» '<#• • .0 'A^ *Tfr.' »"• ,) ^ ^-^. -%l 0*0 '^^ ^1 ?. .-^^^^-^ v./ /^ife'v ■^*.,** yM£\ \^^ ■^oV* :;^^'- *-^0« '"^M". -^oV* ♦' „0 i^-n*.. f 9 nV . o » o . -^ 0, *»,i» aO ^P-^ * A'' -i».- *;*. ,. .• ^^-^'^ '•%^'" /\ l^^' /\ ' %_^^'^''/ TREATISE ON BAKING Copyright 1905 by Julius Emil Wihlfahrt Copyright 1913 by JULIUS Emil Wihlfahrt Copyright 1914 by Julius Emil Wihlfahrt SEP :l 1314 A TREATISE ON FLOUR, YEAST, FERMENTATION AND BAKING TOGETHER WITH RECI PES FOR BREAD and CAKES THIRD EDITION REVISED I 9 14 ^y^u^vT, % S' ip'i^ "PLEASE PASS THE BREAD" Your problem is to have this sentence repeated as often as possible in the homes of your cus- tomers. It's obvious that the more bread they eat, the more bread you'll sell. The question is: How can you make your customers increase the amount of bread they eat? The answer is: By making better bread. As every baker knows, good bread is chiefly a matter of materials and methods. Fleischmann's Yeast and straight dough methods are daily increasing the consumption of bread. Besides, thousands who formerly baked their own bread have been won over to the baker because of the better quality of his bread. The recipes in this book were prepared with the idea of bettering the baker's business. Use any of the bread recipes given, and "please pass the bread" will be more frequently heard around your customer's tables. THE FliEilSCHMANN CO. y ©CI,A;j79G79 'Ho/ PREFACE. In writing this book it has been my aim to present, in a form as condensed as possible, a work valuable to all persons interested in the baking trade. One of my chief purposes is in the interest of practical baking, which requires exact knowledge of flours and fer- mentations, together with all such recipes known to me in which compressed yeast should be used. All trades and professions have their sources of informa- tion. For the baker his is the recipe book. Ideas based upon experience gained from trade books are more valuable in this competitive age than ever before, and those who do not believe in trade books should realize what they have lost through failure to compare their own ideas with those of others. Of course, judgment must be exercised in the use of recipes, and they must not be condemned because the pos- sessor of them can not at once succeed with every formula presented; as much depends upon the judgment of the workman. Having had more than twelve years of actual practice and an equal number of years of study pertaining to the contents of this book, I have found that some of the sup- posed best authorities make the most discriminating state- ments against the food value, and others against the proper manufacture of bread, etc., and in this I would advise the theorist and the expert alike that I do not think it possible for them to be so proficient that they can not add to their existing store of knowledge by consulting the ideas of others. The theorist as well as the practical man needs the ideas of others, in order to evolve new ideas for himself. 4 Of all the food-cranks, none is more persistent than the bread-crank. Sometimes he condemns wheat bread as absolutely without nourishment; again he claims that rye and graham breads are too soggy, and that only white bread is wholesome. Between the two extremes, a practical man must make his way carefully to arrive at the right conclusion. The truth of the matter is that bread is now a perfect product, attractive and nourishing. Justly indeed it is termed the "Staff of Life." Everybody eats of it daily with zest and enjoyment. Bread is an outpost of civilization. Where bread is on the daily bill of fare, health, comfort and all that modernization implies is found. The notable changes in the manufacture of bread made in the past century have been made possible by men of en- terprise, who led the way to success for others. Enthusiasm is necessary and is the key for many a man to unlock barred doors. There is plenty of room for the progressive baker who recognizes that to succeed he must produce a good article, display it in a clean and bright-looking store, be attentive to his customers, and give value for money received. With all the disadvantages of a small business, the small baker is not yet exterminated, and, after all, today, the same as in the past, the most successful baker is he who makes the best goods. Some bakers believe that by substituting cheaper ma- terials at a lower price, their success is assured; but the wise have learned that the best is always the cheapest in the end, and those following this plan will be assured of success. 5 INDEX. Page. Preface 3 General Remarks 11 The Bakery of Today 12 Measures (Important) 65 PART I. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS Page. Bread, Expansion of Loaf 58 Bread, Flavor in 52 Bread, Home-made, Compared with Bakers' 54 Bread, Large Holes in 56 Bread, Milk 59 Bread, Rope in 46 Bread, Vienna 53 Cakes, Yeast Raised 60 Diseases of Bread 46 Doughing 39 Dough, Temperature of 33 Doughs at Too High or Too Low a Temperature Pro- duce Sour Bread 25 Fermentation, Points About 29 Flour, Absorption of 20 Flour, Color of 21 Flour, for Gluten Bread 64 6 Flour, Healthfulness of White Wheat, Entire Wheat and Graham 26 Flour, Moisture in 22 Flour, Rye 28 Flour, Strength of 21 Flour, Various Acids in White Wheat 25 Flour, White Wheat 13 Gluten, in White Wheat Flour 18 Gluten, the Estimation and Separation of 19 Handling Sponges and Sponge Doughs 36 Holes in Bread 56 Machinery, for Bakers' Use, and its Advantages 55 Malt Extract, as it Affects the Manufacture of Bread . 23 Pekarizing Flour for Color 21 Rope in Bread 46 Salt, and its Action on Fermentation 45 Sponge Method 36, 37, 38, 39, 40 Sponge, Ripeness of Sponge Dough and Straight Dough 59 Storage of Flour, Temperature Best Suited and In- fluence on Flavor 18 Straight-Dough Method, Advantages of 40, 41 To Ascertain Amount of Gluten in Flour 19 Temperature for Doughs 34 Thermometers, Different Scales of 35 Water used for Doughing, with Reference to Yield. . 