im • • • # "*^ 4 > t • > ^^ rt^ • • • / «^ 4 % •" ^^ .. K^ ••• nV^ *' ' \'.^\/ 'o^*^-'/ *<>*T^\/ • % ■if' * <^^. .-i?'"-*, -mm/ ** ** °-yw^- / "** -.^ V **'\ ;♦ ^0 ■^ - . . .0^ ^ ;♦ ^0 ILLUSTRATED SCHOOL HISTOKY WOELD, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME 3 ACCOMPANIED WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND ENGRAVINGS. BY JOHN D. QUACKENBOS, A. M., M. D., PROFESSOR EMERITUS OF RHETORIC, COLUMBIA COLLEGE. REYISEn . EJ)ITIO,N. " ' , NEW YORK •;• OINCIWATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY ^ ^\ x- LfBRARY of CONURESS Tw« C«pie> Received FEB 2 1904 VCopyritht Entry Copyright, 1870, 1S79, 18S9, 1904, BY JOHN D. QUACKEXBOS. \V. P. 6 PEEFAOE. A (tENKral History for schools which should he at the same lime comprehi'iisivc in its scope and condensed within moderate liTnils, simpVc in style and thorough in treatment, interesting in its matter and attrac- tive in its external dress, I'resh, accurate, and well-arranged, has long seemed to the writer to be a desideratum in our educational literature. Directed to the subject by his studic's while in charge of the department of Modern History at Columbia College for several years past, he has aimed to produce such a work in the volume now presented to the public. In preparing a brief manual like this, the selection of what is really important from the great mass of material at the compiler's disposal is perhaps the most ublishcrs to render the volume in every way satisfactory to the educators of youth. In the figured pronunciation, a is to be sounded like a in bai : & like a in India ; ch like <' in hd ; i like / in bin : o almost like u m fiir ; dd like 00 in book : Hw like ow in cow ; it like the French ii ; ///) like g in go : i\^ likfr the nasal n in French. CONTENTS Introduction, .... I. The Morninfi; of the World, II. Founding of Early Kingdoms, III. The Great Asiatic Nations, IV. Ancient African Nations, . V. The Ilebrews and Phoenicians, . VI. Founding of the Grecian States VII. Trajan War, and Succeeding Period in Greece, VIII. Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, IX. Founding of Rome. — The Roman Kings, . X, The Persian Empire, XI. Period of Grecian Glory, XII. Decline of Greece, XIII. The Macedonian Empire, XIV. Republican Rome, to the First Punic War, XV. The Punic Wars, XVI. Golden Age of the Roman Republic, XVII. Establishment of the Empire, . XVIII. Caesars who succeeded Augustus, XIX. The Five Good Emperors. — Wane of the Empire, XX. Christianity made the Religion of the Empire. — Fall of Rome, . . . . . XXI. Commencement of Mediicval History, XXII. Mohammed. — Saracen Empire. — Carlovingian Dynasty in France, . . . . . XXIII. Charlemagne and his Successors, XXIV. Era of Alfred the Great and the Danish Kings, XXV. England under the Norman Kings, XXVI. The Feudal System.— Chivalry, XXVII. Accession of the Plantagenet Line, XXVIII. Period of the Crusades, . . . . XXIX. The Great Tartar Conquerors, . PAOB 1 10 14 16 26 31 39 46 52 56 62 69 78 88 99 107 117 127 136 144 151 157 165 173 181 188 194 205 211 222 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGB XXX. England under the Three Edwards. — Contemporaneous History of France, . . . .227 XXXI. The ItaHan States. — Rise of the House of Hapsburg. — Switzerland, . . . .233 XXXII. Hundred Years' War (continued). — Wars of the Roses, 242 XX.XIII. Rise of the Ottoman Empire, . . .255 XXXIV. Period of Maritime Discoveries, . . 260 XXXV. Beginnings of Modern History. — First Tudor Kings in England, . . . . .267 XXXVI. The Reformation, . . . .273 XXXVII. Wars of Charles V. and Francis I., . . 281 XXXVIII. Branches of Orleans and Angouleme in France, . 286 XXXIX. England under the Children of Henry VIII., . 291 XL. Rise of the Dutch Republic, . . . 300 XLI. Accession of the Bourbons in France. — Henry IV. and Louis XIII., . . . .306 XLII The Thirty Years' War, . . . 310 XLIII. Accession of the Stuarts in England, . . 316 XLIV. Spanish Glory and its Decline, . . 323 XLV. Abolition of Monarchy in England. — The Cromwells, . 328 XLVL The Restoration.— Charles II.— James II., . 332 XLVlI. Age of Louis XIV. of France, . . .340 XLVIII. The Orange-Stuarts in England. — Queen Anne, . 346 XLIX. Decline of Ottoman Power, . . .352 L. Peter the Great of Russia and Charles XII. of Sweden, 357 LI. Accession of the House of Hanover in England, . 368 LII. Reign of Louis XV. of P'rance, . . . 376 LIII. Prussia. — European Wars of the Eighteenth Century, 377 LIV. Accession of George III. — American Revolution, . 389 LV. Period of the French Revolution, . . 396 LVI. The First French Empire, . . .411 LVII. British East Indian Empire, . . . 422 LVIII. The United States of America, . . . 427 LIX. Spanish-American Countries. — Brazil, . . 432 LX. England to the Accession of Victoria. — Greek Revolu- tion, ..... 436 LXI. France to 1830. — Belgian and Polish Revolutions, 442 LXII. Beginning of Victoria's Reign. — Revolutions of 1848, 446 LXIII. The Crimean War, . . . .454 LXIV. Recent History, . . . .458 HISTORY OF THE WORLD. INTRODUCTION. History is a narration of past events. The history I of the world begins with the Creation. It traces the ori- ] gin, growth, and decline of the nations that have succes- i sively appeared on the stage of action, as well as the I causes that have led to their greatness and their decay ; j it treats also of their social life, arts, literature, and sys- I tems of religion. I Chronol'ogy is the science which arranges the events I of history in the order of their occurrence, and determines 1 the date of each. Dates have to be reckoned from some fixed point of time, and different nations have adopted different eras. The Greeks, in giving their dates, used Olym'piads, or periods of four years intervening between successive cele- brations of the Olym'pic Games (see page 51). The first Olympiad commenced with the victory of Corcebus {ko- re'bus) in the foot-race (776 b. c). An event was set down as happening in the first, second, third, or fourth year of a certain Olympiad. The Romans adopted as their chronological era the date of the founding of their capital (753 b. c). The letters a. u. c, accompanying Roman dates, signify " in 8 INTRODUCTION. the year of the founding of the city " [anno urbis con- ditce). The birth of Christ was first used as a chronological era by an Italian abbot, Dennis the Little, in the sixth century ; in the seventh it was introduced into England and France, and it has since been adopted in all Christian countries. Time before Christ is denoted by the letters B. c; time after Christ, by A. D. {anno domini, in the year of our Lord). It is now, however, generally be- lieved that the Christian Era was by mistake fixed four years later than the birth of Christ. The Jews, not recognizing the Saviour, number their years from the Creation, and some Christian writers use the same era for dates before Christ. The letters A. m. {anno muyidl) mean " in the year of the world." Mohammedan nations reckon from the Hegira {Jie-jl'rd), or Flight, 622 a. d,, — the year in which the founder of their religion fled from Mecca. History may be distinguished as Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern. Ancient History extends from the Creation, 4004 B. c, to the overthrow of the Roman Empire in Italy by northern barbarians, 476 A, D. Media?val His- tory relates the events of the Middle or Dark Ages ; by which are meant the thousand years following the fall of Rome, and extending to a new era marked by the revival of learning and various great inventions and discoveries. With this new era Modern History begins. The principal sources of history are, the Scriptures, which furnish the only authentic records of primeval times; the works of uninspired writers; and inscriptions and pictures on rocks, tombs, and the walls of temples. Important information is also frequently obtained from coins, medals, broken weapons, architectural ruins, etc. Particularly valuable to later historians have been the Assy rio-Baby Ionian cuneiform inscriptions and the hiero- INTRODUCTION. 9 glyphic writing of ancient Egypt. The meaning of the Egyptian characters was long a mystery, but was at length ascertained by means of patient study of the Ro- setta Stone. This celebrated stone, discovered in 1799 by a French officer in Egypt, contains equivalent inscrip- tions in Egyptian and Greek characters; and a compari- son of these, the meaning of the Greek text being known, has furnished scholars with an invaluable key to inscrip- tions in which important historical facts were locked up. Of the five races which constitute the population of the globe, it is of the Caucasian that history has princi- pally to treat. The Ethiopian and the Malay race make little or no figure in the annals of the past; the American race appears on the stage only for a short period during the first explorations and settlements of the New World; of the Mongolians, the Chinese, Turks, Tartars, and Magyars or Hungarians, have from time to time mingled in the great drama, but for the most part have played no con- spicuous part. It is the Caucasian race that has shown the greatest intellectual force, that has made the most progress in civilization, literature, science, and art, that has swayed the great empires of the world. Taking a general view of the events we are to look at in detail, we first learn of European Man in an era of sav- ageness — a so-called Stone Age — as inhabiting caves, or Lacus'trine Dwellings, built for safety on piles over shal- low lakes, and as using weapons and implements largely of stone, and hardening in the sun or by means of a slow fire rude vessels of clay : Then we see great nations formed in the East : War in the ascendant : Despotism rampant : The Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Macedo- nian, and Roman empires, successiA^ely enjoying almost world-wide sway : Then luxury, effeminacy, and misrule doing their work : Ancient states and cities losing their prestige : Barbarian prowess cverthrowing corrupted i^^ THE MORNING OF THE WORLD. civilization: New but ruder kingdoms formed: Ignorance and vice settling down on the nations: A thousand years of darkness, relieved here and there by bright but short- lived flashes: At length gleams of light appearing: Day dawning : A gradual but finally complete intellectual revolution: Learning revived: The restless mind of man achieving further triumphs: A NeAV World added to the Old : New nations springing into life : Inventions and discoveries whose name is legion: Social life regenerated: The thirst for conquest subordinated to the arts of peace: The voice of the people heard: Even conservative nations of the Mongolian race waking from their sleep and asking for light: Education recognized as the lever that is to move the world. CHAPTER I. THE MORAJXG OF THE WORLD. Ancient History begins with the Creation. For the history of the Creation, Deluge, and Disper- sion, the reader is referred to the Scriptural narrative. The precise time of the appearance of man on the earth can not be determined. It is believed by scientists that the first traces of primitive man date from the time when the great glaciers of the Ice Period, that once covered the northern portions of both continents, began to disap- pear. Along with the hairy elephant, the woolly rhinoce- ros, and the musk-ox, he followed the ice-fields in their retreat to the far north. The Creation. — Within the last hundred years. Geol- ogy, the science which treats of the earth's structure, has brought to light new facts relating to the Creation. Among other things, it teaches us that the six days spoken THE CREATION. 11 of in the Bible were not days of twenty-four hours^ but ages, or else were preceded by an indefinite period of time reaching back to " the beginning." Our earth appears once to have been a ball of melted matter surrounded by a hot gaseous atmosphere. The outer part of this molten mass gradually cooled, and a crust was thus formed. The vapor in the air was next condensed into a great ocean, spreading over the whole Ideal Landscape of a Prehistoric Age. globe. Under the action of the fiery heat within, floods of melted rock from time to time forced their way through the solid barriers that confined them. Thus continents and islands were upheaved, and vast hollows formed, into which the waters of the primeval ocean receded. Our knowledge of the plants and animals of the geo- logical ages preceding man's creation, is derived from 12 THE MORNING OT THE WORLD. their fossil remains or traces left on rocks. Gigantic shrubs now unknown once flourished ; strange fish and huge reptiles swarmed in the waters; and immense ani- mals, much larger than any modern species, roamed over the earth. The Bible narrative of the Creation, the Fall of Man, and the Deluge, has been corroborated in a remarkable manner by tablets recently found among the ruins of Nineveh, copied from Chalde'an records dating back to 2000 B. c. There are indeed minor points of difference, as might be expected ; the only wonder is that the sacred and profane accounts agree so closely. The Avesta, or ancient Persian Bible, hands down a similar history of the creation of the universe; while legends of the Deluge have been current among various nations — even among the scattered Indian tribes of America. Primitive Communities. — As to what precise site was first occupied by mankind, we can only speculate. The science of language, however, carries us back into prehis- toric times, and points us to three original divisions of the human race, two of them settled in south-western Asia, the other a nomadic host occupying the upland plains of the interior — and this just at the dim dawn of authentic history. The valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, including the Shi'nar of the Bible (see Map, p. 16), was at this remote day the home of the Semites (a name derived from Shein, their ancestor). North-east of the Semites, and separated from them by the broad table-land of Iran {e'rahn) and the Hindoo Koosh Mountains, lived the Aryans ; and north of these, over the steppes of Tartary and Russia, wandered a third branch of the human family, — the Turanians. The histor}'^ of Europe in these primeval times is a sealed book. It is probable that the first to break the solitude of its forests were Turanians ; they seem to have travelled PRIMITIVE COMMUNniES. 13 into Finland on their dog-sleds in pursuit of the reindeer, to have made permanent settlements on the shores of the Baltic, and to have reared their dwellings on piles above the waters of the Swiss lakes. We have said that the science of language raises the veil that hides the past. By tracing one hundred and fifty of the principal tongues spoken in Europe and Asia to three distinct parent stems, it has established the facts just stated ; while many allusions in extant works of an- cient Oriental literature enable us to locate thus minutely the primitive Aryans and Semites. The Aryans possess the greatest interest for us, inas- much as they are our ancestors, — the Japhetic fathers of those nations of the Caucasian race that for centuries en- joyed the dominion of the then-known world, as well as those that are now foremost in physical and intellectual power. Here, again, the study of language comes to our aid, and reveals the arts, social life, and religion, of these an- cient Aryans, in whose poetical tongue, now known to us only by the words common to its early derivatives, we must recognize the remote parent of our own English. Before 2000 B. c, they had attained a high degree of civilization. Not only were they stock-raisers and agriculturists, as their name Aryan [tiller of the earth) implies, but also expert workmen in various handicrafts, as weaving, metal- lurgy, and the manufacture of pottery. Nor were they strangers to architecture, navigation, mathematics, and astronomy. Marriage was regarded as a sacred contract, polygamy being rare. Children were the light of the household, as evinced by the meaning of the names — boy, bestower of happiness ; girl, she that causes rejoicing; brother, supporter/ sister, friendly. A patriarchal form of government prevailed; that is, the heads of families exercised control — subject, however, 14 FOUNDING OF EARLY KINGDOMS. to a council of seven elders, whose chief was recognized as king. From his decisions there was an appeal to heaven in the ordeal of tire and water. The ancient Aryans wor- shipped a personal God. CHAPTER II. FOUXDIXG OF EARLY KINGDOMS. Migrations from Arya. — The original Arj^an family rapidly increased, until its original domicile could no lon- ger contain it. Its surplus population then wandered off in separate bodies, at diiTerent periods, to find new homes in distant climes. The Celtic clans, Pelasgic tribes, Slavonians and Teu- tons, took a westerly course, and finally settled in different parts of Europe, after dispossessing their Turanian prede- cessors. At a later date the greater part of those who were left behind crossed the Hindoo Koosh range, and spread over the table-land of Iran, corresponding with modern Persia, Afghanistan [ahf-gdhn-is-tahn'), and Bel- oochistan {hel-oo-chis-tahn). From these spnmg the Medes and Persians, as well as the Brahman Hindoos, whom a religious dispute led to separate from their breth- ren and migrate into the peninsula of India. Thus the posterity of Ja'pheth {ea'pant>io)t) became the founders of Celtic Britain and France ; Pelasgic Italy and Greece ; Slavonic Russia, Poland, and Bohemia ; Germany and Scandinavia ; as well as of the Persian and Hindoo monarchies. Similarities of language show that all these nations had a common origin. They constitute the Aryan, or Indo-Ettropean, branch of the Caucasian race, which has surpassed the other branches in mental activity, and has had most to do with shaping the world's history. SEMITES AND TURANIANS. 15 The Semitic Nations in remote antiquity surpassed all others in culture and power. They comprised the He- brews, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians, who spoke the Hebraic branch of the Semitic mother-tongue ; the Sj'ri- ans and Assyrians ; and the Arabians and Ethiopians, whose language was the musical Arabic. The Chaldeans, or Babylonians, were partly Semitic, partly Turanian ; while the ancient Egyptians, judging from their language, had Aryan and Semitic blood mingled in their veins. The earliest pages of the world's history are covered with the records of these venerable Semitic monarchies — records that have been disinterred during the last quarter- century, after lying concealed in the royal tombs of Egypt and the neglected ruins of Assyria for two or three thou- sand years. Already the history of the Orient has been rewritten in the light of these discoveries. Three facts should be remembered in connection with the Semites : 1. That they were the pioneers in commerce and maritime enterprise ; 2. That to them the world is indebted for the wonderful invention of alphabetic writing; 3. That they were the branch chosen for keeping alive a knowledge of the true God. The Turanians, unsettled, fierce, swift horsemen as their name implies, were less conservative than the Sem- ites, less cultured than the Aryans. It is true that they invented the cuneiform characters, specially adapted for chiselling on rocks, and supposed by some to be the oldest vehicles ever used for the expression of thought ; but the inscriptions thus recorded were fragmentary, their roving habits preventing them from developing a systematic liter- ature. We can, therefore, only conjecture their employ- ments to have been such as would naturally belong to a wandering, pastoral, or predatory people. Exactly where the Chinese and Japanese belong in this classification of races we do not know, for the peculiarities 16 THE GREAT ASIATIC NATIONS. of their languages do not justify us in placing them among Aryans, Semites, or Turanians. 2000 B. C.— Approximate date of the birth of Abraham (1996), Egyptian, Chaldean, Assyrian, Chinese, and other monarchies, established. Sidon and Tyre flourishing cities. Aryans, descended from Japheth, in the plain of Iran, and the ancient home beyond the Hindoo Koosh. Turanians wandering over the plains of Europe and Asia. CHAPTER III. THE GREAT ASIATIC NATIONS. The Chaldean Monarchy. — Chaldea, or Babylonia, one of the first monarchies, was founded before 2200 b. c. It lay north of the Persian Gulf, and was watered by the Euphra'tes and Ti'gris (see Map) ; hence it was known as the "Land of Shi'nar" {coun- try of the two rivers). Baby- lon was the seat of empire. Nimrod, in the Hebrew ac- count, figures as the founder of the kingdom. A bold, unscrupulous chief, he overthrew the original patri- archal form of government, and established despotism in its stead. Some suppose that he introduced THE CHALDEAN MONARCHY. 17 the worship of the heavenly bodies, and that after his death he was adored by his subjects under the name of Bel, or Be'lus. The most that we know of Chaldea for several cen- turies is that it maintained an obstinate struggle for the ascendency with the growing power of Assyria, but was at last obliged to acknowledge the supremacy of its rival. Attempts made from time to time by different mouarchs to assert their independence were unsuccessful ; and as the result of one of these revolts, in 683 B. c. Babylon was sacked. The accession of Nab'onassar to the throne in 747 B. c. is made memorable by the adoption of this year as a fixed time to date from. It is known as the Era of Nabonassar. The Chaldeans were pioneers in the arts and sciences. They were well versed in arithmetic, astronomy, and par- ticularly architecture, using bricks for their buildings and the bitu'men of the country for mortar. They excelled in the manufactures of the loom, ex- hibited great skill in the engraving of precious stones and the fashion- ing of ornaments and domestic uten- sils, were acquainted with the use of letters, and stamped their legends on bricks. Commercial pursuits early engaged their attention ; and the " ships of Ur," one of their cities (see Map), traded with the neigh- boring countries. As early as the twentieth century before Christ, the cities of Babylonia became great literary centers, where were prepared texts on history and science that for generations ranked as authorities. The Assyrian Empire. — Little is known of Assyrian history till the time of Tiglathi-nin {tig'lath-e-nin'), sup- 2 ' ^ 1^ I mM Chaldean Brick. 18 THE GREAT ASIATIC NATIONS. posed to be the Greek Ni'iius, wlio reigned 1270-1:250 b. c. He extended his sway over Babylon, and caused to be inscribed on his signet " Conqueror of Babylonia." The ambitious king Tig'lath-Pile'ser I. {pi-le'zer) also made extensive conquests, but his brilUant reign was fol- lowed by a long period of obscurity. The darkness was finally dispelled in the ninth centur3\* This seems to have been the age of the " lady Semir'amis," the reputed conqueror of the East and one of the greatest legendary cliaracters in history. Semiramis was probably a Babylo- nian princess, who wedded an Assyrian king and thus strengthened her husband's claim to her native land. The marvellous tales of her conquests and public works are regarded as fabulous bj' later historians. The Assyrian Empire attained the height of its glory in the century preceding its fall. Tiglath-Pileser II., who reigned until 727, took Damascus in Syria, and received the homage of many kings. Shahnane'ser IV. several times invaded Palestine, and at last laid siege to Sama'- ria. This city surrendered to Sargon, the next monarch, who also engaged in successful wars with Egypt and Babylonia. Sennacherib {se?i-naA''e-n'b), the son of Sargon (705- 680 B.C.), was one of the greatest of the Ninevite kings. After many victorious expeditions, Sennacherib blasphe- mously threatened Jerusalem with a great army; when, in one night, " the angel of the Lord smote in the camp of the Assyrians an hundred fourscore and five thousand." Sardanapa'lus, grandson of Sennacherib, extended his empire beyond all former limits. His cliief pleasure was to encounter the lion, and fierce beasts were let loose in his park to fall before his arrows and spear. Art and * The ninth century b. c. embraces the years from 900 to 800. The beghnning of the ninth century would be the yeai-s 900, 899, etc. ; the close of the ninth century, 801, 802, etc. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 19 literature, however, were not neglected. A magnificent palace was built at his capital, Nineveh, a royal library was established, and under Sardanapalus Assyria reached the zenith of her greatness. Sar'acus, the son of this mighty king, was dissolute and effeminate. He is said to have dwelt in his palace, imitating the dress and employments of his wives and fe- male slaves. At last the Medes and Babylonians revolted, and besieged him in his capital. Finding that resistance was vain, Saracus built a funeral-pile, and burned himself up with his wives and treasures (625 u. c). Nineveh was destroyed, and the conquerors divided between them the proud Assyrian Empire. The Babylonians now obtained the supremacy of western Asia. Assyrian Arts. — Nineveh was never rebuilt. Vast mounds, which for centuries covered the ruins of its once splendid edifices, have recently been excavated; and the wonderful remains, sculptures, and pictured walls, there found, have contributed much to our knowledge of the ancient Assyrians. Judging from these, they were skilled in engraving, metallurgy, embroidery, and the manufact- ure of glass. Their palaces were ornamented with elab- orate sculptures, prominent among which were colossal bulls with wings and human heads. Beautiful bass-reliefs represent the every-day life of the people, and many written memorials of the nation remain on slabs and obe- lisks. Other interesting specimens of Assyrian art are vases, bronzes, seals, glass-ware, enamelled bricks, carved ivory, and engraved gems. The Assyrians were acquainted with the arch, the lever, and the magnif ying-lens ; indeed, tow- ard the close of their empire, according to Rawlinson, " in all the arts and appliances of life they were nearly on a par with ourselves." The Assyrians were idolaters. They were engaged in di j %.^*'^i^,Lr^'^- THE BABYLONIAN MONAKCIIY, 21 Assyrian Warrior. almost perpetual war. Among their exercises was hunt- ing the lion and wild-bull. The Babylonian Monarchy (Map, p. 16), after the con- quest of Nineveh, maintained its ascendency as capital of the eastern world for nearly a century (625- 538 B. c). The great- est of its princes was Nebuchadnezzar (601- 561 B.C.), who triumphed over the Jews and Egyp- tians, and made Babylon "the lady of kingdoms." The capital, built on both sides of the Euphrates in the form of a square, was more than fifty miles in circuit. Its beautiful hanging gardens, and massive walls, 87 feet thick and 350 feet high, were counted among the Seven Wonders of the World! These gardens, eight miles in circumference, Nebu- chadnezzar constructed to delight his queen, Avho, tired of the monotonoLi.s landscape about her, pined for her native Median hills. They consisted of a succession of terraces, overtopping the city walls, and planted with trees and flowering shrubs. The whole was irrigated from a large lake on the top, which was filled by engines with water from the Euphrates. Across the river was the temple of Bel, decorated with the plundered wealth of the East. — The site of the Hanging Gardens has been ex- posed by excavation ; it is covered with the ruins of aque- ducts, and with huge masses of black Armenian stone. From the Babylonians we have borrowed our division of time into years (at first of 360 days, a month being 22 THE GREAT ASIATIC NATIONS. added every sixth year), weeks of seven days, hours, min- utes, and seconds ; also our foot, and perhaps our pound. Fall of Babylon. — The last of the Babylonian kings was defeated before the walls of his capital by the Medes and Persians. His son Belshazzar was besieged in the city, which, however, was well provisioned and for a time defied their efforts. At length the enemy turned the Euphrates from its course, and entered the city through the bed of the stream, while the Babylonians were en- gaged in revelry, profanely drinking from the golden ves- sels which had been taken from the House of God at Jerusalem. At this very time the prophet Daniel was interpreting to their aiFrighted prince certain mysterious characters which suddenly appeared, written by the fin- gers of a man's hand upon the wall of his palace, an- nouncing the overthrow of the kingdom. That same night the besiegers penetrated to the royal banquet-hall. Belshazzar was slain, and Babylonia became a province of the Persian Empire (538 b. c). The proud capital is now a heap of ruins; and, as the prophet Isaiah predicted, wild beasts make their dens in its desolate houses. Customs, etc. — The Babylo- nians excelled in the manufact- ure of cotton and woolen fab- rics. Their dress was a flounced robe, reaching to the feet; they wore long hair and turbans. Herod'otus tells of some strange BABTLOjaAN Seal. customs as prevailing among them. Once a year the mar- riageable maidens in each village were collected and sold at auction as wives, the most beautiful bringing the high- est prices. Then the ugly damsels were disposed of, with marriage-portions obtained from the sums paid for their fairer companions. INDIA. 23 Physicians were unknown among them. When a man was taken ill, his friends laid him in the public square, to be examined by all who passed. When one came along who had had like symptoms himself, he prescribed such remedies as he had found beneficial in his own case. India, which occupied the peninsula south of the Himalay'a Mountains, appears to have been inhabited in remote antiquity. About 1400 B. c, the valley of the Indus was overrun by an invading host from the plateau of Iran, the worshippers of Brah'ma, who ultimately ex- tended their power and religion over the whole of Hindos- tan and Ceylon. With them originated the sacred books called Ve'das, consisting of hymns to various deities, written in that polished language, as its name imports, the Sanscrit. The most ancient of these, the Rig- Veda, is the oldest exist- ing Aryan work. It contains over a thousand hymns, com- posed in a simple but grand style, and addressed to thirty- three gods, prominent among whom are the sun and moon, fire, and the dawn. There is no allusion, however, to the corrupt rites associated at a later day with the re- ligion of Brahma. From this work as a beginning, the Hindoos developed a literature so vast that the longest life, it has been computed, would not suffice for one to read all that it contains. Two magnificent epics, of uncertain date, are the pride of Sanscrit literature. The subject of one is the Aryan conquest of lower Hindostan and Ceylon ; that of the other, a legendary war of which Delhi [del'le) was the scene. Old ballads and tales were woven together to form these epics, but not until they had been modified so as to conform to the tenets of the Brahman faith. A peculiar feature of Brahmanism was the institution of caste, according to which the people were divided into fom- classes, separated by impassable lines, and each hav- 24 THE GREAT ASIATIC NATKms. ing its own duties and privileges. One of its leading doc- trines was the transmigration of souls: that at death the spirits of the good passed into a higher order of beino-s, as a reward for their virtues; those of the wicked, into inferior animals, as a punishment for their crimes. About 500 B. c. the simpler religion of Buddha arose, and contended with Brahmanism for centuries for the supremacy of India. The latter finally prevailed ; and Buddhism, expelled for the most part from the peninsula, took refuge in the island of Ceylon, and diffused itself through regions to the east, as far as and including China. At the present day, Buddhism, with its grotesque idols and fanciful pago'das, its sacrifices of fruit, flowers, and incense, and its prayer-mills, is the religion of nearly one- third of the population of the world. Jndia was celebrated for its rich products, including diamonds, rubies, silk and cotton fabrics, which were eagerly sought after by early nations. Subterranean [|||:|||lKlllllwu(lJi'W|fwiiiii:iiiiii>''ii|i|iii'i:iitiiiiiJi{i{{iiiluiiirifMi: I.NTEl:li.:r, UK AN INDIAN CaVE-TbMPLE. CHINA. 25 temples with inscriptions and sculptures, pagodas cut out of solid stone, and rock-hewn grottoes, which must have employed thousands of workmen for centuries, — are the remains of Indian architecture. China, — The Chinese claim for their empire the great- est antiquity. Fo-hi, generally regarded as its founder, was succeeded by Chin-nong, who invented the plough. The people then rapidly advanced in civilization. To one of their princesses belongs the honor of having first un- ravelled the cocoons of the silk-worm and woven the thread into a fabric. Confucius {kon-fu' she-us), who flourished about 500 B. c, is the most distinguished personage of Chinese his- tory. He became the great teacher of his countrjinen, and by his elevated moral precepts, disseminated orally during his life and in writings which have been received almost as divine revelations by the Chinese and are stiU taught in their schools, has perhaps exerted a greater in- fluence than any other purely human teacher. An interesting anecdote of the youth of Confucius has been handed down. Becoming tired of study, he re- solved to abandon it for some other pursuit. As he was retumina" from school one day with this determination, he noticed an old woman rubbing an iron bar on a whetstone ; and, when he asked her what she was doing, learned that she was trving to replace her knitting-needle, which she had lost, by rubbing down the bar. Filled with admira- tion of her perseverance, the young student exclaimed, " Shall an old woman have more resolution than I, within whose reach are the highest honors of the empire ? " He returned to his books w-ith fresh \'igor, and became, as we have seen, one of the greatest of sages. About 250 B. c. was built the Great Wall of China, designed to protect the country from the Tartars. It extends alonor the northern and north-western frontier for 20 ANCIENT AFRICAN NATIONS. 1,200 miles, is from fifteen to thirty feet in height, is wide enough for six horsemen to ride on abreast, and is sur- mounted by strong towers forty feet high. Tradition says that it used to be defended by a million soldiers. It was built by the Emperor Ching-Wang, who also expelled the Mongols and consolidated the empire. 1800 B. C. — Age of Ycdic Hymns and earliest Persian metrical songs. Cuneiform writing. Descendants of Ishmael in Arabia. Celts moving westward. CHAPTER IV. ANCIENT AFRICAN NATIONS. Egypt. — The fertile valley of the Nile was settled in prehistoric times. Historians record the name of Mis- raim, or Menes {me'neez) (in Egyptian, the "stable"), as the first monarch, or Pharaoh {fa'ro), of Egypt. Several contemporaneous kingdoms appear to have been formed, the most powerful of which were Memphis and Thebes. These were conquered by a horde of in- vaders called " Shepherds," whose dominion lasted about 500 years. During their sway, Joseph and his kinsmen found a home in the land. A great national revolt headed by the Theban monarch finally broke out. The Shepherd Kings were expelled, and Thebes gained supreme do- minion over all Egypt, 1535 i?. c. A brilliant period followed. Magnificent works of art were erected, and important conquests made. Thoth'mes III. carried on wars in Ethiopia and Asia, and is thought to have laid even Nineveh and Babylon under tribute. The remains of superb structures in all parts of Egypt still bear witness to his greatness. EGYPT. 27 JIEUI TEEJlA XEAy Am'unoph III. was also noted for his conquests and for the grand temples which he erected. The site of one of these at Thebes is marked by the famous colossal statue called the Vocal Memnon, which was believed by the ancients to utter a mysteri- ous sound at sunrise. Ram'eses II., most cele- brated of the Pharaohs, lived in the thirteenth century. Aiming at universal empire, he carried his conquering arms into the heart of Af- rica, northward into Thrace, and as far east as India. The Ethiopians paid him tribute in ebony, gold, and elephants' tusks ; and his fleet scoured the Indian waters. The Nile and the Red Sea were connected with a canal; a long wall was built to pro- tect the eastern frontier ; and everywhere monuments perpetuated the deeds of Rameses the Great. Under the successors of Rameses, Egypt declined, and about 730 k. c. it was conquered by the Ethiopians. It subsequently re-established its independence, and under Pharaoh Necho {ne'ko), 600 b. c, once more became pow- erful. Although much occupied in war, this enterprising prince labored to promote the commercial interests of the nation. He maintained fleets on the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, and under his auspices the Cape of Good — ANCIENT— — EGYPT— 28 ANCIENT AFKICAN NATIONS. Hope was rounded, and Africa ciroumnavig'ated. The ex- pedition returned to Egypt in the third year, through the Pillars of Hercules, now the Strait of Gibraltar. Food becoming scarce during the voyage, the sailors drew up their ships on shore and raised a crop of grain. The last of the Pharaohs was overthrown b}^ Camby'- ses, King of Persia, 525 B. c, and Egypt was annexed as a dependency to that empire. Monuments of Egypt. — The valley of the Nile in Upper and Middle Egypt was in ancient times occupied by great cities, whose splendor is still attested by gigantic Pyramids and Sphinx. structures and massive ruins. Of these, the Pyramids, supposed to have been erected as tombs of the Egyptian kings, are the grandest monuments ever reared by man. EGYPT. 29 They are found in groups, and the most famous are those of Ghizeh {ghe'zeh), near Cairo {ki'ro). Here, rising 450 feet above the sand, stands the Great Pyramid, attributed to Cheops {ke'ops), who flourished perhaps 5,000 years ago. It is built of immense stone blocks, and its base covers about thirteen acres. We are told that 100,000 persons were compelled to work upon this pyramid at a time, fresh laborers supplying their places at the end of three months. Near the Pyramids of Ghizeh is the Great Sphinx, or man-headed lion, a figure 188 feet long and GO feet high, cut out of a projecting rock. Between its huge fore-paws were found the remains of a temple, in which sacrifices were offered to the monster. The magnificent ruins of Thebes, the hundred-gated capital, are scattered along the Nile for miles, at and near the modern villages of Luxor and Karnak. The vast palaces and temples, the colossal statues, the avenues of sphinxes, the obelisks, burial-grottoes, and royal sepul- chres, seem almost to have been the work of more than ordinary mortals. Aets, etc. — Egypt was pre-eminently an agricultural country. The soil, enriched by the annual inundations of the Nile, yielded abundant harvests with but little labor. Fruit-trees were culti- vated, the vine flourished, and wine was manufactured. Rameses is said to have irrigated the land by means of canals, an 1 throughout antiquity Egj'pt was the grau ary of the surrounding states. The Eg3-ptians excelled in massive ar- chitecture, in geometry, astronomy, chem- istry, and mechanics, in working the met- als, and other branches of manufacture. Their ointments preserved in vases for 30 ANCIENT AFRICAN NATIONS. 3,000 years still diffuse a fragrance that proves them to have been masters of the perfumer's art. They worked gold and silver mines, and carried on an extensive traffic with Phoenician and Arabian traders. They wore costly ornaments — armlets, necklaces, ear-rings, and amulets ; and the children amused themselves with dolls and vari- ous toys. The art of writing was known to the Egyptians at a very early date ; and on rolls made out of the paper- plant, papy'riis, we have remains of their literature. The historical papyri give exaggerated accounts of the achievements of their kings ; the religious manuscripts, constituting the " Books of the Dead," consist chiefly of prayers and instructions as to the life to come. Religion. — The Egyptians worshipped a multitude of gods. Osi'ris was the personification of all good. His wife I 'sis had so many titles that she was called " the goddess with ten thousand names." Certain beasts, rep- tiles, and even vegetables, were regarded as sacred. The bull A'pis, the cat, the crocodile, the ibis, and the beetle, were special objects of worship. When a cat died in a private house, the whole family shaved their eyebrows in token of their affliction. Division into castes was a part of the Egyptian religion. The Egyptians embalmed their dead, believing that in the course of ages the immortal spirit would re-animate the body ; and numerous mummies of men, animals, birds, and serpents, have been preserved to the present day. A debtor could pledge to his creditor the mummies of his ancestors, but was himself deprived of burial if he failed to redeem them. A peculiar custom was the trial of the dead. Judges were appointed, notice of the ceremony was given, and any who were so disposed could bring charges against the deceased. If it was proved that he had led an evil life, the ETHIOPIA. 31 body was denied burial. Even kings were subject to this solemn judgment, fear of which exercised a salutary in- fluence over all classes. Ethiopia, lying south of Egypt, between the Red Sea and the Great Desert, according to fable was peopled by savage tribes, — cave-dwellers, long-lived men, pygmies, — elephant, serpent, and tortoise eaters. But there were also civilized communities, famed for their progress in the arts. Their chief city was Mer'oe (see Map, p. 27), in what is now southern Nubia. It was governed by priest- kings, was distinguished for its commerce and wealth, and was in fact one of the great cities of its day. After the conquest of Egypt (525 b, c), Cambyses set out for the subjugation of Ethiopia; but his troops were reduced to starvation in the desert, and he was forced to abandon his design. 1700 B. C. — Chaldea and Assyria rival monarchies. Phoenicia the chief commercial and colonizing power. Jacob's family in Goshen, Lower Egypt. Silk made in China. CHAPTER V. THE HEBREWS AND PHCENICIANS. Palestine was occupied soon after the Flood by nations descended from Canaan, son of Ham. It was to this country that God called the patriarch Abraham, to be the founder of his chosen people, the Jews or Hebrews, 1921 B. c. In accordance with the divine command, Abraham, accompanied by his nephew Lot, crossed the Euphrates, and pitched his tents in the land of Canaan, which God promised to his descendants. 32 THE HEBREWS AND PHOENICIANS, PALESTI — r*Hjw SidonP "r Sarepta*v R I Vt^''_V"R I A -> BaJil-(jad ajpernauui '^ > Sea of v' Getmesaret ^/ Here Abraham and Lot lived as shepherds, until, in consequence of the increase of their ilocks, they were obliged to separate in search of pasturage. The former fixed his abode in He'bron ; Lot removed to the well- watered A^alley of the Jordan (see Map), where were Sod'om, Gomorrah, and the other " cities of the plain." The wicked- ness of the inhabitants ))rovoked the Lord to rain down upon tliese cities fire and brim- stone; and the once beautiful vale was covered with tlic waters of the Dead Sea.* Lot was saved, and became the fa- ther of the Mo'abites and Am'monites. Ishmael, the son of Abi'aham by Ha'- gar his handmaid, was the ancestor of the w a n d e ri n g Ar'ab Isaac, his son by Sarah liis wif(^, Avas the heir of Isaac married Rebek'ah, a kinswoman. tribes the covenant. * The Dead Sea, forty-five miles long and ten wide, is overshad- owed in parts by lofty cliifs, interspersed with frightful precipiees. It receives the Jordan, but has no outlet; and its waters are so salt that fish cannot live in it, nor plants grow on its shores. Sulphur abounds on its borders, and bitumen floats on its surface. The whole surrounding region is one scene of desolation. THE JEWS ES^ EGYPT. 66 who became the mother of two sons, Esau, and Jacob or Israel. From the sons of Jacob sprung the twelve tribes of Israel ; and from Esau, the E'domites, who hewed beau- tiful tombs in the rocks, still to be seen in the ruins of Pe'tra. (See p. 34.) The Jews in Egypt. — Jacob loved .Joseph more than his other sons. Moved by envy, they sold their brother to a caravan of Ishmaelites, who carried him into Eg-ypt, where by his abilities and integrity he rose to the petition of chief minister. Joseph saved Egypt from a disastrous famine. When his brethren, suffering at home in the land of Canaan, came down thither to purchase food, little thinking that in the ruler who received them they beheld the brother they had wronged, he made himself kno^\^l to them, sup- plied their wants, and granted them the fertile district of Go'shen for their residence {1T06 B. c). There the Israelites multiplied and prospered ; but in the course of time they were cruelly oppressed by the Egyptians. At last Pharaoh, to prevent their further increase, ordered every male infant to be drowned in the Xile. One of these Hebrew children was rescued by the king's daughter, who named him Moses (hero or leader), and instructed him in all the learning of the land. Hav- ing slain an Egyptian for beating a Hebrew, Moses was compelled to fly into the deserts of Arabia, and for forty years he fed the flocks of Je'thro, priest of Midian. The Exodus. — At the end of this time, God directed him to deliver the Hebrew people from Pharaoh and lead them to the promised land of Canaan. Joined by Aaron his brother, Moses demanded the release of the Israelites, and on the refusal of the Egyptian king afflicted the country, by the divine command, with successive plagues. After the first-bom of the nation were smitten with death, Pharaoh allowed the children of Israel to depart ; but ROCK-CUT TOMB OR TEMPLE AT PETRa' Eighty-five feet in height. It is called by the Arabs "the Treasure of Pharaoh ; the treasure is fabled to be concealed m the urn-shaped fin ial at the summit. CONQUEST OF CANAAN. 35 afterward repenting, he pursued them, and was over- whelmed with his host in the Red Sea (1491 b, c). Forty years the ungrateful Jews, murmuring at the hardships they were called on to endure, were compelled to wander in the wilderness under the leadership of Moses. During this period the Ten Commandments were deliv- ered on Mt. Sinai, and the Tabernacle was erected. Moses, for rebellion against the Lord, was not per- mitted to enter " the promised land." After viewing it from the top of Mt. Nebo, he died at the age of 120 years, and " no man knoweth of his sepulchre to this day." Moses was the great law-giver of Israel, and the author of the first five books of the Bible, called the Pentateuch. Conquest of Canaan. — Moses was succeeded by Joshua, a man " full of thu spirit of wisdom." Under his direc- tion, the children of Abraham passed over the Jordan into the land of Canaan, their inheritance. The walls of Jer'icho fell down before them ; A'i was taken by stratagem; and the inhabitants of both towns were jiut to the sword. Within five years Joshua had reduced an extensive territory, wliich was divnded among the Is- raelites. After the death of Joshua (142G b. c), the children of Israel often forgot the Lord and worshipped idols. To punish their sin, God allowed their enemies to reduce them to ser\'itude ; and, when they repented, he raised them up deliverers called Judges. The Judges. — Among the most celebrated of these was the proi)hetess Deb'orah, who rescued the afflicted tribes from Ja'bin, king of Canaan. Gid'eon delivered his peo- ple from bondage to the Midianites, and Jeph'thah over- threw the Ammonites. Samson, the most remarkable avenger of his countrymen, slaughtered the PhiKstLnes {fl-lis'tins) with wonderful feats of strength, and at last killed himself and several thousand of their lords and 36 THE HEBREWS AXD PHCENICIANS. people by pulling down the pillars of the house in which they were assembled. Samuel, the last of the Judges, released the Israelites from subjection to the Philistines. When they desired an earthly sovereign, after vainly warning them of the tyranny of kings, he by God's command anointed Saul, of the tribe of Benjamin, the first monarch of Israel. Kingdom of Israel (1095-975 b. c.).-When Saul as- cended the throne, the Israelites were mostly engaged in pastoral and agricultural pursuits, and their territory was exposed to the ravages of the surrounding nations. The new king defeated the Ammonites, and routed the Philis- tmes. In a subsequent war, with the Am'alekites, he dis- obeyed God, on which account his family was excluded from the throne; and David, the youthful son of Jesse, of the tribe of Judah, was secretly anointed by Samuel' as the successor to the crown. David was comely, valorous, and skilled in the use of the harp. On the renewal of hostilities by the Philistines, he slew their great champion, the giant Goliath of Gath with a stone from his shepherd's sling. For this feat David was honored as the hero of the day, and he thus incurred the envy of Saul. But Saul's son, Jonathan, be- tween whom and David a strong friendship had grown up interposed in his behalf; and, after manv narrow escapes from the resentment of the king, David ^vithdrew to a foreign land. Saul and three of his sons fell in battle with the Phi- listines, 1055 B. c. His only surviving son was acknowl- edged kmg by all the tribes but Judah. Civil war fol- lowed, and it was seven years before the authority of David was established over all Israel. David at once began to enlarge the boundaries of his kingdom. He took Jerusalem from the Jeb'usites, made It his capital, and removed thither the ark of the covenant Solomon's reign. 37 The Philistines and Moabites were overthrown, Syria was conquered, and an empire founded which stretched along the Mediterranean from Phoenicia to Arabia, and was bounded on the east by the Euphrates. Though David was not superior to human frailties, he is distinguished as " the man after God's OAvn heart." His Psalms, written by the inspiration of the Most High, are full of sublime conceptions, and are recognized as masterpieces of lyric poetry. Solomon, his son (1015-975 b, c.) raised the Jewish kingdom to the pinnacle of its glory. Solomon's name is connected with the magnificent temple which he built at Jerusalem, with the aid of Phoenician workmen furnished by his friend Hiram, king of Tyre, In this splendid structure, which was solemnly dedicated to Jehovah, rested the ark, surmounted by two golden cherubim. Solomon also built many cities, of which Tadmor in the wilderness (afterward Palmy'ra) was the most celebrated. He founded a navy, and carried on an extensive commerce in company with King Hiram. His ships returned from distant seas, laden with gems, precious metals, and curious plants and animals. King Solomon died 975 b. c. He was among the greatest of the Hebrew writers. From his inspired pen came the Proverbs of the Bible, with all their wealth of wisdom, the Song of Songs, and the Book of Ecclesiastes. He is reputed, besides, to have written a thousand can- ticles, and dissertations on various subjects. Arts, Customs, etc. — The early Hebrews cultivated music and poetry, but in general paid little attention to the arts and sciences. Agriculture was their leading pur- suit, the vine and olive receiving special care. The houses were, for the most part, poor and low, built of sun-dried mud or unhewn stones, till the time of the kings, when more attention was paid to architecture. 38 THE UEBREWS AND PIKKNICIANS. The Street-doors were adorned with inscriptions from the Law of Moses. The windows had no glass, but were lat- ticed. The roofs were flat, and the people often resorted to them for cool air, and even sle})t there in summer. Domestic utensils were few and simple. Grain was i^round by the women in hand-mills. Olive-oil was used in lamps for giving light. The towns, from the want of public buildings, must have presented a mean appearance, Tlie Ancient Cory of tub Samaiutan Pjsntateucii. Preserved in a synagogue at Mount Gerizim. It is in a silver ease protected by a red satin cover, embroidered with inscriptions in gold. PHCENICIA. 39 aMcient books were in the form of rolls, made of parch- ment strips wound round wooden cylinders, the ends of which were ornamented with metal or ivory knobs. Phoenicia, a strip of land north of Palestine, between the Libanus Mountains and the Mediterranean, was the great commercial country of antiquity. The Phfxjnicians colonized the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, passed the Pillars of Hercules, founded Ga'des (Cadiz) on the Atlantic shore, and extended their voyages to the British Isles. From Spain they obtained silver and lead; from Britain, tin ; and they are even supposed to have entered the Baltic in search of amber, which was more highly valued than gold. The Phoenicians excelled in ingenious arts. They claimed to have been the first to manufacture glass, and to have invented letters, which they introduced into Eu~ rope. The cloths of Sidon and Tyre were greatly es- teemed ; and Tyrian purple, a dye obtained from shell fish, was renowned from the earliest periods. Judges of Israel. Oth'niel, 40 }'oar,s. Abim'clecli, 3 years. E'lon, 10 years Ehud. To'ld, 23 " Abdon, 8 " Sham'gar. Ja'ir, 22 " E'li, 40 " Deb'orah. Jephthah, (; " Samson, n^Y-iin (iid'con, 40 years. Ibzan, 7 " Samuel, 1107-1095 CHAPTER VI. FOUNDING OF THE GRECIAN STATES. Ancient Greece was a peninsula in the south-eastern corner of Europe, corresponding with modem Greece and the adjacent parts of southern Turkey. In the north lay f 1 ^ IMP( ^ 5J-1' M ttt • — 1> t^t vi-J __; 1 * -^I •■Hi ^' (?3! THE GKKCIAN CTATKK. 41 Epi'rus, aiul Thes'saly celebrated for the beautiful vale of Tem'pe. (Find on the Map the various places mentioned.) The principal states of central Greece were Acarna'nia, ^to'lia, Pho'cis, Bfxjo'tia, and Attica. The southern part was the Peloponne'sus (now the More 'a), connected with the main-land Vjy the Isthmus of Corinth, and containing, besides minor states, Arca'dia, Messe'nia, Ar'golis, and the rugged Laco'nia. Greece was intersected by mountain-chains and trav- ersed by numerous rivers. Its coasts were indented by bays, affording excellent harbors. The adjacent waters were dotted with fruitful islands, the largest being Eu- boe'a, the modern Negropont [neg-ro-pont'), opposite At- tica and Bo'otia. Primitive Inhabitants. — In very early times Greece was occupied by kindred tribes, bearing the general name of Pelas'f/i. From the affinities of their language to Sanscrit, Celtic, and the Slav'ic and Teutonic dialects, they are supposed originally to have emigrated from the table-land of Iran, already mentioned in connection with the Aryans. Large bodies of them settled in "J'he.s.saly and Epirus ; others kept on to the south and peopled the Peloponnesus, where as early as 1856 b. c. In'achus found- ed Argos and Sicyon {sish'e-Oii). Others again made their way to the islands of the ^gean and the opposite coast of Asia Minor. The Pelasgi seem to have been a rude but peaceable people, engaged for the most part in agricultural pur- suits. To them are generally ascribed the massive archi- tectural ruins called Cy elope 'an,* still visible in Greece. Immigrations. — Grecian l6gends tell us that from the * So called from the Cyclo'pc-s, a fabulous race of giants having a single eye in the centre of their foreheads. The ancients regarded them as the builders of structures that seemed too vast to have been reared by men. 4:2 FOUNDING OF THE GRECIAN STATES. sixteenth to the fourteentli ceiiturj B. c. colonies arrived from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Phrygia (frij'e-d), bringing with them the civilization of those countries. Thus about 1550 B. c, Ce 'crops came to Attica from Egypt, and founded Cecro'pia, afterward called Athens in honor of Athe'ne, or Minerva, its patron goddess. Cecrops is said to have introduced marriage and to have partially civilized the aborigines. About the same time, Cadmus, a Phoenician, colonized Boeotia, and laid the foundations of its capital Thebes. The fable runs that Cadmus sowed dragon's teeth, from which armed men sprung up and battled with each other till all but five fell. These were the ancestors of the The- bans. Cadmus is reported to have introduced weights and measures, and to have brought sixteen letters of the alphabet from Phoenicia into Greece. Pe'lops, a Phrygian adventurer, subsequently settled in southern Greece. His descendants became very pow- erful, and from him the peninsula derived its name of Peloponnesus, the island of Pelops. The Hellenes. — About the beginning of the fourteenth century b. c. (1384), a new race, the Helle'nes, appeared in Thessaly. They soon subjugated the Pelasgi, and ex- tended their power over the whole country, which was from them called Hellas. The name Greece originated with the Romans at a nmch later date. The Pelasgians and Hellenes were of similar origin ; but the latter people, more highly developed in some com- mon Asiatic home, possessed greater intellectual and phys- ical vigor. These races eventually blended together, and the union of their kindred dialects gave rise to the Greek language. The Hellenes traced their origin to Hellen, son of Deuca'lion and Pyr'rha, the survivors of their traditional Deluge. From the sons of Hellen sprung the four lead- THE HEKOIC AGE. 43 ing branches of the Hellenic nation ; viz., the Do'rians, ^Eo'lians, Achaeans, and lo'nians. The Heroic Age of Grecian history was a legendary period of about two centuries, immediately following the appearance of the Hellenes in Thessaly. Greece was then divided into numerous petty states; and many heroes flourished, whose feats of prowess, whether facts of his- tory or fictions of the imagination, caused them to be re- garded as offspring of the gods. Her'cules, the impersonation of physical strength, was famous for his " twelve labors." The'seus, the great Athenian law-giver, conquered the Am'azons, a mythical race of women-warriors, and vanquished the Min'otaur of Crete, a monster half man half bull, that dwelt in the Labyrinth and feasted on youths and maidens sent from Athens. Per'seus slew the Gorgon Medu'sa, whose fright- ful head turned all that looked at it into stone. Mi'nos was the Cretan legislator, and one of the judges in the lower world. Or'pheus, the Thracian musician, tamed wild beasts and moved rocks by his sweet strains. The Heroic Age is made memorable by the poets for a series of wars and expeditions. The greatest of these were the Trojan War (treated of in the following chap- ter) and the Argonautic Expedition. The latter was undertaken by Ja'son, a Thessalian prince, accompanied by many Grecian heroes, in quest of " the golden fleece." Most of these old stories ai'e said to have a hidden mean- ing; and this legend seems to symbolize the endeavors of the early princes to secure the advantages of commercial intercourse with foreign countries. Mythology, Arts, and Manners. — The Greeks were a highly imaginative people, and their mythology was less forbidding than the religious systems that had preceded it. They worshipped many gods, by which the elements, passions, virtues, mental attributes, etc., were typified — 44 FOTTNDIXCr OF THE GRECIAK STATES. gods, accordinor to their belief, endowed witli human feel- ings, frail, erring, and some of them even criminal, like ordinary mortals. In honor of these deities statues were set up, and gorgeous temples reared in styles of architect- ure that are yet followed. Pompous processions moved around their shrines, on which the fairest products of the earth were laid, and animals Avithout blemish and adorned with garlands were sacrificed. The Romans in later days recognized the same great divinities as the Greeks, and it is by their Roman names that the Greek gods are generally spoken of. Jupiter, son of Saturn, was the " father of gods and men," and with his haughty queen Juno reigned over heaven and earth from the lofty summit of Mt. Olympus in Thessaly. Mars was the god of war; Apollo, of music and prophecy; Mercuiy, the god of eloquence, was the messenger of the celestials; Vulcan presided over fire and the useful arts. Ve'nus was the goddess of beauty, Diana of hunting, Ce'res of agriculture, Vesta of the fireside, and Minerva of the sciences and liberal arts. Neptune, with his tri- dent, ruled the sea ; and Pluto had dominion over the lower world. Bacchus was recognized as the god of wine, Cupid of love ; Hebe was the goddess of youth and cup-bearer at the celestial banquets. Besides these, there were a mul- titude of inferior deities; as, the nine Muses, the Graces, Fates, Nymphs, Si'rens, etc. To obtain advice and information about future events, the Greeks consulted oracles. The most famous were the oracle of Jupiter, at Dodo'na, in Epirus, — and that of Apollo, at Delphi, in Pho'cis. (See Map, p. 40.) The responses were given by mysterious voices, or by attend- ants in a state of frenzy, real or assumed ; they were expressed in obscure or ambiguous language, so as to ad- mit of different interpretations. THE EAKLV GREEKS. 45 The Greeks had an interesting tradition of the Deluge. Deuca'lion and Pyrrha were saved in a chest, and on land- ing picked up stones and threw them over their heads. The stones thrown by Deucalion were turned into men, those thrown by Pyrrha into women; and thus the earth was repeopled. We are indebted to Ho'mer, the oldest and greatest of Grecian poets, for what we know of the domestic life of the early Greeks. The main pursuits of the people were agriculture and the raising of flocks. Cattle not only formed the chief source of wealth, but even served as a medium of exchange ; a female slave, for instance, was valued at so many oxen. Considerable progress seems to have been early made in the useful arts, such as carpf^ntry, building, and the manufacture of cloth. Woman was treated with respect ; ladies of the highest rank spun, wove, and engaged in other domestic employments. The power was in the hands of kings and nobles. Captives taken in war were enslaved. Priests and temples were held in reverence. One of the leading virtues was hospitality ; the palace of the noble was always open to the stranger. Greece was favorably situated for navigation, and con- stant intercourse was maintained with the adjacent coasts of the Mediterranean, islands being so thickly interspersed that voyages of some length could be made without losing sight of land. At this early period light galleys propelled chiefly by oarsmen were used. A mast was raised, and sails were brought into play, only when the wind was favorable. 1 500 B. C. — Egyptian colony of Cecrops in Attica. Phcenician colony of Cadmus in B«otia. Dan'aus settles with a colony in Argos. Alphabetic writing used in Greece. Egypt flouri.ahing after the expul- sion of the Shepherd Kings. Israelites still in Egypt. Moses feeding the flocks of .If.-thro, in Midian. Zoroaster founds the Persian religiotL 46 TROJAN WAR AND SUCCEEDING rERU>D. CHAPTER VII. TROJAN WAR, AND SUCCEEDING PERIOD IN GREECE. Troy (irium), a powerful capital in the north-western part of Asia Minor (see Map, p. 40), was in the twelfth century u. c. the scene of important events, growing out of a wrong committed by Par'is, son of I'ri'am, a Trojan monarch. This prince (so the legend goes) visited the court of Menela'us, king of Sparta, or Lacedaemon {kis-e- de'mon), and in his absence carried olf his fair wife Helen to Troy. The outraged Menelaus summoned the Grecian chiefs to avenge the injury, and a large force assembled under his brother Agamemnon, king of Myceniv; {nil-se'ne). Led by such heroes as Di'omede, A'jax, the crafty Ulys- ses, king of Ith'aca, and the bi'ave Achilles {a-Jcil'leez) of Thessaly, the Grecian warriors embarked in nearly 1,200 vessels for Troy. After a gallant resistance of ten years, during which the Trojan Hector " of the glancing helm " and " the lion-hearted Achilles •' fell, the city was taken by a strat- agem of Ulysses. A huge wooden horse filled with armed Greeks, represented as an offering to the goddess Mi- nerva, was received by the besieged within the walls. In the dead of night the hostile band came forth from tlieir hiding-place, admitted their comrades, surprised the Tro- jans who had been engaged in festivities, and fired the city (1183 B. c). Priam, with most of his warriors, was killed, and the survivors became the slaves of the con- querors, or sought safety in flight. The Trojan War forms the subject of the Iliad, the immortal epic of the Greek poet Homer, supposed to have flourished about 950 b. o. The adventures of Ulysses while returning to Ithaca, and the trials of his faithful GREECE AFTER THE TROJAN WAR. 47 wife Pe-nel'o-pe during' his absence, are described in the Od'yssey of the same port. The Iliad and Odyssey are thought to have been recited for generations before they were committed to writing. Such was their popularity that seven cities contended for the honor of having given birth to their author; yet some have maintained that they were the work of different hands, and that no such person as Homer ever lived. Nearly contemporaneous with Plomer, and often men- tioned in connection with him as one of the old hards of Greece, was the Boeotian poet Hesiod {fie'she-od). To him are ascribed the didactic pcjem " Works and Days," containing precepts on farming interspersed with fables and moral maxims, and the " Theog'ony," which gives an account of the origin of the world, and the birth of gods and heroes. Greece after the Trojan War. — Various commotions followed the return of the Greek chieftains from Troy. Some were obliged to have recourse to arms, to drive out enemies who had taken possession of their thrones. Tliese disturbances were succeeded by important migratory movements. New races expelled the previous settlers, man}- of whom, leaving their country, founded colonies on the islands and eastern shores of the -^gean. A great part of the Peloponnesus was conquered by the Dorians, led by the Heracli'dcc (descendants of Her- cules), who had been driven out by the family of Pelops. A body of lonians, dislodged from their seats in the Pelo- ponnesus by the return of the Heraclida?, crossed to Asia Minor. Here and on the adjacent islands they founded settlements, which grew into cities, and ultimately joined in an Ionian confederacy. Among these cities was Eph'- esus, renowned for its temple of Diana, one of the Seven Wonders c4 the ancient world. North of the lonians, vEolian emigrants established 48 TKO.IAN WAK AND SUCCEEDING PERIOD. twelve towns ; while the Dorians themselves settled the southern coast and the adjacent island of Rhodes. Rhodes was celebrated for its Colos'sus, an immense image of Apollo, so placed as to bestride the entrance to the har- THE t'OLOSSUS OF KlIODBS. bor. The Colossus was over 100 feet hig^h, and its thumb was so large that a man could not clasp it with his arms. When, after lying on the ground for centuries, it was re- moved, the metal that composed it loaded 900 camels. DORJAJM INVASION, 49 The Greeks also peopled the shores of the Euxine (Black Sea). They founded Byzantium (tlie modern Con- stantinople) in the east, Massilia (Marseilles) in the far west, and the rich Cy-re'ne on the coast of Africa. Many Greek colonies were planted in Lower Italy and Sicily, which received the name of Magna Gnecia {rnay'nd, grt - she-d, Great Greece). The most important of these were the luxurious Taren'tum, — Cu'mae, celebrated for its ora- cle and Sib'yl, — and Syr'acuse, on the island of Sicily. Dorian Invasion of Attica. —The Dorians gradually ex- tended their conquests beyond the Isthmus of Corinth, and in the reign of Co'drus invaded Attica. Having learned from a friendly Delphian that the oracle had as- sured the invaders of success if they spared the life of the Athenian king, Codrus determined to die in behalf of his people. Leaving the city in the disguise of a wood- man, he fell in with two soldiers of the enemy, and offer- ing them gratuitous affronts was set upon and slain. When the Dorians found that the Attic chief had thus fallen, despairing of success they withdrew their forces. Thereupon the Athenian nobles did away with the office of king^ and substituted for it that of archoii {ar'kon). From this time the government was republican. Sparta. — Aft^r the subjugation of Laconia, the people were divided into three classes: the Dorian conquerors, who became known as Spartcms, and alone enjoyed politi- cal privileges; the Perioeci (per-e-e'si), free inhabitants of the rural districts, engaged in commeroe and the trades, mostly of Achfean descent; and the He 'lots, consisting of captives and rebels reduced to slavery. The Helots were employed in agricultural pursuits, and treated with great brutality. They could even be put to death when they became so numerous as to appear dangerous to the state. Internal dissensions arising, the Spartans gradually degenerated. At length, in the ninth century B. c, Ly- 4 50 TROJAN WAR AND SUCCEEDING PERIOD. cuigus, one of their princes, after carefully studying the laws of foreign countries, framed for his own the consti- tution that bears his name. Constitution of Lycurgus. — Lycurgus cared nothing for intellectual education or the humanizing arts ; he aimed at making his nation invincible in war and filling them with love of country. The young of both sexes were required to undergo the severest physical training, that self-reliance, agility, and strength, might be thus in- sured. To accustom them to pain, boys were publicly whipped, sometimes so cruelly that death resulted. Rich and poor dined together on coarse repulsive food. An iron coinage was adopted, to the exclusion of the precious metals ; such monej'' being valueless abroad, foreign lux- uries were unknown. The hardy Spartan thus learned to despise effeminacy. His field of labor was the camp ; he was allowed no time for commerce, agriculture, or any other peaceful |)ursuit. Stealing was considered a disgrace and crime, only if detected. A story is told of a Spartan boy who, to avoid discovery, suffered his body to be torn open by a fox which he had stolen and concealed in his garments. Lycurgus retained the double monarchy which was peculiar to the Lacedaemonian state, but.limited its power. To him is ascribed the institution of the Senate, and the officers called Eph'ori, elected annually by the people to watch over the constitution and punish those who vio- lated it. Having persuaded the Spartans to swear that they would keep his laws while he was away, Lycurgus left his country with the intention of never returning. Nor did he do so. His constitution remained in force five centuries, and made Sparta the most powerful state in Greece. Conquest of Messema. — Under the workings of the laws of Lyciu'gus, Spartan territory was gradually en- GKECIAN LNSTIiUTIONS, 51 larged. The conquest of the neighboring state of Messe'- nia was the result of two long and obstinate contests (743-668 B. c). After bearing the yoke for forty years, the Messenians revolted, and were at first successful. But the Spartans, roused by the odes of the Athenian poet Tyrtai'us, finally prevailed, and reduced their vanquished foes to the condition of Helots. Some of the Messenians, however, fled to Sicily, and gave their name to the city of Messa'iia (now Messina). This success secured to Sparta the supremacy of the Peloponnesus, and she soon began to interfere in the general afi'airs of Greece. Grecian Institutions. — Among the early institutions of Greece were the amphic'tyonies, or associations of tribes for the purpose of protecting the temples of the gods. The most important of these was the Amphictyonic Council. Its members were bound to refrain from de- stroying any city of the alliance in time of war, and to use all their powers in defence of the Delphic temple of Apollo. The Greeks were also bound together by the Great Games (Olympic, Pyth'ian, Neme'an, and Isthmian), cele- brated at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and on the Corinthian Isthmus. They consisted of gymnastic sports, and horse and chariot races, as well as contests in poetry and music, and attracted competitors and spectators from far and wide. Their influence was doubtless beneficial, promoting intercourse among the states, strengthening in them a feeling of common nationality, and exciting in individuals a healthy spirit of emulation. The Olympic Games, in honor of Jupiter, were the most famous. Originally instituted by Hercules, as the ancients believed, they were revived, after having been discontinued for years, in the time of Lycurgus. A vic- tory at these games, though rewarded only with a crown of wild-olive, was regarded as the highest honor that a 52 KINGDOMS OK ISRAKl, AND .lUDAlI. Greek could obtain, and broug-ht ^lory not only to himself but also to his family and state. Statues were erected, and odes writtiMi, to preserve the nieinory of the victors. lOOO B. C. — Solomon at the height of his glory. The Toniplc just I'oiuploti'il. lliriiiu king of Tyre. Habyloniii undor the Assyn:in.s. Egypt fiillcu from its grontness. Ethiopia growing in power. Dorians in the Peloponnesus. Trojan eolonists in Italy. CHAPTER VIII. A'LVGDOMS OF ISRAEL A AD JLJhlH. (975-588 n. C.) Division of the Jewish Monarchy. — On the death of Solomon (975 ». o.), tlie .lewish people entreated his son Rehobo'am to remove the oppressive taxes imposed on them by the late kino;. But he only threatened to add to their burden. "My father," said he, " chastised you with whips, l)ut 1 will chastise you with scorpions." Ten of the tribes in conseijuence revolted, and chose for their king Jerobo'am, a former servant of Solomon. Thus was Solo- mon's idolatry punisiied, and the Kingdom of Israel rent from the house of David. Judah and lienjamin alone ad- hered to Rehoboam, who thus became the first monarch of " the kingdom of Judah." Israel. — To wean the people from their religion, which rec]uired them to go up to the Temple at Jerusalem, Jero- boani made two calves of gold as objects of worship. Though warned by a prophet of God, he persisted in his guilty course ; anil finally his family was exterminated, and a usurper obtained the crown. Omri, one of the suc- cessors of Jeroboam, built the city of Sama'ria, and made it his seat of government. KINUIKJM OK ISI{Ai:i> Under A'lial), son of Omn", iJiroii^h tJi'; iriflu<;rK;f; of lii.s wicked wifVj .](■// it\)ii\, a l*ii(/;nician princcHS, the worshij) of Ba'al, the ^roat suii-^od of her nation, was introduced into Israel. I^JIi'jaii, the g^reatest propfifit that had appeared siricf; Moses, boldly rebuked the aboniinutions fjf tlie kiiifr, announced the punish- ment of the nation by drou<^lit and faniiri<;, and afterward rniraculfjusly triurnj^hed over the priests of liaai in the presence of the assem- bled people; yet Ahab and Jezebel continuftd in their iniquity. A few years later, in accord- ance with the doom pro- nounced by the projihet, the king fell in battle with the Syrians ; his post<^3rity was utterly de- stroyed by Jehu, one of his generals who had been appointed the Lord's avenger; the infamous Jezebel was hurled from the palace-window, and her body was devoured by dogs. CAPTivny OF THE Ten Tribes. — Jehu destroyed the idol and temple of Baal, but allowed the worship of the golden calves. His family cfjntinued to reign until 772 v.. e., cont'-mpfjraneously with the prophets Eli'sha, Jo'nah, A'mos, and Hosea {ho-zn'a). These holy men vainly strove to check the growing corruption. Immorality and idolatry prevailed, the country became impoverished, and the As- syrians invaded Palestine. Iloshe'a, the last king of Jsrar;l, was besieged in Sama- .jKwr«ii Ifi(;if-I'KrKHT. 54 KINGDOMS OF ISKAEL AND JlTnAII. ria by Sliahnanc'sor. The capital fell, and Iloshoa was sent in chains to Nineveh (721 u. c). The ten tribes were carried away into captivity beyontl, the Euphrates, and their lanil was occupied by foreign settlers. These united with the few Hebrews who remained, and fornied tlie Sa- maritan nation. But the flower of the Israelites eitlier became incorporated with tlie con(|uerors, or mii>Tated farther east, leavino- no traces behind. To this day thev are spoken of as " the lost tribes." Judah. — The rival kingdom of Judah niaintained its ex- istence for nearly four centuries, surviving Israel more than 130 years. Idolatry was the stumbling-block of sev- eral of its kings. Even Kehoboam fell into this sin short- ly after his accession; God punished him by allowing the king of Egypt to pillage Jerusalem The pious A'sa "took away the altars of the strange gods," and trusting in the Lord put to llight an invading horde of Ethiopians. Jehosh'apliat, his son, continued the work of reform. With the exception of connections which he formed with the idolatrous Ahab and two suc- ceeding kings of Israel, his administration was wise, and under it Judah enjoyed a prosperity unknown since the time of Solomon. It was not long, however, before the true God was again forsaken, and disasters in consequence overtook the nation. The wicked A'haz (743-726 n. o.) encouraged the grossest idolatry; and Judah, weakened by the incursions of her hostile neighbors, became tributary to the Assyrian king. But Hezeki'ah, the son of Ahaz, once more restored the true worship. He was enabled to throw off the As- syrian yoke; and the host of Sennach'erib, his boastful foe, was destroyed by the angel of the Lord. The people, however, relapsed into idolatry under Ma- nas's(>h, the tyrannical son of Hezekiah; and the most abominable rites were practised. Tlie few nho remained KINGDOM OF JUDAII. 55 truo to their faith were subjected to cruel persecution, and the Jews have a tradition that the ^reat prophet Isaiah was sawn asunder by order of the king. Manassch was carried off in chains h)y the Assyrians ; but he repented in his dungeon, and God restored him to his throne. •Josiah, who became king 641 u. c, put down idolatry with a strong hand. During his reign, the original prophe- cies, written by the hand of Moses, were brought to light, foretelling to the faithless .Jews the destruction of th(;ir Temple and the desolation of their land. TiiK Cai'TIVITY. — These predictions were fulfilled in the reign of Josiah's son, Zedeki'ah. The Bal>ylonian king Nebuchadnezzar invaded Jude'a, stormed Jerusalem, burned the Temple, and removed the surviving .Jews to Babylon (588 b. c), thus putting an end to their monarchy. The captivity lasted till 53G u. c. After Babylon was taken by the Persians (p. 22), permission was given to the exiled people to return to their native land. Many availed themselves of the opportunity, and finally the cap- ital was rebuilt and the Temple restored. Moreover, the Jews remembered the lesson taught them by their calami- ties, and thenceforth adhered to the religion of their fathers. Hebrew Literature. — During the jteriod treated of above, various prophets wrote under tlu; inspiration of the Spirit of God; their works appear in the Old Testament. The four greater prophets are Isaiah, who foretold the fate of the .Jews and the birth of the Messiah in the sub- limest of lyric poetry; .Jeremiah, who denounced divine judgments on his people for their disobedience, arifl in Ins " Jjamentations " poured forth his sorrow for their down- fall; Daniel and P^zekiel, who, carried captives to Jiaby- lon, there delivered their prophetic visions. Almost all of Daniel's long life was passed at Babylon, where he was promoted to oflice and honor. He predicted the time of 56 FOUNDING OF ROME.— THE ROlVtAN KINGS. the Messiah's advent with such precision tliat a general expectation of his coming prevailed among the Jews at the time of our Saviour's appearance. Kings of Israel and Judah. Kings of Israel. 1 Kings of JUDAII. CONTEMPORAKIES. Jerobo'am, 9T5. Eehobo'am, 975: Shi'shak, king of Egypt. Na'dab, 954. Abi'jah, 958: Astartus, king of Tyre. Ba'asha, 963. A'sa, 955: Ben-ha'dad I., king of Sj-ria; Homer. E'lah, 980. ; Jehosh'aphat 914: Elijah; Ben-ha'dad II., king of Syria. Zim'ri, 929. Jeho'ram, 892: The prophet Elisha. Om'ri, 929. Ahazi'ah, 885: Haz'ael, king of Syria. A'hab, 918. Ath-a-li'ah, 884: Jehol'ada, high-priest. Ahazi'ah, 89S. Jeho'ash, 878: Dido, founder of Carthage ; Lycurgus Jeho'ram, 896. Am-a-zi'ah. 839: Boc'choris, king of Egypt. Je'hu, SS4. Uzzi'ah, 810: The prophets Jonah and Amos. Jc'ho'ahaz, S5C. Jo'tham, 753: Romulus, founder of Rome. Jeho'ash, >41. A'haz, 742: Re'zin, king of Syria. Jerobo'am II .825. Ilezeki'ah, 726: Sargon ; Sennacherib ; Isaiah. Zachari'ah, 773. Manasseli, 698: E'sar-had'don, king of Assyria. Shal'lum, 772. A'mon, 643: TuUus Hostil'ius, king of Rome. Men 'ahem, 772. Josi'ah, 641 :" Pek-a-hi'ah, 761. Jeho'ahaz, 610: Pe'kah, 759. ; Jehoi'akiin, 610: The prophet Jeremiah. Iloshc'a. T30. Jehol'achin, 599: Samaria taken ,721. Zedeki'ah, 599:. Jerusalem taken, 688 b. o. CHAPTER IX. FOUNDING OF ROME.