r IvJI .-"^ / / x*-/ / / / LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ^, ... UAT34- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS i! A Report to the New York State Department of Public Instruction 'i^t IK -BT- JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS, JR., LATE D. S. CONSUL AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (AACHEN) vRV Or COWgT ^ '91 • SYRACUSE, N. T. : C. W BARDEEN, PUBLISHER 1891 Copyright, 1891, by C. W. BaRDEEN vN-^- PBEFACE This brief account of the Prussian elementary scliool sj'stem was prepared at tlie request of the Honorable Andrew S. Draper, Super- intendent of Public Instruction for the State of New York, and appears in his thirty -seventh annual rcjwrt, transmitted to the Legis- lature January C, 1891. Tlie following extract from Sujierintendcnt Draper's report exjDlains itself : — lu 18GT. Supuiiiitenik-nt Victor JI. Uicu presented to tbe Legislature a sptcial and elaborate report, attempting to set forth tlie educational conditions of uU llie enliglilencd nations of the world. The little volume was published by the t^tale, but the edition was so limited that it is now almost unknown. It enubled the educators of the State to compare their own wuh other educational systems, and it was likewise prolific of suggestions. Its value, however, was impaired by reason of the fact that the information it contained was deiived from the reports of foreign educational or other oflicers. or from encyclopxdias. To make them of the greatest value to us, foreign school systems must be seen through Ameiiean eyes, and must be described by an intelligent friend of our school sys- tem, who is so an.\ious for its improvement that he is willing to seize upon any- thing which will improve it, no matter where he may find it, and who yet has the power of discriminating sufficiently to enable him to see not only what is good, but to determine what is practicable and advisable in this countiy. I have been desirous of presenting to the educators of this Stale something of this character covering the educational work of the leading nations of Europe, and of presenting it in such form as to make it available to all olKcers antl teach- ers in the State. When, therefore, j\Ir. James liussell Paisons. Jr., of lloosick Falls, the accom])lished school commissioner of the first commissioner district of Rensselaer county from 1S8."( to 1{^88, was made United Stales t'onsul at Ai.\-la- Chapelle. Germany, it occurred to me that the oppoilunily was offered for mak- ing an excellent beginning in this direction. The Pru.ssian elementary .school .sys- tem is the oldest, and admitted to be. in many regards, the best in the world. The man who could investigate and descrilje it more completely than most men in our State was going there to live for a considerable lime, and to live under ciicum- stances which would give him special facilities and opportunities for informalion. He readily acquiesced in my desiie that he should undertake the work, and has presented me with a more comprehensive and detailed description of the plan of organization and the operations of the Prussian school .system, in more compact form than any other which is available to American readeis. It is herewith trans- mitted to the Legislature, to the end that it may appear in the annual report and reach all interested in the educational progress of the Stale, and in the confident belief that it will enaljle us to see more clearly the strong points and discern the weak points of our own system. If this unilertaking shall seem to be pleasing and helpful, 1 hope to follow it next year wilh simihir descriptions covering the public educational systems of England and France. I tnay add that it seems to mo altogether the cleai'cst statement that has ever appeared in English of just what the Prussian schools are doing. SiRACUSE, March 9, 1891. C. W. BARDEEN. CONTENTS PaoeS Introduction 1 First Chapter. Scope of Eeport 1-2 Maintenance of Elementary Schools, the State's first duty 2 Inferiorities of the New York Elementary School System 2-3 Superiorities of the Prussian Elementary School System 3-5 QiialiCcations of Sch.ool Commissioners{A'n'isschiiIiii.''jjfktoyeii) 5-0 Other Supervising Officers G Recommendation for New York C-7 Compulsory Education Laws 7-8 State Suj^ervision of Private Schools 8 Uniform Courses of Study 8-0 The best results often obtained in Ungraded Schools 9 Expedient adopted to prevent a too frequent cliange of teachers upon promotions in Graded Schools 9 Length of Scliool Terms and Vacations 9-10 Eecommendation for New York — The Township System 10 Prussian Elementary Schools are free 10-11 Teachers' Wages 1 1-12 Total Cost of Public Education in Prussia 12-13 Secomd Chapter. The German Script 13-15 Orthograjihy 15 Dialects 15 Language used in teaching. Number of Children of school age in whose families only some language other than German is spoken 15-lG Other Language Work 10-17 Arithmetic 17 Geography 17 History 17 Natural History 17 jMusic 17-18 Physical Training 18 Industrial Training for Girls 18 Drawing 18-19 Training of Children in tlie love of the Fatherland 19 (V) Text-Books lO-SJO Apparatus used in teaching 20 Teachers' Libraries 20 Interest of the General Public in School Work 20 TlIIUD CnAPTER. Religious Instruction. Brief Summary of j^rincipal decrees re- lating thereto 21-22 Division of Children of School Age in the Public Elementary Schools, according to Religious Faith, upon May 20, 1886. 22 Fourth Chaptek. School-houses and Sites 23-26 Observations 26-27 Fifth Chapter. Institutions for Children under School Age. Krippen-Kindcr- hewahranstaUen-Kleinlcinderiicliulen-Kinderrjurten 27-28 Institutions for Children of School Age and older. Gymnasieii, Mif/elschulen—A^yla for Orphans,the Blind, Deaf and Dumb, Insane — Reform Schools — Elementary Schools proper 28-31 Sixth Chapter. The normal divisions of Prussian Elementary Schools 31-32 Course of Study and Time-tables for Ungraded Scliools 32-37 The Half-day School {Halbtagsi^chule) 38 Course of Study for Schools with Two Departments 38-43 The School with Three Classes and Two Teachers 43-45 The School with Three Classes and Three Teachers 45 The School with Four Departments 45-46 The School with Five Departments 40 The School with Six Classes 47-48 Table showing the Relative Distribution of Prussian Elemen- tary Public Schools in 1886 48-49 Seventh Chaper. Schools preparatory to the Normal, for JIales {Prdparanden- anstalten) 49-50 Course of Study 50-52 Eighth Chapter. Normal Schools for Male Teachers 52-57 Syllabus of Work 57-60 NixTH Chapter. First Teachers' Examination for Temporary License 60-62 Second and final Teachers' Examination 62-63 Tenth Chapter. Normal Schools for Females 63-64 Til Eleventh Chapter. p^gjs Examination of Female Teachers 64-66 Twelfth Chapter. Special Certificates 66-67 Thirteenth Chapter. Scliool Commissioners (Krvixsrliidinspckioreit) 67-73 Superrisiou of Scliools in January, 1S89 73-74 Fourteenth Chapter. Teachers' Conferences 74-75 Fifteenth Chapter. School Discipline and Miscellaneous Regulations 75-78 Observations 78 Sixteenth Chapter. Appointment of Teacher's- Vacancy occasioned by the death of Teacher 78 Vacancies arising from other Causes 78-79 The filling of vacancies through duly authorized Teachers 7'J-80 The filling of vacancies temporarily through Candidates 80 Substitutes during vacations and leaves of absence 80 Seventeenth Chapter. Leaves of Absence of Teachers 80-81 Conclusion 81-82 PRUSSIAN ELKMBNTAKY SCHOOLS. ..AUe Kiurler. reiebe uud arme. vnriiebme uiul geringe, Kuaben umi Milloben. miissen iu Sebuleu uuterricbtet. in alien Kindern muss Gottes Ebenbild wieder bergestellt, jedes rauss furseioen kilaftigen Boruf befabigt worden." Drs. Sebneider aud Petersilie. INTEODUCTION. Since ISIG, Prussian commou schools have been the best iu the workl. Though much has been done to unify the systems in other parts of the Empire, nevertheless Prussian schools must not be con- founded to-day with other German schools. Prussia has no code of ijublic instruction. This fact makes it rather difficult to secure reliable general information. The material for this report was gleaned from many sources. The principal references are to the editions (1882-1884-1887) of Giebe's "Verordmingen betrcffend das getiammfe Voltsschulwesen in I'reiissen ;" "Preussviche iStalidik 101," Berkn, IS'SO; the school laws of 1885, 1887, 1888 and 1889 and various Prussian school journals and officisil statistics. Several German states have general school laws. For some years Prussia has been considering the advisability of a general school code. At present, with the excejition of a few general laws, the schools are regulated by governmental decrees, many of which are purely local and apt to prove misleading to the foreigner. I feel it my duty to express gratitude for kindneiises extended to me by Prussian f^joverument officials, school officers and teachers. I am indebted particularly to Kreisschuliuspektor Dr. Keller and Ober- lehrer Dr. Krick of Aix-la-Ghapelle, also Seminarlehi er Franz Hinseu of Linnieh. Prussia is divided into fourteen provinces, viz. : East Prussia, West Prussia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Poseu, Silesia, Saxony, Schleswig- Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, Hessen-Nassau, Rhine, Berlin, Hohen- zollern. Each province is subdivided into government departments {Begier- ungs-BeziH-e), thirty-six in number for the whole kingdom. The Begierungs-Bezirke are again divided into circles, called Ereise. Finally the Kreise are subdivided into districts. Each Begierunga-Bezirke has a Regency (Begierung), presided over by the Begierungx-Prasident , and each province has its Oherprasident (head-president). All the gradalioHH of public inMrudion are adapted to this scale of administrators. FIRST CHAPTER. I. Scope of PiEroRT. The aim of the following re))ort is to give, in a condensed form, from the standpoint of a New Yorker, the organization, classifieatiou and work accomplished in Prussian elementary schools properly so 2 called. Othei" schools in wbicla elementary work is done, such as the middle schools {Mittehchulen), are not touched upon except generally and as it becomes necessary in stating the qualifications of teachers and school commissioners. The reader follows the would-be elementary school teacher through the ele- mentary school, the school preparatory to the normal, the normal school and the final examinations. An attempt is made to stale clearly and concisely the minimum of toork required of each Prussian child* and the provisions by ivhich the accomplish- ment of this ivork is secured.'f II. Maintenance of Elementary Schools the State's First Duty. In Prussia the support of the elementary schools is considered the first and most important duty of the State. Even in time of war these schools must not be closed. The teachers who have passed the final examination and received definite appointments are sure of their pay, even though the schools to which they are appointed cease to exist. Teachers in elementary schools are on the same footing with clergy- men as regards freedom from the payment of taxes; they have but six weeks' instead of three years' military service, and for this time their wages as teachers and those of their substitutes as well must be paid. They are also freed from the duty of quartering soldiers in time of war. Finally, at the close of their active service, they draw pensions from the government. III. Inferiorities of the New York Elementary School System. When Prussia was defeated by the armies of the great Napoleon, she turned her attention toward the perfection of her system of edu- cation. At the close of the Franco-Prussian war, France followed the same course, which resulted in the adoption of the essential features of the elementary school sj'stem of Prussia. The New Yorker, anxious for a high degree of perfection in the elementary schools of his State, must be struck forcibly by the follow- ing merits of the Elementary School System of Prussia. Furthermore, if sufficiently interested to push his investigations farther, he can test in France, under a republican form of government, the operations of laws assuring similar advantages: 1. Compulsory education laws, necessitatimj a full and regular attendance of the children of school age. 2. Official courses of study fixing the work to be accomplished in each of the different grades of schools. Uniformity is thus secured in the work done in all schools of the same class. *The only exceptions, excluding tiiose unfit for any intellectual trainine. are children mentally, morally or physically incompetent. The education of these children is cared for in special schools for dullards, reform schools and institutions for the deaf, dumb and blind. The stupid are brought as far as possible in the elementary school course, generally in regular schools, sometimes in speci.il schools for dullards. f " The Prussian law. which fixes a iniiiimuni of instruction for the elementary schools, likewise fixes a miniinnin of instruction for the middle schools {MtlleUrlnilen): and there are two kinds of examination, extremely distinct, for obtaining the brevet of primary teacher for these two gradations. Thf elementarii inatfuct inn viiist hf imiforvi and im'ariahlf, fin- the priniari/ sr7i(jo/.s reprfficnt the body of tite nation, and are deatined to nourish and to Mi-enijtlii-n tlie national units/. This is not the case with the burgher. schools, for these are designed tor a class among whom a great many shades and diversities exist — the middle class. In Prussia these middle schools have, accordingly, ver> dillerent gcadations from the minimum fixed by the law." (Cousin.) 3. DefiiiUe i/uaiiJicationK and e.rperience in liwhin;; for (•lii/ibtlifi/ to llie office of svhoul comminsioner. 4. Provisions eleml'ing teaching to the dignity of a profession and malciitg the tenure of office secure. 5. Trained teachers in rural as well as citi/ districts and a school year of at least forty weeks. 6. General supervision of instructwn for children of school age in private schools and families, inclitdi.nt/ the qualif cations of instructors. New York elemental'}' schuols will never comijare favorably with those of Prussia without similar provisions. Until these provisions are secured, advanced schools are of sccoudarj' importance. The first duty of the State is to provide suitably for a good elementary school education. As stated by M. Victor CousIq in 1833, primary instruction is too far advanced in Prussia to render it necessaiy to make very frequent reports on the subject. Cousin reviewed carefully the state of primary instruction in Prussia in the year 1831, under the firm conviction that the experience of Germany, and particularly of Prussia, ought not to be lost upon the French people. "National rivalries or anlij>athies," miid he, " would here be comjdctely out of place. The true greatness of a people does not consi.'it in borrowing nothinq frrrin others, but in horroicing from all whatever is good, and in ■perfecting whatever it appropriate.-^. I am as great an enemy as any one to artificial imitations; but it is mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for no other reason than that it has been thougld good by others. With the prompti- tude and justness of the French understanding, and the indestructible unity of our national character, we may assimilate all that is good in other counti-ies without fear of ceasing to he ourselves. * * t There are branches of the public service which must be secured against all casualties by the State, and in the first rank of these is primary in.4ruction." The suggestions of M. Cousin were followed in the main, though, it must be granted, after a long delaj-. In New York, once convinced of the necessity of reforms, we move with incredible celerity. It is interesting to note that the report of Cousin, published in 1833, emphasizes what are to-day the main defects of our system of primary instruction. IV. Superiorities of the Prussian Elementary School System. A careful observer of the work d^ne in Prussian elementary schools will detect, naturally enough, many impeifections, and _yet he will return to this country with the feeling that Prussia is far in the lead of us. Take as an example a wealthy school district in New York State where parents are alive to the advantages of a good education. Suppose, as is often the case with us, that teachers and supervising officers are thorouT-hlv competent, that the length of the school year approximates that of the Prussian school year, and that the attendance of the children is regular. The work done in these schools is fully equal to that done in the best Prussian elementary schools. Unfortunately, however, up to the present time, such schools have been exceptions here and not the rule as in Prussia. Our ehildreu learn as easily as the Prussian children, but under exist- ing laws the pupils of the average New York school district, between the ages of 6 and 14, can not compete with the children of the average school district in Prussia. It is in vain that New York State goes on spending more and more each year for educational purposes. Without legislation insuring a full and regular attendance of the children of school age; without definite uniform qualifications for supervising officers as well as teachers; without an approximate equal- ization of local taxation for school purposes; without State supervision of instruction given in private schools and families, we shall never attain anything approaching uniformity in the work done in our elementary schools. It is very unjust to make the sweeping assertion that no good ele- mentary school work is done in New York State. I have visited many schools in countries of the old world as well as in New York, and have never seen better elementary schools anywhere in the world than the best schools here at home. Every Prussian child between the ages of 6 and 14* must, excejit in cases of severe illness or other extraordinary cause, be present at every session of the school he attends. The lists of the children of school age, in charge of the local jjolice (in rural districts the Burgermeister), are kept so carefully that it is impossible to escape the provisions of the compulsory education laws, as much so as it is to evade the military service. Dispensations amounting to more than four weeks in the school year are never given to children under 12 years of age, and to them only when sickness in the family or other unusual cause make it advisable.f Even then such children must prove the attainment of a sufficient degree of proficiency in the work laid down by law for elementary schools. Examinations are held regularly to determine the pupils' ripeness in such work, and they may be forced to attend school beyond the close of the fourteenth year of age, when, through previous irregular attendance or lack of diligence, the results of the examination are not satisfactory. Pupils leaving elementary schools, before the close of the fourteenth year of age, to attend a higher school, must submit to the school commissioner a certificate from the director of such higher school. Again, should the pupil leave such higher school before having attained the age of 14, the director must notify the school commissioner a tecond time. In every province there are houses of correction for children of school age who can not be otherwise controlled. The school commissioner and Landrath decide as to the sending of children to these institutions. Unless the parents are very poor, they are forced to pay the costs. In 1885 there were 180 of these houses of correction {Retlungahauser) in Prussia, 141 of which were established since 1848.J *Althoueh the school aee in some parts of the kingdom legally begins when children have attained the age of 6, yet, as ii matter of tact, compulsory education laws are everywhere first enforced at the end of the sixth year of age and, except in certain districts, continue in force eight years. " Thatsiichlich wird uberall das vollendete 6. Lebensjahr als Beginn der Sehulpfliidit behandelt. mit der Massgabe, dass in eiuigen KeBierungsbezirken zu Osteru jcden Jahres auch solche Kinder aufgenommou wercleu, welche das 6, Lebensjahr er^t bis zum 1. Juli. bez. 1. Oktohor desselben .laliros vollenden Die Schulpllichtig- keit besteht im Grossen und Gauzen furjedes vollsinnigeKindin Preussen thatsiiehlich rund acht Jahre." (Drs. Schneider and I'etersilie. ) t Children under 12 years of age are forbidden to work in factories or mines. Those b(itweeu 12 ami \i are restricted l>y law to six hours a day. t Between October 1. 1878 and March 31. 1886, 11,101 children were sent to these houses of correction (" Stalistisches Haiulhiwh f'dr den Freussisclien Htaat," Berlin. 1888). Would it not be very difficult to find many children of New York State who, between the ages of G and 14, had not absented themselves for long jDeriods from school'? With us most trivial excuses are accepted, and the time lost in these eight years is considerable. It is no wonder, then, that the Prussian children of i;i and 14 are, in gen- eral, far in advance of our children of the same age. In our cities and villages, however, where the school year apj^roximates m length that which the Pruhsian decrees fix definitely for their elementary schools, I contend that the children are not as far behind as we should exi)ect them to be, when we consider their irregularity in attendance. V. Qualifications of School Commissioners. Within the past few years, much has been done to call the attention of the peojjle to the essential defects in our school system. There has been a great improvement all along the line, and yet, with one excep- tion, that of uniform qualifications and examinations for teachers' certificates, the most imjjortant defects are still to be remedied. The teachers in our public schools must now attain a certain stand- ard, and yet, contrary to the precedents established by other countries and contrary to reason, the officers who supervise the work of these teachers, the school commissioners, have but one qualification, as the xme qua non, that is, ability to secure a plurality of the votes cast at a popular election. There are many thoroughly efficient school com- missioners in the State. Under existing laws, however, these cases may be considered as accidents. The inefficient officers worry the teachers whose educational qualifications are far superior to their own; add an immense amount of unnecessary work to the Dejjartment of Public Instruction; and make our school system a laughing-stock to other countries where such inconsistencies are unknown. In order to understand the qualifications retpiired of school com- missioners {Kreisscliuhn^tpeHoren) in Prussia, let us review briefly the requirements of male teachers. 