44 Water, Condition of, Whether Hard or Soft, as it Affects Fermentation 41 Yeast 30 Yield in General 42 Yield, Increase by use of Machinery 43 PART II. Recipes. Page. Babas 100 Brioches 101 Bread, Boston Brown 74 Bread, Butter 103 Bread, Concord 78 Bread, Cottage 68 Bread, Cream 73 Bread, Entire Wheat 73 Bread, French 70 Bread, German Schnitz (Hutzelbrod) 85 Bread, Gluten 64 Bread, Graham 74 Bread, Home-made 68 Bread, Milk 69 Bread, Oven Sole 67 Bread, Plain, Pan Loaves 67 Bread, Pulled 79 Bread, Pullman 71 Bread, Quaker 68 Bread, Restaurant 71 Bread, Rye 75, 76, 77 Bread, Rye "Flour Blend" 75 Page. Bread, Sandwich 71 Bread, Ulmer 104 Bread, Vienna 72 Buns, Cinnamon ^-r:^. 93 Buns, Currant 90 Buns, Hot Cross 90 Buns, Plain 90 Cake, Apple 95 Cake, Cheese 97 Cake, Cinnamon 92 Cake, Fruit 96 Cake, Onion 97 Cake, Saxon 94, 106 Cake, Streuhsel 92 Crescents, Vanilla 103 Doughs, Sweet 87 Dough, Sweet No. 1 89 Dough, Sweet No. 2 89 Doughnuts 93 General Hints 66 Kipfel, Vienna 84 Kugelhupf 99 Pan Cakes, Berlin 93 Pastry, Yeast Raised 95 Plunder Pretzel 103 Pretzel, Laugen 85 9 Page. Rings, Coffee 94 Rings, German Twist 102 Rings, Hazelnut 102 Rolls, Crescent 82 Rolls, French 81 Rolls, German Double 81 Rolls, German Water 83 Rolls, Parker House 84 Rolls, Plain 79, 80 Rolls, Salt or Caraway Seed 82 Rolls, Turn-Over 81 Rolls, Vienna 82 Rusks, Tea 90 Speckkuchen, No. 1 96 Speckkuchen, No. 2 96 Savarin 100 Semmel, Kaiser 83 Snails 95 Snails, Spanish (Pan de Gloria) 98 Soup Stick 82 Stollen 105 Zwieback, Frosted 91 Zwieback, German 91 Zwieback, Infants 91 Zwieback, Plain 90 10 Muffins, Gems, Griddle Cakes, Etc. Page. Apple Dumplings, Baked 107 Cakes, Batter 116 Cakes, Buckwheat 115 Cakes, Flannel 115 Corn Bread 113 Gems, Chocolate Ill Gems, Corn 112 Gems, Ginger Ill Gems, Graham 110 Gems, Wheat 109 Muffins, Corn 112 Muffins, Egg 113 Muffins, Graham Ill Muffins, Hominy 115 Muffins, Mother 114 Muffins, Mother Graham 115 Muffins, Pop-Over 113 Muffins, Rice Ill Muffins, Wheat 110 Potato Biscuit 114 Waffles, No. 1 107 Waffles, No. 2 108 Waffles, No. 3 109 Miscellaneous. Icing, Boiled, "Fondant" 117 Icing, Chocolate 117 Icing, Plain 116 Sugar Boiled to Soft Ball 117 11 GENERAL REMARKS. This book is divided into two parts, viz: "General In- structions" and "Recipes." In general, the information is suflSciently condensed to be clear only to such as already have a knowledge of the baking business. In many cases the mistake is made by publishers of recipe books of going too far into the explanation of the use of the recipe. A clear, limited explanation is sufficient for any baker who understands his business, and such a man will appre- ciate condensed information more than if he is forced to spend a lot of time in unnecessary reading. Again, the scientific names and the chemistry of baking is all well enough, but what is needed in the bakery is a practical man — a man who can use the theoretical points in a practical way, and it will be my aim to make these points as clear as possible. 12 THE BAKERY OF TODAY. The dream of a few years ago — to eliminate the element of "good or bad luck" in the baking business — is realized, and it is, without doubt, not saying too much, that the man- ufacture of a compressed yeast, whose uniformity could be depended upon every day, both summer and winter, and the quality of which was maintained at the very highest possible standard, has done more toward accomplishing that result than any other factor. Some attribute this success to the change of system in mining, some to the appliance of machinery; but, giving all due credit, the intelligent know that yeast is the mother of fermentation, the father of bread, which is the most desired article of food, so that it even found its way into our daily prayers. It is a fact that the last 25 years have seen more advance in the baking business than the 75 previous years, and since Fleischmann's Compressed Yeast has proven to be the most uniform article used by bakers during all this time, I have decided to base my work upon its use. Some claim that the elimination of yeast as a factor in bread production is bound to come, on account of the tinie wasted in fermentation, but everything known in this direction has proven that, compared with bread made with compressed yeast, such food has no room for comparison, and has been found to be a fake of the rankest kind in many instances. The only success made in this direction is to shorten working hours and manufacture of bread by the use of more compressed yeast, but not by the elimination of same. PART I. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS WHITE WHEAT FLOUR. There are two distinct kinds of wheat flour, known as "Spring" and "Winter" wheat flour. The "Spring" wheat flour is the strongest, as it contains the greatest per cent of gluten, and for this reason it will retain more moisture, thus producing a greater yield in both weight and volume of bread. In Spring wheat, the same as in Winter wheat, there are two distinct classes, namely, "Hard" and "Soft." This difference is more apparent in the Winter wheat than in Spring wheat flour; but in both instances a hard climate and rich soil produce the best wheat, a flour with more strength, which means "Gluten." But why is it that a given weight of flour varies in the quantity of bread it will make? It is a question of absorption of water and retention of moisture. Flour consists, so far as bakers need trouble about, of two constituents, namely, gluten and starch. Starch is the water absorber and gluten the moisture retainer. There- fore, capacity for water absorbing qualities in a flour does 14 not mean strength. Again, the retention of moisture by the gluten does not represent water alone, as is so often stated. Generally speaking, the strength in flour considered by the baker is its toughness, elasticity and springiness, when made into dough. Some flours are good water absorbers and still lack strength, for, to be profitable, they must be good water retaining flours, and this is where the gluten comes in. Of course, much depends upon the quality of gluten, as the quality differs exactly as the different grades of flour differ. In some flours, the gluten