 
 and the Germans lost important battleships, but the 
 German fleet was forced to run to harbor for safety. 
 The Germans claimed this as a victory, but they never 
 came out after another. Admiral Sir David Beatty 
 commanded the British fleets in the North Sea. 
 
116 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 When Italy entered the war her armies, under Gen- 
 eral Cadoma, helped the Allies a great deal by fighting 
 the Austrians and Hungarians, in the mountainous re- 
 gion, along the northeastern frontier of Italy. Suffer- 
 ing great hardships, they made considerable of an ad- 
 vance, but when Russia fell a victim to the Bolshevists 
 under Lenine and Trotsky the Germans and Austrians 
 swooped down upon the Italians, crushed Cadorna's 
 armies and invaded Italy almost as far as Venice. All 
 that Italy had gained and more were lost. 
 
 The fighting in France was mostly trench fighting. 
 Each side maintained a system of trenches more than 
 two hundred miles long. Back of these trenches on 
 each side heavy lines of artillery were mounted. The 
 space between the trenches was known as **No Man's 
 Land." On each side there were frequent, bloody at- 
 tacks. High above the trenches, aeroplanes, the eyes 
 of the army, circled, dived, dropped explosive bombs, 
 and obtained information. Many aerial fights between 
 aeroplanes took place. 
 
 For nearly six months the Germans tried to cap- 
 ture Verdun, but failed, after sacrificing immense 
 losses. 
 
 The Germans punished Russia severely. They broke 
 the spirit of the Russian army, captured hundreds of 
 thousands of her soldiers, and invaded all Poland and 
 the shores of the Baltic Sea. Finally Russia gave up 
 entirely and Lenine and Trotsky made a treaty of peace 
 with the Central Powers. 
 
 Features of the World War 
 
 LESSON 105 
 
 The startling feature of the World War, from the 
 beginning until the Americans took a prominent part, 
 was the remarkable success of the German army. It 
 certainly proved itself a powerful war machine, able to 
 get almost anything it went after. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 117 
 
 A second feature was the German submarine. De- 
 spite the greatest vigilance on the part of the Allied 
 navy, submarines of Germany were always lying in the 
 pathways of ocean commerce. Their deadly torpedoes 
 sent about twenty merchant ships, with their valuable 
 cargoes, to the bottom of the sea every week for awhile. 
 Occasionally an Allied warship went down a victim of 
 the destructive torpedo. 
 
 When the great liner "Lusitania" was sunk by a tor- 
 pedo from a German submarine on May 5, 1915, 1150 
 lives were lost and 114 of them were Americans. Sev- 
 eral prominent Americans were among the victims. 
 This awful loss sent a thrill of horror through the heart 
 of the civilized world and led America into the war. 
 
 The third feature of the World War was the studied 
 policy of cruelty on the part of the Germans. This is 
 shown in the killing of innocent people, the harsh treat- 
 ment of their numerous prisoners of war, and in the 
 wanton destruction of property, like destroying public 
 buildings and cutting down orchard trees. The fourth 
 feature was their frequent zeppelin raids on England. 
 At a great height, looking like silver cigars in the skies, 
 the Zeppelins would come sailing over even London, 
 dropping bombs, scaring all the people, especially the 
 women and children. The English were powerless to 
 fight the Zeppelins until they became expert in the use 
 of the war aeroplanes. The last great zeppelin raid on 
 England was made on the night of October 19, 1917. Of 
 the squadron of thirteen zeppelins that came that time, 
 several never returned. 
 
 The fifth feature was the sterling bravery and des- 
 peration of the French soldiers. They bore the brunt 
 of the most persistent German attacks for years with- 
 out a word of complaint. They made good their deter- 
 mined cry, "They shall not pass!" The whole world 
 marveled at their heroic endurance. 
 
118 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The Causes of Our War with Germany 
 
 LESSON 106 
 
 The people of the United States were decidedly 
 peaceable. In fact, they were opposed to even prepara- 
 tion for war. 
 