1. Elementary xvhook. It may be stated at the outset that almost all the male elementary school teachers are normal school graduates. To insure similarity in training and a thorough knowledge of character, few foreigners and few beside normal school {Schulleltrer-Seminar) graduates are admitted to the male teaching force. From G to 14 the would-be teacher has attenf^ed, let us suppose, an elementary school. He must then absolve the three years' course laid down for the preparatory schools {Prdparanden- Andalten). These preparatory schools (Praparanden-Anslalten) are special institutions which tit for the normal (SdiuUehrer-Seminar). He is now read}' for the normal school. At the close of a three years' course at the normal school he is admitted to the first teachers' exami- nation. If successful, he must next practice as candidate or assistant teacher not less than two years and not more than five years before his admission to the final test (Ziveite Prufung). It is a most excellent idea to defer this final test until the applicant has been tried in the school-room. In this way only can decision be reached as to teaching capacity, discipline, etc. If teacher fails to pass the examination within five years, he is dropped. 2. 3Iiddle nvJwok. For teachers of lower classes the same requirements with the addition of ability to teach a foreign tongue, or natural history in its broadest sense, and 6 the attainment of the mark " good " in all subjects at the final exami- nation (Zweite Prilfung). For higher classes, a special examination jjrovided for middle school teachers {Prilfung der Lehrer an Millel- xchulen). There is really no gradation between elementary and middle schools. The latter merely go ou somewhat further with elementary school work, introducing French, Latin and English. 3. High Hchooh {Realxciiulen, Bealgymtmsien, Frogymnasien and Gymnasien). All high school teachers, except those engaged in technical departments, must first absolve the nine years' gymnasial course, which commences at the close of the third school year. Next comes the university course of three or fcur years. The candidate is now ready for the State examination. The subjects for this State examination {Slaatxprufung) are divided into four classes: 1. The ancient languages and German; 2. Matliematics and natural sciences; 3. History and geography; 4. Religion and Hebrew. At the close of one years' ^jractice to test teaching capacity, he receives a second certificate and is thei'eupon engaged provisionally. On account of strength of competition he is often forced to wait as many as six years before receiving a permanent position. The advancement to the position of head master (Oherlehrer) follows generally in Prussia, after the twelfth year of service, always providing that the teacher has done well in the State examination and baa also been successful in teaching. 4. Normal t^choul fcadiers and directors; directors of schools preparatory for the normal; directors of middle schools aud higher schools for girls {Tochlerxchiden) must pass a sjjecial examination provided for those who are to hold such l^ositions {Prilfung der Recioren). The school commissioners {Kreisschulinifpelioren) are either former regular high school teachers, generally doctors of philosophy, or more rarely theologians, or former normal school teachers. All must have had practical experience in teaching. It is not regulated by law how long they must have taught, but to insure efiiciency, before permanent appointment as school commissioner, they are engaged provisionally for six months or longer. As with us, school commis- sioner districts vary greatly in size and in number of schools. VI. Other Supervising Officers. In addition to the school commissioners {Kreisschidinnpektorea), there are (2) local school insjjectors, generally the clergyman or mayor; (3J boards of education, consisting of the local school inspector, local officials and from two to four citizens; there is no salary attached to these offices; and (4) the government school councilors {Regierungs- rdlhe iind Schidrdtlie); and (5) Landrathe. The Ki-eisschulinsjxHor cor- responds to our school commissioner. The other officers maj' be compared with our (2) and (3) school trustees and boards of education, (4) State deijartment members (5) suj)ervisors.* VII. Recommendation for New York. The uniform 'examinations for teachers' certificates are now defi- nitely established in New York. No p)erson should be eligible to the office of school commissioner who does not hold a teacher's license * Prusfitm schools e.xeepting ForthiliIi'» (for young workmen andappren- ticos). whieb are under the jurisdiction of the minister of commerce, are controlled by the minister of education at Berlin through the provincial school consistories IProvin- zinlscliulrollegien), provincial and district governments. of the first grade or its equivalent, aud who has not, in addition, prac- tical experience as a teacher. In this way, we should establish at least a minwuim of qualifications for this important office. VIII. Compulsory Education Laws. The uecessitj' for effective compulsory education laws has been thoroughly canvassed in this State. We understand fully the legal provisions made by other countries in this respect. New York is most generous towards her public schools. Everj' year the exjienses of these schools are increasing. From $.5,73.5,460.24: in 1865, the grand total for lfS89 was .|lG,6i)l, 178.24, a sum nearly equal to one-sixth the total annual cost of the maintenance of the immense standing army of the German Empire or to one-third the annual cost of public education in Prussia. We are, as a people, most generous, and yet we are always anxious to get the worth of our money. Our public schools are for the people. Here, if anywhere, under a govei-nment by the people and for the people, an elementary school education is a matter of necessity. All the children between fixed ages should be forced to improve the educational advantages the state offers. In this way oL'ly can we make good and intelligent citizens of the rising generation. Compulsory education laws are most effective in Prussia, as will be seen from the fact that for some years, the average number of recruits to the army, without elementary school training, has not exceeded two per cent, and in many parts of the kingdom has been less than two-tenths of one per cent. The most favorable statistics come from Hohenzollern, Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Berlin, Westphalia and Saxony; the most unfavorable from the eastern borders. The following published by the Prussian bureau of statistics in 1880, are the latest available figures based upon the census of 1885 (Dec. 1).* (1) Number of children between 5 and 6 years of age. . . . 67'J,2(i7 (2) Number of children between 6 aud 14 years of age. . 5,225,891 5,905,1.58 All those under (2) and a portion of those under (l)were subject to the compulsory education laws. The number attending public elementary schools 4,838,247 The number attending public middle schools, private schools, etc 299,280 The number excused from attendance under legal pro- visions ■ 170 , 439 The number excused by reason of mental and physical infirmities .' 13, .519 The number excused through lack of school accommoda- tions 8 , 826 The number of cases of truancy reported 3,145 5,333,456 'The offloial statistics contained in" I'mixsifrlieSlatixtik loi," Berlin, 1H89, follow those published in 1878 and 18.H2. They give a complete picture of the element.-iry tdiools upon May 2u, iwo. More than two years were expended in the compilation aud tabula- tion of these statistics. Complete statistics of 1890 will not be published in all proba- bility before WM. Including the 670,267 between 5 and 6 there remain 571,702 to be accounted for. But only a small proportion of these children were subject to the compulsory education laws, and furthermore, many between 12 and 14 were freed from the operation of these laws. It is clear that only a very small and inconsiderable fraction escape. Oaly 3,145 cases of evasion were reported and 8,826 where pupils were unable to gain admission directly through lack of school accommoda- tions, a number less than in the city of New York alone. IX. State Supervision of Private Schools. As regards State supervision of private schools in the matter of qualifications of teachers and courses of study in the common school branches for pupils of school age, comparatively little has been said or written in this State. This discussion, however, will surel.y follow the enforcement of compulsory education laws. Before going abroad, I had often thought of this question in reflecting upon some of our inefficient private schools. High tuition bills are far from indicating a high grade of instruction. Fortunately, most of our private schools are very good. The patrons of all these schools and all interested therein should be willing to advocate that the teachers in private schools throughout the State possess at least the qualifications of teachers in public schools. This is the provision made abroad, and I have learned to appreciate its value. Under compulsory education laws, the State fixes a minirmim of work to be accomplished and a given time in which it is to be done. It then becomes the duty of the State to overlook all institutions where this elementary instruction is imparted. Private schools should be tested by the State to see if this minimum be attained. In all matters of opinion or in all work which is not laid down by the State, these schools should enjoy perfect freedom. If, however, New York is opposed to State supervision of private schools, uniformity in ele- mentary school work may be secured by fixing the qualifications of private school teachers and compelling pupils to pass annual exami- nations in the work laid down by the State. Instruction given in families could be regulated in the same way. Compulsory education, to be efficient, necessitates a high degree of carefulness. There should be no loop-holes and nothing should be left to chance, if we desire uniformity in our elementary school work.* X. Uniform Courses of Studt. The work to be accomplished in each Prussian elementary school is definitelj' laid down by law. Each school is not a law unto itself as to what shall be done and when and how this is to be done. I have * " Whoever wishes to set up a private school must be subject to only two conditions, from which no school, public or private, can on any pretext be exempt — the brevet of capacity, eiven by the commission of examination, and the supervision of the com- mittee of the commnne and of the inspector of the department." (Cousin.) Private elementary schools in Pru.ssia are decreasing in number as the following table shows: City schools. Rural schools. 1871. 1886. 1871. 1886. Number of schools 1 .382 894 486 315 Number of classes 3,744 3.266 737 617 Number of pupils 93.720 68,698 13,401 8,438 In 1886, there were also OCl private middle schools with 68,373 pupils. learned by practical experience that the work in ungraded schools comi^ares most favorably with that of graded schools. The courses of study vary little except as regards division of time and classes. The reader will note this by a comparison of the courses of study for ungraded schools and schools with two departments. Indeed, inas- much as the courses of study of schools with more classes would have involved a repetition of the same work, I have given only the division of time and general regulations for these schools. XI. The Best Results often Obtained in Ungraded Schools. UiJon first visiting Prussian elementary schools, I heard the state- ment from school commissioners that the most thorough and systematic work is often done in ungraded schools. Whatever the standard of literary qualifications may be, some teachers will lack teaching capacity, and though Prussia is very careful in practical tests of teaching capacity, nevertheless even there some incomijetency will creep in. A good teadher in an ungraded school, after having had the same chil- dren eight years, will often do better work than that done in graded schools where children change teachers upon jJromotion to another department. In this State, however, it would be very difficult to find many ungraded schools taught by the same teacher for the period of eight years. XII. Expedient Adopted to Prevent a Too Frequent Change of Te-^chees upon Promotions in Graded Schools. Teachers are often promoted with their classes, so that they instruct the same class three or four years. In exceptional cases, where teachers are incompetent, this plan works great injustice. Generally speaking, it is advantageous both for pupils and teachers. XIII. Length of School Terms and Vacations. An examination of the decrees regulating the length of vacations in different government districts shows a difference of from one to three weeks in the time elementary schools remain in session annually. Forty-two weeks is the minimum, forty-five weeks the maximum. The hours of instruction jser week vary in primary and advanced divisions from twentj' to thirty-two, as will be seen by reference to courses of study.* In the government districts of Magdeburg and Hanover, the elementary schools are open at least forty-three weeks annually. Patriotic festivals, viz., the Emperor's birthday and the anniversary of Sedan, and general religious festivals not occurring in regular vaca- tions are included. Patriotic festivals are celebrated by approjjriate exercises in the schools. In Jewish schools, the vacations are arranged to include the Jewish festivals.f The length of the school year for Romanists, Protestants and Jews is substantially the same. Instead of taking Saturday, as with us, Prus.sian elementary schools are closed Wednesday and Saturday afternoons. Upon these half-days there is no instruction except as it may be necessary to fill out the time required for gymnastics and manual training. * Halt-day schools and schools with thren classes and two teachers give only twelve hours instruction weekly in the lowest divi.sion. tin Diisseldorf, sixteen holidays are allowed tor the Jewish festivals. Those not falling in regular vacations must be made up. when exceeding the number of holidays in other schools. o 10 The rural elementary schools in the government district of Potsdam are in session fortj'-two and fifty-seven hundredths weeks annually, the city and suburban schools forty-two and twenty-nine hundredths. The following serves to show when the vacations occur: City and suburban schools. Days. 1. Easter 14 2. Whitsuntide 4 3. Summer vacation 28 4. Michaelmas 8 5. Christmas and New Year 14 68 Rural schools. 1. Easter , . . . 10 2. Whitsuntide '. . . . 4 3. Summer vacation 42 4. Christmas and New Year 10 G6 In addition to the religious holidays under 1, 2 and 5, and 1, 2 and 4, the government recognizes two common to Romanists and Protest- ants and seven peculiar to the Romanists. Private schools must follow the rules of jjublic schools for the districts to which they belong. XIV. Recommendation foe New York. In 1889, the average length of time the schools of New York were in session was thirty-five and five-tenths week.s. The Prussian chil- dren gain from six to ten weeks a year. The township system, by equalizing local taxation, would enable us to increase the legal school year to at least forty weeks. XV. Prussian Elementaet Schools are Free. In this resjject Prussia has passed through three stages. Under the first elementary schools were entirely self-supporting; under the second they received State aid, but were still largely self-supporting; under the third, Laws of 1888 and 1889, elementary schools were made free and the State pays a larger j)roportion of the cost of maintenance. Districts must pay for repairs, new buildings and cost of heating. If unwilling to j^rovido proper school accommodations for the children of school age, they can be forced by the government to do so. Poor districts may receive special government aid to meet such expenses.* In France the elementary schools are not only gratuitous, but books, parser, ink and school supplies generally are provided free of charge. More than this, the children of indigent parents are furnished with warm food in winter, with shoes and with clothing. In Prussia books * In some distriets the State pays the entire cost of maintaininK the elementary schools. In other districts, excepting a small portion of teachers' salaries, the State pays nothing. 11 and school supplies are free only for the poor, who are also provided with food an:fik 101," published in 1889, reckon the total cost for 1888, excluding armv and navj' schools, at $50,192,857. This amount is divided as follows: Universities $3,769,405 High schools and seminaries 6,940,119 Elementary instruction 37,357,857 Trade schools 2,125,476 Per caput. 00 $0.1322 00 0.2459 00 1.3187 00 0.0749 $50,192,857 00 $1.7717 As will be seen, about three-quarters of the total outlay is for ele- mentary instruction. The sources from which these funds come are : Per cent. (1) From the State 31.05 (2) From districts (Kommunalveiitdnde) 46. 19 (3) From revenues, funds, etc 22 . 76 •Salaries advance with years of service. Male teachers with an experience of from ten to thirty vears are allowed $125, female teachers. $87.60. This allowance is called Allfrszulayt. In schools with two or more teachers, the scale of salaries advances by $:!7.50, the amount received dopcndinK upon experience in teaching t Beckoned at four marks to the dollar. 13 Of the total of 137,3.57,857 for elementary instruction, the State pays 25.11 per cent. This will be raised from one-fourth to oue-third by the law of 1889. With the excessive local burdens of the past, it is a significant fact that Prussia has nevertheless maintained a very high standard in all grades of schools. In New York, we can hope to accomplish this only through an approximate equalization of local taxation for school jjurposes. In Prussia, elementary instruction is the first consideration. The resolution adopted by tlie national assembly (Landtag) Decemlier 22, 1870, is a good illustration of this. It was at the very crisis of the Franco-German war, yet the Landtag called on the government to increase the number of normal schools and the capacity of those already existing, and "thus to ]nit an end to the practice of filling up teachers' vacancies by appointing unqualified individuals" (Central- hlatl fur die gesammle Unterrivldx-Vcrwaltiing, Berlin, October, JS77). The result of this call is seen by the fact that twenty-four new nor- mal schools were founded between 1870 and 187G. The following table shows that, as in New York, the total cost of elementarj' instruction in Prussia has increased very rapidly within the past twenty years: 1871 $13,187,713 81 1878 21,051 ,57(i 'JO 1886 30,338,77!) 7G It is interesting to note the sources from which these funds came : 1871. 1S7K. 1886. Tuition bills Local taxes and funds From the State $2,499,712 86 10.298,670 95 689,330 00 $3,089,411 20 18,007,078 80 2, 9.'5.5, 086 90 $3,775,121 43 23,l.W,2(i6 43 3,404,391 90 $13,487,713 81 $24,051,570 90 $30,338,779 76 Tuition bills are now done away with except in the case of non- resident pujjils. The change thus brought about increased the amoimt given by the State to 25.11 per cent in 1S88. As above stated, the law of 1889 will raise the percentage of State aid from one- quarter to one-third the total cost of elementary instruction. SECOND CHAPTEE. I. The German Script. Upon first entering a Prussian elementary school, an American is struck forcibly with the amount of time wasted in learning the German written and printed characters. Mediioval German schools were for- tunate at least in not having this disadvantage to contend with. The (xermau script is a corruption of the Roman. Up to the twelfth centurj' the Roman was in use hj all Latin and German people. This 14 was gradually corrupted by the monks, and tbe so-called German script is the result. Upon the iuvention of printing, this script was modified still further, giving birth to the German printed characters. The children in the Prussian elementary schools are now forced to learn eight alphabets, while, in most all other civilized lands, it is found difficult enough to teach four. First come the German written capital letters, then the corresjionding small letters. The pupils ai-e next worried with the German printed aljjhabets, large and small characters. They have now learned four alphabets, the number taught in our elementary schools; but they have not yet finished their Fihel, the book corresponding to our Primer and First Reader, completed at the close of the second year of instruction. This Fihel contains two more alphabets, the Roman printed characters, large and small. The seventh and eighth alphabets, namely, the Roman written large and small letters, are taught sometimes in the third school year, but generally later. This depends largelj' upon the opinions of teachers and supervising officers touching the German and Latin script. Many famous Germans, such as Jak. Grimm, Leibnitz, Wieland, Ew. V. Kleist, Bodmer, Ramler, Hoelty, Richard Wagner, have declared against the German script and printed characters. More than 100 university professors and (5,000 teachers have followed their example. Thousands of books, and scientific works very generally, are printed every year in Roman characters. Nevertheless, force of habit and a false feeling of patriotism have thus far enabled the so-called German alphabets to retain their position in the schools. More than 250,000,000 of people use exclusively the Roman char- acters. They are understood throughout the civilized world. England, A.merica, Italy, Spain and France dictate in these characters to all who would have business or other relations with them. Holland, Sweden, Denmark and Bohemia realize this fact, and are now retui-n- ing to the purer forms, which were in use up to the twelfth century. In spite of the ardent defenders of this same movement, Germany hesitates, and thus preserves a very formidable barrier between her self and other civilized nations. Everj' practical educator will see at once the importance of this question. Much time is wasted in learning 100 supertiuous letters. These letters are studied before the pupil's handwriting is formed, and, between the German