is so fine and delicate that, even if present in large quantities, is not capable of making a fair-sized loaf; again, in others the gluten is too hard, so that the flours must be over-fermented in order to get a good loaf. These are the extremes on both sides. The baker considers the tough-like flour, which makes a dough capable of stretching, and produces a sponge that is hard to break down when water is lifted on, as the ideal, with reference to strength, and the one with a high percent- age of hard gluten. And so it is, for it has the sure sign of the strong flour; but it does not prove the most economical one, especially when the much-wanted flavor of bread is considered. When the flour is considered too strong, the fermentation must also be a very strong one, otherwise shapeless loaves, with great holes in them, will result. Therefore, a baker must consider what is suitable for him, as no general rule can be applied for all. It becomes, therefore, necessary that the boss baker and the journeyman baker, alike, should have an exact knowl- edge of how to mix flours to get best results, and, at the same time, to supply the wants of the trade, considering flavor and size of loaves. 15 I will next consider the different grades of flour. The "Spring" wheat flour, as before stated, is the strongest, and is rated, as to the quality, according to its strength. The "Winter" wheat flour is divided into two classes, namely, "Red" Winter and the "Soft" white Winter flour. The red Winter is the harder, and has a reddish color when held to the light, as indicated by its name. The soft Winter wheat flour is the whitest, and its possible strength can often be judged by its color. In general, the white Winter wheat flour is mostly used for the manufacture of cakes and crackers, where gluten is of no value. But the baker, too, needs it, when he comes to consider the flavor and color of his bread. Soft Winter wheat, which has a light, yellow tint, but whiter than Spring wheat flour — one that will keep the form when pressed in the hollow of the hand, and will fall apart easily when touched — may be considered a good flour to be used for blending. But a flour of the same color, when too dusty, or one of a blue tint, has no actual value or advantage for the manufacture of bread. Soft white Winter flour contains less gluten than either the Spring or hard Winter. Its gluten is softer and more readily dissolved, acting as starter for dissolving the hard Winter gluten. The two combined facilitate the process of dissolving the Spring wheat gluten, through the action of the yeast. The Winter wheat flour, being more readily dissolved for fermentation, is the first nourishment for the yeast; hence, it naturally hastens fermentation. Spring wheat patent flours retain the form given them by the pressure of the hand, when touched very lightly, they fall apart readily. 16 Clear Spring flour and hard Winter wheat flour have a more gritty feeling, and can also be distinguished by their color. The Spring patent has a yellow tint and is smooth to the touch. Clear Spring is of a more yellowish tint and is coarser, and has the same gritty feeling as has the hard Winter, only that the latter has a reddish tint. The white Winter is much softer to the touch than is the red Winter or the hard Winter wheat flour; and, again, the hard Winter is a degree softer to the touch than Spring wheat flour. In this regard they compare as follows: Clear Spring wheat flour is the hardest to the touch; then, in order, patent Spring, hard Winter, Winter patent, and last, soft white Winter wheat flour. Winter wheat flour, from which have been extracted the best ingredients in the manufacture of patent flour, will either make a hard form through pressure of the hand — one that will fall apart in lumps or will not form at all, but has the appear- ance of so much dust. Avoid such flours, even for the cheapest breads. As before said, the quantity and quality of gluten con- tained in a flour constitutes its strength; but, again, gluten itself is divided into two distinct parts, namely, "Glutenin" and "Gliadin." A hard flour contains a larger per cent of glutenin, while a softer one usually contains a larger per- centage of gliadin. Gliadin is needed in larger proportions in the dough after the process of fermentation has taken place; but, unless rightly balanced with the glutenin, a flat and insipid loaf will result. This is the most important point referring to the respec- tive yield of flour and quality of bread. I will, therefore, treat this article separately and more thoroughly. 17 Low-priced flour does not mean economical flour, as the chief object must be to get the maximum quantity, with due respect for quality of bread. Luckily, the miller today attends to the proper blending by mixing the various wheats to produce what may be termed an ideal flour. This obviates the necessity of a baker carrying too many different grades of flour on hand. There exists, no doubt, but what the miller makes his blend in the most conscientious way, and is in a better position to make the blends required. Nevertheless, it is not only necessary, but also becomes the duty for everyone who has the handling of flour, to ascertain its comparative value, by means of simple tests, easily accomplished, but whatever tests we may employ, the baking test is the final and only really satisfactory one. Summing up, then, the gluten of a flour is its most valuable and important constituent, as it is the main substance distinguishing the characteristics of various flours. Again, the quality of the gluten should be its first consideration, as it really represents the stability of a flour. The water absorbing and retaining power of a flour is its stability. Flours that slack readily in the dough as fer- mentation progresses, and drop, before arriving at a certain standard proof, are by no means stable. The stability of flour poor in maltose or sugar, can be increased by adding extra malt extract or sugar; again, flours lacking spring in oven during baking may be improved by the addition of extra lard. Consequently, by adding the proper amount of ingredients, a good commercial loaf is often produced from flour that would otherwise produce an inferior loaf of bread. 