 But the insolent acts of Germany could not be borne 
 without complaint on our part. 
 
 We complained when the "Lusitania" was sub- 
 marined and its passengers murdered without warn- 
 ing. We complained when GeiTnany disregarded 
 treaties, calling them ''scraps of paper." We com- 
 plained bitterly when Germany broke her solemn prom- 
 ises not to interfere with neutral ships engaged in 
 commerce. 
 
 Finally, when Germany announced in February, 
 1917, that she had decided to let her submarines attack 
 all vessels trading with the Allies, our government con- 
 cluded that there was nothing else for us to do but 
 to declare war, and this was done by our Congress on 
 April 6, 1917. 
 
 President Woodrow Wilson, who had tried his best 
 to keep us out of war, said that we should go to war and 
 fight to the bitter end in order to make the world safe 
 for democracy, even if it cost us the last drop of our 
 blood and the last dollar of our money. 
 
 The United States Declares War Against 
 
 Germany — Preparation for 
 
 the Contest 
 
 LESSON 107 
 
 On April 6, 1917, the Congress of the United States 
 declared that a state of war existed between this coun- 
 try and Germany. Very few people understood the 
 seriousness of this declaration. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 119 
 
 Preparations to make a showing worthy of the 
 great republic began almost at once. 
 
 To get the necessary soldiers and sailors Congress 
 passed the Selective Draft Law. 
 
 On June 5, 1917, all the males between 21 and 31 
 years of age were registered for service in the army 
 and navy. The unfit among the registrants were sifted 
 out by examining boards. Those who were strong and 
 able were sent to training camps, located in suitable 
 places, and put through a course of intensive training. 
 
 Germany spent forty years to build up her great 
 army. In less than one year we were forced to create 
 ours. The direction of all our people, men and women, 
 was turned to war. 
 
 The farmers raised crops to supply the extra food. 
 The manufacturers devoted their energy to producing 
 suppHes, guns, and ammunition. The women did Red 
 Cross work day and night, providing against the worst. 
 
 To get the necessary money to carry out the im- 
 mense plan of the war, heavy taxes were laid on many 
 articles and there were five campaigns for the sale of 
 United States bonds. No one complained about the 
 increase in taxation and the people bought the United 
 States bonds according to their means. Those who 
 could not buy bonds bought War Savings Stamps. 
 Every person was fully in earnest. 
 
 By July 1, 1918, our country had an army of more 
 than 2,000,000 soldiers and 1,000,000 were in France 
 under General John Pershing, who had been chosen 
 commander-in-chief of the American forces. 
 
 How the transports that carried our soldiers across 
 the Atlantic Ocean escaped the deadly submarines is a 
 triumph to be credited to our American navy and that 
 of Great Britain. Hardly a transport was lost. 
 
 In France the intensive training was continued, 
 warehouses and railroads were built, ample hospital 
 room was provided, and careful provision made for a 
 serious conflict. 
 
120 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The End of the World War 
 
 LESSON 108 
 
 From March 21 to July 15, 1918, the Germans in 
 large force drove steadily toward Paris, overcoming all 
 opposition. The Allies made heroic efforts to stop their 
 progress, yet feared that the French capital would be 
 captured. It seemed impossible to stop the invading 
 Germans. 
 
 By the 15th of July, 1918, more than a million 
 Americans had arrived safely in France. General 
 Pershing commanded these Americans. General Haig 
 commanded the British. General Foch commanded the 
 French and was also commander-in-chief of all the 
 Allied armies. 
 
 Just when the Germans felt sure of their prize, the 
 city of Paris, they ran against determined opposition 
 at Chateau Thierry, where for the first time they met 
 American soldier boys, who were anxious for the en- 
 counter. 
 
 A terrible battle ensued. Many Americans met a 
 glorious death that day, but the Germans were cap- 
 tured and slain by the thousands. They were forced 
 to retreat in order to save their army. 
 
 This victory gave all the Allies heart to fight and 
 from that day on the English, the French, and the 
 Americans won victory after victory, until the Ger- 
 mans were retreating all along the line. The Hinden- 
 burg line was broken at last. 
 