— THE ROMAN KINGS. (753-509 B. C.) Early Settlement of Italy. — The peninsula we now know as Italy was inhabited in remote ages by several races, among which were the Etruscans, Oscans, Sa'bines, and Lat'ins. The Etruscans, or Tuscans, who appear to have been an entirely different race from the others, were the most polished. At first they constituted a powerful state in the north, but afterward occupied the region west FOUNDING OF ROME. 07 of the Tiber, where they formed a confederacy of twelve cities. That they excelled in architecture is shown by the remains of massive ruins, dikes, and tunnels. They also carried on a large commerce, and their pirate-vessels were long the terror of the western Mediterranean. The Sabines were a moral, ag- ricultural people, distinguished for their love of freedom. The powerful and prosperous Latins dwelt in Latium {la'she-um), south of the Tiber. Founding of Rome. — Tradi- tion tells us that, on the destruc- tion of Troy (p. 46), ^ne'as, a Trojan warrior, gathering to- gether a few sur- vivors of the un- fortunate city, sailed westward, succeeded in reaching Italy, built there a city, and mar- ried the daugh- ter of the Latin king. The son of ^■Eneas founded Alba Longa, which became in time an opulent city. Another legend relates that Rom'ulus and Re'mus, twins of the regal line of Alba Longa, having been ex- posed at their birth, were carried off and nourished by a she-wolf, till they were discovered by a herdsman, who brought them up with his own sons. In course of time, learning their royal origin, these princes restored to the 58 FOl'NDlNCi OF KOMIC. TIIK ROMAN KINGS. tliiDUc their i;raiuU"atlirr, who had hcni ihiviMi out by a usurper. Shortly after, thoy bei>an to l)uil(l a city on tiio Ti'hor (753 15. c); but in a cjuanvl whicli tMisued Henius was killed, and the city was called i'roiu his brotluM- I\0MK. 'Vo attract inhabitants to his city, Romulus j)n)elaini»d it an asyhnn for t"ui!,'itives; and numbers of outlaws from the surrounding- country lied there for protection. From the miserable huts of this robber band on Mt. Pal'atine, Home arose to be the mistress of the world. — In these and other stories connected with the early history of Konie, it is hard to tell what is truth and what mere fable. The Kings. — Rohiulus. — In order to procure wives for the outcasts who tilled his city, Romulus announced a great festival; and the neighliorino- people tlnonged to it with their famiUes. In the midst of the games, the armed Romans v,ir\\ carried oil" a wtiniaii as Iiis wife. W'lw was the conse(|uence; and Ti'tus Tatius [f2 KELKilON OF TllK KOMAJ^S. inferior ones of their own addition. From the Etruscans they adopted the practice of eniploying- soothsayers, to interpret the will of heaven by inspecting- the entrails of victims oft'ered in sacrifice. Special reverence was paid to the La res, or household gods, images of which were placed in the hall or ranged round the hearth of every dwelling. Vesta had virgin priestesses called J^estalu, vvho kept a fire perpetually burn- ing in her temple. But Mars, the god of war, was perhaps the favorite object of worship. The month of March, which began the Uoman year, \\;is named from hini, and on the first day of that month a festival was celebrated in his honor. The Romans, like the Greeks, consulted oracles. They also referred to certain mysterious volumes called the Sib'ylline Books, wliich were carefully guarded l)V olficers appointed for the purpose, and ccMisulted \vli(>ii tlie gods had manifested their wrath l)y })rodigies or public calanii- ties. Thie Roman Kings. Ronuilns, 75S-"l(i. ( Orook cities foundod in southern Itnly: llhe'frinm. Nuina Ponipilius, 715-ri7'2. I Syb'nris, Croto'na, Tarentuin. Tiillus Uostilius, (ITi-GW. Miinassoli, kinis: otMudah. Ancus Martins, (UO-OIO. Cvftx'aros, kinff ot" Persia. Taniuiiiiiis Prisons, 6IC)-.")VS. Pharaoh Neelio; Nel)uehadnczzftr. Servius Tulliiis, 67S-584. Cyrus; Chwsus; lielsliazzar ; Daniel. Tarquinius Superbus, 684-509. Second Temple built by the Jews. Dates uncertain ; history fabulous. CHAPTER X. T//E PERSIAN EMPIRE. The Medes and Persians. — At a very early period, a people called Medes inhabited the country bordering the Caspian Sea on the south and south-west. Little is THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. 63 known of their history till they became tributary to the kings of Assyria, about 700 B. c. South of Media lived the Persians, an industrious people, partly nomadic, in part tillers of the soil. An Aryan monarchy was estab- lished in Persia by Achaemenes {a-kem'e-rieez)^ the founder of an illustrious line to whicli even the haughty Xerxes was proud to trace his pedigree. As the Medes grew in strength, they became impatient of Assyrian tyranny, and one of their kings, after making- Persia a dependency, raised the standard of revolt. He fell in an attack on Nineveh; but his son, the great Cyax'- ares, with the aid of the Babylonians, captured and de- stroyed that city, 625 b. c. (p. 10), and made the Medo- Persian Empire first among the Asiatic powers. Not long, however, did the Medes enjoy their suprem- acy. 'i'h(;y gradually fell into the effeminate habits of the conquered Assyrians, and in the reign of their next king Astyages {as-ti'a-jeez) they were obliged to yield the fore- most place to the more warlike Persians. Astyages, as is the story, inferred from a vision that his daughter's son would some day supersede him. To prevent this, he married her to the tributary prince of Persia, whom he regarded as inferior to a Mede of even middle rank, and when her son Cyrus was born ordered liim to be killed. But the infant was saved, and having afterward been discovered by his grandfather, was sent to his parents in Persia. There he learned to despise the luxury and indolence of the Medes, and formed the proj- ect of estah)lishing the independence of his country. At his instigation the Persians revolted, the Median king was overthrown, and Persia became predominant in the new empire, .008 i?. c, Cyrus. — I'he reign of Cyrus embraced a remarkable series of brilliant enterprises. I^yd'ia, on the eastern coast of the ^gean, was the first to feel his conquering 64 THK PERSIAN EMPIRE. arm. This country liad extended its sway over nearly all Asia Minor, and its king Croe'sus was distinguished far and wide for his prowess and wealth. Writers and phi- losophers of high repute visited his court ; among them, the fable-writer ^'sop, and So'lon, the wise man of Athens. Croesus, after displaying his treasures to the latter, asked him if he did not consider Lydia's king a happy man. Solon answered that life was full of vicissi- tudes, and that no man could be pronounced happy while he was yet living. Alarmed at the growing power of Persia and burning to avenge his dethroned relative Astyages, Croesus led a large army into the territory of Cyrus. It is said that he had previously consulted the oracle of Delphi, and re- ceived from Apollo the response that, if he made war on the Persians, he would destroy a great onplre. This proved to be his own. Cyrus finally besieged him in his capital Sardis, took the city, and annexed the proud Lydian Empire to the Persian (554 b. c). Herod'otus tells us that at the capture of Sardis the life of the fallen king was saved by his dumb son, who, seeing him in the act of being killed by a Persian, for the first time burst into speech and made known his father's rank. After this escape, Croesus was sentenced to be burned alive. As he was chained to the pile, the saying of the Greek sage occurred to him, and he ejaculated, " Solon ! Solon ! Solon ! " Cyrus demanded the meaning of the exclamation, and struck with the wisdom of Solon's remark liberated the captive, and treated him as a friend and confidant. The Grecian cities of Asia Minor next submitted to the sceptre of Persia. Conquests in the distant East followed, and finally the Babylonian Empire, as we have already seen (p. 23), yielded to the victorious Persian arms (538 b. c). The great Persian Empire under Cyrus CYRUS ANT) CAMBY8ES. 65 thus stretched from the Indus to the ^gean Sea and the borders of Egypt. Cyrus the Great is said to have fallen in battle with a northern horde, 529 b. c. Their savage queen, filling a skin with human blood, contemptuously flung into it his severed head, and bade him there satisfy his thirst. Though ambitious of conquest, Cyrus appears not to have prized it for the spoils it yielded, but to have dis- pensed these with a princely hand among his followers, — who in their turn were ready to pour out life and fortune at his call. Croesus once told him that, by keeping his treasures to himself, he might have become the richest monarch in the world. " And what think you," asked Cyrus, " might those treasures have amounted to ? " Crcje- sus named the sum ; whereupon Cyrus informed his lords that he was in want of money, and at once a larger sum was brought him than Croesus had mentioned. " Look ! " said Cyrus ; " here are my treasures ; the chests I keep them in are the hearts of my subjects." Camby'ses, the son of Cyrus, added Egypt to his father's empire. The first important city reached in the invasion of this country was captured by stratagem. Taking advantage of the superstition of the Egyptians, Cambyses placed cats, dogs, and other of their sacred animals, in front of his troops ; and the garrison, fearful of injui'ing these objects of their veneration, allowed their assailants to enter the city without resistance. Numerous stories illustrate the tyranny of this mon- arch. Learning one day from his chief favorite that the Persians thought him too fond of wine, to convince them that it did not affect the steadiness of his hand or the strength of his understanding, he drank to greater excess than ever before. Then ordering the son of his inform- ant to be brought in, he drew his bow and taking careful aim pierced the heart of the unfortunate youth with an G6 THE pp:rsian empire. arrow. " Now," said lie, turning to the trembling father, " you can decide whether the Persians are right or wrong in supposing that wine deprives me of reason." On another occasion, when Croesus represented to Cambyses the evils of a tyrannical government, the lat- ter immediately condemned him to death. But the offi- cers in charge delayed enforcing the sentence, supposing that the king, when he recovered from his anger, would repent of his hasty command. He did so, and hastening to find whether Croesus was alive, embraced him with de- light, but the next moment ordered to execution the offi- cers who had ventured to trifle with his directions. Darius I, Hystaspes, (521-486 b. c), obtained the Persian crown in the following singular manner. On the death of Cambyses, an impostor mounted the throne. Thereupon seven nobles plotted together and slew him ; they further agreed to ride out at sunrise, and that he whose horse first neighed should reign. The horse of Da- rius decided the question in favor of his master, who be- came the greatest of Persia's rulers. He regulated the government, dividing his vast empire into twenty prov- inces. A large standing army supported his authority ; and royal roads, along which his messages were trans- mitted with wonderful speed, traversed the country. Darius extended his conquests into Europe. Thrace and Macedonia were added to his dominions, and the Persian Empire now reached from the deserts of India to the borders of Greece. Both Darius and his son Xerxes vainly attempted to subjugate the Greeks. Under the successors of Xerxes the Persians gradually became corrupted. Luxury and extravagance did their work, and at last the enfeebled empire fell an easy prey to a Macedonian prince (331 b. c). Architectural Works, Religion, etc. — The principal ar- chitectural works of the Persians were their palaces. The 68 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. one at Persep'olis was gorgeous beyond description, the walls and ceilings of its apartments being resplendent with amber, ivory, and gold. The monarchs were honored by their subjects with the most servile reverence. To approach the king without jirostrating the body or with hands withdrawn from the long sleeves of the gown, was death. As an instance of their devotion to royalty, it is re- lated that once, wh3n the over- loaded vessel of Xerxes was in danger of wreck, his courtiers vied with each other in leaping into the sea, that they might lighten the galley and thus save their king. The religious system of the an- cient Persians, set forth in sacred writings called the Aves'ta, was founded or reformed by Zoroas'ter. It recognized one eternal Supreme Being, who produced by his creative word two great Principles, the one of light and purity, the other of darkness and evil. Between these a struggle was constantly main- tained in the souls of men. Those who obeyed the one were admitted at death into the abode of the blessed ; while those who submitted to the other were banished to a region of everlasting woe. This earlier faith was afterward corrupted by the GCBBRE PeIESTS. PERIOD OF GKECIAN GLORY. 69 Ma'gi, who introduced the fire-worship still prevailing among a few of the Persians (the Guebres) who are un- believers in the doctrines of Mohammed. 600 B. C- — Nineveh in the hands of the Medes. Cyaxares king of Media, Nebuchadnezzar of Babylonia, Pharaoh Necho of Egypt, Je- hoiakim of Judah. Alcaeus (al-se'us) and Sappho (saf'fo) originating lyric poetry in Greece. Carthage exploring the Mediterranean. Tar- quinius Priscus building his great works in Rome. Solon, ^sop. CHAPTER XI. PERIOD OF GRECIAN GLORY. Solon's Code. — The history of the states of ancient Greece has mainly to do with the kingdom of Sparta and republican Athens. The former we left the leading mili- tary power in Greece. The latter we followed to the death of her last monarch Codrus, and the establishment of magistrates called Archons, chosen from the aristocracy. Internal disturbances followed this change, and at length the people demanded from the nobles a written code. This led to the legislation of Dra'co (624 B. c), whose laws, so cruel that they were said to have been written with blood, punished even the slightest offences with death. A better code was framed by the great law-giver Solon, one of the Seven Wise Men of Greece, 594 b. c. To re- lieve his impoverished countrymen, Solon freed their mort- gaged lands, and annulled the law which made slavery the penalty of debt. The people were divided into four classes according to their income, all having the privilege of voting in the public assembly. Nine archons, respon- sible to the citizens for their conduct in office, were annu- 70 rKRiOD C>P OltKcnAN CLoRV. ally elected; and the court of the Areop'ao-us was charo-ed with the duty of tryiu<>- capital oiVeuces ami ^-uardiuii,- the public morals. Still the Athenians were dissatisfied. Party dissensions were renewed; and in spite of Solon's efforts, Pisis'tratus, who traced his descent to Codrus, nianai;;tMl to establish himself as sole ruler, 560 H. c. The Tyrants. — Pisistratus the Tyrant * administered the g'overnment without either severity or injustice. He ornjuniMited Athens with noble buildings, founded the first public library in CJreece, and strove in various ways to ingratiate himself with the people. Hi})'jnas and Hippar'chus, sons of Pisistratus, imi- tated the libcM-al policy oi their father. They too encour- aged art anil literature, anil so nourishing was At liens during their joint reign that their j)erioil has been likened to the golden age. But llipparchus was assassinated, and after this Hippias became a suspicious despot. In a tew years (510 B. o.) he was forced to leave Athens. Tyrants also reigned in many of the other Grecian states, although in most of them a republiran form of government ultimately prevailed. Changes in the Constitution. — Shortly after Hippias was driven into exile, the constitution was changed so as to give the people additional privileges. Ostracism was introduced, by which they banished obnoxious persons without the formality of trial. An assembly being con- vened, they wrote on pieces of pottery {os'fniA-a) the name of the one whom they desired to expel. Six thou- sand votes against any individual obliged him to withdraw from the city within ten days, and remain in exile for at first ten, and afterward five, years. Under this democratic constitution, Athens ra]udly in- creased in warlike spirit and power. * This term is liorc used in its original significivtion of ftxpreme nilri; witliout iinv reforenee to an abuse of power. dHA':* (hVKKi^fAS WAItS. 71 Graeco-Persian Wars. — Afjonttlj<: iK^f^inning of Uic filtli century jj. <:., Uk; Ionian cM\(:h of Asia Minor rclHilK'l against Darius, and AtJicn.s sent a (loot to aid tJictn. 'J'liin itit<;rf(;rf'jic(! aroused tlic n;s(;ntrnont of the P<-rHian rnon- arfii, who, lliai In; iiiifi;}it \)('. continually nrnindcd of tlio insult, required a servant eaeli day at dinner to exclaim three times, "Master, rememh(;r the Athenians!" In 492 a. c, iJarius dispatcfied an expedition against Greece, hut it ini^loriously failed. 15(;fore making a sec- ond attempt, he sent envoys to demand from the several states earth and water, the usual tokens of submission. Many of the cities yielded ; Fmt Athens and Sparta an- swered hy throwing the Persian heialds into pits and wells, and bidding them ll]'h the Macedonians themselves were not Ilelle'nes, it is probable that their kings belonged to the Hellen'ic race. Tradition relates that some colonists from Argos in search of a home, whom the oracle had advised to be guided in their movements by the direction of goats, were overtaken in their wanderings by a storm near the capital of an early prince of this region ; and that, observing a flock of goats rushing for shelter to the city, they followed, obtained possession of the capital, changed its name to JEgx (e'ge) (the city of goats), represented a goat upon their stand- ards, and laid the foundations of the Macedonian Empire. At the close of the sixth century b. c, Macedonia sub- mitted to the Persians ; but it regained its freedom after the repulse of Xerxes. A career of conquest followed ; and, while the Macedonian dominion was extended, the people became brave and habituated to war. During the brilliant reign of Archelaus [ar-ke-la'u'^), 413-399 b. c, literature and the arts were encouraged. Eminent poets visited the Macedonian court, and the royal palace was adorned by the painter Zeux'is. A story is told of a contest between this celebrated artist and Parrhasius (par-ra\^he-us) " the Elegant," a painter of equal renown. Zeuxis represented a cluster of grapes so naturally that the birds came and pecked at them. Elated with this evidence of his skill, he called on his rival to draw back the curtain which lie supposed con- cealed the work that was to dispute the prize with his own. But what he mistook for a curtain was simply the ittasterly painting of one, and Zeuxis frankly confessed PUILIP OF MACKDON. 89 himself defeated, since he had deceived only birds, while his competitor had imposed on an experienced artist. — The death of Zeuxis was caused by excessive laughter at the picture of an old woman which he himself had painted. After the assassination of Archela'us (399 B. c), the Macedonian state was shattered by a storm of revolutions and civil wars. These continued forty years, but were at last brought to an end by the accession of Philip II., 359 B. c. Philip of Macedon was a monarch of great ability, elo- quent, commanding in mien, and full of resources, but withal sensual and unscrupulous. His talents had been developed at Thebes, where, as a hostage, he lived in the stirring times of Pelopidas and Epaminondas. He there became acquainted with the military system of these chiefs, studied the Greek character, and acquired that diplomacy which afterward gained for him many a bloodless victory. Philip improved on the Theban tactics by instituting the Macedonian Phalanx — a body finally composed of 16,000 men, armed with short swords for cutting or thrusting, bucklers four feet in length, and pikes so long that those of the sixth rank, couched upon the shoulders of the men before them, extended in front of the line. Aggeessions upon Greece. — Philip boldly encoun- tered the dangers that at first beset his throne ; in less than two years he triumphed over all his enemies, and was free to enlarge his kingdom by aggressive wars. He availed himself of the quarrels of the Greeks to seize their colonial cities, conquered Thessaly, and took posses- sion of the rich gold-mines of Thrace. Through the folly of the Thebans he was invited to interfere in the so-called Sacred War, and as a victor he was rewarded with a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. Thus he gained a controlling influence in Greece that materially forwarded his great scheme of subjugating the entire peninsula. The indolent 90 THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Athenians, meanwhile, the only people that might have checked Philip's career, were cajoled by the crafty king and remained inactive. There was one at Athens, however, that saw through Philip's wiles — the eloquent Demosthenes, who for years, despite that monarch's repeated attempts to corrupt so formidable an adversary, struggled nobly against him in defence of Grecian liberty. In this course he was opposed by Phocion {pho'she-0)i), who, though equally incorrup- tible and elected general five-and-forty times, was more amicably disposed toward Macedon. His concise style and common-sense views were quite the opposite of the fiery energy of Demosthenes, who, when Phocion arose to reply to his harangues, was wont to say, " Here comes the pruner of my periods." Ch^ronea. — Roused at last by the burning eloquence of Demosthenes, Athens and Thebes made a desperate stand at Chaeronea {ker-o-ne'a), in Boeotia (see Map, p. 40), against the Macedonian monarch, who had passed Thermopyla3 and was occupying the cities of Greece. But the charge of his phalanx proved irresistible. The allies were totally defeated ; and while Demosthenes, brave as he had been in words, fled from the field, the Sacred Band of Epaminondas was cut down to a man, thus gloriously dying with the independence of Hellas, 338 B. c. Philip remained master of Greece. Hegemony of Macedon. — In the following year Philip held a congress of deputies from the Grecian states at Corinth. The hegem'ony of Macedon was recognized by all but Sparta, and her king was appointed commander of an expedition which he had long planned against Per- sia. Philip now returned to Macedonia, and there when flushed with wine he is said to have become incensed at his son Alexander, and to have rushed upon him with ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 91 drawn sword. But, overcome with drunkenness, he fell upon the floor, and Alexander, pointing at him, scornfully said, " See the man who would pass from Europe to Asia upset in crossing from one couch to another ! " Shortly after this, Philip, in the midst of his prepara- tions, was assassinated at the magnificent nuptials of his daughter, 336 b. c. Alexander the Great. — In the year 356 b. c, the wife of Philip of Macedon gave birth to a son. The same day on which the king received the news brought tidings of a victory over the Illyr'ians, and of another which he deemed no less important, gained by his horses in the chariot-races at the Olympic Games. Overwhelmed with his good for- tune, he exclaimed, " Great Jupiter! in return for so many blessings, send me only some slight reverse." The mother of the young prince traced her descent to Achilles. The son Alexander, known in history as the Great, by his un- paralleled deeds rivalled his heroic ancestor. In early life, Alexander gave proofs of his military genius. He excelled in all manly sports, and when very young leaped upon the back of the fiery steed Buceph'a- lus, which had hitherto proved unmanageable, and rode him with admirable skill. Bucephalus afterward carried his master through many campaigns, but never allowed any other to mount him. At Cheeronea it was Alexander that vanquished the Sacred Band of Thebes. After the battle, Philip, charmed with his valor, embraced him and said, " My son, seek an- other empire, for that which I shall leave you is not wor- thy of you." Accession of Alexander. — On the murder of his fa- ther, Alexander, then in his twentieth year, succeeded to the throne. He at once marched to Corinth, and the as- sembled states were again compelled to recognize the he- gemony of Macedon, while they made him commander-in- 92 THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. chief of the Grecian forces in the projected enterprise against the Persians. Thebes, however, misled by a false report of the young- prince's death, rebelled ; whereupon Alexander suddenly appeared before the city, carried it by storm, and razed it to the ground, sparing only the house of the poet Pindar. The Thebans that survived were sold into slavery; and all Greece, terror-stricken by this fearful example, abjectly submitted to the conqueror. Invasion of Persia. — Desiring to consult the oracle at Delphi as to his projected expedition into Asia, Alex- ander visited the temple of Apollo. But as it was an un- lucky day, the priestess refused to approach the shrine. The king grasped her arm and drew her forward. " Ah ! my son," said she, " you are irresistible." " Enough," ex- claimed Alexander, " I desire no other response." Having completed his preparations and made Antip'- ater governor in his absence, Alexander started for the East in 334 b. c. With an army small in numbers but invincible in spirit, he fearlessly marched into the Per- sian Empire, and won his first great battle at the river Grani'cus. This victory secured the conquest of Asia Minor and the liberation of the Greek cities from their oppressors. Advancing to Gordium, Alexander severed the famous Gordian knot, respecting which an oracle had said that he who untied it would be master of Asia. Fail- ing in his attempts to unravel it, he solved the problem with his sword, and in his subsequent career fulfilled the prophecy. At length at Issus (see Map, p. 67) Alexander over- threw Dari'us III., the Persian king, 333 B. c. Among the trophies of victory were the treasures and family of Dari- us. Toward the royal captives Alexander displayed the greatest magnanimity, so winning upon the king's mother by his gracious and respectful treatment, that, on hearing FALL OF PERSIA. 93 of his death ten j^ears afterward, she veiled her head, refused food, and ended her life by starvation. The next blows were aimed at Persia through her de- pendencies on the Mediterranean. Tyre resisted bravely, and Ga'za imitated her example — but in vain. The sub- jugation of Egypt followed that of Palestine ; and the name of the conqueror was permanently connected with this part of his dominions by the founding of the city of Alexandria, which was made the capital of Egypt and soon became the greatest seat of commerce in the world. Darius had improved the interval to raise a million efficient fighting men for the defence of his empire. Alex- ander hastened to meet them with his little army, and at Arbe'la (Map, p. 67) gained a complete victory (331 B. c). The rich capitals of Persia now opened their gates to the Greeks, and the fugitive Darius was treacherously mur- dered by one of his satraps. Alexander wept on behold- ing his mutilated body, and buried him with royal honors. The traitor was afterward taken, and his fate shows the cruel punishments that were sometimes inflicted in those days. Two trees were bent toward each other, his limbs fastened to them respectively, and their recoil tore his body asunder. Alexander now had himself proclaimed King of Asia, and proceeded to reduce the remoter provinces of Persia. A mountain-fortress on a steep rock surrounded with snow, for a time delayed his progress, its defenders when sum- moned to yield tauntingly asking whether he had winged soldiers. But no such obstacle could stay his triumphant course. Three hundred picked men, driving iron spikes into the ice-bound face of the rock and drawing themselves up with ropes, made the ascent under cover of the night; and at dawn the barbarians surrendered. Among the cap- tives was the princess Roxa'na, " the Pearl of the East," who became the bride of Alexander. 94 THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Conquests in India. — The insatiate conqueror next passed through what is now Afghanistan', crossed the In- dus, and established Greek colonies and towns in the sub- jugated territories. One of these, built on the spot where his favorite horse was buried, he named Buceph'ala. Po'rus, an Indian monarch of gigantic size and strength, mounted on his elephant, bravely disputed the march of the invaders. Being captured and brought before Alex- ander, he was asked what he desired. " To be treated as a king," he replied; and his request Avas granted. Death and Character of Alexander. — The mutiny of his troops alone prevented Alexander from pushing his arms into the remote East. He returned to Babylon, his intended capital, where he died suddenly, 333 B. c, from the effects of the unhealthy climate and his own excesses. He was buried in a golden coffin at Alexandria. Thus perished prematurely this extraordinary chieftain, in the vigor of manhood and in the midst of ambitious plans. During his short reign of a dozen years, he made Macedonia mistress of half the world. Yet though lord of this immense empire, he was a slave to his own pas- sions. He surrendered himself to dissipation, and in the heat of anger committed deeds that he remembered with bitter remorse. While intoxicated at a banquet, he even struck down his friend Cli'tus, who had saved his life in battle. Occasionally, however, Alexander displayed unusual greatness of soul. It is told that a cup of water was once offered to him in the desert, but that though parched he poured it out in the sand lest his soldiers might feel their thirst more keenly by seeing their general alone refreshed. The Jews experienced his favor; and the high-priest ex- plained to him the prophecy of Daniel relating to himself, in which he is described as a goat (see the tradition at the commencement of this chapter) coming from the West SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 95 and smiting the ram which had two horns — the king of Media and Persia. Successors of Alexander. — For twenty years after the death of Alexander, sanguinary wars desolated his empire. His vast dominions were divided among his generals. They soon quarrelled ; but finally the rest leagued to- gether against Antig'onus, who aspired to the supremacy of the whole. In the battle of Ipsus, 301 b. c, Antigonus was defeated and slain, and his kingdom fell to the victors. Lysimachus (li-sim'a-kus), already master of Thrace, appropriated as his share most of Asia Minor. Seleu'cus, whose Syrian Empire included all the countries between the Indus and the Euphrates, obtained additional territory west of the latter river. Egypt remained to Ptolemy {tol'e-my); and Macedon and Greece fell to Cassan'der, son of Antip'ater. During these struggles the East had profited by its in- tercourse with the Greeks. Magnificent cities had arisen, the Greek language was widely spoken, and throughout western Asia and north-eastern Africa great advances were made in knowledge. The famous Muse'um of Alex- andria, containing the greatest library of antiquity, was a monument of the enlightened munificence of the Ptole- mies. — Greece, on the other hand, was weakened and de- based by the influence of oriental luxury ; art and litera- ture deteriorated, and patriotism died. Still gleams of the ancient spirit at times flashed forth. The yEtolian and the Achaean League were formed in the third century B. c, to resist the oppression of the Mace- donian kings. Many cities joined the Achseans, and the league for a time wielded great power under the leader- ship of Ara'tus of Sicyon ; at last, however, weakened by dissensions, it was broken up on the conquest of Greece by the Romans (page 115). Literature and Art. — We have already mentioned De- 96 THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. mosthenes, the greatest orator the world has ever see-n. His twelve Philippics, directed against Philip of Macedon and full of forcible invective, are justly famous ; but the finest specimen of his eloquence is the speech Co7icerning the Crown — a golden crown, which it was proposed to be- stow on him as a reward for his public services. By this oration he vanquished his rival ^schines [es'ke- neez), a very able orator, but strongly opposed to war with Philip, ^schines was driven into exile, and opened a school of oratory at Rhodes. Here on one occasion he read to his pupils his own oration on the Crown, and was loudly applauded ; he then read that of Demosthenes, when his hearers rose to their feet and rent the air with acclamations. " Ah ! " said the generous ^schines, " what would you have said, had you heard the wild beast him- self roaring it out ? " The eloquence of Demosthenes was attained only after the most persevering labors. Weakness of voice he rem- edied by practising on the sea-shore amid the roar of ocean ; a defect of speech he removed by declaiming with pebbles under his tongue ; and, to escape being tempted from his studies into company, he shaved half of his head and sought retirement for months at a time in a subter- ranean apartment. Ar'istotle of Stagi'ra (384-322 b. c), the teacher of Alexander the Great, founded the school of philosophy called Peripatetic because he used to walk about (in Greek peripatein) while giving his instructions. This illustrious philosopher, whom Plato called the Intellect of his school, has exerted an influence on the minds of men that passes calculation. For twenty centuries his authority was para- mount. He was the founder of logic and natural history, and wrote besides on physics, metaphysics, ethics, and politics. Ze'no, who flourislied 300 b. c, was the originator of THE GKEEK PHILOSOPHERS. 97 the Sto'ic sect, so called from the Painted Porch (stoa) at Athens, in which his disciples assembled, Zeno taught the strictest morality. Virtue was the supreme gt)od, and was in itself happiness ; pain was no evil ; it was man's duty to subdue his passions and submit to the unalterable decrees of fate. The Epicure'ans, or followers of Epicu'rus, made pleasure the chief good ; while the Cynics (sin'iks), pro- fessing the most rigid virtue, severe in manners and mean Alexander the Great and Diogenes. in attire, snarled at everybody like dogs (kunes) — whence their name. The most celebrated Cynic was the eccentric Diogenes {di-oj'e-neez). He abode in a tub ; and once, when basking in the sun, he was visited by Alexander the Great. Alexander asked the philosopher if he wanted any- thing. " I want you to get out of my sunshine," was the re- sponse. Admiring his independence, the Macedonian ex- claimed, "If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes ! " 98 TIIK MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. In the third contviry H. <'., Euclid, the father of mathe- matical science, ilourished in Alexandria, and Archimedes {ar-Jce-me' deez), of Syracuse, made wonderful discoveries and inventions in mechanics. Euclid, asked by one of the Ptolemies if there was not some easy way of learnino- mathematics, replied, " There is no niyal road to geome- try." Archimedes, tilled with admiration of the power of the lever, whose properties he explained, cried, " Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the world." Grecian art attained a high degree of perfection in the fourth century, under the painter Apel'les and the sculptors Lysip'pus and Praxit'eles. The success of Apel- les was due to constant application ; " no day without a line," was his maxim. Lysippus was distinguished for his works in bronze ; and the statues of Venus by Praxiteles, combining feminine grace with intellectual dignity, have never been surpassed. Alexander the Great ordered that no one should paint him but Apelles, and none represent him in bronze except Lysippus. To this century, also, belongs the stately Mausole'um, erected at Halicarnassus by Queen Artemisia, to the memory of her deceased husband Mauso'lus. The entire edifice was adorned with magnificent sculptures. Fourth Century, B. C. — irfnvs.- — War between Persia ami Sparta (31t'J-304). Corinthian War (394-387). War between Sparta and Tiiebes (379-362). Social War (358 -355). Saered War (357-346). Philip's War.s in Thessaly (355-352). Philip's Wars with the Grecian States (343-337). Alexander's Career of Conquest (334-323). Wars among Alexander's successors (323-301). Alexander seems to have contemplated the organization of the world into one great empire under himself, with Babylon for its capital — the dominant races of the East and West to be bound together by intermar- riage, education, commercial intercourse, and the ti-ansplanting of com- munities from one country to another: — a grand scheme of one of the foremost men of the ancient world. EAllLY ITALIAN VVAKS. 99 CHAPTER XIV. REPUBLICAN ROME, TO THE EIRST PUNIC WAR. (509-264 Jl. C.) Tyranny of the Patricians. — On tlic uholitioii ol' mon- archy in Uoni'-, 1!. ('. 509 (see pag-o GO), a republican con- stitution was adopted, 'I'lio g'overninont was intrusted to two Consuls, chosen annually; while the senate, enlarged by the addition of new iiienibers {coiiHCfipti), gradually acquired incn^ased inlluence in the state-. As long as they feared the restoration of Taiquin, the ]iatricians willingly made concessions to the commons ; but, when that danger was removed, they ruled with op- pressive severity. The poor })lebeians, from time to time reduced to pc^nury by the plundering incursions of hostile tribes, were compelled tj) borrow from the richer citizens, who could use or sell them as slaves, or even put tlufin to death, if they failcul U) pay their debts. Secession of the Plebeians. — At last, driven to desper- ation by their sulTerings, the plebeians resolved to endure the cruelty of the patricians no longer. Accordingly, in the year 4!)4 B. c, they withdrew from Rome with the in- tention of founding another city on the Sacred Hill, in the vicinity. The nobles, however, seeing in this sepa- ration the ruii! of the state, speedily acceded to the de- mands of the people;. All those held for debt were liber- ated, and magistrates called TrU/tmes, whose persons should b(! inviolate, were appointed to protect the com- mons from their oj)pressors. Early Italian Wars. — While internal dissensions thus threaten(Ml the veiy existence of the Roman state, con- tinual wars were waged with the surrounding nations. Immediately after the expulsion of the kings, a conspiracy was formed at Rome to restore Tarquin to his throne, L cfC, 100 THE ROMAN RKI'UBLIC. It was detected in time to save the young- republic, and the consul Brutus was dismayed to find that his own two sons had participated in it. Painful as was the duty, he pronounced the sentence of death upon them, and with tearless eyes beheld them first scourged and then beheaded. Disappointed in this attempt, Tarquin applied for aid to the Etruscans (see Map, p. 57), and persuaded Porsen'- na, king of Clusium {kin' she-ion), to make common cause with him against Rome. Porsenna defeated the Roman army, and was about to cross the Tiber and occupy the city, when Horatius Codes {ho-ra' she-us ko'Meez) took his post on the bridge, and with two brave companions faced the Etruscans. While the three held the opposing host in check, their countrymen hewed down the bridge. As the last timbers fell, Horatius, who a moment before had bade his comrades leave him, sprung into the river, and made his way across, unhurt b}' the hostile darts that rained about him. Three hundred 3'oung Roman nobles now bound them- selves by an oath, for their country's sake, to attempt in succession the life of Porsenna ; and Caius Mutius {ka'jpis mii'she-iis) was the first to cross the Tiber and enter the enemy's camp in fulfilment of the compact. By mistake he stabbed the royal scribe, and was at once apprehended. Porsenna's menaces of torture he treated with contempt, quietly thrusting his right hand into a camp-fire, and watching it burn to a crisp without a groan. Struck with this exhibition of fortitude, Porsenna set his pris- oner free and soon after concluded a treaty with Rome. Thenceforth Mutius was known as Scaevola (sev'o-la), " the Left-handed." The Eatins were next induced to take up arms in be- half of Tarquin ; but with their defeat the hopes of the exiled family were finally overthrown. During this war a Dictator with absolute power was for the first time ap- CORIOLANUS AND CINCINNATLS, 101 pointed by the Romans — a precedent which was afterward followed when extreme danger threatened the state. Coriolanus. — A league was now made with the Latins ; but wars continued with the Volsci (vol'si) and ^qui (e'qui), two nations of Oscan origin that repeatedly rav- aged the territories of Rome and Latium {lci!s1ie-ti'm). On one occasion, the Volsci came sweeping all before them, almost to the very walls of Rome, led by Coriolanus, a distinguished patrician general, who, banished by the people from his native city, had taken refuge among them. In vain the senate supplicated for peace ; the vindictive Coriolanus would make no terms, until a train of noble ladies with his wife and mother at their head approached the Volscian camp. Against their tears and entreaties he could not remain proof, and exclaiming, " Mother, thou hast saved Rome, but lost thy son ! " he bade them fare- well and withdrew the hostile army. One account makes him to have been put to death by the disappointed Volsci; another, to have lived to old age in obscurity and exile. Cincinna'tus, a patrician renowned for his integrity, rescued the Roman army from the ^qui (458 B. c). The consul's forces having been surrounded in a narrow valley, Cincinnatus was made dictator. He received the message of the senate, informing him of his appointment, while at work on his farm; when, hastening to the city, he raised a new army, surrounded the enemy in turn, took them pris- oners, and compelled them to pass in disgrace beneath the yoke* — all this in twenty -four hours. Cincinnatus then entered Rome in triumph, was rewarded with a golden crown, and resigning the dictatorship returned to his humble farm. The Decemvirate. — After many years of violent con- * Tlie Komans compelled their captives to pass under what they called " the yoke ; " which consisted of two erect spears, supporting a third at such a heij^ht that he who went beneath was oljligod to stoop. 102 THE ROMAN KKrri'.l.IC. toil! ions hoi \vo(Mi i\\o (wo orders, a hoard ot" tcMi iiia<>-is- tnitos, distino-uishod as /h'enn'vf'rtt, was instituted (451 u. o.), to dio-est the laws into a written code. Thev were endowed with supnMiie powtM-, and for the time took the plaee of ail other ollieers. Their athninistration was satis- i'aelory; and at the elose of th(> lirst term, the vodc hc'mir not \c\ linished, a new S(>t of (h^cenivirs was eleete(h But tiie second (hH'onivirate, under th(> asctMideney of Appiiis Claudius (44!) «. v.), beeaiuc an odious tyranny. A jrross act of injustice led to its overthrow. When Ap- pius, to obtain possession of a fair Uonian maiden, ad- jud<>;od her as a slave to one ol' liis ereatures, her fatluM- \'ir«;inius, to save h(M- from dishonor, sheathed his knife in iier bosom, crying-, "This is the only way, my child, to k«M^p thee free !" Then rushing from the forum* lo the camp, he roused the soldiers to revolt. A lunudt meanwhile broke out in the eitv, and the decemvirs weiv obliged to lle(\ The i)lebeians next retired in a body to the Saennl Hill, and the dissolution of tlu> state w-as again inuninent. Ontlu^ alidii-ation of the de- cemvirs, however, tlu^ commons i-(^(urned, and th^' tribunate and consulship were restored. Appius Claudius ]nit an end to his own life; but the code of the decemvirs, known as "tlu> Laws of tlie Twelve Tables," remained in force for many generations. It was not long before i)lebeians and jiatricians were allowed by law to intermarry, and the ollice of "military tribune with consular power," which could be hekl by either commoner or noble, w\as substituted for the consul- ship. In 443 B. 0., Ce/)Sors were first elected ; their duty was to take the census, manage the finances, and guard the public morals from corrupting influences. The censor- ship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state. * The tonini was an >inoovorod place sot apart for the iidniinistration of justii'O and the niootins; of tlio popular assonibly. It contained the ron/ro, or stntje iVom wliicli orators addressed llie iieojile. GALLIC INVASION. lo;: Tfio vvarliko oiiorg-ios of the Romans continued to bo developed by contests with their predatory neighbors. Veil {ve'i/i), a splendid city of the Etruscans, withstood them for ten years, but finally had to yiohl to the strateg-y of Camillus (390 a. c). 'J'liis skillful general was after- ward charged with embezzling a portion of the plunder. Geoup of Ancient Oauls. and went into exile. At the gates of Rome, he called upon the gods to visit his country with such calamities as would necessitate his recall. The Gallic Invasion. — At this very time hordes of Gauls, a fierce (Jeltic race, under their chief f3rennus, were ravag- ing northern and central Italy. Soon after, they crossed 104 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. the Tiber, poured down its valley throuo-h the countiy of the Sabines, defeated a Koinau army that had been sent against them, and took and burned the city. A brave garrison, however, for several months defended the capi- tol. The besiegers scaled the hill in a night attack. But a flock of geese, which the starving soldiers had spared be- cause they were sacred to Juno, gave the alarm to Marcus Manlius by their cackling, and the capitol was saved. The enemy finally agreed to raise the siege for a thou- sand pounds of gold, and then tried to extort more than the amount by using false weights at settlement. Bren- nus would listen to no remonstrance, but threateningly cast his sword also into the scale, exclaiming, " Woe to the vanquished ! " Before the payment was completed, Camillus, who had been recalled and again made dictator, appeared at the head of an army. " With iron," he cried, " not with gold, Rome buys her freedom ! " and straightway fell upon the Gauls, and put them to a disastrous rout. Some doubt this story, and make Brennus to have escaped with the ransom. Rome was quickly rebuilt. The neighboring states, however, availed themselves of her apparent helplessness to renew their attacks, while the commons, impoverished by their losses in the late invasion, were again made to feel the tyranny of the nobles. The genius of Cajnillus at this critical juncture saved the republic; and Manlius, who declared that no one should be enslaved for debt so long as he had a pound of brass, won tlie title of Father of the Commons by his generous deeds. The Licinian laws, passed 366 b. c, did much to relieve the existing distress. Lands out of the public domain were granted to the poor; and the consulship was restored, with the provision that one of the two chief magistrates should be a plebeian. • CONQUEST OF ITALY. 105 Conq^uest of Italy. — Up to this time Rome had been but one of several states occupying the peninsula ; we now come to the period when she absorbed the rest. Accepting the offer of the Campanians to become her subject-allies if she would protect them against the Sam- nites, Rome began hostilities with the latter people, 340 15. c. Samnium was a formidable rival, and the strug- gle for supremacy continued for half a century. The Sanmites defeated the Roman army at the Caudine Forks (;319 B. c), but their power was finally broken in the de- cisive battle of Senti'num (see Map, p. 57). In 290 b. c. the consul Curius Deniatus invaded their country, and completed their subjection. The Samnites had in vain attempted to buy Dentatus over to their cause. Their messengers, on arriving, found him seated on a rude bench eating out of a wooden bowl. He scornfully rejected their offered bribe, saying that a man content to live as he did, had no need of gold. Meanwhile the Latins and their allies were overthrown in the battle of Mt. Vesuvius (337 b. c). It was during this contest that the consul Manlius Torqua'tus ordered his son to be beheaded for engaging with the enemy, though successfully, in violation of his orders. The Gauls and Etruscans were afterward subdued ; nor were the Roman arms less fortunate in Magna Grtecia. A pretext was soon found for declaring war against the Greek city of Tarentum. Feeling themselves no match for Rome,* the Tarentines summoned Pyr'rhus, king of Epi'rus (see Map of Greece, p. 40), to their aid. War with Pyrrhus. — In 280 b. c, Pyrrhus appeared in * Several of the cities of Magna Graecia were noted for their luxury and effeniinacv. The Tarentines aiv said to have had more festivals than ■ there were days in the year ; at Syb'aris, it was unlawful to keep a cock or to pursue any trade which was accompanied with noise, lest the slum- liers of the people might be disturbed. 106 THE ROMAN KKrUHLIC Italy. He brought with him elepliants trained for war, the unwonted sight of which threw the Roman cavahy into confusion and won for him two hard-fought battles. Victories, however, that cost him so many men, he foresaw would be fatal. As he surveyed the scene of carnage after his lirst triumph, and beheld the stalwart forms of the dead Romans, with their resolute features and not a single wound behind, his appreciation of their valor burst forth in the words, " Had 1 such soldiers, how easily could I become master of the world ! " In a third battle, the Romans under Curius Denlatiis attacked the elephants with liiT-hi'aiids, and badly dd'eat- ed the king, who spet'dily withdrew from Italy. Pyrrhus could not hel]) ailmiring the simple manners and blunt honesty of the Romans. On one occasion he sought to gain over Fabricius {/'a-brish'e-tis), who had been sent as a messenger from the senate, by offei'ing him more gold than Rome had ever seen. " Poverty with an honest name," replied Fabricius, " is more to be desired than wealth." When the physician of Pyrrhus afterward proposed to Fabricius, then consul, to poison his master, the indignant Roman sent liim back in irons, and Pyrrhus out of grati- tude set free his prisoners. " It were as easy to turn the sun from his course," he exclaimed, " as Fabricius from the path of honor." This same Fabricius is memorable for his extreme fru- gality, and when censor removed from oHice a senator be- cause he possessed ten pounds of silver plate. Another distinguished Roman of the day was Appius Claudius the Blind. To him Rome owes its first great aqueduct, as well as the famous Appian Way — the queen of Moman roads — leading from that city to Capua (see Map, p. 112), a distance of 125 miles. Shortly after Pyrrhus embarked, Tarentum submitted ; ELSE OF CARTHAGE 107 arifl in tlio year 205 n. c. Rome was the mistress of all Italy. 800 B. C. — Rome absorV)inf^ the other Italian states ; rjlebcians enjoying eijual liglits with patricians. Carthage rising in importance, but disturbed by factions. Population of Athens : — free, about 125,000; slaves, about 400,000. Macedonia under Cassandcr. Seleucus at the head of the Syrian Empire. Ptolemy So'ter king of Egypt ; Alexandria, his capital, a great seat of learning. Jews under Ptolemy, and trans- l)lant,ed in great number.s to Egypt. The high-priest, Sirnon the Just, completes the canon of the Old Testament. CHAPTER XY. THE PUNIC WARS. (264 146 B. C.) Carthage is supposed to have been founded in the ninth century B. C. ; when Dido, flying' from her cruel brother Pyjnrjna'lion, led a party from Tyre in quest of new abodes. This little settlement was the germ of a great commercial nation. The Carthaginians, or Pccni * (pe'ni), gradually extended their authority over the neighboring tribes, and also over other Phoenician communities on the African coast. They soon got together a powerful navy, and by the end of the sixth century B. c. their empire comprised dependencies in Africa as far west as the Pil- lars of Hercules, part of Sicily, colonies in Spain, the Bal-e-ar'ic Isles, Corsica, Sardinia, and many smaller isl- ands. The government of the Carthaginians was republican ; their religion, idolatrous, like that of their forefathers, the ancient Canaanites. They worshipped the sun, as the * Whence the adjective Punic; equivalent to Cartliar/inian. 108 THE PUISU' WAKS. first principle of Nature, uiuler the name of Ba'al or Mo- loch (///o'A'/'), and offered human sacritiees. Sicilian Struggles. — In Sicily the l\vni were luou<;ht into collision with the Greek colonies, ami for more than two centuries contended with them for the possession of this rich island. Dionysius [di-o-/ti/i/i'e-Uii), the Tyrant of Syracuse (405-367 b. c), gained some brilliant victories over the Carthaginians, but was unable to expel them from Sicily. With a taste for literature which made him a patron of poets and philosophers, this prince was withal suspi- cious and vindictive. One of his prisons, called the Ear of Dionysius, was a whispering-gallery so constructed that by stationing himself at a particular point he could over- hear the unguarded words of those confined. The lesson he taught Dam'ocles is often referred to. This flatterer, having expressed his admiration of the lux- ury and pomp of royalty and accepted the invitation of the tyrant to try it for a time, was placed on a purple couch, surrounded with every thing that could please the senses, and served with an exquisite banquet. Damocles was at the summit of happiness; till, on casting his eyes upward to the fretted ceiling, he iliscovered a s^vord sus- pended over his head by a single hair. His pleasure was now at an end. " Such," said Dionysius, " is the happi- ness of kings, threatened by constantly impending dan- gers." After the death of Dionysius, the struggle with the Cai'thaginians was continued, but witliout any decisive result. First Punic War. — A collision between the growing power of Rome, now extended over all Italy, and Carthag'e, the mistress of the Mediterranean, was inevitable. It had been foreseen by the sagacious Pyrrhus, who had found time during his Italian campaign to cross to Sicily and lUirill OV ROMAN NAVA", TOWKK. 109 fif;spoil many of the i^inic towns. " What a fine battlo- lield," he exclaimed on re-embarking^, "are we leaving to the (Carthaginians and Komans ! " Hostilities were precipitated by the course of events. The Mamertines, a band of (Jampanian adventurers, hav- ing taken possession of Messana and massacred the male inhabitants, the Carthaginians and Syracusans laid aside their animosity to unite against them. The Mamertines appealed to the Romans for protection, claiming to be d'scended like them from Mars {Mumer.f)\ an assem- bly of the people voted to aid them, and an army was sent into Sicily. The Romans were generally successful, and Hi'ero, the Syracusan king, was soon glad to make peace. Birth of Roman Naval Power. — The Carthaginians, however, were still masters of the sea; and the Romans, to protect their maritime towns, found it necessary to pre- pare a naval force without delay. Patterning after a I'unic vessel wrecked upon their coast, in a few weeks they had constnicted a litindred war-ships furnished with bridges for boarding, and had made efficient crews out of landsmen who perhaps had never before handled an oar — a feat un- j>aralleled in history. This squadron closed with the Car- thaginian fleet, and took or sunk nearly a hundred vessels (2G0 B. c). The consul Duil'lius, who commanded it, was fionored with the first naval triumph * at Rome. Regulus. — Another successful action on the sea en- couraged the Romans to invade the Carthaginian domin- ions in Africa with a powerful armament (256 B. c). The flourisfiing country, covered with villas and rich olive- groves, was overrun and pillaged, and one cjf the consuls * A triumph was the greatest military honor tliat could be conferred on a victorious commander. It consisted of a procession, in which ap- peared the conqueror clad in purple, accompanied by his army decked with laurel and bearint^ the spoils taken from the foe. (See p. 142.) 1 10 TIIK I'UNU" WARS. returned to Rome with the spoils. His colleao-ue Reg-'ulus rciuuiued to conduct the war ; but after taking- some two hundred places, among them Tu'nis, he was defeated and made prisoner by a Spartan general wlK)m tlie eneniy had placed at the head of their troops. After several years of captivity Regulus was sent to Rome, to effect an exchange of piisoners and propose peace. lie was first required to swear that he would re- turn if unsuccessful; but on appearing before the Roman senate, instead of advocating peace, he represented the exhausted state of the enemy, and induced his country- men to decline the overtures of Carthage. Disregarding the tears of his family and the entreaties of his friends, he then went back to meet the fate which he knew was in store for him, and soon after, if we may believe the story, perished under exquisite tortures. The First Punic War continued until 2-il h. c, when, after being again vanquished at sea, the Carthaginians yielded to the severe terms of the Romans — agreeing to pay, in silver talents, about $3,500,000, and to give up Sicily. The western part of this island was annexed to the Roman republic as its first province, but Syracuse was allowed to retain its independence. A most flourishing period in the history of that city followed ; while at Rome the temple of Janus was closed for the first time since the days of King Numa. Ulyrian and Gallic Wars. — The commerce of the Adri- atic and the neighl)oring waters had long suffered from the depredations of Illyr'ian corsairs. These were de- stroyed by the Roman fleet, 229 B. c. A few years later, a formidable Gallic inroad was checked with great slaughter, and the territory of the in- vaders overrun in turn to the foot of the Alps (222 B. c). The tract thus conquered became the province of Cisal- pine Gaul ( Gaul on this side of the Alps), and was con- SECOND PUNIC WAK. Ill nected with the capital by the Flaminian Way, a road built by Flamin'ius the censor. Second Punic War. — During- this interval, Carthage was gathering fresh strength to resume her quarrel with Rome, The possessions she had lost were counterbalanced by new conquests in Spain. Here towns sprung up, commerce flourished, and silver from the rich mines of Carthage'na (then Carthago Nova, New Carthage) flowed into the home treasury. The Spanish princes sought alliance with the new-comers, and their undisciplined subjects were trained to war by experienced orticers. Such was the improved condition of Carthage when Hannibal became commander-in-chief of her armies (220 B. c). This prince in his boyhood had been led to the altar of Baal by his father Hamil'car, and there sworn to cherish undying enmity to Rome. In accordance with his vow, Hannibal now fell upon Saguntum, a city which had for years been allied to Rome (Map, p, 112), and thus precipitated hostilities with the hated republic. At the head of a veteran army, he next set out for the invasion of Italy, crossed the Rhone in the face of a hostile tribe, and led his troops and elephants through the snows of the Alps down into the country of the friend- ly Gauls (218 B. c). After recruiting his exhausted sol- diers, he twice routed the Roman armies, and established his supremacy in northern Italy. The following year, the consul Flamin'ius was defeated and killed in an engage- ment fought with such fury that an earthquake which took place while it was going on was utterly unobserved. Rome was now saved by the prudence of Fa'bius, who was made dictator. Giving no opportunity for a decisive battle, but watching every movement of his enemies, cut- ting off their supplies and wearing them out by the neces- sity of constant vigilance, he won for himself the re- proachful title of Cunctator^ or Delayer, but gained for HI'ICONK rilNlO VVAU. I 1,5 Ilis roiiiidyiiicii lln- liiiic iicc<|((l Idi li((,iiiM- oiil new ar- IliailMMltS. (\\NN.K. ( )m (lie cxitiial ion of (Imi Icnri of I<'n,biu8, tin- coiimiiiiHl Irll iiilo oilier liiiiid.s, :iii(l in XJl<> it. (i. oc- curnMl tlio jz^'iciii (li,sa„sl«'r of Cann.i' wlii<;li cohI (lie Koinaiis nearly HO, 000 men. 'riiounaiids of rin^s f^'iiLlioriul IVoiu tlit! hands of nolilcs wlio lay dead u])()ii tiut Hold were sent an tropliicH to CartliajU'e. Tlic road now lay open (o iioinc. "I yd, nic advarico in.sranlly with i\u' hor'sc,'" in-^cd (,h(^ coinniaiidcr of (ho (lavaliy, "and in fonr days Ihoii shall, hii|) in (Im capil.ol." Ilannilial I'ld'ii.scnl. "Alas!" said (Ik^ disa|i|)oiii( rd oWtc.i-r^ " Ihon know<'Sl how to ^'uin a victoiy, hut nol, how to use onr." Al'tci- (h(^ halllo of ( 'ann.i', llaiinihal vvilhdicw his army (o vvcallhy ( !a|t'iia, which oitcncd its j^a,t<'S wilhixd- H'sistanoo. Soutlw^in Italy ^(winally d(i(!la,i'efore the chief mari- time state, now fallen from its greatness. Antiochus the Great at tiie head of the Syrian Empire of the Seleucidaj (ne-lu'iie-de). The Jews under Antiochus. Attains I. king of Pergamus. Kingdom of Parthia, formed 250 B. c. by a revolted province of the Syrian Empire, rising to power. CHAPTER XVI. GOLDEN AGE OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC. War in Spain. — The conquest of the Spanish peninsula was by no means completed with the expulsion of the Car- thaginians. Not only was a guerrilla warfare maintained by th(! freedom-loving natives under the Lusita'nian chief Viria'thus and other leaders, but Nuinantia, a town of the Celtibe'ri, successfully resisted the Roman arms till Scipio Africanus the Younger was sent into Spain. He invested Numantia, and the inhabitants, reduced to starvation by more than a year of siege, slew their wives and children, fired their city, and perished in the fhinies {\%\ v.. v.). Degeneracy of Manners. — As Rome extended her pow- er, the manners of the people became corrupted by inter- course with the conquered nations. Grecian luxury gradu- ally took the place of that stern virtue and honest poverty lis ()(»!, DKN AOlO OF 'I'lIK ROMAN WKl'lT.I.K^ wliicli liiul clcvMlcd the old Komaii cluiracloi-. Ivic^lioa llowcd into Italy, and with (liciii caiiic extravagaiuc and cnVniiiiacy. ( 'on! last the I'xpoii.sivo loasts of the Ivoniaiis ill this ai;(^ \vith tlu> l'ruath of a, favorite iisli! Cato, lirni in his attac^lnnont to the ancient morals and simplicity, in vain tried to stem the current. \ ic(> of (nery sort by decrees <>ainc^d a foothold in Komo. As a result of the many wars, slaves multiplied to an alarminf>- extent. Numl)(>rs of these were trained as <>-la(liators. ()thers cul- tivated the public lands; while the ])oor Roman freeman, since the Lieinian law was no lon{>er enforced, could scarcc^- ly make a livini;-. Reforms of the Gracchi. — Moved l)y the distress that prevailed amoni;- the lower classes, Tiberius Gracchus, tribune of (he commons, propostnl a law for the ecpiitable division of the public domain amon<)' the ])oor, and the employment of fretMnen instead of slaves in the (udtivation of the soil. His measures, after <>r(>at opposition, were passed (ll}l{ n. c). liut, on his following- these with other obnoxious propositions, he was assaulted and killed b\' (h{» nobli's. The fate of his (dder brother Tiberius did not ]>r(>vent Caius Gracchus from pursuin'J KS1A15L1S11SIKNT OK TUK KSiriUK. Hucol'u's, (Icpic'tiiiij shopliord-litV, — niid the (Toorgics, a (lulaotic j>ot'm on rural economy ; Ihiraco, tlu> masti'r of lyric poetry, with his o-vac-elul Otlos ; 'rihul'lus aiul Ovid, elogi'ac poets ; and l-i\ y, the graphic historian, to whom we owe many of llu' rliarniinpeared among men.'' Social Life. — The humble domiciles of the early Ro- mans gave place in later times to splendid mansions — the floors inlaid with stone or marble in mosaic, the walls and ceilings elaborately gilded and ornamented, the roofs ter- raced and covered with arliticial gardens, the furniture glittering with tortoise-slu-ll and ivory. Four millions of dollars was the estimated value of one of these princely villas that was burned. The chief apartments were on the ground-floor, and access was had to them through the ti'triiini, or great en- trance-room, in which the nobles ranged the images of their ancestors, hung the family jmrtraits, and received their clients. The windows, at first mere openings with shutters, were in imperial times closed with glass obtained at great expense from the East. What little artiticial heat was needed was supplied by braziers. The Roman garments were made of wool, until tlie second century after Christ, when linen was introduced. Frequent bathing was necessary ; the luxurious jiatricians of the empire sometimes visited their baths half a dozen times a day, and always just before dinner. The dress consisted of tunics, or short uiuler-garments with sleeves — a toga, or loose robe, for the men, wrapped SOCIAL MFE OK THK ROMANS. 133 round the body in diHerent ways at difleront periods, but so as to cover the left arm and leave the right at liberty, — and a ntold, or kind of loose frock, for the women, fast- ened about the person with a double girdle, and having a long appendage trailing behind so as partially to cover the feet. When a lioman was running for office, he marked his toga with chalk, and thus made it white, in Latin Candida, whence our word candidate. Boys assumed the manly toga at about sixteen, before which they wore one with a broad purple hem. Mantles were used for out-door cover- ings, the ladies giving {(reference to the most brilliant colors. Hoods were worn on journeys ; at other times the head was generally bare. Three meals a day were taken, the chief of wdiich was the cm'na, eaten about three o'clock, and in later times served with great magnificence. The guests reclined around the table on couches spread with richly-embroid- ered coverings. The dinner consisted of various courses, beginning with light dishes as appetizers — such as dormice sprinkled with honey and poppy-seeds, fish, birds, olives, asparagus, etc. Next came the meats, and then the des- sert of fruits, pastry, and swx-etmeats. Wine, pure or mixed with honey and water, was drunk at feasts by the guests crowned with chaplets. The flesh of donkeys and young boars was in high repute. Pigs were slaughtered with red-hot spits that the blood might not be lost, and when cooked were sometimes stuffed with smaller animals flavored with asafoitida. Fowls were drowned in Falernian wine, to make them more luscious ; and peacocks were among the costly lux- uries. Peacocks' tongues w'cre specially prized by epicures. The principal amusements of the Romans were dra- matic entertainments, and the games of the circus, con- sisting of rhariot-races, wrestling and boxing matches. 134 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EMPIKE. IIO.MAN LiGIIT-ShTP. ARMED AND ON DUTY. gladiatorial conflicts, etc. The gladiators were either con- demned criminals, captives, slaves, or ruffians who pursued this vocation for hire. They were matched in the arena against one another, or with lions, tigers, leopards, and ROMAN WAKFABE. 135 elephants. The victor, if a slave or captive, obtained his freedom ; the vanquished was put to death, unless the people signified their wish to spare him by an upward movement of the thumb. Games would sometimes be exhibited by the emperors and wealthy Romans for wa^eks together, and thousands of beasts and gladiators would be killed, to the great delight of the first people of Rome, including even ladies of rank. ^ Military affairs engrossed much attention. A coat of mail, helmet, greaves, and shield, formed the defensive armor of the soldier ; his weapons of offence were bow and sling, but particularly a sword and long heavy spear. Walls were attacked with engines that discharged darts and immense stones, and with the battering-ram, a long beam with an iron head, which was driven against the masonry by a body of men till a breach w^as made. In approaching walls to undermine or scale them, the assail- ants protected themselves by joining their shields together so as to form a testu'do (tortoise), while the besieged plied them with arrows and javelins, hurled down great rocKs on them, and tried to turn aside or grapple the ram. The Romans maintained a system of light-houses, erected in imitation of the celebrated Pha'ros of Alexan- dria, which was completed by Ptolemy, 280 b. c, and w^as numbered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Light-ships, with blazing cressets at the mast- beads, also patrolled dangerous coast waters. CHRISTIAN ERA. — Universal peace. Imperial Rome, un- der Augustus, mistress of the world. Population of the empire about 120,000,000—60,000,000 slaves, 40,000,000 tributaries and freedmen, 20,000,000 enjoying the full rights of citizens. Alexandria, Antioch, and Ephesus, the three commercial cities of the empire. Language and civili- zation of Rome establishing themselves in the provinces of south-western Europe. Goths on the shores of the Baltic. Huns still in north-eastera Asia. 136 CJSSAES WHO SUCCEEDED AUGUSTUS. CHAPTER XVIII. CA£SARS WHO SUCCEEDED AUGUSTUS. {A. D. 14-96.) Tiberius, the step-son and adopted heir of Augustus, after pretended hesitation accepted the empire, a. d. 14. The legions on the Rhenish frontier, however, pro- claimed as emperor their commander, the young German'i- cus, nephew of Tibe'rius. But Germanicus, declaring that he would rather die than betray his trust, brought back the soldiers to their allegiance, and led them to victory, recovering the lost eagles of Varus and defeating the re- nowned Hermann himself. Tiberius, iilled with jealousy, soon removed his nephew to a different field, Avhere his death occurred shortly after, — as there was good reason to believe, from the effects of poison. Naturally suspicious of those about him, Tiberius be- came in time a relentless tyrant. He was at last per- suaded by his vile minister Seja'nus to retire from the capital to the island of Ca'preae (Map, p. 112), which at once became the scene of the most detestable orgies. His boon companions he promoted to the chief offices of the state, and even made one sharer of his revels a high magistrate for having drunk five bottles of wine at a draught. Seja'nus took advantage of his absence to conspire against his life with a view to usurping the empire, but was denounced to Tiberius and executed. The tyrant's thirst for blood was now insatiable ; men, women, and even children, were sacrificed to his rage. " Let the people hate me," he said, "so long as they obey me." Death put an end to his cruelties in the year 37, when he was smothered in bed bv his attendants. THE EMPEROR CALIGULA. 187 The emperor Tiberius extinguished the last sparks of popular liberty. Despotism was firmly established, and the debased and obsequious senate fawned at its mas- ter's feet. It was during- this reign that the crucifixion of our Saviour took place. On hearing of Christ's mira- cles and resurrection, the emperor wished to enroll his name among the nation's gods, but was overruled in this case by the senate. Caligula, the only surviving son of Germanicus, was the next Caesar. He was called Calig'ula because he wore caligct', or soldiers' buskins, when he lived in camp with his father. I'he new emperor was weak in both body and mind ; and though at first an amiable ruler, he soon gave way to shameful dissipation and capricious tyranny. His fond- ness for gladiatorial shows led him to disgrace the majesty of the Cfesars by entering the arena himself. The old and infirm were thrown to his wild beasts. Even at his meals he had persons racked before him that he might enjoy their groans ; and in his frenzy he exclaimed, " Would that the people of Rome had a single neck, that I might dis- patch them at a blow ! " Even when he kissed his wife, it was his custom to place his hand on her throat and say, " Fair as it is, how easily I could cut it ! " Caligula also rioted in scandalous extravagance, dis- solving jewels in his sauce, and dining beneath trees plant- ed on the decks of vessels which had silken sails and sterns of ivory inlaid with ■ precious stones. He was wont to wade barefoot through his heaps of gold, or with insane delight to roll himself upon them like a dog. His favorite horse, which was often invited from its marble stable to its master's board, to eat gilded oats and drink wine from costly beakers, he made consul ; while he declared himself a god, causing the head to be struck from stati;es of Jupi- ter and replaced with his own. I;>S O.ESAUS WHO SIKXII'.KDIOI) AlUJUS'iniS. Ill lilt' t'ourlli yc.Mi' ol' liis rci;^ii, ( iiis in,i(liii;iii \v;is ciil, down hy tlic oul r:i<;'f(l olliccrs of liis j^MiMid (a. d. II). Claudius, ilw Itiollicror (u'niiiiiiii'us, Wiis now prci- tilaiiiu'd tMii|)(M'or by (lu> soldiers. This nioiiMii'li, who IVoiii a rhild had hccii eoiisidoivd almost iiiihccih', was coiil rolled by iiii|)riiicij)l(>d woiiicn and faAorilt's. Si ill, he diliiicnllv adiiiiiiis(('r(>d jiislicc, and coiisl riiclcd, ainoiio" olhcr |>iil)lic works, I he (^laudian A((iUHluel, and (lu> I'ortus lu)iiia'iuis, an arlilieial harbor al iht^ inoiith oC llie Tiber. (^laiidiiis also invaded Britain ; and il was dui-in<;- his r«Mi;'ii thai (^arae'taeus, the intrepid UiiiL!," of the Silii'res of Soul h Wales, was eaptured and bron^'hl to IJonie. '■' /Mas ! " said I 111' |iiisoner, as Ik- iia/.e(| on the splendor ol' the eity, "how ean peo])le possessed of sueli inai^riilieenee at lioine envy Caraelacnis his hninble collate in Britain?" in this a|>'(> the po|)ular taste for the shows of llu> ain|>hit heat !•(> lnH'anie a passion, and ( Maiidius y-rat ilied the peo|)le with a <;'rand sea-lit;-lit, in which two lli>e(s, manned by 19, ()()() i>;la(liators, on<<-a<;'ed in actual conlliet. While such inhuman sports went hand in hand with the grossest prolli^'aey at Home, the holy ajiostlcs were spreailiiii>; the doctrines of their Muster throughout |1k> world. "(Christians'''' (lirst so ealkul in Autiocli) became niiinerons ainoni;' both Jews and (.Jcntilos. Nero. — A dish of poisi)ned mushrooms proved fatal to the weak (Maudius, A. I». 51 ; il was |)repare(l by order of his wil'i> A_i>;rip})i'iia, who had previously seeunMl (he suc- i-ession for Nero, Ium- son by a i'ormcM- husband. Tliis yoiinu; priiic(\ tlu^ grandson of (uM-manicus, for live years ruh-d with justice and clemency. lie is even said, when re(|uired to siyn tli(> death-warrant of a nialefaclor, to have ex])ressed n^o-ret that he had ever learned (o write. As Nero increased in y(>ars, however, he beg'an to show tli(> stiilT <>( which ]\r was made. His murder of Ai;-rippi- na, who lor his sake had become a murderess, couunenced lil'llON <»!'' NlOliO. I'M ft (!!in'(^r of (iriiric. i.o \vlii<^li liislory oilers no |):i r';i,lli'l ; ;iri(l tli(^ only vvotidi!!' is, l,li;it, i(, vv;is ho Ioii;^ tolcr'Jilcil \>y Uk; |)(!0|)l(',. Tlicir foi-lxiiiniiicc! is (!X|)1juii(hI by Mic, lilx'ral l!ir<^(!SS(),s of food supplied (-o tli(!in ni, IIm; cxpciiHCi of (Ik; H(iil,c. As lon;j,' as (liey wcvc. fed, lliey vv<'i(^ vvillin;^' t,o close, tliciir (!y<%s to IIh; vi<5e,s of Ukht (!nip lla.nies from a, lofty tower, sini^in^' th(! Sa,c,k of 'I'i'oy. To sereiwi hinisf'ir, he (;lia,r;^-ed IIk; crime upon the ( /'hristiajis, and f)e<;ati a, pers(!cntion, thi' ditails of which art-, too shocIiin<>' for re<'ilal. Anion^' the niaityr.s were, the apos- tles I'cter and I'anl. Tyranny, cr'uelly, and extoi'tion, af, hMi^i'th provoked a, conspira,cy. Its d(!tr [)eop|e to insurrection. ]x)ndon was sack(;d and hurried, and rrrany Konrairs wer<^ ma,ssa.croisorr to escape oaf)tivity. 140 C^SARS WHO SUCCEEDED AUGUSTUS. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, the next three emperors, reigned during the years 68 and 69. Of the first two, who had revolted against Nero, the aged Galba was assassinated by the soldiers ; and Otho, after an unsuccessful battle with his rival Vitel'lius, fell upon his sword. Vitellius succeeded ; but the eastern legions soon rebelled. Vespa- RtTINS OF THE COLOSSEUM. sian {ves-pa'zhe-dn), commander of the Roman army in Judea, was proclaimed emperor, and Vitellius was killed by the people in the streets. Flavius Vespasian, who now ascended the throne, ruled with a firm but lenient hand, applied himself to the reform of abuses in both civil and military affairs, and intro- duced a happy period of prosperity and legal government, called from his family the Fla'vian Era. Among other splendid buildings, Vespasian began the great Colosse'um, VESPASIAN. TITUS. 141 where 87,000 spectators found room. At its dedication in the following reign, 5,000 wild beasts were killed in the arena, and the games in honor of the event lasted a hun- dred days. Success also attended the Roman arms. The Jews, who had been driven to rebellion by the oppression of their governor, were besieged in their capital by Ti'tus, the son of Vespasian. After the doomed nation had suf- fered miseries inconceivable, the city was taken by the Romans. In vain Titus tried to save the Temple from his soldiery ; the divine decree had gone forth, and " not one stone was left upon another." As the Roman general gazed upon the ruined battlements, he devoutly said, " God has been my helper, for what could the hands of men have availed against those formidable walls ? " Hundreds of thousands of Jews perished in this mem- orable siege ; the homeless survivors were." led away cap- tive into all nations," and their city was " trodden down of the Gentiles.',' In Britain, during the reigns of Vespasian and his sons, the Roman governor Agric'ola extended the limits of the empire and instructed the people in the arts of civili- zation. He also defeated the Caledonians {Highlanders)^ and built a line of forts between the Friths of Forth and Clyde. Vespasian died a. d. 79, the first emperor after Augus- tus that met with a natural death. Titus, the successor of Vespasian, was one of the few emperors who seem to have had the true good of their people sincerely at heart. His highest pleasure was to bestow favors. " No man," he said, " ought to leave the prince's presence disappointed." Unable one night to re- call any kindness done during the day that had closed, he said with regret, " My fiiends, I have lost this day." Titus reigned but two years. During thfs time he jr^rrr.'^'Ks^ Close by the Coliseum stands the massive Arch of Titus, built to com- memorate the capture of Jerusalem. On it are sculptured tne triumph of the Roman general, the Israelitish captives dragged to the capital, with the seven-branched golden candlestick and other treasures of the Temple. 9'i'ji'?^'4i t r. [\ W ""If "-k ^:< r? V ¥ BAS-liELIEFS OF TllK AKCII OF TlTUa. ROMAN WRITERS. 143 condemned no citizen to death, and even declared that he would rather die himself than take the life of another. It was in the year of his accession (79 A. d.) that the Campaniun cities of Hercula'neum and Pompeii i^pom-pii' ye) were buried by an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius. The ruins were undisturbed for more; than sixteen centuries, when tfiey were accidentally discovered during the diggin<>- of a well. Excavations w<>re juade ; and from the houses, shops, and tein})l<'s, witli their domestic utensils, paintings, and sculptures, has been derived much interesting informa- tion respecting the every-day life of the ancient Romans. Domitian, the younger son of Vespasian, was the im- personation of savage cruelty and every vice. Murders and confiscations were revived, while the people were amused with the most extravagant entertainments. Even women were brought out to fight in the arena. This august emperor once called the senate together, to decide how a fish should be cooked for his dinner ! He taxed his ingenuity to devise new torments for those whom he condemned, and in the l)rief intervals between the exe- cutions of his victims found amusement in torturing flies. Members of his own household at last struck down the tyrant in his palace (a. d. 96). Literature. — After the death of Augustus, Roman lit- erature gradually declined. Still a few distinguished writers attained the high standard of the Golden Age — Persius and .Juvenal, the satirists ; Lucan, the author of the epic Pharsa'lia ; Tacitus, " the first who applied the science of philosophy to the study of facts ;" Quintirian, the rhetorician and critic, with his " Institutes of Ora- tory ; " and Pliny the naturalist. Among contemporaneous Greek writers were, Josephus the Jewish historian, who has been styled "the Grecian Ijivy ; " and Plutarch, tlie great biographer of antiquity. Somewhat later flourished the witty and versatile Lucian. l-i-l THE FIVE GOOD EMPEROES. In this age, also, the Gospels and Epistles of the New Testament were written. The T^^^elve Csesars. Julius Caesar, . lived b. c. 100-44. Galba, . reigned a. n. 68-fi9. Augustus, reigned b. c. 30-a. d. 14. Otho, . C9. Tiberius, . . a. d. U-SY. Vitellius, . . 