18 Another condition which controls the quahty of bread is the temperature at which the flour is kept. Flour should not be exposed to an extremely low temperature, but should be kept, if possible, in a cool, dry storage, with an average temperature of 70° F. The storage room should be well ventilated, as flour absorbs and retains bad odors, so that it sometimes is noted in the bread. Age itself has a tendency to whiten flour. If properly stored, it may be kept in good condition for a whole year, but by long storage flour is bound to lose some of its delicate flavor. GLUTEN IN WHITE WHEAT FLOUR. The value of flour, of course, depends upon the quality and quantity of gluten it possesses, and also upon that substance from the soil, which, in the analyzation of the soil and in the investigation into the growing grain, is known as protein. The gluten itself consists of two distinct parts, namely glutenin and gliadin. In fact, there is no such thing as gluten in the flour; but by making flour into dough, the two combine. Gliadin is of a sticky nature, something like gum, and adheres to the glutenin during the process of bread-making. The glutenin, in its natural state, is of a dry, granular consistency; the two combined form gluten. In this form it is obtained by washing flour with water. The quality of flour varies in proportion to the amount of gliadin in the gluten, up to a certain limit. Patent flour, compared with Spring clear flour, shows gliadin of approx- imately 70% of the gluten in the patent flour and 60% in the straight Spring flour. In other flours, the gliadin rises as high as 80%; 70% of gliadin is the limit or ideal mark. 19 and a flour containing more than this percentage of gliadin is apt to produce a sticky dough. In other terms, the value of a flour, or consequently its gluten, first depends upon the quality of such gluten, which means the right proportion of glutenin and gliadin, and the quantity of gluten contained is only to be considered as a second factor, it is of much less value than quality. THE SEPARATION OF GLUTEN. The "gluten" may be approximately determined as fol- lows: Scale accurately twenty -five grams of flour, and in a suitable porcelain dish, mix with 13 to 15 cc of water, of about 80° Fahrenheit. The exact amount of water used should be 5% less than given for the absorption testx (See absorbing power.) Mix until the dough is clear, then cover the little ball of dough with water of the same tem- perature, and allow to stand for one hour exactly. Next, over a fine hair sieve, wash out the starch and soluble matters, using a large excess of water, by kneading the little dough ball carefully between the fingers, taking care not to separate the dough. When the washings no longer become milky, and no visible particles of dough are left in the remaining gluten, it may then be considered washed clean. Allow this fresh gluten to lie in water of same temperature for half hour; next take from water and press out the surplus water, by working the gluten gently between the fingers, and drying the hands occasionally on a towel, and continue this operation until all surplus water has been worked off. Care must be taken that no particles of dough or gluten remain in the sieve, over which the dough was washed. Next bring this gluten, which is now in its 20 wet stage, on to a piece of counterpoised paper, and weigh it carefully. The amount of dry gluten can be readily calculated by multiplying the weight of the wet gluten by 4, and dividing the product by 3, which will give approximately correct results. The wet gluten may be dried at a temperature, ranging from 210° to 220° F., until the weight is constant, and figures thus obtained will agree very closely with those of the calculated dry gluten. The general condition of a gluten, its color, tenacity, elasticity, stickiness and other points, must be carefully noted before the gluten is dried and the quality of the gluten judged by general results. The gluten may be dissolved into its two original con- stituents, namely, glutenin and gliadin, by placing the wet gluten into a flask containing about 100 cc solution of 70% alcohol and 1% of salt; allow this to digest over a water bath, then filter. The residue, after being re washed with strong alcohol, represents the glutenin. The filtrate is distilled, the rest, containing the gliadin, is further evaporated until the weight becomes constant, and the gliadin is therefrom calculated. (cc stands for cubic centimeter, which corresponds to one gram in weight.) THE ABSORPTION POWER OF FLOUR. The absorbing power of a flour is determined by weighing out 25 grams of flour into a suitable dish and adding water from a graduated burette, then making up the two into a dough of the proper, and a certain standard consistency, which latter always must be alike for all samples tested. The number of cc and decimals used of water as indicated 21 by the burette, are multiplied by 4, and the product expresses the percentage of water-absorbing power. This result is next confirmed by making a sample baking, using the proper amount of yeast, salt and other ingredients, taking care to make the dough of the same consistency as before. Weigh the dough carefully and make a notation of its weight. Next proceed to work the dough in the usual, but very careful, manner into bread. Immediately, upon drawing from oven, the bread is weighed, and the loss cal- culated. This gives the moisture-retaining power of a flour. In order to get proper results, the sample dough must be carried at a uniform temperature, the length of fermentation must be always the same, and the same hold good for the heat of oven, which should be 425° F. Unless uniform conditions prevail, the retaining power of a flour will be affected. THE STRENGTH OF FLOUR. The strength of flour is dependent upon the quality, condition and quantity of gluten present, and can only be determined by making a