and the Roman script, it is difficult for him to write consistently. In justice to the teaching of penmanship in Prussian elementary schools, one must admit that, in view of this great disadvantage, the results obtained are surprisingly good. The pupils vprite fully as well as our own. Later in life, however, when they have used both aljjhabets to a greater extent, confusion of the two is apt to follow. It is very easy for us to decipher the German script when written as it should be, but we must work very hard to read readily ordinary business or social correspondence. The teacher whose written work in the school-room has struck you most favorably will often write a letter, which, when cold, he himself would have difficulty in decipher- ing. As with us, the i>upils imitate the careful written work of the teacher in the school-room, and, up to a certain age, there is little 15 variety. When, however, the handwriting is fully formed, that indi- viduality comes out which gives it a distinctive character. With this individuality the German associates a greater degi'ee of illegibility than the American. II. Oethohhaphy. The attention of the American turns naturally from penmanship to orthography. He notes that German words are not spelled as in his school days. Accustomed to uniformity in this respect, the question interests him at once. The orth(_)graphy or Rechtgchreihunrj, as the Germans call it, now taught in the Prussian schooltJ, dates from the beginning of the school year 1880-81. It differs enough from the orthography taught prior to this date to make it rather unsafe for a father to attempt to correct the work of his children. Some of my readers have sons who have told them they knew nothing about Latin because they did not under- stand a quotation with the Roman or Continental pronunciation. German parents run the risk of being told by their children that they can not spell, when they write, as thej' often do, contrary to the new system of orthography. The movement toward reform in English orthography has stronger advocates than is generally supposed, both in America and England. In Germany, however, the movement in a corresponding direction is much more widely felt. Far from satisfied with the system now in use, the Germans seem to be drifting toward phonetic sjselliug. One of the greatest safeguards with them, as with us, comes from the lack of uniformity in the systems proposed. III. Dialects. Another disadvantage under which Prussian elementary schools labor arises from the prevalence of various dialects. The children of the common people, upon first entering school, often speak and under- stand only the dialect of their parents. This is especially true in manufacturing districts. Many teachers gave me g'rajdiic descriptions of the difficulties encountered in endeavoring to teach High German. So great are these dialectic differences, that it often seems at first like teaching a foreign tongue. IV. Language Used in Teaching. Since 188'J, except in the case of religious instruction in districts with a large foreign j^opuhition, the German language has been used universally in teaching all subjects in Prussian elementary schools. Up to 1887, the Polish language was in use in schools made up of Poles, and up to April 1, 1889, pupils in North Sclileswig were taught in the Danish language. Statistics of 1886 show that ten and thirty-five-one-hundredths per cent of the total number of children in attendance upon public ele- mentary schools spoke only the Polish language at home. The per- centage of children in whose families German was the only language spoken, was eighty-six and fifty-eight-oiic-huudredths. In the families of the other thirteen and forty-two-one-hundredths per cent, either 16 another language was spoken in addition to German, or only a foreign tongue. Number of children in whose families only Polish was spoken 500,315 Number of children in whose families only Sclavonic dia- lects were spoken 31 , 473 Number of children in whose families only Danish was spoken 24,088 Number of children in whose families only some language other than German was spoken 4 , 049 Total 559,925 Number of children in whose families only German was spoken 4,188,857 Number of children in whose families German and another language were spoken 89 , 465 Total 4,888,247 From this we see that the difficulty of teaching more or less in a foreign tongue existed in 188{) in the case of quite a considerable percentage of the school children. With children entii'ely ignorant of German, the difficulty will not be overcome before the third or fourth school year. Special text and reference-books have been issued for schools with a large foreign population. Courses of study are modified to meet the needs of such schools, and teachers receive special training therefor. The Prussian government moved very carefully in this matter. Experiments seemed to prove the advisability of adopting the German language generally, and reports show that the results are verj- satisfactory. The exjjeriments made before adopting exclusively the German language in schools made up of foreigners were most interesting. The Minister of Public Instruction conducted these experiments in person. It was everywhere found that ch'ldren who had not spoken a single German word before entering school, not only made great progress in the elementai-y school curriculum when the instruction was given in German, but also expressed themselves best in their native tongue. The ministry was at last satisfied that it was advisable to adopt the German language exclusive of all others. V. Other Language Wobk. Other language work in Prussian elementary schools differs very little from that in New York, as will be seen by reference to the courses of study. In teaching reading, the use of the alphabet method is positively forbidden in all schools. More attention is paid, later in the course, to ordinary business forms than is the case generally with us. For examjile, the government has supplied each school with specimens of mail matter, such as envelopes, money-orders, parcel- express blanks, etc., and pujjils are instructed carefully as to their uses. The same care is shown in drawing notes, bills, receipts, etc. 17 Another point worthy of mention is the instruction given in memor- iziiit,'- proverbs, aphorisms and selections in poetry and prose. This is pushed much further than with us. I'russia sets us a good example in her elementary schools as regards the attention paid to German literature. In our elementary schools we do not succeed as well as the Prussians in cultivating a taste for good reading. VI. Arithmetic. The time wasted in acquiring four additional alphabets is jiartly compensated by the time saved in arithmetic through the Metric Sys- tem. Would that England and America were willing to follow the example of other countries in this respect. The method of teaching arithmetic is that used in our best schools, and known here as the Grube method. Mental arithmetic is i^racticed much more than in New York. VII. Geography. Geography, as with us, begins in the third school year with a description of the school-house and the school district. It is taught in connection with history. The pupils learn thoroughly the geog- raphy of the mother and neighboring countries. Their ideas of other parts of the world, including America, are rather vague, as a rule. VIII. History. History is much better taught than in most of our schools. This is deemed necessary in order to develoj) a 8j)irit of patriotism and loyalty to the Emjieror. There is no subject in our public schools which is so imperfectly taught as United States history. It is high time to devote our attention to modern methods of teaching this most important branch of common school work. IX. Natdr.^l History. As will be seen by reference to courses of study, natural history, in its broadest sense, receives far more attention than in New York. This work seems rather difficult for elementary schools. In fact, the government has noted a tendency toward abstract and technical instruction, and directed the school commissioners and teachers to simplify the work. This subject is considered one of the most import- ant in the elementary school curriculum. To be beneficial, however, it must beTery simply taught. X. Music. It is well known that the Germans, as a people, are far ahead of us in all that pertains to music, which is an essential factor in their ele- mentary' school course. It is to be hoped that we shall soon follow their example, at least as regards attention paid to memorizing national songs. These patriotic songs not only awaken love toward the Father- land, but also, another most important feature, tend to lessen the influence of vulgar popular music. We are far from having so tine a collection as the Germans of national songs and songs of the i^eofjle. 3 18 We have, however, much that is good, and more attention should be devoted to its memorization. It is to be noted that the Germans follow, in teaching music in ele- mentary schools, the old system of solfeggio or Solmization, as they call it. This system is now about 800 years old. Although courses of study suggest that singing in unison is all that teachers may expect to accomplish, except under the most favor- able circumstances, experience shows that these conditions exist very often. Visitors to Prussian elementary schools will hear frequently most excellent singing in several parts. In Prussia all male element- ary school teachers must be able to play more or less upon the violin. Among them there is an astonishing number of thorough musicians. XI. Physicai Training. Prussian courses of study show that considerable attention is paid to physical training. Germany suffers from the lack of a national game corresponding to English cricket or American base ball. These games, with intervals of tennis, boating, swimming and other out-of- door sports, do more toward the physical development of English and American children than the detailed instructions of the Prussian educational department regulating physical exercises. The three years' military service of the Germans is, unquestionably, the most imjiortant factor in their physical development, as a people. This service begins at twenty years of age, and, up to this time, the youth is far from having that sujjpleness of liody and quickness of action which characterize American young men. In Prussia the object of physical training in the elementary schools is to insure strength to complete satisfactorily the amount of mental work laid down by law. Teachers are directed to watch carefully over the health of their puj^ils. Special attention is paid to proper carriage and postures, near-sightedness and deafness. It is the teacher's duty to give notice of blind and deaf and dumb pupils or those threatened with blindness and loss of hearing, that same maj' be sent to the institutions provided for such cases. As regards the necessity in American elementary schools of appa- ratus for gymnastic exercises, such as parallel and horizontal bars, etc., it may be said generally that such ajjparatus is needed only in city schools where children have little opportunity for physical exercise. XII. Industrial Training for Girls. This course in Prussian elementary schools is practical, quite thorough and inexpensive. Its object is to fit girls for domestic life. Fancy stitching is not taught. Girls learn only plain household work. A similar course should be introduced generally in New York ele- mentary schools. Xm. DEA\\aNG. Instruction in drawing in Prussian elementary schools now follows the method of Dr. A. Stuhlmauu, introduced generally by the Prussian ministry in 1887 {" LeUfaden fur den Zeichenunterrirhl von Dr. A. Sluhl- mann " — Spemann, Berlin, 1800). 19 Dr. A. Stuhlmann makes three divisions of the work for elementary schools. (1) Second and third school years: Drawing with the aid of squares {Nelzzeiclinen). (2) Fourth, iifth and sixth school years: Free drawing of plane figures. (3) Seventh and eighth school years: Free drawing from solid bodies. A fourth course, also for the seventh and eighth school years, is devoted to work from plaster of Paris models. Work in drawing is simple, systematic and thoroughly practical. It consists of the drawing of symmetrical figures, characteristic forms of plants, simijle work in ornamental drawing, etc. Eye and hand are trained with especial reference to industrial drawing. XrV. Training of Children in the Love of the Fatherland. In Prussian schools the utmost pains are taken to foster the spirit of patriotism. The law requires that a likeness of the Emperor be placed in each school-room. Courses of study improve every oppor- tunity to call attention to the importance of cultivating a national spirit. From the cradle, the Prussian child leai'ns the national songs. At every step one is reminded that Prussia is a laud of patriots. In New York the appointment of Arbor Day was the first movement toward the recognition of the importance of this subject in connection with our schools. This attempt to cultivate a national spirit is most praiseworthy. Teachers and all school officers should spare no pains in developing a i^roper spirit of patriotism and love of our free institutions. If this were done as in Prussia, the history and geogra- phy of our own country would no longer be looked upon by pupils as dry and uninteresting. XV. Text-books. A complete list is made by the government of all text-l)ooks which may be used in the schools. This list must be followed. The director of a high school and the school commissioner in the case of an ele- mentary school, are forced, if they desire to introduce a new book, to state the defects of the old one and the advantages of the proposed substitute and submit this statement, with a copy of the new book, to the government. There is but one time of the year in which new books may be introduced. Prussian elementary schools use fewer text-books for pupils and more reference books for teachers than New York elementary schools. The paper, binding and printing of our school-books is much better than that of the (lerman books. Our books present a much more attractive appearance, but are more expensive in conse. School-dufka. These must be made with special regard to the health of the pupils. All must be ju'ovided with backs. The general rule is to bind together desk and seat so that each pupil have a space from fifty-one-hundredths to sixty-one-huudredths of a meter. Desks should be regulated in size according to the age of the children. 26 Desks for two pupils are recommended. Plans for the ordinary desks (for from four to six pupils) are furnished. 17. Position of desks. The desks should be so placed that the light falls over the left shoulder of the children. In the rear and upon the long window-side, there should be a free space of at least four meters; in front, a free space of at least two and a half meters. 18. The teacher's desk. This should be placed upon a platform two and one-half meters deep, one and one-fourth meters wide, fifteen- one-hundredths meters high. 19. Blackboards, etc. Each school-room must be provided with the necessary number of blackboards and a closet for the preservation of the objects used in teaching. 20. When no cloak-room exists, pegs for overcoats and hats should be placed in the school-room. 21. New school huUdings. When, in the judgment of the Local and Kreisschulinsjicklor, with the concurrence of the Landrulh and district architect, the building of a new school is deemed necessary, the dis- trict architect must submit to the government a plan with an estimate of cost. If the jilan be accepted, the district builder advertises for bids for the necessary building material. The best and cheapest is taken and the district builder, who is personally responsible, goes on with the building. The wisdom of this j)rovision is seen from the fact that such buildings never exceed the estimates, while iu the case of buildings not under governmental control, the cost is often fifty per cent greater than the original estimate. Observations. New York has little to learn from Prussia as regards school buildings. Regulations are often transgressed there as here. School-rooms, as I saw, are frequently overcrowded. The ministerial decree of March 26, 1827, fixes a limit of eighty pupils for ungraded schools and seventy for each class in graded schools. In 1886, only .5.3.8-i per cent of all the children received instruction under these conditions. May 5, 1873, the minister of public instruction was forced to decree that the following state of things was to be tolerated for the time being. Under one teacher From 80 to 120 Under two teachers From 120 to 200 Under three teachers From 200 to 300 But even these limits are often exceeded in districts where the popu- lation is rapidly increasing. In Posen the average number of children falling to one teacher in 1886, was seventy-four iu the city schools and 110 iu the country schools. In fifteen of the thirty-six government districts {Regier- vngshezirke), the average number of children, falling to one teacher, exceeded eighty in the country, and in three government districts in the citj' schools. In the whole kingdom there were 23,1,^2 schools with one teacher, 6,592 of which were overcrowded. It is worthy of note that only 8,826 pupils were not received directly because of insufficient school accommodations. 27 Official statistics show that there were only 4,012 classes with lesjs than ;iO pupils, 1,995 of which were in ungraded schools. With 4,838,217 jsupils in her public elementary schools, Prussia employed, in 1886, (14,750 regular teachers. In New York public schools in 188G, 31,1525* teachers were employed and the total uuml)er of children in attendance at any time during the j'ear was only 1,027,767. In other words, the average number falling to one teacher in Prussia was a fraction above 74; in New York, a fraction above 32. These figures show the great disadvantage under which we are placed by the very unequal distribution of our population. When we add to this, our most unjust system of local taxation for school purposes, it seems astonishing that small rural districts maintain the schools as they are at present. It is not surprising that all who have given the subject thought are 2>ractically unanimous in favor of the township system. School-rooms in Prussia are often dark and poorly ventilated. Privies are frequently in the same buildings, and in mixed rural schools, proper provision is not always made for separate "ccommodations for the sexe.?. In the erection of new buildings, the regulations are strictly enforced and class-rooms are not built to accommodate more than eighty pupils. Of the total number of pupils in attendance upon the public elementary schools May 20, 1886, 4,700,300 were within less than two miles of the schools attended, 131,947 were at a greater distance. FIFTH CHAPTER I. Institutions for Children Under School Age. Although somewhat foreign to the subject in hand, before consider- ing the elementary schools proper, reference is made to the different institutions for children under school age. 1. Krippen (Creches). These are upon the plan first introduced at Paris, by Marbeau, in 1844. Babies, whose mothers are forced to work for a living, are kept until 2 years of age. Thej' are cared for in these institutions upon working days, the mothers calling for them every evening. 2. Kinderhetrahrandalten. These are for the children of the laboring classes until 4 years of age. They were first introduced into Germany in 1802. Young children receive the care which parents are unable to give them at home. 3. Kleinkinderscli ulen. These continue to care for the children of the poorer classes until they become of school age. France founded these institutions in 1801. Thoy were soon adoijted in Germany. • Only 22,240 were employed for a ooQtinuous term of twenty-eight weeks or more. 28 4. Kindei-gdrten. These were intended originally for the children of the wealthier classes under school age. Tlie tirst Kindergarten was founded by Froebel in 1840. In 1851 they were proscribed by the governments of Prussia and Saxony, upon the ground that they planted the seeds of socialism and atheism. Kindergarten were then.forced to abandon the theories and organization of Froebel, and most of tliem adopted the name of play-schools {Spielschulen). The fundamental ideas of Froebel were better understood some- what later, and the ban i^laced upon Kindergarten was raised. For some years past enthusiasts have urged, without success, the advisability of making Kindergarten public. The institutions for children under school age were founded, for the most part, by private individuals and charitable societies. Gen- erally speaking, the Germans recognize alone the advantages of insti- tutions of the first three classes where, strictlj' speaking, no attempt is made to teach the children. In manufacturing districts, where parents can not look at all after their children during the day, such institutions are considered matters of necessit}'. City governments sometimes maintain these institutions. Ministerial decrees refer to all institutions for children under school age as Einderbeirahranstalten, Warte^chulen and Kindergarten. The names under 2, 3 and 4 are often used interchangeably. They are controlled by the State in the same manner as other private insti- tutions and are found, as a rule, only in larger cities. As regards the last three classes of these institutions, Kinderbewahr- anxlalten, Kleinkinderfchulen and Kindergarten, the government instruc- tions to school commissioners are very strict. They must see that rooms be of suiScient size to accommodate the children enrolled; that same be properly ventilated, heated and lighted ; and that the persons in charge do not encroach in the least upon elementary school work. In some provinces considerable trouble has been occasioned bj- the fact that children have been kept in these institutions until 9 or 10 years of age. The following provisions for Schleswig-Holstein, from May 31, 1884, will serve to show how this matter has been regulated. a. Private institutions for children, both under and of school age, should not be authorized except under very excejjtional local conditions. /). The time chiklren are to attend such institutions, when author- ized, must be definitely stated and is not to exceed the eighth year of age. c. Children of school age must receive distinct elementary instruc- tion in a seijarate school-room. d. These conditions apply to all present existing institutions. If the condition sub (c.) can not be carried out, children of school age must leave said institutions at Easter next year.