69. Caligula, . . . .37-41. Vespasian, . 69-79. Claudius, . . . 41-54. Titus, 79-81. Nero, .... 54-68. Domitian, . 81-96. CHAPTER XIX. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS.— WANE OF THE EMPIRE.— {A. D. 96-306.) Nerva. — The bloody reign of Domitian was succeeded by a long period of tranquillity. The senate elected in his stead the aged Nerva, whose mild administration recalled the happy days of Titus. Finding himself unable to control the violence of the Pretorian Guard, Nerva adopted as his colleague and suc- cessor the commander of the legions on the Rhine, Tra'- jan, a Spaniard by birth, who had grown up in the camp. On tlie death of his associate (a. d. 98), Trajan was in- vested with the purple. When he presented the symbol of office to the prefect of the Pretorian Guard, he said, " Take this sword and use it, for me if I do well ; if other- wise, against me." Trajan. — The military talents of the new emperor soon disjilayed themselves. He pushed his arms beyond the Danube, and reduced Da'cia to a province ; in this cam- paign he is said to have torn up his own robes to supply bandages for his wounded soldiers. REIGN OF TRAJAN. 145 In the East, he engaged in hostilities with the Par- thians, and conquered Armenia, Mesopotamia, and'Assyr- ia. Part of Arabia was also reduced ; and seeing a ves- sel ready to start for India, the ambitious monarch ex- claimed, " AVere I yet young, I would not stop till I had reached the limit of the Macedonian conquests." As a ruler, Trajan was deserving of all praise. Through- out Italy and the provinces his architectural works arose, while at Rome the Forum of Trajan challenged admiration. CnAEIOT-llACE IN TraJAS'S C1BCU8. and his famous marble column bore on its sculptured shaft the story of his Dacian triumph. He also rebuilt the Cir- cus, giving it a capacity sufficient for nearly 400,000 spec- tators. The senate decreed him the title of Optitmis, the Best; and long after his death it was accustomed to welcome a new emperor with the wish that he might be more pros- perous than Augustus and better than Trajan. 10 146 THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. Hadrian, who succeeded (a. d. 117), wisely abandoned most of Trajan's conquests, and devoted himself to the improvement of his empire. Fifteen years he spent in travelling through the provinces, that he might inform himself of the condition of his subjects. In Britain the incursions of the Caledonians were checked by a strong rampart built across the island. Athens, still the seminary of the nations, was adorned with splendid fanes, and Rome with the massive Mau- sole'um or Mole of Hadrian, and the imposing temple of Rome and Venus. This was the golden age of Roman sculpture and architecture. The death of Hadrian took place A. D. 138, after he had chosen the virtuous Antoninus as his successor. The Antonines. — The era of the Antonines, who ruled with the sole view of promoting the welfare of their sub- jects, comprised the happiest period of the Roman Empire. The peaceful reign of the elder Antoninus (Pius) ter- minated A. D. 161, when his adopted son Marcus Aurelius, at the request of the senate, ascended the throne. His wisdom and learning have gained him the title of the Phi- losopher. Though inclined to peace, this prince was obliged to take the field to defend his people from the swarms of northern barbarians that were now crossing the frontiers. Wliile he was generally successful, he was unable to break their power, and thenceforth the Roman dominion was in constant danger of invasion. Com'modus, the weak and illiterate son of Marcus Au- relius, began his reign a. d. 180. Profligate companions easily led him astray ; and he degenerated into a brutal tyrant, plunging into the grossest sensuality, and squan- dering the lives and fortunes of his subjects. His great delight was to contend with gladiators and wild beasts ; he is said to have been a victor in seven hun- PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM. 147 dred combats, and was styled the Roman Hercules. Ar- rayed as Hercules in a lion's skin, he once dressed up some beggars and cripples as monsters and made them attack him, supjilying them with sponges to use as missiles ; when suddenly he fell upon them and beat them to death with his club. For amusement he would assault passers in the street, or cut off the noses of persons he pretended to shave. Connnodus was murdered by a favorite, who thus an- ticipated his design of putting her to death (a. d. 192). Period of Military Despotism (a. d. 193-284). — The death of Connnodus usliered in a long period of military tyraimy, during which the unmanageable Pretorians ap- pointed or dethroned emperors at will. They scrupled not to assassinate those rulers who incurred their displeas- ure, and even heaped ignominy upon the Roman name by selling the empire at public auction. Of the twenty-five iDonarchs who wore the purple during these dark years of seditions and murders, only the most important can be mentioned here. Septim'ius Seve'rus (a. d. 192-211) disbanded the old Pretorians, but established a more formidable guard of 40,000 of his best soldiers. He ruled with an iron hand, and revived the glory of the Roman arms by his successes against the Parthians and in Britain. Caracal'la, the tyrannical son of this emperor, secured the sole dominion by causing his brother to be stabbed in their mother's arms. Papin'ian, a famous lawyer of the day, when ordered publicly to vindicate the fratricide, re- fused, saying that it was easier to connnit such a crime than to justify it, — and was condemned to death. Cara- calla conferred citizenship on all the free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, in order that they might be taxed to supply money for his insatiable troops. The reign of Elagab'alus, the boy-priest of the Syrian 148 WANE OK TUK EMl'IRE. sun-god (a. d. 218-223), was one tissue of insane follies and infamous crimes. A favorite diversion of his was to smother his g'uests witli roses, or seat them at table on in- flated bag-s which would suddenly collapse and throw them into the midst of wild beasts. Alexander Severus, the cousin and successor of Elagabalus, was a learned and virtuous prince who labored faithfully in the cause of reform. His praiseworthy at- tempts to enforce discipline in the demoralized army cost him his life, and he fell (a. d. 235) by the swords of the Pretorians. During- the next thirty-tivc years the insolence of the troops reached its height, and the purple was repeatedly stained with imperial blood. The empire was on the one hand hard pressed by the Ijarbarians, and on the other threatened with dissolution by a crowd of petty sovereigns, who usurped su])reme power in the provinces. The most celebrated of them was Od-e-na'thus of Palmy i-a, who left his kingdom to his illustrious widow, the accomplished Zeno'bia. Against this " Queen of Palmyra and the East," whose dominions reached from the Euphrates to the Mediter- ranean, the emperor Aure'han directed his arms, besieg- ing her in her capital. Despairing of relief, Zenobia at- tempted to escape on a lleet dromedary, but was overtaken and brought to Rome to adorn the conqueror's triumph (a. d. 273). Her preceptor and secretary, the critic Lon- gi'nus, was executed ; but the queen, after being exhibited to the people in chains of gold, was allowed to end her days in Italy with her children. Palmyra, subsequently revolting, was taken by Aure- lian and given up to pillage. Its site is now marked by a forest of white marble columns, towering above a waste of half-buried blocks, nuitilated scvdptures, and crumbling altars. PEESECUTION OF DIOCLETIAN. 149 Diocletian. — With the accession of this prince (a. d. 284), fresh vigor was imparted to the declining Roman state. The power of the Pretorians was |)ut down, and that of the emperor re-established ; while the reforms in- stituted by Diocletian distinguish him, like Augustus, as " the founder of a new empire." Diocletian was the son of a Roman senator's slave, and owed his advancement to his superior merit. On becoming emperor, he associated with himself, under the title of Au- gustus, the rough soldier Maxim'ian ; and not long after- ward these two again divided the power, and shared the provinces with two Cwsars, Gale'rius and Constan'tius. After the joint reign of Diocletian and Maximian had for about nineteen years restored the glory of Rome, they of tlieir own accord gave up the purple, leaving the im- perial power to the two Caesars. Diocletian contentedly passed the evening of his life in rural occupations. To Maximian, who tried to induce him to re-assume the sceptre, the old monarch wrote, " Could you but see the cabbages I raise, you would no longer talk to me of em- pire ! " Persecutions of the Christians. — Despite his good quali- ties, Diock'tian barbarously persecuted the Christians. They had long suffered from the cruelty of the pagan em- perors. The name of Trajan was stained by the blood of numerous martyrs ; it was by his sentence that Igna'tius, Bishop of Antioch, had been torn to pieces in the am- phitheatre. Even in the golden age of the Antonines the persecution went on, Justin Martyr being beheaded, and Pol'ycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, condemned to the flames. Diocletian's persecution exceeded all others in atrocity. Still the Christians stood firm in their faith, dying the most painful and ignominious deaths with songs of praise upon their lips. We are told that the executioners were 8UBTEKKANEAN GALLERIES OF THE CATACOMB OF AGNES. Below ancient Rome there existed twenty-six great catacombs, answer- ing to the number of parishes, and constituting " the Church beneath the earth." It is estimated that these subterranean galleries are one hundred and fifty leagues in length, and contain six million Christian dead. The bodies were ranged in rows, one above the other, in the porous soil. PERSECUTIONS OF THE CHRISTIANS. 151 exhausted, and their weapons dulled by the multitudes of victims. It was during these great persecutions that the Cata- combs, spacious subterranean vaults beneath the city of Rome, served as a hiding-place for the Christians. Here they worshipped, and entombed their dead. Emperors from Nerva to Constanti ne. Nerva, reigned a. d. 96-98. De'eius, . reigned a. D. 249-251 Trajan, 98-11 V. Gallus, . 251-253 Hadrian, 117-138. vEmilia'nus, 253 Antoninus Pius, . 138-161. Vale'rian, 253-260 Marcus Aurelius, . 161-180. Gallie'nus, . . 260-268. Ve'rus, 161-169. Claudius, 268-270 Commodus, . 180-192. Aurelian, . 270-275. Por'tinax, Did'ius, 193. Tacitus, . 275-276. Scptimius Severus, . 193-211. Flo'rian, 276. Caracalla, . 211-21 7. Pro'bus, . 276-282. Geta (murdered 212), 211 212. Ca'rus, . 282-283. Macri'nus, . 217-218. j Cari'nus, 283-285. Elagabalus, 218-222. f Nume'rian, 283-284. Alexander Severus, 222-235. j Diocletian, 285-305. Max'imin, 285-238. I Maximian, 286-305. The Gordians (I., II.) 238. \ Constantius I., 305-806. Pupie'nus, Balbi'nus, 238. I Gale'rius, 305-311. Gordian III., 238-244. Constantine the Great, 306-337. Philip, . 244-249. Sole ruler, . 823-337. CHAPTER XX. CHRISTIANITY MADE THE RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE.— FALL OF ROME. ♦ Constantine the Great. — In the year 306 the emperor Constan'tius died in the arms of his son, saying, " None but the pious Con'stantine shall succeed me." But it was 152 CHRISTIANITY THE RELIGION OF THE EMPIBE„ not until after a severe struggle with several rival aspirants that Constantine was established in the empire. During his campaign against one of these, according to tradition, he was miraculously converted to Christianity by the appearance of a luminous cross in the heavens, bearing the inscription, "By this conquer." Under his protection Christianity rapidly progressed ; and paganism, though it was tolerated, ceased to be the religion of tlio state. The reforms begun by Diocletian were carried out by Constantine. The seat of government was changed to Byzantium on the Bos'porus, which city was beautifully embi'llished and called after the emperor Constantinople. Here he erected the celebrated church of St. Soph'ia (dedi- • cated to Sojyh'ia, the Eternal Wisdom). He also created a brilliant court, and a titled nobility oj; dukes, counts, etc., now for the first time recognized. During the reign of Constantine, an Oecumenical, or General, Council of the Christian Church met at the city of Niciu'a (see Ma]o, p. 156). This council (a. r>. 325) con- demned the doctrine of A'rius, who denied Christ's equal- ity with God the Father, and adopted the articles of faith set forth in the Nicene Creed. Though instrumental in establishing Christianity, Con- stantine seems to have been guilty of acts directly opposed to its spirit. After his death (a. d. 337), the empire passed into the hands of his three sons. Civil stiife soon broke out ; two of the brothers were killed ; and the third died when on the eve of a war with his cousin Julian (a. d. 361). Julian the Apostate, the last of the family of Constan- tine, wl^o now became sole emperor, at once renounced the faith in which he had been reared, wrote against Christian- ity, subjected its professors to many disabilities, and re- stored the heathen worship of Greece and Rome. Anxious to falsify the prophecy of Scripture and thus deal Chris- JOVIAN. VALENTINIAN. VALKNS. 163 tianity a death-blow, he made preparations on an exten- sive scale for rebuilding the Jewish temple. Workmen were collected in great numbers ; but no sooner did they commence operations than the earth gave vent to globes of flame, v/hich with fearful explosions dispersed the la- borers, and compelled them to give up the undertaking. In a war with Sa'por, king of the Persians, Julian re- ceived a fatal wound (a. d. 363). A tradition is current that when he perceived his injury was mortal, he collected a handful of his blood, and casting it toward heaven ex- claiuied, " Take thy fill, Galile'an ; thou hast conquered ! " Jovian, the successor of Julian, purchased the safety of the Roman army by a disgraceful treaty with Sapor. He re-established Christianity, but extended toleration to his pagan subjects. Sapor was a king of the New Persian, or Sassanid, Monarchy. This was founded a. d. 326, by a son of the Persian Sassan, who defeated and slow the last of the Par- thian kings. It flourished for a century after the death of Sapor (380-500). Valentinian and Valens. — These brothers next reigned, respectively in the West and East. The former, although a Christian, and in his calmer moments a judicious and im- partial ruler, yet possessed a passionate temper which fre- quently betrayed him into atrocious cruelties. " Burn him alive ! " " Strike off his head ! " were sentences which he often pronounced even for slight offences. His death was caused by the bursting of a blood-vessel in a violent fit of rage (a. d. 375). In the reign of Va'lens, a new enemy, the ferocious Huns, spread terror and desolation on the outskirts of the empire. They fell upon the Goths, a brave Teutonic race, who had exchanged their original seats on the Baltic for the plains north of the Black Sea and the lower Danube, and who had several times crossed swords with the later 154 CHRISTIAJSflTY THE KELIGION OF THE EMPIRE. emperors. Driven from their domains by barbarians more savage than themselves, the Goths on promises of amity and submission were allowed by the Romans to cross the Danube and settle in Thrace. But ill-treatment soon roused the new-comers to re- bellion ; and during an engagement with them the emperor Valens was consumed in the flames of a cottage in which he had taken refuge. Hardly a third of the Roman army escaped, and the victorious Goths advanced in a career of plunder to the very walls of Constantinople. The Huns were Tartars, frightful to look upon — with bent figures, small, black eyes sunk in their large heads, flattened noses, and faces scarred to prevent the growth of the beard. They lived in the saddle, and appalled the bravest with their shrill yells. In the second century b. c. they had broken through the Great Wall of China, rav- aged that country, and made it tributary. Afterward they pushed their way to the West, entered Europe, and at length burst like a thunderbolt upon the Goths, as we have seen. Theodo'sius the Great was the last who held the whole Roman world beneath his sway. By skillful management he reduced the Goths to submission, and even enlisted them in his armies ; many of them had before this been converted to Christianity, and a version of the Scriptures had been made into the Gothic tongue. During the reign of Theodosius- the pagan worship was suppressed, and several of the most distinguished " Chris- tian Fathers " flourished. Ambrose of Mil'au composed his Hymns ; Jerome' made a translation of the Bible into Latin — the basis of the present Vulgate ; Chrys'ostom (the Golden-mouthed) preached with unction at Antioch and composed his eloquent homilies ; and Au'gustine sowed the good seed in Africa. Before his death, Theodosius formally divided his do- BARBARIAN INROADS. 155 minions betv/een his sons Arca'dius and Hono'rius, giving- to the former the sovereignty of the East and to the latter that of the West. Henceforth the histories of the Eastern or Byzan'tine, and the Western Empire, run in different channels. Barbarian Inroads. — We have now reached the time when the Teutonic element, destined materially to modify the civilization and shape the history of modern Europe, first comes prominently into view. The German tribes, hitherto contented with their free forest-life, find out at last that there are sunnier fields in the south all ready for the sickle, and wealth untold with only nerveless arms to dispute with them for its possession. Several inundations of barbarians occurred in the reign of Honorius (a. d. 395-423). Italy was invaded by the Goths under Al'aric, and ravaged by a combined horde of Vandals, Burgundians, and Sue'vi — Teutons all. For a time the strong arm of Stilicho [stil'e-ko), the Roman gen- eral, held the invaders in check. Alaric was defeated. The Vandals and Burgundians, repelled from Italy, seized a vast tract between the Rhine and Pyrenees (afterward JBnrgundy) ; and the Vandals, crossing these mountains, overran Spain, and finally occupied the southern part of the peninsula, called from them Vandaluaia. Hence they crossed into northern Africa (a. d. 429), and there founded an empire which became the terror of the surrounding countries. After the execution of Stilicho by his suspicious mas- ter, the Goths renewed their incursions and appeared be- fore Rome itself (a. d. 408). The senate sent ambassadors who sought to intimidate their leader by representing the number and desperate valor of the Romans. But Alaric haughtily replied, " The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed," and demanded so enormous a ransom that the astonished ministers asked. " What then, O king ! do you 15G ALAKIC AND ATTILA. intend to leave us ? " " Your lives," was the response, and there was no alternative but to meet the demand. But the folly of the court of Honorius brought Alaric a<^ain before Rome (a. d. 410). His soldiers entered the city at midnight, and for five days the sack continued. The death of Alaric soon after, postponed the overthrow of tlie Western Empire. A river was turned from its bed by a band of captives ; and the Goths, burying their king in the channel with all his gold and jewels, compelled these prisoners to restoi'e the stream to its natural course, and then murdered them that the secret spot might never be betrayed. — Shortly after the kingdom of the Visigotlis (Western Goths) was established in southern CJaul and Spain. In the reign of Valentinian 111. (a. d. 425-455), At'tila, the king of the Huns, who called himself the Sconrge of God, traversed the Roman Empire with lire and sword. At last he was defeated with great slaughter at Chalons [s/Kt/i-loN"') by the combined Romans and Visigoths. He now retreated, but afterward crossed the Al})s and laid waste northern Italy. Many of the inhabitants, to escape his ravages, fled for refuge to the neighboring islands of the Adriatic, and there founded the republic of Venice, "the eldest daughter of the Roman Empire" (a. d. 452). The capital of the Caesars was saved by the intercession of Leo the Great, Bishop of Rome, who, at the risk of his life, entered Attila's camp and ransomed his flock. The following year witnessed the sudden death of this barba- rian king, and with him perislied tlio empire of the Huns, who were swallowed u]) in other tribes and lost to history. Fall of the Western Empire. — After the murder of Valentinian HI., a. d. 455, nine emperors, in ra])id succes- sion, held the sceptre of the West. But their doiuinions were becoming more and more contracted ; distant ])rov- inces had already been abandoned, and at last Italy alone FALL OF ROME. 157 remained. Imperial Rome was again sacked, by G(;n'seric king of the Vandals, who carried away its remaining wealth, and even its enipress, to Africa. At last the tot- tering fabric, internally rotten, yielded to the storm. Romulus Augustus, contemptuously styled Augus'tu- lus, the last emperor of the West, was dethroned by ()d-o- a'cer, chief of the ller'uli, a German tribe (a. d. 476). Re- jecting the imperial diadem, Odoacer reigned as king of Italy. Eastern Empire. — In the Kastern Empire there were few events worthy of record. Theodosius 11., son of the feeble Arcadius, though well-disposed, would have made a })oor figure but for his wise and virtuous sister Pulcheria {pul-ke' re-a), who governed in his name. The; history of the East, like that of the West, about this time shows lit- tle else than a series of struggles with Goths, Thins, and Vandals, on the part of weak monarchs and an elfeminatc people. Roman Emperors after Constantine. Constantino II., . a ). 33Y-340. Valcntinian I., . a. n. 364-375. Constans I., . .337-350, Gratian, . . . 375-383. Constantius II., . 337-361. Valentinian II., . . 375-392. Sole emperor, 350-361. Max'imiis, usurper, . 383-388. •Iiiliiin the Apostate, . 361-363. Theodosius the (Jreat, . 379-395. Jovian, . 363-364 Sole emperor, . 392-395. Roman Emi)iic' divided, a. d. 395. CHAPTER XXI. COMMENCEMENT OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. Mkdi^val History begins with the fall of Rome, A. n. 476. The divisions of Europe at this time are shown in the Map on the next page. KEIGN OF JUSTINIAN. 159 Eastern Empire. — After the partition of the Roman Empire, the chief interest connected with the eastern por- tion centres in Justin'ian, who stands out in bold relief from a succession of comparatively insignificant sovereigns. The son of an humble barbarian though the nephew of an emperor, he was educated at the capital, and became the associate and successor of his uncle Justin in 527. His administration was marked by lavish expenditures and ex- actions at home, but by a series of military successes abroad which for a time restored the prestige of the Ro- man arms. These were achieved mostly by the genius of Belisa'rius, who was intrusted with the command of the Byzantine armies. Conquests of Justinian. — The Vandal Empire in northern Africa, which had long been troublesome to both East and West, having first been destroyed, the next ob- ject of Justinian's ambition was the acquisition of the Gothic kingdom of Italy. This kingdom had been found- ed by Theod'oric the Ostrogoth {Eastern Goth), who led his nation across the Alps, overthrew Odoa'cer (493), and established himself on the throne. Theodoric had been sent in his youth as a hostage to Constantinople, where he had been educated in warlike exercises, but had scorned literary pursuits, so that when restored to the Goths he could not write his own name. As king of Italy he showed the same distaste for letters and for schools, declaring that the child who trembled at a rod would never dare to look upon a sword. Still he had learned how to rule with liberality and wisdom ; and during his reign of thirty-three years, Italy enjoyed pros- perity and peace, Justinian took advantage of the dissensions that arose on Theodoric's death to send Belisarius with an army to Italy. Rome was taken ; Vit'iges the Gothic king sur- rendered Ravenna, and was sent a prisoner to Constanti- 160 COMMENCEMENT OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. nople. Belisarius was then recalled, and the conquest of Italy was completed by Narses in 554. Justinian was also engaged in wars with the Persians, and during the last years of his reign he was compelled to call upon Belisarius to deliver his capital from the Bulga- rians. In spite of all his services, Belisarius was finally accused of conspiracy, deprived of his fortune, and impris- oned. There is a story that in his old age he was led about the streets by a child, begging " a penny for Belisa- rius the general." Works of Peace. — The most useful work of Jus- tinian's reign was the revision of the Roman laws, and their arrangement in the code which bears his name. Europe is also indebted to him for its knowledge of the manufacture of silk, which was before confined to the Cliinese. Among this people the disclosure of the secret was punishable with death ; but two Persian monks, tempt- ed by the gifts of Justinian, eluded their vigilance by hiding some silk-worms' eggs in a hollow cane and bringing them to Constantinople. Justinian rebuilt the church of Saint Sophia, which had been burned, and enriched it with marbles, gold, silver, and precious stones. When he beheld it in all its grand- eur for the first time, we are told that he exclaimed, " Sol- omon, I have surpassed thee ! " This building is now a magnificent Turkish mosque. Loss of Territory. — Justinian was succeeded by his nephew Justin II. (565). During his reign, the Lombards {long-beards) overran Italy and easily wrested it from the empire. A limited district still remained to the Byzantine exarchs, whose capital was Ravenna, and who exercised civil, military, and even ecclesiastical power. In like manner, other provinces were lost. The Persians con- quered Syria, pillaged Jerusalem, and advanced to the very walls of Constantinople and Alexandria. At last, in PKOGKESS OF THE CHURCH. 161 the tenth century, hostile settlements were planted with- in the very sight of the Byzantine capital. Progress of the Church. — Meanwhile the Christian Church had been greatly extended, even in distant and barbarous regions. Zealous preachers went out with their lives in their hands to convert the heathen. Monasteries gave shelter to thousands of monks, whose solitary lives were spent in worship and works of charit}^, in the study of the Scriptures, agricultural labors, the copying of man- uscripts, and the mastering of ancient lore. But supersti- tion and heresy had from time to time crept in. Ambi- tious prelates arose ; and long-continued struggles be- tween the Patriarchs of Constantinople and the Bishops of Rome for ecclesiastical supremacy, no less than differ- ences of doctrine and usage, led to the final separation of the Eastern or Greek, and the Western or Roman, Church. Merovingian Dynasty in France. — We must now glance at western Europe. Among the Teutonic tribes that over- ran the Roman province of Gaul were the Franks {free- men), who, under Merov;«'us, one of their Long-haired kings, established a dynasty called from him the Merovin'- gian. Clo'vis, the grandson of Merovaeus, became king at the age of fifteen (481), conquered many of the surround- ing tribes, overthrew the Visigoths in Gaul, and established a monarchy in that country, which was called France from his people. He was converted to Christianity through the efforts of his queen, the fair Clotilda, a Burgundian prin- cess. Pressed nigh to defeat in an engagement with the Alemanni, he fell on his knees and cried, " God of Clotilda, aid me in this hour, and I confess thy name ! " The tide of battle turned as by a miracle, and the king with 3,000 of his warriors afterward received baptism at Rheims {)'eernz). In comparison with later monarchs, Clovis enjoyed but 162 COMMENCEMENT OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. slig-ht authority. When the spoil taken in Gaul was spread out for distribution, lie chose for himself a beautiful vase. A common soldier, noticing this, struck it with his battle- axe and said, " You shall have nothing here except what falls to you by lot ; " and the king durst not resent the insult. Treachery and violence of every kind characterized Merovingian rule. To remove rivals from their path, the kings ruthlessly thinned out the royal line by assassina- tions ; but at last they became mere puppets in the hands of ambitious Mayors of the Palace, elected by the nobles, Britain. — About fifty years before the overthrow of the Western Empire, the last Roman general sent into Brit- ain, after repairing the wall across the nortli of the island, vvithdi'ew his legions to protect the provinces nt^arcr Italy. This was a signal for the I'icts and Scots (Caledonians) to renew their incursions ; and tlic Britons, in their need, are said to have solicited the aid of the Saxons, a German tribe near the Elbe (449). Joined by the Angles, and un- der the leaders Hengist and Horsa, the Saxons repulsed the northern invaders, and then resolved to seize on the more favored portions of the country. Two stories are told of the stratagem by which Hengist obtained land for his settlement. A Welsh historian says that after buying as much ground as he could inclose with an ox-hide, he cut the hide into strips, and so surrounded enough to build a castle on. The Saxons relate that he paid an extravagant price for a lapful of eaitli, which he scattered over a large space, and then, as it coukl not be separated from the rest, claimed the whole. The Britons contended bravely with the Saxons for their independence, but were at length overcome and driven into the mountains of Wales, where their descend- ants ha\(> preserved their language to the present time. Saxon Heptarchy. — The Saxons founded seven states, THE SAXOIfS IN EXGLAND. 163 constituting what is known as the Saxon Heptarchy. After a series of wars with each other, they were united in 827 under Egbert, king of the West Saxons, who thus became sole monarch of England (A/if/le-land). The Saxons were converted to Christianity at the close of the sixth century. Pope Gregory the Great, when a young deacon, passing through the Roman market-place, observed some fair-haired youths exposed for sale as slaves. Struck by their beauty, he inquired to what country they belonged. Being informed that they were Angles, he ex- claimed, " Not Angles, but angels." In after-days he re- membered the fair captives, and sent Au'gustin at the head of an embassy to Ethelbert, king of Kent, with a view to the conversion of their people. (See p. 164.) When the entreaties of his Christian queen were united to the eloquence of Augustin, Ethelbert yielded, vpas baptized, and Christianity soon became the established faith of the Heptarchy. The Saxons wore long flowing hair, tunics fastened at the waist, cloth mantles, and shoes with wooden soles. Tlieir dwellings were rude ; even the king's palace was carpeted with rushes, while light was admitted through slits in the wall. Music and poetry were cultivated, and minstrels played and sang in the houses and castles. Free- men only were permitted to own a harp, and the loss of this instrument was attended with degradation from rank. Children were educated in hunting and war, to the neg- lect of reading and writing. Before Augustin came to England it is doubtful whether there was a book in the island ; King Alfred, two centuries later, gave five hun- dred acres of land for a single geographical work. Yet the Venerable Bede, " the founder of mediaeval history," was distinguished for his learning, 700 a. d. The Saxons were superstitions, believed in dreams and witchcraft, and wore charms to keep oflF diseases and evil THE ARABIANS. 165 spirits. Their mode of trial was called the ordeal. The accused person, after fasting and prayer, was made to take a red-hot iron ball in his hand, or walk blindfold over heated ploughshares ; if, in either case, he escaped being burned, he was declared innocent. Contemporaneous Sovereigns. Emperors of the East. Aroadius, A. d. 395-408. Theodosius II., 408-450. Marcian, 450-457. Leo I., 457-474. Zeno, 474-491. (Fall of Rome.) Anasta'tius I., 491-518. .Justin I., 518-527. Ju.stiuiau I., 527-565. Justin II., 565-574. Emperors of the West. Honorius, a. d. 395-423. Valentinian III., 425-455. Maximus, 455-457. Seven obscure emperors. Augustulus, 475^76. Kings op Italy. Tlieodoric, 493-526. Athal'aric, 526-534. Tlieod'atus; Vitiges ; Tot'ila. Duke Narses governs Italy. Alboin, the Lombard. CHAPTER XXII. MOHA MM ED. — SA RA CEN EMPIRE. — CARLO VIN- CI AN DYNASTY IN FRANCE. Mohammed and his Religion — While Europe in the seventh centviry was sinking into the darkness of the Mid- dle Ages, Arabia gave birth to a nation destined to work great changes in the history of the world. This region, known to the Romans onl}' as the land of spices and perfumes, while it was the seat of a few scattered towns and castles, was inhabited mainly by roving tribes, the descendants of Ishmael, son of Abraham. The rearing of sheep, camels, and horses, their chief pursuit, they wan- 166 MOHAMMED AJ^ID HIS RELIGION. dered from one green spot to another in search of water and pasturage. Among some of these nomadic tribes the rites and ten- ets of the Jewish faith prevailed, though in a form more or less corrupted ; others had become adherents of Christian- ity, first introduced into their country by the preaching of St. Paul ; on the north-eastern frontier, the fire-worship of the Persians had gained a foothold ; but by far the great- est number adored as gods the heavenly bodies, or graven images erected in their honor in temples and groves. In Mecca, the sacred city of the Ar'abs, was born in the year 569, Moham'med, who, uniting his countrymen on the basis of a common faith, was to lay the foundation of their greatness. In early life an humble merchant, as he approached middle age he became subject to fits of melancholy, during which, he stated, the angel Ga'briel appeared to him, gave him a new revelation, and com- manded him to proclaim it to the world. The Koran, — The principal points of this faith are found in the Ko'ran, which the pretended prophet gave to his countrymen in successive parts, and which they ac- cepted as their sacred book. The Koran taught that there was but one God, by whom divers prophets — Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed, the last and greatest of all — had been sent to instruct the human race. To the assurance that every man had his appointed time to die, it added a promise of eternal happiness to those who perished in propagating the faith. Unbelievers were to suffer forever; but all " the faithful " would be cleansed from their sins, however great, by a longer or shorter period of punishment, and be finally admitted to a |)aradise of sensual pleasures. There they would dwell in marble palaces, attired in silken robes, surrounded by fruits, and flowers, and beautiful attendants. Mohammed enjoined his disciples to fast, to ES'JABLISHMENT OF ISLAMISM. 167 abstain from wine, to wash frequently, to pray five times a day, make pilgrimages to Mecca, and. spread his doc- trines with the sword. The Hegira. — In 609, Mohammed began to preach in Mecca, but outside of his own family he made few con- verts. A powerful faction, excited by jealousy, deter- mined on his death ; but Ali {ah'le), his faithful cousin, putting on the prophet's mantle and lying on his couch, deceived the assassins, while Mohammed escaped from the city and took shelter in a cave. By the time his pursuers arrived, according to the legend, a spider had spun its web across the entrance, and a dove had built her nest there ; whence, concluding that no one was within, they went their way. After three days the fugitive left the cave, and succeeded in reaching Medina i^me-de' nd). This flight took place in 622, and is known as the Hegira (he-Jl'rcl). Mohammedan chronology dates from this event, as the Christian does from the birth of Christ. IsLAMiSM ESTABLISHED. — In Medina Mohammed made many converts, and seven years after the Hegira he cap- tured Mecca and assumed the reins of government. Va- rious military enterprises against the neighboring tribes were successful, and the new faith was soon extended by force of arms throughout the peninsula. The Arabians were subsequently known as Sar'acens, and became distinguished in literature and science. The religion thus founded is called Mohammedanism, Islam * [iz'lam), or Islamism ; and its adherents are distinguished as Mohammedans, Moslems* (tnoz'lerns), or Mus'sulmans.* Mohammed was remarkable for his manly beauty and fervent eloquence. He was charitable to the poor, lived on the plainest food, and even shrunk not from menial employments ; with his own hands he swept his house, kindled his fire, milked his camels, and mended his stock- * From an Arabic word, meaning " submission to God," I'KAYER-TIME IN A xMOHAMMKDAN MOHi^UK. SARACEN CONQUESTS. 169 ings. He died at the age of sixty-three, and was buried at Medina. By some he is regarded as a self-deluding en- thusiast, by others as nothing more than a bold impostor. Conq[uests of the Caliphs. — The successors of Moham- med were called Ca'lipJts. The first was Abubekr [cih'- boo-bek'er), father-in-law of the prophet, under whom and his successor O'mar, Syria, Persia, and Egypt, were sub- dued. Idolatry and magianism were swept away by the creed of the conquerors, — triumphs miraculously an- nounced according to Moslem tradition, which informs us that on the night of Mohammed's birth the sacred fire of Zoroaster, kept burning by zealous Magi for more than a thousand years, was suddenly extinguished, and all the idols in the world fell down. The city of Alexandria endured a protracted siege, but was finally taken ; and its celebrated library, reputed to contain several hundred thousand manuscripts, was given to the flames, — Omar saying that if they agreed with the Koran they were useless, and if not they were positively hurtful. These books, many of them the works of classical authors that have thus been lost to modern times, were distributed among four thousand baths, which they served as fuel for six months. From Egypt the Saracens bore the triumphant banner of the prophet over northern Africa, and by the beginning of the eighth century they had reached the Atlantic. Here, opposite to the Canary Islands, their victorious emir, riding out among the waves, lamented that the ocean pre- vented him from planting the crescent in the unknown kingdoms of the West. Saracenic Invasion of Europe. — At this time Spain was in a flourishing condition under the Visigothic king Rod'- eric. One of Roderic's nobles whom he had wronged, thirsting for vengeance, invited the conquerors of Africa to invade his native land. They were but too glad of a 170 SAKACKN KMl'lItK. pretext, uiid on the field of Xeros {ha-r&s') met lioderic, wlio u|)|)(^ar('d at the head of his hosts, crowned with pearls, reeliniii<^' in an ivory ear drawn hy white; nuiles. After a battle of seven days (711) he was overcome, and Ih'd from the field, to be drowned in the Guadalquivir (l/dw-dal-kioiv'/'r). In a few years Spain was overrun, and became the seat (W a Moorish dynasty which lasted eight centuries. IJut S])ain did not lon<^- salisfy the ambition of tlie Mohanniicdans. In 71H, an innumerable host under a great cliicr, Abderrahman {((hb-der-ra/i'rna/in), crossed the I'yr'ences, with their wives and ciiildren, to subdue the rest of lOurope. The various peoples that they first encountcicd, st-paralcd by dissensions, were; unable to withstand the; invaders, who j)enetrated as far as Poitiers {poi-t(crz') without receiving- any dcMiisivt; check. There they were met by Charles, a duke of the Franks (732). His stout German warriors, in an obstinate fight the issue of which for six days hung in tlie balance, (inally l)roved themselves more than a match for their dreaded foes. Abderrahman perished in the conflict, and the rem- nant of his host soon returned to S])ain. I^Vom the tre- mendous strokes of his innneiise battle-axe, Charles ob- tained th(; title of MiirtcV (tlu! Hammer). Bagdad. — Within a few years after this reverse, the empire of the; caliphs was divided. A new Alxlerrahman established flu; throne of the Western Cal'iphate at Cor'- dova ; while in the East, Bagdad, founded by Al-Mansour {(thl-nutktt-Hoor'), the Victorious, on the Tigris (in 762), became the Moliannnedan capital. Al-Mansour was an enlight(MHMl patron of learning, and encouraged the trans- lation of the best (ireek works into Arabic. A taste for literature took still deeper root in the reign of his famous grandson Haroun-al-Raschid {hah-roon' al rai^h'ld), one of the favorite heroes of Arabian romance. HAKOUN-AL-RA8CIIlI>. 171 Tills caliph, dihtin^ui.shcd for piety and wisdom, was very liberal to the poor, especially to poets, being fond of Ar'ab poetry and himself a writer. 'J'hat he mig'ht find out the real condition of his subjects, he was in the habit of going round among them in disguise. lie was much beloved by his people ; they once covered the roads beffjre him with rich carpets, when he was making a pilgrimage to Mecca on foot, in fulfillment of a vow. Haroun carried on a series of succ<;ssful wars with the Eastern Emperor, and compelled him to pay an annual tribute. Within a century after Jlaroun's death, the Saracenic Empire was weakened by internal dissensions. Several governors of provinces rebelled, and established indepen- dent cal'iphates ; notwithstanding, Bagdad increased in wealth and magnificence. Among other wonders that it contained, an ambassador to the court of one of the later caliphs describes a tree of gold and silver, on the branches of which birds of the same precious metals fluttered and sung. Bagdad was sacked by tlie Mongols in 1258. It was then the richest city in the world ; diamonds and jewelry of inestimafile value were taken by the conquerors. The wretched caliph was enclosed in a leather sack, and dragged through the streets till he expired. Carlovingian Dynasty in France. — Charles Martel, who repuls'-d thf; Siu;i''-iis, was tlie real sovfreign of IVance, though he ruled in the name of a weak .\I';rovingian king.' Pep'in, the son of Charles, wielding the same power but coveting also the title of king, appropriated the crown, and thus founded the Carlovingian line. The last of the Merovingians was shorn of his long hair in token of his deposition, and ended his days in a monastery. Pepin was called the Short, being only four and a half feet high ; but he possessed great strength, and once cut 172 CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY IN FRANCE. off a lion's head with a single blow of his sword, after having vainly dared his courtiers to encounter the savage beast. He was successful in wars with the Saxons ; and at the request of the pope, who was hard pushed by the Lom'bards, he invaded Italy, humbled their king, and laid the keys of their conquered cities on the tomb of St. Peter as a gift to the Holy See. Thus began the tem- poral power of the popes, who had before enjoyed only a spiritual authority. On Pepin's death the kingdom descended to his sons, Charlemagne {shar-le-mane') and Carloman. Principal Successors of Mohammed. Abi-bekr, tJ32-6;:!4 Khaled {kah'led) the Saracen general, " tlie Sword of God." Omar, (534-644 Saracens defeat Ileracli'iis, Enipcror of the East, 636 ; take Jerusalem, 637. Otiiman, 644-655 Saracens conquer part of Tartary ; Imild a fleet; take Cyprus and Rhodes. Ali, 655-661 Surnamed " the Lion of God." Cufa, on the Euphrates, made the capital. MoAwiYAH, 661-680 Dynasty of the Omniiyades {om-nw' j/a-decz) be- gins ; Damascus their capital. Abool-Abbas, 750-754. . . .The dynasty of the Abbassides {ab-bas sc-dccz) commences. Al-Mansour', 754-775. . . .Bagdad made the capital, 762 ; Cordova, capi- tal of the Moors in Spain, 756. HAROuN-AL-RAsrmn {Aaron the Just) reigned, 786-809. The wicked Ire'ne Empress of the East. Charlemagne. Al-Mamoun', 813-833 Medicine, geometry, astronomy, and literature, flourish at Bagdad. 600 A. D. — Roman civilization disappearing; brute force pre- dominates. The name Angle-land ]\i&i given to part of the eastern coast of England ; St. Augustin first Archbishop of Canterbury. Merovingian kings in France ; mayors of the palace growing in power. Kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain, and Lombards in Italy. Eastern Empire, under Maurice, extends almost to the Caspian. Mohammed, thirty-one years old. EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 173 CHAPTER XXIII. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS SUCCESSORS.^CON- TEMPORANEOUS HISTORY. Empire of Charlemagne. — The kingdom which Pepin divided between his sons inibraced parts of what are now Germany and France. ( )ii the death of the younger, Charlemao-ne the survivor secured the whole, 771. Tlie new monarch was almost a giant in stature and strength, of com- manding presence, and proficient in all manly ex- ercises. His warlike tastes and the disposition he ap- pears to have entertained to make proselytes to Christianity by violence if persuasion failed, quickly involved him in contests with the sur- rounding nations. A war with the Saxons (see Map, p. 158), which lasted thirty years, re- sulted in their reduction and enforced conversion. A crusade against the Lombards, undertaken meanwhile through the entreaties of the pope, terminated with Charlemagne's as- sumption of the iron crown of Italy (774) ; and the inva- sion of Spain, resulting in the defeat of the Moors, led to the annexation of the country north of the E'bro. Charlemaum;. 1 74 CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. While his victorious army was recrossing- into France, the Basques suddenly fell on its rear division with great fury in the defiles of Roncesvalles {ron-se-vahl'ies). Ro'- land, the famous Pal'adin, who was in connnand, refusing to sound his horn for aid, fought with desperate bravery until overcome by superior numbers. Then blowing a bhist with his dying breath, he signalled Charlemagne, wlio hastened back only to find his most valiant warriors dead upon the field. The armies of the West also pushed their con(juests eastward as far as the Theiss ; and the subjugation of various German and Slavic tribes extended the boundaries of the conqueror in that direction. In 80(» Charlemagne visited Rome as the protector of Pope Leo III., and in return was crowned on Christmas- day by Leo with the golden diadem of the Cnesars. This event may be regarded as completing the foundation of the first Germanic Empire. Charlemagne's title to the imperial crown was recog- nized, though with reluctance, by the emperor of the East. Ilis renown spread into Asia. Ilaroun-al-Raschid, as a token of friendship, sent him a clock propelled by water- power, which was the wonder of the day. In the face were twelve doors which opened when the time arrived, letting brass balls fall on a bell to strike the hours. At twelve, knights on horseback came out and rode round the dial. .Justly ranked with Alexander and Caesar, Charlemagne deserved the appellation of Great, not only by reason of his splendid conquests, but also for his promotion of civili- zation. He improved the laws and encouraged agricult- ure, established schools, and founded at Paris the first university in Europe. Himself a student, he employed some one to read aloud to him even at his meals. The English scholar Alcuin [alk'tcin), the most learned man of the age, flourislied at his court, and was at once his adviser KOKMAN ESrCUKSIONS. 1-75 and friend. While in his mode of life he was plain and frugal, he adorned his capital Aix-la-Chapelle {ayks-lah- sha/i-pd') witli costly architectural works. Division of the Empire. — Charlemagne left to Louis, the only son who survived him, his whole empire except Italy, which he bestowed upon his grandson Ber'nard (814). After the death of Louis and a period of intestine strife, the Western Empire was divided among his three sons (843). France fell to Charles the Bald, Germany to Louis, and Italy to Lothaire'. The Normans. — Weakened by these unnatural quai-- rels, France now became an easy prey to the Norsemen or DaTies, a nation of pirates from the distant coasts of Scan- dinavia (Denmark, Sweden, and Norway). Li search of plunder, they were wont to land in immense hordes on the shores of the British Isles and the adjacent parts of the continent, massacre the inhabitants, seize what plunder they could, and hurry back to their vessels by the light of burning churches and dwellings. Their chiefs, or vi'kings, fearlessly navigated the Northern Ocean, finding their way to the nearest land, when lost, by letting loose a hawk and following his flight, each ship being provided with a cage of these birds. The old warriors caused their friends to slay them, for to die a natural death was to be excluded from the joys of paradise. Woden,* the supreme deity, and Thor,* the god of war and thunder, were the principal objects of worship. France had suffered from the depredations of these Norsemen before the death of Charlemagne, and once this great monarch said that he wept for the calamities which he perceived they would bring upon his realms. In the reign of his grandson Charles, they sailed up the Seine, * Weilne.sday {wodeiiHilay) was tledicated to Woden ; Thursday {Ihors- daVNASTY IN KItANC'E. 177 |)illaf^(;d J'aris, and left the country only on tho payment of Hev(!n tlunjsand pounds of silver. Settlement of the Normans in France. — The Carlo- viiif^iuii kin^s jrvo.w more eHeniinate yniiv by year, 'llic Normans { Afor.'ieman) renewed their incursions; and final- ly Charles the Simple in (ill gave them th(! lunthern part of France, on condition that they would leave the rest at peace, and embrace Christianity. The territory thus ceded was called from them Normundy. TJKur valiant i-\\'wX Kollo was so tall that he f;overnm(!nt the churches were re- built, the fi(dds were cultivat(!d, and rol)b(!ry was almost unknown. Commencement of the Capetian Dynasty. — Louis V., tli(! Siuf4'ii;ard, tlu; last of tin; ( 'arlovin/^ian king's, was poisoned by his f|ueen. As Ik; left no children, Hugh (Ja'- [Xit, Count of I'aris, was elect(id king by the barons (987). Ii(i thus became the founder of the (Japetian line, and his family ruled in France for more than eight centuries. Hugh was succeeded by his son Itobert the Fious, during whose reign Europe was desolated by a dreadful famine (1028-1030). Tr;iv(;llers were murdered on the highways and de von Hid f)y the starving peasants. Germany was riiled by the descendants of Charlemagne \x\\\\\ the death of Louis IV., when the nobhts elec;ted Con- 178 inOXKY TIIK KOWLKR. OTHO TITE OKKAT. rad, Duko oC Franconia, to fill the vacant throne (911). This luoiiarch and his successor Henry 1. were engag-ed chiefly in repellino- barbarian invasions. The envoys who wore sent to Ilemy, then Duke of Saxony, with tlie sacred arms and crown ol" the (Jernian sovereig-ns, found hiui hawking- in the Hart/. Mountains, with a falcon on his wrist ; whence he was called Henry the Fowler. Otho 1., the Great, succeeded his father Henry the Fowler in 936 ; and crossing the Al))s at the liead of a victorious army, was crowned Emperor of the W^est in 9(52 by the pope. He was occupied chielly with subju8-814 . Louis I., tlio Mild, 814-840 . Charles II., tlie IJald, 840-877 Louis IL, 877-879 Louis III., 879-882 Cakloman, 882-884 . CiiAKLKS the Fat, 884-888 KuDKS, (!ount of Paris, 888-898 . (JiiAULKS III., the Simple, 898-922 UoHKKT (brother of Eudes), 922 lluuoLF, of Burguiuly, 922-9;{() Loui.s IV., the Stranger, 930-954 . LOTHAIUE, 954-980 . Loui.s V., the Sluggard, 980-987 . Deside'riua Lombard king; defeat- ed by Charlemagne, 774. Egbert king of " England," 827. The empire divided, 843. Alfonso III. king of Leon. Alfred the Great, of England. Martin II. pope. Normans besiege Paris. Leo VI. emperor of the East. Rhcims the royal residence. Harold llar'fager in Norway. Henry the Fowler, ol" (Jermany. Otlio I., the (ireat, of (Jermany. Hugh the (ireat, Duke of France. Hugh Capet rules France. CHAPTER XXIV. ERA OF ALFRED THE GREAT AND THE DANISH KINGS. England under the Saxon Kings.— The liopes of peace which the people of England had entertained on the union of the seven Saxon kino-doms in 827 under Egbert, were soon dispelled by the appearance of the Danes upon their coast. King Egbert had served under Charlemagne, and the experience thus acquired enabled him to repulse these formidable invaders. After his death, they penetrated into the interior, captured the city of York,* and in 871 fought five battles with his grandson Ethelred. In the last of these Ethelred received a mortal wound. He left * For places mentioned in the chapters on English history, see Map, p. 200. 18'2 Ai.iui'.i) iiiK (jKivvr. his kino-(loin io his brother AlfriNl, thou t wiMit v-nno V(>!il'3 Altred. — riu> (^lucation oi' this pniUT li;ul Ihmmi nci),"- loi'tod, iviul ho was (wolvt^ vi^ars oh\ hol'mv lu> know liie h^ltors. Ono day tho (]iu>on, al'tor oxhibiliiio- ;i haiulsonio- Iv illimiinatod Saxon piuMu to iior I'hiidron, olVonMJ it to tiu> owe who should lirst ho abU' to it^ad it. AIIVimI. tho youui;-ost, appliod hinisoll' dili^'ontlv, aud won t hi> |Mi/o. Kroni that time his studios wtM-o liis delight, and he Im>- caino ono of tho u\ost loaruod uion of (ho a was c>bliood to tako (lio hohl against (ho Dauos. Aftor a pro- (rai'tod s(ruiiii-K\ ho was sur|uis(>d and wors(od by tlio oue- uiy, and soui^iit ooiu'(>ahuont in th(> hut of a hordsuian. Wvvc lio was Cor a tiuu^ ouiphnod as a sorvant, and was oftiMi ohidiMl by liis uiistiH>ss, who was i foi^-ot iiof iil- naturo, and (llio story says) rowanhHl h(M- luisbaiul by liivino- hiiu an oduoation an»l nuikiui>- him Bisho[) of NN'iii- ohostor, AbNUiwhiK^ tho Danes, lindino- that rosistanoo liad most- ly ooasod, iiiow oaioh>ss ; and Alfrod, in (h(> disouiso of a minst I'ol, «Mitorod tluMi' oauip and saui;- bol'on> (lulh'i-uni th(Mr ohiof. AftiM' havini;' thus asctMtainod tlioir striMiii'lh, ho assiMubIi>d an ainn and doloati^l thoiu with ^■I•(>at slaui>htor. Tho Danish kinji", with his |iiinoii)al oIliotM's, ombraootl Christianity ; and niany o\' his followers sottloil in Eni>;laud and gradually biH'auu> oi\ ili/.m!. \\\ jioaoo Alfrod dovott^l hiiusolf (o tho good of his poo{>lo. lio iuvitod foreign artisans and scholars lo Eng- land, enoouragiMl the tMlueation of his subjoi'ts, and found- ed (he University of Oxford. Laws were nuido for the protection of life and property, and (he vessels he o(]ui})piMl to niee( (he NorsiMuon \voih> {\\c boginniuii" of (h(> h]nglish na\ V. As (luMo W(M'i> no I'looks in (he land, he moasurod tiitK; \>Y i\i<- [)iiriiiri;r (,(■ «;iii(J|c,Hj oii vvliicli vvf;r*; |);i,i()t,'-,i| liii^H of (li(Tvvf;i- f)f tJic l>;inh con- sist of )><)() wolves' hejirls, instead of money and f;atth;. 'I'Ik; niHult wa.s tliat in lour yearn tliese animals w(;re all kille.l oiL One of th(! most f)OW('rfNl Of;eIesiaHtieH of the fuuiod wuH St. Dunstari, Al»hrit of (ilastonljury, and afterwanJ Arcfihishop of ( ';inf crhnry. lie was (;dfi<^;ited hy Irish teac^Iicrs, and Hu}>serjii(;ntly lived for a while in retirement, spending his lime in devotion, Htiuly, and tfie manufacture ol hells and mii;~.ie;d ifistrurri(;fitH. I)iinstati hecamc; emi- nent hoth as a sr;liolar and a Htat(!srrian. He not only r(;n- dwne'l l'rinf;e ICdwanJ, known as the Martyr because Ik; was inurdered at the inHti/:i^atif>n of his stf;[)-mother, to make rormi for her own son I'.thelred. iJurin^ the in(.df)fiorjH rei^n of tiK; latter, tiK; kingdom was r(!|)eateflly hiid waste l>y the, l)afK-s, aiKl from his l>e- iti^ un|)re|);i,red to nK;e,t them in h;i,ttle I'ithelred wasf;alled the Unready. After severjil tiirKts purchasiri^^ [»eace frotri the invad- ers, Kthejnsd secretly ordenid a massacre of all the i>ane.s in the country (1002); and the sister of Sweyn (Hwa//,e)j 1S4 DANISH KINGS OF ENGLAND. king of Denmark, was cut off among the rest. Sweyn re- taliated by sweeping like a whirlwind through distracted England. He finally seated himself on the throne, Ethel- red retiring for a time to Normandy. In a few weeks, however, Sweyn died, and Ethelred resumed the sceptre. He reigned until lOlG, when his warlike son, Edmund Ironside, battled with Sweyn's able son Canute for the crown of his fathers. On the treacherous murder of Ed- mund the same year, the whole realm fell to Canute. Danish Kings. — Canute the Great endeavored to con- ciliate the English by his impartiality. His regard for the laws is shown by the following anecdote. Having in a moment of anger slain a soldier, he insisted on being tried and sentenced like any common offender. His judges de- cided that he should inflict his own penalty ; and, as mur- der was then punished by fine, he paid 3G0 talents. Canute's dominions included Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Sweden he conquered with tlie aid of Earl God- win, who had risen from the position of an humble farmer. As the young rustic was driving his cattle one morning, he was met by a Danish captain, who, flying before the vic- torious Saxons, had lost his way and begged to be con- ducted to his vessels. Godwin acted as his guide, was well received in the Danish camp, and rose step by step until he became the most powerful noble in England. Amid the cares of his extensive kingdom, Canute found time for pious works, built churches, and went on a pil- grimage to Rome. After his death in 1036, his sons Harold Ilarefoot and Ilardicanute successively held the crown. Edward the Confessor, after these Danish princes, as- cended the throne, and was hailed with joy by the people as the restorer of the old Saxon line (1041). Having spent part of his life in Normandy, he introduced the lan- guage and customs of that country, and filled the court with his Norman favorites. This provoked a rebellion on P:AKL\- SCOTTISH AND IRISH HISTORY. 185 the part of Earl Godwin, and in the end the odious for- eigners were outlawed. Edward was persuaded by the monks that he could work miracles, and people affected with scrofula were brought to him to be touched and cured. The ceremony was called touching for king's evil, and was continued under liis successors. — The principal foreign war in which Edward engaged was with Scotland. Scotland. — The kingdom of Scotland resulted from a union of the Picts and Scots under one sovereign in 843. In Edward the Confessor's time, the throne was occupied by Duncan. But this prince was murdered by Macbeth, who seized the crown. Malcolm, the rightful heir, with aid from England, defeated the usurper, and regained his father's throne. He was killed, while besieging an English castle, by a knight who came out to surrender the keys on the point of his spear. As the king approached to receive them, the faithless knight thrust the spear into his eye, and was thenceforth called Plerce-eye — whence the noble family of Percy obtained its name. Ireland. — Many of the Celtic tribes of this island had early embraced Christianity ; the conversion of the inhab- itants was completed by St. Patrick in the fifth century. After the Saxons conquered Britain, the Irish made peace with them, instructed them in religion, and founded schools among them. St. Bridget flourished in the sixth century ; at this time the chief monastery in Ireland contained over a thousand monks. The Danes, in their piratical expeditions, did not over- look this flourishing island ; but subdued the people, who were under different chiefs, and oppressed them with taxes. The master of every house was subjected to what was called the nose-tax, being required to pay an ounce of gold annually or have his nose cut off. The Danes were at length overthrown by Brian Boru', ST. El'llKLDKEDA, THE FOUNDKU OF ELY CATHEDRAL. From !i miniature in an ancient Boncdictionul. A specimen of the art of illumination, illustrating in the embroidered scarlet mantle and un- der-dress of gold tissue the rich costume of the Anglo Saxon nuns. BRIAN UOKU, KING OF IKKLAND. 187 king' of Munstor, who fought with them twenty- five pitched batthis, TPiis Irish hero maintained a large army and a fleet of three hundred vessels. To test the order prevailing in his kingdom, he directed that a beauti- ful virgin should traverse it unprotected, carrying a ring (jf great value on a wand — which she did without mo- lestation. Jn the year 1000, IJrian was elected monarch of ail IrfilancI, and under his wise and vigorous administration the people enjoyed peace and plenty. Intercourse was also opened by ambassadors with the various courts of Europe. But Brian was kilhid in batthi with the Danes (1014) ; and after his death Ireland was again divided and devastated by wars. Kings of England, 827-1066. Saxon Kings. E;rh(Tt, Kt,li(:lwolf, Kthclhald, . Ktliclhert, Etiieliwl, . Alfred the Groat, Edward the fJldor, Athclstan, Kdiriiind, Kdred, . Kdwy, . Ed;^ar the Peaceful, Edwaid the Martyr, 827-836. 83fi-8r)8. 8r.8-8fiO. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. 901-92.5. 925-941. 941-946. 94 6-9.') 5. 95r)-9r)9. 959-975. 975-978. Saxon Kinoh (continued). Etlieh'ed tlie Unready, 978-1016. Kvveyn (Dane), . I0i;i-1014. Edmund IroimiiJe, . 1016. Danish Kinoh. Canute the Great, . lOUJ-lO.'J.^. Harold Ilarefoot, . 1035-1040. Ilardicanute, . 1U40-1042. Saxon Line restorkd. Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066. Harold, . . . 1066. Norman Conquest. lOOO A. D. — Etlielred the Unready on the throne of England. Brian lioru elected monarch of all Ireland. Rol)ert II., son of Hugh Capet, king of France. Sancho the Great, king of Navarre. Portugal under the Moors. Boleslas I. (fjo-kn-la/is'), the Brave, on tlie throne of Poland. Vladimir (vlad'c-meer) the Great, ruler of Russia. Red Er'ic, sailing from Greenland, discovers the main-land of America, landing in Viidaiid (Rhode Island and Massachusetts). Mahmoud invades India. 188 NOKMAN CONCilTKST OF KN({LANI). CHAPTER XXV. ENCL.ixn r.wv/A' /•///■; X()A\]/.i.y av.vgs. ( 1066-1 154.) Norman Conquest. — Edward tlio Confessor died child- loss ill lOliC) ; and tlio day lie was l)in'ii>d, Karl (Jodwin's son 1 Iniolil, tlu> last of lli(> Saxon kin<>'s, was (irowiicd, Kdward had promised to leave the throne^ to his kinsman, the Duki^ of Normandy, and IJarold himselt' had sworn (though, as he claimed, under compulsion) to support the pretensions of the latter. The new king's reig-n was soon disturbed by an in- vasion headed by his brother Tostig and the king of Nor- way. When the hostile armit>s were drawn up ready tor battle, Harold olTei-ed his brother wealth and a part of his kingdom it' he wt)uld withdraw from the combat. " If I aecei)t these terms," Tostig answered, " what will you give my ally, the king of Norway?" " SrviMi feet of English soil, or, as he is very tall, perhaps a little more," was the re|)ly. This ended the conference, and in the battle which followed Harold was successful, and his brother with the Norwegian king was slain. The rejoicings of the victorious army were interrupted by titlings that William of Normandy had landed in Eng- land with a large force, to support his claim to the throne. Harold met the invaders, OtitobcM- 14, 1()(!(), his birtiiday, on the Held of Hastings. William had thn-e horses killed uiuler him and lost 15,000 of his troops ; but tlu> English army was cut to pieces and Harolil slain. 'I'his victory established the Norman power in England. William the Conqueror was crowned on Christmas-day, loot). The English people, however, were not entirely subdued ; they broke out into insuri'ections, and at last the king, determined to strike terror into their hearts, WILLIAM I. OK K^•(;J.ANIJ. 189 iwiirchcd norllivviinl, hiiriiod tlieir towns, and put tlioii- .sands to the, .svvoi-d. William I. (;ni-iclK'd liis Nonnan follovvfrs with tlio treasures and lands oi' tho .Saxons. lie repaid the pope i'or sanetionin<^ his conquest by extending tlie ])apal au- thority over the Enj^lish cliureh, and sent to Itomo the tribute ealled Peter's Pence — a penny a y(!ar for every liousehold. It was in his reign that the lJ(jincsday-Book was conipiled, containing an account of all the landed and f)ersonal property in the kingdom, and tho nurnher of men able to bear arms. William introduced tne Norman language and manners. J''rench was taught in the schools, spoken at court, and employed exclusively in the tribunals of law. He could not, however, compel its use by the low(!r classes. They (jbstinately adhered to their own vernacular ; and not till their prejudices against their conquerors had been soft- ened by the lapse of fifty years, were they willing to modify their own tongue and enlarge its vocabulary by drawing on th(; language of the Normans. From this time changes were rapidly made ; and the grafting of nu- merous elements from the versatile Norman French upon the homely but nervous Saxon stock, produced our pres- ent English (about 1350). Among tlie oppressive institutions of this monarch were the Forest Laws and the Curfew. William was especially fond of hunting; and not content with sixty- eight deer-friths, besides parks and chases, he made what was called the New Forest, by laying waste a tract of thirty square miles, demolishing churches, and destroy- ing hundreds of homes. The Curfew was a bell rung at eight o'clock, as a signal for extinguishing lights and fires. ]n William's time, England was covered with strong castles, and the Towe-r of London was commenced. The IIH) ENGLAND UNDKU TUK NORMAN KINGS. Normans called themselves after tlieir castles and fortified towns, and thus introduced surnames. William the Conqueror died in 1087, leaving- Norman- WILLIAM liUFUS. — IILMiY I, 191 fly to his son Robert, England to William, and to IJanry, his younn-est son, £5,000. "William Rufus (red) iiastened to England on the death of his father, to take possession of the crown and royal treasures, lie was brave in war, but licentious, passion- ate, and tyrannical, lie enlarged the royal forests, and made hunting therein without permission a capital offence, ill 1100, wliile pursuing his favorite sport in the New For- est, William Kufus was killed by an arrow discharged by an unknown hand. Henry I. was crowned at Lonflon on the third day af- ter his brother's death, to which, as he made no effort to discover its author, he is supposed to have been a party. In 1101, rifjbert, his elder brother, to whom the crown riglitfully belonged, having returned from a Crusade in Palestine, landed with an army in England ; but, on the promise of 3,000 marks annually and the cession of all the castles tliat Henry held in Normandy, he consented to forego his claim. Henry afterward, however, on frivolous pretexts in- vaded Normandy, defeated Robert, took possession of his dominions, and sent him a prisoner to England. Robert having subsequently attempted to escape from confine- ment, the king ordered his eyes to be burned out ; and in blindness and misery the poor prisoner suffered for the re- mainder of his life, — a period of twenty-eight years. In consequence of Henry's successes in Normandy, the barons of that country were obliged to acknowledge him as their duke, and his son William as his successor. Hut Prince William, returning to England with three hundred nobles on the fastest vessel of the fleet, was lost. Wine having been freely distributed among the sailors by their royal pass(;nger, they became intoxicated, and ran the ves- sel on a rock. William was hurried into a boat, and would have escaped, had not his sister, vrho had been left behind, 102 UN(iLANI> IINUKU TllK NOUMAN KlNtJS cried for jud, Iloariiig* her voice, ho ordered the boat to !)(> rowtMl back to the shi|\ when those on board h>a|nMl in, ami all \veri> drowned. The Uin^' was iu'M'i- ai'terwaid seen to smile. llciuT ilied in lloo, leaving his i\.ingili)ni lo his daugh- t.'r Matilda. Stephen, Karl of Blois {/>/itU(/i), however, a favorite iu>[)lu*w t)f tlu> deceased king, notwithstanding he had sol- eundy sworn to snpport Matilda, took advanlagt" of iier absence in iSlorniandy to seize the crown. Matilda was not afraid to assert her riglits by force of arms, and for eigiiteiMJ years Englantl was desolated bv ei\il war. Whole towns were depopulated ; in some ])arts a man might ride a day without meeting a lunnan being. Nu- merous castles were erected by lawless nobles, who set at deliaiUH' not only the authority of tluMr sovendgn, but every prliu-iple of justice and humanity. In this protracted struggle Stephen was for the most part sucei>ssful, though for a short time he was a prisoner, and Matilda (or Maud) was recognized as queen in part of the kingdom. At last, Prince Henry, Matilda's son, arrived liom Nor- mandy (1153) and was supported by a powcrlul party. A battle was prevented by negotiations, and it wa« iinally agreed that Steplien should wear the crown during the remainder of his life, but that Henry should be his suc- cessor. During these wars, Matilda was onci' so hard pressi>d that, to escape her enemies, she caused herself to be dressed in grave-cloth(^s and laid in a cotlin, which was carried out on miMi's shoulders to a place of safety. Literature and the Arts. — During tlu^ reign of Henry 1., tieolTrey {Jcf'n) of Moinuouth published his Chronicles of tlu> Hritons, rather curious as a collection of old legends than valual)le as a historv. 'To this (leolVrev we owe the NORMAN LITKRATURi: AND ART. 193 Stories of the sorf;erer Mcr'lin ; of Arthur, the famouB myth- ical king of the liritoiiH, who reigned in Wales at the time of the Anglo-Saxon wars ; and of his chivalrous knights, who went out from his court to protect the helpless, lib- y William of xMalmesbury (mahrns' ber-e), a contemporary of Geoffrey (1095-114.'}). Poetry, music, and architecture, were diligently cul- tivated. Abbeys and churches were erected on all sides, arifl adorned with paintings and statues. Monks were the principal arcliitccts and builders of these edifices. The monks also constructed organs, the chief if not the oidy instruments uhcA in worship, and spent much time in illu- iiiinating manuscrijjts, — an art that now attained great perfection. About this time, the manufacture of cloth first received attention in England. i'ap(;r made from rags became common, and parchment went out of use Agriculture was greatly improved by the Normans ; the land was drained, and the wastes produced by the Danish wars were restored to fertility. Numerous apple-orchards were plant- ed. Stone bridges were first built. Norman Kings of England. Kr.NfjS OF England. Contkmi'oraries. William I., the Conqueror, \ Philip I., of France; Henry IV., of Ger- lM<)ft-1087. / many; Gregory VII., pope. William II., Rufus, j Philip I., of France ; Alfonso VI., of Spain ; 1087-1100. t H(;niy IV., of Germany. IIknuy I., IJeauclerc, j Piiilip I. and Louis VI., of France ; Henry 1100-1 i;i5. / IV., Henry V., Lothaire H., of Germany. Stephkn, of Blois, (Maio), ) Louis VI. and VIL, of France; Lothaire 1135-1154. I II., Conrad III., Fred^-ri.k I., of Germany. CHAPTER XXVI. r///-: FK 1 7 >. / /. .s" } '5 TEM.—L III \\\l R ) ■. The Feudal System. — \\\> liavo alhuhHl (o (he iniIiuMici' wliirli tlu> luM'man cKmuimjI, l:iriis dI" {\w iiDitluMii tiihos, t'XtM'toil on its sul>soi|UOM( roiulitii>n. Most appan'ut was this in t luM^stablisliniont o{ (ho I'Vndal System, which look root alono- wifli (lioso (ribos in r\orv ccnnilry tliat tlu>y ovorran. On boconiin«>^ masters of Ivomo and its (li^ptMuUMioies, thi> barbarian loaders rowardoti the chiefs who I'ollowed tlicm with hirg'e tracts of the i'on([ucrcd territory, (n\ lon- ditionot' tlieir assistance in time ol' war. Tlu^se hiiihcsl ollicers apportioned ont the h\nds thus actjuired to their subordinates, and tht>s(< ai;aiu to tiicirs, (mi tin> same con- dition of military service. Thus arosi> in the couuuunity a succession of chisses, bound t(\ii'ether by the ct)unu(Mi obli- ii'atiou o{ homaiiv and servici^ tm thi^ one si(h> and protec- tion on the other — from thi> s\i~era'n\ or //«'//<' /o/v/, throuy-h a lini^ of tufstta/s, down to the very s<')'fs, who wt>re little better tiian i-attle, and were t ransfiMiiMl aloun' with i\\o soil they tilled. T.ands thus g-ranted wen^ calltMl in old Vvcuch /'(lu/cs, and honco /'('nditlf'sni derived its numt\ It attained its lieig'ht in continental Europe in tlu> tenth century, and was introduced into Great Britain at the time of the Nor- man Conquest. Kurope was in this way divided into hun- dreds of dukedoms, earldoms, otc, the lords of which formed a powerful aristocracy that limited, and in many cases overshadowed, the authority of the kino-s tluMuselves. Of such a systeu), j»;rave evils were llu> inevitabh^ con- sequence. The iireat lords had both civil and criminal jurisdictii>n over their feudes or llefs, and too often exer- AK'IS OK IDK SUhhl.y. A'/KH. 195 (•'\H<-A it witliout regard to juHtico. Socuro in thoir frown- ing HtronghoKJH, they could set their Movereigri at defiance, and were in effect independent of hiw control. L'nder Hucfi circurnstanceH, there could he no centralization of power. A kingdom, iriHtea/l of being a unit under one hea/J, was rather a patchwork of separate principalities. Quarrels bf;tween the nobles were incessant, and the sword was recognized as the only arbiter. Anarchy prevailed ; might made right ; there was no encouragement to industry, and the f>';ople were familiarized witli bloods,he<^L Iterance and SuperBtition. -buHng thes^j centuries of violence, ignorance was the rule ; even kings, in many instances, were unable to read or write. What little learn- ing there was, belonged to priests and monks, and was locked up in f^atin, which was the language of scholars and the church. Books were so scarce that none hut the rich could buy them ; we read of a countess giving two hundred sheep, besides wheat, rye, and millet, for a single volume. Parch- ment was so dear that the minute style of writing was practised ; a sheet eight inches by six is still extant, which coritains the five books of Mo8^:;s, with other parts of the Old Testament. With ignorance, superstition went hand in hand, im- plicit faith was placed in stories of giants and magicians, dragoriH and enchanted palaces, drawn from the treasures of Arabic romance. A belief that the world would be de- stroyed in the year 1000 spread a panic throughout Chri.s- tian countries. The fields were left unfilled, pnV^ners were released, foes reconciled, a.'id men stood waiting t^j fiear the Judgment-trumjj. Arts of the Middle Ages. — Yet, denpite such unfa- vorable conditions, many -cientific dincoveries date from these Dark Ages, and arts both useful and ornamental were cultivated and carried to perfection — notably glass- 196 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.— nilVALRY. King Robert the Pious, Son of llrou Capet, composing in Latin. (From a mauuscript of the fourtcoutb century.) painting, the embroidering of tapestry, the ceramic art, and scul{)turc. The Gothic style of architecture was born and matured ; and cathedrals, emblematic of the religious spirit of the time, arose in imposing symmetry. Until printing was perfected, the monks were copy- ists ; and every monaster)^ had its Scripto'rium, or writ- ing-room, whore scribes were engaged in multiplying manuscripts (see engraving). After leaving the copyist, the manuscript passed to the illuminator, who decorated it witli gorgeous designs in color, silver, and gold. Chivalry. — It was in this dark mcdian\al period that some Freftch nobles, filled with pity for the wretchedness CHIVALRY. 197 around them, united to remedy existing evils. They pledged themselves to defend the weak and champion the oppressed ; the church blessed their undertaking ; and thus was bom an institution which is the leading feature of European civilization in the Middle Ages. It was called Chivalry, from the chevaliers who en- rolled themselves in its support, and who finally consti- tuted the order of Knighthood, to which admission was obtained by a formal ceremony. From France this insti- tution rapidly spread to England, Spain, Germany, and Italy, in all which countries the Teutonic race was now established. All persons of gentle blood, except those designed for the church, followed the profession of arms, and were suj> posed to pass through three grades. In early youth they lived as pages with nobles of high rank ; next as esquires they attached themselves to some individual knight, whom they were bound to obey, to attend in battle, and serve with their very lives in case of need ; and finally they were themselves promoted to the rank of knights. For this dignity the youth was prepared by a long course of training. He was taught by severe exercises to endure fatigue, thirst, and hunger, to mn great distances, to turn somersets in heavy armor, to wield his weapons with agility and skill, and to manage his fiery barb with grace and dexterity. At twenty-one he was made a knight, usually during some great festival. He fitted himself for the impressive ceremony by fasting and prayer, and was admonished of the duties of knighthood by the priest who consecrated his sword to religion. He next took the oath of chivalry, to be true to God and the ladies, to protect the weak, de- fend the church, and shed his last drop of blood in behalf of a companion in arms. HLs spurs and armor were then fastened on, and the officiating lord concluded the cere- 198 CHIVALRY. mony by striking him on the neck, as he knelt, with the flat of his sword, saying, " In the name of God, I dub thee knight ; be faithful, bold, and fortunate." Knighthood was sometimes conferred with less ceremony on the field of battle, as a guerdon for valiant conduct. In the days of chivalry maidens also received training, but it was chiefly in household and religious duties. It was expected, besides, that they should acquire some knowledge of surgery, so as to treat the wounds which the knights received in their behalf. The singing of love- ditties and playing on the lute constituted the ornamental part of their education. Armor of the Knight. — The knight wore a helmet and armor of steel ; his weapons were shield, dagger, sword, lance, battle-axe, and mace. He was distinguished in battle by some device emblazoned on his shield or ar- mor. He took special pride in his horse, which was pro- tected by a breastplate and iron mask. When mounted, he was invulnerable ; but if he was unhorsed, the weight of his armor made him helpless, and its joints were seldom proof against the dagger of an enemy. The charge of a body of knights on foot-soldiers was generally irresistible ; it could be withstood only by the English bowmen, whose arrows, discharged with unerring aim, tried every joint till they found entrance at some weak spot. Wlien two bands of horsemen charged each other, the waving plumes and banners, the war-cries, the splintering lances, and the clash of armor, made the en- counter terrible. The Knightly Character. — Generosity, loyalty, truth, gallantry, valor, fidelity to a brother in arms, and a keen thirst for glory, may be stated as the essential at- tributes of the knightly character. Its leading feature, perhaps, wa;'. its respectful exalta- tion and love of woman. Every knight selected some THE KNIGHTLY CHARACTER. 