careful test for absorption, followed up by a thorough baking test. Considering all points, the baking test gives the most satisfactory results. THE COLOR OF FLOUR. The color of a flour is best defined by the well-known "Pekar" test. A fine, creamy yellow shade is a typical color of a high-grade flour. Starchy and weak wheats usually yield white flours. The various shades may be defined as 22 ranging from a fine, creamy yellow, with good bloom, to a yellowish brown, brownish grey, greyish white, to a dead white color. The color of various flours may be compared by pressing a small quantity of each on a piece of plate-glass or smooth wooden board, so no air-bubbles remain. This is done by bringing the flour slick, from the upper to the lower end of the glass or board, and should leave a smooth surface. Next trim the edges. Treat the other flours to be examined in a like manner. Next compare the samples, and note the various shades of them. The samples are next submerged obliquely into a basin of fresh water, immediately withdrawn, set in a slanting position, and allowed to dry on a moderately cool place. The colors are again noted, and marked differences in shades will be observed by comparison. With a little practice in this work, anyone can easily compare the colors of flours. NATURAL MOISTURE IN FLOUR. The natural amount of moisture varies from 9% to 13.5%; for freshly milled flour 12.5% may be given as a good average. More than 13.5% should be considered an overpercentage of moisture, and would have detrimental effect on the storage properties of such a flour. The moisture of a flour is determined by weighing care- fully a small amount; dry same from 3 to 4 hours in a drying oven at 212° F., desiccate and weigh. Repeat the heating, cooling and weighing until the weight becomes constant. By the loss, calculate the amount of moisture contained in the sample under examination. 23 MALT EXTRACT AS IT AFFECTS THE MANU- FACTURE OF BREAD. The preparation made for bakers and sold to them as Malt Extract should be prepared at a comparatively low temperature in mashing, in order to conserve the diastase. The diastase and proteids in such an extract exist in a more concentrated form, than in higher temperature extracts. Of course the grade of Malt used in itself is of importance; pure barley malt extract is by far the most desirable and should be given preference over extracts made from blend of malt and other extracts. Diastase in malt extract, is the active agent by which the saccharification of starch is caused, producing maltose sugar from the starch of the flour of other gelatinized starch products that may be added to the dough or devel- oped in baking. The formation of maltose sugar with small quantities ol dextrine is productive of good flavor and unmistakably increases the moisture-retaining power in the finished loaf of bread. It indirectly improves the size and color by reason of the stimulating action which Maltose sugar has on yeast, by being directly fermentable, and thereby the work of the yeast is hastened and fermentation accomplished quicker and more thoroughly. During the stages of fermentation yeast feeds on the maltose for the purpose of supplying alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. Diastase has by itself a slow action on the wheat starch, but when the starch is submitted to the joint action of Malt Extract and Yeast, the quantity of starch 24 affected by the joint action is greatly increased. If gelatinized starch products, say two percent to the weight of flour used, are added this action is accelerated and the dough thereby considerably benefited. The diastase, however, remains continuously active during the entire process of baking, producing maltose sugar all the while, until during baking a temperature of about 170° F. is reached, at which point the diastase itself is killed. But the rise in tempera- ture in the interior of the loaf is more gradual, and so also is the action of the diastase greater, reaching its maximum near the center of the loaf. The yeast itself is destroyed at a much lower temperature and as the diastase remains longer active, it is evident that none of the maltose produced by this latter action can be fermented by the yeast, but remains in the bread as maltose and dextrine. These substances account for the sweetness, improved flavor and moisture in the bread. I can recommend everyone interested in the manufac- ture of the best bread to the use of malt extract. Malt extract improves the bulk of bread by its influence on fermentation. It improves the texture, bloom, moisture, whiteness, flavor and keeping qualities of the bread by its sugar producing qualities. Other things being equal, the market value of a loaf of bread is in direct proportion to the amount of sugar left therein after baking. The longer the fermentation is continued, the more of the sugar contained in the dough will be consumed by fer- mentation. Thus we develop "sour bread." As malt extract continues to make maltose sugar, even during part of the time the bread is in the oven, its value to the baker becomes at once very pronounced. 25 VARIOUS ACIDS IN WHITE WHEAT FLOUR. Generally speaking, the characteristic acid in the wheat flour is given as lactic acid and, for convenience, the acidity is expressed as percentage amount of lactic acid. Wheat flour, when fermented with yeast, increases in acid contents in direct proportion with the quality of the yeast employed and with the temperature of the dough. The percentage amount of lactic acid in a good flour is termed at 0.09 per cent and this percentage amount of acid consists, as far as is known in this direction, of 95% lactic, 43^% acetic and 1-10 to 3^% of butyric acid. Acids contained in this proportion in flour have bene- ficial influences, both for flavor of bread and assistance in fermentation. During the process of fermentation the lactic acid in- creases the quickest and the acetic acid very slow; that is to say, if the dough is properly manipulated. The increase of acid during fermentation is produced by bacteria, and these acids are