 In addition to the losses the German army sus- 
 tained, the German sailors of the fleet in the Kiel Canal 
 mutinied and started a revolution, which spread all over 
 Germany. The Kaiser was forced to abdicate and fled 
 to Holland. 
 
 On November 11, 1918, the Germans, completely 
 crushed, very humbly signed the Armistice. We can 
 easily remember the rejoicing of our people on Novem- 
 ber 11, 1918. 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 121 
 
 The Peace Conference 
 
 LESSON 109 
 
 So that the great cost of the World War, in human 
 life and in money, should not be entirely lost, it was 
 decided, shortly after the Armistice, to hold a Peace 
 Conference in Paris. All the Allied countries sent dele- 
 gates to this Conference. The four great delegates 
 were Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Lloyd 
 George of Great Britain, Premier George Clemenceau 
 of France, and Premier Vittorio Orlando of Italy. 
 
 After many weeks of discussion, a covenant or con- 
 stitution was made. This covenant provides for the 
 settlement of all disputes that may arise between na- 
 tions. Through this covenant it is hoped to have world 
 peace forever. This is the league of nations. 
 
 The second great work of the Peace Conference was 
 the making of the Treaty of Peace, which Geimany 
 accepted. The German people think that the terms of 
 this treaty are terrible. They did not know until they 
 had read these terms that they had lost the war. 
 
 By the Treaty of Peace which the Peace Conference 
 gave to the German delegates at Versailles, Germany 
 agrees to give Alsace and Lorraine back to France, two 
 small provinces are given to Belgium, the republic of 
 Poland is acknowledged as a free and independent na- 
 tion, all the German colonies in Africa and Asia are sur- 
 rendered to the Allies, the German navy is reduced to 
 15,000 sailors, the German army is reduced to 100,000 
 soldiers, all the articles, such as paintings, captured 
 during the war must be returned, and the indemnity 
 which Germany must pay is so enormous that the Allies 
 asked until 1921 to figure out the amount. 
 
Organization 
 
 of the 
 
 League of Nations 
 
 States Members of League 
 
 Assembly 
 
 Council 
 
 Permanent Secretariat 
 Secretary General 
 
 Permanent 
 Commission 
 
 on 
 Military and 
 Naval Affairs 
 
 Permanent 
 
 Coui-t of 
 
 International 
 
 Justice 
 
 Mandatory 
 Commission 
 
 International 
 
 Labor 
 Organii^ations 
 
 Internationi 
 Bureaus 
 Red Cross 
 
 
 Mandatories 
 
 
 Advisory 
 
 Mandatory 
 
 for former parts of 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Administrative 
 
 Mandatory 
 
 in 
 
 Central Africa 
 
 Incoi-porating 
 
 Mandatory 
 
 in 
 
 Southwest Africa 
 
 and 
 
 South Pacific Islands 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 123 
 
 A Digest of the Covenant of the 
 League of Nations 
 
 By JAMES MORROW MALLOCH 
 
 (N. B. — The numbers enclosed in parenthesis indicate articles in the Paris 
 Covenant.) 
 
 Purpose of the League. The purpose of the League 
 of Nations is the establishment of peace throughout 
 the world and the promotion of co-operation between 
 the nations. The general means of realizing this pur- 
 pose is the enforcement of international law. (Pre- 
 amble.) 
 
 Membership. There are three kinds of membership 
 in the League of Nations : 
 
 1. OriginaL The original members of the League 
 are to be the United States, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, 
 the British Empire, Canada, Australia, South Africa, 
 New Zealand, India, China, Cuba, Czecho-Slovakia, Ecu- 
 ador, France, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hedjez, Hon- 
 duras, Italy, Japan, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, 
 Poland, Rumania, Serbia, Siam, Uruguay, Argentine 
 Republic, Chili, Colombia, Denmark, Netherlands, Nor- 
 way, Paraguay, Persia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden, Switz- 
 erland, Venezuela, and Portugal. (Annex.) 
 