199 lady to be the mistress of his heart, and maintained at the point of the lance her superior beauty and virtue. In the tender days of his pagehood he first learned the lesson of love and reverence, cherishing as of inestimable value the slightest favor from his lady's hand. The depth of this feeling is illustrated in a German romance, which rep- resents a devoted page as opening a wound in his bosom, to lay a gold thread which his mistress had given him as near as possible to his heart. His lady's presence was the greatest incentive to val- orous deeds that a knight could have. He wore her scarf, ribbon, or glove, on his helmet, and in her name would make the most extravagant vows and swear to perform impossible feats. And sometimes her caprice would exact from him achievements which taxed both strength and courage to the utmost. We read, for instance, that at a German court some knights and ladies were viewing two lions confined in an enclosure, when one of the ladies threw in her glove and commanded her lover to recover it. He leaped in, threw his mantle over the beasts as they rushed toward him, picked up the glove, and sprung out in safety ; but even his loyalty could not blind him to his lady's unreasonable caprice, and he immediately renounced one who could wantonly subject her true knight to such danger. The most whimsical vows were sometimes made, and once made had to be performed to the letter. Some knights of Edward IH. bound up one eye with a bandage, and vowed not to remove it until for their mistresses' sake they had performed " dreadful derring deeds " in France. We also read of an esquire of Spain, who fastened a piece of iron to his leg, and vowed to endure the pain till he had won renown by feats of chivalry. Other prominent elements of the knightly character were courtesy, self-denial, respect for the feelings of 200 OIUVALWV. others, and a nice sense of honor. Nor was hospitality the least of its virtues. The castle of every lord was open to travellers, and especially to minstrels, who wandered about from place to place, sing-ing- the compositions of the troubadours, or poets of Provence {pro-iH))i^s') in southern France. The minstrels were always welcome at court and castle, the burden of their strains beino; ir horses' tails were severed close to the body, and they were dragged to a scaiTold, where their spurs were cut off, and their swords and armor broken. Finally, they were arrayed in grave-clothes, and a funeral service was read over them, as dead to the honors of knighthood. Decline of Chivalry. — As learning revived, chivalry gradually declined, till finally it received its death-blow from the invention of gunpowder. The weakest vassal with a musket in his hand was a match for his steel-clad suzerain. The last flickerings of the ideal chivalry por- trayed in the old romances were extinguished by the ridi- cule put upon its extravagances by the Spanish humorist Cervan'tes, in his ininiit;il)le ''Don Quixote." Amusements of the Middle Ages. — In the intervals of war, hunting and hawking were favorite amusements. Even the clergy were excessively fond of field-sports. The monks of St, Denis excused their love of these diver- HAWK IN«. TOUKN AMKNTH. 201 sicjiis to (Jharlerna^iic (;ii tlic ^loniul that the flesh of ^ame was ^ood for the sick and the skins were useful in binding tlieir hooks. Five hundred years later, we are told, the Archhishop of York huntfid from parish to parish with a paf;k of liounds and a train of two hundred persons. In hawking' traincid falcons were used, and the heron was the favorite bird of chase. On finding itself pursued, the h<;ron would rise by short gyrations until almost lost in the clouds ; while the falcons, unhooded and slipped by their keepers as soon as the game was sprung, soared to a still greater height and swooped down on the quarry with prodigious force. The heron's sole defence was its long, pointe>'. ; while lop- ping off an ear cost 30a"., to pay for the disgrace involved in the loss of that appendage. The manufacture of linen having mostly ceased, woollen was the common material for the dress of both sexes ; to its constant and uncleanly use the prevalence of leprosy has been attributed by some. The ladies fastened their dresses with miniature skewers instead of pins, wliich were the invention of a later age. Fantastic fashions were not unconnnon ; among these were long-toed shoes, invented by Fulk, Count of An'jou, to hide an excrescence on one of his feet. The toes were HENRY II., OF KN(JLANI). 205 SO lon^ as to bo fastened to the knees with f^old chains, and were ornamented at the extremity with tlie representation of a bird or some other device. They soon came into ^'cn- eral favor, hut were found (juite unliandy if one fcill, as it was impossil)le to rise witiiout assistance. Amon<^ tlie inventions of these ages may be mentioned that of nmsical notes in the eleventh century. Clocks with vvei<^hts and w heels were used in certain monasteries, but they were great curiosities. 1 1 OO A. D. — Henry I. siKi-ccds William Rufus on the English thi'oiic. Alexius Coninenus I. emperor of the East. First Crusade just eonii)let('(l. (Jodfrey of Bouillon (boo-yoii)'') king of Jerusalem. Scan- dinavian colonies flourishing in (Jreenland. Ab-e-lard', a famous French scholastic divine, twenty-one years old. Gleams of light beginning to re- lieve the niidniglit darkness. CHAPTER XXVII. ACCESSION OF THE PLANTAGENET LINE. (1154-1272.) Henry II., the son of Queen Matilda and Geoffrey Plantag'enet of Anjou, succeeded Stephen in 1154. The name Plantagenet [jdante de gen^t, broom-plant) prob- ably came from the device of a sprig of broom worn by an early Count of Anjou. In addition to England, Henry inherited important provinces in France ; and, by marry- ing Eleanor of Poitou {pwdh-too') and Aquitaine, he ac- quired others, so that his authority was recognized in the west of France from the Channel to the Pyrenees. Immediately after his accession, Henry labored to reme- dy the evils which the late civil strife had brought upon the country. The castles of the factious nobles, long the 200) ACCESSION OF THE 1*L.\_NTAGEN 1:T LIJNE. ENGLISH DOMINIONS in tlu' tiiiu' (> HENRY II terror of the land, were destroyed. He next determined to limit the power of the church ; and to carry out liis de- signs, he made Thomas a Becket, his favorite chancellor, Archbishop of Canterbury. THOMAS A BKCKKT. 20? Wliile chancellor, Jiockct's poiiii) and retinue surpassed iUiytJiing' ever before seen in Enfj-land. When sent on an ornhassy to France, he so astonished tlie people with his inagnilicencc that they shouted, " IIow great must the liino; of England be, when this is only the chancellor ! " !5ut after Beckot was made archl)ishop, he at once aban- doiKul his luxurious habits, exchanged his ermine for sack- cloth, and stood forth as tlu; champion of the church. For eight years he was engag(id in a violent quarrel with IJenry, who at last, in a moment of anger, rashly ex- claimed, " (Jf all the cowards who eat my bread, is there not one who will rid me of this turl)uleiit priest?" Four knights thereupon set out for Canterbury, and following the archbishop into the cathedral struck him down before the altar. On hearing of Becket's murder, Henry, who had never iiitend(Hl it, was filled with sorrow, and for three days re- fused food. Becket was regarded as a martyr and canon- ized ; thousands made pilgrimages to his tomb. King Henry himself walk(;d barefoot into the city of Canter- bury, and kneeling in the; cathedral, confessed his sins, rec(uving five lashes from each bishop present and three from every monk. Waus of IIexry it. — In 1157, Henry compelled the W^dsh to acknowledge his supremacy. He next crossed swords with the king of France, whom he besieged in the city of Toulouse, his wif(! Eleanor laying claim to the duchy. Foiled by the valor of tlic; French knights, he linally retired, — not, how(;ver, until he had made some minor contjuests. Ireland was at this time divided into several kingdoms, and Henry availed himself of the dis- putes of the different chiefs to reduce a large part of the island. The ingratitude of his sons cast a blighting shadow on King Henry's life. Supported by their mother, three 208 AOOKSSION OV TllK I'LANTAOKNK 1' TJNK. of the princos took up arms a<2;aiiist him. Louis of Franco with his barons K'lit tliom aid, and \\'illiam of Scothuul joined llic h'ag'uo. 'The Scottish kinji^ was made captive, and, to obtain his liberty, was obliy-ed to kneel before Henry and swear fealty to him as lieov lord. Alter many reverses, the princes too for a tinu> submitted. But they were soon aii'aiu in ri>bellion ; and liually, in llS'.t, Heiuv died of a broken heart. Even whtui dvin<;-, he was hunteil from phu'(> to plact^ ; and when he learned that his idolized Jolni had turni'd a<>'ainst him, he invt)ked upon his sons tiu> veni;eance of Heaven. Scarcely were his eyes closed when his attend- ants hastily departed, carryint!; olf everythinjj;* that was valuable, and even strippin<>; the corpse. Kichard, his oldest survivino- son, succeeded. The tale of i'\iir lu)s'anumd bi^lon^s t(^ this rei^-n. She was a favorite of the kin<>-'s, for whom he had provided a secret residence in a beautiful bower. The queen, obtain- iui;- a clew to Rosanioiul's abod(\ suddenly appeared before her with a bowl of poison in one hand and a dag'o'cr in the other, and bade her choose between them. Rosamond, after vainly entreatini>' the queen to spare her life, took the poison, and foil dead in her beautiful bower. Accord- ing to other accounts she retired to a convent, and en- deavored by a holv lite to make aiU(Mids for her fonmu' faults. Richard I., the Lion-hearted, — At the time of IvichanFs coronation, the .lews, who to purchase his favor had hast- ened to the capital from every county in England with valuabU> prt>seuts, were attacked by the populace of Lon- don and niurdered in the streets, while their ellects were seized and their houses buriu^l. Similar atrocities were committed elsewhere. l''i\(> iuindred men belongin<^ to this persecuted race, who had taken ri>rim'(> in the castle KICIIAKI) (KKIIR IH«; MON. 201) of York, l)(\sic^o(l by a tumultuous mob, rosolvod to de- stroy tluiiiisidves and their treasures. Tlie eastle was lir(Hl ; and as the ilanies rose around them, they put to death their wives and eliildreii, and then stabbed them- s(^lves. Hardly was lliehard (u-owned when his adventurous spirit and thirst for glory led him to engage in an expodi- lioii to I'alestino, to deliver Jerusalem from the hands of lh«! MoliaimruMlans. 'i'o raise the necessary funds, he sold the royal dtMuains and olli(!es of state, extorted exorbitant sums, and declared that he would even part with London its(df if ii(^ (!ould find a ])iir(;has(^r. In I*al(!slinachery, licentiousness, and cruelty. He once demanded an immense sum from a rich Jew, and ordered one of his teeth to be pulled every day till it was paid. The unfortunate man suf- fered the loss of seven double teeth before he consented to the extortion. — John tortured and starved his cap- tives in dungeons, and hanged his queen's favorites over her bed. Henry III. — The reign of Henry III., son of John (1216-1273), was distinguished for the confirmation of the Magna Charta, and the assembling of the first regular IlENiiY III., OF ENGLAND. 211 Parliament in which the counties, cities, and boroughs, were represented. Henry was a well-disposed man, but a feeble monarch. He was unable to control the factious barons, who rebelled under the Earl of Leicester (les'ter), and took Henry and his son Edward prisoners. But the prince escaped, de- feated Leicester, and restored his father to the throne. Henry III. was a patron of ait and literature, and was skilled in the "gay science of the troubadour." T)uring his long reign of fifty-six years, England advanced in wealth and prosperity. Contemporaneous Sovereigns. Kings of England. Contempokauies. II K I Y II 11 ""4-1 180 ^ Malcolm TV. and William the Lion, of Scotland; ( Louis VIL and Philip Augustus, of France. Richard L, 1189-1199. ^ Philip Augustus, of France ; Frederick L, Henry I VI., and Philip, of Germany. T iK.r. 101/. ( Philip Augustus, of France; Philip and Otho John, 1199-121G. ■>, i fe ' „t ( IV., of Germany ; Innocent III., pope. t Philip Augustus, Louis VIII., Louis IX., Philip Henuy III., 1216-1272. .| III., of France ; Otho IV., Frederick II., Con- ( rad IV., of Germany. CHAPTER XXVIII. PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES. Origin of the Crusades. — Ever since the establishment of Christianity, Palestine, as the scene of our Saviour's earthly career, had been invested with a peculiarly sacred character ; and pilgrimages thither, at first undertaken from interest in tracing his hallowed footsteps, came to be regarded in later days as meritorious acts. 212 PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES. While Jerusalem belonged to the Saracens, pilgrims were looked upon as a source of profit, and their coming- was encovxraged ; Haroun al Raschid even sent to Charle- magne the keys of the Holy Sepulchre. But tow^ard the close of the eleventh century Palestine was conquered by the Turks, a Tartar race from beyond the Caspian, who had embraced the Mohammedan faith and erected a pow- erful monarchy in Persia and the adjacent regions. From this time pilgrims, as well as the native Chris- tians, were subjected to savage indignities. Gold was ex- acted from all who would enter Jerusalem, and those who could not pay were driven with revilings from the gates, often to perish on the highway. Stories of these outrages and the insults offered to the Christian religion were spread far and wide through Europe. At length in the year 1093, Peter the Hermit, a French monk, visited the tomb of the Saviour on a pilgrimage. Excited by what he there saw and suiTered, he determined to remedy these evils ; and on his return he preached with fiery eloquence through Italy and France the deliverance of the Holy Land from the unbelievers. Crowds followed him along the road-sides ; shops were deserted ; bushiess was forgotten ; princes and peasants were alike thrilled by his denunciations, as by an electric spark ; men listened to his words as to the voice of Heaven ; all Christendom was stirred to its very depths. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope Urban II. addressed an immense assemblage and urged them to en- list in the holy w^ar, promising to all who perished absolu- tion from their sins and the crown of martyrdom. "God wills it ! " burst from the multitude, and thousands on the spot offered themselves for the sacred service, each war- rior assuming a red cross * as a pledge of his enlistment. * In oltl French, crois — in Latin, c^-ux ; hence the term Okusade, ap- pHed to the Holy Wars. THE FIRST OliUSADE. 213 First Crusade (1096-1099).— Eiuly in tlm sprincr of 1096, au uiidiscipliiicd horde of about 300,000 men, women, and children, led by PetKK K1>\VAK1> 1. Edward, in order to conciliate the people, promised tlieni a native-born sovereign who could speak no English. When their barons assembled, he presented lliem his own son Edward, born a few days before in the Welsh castle of Carnarvon, and the chieftains kissed thi> hands of the first Prince oi' Wales. The ambition of Edward next Icil liiiii to attempt the amiexation of Scotland. AU-xander 111. in 1'>!S() had \c\'{ that kingdom to his infant granddaughter, the Maid of Norway. It was proposeil by Eilward to uiarry this prin- cess to his son, and thus consolidate the whole island ir. one monarchy. The plan was favorably received, but un- fortunately frustrated by the decease of the Scottish child- queen. Thirteen nobles at once claimed the vacant throne, chief of whom were John IJaliol and Robert IJruce. The Scots asked Edward to deciile the (piostion of succession. He pronounced for Baliol, who was crowned King of Scot- land as his vassal. Incensed at the treatment which as a vassal he received from the English king, Baliol soon renounced his allegiance and formed an alliance with Philip 1A\, the Fair, of France; but he was overthrown by Edward at Dunbar', captured, and incarcerated in the Tower of Lonilou. Scotland, however, was still unsubdued; a temporary deliverer appeared in the person of Sir William Wallace, against whom a powerful English army was promptly dis- {latt'hed. Its commander, hmling him strongly posted on the Forth, sent two friars to propose a truce. "Go tell your masters," said Wallace, "■ we came not here to treat, but to set Scotland free." Enraged at this dcHance, the English advanced and began to cross the river on a narrow bridge. When half the force had made the passage, the Scots fell upon it, and gained a complete victory. For a time Wallace acted as " Guardian of the Realm;" but at last defeated and betrayed by a follower to Ed- VVAIi Wl'ill SC()'II,AM>. 229 wan], he, vv;i,s c;ori(l<;nincd HH a traitor, add <\t:ijr^<(l at thf; tails of lifjrsos to the soaflold. Ili.s hcarl, f;rovviicfl in rnookcjy witli a wroath of laun;l, was srit f>ri f.ondon 15 rid go. Itobort IJrucf;, grandson of tho rival of lialioj, next aroso as tho restorer of his country's liberties, and after gaining some advantages over tho English was crowned king (1300). Edward, now an old man, again set out to confjucr .Scotland, but was overtaken on the way by death, lie had made his son promise to continue the war against the Scots, carrying his bones at the head of the army, for he believed that even the prf;sence of those would be suf- ficient to insure victory. Edward I. possessed many nr/fj|e and generous quali- ties, yet he was at times unjust and cruel. During his reign the .J(!Wh wore bitterly persecuted, and in 1290 they were expelh;'! the kingdom on pain of death. He con- firmed the Magna (jharta, and so improved the laws and administered justice tliat h(; was called the English Jus- tinian. Contomjjorafieous with Ivlward was Pope liori'iface VIII., in whose time the political influence of the papal see sensibly declined. When Boniface prohibited the clergy from paying taxes, Edward showed his disregard of the poj)f!'s authority by increasing his exactions. I'hilip IV. of France also asserted his independence of Jiome, calling the first assembly of the States-general (1302) to siipport him in his resistance to Boniface, The reign of this prince was further noted for the supjjression of the Knights Templars. Edward II. failed to comply with the dying injunction of his ffif li. 17G), was the scene of con- stant contentions between the German emperors and the popes, the partisans of the former being distinguished as 234 THE ITALIAN STATES. Glub(>llinos (i/hih'el-linz), and those of the latter as Guelphs {(/ice(fs). As the imperial power declined in the twelt'th and thirteenth centuries, many of the Italian cities as- sumed the right of self-government and formed them- selves into republics. The Crusades developed their com- merce, and in wealth, art, and literature, they were soon far in advance of the rest of Europe. Jn 1167 the cities of northern Italy formed a confed- eration, called the Lombard League, for the purpose of opposing Frederick Barbarossa in his attempts to re-estab- lish the German sway. Frederick was defeated by the forces of the league, and afterward signed a treaty which recognized the political freedom of the cities. Venice, founded, as we have seen, in the fifth century, on a group of islands in the northern Adriatic, became in time the most important commercial city in Italy, and finally in the world. At first each of the islands was a separate republic ; property was common ; rich and poor lived upon terms of equality. At length in G97 a conven- tion was held, and a prince was elected with the title of Do(/e (from the Latin dux, a leader). At a later date the Venetians brought the remains of St. Mark from xVlexau- dria, made him their patron saint, and represented his lion in their coat of arms. We next hear of the city's being assailed by the Hun- garians, in the tenth century. A furious naval battle took place, the sea was covered with dead bodies, and the Ve- netians, fighting upon heaps of the shiin barbarians as upon dry land, won a victory that made their name fa- mous throughout the worlil. This success was followed by the conquest of an extensive tract along the eastern shore of the Adriatic. The Venetians rendered important assistance to the first Crusaders, and during tlie struggle with the emperor Barbarossa destroyed forty-eight of his vessels. Their VENICE, f;KNOA, MTLAN. 235 naval .successes led tlierri to cele})r:it,e every year tlie sin- gular ceremony of wedding the Adriatic. The doge, sur- rounded by liis nohles and a fleet of gayly-equij»i>ed ves- sels, cast a ring into the waters, as a syni]>ol that the sea was subjected to liis control as a wife to her husband. In 1171, the Bank of Venice, the lirst institution of the kind in Kurope, was founded. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the government of Venice was an opjjressive oligarchy ; the authority of the doge was limited by a council of ten, whose power was almost absolute. A state inquisition was established ; spies listened to every word, and politi- cal offenders were visited with the direst punishments. Venice lost many of her possessions in wars with the 'I'urks ; finally, when the Cape of Good Hope was doubled by the I^^rtuguese in 1497 and a new passage thus opened to the Indies, her commerce received a death-blow. Gen'oa, the opulent rival of Venice, was the seat of a great commercial republic, whose colonies extended along the coasts of the Mediterranean and Black Seas. The tuo states were long engaged in wars, growing out of their commercial jealousies. Genoa was renowned for its marble palaces and the stores of artistic wealtli which they contained. For many years it was distracted by internal feuds ; and the Geno- ese, unable to govern themselves, at length fell under the power of France. In 1.52H, however, An'drea Do'ria re- stored the independence of his country, and gave the peo- ple a constitution which lasted for nearly three centuries, Miran, the richest and most populous city of Lombar- dy, almost impregnable with its walls and broad canals, revolted from the imperial rule in the twelfth century. Frederick Barbarossa was soon before the gates with an army. When famine at last compelled the Milanese to surrender, the emperor condemned their city to destruc- 236 THE ITALIAN STATES. tion, and forced tho cloriyy and nobles to repair to his camp baret'ooteil, with swords at their throats, to sue for pardon. 'i'lio Milanese, however, took ample revenge. Kaisinii; an army, tliey renounced their alloo-iance, seized the em- press, mounted her on an ass with her fine toward the animal's tail, conducted her to the g*ates, antl expelleil her from the town. On this Barbarossa razed tho w^alls to the ground ; hut Milan soon recovered, and under the N'iscon'- tis extended its power over nearly all Lombardy. Florence was early distinguished above the other cities of Tuscany by the industry of its inhabitants and their knowledge of the arts. IMoney-changers, jewellers, and goldsmiths, were nmuerous, and had conuncri'ial establish- ments in many of the Kuropean states. The government was at lirst in the hands of the nobles ; but about 1250 tlu> piople rose against them and estab- lished a democracy, in spite of civil conunotions, Florence increased in wealth, until it became the llnancial metropo- lis of Europe. The republic survived till the Hfteenth cen- tury, when the powerful family of Medici (ined'c-c/u) ob- tained control of the state. Cosmo de Medici, styled the " Friend of the People and Father of his Country," ruled with almost unlimited authority ; his w'calth was greatiM- than that of any king in Europe, and he lavished it upon the church and people. Under his nunnlicent patronage, sculpture, painting, and architecture llourislied, and tJreek professors "spread abroad the treasures of their orators, philosophers, and poets." Lorenzo the Magniticent, grandson of Cosmo, follow(>d in the path of his illustrious ancestor, and also beaut llicd FlortMice with many public edihces. Naples was subdued in the twelftli century by the Nor- mans, who united it with Sicily, forming the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It afterward fell into the possession of TMK ('AI-AI. SIAIKS. 2.'>7 (JliarloH of A/ijou, hrotfi(;r of LouIh IX. of [^>arif;o; biit such wore the iriHoloricf; and tyranny of \.\\(: Kronch that the. Sicilians rose against thorn on Kastowf!r was moved back to Home, liut contentions arose between dilTerent fac- tions respecting the rights of eh-ction, and at one time there w(!n; three rival po[)es. This division was called the Great Schism of the West. Italian Literature and Industry. — In the thirteenth cfMitiiry the Italian langu;ig(; assumefl its modern form. It was based on the ancient vernacular of the Roman peo- ple, modified by the primitive dialects, as well us by the iiiioms of the nations who successively invaded the coun- try. Dan'te the Florentine (1265-1321) may be called the father of Italian literature. His "iJivine Comedy" is 238 GERMANY. — RUDOLPH OF HArSBURG, the first work of modern genius that suffers not by a com- parison with the ancient masterpieces. Petrarch, the per- fecter of the sonnet, succeeded Dante, and still further improved the language. Boccaccio [ho-Jcaht'cho), the con- temporary and friend of Petrarch, was a great revivor of learning, and in his " Decameron " has left what is still regarded as a model of Italian prose. Architecture and manufacturing industry were revived at this time in Italy, no less tha;. learning and literature. Lucca and Genoa became renowned for their silks ; Milan and Florence, for their cloths. In Florence originated a beautiful gold coin, stamped with a lily, the device of the city, and called the Jiorm, which became a general standard of value. Germany. — After the death of the emperor Frederick II. in 1250, anarchy prevailed in Germany until the election of Count Rudolph of Hapsburg (JIawk''s-castle), in 1273. It was in this century that the Hanseatic League was formed by the German cities for mutual pro- tection against piracy, and the expansion of their com- merce. It embraced nearly one hundred towns, the four great depots of trade being London, Bru'ges, Novgorod in Russia, and Bergen, a seaport of Norway. The trade of Novgorod extended from Ireland to China. Its popula- tion, 400,000, was virtually independent ; and its great- ness passed into a proverb, so that it was asked, " Who can resist God and Novgorod the mighty ? " Rudolph put an end to the crime and oppression pre- vailing in Germany. In one year seventy castles, the re- treats of banditti, were demolished. The Duke of Austria, who refused to acknowledge his authority, was slain in battle, and since that time the house of Hapsburg has ruled in Austria. Rudolph's exaltation is said to have been predicted in early life. Wliile hunting one day, he was overtaken by THE HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. 239 a storm. Happening to meet a priest who was on his way to administer the sacrament to a sick person, he dis- mounted in the mud and placed his horse at the curate's disposal, walking- bareheaded by his side. The priest in return pronounced upon him a solemn benediction, and prophesied that he would wear the imperial crown. Rudolph had seven beautiful daughters whom he mar- ried to powerful princes, thus increasing the influence of his family. Only one son survived him, the Duke of Aus- tria, who was elected emperor in 1298 with the title of Albert I. Albert proved to be an avaricious and tyrannical sov- ereign. Feared and hated by his subjects, he was llnally murdered by his nephew, whose dominions he had appro- priated. The most noted successors of Albert I. were Henry VH., who reduced northern Italy and endeavored to re- store peace to that distracted country ; and Charles IV., who established the University of Prague, the first in Germany, and issued (1356) an imperial code, called the Golden Bull, because fastened with a golden seal (in Latin, bulla), which defined the rights of the electors,* and re- mained in force four hundred and fifty years. The barbarous Wen'ceslas, son of Charles IV., richly merited the title of " the second Nero," which he one day found written after his name on the palace-wall. It was dangerous even to be the friend of this tyrant, for there was no telling at what moment a bloodhound or execu- tioner might be called in requisition to gratify his brutal caprice or drunken fury. He had his wife's confessor drowned for refusing to reveal her secrets, and even roast- ed his cook alive for having badly prepared a fowl. At last he put to death his executioner, whom he ordered to cut * The princes who were entitled to vote at the election of an emperor were styled Electors. At this time they were seven in number. 240 SWITZERLAND. off his head, but Avho preferred not to take the emperor at his word. Sigismund {siJ'is-hitOK/), brother of Weuceshis, as- cended the throne in 1410, During his reign the Schism of the West was terminated. Switzerland. — Tlie history of Switzerland was intimate- ly connected with that of Germany during the reign of Albert I. This country, the old Helve'tia of the Romans, had been hiid waste by northern barbarians, and in the sixth century had become subject to the Franks (see Map, p. 156). During the decline of the Carlovingian power, the northern part had been incorporated in the German Empire ; but the ancient forest cantons on T^ake Lucerne' had never been conquered, and were only under the pro- tection of the emperors. Rudolph of Hapsburg had a large domain in Switzer- land, and proved a lenient master ; but Albert, desirous of enlarging his family possessions, proposed to unite the free Swiss towns to his Austrian estates, and this occa- sioned a memorable struggle for liberty. Albert appointed as governor an unscrupulous tyrant, Gessler, whose acts of oppression aroused the slumbering spirit of the Swiss, and, according to the national legend, called forth the energies of the liberator William Tell. Re- fusing to bow before the ducal cap of Austria, which Gess- ler had elevated on a pole in the market-place of Altorf, Tell was seized and condemned by the governor to pierce with an arrow an apple placed on the head of his son. Overcoming his feelings, the unerring marksman struck the apple to the core ; but in the excitement of the mo- ment he let fall another arrow which was concealed in his garment. Gessler inquired for what it was intended. " To kill thee, tyrant," replied Tell, " had I harmed my son ! " At these words, the governor ordered Tell to be placed in irons, and, embarking with him on Lake Lucerne, WILLIAM TELL. 241 started for a dungeon on the opposite shore. But sudden- ly a tempest arose, and the inexperienced soldiers, unbind- ing their prisoner, gave him the helm. Tell steered for the shore, leaped upon a rock, pushed the boat back again into the waves, and soon found an opportunity to pierce the heart of Gessler with an arrow. The Swiss now assembled an army, expelled the Aus- trian troops, and formed a league for the defence of their liberties. In 1315, Leopold, son of Albert, determined tc punish the confederated cantons ; but the flower of his army fell on the field of Morgar'ten (see Map, p. 301), be- neath the iron-headed clubs of the mountaineers. This is the first Instance in modern times of the superiori- ty of infantry to mounted men. WilHam Tell perished in a flood which de- stroyed his native village, while at- tempting to save the life of a child. His memory is still dear to the Swiss. On the rock to which he leaped from Gess- ler's boat stands Tell's Chapel, in which once a year religious service is per- formed. In 1386, a small force of Swiss gained another great victory over the Austrians, at Sempach (see Map, p. 301). In this battle Arnold Wink'elried cried to his country- TeL1/:i (. iiAPEL. 242 RICHARD n., OF ENGLAND. men, "Dear brothers, I will open a way for you; take care of my wife and children." Then, rushing on the bris- tlini^ spears of the Austrians, he g-athered as many as lie could within his grasp, and thus opened a path for his comrades into the ranks of the foe. The independence of Switzerland was not fully estab- lished till the end of the fifteenth century. Fourteenth Century : Inventions, etc. Tlio mariner's compass, ascribed to Gioja (jo'i/ah), of Amalfi {ah- maM'fc), Italy ; early known to the Chinese. Gunpowder, cannon, bombs, and mortars, used in war. Spectacles first made ; their usefulness al- luded to by Roger Bacon in the previous century. Chimneys ; glazed windows ; pins ; side-saddles. First mills established in Germany for the manufacture of linen paper. Modern science of anatomy originated in Italy ; first dissection of dead bodies at Hologna {bo-lone' i/ah) in 1315. Magic, astrology, and alchemy, in vogue; objects of alchemy, to lind the elixir of life, and the philosopher's stone with which to transmute the base metals into gold. CHAPTER XXXII. THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR {CONTINUED).— WARS OF THE ROSES. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, though only in his eleventh year, was crowned king of England after the obsequies of his grandfather, Edward TIL (1377). The throne of France was at this time filled by Charles V., the Wise, a patron of learning and founder of the Royal Li- brary at Paris. He wrested from the English nearly all of their French acquisitions, and even sent a fleet to rav- age their coasts. But soon after the accession of Richard, Charles died, leaving his kingdom to a minor (Charles VL). KICIIAKI) ir., OF ENGLAND. 243 France, as well as Eng^laud, now became a prey to the dissensions of ambitious nobles. In England, the uncles of Richard, the dukes of Lan- caster, York, and Gloucester [glos'ter) — fourth, fifth, and sixth sons of Edward III. — with other noblemen, were made regents during the prince's minority. To meet the expenses of the French wars, a tax of twelve pence was imposed on every one who had reached the age of fifteen. At this period the people of many countries were mani- festing a spirit of opposition to the exactions of their rulers, and the new measure roused the poorer classes al- most to madness ; it needed but a spark to spring the mine. When a young girl was shamefully insulted by a tax-collector, her father, Wat Tyler, dashed out the ruf- fian's brains with his hammer, and summoned his neighbors to arms. Wat's forces soon swelled to one hundred thou- sand men, who marched toward London, plundering the manors of the nobles, and murdering lawyers and justices. In compliance with the demands of the mob, Richard agreed that serfdom should be abolished, the rent of land reduced, and a general pardon granted. The following day, when attended by only sixty horsemen, he encoun- tered twenty thousand of the insurgents with Tyler at their head. Wat advanced to meet the king, playing with the hilt of his dagger ; but when he grasped Rich- ard's bridle, the mayor of London felled him to the ground. On this the rebels drew their bows ; but Richard, real- izing his danger, with greater presence of mind than could be expected in a youth of only sixteen years, boldlj' galloped up to the archers and exclaimed : " Tyler was a traitor ! Come with me, my lieges, I will be your leader." Disconcerted for the moment, the multitude obeyed, and were soon met by a large body of the king's troops, when falling on their knees they begged for mercy. But Rich- ard, safe from their violence, forgot his promises ; fifteen 2-i4 THE HUNnKKP YK.VKs' WAK. luiiidrod wore aftorwani oxecutod, many of whom wore left hani>-ino- in chains on g-ibbets as a terror to the disaf- fected. Resolved at last to rule tor himself, Ivii'liard sei/.eil the reins of power from the luunls i>f his unelo (Jloueester in 1389 ; and for a number of years he administered the government with remarkable wisdom and success. The turbulent Gloucester was tinally arrested, ai\d is said to have been smothered at Calais between two beds by oi-der of the king. I^ancaster's death not long afterward af- forded Kichard an opportunity of seizing on his innnenso landed property, to the exclusion of his son Henry, who had been banished from the realm. These and other im- politic acts of the king now awakeneil general iliscontent. When therefore Henry, the yoinig J)uke of Lancaster, returned to England in 1399, he was easily able to place lumself on the throne. Richard was imprisoned in Ponte- fract Castle (see Map, p. 30()), where his ilays were ontled, it is supposed, by violence or starvation (l-lOO). House of Lancaster. —Henry IV., who dethroned Rich- ard, was not the lawful so\ereign of Kugland ; the crown of right belonged to Edmund Mortimer, the youthful Earl of March, who descended from the Uuke of Clarence, third son of Edward HI. Henry's reign was one scene of confusion and trouble. The Welsh, under Owen Glen'dower, took up arms and threw off the English yoke. "^Phe powerful Percies also rebelled in concert with the Welsh. Henry Percy (Hotspur) and the Scottish Douglas, two of the most valiant knights in Christendom, met the king in the battle of Shrewsbury, and cut their way to the cen- tre of his forces. But Hotspur, after juM-forming prodi- gies of valor, fell by a random shaft, and the day was lost. On the other side, the Prince of Wales distinguished himself by feats of daring. Although severely wountled CIIARLK8 VI., OF FRANCE. 245 in the face, he refused to retire, saying, " Who will remain fighting, if the king's son flies at the first taste of steel V " This prince subsequently reduced the VV^elsh to submis- sion. The Lollards, or followers of Wycliffe, who attacked the corruptions in religion, were persecuted in this reign ; and a " heretic " was burned for the first time in England. Henry IV, died in 1413, worn out by anxiety and dis- ease. During his illness, his son, believing him to be dead, carried off the crown. On awaking to conscious- ness, the king asked him what right he had to the crown when his father had none, " My liege," replied Prince Henry, " with the sword you won it, and with the sword I will keep it," As from this period the histories of England and France were for some years intimately connected, we shall for a time consider them together. Charles VI. was king of France while Richard II. and Henry IV, reigned in England, In Richard's time, he col- lected twelve hundred vessels for the invasion of that kingdom, and also caused to be built, in parts, a wooden city, defended by towers, to serve as a fortress for his army. A storm, however, wrecked his fleet, and the frag- ments of his wooden town were washed up on the Eng- lish coast. Charles was weak-minded ; and two sudden frights which he received, first from having his horse stopped by a ragged maniac who warned him of treason, and the fol- lowing year by being nearly burned to death at a mas- querade, brought on attacks of insanity. To amuse him, cards are said to have been invented. His reign was dis- tracted by the contentions of the dukes of Burgundy and r)rleans ; and France, weakened by their strife, lay at the mercy of her enemies. Henry IV. was too much occu- -1(> rm; IHNDKllD \ KAKs' W A U. piod nt homo to think of foroi<>Mi ooii(i|upsts; but Henry v., his w.'ulikc son, rt>viviHl th(> t'hiiui of his jinccstois to t lio l^'n-nch crown. Henry V. of 10iii;l;iii(l, lid'on' lie Mscrndrd I lie tliionc, was M Irivoloiis :ni(l vicious piiniM", wliosc IVcmIks of {\)\\\ wtM'o so noloiious dial he wns oonnnonly cjilicd " ^hl(lc;l|) Iliirrv." Il(> lVc(iucnlc(l low I;i\(M-iis, and disguised as a iiii;"iiwa vniaii woidd c\cn attack and roli passiMS in I h(> stn>(Ms. But no sooniM" liad lliMny biH-onic kin<;- tiiaii his I'liaractcr cliaiid ; he tliscanh'd liis nnpiinciplcd associ- ate's, suiroinidcd iiiniscli' with c\|iciicnccd niinislcrs, and os})Oi'ially favored tiiosi> who had opposed his i'\ il career. C\)NQliKsr OK I'lJANClo,. 'rht> disti;ict<>d condition of i''i-anc(> soon (Mi^ai^-ed t ii(> at tent ion of il(Mii-\. Iu>vi\ini;' th<> chiini of his <;r(>at-i;iaiidfat iier I'ldward Mi., he (h>- niaiKhMl till* crown of that country as h(Mr of IMiilip th(» 1^'aii'. 'I'liis ciaiiu haviii;:,' l)e(>n indi<;'nant ly nd'iised, he re- (luired lii(< cession of Noiinaiidy, Main(>, and Anjou (s(m> Map, p. vO'v'), witii the liand of Catharine, dauohirr of (^harh>s VI., auil a dow rv of two million ciowns. Ni's^'otiat ions hetween th(> two kiii<;-donis l'ailt"d, and I lenry consetpiently invaded Krance in lll.">. At Ai^in court [(ih-zli(intj-h'0(^r') \\o achieved a glorious victory o\(>r an army foin- timers the size of liis own. I lis skilfid how- miMi discharo'iMl such a shower of arrows that the P'nMich troops h»>canie i-on fused, and many thousands were slaui^h- tered - aniono- tlu>n\ tlu> noblest of the n^alm. Kinii,- IliMi- ry wore a shininj;" lu>lmet surmounttMl by a j(>W(>lled ciown, and was sino-Knl out by a nvnnlxM- of l<'r was sax'cd h\ tlu> devotion of his S(|uires, who sai'ri- liced tluMr livi\s in (h'fendin<>; his. llenry knii;ht(>d tluMU as tlu>y lay bleedini"^ on thi> tield of battle, and promised that futnrt> <;-enerat ions should It^arn of their bravery. A lew years later, IbMiry conclmh'd a trt>aty by which IIKNICV VI. or IC.N«;i,ANI). 217 Ik; i(;<;(;iv(;(J llic |)iiii(:<;HH (Jatliariiic in iii;i,n ia^rc^ vv;i.h iriadfj Hi^^fMit during- llic lilclirrK; of (JharlitH VJ., a/i(J was (Ji:))oinl,ro(,<;<;toi-, Lrjrjk t,lii; li«;ld l,o /naintain Iuh fiau.H*;. 'I'li<; tnj<-, licir to t}ially in Uic Hoijl,li<;rn prov- in(;<;H. 'VUc ljiijr\\H\i gradually gained ^^njund, ann woiiid find itH fiilfilmi.nt. Havirifi; proved her power to the king''K natinfaction l>y Hin^lin- [)eared in camf>, clad in a Huit of white arm'^r and mount- * Tli<; tit,l<; of haupldn, derived Croru tli<; n;i(n<: of tlic province of Diiijphiiiy (hc;<; Mfijj, p. 202), waH firHt borne hy CharlcH V. It Ih nf)at<;(J that tli. 156) the seat of his government and religion in the West. The warlike Slavonic tribes that dwelt between the Danube and the Adriatic were also subdued, and after- ward became the stanchest supporters of the Ottoman power. While Amurath was g'oing over the licld after the last decisive engagement with the Servians, he was mortally stabbed by a wounded chief. Amurath organized a military corps composed of Chris- tian captives educated in arms and the Mohaunnedan faith. These were called Janizaries {new soldiers) ; they became the best-disciplined troops in Europe — the terror of Christian nations. Baj azet I., son of Amurath, surnamed the Lightning on account of his rapid movements, secured himself upon the throne by strangling his younger brother. In 1396 he defeated an army of 100,000 Hungarians, French, and Germans, led by Sigismund afterward emperor of Ger- many, who boasted that should the sky fall they could uphold it on their spears. In the pride of victory Baj- azet vowed that his horse should eat a bushel of oats from the altar of St. Peter at Rome. Meanwhile Constantinople, weakened by internal dis- cord, her European and Asiatic territories in the hands of the Turks, was regarded by Bajazet as his certain [)roy ; nor was it long before he appeared in front of the city with a besieging army. The emperor Manuel II. lied from his capital, and supplicated aiil in Paris and London. But Charles VI. and Henry IV. were unable to assist him ; and famine had almost opened the gates of Constantinople to Bajazet, when an unlooked-for deliverer appeared in Tamerlane, tlie Tartar conqueror, whose cruelties had al- ready made his name a terror to the Ottomans. The Janizaries of Bajazet met the Mongols on the IJAJAZKT I., JiiK i,i(;in'M.\(; 257 plains of An<^o'ra in Asia Minor, where, after a bloody conflict, they were put to rout (1402). Tlie sultan him- self fought with the bravery of despair, but the Mongols threw a mantle over hitri and captured hiin alive;. Tamer- lane, who was playing chess with his son when tin; royal prisoner was brought to his tent, kept him standing at [\n'. door till the game was decided. Bajazet was then Bajazet in tub Tknt oi' Tameklank. courteously received, and treated at first with princely generosity ; but on his attempting' to escape, as the story goes, he was loaded with chains, and thrust into an iron cage, against the bars of which he finally dashed out his 258 CONQUEST OF CONSTANTINOPLE. brains. The victory of Angora prolonged the existence of Constantinople for half a century. Mohammed II., the Great, ascended the Ottoman throne in 1451. He was a blood-thirsty and licentious sov- ereign, a man of unbridled passions, who scrupled not to take life upon the slightest provocation. Once, when sus- pected by his Janizaries of being infatuated with a beau- tiful Syrian, he cut oif her head and threw it among the soldiers, to convince them that he was not a slave to love. Mohammed coveted Constantinople for his capital, and, well aware of the effeminacy of its people, deter- mined to make it his own. But Constantine XIIL, the last of the Eastern emperors, though his resources were limited and his army was reduced to 7,000 men, resolved not to give up his birthright without a struggle. In the spring of 1453, Mohammed arrived at the gates of Constantinople with an army 258,000 strong, and di- rected his battering-rams and enormous cannon against the walls. One of his guns hurled balls of stone weigh- ing six hundred pounds. For fifty -three days the insig- nificant garrison withstood his attacks, but they were at last overwhelmed by swarms of Janizaries. The emperor, as he fought almost single-handed with the foe, vainly called on some Christian to cut off his head and hide it from the infidels. Struck down by an unknown hand, he was buried beneath heaps of the slain ; but his body was afterward recognized by the gold eagles embroidered on his buskins, and Mohammed exposed his head as a trophy of victory. The crescent henceforth waved from the towers of the fallen city, which became the Turkish capital. The subjection of Greece followed, and Mohammed even aspired to the conquest of Italy. The pope was pre- paring for flight, when his fears were dispelled by the death of the Ottoman sultan (1481). Se'lim I., grandson of Mohammed, defeated the Per- KINGDOM OF POLAND. 259 sians, and conquered Egypt, Tripoli, and extensive tracts in Asia. Poland. — While the great Ottoman Empire was thus erected on firm foundations in the South, the powerful kingdom of Poland arose in central Europe. The word Poland implies a plain, and the country so called, the an- cient Sarma'tia, was peopled by Slavonians. Toward the close of the tenth century, the Poles were converted to Christianity ; and, in the eleventh, Boleslas the Brave in- vaded Prussia and Russia, extended his conquests beyond the Oder, the Carpathian Mountains, and the Dniester (see Map, p. 387), encouraged commerce, and civilized his sub- jects. Poland, however, first took an important position among the nations of Europe in the fourteenth century, when Cas'imir III., the Great, a prudent and enlightened prince, further extended her domains, strengthened them with fortresses, and founded the University of Cracow (hra'ho). On his death (1370), Poland became an elective monarchy, and the crown was united with that of Hungary in the person of Louis the Great, one of the most power- ful kings of the Middle Ages. Louis was succeeded by a Lithuanian prince, whose dominions, lymg on the Baltic coast north of the River Niemen, became absorbed in Poland. Through his efforts many of the Lithuanians, who worshipped fire, trees, and reptiles, were converted to Christianity. Occupying as it did a frontier position with reference to the western nations, Poland, in conjunction with Hun- gary, was at a later date obliged to meet formidable inva- sions of Turks, and with varied success. Its people were improved and its dominions increased by a wise adminis- tration of the government, until under Casimir IV. (1445- 1492) we find its territories stretching from the shores of the Baltic to the mouth of the Danube. 2G() ORIGIN OF MODEKN STAIN, 1 400 A. D.— Bajazct sultan of Turkey ; capital, Adrianoplo. Tamerlane, the Tartar, in the midst of his career of conquest. Russia tributary to the Mongols. Medieis in Florence; Viscontis in Milan. Den- mark, Norway, and Sweden, united under Margaret, " the Seniiramis of the North." Charles VI., of France, midway of his wretched reign. Henry IV., of England, invadinj^ Scotland. Thomas i\ Kcmpis, a re- nowned (iei'inan ascetic wi'iter, twenty years old ; afterward author of the " Imitation of Christ," translated into every civilized language. CHAPTER XXXIV. PERIOD OF MARITIME DISCOVERIES. Spain. — Wc must now return to the history of Spain, wliich we h^l't on page 177. This country, including mod- ern Port'ugal, about the middle of the cUwcnth century comprised several Christian states, and a inunber of Jietty Moorish sovereignties weakened by internal strife. The ('hristian princes, however, were prevented by similar dis- sensions from combining against their common foe, and in 1238 the Moorish kingdom of Granada (grd-nah'dd) was founded. In 1479 Ferdinand V,, the Catholic, became king of Aragon ; his wife Isabella had previously inherited the .sovereignty of Castile and Leon, Thus all the Christian principalities in Spain, except Navarre, were united under one sceptre. Ferdinand and Isalwlla rigidly administered justice, and restored peace to their dominions, which had long suf- fered from civil commotions. Filled with a desire to j)rop- agate the Christian religion and suppress heresy of all kinds, these sovereigns introduced the Inquisition, a court authorized to try persons accused of differing from the established faith. This institution became the terror, FKK1)INANI> AND I.SAI5KLLA. 261 not only of .Icwh and Mohammedans, but even of tlie Spanish nobk's and clergy. On the slightest supicion they were seized, "tried" under circumstances of irri|)en- etrable secrecy, tortured to extort a confession of guilt, and in many cases put to death, while the crown was en- riched with their wealth. One of the cliief events of the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella was the conquest of Granada, the last stronghold of the Mohammedans in Spain. For eight months the city, crowded with starving people and distracted by rival factions, held out against an army of seventy thousand. Its luxuriant plain was the scene of frequent conflicts be- tween the Christian knights and Moorish cavaliers ; the feats of vahir there performed were long celebrated in the ballads of chivalry. Isabella herself, richly attired in complete armor, rode through the catnp encouraging h(!r soldiers ; whilf; the Moorish ladies toiled upon the ramparts and cheensd their defenders with their presence. But famine and insubor- dination at hmgth cornpelhid the Moslem king to capitu- late ; lie surrendered his capital on condition that the in- habitants should remain undisturbed in their religious faith and the possession of their property. Thus terminated in 1492 the Saracen empire in Spain, after an existence (;f nearly eight centuries. The Moors were for a time allowed freedom of worship, but they were eventually compelled either to embrace Christianity or leave the country. Thousands departed from their native land, and those who remained lived in constant dread of the cruelties of the Inquisition. By such intol(;rance Spain lost multitudes of her most us(;ful and thrifty inhabitants. Portugal, the Lusita'nia of the Romans, which had been conquered by the Moors, was partly nicovered at the close of the eleventh century by the king of Leon and 2(32 PERIOD OF MAlilTlME DISCOVERY. Castile. Its complete independence was secured under Count Alfonso (1139), who, after defeating the Moors in a j^reat battle near the Ta'gus, was saluted as king by his followers on the field which his valor had won. During the reign of John I., the Great, the Portuguese discovered Madeira and the Azores'. After the death of John, in 1433, Portugal became the most enterprising country in Europe. Arduous voyages were undertaken ; the whole of the western coast of Africa was explored ; and in 1497 Vasco da Gama {vah'sko dah gah'mah) dou- bled the Cape of Good Hope, sailed across the Indian Ocean, and in the following year hmded on the Malabar' coast. Here the Portuguese found fertile regions and partially civilized nations, and Vasco returned to Lisbon loaded with the rich products of the East. King Emanuel the Foi'tunate encouraged his subjects in this new career of commerce and discovery. The}' soon gained the control of the Eastern trade, and estab- lished a vast colonial empire — the wonder and envy of the world. Discovery of America. — While the Portuguese were thus searching for a route to India, Christopher Columbus, a Genoese navigator, became convinced that the earth was round, and that he could reach Asia by sailing across the unknown Atlantic. For several years he applied in vain to various European governments for men and ships ; at last, in 1492, Queen Isabella of Spain furnished him with three small vessels, and he set sail from Palos {paJt'loce). So sure was Columbus that he would reach Asia tliat he carried a letter from King Ferdinand to the Grand Khan of Tartary. After a long and anxious voyage he landed on one of the Baha'ma Islands, which he called San Salvador'. With- in a few months, Cuba and Hispanio'la (Hayti) were dis- covered. In Cuba the Spaniards first saw the potato used DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 2G3 as an article of food, and the dried leaves of the tobacco- plant smoked. The simple natives regarded the Europeans as visitors from the sun, and willingly exchanged lumps of gold for glass beads and nails. It is told of one Indian that, hav- ing obtained a small bell for four ounces of gold, he fled to the woods with his prize, lest the Spaniard should re- pent of his bad bargain and demand back the bell. Columbus left a colony on Hispaniola, and returned to Spain in 1493 with numerous specimens of the products of the New World — gold, tropical plants, Vjirds of brilliant plumage, and several natives. He made three subsequent voyages, in one of which he reached the main-land of South America ; still the continent which Columbus had discov- ered was not named from him, but from a Florentine, Americus Vespucius (ves-pu'she-ns), who afterward took part in several exploring expeditions and was the first to publish a description of the newly-discovered lands. American Indians. — At the time of its discovery, America was occupied by men of a copper color, with long black hair, and of erect agile forms. Their progeni- tors are supposed to have crossed from Asia in early ages and to have spread over the continent. Columbus called these people Indians, for he supposed he had landed on the borders of India. They dwelt in rude wigwams made of bark or skins. Hunting and fishing, together with what little maize, or Indian corn, they raised, supplied them with the means of subsistence. The Indians were generally brave, cautious, and hos- pitable to strangers. They worshipped the Great Spirit, and believed that the souls of the good, after death, en- joyed everlasting pleasures in the happy hunting-grounds! The young Indian was trained in athletic exercises, and taught to endure hunger and fatigue. He learned to wield the war-club, and hurl the tomahawk. His senses 2()4 KXIM. ORATIONS IN AMKKK^A. were rondored wonderfully acute, so that he could read the slightest signs in (he forest or detect tlie cunningly- concealed trail of an enemy. The warrior took pride in controlling his feelings, and endured the tortures of the stake, often ihe prisoner's fate, without a groan. Eacli trihe was noininally uncU-r a eliief, who took ihe lead in battle and decided important matters around the council- fire. Early Conquests and Settlements. — In the latter part of the tiftcenth ci'Mluiy, tht' Knglish hegan a series of voyages which resulted in the discovery of Newfoundland [nn'/und-UnHl) and the exploration of the Atlantic coast from Labrador to Florida. For Spain, however, was reserved the honor of pene- trating to the Pacific. Balbo'a, the commander of a feeble settlement on the Gulf of Da'rien, learned from a native chief of a great ocean lying in a southerly direction. Braving the perils of the wilderness and the attacks of hostile Indians, he succeeded in crossing the Isthmus, and took ]iossession of the Pacific in the name of the king liis master (lalo). Mexico, at the bi'ginning of the sixteenth century, was a rich empire under the dominion of Montezu'ma, emperor of the Aztecs, the most civilizetl of the North American aborigines. They had followed the Toltecs, a race that came from the North in the seventh century, occu[)ied Mexico for four hundred years, and then settled in Central America. The Aztecs cultivated the arts, were skilful agricultu- rists, cloth-weavers, and exquisite workers of the precious metals. Their cities were adorned with imposing edifices; and their capital, Mexico, founded in i;>'2r), glittered with magnificent palaces and temples. The people communi- cated with each other by means of hierogly})hical })aint- ings. MKXICO ANI» rilK AZTICOK, 2f)5 lliil tlic A/1,ecH were idolaters, and Hacriliccd captivoH taken in war to tlieir false godw. 'I'lie SpaiiiardH of (*uba liaving learned of the Azt((e Kitn|)ire, an ex|)e(lit,Ion was Hct on foot for its Huhjiij^ation, inider llx; conunand of ('orte/,, a criiel, avarieiouH man, //■ >- .*^ ^JT-n ;'/ ■H ( 'OLLMIUS, but energetic and zealouH for the exteiiKion oi' h'm religion. With about six hundred soldiers and only ten small ean- non, Cortez fearlessly marched to the Mexican capital, destroying the idols and erecting in their stead crosses and images of the Virgin. 20(; t'ONCiUKS'l' OK M1';\1(X> AND I'lORU. Montc/.iuna. was seized and perished in eaiilivity. Gua- teuio/in (^(jnHih-te-nio'zlii)y the his( of I he A/tiH-. emperors, was haui^-ed hy order oi' Cortez, and lor three hundivd years tlie su[)reuiacy of Spain was aekno\vled<;vd in INU^xieo. — Tlie hi^'otod eoiuiucrors destroyed vast libraries of (he Aztee pieture-writ ing — an irrei)aiahlo loss to tlu^ worhi. Pkuu, among all the countries of the New \Vorld, when lOuropeans lirst visited its shores, was foreniosl in power and rielies. Its inhabitants were a peaceable in- dustrious rac^e, iar advaneiHl in the arts. Stories of (he vast wealth of I'ei-u eatne to the ears of I'i/ar'ro, an un- prini^ij)led Spanish advent uri'r. Tiiirsting for its treas- ures, with a small foree he invaded the empire, d(>feated its disciplined armies, and iinprisotu'd tlie Inca, or Peru- vian monareh. The unfortunate captive, to ell'ecrt his re- lease, agreed to lill the room in whitdi he was eonlined as high as he could reach with gold; but after collecting more than llfteen million dollars' worth of precious ornaments, he was strangled by the perfidious Spanianl. IVru thus became subjt>ct to S])ain (1533). Voyages and Discoveries. 1 1 '.12. Oi.'tt>l)or I'ith, Columbus discovers Anioi'icii. 1H»7. Ciib'ots, oouuiiissioucd l)y Ilonry VII., oC Kiiuliiinl, discoviT llu- main-land of Aiiicric;! (New louiidlaiid oi' liabnnloi''). 14'.)8. C/olumbus discovers tlic main-land of" South AmcriiM. 1490. First voya}:;o of the Florentine Amerigo Vcspueei. 1500. Bnv/il discovered by the Portuguese Cabral {hah-brahl'). 1501. Coast of North America exi)lored by the Portuguese Cortereal. 1502. Coast of (-entral America explored l>y Columbus. 1505. Ceylon visited by the Portuguese Almeida (dfil-iiid'c dnh). 1509. Sumatra reached by Portuguese explorers. 1511. Malacca conquered by the Portuguese Albu(|uer(iue [ahl-boo-kir' ka). 1512. Florida discovered by the Spaniard Ponce de Leon. 1513. September 29th, Paeilie Ocean discovered by Palboa. 1517. Mexico discovered by Franeiaco Fcrnaiulcz de Coi-dova. 1520. Magellan enters the Pacific by the Strait ol' Magellan. TIIK INVICNTION OI' I'RINIIN*;. 2<)7 CHAPTER XXXV. BEGINNINGS OF MODERN HISTORY.- hi RST I'UnOR KINGS IN ENGLAND. MoDEKJsr JIiSTOJtY canriot properly ho said to com- mence at any sing-lo year or with any one event. '^I'lie fifteenth century, however, may be regarded as having witnessed its birth. 'J'he darkness had for some time been lifting, glimmerings of light had been breaking upon the nations, and the gray dawn was now followefl by thf; brightness of day. Among the changes which mark the begintiiiig of a new era in the history of the world, are the fcjllowing : The rise of consolidated governments ; the formation of a middle class, the bone and sinew of society ; the re- vival of taste and learning ; improvements in philosopliy ; the spread of knowledge anrl of a spirit of fr(;e inquiry ; the growth of art and science ; maritime explorations and discoveries, following tlie extended use of the mariner's compass ; and especially sf!V(;ral great inventions, which show that the human mind had thrown off its lethargy. The Art of Printing. — Foremost among these wonder- ful inventions was tliat of printing. This art, rudely practised by the Chinese twelve hundred years before, was perfected in (U'rmnny about 1450. The idea originated with Co.ster, of Harlem in Holland, by accident. He one day picked up a branch, and after amusing himself by ca,rving some letters on it, wrapped it in a piece of paper and fell asleep. On waking, he foufid the paper moist- ened with rain and distinctly impres.sed with the letters which he had engraved. The practical application of this principle at once suggested itself, and Coster was not long in devising a process for taking impressions from wooden blocks. Not, however, till movable types were 2t>^ BEGINMNGS OF M01>EUN HISTOHY. employed by Gutenbero: {(jfoo'fcn-hcn/), of Mentz, was the invention made available. The iirst book was printed by Gutenberii; and his ]>art- ner Faust, in 1455. It was the Bible, and so rapiiUy were copies of it produced that they were looked upon as the work of mag-io. Faust was apprehended as a wizard, aiul to save himself from the llames had to make known the secret of his art. Tiie facilities for printing- w^ere gTeatly increased by Faust's son-in-law SchOf fer, who invented punches by which sharpness and llnish were given to the tv[H\ Uc- fore the end of the centiny, 8.509 works had been puli- lisheti. Anions^ the important discoveries that followed the in- vention of printing-, niay be mentioned that of the true theory of the solar system by the Prussian Coper'nicus. Setting aside the time-honored opinions of centuries, supported by the authority of Aristotle himself, Coper- nicus taught that the earth turns on its axis ironi west to east, and along- with the other planets revolves round the sun. Henry Vn. — It was at the commencement of this new- born etfulgence which illumined Europe, that Henry \'ll., after the victory of Bosworth, ascended the throne of England (1485). The following year he married Eliza- beth, in whom the rights of the House of York were vested, and thus the two Roses were united. Such, how- ever, was his aversion to the Yorkists, that he treated his wife with harshness and neglect. Henry had not long held the throne before a movement was made to drive him from it. The birth of a young prince in 1486, threatening to make tiie crown hereditary in his family, aroused his enemies to action. A lad named Lambert Sinmel was induced to personate the nephew of Edward IV., the young Earl of AVarwick, at BEION OF IIENKY VII. 200 tfiat time confmrjd in t\\<- Towf-r of r>orKlori. Tiamhort was proclairrxfl kinir in In^land ; but his adherents were defeated, he was taken prisoner, and made a scullion in the king's kitchen. After this failure, a rumor was circulated that the young' Duke of York, who was believed to have been murdered by Richard III. in tlie Tower, had escaped and was still alive. The person of this prince was counter- feited by a mysterious youth called Perkin Warbeck, who received the appellation of " the White Rose of Eng- land." rie was recognized in France as the rightful heir to the English throne, and so far imposed on .James IV. of Scotland that the latter gave him a near relative in marriage. Many of the people and some of the nobles, believing in the justice of Warbeck's claim, openly de- clared for him. P^ven Sir William Stanley, to whom King Henry owed both his life and crown, when accused of being a partisan of the pretender, admitted the charge, and in spite of his previous services was executed. Warbeck at length with a few companions, and in the hope of being joined by the people, invaded England ; but his heart failed him at sight of the royal standards, and he hastily decamped, leaving his followers to the mercy of the king. Most of them received pardon ; their cowardly leader afterward surrendered, and was committed to the Tower. Having made a public admission of his imposture, he woul'l no doubt have been spared but for a subsequent attempt to escape, for which he was brought to the seafToIrl These dilliculties over, Henry, no longer in dread of conspiracy, enjoyed a peaceful reign. The wife of War- beck was brought to court, and became an attendant of the queen. In compliment to her beauty, the name of " the White Rose," which had been given to her husband, was transferred to her. During the reign of Henry VII., the nobles being al- 270 TIIK KIKST TUDOJt Kl^^GS. lowed to soil their lands, the feudal system received a death-blow. A law for the suppression of retainers was also put in force ; and, as an evidence of the kino-'s regard for the public coffers, it is related that, after being mag- nificently entertained by his devoted supporter the Earl of Oxford, who imprudently asst-mblcd his liveried vassals t(/ receive their sovereign, he fined his host £10,000 for break- ing the statute. Henry sought to increase the iiifhuMice of his family by foreign alliances. His eldest daughter Margaret was given in marriage to James IV. of Scotland ; and Arthur, Prince of Wales, received the hand of Catharine of Ariigon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Prince vVrthur, how- ever, shortly died of the plague, and his widow was then betrothed to his younger brotlier Henry. Avarice was the ruling passion' of Henry VH. He is said to have left £1,800,000. On his death-bed ho en- joined his son to make restitution to any who had suffered from his exactions. Henry VIIL succeeded his father in 1509. Immediate- ly after his accession he nuirried Catharine, and for a time he was at peace with all the world. In 1512, however, he was induced by the pope to join a league against the French, who had established themselves in northern Italy. Henry led an army into France, and gained a great victoi-y in the Battle of Spurs, so called because the French troops at sight of the English put spurs to their horses and fled. The French army was saved from total rout by the cele- brated Bay'ard, "the knight without fear and without re- proach." Peace with France soon followed, but troubles arose with a later king, Francis I., the history of which will be given in a subsequent chapter. Flodden Field. — James IV., of Scotland, though mar- ried to Henry's sister, took part with the French king against him. While his brother-in-law was engaged iu KKIGX OF HENKV \lll. 271 France, he crossed the English border with a powerful army. On Flod'den Field a desperate battle took place (1513), in which James fell with ten thousand of his fol- lowers. In early life James TV. had headed a rebellion which was the cause of his father's death. To atone for his crime, he wore an iron chain to which a new link was added every year. Because this chain was not found at Flod'den, the Scottish peasants would not believe that their kin^^ had fallen. After his death Queen Margaret became regent for her infant son, James V., and peace was made with England. Cardinal Wolsey (icodl'ze) was one of the most dis- tinguished men of Henry's reign. Of obscure origin, he studied for the church, and becoming a favorite of the king was rapidly promoted, till at last he united in himself the dignities of Cardinal and Lord High Chancellor of tlie kingdom. His princely establishment contained five hun- dred persons. On public occasions he was attended by nobles and prelates ; before him was borne a cross on a pillar of silver, while a train of mules followed with crim- son-covered coffers on their backs. His ambition led him to aspire to the papal chair, but without success. Hexry's Marriages. — For several years Henry lived happily with Catharine. Five children were bom to them, of whom the princess Mary alone survived. At length the king became enamored of one of the queen's maids of honor, Anne Boleyn (fjodl'en), and to make room for her he determined to divorce Catharine, on the ground that she was not his legal wife, having been previously married to his brother. But in this he was opposed by the pope. Wolsey, who had at first approved of the king's plan, would not finally take the responsibility of favoring the divorce ; he was accordingly dismissed from court in dis- grace. Pursucfl I)y the malice of Anne, he v»';is at length 272 111!'; 1 iitsr '11 KoK KiNciS. iirrcHlcd lor trcjisoii, .itid on liis way io liOiidon to asstMt Ills imi(ic('iic(> was lakdu sick and died. On his death-bed lie hiiiicntcd tlial he had not discliarg'ed his duty to his (!(k1 as faithfully as lie had S(M"ved his kino-. To solve the proMiMn of I he (livorc(>, llenry, thou<:;h h.^ had jraiiied th(> title of " I )efendei- of tlie I'^iilh" by writiiii;- ai^-ainst "ihe n(>\v l(>ai-iiiM<;- "" of Ludier, now re- iiouiuumI the authority of tho ijojX! and had himself de- clanMl head of tlu^ church. 'IMiose who ndusinl to ac- knowledi^-e liiiii as such were mercilessly dealt with. Sir Thomas Mor(>, a n»an eminent for ability and virtue, deny- iiii;- th<> kin{>^'s supnnnatiy, was condennied and (wecuted. ( )n tlu> scallohl he kissed the headsman, sa,yini>', "To-day thou wilt render me the ^reatt^st service in the pow'iM- of any mortal." Thomas Cranmer, a. learned (lootor who had written in favor of lh(> divorce, was maihi Archbisho[) of (.-anterbury and piime minister after the deatli of Wolsey. Ho pro- nounced the kin<>-'s niarria<>^e with (Vtiiarinc^ invalid, and his union with Anne JJoleyn lawfvd. Anne became (h(> mother of the princess Elizabeth, but soon after lost the alVeclion of her husband, and was b(>lusad(Ml. The next morninj;- llenry married Lady .laiH» Seymour, who died tho year follow iny-, after <;ivini>- birth to Princ(> P^dward. Henry's fourth wife was Anne of (.'leves, who, disap- pointind. An Italian duchess whom llenrv next in\it(Ml to share his throu(\ replied that if she had two heads she miyht listen to him, but as she had only one she preftMi-ed to k(>ej) it on her shoulders. (Catharine iloward, the fifth (|U(MMi, was (>xe(Miled ; and in \h\',\ lleiuy marrii>d his sixth wife, ("athai'ine I'arr, "the discreetest and most meritorions of his queens," who owed it rather to h(>r own taot than the king-'s ref>ard that she outlived him. At first an accomplished and popular prince, IJcnry III'lNItY VIM., <)I'' |;N(JI-ANI). 27''> nil iiii;ii(ily l)(!C,aiii(5 nil odioiiH iynini, Iriiiiipliii^ on ilic lih- (ulicis of lli(! pcoph^, ^iviii^" I(mj.s(! rc.iii.H lo liin piiKsioiis, and [)ursuin^ to tlio lii.si (ixircniiiy tlioH(! who crossed liis scll- isli |)tir|)OH(!S or otlK^rwisc^ iiuMirn-d liis r(3S(;ntrnoiit. Ih; (iiijilly <»r(!W to l)(! cxccsHivcly corpuhiiit, uiid wli(^tlis(i, carrots, tiiniij)S, and other ve^(!tal)h!S, Ix^^an to \)o, ouitivat(id. Bcilon; this so littli; attention was |)aid (o f^ardonin^ in Eng'land, that whKM A rioN. (.'luivi'h — h:ul biH'oim' uoil one baud, or, t>n the other, exehisively di-voted to tlie study of art and |)hiU>so]>hy. The |Hnver wliielj the popes had onee wielded over foreign prinees liad now greatly tlw in- died ; the times were ripe tor a religit)us, as wi'll as for a politieal and soeial, revohilion ; and people in various quarters ardently desired to eseape from eei'lesiasti^-al diMuinatiou. (^ermany found a leader in Martin laither, Franee in John Calvin, and Switzerland in I'lrie /wingle Previous Attempts at Reformation. — Dissatisfaction with tenets and usages whieh it wis ilaiiued were un- known to the primitive clmreh, and a dispositii>n to exer- eise freedom of thought in religious matters, had been inauifi'sted from time to tinu* in dilVeri'ut countries. As early as the twelfth century, the Alhigen'ses, who dwelt in the south of Frani-e, a district which the old Ro- man civilization had never entirely deserted, rejected many established doctrines, and boldly opposed the authorities at Home. Count Raynunul of Toidouse [foo- looz') took the part of his people ; while the troubadours, eeasing to celebrate their ladies' charms or the brave deeds of knights, poured out their satirical reflections on the priesthood in the musical tongne of Provence. The church condemned the opiTiions of the Albigenses at various councils ; then took more decided measures to suppress the sect. A war of extermination was pro- claimed against their creed by Pope Innocent 111., ami the Albigensian faith was ]>ut out in blood. John WyelilTe has already been referred to as having raised his voice against the errors prevalent in Kngland. His doctrines survived him, and paved the way i'ov radical changes in the faith of his count rynuMi as well as that of Germany. MA in IN I.I'IMKK. 275 Jolin Hiiss uri'l Jcrorn*; of I'ragiu; preached the tencfH of Wyclifrc in IJohcmia early in the century after hiH deatli. lioth v^/i-rv. condemned to the Ktake ; hut t}ie fol- lowerH of Hush flew to arrnH to avenge his death. In a long war w'th tlie emperor Sigihmund, they were at first suc- cessful, but were eventually reduced to submission. Martin Luther, the celebrated Ger- man' reformer, was born in a village of Saxony, in 1483. I'he son of a poor miner, he was at times obliged to support himself, while at Hcliool, by singing from door to door. The sudden death of a friend, who was struck down at his side by lightning in 1.505, deter- mined Luther to consecrate liimself " to the church ; he entered a cloister, and became a monk. Three years later, be was called to be a professor in tlie University of Wittenberg, Saxony. 'I'he abuse of indulf/encen in Germany, b»y a monk named John Tetzel, precipitated the action of Luther in arraying himself against the church at Rome. These in- dulgences were originally remissions, in whole or in part, i'oi'K Jt;;,n;H 11, WHO I.AtI) 'IMF, '>;l'.;.Kl'.-hTO.'a]>al aiilhoiity, and bawod on what he considered "ihc imic liiitli of S(•l•iI^^lll•(^" In liiis work, he was ably Kiijt|(oited l»y his friend MelaiK;'- thoii, a man of jjjentleness and j)rndence, w lio heeame firmly altacdied to the new eauHti. NotwitliHtandiny all opposition, tlu; Iterormation ji;ained a strong foothold in noitlu^rn (xermany. In IHriO, seven powerful ])rinees, together with fifteen imperial cities, entered a protest against the decree of a diet held at Spires, which was antagonistic^ to the lu-w doctj-iiic^s. I^'rom this time tlie reformers were (tailed I'rotcstaiitH. The rrotcstant (Jerman princes were soon obliged to form an nUiaiicc for tlic dcrcncc of their religion and lib- erties. War with the emperor followe(l. Alter many reverses, tliey secured freedom of worship by the Treaty of Augsburg, in 1555. Luther died in 15l(>. For the last twenty years of his life he enjoyed domestic ha))i)iness with his wife, whom he married, as he said, "to please his father and tease the pope." Ilis was the decided (tharac^ler of an out- spoken, intrepid, energetic reformer — of violent, temper and impatient of contradic^tion, but neither malignant nor unforgiving. Various grand tunes and hymns attest his love of music and skill in composition, lie left lo his (uiuntrymen a i)recious legacy in his simple and f(»rcibh' translation of the liible, from the appearance of wlii(di (lermaii literal uri' may alm<»st- be said to rog- rcHH. In Kngland the authority of the f)Ope was i'(;nouriced hy ninfH of difl'erenc*; in their several creeds which prevented tlwrn from uniting in one church, TiUtheranihm prevailed in (iermany, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden ; the (Jalvin- istic doctrines, in Switzerland, Franr;(;, and Kngland. The ]tefonnali<;n did not affect the Greek church, 2S0 TlIK RKFOKMATIDN. though the rrotestants triiMl to socuro for thoir doctriiics the approvaxl of the Patriarch of Constant inoplo. The Jesuits. — A\'hilo the Protestants were thus divided, an assoeiation foumled by Loyo'hi, a Spanisli soldier (1534), arose for the support and extension of the Catho- lic faith. This was the order of the Jesuits, or the Society of .lesus. Its members, thoui>h at lirst ridiculed as enthusiasts (for they projected the conversion of (he world), were finally recognized by the pope after taking a vow of unnMalitied obedience to him. The followers of Loyola devoted their fortunes and lives to the cause they had taken in hand. They stopped at nothing that would advance the interests of their or- der and religion ; no obstacle was too great to be over- come, no land too distant to be reacheil, no dangt>r too appalling to be encountered. In the I'ities of India, China, and Japan, their zealous preaching maile many converts; in Paraguay, they instructed two huntlred thou- sand natives in the industrial arts and the religion of their church; while in North America they established missions at various points, in wildernesses which they were the lirst to explore, from the Great Lakes to Mexico. The labors of Francis Xavier (zav'e-e)') are particularly noteworthy. He is said to have planted his faith in fifty dilVerent kingdoms, and to have numbered his converts by hundreds of thousands. Era of the Reformation. Universities and libraries in various European eities. Popular edu- eation advocated by Luther and Jlelanetlion. Fiourisliing period of Ger- man painters — Albert Dii'rer (celebrated also as an engraver) ; Kran'aeh; and Holbein {ho/' him), patroi\i/.ed by llem-y VIII. " Honest Hans Saehs," tlie cobbler-poet of Nuremberg, author of six thousand pieces. Rabelais (rtih-b(h-l attention of Charles was directed to the progress of the Iveformation and the incursions of the Turks. The points at issue were adjusted by the luotlier of Francis and the aunt of Charles, in the Ladies' I'eace of Cambray. Francis abundontHl his pretensions in Italy, and Charles his attempts on Burgundy, for the time. After this the history of C/harles and Francis becomes somewhat connected with that of Sol'yman, the Turkish sultan, whose achievements we nuist stoj) l)rit>lly to con- sider. SoLYMAN TiiK Ma(".nifioknt ascended the Ottoman throne on tlie death of his father, Seliin I. (lo'iO). In the lirst year of his reign, provoked by the murder of his am- bassador, he invaded Hungary and took the city of Bel- grade, lie next directed his victorious arms against the island of Rhodes, the seat of the Knights Hospitallers, bringing to bear on the fortifications of their capital the carnion Avhich had breached the walls of Constantinople. Superhuman bravery availed not the garrison ; overwhelm- ing numbers compelled them to capitulate. The survivors were allowed to retire to Malta, and there erected a new fortress and hospital. In 1536 Solyman again advanced into Hungary, took the capital Buda, and slew the Hungarian monarch. The crown was then conferred on Ferdinand, brother of Charles v., and the entire kingdom of Hungary ultimately became incorporated with Austria. DKATII OK Till'; KINOS. 2S5 Renkwai, ok Waii. — 'I'lic 'I'lirks sul)S(>(|U('ii<,lv n'ricwc^l tlicii- incursions, and Francis now entered into an alliance with Soiyman ; but the emperor, after ^iantin<^ toh^ratioii to the Protestant princes in order to scicure their co-oj)(!ra- tion, took the held ag-ainst tlie invaders and obliged them to retire. Hardly had he eflFccted this when he was once more involved in war with the French king, who had de- liberately broken his solemn engagements and sent an army into Italy. Worn out by the long struggle, both kings at last de- sired peace, and a ten years' truce was concluded (15)}8). But Francis still coveted Milan. Four years later he broke the truce, while his ally, the sultan Soiyman, invaded Hun- gary and sent a (leet to aid the French in redufiing Italy. All ( Jhristendoiii was indignant at this uiniatural alliance; llenry VIII. joined (Jharh^s in th(! invasion of I^Vance, and the iin])('rial troops were within two days' march of Paris, when Francis sued for ])eac(', and a treaty was concluded (1544). Death of the Kings. — Francis died three years after- ward, (.'harlcs, having been compc^lled to grant the Prot- estants religious liberty in 1555, abdicated and retired to a monastery. He left Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip, while his brother Ferdinand was elected em- peror of G(!rmany. Charles devoted the last years of his life to study, me- chanical pursuits, and the cultivation of his garden, though he still kept hims(!lf informed in public affairs. Shortly before his death, h(^ took a strange fancy to celebrate his own funeral. A tf)m}) was erected in the chapel, he was placed in his colTin, and the service for the dead was chanted. This ceremony produced a deej) impression on his mind, a violent fev;iI OF ANGOIILEME. 