n A/'-es. / J p/^> yC^ i^/iB I CI OS! E135 SOME CONDITIONS AFFECTING PROB- LEMS OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 78 AMERICAN SCHOOL SYSTEMS LEONARD P. AYRES, PH.D. Division of Education Russell Sage Foundation 130 East Twenty-second Street, New York City Price 10 Cents 2- 14-35 Inst'tution v^^>^ Some Conditions Affecting Problems of Indus- trial Education in 78 American School Systems During the closing weeks of the school year 1912-1913, the Division of Education of the Sage Foundation undertook an in- vestigation in cooperation with the superintendents of schools of some 78 American city school systems. The study included all of the cities of between 25,000 and 200,000 population which were not so suburban in character as to be in reality subsidiaries of larger cities and in which the school authorities were able to cooperate. The object of the investigation was to gather facts concerning the boys in these cities who had reached the limit of the compulsory attendance period and the fathers of these boys. The purpose of this study was to secure a more definite fact basis for thought and action in the field of industrial education. Data for girls were not included for the reason that 13 year old girls are in the main distributed through the same grades as are 13 year old boys and the occupations of their fathers are in the long run identical with those of the fathers of the boys. Hence the study would have produced the same results if data for girls had been included and would have entailed nearly twice as much work. In each case the results were secured for all of the 13-year-old boys in the public schools of these cities at the date when the facts were gathered. The aggregate number of cases studied was 22,027. The facsimile on page 4 shows the type of card used to gather the original data. These cards were supplied by the Division of Education of the Foundation. The data were gathered by the local school au- thorities and the results were tabulated by the Foundation. In cities having separate schools for white and colored children, the data were gathered for the white boys and their fathers only. Thirteen- Year-Old Boys in Every Grade from Kinder- garten THROUGH High School The first data secured were those showing the school grades of the boys. The tabulation of these figures brought to light two 3 significant facts. The first was that these boys who have reached the Hmit of the compulsory attendance period are scattered through the grades from the kindergarten to the senior year in the high school. Although they are all of the same age, they represent every stage of school advancement and are scattered through grades normally representing thirteen years of school progress, — one of the kindergarten, eight of the grades, and four of the high school. MIGRATION — OCCUPATION — PROGRESS STUDY, 1913 RECORD FOR BOYS 13 YEARS OLD (AT LAST BIRTHDAY) NAME OF BOY. WAS HE BORN IN THIS CITY? IN THIS STATE? IN THE U. S.?_ WAS HIS FATHER (oR GUARDIAN) BORN IN THIS CITY? IN THIS STATE? IN U. S.?_ WHAT IS HIS FATHER'S (OR GUARDIAN-s) OCCUPATION? (STATE IF POSSIBLE. BUSINESS AS WELL AS OCCUPATION, FOR EXAMPLE, " CONDUCTOR ON STREET RAILWAY." "CLERK IN SHOE STORE." "MACHINE OPERATOR IN BOX FACTORY.") TEACHER. Half of the Boys in Sixth Grade or Below The second significant fact is that one-half of them are in the 6th grade or below. Since previous studies of retardation among school children have shown that the children who drop out of school earliest are largely those who are seriously retarded and find themselves in the lower grades at relatively advanced ages, these facts are most important. They indicate that large num- bers of these boys may be expected to leave school soon and go to work with an educational preparation so inadequate that they cannot enter the ranks of industry with profit either to themselves or to the community. If we reduce our original figures showing the grade distributions of these 22,027 boys to relative figures indicating conditions among each 10,000 boys, we have the figures shown in Table i. TABLE I. GRADE DISTRIBUTION OF BOYS. RELATIVE FIGURES SHOWING BOYS IN EACH GRADE AMONG EACH 10,000 BOYS Grade Boys in each grade Boys in and below each grade Special and kindergarten 92 25 76 316 944 1,814 2,493 2,507 1,441 243 28 15 6 92 117 193 509 1.453 3,267 5,760 8,267 9,708 9,951 9,979 9,994 10,000 I 2 ■1 A ■. . 