* II. TuE Vauious Institutions for Children of School Age. The Prussian child between the ages of 6 and 14 may be in attend- ance upon any one of the following institutions: * There is generally but one time of year, and that Easter, for admission of children into the elementary schools. 29 1. The different Gymnafiia: The full course at these high schools lasts uiue j'ears, aud begins after three years of primary instruction. "2. The MiUelschulen: There is really no gradation between element- ary and middle schools. The latter merely go on somewhat further with elementary school work, introducing French, Latin aud English. The advanced class in an elementary school of six classes may be per- mitted to follow the course of studj' for middle schools. 3. Institutions for the blind {-BlindenaiixtaUen). ■i. Deaf and dumb asyla {Taubdummen-BildungsanMalten). 5. Orphan asyla { WaixenandaUen). 6. Insane asyla {IdiotenandaUen). 7. Keform schools {Beltung.fanstal/en). 8. The elementary schools proper {Elementan^chiden). He may receive instruction in a public school, a private school or in the family. There are very few private schools in Prussia, however, and all are under the immediate supervision of the government. As a rule, private schools may be founded only where there is a lack of public school accommodations. Teachers in these private schools must have the same qualifications as those required by law for the public schools. In case of children instructed at home, the govern- ment school inspectors are authorized to test the qualifications of the persons who give said instruction. They can demand, furthermore, courses and hours of study to see that instruction given at home be an equivalent to the instruction given in the public schools. Of the high schools, the most important are Gymnaxien aud IiealU'isioii ieleffu liourx) Object teaching. Pupils are led to talk about objects which are brought to their notice. The teacher Is to correct, carefully, faulty enuncia- tion and incorrect expression. lustrui-tion In reading and writing should follow the system taught in the normal school of the district. The alphabet method is absolutely forbidden. After six months' instruction pupils should be able to divide simple state- ments into words, the words into syllables, and the syllables into their respective sounds. They must be able to make and read each letter according to its sound. At the close of six months the children are made acquainted with the printed char- acters and the names of tiie letters. When children learn to read, they should be taught to associate words, and then statements, with the objects or idea represented, to prevent thoughtless, mechanical reading. The pieces read should be thoroughly understood by the pupils. The principal thoughts are best brought out by questions on the part of the teacher. In addition to short proverbs. ai)horisms. etc.. the pupils should learn by heart some short selections from the primer. They should also have practice in repeating, in their own words, what they have road. The children of this division learn also the Koman printed character". In teaching writing, the teacher explains the formation of the letters upon the blackboanl. Before leaving this third and lowest division, the pupils should be able to read with facility, correct enunei.ation and expression the selections they have had. They shi>uld be able to answ-er questions as to wh.at they have read : reproduce all selections in their own words, and copy correctly from the i)rimer. They should also have had some exercise in writing at dictation. Midilh- Vlaas {ten Iiuhi-k). Further pra'/tice in reading, with more careful attention to subject-matter and expression. Writing must now be taken up at llxed hours, the pupils using partly pen and ink. Pupils are now to learn the formation of the iduriil of nouns. iStatemeuts are ma I'la^s {one hour). In summer, the children learn some of the important plants of the garden, the fields and the woods. In teaching, the teacher should have before him the plant itself or a good representation of the same. lu the winter, the children study some of the Mammnlin and -t res-, usually the domestic animals. A few minerals of the district are taken up. .biraiicnf CVns.s ionp hour). Physiology .and hygiene. The structure of the human body and the fundamental laws of health. Knowledge of plants, animals and minerals is extended. In the vegetable kingdom, the most important are fruit trees, grains and the ordinary vegetables used for food. Useful trees, shrubs, herbs and poisonous plants are studied. Growth and conditions of growth of plants require attention, as do also the cultivation aud fertilization of the fleld. Foreign and domestic products, such as cotton, tea. eofTee and sugar, should be studied. The proper division of the vegetable kingdom for the elementary schools is into il) trees. CJI shrulis. (3) herbs. (4) grasses. (.5) mushrooms. (6) mosses. The animals studied by the children are brought under the following classiflcation: (1) mammalia. ('21 aves.Ci) amphibia, (il Hshes, (5) insects, (61 worms, (7) mollusks, (8) infu- soria. Foreign words are seldom used in classification. The animals worthy of special consideration are those useful or dangerous to man ; those which by size, construction or pHouliarities awaken a high degree of interest. Examples — the butterfly, bee, ant. tape-worm, trichina. MidtUf (Jhixisloiii' liour). In nature the pupils take up the most important peculiarities of air. heat, w.ater. vapor, fog. rlouds, dew, frost, rain, snow, hail, ice and storms. The pra<'tical application of natural forces is considered, as in ihe gun, pumps, etc. Adfaiict'd iJI'd^alDnt' liour). In this division are studied the baromeier. fountains and water-contluct ; the ear. echo, musical instruments; the thermometer, steam engine, manufacture of gas; the effects of light and shade; colors, the mirror, the buruing- glass, eye-glass, the eye aud sight, the rainbow; the pully, the lever, the scales, gravitation. Electricity and magnetism are taught in connection with the most common applica- tions of these forces. Pupils are given a general idea of the electric telegraph. All this work is to be treated by the object method in a simple manner. II. Music. Vocal music is an important factor in education. It ennobles character by cultivating a taste for that which is beautiful. The pupil takes with him into lib^ a cumber of songs, whi'-h will not only be a source of pleasure to him through life, but will .also tend to lessen the influence of corrupt popular songs upon the general public. With this end in view, the greatest care should be taken in the selc-tion of the songs to be learned in school. The preference should be given to those songs which awaken a love of the Fatherland. Luinefl iHafx ioni- hoar). E.xerei.ses to train the voice and ear. The children learn to sing after tlie teacher distinct tones in the middle register to the difl'erent vowels. The m pentachord, botb risluK and falliue. is practiced to various texts. The te.xt of soncs i.s read aloud by the toacher ami explained. The pupils then loarn the same by heart. A tew simple songs should be well studied in this division. Middle and Adeanred iHas.-n/s itiro hours). Continuation of the above. Diphthongs are practiced In different pitches. Then foMow vowels and diphthongs in connection with consonants, next syllables and words. The pentachord is extended to the scale. The chord of three and four notes is presented iu different keys. From twenty to thirty sones are practiced in addition to the religious music. Songs are sung in unison aiid by ear. Singing by note and in two parts can only be practiced under especially favorable conditions. A secular or religious song should begin or close all school sessions. In this way songs are best fixed in the memory of the pupils. h. Gymnastics (("'ij liDurs). Middle and Adrani'ed Olasfn's. 1. Exercises upon the horizontal bar, and in standing. 2. Exercises with a stick ; high .lumping. 3. Exercises in drilling, and upon the parallel bars. 4. Exercises in hopping, and upon the horizontal bar. 6. Exercises in walking, and in broad jumping. 6. Exercises in running, and upon the parallel bars. Simple gymnastic exercises for the lowest class should be given in the pauses. I. M.iNUAL Tk.uniNi: for THE GiBLS [two lionrs). Middle and Adeanred Classes. The end of this instruction is to fit the girls for domestic life. Industry should be encour- aged, and a taste for neatness in personal appearance and economy in clothing. The following should be taught; a. Knitting. Pupils should learn to do all work of this kind reciuired iu ordinary domestic life. 6. Sewing. Pupils should learn the different plain stitches and patching. c. Easy work in sewing and stitching articles of clothing, etc. outlining, darning. d. More difficult work iu sewing and stitching articles of clothing, the cutting of linen. Fancy stitches should not be taught in the elementary schools. Practical plain sewing is the aim of the course. With this end in view the children should repair and make articlesof clothing underthedirectionof the teachers, bringing the necessary materials from home. It is not enough for the teacher to show how a thing is to be done. The pupils' work must be carefully controlled, and they must be taught the technical terms necessary to express intelligently what they are doing. Local school authorities decide as to the necessity of instruction upon the sewing- machine. The teacher should keep a record of the work done by pupils * * There are many manuals of industrial work for girls. That of Agnes Schallenfeld, published in Frank- furt^on-tbe-Main, is in (luito general use. 37 ,c> fel s -< ■« e |J 1— 1 1— 1 d"'-;« i-ln't.." u 3 03 0. S CS> Mh^ZCJ ^M 1 »— 1 hH mH ; H« ■-^w : t-H w ■^ HH •'-^ 1— 1 3 M -]hq ■^1— 1 1— ((— 1^^ (>^ M^V^ efl .Sags : .' : ■ • ; : : ■ 1 )—('"' ■ •i-j '■ ■-^Irl ' i-h'~' >. e *"* .1— ("" )—('—' . .1— I Cm - 3 rt * kT "■ !§:■ Mj3 O i E a^.^ a.tim" O P ^ C5 E-- I iJi G ■'^ ■t-HHH C3 ■HH ■a a o ill .aga a bLbltt & Uja s a o CO as ® d 0) uat KJO Oi-;. Ztf JhJO ■ ; .-HH 1-H E 1— 1 "^ . 'l— tH "^^ t-i J i-h'~!'~^ •a - tit - 'n & .2 3 d o tu a— w 05 i-;S CJ •- 01 Pm " 3 :3 g§5 fi^^ : ^ : : ^ ■ S *"* * S -; " '^- s ■ H-I '"' pA I-H *"! ea ■a 2 3 *■* ^ H-J ' ^ 3 g : "■ .2 2.2 i : M M M : 3 a o = a ; 3 ."S 0) C» C3 • S t. O M ►.! : iJ O l-H~^_ ■ • •"• , .i-H ! '-' '►-^Wl-H t^ & ;""" o ■i-;'~l'-| X ■^^•-HH- ( ;/. 0) a 1|3§g sigga (S 01 03 C3 t>v ZOiJ^^O — KH ; HH I-H HH * hH •—I I-H " « HI »-H . s ■3 I-; '"' ?". ^ .2 3 • 3 ^M & 2 3-9 o '3 5'& "5 := 303 ■s5 5 'E •ii- « C3 (- B Ph iJO S -i ■"" )-H '~^_ 1 — ^ 1 — ' ^-' [ I-H 1-^" I-H I"" c3 *~* *~* hH ' hH "-H a o Hi; <£ .2 a 01 g S .2 § : 3 a tt M M ■ bi ja o := 3 : 3 .-S « oi e3 • 03 u :3 Ph Hi : J ils are led to depend more and more upon them- selves, after teacher has explained orally the work recjuired of them. Jltglii-r (Uns^ {eight hours). The reader for advanced classes is now studied. At least thirty selections are mastered yearly. The first step toward the proper uuderstandint; of a selection lies in reading same aloud faultlessly and in speaking upon its subject- matter. The greatest care must be given to correct expression. Oral reproduction exercises are continued with greater strictness, the teacher ever requiring more and more of the pupils. A number of poems, especially songs of the people, are learned by heart. Hefore leaving school, the pupils should be able to read understandingly the more dilticult selections, which, in subject matter, are not too far above them. They should be able to express clearly and correctly the subject-matter of such selections. Keading and the other language exercises should enable the pupils to spell and punctuate correctly. Should the same faults often occur, the teacher must devote special attention thereto. Words alike in sound and foreign words in common use demand special drill. In penmanship the German and Latin scripts are practiced at stated hours. Proverbs iinil n.iyings of the people servo as copies. I'upils must learn to write neatly and legibly. The different forms of sentences are studied with reference to punrtuation ; parts of spi-ech; the formation and use of participles; the declension of adjectives with and without definite and indefinite articles: the declension of pronouns: prepositions and their uses: government of verbs and ailjectives: conjugation of verbs: analysis of sentences: direct and indirect discourse: word-building. All the work is introduced and practiced with practical examples. In composition the reproduction exercisesarei-ontinued and short themesare written on familiar subjects. Pupils are often asked, at the close of a lesson in natur.-d histi>ry. geography, the history of the Fatln'rlaml and religion, to write what they have learned. Careful attention is paid to ordinary business forms, letters, bills, notes, recei|its. eti'. Letters are prepared ready to post. All written work should bo done neatly. c. Akixhmetic. The pupils should accjuiro a thorough knowledge of practical busi- ness arithmetic. They must be trained to give reasons for steps in the solution of problems. Jlechanical work must lie excluded. Pupils should be mostcarefullydrillcd in the (lerman coinage, weights .and measures. Limg rows of figures beyond the com- prehension of the pupils should be avoided, aud attention paid to that which will be of use to pupils in trade or in every-day life. In introducing new processes mental should precede written work in all classes. Primary Department. Lotrer Class, Second DivisionAfnio- hours). Oiijeet teaching. The numbers from one to ten. Use of a variety of objects, marks, linos, crosses, etc. The numerical frame. The four fundamental processes from one to ten. Loirer Class, First I)ivision Ifoiir hours). Numbers one to too. A variety of siniplo problems, embracing these numbers. Iliilher Class [four hours). The numbers up to loou. The tour processes are exercised by problems in mental arithmetic up to lOOii. especially, however, up to 200. Coinage, weights and measures. Advanced IJErARTJiENT. Loiri-r I'lassi.four lionrs'. A careful review of the work of the three preceding years. Practice in written work beyond the number looo. The mental and written solution of a variety of simple problems in tlie four processes. /fifjhir Class, .Second Virisiini [four hours). Common and decimal fractions. The drill in common fractions should be couflned quite closely to those fractions which occur in common business transactions (one-halt to one-twelfth). Special care should be taken in te.'Kdiing the reduction of common to decimal fractions, and this solution of problems, involving unusual common fractions, is recommended. First Dirisioii {four hours). Computation of time, ratio and proportion, percentage, interest, discount, profit and loss, alligation, area of surfaces and contents of solids. d. Geometry. Advanced Department. Higher Class {two hours). This instruction should be connected with drawing on the one hand and arithmetic on the other. By the former pupils learn torepresentcorrectiy lines, surfaces and solids : by the latter they understand how to compute the length of lines, the area of surfaces aud the contents of solids. This instruction should be practical to meet the needs of tradesmen and farmers. The course includes lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, polygons, circles and the regular solids, e. 1>rawing.* Training of the eye and hand is the object of this course. A taste for symmetry, regularity and beauty of form should be cultivated. Instruction should be pr.ictical, the aim being to afford assistance to those espei'ially who will learn a trade. Primary Department. Higher Class {ttro hours). Drawing begins in this class .and consists of mechanical work, with slate, rule and pencil, in copying lines and figures dr.awn upon the black- board by the teacher. Lines of different length and position, triangles andquadrangli>s are drawn, then simple objects, as table, chair, desk. etc. Advanced Department. Loiri'r <_'lass{tu-o liours). The above work is continued, partly with paper and pencil. I'lipils now commence free-hand drawing, continuing mechanical drawing. Lines and angles are drawn and then divided into a given number of equal parts. Parallelograms aud simple geometrical figures are drawn. ' Ttie outline here given preceded (he general introduction of Stuhbuann's system, reference to wliieb will l)e found in the second chapter. 42 Highn- Class {two Iiours). Free-hand drawine is continued, and pupils with a special talent for this work are permitted to eo further than the others. Industrial drawing, however, is the most important. The school-room, school-house, play-eround, the home, maps of the city or village and district furnish the material for both mechanical and free-hand drawing. The close relation l)Btwoen the instruction in drawing and geometry { llanmleln-f-) should never l>e lost sight of. /. Eealien. The llealii'n include geography, history and natural history. Geoghaphy. The children should he made acquainted with Ihe home, the Fatherland, the German Empire and the principal countries of the earth. They study the continents and the principal heavenly bodies. The instruction is largely synthetic and must bo given through representations of the teacher upon the blackboard, through maps, charts and globes. Primary Depabtment. Highfr Class {two Iiours). Instruction begins in this class with a description of the school-house, the home and the district. Next comes the government district, and then the province. Pupils study elementary geographical charts. Advanced Department. Lower I'lass [tiro lioms). Continuation of above, with more detailed description oi the government district and province. Pupils learn the boundaries of the Fatherland, the provinces, with their principal cities, the chief rivers and mountains. Higher Glass Itwo liours). Special attention is now paid to Prussia, the German Empire and Austria. Other European countries are next studied. Pupils learn name, geographical position, boundaries, the most important rivers, mountains and cities. The geographical position, boundaries, chiet cities, mountains and rivers of other import.int countries of the world are taken up. more especially tho."e which, through their history, culture or commerce, demand especial attention. In mathematical geography the following instruction is recommended; 1. Touching the horizon : 2. Touching representations of the earth, and the siguiflcance of the most important lines and points: 3. Touching the form and shape of the earth : 4. Touching the motions of the earth ; 5. Touching the seasons and the zones ; 6. Touching the fixed stars ; 7. Touching the sun and moon ; 8. Touching the calendar. History. This instruction includes the history of Prussia and the German Empire. The aim of this instruction is to develop patriotism and loyalty toward the roy.al family. Instruction in history is given by the teacher in the form of talks. History and geography should go hand in hand. Primary Department. Higher Class Cu-o Itours). The children learn the names of the emperor and empress. the crown-prince, and the most important men of the day. The teacher relates anec- dotes of these men and important events in their lives. The pupils are next made .acquainted with the chief events in the reigns of Frederick William IV and Frederick William III. The great men of these reigns are held up to the pupils, with their peculiar traits. Advanced Department. Jlotli Dirisions together Itn-o liours). The pupils study a few of the important events in the early history of Germany and Brandenburg. From the time of the Thirty Years' War instruction is systematic and connected. In addition to the above, some of the most important inventions and discoveries, both in ancient and modern times, are taken up. Natur.al History. The aim of this instruction is to acquaint the children with those phenomena in nature which are daily before their eyes. It is one of the most important duties of the teacher to awaken an interest in nature, to train the powers of observation, that the pupils see how much cause for reflection is given by her products and the workings of her forces. This instruction in natural history should follow the object method. Practical experi- ments, when possihle, are strongly recommended. Primary Departjient. Higher Class {tiro Iiours). The pupils learn some of the important plants of the garden, the Helds and the woods. The teacher should have before him the plant itself or a good representation thereof. In the winter the children study some of the mammalia and aves. usually the domestic animals. Advanced Department. Lower Glass (two hours). Ivnowledge of plants, mammalia and aves is extended. In summer a few insects are studied; also amphibia and ttshes. Attention is now given to the manner of living of the animals studied. The growth of plants and their uses are talked of. Peculiarities in the foims of plants and the bodies of animals are described. A few minerals of the district receive attention. Higher Class Uu-o hours). Physiology and hygiene. The structure of the human body and the fundamental laws of health. Ivnowledge of plants, animals and minerals is extended. Useful trees, shrubs, herbs and poisonous plants are studied. Growth and conditions of growth. The cultivation and fertilization of the field. Foreign and domestic products, such as cotton, tea, coffee and sugar should be studied. The proper division of the vegetable kingdom for the elementary schools is into (1) trees. (2) shrubs. 13) herbs. U) grasses, (.^) mushrooms, (6) mosses. The animals are brought under the following classifications: (1) mammalia. 12' aves. (:i) amphibia, (4) fishes, (6) insects, (6) worms, 17) mollusks, (8) infusoria. Foreign words are seldom used in classifications. 43 Mammalia and aves (lomaiid special attention, much less amphibia and fishes The insects are also important. Animals useful or dan«orous to man those which, by size or peculiarities, awaken a high degree of interest should be studied. Home minerals alone are studied. ff^aAerTvns.s ufo^^'Xr'ln nature the pupils take up the A'u.PO^ant peculiarities of air heat water vapor, fog, clouds, dew. frost, rain, suow, hail.. ice and storms. The prartS'aifplication of natural forces is cousidored, as in the gun. pumps, etc Next require attention the barometer, fountains and water conduits; the ear c,. lo and musical instruments: the thermometer, steam engine, manufacture of gas; the e fect^ of 1 ght .and T^hade colors, the minor, the burning glass, eye glasses, the eye and sghtth" rain-bow; the pullev, the lever, the scales, gravitation. The ordinary applications of electricity and magnetism are taken up. Pupils are given a general idea of the elertric telegraph. . „„„,„ All thiS work is to be treated by the ohiect method in ajJimple nianner. erencrshouM be gi/enl'^thoVe which foster a iSve of the Fatherland. /0^r™5"a<^?