2^7 tempts to re-establish the authority of Franco in Italy ; l)ut his armies were finally obliged to recross the Alps. Louis XII. possessed many virtues, which gained for him the title of Father of his ])eo])le. Upon his accession he forgave his enemies, saying, "The king of France re- venges not the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." He abolished many oppressive taxes and retrenched his per- sonal expenses, replying to the courtiers who ridiculed his economy that he would rather his subjects should laugh at his i)arsimf)iiy than weep at his exactions. Francis I., Count of Angoulcme {oti'-'-goo-leJim'), who iiad married the daughter of Louis XI L, succeeded the latter in L515. Louis said of him on his death-bed, " I have done everything for the best, but that big boy, d'An- gouleme, will spoil all." Brave iuid amlntious, Francis at once ttuMied his eyes toward Italy, where, as related in the last chapter, he met with alternate successes and defeats. Hut wars could not be carried on without money, nor could money be obtained without taxation. Accordingly, we find that in this reign the people were oppressed by heavy burdens, the liberties which the French had enjoyed under the benevolent Louis were infringed, and the mon- arch's will at length became law. A general dissoluteness of morals prevailed, and virtue was laughed at as a relic of barbarous ages. Perhaps it was to atone for his vices that this chivalrous monarch engaged in a violent persecu- tion of the Huguenots, in the course of which thousands perished. Francis assumed the title of Protector of Letters. He founded the Imperial Library, yet with stiange inconsisten- cy forbade the printing of any books in France under pain of death. Henry II., son of Francis, began his reign in 1547. His tini(! was at first spent in shows and tournaments ; but, these losing their zest, he turned to the persecution 288 PERSECUTION OK I'lllO IIUOUKNOTS. f)(' (he llug'ueiiots. Even the coronation of his queen, ('athiirino de Medici, was celebrated by the hurninn- ol' several reformers. It was not lon^ before Henry became engaj^ed in war with Charles V. His <>"eneral, the Dukc^ of (Juisc; [(/loeez), n^pnlsed the emperor at the head of 100,000 men ; but in 1557, the French met with a disastrous defeat at the liaiids of Philip 11., son of Charles, in the battle of St. Quentin. The followin<>- year, however, the Duke of CJuise took the city of Calais, which had been in possession of the English for more than two centuries. Henry II. was mortally wounded at a tournament in 1559, a splinter from his adversary's lance having pierced his brain. The crown fell to his son Francis II. Francis II., before the death of his father, had married Mary Stuart, the young queen of Scotland, daughter of James V., and niece of the Duke of Guise. His short reign of seventeen months was remarkable only for the persecution of the Huguenots, instigated by his mother and the powerful heads of the family of Guise, the guar- dians and controllers of the youthful sovereigns. Inllamed with resentment against the Guises, who tlireatened to extirpate the reformed religion as well as to absorb all power in the state, the Huguenots, under eminent leaders — the Prince of Cond6 {kon-da'), the king of Navarre, and Admiral Coligny {Ico-leen-ye') — conspired to wrest from them the government. The plot was dis- covered, and little mercy was shown to the conspirators. Nothing but the sudden decease of the king saved Conde hims(^lf from an ignominious ileath. Charles IX. succeeded his brother Francis in tlu^ (>I(>ventii year of his age. On account of his youth, his mothcM-, Catharine de Medici, assumed control of the goveriunent. The powiM- of the CJuises was overthrown, Condo was lib- erated, and the king of Navarre was made lieutenant-gen- HUGUENOT WAR8. 289 eral of France. The Huguenots now obtained the privi- lege of meeting for worship, but not within the walls of cities and towns, or with arms upon their persons. The Duke of Guise was enraged at this concession. An opportunity of showing his contempt for the law oc- curred in 1562 near Vassy, where with two hundred men he wantonly attacked some Protestants who were peace- ably worshipping in a barn. Ninety were cut down, and none escaped without a wound. A fierce religious war at once broke out. The Huguenots rallied under Coligny and Conde, and wherever they were victorious churches were ravaged, monasteries burned, and their ornaments destroyed. The chiefs in vain interfered to save the monuments of art. In a church at Orleans, Cond6 seizcid an anjuebuse to shoot one who was striking down a statue. " Wait," cried the man, "till T have cast down this idol; 1 shall then be ready to die." — Slaughter was the rule of both sides. During these wars the king of Navarre was killed, the Duke of Guise was assassinated, and Cond6 was shot down in cold blood. In 1570 peace was made with the Hugue- nots, who obtained freedom of worship and were thus thrown off their guard. Charles offered the hand of his sister to Henry of Bourbon, the young king of Navarre, and all the principal reformers went to l*aris to celefjrate the wedding. The festivities of the occasion were suddenly inter- rupted before dawn on the feast of St. Bartholomew, August 34, 1572, by the tolling of a bell, the appointed signal for the slaughter of all Huguenots within the walls. Henry, the young Duke of Guise, at once hastened to Coligny's residence with a band of assassins, who burst into the admiral's apartment, j)ierced his body with th(;ir swords, and flung the corpse from the window. Guise, who had waited in the street below, wiped the blood from '2\)0 MASSACliK (>K Sr. I'.AKTIIOI.OMI'AV'. the lircl(>s.s face (o assiin* liiiiiscH" (liai il was ( Ih> I'i^lil jxt- SOM, and tluMi spuiiuHl tlic (•.()rj)sc'! willi liis Tool.. Mcanwliilc aniicd ( 'iitliolics, (listiii!4uisli('<] l)y a wliitc (iross ot) tlicir liats, lillcd tlm stroots and sti-ucU down per- sons of (^vcry au<^li the <'ilv, and the kin<;- hiniself was icpoited to liave llred upon the I'lifjjitives I'roni liis palace win(h>w. lleiM'vol Navarre and \hv yonn^ l'rine(>()r ('on(h' saved (heir- lives hy consenting- (o atteixl mass. Some ("atholic writers, it is proper to a(hl, aUent' that, this massat^re was provoked l)y th(^ ap|)reheiisi()ii of a simihir |>lo( on (lie part of the llui;iienot leaders. 'i'he massu(U'(^ ol" St. liartlioh)inew was not eonlined to the (capital; i( extondoil to lh»> provinces, and more than lii't.y thousand Protestants are supposed to iiave perished. The whole of northern IOuro|>(> denounced the ciime, atid the l']n^'lish court put on mourning- for (Ik' dead. Charles 1\. died in ir»7l, (he vic^dni of a (crrihle re- nu)rs(\ After llu^ fa(al ni<>'ht of St. Bartholomew, h(> had heeii haunted by fiiat covtM-ed his body, and he ex- pired, expressint!^ tiio deepest re<;-ret for his cruelties, Henry III., who sutu-eechMl his brother ( 'harles, dis- f^ustod (he h'rench people \\i(h his lollies. They saw him dressed in wouumTs clodu-s, and heard him on (he same day sin<>' iid'amous ballads and sacn^l psalms. T(. enjoy these plcuisures undisturbed and pres(>rve a balane(> between opposing factions, he granted rt liL!,ious rights to tlu> Huguenots, wiio were fast recovering- from the deadly blow aimed at them in the precHxling reii^n. Th(> Catholics soon look the alarm, and what was called "the Holy iicague" was organized "for the ex(irpa(ion IIKNRV III., oK KliANCFl. 29t of li(!n'.sy," \>y IIk; I)uU(! of (Jiiisc ;iiiy the; sister of the mumh-vcA (\nk(\. lie hreath(!d his last after natriing the hero of Navarre as his successor. Kings of France: Line of Valois. I'l.ilip VI., . . . 1328. John II., the (Jood, . . 1350. Charles v., tho Wirtc, . l^K-l. Charles VI., t.iic Maiiiiu;, . 1380. Charles VII., i\u: Vi. 1 5r,(). 1574. CHAPTER XXXIX. ENGLAND UNDER Till': CUILDRRN OF jii:nry vjii. (1547-1603.) Edward VI. — Henry VIII. of iMii^land l<;l't the; crown l)y his will, (irst to his only son Edward, then to his dauf^h- ter Mary, and lastly to l^^lizahcith. Edward was only nine years old at the time of his acccjssion ; and his uncle, after- ward created Duke of Somerset, was appoint(;d protector of the reahn. Somerset, as well as Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, favored the reformed religion ; in it, ac- cordingly, the young king was carefully instructed. In 1548, after years of labor, Cranmer, with a commit- tee of divines, completod the compilation of a Book of 292 EDWARD VI. OF ENGLAND. Common Prayer, in English ; and in the following year Parliament abolished all other forms of worship and es- tablished this in their stead. With some alterations in this reign and under subsequent monarchs, it has contin- ued in use in the Church of England to the present time. The English reformers, however, would not concede the right of private judgment to others, but appointed a* commission " to examine and search after all heretics and contemners of the Book of Common Prayer." Two persons convicted of holding heretical doctrines were committed to the flames. — Meanwhile the influence of Somerset declined. He was compelled to resign the ])rotect()rship, and in 1.5,52 was brought to the scaffold on a charge of high-treason. The powerful Duke of Northumberland next directed the government. This ambitious noble, as the king's life was evidently drawing to a close, proposed to exclude the princesses Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and give the crown to the grandniece of Henry VIII., Lady Jane Grey, who had married his son, Lord Guilford Dud- ley. Edward assented, and on his death in 1553 Jane Grej' was proclaimed queen of England. Mary. — When Lady Jane Grey was informed of her elevation to the throne, she fell in a swoon, and on her recovery refused to accept the crown. At last she yielded to the entreaties of her parents and husband, and the coronation took place. But the people feared the ambi- tion of Northumberland, and regarded the princess Mary as the rightful heir. On her being proclaimed queen, numbers flocked to her standard. Lady Jane Grey, after a reign of only ten days, gladly resigned the crown, and Mary entered London in triumph amid general acclama- tions. Northumberland was shortly afterward condemned and executed. Mary was zealously devoted to the ancient faith, and resolved to restore the Roman Catholic worship. The MARY TUDOR. 293 statutes passed in the reign of Edward VT., establishing the Protestant church in England, were repealed. A treaty also was concluded, by which the queen was to marry Philip, the Catholic prince of Spain. This alliance occasioned general dissatisfaction. A formidable insurrection followed, which the father of Lady Jane Grey joined in the hope of recovering the crown for his daughter. But the rebellion was crushed, and the principal conspirators were executed. Lady Jane Grey, to whom her father's guilt was im- puted, was doomed to the scaffold. When the fatal day arrived, her husband, who was also condemned, requested to see her. Jane, fearing that their fortitude would be overcome by the interview, refused him. " Our separa- tion," said she, " will be but for a moment." From the window of her cell she saw him led to execution, and calmly viewed his bleeding corpse dragged back in a cart. Then, commending her soul to God, she cheerfully laid her head on the block. Thus fell the unfortunate Jane Grey, one of the purest characters of history. She was devoted to literature, and, though only seventeen at the time of her death, was versed in eight languages, and astonished with her talents the learned men of her age. In 1554 the marriage of Mary and Philip took place, and papal supremacy was re-established in England. The severe penalties against heretics were then revived. Lati- mer and Ridley, eminent Protestant bishops, were burned in the same fire at Oxford. The aged Latimer encour- aged his companion, saying, "Be of good cheer, my brother ; we shall this day light such a candle in England as, I trust in God, shall never be extinguished." Cranraer sought to save his life by recanting, but in vain ; he was not only identified with the reformed faith, but had dis- honored the mother of the queen. — It must be remem- 294 QUEKN KMZAHKI'II. bered that at tliis time porHecntioii was not tlie peculiai characteristic of any one government or (^liurcli, but was in full accord with the spirit of the age. On the continent its victims were numbered by thousands ; while in Eng- land, under the Protestant successor of Mary, it was no less violent than under Mary herself. Indeed, the Catholic queen sometimes ignored considerations of faith, and mag- Tianiinously bestowed important publico offices on Protest- ants who were peculiarly qualilied to fill them. Queen Mary died in 1558. The loss of Calais (p. 288) weighed heavily upon her ; if her body were o])ened after death, she said, the word ddais would be found written on her heart. She was of estimable private character ; her court was distinguished by the strictest morality. Elizabeth, " Queen Bess," succeeded her sister Mary in the twenty-sixth year of her age. At her coronation, she placed a wedding-ring on her finger, as a symbol of her marriage to the English realm. Elizabeth had been kept a close prisoner, and, although attached to the reformed doctrines and surrounded by spies, had contrived to save her life by her prudent conduct. On her accession the Protestant faith was restored, and the queen's ecclesiastical supremacy recognized. Elizabeth's right to the crown was disputed by her cousin Mary, queen of Scots and wife of the Dauphin. The Catholics upheld Mary, for they looked on Henry's divorce from his first wife as unlawful, and his marriage with the queen's mother, Anne Boleyn, as void. By adopting the royal title and arms of England, Fran- cis and Mary provoked the resentment of Elizabeth, who gladly availed herself of the disturbances then prevail- ing in Scotland to revenge the insult. Here the Ref- ormation had made rapid strides through the eloquence of John Knox ; and the Protestants, now in arms against the Catholic regent, were aided by Elizabeth with a fleet MAKV, QL'KKN OF SCOTS. 295 and army. Their success was thus insured, and Presby- terianism was established in Scotland. At this juncture, Francis having died (1560), the widowed Mary returned to her native land. The Scots received their youthful sovereign, then in her nineteenth year, beautiful, amiable, and accomplished, with demonstrations of delight. Still she was a Catholic, and as such soon awakened hostility on the part of her subjects. When she ordered mass to be celebrated in her chapel, the people cried for the death of "the idolater priest." Her gay amusements, moreover, offended the strict notions of the reformers. In 1565 the queen of Scots married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, a man of violent passions and disso- lute habits, who soon lost the affection of his wife. Do- mestic quarrels followed ; till at last, entering the queen's l)rivate apartments, he dispatched in her presence her secretary Ilizzio (rit'se-o), wiio had become the special object of his jealousy and hatred. In the following year Darnley was blown up in his residence with gunpow- der ; and as Mary shortly after gave her hand to the Earl of Bothwell, his reputed murderer, she was suspected of being concerned in the crime. Her disaffected subjects now took up arms, and imprisoned their queen in Loch- lev'en Castle. Mary, however, subsequently escaped, and after an unsuccessful battle sought an asylum in England, under the strong arm of her royal cousin. Elizabeth, meanwhile, had reigned with vigor and dis- cretion. She had been sought in marriage by various for- eign princes, but had rejected them all. The prudent statesman Cecil {ses'il), Lord Burleigh, was her prime minister, and continued to direct the affairs of govern- ment until his death in 1598. After her arrival in England, Mary Stuart was kept in confinement. Several plots for her release were discovered, 206 QIIIOKN KLIZAHICIIT. the boldest of which in 1586 was a conspiracy to assas- sinate Elizabeth and proclaim the Scottish queen in her stead. This determined Elizabeth to brini^ her j)risoner to the block, and Mary, queen of Scots, was beheaded in 1587. In the following year Philip II. of Sp;un, l)urnin SIR KRAN(!IS DRAKE. VoYA(5ES. — Duriiifi;' ^]Ii/,abctll's ici^ii a nuinhor of dis- tinguished navif^ators and explorers ilourished. Krancis .')rak(^ sailed round the fflobe, returnin": to England loaded Queen Elizabeth icNiaiiTiNO Drake. with plunder from the Spanish seas. The (jueen went down to his shi]) and Unijihted him on hoard ; the vessel she ordered to be pn^served fon;ver in eonnnemoration of his achievement. TIIK KLI/AI'.H'I MAN Af»K. 299 Sir Walter Ualcigli {vdw'U) Kent an expedition to tlie Western Continent, which Ijroiight back such an account of the charming region that Klizabeth named it, in honor of herself, Virginia. In 1585 a settlement was made ; but the colonists sul)sef|uently returned to England, bringing with them tobacco and the potato, the use of which they had learned from the Indians. Frob'isher, sailing in search of a north-west passage, ex- plored the coast of (Ireenland ; while Sir John Hawkins, seeking profit rathel- than renown, jirocured negro slaves on the African coast in exchange for articles of trifling value, and disposed of thcni in the Spanish-American colonies. Fashions. — Watches were first brought to England in Elizabeth's time. Coaches were also introduced; before tliis, the (juecn used, to ride behind her chamberlain. Jii 1598, the first regular theatre, the Globe, in which Shake- speare performed, was built in London. Extravagance in dress was an evil of the age. Immense ruffs of stiffened cambric were worn round the neck ; and to such an ex- treme was the fashion carried that the queen appointed persons to stand at the gates of London and cut down those tliat were more than a yard wide. The gentlemen, with their velvet suits and jewelled points, often sported " a manor on their backs." Elizabeth herself appeared al- most every day in a different costume ; at the time of her death licr wardrobe contained three thousand outfits. Literature. — The Elizabethan age was illustrious f(;r the revival of English literature. Classical learning be- came popular, and versions were made of the standard poets and historians of antiquity. The queen herself, un- der the training of that faithful "schole-master" Roger Ascham (as'karn), was a good Greek and Latin scholar, and both translated and composed. English prose made great advances ; and poetry, which had been silent since the days of Chaucer, again found voice. 300 ENGLISH LITEEATUEE. The genius of Spenser threw into his " Faerie Queene " the very soul of harmony. Sir Philip Sidney, " the darling of the court and camp," poured out in his pastoral romance of " Arcadia " his tenderness and chivalry ; while in his " Defence of Poesie " he has left a model of a stately, clear, well-rounded style. Beaumont and Fletcher, who jointly composed their plays and lyrics ; Lord Francis Bacon, the father of Inductive Philosophy ; and Shakespeare, the greatest of dramatists, — flourished in the reigns of the Vir- gin Queen and her successor. English Sovereigns: House of Tudor. Henry VII., 1485. Gunpowder manufactured ; body-guards appointed. Henry VIII., 15(»9. Looking-glasses and carpets first used. Edward VI., 1547. Needles made; legal rate of interest, 10^. Mary, 1553. Chimneys rare ; copper money ; table-knives used. Elizabeth, 1558. Hardware, woollens, and stockings, manufactured. CHAPTER XL. RISE OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC. The Netherlands, or Low Countries, formerly comprised the present kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. In early ages they consisted in part of a vast swamp, through which the Rhine and other rivers flowed to tlie sea. The half- submerged islands were the home of a hardy race that lived on mounds raised above the reach of the tide. Many of these wretched abodes were swept away by a flood about a century before the Christian era ; and a band of German exiles afterward took possession of the main isl- and, calling it Bet-auw, or good meadow, whence their name Batavians (see Map, p. 124). EARLY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS. 301 All the early inhabitants of the Netherlands yielded to Ceesar. The Batavians, bravest of the German tribes, be- came his allies, and during four centuries their cavalry formed the most efficient part of the Roman legions. After this the Batavian people were merged in the Frisians, a kin- dred race, who occupied the northern portion of the Neth- erlands. For several centuries the Frisians resisted the en- croachments o f the Franks, until they were finally reduced to sub- mission by Charles Martel, and converted to Christianity. In the cen- turies following the era of Char- lemagne, the Neth erlands were divided into a number of small domains, governed by dukes and counts. Among these were Hol- land {hollo 10 land), Friesland, virtually a republic, and Flanders. Flanders fell to the powerful House of Burgundy in 1383 ; and Philip the Good, a prince of that family, in the next century ex- tended his authority over the whole of the Netherlands, The provinces were now in a most flourishing condi- tion as regards agriculture, commerce, and manufactures. ,'>02 IMSK ()!'' 'nil'; Durcni rkpuhlic. Pliilip t'nc()uni,i;e(l lilcr.iturc juul art. Eiuiiioiit authors floiirislied at his court, and oil-painting was revived by the V^aii Kyv,k (i/ce) brotliers. Charles the Bold, son oi" Thilip;, was the last of the dukes of Burgundy. After having been twice defeated by the Swiss, he was killed in a third battle with them (1477). llis rich possessions (see Map, p. 301) descended to llis daughter Mary, aftei'ward inari'ied to Maximilian of Austria. Her grandson, diaries V., emjieror of (Sler- many, inherited the Netherlands, and on his abdication gave them to his son, IMiilip II. of Spain (1555). The Low Countries, in t lu; middle of the sixteenth cen- tury, had reached the height of thcsir prosperity. They contained abont three hundred and fifty cities with six thousand towns and villages, protected from the ocean by dikes, and were so densely peopled that scarcely any land remained uncultivated. Here IMiilip s])eiit the lirst fourteen years of his reign. During this period the people were op- pressed by the lawless soldiers of Spaiii ; and, as many of them were Protestants, while Philip was strongly jittached to the Roman Catholic faith, they dreaded the introduc- tion of the liKjuisition into their free land. Philiixleclarcd that he woidd rather be no king at all than reign over here- tics, and signalized his return to Spain in 1559 by the ex- ecution of thirteen Spanish Protestants. The government of the Netherlands was then intrusted to the Duchess of Parma, Philip's half sister. She was assisted by a council, three members of which were de- voted to the Spanish interests. The others were patriot leaders, — Count Egmont, a descendant of the old Frisian kings. Count Horn, and AVilliam the Silent, Prince of Orange, the immortal founder of DutcJi liberties. The Protestants were now fiercely persecuted. Read- ing the Bible and praying in one's own lumse were crimes punishable with death. But the peo])le of the Nether- "tiik hkooaks." ?.03 lands indig^nantly donouncod the tyranny of the govern- ment ; and in spite of tortures and executions the new faith gained ground. On one occasion, a fearless reformer even preached in a room which overlooked the market- place where som(i of his brethren were then burning. The popular l(;arlo(l by his brother, was actively eno-au^ed in (he lield. Town alter town declared for him. Kleets were e(iui})ped aloiiii; the coast, manncil by brave " Sea lieij^g'ars," who ca])! ured the Spanish vessels and seized important maritime towns. The strug'g'le for independence had commenced. In 1574 the Spanish laid siege to Leyden {li'den), which was bravely delendtnl for live months. The citizens resolved to die of starvation rather than admit the Span- iards. "So long as you hear a cat luew or a dog bark," they called to the beleaguering forces, "you may know that we hold out." But at last hunger got the better of their patriotism, and the famished crowds begged the bur- ii'onuister to jrive them food or surrender. " I have no food to give you," said he, " and I have sworn not to sur- render ; but take my sword, plunge it into my bi-east, and divide my flesh among you ! " Tiiese words inspired them with fresh courage to await the succor which they knew to be at hand ; and at last it came. Through the dikes whicOi had been broken down the sea poured, overwhelm- ing the terror-stricken Spaniards, and bearing a friendly lleet, laden with provisions, to the very walls of Leyden. Founding of the Dutch Republic. — In 157G the Prince of Orange succeeded in uniting all the provinces by a treaty called the Pacilication of Ghent. But the fortunes of war were now decidedly against them ; disalTection arose ; and William, anxious to secure the independence of at least a portion of the Netherlands, joined the northern provinces in a closer alliance by the Union of Utrecht. This was the foundation of the Dutch Republic. William of ( )range was chosen /Stddfholdcr of Holland and Zealanil. Philip had olTt^red a large reward and a patent of ntibil- ity to any one who would assassinate the Prince of ( )range. After several previous attempts, the foul deed was accom- plished in 1584. William the Silent fell, pierced by three DKATir OF VVir.MAM 'IIIK SILIONT. 305 bullfits. His dyiri^ words wen;, "Hod liavf; rriorny on mo and on tin's poor people ! '' Prince Maurice succeeded his father as stadtholder, and for many years continued the war against Spain. The Staiue of VViluam tiik Silknt, at the Hacjl'b. 300 KISE OF THE DUTCH HEPUBLIO. Dutch sought and obtained aid from Quoeu Klizalioth ; six tliousand English troops were sent into the Netherlands. In one of the battles in which they were engaged, the gal- lant Sir Philip Sidney, "the Flower of Chivalrie," received a mortal wound. In his agony he begged for a cu}) of water, but as he was raising it to his lips he noticed the imploring glance of a wounded soldier. "Give it lo him," said the hero, " his necessity is greater than mine." The seven United Provinces of the north made good their resistance to the Spanish government ; and in the beginning of the seventeenth century a truce was con- cluded securing their independence and religious freedom. The ten southern, or Belgian, provinces remained in the possession of Spain. The Sixteenth Century. The Reformation. Religious wars in Germany, Kranec, and the Neth- erlands. Turkish wars. Exploration and coloni/ation of India and South Ameriea by Europeans. Diseoveries of gold and silver in tlie New World. EstablishmeiU of a great Mogul Empire in India. Power of the kings in- ereasing, that of the nobles diminishing. Gregorian Calendar estalilished ill 1582, by Pope tJregory XIII.; ten days (Oetober 5-14 iiielusive) suppressed, and of the exaet hundred years thereafter sueh only made leap-years as should be divisible by 400. CHAPTER XLI. ACCESSION OF THE BOURBONS IN FRANCE.— HENRY IV. AND LOUIS X/II. (1 589-1643.) Henry IV. — The reign of Henry IV., the Great, the first of the Bourbon kings, forms one of the most impor- tant epochs in French history. It will be remembered IIKNRY IV., OF FKANCPL 301 that he was besieging Paris with Henry HI. of France, when the latter fell by the dagger of a fanatic monk (1589). The news of the king's murder was received within the walls with unbounded joy ; the sister of the Duke of Guise kissed the lips of the messenger who brought the intelli- gence. Henry of Navarre;, the new king, was a Protestant, and on this account was at once deserted by half of the royal army. He was therefore obliged to raise the siege of Paris ; but, having received money and men from Queen Elizabeth, he met the Duke of Mayenne', brother of the murdered Guise and head of the Catholic League, on the plains of Iv'ry (1590). Mayenne's army, consisting in part of Spanish troops, was superior in numbers ; but Henry, bidding his men follow the white plume on his casque, led the attack in person with characteristic bravery, and gained a brilliant victory. After the battle of Ivry, Henry again invested the capital ; but compassion for his people prevented him from reducing it by famine. He allowed provisions to be car- ried in and many of the starving inhabitants to depart. The city was thus enabled to hold out till the approach of a Spanish army compelled the king to retire. Not till 1593, when by the advice of his leading sup- porters Henry publicly abjured the reformed faith, was the civil strife terminated. Crowned king of France in the following year, he was then in a position to protect the Protestants ; and in 1598 he issued the famous Edict of Nantes, granting them liberty of worship and various privileges. Hostilities with Spain continued till this year. Henry, with the aid of his wise minister the Duke of Sully, now sought to repair the damages occasioned by thirty years of war. The expenses of the government were diminished, trade and agriculture were revived, schools and libraries opened. The culture of silk was ex- 30S LOUTS XI IT., OF FRANCE. tended, and manufactories of linen and tapestry were es- tablislied. The king's aim was to make France happy and prosperous. " I will so manage affairs," he once said, " that the poorest peasant may eat meat every day, and have a fowl in his pot on Sundays." His memory is to this day cherished by the French people more affectionate- ly than that of any other of their sovereigns. As his realm advanced in wealth and power, Henry IV. matured a Grand Political Design, to unite all the European states in one vast Christian republic, drive the Turks beyond the Bosporus, and refer international dis- putes to a Congress of Nations instead of deciding them by war. Thus the overweening influence of the House of Austria would be destroyed, and the balance of power maintained in Europe. But Henry did not live to accomplish his purpose. In 1610, Ravaillac (rah-va/tl-i/a/ik'), a religious bigot, thrust his arm into the royal carriage and stabbed the king to the heart. Louis XIII., son of Henry IV. by Mary de Medici, was only nine yeai's old when his father was murdered, and for a time the government was conducted by his mother as regent. But she was controlled by Italian favorites, squandered the treasures w'hich* Henry's economy had amassed, and by her misrule excited general dissatisfac- tion. Nor was the States-general, called together in the hope that it could remedy existing evils, able to accom- plish anything. Finally in 1617 the king assumed the government himself, and imprisoned the queen-mother. Three years later the Huguenots, whose rights had been invaded, rose in arms, and after a gallant struggle obtained a confirmation of the Edict of Nantes. Louis now became reconciled to his mother, and her favored ad- viser. Cardinal Richelieu {reesh'e-loo). was admitted to the cabinet. ADMINISTRATION OF RICHELIFU. 309 This great statesman, as prime minister of Louis XIII., for eighteen years shaped the history of France, if not of aU Europe. To trample Austria in the dust was the one great object of which he never lost sight. As the stipulations made with the Huguenots were now totally disregarded, they soon commenced warlike preparations for their own protection. Richelieu, who longed to destroy this pestilent sect root and branch, col- lected a large army, took the field in person, and promptly laid siege to their chief city Rochelle {ro-shel')^ on the Bay of Biscay (see Map, p. 20G). To intercept foreign succor, a great dike was built ; an English fleet, sent to aid the besieged, was thus prevented from reaching the city ; and after fourteen months of suffering, during a portion of which they lived on boiled leather and weeds washed up by the tide, the starving inhabitants surren- dered. On entering Rochelle in 1628, the victors found the garrison that had so stubbornly resisted them reduced to one hundred and fifty-four men. Other Huguenot towns submitted, their fortifications were demolished, and the independence of the French Protestants was lost. But they were still allowed freedom of worship ; the Edict of Nantes was again confirmed. Thus ended the civil and religious wars in France, during which a million of lives were destroyed, and nine cities with four hundred villages were reduced to ruins. The power of the French aristocracy was broken by Rich- elieu. Numerous conspiracies were crushed, and the most formidable of the nobles were condemned to exUe, impris- onment, or the scaflFold. The man or woman who offended Richelieu was in danger ; no Frenchman's life or property was safe. The tyrant cardinal governed the king and in- sulted the queen. Utterly unscrupulous in his choice of means, he was once justly rebuked by a French officer whom he required to join certain conspirators in order to 310 THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. betray them. " I am ready to give my life for my sover- eign," said the soldier, " but honor — never ! " The policy of Richelieu was to centralize all power in the monarch, and he brought the most gallant nation in Europe under the feet of Louis XIII, How he humbled Austria, will be shown in the following chapter. In the midst of his political duties, he found time for the cultiva- tion of literature ; and in 1G35 he founded the French Academy. 1 600 A. D. — Queen Elizabeth near the close of her reign. Henry IV. king of France. Spain (with Portugal, Naples, and Sicily) under Philip III. Netherlands under the Archduke of Austria. Seven United Provinces under Maurice of Orange. The weak Rudolph II. emperor of Germany, and king of Bohemia and Hungary. Christian IV. king of Denmark. Venice and Genoa republics. Abbas the Great shah of Per- sia. Mogul dominion in India at the height of its power. CHAPTER XLII. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. (1 618-1648.) Germany. — While France and the Netherlands were suffering from religious wars, the Protestants of Germany under Ferdinand I. and his son Maximilian II. enjoyed toleration. Rudolph II., son of Maximihan, was a zealous Catholic, and during his reign the rights of the Austrian reformers were infringed. A confederacy for mutual pro- tection, called the Evangelical Union, was consequently formed by the Protestant princes of the empire. It was opposed by a Catholic League, which secured the aid of Spain. Matthias, brother of Rudolph, procured the crowns of WALLENSTEIN. 311 Hungary and Bohemia for his kinsman Ferdinand, a bitter foe to the Reformation. The closing of two Protestant churches in Bohemia soon after provoked a general insur- rection ; and thus began in 1618 a furious civil war, which raged in Germany for thirty years. On the death of Matthias in 1619, the imperial dignity was conferred upon Ferdinand (II.) ; but the Bohemians refused obedience to the newly-chosen emperor, and called to their throne Frederick V., elector of the Palat'inate * and head of the Evangelical Union. This prince, however, was totally defeated by the imperialists, and deprived of both Bohemia and his hereditary possessions. Scarcely were Bohemia and the Palatinate subdued, when Ferdinand became involved in war with other Ger- man states assisted by Christian IV., king of Denmark. In this emergency, Wallenstein (wol'len-stlne), a Bohemian nobleman, offered his services to the emperor, promising to raise an army of fifty thousand men and maintain them by pillaging hostile provinces. This mysterious man is said never to have smiled, and even to have spoken only when compelled by necessity. He possessed enormous wealth, and lived in a style of more than royal magnificence. The very horses in his stable had mangers of polished steel, and behind each hung its picture painted by some distinguished artist. To gain the favor of Wallenstein was considered the high- road to fortune. On his taking the field in behalf of Fer- dinand, thousands of adventurers were attracted to his standard. Supported by the imperial general Tilly, he swept through the land and humbled the Protestant allies. Only at Stralsund [strahl'sdont)^ a strongly fortified city * The Palatinate was a division of Germany under a ruler styled the Elector Palatine. The name was derived from the appellation of a high judicial officer under the Merovinj^ian kings of France, known as Comes Palatiij master of the royal household or palace. 312 TIIK THIRTY^ YEARS WAR. on the Baltic coast, did he meet with any material check ; from this place, after having sworn to take it " even were it bound to Heaven with chains of adamant," he was obliged to retire with the loss of 12,000 men. The result of the war was on the whole so adverse to Christian IV. that in 1629 he was forced to sue for peace and withdraw to his own dominions. Ferdinand took advantage of his success to suppress the Protestant worship in the conquered countries ; while the Catholic princes, incensed at the ravages of the im- perial army and moved by jealousy, procured Wallen- stein's dismissal. The latter retired to his estates, but was soon recalled by the emperor to oppose a new cham- pion of the Protestants, Gastavus [gus-tah'vus) Adolphus of Sweden. The Scandinavian Kingdoms.— Glancing back at the history of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, we find that they had been united under the sceptre of Margaret of Denmark, " the Semiramis of the North," by the Union of Calmar, in 1397. The era of Margaret was succeeded by a period of war and confusion. The Swedes revolted several times, but were finally subdued in 1520 by Christian 11., the Tyrant. So great was the cruelty of Christian that an insurrection again broke out under Gustavus Vasa {vah'sa), a Swedish noble who had escaped from the prisons of Den- mark. Concealing himself for a time among the moun- tains, where he labored with the miners, he one day made himself known to them, and persuaded them to rise in de- fence of their country's liberties. Gustavus was everywhere victorious, and in 1523 he was elected king of Sweden. A similar revolution took place in Denmark. The in- famous Christian was deposed, and his uncle Frederick I. became king of Denmark and Norway. Gustavus and the contemporary Danish monarchs established the Lutheran faith in the Scandinavian countries. TlIK LION OK THK NOKTIl. 313 The Lion of the North. — (iustavus Adolphus, grand- son of Gustavus Vasa, was induced to take part in the German war by his zeal for the Protestant cause and a de- sire to extend the power of Sweden. He was urged to the contest by Cardinal Richelieu, who could not tolerate the increasing influence of the House of Austria, and paid Gustavus an annual subsidy to maintain an army against the emperor. Before leaving Sweden, Gustavus bade fare- well to the States — perhaps, as he said, forever — and amid the tears of all commended to their loyal protection his little daughter Christina as the heiress of his crown. In 1630 Gustavus disembarked on the Baltic coast 314 THE TllIKTY YEAKS' WAR. with not quite twenty thousand Swedes. Tlie imperialists looked with disdain on this new foe, and boasted that the " Kint!^ of Snow," as tlioy scornfully called him, would soon mrlt as he mov'ed to the south. But the result did not verify their prediction. His well -trained st)ldiers, in striking contrast to the rude troo})s of Tilly, assembled regularly for religious worship and never molested private property. Duelling Gustavus put down by repairing one day with an executioner to the spot where he learned an encounter was to take place. " Now, gentlemen," said he to the officers, " fight till one is killed ; " and then ad- dressing the executioner, " Off with the head of the sur- vivor." Though successful in a series of rapid movements cul- minating in a grand victory near Leipsic (lipe'sik), Gus- tavus could not prevent the capture and sack of Magde- burg (see Map, ]\ 415), which was given up by Tilly to his brutal soldiers. For four days they inllicted on the ill-fated inhabitants the most revolting barbarities that cruelty could devise, leaving of this once flourishing city only the cathedral and a few houses and fisherinen's huts. The year after his defeat at Leipsic, Tilly was killed in a battle with the Swedes, and the Snow-King was now master of the whole country from the Baltic to the Dan- ube. In this extremity, the emperor Ferdinand restored Wallenstein to the command of his forces. The hostile armies encountered each other at Lutzen {loot'zen), where the Sw edes gained the victory but lost their king. Gusta- vus fell from his horse, mortally wounded. On being asked his name by an imperialist, he replied, " I am the king of Sweden, and seal w4th my blood the Protestant religion and liberties of Germany !" A sword-thrust followed this avowal, and the Lion of the North, " the first connnander of his century," expired (1632). After the death of their king, the Swedes continued EFFECTS OF TIIF WAR. 315 the war iu Germany with varied success. In 1634 Wallen- stein was assassinated by order of the jealous Ferdinand ; but it was not until the Peace of Westphalia, in 1G48, that the conflict was terminated. By this memorable treaty, the liberties of tlie German Protestants were con- firmed ; Sweden obtained five million crowns and an ex- tensive tract on the Baltic ; the eastern limits of France were extended ; Switzerland and Holland were recognized as independent states. Germany was materially affected by these thirty years of bloodshed and devastation. Her industry and com- merce were paralyzed ; her art and literature declined ; her weal til was transferred to England and Holland. Whole districts were depopulated. A decrepit old woman would be the sole inhabitant of a ruined handet. Even the beasts of the field and the birds of the air perished for want of sustenance. In some places guards had to bo ])osted to protect the newly-buried dead from tlie starv- ing people. Cultivated lands were grown over, and the remains of once thriving villages are still found in forests that have since sj)rung up. To this day Germany has not recovered from the disastrous consequences of the Thirty Years' War. The Scandinavian Kingdoms. Tlio Union of Calinar (in force from 1397 to 15'24) united Sweden witli Denniarlt and Norway ; tlie nionarcliy elective, ea(;li of the tliree Icingdonis having its own parliament and laws. Christian I. acquired Sles'wiclc and Holstcin {ho/'slim) by inheritance, 1460. University of Up'sal, Sweden, founded, H'ZO ; of Copenhagen, 1470. Printing intro- duced at Stockholm, 1483 ; into Iceland, 1528. Bibie translated into Danish, 1545. Castle of Krcmcnburg built on the Sound, 1577, and tolls levied on vessels entering the Haltie. Tyeho Hi'ahe {fe'ko Itrah' eh), i\ great astronomer, conducts the most splendid observatory in Europe, 1577- 1594. Reign of Christian IV. in Denmark, 1588-1048, long and pros- perous ; cities built, voyages of discovery fitted out, etc. 3L0 ACCESSION OF THd HOUSE OF STUAKT. CHAPTER XI, III ACCESS/OX OF THE S'rL:iJ^TS /X EXGLaND.— JAMES I. AND CHARLES /.—( 1603- 1649.) James I. — James VI. of Sootlaml, sou of INIary Stuart aud Lord Daruley, next heir to Elizabetli, was proclaimed kiuo- of Euglaud on the death of that queen in 1603. With her dving breath Elizabeth declared that she wished no rascal's son to succeed her but a king's, and when asked whom she meant replied, " Our cousin of Scotland." By the accession of James, England and Scotland were united under one sovereign, but they continued to be governed by separate parliaments. The early part of the reign of James I. was disturbed by a conspiracy to elevate his cousin, Lady Arabella Stu- art, to the throne. The plot was detected, and Sir Walter Raleigh, accused of complicity in it, was committed to the Tower. During the thirteen years of his conlintMnent he wrote his " History of the AVorld," which attracted general admiration. The Prince of Wales said that no man but his father would keep such a bird in a cage. James finally allowed Kaleigh to undertake an expedition to Guiana in search of gold. This proved unsuccessful, and, on return- ing to England, the distinguished soldier, scholar, and statesman, was brought to the block. Feeling the edge of the axe, he smiled, and said it was a sharp medicine but a cure for all diseases. The year 1605 is memorable for the Gunpowder Plot, a scheme to blow up the king and Parliament, devised by an English Catholic who was maddened by persecution, and deaf to the papal prohibition of retaliatory violence. Before the session began, the suspicions of James were aroused by an anonymous letter, in which it was stated .lAMKK I. OK KN<;LANI>. 317 tliat fli(> P;uli;irri('iit would receive a terrible; l^Iow, hut tluit those who surt'ered would not Hee who hurt them. Search bein^ made, (iuy Fawkes, one of tlie principal conspirators, was found in the vault under the House of Lords, with matches ready to iiirfit the powder. On beinj^ asked his motive, he replied, " To blow the Scotch beggars back to their native mountains." Fawkes and several of his accomplices were executed. One of the most successful measures of James J. was his attempt to civilize the rude inhabitants of Ireland, which island had been finally reduced to subinission during the previous reign. Scotch and English colonies were planted in the nortli, and the Irish were instructed in hus- bandry and the industiial arts. James I. was awkward and slovenly in liis habits, of inferior ability, full of high notions of the divine right of kings, attached to unworthy favorites, and so cowardly that he could not endure the sight of a sword, and wore his clothes heavily padded from fear of being stab?;ed. His subjects contemptuously alluded to him as Qaaen James, while they styled his predecessor King Elizabeth, His flatterers complimented his learning by calling him the British Solomon ; but Sully happily characterized him as " the wisest fool in Europe." Theology was his favor- ite study ; to him we are indebted for our present version of the Bible. His age was one of general political cor- ruption. Even the great philosopher Bacon sullied his ermine as lord high chancellor by accepting bribes, and Vk^as dismissed from his oflice in disgrace. Among the ornaments of James's' reign must be men- tioned his poet-laureate, " rare Ben Jonson," who from the humble position of a bricklayer rose to distinction as a dramatist ; l^ord Na'pj-er, the inventor of logarithms ; and Harvey, who made the important discovery of the cir- culation of the blood. 318 REIGN OF CHARLES I. Under James, the first permanent settlements were made in America. In 1G07, Jd/aestown was founded in Virginia ; and tliirteen years later, the Pilgrim Fathers landed on Plymouth rock and commenced the first New England town. Meanwhile the Dutch had established the colony of Now Amsterdam on Manhattan Island. Charles I., though he inherited his father's despotic theories of government, was a man of strict morality, and at his accession enjoyed the favor of the people. James had left the treasury empty ; and, as England had become involved in war with Spain and Austria, Charles asked Parliament to vote the supplies necessary for carrying it on. This was the opportunity of the Conmions ; they re- fused to comply with the demand until certain grievances were redressed. Charles thereupon angrily closed the session (1626), and to procure the money needed levied taxes * and exacted a loan on his own authority. Such unconstitutional proceedings awakened a spirit of opposi- tion among the people ; and in the midst of growing dis- satisfaction, the king, through the persuasions of the Duke of Buckingham, espousing the Huguenot cause, rashly engaged in a war with France. A first expedition to Ro- chelle having failed, Buckingham, who had long been odious to the nation, was preparing a second, when he fell by the knife of an assassin. Similar difficulties recurring with Parliament, the king again twice dissolved that body, and, to raise the means required for the support of government, persisted in re- sorting to illegal taxes, fines, and oppressive monopolies. To check the rising spirit of liberty, unheard-of severities * Among tliese were tonnage and poundarjc, or chities on exports and imports ; and ship-monei), an imposition on the several ports, cities, counties, etc., for furnishing and providing certain ships for the king's service. By the exaction of ship-money alone, the king obtained a yearly supply of £218,500. KKKiN OF CHARLES I. 319 were practised in the Star-Chamber * and High Commission Courts. Prynno, a Puritan writer, was condemned to lose English Puritans FAEiwiiL to Lukope. his ears and pay £5,000 for inveighing against cards, dancing, and theatrical plays. Others were branded or imprisoned for life. The public discontent caused by these despotic pro- ceedings was heightened by the course of Laud, Arch- bishop of Canterbury, under whose influence Charles en- * The Star-Chamber was an ancient English tribunal, said to have been so called from the gilded stars on the ceiling of the council-chamber of Westminster Palace, in which its sessions were held. Under the Stu- arts, the slightest contempt of the royal authority was punished by this court with forfeiture of property, whipping, maiming, or imprisonment. 320 REIGN OF CHARLES I. deavored to make innovations in religion, and suppress the Puritans. This sect, professing to follow the pure word of God in opposition to the traditions of men, desired a wider separation from the doctrines and usages of Rome than was found in the established church of England. The persecutions to which they were now subjected, led many to seek civil and religious liberty in America ; but such an escape was soon denied them, and their embarka tion, when anticipated, was forcibly prevented. After driving the English people to the verge of re- bellion, Charles endeavored to introduce the Anglican form of worship into Scotland, and thus became involved in fresh difficulties. When the reading of the liturgy was attempted in Edinburgh, the service was interrupted with groans and hisses. Stools were hurled at the head of the officiating minister, and the bishop, when escaping to his lodgings, was set upon by a crowd of incensed women, who rolled him in the mire. The whole nation was stirred, and a Covenant was entered into by men of all classes, to withstand to the death encroachments on their religious freedom. Charles tried to crush this opposition by force of arms ; but the victorious Covenanters marched into England, and forced him to negotiations. In 1640 the king found himself obliged to convoke what finally came to be called " the Long Parliament." This body, however, attended rather to righting the na- tional wrongs than to providing for the royal necessities. The Earl of StrafPord, the king's chief counsellor, and Archbishop Laud, were impeached for high-treason; Straf- ford was executed, and ultimately the archbishop also. New causes of irritation arose ; no concessions would be made on either side ; and at last Charles, driven to desper- ation, declared war against Parliament (1643). The partisans of royalty adopted the name of Cavaliers; the adherents of Parliament, eschewing the long ringlets OLIVEK CEOMWELL. 521 of their adversaries as a sign of dissolute habits, cropped their hair so close to the head ^hat they were nicknamed Roundheads. The civil war lasted four years, and was generally disastrous to the royal cause. The hopes of Charles were finally overthrown in the battle of Naseby (1645), and he escaped to Scotland, only to be handed over to the English Parliament. Meanwhile among the victors had arisen a radical party, distinguished as Independents^ who advocated the absolute freedom of each congregation from all ecclesiasti- cal control, and aimed not only at the removal of the king, but also at the entire subversion of monarchical govern- ment. This extreme party prevailed in the army ; Oliver Cromwell was its leading spirit. Cromwell, one of the extraordinary characters of his- tory, was a country gentleman's son, born in Huntingdon in 1599. An interesting anecdote is told of his childhood — that at the age of five years, when the royal family was visiting at his uncle's house, he had a fight with the young prince (afterward Charles I.), and beat him with- out mercy. After Cromwell grew up, his mind took a religious turn, and he became a strict Puritan. It is stated that, to escape persecution, he took passage for America, but that the ship on which he had embarked was pro- hibited from sailing ; certain it is that he remained in England, " the evil genius of the House of Stuart." At the end of the civil war, Cromwell, supported by a powerful party of Independents, obtained possession of the king's person. After clearing the House of Commons of all members who were not in his interest, he brought Charles to trial on a charge of treason, for having declared war against Parliament. But one sentence could be ex- pected ; Charles Stuart was doomed to the block. On the 30th of January, 1649, the unfortunate prince mounted the scaffold. " I go," said he, " from a corruptible to an PORTUGUESE HISTORY. 323 incorruptible crown." No sooner was the sentence exe- cuted than the whole nation forgot their wrongs in horror at the bloody deed. The Quakers, a peaceful religious sect, originated about this time in England. In 1634 hackney-coaches were first introduced. Among the ladies of the court the strange fashion of beautifying their faces with cowr^-plas- ter, cut into the shape of stars, half-moons, crosses, and various fanciful devices, became prevalent. In the New World, during the reign of Charles I., settlements were made in Maryland, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. James I., 1603-1625. Charles I., 1625-1649. Contemporaneous Sovereigns. ( Henry IV., Louis XIII., of France; Philip III., riiilip ^ IV., of Spain ; Rudolph II., Matthias, Ferdinand II., ' of Germany ; Maurice, stadtholder. (Louis XIIL, Louis XIV., of France; Philip IV., of i Spain ; Ferdinand II., Ferdinand III., of Germany ; ' Christian IV., of Denmark. CHAPTER XLIV. SPANISH GLORY AND ITS DECLINE. Portugal. — This country we left, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, in a flourishing condition under Emanuel the Fortunate (p. 262). His son, John III., planted colonies in Brazil, which had been discovered in 1500 by Cabral. Sebastian, the successor of John, became distinguished for his expeditions against the Moors of northern Africa. In the last of these (1577-'78) the Port- uguese army was destroyed, and the king was never heard of afterward. In 1580, Philip II. of Spain sent the Duke of Alva into Portugal at the head of an army, and was recognized as the rightful sovereign. 324 SPANISH GLORY AND ITS DECLINE. Age of Spanish Grandeur. — Philip II. of Spain, of whom we have ah-eady had occasion to speak in connection with Mary of England, the Invincible Armada, and the Avars in the Netherlands, by the abdication of his father Charles v., became monarch of the richest and most extensive em- pire in the world. This embraced not only Spain, the Netherlands, and a portion of Italy, but also the Spanish- American possessions and tracts in Africa. To these Phil- ip added the kingdom of Portugal, with its colonial do- minions in the East Indies ; it has been estimated that one-tenth of the population of the globe acknowledged his sway. Gold and silver flowed into Philip's treasury from the American mines ; the commerce of the Indies enriched his subjects ; agriculture and manufactures flourished. Spain was adorned with magnificent edifices. Among them was the palace of the Escurial, the grandest monument of Phil- The Escurial. EEIGN OF PHILIP II. 325 ip's reign, built in honor of St. Lawrence, to whom he as- cribed his victory of St. Quentin over the French (p. 286). St. Lawrence was martyred by being broiled on a gridiron, and the ground-plan of the Escurial was made to imitate the bars and handle of this utensil. It contained the mau- soleum of the Sj)anish kings. Notwithstanding the glory of his empire and the vast resources at his command, the policy of Philip IL brought ruin upon Spain. His long and expensive foreign wars, already recounted, exhausted the country. The great object of his life was the advancement of Catholicism. The auto-da-fe (act of faith) ^ as the burning of reformers was called, now became a common spectacle, and Protest- antism was virtually extirpated in Spain by the terrible Inquisition. The oppressive measures of Philip also drove the Mo- riscoes, or Christianized descendants of the Moors, to rebellion. They were forbidden to use the Arabic lan- guage or their national dress. Baths, enjoined by the religion of their forefathers, were denied them ; and their women were prohibited from wearing veils, an eastern custom which they still practised. After retaliating on their Christian persecutors with fiendish barbarities, the Moriscoes were at last overpowered by Don John of Aus- tria, Philip's half-brother, who had been sent to quell the insurrection. Thousands of them were driven from their flourishing towns, or massacred in the cities which they had defended ; their sunny land was rendered desolate. Thus Spain, by ravaging her most fertile districts and destroying a thrifty population, hastened her own decay. The reign of Philip is also memorable for wars with the Turks. In 1571, Don John, as admiral of the com- bined Spanish and Venetian squadrons, destroyed the Ottoman fleet and thirty thousand Mohammedans in the naval battle of Lepanto. 32(j SrANISII (iLOlJY AND ITS DKCLINK. Philip IT. was a sullen, gloom}', and vindictive despot, — not too good, if we may believe some historians, to poison his own son Don Carlos, for whom he had con- ceived a strong- dislike. The best point in his character was patient industry, his maxim being, " Time and 1 against any two." He died at the Escurial in 1598. Successors of Philip II. — With I'liilip 11. died the greatness of his country ; his successors were weak, in- dolent, and unfortunate. Philip III. (1598-1621) struck a death-blow at the industries of his kingdom by banishing the remnant of the Moriscoes ; nearly a million of his most ingenious and useful citizens were by this suicidal policy driven across the Pyrenees or* shipped to Africa. Idle ecclesiastics, who increased to an enormous extent and absorbed about one-fifth of the landed property, ill supplied their place. Philip IV. (1G21-1GG5) and his ambitious minister Olivares [o-le-vah'res) ingloriously failed in their attempt to make the House of Austria absolute in Europe, and bring back the United Pi'ovinces under the Spanish yoke. They had the mortification to see their territories ravaged by the English, Dutch, and French, and Portugal torn from their grasp. The Portuguese colonies having been attacked by the Dutch, who conquered the Moluccas and founded Batavia in Java as the capital of their empire in the Indies, the eastern trade of Portugal was ruined. Her oppressed people finally revolted, and unanimously declared the Duke of Braganza their king, with the title of John IV. Philip vainly endeavored to re-establish his authority. Charles II., a sickly child, on the death of his father Philip IV. in 1665, succeeded to the tiirone. During his long reign, the disasters of Spain culminated. The con- dition of the people was wretched in the extreme ; com- merce, agriculture, and manufactures, almost ceased to SPANISH AND I'ORTUGUESK LITKllATUKE. 32T exist. On his doath in 1700, the sovcreig'ns of Europe contended foi- his vacant throne in a long and sanguinary war. Literature of Southern Europe. — The sixteenth cen- tury was the golden age of Sj)anish and Portuguese litera- ture. Among the writers of Spain was Lope de Vega {lo'pa da va'gah), who covdd compose a drama in a single day, and was the author of 2,200 plays — so popular that people spoke of a Lope jewel, or a Xo/^e dress, when they meant one of superlative excellence. Ilerrera {er- ra'rah)^ the lyric poet and historian, was styled " the Divine " by his countrymen. But Cervantes has achieved a world-widb reputation ; his " Don Quixote " has been translated into every language, and admired wherever genial humor could provoke a laugh. — In the following century, the dramatist Calderon rivalled Lope de Vega himself in fertility of invention. Portugal gave birth to the poet Camoens, whose repu- tation depends on " The Lusiad," an epic designed to re- flect glory on the history of his native land. In Italy, during the sixteenth century, flourished Ari- osto, author of the " Orlando Furioso," a romantic poem on the adventures of the Paladins of Charlemagne's age ; Tasso, whose " Jerusalem Delivered " is the grand epic of the Italian language ; and Macchiavelli {niak-Jce-ah- vel'li), distinguished for his jaolitical work, " The Prince." One of the greatest of the Italians was Galile'o (1564r- 1G42), the inventor of the pendulum and microscope, improver of the telescope, discoverer of the law of falling- bodies, and author of various treatises on mechanics and astronomy. This profound philosopher, when interrogated as to his belief in a Supreme Being, picked up a straw and replied, " If there Avere nothing else in Nature to convince me of the existence of a God, this alone would be sufficient," 328 THE EN(4LISH COMMONWEALTH. Great Painters. Leonardo da Vinci {veeu'che), father of modern painting (1452-1519). Ra'phael, the most illustrious of modern painters (1483-1520). CoRREGGio {cor-red'jo), noted for softness and tenderness ; for his " Peni- tent Magdalen," 18 inches square, $30,000 was paid; (1494-1534). Michael An'gelo, painter, sculptor, — one of the architects of St. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, the noblest of ecclesiastical structures (1474-1563). Titian (fisk'c-an), great colorist, head of the Venetian school (1477-1576). Paul Veronese, rich in imagination, great in color (1530-1588). GuiDO (ffwe'do), a graceful and delicate painter of Bologna (1575-1642). Ru'bens, the most celebrated of Flemish painters (1577-1640). Rem'brandt, great Dutch historical and portrait painter (1606-1669). Claude Lorraine', prince of landscape-painters (1600-1682). MuRiLLO, the most distinguished of Spanish painters (1618-1682). CHAPTER XLV. ABOLITION OF MONARCHY IN ENGLAND.— THE TWO CROMWELLS. The Commonwealth. — No sooner had the head of Charles I. fallen, than a proclamation was issued declaring it trea- son to give any one the title of king without the authority of Parliament. A few days later the House of Lords and office of king were abolished by the Commons, and the executive power was vested in a council of state consisting of forty-one members. Thus a Commonwealth was erect- ed in England. So extreme were some of the republicans that, in reciting the Lord's Prayer, they would not say " thy kingdom," but " thy commonwealth come." A powerful army, in the interest of the Independents, overawed the English nation ; but when the intelligence of the king's death reached Scotland, a cry of indignation arose from the people. They had fought against him, they had sold him to his enemies, but Charles Stuart was TUE ENGLISH COMMONWEALTH. 329 their native sovereign, and they now atoned for their un- faithfulness to him by loyalty to his son. The Prince of Wales, then in Holland, was proclaimed king, with the title of Charles 11. , — but on condition of his subscribing to the Scottish Covenant. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain the crown without conditions (an attempt which cost the Marquis of Montrose his life), Charles finally thought it best to com- ply with the demands of the Scotch, landed in the country in 1650, and was acknowledged by the people as their king. Meanwhile Charles had also been proclaimed in Ire- land ; Cromwell was therefore appointed lord-lieutenant of that island by Parliament, and sent against the royal- ists. With his army of " Ironsides " he quickly overcame the half -trained Irish. At Drogheda (drbh' he-da) orders were given for a general massacre. The garrison was put to the sword, and a thousand non-combatants, who had taken shelter in the church, were slaughtered by the Roundheads. Most of the towns, intimidated by this bloody policy, had opened their gates to the victors, when Cromwell was recalled for a campaign in Scotland. The Independents, fearing that Charles II., if once seated firmly on the Scottish throne, would assert his right to the crown of England, lost no time in taking the field. In two great battles at Dun-bar' and Worcester, the royal- ists were overthrown, and Scotland was fain to submit to the arms of the English Commonwealth. After the battle of Worcester, Charles met with a series of romantic adventures. Parliament offered a reward of £1,000 for his apprehension, and parties scoured the coun- try in all directions, anxious to secure so valuable a prize. The prince, in the disguise of a peasant, with cropped hair and coarse garments, sought shelter with an honest farmer. Here he was employed in cutting fagots, and one day he was forced to hide in a bushy oak, from the branches of 330 THE ENGLISH COMMO.NW KAl. I'H. which he could see the soldiers of the enemy looking for him below. At last he set out for the coast, mounted be- fore a loyal lady in the character of her servant, and had the good fortune to escape in a vessel to Normandy. The whole of Great Britain being thus reduced to sub- mission. Parliament pi'oposed the erection of a powerful Protestant republic, by incorporating Holland, now one of the foremost countries of Europe, with the Conunonwealth. This did not suit the Dutch ; and Parliament was piqued into passing the Navigation Act, which forbade the im- portation of the products or manufactures of any for- eign country into England, except in the ships of the pro- ducing country or in English vessels. Most of the carrv- ing-trade of Europe being then in the hands of the Dutch, this act hurt them sorely, and provoked a naval war with the States. Van Tromp, the Dutch conmiandor, gaining an important victory, fastened a broom to his mast-head, as a sign that he had swept the English from the seas ; but Blake, the British admiral, afterward pun- ished his bravado, and the war resulted in the establish- ment of England's supremacy on the ocean. Ci-omwell, meanwhile, was evidently aspiring to abso- lute sovereigntv. The Long Parliament, having excited his displeasure, was forcibly dissolved in lOoS. Cromwell went to the House at the head of three hundred soldiers, cleared tlie hall, locked the doors, and left with the keys in his pocket. The whole civil and military power of Great Britain was now in the hands of this renuukable man. In order to preserve the appearance of a republic, a new parliament was smnmoned. It was composed princi- pally of illiterate fanatics, and was contemptuously styled Barebone's Parliament from v no of its members, a leather- seller called Praise-God Barebone. This assembly soon resiii-ned its authority to Cromwell. The colonel of a party THE PROTECTOEATE. 331 of soldiers, sent to clear the House of refractory members, asked them what they did there. " We are seeking the I^ord," was the reply. " Then," said he, " you may go elsewhere, for the Lord has not been here these many years." A new constitution was shortly afterward adopted by the officers of the army, and Cromwell was declared Lord Protector of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Protectorate. — Cromwell now ruled as absolutely as any king in Europe. AVhile his subjects feared him, foreign nations acknowledged his vigorous administration and courted his alliance. England had never been more powerful. Her fleet was mistress of the seas. Spain was humbled, Jamaica surrendered to an English admiral, and the pirates of the Barbary coast were compelled to respect the British flag. Cromwell was also the champion of the European Protestants, and is said to have notified the pope that unless he showed favor to the people of God, the English guns would be heard at Rome. In 1657 the crown, with the title of king, was offered to Cromwell by a parliament of his own partisans ; but while he coveted, he feared to accept, the proffered honor. He was well aware that his military government and ar- bitrary measures were odious to the great body of the na- tion. His own family opposed his assuming the regal dignity ; and his daughter, when dying, upbraided him with his crimes. Conspiracies were formed against him ; and a tract appeared, entitled " Killing no Murder," which went to prove that his assassination would be justifiable. After Cromwell read it, he was never seen to smile. In constant dread of being murdered, he wore armor under his clotlies, carried loaded pistols, and would not sleep in the same room more than three nights in succession. His spirit was broken, a fever seized him, and in 1658, on his birthday, which he had always regarded as his " fortunate day," the usurper breathed his last. 332 RICHARD CROMWELL, Richard Cromwell, bis son, was proclaimed protector. A mild and well-meaning man, but witbout resolution, be soon found bimself involved in difficulties witb both Par- liament and army. It was not long before be signed his abdication, and returned to bis quiet country life, for bis attachment to which bis father bad called him Lazy Dick. But Lazy Dick once uttered a sentiment which it would bave been well had his father acted on — that be would ratber submit to any suffering with a good name than be the greatest man on earth witbout it. A period of anarchy followed his resignation, until May, 1660, when Parliament recalled Charles II. to tbe throne of bis ancestors. Contemporaneous Sovereigns. Louis XIY., of Franco ; Fhilip lY., of Spain ; Ferdinand III. and Leopold I., of Germany; Frederick William, the Great, of Prussia ; Fred- erick III., of Denmark ; Christina and Charles X., of Sweden ; Innocent X. and Alexander VII., popes ; Alexis, of Russia ; Mohammed IT., of Turkey. Oliveu Cromwell, 1663-1658. Richard Cromwell, 1658-1659. CHAPTER XLVI. THE RESTORATION.— CHARLES T I.— JAMES //. (1660-1688.) Charles II. was welcomed by the English nation with great rejoicings. He entered London on bis birthday (1660) amid waving banners and pealing bells, and re- marked tbat it must bave been his own fault be bad stayed away so long, for everybody seemed delighted at bis re- CHARLES II., OF ENGLAND. 333 turn. Unfettered by conditions he ascended the tnrone, as nearly absolute a ruler as any who had reigned in Eng- land since the Magna Charta was signed. King Charles began his reign in a way to which none could take exception. For his advisers he chose eminent men. The Earl of Clarendon, a discreet and upx-ight statesman, was placed at the head of the cabinet. The revolutionary army was disbanded, and all political of- fenders were pardoned except those concerned in the death of the late monarch. These regicides Charles deemed it his sacred duty to punish; ten of them were condemned to the scaffold ; and the body of Cromwell was dug from the grave, and publicly hanged on the anniversary of the death of Charles I. In 1661 the church of England was restored by Parlia- ment, and hundreds of dissenting clergymen, who had become settled in the parish churches during the revolu- tion, were obliged to give up their livings. It was next at- tempted to introduce Episcopacy into Scotland ; but the people received the ministers sent them with volleys of stones, and followed their old pastors to barns and moors, determined to maintain the national Covenant to the death. Against such worship in "conventicles" severe laws were enacted, and at last military force was employed for its suppression. Driven from their homes, hunted like wild beasts over mountain and heath, the intrepid Cov- enanters still met for praise and prayer with swords in their hands, and frays with the king's troopers were of con- stant occurrence. Though often defeated, condemned to the gibbet, and tortured with the iron boot and thumb- screw, they still insisted on their right to worship God ac- cording to the dictates of their own consciences. In 1662 Charles married the virtuous and amiable Catharine of Portugal ; but he soon neglected his wife, and even encourag-ed his dissolute friends to insult her 334 CHARLES II., OF ENGLAND. before his face. He abandoned himself to profligacy, and made no attempt to conceal or excuse his shameless con- duct. Licentiousness ran riot at his court, and vice flaunt- ed without rebuke. In fact, throughout the kingdom, a marked reaction had taken place. In the days of Puritan and Independent ascendency, not only had intemperance, gambling, pro- fanity, and immorality of every kind, been visited with severe penalties, but even gayety, amusements, and frivo- lous fashions of dress, had been discountenanced. Laugh- ter was regarded as the sign of a worldly spirit ; long faces and long sermons, stiffness, formality, and precision, were the order of the day. But under Charles II. all this was changed ; the popular current set the other way, and car- ried with it all the old-time notions of propriety. In 1665, in compliance with the wishes of the people, war was declared against Holland. After some reverses, the Dutch fleet at last swept the English coast, spread its triumphant pennants in the Thames, destroyed the shipping, and threatened the capital itself with destruc- tion. But the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam in America fell into the hands of the English (1664) ; its name was changed to New York in honor of the Duke of York, the king's brother. The whole Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia now belonged to England. The Plague of London. — During the war with Hoi land, London was desolated by a terrible plague (1665). The nobility, the royal family, and all who had the means, fled ; but the poorer classes perished by thousands. A red cross was painted on the doors of infected houses, with the words, " Lord have mercy on us ! " and all com- munication with the inmates was forbidden. At night the dead were collected in carts ; no coffins were provided, no mourners allowed to follow their deceased friends, but the corpses were thrown into pits. Whole rows of houses TIIK PLAGUE AND GKEAT FIKE. 335 stood deserted, grass grew in the recently crowded streets, and the few who ventured out carefully avoided each other. To add to the teiTor of the scene, fanatics, be- lieving themselves inspired, traversed the city, denouncing divine wrath on the people. The pestilence extended over the greater part of the kingdom ; a hundred thousand persons died in the capital alone. Many of the Presbyterian clergy returned during the plague, to minister to the sick and dying. On the pretext that they had then disseminated seditious principles, Par- liament passed what was called the Five-Mile Act, which prohibited all ministers that did not conform to the estab- lished church from coming within five miles of any town or village, thus dooming them to hardships, if not actual starvation. The Great Fire. — The plague was followed (16G6) by a destructive conflagration, which rendered homeless and destitute two hundred thousand of the inhabitants of London. This fire, though a terrible affliction at the time, ultimately proved a blessing ; for the plague, together with the filth that kept it alive, was thoroughly burned out, and has not appeared in London since. The streets were widened, and well-ventilated brick houses took the place of the former close wooden tenements. To Sir Christopher Wren, the greatest of England's architects, was committed the rebuilding of the pul)]ic edifices. His grandest work is St. Paul's Cathedral, the most magnificent Protestant church in the world. Sir Chnstopher was buried within its walls. " If you ask for his monument, look around," is the inscription placed over his remains. The misfortunes that had befallen the nation excited the murmurs of the English ]ieople. Other causes of dis- content were soon added. Charles dismissed Clarendon in disgrace, and intrusted the government to five unprin- 336 CHARLES II., OF ENGLAND, cipled men,* For a large annual pension, he assisted the king of France in attempting- to subjugate Protestant Holland. The Duke of York, the lieir presumptive, em- braced the Roman Catholic faith. The popular voice de- manded additional securities for the reformed religion ; and consequently Parliament in 1673 passed the Test Act, a law which, among other provisions, excluded from public offices all who refused to receive the sacrament accordhig to the rites of the church of Eng^land, In the following- year, as the Dutch defended themselves with vigor and the Commons would not grant supplies for carrying- on the war against them, peace with the States was concluded. Plots, — In 1678 Titus Gates, a disgraced clergyman, pretended to have discovered a Popish plot to burn Lon- don, and destroy the Protestant religion by a general slaughter of all who professed it. Amid the popular panic consequent upon this false allegation, many were unjustly suspected and executed, ( )ates afterward received seventeen hundred stripes, and, surviving this torture, was thrown into prison. There was no pretence, however, about the Rye House Plot (so called from one of the places where the conspira- tors met), which had in view sinmltaneous risings for the pwpose of preventing the succession of the Duke of York. The discovery of this plot brought two illustrious men. Lord Russell and Algernon Sydney, to the block, Whigs and Tokies, — The death of Charles II. took place in 1685, His great stumbling-block, like that of all the Stuarts, was too high a notion of the royal pre- rogative. Those who held such views now began to be called 7hries, while the other great political party, who supported the rights of the people, were distinguished as * These were popularly called the Cabal, as the initials of the names of the live ministers, Cliflbrd, Ashley, Buekinji;hani, Arlington, and Lau- derdale, formed this word. JAMES ir., OF ENGLAND. 