5 6 7 8 High School I II Ill IV Total 10,000 10,000 These figures which show the grades of the children who have reached the limit of the compulsory attendance period constitute one of the simplest and most significant measures of the effi- ciency of the city school system in carrying its children through the grades. If, upon reaching the age of 13 years, a large pro- portion have nearly or quite completed the elementary course, we know the system is so administered as to insure the completion of a common school education for a large proportion of the chil- dren. If, on the other hand, considerable numbers of children at the end of the compulsory attendance period are still in the lower grades, we may be sure that most of them will drop out of school without staying to finish the course. According to the conventional standards for measuring retardation, the child who is 13 years of age is considered to be in his normal grade if he is in the 7th grade or above, and to be retarded if he is in the 6th grade or below. If then we compute for each of our 78 cities the per cent of 13 year old boys who are in the 7th grade or above, we have an important index of one phase of the efficiency of their school systems. This comparison shows the results presented in Table 2. What Some Cities Have Done, Others May Do Table 2 impressively illustrated the wide range of conditions in city school systems. At one extreme we have Aurora, 111., and TABLE 2. PER CENT OF BOYS IN AND ABOVE THE SEVENTH GRADE City 1. Brockton, Mass 2. Aurora, 111. (East) . . . . 3. Kalamazoo, Mich 4. Waterloo, Iowa 5. Scranton, Pa 6. Decatur, 111 7. Aurora, 111. (West) . . . . 8. Holyoke, Mass 9. Racine, Wis ID. Newport, R. I 11. Mobile, Ala 12. Amsterdam, N. Y 13. Rockford, 111 14. Davenport, Iowa 15. Pittsfield, Mass 16. Paterson, N. J 17. Saginaw, Mich. (West) 18. Lancaster, Pa 19. Dubuque, Iowa 20. York, Pa 21. Evansville, Ind 22. Norwich, Ct 23. Auburn, N. Y 24. Utica, N. Y 25. Springfield, O 26. Syracuse, N. Y 27. San Diego, Cal 28. Chicopee, Mass 29. Tacoma, Wash 30. Meriden, Ct 31. Elmira, N. Y 32. Springfield, Mo 33. Saginaw, Mich. (East) . 34. Waterbury, Ct 35. Joliet, 111 36. Council Bluflfs, Iowa . . . 37. Flint, Mich 38. Binghamton, N. Y. . . . 39. South Omaha, Neb. . . . Per cent of boys in and above seventh grade n 73 64 63 62 61 60 59 57 57 57 54 54 54 54 53 52 52 51 51 51 50 50 49 49 49 49 49 49 49 47 47 46 45 45 45 45 45 44 City 40. Madison, Wis 41. Canton, O 42. Superior, Wis 43. Columbus, O . 44. Reading, Pa 45. Harrisburg, Pa 46. Williamsport, Pa 47. Niagara Falls, N. Y. . . . 48. Albany, N. Y 49. Hazelton, Pa 50. South Bend, Ind 51. Troy, N. Y 52. Hamilton, O 53. Atlanta, Ga 54. Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. i) . 55. Lincoln, Neb 56. Chattanooga, Tenn. . . 57. Bay City, Mich 58. New Bedford, Mass. . . 59. Portland, Me 60. Manchester, N. H 61. Fall River, Mass 62. Johnstown, Pa 63. Nashville, Tenn 64. Youngstown, O 65. New Britain, Ct 66. Danville, 111 67. Galveston, Tex 68. Trenton, N. J 69. Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. 