known as organic acids. Again, they do not affect doughs alike, as much depends upon the temperature of the dough. A dough at too high a temperature will develop acetic acid very rapidly, and too much of this acid will cause an over percentage of butyric acid, which means bad results and likely sour bread. The lactic acid, always present under normal condi- tions, unlike the acetic acid, will increase too rapidly in a dough at too low a temperature. Lactic acid, while greatly beneficial in a dough when present in the right proportion, is also detrimental when present in too large a quantity, as too much of it will assist the acetic acid to grow too 26 rapidly, and what effects this has upon the bread are visible in the foregoing. Another main factor to be considered is the influence the quality of the yeast used has upon the acidity of the doughs. Bad yeast — yeast that is either too weak in strength or one with too much acid contents — will increase the acidity of the dough too rapidly; thus showing why a well-proportioned yeast should be used. HEALTHFULNESS OF WHITE WHEAT, ENTIRE WHEAT AND GRAHAM FLOUR. It is a general theory among many people that bread made from Graham and entire wheat flour is far more di- gestible than that made of white wheat flour. Such, however, is not the case. White wheat bread, when properly made from a good quality of flour, is not only more digestible than the Graham and entire wheat breads, but also contains the largest amount of protein. Graham and entire wheat flours show the highest per- centage of gluten and protein before fermentation, and white wheat flour the largest after fermentation. The dif- ference noticeable in this respect is decidedly in favor of the white wheat flour. This is due to the fact that the Graham and entire wheat flours contain more acids, an over percentage of which is detrimental to fermentation. The excess of acid contained in the outer part of the wheat berry destroys, during the act of fermentation, so much of the gluten that the food value of "Graham and Entire wheat breads" becomes inferior to that of "White wheat bread." 27 In the Spring of the year 1900 considerable interest was shown by some of the highest state officials of New York to substitute entire wheat bread for white wheat breads in state institutions, believing the former more nutritious. These attempts have led to a chemical analysis by the United States Government. This analyzation of the dif- ferent flours, all made of the same quality of wheat, proved the white wheat flour the superior of all. After baking, the white wheat flour not only proved the more digestible, but the protein contents were as follows: White wheat flour 12.5% protein. Graham flour 12.1 " Entire wheat flour 11.9 The claim, therefore, that the Graham and entire wheat flours are more easily digested, on account of the diastase contained in the wheat kernel not extracted from these flours, is not founded upon facts. Any intelligent person can easily judge upon the truthfulness of some of these pub- lished statements, from the following: Diastase is no more than a ferment. No ferment can live in a temperature of 212° Fahrenheit, and a loaf of bread to be baked must reach the temperature of 212° F. in the interior of the loaf. The outside of the loaf is exposed to a temperature at the lowest of 300° F. and as high as 500° F. The statement, therefore, that the diastase can live during the process of baking is laughable, and if some of those who have made discriminating statements against white wheat bread would stop and consider this they would see their own errors. Graham and entire wheat breads have their own advantage, since they have laxative effects, and are, there- fore, valuable for people suffering with constipation; but 28 to state that they contain more nourishment than bread made of white wheat flour is going too far, and people making such statements will never be able to prove them. The matter, sifted, proves the following: The first point to be considered is not so much the chemical constituents of the food, as the ability of the stomach to assimilate the constituents of such foods and, second, our own preference for such foods, for unless they are partaken of with a relish little will be the benefits arrived at, and, furthermore, what is good for one may prove disastrous to another. The healthfulness of bread, therefore, depends upon the purity and quality of its ingredients and care in its prepar- ation. In general, Graham and entire wheat flours are made of softer wheat than the white wheat flours used for the manufacture of bread. But, even if the flours are all made of the same wheat, the advantage of nutritious value will always be with the white wheat flour bread. RYE FLOUR. Rye flour contains less gluten than white wheat flour. Its gluten has a peculiar property of retaining moisture in the bread long after baking, but has not the same expansion qualities, as has the gluten of the white wheat flour. The expansion of rye flour in the manufacture of bread is, therefore, governed not only by the quality of rye flour used, but also by the amount and quality of wheat flour with which the rye is blended. 