337 Whigs. Both names were originally applied as terms of reproach. Whir/ (whey) meant " sour milk," a favorite drink of the Scottish Covenanters ; I'ory was derived from the Irish Rapparees, a band of robbers, who in calling people to surrender cried " toree," give me. — Through the efforts of Shaftesbury, one of the most prominent Whig leaders, Parliament passed the celebrated Hahejm Corpus Act, which, insuring to a prisoner the right of being brought before a judge and having the grounds for his confinement examined into, has ever since been regarded as the jgreat bulwark of personal liberty. We find the strait-laced dresses of Cromwell's day now replaced with rich and flowing draperies, set off with feathers and ribbons. The ladies painted, the gentlemen covered their shoulders with long false curls. Literary Men. — In the reign of Charles II. flourished the immoi-tal Milton, the blind author of " Paradise Lost" and " Paradise Regained " — the former the great epic of the English language ; Dryden, poet-laureate, and trans- lator of Virgil's ^neid ; Samuel Butler, who wrote the witty " Hudibras ; " and John Bunyan, " the poor tinker of Bedford," who in a damp prison-cell composed the " Pilgrim's Progress" — a book that next to the Bible has perhaps been more read than any other English work, James II., Duke of York, on the death of his brother without heirs, ascended the throne. He had long been unpopular on account of his attachment to the Catholic church. Once he took occasion to caution Charles about the danger of walking out with nnly a few attendants. "Not a bit of danger," replied his orother, " for I am sure no one in England would kill me to make you king." Monmouth's Rebellion. — Scarcely had James as- sumed the crown of England, when the Duke of Mon- mouth, a natural son of Charles IL, invaded the kingdom. Though numbers supported the movement, Monmouth Aid 338 THE REVOLUTION OF 1688. was defeated, captured, and condemned to death. Many ' suffered in consequence of this rebellion. A commission was appointed under the brutal Judge Jeffreys, to pass through the insurgent districts and punish all who had taken part in the insurrection. The sessions of this court, from the enormities which it committed, were long re- membered as the Bloody Assizes. It very soon became apparent that James had no in- tention of maintaining the established church or respect- ing the rights of the people. He not only attended mass himself, but by various arbitrary measures labored for the restoration of Roman Catholicism throughout the realm. General distrust was awakened by his high-handed pro- ceedings. Revolution of 1688. — The national discontent at last reached such a height that it coultl be satisfied only with the deposition of the king. James's daughter Mary had espoused William of Orange, stadtholder of Holland and the leading Protestant sovereign of Europe. This prince many friends of Protestantism and liberty desired to place on the English throne, and messengers were secretly sent to solicit his presence and aid. William accordingly appeared on the coast with a strong armament, in November, 1688. His reception was cordial ; both political parties declared against the Stuart king. James hastened to send his wife and infant son out of tbe country, and soon followed them himself across the Channel to France. Parliament then declared the throne vacant, and de- creed that the Prince and Princess of Orange should reign jointly as king and queen of England ; * for William had * The infant son of James by his second wife, an Italian princess, who left the kingdom as just narrated, was thus virtually excluded from the succession. He was afterward known as the Pretender, or Chevalier St. George. Mary and Anne were the daughters of James by his first w^^e. THE AMKKICAN COLONIES. 339 already informed the convention tliat " he would not be tied to the apron-strings even of the best of wives," — Thus was acconiplishod the bloodless revolution of 1688. English Colonies in the New World. — In the reign of Charles 11. a rebellion took place in Virginia against the tyrannical governor Berkeley, during which Jamestown was burned to the ground. The region called Carolina, in honor of Charles IX. of France, was colonized ; and Wil- liam Penn, a Quaker, obtained an extensive tract west of the Delaware, which the king named Pennsylvania, " the forest-land of Penn." Penn sent out a number of emigrants to settle his domain, and sailed himself with more in 1682. The fol- lowing year he laid the foundations of the city of Phila- delphia. By honest and kind dealing he secured the good- will of the Indians, and the treaty they made with him was never broken. The Quaker settlements enjoyed en- tire exemption from the Indian wars by which the other colonies Avere from time to time ravaged. The New England colonies became involved in hostili- ties with the Indians, known as King Philip's War, and several of their towns were burned by the savages. On the accession of the Duke of York, the charters of the northern colonies having been revoked. Sir Edmund An- dros became the despotic governor of New England. Inventions, Improvements, etc. Streets of London dimly lighted by lanterns hung out by the citizens. Average wages in England, 4s. a week for fanners, fis. for mechanics. First coffee-house in England opened at Oxford, in 1651 ; first in London, 1652. Tea sold in London in 1657. Air-pump invented by Guericke (ffher'ik-ki'h), of Magdeburg, in 1650; improved by the English philoso- pher Boyle, in 1658. Huygens {hi'ghens), a great Dutch philosopher, in- vented the pendulum-clock, 1657 ; discovered Saturn's ring with his im- proved telescope, 1659 ; invented the spiral spring for regulating the bal- ance of watches, 1675. 340 CIVIL WAR OE^ THE FRONDE. CHAPTER XL VII. AGE OF LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE. Louis XIV. at his birth was called by the joyful people "the God-given." As Louis XIII. approached his end, the child, then but five years old, supposing him dead, ex- ultingly exclaimed, "1 am Louis XIV." "Not yet," whispered the dying parent. Soon after, however, the golden-haired boy was hailed as king (1643), and his moth- er, Anne of Austria, was made regent during his minority. The queen regent chose for her prime minister Cardinal Mazarin {maz-a-reen'), an Italian, who proved an able suc- cessor of Richelieu. During his administration France was involved in the Thirty Years' War ; and after the peace of Westphalia, hostilities continued with Spain. To pay the expenses of these foreign wars, as well as to sup- port the luxv;ry of the court, heavy taxes were levied. The Parliament of Paris protested ; nor was it long before the people, joined by many of the nobles, broke out into insurrection. This revolt was derisively called the civil war of the Fronde., because the party opposed to the court persevered in their resistance, as street boys returned to fight with their slings {frondes) after having been scattered by the police. The name at once became popular. Ladies wore their lockets in slings, and embroidered their dresses with the same device. Mazarin was obliged to flee from France ; but the Frondeurs were afterward put down, and he re-entered Paris in triumph. In 1659 he negotiated the Treaty of the Pyrenees, which ended the war with Spain. One evening he announced the joyful news to the queen. " What ! " she exclaimed, " peace ? " " Better, madam," replied Mazarin, " I bring you not only peace, but the In- PARIS, THE WORLD S CAPITAL. 341 fanta." * Louis received the hand of the daughter of the Spanish king, with a dowry of half a million crowns. Cardinal Mazarin confirmed that absolute authority which Richelieu had gained for the crown. After the death of this great statesman, Louis XIV. resolved to govern without a prime minister. When asked who should be consulted on matters of public business, he replied, " Myself." His rule soon became despotic, and his famous declaration, " I am the state," was emphatically true. In the first few years of his reign, Louis indulged in unworthy pleasures. Despite the immorality of the king and his favorites, however, the splendor of his court and the talents of the learned men by whom it was adorned became renowned throughout Christendom. The other countries of Europe not only adopted the polished lan- guage and tast}' fashions of Paris, but perfected the edu- cation of their youth at the world's capital. Louis him- self was the most polite man in his kingdom ; he did not consider it beneath his dignity to raise his hat to the hum- blest peasant-woman. Yet his air was regal and his atti- tude commanding. iVn old officer who once waited on him to ask a favor was so confused in the royal presence that he could only stammer out, " I hope your majesty will not believe that I tremble thus before your enemies." The administration of Louis XIV. was supported by the greatest generals and the most accomplished ministers of the age. Colbert {kol-hare'), who raised himself from the humble position of a woollen-draper's apprentice to that of comptroller-general of finance, developed the commerce and manufactures of the kingdom. Remembering the Duke of Sully's maxim, " Pasturage and tillage are the nurses of the state," he also encouraged agriculture and the rearing of cattle. He improved the travel) ing facili- ties, and united the Atlantic with the Mediterranean by * The title of the royal princesses of Spain. 34:2 AGE OF LOUIS XIV. OF FRANCE, the Canal of Languedoe. Many public works, including the Academy of Sciences, the Observatory, the Garden of the Tuileries {tweel-re'), and the sumptuous Palace of Ver- sailles, bear witness to the munificence and genius of Colbert. In 1667, Louis XIV., ambitious of military glory, in- vaded the Spanish Netherlands, which he claimed in the name of his wife on the death of her father, Philip IV. This alarmed the nations, and led to the Triple Alliance on the part of England, Holland, and Sweden. The French king was checked in the midst of a glorious career; but he soon succeeded in bribing Charles II. to detach himself from the league and declare war aarainst the United Provinces. Sweden also having been gained over by his intrigues, an army of 120,000 men, led by the king in person supported by the ablest generals in Europe, — Turenne, Vauban (vo-bo?i^'), and the Great Cond6, ad- vanced upon Holland. The French were armed with bayonets, a weapon now used for the first time. In forty days their, victorious standards waved within a few miles of Amsterdam. Wil- liam III. of Orange, elected stadtholder, rejected the hu- miliating terms offered by Louis, declaring his determina- tion to die disputing the last ditch rather than witness the ruin of the republic. The dikes were cut ; the waters of the German Ocean were let in upon the fertile fields of Holland ; and her capital was saved. In the face of other coalitions against him, Louis achieved fresh triumphs, adding to France portions of the conquered territory. He conducted several brilliant cam- paigns with no less skill than he managed diplomatic af- fairs, and was hailed by the general voice as the Grand Monarch. Nor were the French arms less successful on the ocean. Duquesne {dil-kehn') upheld the honor of his country's WARS OF LOUIS XIV. 343 flag against Holland, defeating the Dutch admiral Dc Ruyter {r's Travels " and the " Tale of a Tub;" Gay, the poet ; Boliugbroke, an historical and philosophi- * Tlie Tatler was a periodical paper, called so by Steele in honor of the fair sex. The Spectator, a periodical planned by Addison, became the most popvdar work in England ; twenty thousand numbers were eometimcs sold in one day. ENGLISH COLONIES IN AMERICA. 351 cal writer ; and Daniel Defoe, who in " Robinson Crusoe " still opens a tioasure-house of amusement to the young. American Colonies. — After the accession of William III., the French and Indians commenced hostilities against the English in America. During the war, which was called King William's War, a force from Canada surprised and destroyed the town of Schenectady in New York. Several New England villages were also burned by the savages. About this time (1692) a strange delusion spread through New England. People declared that they were pinched and bruised by invisible demons, charging friend- less old women, and in some cases even their own kindred, with bewitching them. The accused were readily con- victed by superstitious judges, or on their own confes- sions wrung from them by torture. Twenty unfortunates fell victims to the witch-mania before the eyes of the people were opened to its horrors. In Queen Anne's New England War, the frontier set- tlements were again attacked by the savages, and the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, was burned by a party of French and Indians. Cotton was raised at Jamestown as an experiment, early in the seventeenth century. The Carolina colonists also produced it in small quantities about 1700 ; the im- portance of the crop, however, was hardly appreciated till the close of the eighteenth century. Rice began to be cultivated in South Carolina in 1694, and four years later sixty tons were exported to England. English Sovereigns: House of Stuart. James I., . . . 1603. Charles I., . . 1625. Commonwealth, 1649-1653. Protectorate, . 1653-1659. Charles II., . . . 1660. James II., . . 1685. William and Mary, . 1689. Anne, . . . 1702. 352 DECLINE OF OTTOMAN POWER. CHAPTER XLIX. DECLINE OF OTTOMAN POWER.— CONTEMPO- RARY ASIATIC MONARCHIES. Military Despotism. — Under Solyman the Magnificent, the military power of the Turks reached its height. His successors were generally weak, or engrossed in pleasure and debauchery. They had the power of life and death over their subjects, and exercised it with great cruelty. To secure himself upon the throne, it was the custom of each new sultan to have his brothers strangled. Execu- tions of tliis kind were performed by mutes, deprived of their tong'ues in order to insure their secrecy. The emperors seldom appeared at the head of their armies, which were led by grand viziers. The latter also administered the government ; while the Janizaries, once the support of the state, became insubordinate — elevated, dethroned, and murdered sultans at their pleasure — and were the real power in the empire. This body of troops, all but invincible when controlled by the warlike monarchs of the past, rapidly degenerated under such effeminate rulers. At last they were compelled to yield the palm to the superior courage and tactics of the soldiers of Christen- dom. Turkish Wars. — During this period of military despot- ism, the Turks were still formidable to the otlier European nations. In the early part of the seventeenth century, a disastrous war with Persia occupied them so thoroughly as to prevent for a time their usual incursions in the West. Amurath IV., the Intrepid (1623-1640), partially restored the glory of the empire, suppressed a mutiny of the Jani- zaries, and marching against the Persians captured Bag- dad. During the reign of the next sultan, a sanguinary war began with Venice, which lasted twenty-four years. TURKISH WARS. 353 In 16G9, Candia, the capital of Crete, was taken after a siege which cost Mohammed IV. a hundred and twenty thousand men. The island was ceded to the Ottomans, and the maritime power of Venice in the Grecian Archi- pelago was destroyed. Mohammed IV. also invaded Poland in person ; but his army was defeated by John Sobieski, " the Buckler of Christ," at Khotin' — the most signal reverse that the infi- dels had yet suffered on a European battle-field. With not more than 15,000 men, Sobieski afterward held in check 200,000 Moslems, hurling back in their faces, when ammunition failed him, the balls that fell within his intrenchments. The superstitious enemy regarded him as more than mortal ; and, deeming it useless to fight against a " wizard king," offered him honorable terms. The Ottoman power, however, had received no .material check up to 1683. Siege of Vienna. — In this year, all Eui-ope was thrown into consternation by the news that an immense army of Turks and Tartars, under the command of the grand vizier of Mohammed IV., was marching upon Vienna. The op- pression of Austria had driven the freedom-loving Hun- garians to revolt, and one of their nobles had sought aid of the Porte.* Mohammed recognized him as " King of the Hungarians and Transylvanians," and instigated by Louis XIV., the deadly enemy of the House of Austria, dispatched this formidable host into the German Empire. They were soon before the walls of Vienna. Three thousand suppliants who came forth from the city were slaughtered by the ferocious Tartars ; their death-shrieks, borne back to the capital, determined the governor to hold out to the last with his slender garrison. * The government of the Turkish Empire is called the Ottoman or Sublime Porte, from the gate (port) of the sultan's palace, where justice was administered. 23 354 SIEGE OF VIENNA. Leopold, the emperor, had already fled ; and Austria, in this crisis, called upon Poland for aid. Sobieski, who had been elected king of that country in 1674, with the title of John III., responded to the call. When almost at the mercy of the Moslem soldiery, the despairing Viennese beheld his signal-rockets. At the head of the chivalry of Poland, Sobieski fearlessly bore down upon the Turkish ranks. The vizier, believing that the Christians were rushing upon their death, coolly reclined in his tent of crimson silk, sipping coffee with his sons. But Sobieski's name, as it was repeated from line to line of the besieging army, struck terror into every heart. The khan of the Tartars cried in dismay, " It is the wizard king ! " A lunar eclipse which now occurred completed the panic of the Mussulmans. The vizier was forced to relinquish what an hour before seemed his certain prey, and fled, leaving rich spoil in the hands of the victor. Thus Europe was saved from the Mohammedan arms, and all Christendom resounded with the praises of John Sobieski. He entered Vienna through the breach made by the Turks, and was hailed by the joyful people as their deliverer, while the clergy applied to him the scriptural words, " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." In announcing his victory to the pope, Sobieski improved on the sublime sentence of Caesar : " I came, I saw, God conquered." The emperor Leopold treated the hero, to whom he owed his crown, with shameful ingrati- tude ; and Austria subsequently repaid with fire and sword the services rendered her by Poland in 1683. Sobieski died in 1696, and " with him the glory of Po- land descended into the tomb." The Ottoman Power broken. — The spell of Turkish tri- umphs in Europe was now broken. The warlike sultan Mustapha II. {ni66s' tah-fah), it is true, conducted a brief SHAH ABBAS IN PERSIA. 355 campaign victoriously in Hungary, but he was badly de- feated by Prince Eugene in the battle of Zenta (1697). Leopold had sent a letter to Eugene, forbidding him to risk an engagement. But Eugene, guessing its import, thrust it into his pocket unopened, and at once fell upon the Turks. For this he was arrested at Vienna, but his popularity with the army compelled his speedy release. The defeat of Zenta crushed the spirit of the Ottomans. Mustapha sued for peace, and by the treaty of Carlowitz (1699) ceded Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Morea (southern Greece) to Venice, and important provinces to the Poles. Thus the Ottoman Porte was humiliated, and the declining empire of Turkey ceased to be a terror to Europe. In 1717 Eugene gained another great victory at Belgrade, capturing the city. At the close of this war, the Turkish sultan presented Eugene with a cimeter and a turban. " The one," said he, " is the emblem of your valor, the other of your genius and wisdom." Persia. — In the beginning of the sixteenth century, Ishmael Shah overthrew the Turkomans and established his authority throughout Persia. Under the Suffee dynas- ty, thus commenced, Persia partially regained its former prestige. Shah Abbas the Great (1585-1627) became re- nowned for his conquests and wise government. During the reign of Abbas, the empire was greatly im- proved and beautified ; Ispahan [is-pd-hahn') was made the capital ; and Persia reached the pinnacle of its modern greatness. After his death the power of the nation rapid- ly declined. In the next century, the Suffee dynasty was supplanted by the Afghans (1722), who a few years later were themselves overthrown by Nadir (nah'dir), a general of the Suffee prince. Having established himself on the throne (1736), Nadir Shah raised Persia again to a high position of power and glory. India, in the seventeenth century, flourished under the 356 REIGN OF AUnHNGZEBE. Mohammedan descendants of Tamerlane. The Mogul Em- pire had attained to wealth and civilization in the latter half of the previous century, through the able management of Akbar, whose war-elephants are said to have numbered six thousand, and whose revenue amounted to ten million pounds sterling. The greatest of Akbar's line was Au'rungzebe (orna- ment of the throne). The reign of this monarch (1658- 1707) was the most brilliant period of the Mogul power. Several impos- ing hospitals _^ - ^E- — and mosques are monuments of his munificence; one of the lat- ter, erected in memory of his daughter, still bears his name. His empire ex- tended ■ beyond Hindostan, and his wealth was incredible ; a golden globe was carried be- fore him, as symbolical of the title he assumed — " Con- queror of the World." Yet he signified that there was a small portion independent of his sway, by tearing off a corner from the sheets on which he wrote his letters. During the reign of Aurungzebe, the Mahratta nation, consisting of associated Hindoo tribes, arose in India. Both French and English had stations in the country. GMna. — The dynasty which in 1368 had succeeded the Mongol line of Genghis Khan in China, was overthrown Mosque of Aukungzebe. MANTCHOO DYNASTY IN CHINA. 357 about the middle of the seventeenth century by the Man- tchoo Tartars. The dynasty then established has continued to the present time. Kang-hi, the second Mantchoo emperor, restored peace and prosperity to the country, granted religious toleration, and even allowed a Christian church to be built in his pal- ace by the Jesuits. The missionaries were afterward ex- pelled ; and the attempts of European governments to establish commercial relations with the Chinese were gen- erally unavailing. 1700 A. D.— William III. king of England and stadtholder of the United Provinces, fireat advance of literature and science in England ; Newton at the height of his glory ; Pope, writing verses at the age of twelve, catches a glimpse of Dryden, then in the last year of his life. Fifty-seventh year of the reign of Louis XIV. of France. Forty-second year of Aurungzebe's reign in Hindostan. Philip V. (House of Anjou) named king of Spain. Genoa and Venice, republics. Charles XII. de- feats Peter the Great at Narva. Turkish power broken. English and French settlements on the eastern coast of America. Frenchmen explor- ing the lower Mississippi. CHAPTER L. PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA AND CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN. Russia, after its reduction by Oktai (p. 225), remained tributary to the great Khan of the Golden Horde about two centuries. The Russian prince was required to admit the Tartar chief's superiority, when they met, by holding his stirrup for him to mount. The Russians were finally delivered from the Mongol dominion by Ivan the Great, who ascended the throne in 1462. Besides other acquisitions, rich Novgorod was con- 358 ACCESSION OF PETEK THE GKEAT. quered and annexed to his dominions ; three hundred chariot-loads of gold and silver articles were sent from this city to Moscow. Ivan the Terrible, crowned Czar in 1547, took Kazan [kah-zahn') and Astracan' from the Tartars ; Siberia; also, was conquered for him by the hetman (commander- in-chief) of the warlike Cossacks. In spite of the czar's tyranny, Russia grew in greatness ; foreigners were in- vited into the empire, commerce was encouraged, and the port of Archangel was founded on the White Sea. A printing-office was established at Moscow, and Ivan or- ganized a standing army known as the Strel'itz Guard. The son of Ivan was the last of the ancient line of Rurik. In 1613 the House of Romanof [ro-mah'nof) was elevated to the throne of Russia. Youth of Peter the Great. — The first Romanof princes, engaged in wars with Poland, Sweden, and the Turks, gradually enlarged the boundaries of the empire. Feodor II., who died in 1682, left the crown to his half-brother Peter, then only ten years old, purposely excluding his own brother Ivan, Avho was weak-minded and unfit to rule. But at the instigation of Ivan's sister Sophia, the Strel- itzes rose against this disposition of the crown, and a massacre took place in Moscow, which Peter and his mother escaped by taking refuge in a convent. The difficulty was finally settled by the coronation of Ivan and Peter as joint emperors, with Sophia as regent. Not satisfied with the authority which she thus enjoyed, Sophia endeavored to destroy the usefulness and pros- pects of the young Peter by keeping him in ignorance and debasing his tastes. But the youthful monarch proved superior to her wiles. Instead of becom.ing indo- lent and profligate, he diligently applied himself to study, making many friends, among whom was his judicious ad- viser Le Fort. THE czar's reforms. 359 At length Sophia, unable to prevent the growing power of her half-brother, planned his assassination. The plot was revealed to Petei", who, aided by his numerous adherents, prevailed over his intriguing sister and com- pelled her to retire to a convent. The imbecile Ivan now resigned his share of the sovereignty ; thus Peter I. be- came sole ruler of the Russian Empire (1689). Peter's Efforts at Reform. — The first efforts of the young czar were directed toward the improvement of his half-barbarous subjects. In the face of national preju- dices and the opposition of a powerful and superstitious clergy, he began his great work of reform. The army first demanded his attention. He resolved to disband the Strelitzes, and organize a body of troops equipped and disciplined like other European soldiers. Under the direction of Le Fort a small force was raised and uniformed ; and Peter taught the Russians a lesson of subordination by drilling in the ranks himself as a common soldier. Another distinguished member of the corps was Menzikoff, a vender of cakes, whose ready wit had recommended him to the czar and who afterward rose to distinction in the imperial service. This little com- pany was the germ of the future standing army of Russia. About the same time Peter employed foreign ship- wrights to build him vessels ; even in his boyhood he had conceived a love for navigation and delighted to paddle a little Dutch skiff in the river which flows through Moscow. He determined that his inland empire should possess sea- coast, and enjoy the advantages of intercourse with for- eign countries. The Swedes ruled on the Baltic, the Turks on the Black Sea ; and it was at the expense of these neighbors that Peter proposed to provide himself with seaports. Sailing down the Don in 1696, he defeated the Ottoman fleet, and captured Az'of, the key to the Euxine. 360 PETER THE GREAT OF RUSSIA. Meanwhile the czar sent an ambassador to China, who is said to have travelled more than eighteen months before reaching the frontier. In the course of three years the embassy returned, after having established friendly rela- tions between the two empires. Peter next sent a number of Russian youth into west- ern Europe, to be instructed in the arts and customs of civilized life. Former rulers had forbidden their subjects to leave the country, and the old Russian families held all foreigners in contempt. This arbitrary measure of the czar, together with the taxes he levied to enlarge his navy, occasioned discontent. His plan to unite the Volga and Don with canals was also denounced, as an impious at- tempt " to turn the streams one way which Providence had directed another." A powerful party opposed to Peter consequently grew up. A plot was formed for his assassi- nation ; but it was discovered and crushed with unsparing severity. The Czar's Tour. — At last Peter determined to visit the principal countries of Europe himself, and become personally acquainted with their systems of government and the arts in which they excelled. Leaving his domin- ions in the hands of trustworthy deputies, he set out in the year 1697, disguised as an attendant in a splendid em- bassy, at the head of which were General Le Fort and Menzikoff. Hastening on in advance of his companions, he reached Holland, where he expected to learn the art of ship-building, refused the elegant palace which had been prepared for him in Amsterdam, and took up his abode in a hut among the dock-yards. For seven weeks Peter performed the labor of a com- mon shipwright ; made his bed, cooked his own food, and received wages from his master. On one occasion he bought a pair of shoes with the money paid him, and was wont to point to them with pride as having been earned THE CZARS TOUR. 361 by the sweat of his brow with hammer and anvil. , The Duke of Marlborough came to visit him, and saw the ab- solute czar of Muscovy, as Peter was called, put his shoul- der beneath a heavy beam at the ship-builder's order. From Holland Peter crossed into England, where he was hospita- bly entertained by the govern- ment. Here too he dwelt near the sea ; and, to ac- quire skill in nav- igation, he often sailed a small ves- sel with Menzikoff and others of his suite on board. So forgetful were they of all the dignity proper to their station, that it was their cus- tom, after the day's work was done, to amuse themselves witli smoking and drinking in a common tavern. Astonished at the number of lawyers in Westminster Hall, the czar remarked that he had but two in his whole em- pire, and thought of hanging one of these on his return. Peter engaged many officers and scientific men to ac- Petee in the Dock-yabd. 362 PETER THE GREAT. company him back to Russia. On leaving England, he took from his pocket a roll of brown paper and handed it to King William III. as a parting gift ; it contained a ruby worth ten thousand pounds sterling. In a yacht presented to him by his royal host he sailed for the conti- nent, and there heard of a rebellion in Moscow which obliged him to return to Russia without delay. Further Reforms. — It seems that the Strelitzes had re- volted at the instigation of some disaftected Russians, who plotted the elevation of Sophia to the throne, but had been put down with great slaughter by one of Peter's generals. After his arrival in Moscow, the czar condemned to a frightful death many of the soldiers and conspirators. Some, we are told, were broken on the wheel, others buried alive, and others again were executed by Peter himself, who struck off their heads when in a state of in- toxication. Such was the character of this remarkable man ; with all his talents, ambition, and energy, he pos- sessed an ungovernable temper which often betrayed him into acts of atrocious cruelty. The Strelitzes were disbanded, and new disciplined reg- iments supplied their place. Next a blow was aimed at the fashions of the people, who wore long beards and Tar- tar skirts. On these appendages a tax was laid, which, as many preferred the ancient costume, proved quite profit- able to the government. Peter even went so far as to post barbers and tailors at the gates of the capital to cut the whiskers and skirts of those who entered. The calen- dar was changed ; and though the people complained that their sovereign was trying to alter the course of the sun, and the priests proved that the world was created in Sep- tember, the Russian year was made to commence on Jan- uary 1st. Arithmetic was introduced, and the old Tartar mode of counting by means of balls strung on wires was done away with. The Bible was translated into the Sla- THE SCANDINAVIAN KINGDOM. 363 vonic tongue ; schools, hospitals, inns, and post-offices, were established. The condition of woman was elevated. Everywhere the work of improvement went on, in spite of the obstinate resistance of the people for whose good the czar was laboring. As soon as these social reforms were effected, Peter desired to gain some territory on the Baltic, where he could build a new capital better adapted to commerce than Moscow. The country round the Gulf of Finland once be- longed to Russia, but was now held by Sweden. Toward this power, unfriendly feelings were entertained by both Frederick IV. of Denmark and Augustus the Strong of Saxony, the successor of Sobieski on the throne of Poland. With the hope of wresting the coveted coast from Sweden, Peter joined these potentates in a war against the youth- ful monarch of that country, 1700. The Scandinavian Kingdoms.— We must now take a retrospective view of the Scandinavian monarchies, which are about to engage on opposite sides in this conflict of the northern powers. After the death of Gustavus Adol- phus (p. 312), his daughter Christina reigned in Sweden. During her minority, the great Oxenstiern administered affairs and zealously supported the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War. But vvhen the queen assumed the government, she abandoned herself to unworthy pleasures, and Oxenstiern, one of the greatest statesmen in Europe, was ungratefully cast aside. At last Christina tired of the sceptre, and in 1654 she abdicated in favor of her cousin, Charles Gustavus, deter- mined to seek a life more suited to her tastes in foreign lands. Reaching a brook which separated the Swedish ter- ritory from Denmark, she exultingly jumped over it, ex- claiming, " Now am I free, and out of Sweden, whither I hope never to return." After this hostilities were carried on against the Poles 364 CHARLES XII., OF SWEDEN. and Danes, and in the reign of Charles XI. (1660-1697) Sweden reached a high degree of prosperity. The Alexander of the North. — On the death of Charles XI,, the crown descended to his son, Charles XII., then only fifteen years of age. The young prince had conceived a passionate admiration for Alexander the Great. When told that Alexander lived to be but thirty-two, he said, " That is long enough, when a man has conquered king- doms." At first he took little interest in public affairs, devoting himself to physical exercises and the excitements of the chase. x'Vt the council of the nation, it was his custom to sit cross-legged on the table, listless and inattentive. But when he heard of the alliance of Denmark, Poland, and Russia against him, he suddenly shook off his lethargy and prepared to prosecute the war with unsparing vigor. Leaving Stockholm in 1700, he began a military career which has crowned him with the title of the Alexander of the North. War of the Northern Powers. — Sailing for the Danish capital, Charles displayed his impetuous daring in the first engagement by leaping into the sea and landing in ad- vance of his men on the enemy's soil. Copenhagen was bombarded, and in six weeks Frederick IV. gladly pur- chased peace. The Swedish king now marched to the relief of Narva, which sixty thousand Russians were besieging. At the head of only nine thousand soldiers he killed or captured almost the whole of this army, composed as yet in a great measure of half-barbarous men, who were kept at their duty by fear of the knout,* and were unable to run away on account of their long skirts. When the czar * A whip of cowhide thongs plaited with wire, formerly used for scourging criminals in Kussia. One hundred and twenty lashes were considered equivalent to a sentence of death. CAREER OF CHARLES XII. 365 heard of this defeat, he coolly said, " The Swedes will have the advantage of us for a time, but in the end they will teach us to conquer them." Charles next marched against the Poles and Saxons ; in twelve months he had triumphed over all his foes, and was regarded as the first military leader in Europe. Bent upon dethroning Augustus if it cost him fifty years, he accomplished his object, but thus unwisely gave Peter time to recover from the reverse at Narva. This energetic monarch, meanwhile, was melting church- bells into cannon and diligently training his soldiers to war. Nor did he neglect the arts of peace. Sheep were imported, cloth was made from their wool, and various factories were erected. Peter finally gained possession of the land he desired on the Gulf of Finland, and in 1703 laid the foundations of the city of St. Petersburg. " Let him build his wooden houses," said Charles disdainfully, " we will soon come and burn them." Still with characteristic obstinacy the Swedish monarch lingered in Saxony, and dreamed of standing forth as " the Defender of the Evangelical Faith," overthrowing the papacy, and dictating the law to Europe. First, however, Russia must be his ; and in 1708, reject- ing with scorn the czar's offers of peace, Charles XII. told him they would treat at Moscow, and plunged with a magnificent army into the fastnesses of Russia. Overthrow and Death of Charles. — The Swedish king had been promised the support of the Cossacks of the U'kraine by their hetman. This was Mazeppa, who, when a youth in Poland, had been bound by a jealous noble on the back of a wild horse and carried thus into Russia, where he rose to be the Cossack chief. The Cossacks, however, adhered to the cause of Peter ; and the Russians retired before the Swedes, desolating the country. Expected supplies failed to arrive ; a terrible winter 366 OVERTHROW OF CHARLES XH, set in ; yet Charles pressed on, sharing the hardships of the meanest soldier. At length, with his army reduced to less than twenty thousand, he laid siege to the town of Pultow'a, in May, 1709. Here, after a desperate struggle, he was defeated by Peter. Where the fire was hottest, there fought the rival sovereigns. Charles, who had been wounded, was carried to the field on a litter ; and when the litter was dashed to pieces by a cannon-ball, the sol- diers raised him on their pikes. But his star of victory had set ; he was forced upon a horse and fled before the pursuing Russians, with a few hundred followers, to a Turkish town. As Peter had predicted, the Swedes had at last taught the Russians the art of war. Charles remained for several years in Turkey, hoping still to lead an army of Janizaries to Moscow. The Porte yielded to his intrigues, and two hundred thousand Turks were sent against the czar. When the latter was reduced to the brink of ruin on the banks of the Pruth, his army was saved and a treaty adjusted with the enemy through the address of the empress Catharine. Catharine had risen from the humblest station, to be the wife of Peter the Great. In this critical hour she bribed the grand vizier with her jewels and such valuables as she could gather in the camp, thus saving her husband's crown and possibly his life. By the Treaty of the Pruth (1711), Azof was re- stored to the Turks. The anger of Charles knew no bounds when he learned that Peter had escaped. He acted like a madman, and it was only with great difficulty, and in fact after using vio- lence, that the Turks were able to get rid of their unwel- come guest. At last, to their delight, he set out for his own dominions. Sweden, meantime, had been exhausted by the wars she was compelled to sustain. The impoverished people had besought their king to return from Turkey, but only DEATH OF CHARLES AND PETER. 3t)7 received the answer that he would send " one of his boots to govern them." When at last he arrived, it was to find the Swedish monarchy a mere wreck of its former great- ness. Still Charles XII. planned campaigns. While besieg- ing a Norwegian town in 1718, he was struck down by a ball. Whether it came from the enemy's batteries, or was aimed by his own officers weary of endless war, is not known. Sweden soon after secured peace ; but many of her provinces were ceded to Russia, and she declined into a second-rate power. End of Peter's Career. — The czar continued to prosecute his public works, develop his country's resources, and ele- vate his people, with that untiring energy which was throughout the characteristic of his wonderful career. His last war was with Persia ; it resulted in the acquisition of territories on the Caspian Sea. "Land is not what I want," he often said, " but water ; " and at the end of his reign he was " lord of the sunny Caspian and of the icy Baltic." In 1724 he solemnly placed the crown of Russia on the head of the czarina Catharine ; in the following year Peter the Great expired in her arms. Catharine had great influence with the emperor, and often exercised it for good, soothing him in his fits of rage, and endeavoring to keep him from cruel and arbitrary acts. He consulted her on the most important affairs; yet her education is said to have been so deficient that she could not write her own name. Sovereigns of Sweden and Russia. Russia. {Romanof Family.) Michael Feodorovitz, . 1613 Alexis I., . . . 1645. Feodorll., . . . 1676. Ivan v., . . 1682-1689. Peter the Great, . 1682-1725. Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus, . . 1611. Christina, . . . 1632. Charles X., . . . 1654. Charles XI., . . . 1660. Charles XII., . . 1697-1718. 308 GifiOB&E r., OF ENGLAJTD. CHAPTER LI. ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF HANOVER IN ENGLAND.— GEORGE I.— GEORGE II. (1714-1760.) George I. — The Act of Succession passed by Parliament in 1701 settled the crown of England, in the event of Anne's death without children, on the princess Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her heirs, if Protestants. Sophia was the grandchild of James I., his daughter Elizabeth and Frederick the Elector Palatine being her parents. She died, however, a few weeks before Queen Anne, and consequently in 1714 her son George, then fifty-four years of age, ascended the English throne. George I. committed the management of affairs to the Whigs. The Duke of Marlborough was restored to the command of the army, and Sir Robert Walpole became prime minister. The Tory party inclined to the cause of Prince James the Pretender, and in 1715 revolts of the Jacobites, his adherents, broke out in Scotland and Eng- land. The prince came over from France to Scotland ; but soon becoming disheartened he fled the country, and the insurrection was quickly put down. The age of George I. was one of mad speculations. The most fatal of these was the South Sea Scheme, a plan by which the South Sea Company contracted to pay the debts of the state in return for certain privileges, and monopolies of trade with the gold-producing countries in the southern seas. Thousands invested their all in South Sea stock, which rose to ten time^ its original value. Sud- denly the bubble burst, and multitudes found themselves beggars. The public credit was nearly ruined ; but Wal- pole, who had vainly opposed this infamous scheme, saved the country from bankruptcy. GEORGE II. OF ENGLAND. 369 Numerous other fraudulent projects were contempo- rary with the South Sea Bubble. One company set forth in its prospectus that it would " carry on an undertaking, nobody to know what it is." In five hours the projector had duped London out of nearly two thousand pounds sterling, with which he escaped across the Channel. George I., a true son of Fatherland in all his tastes and affections, was unable to speak the English language; as a monarch he was disposed to be fair and moderate ; as a man, he was cold, selfish, and profligate — a bad father and a brutal husband. George II,— The news of the death of George I. (1727) was conveyed by Sir Robert Walpole in person to his son, who, instead of manifesting any filial sorrow, received the intelligence with a volley of oaths at being wakened from his afternoon slumbers. Succeeding to the crown with the title of George II., this prince laid aside the dislike he had long entertained for the shrewd minister of his father, and, notwithstanding a determined opposition, Walpole and his party continued in power. The new king, like his father, was partial to Hanover, and often visited Germany. His enemies on one occasion signified their displeasure at his prolonged absence from England, by posting on the palace-gate a placard inscribed as follows : " Lost or strayed from this house, a man who has left a wife and six children on the parish. Any person giving intelligence of his whereabouts will receive four shillings and sixpence : no one judges him deserving of a crown'''' [five shillings]. A violent political conflict between the opposite fac- tions, now distinguished as the parties of the Court and the Country, agitated the first fourteen years of this reign. In order to maintain his waning influence, Walpole stooped to unscrupulous corruption and bought votes with the public money. His peaceful policy was distasteful to 24 370 THE HOUSK OF HANOVER. many, who abused him as " the cur of England and the spaniel of France." The death of the queen-consort Caroline, a woman of rare literary and political ability, deprived Walpole in 1737 of one of his best supporters. Two years later, on account of outrages committed on English commerce he was obliged by the popular voice to declare war against Spain. " They may ring their bells now," said the minis- ter, when the people thus expressed their rejoicings, '< but they will soon wring their hands." His prediction was shortly fultilled ; for, though the British fleet was at first victorious, the war on the whole was ill conducted. Eng- land, moreover, was drawn into a great continental strug- gle, the particulars of which will be related hereafter. In 1742 Walpole resigned. This, however, did not in- terfere with the prosperity of the country. Trade and manufactures received a wonderful impulse by the appli- cation of machinery to the arts. Before the death of the king in 1760, the fleet of England rode supreme on the sea, while her armies had extended her limits in the New World and laid the foundations of an empire in India. Hallam designates this reign as " the most prosperous period England had ever known." It was at this time of civil prosperity, but a time also of general indifference to religion, that Methodism took its rise. A great revival was excited throughout Britain, especially among the poorer classes, by the eloquent preaching of its founders, Wesley and Whitefield {tchW - field). In America, as well as in the mother-country, the new tenets were received Avith favor, and the Methodists rapidly grew to be a large and important body. In 1752 an act was passed, adopting the Gregorian Calendar. The error under the .lulian Calendar having become eleven days, the third of September was reckoned as the fourteenth. REBELLION OF 1745. 371 King George II., described as a dull little man of low tastes, lived a life of self-indulgence to the very last. Gaming was the passion of his court ; he who could not play cards was ridiculed as ill-bred. " Talk not to me about books," said the old Duchess of Marlborough, " the only books I know are men and cards." Even the queen was compelled to study in secret, so furious did the king become at the sight of any kind of reading-matter. Scotch Rebellion of 1745. — The most prominent event of the reign of George II. was the invasion of Great Britain by Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, in 1745. Supplying himself with arms in France, this adventurous prince embarked for Scotland, where he quickly raised a small army of Highlanders. With these he gave battle to the English troops at Preston Pans. Before the en- gagement began, the prince waved his naked sword, cry- ing to his men, " My friends, I have thrown away the scabbard ! " In four minutes the English were put to flight ; and, had the Pretender availed himself of this vic- tory to advance directly upon London, he might perhaps have regained the crown of his grandfather (James II.). But not till the time for action was past did he cross the border and march toward the capital. Even then the prize seemed almost within his grasp, when the discontents of his Highland chieftains compelled him to retrace his steps. The English gave pursuit, and on Cullo'den Moor (see Map, p. 206) in 1746 a decisive battle took place. The bayonets of the king's men proved more than a match for the Highland claymores, and in less than thirty minutes the Stuart cause was ruined forever. After the battle of Culloden, in retaliation for this up- rising, the Highlands were desolated far and wide by the English commander, the Duke of Cumberland, long re- membered among the clans as " the bloody butcher." A reward of £30,000 was offered for the Pretender, and he 372 GEORGE II., OF ENGLAND. was hotly pursued through Scotland. He was probably saved through the devotion of the heroic Flora McDonald. While the hunt was at its height, she succeeded in con- ducting the young prince, disguised as her female attend- ant, through the midst of enemies thirsting for his life, and after a variety of romantic adventures brought him to a point whence he was enabled to escape to France. Events in the New "World. — During the reign of George II., settlements were made in the delightful region west of the Savannah by Oglethorpe, who called his new colony Georgia in honor of the king. In King George's War (1744-'48), a force from Massa- chusetts, led by General Pepperell, reduced the strong fortress of Louisburg on Cape Breton {hrit'fn) Island. This important post the English government shortly after- ward restored to France. In 1749 the Ohio Company obtained a grant of five hundred thousand acres on the Ohio River, with the inten- tion of settling the region west of the Alleghanies. But the French also claimed this country, established them- selves in north-western Pennsylvania, and apprised the commissioner sent to remonstrate with them of their in- tention to destroy all English posts on the Ohio. The person selected for this important mission was George Washington, then twenty-one years of age, already distin- guished for his discretion and bravery. French and Indian War. — The report of their mes- senger roused the English colonists to action, and they commenced building a fort where Pittsburg now stands. Before it was finished, however, the French took it ; they completed the work, and called the fortress Duquesne. In 1755 General Braddock, who had been sent to aid the colonists with an army of regulars, marched against this post. Scorning advice, he fell into an ambuscade, and, had it not been for Washington and his Virginia Rangers, the FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 373 whole British force must have been destroyed. Washing- ton seemed to bear a charmed life. Again and again was he fired at by hostile Indians without effect. He was saved for greater deeds. Another campaign, in the vicinity of Lake George (named after the British king), was no less disastrous to the English arms. Fort William Henry, on the lake, in- vested by a large army of French and Indians under Mont- calm, was defended by its commander till his ammunition gave out, and then surrendered on the promise of a safe escort for the garrison to an adjoining post. The French, however, Avere unable to restrain their savage allies, and many of the English were massacred after the capitulation. At the close of 1757, the French possessions in America exceeded those of England as twenty to one. In subsequent operations the British were more suc- cessful. Washington raised his country's flag on the ruins of Fort Duquesne, the name of which was changed to Pittsburg, in honor of the English statesman Pitt, the firm friend of the American people. The conquest of Canada was begun by the gallant Wolfe, who fell before Quebec at the moment of victory. Montcalm, the French com- mander, whose genius had contributed greatly to the ex- tension of the French dominions in the New World, re- ceived a mortal wound in the same battle. By the Treaty of Paris (1763), Canada was given up to the English, and the Mississippi was recognized as the general boundary of their possessions on the west. English Literature. —The lustre which the distinguished writers of Queen Anne's reign shed upon English litera- ture remains undimmed in this succeeding period. Samuel Johnson, the critic, moralist, and first great lexicographer of England, was recognized as the literary oracle of the age. Fiction became popular through the sentimental pen of Richardson, and the lively pictures of Fielding, 374 ENGLISH LirERATtTRE. even marred as they are by coarseness. Hume, Gibbon, and Robei'tson, a trio of historians of high repute in their own day, are still recognized as standards. Of poets there were many, though none rank with the great Shakespeare and Milton. Oliver Goldsmith, with his simple verse and pleasant humor, is a universal favorite ; Akenside's " Pleasures of the Imagination " displays a masterly command of language ; Gray's " Elegy in a Country Churcliyard" is the faultless work of a consum- mate artist ; Thomson's " Seasons " abounds in lifelike views of external nature ; while Collins, though he wrote little, touches the heart with his exc^uisite pathos. During this century were published Burke's " Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful," Karnes's " Elements of Crit- icism," Blair's " Lectures on Rhetoric," and Paley's " Evi- dences of Christianity." Before its close, the Christian poet Cowper became a favorite in every household by his simplicity, good sense, originality, and earnest moral tone. Concentrated passion, thrilling tenderness, and genial humor, are the characteristics of Scotland's peasant bard, the ploughman Burns. Hogarth and Reynolds, eminent English painters, and Handel, the composer of noble oratorios, also flourished in this age. French and Indian War: Chief Events. Braddock's defeat, July 9, 1*755. The French general Dieskau {dees' - Jcow) defeated at Lake George by colonial troops under Johnson, Septem- ber 8, 1755. New Brunswick conquered by the British, 1755. The French under Montcalm capture Fort Oswego in 1756 — Fort William Henry, on Lake George, in August, 1757. Louisburg, Cape Breton, and Prince Edward Island, taken by the British, 1758. French compelled to evacuate Fort Duquesne by Washington, 1758. Ticonderoga and Crown Point taken by the Enghsh, 1759. Quebec captured by the English, September, 1759. All Canada and Detroit surrendered to the English, 1760. THE MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. 3Y5 CHAPTER LII. REIGN OF LOUIS XV. OF FRANCE. (1715-1774.) Regency of the Duke of Orleans. — Louis XIV. of France, on his death-bed, summoned to liis side the heir to the crown, his great-grandson, a boy five years of age, and bade him study the interests of the people and live in peace with the surrounding nations. During the minority of this prince, Louis XV,, the government was conducted by his kinsman, Philip of Or- leans, as regent. An unprincipled man, he resorted to the most iniquitous measures to discharge the immense nation- al debt. The coinage was debased ; many claims were cancelled ; and creditors were thrown into prison and com- pelled to pay heavily for their release. Still the state ap- peared to be on the brink of ruin, when Law, a Scotch financier, proposed to relieve the public distress by issuing a paper currency, having as the basis of its credit certain monopolies of trade and the yield of imaginary mines in Louisiana — the name of the vast region owned by France in the New World on the Mississippi River. Law's plan, known as the Mississippi Scheme, was eagerly adopted by the regent ; and the deluded people, with feverish excitement, speculated in Mississippi shares. Crowds were attracted to Paris, and clerks could scarcely be found in sufficient numbers to transact the company's business. But a few months sufficed to prick the bubble. A crash came ; thousands were ruined, and the country re- ceived a shock from which it did not recover for years. Reign of Profligacy. — In 1733 the king was declared of age ; his preceptor and religious guide. Cardinal Fleury, became prime minister. Fleury favored peace, but could not prevent France from becoming entangled in difficulties 376 REIGN OF LOUIS XV. OF FRANCE. with England, and in wars with x\ustria and Prussia, which will be treated in the following chapter. Louis XV, soon yielded to the temptations that sur- rounded him, and plunged into the most shameful profli- gacy. Since the days of the Roman emperors, no age had seen such open and disgusting licentiousness. A succes- sion of depraved favorites governed the king, and through him the nation ; the most notorious of these was the Marchioness de Pom'padour, who for twenty years directed the afi"airs of the kingdom. Louis sunk deeper and deeper in vice. The death of his son, and of his wife, produced but a short-lived repent- ance. Parisian society throughout, while it was showy and brilliant, was at the same time frivolous, impure, and iri'eligious. A general spirit of scepticism prevailed, and characterized the literature of the day, of which the French Encyclopgedia was a type, and Voltaire, an infidel though the greatest wit in Europe, the leading ornament. The king was carried off in the midst of his excesses (1774). He left France overburdened with debt and humbled by the arms of her enemies. Suppression of the Jesuits. — An important event of the reign of Louis XV. was the expulsion of the Jesuits from France (1764). In a controversy between them and the Jansenists, followers of the reformer Jansen, the king at first sided with the Jesuits. But the latter defied Pompa- dour, and she exerted herself to effect their downfall. Yielding at last to her influence and the popular clamor^ the king suppressed the order. About the same time the Jesuits were banished from Spain and Portugal. Pope Clement XIV. was prevailed upon by the Bourbon courts to suppress the order (1773), and was called in consequence the Protestant Pope. It was restored by Pope Pius VII. in the beginning of the next century. EARLY HISTORY OF PRUSSIA. 377 Leading Literary Men. Voltaire, author of the French epic, " The Henriade," histories, and tragedies. Diderot {dede-ro) and D'Alembert {dak-lon3-hare'), editors of the French Encyclopaedia, hostile to social order and religion. Montes- quieu {mon-tes-ku'), author of " The Spirit of Laws," one of the most re- markable books of the age. Rousseau {roo-so'\ a philosophic writer; chief work, " The Social Contract." Buffon, an eminent naturalist, author of several valuable volumes on subjects connected with natural history. Le Sage {leli sahzh). whose " Gil Bias " {zheel blahs) was one of the most popular fictions ever written. CHAPTER LIII. PRUSSIA.— EUROPEAN WARS OF THE EIGH- TEENTH CENTURY. Early History of Prussia. — Prussia was so called from the Borus'si, an ancient Lithua'nian tribe that dwelt along the southern coast of the Baltic, between the Vis- tula and the Niemen (/le'mew). Three centuries before Christ the Phoenicians sailed hither in search of amber, and found the people as savage as the wolves that howled through their forests. A rude civilization gradually dawned on these northern wilds, but long after the Christian era the inhabitants were still pagans. Ad'albert, a zealous bishop, attempted their conversion in the tenth century, but was murdered by the priests, falling, according to the old legend, with his arms outstretched in the form of a crucifix. Subse^ quent missionaries proved more successful. In the course of time Prussia became a dependency of Poland, and in the early part of the seventeenth century it was united with the electorate of Brandenburg, a territory lying farther west. Brandenburg was in the hands of the 378 FOUNDING OF THE KINGDOM. Ho'lienzol'lern family, which traced back its origin to the time of Charlemagne ; and around this electorate, as a nucleus, the present kingdom of Prussia has grown up. The Great Elector. — During the Thirty Years' War, Prussia and Brandenburg suffered all the horrors of famine and pestilence. But the Great Elector, Frederick WUliain (1(!40-1688), restored prosperity to his desolate country, enlarged his dominions by conquest, and raised Branden- burg to an important position among the European states. Founding of the Kingdom. — The son of the Great Elector, in consideration of his promising to assist the em- peror Leopold I. in the War of the Spanish Succession, received from the latter the title of " King of Prussia." Early in 1?01, in Ko'nigsberg, then the capital, the elector assumed the crown. The coronation ceremonies were magnificent ; the streets were hung with gorgeous tapes- tries, and many of them richly carpeted, to receive the lords and ladies who gathered to greet the elector Fred- erick III. as Frederick I. the king. In memory of this event, the Order of the Black Eagle was established. Prussia faithfully kept her promise to the emperor, and her soldiers shared with Eugene and Marlborough the glory of their great victories. The reign of Frederick I, was noted for the founding of the Ber'lin Academy, under the philosopher Leibnitz {libe'nits), and the cultivation of the arts and sciences, encouraged chiefly by the queen. Frederick William I. — On the death of Frederick I. in 1713, his son Frederick William ascended the throne. Many anecdotes are related of his unamiable disposition, even in childhood. When only five years old, he was taken to Hanover, to visit his uncle the elector, and while there severely beat his cousin (a boy much older than himself), afterward George II. of England. On another occasion, his governess having set him a task that he re- fKEDEKICK WILLIAM I., OF PRUSSIA. 379 solved not to perform, he let himself out of a high castle- window, and hung by his hands to the sill till she consented to revoke the order. On receiving the crown, Frederick William strove by the strictest economy to repair the evils occasioned by his father's extravagance. Luxury was banished from the palace ; servants were dismissed ; and all but thirty of the thousand saddle-horses in the royal stables were sold. Idleness, even for a mo.nent, was nowhere tolerated. When the king walked out, woe to the loiterer, whether noble or commoner, that came within reach of his cane ! The old apple-women had to knit at their stalls ; and even well-dressed ladies, quietly promenading, were saluted with kicks and ordered ' home to their brats.' But in one respect Frederick William I. was himself extravagant. At an enormous expense he formed a guard of twenty-four hundred soldiers, composed of the tallest men he could purchase or kidnap throughout the world, ranging from six to eight feet in height. On one occa- sion, the German ambassador, a man of stalwart propor- tions, was seized by his recruiting officers, but released with humble apologies as soon as their mistake was dis- covered. — Another institution of this king was his " To- bacco Parliament," at which in the evening he met his ministers and generals, each furnished with a pipe, and discussed with them informally the affairs of state. In domestic life Frederick William was a tyrant ; he cudgelled his son, struck and kicked his daughter, and sometimes provided such poor fare that the children rose hungry from the table. If they complained, the king in his fury threw plates at their heads. After helping him- self and his guests, he would frequently spit into the dish, to prevent his family from eating. " His palace," says Macauhiy, " was hell, and he the most execrable of fiends." Driven to desperation by this cruel treatment, the crown- 880 FREDEBICK II., THE GREAT. prince finally attempted to flee from the country, but was overtaken and brought back. The king's furious charges of cowardice and desertion were met with spirited replies, which so enraged the tyrant that he was with difficulty restrained from plunging his sword into his son's bosom. With all this brutality was mingled shrewdness in the management of public affairs ; and, when Frederick Wil- liam I. died in 1740, Prussia was in a most flourishing condition, with a full treasury and a formidable army of the best-disciplined soldiers in Europe. Frederick II., the Great, the prince just spoken of, succeeded, and lost no time in using his treasures and army to enlarge his dominions and elevate Prussia to the rank of a first-rate power. His energy and genius enabled him to withstand united Europe ; and through a wonder- ful succession of splendid victories and crushing disasters he merited the title which history has bestowed upon him — the Great. War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748).— In 1740 (the very year of Frederick's succession) died the emperor Charles VI. of Germany, the last prince of the direct line of Hapsburg. He had endeavored to secure the succes- sion to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa (te-re'sd), mar- ried to Francis of Lorraine' ; and the great European powers pledged themselves to maintain the Pragmatic Sanction, or solemn agreement which insured to her the crown. But, as the old Eugene said, " a hundred thou- sand men would have guaranteed it better than a hundred thousand treaties." Hardly was the emperor buried when numerous claim- ants arose for the dominions of his young and beautiful daughter. Frederick II,, of Prussia, suddenly invaded Silesia (si-le' she-d) ; Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, asserted his right to the Austrian states, and France took up arms to support him in his efforts to obtain the impe- WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 381 rial dignity. Silesia was quickly conquered by the ambi- tious Prussian. The Austrian dominions were overrun by French, Saxon, and Bavarian troops ; and Charles Albert was finally elected emperor of Germany, In her distress, Maria Theresa appealed to the Hun- garian diet. Moved by her tears and promises, the Hun- Makia Theresa and her Minister of State. garians drew their sabres and shouted, " Life and blood for our queen and kingdom ! " The whole country rose in arms. A force of wild horsemen swept into Bavaria, drove back the enemy, and on the very day when the im- perial crown was placed on the head of Charles Albert the Austrian army entered his capital, Munich [mu'nik). 382 FREDERICK II., THE GREAT. Meanwhile the empress had found an active ally in the king of PJngland, the second of the Georges. At Det'- ting-en, in Bavaria, he overthrew the French (1743). It is told of him that when his horse became frightened and turned from the fray, the little king threw himself to the ground, and led his men on foot, exclaiming, " Now I know I shall not run away." Never since has a British sovereign appeared at the head of his troops in battle. Two years later, Louis XV. and his dauphin braved the dangers of the field in the bloody fight at Fontcnoy', where Saxe, a gallant marshal of France, inflicted a severe loss on the allies. About this time the emperor died, and in his stead Maria Theresa's consort was raised to the im- perial throne, becoming Francis 1. of Germany. Three years after (1748), the War of the Austrian Succession was terminated by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. Silesia remained in the hands of Prussia. Interval of Peace. — On the cessation of hostilities, Frederick the Great gave all his energies to the strength- ening of his kingdom, and prepared an efficient army to defend, if need be, his recent conquest. And need was ; for the high-spirited Maria Theresa, spoiled of Silesia, took advantage of this period of peace to form a powerful league against the robber — none the less a robber because he wore a diadem. Russia declared for the German empress. This coun- try, on the death of Peter the Great, had passed into the hands of his wife Catharine I., who reigned for two years with Men'zikoff as her minister. Peter II., her successor, the beloved prince of the Russians, who declared that he would " rule in the fear of God, and like Vespasian suffer no man to go sorrowful away," died at an early age. Next came the profligate Anna, famous for her palace of ice on the Ne'va ; and in 1741 Elizabeth, youngest daugh- ter of Peter the Great, ascended the throne of the czars. SEVEN years' war. ' 383 This dissolute empress, incensed at the sarcasm of the witty Fredei'ick, joined the coalition against him ; and for the first time Russia interfered as a great power in the affairs of western Europe. France, Sweden, and Saxony, also joined the alliance ; while Frederick, penetrating the designs of his jealous neighbors, succeeded in concluding a treaty with the Brit- ish king. While Europe was arming, an earthquake shook her western shores. The shock was felt from Africa to Eng- land. Lisbon was destroyed, thii'ty thousand of her in- habitants being swallowed up or crushed beneath her crumbling walls. Seven Years' War (1756-1763). — Resolved to anticipate his enemies, and undismayed by their number, Frederick the Great in 1756 suddenly marched into Saxony, and struck the first blow in the Seven Years' War. His vic- tories of Rossbach (ross'bahk) over the French, Leu then (loi'ten) over the Austrians, and Zorn'dorf (see Map, p. 387) over the Russians, astonished the world. Friend and foe alike adorned their walls with pictures of one who had come to be regarded as the greatest general of modern times. But the tide turned ; reverses followed. Prussia was well-nigh exhausted of men and resources. England de- serted her in her extremity ; and Frederick, left to battle with Europe single-handed, and with the dismemberment of his kingdom staring him in the face, is said in his des- peration for a time to have carried poison in his pocket, that he might not survive his fatherland. In this critical state of affairs, the Russian empress died. Her successor, Peter HI., whose admiration of Frederick amounted almost to worship, at once abandoned Austria, and sent an army to re-enforce the Prussian king. " Together," he was heard to say, " we will conquer the 384 FREDERICK II., TIIP: GREAT. universe." Peter, however, was shortly after assassinated; and his wife and successor, Catharine II., who had shared in the crime, recalled the Russian troops and remained neutral during the rest of the struggle. Notwithstanding, victory returned to the Prussian standards. Germany, devastated and impoverished, clam- ored for peace ; and Maria Theresa was obliged to listen to the demands of her people and resign all hope of recov- ering Silesia. Prussia after the Seven Years' War. — Prussia, thus saved from the dangers which had threatened its very ex- istence, gradually recovered from the ravages of the Seven Years' War under the vigorous administration of " good old Fritz," who worked twenty hours out of the twenty- four for the good of his people. The strictest economy was practised even in the royal household. The king was notorious for his snuif-colored vest and shabby coat, and is said to have been buried in a shirt of his valet's, because his own wardrobe could not furnish one decent enough for the purpose. One secret of Frederick's military success was his rigid discipline. Disobedience he never forgave. It is related that one evening intending to move upon the enemy, who were near at hand, he ordered all lights to be extinguished throughout the camp by eight o'clock. Going out at that hour to see for himself whether the order was obeyed, he espied a solitary light, and entering the tent in which it glimmered found an officer just finishing a letter to his wife. " Mercy ! mercy, your majesty ! " cried the terrified captain, throwing himself on his knees. " Nay," replied the king, " since you are writing, write one line more. Tell your wife that by noon to-morrow you will be a dead man." The letter was sent, and at the appointed hour the disobedient officer was executed. This great king died in 1786. He was succeeded by AUSTRIA AND RUSSIA. 385 iiis nephew, Frederick William II., who aban(ioned himself to profligacy and squandered the treasures of the kingdom. Austria under Joseph II. — Austria, meanwhile, was recovering its prosperity. When Francis I. died in 1765, his son Joseph II. was elected emperor ; but Maria Theresa admiuistei'ed the government till her death. Joseph was noted for his benevolence, and introduced various innova- tions which for the most part had in view the elevation of his people. He abolished serfdom, allowed freedom of worship, improved the condition of the Jews, encouraged industry and education, and established the liberty of the press. But these reforms met with violent opposition in certain quarters, and some of them were subsequently ab- rogated. Maria Theresa, deservedly ranked among Austria's most illustrious sovereigns, died in 1780 ; and in 1790 Joseph followed her, leaving the imperial throne to his brother Leopold II. Russia under Catharine II., despite the impurity of her private character, grew and prospered. The da}"- which dawned under Peter the Great, in Catharine's mag- nificent reign attained its noontide splendor. Illustrious scholars and statesmen shone at her court, while Potem'kin and Suwarrow [soo-wxr'rd) led her armies to victory. Suwarrow's dispatch to the empress, announcing one of his triumphs over the Turks, became famous by its terse- ness — " Haughty Ismail {is-mah-eel') is at your feet." The aim of Catharine was to expel the Ottomans from Europe and found a new Byzantine Empire of her own. She died without realizing her hopes, but not till she had acquired vast territories at the expense of the Turks and established her supremacy on the Black Sea. In November, 1796, Catharine was struck with apo- plexy. Her son Paul was proclaimed in her stead. One of his first acts was to place the remains of his murdered 25 386 PARTITION OF POLAND. father beside those of the guilty Catharine, and over both coffins the inscription, " Divided in Hfe, united in death." Partition of Poland. — On the death of the Saxon elector Augustus the Strong- (1733), of whom a native his- torian said " he brought peace to Poland, but it was the peace of the tomb," the Polish nation acknowledged Stan'islas Leszinski {les-tsin' sJce) as king. But a Russian army drove him from the country, and secured the suc- cession to Augustus II. of Saxony. After his weak reign, Poniatowski [j^o-ne-ah-tov' ske) , the last of Poland's kings, ascended the throne (1764). Despite his labors for his country's good, the terrible consequences of anarchy and dissension were visited upon unhappy Poland. Frederick the Great had long coveted a portion of her territoiy ; and in 1772 a treaty was concluded by which nearly one-third of Poland was divided between himself, Joseph of Austria, and Catharine II, The Polish diet was overawed and compelled to sanction the dismemberment. Maria Theresa for a time protested against this unholy partition. An attempt (1791) on the part of the Poles and their king to throw off the constitution imposed on them by the partitioning powers, and substitute a new one more con- sistent with the ancient forms, led to an invasion of the country by Russia in the following year. Then private quarrels were forgotten, and the nation rose as one man in defence of its liberties. Miracles of valor were per- formed by Prince Poniatowski, nephew of the king, and the gallant Kosciusko {kos-se-us' ko) ; but their efforts were unavailing, and another third of Poland was divided between Prussia and Russia. A last effort was made for the independence of Poland in 1794, by the heroic Kosciusko. After a number of bloody conflicts, in which every Pole showed himself a hero, Warsaw capitulated. Kosciusko, who in the last battle had fallen from his horse covered with wounds. PARTITION OF POLAND. 88',' uttering the prophetic words, " The end of Poland," lan- guished in a Russian prison till the death of Catharine. Russia and Prussia now proceeded to a third partition of what remained of Poland (1795), but Austria would not consent to the division unless she also received a share. Accordingly, Cracow {kra'ko) and the surrounding terri- tory were appropriated to her ; Warsaw and the country as far as the Niemen fell to Prussia ; and Russia, as be- fore, obtained the lion's share. Thus was dismembered the country of the brave Poles, after an existence of nearly a thousand years. No more infamous act is recorded in history. Its name was effaced from the list of states ; and its people, deprived of all but honor and the thirst for re- 388 GERMAN AND RUSSIAN LITERATURE. venge, took for their motto, " All freemen are brothers." and plunged into that conflict with despotism which, as we shall see, presently shook Europe to its foundation. When Kosciusko was released by the emperor Paul, the latter, to make amends for the injuries inflicted by his mother Catharine, loaded him with marks of favor, even presenting him his own sword. But the high-spirited Pole refused it, saying, " I have no need of a sword ; I have no country to defend." German and Russian Literature. — During the eigh- teenth century, German literature made great advances. Among the writers who left their impress on the age, were Les'sing, the dramatist and critic ; Klop 'stock, author of the grand German epic, " The Messiah ; " Wieland (we'' land), the graceful poet ; Her'der, who exercised an im- portant influence on literature and philosophy, and of whom Richter, himself a German writer of no mean repute, said, " Herder is no poet, but himself a poem ; " Kant, the profound metaphysician ; and GOthe [go'teh) and Schiller (shil'ler), the most illustrious names in German literature, ranking among the greatest poets of any age or country. Russian literature may be said to have been founded in the eighteenth century. Peter the Great efi^ected an intellectual revolution by abolishing the old Slav'ic lan- guage as the medium of official communication, and ele- vating the Russian as spoken by the people to the dignity of a written tongue. The first book in the Russian lan- guage was printed in 1699, and the first newspaper in 1704. Elizabeth and Catharine II. carried on the work which Peter had begun. Elizabeth founded the University of Moscow and the Academy at St. Petersburg ; and Catha- rine was alluded to by Voltaire in the words, "Light comes now from the North." Lomonosof [lom-o-no' sof) has been called " the father of Russian poetry." In Poland, also, literature and art flourished. GEORGE III., OF ENGLAND. 389 Contemporary Sovereigns, etc. Frederick I., 1701-1713. Frederick William I., 1713-1740. Frederick II., THE Great, 1740-1 78G. Frederick William II.. 1786-1797. Anne, queen of England. Philip V., of Spain. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-'14). George I. and II., of England. Louis XV., of France. Frederick Augustus, of Poland. 'd. the number of their enemies, the French republicans raised new levies, and enthusiastic volunteers marched to the scene of war singing the Marseilles Hymn. Fall of the Girondists. — At Paris, the work of death went on. The Girondists, horrified at the fate of the king- yet unable to prevent it, read in it their own doom. Mod- THE REIGN OF TERROR. 403 eration had now become treason, and they were swept away like straws before the hurricane. Among others of her party, Madame Roland was condemned. As she as- cended the scaffold, her eye fell on the great statue of Liberty standing near the guillotine, and she gave utter- ance to a sentiment which found an echo in many hearts, . " Ah, Liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy name ! " Charlotte Corday. — A number of the Girondists escaped to Caen (A•(>;^''). From this place came forth an avenger, in the beautiful and enthusiastic Charlotte Corday'. After the overthrow of the Girondists, with whom she had warm- ly sympathized, she resolved to consecrate her life to her country and strike at the heart of the Mountain by assas- sinating its chief. Repairing to Paris, she gained access to Marat ; and while pretending to give the names of his enemies in Caen, she stabbed him to the heart. Death by the guillotine she had expected, and she met it with the utmost composure. When the brutal executioner buffeted the severed head, her cheek flushed at the in- dignity. Reign of Terror. — The knife of Charlotte Corday only ao-o-ravated the evil it was intended to cure. The surviv- ing Mountainists became more savage than ever, and Robes- pierre, a tiger in human form, revelled in slaughter. By him Marie Antoinette, " the queen of festivals in her youth, the queen of sorrows in her premature old age," was brought to the guillotine — her beauty gone, her hair whitened by grief, her royal robes and jewels exchanged for filthy tat- ters. Her son (Louis XVII.) afterward perished through the inhumanity of his jailers. Philip Equality also fell before the jealousy of Robes- pierre. Amid the hisses and curses of the people, he shrugged his shoulders and remarked, " They used to ap- plaud me." Anarchy and terror reigned throughout •104 PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. France ; and so awful was the suspense that some even sought relief by suicide. The horrors of the French Revolution culminated in the abolition of the Christian religion. The worship of Reason was substituted. An abandoned woman person ated the goddess, draped with white, the cap of liberty covering her flowing hair, and received the homage of all classes. Death was pronounced an eternal sleep. There was no sacrilege or blasphemy too great to be applauded by this once Christian nation. Amid the excesses which it authorized, the Convention found time to adopt a new system of weights and meas- ures, to change the names of the months,* and to estab- lish as a new era the institution of the republic, Septem- ber 22, 1792. Outrages in the Provinces. — Terror reigned as abso- lutely in many of the French cities as in the capital. At Nantes, the revolutionists emulated in atrocity the terror- ists of Paris, enclosing their victims in barges by hundreds and sinking them in the Loire {Iwahr). Desolation was spread through the adjacent territory of La Vendue. The Vendean royalists, at first successful under brave leaders, were in the end overpowered, fighting to the last with desperate valor. The city of Lyons, which resisted the army of the Con- vention, was reduced to ruins ; and when the guillotine proved too slow in its operation, the people were mowed down in masses with grape-shot. Toulon, to escape a similar fate, surrendered to the English. It was recovered, however, by the French re- publicans, through the superior genius of a young artil- * The French months " Snowy," " Showery," and " Windy," corre- sponded most nearly with January, February, and March. The names of the succeeding months have been translated Buddy, Flowery, and Meadowy ; Harvesty, Hot, and Fruity; Vintagy, Chilly, and Frosty. FALL OF ROBESPIERRE. 