20) 70. Woonsocket, R. I 71. Richmond, Va 72. Norfolk, Va 73. Lansing, Mich 74. Birmingham, Ala 75. Columbia, S. C 76. Charleston, S. C 77. Bridgeport, Ct 78. Portsmouth, Va Per cent of boys in and above seventh grade 44 44 44 44 42 42 41 40 40 39 38 38 38 37 36 36 36 35 34 34 34 34 33 33 33 33 32 32 31 28 24 24 21 21 20 18 18 16 12 Brockton, Mass., with more than 70 per cent, of their 13 year old boys in the 7th grade or above, while at the other extreme we find, Columbia, S. C, Charleston, S. C, Bridgeport, Ct., and Portsmouth, Va., with less than 20 per cent above the 7th grade. The contrast between the cities at the two extremes of the table shows that in Brockton almost 8 boys out of every 10 are within sight of completing the common school course, while in Ports- mouth scarcely more than i in lo shows the same advance. From the point of view of industrial education these conditions are of the greatest importance. They indicate that in many cities the problem of securing a reasonably complete elementary schooling for all the children is far more pressing than that of instituting specialized industrial training. They show too that since this has been accomplished by some of the cities, it may be hopefully undertaken by all. Only One Father in Six Now Lives Where He Was Born The data giving the birthplaces of the boys and their fathers show that only about one father in six is now living in the city of his birth and that among the boys only a few more than one- half are now living where they were born. These facts are sig- nificant because it is often urged that the schools should develop courses of industrial education that will directly prepare the chil- dren to enter the local industries. But if present conditions main- tain in the future the great majority of adults are not going to work in the same communities in which they received their schooling. The facts as to the birthplaces of the boys and their fathers among the 22,027 cases studied are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3. BIRTHPLACES OF BOYS AND BIRTHPLACES OF THEIR FATHERS BOYS FATHERS Birthplace Number Per cent Number Per cent Same city 12,699 4,233 3,069 2,026 58 19 14 9 3,601 5,349 4,364 8,713 16 Same state but not same city 24 20 Other state in United States Foreign country 40 Total .... ....... 22,027 100 22,027 100 This table shows that even among American born fathers the number now living in the cities where they were born includes only about one in four, while among the boys the proportion is only about three in five. While this is true for the group as a whole, the figures for the different cities show wide variations. The ranges, together with the figures for each city, are shown in Table 4. TABLE 4. PER CENT OF BOYS LIVING IN CITY OF BIRTH AND PER CENT OF THEIR FATHERS LIVING IN CITY OF BIRTH aty Albany, N. Y Amsterdam, N. Y Atlanta, Ga Auburn, N. Y Aurora, 111. (East Side) Aurora, 111. (West Side) Bay City, Mich Binghamton, N. Y Birmingham, Ala Bridgeport, Ct Brockton, Mass Canton, O Charleston, S. C Chattanooga, Tenn. . . . Chicopee, Mass Columbia, S. C Columbus, O Council Bluffs, Iowa. . . Danville, 111 Davenport, Iowa Decatur, 111 Dubuque, 111 Elmira, N. Y Evansville, Ind Fall River, Mass Flint, Mich Galveston, Tex Hamilton, O Harrisburg, Pa Hazelton, Pa Holyoke, Mass Johnstown, Pa Joliet, 111 Kalamazoo, Mich Lancaster, Pa Lansing, Mich Lincoln, Neb Madison, Wis Manchester, N. H Meriden, Ct Mobile, Ala Nashville, Tenn New Bedford, Mass. . . New Britain, Ct Newport, R. I Niagara Falls, N. Y. . . Norfolk, Va Norwich, Ct Paterson, N. J Pittsfield, Mass Portland, Me Number of cases PER CENT LIVING IN CITY OF BIRTH 468 129 lOI 100 57 203 182 451 704 333 291 115 103 166 58 876 187 184 280 162 98 167 277 801 210 141 176 402 161 299 317 262 184 214 164 178 140 277 194 198 396 689 248 145 161 296 141 897 242 307 Fathers Boys 39 13 14 24 12 19 13 14 7 9 II 16 51 5 8 7 15 9 II 25 13 21 12 24 13 8 20 20 19 19 7 26 10 9 34 9 2 14 II 16 29 22 9 7 30 12 18 21 17 12 17 71 64 53 62 50 53 61 63 46 55 68 47 71 37 51 35 50 56 39 60 41 72 56 63 72 21 69 59 55 62 61 69 63 44 64 35 37 49 62 70 50 63 52 51 79 47 54 52 68 42 61 Table 4. Per Cent of Boys Living in City of Birth and Per Cent OF THEIR Fathers Living in City of Birth — {Continued) City Portsmouth, Va Pueblo, Colo. (Dist.i) Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. 