(omW™rrExercise8 to train the voice and env The children learn to sing after the teacher dstinct tones in the middle register to the different vowels. The pZtaclmrd bote risYng and falling is practiced to various texts. ^ few simple soiigs if nos'iible within the -ompass of the pentachord, are practiced. Ihe text ot songs i^ read aloud by the t.°icher and explained.. The.pupils then learn thesame by heart. A frtw yimt)Ift fione° should be hiiirned in tLiis> division. ^. , , i- i • T/;«™rJ^;n.?°f/.rX„rs Continuation ot the above. Diphthongs are practiced in dilTereut pitches. Then follow vowels and diphthongs in connection with consonants, then syllables and words. irmvM^SSytS"-!^.'' Continuation with special reference to purity. Ilexibility ami correct tone CO or The pentachord is extended to the scale. The chord of three and four note "fsprSented in diflerent keys. The pupils learn about twenty-five secular ''"l}igh!^,'^\Zl!7'^o hour,). Continuation ot above. The. more difficult intervals, the minor chord of; three and tour notes and a few songs in minor keys are practiced, "cales ami chords of three and four notes in different keys receive attenti.on. Pupils a^fmiVrecaretulir drilled in the singing of songs. Tney .learn a,bov.tthiry secular and nulioursongs Singing is in unison, though part singing is not excluded. If fnstruS hasTe^en given systematically from I''" Q^^'- '' Y'" ^f P^^'*'''^ f^-" "'« pupils to obtain some knowledge of notation and also learn to sing by note. ''■praM-vKYDEPAKTMENT Uwu hours). Simple gymnastic exercises in preparation for the Advanced Department ((»io /io7H-.'i). The boys have (II Exercises in standing and upon the horizontal bar: (2) Exercises with a stick, high jumping; Ci) Exercises in drilling, and upon the parallel bars: (1) Exercises in hopping, and upon the horizontal bar. (51 Exercises in walking, and in broad jumping; (6) Exercises in running, and upon the»parallel bars. , ^ ..i ■ - * *• . * / Manual TKAiNiNG for the Giels itiro hunrat. The end of this instruction i» to fit the giris for domestic lite. Industry should be encouraged,, and a taste for neatiiess n personal appearance and economy in clothing. The fol.lowmg should be taught. aKnittng Pupils should be able to do all work of this kind retjuired in ordinary '^T'slw'iug." i>upils should learn the different plain stitches and patching : c Easy work in sewing and stitching articles of clothing, etc., outlining, darning ; d,.Moro difficult work in sewing and stitching articles of ■•lothing. etc.. the cutting ° Fancy stitches should not bo taught in the elementary schools Practical plain sew- ing is the aim of the course. With this end in view, the children should repair and make articles of clothing under the direction ot the teacher, bringing the neces.sary Tt'fs'not^enough'"orth6 teacher to show how a thing is to be done. The work of pupils must bo carefully controlled, and they must be taught the technical terms necessary to TJcaf SifaSth^.dUeld"^;drisrtL advisability o( instruction upon the sewing The teacher should keep a record ot the work done by the pupils. IV. The School with Three Classes and Two Teachers.* When, in a school with two classes and two teachers, the number of pupils exceeds 120, a third class is to be formed^ * The course of study tor schools with two classes and two teachers is followed as closely as circumstances permit. 44 The third class has twelve hours' instruction weekly; the second class twenty-four, and the first class twenty-eight. This time is divided as follows: Third Class. Second Class. First Class. Religious instruction 2 7 1 - 1 t 4 1 4 1 2 4 Language 8 Arithmetic Geometry f) Drawing 1 Realien (geography, history and natural history).. Music 6 2 Gymnastics, manual training 2 12 24 28 Ijrogress in Instruction should follow the time-table. Changes not affecting the number of hours may be authorized by the local school inspector (Lokahchubntipekior). Other alterations must be authorized by the government. The children are divided into classes according to studies. The third class embraces the children of the first school year; the second class, those of the second, third, and fourth school years; the first class, children of the four following years. There should be two divisions of the first and second classes. Teachers must have the following articles: (1) In the third class. a. A copy of the j)rimer used in the school; h. Alphabetical charts for use in teaching reading; c. A numerical frame; d. A rule; e. A large portable blackboard. (2) In the second class : a. A copy of each book used in the class; h. A wall map of Palestine; c. A wall map of the home province; d. Natural history charts; e. Kule and compass; f. Two large portable blackboards. (3) In the first class: a. A copy of each book used in the class; b. A globe; c. A wall map of Germany; d. A wall map of Europe ; e. A wall map of Palestine; /. Natural history charts; ;/. A violin; h. A rule and comi^ass; i. Bodies for use in teaching geometrj*; j. Two large portable blackboards. In Protestant schools : k. A Bible; I. A copy of the song-book used in the district. Each class-room must be furnished witli a thermometer, a likeness of the Emperor, and Roman Catholic schools with a crucifix. Teachers' Records. Each teacher must keep a register, showing daily attendance and weekly progress of pupils. The principal is to keep a history of the school district. The course of study and time- table for each class must be kept constantly in each class-room. Books, etc. The pupils of this school require (1) The primer and readers; (2) The primary arithmetic; (3) Song-books; (4) Books for religious instruction; (.5) Slate, pencil, sponge, rule and a pair of compasses; ({)) Blank books: a. Diary; b. Copy book; c. Composition book; d. Drawing book. V. The School wrru Three Classes and Three Teachers. The third class has twenty-two hours' instruction weekly; the second class has twenty-eight hours' instruction weekly; the first class has thirty-two hours' instruction weekly. The time is divided as follows : Religious instruction Language Arithmetic Geometry Drawing Realion (geography, history and natural history) Music Gymnastics, manual training Third Class. Second Class. First Class. Hours. 11 4 "1 (1 1 2 Hours. 4 8 4 2 2 2 Hours. 4 8 4 2 2 ).. 8 '2 2 22 28 32 The third class embraces children of the first and second years. The second class embraces children of the third, fourth and fifth years. The first class embraces children of the sixth, seventh and eighth years. The regulations touching books, etc., for pupils and teachers, teach- ers' records, etc., are the same as those for schools with three classes and two teachers. VI. The School with Fouk Departments. The fourth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; the third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; the second 46 class has tweuty-eight hours of instruction per week; the first class has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. This time is divided as follows: Religious instruction Language Arithmetic Geometry Drawing Kealien (geography, history, natural his- tory) Music Gymnastics, manual training Fourth Third Second Clasa. Class. Class. Hours. Hours. Hours. 4 4 4 11 8 8 4 4 4 U 2 2 G G 1 2 2 2 2 2 22 28 28 First Class. Hours. 4 32 Each class has a two years' course, and is composed of two divisions. The regulations governing teachers' records, etc., books, etc., for teachers and isupils are the same as in other schools. VII. The School with Five Departments. The fifth class has twenty- two hours of instruction per week; The fourth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; The third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; The second class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; The first class has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. This time is divided as follows: Religious instruction Language . . : Arithmetic Geometry Drawing Realien (geography, history, nat- ural history) Music Gymnastics (manual training) Fifth Fourth Third Second Class. Class. Class. Class. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. 4 4 4 4 11 11 8 8 4 4 4 4 2 2 6 6 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 22 22 28 28 Firf't Class. Hours. 32 The fifth and fourth classes have each a course of ouc year. The third, second and first classes have each a course of two years. The three upper classes have each two divisions. Regulations are the same as for other schools, touching school furniture, teachers' records, books and supplies for teachers and l)U2)ils. 47 VIII. The School with Sis Classes. The sixth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; The tifth class has twenty-two hours of instruction per week; The fourth class has twenty-eight liours of instruction per week; The third class has twenty-eight hours of instruction per week; The second class has thirty hours of instruction per week; The first class has thirty-two hours of instruction per week. This time is divided as follows: 1. In the sixth and tifth classes: Horns. Religious instruction 4 Language 11 Arithmetic 4 Music 1 Gymnastics (manual training) 2 22 "2. In the fourth and third classes: Religious instruction 4 Language y Arithmetic 4 Drawing 2 Realien (geography, history and natural history) i 6 Music " '. 2 Gymnastics (manual training) 2 3. In the second class: Religious instruction 4 Language 8 Arithmetic 4 Drawing 2 Realien (geography, history and natural history) fS Music 2 Gymnastics (manual training) 2 ~30 4. In the first class: Religious instruction 4 Language 8 Arithmetic 4 Geometry 2 Drawing 2 Realien (geography, history and natural history) S Music 2 Gymnastics (manual training) 2 The children of the sixth, fifth, fourth and third classes are those of the first, second, third and fourth school years. The course is one year in each class. The children of the second and first classes are those of the fifth and sixth, the seventh and eighth school years. The course is two years in each class. -18 There are two divisions in each of the two upper classes. Regulations touching school furniture, supplies, teachers' records, etc., are the same as those in other schools. IX. Table Showing the Relative Distribution of Peu.ssian Elementary Public Schools in 18S().* Number of pupils. Per cent. I. Ungraded schools- .... 1,146,602 571,474 415,116 486, 772 277,015 1,941,268 23 70 II. Half-day schools {Halbtagtischulen) III. Schools with two classes and two teachers... . . . IV. Schools with three classes and two teachers. . . . V. Schools with three classes and three teachers. . VI. Schools with four or more classes 11.81 8.. '•.8 10,06 5.73 40 12 4,838,247 100.00 Sixty-four thousand seven hundred and fifty regular teachers were employed; 57,902 were males, 6,848 were females f In New York public schools in I88G, 31,325 teachers were employed; 5,952 were males, 25,373 were females. Division or the School Children According to Sex. Boys 2,422,044 Girls 2,416,203 Total 4,838,247 In Mixed Classes. Boys 1,766,807 Girls 1,745;343 Total 3,512,150 In Classes or Boys 655 , 237 In Classes of Girls 670 , 860 Total 4,838,247 Division of Children According to Religion. Protestant {evanr/eiit^ch) 3 , 062 , 856 Roman Catholic \k-alhohseh) 1 , 730 , 402 Other Christian denominations {sont^t chiiatlicli) 9,569 •Jewish {jadm-h) 35,420 Total 4,838,247 Eleven and eighty-one hundredths per cent of all children in attendance upon the public elementary schools received instruction in Halbtag^srhulen (Half-day schools). These schools were classed among the normal divisions of Prussian elementary schools by decree of October 15, 1872. This step was taken under the firm conviction *From " Preussisohe Statistik lOl." Berlin. 1889. t There were also 1,183 assistant teachers in addition to those of industrial training for girls. 49 that a teacher with a limited niiiiiber of pupils of one grade can accomiilish more in a few hours than with an overcrowded class uf all grades in double the time. ''Es wird angenommen, dasa ein Lelirer in uv.nigeii Slunden mil einer /clemeren Zahl einer AUerasin/e aiujehoriger Kinder melir erreiche, als mil der doppellen Zahl der Slunden i'u iXberfiXllter Klaaae mil Kindern aller AUersxtufen." This exjiedient merits attention in New York, in districts not pro- vided with sufficient school accommodations. Between May 20, 1886 and October, 1888, 354: new public elementary schools were opened with 975 classes, 788 male and 164: female teachers and 57,017 pupils.* SEVENTH CHAPTER S(;hools Preparatory to the Normal, for Males. Praparandenanstallen. Most of these preparatory schools are the outgrowth of piivate undertakings. Teachers began by taking a few pupils to fit for the noi'mal schools. From 1872 to November, 1888, thirty-two of these institutions were founded by the government. At this date there were 1,991 pupils in attendance. There are also similar private schools which receive State aid. There are, as a rule, two teachers at each of these institutions. The princijjal receives from $450 to $600 a year, and lives in the school; the assistant from $300 to $450, and ten per cent of salary as allowance for rent. The male teachers are now quite generally prepared for the normal schools in these Praparandenanstalteu, though some enter directly from the Mittelschuleu, Realschulen, eneh and instruction upon the piano and organ. Instruction is to be given in a simple manner, objectively when possible. Pupils should be trained to observe closely and to think for themselves. Careful attention should be paid to correct enunciation and expression. The pupils are encouraged to malce collections of minerals, insects, etc. Beliuion (not given). Language. The private reading of pupils is carefully overlooked. Correct, easy and logicHl oral and written expression is tiie aim of the course in lan- guage. Pupils should be able to read well and reproduce, in their own words, difficult selections in poetry and prose, when the subject-matter is not too technical. Heading. This is based upon the readers. The selections chosen should include the most important styles of prose and the principal forms of poetry. Something should be read from e.ach celebrated national author. Selections are studied as follows: a. Reading aloud by the teacher; b. Explanation of figures of speech and difficult expressions; 0. Repeated reading by the pupils with especial reference to correct enunciation and expression; (L Subject-matter and train of thought; f. Free reproduction of the subject-matter, either in abbreviated form or with addition of that read lietween the lines; also with different dispositions of the subject-matter as to form and style ; /. Oral and written explanation of figures of speech. difBcult or technical expressions, synonymns, comparisons and the like. Explanation of the form of selection and short sketches of the author are given. A number of poems are learned by heart. The readers embriice also historical and geographical selections and natural history. These are carefully considered as well. Secothl ijtasti {tiro hours per ireekl. Short stories, fables, parables, sayings, historical anecdotes, descriptions, geographical pictures, lyrical poems and songs and biographi- cal sketches. First Glass (weekly two hours). In addition to the above proverbs and aphorisms, songs and elegies, lf>gends and ballads, idyls and selections from dramas. Biographical sketches of the lives of celebrated authors, such as Luther. S. Dach. Paul Gerhard. Gellert, Lessing. Claudius, I^lopstock. Voss, Herder, Schiller, Goethe, Pesta- lozzi, W. Arndt. Sehenkendorf. Koerner, RUckert, Uhland, Chamisso, Freiligrath. Geibel, Grimm, Hebel, Krummacher. Remark. The course in the first class is two years. Selections are to he made so that in the second year the same forms of prose and poetry occur, but not the same pieces. Langoage {royititiueil). Style is formed by written tasks taken from the reader, from the instruction in geography, history, or natural history, or from life. The subject- matter for this written work is first taken up orally in the class. Serouil Ulass ((»■<) livms a week). Every three weeks two exercises are corrected by the teacher. First I'lass {one liour per u-eek). Every two weeks an' exercise is corrected by the teacher. These exercises consist of historical sketches, short biographies, geographi- cal descriptions, character description, explanation of synonymous expressions, proverbs, sayings and letters. Remark. lu addition to these written exercises the.second class must absolve a com- plete course in orthography involving the rules of orthography and practice to fix these rules in mind. The first class repeats these rules with their application. Gkammar. The children learn the laws for the use of the mother tongue. .Second Glass (one hour pel- week). Simple, compound and complex sentences ; parts of sppoch. First Glass lone hour per u^eek). Composition of words and sentences; punctuation. Private reading. The school library contains geographical and historical m.atter, biographies of celebrated men, popular sketches, (German classics and translations of 51 toreigu olassies, all of whic'b I'ome witbiii the range of tbe pupils. The seloi^tiou of the books to read is madi3 by the pupils with the advice of the teacher. Generally, a book is read every fortnielit. For practice in oral expression, the pupils must repeat before the class short episodes, descriptions, etc.. of that which they have read. M.\THEMATics. Tho puplls must acquire readiness iu the solution of problems In arithmetic and algebra. Pupils mu.-t always be able to give reasons for each step in the solution of a problem. Kepeated drill is given to t\x processes in the minds of pupils. Sfmiid Claisf Uecckhj tliree Iwnrs). Formation of figures. Notation and numeration. The four fundamental processes, decimals, aud common fractions. Simple algebraic problems. First Olaxs {u-peklu tiro lioicrs). Simple problems in algebra continued. Proportion, interest, discount, partnership, alligation, extraction of satiare root. Geometkv. Surfaces and solids. Simple propositions and definitions of lines, angles, triangles, iiu.idniugles. polygons and the circle. Computation of areas and contents. Second CVa.-^.s ione hour per ireek). Instruction should be given objectively. Care should be paid to correct expression. Practice in constructing geometrical figures. Properties of lines, angles, triangles and iiuadrangles. Construction and computation. Divisions of solids. Properties of prisms, pyramids, cylinders, spheres and the regular solids. Comput.atiou of contents. First Ijlass ilmo liotirs per ipeek). Planimetry. Lines, angles, parallel lines, figures iu general ann the blackboard. The formation of letters. Practice iu I'opy-books and upon the blackboard. Correc- tions should be made principally in the class. Faults of pupils should be clearly explained. Attention is first paid to neatness, legibility and correctness, then to rapidity. .^eroitd Class itiro hours ireekti/). The German script. Fir.1t Otuss {ime hour ireekUl). The L.itin and German scripts. DuAWiNG. Mechanical and free-hand drawing. Training of the eye and hand. Development of taste for regularity, syuimetry and beauty of form. Facility in drawing geometrical figures and simple objects in nature. The wh'ile class should work together, that which is to be drawn being Urst explained by teacher, ('hildreu should be led bv iiuestious to discover their own faults and correct the same. Practice upon the blackboard. Second Ijlass ( two hours per ireek). Straight lines varying, in length, position and thickness. Division of these lines into parts. Angles and division of the same into 52 parts. Symmetrical figures drawn witliin squares. Curved lines, iind figures with curved lines. First Class i.lii-0 lioiirs per week). Drawing of right-angled bodies and circular bodies before the eyes of pupils. Drawing of symmetrical figures, characteristic forms of plants and simple work in ornamental drawing. Music. /. Voral. Pupils should learn by heart about twenty religi'ius and secular songs. They should learn to read at sight easy hymns and songs of the people. Texts of songs are carefully explained. Attention is then devoted to key, rhythm, interval and time. The proper breathing places are indicated. At the beginning of each lesson a scale is practiced or an exercise in finding dilTerent intervals is studied. The two classes are combined and have two hours instruction weekly. The songs and hymns to be practiced are definitely stated. //. Instrmiieutal piano. The pupils learn to play well all major and minor scales, also easy studies, sonatinas and sonatas. In each piece careful attention is given to key, rhythm and time. A new piece is first played with one, then with two hands. Good position of hand and arm, precision of touch and ea.