 2. Admitted. In addition to these original members, 
 other self-governing states or colonies may be admit- 
 ted by a two- thirds vote of the Assembly (1). 
 
 3. Temporary. States not members of the League 
 when involved in a dispute will be invited to accept 
 membership in the League for the settlement of the 
 existing difficulty (17). 
 
 WithdrawaL Any members in good standing may 
 leave the League after two years' notice (1). 
 
 Expulsion. Any member may be expelled for violat- 
 ing the covenants of the League by a vote of the re- 
 maining members of the Council (16). 
 
 Government. The government of the League is to 
 be located at Geneva, Switzerland (7) . 
 
124 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 The three main governing bodies of the League are 
 an Assembly, a Council, and a Secretariat (2). 
 
 1. The Assembly. The Assembly is to consist of rep- 
 resentatives, not more than three, of each member of 
 the League. Each state represented has one vote (3). 
 The agreement of all states represented at a meeting 
 is required for the passage of any measure. But the 
 procedure of the Assembly may be determined by a 
 majority vote (5). The Assembly chooses members of 
 the Council not mentioned in the Covenant, and may 
 approve of additional members selected by that body 
 (4). It elects to membership in the League (1), re- 
 ceives reports from members of any arising causes of 
 war (11), considers disputes referred to it by the Coun- 
 cil (15), may advise nations to reconsider inapplicable 
 treaties and war-provoking conditions (19), and dis- 
 cusses any matter of concern to the League not men- 
 tioned above (3). 
 
 2. The CounciL The Council is to be a smaller and 
 more active body than the Assembly. It represents the 
 authority of the great powers of the world. It is to 
 consist of one representative from each of the follow- 
 ing: the United States, the British Empire, France, 
 Italy, Japan, and four other members of the League se- 
 lected by the Assembly from time to time. Any inter- 
 ested state may be invited to attend the meetings of 
 the Council. The Council will meet at least once a 
 year (4). The regulations as to voting in the Council 
 are the same as in the case of the Assembly (5). 
 
 The Council selects the Secretary General with the 
 approval of the Assembly (6), may remove the seat of 
 the League from Geneva (7), formulates plans for the 
 reduction of national armaments (8), receives informa- 
 tion from any state regarding possible causes of war 
 (11), investigates disputes between nations (12), will 
 draw up plans for an international court (14), appor- 
 tions military and naval power among the members 
 when the League is at war (16), expels disloyal mem- 
 bers from the League (16), determines the degree of 
 
IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 125 
 
 authority of mandates (22), and provides for the ex- 
 penses of all bureaus of the League (24) . 
 
 3. The Permanent Secretariat. The Secretary Gen- 
 eral is the executive of the League. He is appointed by 
 the Council with the approval of the Assembly. He ap- 
 points the secretariat with the approval of the Coun- 
 cil (6). It is noteworthy that women may hold posi- 
 tions on the secretariat (7). The first Secretary Gen- 
 eral is to be Sir Eric Drummond. (Annex.) 
 
 The expenses of the Secretariat are to be apportioned 
 to the members of the League according to their share 
 in the Universal Postal Union (6). The buildings of 
 the League are inviolable (7). 
 
 The Secretariat registers and publishes all treaties 
 made by the nations (18). The Secretary General sum- 
 mons the Council when war or a threat of war breaks 
 out in the world (11) and makes arrangements for the 
 investigation of international disputes (15). 
 
 In addition to the three main units of the League's 
 machinery the Covenant provides for the following: 
 
 1. A permanent commission to advise the Council 
 on military and naval affairs (9). 
 
 2. A Permanent Court of International Justice. This 
 court will probably be one of the most important or- 
 ganizations within the League. If properly established 
 and organized it will exercise the judicial function of 
 the League so essential in the enforcement of interna- 
 tional law (14). 
 
 3. International Labor Organizations. The League 
 proposes to deal with the industrial, moral, and social 
 problems of the world (23). 
 