20) Racine, Wis Reading, Pa Richmond, Va Rockford, 111 San Diego, Cal Saginaw, Mich. (East Side) . Saginaw, Mich. (West Side) Scranton, Pa South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Neb Springfield, Mo Springfield, O Superior, Wis Syracuse, N. Y Tacoma, Wash Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica, N. Y Waterbury, Ct Waterloo, Iowa (West Side) Williamsport, Pa Woonsocket, R. I York, Pa Youngstown, O Total Number of cases 118 118 234 575 461 315 291 183 130 659 265 151 94 344 173 676 415 484 276 427 416 59 181 199 333 234 PER CENT LIVING IN CITY OF BIRTH Fathers 39 I 3 13 38 32 10 I 15 24 23 9 9 13 I 20 19 33 16 12 5 24 7 35 10 Boys 72 25 39 60 72 71 64 13 60 63 78 47 48 43 46 64 65 35 65 78 57 63 25 65 50 64 48 22,027 16 58 Industries in Which the Fathers Work The returns of the investigation showed for each of the fathers the nature of the trade or business in which he was engaged and also what kind of work he was doing in that trade or business. This made possible a double classification of the data, first by industries and second by occupations within the industries. The industrial classification was the one adopted by the United States Census Bureau and included the following five main di- visions : I. Industries of Extraction — ^Agriculture, Forestry, Mining, etc. II. Industries of Transformation — Building Trades, Manu- facturing, etc. lO III. Industries of Transportation and Communication — Railroads, Telegraph, etc. IV. Industries of Trade — Wholesale and Retail Trade, Real Estate, etc. V. Service — Government, Professional, Domestic, Personal, etc. The tabulations showed that the fathers were distributed in these five main industrial divisions as shown in Table 5. TABLE 5. INDUSTRIAL DISTRIBUTION OF FATHERS FATHERS Industrial group Number Per cent Extraction 754 10,934 2.774 4,129 2,597 3-5 51.6 131 19-5 12.3 Transformation Transportation Trade Service Total 21,188 lOOiO Retired, not stated or none 839 Grand Total 22,027 Only Half of the Fathers Work in Building Trades or Manufacturing One fact, shown in Table 5, is that only about one-half of these men are found in the Industries of Transformation which include the building trades and all classes of manufacturing. This is important because plans for inaugurating systems of vocational education are commonly based on the proposition that a large majority of the young people in our city schools will find their life-work in these industries. Another important fact is that the distribution of these men in these industrial groups is different from the corresponding figures for male workers in the country as a whole or in all American cities. The chief reason for this is that we are here dealing with adult men of sufficient maturity and stability of position in their communities to be fathers of 13-year-old boys in the public schools. The group includes no very young or very old men, few recent immigrants, few floaters, and few chronic ne'er-do-wells. II It is because of these characteristics that it furnishes facts which seem of unusual significance in the attempt to foresee what sorts of life work the young people now in city schools may be expected to go into. The variations between the different cities in the proportions of the men engaged in the five industrial classes are so great that each city is characteristically different from all the rest and no one shows even approximately the conditions indicated by the averages for the entire group. The degree to which this is