>e of execution are attended to. Pupils are divided according to capacity. Each division has one hour per week. Attention is given to careful gradation of the work. ///. Viuliu. The principal major and minor scales in the first position. Facility in playing tiymns and songs previously practiced. Ability to read easy music at sight. Most careful attention to holding of instrument: to good and easy bowing; to firm position of the first finger; to style and correctness in playing in concert. Pupils are divided according to capacity. Each division has one hour per week. IV. Music ill general. Pupils learn the different clefs, rhythms and keys, the usual foreign terms and definitions of time, the doctrine of intervals and tune relations. One hour of instruction weekly. By examples upon the blackboard the proper understanding is facilitated and the pupil thereby led to the independent solution of given tasks. The basis of instruction in this branch is Widmann's "Harmony, Melody and Form," and, chiefly, Draht's " Theory of Music." V. IJarmfinij. The pupils learn to name and play in all positions and inversions the major and minor triad, and the chord of the dominant seventh. The formation of the triads and seventh chord is explained upon the blackboard and instrument, and fixed by repe.ated drill in the dilTereut keys. One hour of instruction weekjy for each class. VI. Organ. Pupils learn the elementary manual and pedal exercises ; to play at sight tour-part hymn tunes and to play from memory easy selections. Careful attention should be given to fingering, change of fingers on the same key, playing together with two hands, use of pedals (heel and toe). Necessary instruction In the use of stops is given. The first exercises should be most carefully drilled. The pupils are divided according to capacity. E.aeh division has one hour of instruc- tion weekly. The school for tlie organ of 8ohUtze and the preludes of Baumert. Feench. Pupils are permitted to take this course only when all other work is thor- oughly satisfactory. The pupils study carefully a French Elementary Grammar, learning to translate easy execoises from German into French and from French into German. Drill in punctuation and orthography. Kules are always fixed in mind by practical examples. From the beginning pupils are taught to understand easy sentences in French, and later questions. The simplest rules give material fur eomiiarison of the two languages. The selections in reader are first translated literally, then into good German, finally re-translated into French. These selections afford .subject-matter for dialogues wittithe pupils, bringing into practice the words and rules learned. Second Class {iceekUi, t>co hours). Lessons l-.w. Elementary Grammar by Ploetz. Drill upon all forms of avoir and ctre. After finishing the first forty lessons, the first and second conjug.ations are learned. First Class ttreeliy, tiro hoins). Lessons 60-91, Ploetz, Elementary Grammar. Thor- ough drill of the four eunjugations. Division A finishes the elementary reader. Gymnastics. Candidates learn all exercises included in the "Neuer Leitfadeu .tUr (Icii Tio-nunterricld in den I'renssisclwn \'i>ll,-sscliiden" (New Manual for Gymnastic Instruction in Prussian Elementary Schools). Each hour of instruction in gymnastics begins with exercises standing, then moving and drilling, finally with gymnastic apparatus. All pupils work together two hours a week in gymnastics, following the manual. EIGHTH CHAPTER. Normal Schools fob Male Teachers.* Normal schools are called teachers' seminaries iu Prussia. They are smaller and more numerous than our own. In October, 1888, there were 107 State normal schools for males in Prussia, with an attendance of 8,507, of which number 3,031 were day •Formerly many m.ale elementary teachers were not graduates of normal schools. The tact that all are now held rigidly to the same requirements has driven almost all to the normal schools. " Es gicbt fhr alle Lehrer nur eineu VVeg der Vorbilduug. Dieselbe wird ihnen im engsten Anschlussean die Aufgaben, bezw. an den Lehrplan der Volksschule ertheilt, indem sle sich ,aut Vertiefung und Ergilnzung der dort gewonnenen Kentnisse beschriinkt." (Drs. Schneider and Petersilie.) 53 students. Except in seven cases, no normal school had more than 100 pupils ; thirty-five had less than seventy ; thirty-eight vpere for boarders only; thirty-two had day pupils aloue, and thirty-seven had both. With several excejitions, all normal schools are situated in small villages. As a rule, they are not as well built or furnished as similar institutions here. There are always one or more practice-schools con- nected with each institution. There are Kin jiractice-schools (Uebungaschulen) in connection with tlie normal schools; 19,7G0 pupils were in attendance in 1886. These schools liad 478 classes, 159 for boys, HC for girls, and 283 mixed classes. Upon entering the normal schools, pupils must have had a good common school education, and, excepting pedagogics, must be fami- liar with the subject-matter of all branches taught. This accounts in a large measure for the thoroughness of the professional training received. Tuition is free at all normal schools. In boarding-schools, lodging, heating and light are free. Candidates without means receive further aid — in boarding-schools, amounting to twenty-two dollars and fifty cents; in day-schools, to thirty-seven dollars and fifty cents annually. Graduates are bound to serve at least three years subject to the direction of the government, under the penalty of forfeiting the cost of instruction and living expenses advanced. Tuition in such cases is reckoned at fifteen dollars annually. Students are generally sons of farmers, tradesmen or teachers. Few come from higher ranks of society. Each normal school has a director, a first teacher, four ordinary teachers and an assistant. In addition to free dwelling or the legal allowance therefor, the salaries paid are as follows: Director $900 to $1 ,200 First teacher 675 to 825 Ordinary teachers 425 to 675 Assistant 300 .... Teachers are generally either clergymen or former high and elementary school instructors. Opportunity is afforded the members of the faculty to visit other normal schools. Tluough conferences and school revisions normal school teac-hers are brought frequently in contact with elementary teachers. Examinations for admission to the normal schools are held once each year before the beginning of the term. Candidates of good moral character and good physical condition not under 17 years of age, nor more than 24, possessing means to meet expenses, are admitted to this examination, whether prepared in middle schools, Realschulen, Gymnasien, Praparaudenanstalten or in private. Applications .nust be made at least three weeks before the examina- tion. More than three trials are not permitted. With the application, candidates must present: 1. Certificate of baptism (birth certificate); 2. Certificate of vaccination and good x^hysical condition; 54 3. Certificate as to moral character; 4. Statement, legalized by local authorities, of father or guardian that means are at hand to paj' living expenses. Special permission of the provincial school consistory {Provinzial- Schulcollegium) is required for the admission of candidates more than 24 years of age. Candidates who pass the entrance examination before appointment are reexamined as to physical condition by the normal school physician. The eximination is conducted by the normal school faculty with a commissary of the provincial school consistory as chairman. School commissioners and preparatory school teachers {Praparandenbildner) of the district may be present. The examination is both oral and written. In the written examina- tion the candidate must write a short theme upon a given subject, and answer a number of questions covering the subject-matter of the examination. These questions should not require more than two or three minutes' time each. The committee is authorized to shut out from further examination pupils who show themselves deficient in the written work. The oral examination covers all subjects taught in the normal school, except pedagogics. Each normal school teacher exam- ines in the subject in which he instructs in the normal school. The whole faculty of the normal school should be present. "When this is not the case, the candidates should be classed according to the number of teachers present; nevertheless, when difference of opinion exists as to maturity of candidate for normal school, he must be reexamined in doubtful subjects before the whole faculty. The principal subjects are: 1. Religion; 2. Language; 3. Arith- metic and Geometry; 4. Music; 5. Realien and History. (Realien, i. e., Geography and Natural History.) Candidates who fail in anj' one of these subjects will be received only when all other work attains a high degree of excellence. When an imperfect examination in music is attributable to lack of ear, the candidate may be received. Failure in the examination upon the organ is not suificient cause for debarring a candidate. This entrance examination must prove jiroficiency of pupils, as follows : a. Religion. (Not given); b. Langoage. 1. Parts of speech, composition of words and analysis of sentences. The candidate must be able to give practical applica- tions of rules in proverbs, or quotations from national authors; 2. He must be able to read readily at sight, with correct enuncia- tion and exjjression. He must explain what he has read, defining words and analyzing sentences; 3. He must know the principal forms of poetry, and recognize the same. He must be able to repeat from memory poems of Schiller, Uhland, Riickert, etc., with good expression, explaining the subject-matter; 4. He must be able to write correctly and grammatically, and com- jDOse short themes on given subjects. c. Arithmetic. Facility and correctness in the solution of problems in mental arithmetic; a thorough knowledge of the method of solu- tion upon the blackboard. The four fundamental jjrocesses, common and decimal fractions, ratio and j^roportion, business arithmetic, including alligation. Prob- lems in elementary algebra. The candidate must work with facility and surety, showing that he understands reasons for processes used. d. Geometry. Elements of plane geometry. Computation of area of surfaces and contents of solids. e. Geography. General knowledge of the parts of the glolje and the five oceans, more particular knowledge of Europe, especially Ger- many. The principal points in mathematical geography. /. History. Principal events in ancient history, such as the Trojan war, the Persian wars, the bloom of Greece, Alexander the Great, the foundation of Rome, the Kings, expulsion of the Tarquins, Camillus, the Gauls, the Punic wars, etc. The birth and spread of Christianity, the migration of tribes; principal persons and events in the history of Germany, Brandenburg and Prussia up to date. The most impor- tant dates only are desired. g. Natural History. The candidate must prove his knowledge of the three kingdoms by the explanation of important specimens of each class under adopted classifications. More detailed information is required touching the cultivated and poisonous plants, the fauna and Jlora of the home. The elements of chemistry. It is desii-able that candidate ^'I't^P^-i'e for examination by practical course in experimentation. h. Pknmanship. Ease in correct writing on paper and on the black- board. All written work must be orderly, neat and legible. '/. Drawing. Free-hand and mechanical drawing. Practice required in blackboard drawing. ,/. Mnsic. Candidates must be able to sing, from memory, with a fair degree of correctness, twenty of the best known secular and religious songs. They must be able to read at sight simple hymns and songs of the jseople. Candidates should be able to play correctly on the piano all major and minor scales; to play from memory easy studies and sonatas; to read, at sight, simple selections. They should play readily and cor- rectly upon the violin the most important major and minor scales in the first jjositiou. Hymns and songs, learned by heart, must be played from memory, and easy music at sight. A good foundation in the technique of the instrument is the first requisite. In general musical knowledge, the examination covers clefs, rhythms and keys, the usual foreign terms and definitions of time, the doc- trine of intervals and tone relations. In harmonj', candidates must name and play the major and minor triad and the chord of the dominant seventh in all positions. In organ-playing, the candidates must know the elementary manual and pedal exercises, play simple four-part hymns at sight and simple selections from memory. k. Gymnastics. Candidates must be ready to perform all exercises contained in the "New Manual for Gymnastical Instruction in Prussian Elementary Schools." Oeganiz.vtion of Normal Scuools and Courses of Study. Each normal school should be connected with a graded and ungraded practice school. Tue work in the practice school is under the charge of the director of the noi'mal school, through a sjjecial teacher as Ordinarius. 56 The position of Ordinarius is given to one of the normal school instructors. The course in the normal school covers three years. In the third class, the pupils do not teach in the practice school. An effort is made toward uniformity, to prepare the class, as a unit, for professional training. Introduction to pedagogies. In the middle class the pupils extend their knowledge of all sub- jects which they are to teach. They are present at classes in the practice school, attending carefully to the instruction given, assisting the teacher and conducting themselves class exercises. Continuation of pedagogics. In the highest class, the pupils finish the course of study at the normal school, receiving instruction for subsequent work in prepara- tion for the final examination, which occurs not less than two nor more than five years after graduation. They are given systematic instruc- tion in the practice school under the oversight of the Ordinarim-. No pupil should have less than six or more than ten hours per week as teacher. Before graduation each one must have instructed at least in arithmetic, religion, language, music, and one of the other subjects. There must be, at least three times a year, a change in the division of work. Before such change the pupil must conduct an examination in the presence of the normal school faculty. The teacher must keep a register, showing in detail the work which has been accomplished by weeks. This serves as the basis for reviews and examinations. Examinations are held at the close of each term. They embrace all subjects taught, and are held in the presence of the normal school faculty. If pupil is not ready for promotion he should leave the school. Permission may be given, however, to repeat the work of his class, if good reasons make same advisable. The following shows the weekly distribution of time in the various subjects : Pedagogics I 2 Religion i 4 Language j 5 History I 2 Arithmetic and algebra i 3 Geometry i 2 Natural history, chemistry and physics j 4 Geography 2 Drawing Writing . . . Gymnastics Instrumental and vocal music. Foreign tongues (English, French, Latin) j 3 Second Third year. year. 2 4 5 2 3 2 4 2 2 1 2 5 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 3 2 22 57 Wednesday and Saturday are half-holidays. An opportunity is thus afforded for excursions to collect plants, minerals, etc. The vacations amount to eight weeks annually. All subjects embraced in elenientarv school work and pedagogics are compulsory for all pupils. According to deci'ee of 1878, dispensations in music should be lim- ited as much as possible. Instruction in French, English and Latin is voluntary. Pupils who have never studied one of these languages previous to entrance to the normal school are permitted to begin only in exceptional cases. The preference is generally given to French. The instruction received at the normal school should conform to that which the pupils will afterward give as teachers. The subject- matter should be carefully arranged by the teacher and as carefully reproduced by the pupil. Dictation is forbidden, also copying during the lectures. Text-books should serve as the basis of instruction, so far as possible, in each subject. Method always accorapauies subject-matter. Pupils are carefully drilled in oral and written reproduction of lessons. In addition to a good working library the normal school should have a physical and, when possible, a chemical laboratory. The school should be provided with the necessary objects used in teaching. The ibrary should be well classified. It should contain the German classics, both in prose and poetrj', with which the pupils are to become acquainted; pedagogical works, particularly those of the last 300 years — for example, the Pedagogical Library of Karl Bichter; the best books for the young from the time of the philanthrojiists to the present; iinally, the popular books upon universal and national history and natural history, descriptive works, etc. ; Schleiden, Tschudi, Masius, Brehm, Rossmiissler, Kuss, Hartwig, Miiller, Von Barnhagen, Adami, Werner Hahn, Ferd. Schmidt, Wildenhahn, W. Baur, Freitag, Riehl, etc. Private reading of pupils is systematic and controlled. It is ordered so that they must read necessary works, such as Lessiug's Minna von Barnhelm, Schiller's Walleustein, Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea, Pestalozzi's Lienhard und Gertrud Associations of pupils for self-improvement, such as common read- ing, musical exercises, botanical excursions, etc., are encouraged. At least once a month the pupils have a holiday to devote to such independent work as they see tit. Upon these days teachers should not assign special tasks. The time-tables should be so arranged that the practice school may not interfere with other work. The first class receives instruction when the practice school is not in session; the second class jsartly so. Instruction in the normal school is given in accordance with a special course of study for each school. The following syllabus serves as the guide for such courses of study: SvLL.iBns OF Work. Pedaoooics. Third Class itwo hours treekW) : The pupil.s learn the most important features in the history of etineation through pictures of famous educators, notable periods, the most interesting and useful improve- ments in elementary schools. This instructiou is completed by the introduction of the 8 58 chief pedagogical works, especially those published since the Reformation. Reading centralizes around some important pedagogical question until same be understood by pupils in all its bearings. Srcond Vlnsn (/»•» hmirF: i/vW.'/y); General principles of education. Instruction. Form in which instruction should bo given. Development through Instruction. Reference is made to logic and psychology. First ClaKu {three hoars ii^eekly) : Methods. The te.ai-her's position. School government. School organization. School law. The third hour is devoted, in the practice school, to practical applications of methods learned by the pupils. Religjon. (Not given.) Language. Third Class {five hours it^eekty) : a. Grammar: Simple, complex and compoundsentenees. Partsof speech, declensions, comparison of adjectives, conjugations. The rules of orthography and punctuation. tj. Reading: Practice in reading aloud and in written expression, form and construc- tion of poetry, meter, rhyme; Uric and epic poetry; the poetical narrative, legend, saying, fairy tale, ballad; didactical forms, fable, parable. Second Class {fire hours ireeMu): a. Grammar: More difficult work in the analysis of sentences. Composition of words. Rules rel.ating to verbs, adjectives and prepositions. Punctuation. h. Reading, as above, with more dillicult selections. Lyric, epic and dramatic poetry in general. Songs of the people, odes. Iiallnds. romances, epics and dramas, c. Method in teaching reading: Practical application in the form of class exercises. First Class {two hours): Review. Extension of the matter in reading. Method in language work in connected form, illustrated by class exercises. In language work careful attention should be paid to; a. Fluent and correct expression of thought. h. Correctness in written expression of thought, clearness in form and good arrange- ment. The pupil must learn to teach that which he has been ta\ight. To insure this, ease and correctness in oral and written expression are necessary, c. Private reading. The books read should embrace the master-pieces of national authors both in prose and poetry. d. Reading in class. Pieces are selected from the time of Luther to the present. Form and subject-matter are taken up. Selections in readers in use in elementary schools are carefully studied. A number of poems are learned by heart. In addition to the readers in use in the practice school, there are special normal school readers. History. Third Ctass {tiro liours irt^eKiu): Pictures in ancient history, especially the history of Greece (a. age of the heroes; b, period of the law-givers; e, the Persian wars to the death of Alexander the Great). Rome (a. the Kings ; b. the Republic ; c, the fall of the Republic and the first century of the Empire). Second Class I tiro tiours ireel'ly): Country of the ancient Germans; wars with the Romans: the migration of tribes; period of the Carlovingians, especially the spread of Christianity and Charlemagne; history of the early German dynasties; the Crusades to the time of the Reformation. First Glass {tiro hours ireel'ly): The history of Brandenburg and Prussia up to date; relations with neighboring States and countries. Method begins in the third class with drill in relating historical facts and events; continues in the second class with class exercises ; closes in the first class with system- atic work in the practice school. Akithmetic and Algebra. Third Class {three lionrs weekly): The formation of figures; the four fundamental processes; decimals; common frac- tions, ratio and proportion : business arithmetic, including alligation, scjuare and cube root. Second Class (three liours weekly): Proportions ; positive and negative terms ; equations of the first degree, powers and roots. Class exercises are given, the subjects being taken from elementr^ry school courses of study. Pupils learn use of numerical frame and other apparatus for teaching primary arithmetic. First Class {one hour): Review to fix method. Equations of the second degree and, if possible, progressions and logarithms. Drill to insure ease and security in the solution of problems. Geometri. Third Class {tiro hours weekly): The triangle, the parallelogram and the circle. Exercises in construction. Second Class {tiro liours ireekly): Instruction as to the e.iuality and similarity of plane figures and their computation. Computation of contents of solids. 59 First Clasi: : Review with special reference to raetliod in teaching. In all classes pupils are drilled in the drawing of geometrical ngureH upon the black- board. The instruction is based upon text-books, and is given ob.iectively. Uoar instruction is given upon methods of teaching, suggestions as to continuation of course and ability to impart instruction. Natural Histoey. Phvsrs and Chemistky. Tliirii rVn.s.f ( four liours ifei'klu) : a. Natural History: The study of selected indigenous plants belonging to the com- monest families. The system of Linne. Botanical morphology. In the winter, zoology two hours weekly. h. Physics: llagnetism, elf c'tricity and mechanics. <■. Chemistry: The principal bases and their combiuatious. especially in relation to mineralogy. Two hours per week. Srcontl Clastt ifour hours ircfklti): a. Natural History: Study of the principal forms of seed ami spore plants. System of classihcation. Form, growth and diffusion of plants. In the winter, knowledge of zoology is extended. Structure of the human body and conditions of health. Two hours a week. h. Physics: Light, heat and sound. (• Ohemistry: Extension of above. Organic chemistry. Two hours a week. Methods of teaching these subjects receive careful attention through lectures and class exercises. First t'iass \tv'o hours wci'f.