 4. A Mandatory Commission to supervise the colo- 
 nial interests of the League. The League proposes to 
 solve the problem of dependent peoples and their gov- 
 ernmnt through a systm of mandatories. A mandatory 
 is an advanced sovereign state acting as an agent of the 
 League in colonial affairs. There are to be three classes 
 of mandatories : a mandatory to give administrative ad- 
 vice to independent nations once a part of the Turkish 
 
126 FORWARD LOOKING LESSONS 
 
 Empire; a mandatory to govern for the League the 
 people of Central Africa; and mandatories which will 
 incorporate into their own territory portions of South- 
 west Africa and the South Pacific Islands, which are 
 too sparsely populated to justify outside administration 
 by the League (22). 
 
 5. The League plans as far as possible to take over 
 all international bureaus now existing (24) and to pro- 
 mote national Red Cross organizations (25). 
 
 MEANS OF CONTROLLING WAR 
 
 The League proposes to use the following measures 
 for the preservation of the peace of the world : : 
 
 1. Reduction of national armaments according to 
 geographical conditions and control of private enter- 
 prises in implements of war (8). 
 
 2. Interchange by nations of full information as to 
 their military and naval programs (8). 
 
 3. Maintenance of the territorial integrity and po- 
 Utical independence of members of the League (10). 
 
 4. Reports by nations on threats of war (11). 
 
 5. Submission of disputes to arbitration or inquiry 
 and publication by Council and delay of war three 
 months after reports made thereby (12 and 15). 
 
 6. Political and economic isolation of and military 
 pressure upon any state failing to abide by the recom- 
 mendations of arbitration or inquiry (16). 
 
 7. Expulsion from the League of members violating 
 Covenant (16). 
 
 8. Invitation of states not members of the League to 
 enter the League for the settlement of a specific diffi- 
 culty. Any state refusing to so enter the League shall 
 be subjected to political and economic isolation and 
 military pressure (17). 
 
 9. Abolition of secret treaties by means of a registra- 
 tion of all treaties with the secretariat. No unregis- 
 tered treaty shall be binding (18). 
 
 10. Abolition of all national obligations inconsistent 
 with the covenant of the League (20). 
 
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 Thirteen Hundred Problems in Arithmetic. By S. P. 
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 This book has been adopted for the use of pupils in 
 the beginning of the study of history in the fourth 
 grade, in San Francisco's new course of study in his- 
 tory, and Los Angeles county places it among the 
 required books for pupils to read in the fifth year. 
 
 "It deserves a place in every school library not only on account 
 of its historical information, but for the reason of its literary 
 charm." — Herbert Bashford, in San Francisco Bulletin. 
 
 "It is bound to be a huge success. It ought to be in every 
 California school." — Elizabeth Adams, Potter School, and pro- 
 fessor in University of California summer session. 
 
 "A great book. It has rare historical and romantic value." — 
 Carrol G. Pease, former president of the N. E. A., and editor 
 of The American School. 
 
 "A very compact, well illustrated, clearly and attractively 
 written volume." — George Douglas, in San Francisco Chronicle. 
 
 Poems for Memorizing. Part I, for first, second, 
 third, fourth and fifth grades. Part II, for sixth, 
 seventh and eighth grades. Compiled by Alice Rose 
 Power from lists of Dr. Elwood P. Cubberley of Stan- 
 ford University. Each part, 25c; bound complete, 75c; 
 library edition $1.00 
 
 There has long been need of a book of memory selections 
 which may be put into the hands of pupils. This saves the 
 teacher the work of writing each selection upon the board. The 
 special edition of Poems for Memorizing is issued in two parts, 
 so that any i)oem required may be put into the pupils' hands at 
 a small cost. 
 
 All of the selections have been actually tried in the different 
 grades, and it is one of the best compilations obtainable. It 
 probably contains more poems commonly called for in courses 
 of study than are found in any single volume. 
 