true may be judged from the figures in Table 6. Since there are 78 cities, the 40th has in each case been taken as the middle one. TABLE 6. PER CENT OF FATHERS IN EACH INDUSTRIAL GROUP IN CITIES HAVING RESPECTIVELY THE LOWEST, MIDDLE, AND HIGHEST PER CENTS IN EACH GROUP LOWEST MIDDLE HIGHEST Industrial group City Per cent of fathers in each group City Per cent of fathers in each group City Per cent of fathers in each group Extraction Transformation . . . Transportation . . . Trade Harrisburg Galveston New Britain Chicopee Chicopee 20 4 6 4 Rockford Aurora Youngstown Trenton Danville 3 SI 12 18 II Hazelton Chicopee Harrisburg Columbia Newport 34 78 33 45 23 Service Table 7 gives the percentages of fathers in each industrial group for all of the 78 cities. Where these percentages do not add to 100 per cent, it is because the figures for the group entitled, " Retired, not stated, or none, " have been omitted. TABLE 7. PER CENT OF FATHERS IN EACH INDUSTRIAL GROUP City Albany, N. Y Amsterdam, N. Y Atlanta, Ga , Auburn, N. Y Aurora, 111. (East Side) Aurora, 111. (West Side) Bay City, Mich , PER CENT OF FATHERS IN Extrac- Transfor- Transpor- tion mation tation Trade I 38 18 21 5 63 5 16 I 32 18 32 3 52 II 20 2 63 ID 12 5 51 9 19 14 42 16 14 Service 16 16 II 9 12 12 Table 7. P^r Cent of Fathers in Each Industrial Group — (Continued) City Binghamton, N. Y. . . . Birmingham, Ala Bridgeport, Ct Brockton, Mass Canton, O Charleston, S. C Chattanooga, Tenn. . . . Chicopee, Mass Columbia, S. C Columbus, O Council Bluffs, la Danville, 111 Davenport, la Decatur, 111 Dubuque, la Elmira, N. Y Evansville, Ind Fall River, Mass Flint, Mich Galveston, Tex Hamilton, O Harrisburg, Pa Hazelton, Pa Holyoke, Mass Johnstown, Pa Joliet, 111 Kalamazoo, Mich Lancaster, Pa Lansing, Mich Lincoln, Neb Madison, Wis Manchester, N. H Meriden, Ct Mobile, Ala Nashville, Tenn New Bedford, Mass. . . . New Britain, Ct Newport, R. I Niagara Falls, N. Y. . . Norfolk, Va Norwich, Ct Paterson, N. J Pittsfield, Mass Portland, Me Portsmouth, Va Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. i). Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. 20) Racine, Wis Reading, Pa Richmond, Va Rockford, 111 San Diego, Cal PER CENT OF FATHERS IN Extrac- tion 3 3 2 2 2 4 2 2 3 I 2 12 3 ID 7 5 8 2 3 2 3 34 I 5 3 5 2 4 I I 3 7 3 I 4 3 II I 2 6 6 I 4 3 2 I I 3 6 Transfor- mation 49 34 61 63 60 22 32 78 26 46 36 34 42 41 46 39 46 59 58 20 55 34 22 66 56 53 55 53 63 25 43 57 62 26 37 61 67 33 61 31 55 66 58 38 56 37 54 65 57 45 71 38 Transpor- tation 19 20 7 7 9 23 14 8 12 15 23 18 12 14 II 19 9 8 14 20 6 33 13 6 10 21 II 12 7 19 14 9 7 23 17 5 4 II 9 17 9 18 21 II 14 18 Trade 19 31 18 14 17 41 33 6 45 20 19 16 20 17 20 21 22 17 15 31 17 17 18 13 14 12 17 22 17 31 20 17 13 31 26 14 19 19 II 33 19 14 16 25 27 23 II 12 14 21 12 21 Service 9 10 II 12 8 9 17 4 14 13 14 II 19 16 10 13 13 12 8 22 12 13 6 12 9 9 21 19 13 8 13 15 13 6 23 14 14 II 10 8 12 10 16 9 7 10 13 6 21 13 Table 7. Per Cent of Fathers in Each Industrial Group — (Continued) City Saginaw, Mich. (East Side) . . Saginaw, Mich. (West Side). . Scranton, Pa South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Neb Springfield, Mo Springfield, O Superior, Wis Syracuse, N. Y Tacoma, Wash Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica, N. Y Waterbury, Ct Waterloo, la. (West Side). . . . Williamsport, Pa Woonsocket, R. I York, Pa Youngstown, O Extrac- tion 7 14 25 I 5 3 2 X 3 I 2 2 I 3 2 I I PER CENT OF FATHERS IN Transfor- mation 43 48 28 58 47 37 51 34 52 45 58 49 50 64 49 51 61 55 62 Transpor- tation 15 15 13 13 II 14 7 17 II 16 II 12 12 8 12 18 8 13 12 Trade 22 15 17 18 13 27 14 30 21 18 18 20 20 12 25 13 15 15 13 Service 9 7 II 10 9 16 13 13 13 13 II 14 ID 12 7 10 13 10 10 Occupations of Fathers The occupational classification of these workers was made under six heads, of