-iij): Ueview and completion of the course, with special attention to methods of teaching. <;ieologv is introduced and suggestions given to aid in continuing the study. Instruction is to be given objectively. Physics and chemistry should not be taught without practical experimentation; botany and zoology without objects or good repre- sentatives of objects studied. Pure mechanical work in memorizing is forbidden. GEOGKArHY. Third Class {two hours 'tiwi'kii/): The geography of the home province, Prussia, Germany and the rest of the globe, the former particularly, the latter superficially. The study of maps. Second Class {tujo lioiirs irccklu): Germany and Europe. Mathematical geography. Method in teaching geography through lectures and class exercises. First Clnss iOJie hour ireMij): Continuation of methods. The use of atlas, wall-maps, globes, telluri.'ius and other objects employed in teaching geiigranhy. Each r'upil must have a good hand atlas fur use in this work. The school text-book is an abbreviated edition of the complete work, . DKAWINr,, Third Class ((wo hoars n h'ccJ-); Free-hand drawing. Lines and angles. Division of the same into parts. Drawing of geometrical figures and symmetrical figures within S(iuares. Drawing of sections of right-angled bodies and circular bodies before the eyes of pupils. Drawing of sym- metrical and ornamental figures. Mechanical drawing with rule and compass. Pr.actice in ornamental drawing. Practice in drawing upon the blackboard. Seronil Class Itiro hiturs a iri-fk}: a. Elements of perspective; h. free-hand drawing with black chalk, bister, sepia, etc, from plaster of Paris models and from nature. This work .■should be arranged accord- ing to the respective talents of pupils; c. practice in drawing upon the blackboard. First Class ioup hour irt-fkhj): a. Continuation of work .as above, especially as regards blackboard drawing, giving attention to work in drawing demanded in teaching other subjects: b. Method in teach- ing drawing; r. Suggestions to aid in continuing the work beyond the normal school I'ourse. Instruction in drawing should enable pupils to do all work neatly reqnircd in teach- ing this and other subjects, such as geometry, geogr.aphy, etc. Penmanship. Third Class ittro lioars }rei'klij) ; Second Class {one hour ireeklii) : The object of this course is to insure: 1. Neatness, f;ieility and ciu-reetuess in all written work ; 2, A definite method for u.se in teaching penmanship. Gymnastics, The basis of the course in gymnastics is the " New Manual for Instruction in Gymnas- tics," Pupils may be brought further than the book goes. They must be able to teach systematically all exercises included in said manual. The third and second classes have two hours of i-ractical gymnastics per week, tiie llrst class one hour. The llrst class has, in addition, instrui'tion of one hour weekly upon the structure of the humjin body, expedients in the case of accidents, the history and purpose of physical training, apparatus used in gymnastic exercises. I'njids of theSirsI class, under oversight of the teacher of gymnastics, give iustructi(ui in the practice school. fiO Music. I. Piano. Technical exercises, in the third class, in touch and execution. A aystem- atic course of instruction as given in the best schools for the piano. Independent pieces beginning with Clementi's Sonatinas, or something similar, and progressing in such a way as to introduce, in addition to the classics, modern works. Si'(Mnd Class. Continuation of above. Talented pupils study the works of Cramer. Sonatas by the classical masters, such as Mozart, Beethoven, Hayden. etc., systemat- ically arranged by teacher. First Class. Practice upon the piano in private. II. Okgan. Pupils are advanced according to capacity and previous preparation in the school for the organ followed. Tlard Class. Continuous practice in the hymn-book used. Second Class. Practice of the simple organ movements which have been analyzed and transposed in the course in harmony. Playing suelt selections at sight. Entire acquisition of a prelude to each one of the customary hymn-tunes, as preparation tor appropriate playing of organ during divine service. First Class. Transposition o( melodies, modulation. Composition of short preludes and simple interludes. III. Hakmony. Pupils who are not to qualify themselves as organists must neverthe- less absolve the work of the third class and the historical part of that of the first class. TUird Class. Construction and pnactice of major and minor triads: of the chords of the seventh and ninth as to chief forms and fundamental laws of their construction. Sfcond Class. Drill in the knowledge of the harmonized material and continuous employment thereof in the harmonization of tunes and in the analysis, tran.sposition and practice of short harmonized organ movements given by teacher. First course in modulation. First Class. Harmonization of hymn-tunes and songs of the people. Composition of simple preludes to hymn-tunes and formation of appropriate interludes. Second course in modulation. Ancient modes. General study of the most important forms of vocal and instrumental music. Construction and care of the organ. Outlines of the history of music. IV. Violin. Pupils are classified according to capacity. Each division must absolve the course. The following directions require attention : a. Drill in committing to memory the hymns and songs of the people studied ; h. Drill in duets; c. Introduction in the advanced divisions to the higher positions. V. Singing. Special instruction for the third class in the formation of the voice. Hymn-tunes and songs of the people, at first in one. then in two and three parts. Mixed chorus with classes combined. Progressive instruction of the elementary classes in: a. Vocalises and solfeggi properly so called and composed in the form of complete pieces ; b. More and more detailed knowledge of intervals, but chiefly of the chords and their various forms. Entire acquisition of the hymns and psalms most in vogue. Hymn-tunes and other songs in several parts. a. The liturgical chorus which the first class learns to lead ; b. Other religious choral songs, nioti'ttes. psalms by classical ma.sters: c. Secular choral songs, especially the best of folk and national songs ; Special instruction for the first class in method of teaching music in elementary schools, connected with exercises in the practice-school. Execution of mixed choral songs in combination with the upper class of the practice school. The object of the course is the training of teachers for good work in teaching music in the elementary schools, not to develop special talents at the expense of the other pupils. Pupils are taught to love the old masters and beware of introducing their own compositions in their school districts. FoKEiGN Tongues. There are three courses of three, three and two hours per week respectively, divided not according to years but according to progress of pupils. In the lowest class the course begins with an introductory grammar of the language studied, French, English, or Latin. Gardening, Pkuit Trees, Silk Cultuee. In the instruction given in natural history, these subjects require special attention. NINTH CHAPTER. EXAMINATIONS FOR MALE TEACHEES. I. First Teachers' Examination for Temporary Licenses in Elementary Schools. At the close of the normal school cotirse, an examination is held to test the qualifications of candidates for a temjjorary engagement as teacher. Applicants not graduates of normal schools, but who are at the end of the twentieth year of age, are admitted, upon presentation of fil certificates, testifying to good moral cliaracter and phj-sical con- dition. All candidates must give notice at least three weeks before the time set for the examination, forwarding the following certificates: 1. Certificate of bai^tism (l)irth certificate). 2. Certificate of good physical condition. 3 . Certificate of good moral character. In every case, an autobiography is to be inclosed with the above certificates. Said certificates must bo official. The committee in charge of the examination is composed of the commissary of the 23rovincial school consistory as chairman, a member of the local government, the director and teachers of the normal school for the district in which the examination is held. The school commissioners may be prtsent, and also other persons when authorized by the chairman. Candidates not trained in normal schools must submit drawings and written specimens of their work. The other candidates must submit the drawing and writing-books of the last year at the normal school. The written test consists of: 1. A theme on methods, school organization or management, or from the province of instruction in language or literature. 2. An essay on some subject connected with religious instruction. 3. The complete solution of three jsroblems in arithmetic and geometry'. 4. 5, (). Answer to one question in each of the three subjects — natural history, history and geography. 7. For those who are to give instruction upon the organ, the har- monization of a choral with prelude and interludes. The voluntary subjects are: 8. English, French or Latin. Translation of a selection from one of these foreign tongues into German, and translation of German into the foreign tongue in question. Four hours are allowed for the first task and two hours for each of the others. The sul)jects are chosen by the member of the provincial school consistory, upon recommendation of the normal school faculty. The practical test consists of a class exercise in one of the compul- sory subjects. This work is assigned two days in advance, and can- didate must submit a written analysis thereof. Those examined in voluntary subjects must give a class exercise in said subjects when possible. The oral examination embraces all subjects taught in the normal school, covering the entire normal school course. The chairman is authorized, however, to exclude such work as he deems unnecessary. The candidate must answer (luestions definitely and clearly. When written work is exceptionally good, candidates may be excused from a iDart or the whole of the oral examination. In the case of Jewish candidates, the subject of religion is not touched upon. The oral examination must lie held in the presence of the whole committee. A record is kejjt of tha standing of applicants in each subject; marks, very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient, as the case may be. Can- 62 (lidates fail to pass wlio do not attain the mark " sufficient " in religion, German, arithmetic and moi-e than three of the other subjects (peda- gogics, singing, drawing, writing, history, geography, natural history, geometry). Candidates who pass the examination receive a certificate stating preparation candidate has had for the examination and standing attained in each subject. The committee tlien licenses said candidates to teach provisionally. II. The Second and Final Teachers' Examination for Elementary Schools. Not earlier than two years nor more than five years after the first examination, teachers must pass the final examination. They are then assured of pay for life, even should the schools where they are employed cease to exist. The committee is the same as that for the first examination. Candidates must give notice to provincial school consistory, through the school commissioner, at least four weeks before the examination. They must submit: 1. A certificate from the school commissioner; 2. An essay, stating authorities used, and certifying that they have received no assistance from other sources; 3. A drawing, with certificate that candidate has received no assist- ance in preparing the same ; * ■1. A specimen of penmanship under the same conditions. These four particulars determine the admission or non-admission of candidates to the examination. Candidate maj' endeavor to raise the standing attained at the first teachers' examination, or he may try the voluntary subjects. The written test consists of a theme on some subject connected with school management, a theme relating to religious instruction, and one touching instructioa in one of the other common school branches. Jewish candidates substitute another subject in place of religious instruction. This work is chosen by the chairman of the examining committee upon recommendation of the normal school faculty for the district in which the examination is held. The work must be done in the presence of a member of the committee. The practical test consists of a class-exercise, the subject for which is announced the day before. The oral test covers the liistor}' of education, principles of educa- tion, school management and methods of teaching. At the discretion of the committee, questions may be asked touching positive knowledge of subject-matter. Candidates are marked, very good, good, sufficient, not sufficient, as the case may be. Candidates who fail to attain the mark " sufficient " in the class- exercise are rejected. Results in other respects are determined as at the first examination. Successful candidates receive certificates showing standing attained in each subject. The committee then licenses said candidates to teach permanently. *Tbis drawing is uow submitted by the candidate in person at the time of the examination. 63 Candidates failing to attain a higher standing than at the first exam- ination in the subjects in which they have been reexamined are, never- theless, permanently licensed, if other work has been satisfactory. Candidates who received the standing " good " in religion, language, arithmetic, geography, history and natural history (or instead of the last three a foreign tongue) at the first examination or the final exam- ination, and who, at the final examination, received the same mark in all subjects are legally qualified to teach in the lower classes of middle schools, and higher schools for girls. TENTH CHAPTER. NOKMAL SCHOOLS FOR FEMALES.* As is well known the number of male teachers in Prussia greatly exceeds that of the female. In 1886, 64,750 regular teachers were employed in the public elementary schools, and of the number only 6,848 were females. The ratio of female to male teachers varies greatly in different parts of the kingdom. In Protestant districts men are quite generally preferred even in the lowest primary grades. In ungraded schools the prejudice agaiust female teachers is particu- larly strong l)oth with Roman Catholics and Protestants. There has been a great change in public opinion as regards female teachers within the past thirty years. In 1861, oulj' 1,7.52 female teachers were employed in the jniblic elementary, middle and high schools for girls. May 20, 1886, 6,848 were employed iu the public elementary schools alone. These female teachers were %ery unequally distributed. Four thousand two hundred and thirty-three were Roman Catholics, 2, .551 Protestants and sixty-four belonged to other religious denominations. In the province of Hohenzollern only four female elementary teachers were employed; in Poseu only thirty-six, while in Rheinland there were 2,855 and in Westphalia 1,206. In 18'.)0 in the Laudkreis of Aix-la-Chapelle, where inhabitants are mostly Roman Catholics, 120 females and 1()2 males are employed in one school commissioner district. Ample provisions are made for the training of male teachers. Almost all engaged in elementary schools are normal graduates. The women are not so fairly dealt with. There are about twelve State normal schools for males where one exists for females. In Prussia girls do not receive much encouragement, comparatively speaking, to go on beyond the elementary school course. Novem'ber 15, 1888, there wore nine State normal schools for female elementary school teachers in Prussia, with an attendance of 586. Two hundred and ninetj'-eight were boarding students; 288 were day pupils. There were also three training schools for governesses, and a number of private institutions for the preparation of female teachers. We glance briefly at one of each of these public institutions at Droyssig. Both institutions are boarding schools, the tuition and living expenses at the former costing sixty dollars annually with extras amounting to between sixteen and eighteen dollars; at the latter ninety-three dollars annually with extras from eighteen to twenty-one dollars. • The salaries paid female teachers in normal schools vary from $250 (l.rMii) marks) to $300 (2.000 marks) with rent, fuel and. in most cases, a garden. 64 Canclidates for admission to the normal school for female teachers must have the same qualifications, except in music, as those for admis- sion to other normal schools. In addition they must have taken a course in industrial training for girls. A beginning is desired in French, singing and playing upon the piano. Candidates for admission to the normal school for governesses must have had preparation equivalent to that given in a good high school for girls, including the course in industrial training. Candidates for admission to both these institutions should not be under 17 nor exceed 2-1: yeai-s of age. Formalities for admission are very much the same as in the case of normal schools for male teachers. The course in the normal school for female teachers embraces two years, the pujiils being divided into two classes; the course in the normal school for governesses covers three years, the j)upils being divided into three classes. The number of pupils in the former institution is fixed at forty, that in the latter at forty-two. At the close of the courses examinations are held, the successful candidates of the former institution receiving a license to teach in an elementary school; those of the latter a license to teach in a private school as governess or in middle and higher schools for girls. ELEVENTH CHAPTER EXAMINATION OP FEMALE TEACHERS. Female teachers are not subjected to a second examination as male teachers are.* There are two kinds of examinations for female teachers: (1.) Those held ujjou graduation from the normal schools at Berlin, Miinster, Paderborn, Poseu, etc., or other institutions duly authorized. (2.) Those held twice a year in each province for candidates not trained in normal schools or other institutions authorized to hold examina- tions, Kuh 1. Candidates must be at least 18 years of age.f They must be of good moral character and in good physical condition. Application must be made not later than four weeks in advance, and candidate must state whether she applies for license for elemen- tary or middle and higher schools, the two examinations being held together. The following are to be submitted: 1. An autobiography upon title-page of which the full name of can- didate, with place of birth, age, religion and place of residence, are stated. 2. Certificate of baptism (birth). 3. Certificate showing jarevious preparation and standing attained in examinations. 4. Certificate as to moral character. 5. Certificate as to physical condition. *After an experience of Ave years in teaching, female teachers are admitted to the examinations for liceu'ios to direet public and private schools for girls. " Filnfjilhrige Lehrthiltigkeit berechtict die Lelirerinnen zur Ziilassnng zu einer weiteren Priifung. aut Grun'l deren siediK I'.efahigung zur selljstaudiaeu Leitung von offentlichen und privaten Miidchensehiileu eriangen." (Drs. Schneider and Petersilie ) t As previously noted, male candidates must be at least two years older. (ir, The examination is both theoretical (oral and written) ami practical. The written examination consists of a theme in German, work in arithmetic; and French; also, for license to teach in middle and higher schools for girls, English. Applicants for licenses to teach in elementary schools are not forced to pass au examination in French. The work is selected by the commissary of the provincial school consistory upon recommendation of the committee. lu addition to the said commissary, the committee is composed of from three to five government officials, school directors or high school and normal school teachers, ajjpointed by the government president of the province. The work selected should be comprehensive in character. In translating into or from a foreign tongue, the dictionary may be referred to. The examination should be finished in one day. It should not last more than seven hours. Before the beginning of the examination candidates must submit proofs of penmanship, using both Latin and German scripts, and a specimen of drawing. The oral examination is held in the presence of the whole commit- tee. It embraces methods and school management and all compulsory subjects taught in elementary or middle and higher schools for girls. The practical test should be given, if possible, in a school of the same class as that for which applicant desires a license. At all events the subject must be one included in the course of study for such a scho(?l. The subject for the practical test should be announced not later than twenty-four hours before the class exercises take place. A written analysis of the work to be done in each class exercise must be submitted. Candidates for licenses to teach in elementary schools must have the following qualifications: 1. In Religion (not given). 2. In Language. Familiarity with the method of teaching reading, and the principal points in method of teaching correct oral and written expression of thought; some knowledge of master-pieces in poetry and a closer acquaintance with the best literature for the young. Candidates must be able to state clearly, both orally and in writing, subject-matter connected with the elementary school i-urricidi'in. 3. Arithmetic* Factility in the solution of problems in mental and written arithmetic; knowledge of common and decimal fractious and the different processes used in business transactions; computation of areas of surfaces and contents of solids; acquaintance with methods of teaching and ability' to explain the same. 4. History. General knowledge of the principal facts and events in universal histoiy, more particular knowledge of the same in Ger- man history, and a thorough and connected acquaintance with Prussian history. 