The Story of Matka. By David Starr Jordan, Chan- 
 cellor and former President of Leland Stanford 
 Junior University. Price $1.00 
 
 Forward Looking Lessons in U. S. History. By 
 
 W. J. Savage, Superintendent of Colma and Daly 
 City Schools. Book I (for seventh grade history 
 study), paper 50c, board 75c; Book II (for eighth 
 grade history study), paper 70c, board 90c. 
 
 These topical lessons have been thoroughly tested 
 in actual school room work and will meet the needs 
 of your pupils. 
 
 The Geography of California. By Dr. Harold W. 
 Fairbanks. Price $1.00 
 
 The object of this book is to give a simple but detailed descrip- 
 tion of the conditions under which we are living and to so 
 weave them into a whole that teachers and pupils may grasp 
 the elements of geographical knowledge of California. 
 
 The geography of California is extraordinarily varied and 
 interesting. Children should not leave school without some con- 
 ception of the origin and meaning of the physical features 
 about them, of the strongly contrasting climatic conditions and 
 the influence which these exert in our lives. 
 
 The author has written in a similar manner on those effects 
 and relations which should be known and appreciated by every 
 educated resident of California. 
 
 Topical Geography of Europe According to the Prob- 
 lem Methods, Showing the Changes Brought About 
 by the World War. By Dr. H. W. Fairbanks. This 
 book contains 110 pages of size 5 by 7, 8-point type. 
 Do you want to have your pupils think when they 
 study Europe? Then give them this book with up- 
 to-date Map of New Europe. Paper 50c; board.. ..75c 
 
 Indian Stories of the Southwest. By Elizabeth Jud- 
 son Roberts. True stories and legends of the Indians 
 of San Diego county and other sections of the South- 
 west. Illustrated. Price $1.25 
 
Civil Government Simplified. By J. J. Duvall, Prin- 
 cipal of the Columbia School, Fresno, as extended 
 and revised by Senator M. B. Johnson. Price, paper 
 40c; board 60c 
 
 A text for pupils in Americanization. Original in arrange- 
 ment, graphic in its presentation. Teaching good citizenship by 
 the clear, definite, actual presentation of our form of State and 
 National Government, from the affairs of the School Trustee 
 to the President of the United States. 
 
 There are special pages on the Railroad, State Highway, In- 
 dustrial Accident and other Commissions, on County Library, 
 Farm Advisor, County Purchasing Agents, and other new fea- 
 tures of government as contained in new laws not readily 
 accessible in other forms. 
 
 There are special pages on the process of law making, of nat- 
 uralization, Americanization, and the latest 1919 list of the 
 most important State and Federal officials. 
 
 Study its 66 pages. You will want a book for every seventh 
 and eighth grade pupil in your school, and for every man and 
 woman in your locality who are not thoroughly familiar with our 
 Government in action. 
 
 Autobiography of Joaquin Miller. U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, Bulletin No. 32, suggests this volume as 
 an excellent medium for the teaching of American 
 ideals. Price $1.50 
 
 This volume, in addition to his interesting autobiography, in- 
 cludes many of the author's best poems, "The Passing of Ten- 
 nyson," "The Fortunate Isles," "Cuba Libre," "To Those Who 
 Fail," "The Bravest Battle," "Mother Egypt." "Don't Stop at 
 the Station Despair," "The Voice of the Dove," and "Death Is 
 Delightful." This book should be required to be read by every 
 child in the seventh and eighth grades. 
 
 The Western Journal of Education. Edited by Harr 
 Wagner. Established 1895. A newsy, progressive 
 educational journal for the teacher, school trustee 
 and library. Price per year $1.50 
 
 Prices given are subject to the usual discounts to book-sellers 
 and to schools or individuals purchasing in quantity. The com- 
 pany welcomes your correspondence and will assure it prompt 
 attention. Books by western authors printed, published and 
 promoted. 
 
 HARR WAGNER PUBLISHING CO. 
 
 1111 HEARST BUILDING. Third and Market Sts. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CALIFORNIA 
 
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 School and Reference Text-Books in the Science and 
 the American Red Cross Text-Books. 
 
 Press of The Hansen Company, S. F.