which the first three relate to occupations pri- marily manual in nature, while the remaining three groups are primarily mental. TABLE 8. OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FATHERS Occupational group FATHERS Number Per cent Manual Unskilled laborers 785 4,621 8,490 3-7 Semi-skilled laborers and machine operatives 21.8 Artisans and foremen 40.1 Total Manual 13,896 65.6 Mental Clerks and salesmen 1,883 4,562 847 8.9 Managers, superintendents, and proprietors 21.6 Professional and financial workers 3.9 Total Mental 7,292 34.4 Total Manual and Mental 21,188 100.0 Retired, not stated or none 839 Grand total 22,027 14 One-third in Head Work; Two-thirds in Hand Work Three significant facts are brought to light by the figures of Table 5. The first is that more of these men are in professional work than there are engaged in unskilled labor. The second is that the group of managers, superintendents, and proprietors is practically as large as that made up of semi-skilled laborers. The third is that the mental workers constitute more than one- third of all the workers. In the occupational distribution, as in the industrial one, we find the greatest variation in the conditions in the different cities. Table 9 shows the range in percentages and here again the 40th city in the list is in each case taken as the middle city. TABLE 9. PER CENT OF FATHERS IN EACH OCCUPATIONAL GROUP IN CITIES HAVING RESPECTIVELY THE LOWEST, MIDDLE, AND HIGHEST PER CENTS IN EACH GROUP LOWEST MIDDLE HIGHEST Occupational group City Per cent of fathers in each group City Per cent of fathers in each group City Per cent of fathers in each group Manual Unskilled Semi-skilled .... Artisans and foremen Mental Clerks Charleston Mobile Columbia Chicopee Chicopee Trenton 3 14 2 7 I Lancaster Albany New Britain Pueblo Aurora Lancaster 6 18 40 9 21 4 S. Omaha Brockton Meriden Columbia Charleston Springfield, Mo. 26 SI 56 28 Managers and proprietors . . . Professional .... 4S 10 Table 10 gives the percentages of fathers in each occupation group for each of the 78 cities. As before, where the figures for any city do not add to 100 per cent, it is because data for the "retired, not stated, or none" group have been omitted. 15 TABLE lo. PER CENT OF FATHERS IN EACH OCCUPATIONAL GROUP City Albany, N. Y Amsterdam, N. Y. . Atlanta, Ga Auburn, N. Y Aurora, 111. (East) . Aurora, 111. (West) . Bay City, Mich. . . . Binghamton, N. Y. , Birmingham, Ala. . . Bridgeport, Ct Brockton, Mass. . . . Canton, O Charleston, S. C. . . Chattanooga, Tenn. Chicopee, Mass. . . . Columbia, S. C. . . . Columbus, O Council Bluffs, la. . Danville, 111 Davenport, la Decatur, 111 Dubuque, la Elmira, N. Y Evansville, Ind. . . . Fall River, Mass. . . Flint, Mich Galveston, Tex. . . . Hamilton, O Harrisburg, Pa Hazelton, Pa Holyoke, Mass Johnstown, Pa Joliet, 111 Kalamazoo, Mich. . Lancaster, Pa Lansing, Mich Lincoln, Neb Madison, Wis Manchester, N. H. . Meriden, Ct Mobile, Ala Nashville, Tenn. . . . New Bedford, Mass New Britain, Ct. . . PER CENT OF FATHERS IN Manual occupation Un- skilled laborers 4 3 5 6 5 2 4 3 6 3 6 2 8 5 ID 4 4 4 6 4 7 3 8 ID 6 7 3 15 7 7 6 5 5 6 4 3 I 5 5 Semi- skilled laborers and ma- chine oper- atives l8 34 9 II 12 II 25 19 5 27 51 23 9 6 29 14 I6 20 12 17 9 21 15 13 46 24 12 12 22 ID 35 i8 24 23 21 25 II i6 36 17 3 ID 45 27 Arti- sans and fore- men 39 30 33 46 54 46 41 40 39 41 22 41 23 32 54 14 37 40 47 36 48 27 41 47 22 47 28 43 40 52 35 40 45 32 37 34 34 41 32 56 29 38 26 40 Mental occupation Clerks and 14 6 6 12 8 12 15 9 5 7 19 17 2 28 II II 9 5 13 9 6 7 20 6 12 8 9 7 5 II 10 6 20 9 9 5 16 18 6 6 Man- agers, super- intend- ents and pro- prietors 22 17 36 26 16 21 15 20 32 18 17 20 45 35 7 36 22 24 19 26 22 37 21 21 15 16 26 23 17 21 14 16 16 23 23 26 23 20 14 17 40 25 12 19 Profes- sional and finan- cial workers i6 Table io. JfER