405 lery officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, a native of Corsica, who tliere first gave evidence of that military genius which was to dazzle the world. When a galling fire drove from one of his batteries those who served it, he placed over it a placard inscribed, " The battery of men without fear," and took his place at the deserted guns. In a moment he was surrounded by numbers eager to share with him the post of glory. Fall of Danton and Robespierre. — When the revolu- tionists had exhausted their rage on monarchists, aristo- crats, and Girondists, they turned their arms against each other. Danton and his adherents, who sought to stop the Rsign of Terror, perished on the scaffold. As he listened to his death-sentence, Danton said, " 1 drag Robespierre after me in my fall." His words were prophetic. The blood-stained despot, in whose hands was the life of every man in France, was at last denounced before the Conven- tion. Pale with rage, he tried to speak, but his words were drowned by yells of " Down with the tyrant ! " He foamed at the mouth, speech failed him, and as he sank exliausted, a voice cried, " Wretch ! the blood of Danton chokes thee ! " He was condemned, and, after a futile at- tempt to kill himself, was carried in a cart to the guillo- tine amid the execrations of the people. One who ap- preciated his character wrote as an epitaph, " Passenger, lament not for Robespierre ; for, were he living, thou wouldst be dead." With the execution of Robespierre, July 28, 1794, ter- minated the Reign of Terror. The Holy Mountain, as its admirers called their party, breathed its last — the Holy Guillotine rested from its labors. The victims of the French Revolution, as enumerated by a republican writer, amounted to more than a million persons, the majority of whom belonged to the middle and lower classes, in whose interest it was beauru 406 PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. A revulsion of feeling now took place, the moderate party recovered its influence, and many of the terrorist leaders perished by the same guillotine that had destroyed their victims. Five persons, forming what is known as " the Directory," were henceforth charged with the execu- tion of the laws. An offensive measure of the Convention occasioned a violent uprising in Paris ; but the cannon of Napoleon soon brought the populace to their senses — the Parisian mob had at last found its master. Progress of the French Arms. — Meanwhile the French generals, after some reverses, had driven back the allies, successfully invaded Spain, and conquered Holland. Dur- ing the war with the last-named country, the French cav- alry accomplished the strange feat of charging and cap- turing a Dutch fleet which was frozen up in the Zuyder Zee. In this campaign, the French derived valuable aid from balloons, from which the movements of the enemy were reported to the army. Holland became " the Bata- vian Republic," and allied itself wuth France. In 1795, Prussia and Spain made peace, and Gustavus IV. of Swe- den recognized the French Republic. Napoleon's Italian Campaign. — Austria continued the war ; and in 1796, while tw^o French armies were main- tained by tlie Directory in Germany, a third was sent into Italy to advance upon Austria from that quarter. Its command was given to Napoleon, whose history for the next twenty years is the history of Europe. The rule of this great general was " the strongest force on the weakest point." Unerring calculations and match= less rapidity insured his success. In eighteen pitched battles and over sixty minor engagements, he led his troops to victory. The terrible passage of the bridge of Lodi (lo'de), swept by the Austrian artillery, kindled, as he himself declared, the first spark of his ambition. Northern Italy was conquered, the Cisalpine Republic SUCCESS OF THE FRENCH ARMS. 407 erected, and many works of art were sent to Paris, to- gether with large sums for the support of the government. The war was concluded in October, 1797. Pending the negotiations, Napoleon, incensed at the delay, in an inter- view with the Austrian agent took from the mantel a costly vase belonging to the latter, and with the words, " The truce is at an end ; before the close of autumn I will shatter your monarchy as easily as this porcelain," dashed it to pieces on the floor. The next day, the Treaty of Campo Formio was signed ; Austria recognized the Rhine and the Alps as the boundaries of France. Egyptian Expedition. — Napoleon returned to Paris an acknowledged hero, and was strongly urged to undertake the invasion of England. He deemed it safer to aim the stroke through British India, and as an initiatory step pre- vailed on the government to fit out an armament for opera- tions in Egypt and Syria. In 1798 he disembarked near Alexandria, took the city, almost annihilated the Mame- lukes * in the shadow of the Pyramids, and occupied the Egyptian capital. Not long afterward the English admiral Nelson fell in with Napoleon's ships, which were anchored off Alex- andria, and the battle of the Nile ensued, resulting in the destruction of the French fleet. When Nelson first sighted it, he exclaimed, " Before this time to-morrow I shall have gained a peerage or Westminster Abbey." Honors and rewards were bestowed on him, and he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. Despite this great reverse. Napoleon pushed on into Syria and took Jaffa, but vainly assaulted Acre, in which he said lay the fate of the East. On his return to Egypt, he again defeated the Turks ; and then learning that a * The old Mamelukes of Tartar descent had now been replaced with Circassians and Georj^ians, similarly trained in the art of war. 408 PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. new coalition had been formed against France, he set sail from the land of obelisks with a few followers. During his absence from Europe, Italy had been re- conquered by the combined powers ; but the Fi-ench re- mained masters of the Netherlands, and of Switzerland, which they had reduced and converted into " the Helvet'- ic Republic." On reaching Paris, he overthrew the un- stable government, established the Consulate, and as First Consul of the French Repub- lic wielded supreme power. Then resuming military opera- tions, he crossed the Alps, routed the Austrians at Ma- rengo, and by this single blow recovered Italy (June, 1800). It was at the battle of Ma- rengo that the consular guard of only eight hundred men proved itself " a column of granite," by withstanding un- broken for five hours the Aus- trian cavalry and artillery. Napoleon there learned what he might accomplish with a body of men entirely devoted to him, and the Old Guard, which he organized in con- sequence, earned immortality by grand deeds on many a bloody field. The victory of General Moreau at Hohenlinden fol- lowed, and the Austrians gladly made peace (1801). Treaties were also concluded with Spain, Turkey, and Russia, which had joined the coalition. Meantime, "the Armed Neutrality of the North " was planned by the Egyptian Obelisk. rEACK IN EUROPE. 409 ever-active Napoleon, as a check to the power stili wield- ed by England through her gallant navy. Tlie northern alliance, however, was short-lived, Lord Nelson destroy- ing the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1801). When sig- nalled by his superior to withdraw from the battle, he placed the glass to his blind eye, and, saying that he could not see the signal, ordered his colors to be nailed to the mast. Europe at Peace. — In March, 1802, the Peace of Amiens was concluded, and England with the rest of Europe acknowledged the French Republic. A short respite was thus afforded to the nations, and Napoleon used it to improve and strengthen his country, carrying out a wise, liberal, and conciliatory policy. The " emigrants " were invited back ; a new order of nobility, the Legion of Honor, was formed ; and provision was made for a thorough system of public instruction. The College of France and various military schools were organized, and measures taken to insure their efficiency. Christianity had already been re-established in France, and the idol- ized Napoleon was made consul for life in August, 1802. During the Revolution, civil war had raged in the isl- and of St. Domingo, the most valuable of the French colonies in the West Indies, resulting in the abolition of slavery and the formation of a liberal constitution. Tous- saint L'Ouverture [too-san^' loo-ver-tilr'), a negro of su- perior ability, descended from an African king, had be- come governor-general ; and under his wise administration good order and prosperity had revived. To crush him and restore slavery. Napoleon sent an army to the island. After a treaty of peace had been concluded, Toussaint was treacherously arrested, and starved to death in a French dungeon. Through the resistance of the colo- nists, the ravages of the yellow fever, and the interference of the English, the island was ultimately lost to France. 410 PERIOD OF THE FRENCH REVOLITION. Establishment of the Empire. — Napoleon's ambition was not satisfied with the title of First Consul. In 1804 he had himself declared Emperor by the Senate. The pope came to Paris to crown liim, and France willingly submitted to the yoke which it had shaken oS by such dreadful struggles. The same year that witnessed the establishment of the empire gave to France the Code Napoleon, a digest of laws which with little change still remains in force in that country — the most useful monument of Napoleon's genius. It was under discussion for four years, — merchants, as well as statesmen, lawyers, and jurists, being called on to contribute from their knowledge and experience to its formation. The Eighteenth Century. The march of intellect proved by the growth of science. Astronomy received important aid from Sir William Herschel, a German by birtii hut resident of England, who made many discoveries (the planet Uranus in 1781); also from the French mathematical astronomer La Place (faA pljzhs), author of an " Exposition of the System of the Universe," and a " Treatise on Celestial Mechanics." Chemistry was advanced by the re- searches of the French philosopher Lavoisier (lah-vwnh-zc-a'), who re- formed the nomenclature of the science, and the Englishmen Priestley (discoverer of oxygen gas) and Sir Humphry Davy (1778-1829). What Lavoisier was to Chemistry, the Swede Linnasus was to Botany, and the (tcrman Werner to Geology and Mineralogy. Two Italians, Galvani {gald- vah'ne) and Volta, share the honor of discovering and investigating chemi- cal electricity. Great inventions : the cotton-spinning machine of Arkwright, 1768 ; the improved steam-engine of Watt, patented in 1769; and the cotton- gin of Whitney, a native of Massachusetts, for removing the seeds from cotton, which was before done by hand. Improved systems of stenog- raphy, or short-hand writing, introduced. Eminent musical composers: Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven (1770- 1827). The people beginning actively to assert tlieir rights. First mutterings of the revolutionary tempest that shook Europe to its centre in the fol- lowing century. THE I'KACE OF EUKOl'E DlSTURliEl), 411 CHAPTER LVI. THE FIRST FRENCH EMPIRE. Third Coalition against France. — The Peace of Amiens * was not lasting. Tho interference of Napoleon in Euro- pean affairs alarmed the continental powers ; and the an- nexation of new territories to his dominions, together with his vast military preparations, incensed England. Napo- leon declared his aversion to a fresh war. Still he said, "If England draws the sword, I will throw away the scab- bard." England was ready to accept the challenge, and hostilities were resumed between the rival nations in the spring of 1803. After the establishment of the empire, a third coali- tion was organized by Britain, Austria, Russia, and Swe- den, to wrest from the upstart " soldier of fortune," as they regarded him, the territories which his victorious arms had added to France. Prussia was induced to remain neu- tral by the promise of Hanover from the French emperor. Austerlitz and Trafalgar. — While the allies were lei- surely arranging their plans. Napoleon, who had been making overwhelming preparations for the invasion of England, suddenly set in motion his great army of over 180,000 men. Its masses of artillery, cavalry, and infant- ry, swept into astonished Germany. Victory succeeded victory, Ulm surrendered with its fortress and magazines, and Napoleon triumphantly entered Vienna, from which the emperor Francis II. precipitately fled. Then, as he said, with " a clap of thunder " the French commander finished the campaign in the great "battle of the three emperors." Concentrating his forces on the field of Austerlitz, he near- ly annihilated the combined Russians and Austrians. From the neighboring heights the emperors of Germany * For this place and others, see Map, p. 415. 412 TUE FIRST FRENCH EMPIRE. and Russia beheld the overthrow of their magnificent armies. Alexander, the successor of Paul (p. 385) on the throne of the czars, witnessed with dismay the terrific duel between his imperial guard and that of Napoleon, and saw the flower of his soldiery give way before the resistless onset of the horse-grenadiers of the Old Guard (December 2, 1805). After the battle, Francis humbly sought the victor's tent to sue for peace, acknowledging that further resistance was impossible. Thus in four months Napoleon crushed his enemies. Austria he trampled beneath his feet, bestowing her terri- tories on his friends ; and while his brave marshals be- came dukes and princes, the crown of Naples was given to his brother Joseph, and Louis, another brother, was made king of Holland. In this way were kingdoms dismem- bered, governments disposed of, monarchs created. The " Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation," which had stood for a thousand years, was shattered by these blows ; a large number of its states, uniting themselves in the Confederation of the Rhine, accepted the protection of "the man of destiny." Francis II. laid down his title, and became Francis I. of Austria ; while Napoleon was in fact the emperor of Germany. England, meanwhile, had triumphed on the sea. In October, 1805, Nelson destroyed the French and Spanish fleets off Cape Trafalgar', but paid for the victory with his life. His dying words were, " Thank God, I have done my duty." Britain lost in Nelson the greatest man that ever upheld her maritime supremacy. When flushed with success and burning to add England to their conquests, the French were made by him to realize the words of one of their own writers, " The trident of Neptune is the sceptre of the world," Jena and Auerstadt. — Now that Austria was humbled ard Russia crippled, Prussia, finding herself the dupe of EYLAU AND FRIEDLAND. 413 Napoleon, recklessly threw down the gauntlet to his vic- torious legions. Before they had all left Germany, orders were issued for these veterans to bear their eagles back to the field. They fell like an avalanche on the astounded enemy, and a single day sealed the fate of Prussia by the double victory of Jen'a and Auerstadt {ow'er-stet), October 14, 1806. The military power of the kingdom was broken, and on the 27th Napoleon, in the midst of his Old Guard, rode into the capital of Frederick the Great. In a few weeks he had accomplished what all Europe, during the Seven Years' War, attempted in vain, — the overthrow of Prussia. Eylau and Friedland. — Frederick William III., the Prussian king, refused peace on the terms offered by Na- poleon, for he hoped that with the aid of Russia, which had again declared war against France, he might yet check the conqueror of Europe. But Napoleon marched into Poland, drove back the Russians, and took Warsaw, the ancient capital. Many of the Poles now flew to arms and swelled the French ranks. On the field of Eylau (i'low), in February, 1807, the Russians obstinately withstood Napoleon. This battle was indecisive ; but at Friedland, in the following June, the French arms were crowned with success. Alexander suf- fered losses so severe that he requested an armistice, dur- ing which he was rowed to a raft anchored in the river Niemen, to hold an interview with Napoleon. The Peace of Tilsit was soon after arranged, and the two emperors planned the partition of Europe between themselves. The unfortunate Frederick William was stripped of half his dominions, in spite of the prayers of his fascinating queen. Once, when Napoleon handed her a rose, she accepted the flower, saying, "with Magdeburg."* * This city, whose noble cathedral had been the only edifice of note left at its sack in the Thirty Years' War, had meanwhile been rebuilt. 414 THE FIESr FRENCH EMPIRE. " Madam," answered the French emperor, " it is for me to give, you have only to accept." The new kingdom of Westphalia was ,_^^.___^_^p^^ created for Na- poleon's young- est brother Je- rome, principally out of Prussian territory ; and nearly all of Prus- sian Poland was erected into the duchy of War- saw, and confer- red upon the elector of Sax- ony. The grand conceptions of Napoleon charm- ed the czar, to whom was left the spoliation of Sweden. The ruin of England was determined on ; and even the Ottoman Empire was threatened with dismemberment. Peninsular War, — Napoleon w^as now without a rival. On his return to Paris, he directed his attention for a time to the internal improvement of his empire. But the pre- tended apostle of liberty now became himself the most des- potic of autocrats. He had declared England in a state of blockade, and closed the ports of Europe against her. Portugal presumed to disobey, and trade with Britain : when the emperor, declaring that the " House of Braganza Catiiedrai, of MA(ni?;Brr,(; 416 THE FIRST FRENCH EMPIRE. had ceased to reign," sent his marshal Junot {zhU-no') at the head of an army to add another link to his chain of conquests. The royal family set sail for their colonies in Brazil, and Portugal fell without striking a blow. Napoleon now proceeded to seize the whole peninsula. Availing himself of disturbances in Spain, he dethroned the Bourbons, obliging the king Charles IV. and his son Ferdinand to renounce their right to the crown. This he gave to his brother Joseph, while Naples was transferred to his marshal Murat {r/iU-rah'). The Spanish, however, did not tamely submit to the new king. The spirit of the nation was roused ; the very catechism in which the youth were instructed taught that the killing of a Frenchman was a meritorious act. More of the invaders fell by the assassin's knife than the soldier's bullet. Yet Spain unaided must have been subdued. England embraced her cause, and in July, 1808, Sir Arthur Welles- ley landed in Portugal and soon cleared that country of the enemy. Joseph fled from Madrid, and Napoleon him- self was obliged to take the command to revive the glory of his eagles. Three splendid victories over the Spaniards placed him in possession of the capital, and in four weeks the crown was restored to his brother. The English also were obliged to withdraw from Spain, though not till they had repulsed the enemy at Corunna, where their in- trepid leader, Sir John Moore, died on the field of glory. The emperor, however, soon had to leave the Spanish war to his marshals ; for Austria, smarting under her losses and thinking that Napoleon's hands were full elsewhere, was preparing to fall on him with overwhelming force. Eckmiihl and Wagram. — But Austria had reckoned without her host. With even more than his accustomed celerity, Napoleon concentrated his troops, fell upon the enemy, worsted the Archduke at Eckmiihl, and in one THE ECSSIAJSr CAMPAIGN. 417 month from the time the Austrians began hostilities his cannon were thundering before their capital. Near the village of Aspern in May, 1809, Napoleon suffered a re- verse, and Lannes (?a/^;^), one of his bravest marshals, fell. Of this hero he said, "I found him a dwarf and I lost him a giant." The French retrieved their fortune in the decisive bat- tle of Wagram {icah'gratn), where, within sight of the crowded roofs of Vienna, the Austrian army was routed. Francis was again at the mercy of Napoleon, and submit- ted to a disadvantageous jDeace. In the following spring the Archduchess Maria Louisa became the bride of the French emperor, who divorced his wife Josephine, to make room for a daughter of the Hapsburgs. A son was born the next year, to whom his father gave the title of " King of Rome." Meanwhile Napoleon added the States of the Church to his dominions, and sent the pope in captivity to France. In 1810, Bernadotte {hehr-nd-dot'), a favorite French marshal, was elected crown-prince of Sweden, Charles XIII. being then king of that country. Russian Campaign. — The sudden friendship between Alexander and Napoleon soota. gave way to a mutual dis- trust, which resulted in war. The French emperor, hoping to win new laurels on the plains of Russia, collected a mag- nificent army of 500,000 men ; and, after holding at Dres- den a court of kings and princes such as Europe had never before seen, he entered the territory of the czar in the summer of 1812. As in the case of Charles XII., it proved a fatal step. The Russians obstinately disputed Napo- leon's advance, made a stand at Borodino which cost him 30,000 men, and driven thence sullenly fell back, followed by the invader, who, on reaching Moscow, expected to find rest and supplies for his jaded men. But the city was silent ; its inhabitants had fled, leaving an empty triumph 27 nai'olkon's downfall. 419 to the enemy. Soon after the French entered, Moscow was fired by incendiaries, and the greater part was re- duced to ruins. Alexander refused to treat, and just as the Russian winter commenced, Napoleon was obliged to retire. Now was enacted the most appalling tragedy of mod- em times. Attacked by hordes of Cossacks, with starva- tion staring them in the face, and the intense cold freez- ing them even as they staggered along, the Grand Army of Napoleon dwindled to a disordered band of fugitives. But the Old Guard, through the horrors of this retreat, maintained its heroic character. Its impenetrable squares remained in Russia, food for the raven and the wolf ; and long might one trace the course of the retiring host by the skeletons that whitened on the soil. The last to leave Russia was Marshal Ney, " the bravest' of the brave," whose soul Napoleon said was " tempered with steel." On entering a Prussian village near the frontier, his face disfigured with powder, he was asked who he was, and re- plied, " I am the rear-guard of the Grand Army." Napoleon's Downfall. — The reverses of Napoleon were the signal for his enemies to rise against him. A sixth great coalition was formed to crush him, and tens of thou- sands were soon on the march to France. But Napoleon was not appalled. Another army of 350,000 men was drawn from his exhausted country, and these beardless con- scripts proved more than a match for the Russians and Prussians on the fields of Lutzen and Bautzen (bdici'sen). Austria soon after perfidiously changed sides ; and in October, 1813, the city of Leipsic witnessed the decisive struggle. In spite of prodigies of valor performed by his invincible guard. Napoleon was hopelessly defeated. Breaking through an army of Bavarians, he fell back on France, with only 60,000 effective men left out of his splendid army. He now prepared to defend his empire 420 THE FEBST FRENCH EMPIRE. against the million of enemies that were rolling on to overwhelm it. The allies, pursuing, crossed the Rhine ; Wellesley, now Duke of ^A^ellington, having driven the French out of Spain, descended the Pyrenees, and the Campaign of France at last began. Never did the genius of Napoleon appear so bright as in this dark hour when, betrayed by his former friends, he engaged single-handed Avith Europe. But neither strategy nor bravery availed against the in- numerable hosts of invaders. Paris fell, and on the 31st of March, 1814, the victorious allies entered the capital amid the acclamations of the fickle people. Napoleon abdicated the crown, and Louis XVIII., brother of the king who was guillotined during the Revolution, ascended the throne of the Bourbons. The Congress of Vienna then assembled, and the princes of Europe celebrated their triumph with magnificent balls and feastings. The victors allowed Napoleon a pension and the little island of Elba in the Mediterranean, between Corsica and the Italian coast. Several hundi-ed of his old guardsmen be- came the companions of his exile. But the French people, particularly the disbanded sol- diers, grew discontented with Bourbon rule. Everywhere it was whispered that when the violet began to bud in the spring, a great change might be expected. The emperor, therefore, was mysteriously referred to as Corporal Violet. The Hundred Days. — In the latter part of February, 1815, Napoleon, who had maintained a correspondence with his friends in France, left Elba with about a thousand men. On the 1st of March he landed on the French coast, and began a triumphant advance toward Paris. At Greno- ble he met a regiment ordered to apprehend him ; when, throwing back his cloak, he exclaimed, " My friends, if there is one among you who wishes to kill his emperor, he has it in his power." The effect was electric, and with BATILE OF WATERLOO. 421 shouts of " Vive Vempereur !'''' the soldiers joined his little army. Ney, who had embraced the cause of the Bourbons, and promised to bring Bonaparte to Louis in an iron cage, united his force with that of Napoleon. On the 20th, the king left the capital, and the emperor re- occupied it to the great delight of the people. Napoleon at once raised a new army, reorganized the Old Guard, and boldly threw himself into the conflict which he saw was inevitable. The Duke of Wellington, and Blucher [hloo'ker), an able Prussian marshal, were now his opponents. The final engagement, on which hung the fate of Europe, took place at Waterloo, a few miles from the capital of Belgium, June 18, 1815. Napoleon began the attack, exclaiming, as he caught sight of the enemy, " I have these English at last ! " The British sol- diers for eight hours unflinchingly stood their ground. Blucher with his Prussians joined them in a critical mo- ment, and the Old Guard, in its last charge to save Napo- leon's crown, was thrown into confusion. Never before had the French seen the enemy penetrate its ranks ; and now, when its invincible eagles were driven back, when the " column of granite " melted away amid volleys of flame, the despairing shriek arose, " The Guard recoils ! " and Napoleon's army fled from the field. But the veter- ans still gave battle, and, when called upon to lay down their arms, fought on, while their chief replied, "The guard dies, it never surrenders ! " Some of the officers are said to have killed themselves rather than survive, and the Old Guard of Napoleon, in its death-struggle, covered itself with immortal glory. Restoration of the Bourbons. — After the battle of Wa- terloo, Napoleon abdicated a second time ; and his rule^ which had lasted a hundred days, was over. It has been computed that Europe lost more than five millions of men through his insatiable ambition. The Bourbons were rein- 422 BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA. stated, and by the Treaty of Paris (November, 1815) the old boundaries were re-established. In the reorganization of Europe, Norway was taken from Denmark and annexed to Sweden. Napoleon gave himself up to the captain of a British war-vessel, and was sent by the English government to St. Hele'na. Here he died in 1821, while the rocky island was shaken to its centre by a tremendous storm. 1800 A. D.— Fortieth year of the reign of George III. of Eng- land ; William Pitt (the younger) prime minister ; Fox an eminent Whig leader; union of England and Ireland. Napoleon first consul of France; Talleyrand minister of foreign affairs; brilliant campaign of Napoleon in Italy; Marengo; Hohenlinden. European republics the outgrowth of the French Revolution : the Batavian Republic (Holland), Helvetic Republic (Switzerland), Cisalpine Republic (northern Italy), Li- gurian Republic (Genoa). Francis II. emperor of Germany. Paul emperor of Russia. Population of the United Stat-es, 5,300,000 ; John Adams, president. CHAPTER LVII. BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA, The East India Company was an association of London merchants, who, on the last day of 1600, obtained from Queen Elizabeth a charter granting them exclusive rights for trading in the Indies. They were permitted to estab- lish themselves in Hindostan by the Great Mogul, and also erected strongly-fortified factories on the principal East Indian islands. We have already seen that in the time of Aurungzebe both English and French were engaged in traffic with the natives (p. 356). During the first hundred years of its existence, the English company was simply commercial, exporting in its ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH POWER. 423 ships the I'iches of the East, — silk, calicoes, diamonds, drugs, etc. At home it was regarded with jealous}' ; and the Stuarts, looking upon it as " their Majesties' milch- cow," made it pay roundly for every privilege. It was not until the next century that the company obtained mil- itary and political power in Hindostan. An English phy- sician, on a visit to Delhi in 1715, had the good fortune to cure the Mogul emperor of a disease which had baffled the native doctors. In return, the grateful prince conferred upon the East India Company important privileges, and allowed it to purchase additional tracts in Bengal. Bom- bay, Madras, and Calcutta (see Map, p. 424), were the great centres of its power. Hostilities with the French. — After the War of the Austrian Succession began in Europe, hostilities broke out between the French and English in India. Madras fell ; and the enterprising governor of Pondicherry, the capital of the French possessions, perceiving the weakness of the Mogul monarchy, aspired to found a French empire on its ruins. The British beheld with dismay his intrigues and triumphs, and by 1750 saw their own power totally eclipsed. About this time there arose a champion for England in the person of Robert Clive. While employed in the com- pany's service at Madras, Clive had attempted suicide. But twice his pistol missed fire ; when throwing the weapon aside be abandoned his purpose, convinced that he was re- served for some great end. After the capture of Madras, Clive escaped and obtained a commission in the English army, in which he rapidly attained distinction. He gained several important victories ; and despite the efforts of the French governor, the English acquired a controlling in- fluence in south-eastern Hindostan. The Black Hole. — The rising fortunes of the English excited the jealousy of Surajah Dowlah (soo-rah'jd ddw'la).^ the Nabob of Bengal. In the summer of 1756 he invested 424 BRITISH EMPIRE IN INDIA. Calcutta, which was compelled to surrender, the little gar- rison, one hundred and forty-six in number, being assured that not a hair of their heads should be touched. Notwith- standing, they were thrust into a dungeon only eighteen feet square, called the Black Hole. There, through a hot summer night, they endured the most horrible sufferings, trampling each other in their struggles for air. When the day broke, only twenty -three remained alive, most of whom did not long survive. British East Indian Empire founded. — A cry for ven- geance went forth. Clive set out for Bengal at the head of a small force ; Calcutta was taken, and on the field of Plas- sey (1757) the fate of India was decided. With only 3,000 men, Clive routed the na- bob's army of nearly 70,000. Surajah was de- posed and af- terward slain, the East India Company placing on his throne a nabob who paid for the honor with millions. Thus the company of merchants taught the Indians that they could fight as well as trade in calico ; and while they amassed vast fortunes, they dis- posed at will of the rich provinces of Hindostan. Clive, who by his victory laid the foundation of the British East Indian Empire, was rewarded with a peerage and the title Baron of Plassey. CONQUEST OF MYSORE. 425 War in Mysore. — When during the American Revolu- tion hostilities broke out between England and France, Hyder Ali, the prince of Mysore' in southern Hindostan, took up arms in behalf of the French against the hated English. AVith an efficient army of 100,000 men led by French officers, Hyder laid waste the country round Mad- ras, and in three weeks reduced the English in southern India to the verge of destruction. Warren Hastings, the governor-general, at once made vigorous preparations for resistance. An army was sent from Bengal, and Hyder was checked in the midst of his victorious career. After his death in 1782, his son Tippoo Sahib {sah'Jiib) made three attempts against the English, but was unsuc- cessful in each, and was finally killed in defending his capital Seringapatam' (1799). A great part of Mysore was absorbed by the British. Their next struggle was with the Mahrattas, whose power was finally overthrown. A war with the Burmese resulted in the extension of the eastern frontier. Difficul- ties then arose with the Afghans (1839) ; after the loss of one army, the English took the city of Cabul (kd-bool'), rescued their friends who had been detained as prisoners, and then evacuated Afghanistan. The province of Scinde ^(sitid) was annexed to the Brit- ish East Indian Empire in 1843. At the sight of the first English sail on the Indus, the nobles of that country had predicted its fate. " Alas ! Scinde is gone," they said, "the English have seen the river." The warlike Sikhs of the Punjaub [district of the Jive rivers) next took the field; but after a fierce struggle of several years' duration, they were reduced to submission, and at last nearly the whole of Hindostan came under British sway. Sepoy Mutiny. — There had long been a prophecy among the natives that in the year 1857-'58 the power of the East India Company would be overthrown. About this time 426 BRITISH EMPrRB IN INDIA. there was introduced into the army a new greased car- tridge, from which the Sepoys, or Hindoo soldiers in the English service, were compelled to bite the end before placing it in their rifles. But to taste the fat of bullocks involved a loss of caste, and the report spread through In- dia that the ancient institutions and creed were in danger. Regiment after regiment mutinied ; Europeans at Meerut (see Map, p. 424) and Delhi were butchered, and Cawnpore on the Ganges was the scene of a frightful massacre by the rajah Nana {jiah'nah) Sahib. Indescribable barbari- ties were everywhere perpetrated by the Sepoys, the Brit- ish retaliating at times by blowing the mutineers from the mouths of their cannon. The English, however, were powerless to put down the revolt, and must have been exterminated had not aid speedily arrived. General Havelock brought re-enforce- ments from Persia, and cut his way through the insurgents to Lucknow, capital of Oude, where the little garrison had held out for three months against thousands of the enemy. There he was besieged, until Sir Colin Campbell, with five thousand Highlanders, came to his relief. The approach of their friends was announced to the suffering English by a Scotch woman, who, while confined to her bed, suddenly declared that she heard the f^niliar sounds of bagpijies in the distance. Her words, which were at first attributed to the delirium of fever, proved to be true, and " Jessie of Lucknow " became the heroine of the hour. The arrival of twenty-three European regiments in the country put a new aspect on affairs ; several brilliant cam- paigns followed, and the last great battle was fought with the rebels at Gwalior {gicah'le-or) in June, 1858. An act passed that same year deprived the East India Company of all its power, vesting its vast territories in the British queen, and transferring its employkiS to the service of the crown. INDIAN SUPEK8TITI0NS. 427 Indian Superstitions. — Till a comparatively recent pe- riod human victims were sacrificed to the Hindoo gods. Not only were infants thrown into the Ganges to be de- voured by the crocodiles and sacred sharks, but men and women eagerly laid down their lives at the bloody festivak of their religion. These enormities are now prevented in British India by the government, which otherwise allows the greatest toleration. Christianity has made some prog- ress ; and India, the land where tradition tells us St. Thom- as was martyred, now contains over one million native Christians. The institution of caste is rapidly losing ground. A system of public education has been organized, and there are universities at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. East India Company. Act for the government of British India passed 1113 ; the president of the Council of Bengal to be governor-general. Warren Hastings first British governor-general, 1774-85. A Board of Control establislied in England, to regulate the company's administration and keep it subject to the general government, 1784. Lord Cornwallis governor-general, 1786- '92. Earl of Mornington (Marquis Wellesley) governor-general, 1798- 1805. Lord Canning governor-general, 1855-'62 ; Sepoy revolt, 1857- '59. Possessions of East India Company transferred to the crown, 1858. CHAPTER LVIII. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The First Presidents. — Under Washington, John Ad- ams, of Massachusetts,- who succeeded him in 1797, and Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, author of the Declaration of Independence, who served two terms as president (1801- 1809), the United States of America steadily advanced. 428 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The national finances were placed by Washington under the able management of Alexander Hamilton, of New York. The population received large accessions by immi- gration from Europe, and settlements rapidly spread out in the West. A war with the Indians in the Ohio Valley, at one time formidable to its sparsely-settled districts, was brought to a successful termination (1794) by " Mad Anthony Wayne," a distinguished general of the Revolution, who threatened the Red Men that, if they ever violated the treaty they then made, he would rise from the grave to punish them. In 1799 the good and great Washington died, and the following year Congress met for the first time in the city called by his name, which has ever since been the national capital. — Louisiana was purchased from the French in 1803. A short war with the dey of Tripoli, in the course of which his capital was bombarded (1804), taught the Bar- bary pirates the necessity of abstaining from depredations on American commerce. But affronts to the American flag hardly less offensive than those of the Tripolitans, wore constantly offered by the British. They insisted on what was called " the right of search." United States ves- sels were stopped on the high-seas, their crews inspected, and often American seamen were forcibly impressed into the British service on the pretext that they were English- men. As the British ministry refused to stop these out- rages, war was finally declared by the United States, Presi- dent Madison signing the bill in 1812. War of 1812. — The early operations of the war were carried on mainly in the North-west. An invasion of Cana- da by Americans under General Hull having proved a fail- ure. Proctor, the English commander, aided by Tecumseh, a famous Shawnee chief, promptly turned the tables on his opponent, captured Detroit, and with it obtained pos- session of all Michigan. Another attempt on Canada was WAR OF 1812. 429 made in October, 1812, by a body of New York militia, but was repulsed by the British. General Harrison, who had won the confidence of the country by a signal defeat of the Indians at Tippecanoe in what is now western Indiana (1811), was at this critical time intrusted by the authorities at Washington with the chief command in the West. He aimed at the recovery of Detroit ; but he was able to accomplish little more than the defence of the Ohio frontier, until Commodore Perry in 1813 brilliantly captured the British fleet on Lake Erie. Following up this achievement, Harrison invaded Canada, and overtook Proctor and Tecumseh on the Thames. The Fall of Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames. 430 THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Shawnee chief fell before a gallant charge of brave Ken- tuckians, and a complete victory was gained, resulting in the long-desired vindication of American arms and the re- covery of Michigan. — In the meantime a number of glori- ous triumphs had been achieved at sea by the American Bavy, The year 1814 was signalized by further victories on the part of the Americans : at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, in Canada, over veterans who had fought under Wellington ; and at Plattsburg, on Lake Champlain, over a British land and naval force advancing from the north. Meanwhile a fleet with fresh troops arrived from Eng- land. The city of Washington was taken, and the capitol burned, but Baltimore was successfully defended by the Americans. The fleet then sailed for the south, and after re-enforcements had been received a formidable attack was made on New Orleans. General Jackson, who had been intrusted with the defence of the South-west, from behind his breast-works again and again drove back the British veterans. At last the English general Pakenham, brother-in-law of Wellington, was struck down by a grape- shot, and his army retreated to their ships with heavy loss. This was the last battle of the War of 1812 ; before it was fought, a treaty of peace had been concluded at Ghent. After financial affairs had recovered from the deplorable condition in which they were left, the progress of the United States in all that contributes to national strength was rapid beyond parallel. Interval to the Mexican War. — Prior to the nineteenth century, several attempts had been made to use steam in navigation, but without any practical results. To Robert Fulton, a citizen of the United States, belongs the honor of having built the first successful steamboat (1807). It plied on the Hudson River, between Albany and New THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 431 York. With this great invention began a new era in navi- gation. During Monroe's administration (1817-1835) the Atlantic was for the first time crossed by a steamship (1819), the Savannah, of New York. — Under the same president Florida was acquired by cession from Spain (1819). John Quincy Adams succeeded to the presidency in 1825 ; Andrew Jackson, who had saved New Orleans, in 1829 ; Martin Van Buren, in 1837 ; and Harrison, the hero of Tippecanoe and the Thames, in 1841. During all this time, if we except a period of commercial depression in 1837, the country enjoyed unbroken prosperity. The population rapidly increased, the resources of the West were developed by internal improvements, and new states were organized. A war with the Seminoles in Florida, lasting from 1835 to 1839, cost many valuable lives. Since then most of these Indians, as well as other tribes, have been re- moved to reservations in the West appropriated to their exclusive use. The death of Harrison in 1841 raised the vice-president John Tyler to the presidential chair. He was succeeded in 1845 by James K. Polk, whose administration was mem- orable for the Mexican War (see next chapter). At the commencement of this war, the Union contained twenty- nine states, and a population of about twenty millions. Distinguished Americans. John Marshall, of Viiginia (1755-1835), for thirty-four years Chief- Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States ; author of a " Life of George Washington." DeWitt Clinton, of New York (1769-1828), a statesman of comprehensive views, the projector of the Erie Canal, com- pleted in 1825, which connects the Great Lakes with the Hudson. Henry Clay, of Kentucky (1777-1852) — John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina (1782-1850)— Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts (1782-1852)— three great statesmen and orators, the giants of the United States Senate. 432 THE SPANISH-AMERICAN COUNTRIES. CHAPTER LIX. SPANISH-AMERICAN COUNTRIES.— BRAZIL. Revolutions in South America. — During the reign of Ferdinand VII., who was restored to the throne of Spain in 1814, most of the Spanish- American colonies secured their independence. These colonies occupied Mexico, Central America, and nearly all of South America except Brazil, and were governed by Spanish viceroys. Brazil, forming not quite half of the South American peninsula, rich in minerals and tropical forests, and watered by the grandest river-system in the world, belonged to Portugal. As early as 1810, the South American colonies began to revolt against the oppressive government of Spain. Chili and Buenos Ayres (ho'nos a'riz) were the first to rise, and both were eventually successful. The name of the latter was changed to the United Provinces of La Plata ; and Uruguay and Paraguay, which were previous- ly included in the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, became separate states. Discontent with the government subse- quently led to civil struggles in La Plata, which resulted in the formation of the present Argentine Republic. Meanwhile revolutions were agitating the northern col- onies also ; and Simon Bolivar, " the Liberator of South America," achieved the independence of New Granada, Venezuela, and Quito {ke'to). These three were united in one republic, Colombia, with Bolivar as president (1819). Colombia was afterward divided into New Granada (now the United States of Colombia), Venezuela, and Ecuador. The last of the South American states to take up arms was Peru, which, with the aid of Bolivar and his brave Colombians, succeeded in expelling the Spaniards. Upper Peru, consisting of the southern and south-eastern prov- inces, before a part of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, THE SP^ysriSH-AMERlCAN COUNTRIES. 433 was erected into a republic in 1825, and called in honor of its founder, Bolivia. Bolivar died in 1830, exiled from his native land by his ungrateful countrymen, " If my death," he said, '■' shall contribute to the cessation of factions, I can go tranquilly to my grave," Bolivar devoted his life and for- tune to the high purpose of freeing and uniting all Span- ish America, battling with poverty, hardships, and disap- pointments. From the conflict he retired covered with glory ; and he could truly boast that he had not kept for himself an acre out of the vast territory for which he had been the means of securing the inestimable blessings of freedom. Since their liberation, these South American countries have presented, generally, a history of assassinations and civil wars ; yet, though anarchy and disorder have mate- rially interfered with their ])rogress, they have for the most part advanced in commerce, wealth, and intelligence. Schools and colleges have sprung up, and the people are at last learning to appreciate the advantages of good order and peace. Particularly is this true of the Argen- tine Republic, where, though the Spanish Americans are the prevailing race, English and Germans make up a con- stantly increasing portion of the population. Central America also became independent of the moth- er-country, the five Spanish colonies forming themselves into a federal republic which lasted until 1839. Each state has since had a separate republican government. Mexico. — On the overthrow of Ferdinand VII. by Na- poleon, great excitement prevailed throughout Mexico, and in 1810 a rebellion broke out. For several years the patriots struggled almost against hope ; but in 1820, when news arrived that the Spanish people had obtained a liberal constitution from Ferdinand, the desire for free- dom revived among the Mexicans. Iturbide (e-toor'be-da), 28 i34: THE MEXICAN WAR. a colonel in the Mexican army, availing himself of the popular excitement, proclaimed the independence of his country (February, 1831), freed it from the Spanish yoke, and was crowned " Emperor of Mexico," July 21, 1822. His reign was short. Santa Anna, supported by other chiefs who favored a republic, proclaimed that form of government in December, and Iturbide was driven into exile. Returning in 1824, he was shot as a traitor. Owing to a succession of revolutionary disturbances and civil wars, liberty brought few blessings to the Mexi- cans. The oppressive policy they pursued toward Texas, which was largely settled by American colonists, led to a revolution in that province, and the establishment of its independence in 1836. The annexation of Texas to the United States (1845), and the occupation of certain dis- puted territory by American troops, brought on a war be- tween Mexico and the United States government in 184G. General Taylor, who was in command of a small force on the frontier, won the battles of Palo Alto [paJi'lo ahl'to) and Resaca de la Palma [ra-sah'kah da lah pahl'mah) ; then crossing the Rio Grande {re'o grahn'da), he stonned Monterey, and at Buena Vista {hwa'nah vees'tah) defeated the Mexican general Santa Anna at the head of an army three times the size of his own. The war thus gloriously begun was carried to a success ful termination by General Winfield Scott, who, after tak- ing Vera Cruz {va'rah kroos), advanced into the interior, and fought his way to the capital, entering it in tri- umph (September 14, 1847). The Mexican authorities now consented to peace. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hi- dalgo {(/wah-dah-loo'jKi he-dahV go) they recognized the Rio Grande as the southern boundary of Texas, and for the sum of fifteen million dollars relinquished to the United States New Mexico and California (February 2, 1848). It was in this year that the discovery of gold in PORTUGAL AND BRAZIL. 435 California was made, and an unparalleled influx of emi- grants to the Pacitie coast in consequence began. Spain under Isabella IL— In 1830, Ferdinand VII. of Spain abolished the Salic law, which had come into force with the Bourbon dynasty, thus securing the succession tor his daughter Isabella, born that year, to the exclusion of his brother Don Carlos. On his death in 1833, the child was proclaimed queen with the title of Isabella II.. her mother having been appointed regent during her mi- nority. Don Carlos at once forcibly asserted his claim to the throne ; but after a bloody civil war, which lasted seven years, the power of the Carlists was broken. The reign of Isabella was subsequently disturbed by a succession of revolutionary movements and changes of constitution. Portugal and Brazil — When Napoleon declared that the House of Braganza had forfeited the Portuguese throne (p. 414), the insane Maria I. was queen, her son John (VI.) acting as regent. Taking his family, this prince sought refuge in Brazil, where he made many salu- tary reforms, and finally raised the colony to the rank of a kingdom. On the death of his mother in 1816, he was declared king of Portugal, but for a time he remained in Rio Janeiro. Yielding at last to the demands of the Por- tuguese, John VI. returned to Lisbon, leaving his son Dom Pedro as regent of Brazil. Soon after (1823), a revolution took place ; Brazil was declared an empire independent of Portugal, and the crown was conferred upon Pedro. By the death of his father in 1826, Pedro became king of Portugal also ; but he transferred his claim to his young daughter, Dona Maria da Gloria, who, despite an attempt of her uncle Dom Miguel [me-ghel') to supplant her, was finally ac- knowledged queen in 1834. Insurrection succeeded in- surrection, until the death of Maria in 1853. 436 GEOEGE III., OF ENGLAND. Pedro I. of Brazil continued on the throne till 1831. In that year he abdicated in favor of his son, Dora Pedro II. Under him the empire made remarkable progress. A long war with Paraguay was successfully concluded in 1870 by the overthrow of the dictator Lopez. Provision was made for the abolition of slavery in 1871 ; induce- ments were offered to emigrants, and means taken to de- velop the immense resources of the country. The Mexican War. 1846 : Hostilities commence. Taylor wins the battle of Palo Alto, May 8th ; Resaca de la Palma, May 9th ; takes Monterey, September 24th. Americans conquer California. 1847: Taylor defeats the Mexicans at Buena Vista, February 23d. General Scott takes Vera Cruz, March 27th ; gains the battle of Cerro Gordo, April 18th; Contreras (kon-tra'rahs) and Churubusco {choo-roo-boos' ko)^ August 20th ; Molino del Rey {mo- le'no del ra), September 8th; Chapultepec {^Jiah-pool-ta-pek'), September 13th ; enters the city of Mexico in triumph, September 14tli. Peace with Mexico proclaimed, July 4, 1848. CHAPTER LX. ENGLAND TO THE ACCESSION OF VICTORIA.— GREEK REVOLUTION. George III. — At the close of the Revolutionary War, the long administration of the younger Pitt, " the consum- mate debater and unequalled master of sarcasm," began in England. His policy was strongly opposed to the French Revolution. Austerlitz proved his death-blov/. When news of Napoleon's victory reached him, Pitt pointed to a map of Europe and said, " Roll up that chart, it will not be wanted these ten years." The great statesman then fell into a stupor, from which he awakened only once, to mur- mur faintly, "Alas ! my country." REIGN OF GEORGE IH. 437 In 1810 George III. became hopelessly insane, and the government passed into the hands of the Prince of Wales as regent. History presents no sadder picture than this demented king, blind and deaf, wandering through his pal- ace, " addressing imaginary parliaments and reviewing fan- cied troops." Death at length put an end to his sorrows in 1820, after the longest and most eventful reign recorded in English history. Pure, pious, honest in purpose though often mistaken in policy, George III. won the love of his subjects. The Prince of Wales succeeded as George IV. An important event of the reign of George III. was the abolition of the Irish Parliament, and the legislative union of Ireland and Great Britain. — Cap- tain Cook explored the eastern coast of Australia, and discovered New Caledonia and the Sandwich Islands. The principal literary men of this period, most of whom flourished also in the succeeding reign, were the poets Shelley, Byron, Southey, Coleridge, Wordsworth, Campbell, Moore, and Scott ; the last-named, more noted in prose than in poetry, as the author of the Waverley Nov- els, stands in the front rank of fic- tion-writers. This was also the age that gave birth to the Edinburgh and Westminster Reviews, the Lon- don Quarterly, and Blackwood's Magazine, among whose contributors were the most distinguished men of the time. Fashions, Improvements, etc. — In the early part of the reign of George III., the most extravagant head- dresses were worn by the devotees of fashion ; a lady could thus add three feet to her height. Barbers advertised to dress heads so that they would keep for three weeks. Head-dress worn in 17S2. 438 GEORGE IV., OF ENGLAND. Vaccination was practised at the close of the century by Doctor Edward Jenner. In spite of the denunciations of his professional brethren and the clergy, the discovery was soon acknowledged to be one of the greatest bless- ings to mankind. — The London Times, the leading news- paper of England, first appeared under that title in 1788; in 1814, the use of a steam-press greatly increased its printing facilities. George IV. — Immediately after the accession of George IV., the whole nation was thrown into excitement by the discovery of a plot, known as the Cato Street Conspiracy, to assassinate the king's ministers and overthrow the gov- ernment. The conspirators, betrayed by one of their own number, were seized in a hay-loft where they were assem- bled, and the leaders were executed. George IV. hated his wife, Caroline of Brunswick, whom he had wedded in 1795. The princess was slovenly in her habits, and very indiscreet in her language and actions ; on the other side, " the first gentleman in Europe," as George was called, ill kept the vows he had stanmiered out in drunkenness at the time of his marriage. Accordingly, a separation took place, and Caroline left England. But on her husband's accession, notwithstanding a pension of fifty thousand pounds was ofi"ered her if she would stay away, she returned amid the acclamations of the people, who loved her in spite of her follies. Her claim to be crowned queen-consort, however, was disregarded — a disappoint- ment which the unhappy princess did not long survive. She directed to be inscribed on her tomb, " Here lies Car- oline of Brunswick, the injured Queen of England." During the reign of George IV., great suffering among the farmers and working classes led to seTious discontent; in Ireland a large force was required to preveilt outbreaks of the people. Liberal sentiments began to prevail ; and disabilities were removed from the Catholics (1829), main- WILLIAM IV., OF ENGLAND, 439 ly through the efforts of the eloquent O'Connell, the king yielding only when the country was threatened with civil war. George IV. was obstinate, extravagant, and profligate. It is said that the money he squandered in his youth would have supported a manufacturing town. For coats alone he spent ten thousand pounds a year. One day he would treat his friends in the most affectionate manner, and the next refuse to recognize them. He even dismissed Beau Brummel, the companion who brought tears to his eyes by finding fault with the cut of his clothes; and long after- ward, when Brummel offered the king his snuff-box, George coolly helped himself to a pinch and then moved on with- out noticing the old favorite. This reign is memorable for the founding of London University and King's College, the commencement of the tunnel under the Thames, and the establishment of settle- ments in Australia. William IV.— On the death of George IV. in 1830, his brother William became monarch of Great Britain and Ire- land. He was called " the Sailor King," for his life had been spent in the naval service. The greatest event of his reign was the passage of the Reform Bill, introduced by Lord John Russell, which extended the right of suffrage and made a new and fairer distribution of representatives in the House of Commons (1832). Under the provisions of this act, every industrious man in the kingdom could hope to attain the privilege of voting. Another impor- tant measure was the emancipation of negro slaves through- out the British colonies, twenty million pounds sterling being appropriated to reimburse the owners. In William's reign, the first railroad in the country, from Liverpool to Manchester, was opened. On his death in 1837 without male heirs, the crown fell to his niece Vic- toria, then only eighteen years of age. Hanover and 440 THE GREEK REVOLUTION. Great Britain were now separated, for in the former the Salic law was in force. Victoria's uncle, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became king of Hanover. The Greek Revolution. — After the conquest of Moham- med II, (p. 258), Greece remained a part of the Turkish SOEITE NEAR TrIPOLITZA. — MODERN GREEKS. Empire for nearly four hundred years, suffering more oi less from the rapacity and oppression of its masterSo About the beginning of the nineteenth century the spirit of patriotism revived, and a secret association was formed for the purpose of re-establishing Grecian independence. Ypsilanti raised the standard of revolt in the northern THE GKEEK R INVOLUTION, 441 provinces, but the " Sacred Battalion " which he command- ed was cut to pieces (1821). Notwithstanding this disaster, insurrections broke out in all parts of Greece, and the modern Hellenes performed deeds worthy of their heroic ancestors. The Turks en- deavored to suppress the movement with remorseless se- verity. The patriarch of Constantinople they hanged on Easter Sunday at the gate of his palace ; and his arch- bishops, together with thousands of Greeks, were massa- cred in the capital. Similar outrages were committed throughout the provinces. The Janizaries of Salonika [sah-lo-?ie' kah), though the battlements of that city were garnished with heads, threatened to revolt because they were not allowed to exterminate the Christians, Nor were the Greeks backward in retaliating. When Tripolitza, capital of the Morea, fell into their hands, sev- eral thousands of the Moslems were slain. Nothing re- mained of the city but a ruin, the very nails having been ex- tracted from the buildings. In 1832 the beautiful island of Scio was laid waste by the Ottomans. The following year, the Suliote patriot, Marco Bozzaris, surprised the Turks in a night attack, cut his way into the midst of their camp, and fell as his comrades raised the cry of victory. The insurgents, on the whole, had the advantage until 1825, when the sultan obtained aid from the pasha of Egypt. Meanwhile a general sympathy for the Greeks was awakened among the nations of Christendom ; unions called Philhellenic [friendly to Greece) were formed, to furnish them with money and supplies ; and at last the barbarity of the Egyptians, particularly as exhibited at the fall of Missolonghi on the western coast, led Russia, Eng- land, and France, to interfere in the struggle. In 1827 their combined fleets stood into the Bay of Navarino [nah- vah-re'no), when a battle at once began which resulted in the destruction of the Turkish and Egyptian squadrons. 44:2 LOUIS xvm., of France, But not until 1829, when a Russian armj' threatened the Ottoman capital, would the Porte recognize Greece as an independent kingdom. The second son of King Louis of Bavaria was selected to fill the throne (1832), with the title of Otho I. English Sovereigns: House of Hanover. George I., . . .1714 George IL, . . . H'-^^. George III., . . . 1760. George IV., . 1820. William IV., . . 1830. Victoria, .... 1837. CHAPTER LXI. FRANCE FROM 1815 TO iZt,o.— BELGIAN AND POLISH REVOLUTIONS. Louis XVIII. — With the restoration of Louis XVIIT. to the throne of the Bourbons, a reaction began. The ultra-royalists, distinguished as " White Jacobins," coming into power, inflicted a bloody revenge on the Bonapartists and republicans. Even the brave Xey was condemned to death for his desertion to Napoleon. He gave the word of command to the soldiers drawn up to shoot him ; point- ing to his heart, he cried, " Comrades, fire here ! " and fell dead pierced by ten balls. The king on his accession had granted the people a charter of liberties, and he now sought to restrain the violence of the monarchical party — his over-zealous supporters. The position of Louis XVIII. was thus a most difficult one to fill ; but his good judgment, moderation, and be- nevolence, carried him safely through the many troubles of his reign. On his death-bed (1824) he said to his brother Charles, who was about to succeed him: " I have THE HOLY ALLIANCE. 443 tacked between parties like Henry IV., but unlike him 1 die in my bed. Do as I have done, and your reign will end in peace." The Holy Alliance. — About the time of the restora- tion, the Holy Alliance was formed by the emperors of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia, who pledged Execution of Marshal Net. themselves to a permanent union in the bonds of brotherly love, and a mutual support for the maintenance of peace, justice, and religion. Most of the European powers ac- ceded to this treaty, but they soon found that it was only a pretence for perpetuating despotism. 444 CHAKLES X., OF FEANCE. It was at the instigation of the Holy Alliance that a French army of 100,000 men was sent into Spain, to put down the patriots who had wrested from the false and cruel Ferdinand VII. a liberal constitution. Similar revo- lutions in Italy, where Austrian influence was predomi- nant, were also suppressed by the Holy x\lliancc. Charles X. — During the French Revolution, this prince, the last of the Bourbons, went about Europe soliciting aid to re-establish monarchy in France. Catharine of Russia presented him a sword inscribed, " Given by God for the king ; " but the weapon was useless in the hands of Charles, who proved himself a better " performer with the knife and fork." He lacked the courage to land in La Vendee, though he was backed by a British force and 80,000 royal- ists awaited his arrival to fly to arms. When he became king, the most arbitrary measures were adopted ; and though the people were at first charmed with his majestic bearing and warm-hearted waj-s, they soon perceived that he was the enemy of their liberties. The deluded king hoped to divert the public mind from home matters by military triumphs abroad. Aid was sent to Greece, the city of Algiers was taken — but all to no purpose. The government grew more and more unpopu- lar ; until finally, when the liberty of the press was de- stroyed and the law of election changed, the people rose in their might (July, 1830), overpowered the royal troops, and Charles, after abdicating, went into exile. Some clamored for a republic ; but Lafayette, believ- ing that France was not yet prepared for a democratic government, advocated a constitutional monarchy. The crown was conferred on the Duke of Orleans, son of Philip Equality ; he swore to maintain the constitutional charter, and was hailed as Louis Philippe I., King of the French. Belgian Revolution, — After Napoleon's overthrow, the BELGIAN REVOLUTION. 445 Belgian provinces were annexed to Holland by the Con- gress of Vienna, and Prince William of (3range -Nassau became sovereign of this new Kingdom of the Nether- lands. The Belgians, who were Roman Catholics, and also differed from the Dutch in language and manners- were averse to this union of the long-separated provinces ; and their discontent was aggravated by the tyrannical gov- ernment of the Hollanders. News of the successful revolution at Paris created the wildest excitement in Belgium ; and in August, 1830, roused to action by the music of the grand opera, the people of Brussels broke out in insurrection. Their ex- ample was quickly followed ; a provisional government was formed, and the independence of Belgium proclaimed. King William took up arms to suppress the rebels, but without success ; and at length a conference of the great powers, held at London, recognized Belgium as a separate state and forbade further hostilities. * The first king of Belgium was Leopold of Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. No sooner was he crowned than the Dutch recom- menced the war, but England and France interfered and put an end to the struggle. Since the separation, both countries have flourished. Insurrection in Poland.— The Congress of Vienna re- arranged the divisions of Poland (see Map, p. 387). The district of Cracow was erected into a free republic ; while the czar Alexander, to whom fell the greater part of the duchy of Warsaw, formed his new acquisitions into the Kingdom of Poland, and appointed his brother Constan- tine its military governor. The emperor himself was king of the new state, and solemnly guaranteed its independ- ence. There was little friendship, however, between the peo- ple and their Russian rulers. During the reign of Nicholas, Alexander's successor, excited by the tyranny of Constan- 446 POLISH REVOLUTION. tine and encouraged by the success of the French and Bel- gians, the Poles rose against their oppressors (1830). But valuable time was wasted in negotiations, and the aristoc- racy lost the support of the great body of peasants by denying them the privileges of liberty. Despite the un- exampled bravery of the Polish patriots, many of whom, for want of better weapons, were armed only with scythes, the Russians triumphed. Depopulated by war and disease, her soldiers torn from the arms of their families by im- pressment in the Russian armies, or doomed to the mines of Siberia, Poland has had cause long to remember her fruitless uprising. Every attempt has since been made to denationalize the Poles; and the Republic of Cracow, in defiance of all principles of justice, was forcibly annexed to Austria in 1846. Kings of France : House of Bourbon. Honry lY., of Navarre, 1580. Republic, . 1792-1795. Louis XIII.,.. . 1610. Directory, . 1795-1799. Louis XIV., . 1643. Consulate, . 1799-1804. Louis XY., . 1715. Empire, . 1804-1814. Louis XYL, 1774. Louis XYIII., . . 1814. Revolution, . 1792. Charles X., . . . 1824. Louis XVII. died in Louis Philippe (House prison, . 1795. of Orleans), . . 1830. CHAPTER LXII. BEGINNING OF VICTORIA'S REIGN.— REVOLU- TIONS OF 1848. ftueen Victoria was crowned in Westminster Abbey in 1838, and in 1840 she gave her hand to Prince Albert of Saxe-Cobura--Gotha. A rebellion in Canada was the first REIGN OF QUEEN VICTOKIA. 447 event that disturbed her reign ; but this was put down, and the causes of dissatisfaction were as far as possible re- moved. Difficulties then arose with China. In the face of a prohibition from the Chinese government, the English merchants continued to import opium into the empire, as the trade in the drug was extremely profitable. This illicit commerce led to a war between the Chinese authorities and the British, resulting in the success of the latter and the opening of five great ports. The condition of England, meanwhile, was far from quiet. The crops failed; and the distress occasioned there- by was aggravated by the Corn Laics, which laid a bur- densome duty on imported grain. Popular discontent was loudly expressed, trades-unions sprung up, and a league was formed in 1839 to obtain the repeal of the Corn Laws. This was violently opposed ; but in 1841, a conservative ministry came into power, at the head of which was Sir Robert Peel, an advocate of reform. Many duties were now removed and others reduced, yet the public distress con- tinued. In Wales the numerous tolls exacted drew so heavily on the earnings of the people that a body of riot- ers went through the country, destroying the toll-gates un- der cover of night. They were led by a man dressed in women's clothes, and were known as " Rebecca and her daughters." In Ireland, also, a bitter feeling was excited against the government by the speeches of O'Connell ; but here, as in Wales, the disturbances were effectually quelled. It was not until January, 1846, when, by reason of the scanty grain-harvest and the failure of the potato-crop in Ireland, famine stared the country in the face, that the duty on corn was removed — Sir Robert Peel introducing the bill for that purpose. Even this concession, however, did not satisfy the discontented masses. A Chartist demonstration, as it was called, took place in London in 1848, for the purpose of procuring certain constitutional 448 LOUIS PHILIPPE OF FRANCE. changes embodied in a bill of rights known as the People's Charter ; but the extraordinary precautions taken by the government were successful in preserving the peace. The beginning of Victoria's reign is remarkable for the establishment of the penny postage system. — In the spring of 1845, Sir John Franklin, the celebrated explorer, sailed with the Erebus and Terror in search of a north-west pas- sage. Though he never returned, it appears that by reach- ing from the Atlantic a point which had been attained by explorers from the Pacific, he virtually made the long- sought discovery. — In 1851 gold was found in Australia ; emigrants hurried to " the diggings," and Australia rapid- ly developed into a rich and flourishing country. Revolution in France. — Louis Philippe, whom we left upon tlie throne of France (p. 444), was surrounded by dif- ficulties. Legitimists, Bonapartists, and republicans, were his opponents, and the rivalries of his ministers kept France in a state of agitation. Several attempts were made to assassinate him ; and Louis Napoleon, son of Louis Bona- parte (the former king of Holland), made two efforts to excite a revolution against the government. " I shall be emperor before I die," he said ; " I will govern France, and then perish with a bullet in my brain." In 1840, a new administration was formed, Guizot {(/he-zo') being the ruling spirit in the cabinet. In that year the remains of the great Napoleon were brought to Paris and buried beneath the dome of the Invalides. Not long after, France was plunged in grief by the death of the Duke of Orleans, heir to the crown, who possessed the love and confidence of the whole nation. With the exception of a war in Algeria, which the French succeeded in permanently annexing after a long struggle with the young emir Abd-el-Kader (ahbd-el-kah' - der), the Guizot administration was peaceful, for " Peace at any price " was the motto of the king. But while friend- KEVOLUTION OF 1848 IN FRANCE. 449 ly and pacific feeling characterized its foreign relations, the government at home became objectionable. The " citizen king " broke the pledge he had given to his countrymen, — to support constitutional liberty, and sud- denly his ears were greeted with the cry of reform. Po- litical banquets came in vogue, and the suppression of one of these in Paris on Washing-ton's birthday, 1848, brought on a revolution. The following morning, crowds of ill- looking creatures swarmed in the streets; barricades were hastily thrown up, the troops were overpowered, and at last Louis Philippe, hearing the infuriated people shout- ing " A republic ! " at the very gates of the Tuileries, knew that his reign was over. On the 24th of February he abdicated, and under an assumed name sought safety in England. It was in this trying hour that the widowed Duchess of Orleans, unterrified by the fury of the mob and the weapons pointed at her breast, brought her young son into the Assembly, and there eloquently urged his claim to the crown. But a voice from the tribune cried, " Too late ! " A provisional government was instituted. On the following day the poet Lamartine (lah-niar-teen'), one of its members, achieved the greatest triumph of his elo- quence by appeasing the maddened Commune and thus saving France from another reign of terror. Establishment of the Second Empire. — The new govern- ment did not meet the expectations of the lower orders. They still had to earn their bread by the sweat of their brow, whereas they seem to have looked for a golden age of exemption from all labor. In response to their demands for lighter work and better pay, national workshops were established, where employment was given to thousands, and many who did not labor were paid. But this system proved ruinous, and when the authorities were obliged to close the factories, the Communists once more filled the 29 4:50 LOUIS NAPOLEON. streets of Paris and cried, " Down with the government ! " After a desperate conflict of several days, they were sup- pressed by General Cavaignac {kali-ve n-yahk' ) . A repub- lic was then formed, an election for president was held, and Louis Napoleon received a large majority of votes — due, no doubt, to the associations connected with his name. The new president was regarded with distrust by most of the honest republican leaders, and it soon became evi- dent that at the expiration of his term the country would again be plunged in civil strife. But Louis Napoleon an- ticipated his enemies by his famous coup d'etat (December 2, 1851). During the preceding night, Paris was filled with soldiers ; before dawn those "whom he had cause to fear were placed under arrest, and it was declared that the Assembly was dissolved. The president then secured his re-election for ten years ; and in November, 1852, the republic was quietly metamorphosed into an empire, its chief magistrate becoming " Napoleon IIL,* Emperor of the French." Eevolutions in the German States. — The year 1848 is an eventful one in the history of Germany. — After the Na- poleonic wars, thirty-nine of the German states united in forming a new confederation, but the general diet in which they were represented was controlled by Austria. At this time the people were enthusiastic for the establishment of German unity and freedom ; instead of which, the ruling princes tightened the reins of despotism and strove to check the progressive spirit of the age. But oppression only begat a more intense desire for liberty. After the French Revolution of 1830, outbreaks occurred in several of the states. During Louis Philijipe's reign, the death of Francis made his son Ferdinand em- peror of Austria (1835), and Frederick William IV. as- * The son of Napoleon I. (deceased in 1832) was recognized as Na- poleon II. BKVOLUTIONS OF 1848, 451 cended the throne of Prussia (1840). The former Avas a man of weak character, and his empire was ruled by Prince Metteniich, the declared enemy of liberal principles. The Prussian, at his accession, made fair promises, and really did much for the people, but he would not grant them a constitution ; and consequently in Prussia, as in the other German states, opposition to the government began to as- sume a dangerous aspect. The downfall of the Orleans dynasty in France was the spark that fired the train. Everywhere the people rose in behalf of their rights, demanding " freedom of speech, liberty of the press, and a constitutional government." The princes of many of the smaller states, powerless to re- sist, yielded at once to the popular movement ; but iu Prussia and Austria, the people did not carry their point without a struggle. After a conflict in the streets of Ber- lin between the soldiers and citizens, in which several were killed, the king made the concessions required and declared himself " leader of the movement for German unity." The people of Vienna drove Metternich into exile, and obtained from the emperor the privileges they demanded. But they abused their suddenly-acquired liberty. License reigned in the capital, law and order were at an end, and Ferdinand was finally obliged to seek safety in flight. Re- bellions also occurred in other parts of the empire, and the Austrian monarchy was brought to the very brink of de- struction. Hungarian Revolution. — The most formidable of these was the uprising of the Hungarians, or Magyars, long out- raged by the policy of the government. The eloquent Kossuth ijcosh-shoot') was the soul of the revolution, and Gorgey [gor'ghi), with the Poles Bem and Dembinski, led the armies of the patriots. Encouraged by Austria, the ban of Croatia took the field against the Hungarians ; and when Vienna, which had again revolted, this time in favor 452 REVOLUTIONS OF 1848. of the Magyar revolutionists, was besieged by Austrian troops, he repulsed Kossuth, who was marching to its re- lief. Then he joined the Austrians, and the allied forces took the capital by storm. Austrians and Croatians were afterward repeatedly de- feated by the Hungarians, and it was not until Russia in- terfered that this brave people was subdued. GOrgey sur- rendered his army in 1849. Kossuth escaped into Turkey, and was detained there as a prisoner till 1851, when he was released through the intervention of the United States and England. The last Hungarian fortress that surren- dered was Comorn, associated in history with the barbar- ities of the Austrian general Haynau (hi'ndic), whose frightful cruelty during this war secured for him the ap- pellation of IIunf/ary''s Ilaugman. Revolutions in Italy. — The Italian republicans were also encouraged by the overthrow of despotism in France. Pius IX., " the constitutional pope," who had been chosen in 1846, by his liberal policy began a movement which was soon beyond his control. The demands of the people in- creased with his indulgence, and at last his minister was murdered and he fled from the capital. Rome was de- clared a republic (February, 1849). Mazzini [ynaht-se'ne) was made the first of the triuDivirs who governed the city; and the hero Garibaldi bravely defended it, but could not save it from the French, who took it in July. The pope came back as an absolute ruler, and for seven years Rome was kept under martial law. In 1848 the Austrians were driven out of Venice and Milan, Charles Albert of Sardinia declared war against them, and neai-ly all northern Italy was for a time freed from their yoke. But the Austrian marshal Radetzky soon regained his ground, and the king of Sardinia con- sented to a tnice. In the spring of 1849 the latter re- sumed the war ; but in a four days' campaign the old Ra- LITERABY AND SCIENTIFIC MEN. 453 detzky overthrew the hopes of the patriots, and Austria again became supreme. Charles Albert resigned the scep- tre to Victor Emmanuel, his son. This prince, undavmted by the disasters that had befallen his father, though obliged for the time to yield to them, pledged his sword to the same cause — the freedom and glory of Italy. Literary and Scientific Men. England. — The scientists Sir David Brewster, Faraday, and Tyndall, noted respectively for their researches in optics, electro-magnetism, and the phenomena of heat. Macaulay and Carlyle ; the former, author of a " History of England," abounding in the richest ornaments of rhetoric — the latter, of various historical works and essays, marked by original thought but an unnatural style. Sir William Hamilton, distinguished in metaphysics and philosophy, and John Stuart Mill, in logic and political economy. The poet-laureate Tennyson. The novelists Bulwer, Thack- eray, and Dickens. France. — The scientists Cuvier {kii-ve-a'), Arago, and Leverrier {leh- va-re-a) ; the first, a great zoologist, founder of the science of compara- tive anatomy, the last two, astronomers. Thiers (te-ap-'), who wrote the history of the Revolution, Consulate, and Empire. The popular song- writer Beranger {ba-rvit^-zha'). Victor Hugo, author of odes, ballads, dramas, and novels. Germany. — Of many scholars and writers later than those named on page 387, may be mentioned the historians Heeren (1760-18-12), and Niebuhr (1776-1831), who flourished in the early part of the century — Moramsen (1817-) — and Neander, an eminent church-historian (1789- 1850). Karl Ritter, the great geographer. The poets Uhland and Heine {hi'neh). Baron Liebig, a great discoverer in the field of organic chem- istry. The illustrious naturalist Humboldt, author of various scientific treatises, and particularly of " Kosmos : a Physical Description of the Universe," written when he was more than seventy-four years old. Among inusical composers, Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer. Denmark produced during this period one of the most quaint, im- aginative, and charming of fiction-writers, in Hans Christian Andersen, born in 1805, died August, 1875. His "Wonder-Stories" have made his name a household word among the little folk, and have found deUghted readers even in children of a larger growth. 