5. Geography. In addition to particular knowledge of the Father- land, genei-al knowledge of the political geography of the globe and *iiVc/i«eK inehifies both arithmatie and algebra. Aritlun<'tik also, used in a tieueral sense, iQcludes algebra. OG the principal points in physical and mathematical geograishy. The candidates must be acquainted with the use of atlases, globes, tellurians, etc. 6. Natural history. Knowledge of the imj)ortant types and fami- lies in the three kingdoms, also cultivated and j^oisonous plants, especially those of the home. Clear insight into a botanical system, general knowledge of the other systems of classi&cr.tion, including the elements of geology. The candidates must be accjuainted with the most useful objects iu teaching natural history, such as charts, etc. 7. Physics and chemistrj*. A knowledge of the elements of these subjects gained through experimentation. 8. Pedagogics. Knowledge of the fundamental principles of educa- tion and instruction; acquaintance with the subject-matter of some of the principal works iu pedagogics, and the lives of prominent edu- cators of the last 300 years. 9. Vocal music. The singing readily and in good form of a school, religious and national song at sight, and knowledge of method of teaching singing. 10. Drawing, gymnastics and industrial training. An understand- ing of methods of teaching and objects used in teaching. 11. French (voluntary). Correct pronunciation, knowledge of the principal grammatical rules, ability to translate an easy selection from French into German, and vice verm. Candidates for licenses to teach iu middle and higher schools for girls (llddchenxchiden) must have the qualifications under 1, ii, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and iu addition: 1. Language (German). Ease and correctness in oral and written expression of thought; a knowledge of general national literature and literature for the young; comprehensive knowledge of the mas- ter works in poetry, acquaintance with the various forms of prose and poetry and usual meters; a thorough understanding of the method of teaching reading and the principal grammatical rules and methods of teaching general language work. 2. French and English. Correct pronunciation; knowledge of grammatical rules and their applications; ability to translate readily the authors read in the course of study for middle and higher schools for girls; general knowledge of the literature of the languages. 3. History. Knowledge of general history; more particular and connected knowledge of German, especially Prussian history. A record of the standing of applicants in each subject is kept. Certificates are given iu accordance with the general result. Appli- cants for elementary schools must attain at least the mark " sufficient " in religion, language and arithmetic; those for middle and higher schools, in addition, the same mark in French and English. TWELFTH CHAPTEE. SPECIAL CEETinCATES. No person can teach in a Prussian public or private school, or in a family, without authorization from the government. In addition to the licenses for regular teachers, there are special certificates for particular lines of work. Such are given to teachers of drawing. 67 male and female; teachers of gymnastics, male and female; teachers of music, male and female; female teachers of industrial training for girls; teachers in deaf and dumb asyla and institutions for the blind, etc. With the exception of industrial training for girls, all subjects in elementary schools ai'e very generally taught by the regular teachers. The other special teachers are those for drawing, music and gymnas- tics sometimes engaged in elementary schools in large cities. Applicants for admission to the examination for these special cer- tificates must either have passed the regular teachers' examination or prove, in addition to the technical knowledge required, that they possess the necessary general qualifications. May 20, 1886, there were 34,270 teachers of manual training for girls engaged in Prussian elementary schools. Of this number, only 5,49G had passed the special examinations provided for such teachers; 26,091 of those who had not passed said examinations were employed in rural districts, and were, as a rule, the wives of the regular teach- ers. In 1886, the instruction given in this department cost $600,626. The average salaries paid were about eleven dollars annually in the country and forty-nine dollars and a half in the cities. As will be seen, teachers of manual training for girls have little opportunity of growing rich by their profession. There are special technical schools and special courses in normal schools to prepare teachers for particular lines of work, such as draw- ing, music, manual training, gymnastics, etc. There are also special courses to prepare candidates for the examinations for teachers and directors in middle schools. Special certificates i7i France are better arranged than in Prussia. The time has come in New York for sj^ecial certificates for excellence in particular lines of work, such as penmanship, drawing and indus- trial training. Special teachers should not V)e required to jjass the regular examinations for the higher grades. In addition to the technical knowledge, the general requirements for temporary licenses are sufficient, and special teachers who possess them should not be subjected to oft-repeated examinations. THIRTEENTH CHAPTER. SCHOOL COMMISSIONERS. ( K KEISSCHDLINSPEKTOREN. ) The following regulations for the Regierungsbezirk of Dusseldorf, conciselj' stated, will serve as a delinitiou of the position and duties of KreinM-hulin^jjeJcloren or school commissioners.* School commissioners, in thAr respective districts, must watch over all educational institutions, both public and private, committetl to their charge. They must see that all decrees be enforced, and that, both with teachers and pupils, patriotism and loyalty to the reigning *Iu fities, the StadtsrhuUnitpection performs tla** duties i)f the Krpissr}inlhi:^i)i'ktor. Aeer^rdine: ti> dn(>ree of issi, tUe report'* of the Sta/lliile, it is his duty to notify the parents or guardians of such pupils. If no attention be ])aid to this notification, the pupils are expelled. 2. Pupils from other districts can not select nor change their boai'd- ing-place without the authority of the school-director. 3. Pupils from other districts are under the special oversight of the Ordiiiariiis. 4 Pupils who absent themselves from the city or village over night, even though they lose no study or instruction-hour, must have the permission of the Ordinanux or school-director. This applies to jiupils from other districts not dwelling with pai-ents. 5. Pupils must have permission of OnUiiariu» or school-director to attend theaters and balls. Pupils residing with their parents at home must procure the permission of parents to attend theaters, and can only attend public balls in the company of parents or guardians. 6. Pupils who give private lessons must procure the permission of OrJinariu!< or school-director. No outsider is permitted to enter or disturb a public school under five thalers fine or imprisonment. Teachers must be on hand fifteen minutes before school opens. Tardiness should be closely watched. Children may not be kept at school so as to lose midday meal, nor should they be kept after school until dark. Children are not permitted to give presents to teachers, nor are they allowed to take up collections. Children under school age are not allowed to be present in the school-room during school sessions. The teacher is not ]5ermitted to wear slippers during school-hours. The pupils are forbidden to frequent taverns, confectioneries, saloons. They are not allowed to attend dramatical, musical and acrobatic per- formances, except in the comjniny of parents or guardians. They are encouraged to protect useful animals and government property, such as railways and telegraph lines. They are warned against the care- less use of firearms. Teachers should watch over the private reading of pupils. They should be protected from obscene literature. 78 Children of school age are not allowed to peddle; to sing or play upon any musical instrument in the street; to declaim in the street or take j^art in any dramatical joerformances. Those who take dancing lessons or set up ten-pins may not be kept out later than 10 o'clock in the evening. Proprietoi-s of public places are forbidden to permit the frequentation of children of school age, and to give or sell to such children sj)irits or beer. Observations. Visitors to Prussian elementary schools will often notice slight transgressions of the disciplinary regulations, such as ear-pulling and the like {vide ftub 4). Teachers thoroughly understand how far it is safe to go without danger of being rejjorted to headquarters. The regulations give them a field which, according to our ideas, is, to say the least, broad enough. Discipline is certainly far better, generally speaking, in German than in French schools. This may be attributed to the difference in the French and German characters. Many find an explanation in the abolition by law of corporal punishment in French schools.* SIXTEENTH CHAPTER. APPOINTMENT OF TEACHERS. The folhjwiug regulations concerning the appointment of teachers are taken from the decrees of the government at Diisseldorf: The jiower of appointment to a newly created position or a vacancy is vested in the government. Boards of education recommend three candidates, and if one of the three be a suitable person for the place, he is appointed. No position may be filled without the decision of the government. This rule apjilies also to assistant teachers. I. V.\CAXCY Occasioned by De.ath of Teacher. 1. The board of education (Schulmr^land) must give notice to the school commissioner {KreinKehulinapektor or StadtschuUiiitpeciion) with date of death and proposal for temporary substitution. The same notice must also be served on the Landrath,i]iaA, proper provision may be made for teacher's family. 2. The school commissioner must rejjort to the government without delay the fact of the vacancy, stating provisions made by him for temporary substitution. He must also inform the Landralh who the temporary substitute is and whether costs arise from substitution. 3. The Landralh should then endeavor, so far as same lie in his pro- vince, to regulate the jiaymeut of deceased teacher's salary to the family for the month of death, and a month of grace, where costs have arisen, or for the month of death and three months' grace where there are no costs. II. Vacancies Auising from Other C.\dses. 4. Teachers are permitted to abandon positions only at the close of a term and after three months' notice. Tbe shortening of the term of three months can take place only with consent of the school board, ' Iq France. Italy and Belgium, corporal punishment is forbidden by Law. As Buisson said in 1875, the precision ot the Prussian disciplinary regulations shocks us. 79 and through the school commissioner and Landrath, the government. This permission will not be granted unless provisions are made to carry on the school without interruption. 5. The notice is to be given in writing by teacher to school board; by school board to school commissioner and Landrath without delay. If change has not been directed by the government and therefore known, the school commissioner must notify the government directly. The Landrath proceeds at once to provide for the regulation of teachers' accounts, that if possible the same may be closed at his departure. 6. Teachers prepared in the state normal schools and under the jurisdiction of the government disti'ict of Diisseldorf are obliged to remain in the same position to which the government has appointed them a period of three years. Within this period they have no authority to give notice of change, unless directed by the government to do so. III. The Filling of Vacancies through Duly Adthorized Teachers. 7. So soon as a position becomes vacant through death or other cause, the school board {Schulvorstand) advertises the fact in, at least, the ofBcial paper. Three weeks thereafter the school board decides upon the three names to be presented to the government. Within three days the names of these three candidates with certifi- cates and biographical sketches must be forwai-ded to the school commissioner. In exceptional cases, the government extends this period of three weeks. The names of candidates must be given al]ihabetically, and opposite each name the statement whether candidate assumes a definite or provisory position. In case less than three candidates apply, this fact is to be stated. 8. The school board may express a preference for some particular candidate, though this does not interfere in the least with the power of appointment vested in the government, and may not be considered. 9. The school board must forward propositions, names of candi- dates, certificates and biographical sketches to the government through the school commissioner and Landrath without delay. School commissioner and Landrath may express opinions as to projjositions made. Care should be taken that all this matter reach the govern- ment within eight days from date notice was forwarded to school commissioner by the school board. 10. In case no candidates apply within the time stated, the school board notifies the government through the same officials, abandoning the right ■< if j^roposing names or staling proposed steps in case time be extended. 11. School boards are obliged, under penalties, to transact this business within the time fixed. School commissioners must notify the Landrath of fruitless attempts to do so. If within six weeks from date of vacancy the government has received no jsroiDosals, the vacancy is tilled by the government. 12. All proposals must be without conditions. It is not jsermitted school boards to engage for a certain definite time or provisionally. The nature of the engagement rests with the government. It is to be noted that the provisional engagement of a teacher does not last longer than six years, according to law. Consequently a 80 teacher once engag-ed dofiaitely cau not be reengaged provisionally unless through fault he lias lost the right to definite engagement or abandons himself this right in seeking a new position. 13. In appointing a teacher the government fixes definitely the time he is to take charge of his new position and enter upon his new duties. The date of entrance upon discharge of duties must be reported in each case by the board of education to the school commissioner, and by school commissioner, through the Landrath, to the government. rV. The Filling of Vacancies Temporarily through Candidates. 14. It is contrary to law to till vacancies b3' candidates who have not passed the teachers' examinations. Such may be employed tem- porarily, with permission of the government, when there are no duly authorized teachers at hand. In each case a biographical sketch with oiScial certificates as to character and qualifications is to be sub- mitted to the government through the school commissioner. These cases are exceptions and occur only when the efforts to secure duly authorized teachers have proved fruitless and the government has made no provision therefor. 1.5. The cmjoloyment of these candidates is only authorized under the oversight and responsibility of a duly authorized teacher. It is regarded as an experiment and is always subject to annulment by the school commissioner without notice. Regular contracts can not be made with these candidates. They receive a written statement of their duties and salary from the school board, with the condition that they may be dismissed at any time by the school commissioner, but that they themselves must give at least six weeks' notice before abandoning their work. 16. Dismissal of such candidates rests with the school commissioner who is forced to report to the government in each case. V. Sobstitdtes Ddkino Vacations and Leaves of Absence. 17. This is regulated by the school commissioner and school board. Expenses arising therefrom are settled with the assistance of the Landrath. Regulations for other government districts are substantially the same. SEVENTEENTH CHAPTEK. LEAVES OF ABSENCE OF TEACHERS. The following is a brief statement of the rule for the government district of Diisseldorf : 1. Schools may be closed or sessions shortened by teachers without the express permission of the projier authorities only in cases of sudden illness or other necessary cause, and then said authorities are to be notified at once. 2. Permission to close schools or shorten sessions should never be granted without good and sufficient reasons. 2. The LokahcliuUm^pcldor (local school inspector) has authority to grant a leave of absence of from one to three days. When more than one day, the school commissioner must be notified. 81 4. The school commissioner (in cities the Sfa(Uschnli7ispeclion) has authority to grant a leave of absence of from four to fourteen days. The local school inspector, except in most pressing cases, must request this permission in writing anil await a written answer. 5. The government alone has power to grant a leave of absence exceeding fourteen days. Requests therefor must be submitted by the local school inspector through the school commissioner and Landralh, both of whom must give their opinion of the matter. 6. Requests for leaves of absence on account of sickness must be accompanied with statement of physician as to patient's condition. If permission is requested to visit some sanitarium away from home, the oiScial physician of the district must certify as to the necessity therefor. 7. Request must contain information touching provisions for sub- titute during the leave of absence. Unless said iDrovisions are satisfactory, the leave of absence will not be granted. In most pressing cases, the local school inspector may arrange for substitute or for close of school during leave of absence. 8. Leaves of absence when school should be in session for the pur- pose of consulting members of the government upon various school matters should not be granted as a rule. 9. The leave of absence can not begin before the receipt of per- mission. At its close the teacher must report to the local school inspector. Said official is to notify the school commissioner in case the bounds of the leave of absence be overstepped. The school commissioner notifies the government through the Landrath. 10. Leaves of absence from the district during vacations require no notification, unless absence is to exceed three days, in which case teacher is to notify the local school inspector, giving particulars. 11. Fixed penalties regulate the transgression of these rules by teachers. 12. The government may grant leaves of absence up to six months in case of sickness. Districts must pay costs for substitution. Regulations for other government districts do not differ essentially from those for that of Diisseldorf. CONCLUSION. The superiority of the Prussian system of elementary education, as compared with that of New York, may be summed up in one sentence. Prussia sends all her rhildren between fixed ages to school, and protects them lohile'there from the imposition of had work. Frederick the Great aimed to accomplish this in 1703. From his day the system has been perfected gradually, and stands to-day without a rival. Since 1871, France has followed in the footsteps of her rival, and the standard of work done in elementary schools has advanced with a rapidity which seems almost incredible. lu 1888, the cost of public education in Prussia, including the secondary, trade schools, technical schools and universities, was reck- oned at $1.7717 per caput of total population. Allowances for rent and fuel slightly increased these figures. Army and navy schools were not included. 11 82 The cost of public education in New York in 1888 (census of 1880) was figured at three dollars and eight cents ^jer caput of total population. Every impartial person must admit that Prussia secures in good results the full value of the money expended, and that New York does not. The methods in use in Prussia can not be adopted as a whole in New York. This is clear. Nevertheless, wise legislation would secure for us similar advantages, as the example of France, a sister republic, demonstrates. Our model elementary schools would then become the rule, and not the exception, as at present. NOTE TO PAGES •,",l AND 30. Accordiiiir to the decree of March 31, 1883, Prussian High Schools are divided as follows : — , /-, ■ J J n \ Oiimiiasii'n. — Nine years' course. ' Prodyinnii.fwn. — Seven years' course. (vu\l\^-[^^X^^S ^'-"■kllPnnnsicn. — Nine years' course. ( Rcalproqninimsieii. — Seven yrs' course. Without ( Oicrrealsrhulen. — Nine years' course. Latin ( Reahchiilen. — Seven years' course. 3. ndhere Bilrgerschtilcn — Without Latin. — Si.x years' course. "Wiesc's most valuable work " Verordnnngen vnd Gesctzc fiir die Iwlicreii Scliuleii in Preussen," published in two volumes at Berlin iu ISSG by Wiegandt and Gnebeu describes these High Schools in full. As stated on jiage 29, the principal divisions are Gymnasien and Realgi/ninasicn. Gyinnnsien. : The latest official course of stud}', as given on pao'e 29, shows the following changes : — Religious Instruction, 19 instead of 30 hours weekly. Language (German), Latin, Greek, French. History aud Geography, Mathematics, Natural History, Pliysics, Penmau.ship, Progtjmnasicn : These are G)jmnasicii without Prima, or the last two years. The course is seven years. The advanced class fits for Prima in Gymnasien. Realg'ymnasien : The latest official course of study, as given on page 30, shows the following changes : — 21 •' 20 77 •' ■• 86 40 ■■ " 42 21 " 17 28 ■• •• 2.5 34 •• " 33 10 •• • 8 8 ■• ■ 4 •■ ■■ (i Religious Instruction, 19 instead of 20 hours weekly. Language (German), 27 •• ,, .,(, ,, '• Latin, 54 " " 44 •■ •• JIathematics, 44 •■ " 47 ■• " Natural History, ) Physics, '- Chemistry, \ 30 •■ " 34 •• Penmanship, 4* ■■ " 7 Drawing, 18 " " 20 ■■ ** * According to Wiese this should hv. 4 instead of 5 as j^iveu on patje 30. 86 Realprogyimiasien : The relation between Realgymnasien and Rcalproriijmnasien is the same as that between Gijmnasien and Pro- gijmnasien. Oberrealschulen. : The following is the list of the subjects studied and the weekly division of time : — (/) (?) (3) U) {r>) ( -y vy ^ ' .' ' / < ,■'•" <''!' <-^/ / ; - 4 ^^ ^ -V /^■'>y i^?^^ ' «^^ ' . %^ •-y ^^^^. ^ y-^ 4> y* y-y LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 022 108 587 5 '^{^/■i '■>e- yAc'i'i^- ^ ' i* '* ' ' '.'^"^y'i i^'C * ^i'*'* ' ^ * -i>^ 'y-'^'?ef «' '^^^^i^^^f^^^m^. ^^/ • • '''' -^i ^- '^■"'^<^fM"-'L4'. iT "