Cent of Fathers in Each Occupational Group — (Con- tinued) City Newport, R. I Niagara Falls, N. Y. . . . Norfolk, Va Norwich, Ct Paterson, N. J Pittsfield, Mass Portland, Me Portsmouth, Va Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. l). , Pueblo, Colo. (Dist. 20) . Racine, Wis Reading, Pa Richmond, Va Rockford, 111 San Diego, Cal Saginaw, Mich. (East) . . Saginaw, Mich. (West) . Scranton, Pa South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Neb. . . . Springfield, Mo Springfield, O Superior, Wis Syracuse, N. Y Tacoma, Wash Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica, N. Y Waterbury, Ct Waterloo, la. (West) . . Williamsport, Pa Woonsocket, R. I York, Pa Youngstown, O PER CENT OF FATHERS IN Manual occupation Un- skilled laborers 3 7 5 I 6 14 6 9 3 3 5 4 5 9 3 26 3 17 13 8 7 7 7 II 4 9 II 7 8 9 Semi- skilled laborers and ma chine oper- atives 12 26 6 23 39 24 II II 14 23 22 17 8 16 8 19 29 16 23 13 10 9 14 19 15 27 24 21 19 10 24 40 15 18 Arti- sans and fore- men 38 39 36 39 31 36 41 52 38 40 44 47 45 54 33 43 38 46 40 35 40 43 38 42 41 37 38 34 55 32 37 30 48 47 Mental occupation Clerks and sales- men 4 5 14 6 6 7 13 8 9 4 5 7 II 8 ID 20 10 9 9 5 14 6 7 II 8 7 10 7 8 12 8 7 9 9 Man- agers, super- intend- ents and pro- prietors 33 16 36 26 18 23 26 26 27 16 19 17 27 16 32 19 16 16 22 17 23 20 25 16 24 21 20 24 14 29 17 15 15 13 Profes- sional and finan- cial workers 4 5 5 3 3 4 3 6 2 3 2 5 3 9 I 2 3 3 3 10 5 2 4 4 I 2 3 I 9 4 I 4 4 More Foreign Born in Manual Work; More Americans IN Mental Work The records showed that 40 per cent of the fathers were born in foreign countries. A tabulation of their occupational records was made to see how they differed from those of the American born fathers. The results are presented in Table 1 1 , which shows 17 the number in each occupational group among each looo fathers among the foreign and American born. TABLE II. OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN BORN FATHERS. RELATIVE FIGURES PER looo IN EACH NATIVITY GROUP FATHERS Occupational group American Foreign Manual Unskilled laborers 41 169 398 88 Semi-skilled laborers and machine operatives 278 374 Artisans and foremen Total manual 608 740 Mental Clerks and salesmen 113 228 51 60 Managers, superintendents, and proprietors 180 Professional and financial workers 20 Total mental 392 260 Grand total 1,000 1,000 The results show that the foreign born are relatively more numerous among the manual workers and the Americans among the mental ones. Nevertheless the disproportion is not so great as many would perhaps have expected. Occupations in Different Industries The original returns showed the occupations of the fathers in many hundreds of industries, and in order to tabulate them the data were consolidated under some 35 industrial groupings fol- lowing the plan adopted by the office of the United States Census. The distribution of the men by occupational classes in each of these industrial groups is shown in Table 12 which gives the orig- inal data in some detail and again in Table 13 in which the same facts are presented in relative figures on the basis of a total of 10,000 after omitting those classified as "retired, not stated, or none. " In these tables the first three columns refer to the occu- pations we have termed manual while the next three are those we have called mental. In the list of 35 industrial groupings those numbered from i to 6 are industries of extraction, numbers 7 to 20 are those of transformation, numbers 21 to 26 are indus- tries of transportation, and numbers 27 to 31 are those of trade. i8 Those numbered from 32 to 35 come under the general caption of service. TABLE 12. INDUSTRIAL AND OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF 22,027 FATHERS Industrial group FATHERS IN Manual occupations ;2|; < Mental occupations 1 a u in