454 THE CRIMEAN WAE. CHAPTER LXIII. THE CRIMEAN WAR (1854-1856). Russian Aggressions upon Turkey. — In the hope of ag- grandizing herself at the expense of the Ottoman Porte, Russia had long sought an occasion of war with Turkey. The czar Nicholas in 1853 suggested a division of the em- pire between himself and England, offering Egypt and the island of Candia to the latter — a proposal which the British government did not entertain. A pretext, however, was not long wanting for carrying out the cherished scheme. On the refusal by the Porte of the czar's demand to be recognized as Protector of the Greek Christians under Ottoman rule — compli- ance with which would have compromised the independence of Tur- key— 80,000 Russian troops crossed the Pruth, and occupied the principalities of Moldavia and Walla- chia (see Map, p. 415). War was consequently declared by the Porte, and the campaign of the Danube, under the conduct of Omar Pasha, was a glorious one for the Ottoman arms. The European powers at first stood aloof, although England had encouraged the Turkish government in re- sisting the arrogance of Russia ; but the unwarranted de- struction of an Ottoman fleet by the Russians off Sin'o-pe provoked the interference of England and France early in 1854, to prevent the dismemberment of Turkey and pre- J3 cainvEEA j c Simferopol , C SCENE Jj -P- OF THE CRIMEAN WAR li BATTLE OF BALAKLAVA. 455 serve the balance of power in Europe. After some pre- liminary movements, the allied army disembarked in Sep- tember a few miles below Eupatoria in the Crimea (see Map), defeated the Russian prince Menzikoff on the banks of the Alma, and pushing southward invested the strong fortress of Sebasto'pol. Battle of Balaklava. — The siege had not progressed many days before the Russians sallied from their works to attack the enemy at Balaklava {pal-Ci-klah' vah) . A large force of the assailants was gallantly charged and thrown into confusion by the British dragoons ; but through a mistake, the Light Brigade, only 600 strong, was ordered forward against the whole Russian army, which had formed anew with artillery in front and flank. The aide-de-camp Nolan, who had conveyed the instruc- tions of Lord Raglan, the commander-in-chief, to the lieu- tenant-general, saw the error, and, spurring in front of the charging horsemen, sought by gesture and voice to save them from destruction. While he was in the act of wav- ing his sword, a fragment from a Russian shell pierced his heart ; but the arm remained uplifted, the body sat erect in the saddle, and as his horse galloped back upon the ad- vancing column, an unearthly cry burst from the lifeless lips — as if a warning to his comrades of the terrible doom that awaited them. Yet on they plunged, through thick banks of smoke, swept by a tornado of canister and grape, up to the very mouths of the cannon, sabred the gunners, scattered the Russian infantry, — then turned, a mere handful, to fight their way back through a mass of lancers. Only 150 succeeded in reaching their friends. The Russians were checked at Balaklava. Ten days later (November 5th), 50,000 of them attacked the English position at Inkerman, where, after an obstinate battle of six hours Avith 8,000 British and a French division 6,000 strong, they were finally repulsed. Soon after this, winter 456 THE CRIMEAN WAR. set in ; and cold, want, and disease, proved more fatal to the besiecrina: armv than the Russian sword. The tale of their sufferings brought clothing and supplies of all kinds to the camp ; while the sick and wounded were attended in the hospital by a corps of volunteer nurses, at the head of whom was an English lady, Florence Nightingale. Fall of Sebastopol. — In the beginning of the new year, Victor Emmanuel II. of Sardinia sent an army to support the allies. As the spring wore on, the siege was more vigorously prosecuted ; repeated sorties of the Russians were repulsed, their last effort to disperse the enemy being defeated by the French and Sardinians (Aygust 16, 1855). On the 8th of September, after three days' bombardment, the final assault was made. The strong works of the Malakhoff and the Redan were stormed ; and the Russians, after exploding their magazines, sinking their ships and frigates, and firing the town, evacuated Sebastopol. The allies took possession of the ruins, and completed the dis- mantling of the post by destroying the arsenals, docks, and warehouses. Russia was now anxious for peace. Negotiations were accordingly begun, which resulted in the conclusion of a treaty at Paris in the spring of 1856. The integrity of Turkey was guaranteed ; the Black Sea was opened to the mercantile vessels of all nations, but closed to ships of war. The Danubian principalities of Wallachia and Mol- davia (Roumania) remained only nominally subject to Tur- key, full liberty of worship and legislation being securec to them ; in 1858 they were granted the privilege of elect- ing a Hospodar, or governor, for life. On the election of Prince Milan in 1868, Servia also became virtually inde- pendent, though under the suzerainty of the Porte. Meanwhile Nicholas of Russia died (March 2, 1855). His son and successor, Alexander II., was crowned czar in the autumn of 1856. The condition of the Russian people ALEXANDER II., OF RUSSIA. 457 has since been ameliorated by the encouragement of com- merce and internal industry, improvements in public edu- cation, and the abolition of serfdom. A revolt of the Poles, liowever, took place in 1863, which was put down with the usual severity, 85,000 of this unfortunate people being- transported to Siberia. The Russian government has since felt it expedient to emancipate the Polish peas- ants and adopt various other liberal measures. Checked in her career of aggrandizement in Europe, and abandoning her foothold in America by the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867, Russia has since steadily pursued her plan of annexation in Asia. Her em- pire, which was extended on the east beyond the Amoor by the acquisition of a large tract from China in 1858, has also approached the frontiers of British India, absorbing portions of the khanates of Khiva (ke'vah), Bokhara, and Khokan, east of the Caspian Sea. The khan of Khiva at first successfully resisted the Russian arms ; but in 1873 he consented to a peace which not only cost him a large indemnity and many square miles of territory, but also provided for the discontinuance of the slave-trade that had long flourished in his dominions. The Russian government is taking measures to consoli- date its vast empire, particularly by an improved system of public instruction and the introduction of the Russian tongue in all parts of its dominions. A railroad is in process of construction through Siberia to the Pacific. Sovereigns of Russia. Peter I., the Great, . . 1682. Catharine II , . . 1762. Catharine I., 1725. Paul, . 1796. Peter II., . . 1727. Alexander I., . .. 1801. Anna, . . . . 1730. Nicholas, 1825. Ivan VI., . . 1740. Alexander II . . . 1855. Elizabeth Petrovna, 1741. Alexander III., . 1881. Peter III., . 1762. Nicholas II., . . 1894. 458 KECENT HISTORY. CHAPTER LXIV. RECENT HISTORY. Civil War in the United States. — For his services in the Mexican War, General Taylor was rewarded with the pres- idency of the United States in 1849, but he enjoyed the honor for little more than a year. By his death his office fell to the vice-president, Millard Fillmore, of New York. During part of Fillmore's term, Edward Everett, of Massa- chusetts, one of the most distinguished orators of America, served as Secretary of State. Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, succeeded to the presidency in 1853, and James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, in 1857. The administrations of both were disturbed by virulent discussions on the subject of slavery, which existed in the South, but to the extension of which, as new states were formed, many in the North were opposed. When, in 1860, Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, a repub- lican, was chosen president, the Southern leaders, alleging that he was a sectional candidate, declared secession from the Union to be the only safeguard against the anticipated aggressions of the Federal government. Seven of the thirty-three states passed ordinances of secession, formed a new union under the title of " the Confederate States of America" (February, 1861), and elected Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, their president. Four more states joined the Confederacy shortly afterward, and in November, 1861. two others were admitted. All efforts for a peaceable settlement of difficulties hav- ing failed, and the Federal government having attempted to send supplies to one of its posts in Charleston harbor, the Confederates, who had assembled a large force in the neighborhood, opened fire upon the fort, April 12, 1861. Thus began a destructive four-year civil war. CIVIL \V^\Je IN THE UNITED STATES. 459 The Federal government at first met with some severe reverses, commencing with the disastrous defeat of Bull Run (July 21, 1861) ; but calling fresh men from time to time into the field, building iron-clad gun-boats, mortar- boats, and monitors, to co-operate by water, and maintain- ing a strict blockade of the southern coast, it gradually gained ground, after severe struggles, in most of the states in which military operations were carried on. Particularly was this the case in the South-west, New Orleans being taken in April, 18G3, and the Mississippi being opened by the capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson in July, 1863. All this time, however, Richmond, the Confederate capital, set the Union forces at defiance. Several attempts made to reach it resulted only in a heavy loss of men, and four times the Potomac was crossed by invading Confeder- ate armies from Virginia. Two of these incursions as- sumed a formidable aspect, but General Lee, the Confed- erate commander, was defeated in the first at Antie'tam, Maryland (September 17, 1862), and in the second at Get- tysburg, Pennsylvania (July 1-3, 1863), and each time obliged to fall back. At length (March 3, 1864) the Federal authorities ele- vated General Grant, who had distinguished himself in various actions, to the rank of Lieutenant-General. New forces were raised, and after a series of bloody battles the Union army succeeded in reaching the neighborhood of Richmond, and invested Petersburg, 22 miles south of that capital. The attack was vigorously pushed, and as brave ly withstood ; but at last important advantages gained by the besieging force, as well as a succession of victories won by the Union generals, Sherman in Georgia, and Sher- idan in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, showed General Lee that to protract his defence would be but a useless sacrifice of life. He surrendered April 9, 1865, and with this event the last hope of the Confederacy expired. 4-60 RECENT HISTORY. The other Confederate armies were either surrendered or disbanded. On January 1, 1863, slavery, the cause of the war, was abolished by President Lincoln, in accordance with author- ity vested in him by Congress. Mr. Lincoln was re-elected to the presidency in 1864 ; but five days after Lee's sur- render, to the horror of both Northern and Southern men, he was assassinated in the theatre at Washington by a vio- lent sympathizer with the South. His death made Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, president till 1869. Napoleon III. took advantage of the civil war in the United States to interfere in the affairs of Mexico. Send- ing over an army to that country, ostensibly to obtain reparation for losses sustained by its French residents, he defeated the Liberals in several engagements, occupied the capital (1863), overthrew the government, established an empire, and offered the crown to Maximilian of Austria, who unwisely accepted it. The United States, refusing to acknowledge Maximilian as emperor, informed Napoleon that no European power would be permitted to establish a monarchy in North America ; and the French emperor thought it prudent to withdraw his army in 1867. Maxi- milian, unable to maintain himself against the Liberals, was taken and shot ; and the republic was re-established. In England much distress was occasioned in the manu- facturing districts, during the civil war in America, by the want of a supply of cotton. Many of the people sympa- thized with the South, and desired that the government should recognize and assist the Confederacy ; but the prime minister, Lord Palmerston, took a conservative course, and peace was maintained. Great dissatisfaction was felt in the United States because the Confederates were allowed to fit out cruisers in the nominally neutral ports of England. From one of these, the Alabama, American merchantmen suffered severely, till she was de- CUBAN INSURRECTION. 4:01 stroyed by the Kearsarge in June, 1864. After the war, a claim for damages was made on the British govern- ment. It was referred to arbitration, and an award of $15,500,000 was made to the United States. In recognition of his military services General Grant was elected president in 18G8, and in 1872 he was re chosen. The seceded states were gradually reconstructed, and in 1871 all were once more re])resented in Congress. In 1877 Rutherford B. Hayes became president. He was succeeded in 1881 by General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, who was greatly admired for his many sterling qualities. On July 2, 1881, the people were overwhelmed with grief and dismay to learn that their president had been shot by an assassin. He died on Sept. 19, and on the following morning Chester A. Arthur, the vice-president, took the oath of office. Grover Cleveland, the next presi- dent (1885), was governor of New York at the time of his election. In 1889 he gave place to Benjamin Har- rison, of Indiana, but in 1892 he was elected for a second term (1893-'97). Since the recovery from civil strife the progress of the republic has been rapid. Immense crops have rewarded the labor of the husbandman ; new railroads have opened up vast areas in the West and South ; manufactures have multiplied ; and immigration has been on a scale hitherto unprecedented. With the admission of Utah, in 1896, the number of states became forty-five. Cuban Insurrection. — In 1868, the people of Cuba, long impatient under the yoke of Spain, attempted to throw it off. The successive Spanish governments (monarchical, republi- can, and again monarchical) tried in vain for several years to reduce the island to submission ; not until rendered defence- less by hardships and reverses did the insurgents lay down their arms (1878). In 1880 a bill was passed, providing for the abolition of slavery. 462 KECENT HISTORY. Dominion of Canada. — With the approval of the moth- er-country, the colonies of British America, the island of Newfoundland alone excepted, were in 1867 united in what is known as " the Dominion of Canada." Each of the seven provinces has its own legislature to regulate its local affairs, while the interests of the whole are under the control of a governor-general and a parliament in which all are represented. The formation of this union has been attended with the best results ; it has consolidated the strength of the colonies and led to important internal im- provements. Austro-Sardinian War. — The spirit of nationality which was developing in Italy, together with the growing friend- ship between France and Sardinia, whose king Victor Emmanuel II. was the supporter of liberal institutions in the peninsula, brought on a war in 1859 between those two powers and Austria. Hoping to crush the Sardinians before they could receive aid from France, Austria dis- patched an army across the Ticino [te-che'no) ; but it was driven back, and routed near Magenta (see Map, p. 415) by the combined French and Sardinian forces. Garibaldi also, with his " Hunters of the Alps," several times de- feated the Austrians, who, after a second great reverse at Solferino, deemed it best to make peace. Their feeling in this respect was shared by the French emperor, who, marking the threatening aspect of Germany, reluctantly paused in his career of triumph. Lombardy was ceded to Sardinia in consideration of about forty-two million dollars. As a compensation for her services during the war, France afterward received Nice and Savoy from Sardinia. Founding of the Italian Kingdom. — The desire of the Italian patriots was a united Italy ; but the southern part of the country was still under the Bourbon king of Naples, Francis II. Its liberation was effected by Garibaldi, who invaded Sicily in 1860 with a small force of volunteers, WAR IN SCHLESWIG-irOLSTEm. 463 took Palermo and Messina, and then recrossing to the main-land entered Naples on September 7th amid the en- thusiastic shouts of the people, Francis IT. having previ- ously withdrawn from the city. Garibaldi now resigned his power into the hands of the Sardinian king, and retired to his farm on the island of Caprera (hah-pra' raK) . Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed " King of Italy " in 1861 by the first Italian Parliament, the Two Sicilies having been previously annexed to his kingdom in accordance with the vote of the people. All Italy, except Venetia in the north-east and a portion of the Papal States, was now united under his sceptre. Count Cavour, the Italian prime minister, whose statesmanship had been largely instru- mental in bringing about this great result, barely lived to witness the success of his efforts. War in Schleswig-Holstein. — A difficulty between Den- mark and her dependencies, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, which grew out of a question of succession, led to a European war in 1864. The German Confederate Diet found a pretext for interfering, and sent an armed force into Holstein to await the course of events. But Prussia and Austria, differing from the diet on questions which arose with reference to Schleswig, took the field against the Danes. The Austro-Prussian army gained many important advantages, and reduced Denmark to such extremities that she consented to relinquish Schles- wig and Holstein to Austria and Prussia (October 30, 1864). Seven Weeks' War. — Francis Joseph had succeeded his uncle Ferdinand I. on the throne of Austria in 1848, and William I. had become king of Prussia in 1861. Troubles soon arose between these two powers with respect to the duchies, and this petty dispute was made the occasion of a war, the real cause of which is to be found in their rivalry for the leadership of Germany. Count Otto von Bismarck, 464 RECENT HISTORY. who had been prime minister of Prussia since 1862, de- clared that this question could be decided only " by blood and steel," and, having secured the support of Italy, hur- ried on by his policy a struggle that could not fail to be decisive. Seven weeks determined the point at issue. The cam- paign, planned by Baron von Moltke, one of the most brilliant military geniuses of the century, was successful beyond all expectation, the reverses of the Austrians and their allies culminating in the rout of Marshal Benedek at Sadowa in Bohemia (July 3, 1866). Prussia dictated a peace whereby Austria was obliged to consent that a new confederation should be formed under the leadership of her rival, from which she herself should be excluded. This was called the North German Confederation, and embraced the states north of the Main, together with Prussia, now enlarged by the addition of Schleswig-Holstein, the king- dom of Hanover, the electorate of Hesse-Cassel, the duchy of Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort. Another result of the Seven Weeks' War was the ces- sion of Venetia to Victor Emmanuel. Rome only was now wanting to complete the unification of Italy. Garibaldi's watchword, " Rome or death," touched a chord that vi- brated in many a heart ; and in 1870, in compliance with the popular demand, Victor Emmanuel ordered the occu- pation of the city by his troops. In December it was de- clared the national capital, and the following year the Italian Parliament virtually put an end to the temporal power of the pope by restricting his authority to his pal- ace, the Vatican, and certain limited appendages. The work of regeneration has since gone on in Italy ; internal improvements are rapidly progressing, and education is beginning to bear its wonted fruits. Austria, after the Seven Weeks' War, hastened to make the long-needed reforms. The empire was reconstructed AUSTRIA.— SPAIN. 4G5 under the ministry of the able statesman, Baron Beust (bo/'st), who pursued a peace policy while he skilfully completed his work of re-or^anization (1867-1871). A rec- onciliation was effected with Hungary, which was granted an independent government ; and in June, 1867, Francis Joseph was crowned at Buda as its constitutional king. Austria and Hungary are therefore distinct states, united under one sovereign in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. The Czechs (Slavic inhabitants of Bohemia) and the Poles have since striven, though as yet without success, for a Bohemian and a Polish autonomy similar to that of Hun- gary. Revolution of 1868 in Spain. — The revolutionary dis- turbances of the reign of Isabella II. terminated in 1868 in a military insurrection, which led to the deposition of the queen, and the establishment of a provisional govern- ment under General Serrano as president, and General Prim as minister of war. The two great political parties of the day were the Liberal Monarchists and the Repub- licans, the latter of whom rapidly increased in influence under Castelar and other leaders. For the time, however, a monarchical form of government was retained in Spain, and in 1870 the Cortes offered the crown to Leopold of Hohenzollern. From this, as we shall presently see, re- sulted the Franco-Prussian War. • Leopold refused the honor. It was finally accepted by Amade'us, second son of Victor Emmanuel, who entered Madrid in January, 1871, as king of Spain. But his throne was beset by difficulties and dangers. The Carlists (adher- ents of the grand-nephew of the first Don Carlos — see p. 435) raised the banner of revolt ; an attempt was even made on his life ; so that Amadeus gave up all hope of establishing a firm government, and abdicated in February, 1873. The Cortes then declared Spain a republic, the honest 30 4t6 EECENT HISTORY. Castelar became president, and a violent struggle was maintained with the Carlists during that and the following year. Suddenly, at the close of 1874, by a long-planned coup d'etat, Prince Alfonso, son of Queen Isabella, was proclaimed king ; the army and navy gave him their sup- port, and the republic was overthrown. Under the able ministry of Canovas del Castillo (1875-1881) the monarchy was established on a firm basis. Franco-Prussian War. — The wonderful success of Prus- sia in the Seven Weeks' War created the wildest excite- ment in France. The people felt jealous and angry. Ma- genta and Solferino were thrown into the shade by the triumph at Sadowa, and united Germany seemed to be a standing threat to the political influence of France. French honor must be upheld ; and Napoleon III., anx- ious to regain the popularity which his failure in Mexico had impaired, and emulous of the military exploits of his uncle, eagerly sought an opportunity to measure swords with King William. An excuse, if wanted, is easily found. When the Span- ish offered their vacant throne to Leopold of Hohenzollern, Napoleon entered an indignant protest, declaring that he would never permit the crown of Spain to pass to Leopold or any other Prussian prince ; and when Leopold, to end the difficulty, declined to accept the position, he insisted on an assurance from King William that no Hohenzollern should at any time occupy the Spanish throne, instructing his ambassador at the German court to push the demand with rudeness. This was publicly done at a watering- place which the king was then visiting ; but with no other result than a contemptuous refusal on the part of William. Accordingly France declared war on the 19th of July, 1870. But Prussia was not taken unawares. Three magnifi- cent armies, which had been prepared in anticipation of such an emergency, were at once set in motion ; and, though FRAJSrCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 467 Valsace-lorraine' Napoleon III. crossed the frontier and gained a short- lived advantage by taking Saarbruck (see Map) on August 2d, the crown-prince of Prussia entered the French terri- tory on the 4th, and, after defeating Marshal MacMa- hon's corps at Worth on the Gth, moved on to Nancy. The two other Prussian ar- mies also crossed into France, thwarted an attempt of Mar- shal Bazaine to effect a junc- tion with MacMahon, and shut him up in Metz. This city was forthwith invested by Prince Frederick Charles, while the crown-prince ad- vanced against MacMahon, who was at Chalons, forming a new army out of such of his scattered men as could be collected and the re-enforcements which had been sent for- ward to his support. From this place, however, MacMahon suddenly started in the direction of Metz, to co-operate with Bazaine ; but his purpose was anticipated. He was forced back upon the town of Sedan ; where, after a desperate battle, their position being exposed to a murderous fire from the ene- mies' guns on the neighboring eminences, the French army of 83,000 men, with more than 50 generals, capitulated. The emperor Napoleon, who was with MacMahon, surren- dered in person to the Prussian king. The news of this overwhelming humiliation threw Paris into a fever of revolution. The empire was declared at an end, a republic proclaimed, and a provisional government formed, of which General Trochu (tro-shil'), Jules Favre [zhill fahvr), and Gambetta, were the leading spirits. The 4:68 RECENT HISTORY. enemy hastened on toward the capital, and reached it be- fore Trochu had fully completed his arrangemeuts for its defence. Paris was invested ; and while the siege pro- gressed, a series of brilliant successes attended the Prus- sian arms. Strasburg, after a destructive bombardment, was captured ; and on October 28th, Marshal Bazaine sur- rendered at Metz with his whole army of 173,000 men. Orleans was taken in December by Prince Frederick Charles, who afterward dispersed the Army of the Loire ; and at last, on Januaiy 28th, Paris itself fell. Before this, an event had taken place which filled the whole Fatherland with unspeakable joy. The southern states, — Bavaria, Wur- temberg, and Baden, — though not members of the North German Con- federation, had from the outset co-operated in the war no less efficiently than their sister states of the North ; and now, amid the general exulta- tion that followed the unexampled success of the German arms, an ir- repressible desire for Ger- man unity animated both North and South. In ac- cordance with this feel- ing, all the states bound themselves together in one ffreat German Em- \^IL1 1 \M 1 1 (il 1 M VN\ pire. The imperial crown was conferred upon King Wil- liam of Prussia, while he was still at Versailles, on the 18th of January, 1871, and was made hereditary in his THE FRENX'H KEPUBLIC. 469 family. By the Treaty of Frankfort (May 10th) the em- pire acquired the greater part of Alsace and Lorraine (see Map, p. 467) — 5,600 square miles of territory — and France was required to pay Germany a sum equivalent to about one billion dollars. It has been estimated that the war cost her ten million dollars a day. Napoleon, released by William, joined the empress Eugenie {u-zha-ne') in England, where he resided until his death, January 9, 1873. The French Republic. — After the war with Prussia, Paris was again the scene of revolution and bloodshed. On the withdrawal of the German troops, Communism once more raised its head ; the authorities were obliged to retire ; and for a time the city, held in defiance of a gov- ernment force which was sent to re-establish law and or- der, trembled under a terrorism that rivalled that of 1793. Many citizens were put to death by a so-called Committee of Public Safety. When the capture of Paris was seen to be inevitable, the miscreants fired it in different quarters, and the Tuileries, Palais Royal, H6tel-de-Ville, with nu- merous other public buildings, were destroyed. These horrors were terminated by the entry of the besieging troops and the restoration of the government. The historian and statesman Thiers, who had been one of the ministers of Louis Philippe, was the first president of the French Republic. On his resignation, May 24, 1873, Marshal MacMahon, Duke of Magenta, was elected for a term of seven years. A prominent event of MacMahon's administration was the trial of Marshal Bazaine for treason in the surrender of Metz. He was condemned to death, but his sentence was commuted to twenty years' imprisonment in the island of Ste. Marguerite, off the south-eastern coast of France. From this place, through the assistance of his wife, he es- caped in 1874. 470 RECENT HISTORY. Under Napoleon III. the industries of France were en- couraged and her resources developed. Since the pay- ment of the heavy indemnity demanded by Germany, the people have enjoyed unwonted prosperity. Difficulties with his ministry led to the resig- w$). nation of Pres. ^]l>M- MacMahon, Janu- "^^ ary 30, 1879. On the same day the Assembly elect- ed as his succes- sor Jules Grevy, ■who had been a prominent mem- ber of the Paris bar and no less distinguished po- litically as a friend of popular rights during the later revolutions. Germany has since taken the foremost piace among the continental powers ; a splendid army of 1,980,000 men stands ready to defend its honor; and, until IHOO, Prince Bismarck, as iinj)erial chancellor, directed its counsels. China and Japan. — After the Opium War, treaties were concluded by the Chinese government with the United States and France (1844) ; but as the policy pursued tow- ard foreigners was yet far from satisfactory, not many years elapsed before China became involved in another war, with France and Great Britain. In December, 1857, Canton with its million inhabitants was taken, after a day's bombardmont, by the allied forces numbering less Marshal MacMahon, Ex-Pkesident ct Fjvakcth. CHINA AND JAPAN. 471 than 6,000. The Chinese met with other reverses, and in April, 1858, treaties were arranged at Tientsin, not only with England and France, but also with Russia and the United States. Fresh difficulties, however, arose ; and it was not until the allies threatened the capital Peking with destruction, that the treaties of 1858 were ratified, and a satisfactory peace was concluded (1860). The empire has since steadily improved ; more friendly feelings are enter- tained toward the western powers ; and trade with the in- terior is greatly facilitated. The Chinese-Japanese War of 1894-'95 arose from conflicting interests in Korea, whose independence had been recognized by both parties in 1876. Japan's army drove the Chinese from Korea and advanced in the direction of Pe- king, taking town after town ; her navy, meanwhile, cap- tured or sunk all the Chinese vessels of war. The final terms of peace gave Japan a large indemnity and the island of Formosa, besides guaranteeing the independence of Korea. Japan, whose ports were open in the sixteenth century to European traders, and many of whose inhabitants, as we have already seen, were converted to Christianity by Jesuit missionaries, afterward found reason to expel all foreigners and quench the new faith in blood. For two centuries the Dutch alone enjoyed commercial relations with the island ; but in 1854, through the management of Commodore Perry, a treaty was concluded between the United States and Japan, by which two ports were opened to American vessels. The ice was now broken ; other na- tions hastened to make commercial treaties with the long- secluded empire, by which, in course of time, seven ports were thrown open ; and in 1860, a Japanese embassy, the first ever commissioned to a foreign country, was sent to the United States. This last step occasioned much dissatisfaction in Japan, the conservative party even calling for the expulsion of alj 472 KECENT HISTOKY. " barbarians." But when the supremacy of the Mikado was firmly established, a change of feeling was brought about, and the imperial government hastened to place it- self on a friendly footing with the Western nations. Since the reception of foreigners into the empire, Japan has moxle rapid advances in civilization ; the railroad and telegraph have been introduced, post-offices have been es- tablished, light-houses are scattered along the coast, and a department of education contributes largely to the progress of tlie people. Egypt, now a pashalic virtually independent of Turkey, improved very rapidly under the late Khedive, Ismail Pasha, who succeeded to the government in 1863. Dur- ing his administration, the Suez Canal, connecting the Red Sea with the Mediterranean,' was opened. The authority of Egypt was also extended over a vast region, including Abyssinia and the kingdom of Darfour, and reaching as far south as the equator. Education was en- couraged, and the introduction of modern improvements indicated progress, and for a time gave promise for the future. Grave financial difficulties, however, embarrassed the government ; and, in the summer of 1879, Ismail,, having been obliged to resign the throne, was succeeded by his son Mohammed Tewfik. EngUsh History, 1867-79.— After the Civil War in America, a Conservative ministry came into power in England, at the head of which w^as first the Earl of Derby and afterward Mr. Disraeli {diz-ra'el-e). A re- form bill was now brought forward and passed (1867), extending the privilege of suffrage to many who had not before enjoyed it ; but in 1868, finding his party in the minority, Disraeli resigned. Gladstone then became prime minister. His first meas- ure was to allay the discontent of the Irish people by " put- ting an end to the establishment of the church of Ireland." In 1870, a bill was passed which greatly advanced the - LATEST ENGLISH HISTORY. 473 cause of education ; and the following year all religious tests " for admission to offices or degrees in the universi- ties " were abolished. As a result of these innovations, a reaction in favor of the Conservatives began. In 1874, Gladstone, the Liberal premier, resigned ; and Disraeli, the Conservative leader, at the queen's request, formed a new cabinet. In 1880, the Liberals again came into power. Meanwhile England had engaged in two foreign wars. King Theodore of Abyssinia having seized and imprisoned the British consul with several other subjects of the queen, an expedition under Sir Robert Napier was sent against him. The strong fortress of Magdala, in which he sought refuge, was taken (1868), and Theodore in despair put an end to his own life. — The second war was with the king of Ashantee, on the Gold Coast in Africa. It terminated in the capture and destruction of Coomassie, the capital of King Koffee (February, 1874). An important result of this war was the abolition of the slave-trade in Ashantee. In" 1874, new districts in Western and Southern Africa, together with the Feejee Islands, were annexed to the British Empire, which now embraces about one-sixth of the habitable globe. In 1879, England carried on a san- guinary war with the Zulus in South Africa, which was virtually ended by the capture of their King Cetywayo, in August of that year. She also became engaged in hostilities with the Afghans, whose capital, Cabul (see Map, p. 424), was for a time occupied by her troops. Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78.— During 1875, '76, and '77, Turkey, whose integrity, we have seen, was guaranteed by the treaty that closed the Crimean War (p. 456), became involved in hostilities with several of her Christian de- pendencies — Herzegovina, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria. The outrages committed by her soldiery upon the Christian inhabitants of these provinces at length pro- voked loud demands for reform from the European powers. 474 RECENT HISTORY. But Turkey, after some evasion, denied the right of for- eign interference, relying, though as she afterward found without reason, on the support of England. Russia, how- ever, on the plea of aiding her Slavonic brethren of the Greek Church, announced her intention of drawing the sword alone, if need be, in their defence, and on the 24th of April, 1877, war was formally declared. The troops of the czar were at once in motion. While one army crossed the Danube, another operated in Asia and rapidly overran Armenia. Though vigorously resisted, the Russians succeeded in carrying by assault (November 18th) the strong fortress of Kars, near the Black Sea, and thus crippling their antagonists in this quarter. Meanwhile, after movements of varied success, including one disastrous repulse, the European army of invasion had invested the important post of Plevna, held by the Turkish Pasha Osman. Here the decisive struggle took place. Osman made an heroic defence ; but the enemy closed in upon him, and forced hira to surrender (December 10th). The power of the Turks was now broken. The Rus- sians shortly after pushed their way to Adrianople, and were advancing on the capital, when an armistice was arranged. On March 3, 1878, a treaty was signed at San Stefano, which was subsequently modified by a congress of delegates representing the great powers, at Berlin, July 13th. Russia obtained a war indemnity and southern Bessarabia, retaining besides three posts in Asia ; Rou- mania, Montenegro, and Servia, were made independent ; while Turkey relinquished Cyprus to England, now her declared ally. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were not definitely disposed of, but were placed tempora- rily under the administration of Austria-Hungary. Bul- garia, from the Danube to the Balkans, was made autono- mous, but tributary to Turkey, while Eastern Roumelia, the district adjoining it on the south, was to have a dis- ANGLO-SODTH-AFBICAN WAES. 475 tinct government under the direct authority of the Turk- ish Sultan ; in 1886, however, a revolution resulted in its being united to Bulgaria, so that the latter name at pres- ent includes both countries. The Berlin Congress also recomm.ended that the Porte cede certain territory to Greece; and when this was finally done (1881), it ad- vanced the northern boundary of Greece so as to make it include most of Thessaly and a strip of Epirus. The year 1881 is also noted for the death of the Brit- ish statesman, Benjamin Disraeli, Earl of Beaconsfield (April 19), who, in defence of England's Asiatic interests, had boldly prepared for war with Kussia, and finally dic- tated to that power the terms of the Treaty of Berlin. Crete. — The Greco-Turkish War. — The Christian in- habitants of Crete having revolted against Turkish rule (1896), the great powers of Europe intervened, and made the Sultan promise reform. Greece then tried to annex Crete, as most of the Cretans were of the Greek race and desired the union ; but the powers prevented this. In April, 1897, war broke out between Greece and Turkey, and Greece was soon defeated, losing a few military posi- tions on her northern frontier and paying an indemnity. Crete was left nominally a Turkish province, but the powers secured Christian government for it. Anglo-South-African Wars. — After her war with the Zulus, whose savage skill with the assegai and rifle she will ever associate with the massacre of her troops at Isandula (January 22, 1879), England became engaged in hostilities with the Basutos, an inoffensive pastoral and agricultural race. These people, who had rendered con- spicuous service to the English government in the Zulu war, and were known among the native tribes as "the Children of the Queen," w^ere suddenly and without rea- son summoned to surrender their arms. Some of the chiefs saw fit to resent the insult, and attacked the Brit- 476 RECENT HISTORY. isli at different points. The rebellion had assumed a grave aspect when a new element of trouble was introduced by the revolt of the Boers, or Dutch settlers of the Transvaal, a district annexed to the British possessions in 1877. The Boers met with repeated successes, repulsing tlie British with great slaughter in several engagements dur- ing January and February, 1881. Pressure was brought to bear on the home government, and terms of peace were offered, which were accepted March 21, 1881. The Boers were guaranteed complete independence in making and administering their laws, but the Imperial Government reserved the right to adjust frontier questions. The Ba- sutos, weary of war, also accepted conditions of peace. Later, the development of rich gold mines in the Trans- vaal (known officially as the South African Eepublic? since 1884) attracted thither thousands of foreigners, largely British. Friction between them and the I^oers led to an invasion in December, 1895, by a force of 700 men under Dr. Jameson, Administrator of Mashonaland. His act was disavowed by Great Britain, and the men, overpow- ered by the Boers, were surrendered to the British author- ities for trial. Anglo-Egyptian War. — Mohammed Tewfik began his rule with the determination to reform abuses in govern- ment. But Egypt was saddled with a heavy debt ; its finances, moreover, were virtually administered by Eng- lish and French comptrollers-general, in order to secure the payment of annual interest to the numerous holders of Egyptian securities in England and France. The suc- cess of these European administrators soon restored con- fidence in the future of the country, and attracted from abroad both capital and skilled labor. The native Egyp- tians, however, who had had no hand in creating the debt and had derived no benefit from the use of the borrowed funds, chafed to see the reins of government taken from ANGLO-EGYPTIAN WAR. 477 their hands and the public offices filled by foreigners. A patriotic party, whose watchword was " Egypt for the Egyptians," grew up, and at its head was Arabi Bey, the minister of war. In May, 1882, England and France demanded the res- ignation of the Egyptian ministry, and the banishment of Arabi from the country. Anarchy ensued ; the army in- sisted on the retention of Arabi, who, as leader of the troops, soon made himself supreme in Egypt and began to fortify Alexandria. Disregarding the demand of the British Admiral Seymour, that work on the defences of that city should immediately cease, and refusing to sur- render the fortifications he had erected in response to a second demand, Arabi drew upon Alexandi'ia the fire of the English fleet (July 11, 1882). After a bombard- ment of a day and a half, the Egyptian forces fled, leav- ing the city at the mercy of lawless bands, who fired the public buildings and ruthlessly massacred hundreds of Europeans. Troops and military stores were now hurried forward to the seat of war ; and on August 15th Sir Garnet Wolseley arrived at Alexandria, and took command of the British forces with the avowed purpose of restoring the authority of the Khedive. In five days the Suez Canal was in the hands of the English forces, and three days later they began their victorious march from Isma- ilia to Cairo. At Kassassin, the Egyptians were routed with great slaughter, and on September 1.3th, at 1.30 a. m., the advancing divisions of Sir Garnet Wolseley surprised them at the village of Tel-el-Kebir. Their works were gallantly stormed at the point of the bayonet, in the face of a murderous fire of musketry and artillery, the High- land Brigade especially covering itself with glory. In his dispatch announcing the result of this battle. Sir Gar- net Wolseley enthusiastically reported : "I do not be- 478 RECENT HISTORY, lieve that at any previous period of our military history the British infantry has distinguished itself more than upon this occasion." On September 14th, the victors entered Cairo, to find the fugitive Arabi a prisoner in the hands of the police. Thus, in one month after Sir Garnet Wolseley landed, the war in Egypt was practically ended. Damietta surren- dered on September 23d, and on the 25th the Khedive and his ministers returned to the capital. Arabi Bey was tried by a court-martial, and sentenced to death, December 3, 1882 ; but the Khedive was con- strained to commute his sentence to banishment for life. Rebellion in the Soudan. — For several years the Sou- dan was the seat of a rebellion against the Egyptian government begun by El Mahdi, or the False Prophet, who aspired not only to the conquest of Egypt, but to the universal sovereignty of the Mohammedan world. At the head of 150,000 fanatical warriors, he became the hero of ten pitched battles and the destroyer of four well- equipped armies. A force of 10,000 men under Hicks- Pasha was cut to pieces at El Obeid * (November, 1883) ; Baker-Pasha narrowly escaped the same fate at Tokar, February 4, 1884 ; and Sinkat fell into the hands of the rebels, February 12th. The Egyptian authorities showed themselves as in- competent to deal with the insurrection in the Soudan as to maintain a stable government at home. Since the Anglo-Egyptian War, England has retained her hold on Egypt ; but the policy of the Gladstone government was opposed to the maintenance of Egyptian rule throughout the Soudan and the Equatorial Provinces, and General " Chinese " Gordon was ordered into the field to conduct * For places mentioned in connection with these recent wars, consult the maps of Asia and Africa in the latest edition of Appletons' " Higher Geography." RECENT HISTORY. 479 the evacuation of this vast region, and at the same time to provide for the safety of the European popu- lation at Khartoum and elsewhere. Gordon's mission implied that the Soudan would be abandoned to its native rulers. On March 13, 1884, a desperate battle took place be- tween Osman Digna, a rebel chief, and General Graham, at Tamai Wells, near Suakin. The Arabs fought with reckless bravery, and sullenly retired before the victo- rious English. Osman's camp and thi-ee villages were burned. French Wars in Africa and the Far East. — For some years past a favorite idea with French statesmen has been that France must regain in Asia and Africa the prestige which, in 1870, she lost on the Rhine. Hence, the occu- pation of Tunis ; two wars with the Malagasy, culminat- ing, one in the bombardment and capture of Tamatave, .June 13, 1883, by Admiral Pierre, and the other in the capture of Antananarivo, the capital of Madagascar, Sep- tember 30, 1895 ; an expedition to the Kongo for the pui-- pose of conquest and annexation ; and, most important of all, a scheme for the conquest of Tonquiu and Anam. War in Tonquin. — The pretext for beginning this last war was found in the alleged violation of a treaty, ex- torted from him in 1874, by the King of Anam, who, declining any longer to be a vassal of France, had recog- nized the suzerainty of China, and encouraged outrages on French subjects. Difficulties arose in 1882 between France and China in relation to this question of suze- rainty ; while the Tonquinese and Anamese, who had long resented the occupation of their ports by French garri- sons, began to vent their animosity in fierce attacks upon the hated foreigners. The Chinese government, claiming that Anam had been tributary to China for two centuries, protested 480 RECENT HISTORY. against the claims of France, and encouraged its vassal to resist the evident intention of the French to annex the entire province of Tonquin. Active hostilities began in 1883 between the Black Flags (the finest soldiers of the Anamese Icing) and the French troops in Tonquin, Hue, capital of Anam, was taken, August 25th ; and Sontay was captured and burned by the French forces, December 16th ; but the efforts of the invaders to occupy Bac-Ninh, " the key to the Chinese Empire," which with Sontay they consider necessary to the security of their rule, proved unsuccessful until March 12, 1884, when this ]iost also fell into their hands. The capture of Hong-Hoa by the French, April 13th, was soon followed by a treaty between P^ ranee and Anani, restoring certain provinces to the lat- ter, but providing that a part of the citadel of Hue shall be occupied by a French garrison. The French Minister of War declared his intention of sending reenforcements to Tonquin to prosecute the campaign, the object of which was said to be the occupation of Canton ; but on June 9. 1885, a treaty of peace between France and China was signed. The Evacuation of the Soudan proved to be no easy task. General Lord Wolseley again assumed command in Egypt, September, 1884, and at once began meas- ures for the speedy relief of Khartoum, in which General Gordon was besieged by a force of rebels variously esti- mated at from 20,000 to 80,000, The well-executed movement of General Stewart across the desert, to a strong position on the Nile, near Metemneh (January 19th), opened communication with General Gordon, and appeared to have insured the safety of Khartoum. But treachery opened a way for El Mahdi into the besieged city, which fell into the hands of the rebels January 27, 1865. The heroic Gordon and his command were massa- cred by El Mahdi's troops. The British troops were with- RECENT IIISTOKT, 481 drawn from the Soudan in the spring of 1885, and on August 12th Parliament j^assed a vote of thanks to the army and the navy for their services in the East. The death of El Mahdi in 1885, and the repulse of the Arabs who threatened the invasion of Upper Egypt, checked the rebellion in the Soudan ; but for a number of years the Soudan was under the rule of El Mahdi's successor. Recovery of the Soudan. — After thorough preparation, the Anglo-Egyptian forces under Sir H. H. Kitchener began an advance southward into the Soudan, in 1896. A railroad was built and the country was thoroughly occupied as he advanced up the Nile. On September 23 Dongola was occupied; on August 7, 1897, Abu Hamed was taken ; on April 8, 1898, the battle of Atbara was fought and won ; and finally, after a great battle in which 11,000 of the enemy were killed, their capital city Omdurman was captured, September 2, 1898, and the reconquest of the Soudan was soon complete. Annexation of Burmah by Britain. — Until 1879, the relations between England and Burmah had been friend- ly ; but in this year a rupture occurred in consequence of the insolence of the young king Thebaw. Instigated by French intrigue, Thebaw imposed a fine of nearly £20,000 on the Bombay and Burmah Trading Company, charging it with irregularity in the removal of timber, and threat- ened to cancel the leases of the forests where teak was cut. On his refusal to submit the case to arbitration, and his rejection of an ultimatum demanding the reception of a British envoy, and announcing the intention of the In- dian government to take the matter in hand should pro- ceedings be instituted against the company, war was de- clared (November 10, 1885). The English forces under General Prendergast crossed the frontier, a flotilla of forty-five steamers pushed its 31, 482 RECENT HISTORY. way up the Irravvaddy, town after town was taken, and Tbebaw surrendered unconditionally, Novem ber 29th. On January -1, 1886, a proclamation was read at Rangoon, announcing the annexation of Burmah to the British Em- pire. A certain portion of Up})er liurmab was relin- quished to China, with which power it is to the interest of Britain to cultivate friendly relations. Deaths of European Rulers. — On January 9, 1878, oc- curred the death of Italy's beloved king, Victor Emmanuel. His son succeeded as Humbert I. Alexander II. of Russia was assassinated by Nihilists in 1881 ; Alexander III., his son, died in 1894 ; and the present emperor is Nicholas XL, son of Alexander III. King Alfonso of Spain died November 25, 1885, and the throne descended to his post- humous son, Alfonso XIII., under the regency of the Queen-mother, Christina. In France, after the resignation of President Grevy, December 2, 1887, the office was held by Marie Fran9ois Sadi-Caruot, an eminent and upright statesman, until his assassination, at Lyons, June 24, 1894. Casimir-Perier, his successor, resigned in January, 1895, whereupon Felix Faure was elected in his stead. The Emperor William I. of Germany died in March, 1888, and was succeeded by his son, Frederick III,, who died three months later, leaving the throne to his son, William II. In 1900 Humbert I. of Italy was assassinated, and was succeeded by his son, Victor Emmanuel III. On the death of Victoria, in 1901, her son, Edward VII., became King of Great Britain. Partition of Africa. — Almost all Africa has been par- celed out among certain European nations. In the west the French possessions are the most extensive, and in the east and south the British predominate, though Germany and Portugal also have large African possessions. The great Kongo State, under the King of the Belgians, is pledged to free trade. RECENT HISTORY. 483 Brazilian Revolutions. — By an act passed May 13, 1888, slavery was abolished throughout the Empire of Brazil, slave-holders being allowed no compensation. On No- vember 15, 1889, a revolution took place at Rio, resulting in the deposition of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. A pro- visional government was subsequently proclaimed, under the leadership of Marshal Deodoro da Fouseca. A second revolution took place in 1891 ; da Fonseca resigned, and General Peixotto became president. Re- volts subsequently broke out in different parts of the re- public. Rio was bombarded by a rebel fleet in Septem- ber, 1893 ; but on the arrival at Rio, March 10, 1894, of a powerful fleet purchased by Peixotto in the United States, the revolution was virtually brought to an end. Other South American Troubles.— In 1879-'83 Chili carried on a war against Peru and Bolivia, and gained large accessions of territory, rich in deposits of nitrate. In 1891, a revolution in Chili resulted in the overthrow and suicide of the president, Balmaceda, who had assumed dictatorial powers. In the northern part of the continent, a long-standing boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana was rendered more threatening, in 1895, by discoveries of gold in the contested territory and a collision between British settlers and Venezuelans. The United States, jeal- ous of European aggression in America, finally induced the parties to submit their claims to arbitration. The Spanish-American War. — In 1895 another rebellion broke out in Cuba, and for three years Spain tried in vain to suppress it. The people of the United States sym- pathized with the suffering Cubans, and their trade with the island was greatly injured. President Cleveland of the United States, and also his successor, William McKinley, (1897- ), tried to end the Cuban trouble by peaceful negotiations, but in vain. Finally, in February, 1898, 484 liECEKT IIISTOUV. the United States battleship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor, whicli was under 8i)anish control. The United States tlien declared Cuba free, and deniauded tliat S})ain withdraw from the island ; and war between Spain and the United States began in April. On May 1 Commodore Dewey's squadron destroyed the Spanish fleet in the Philip])ines, in Manila Kay; and m August the city of Manila was taken by Dewey's ships and an army tluxt had been transported across the Pacific from the United States. In Cuba, a Spanish scpuidron was blockaded in Santiago {saJ/n-fe-al/'f/o) harbor, aiul on July 3 was destroyed by the American fleet as it was trying to esca[)e. Parts of Cul)a and Puerto Rico were conquered aiul occupied by American troops. By the final treaty of peace, ratified in 1809, Spain released Cuba and ceded Puerto Kico and the Philippines to the United States, thus })ractically ending lier career as a colonial ])ower. The Boer War. — The friction between the English and the Boers in South Africa letl at hist to a bloody and disastrous war (lSi)!)-l!)()l). The Boers of the Trans- vaal and tlu' Oi-ange Free State united in invading Brit- ish territory, and at first gained several successes. But in a few mouths, greatly outnumbered, they were driven back and were obliged to yield possession of most of their country. Small bodies of them, however, actively con- tinued the struggle in several districts. The Chinese Disorders.— In 1900 the " Boxers," a Chi- nese j)atriotic society, began to kill native converts and drive out foreigners in north China. The foreign min- isters in Pekin were besieged by Boxers and Chinese troops. Finally the United States, Ja[)a]i, and the Euro- pean Powers united in an expedition which captured Tientsin ami Pekin, and sujipressed the Boxei'S. RECENT HISTORY, 485 The Nineteenth Century. An age of liberal ideas, revolutionary movements, and improvements in the condition of the working-classes, both politically and socially : a period of remarkable propx-ess in education, discovery, and invention. Geographical explorations conducted in the Arctic regions, particu- larly by the English navigators Ross, Parry, Franklin, McClure (who suc- ceeded in making the North-west Passage) — and the Americans Kane, Hayes, Ilall, and Grcely. The interior of Southern Africa explored by the indefatigable English traveller Livingstone, in various expeditions between 1849 and 1873, and the American Stanley, 1874-'7'7, lS81-'90. Important inventions contributing to the comfort and elevation of the human race. Steam applied to multifarious uses. Steamboats plying on the waters. The locomotive brought into a practical form by Stephenson in 1814; railroads the great developers and instruments of progress; la 1830, 206 miles of railway in the world— in 1806, not far from 450,000. The magnetic telegraph, the wonderful invention of the American Morse, patented in 1837, annihilating distance; Grst telegraph-line established between Baltimore and Washington in 1844 — in 1896, about 850,000 miles of telegraph-line covering the world with a net-work. Printing-presses brought to remarkable perfection. The sewing-ma- chine, patented by Elias Howe, of Massachusetts, in 1846, a great boon to humanity. The process of vulcanizing India-rubber, which enables it to be employed in the manufacture of many useful articles, invented by Charles Goodyear, of Connecticut. The chemical action of light turned to account in the daguerreotype process, and subsequently in photog- raphy. Electrical energy utilized for a multitude of purposes. Science keeping pace with the useful arts. Patient scholars pursuing their researches in all departments with results that encourage them to fresh labors. Egyptian hieroglyphics deciphered. Ancient ruins disen- tombed, and made to testify of antiquity. The science of Comparative Philology, under the fostering care of profound German scholars, Grimm, Bopp, Schlegel, Pott, Miiller, etc., throwing light on the early history of the race. The blessings of education freely offered by systems of public- school instruction. Great Oriental nations laying aside their esclusiveness, and profiting by the enlightenment which they once sedulously avoided. Literature adorned by many great names, some of which have been already mentioned. American literature rich in all departments ; specially noteworthy, the lexicographers Webster, Worcester, and Whitney ; the historians Prescott, Bancroft, and Motley; the poets Bryant, Longfellow, and Whittier ; the fiction-writers Irving, Cooper, and Hawthorne. THE CHIEF COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD. With the Ruling Sovereign oh Pi;esident of each in 1901. COUNTRY. EXECUTIVE HEAD. TITLE. Argentina, Julio A. Roca, President. Austro-HungarianMonar. , Francis Joseph I., Emperor. Belgium, Leopold II., . King. Bolivia, .... Jose Manuel Pando, . President. Brazil, Campos Salles, President. (Jhili, .... Errazuriz, . President. China, Kuangsu, Emperor. Colombia, Jose M. Marrotjuin, . Piesident. Denmark, . Christian IX., King. Ecuador, Eloy Alfaro, President. Egypt, Abbas II., . Khedive. France, .... I^;mile Loubet, . President. German Empire, William II., . Emperor. Prussia, . William II., . King. Saxony, Albert, .... King. Bavaria, . Otto I., . Knig. Wiirtemherg, William II., . King. Baden, Frederick, . Grand-Duke. Great Britain and Ireland, Edward VII., King. Greece, George I., . King. Italy, .... Victor Emmanuel III., . King. Jajian, Mutsn llito. Mikado. Korea, .... Yi Heui, Emperor. Mexico, Portirio Diaz, President. Netherlands (Holland), . Wilhelmina, . Queen. Paraguay, . Emilio Aceval, . President. Persia, .... Mnzaffar-ed-Din, . Shah. Peru, .... E. Lopez de Romaha, . President. Portngal, Carlos I., King. Roumania, . Charles I. ( Hohenzollern), King. Russia, .... Nicholas II., Emperor. Servia, Alexander, King. Spain, .... Alfonso XIIL, . King. Sweden and Norway, . Oscar II., King. Switzerland, . Walther Hanser, President. Turkey, Abdul Hamid II., . Sultan. United States of America, William McKinley, . President. Uruguay, , Juan L. Cnestas, . President. Venezuela, Cipriano Castro, President. I ]^D EX. Abbas the Great, of Persia, page 355. Abd-el-Kader, 44S. AbdeiTahman, 170, 180. Abraham, 15, 31, 32. Abubekr, 169. Acha?an League, 95. Actium, battle of, 129. .(Egos Potamo.i, battle of, 79. ^tolian League, 95. Agesilaus, 81-S3 Agincourt, battle of, 216. Agricola, 141. Akbar, 356. Ala-.o, 155, 156. Alba Longa, 57, 59. Albert L. of Germany, 239. Albigenses, 274. Alcibiades, 79. Ale,\ander, the Great, 90-94 ; successors of, 94. I., of Russia, 412, 413, 445; II., 456. Ale.xandria, founding of. 92; Museum of, 94; library of, destroyed by the Sara- cens, 169; capture of, by Napoleon, 407. Alexius Comnenus, I., 214. Alfred the Great, 1S2. All, 167. Alfonso XII., of Spain, 466. Alva, Duke of, 303, 323. Amadous, of Spain, 465. America, discovery of, 262; colonial history of North, 318, 823, 341, 345, 351, 372, 373 ; repubHcs of South, 43-2-434. American Revolution, 390-395. Amiens, Peace of, 409, 411. Amphictyonies, 51. Ancus Martius, 59. Anne, of England, 351. Antediluvians, 12, 13. Antiochus the Great, 115 Antonines, the, 146. Antony, Mark, 127-130. Appius Claudius, the Deoemvir, 102; the Blind, 106. Arabians, origin of the, 32. Aratus of Sicyon, 95. Arbela, battle of, 93. Arcadius, 155. Archimedes, 97, 113, 114. Argonautic Expedition, 43. Aristides, 72, 74. Arta.xerxes II , Mnemon, 81. Aryans, Ancient, 13. Assyrian Empire, 17-19 Astyages, 63, 64 Athens, founding of, 42 ; history of, 69-75. Attila, 156. Augustus CsBsar, 130, 131. Augustus the Strong, of Saxony, 368, 365, 386. 1 Aurelian, 148. Aurungzebe, 356. Austerlitz, battle of, 411, 412. Austrian Succession, War of the, 380-382. j Austro-Sardinian War, 402. I Aztecs, the, 264. Babylon, founding of, 16. Babylonian Monarchy, 21-23. Bacon, Lord Francis, 300, 317. Bagdad, 170, 171. Bajazet, 256, Balaklava, battle of, 455. Bannockburn, battle of, 230. ! Barebone's Parliament, 3:!0. j Bartholomew, massacre of Saint, 289. I Becket, Thomas k, 206, 207. I Belgium, Revolution of 1830 in, 445. Belisarius, 159, 160. Belshazzar, 22. Bismarck, Count Otto von, 463, 470. Black Hole of Calcutta, 423. Blenheim, battle of, 344. Bliicher, Marshal, 421. Bolivar, Simon, 432, 433. Bonaparte, Joseph, 412, 415 ; Louis, 412. Boniface VIII., Pope, 229. Bosworth Field, battle of, 253. Boyne, battle of the, 347. Bozzaris, Marco, 411. Brahmanism, 28. Brennus, 102, 103. Brian Boru, 185-187. Bruce, Robert. 228-230. Brutus, L. Junius, 60, 100; M.Junius, 126- 128. Buddhism, 24. Cade, Jack, 250. Csesar, Julius, 123-127; writings of, 132. 488 INDEX. Calais, siege of, 231. Caligula, 13T, 138. Calvin, 279. Cambyses, 05. Camillus, 1(13. Canada, Dominion of, 462. Cannae, battle of, 113. Canute the Great, IS-J. Capetiau Dynasty, 171. Caracalla, 147. Carlists, the, 435, 465. Carloviiigian Dynasty, 171. Carthage, founding of, l(i8; fiill of. 116. Casimir, III. and IV., of Poland, 259. Cassander, 94. Cassius, 126-128. Catharine, of Aragon. 270-272 ; I., of Rus- sia, 86:;, 367, 3S2 ; II., 384, 385, 444. Catiline, conspiracy of, 132, 123. Cato, the Censor, 116, 118. Choeronea, battle of, 90. Chaldean Monarchy, 16, 17. Chalons, battle of, 156. Charlemagne, 173-175. Charles, I., of England, 318-322 ; II., 832- 337; IV., of France, 281; V., 242 ; VI., 242, 245-247 ; VII., 247-249 ; VIII., 254 ; IX., 288-300; X., 444; IV., of Ger- many, 289; v., 2S1-2S5; VI., 380; I., of Spain, 281; II., 326; IV., 415; X., of Sweden, 363; XL, 364; XII., 865-367. Charles Albert, of Bavaria, 880; of Sar- dinia, 451, 4112. Charles Edward, the Pretender, 371. Charli\s Martel, 170. Charles the Bold, 254, 302. Charles the Simple, 177. China, Ancient, 24-20; Modern, 357, 470. Chivalry, 196-199. Christ, birth of, 131 ; crucifixion of, 137. Christian II., of Do mark, 312; IV., 311. Chronology, eras of, 7, S. Chrysostom, Saint, 154. Cicero, 122, 123, 127, 128, 132. Ciucinnatus, 101. Clarendon, Earl of, 333, 335. Cl.audius, 138: Cleopatra, 126, 129, 130. Clive, Robert, 423, 424. Clovis, 161. Codrus, 49. Coligny, Admiral, 288, 289. Colossus of Rhodes, 48 Columbus, Christopher, 262, 263. Commodus, 146. Conde, Prince of, 2SS, 290. Confucius, 25. Constantine the Great, 151. Constantius, 151. Copenhagen, battle of, 409. Corday, Charlotte, 403. Corinth, 78, 90, 115. Coriolanus, 101. Coronea, battle of, 75. Cranmer, Thomas, 272, 291, 293. Crassus, 123, 125. Cressy, battle of, 231. Crimean War, 454. Croesus, 01-06. Cromwell, Oliver, 321, 329,331; Richar* 332. Crusades, the, 211-222. Cub.an Insurrection, 461. CuUoden, battle of, 371. Cunaxa, battle of, 81. Curius Dentatus, 105, 106. Cyaxares, C3. Cyrus, the Great, 63-05; the Younger, 81. Danton, 399, 40.''). Darius I., 66, 71 ; III., 92, 93. David, 36, 37. Demosthenes, 90, 90. Diocletian, K9 ; persecution of the Chris t:ans under, 149-151. Dionysius of Syracuse, 108. Disraeli, 472, 473. Domitian, 142. Doria, Andrea, 235. Draco, 09. Drake, Sir Francis, 296, 298. Drogheda, massacre at, 329. Dutch Republic, rise of the, 300-306. Eastern Empire, 157-161 ; fall of the, 258. East India Company, 422-426. East In(U.an Empire, British, founded 424. Edmund Ironside, 184. Edward I., of England, 227-229; 11,290 230 ; III., 230-232 ; IV., 250-252 : V 252 ; VI., 291, 292. Edward the Confessor, 1S4. 185. 188. Edward the Elder, 183 489 Edward the Martyr, 1S3. Egbert, loa. Egypt, ^Vncient, '26-30 ; Modern, 472. Eiagabalus, 147. Eleanor of Aquitaine, 2U5, 207, '216. Elizabeth, of England, 294-300 ; of Russia, 382. Emanuel the Fortunate, 262. Epaminondaii, S2-S4. Ethelred the Unready, 183. Ethiopia, Ancient, 31. Etruscans, 56, 57. Eugene, Prince, 344. 355. Eylau, battle of, 413. Fabius, HI, 113. Fabricius, 105. Fawkes, Guy, 31T. Ferdinand I., of Austria, 450, 451. I., of Germany. 310; II., 310, 315. V., of Spain, 260; VII., 415, 4.32, 4.33, 435. Feudal System, 194, 195. Flodden Field, battle of, 271. Florence, 236. Francis I., of France, 281-285, 287 ; II., 288. I., of Germany, 382 ; II., 411, 412. Francis Joseph, of Austri.i, 46.3. Franco-Prussian War, 466^69. Frederick, IV., of Denmark, 363. I., Bar- barossa, of Germany, 216, 234, 235 ; II., 219. v., of the Palatinate, 811. I., of Prussia, 37S ; II., the Great, 880-385. Frederick Charles, Prince, 467, 468. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 378 ; I., of Prussia, .378-380; II., 385; IV., 450. French Revolution, 396-405. Galba, 140. Garibaldi, 452, 462, 464. Gauls, Ancient, 103, 104. 110. Genghis Khan, 222-228. Genoa, 235. George I., of England, 368,869; 11,369- 373; III., 3S9, 390, 394, 436, 487; IV., 438, 439. Germanicua, 1.36. Ghibelhnes, 2-34. Gladstone, 472. Godfrey of Bouillon, 213-215. Goths, 153-156. Gracchi, reforms of the, 118. Granicus, battle of the, 92. Greece, Ancient, history of, 89-52, 69- S7 ; geography of, 41 ; mythology of, 43, 44 ; domestic life in, 45, 84-s7 ; literature and arts of, 75-77 ; 96-99 ; colonies of, 47-49 ; institutions of, 51, 52. Greek Revolution, 440-442. Gregory the Great. Pope, 163; VII., 178. Grey, L:idy Jane, 292, 294. Guelphs, 234. Guise, Duke of, 288, 289, 291. Gustavus, Adolphus, 3J2-314; Vasa, 312. Hadrian, 146. Hannibal, 111-115. Hanseatic League, 238. Hardicanute, 1S4. Harold, Harefoot, 184; II., 188. Haroun-al-Raschid, 170, 171, 174. Hebrews, history of the, 31-39. Hegira, the, 167. Henry, I., of England, 191,192; II., 205- 209; III., 210, 211; IV., 244,245; V., 246, 247 ; VI, 247-251; VII., 268-270; VIII., 270-273, 279. 281, 282, 2S4, 285. II., of France, 287, 288; III., 290, 291; IV., 306-308. I., of Germany, the Fowler, 178; IV., 178; VII., 239. Heraclidae, Return of the, 47. Herod the Great, 131, 132. Herodotus, 22, 64, 76. Hiero, King of Syracuse, 109. Hipparchus, 70. Hipplas, 70. Hohenlinden, battle of, 409. Holy Alliance, the. 443. Homer, 45-47. Honorius, 1.5.5. Hundred Tears' War, the, 231, 232, 246- 249. Hungarian Revolution, 451, 452. Hungarians, 178. Huns, 153. 154, 156. Hyder Ali, 425. India, Ancient, 23 ; Modem, 856, 422-427. Indians. American, 268. Inkerman, battle of, 455. Innocent III., Pope, 210. Ireland. Kingdom of, 185-187. Isabella I., of Spain. 260 262 ; II., 435. Israel. Judges of. .39 : Kingdom of, .52-54 ; kings of, 56. 490 Issus, battle of, 92. Italy, Ancient, 56-62 ; Roman Conquest of, 105-107 ; Modern Kingdom ol', 464. Iturbide, 432. Ivan, the Great, 357 ; the Terrible, 358. Ivry, battle of, 307. James, I., of Englanil, 316-318; II., 337- 330 ; IV., of Scotland, 270, 271 ; V., 271 ; VI., 316 ; the Pretender, 339, 368. Japan, 471. Jena, battle of, 413. Jerusalem, capture of, by David, 36 , King- dom of, 215, 216. Jesuits, 280, 376. Jews, history of the, 31—39. Joan of Arc, 247-249. John, Don, of Austria, 325. Of Kngland, 208-210. Of France, 232. I., the Great, of Portugal, 262. III., 323 ; IV., 326; VI., 435. Joseph II., of Austria, 385. Joshua, 35. Jovian, 153. Judah, Kingdom of, 54, 55 ; kings of, 56. Jugurthine War, 118, 119. Julian the Apostate, 152, 153. Justinian, 159, 160. Knox, John, 294. Koffee, King, 473. Kosciusko, 386, 388. Kossuth. 451, 452. Kublai Khan, 225. Lafayette, 393, 398, 400, 444. Lamartine, 449. Leipsic, battle of, 419. Leo, the Great, 156 ; III., 174 ; X., 276. Leonidas, 73. Leopold, I., of Germany, 354, 378 ; II., 385. I., of Belgium, 445. Leuctra, battle of, 82, 83. Leyden. siege of, 304. Licinian Laws, the, 104. Literature, Hindoo, 23 ; Chinese. 25 ; Egyp- tian, 30 ; Hebrew, 55 : Greek, 75-77, 96- 98; Roman, 116, 117, 132, 143; Moor- ish, 180 ; English, 192, 193, 232, 233, 299, SOO, 317, 337, 348, 350, 873, 374, 437, 453; French, 233, 845, 376, 453 ; Italian, 237, 238, 327 ; Portuguese, 327 ; Spanish. -327 ; German, 388, 453 ; Danish, 453 ; Russian, 888: American. 484. Lodi, battle of, 406. Lombard League, 234. Lorenzo the Magnificent, 236. Louis VII., of France, 21(;; IX., 220; XL, 258, 254 ; XII., 286, 287 ; XIII., 808-310 , XIV., 340-346; XV., 375, 376, 882; XVI., 396-401; XVII., 403; XVUl. 420, 442, 443. Louis Napoleon, 448. Louis Phihppe, 444, 448, 449. Loyola, 280. Luther, Martin, 275. Lutzen, battle ol, 314 Lycurgus, constitution of, 50. Lydian Empire, 63, 64. Lysander, 79. Lysimachus, 95. Maccabees, the, 116, 131. Macedonian Empire, ^8-95. MacMahon, Marshal, 167, 470. Magenta, battle of, 462. Magnesia, battle of, 115. Mamelukes, 220, 407. Mantinea, battle o^ 83. Marat, 399, 403. Marathon, battle of, 71. Marengo, battle of, 408. Margaret, of Anjou, 249-251. Of Denmark, 812. Maria Theresa, 380-8S5. Marie Antoinette, 896, 408. Marius, 119, 120. Marlborough, Duke of, 344, 34S, 849, 368. Mary I., of England, 292-294 ; II., 346. Mary, Queen of Scots, 288, 294-296. Matilda (or Maud), Queen, 102. Maurice, of Holland, 305, 806. Maximilian, I., of Germany, 281 ; li., 310. Emperor of Mexico, 460. Mazarin, 840. Mazzini. 4.52. Medes, the, 62, 68. Medici, Cosmo de, 236 ; Catherine de. 288 ; Mary de. 808 Menzikoff, 859, 360, 382, 455. Merovingian Dynasty, 161. Messenian Wars, 51. Metternich, 481. Mexico. Conquest of, 265, 260. Middle Ages, amusements of the. 200-203: social life in the, 203-205. MUan, 235, 236. 491 Miltiades, 71, T2. Mirabeau, 397. Mississippi Scheme, llie, 3T5, Mithridates, wars of, 119, 120, 122. Mohammed, 166, 167; successors of, 169; II., 25S; IV., 853. Monmouth, Duke of, 336, 337. Moors in Spain, the, 180, 261. Moses, 33. Mycale, battle of, 74. Nadir Shah, 355. Kana Sahib, 426. Nantes, Edict of, 307, 344. Naples, 236. Napoleon, Bonaparte, 405-422, 448; II., 450; III., 4fi0, 460, 466, 467, 469. Navarino, battle of, 441. Nebuchadnezzar, 21, 55. Nelson, Lord, 407, 409, 412. Nero, 138, 139. Nerva, 144. Ney, Marshal, 418, 421, 442. Nicholas, of Russia, 445, 454, 456. Nile, battle of the, 407. Nineveh, 17, 19. Norman Conquest, the, 183. Numa Pompilius, 59. Octavius, 128-130. Odoacer, 157. Omar Pasha, 454. Otho, Emperor of Rome, 140. The Great, of Germany, 178. I., of Greece, 442. Ottoman Empire, 255-2.59 ; decline of the, 352-;?55. Oxenstiern, 363. Painters, the Great, 328. Palestine, 31. Papal States, 287. Patrick, Saint, 185. Pavia, battle of, 282. Pedro I., of Brazil, 485; II., 436. Pelasgi, the, 41. Pelopidas, 82, S3. Peloponnesian War, 78-80. Peninsular War, 414. Penn, William, 839. Pepin, 171. Pergamus, 115. Pericles, Age of, 75-78. Persian Empire, 62-69. Peru. Conquest of. 266. Peter, the Great, of Russia, 358-367 ; II. 382; III., 383. Peter the Hermit, 212, 213. Pharaoh Necho, 27. Pharsalia, battle of, 12"). Philip, Augustus, of France, 210, 216-219; IV., the Fair, '.2>>, 229; VI., of Valois, 231 ; of Anjou, 344. The Good, of Bur- gundy, 301, 302. II., of Spain, 293, 296, 302-304, 321-327; III, 327; IV., 327; v., 345. Philip of Macedon, 89-91. Pbilippi, battle of, 128. Phoenicia, 39. Pisislratus, 70. Pitt, William, the elder, 3S9, 390 ; the younger, 436. Pius IX , Pope. 452. Plague of London, the, 334, 335. Plantagenet, house of, 205. Platsea, battle of, 74. Plevna, battle of, 474. Poictiers, battle of, 2 2. Poland, early history of, 259 ; i)artition of, 386-388 ; recent history of, 445. Pompeii, destruction of, 143. Pompey the Great, 121-126. Poniatowsky, 386. Porsenna, 99. Porus. 93. Printing, invention of, 267, 268. Prui'sia, early history of, 377. Pruth, battle of t'le, 366. Pultowa, battle of, 366. Punic Wars, 107-116. Pydna, battle of, 115. Pyramids, battle of the, 407. Pyrrhus, war with, 105-107. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 299, 316. Rameses II., 27, 29. Reformation, the, 273-280. Regulus, 108-110. Reign of Terror, the, 403. Remus, 57. 58. Revolutions in Germany. 450, 451 ; in Italy; 4.52 ; in Spain, 465. Richard I., of England, 208, 209. 217-219 ; II.. 243-244 ; III., 258. Richelieu, Cardinal, 308, 310, 813. Rienzi, 237. Robert of Normandy, 191, 213. Robespierre, 399, 403, 405. 492 INDEX. Robin Hood, 209. Kollo the Marcher, 177. Rome, founding of, 58; kings of, 5S-60; institutions and religion of, 60-62 ; Re- public of, 98-130 ; Empire of, 130-157 ; social life in, 132-135. Romulus, 57, 58. Roses, Wars of the, 249-251. Rudolph of Hapsburg, 238. Russian Monarchy, founded, 179. Sado\v.i, battle of, 464. Saladin, 216-219. Salamis, bnttle of, 71. Saracens, 16 f, 170. Sardan.apalus, 18. Saxon Heptarchy, 162-165. Scaevola, C. Mutius. 100. Schleswig-Holstein, war in, 463. Scipio Africanus, 114, 116. Scotland, early history of, 185. Seleucus, 95. Sennacherib, IS, M. Sepoy mutiny, 425, 426. Servius Tullius, 60. Seven Weeks' War, 463, 464. Seven Years' War, 3S3. Severus, Alexander, 148; Septimius, 147. Shakespeare, 300. Sigismund, 240, 256, 275. Sobieski, John, 353. Socrates, 76, 80. Solferino, battle of, 402. Solomon, 36. Solon, 64, 69, 70, 75. Solyman the Magnificent, 284, 286. South S-a Scheme, 368. Spanish Succession, War of the, 344. Sparta, 49-51, 80. Spartacus, 122. Stephen -^f England, 192. Sur.ajah Dowlah, 423, 424. 8yll.a, 120, 121. Syracuse, founding of, 49 ; siege of, 1 13. Tamerlane, 225, 226. Tarquin, the Elder, 59 ; the Proud, 60, t;8 Tell, William, 240. Ten Thousand, Expedition of the, 81. Tewkesbury, battle of, 251. Thebes (Egypt), 26. 29 ; (Greece), 42, S2-84. Themistocles, 72, 74. Theodore, King of Abyssinia, 473. T}ieodoric. 159. Theodosius, the Great, 154 ; II., 157 Thermopylie, battle of, 73. Thiers, 453, 469. Thirty Years' War, 310-315. Tiberius. 136, 137. Tippoo Sahib, 425. Titus, 141, 148. Toussaint L'Ouverture, 409. Trafalgar, battle of, 412. Trajan, 144, 145. Triumvirate, First, 123; Second, 128. Trojan War, 46. Tullus Hostilius, 59. United States, the, history of, 395, 427-43i 434; Civil War in, 458-461. Valens, 153. Valentinian, I.,158; III., 156. Veil, siege of, 102. Venice, early history of, 156, 234. Vespasian, 140. Vespucius, Americus, 263. Victor Emmanuel, 453, 456, 402-464. Victoria, 430, 446-448. Virgil, 132. Virginius, 101. Vitellius, 140. Voltaire, 376, 877, 388. Wagram, battle of, 416. Wallace, Sir William, 228, 229. Wallenstein, 311, 812, 314, 315. Walpole, Sir Robert, 368-370. Washington, George, 372, 373, 892-395 Waterloo, battle of, 421. Wellington, Duke of, 415, 421, 426. Wenceslas, of Germany, 239. Westphalia, Treaty of, 315. William, the Conqueror, of England, 188- 191 ; II., Rufus, 191 ; III., 338, 346-348 , IV., 439. I., of Germany, 468, 466-469 I., King of Holland, 443. The Silent, o Orange, 302-305. Wolsey, Cardin.al, 271. Wycliflfe, 238, 245, 274. Xavier, Francis, 280. Xerxes, 63, 66, 68, 72-74, 88. Ypsilanti, 440. Zama, battle of, 114. Zenobia, 14; . I Zoroaster. §§. HISTORIES FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS Essentials in Ancient History Hatf Leather, 528 Pages, Price, $f,50 By ARTHUR MAYER WOLFSON, Ph.D. Assistant in History, De Witt Clinton High School, New York City In Consultation -with ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL.D. Professor of History, Harvard University THIS convenient manual presents the essentials in ancient history as a unit in a manner both comprehensible and interesting to first-year students in secondary schools. It is prepared on the plan recommended by the Committee of Seven, and at the same time meets every requirement of the Regents of the State of New York. It combines in one volume Greek and Roman history with that of the Eastern nations, and pays more attention to civilization than to mere constitutional development. 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