29 Alone, rye flour would make too soggy a loaf of bread, hard to digest, while the addition of white wheat flour in- creases the nutritious value of the rye bread and renders the same more digestible. The combination of the two flours, therefore, compares favorably as an article of food. The flavor of the rye bread chiefly depends upon the process of fermentation employed in the manufacture of the bread and of the quantity, as well as quality, of white wheat flour used for the blend. Rye flour is more fermentative than white wheat flour, and more salt must be used in the manufacture of rye bread, according to the amount of rye flour in the blend. Too much rye flour should never be used, unless specially ordered, as too much of it will often cause a state of diar- rhoea to the unaccustomed, and prejudice them against rye bread. The stiffness of rye dough must be regulated according to strength of the flour. The softest rye dough makes the best bread. All rye bread, to be digestible, should be baked on the sole of the oven, and not in tins. POINTS ABOUT FERMENTATION. The term fermentation was first applied to the action of yeast changing the sugars or carbohydrates contained in the dough into alcohol and carbon dioxide gas. The different stages of fermentation are known as alcoholic, acetous and putrefactive fermentations. The process of fermentation, which has for its object the manufacture of bread, must be of alcoholic nature. so Alcoholic fermentation is the one that makes the bread light and porous. Acetous fermentation, when present in the right per- centage, improves the flavor of the bread, but as soon as it becomes too strong it will cause the alcoholic fermentation to stop, and the result is a heavy loaf of bread. The putrefactive fermentation is the last stage of fer- mentation following the acetous fermentation. Sometimes it is present in dough and causes the much-dreaded "rope in bread." Alcoholic fermentation is the name given to the change which takes place in the maltos matter of the dough, form- ing carbonic acid gas, which, if the bread is baked at the right time, will lighten the bread and make it digestible. Acetous fermentation, when present in the right per- centage, softens the gluten and increases the expansion qualities of the dough. A remarkable fact about ferments is that the substances Ihey produce, in time, put a stop to their own activity. Fermentation, then, is the name given to the process, in which soluble ferments or enzymes play an important part, by which the carbohydrates, especially the sugars, are de- composed mainly into carbon dioxide and alcohol, with traces of acids and other substances. YEAST. The first and most important factor, to create a good and healthy fermentation, is, of course, good yeast. 31 But the question now arises, which is the best and most reliable, as well as most universally adopted yeast? The intelligent baker knows that compressed yeast is the most uniform article in this line, and also that Fleisch- mann's Compressed Yeast is always found reliable. There are other brands on the market; but, generally speaking, the surest is the best and the cheapest in the end. Most experiments of a scientific nature, where com- pressed yeasts were employed have been made with Fleisch- mann's Compressed Yeast, and, therefore, I wish to remind the reader that I base my statements on the use of this well-known product. Some bakers buy low priced yeast in wrong economy; others make stock yeast or buy the same; again, others make potato ferments, using either stock or compressed yeast for stocking. Certainly a nice bloom and flavor can be given to bread by the use of any of these yeasts, but the consideration of which is the best, most economical and most nutritive bread will teach that a good brand of compressed yeast has every- thing in its favor. The strength and quality of the yeast depends upon the care with which it is made. The yeast itself is divided into two distinct classes, namely, cultivated and wild yeast. Cultivated yeast is represented in the form of a good compressed yeast, while stock yeast contains wild yeasts. Yeast represents millions upon millions of small micro- scopic plants, of which the air itself is full. Therefore, if the yeast does not possess an overwhelming percentage of the right kind of these microscopic plants, the wrong fer- mentation will set in too soon. This causes a loss in yield, a different flavor and destroys the nutritive value of the S£ bread to a certain extent. This occurs exactly in proportion with the quality of the yeast used. The concern that makes compressed yeast a specialty, wherein its production is of the first consideration, aims al- ways to manufacture goods of a superior class. Having, as the originators and leaders in its business, a reputation to maintain, the best wages are paid in order to obtain the most skilled and experienced help. The best grain that the market affords is used in the manufacture of its yeast. Every batch is thoroughly tested. It must come up to a cer- tain fixed standard of excellence or it is not sent out to the trade. The output of the compressed yeast factory of that class may be depended upon in all seasons of the year as being the best which money and science can produce. Unreliability is the ever-present evil besetting cheap yeast; lack of uniformity is its chief characteristic. When yeast is a by-product and the manufacturer figures from a diversified standpoint, greatly inferior grain can be used, and is used. Low-priced and inexperienced help is em- ployed, thus greatly lowernig the cost price at which yeast can be turned out. When the grade of grain is fair and other conditions exceptionally favorable, yeast of that sort answers the baker's purpose for the time being and ostens- ibly saves him money, but this favorable state of affairs is inevitably short-lived. In a factory where the product of compressed yeast is a secondary consideration, grain is pur- chased in small quantities, and consequently often of an inferior quality. Yeast manufactured as a by-product is invariably and always the cause of trouble sooner or later for the baker who uses it. He will lose more money in a few days through the failure of cheap yeast than he could save in a year by the difference in price which he pays for cheap yeast and that which first-class yeast commands. That is but a simple statement of an incontrovertible fact. 33 The wise baker knows that it is not an easy matter to regain trade lost through the medium of inferior bread. Poor bread is the natural offspring of cheap yeast. The un- wise discovers too late, to his sorrow, that it is false economy to use any other than the very best compressed yeast. In no other commodity does the old adage that the "best is always the cheapest" so fittingly apply as it does to first- class yeast in the baker's craft. Considering the amount of work that a baker has to do today to bring his business to a paying basis, and then the amount of extra work he would have in making his own malt or stock yeast, it is plainly shown that good com- pressed yeast, ever ready for use, has everything in its favor. The difference in yield between a good compressed yeast and lower grades of compressed yeasts is from 2% to 7%, and if stock yeast is used alone the loss of ingredients during fermentation will be as high as 15%. Considering that the loss in fermentation consists of the most nourishing properties of the flour, it is very easy to form an opinion as to which is the best and most inexpensive yeast to use for the manufacture of bread. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DOUGH. By using compressed yeast, the time necessary for the fermentation can be accurately calculated, if the right tem- perature and the right blend of flours are used. To get a uniform loaf of bread should be the aim of every workman. A batch of dough should never be made without the temperature of flour and bakery being accu- rately taken and, from that, the heat of the water calculated, not guessed at. A main point is to keep the temperature of the bakeshop as regular as possible by means of heating or ventilation. The most favorable temperature for the fermenting room is 76° F. The best temperature for a dough directly after mixing is 78° F. in summer to 82° F. in winter. The following example will serve to show how the proper temperature of a dough may be obtained under unfavorable conditions: If the temperature in the shop is 85° F. And the temperature of the flour 67° F, Then let the water be of 82° F. 3 )234° F . Making the desired average 78° F. If the temperature of the shop is 72° F. And the flour 62° F. Then heat the water to 100° F. 3 )234° F. Making the desired average 78° F. With the use of a good thermometer, which should always be found in a well-regulated bakery, there should be no excuse for not having good bread, nor delays in getting the bread ready by a specified time. Neither should a master-baker be excused for having the dough ready for the oven before it can receive it. For high-speed dough mixers a special allowance must be made which is from two tothirly-five degrees Fahrenheit. This allowance must be deducted from above calculation for water temperature. S5 DIFFERENT SCALES OF THERMOMETERS. Having discussed the temperature at which doughs should be fermented, I think it appropriate to give some information as to how to change the different scales into Fahrenheit and vice versa, as the different scales are often published in trade papers. The different scales are distinguished as follows: (1) "R" si (2) "C" (3) "F" ignifies Reamur. " Celsius or Centegrade. Fahrenheit. In comparison, the differences are as follows: "R" "C" "F" 80° 29 7-10° 100 37 2-10 212 Boiling point of water. 99 Bloodheat. 17 1-10° 22 7-10 73 Summerheat. 9 1-10° 0° 10 4-10 523^2 Temperate. 32 Freezing point of water. MANNER OF CHANGING THE DIFFERENT SCALES. To transform Fahrenheit into Reamur, deduct from degrees of Fahrenheit 32, the remaining sum multiply by 4, and divide the product by 9. The quotient received consti- tutes the corresponding degrees in Reamur. To transform Fahrenheit into Celsius, deduct from degrees of Fahrenheit 32, the remaining sum multiply by 5 and divide this product by 9. The quotient received constitutes the corresponding degrees in Celsius. To transform Celsius into Fahrenheit, multiply the 36 degrees of Celsius by 9, divide the product by 5 and to the quotient add 32. The result received constitutes the corresponding degrees in Fahrenheit. To transform Celsius into Reamur multiply the degrees of Celsius by 4 and divide the product by 5. The quotient received gives the corresponding degrees in Reamur. To transform Reamur into Fahrenheit, multiply the degrees of Reamur by 9, divide the product by 4 and add to the quotient 32. The result constitutes the corresponding degrees of Fahrenheit. To transform Reamur into Celsius, divide the degrees of Reamur by 4, to the quotient add the original degrees of Reamur and the result is the corresponding degrees of Celsius. SPONGE. In setting sponge before doughing the process of fer- mentation is lengthened and, therefore, today, in nearly all the large bakeries^straight dough process is employed. But, the same as the straight dough process has its advantage for the large bakery, so the sponge system, too, has advantages for the small baker, as it enables him to make all different kinds of breads from one sponge. In general, the sponge bread is lighter and whiter than the straight dough process bread, but the latter has a better flavor after the bread is baked. In small bakeries, where often different kinds and shapes of bread are required, they can be easily taken from the sponge; also, should it be necessary to cut down the amount of bread from what was first intended when sponge was set the sponge may be taken younger and less water lifted on, or, if the sponge is of age, less water and more 37 salt added. Also, if the sponge is too old, it can be regu- lated by either the addition of more salt or water; but the sponge with too much age — one that is over ready — if no precautions are taken, will make a small and pale loaf, and care should be taken to handle and mix such a sponge as little as possible, so as to save the small amount of strength remaining. In such a case a slack dough is good, and the addition of a little extra sugar and lard, with a hot oven, will improve color, flavor and appearance of crust. A green or young sponge must be worked just the opposite; a tighter dough of higher temperature, less sugar and a cooler oven will bring better results in such a case. A sponge can be set to meet the requirements of time when it should be ready, as through the use of ice water or a small amount of salt, they can be kept in good condition from 5 to 8 hours. The regular time for a sponge under normal conditions is from three and a half to four hours. Two pounds and a half of strong flour to one quart of water will make the average stiffness required for sponge. In selecting flour for sponge bread, the points of rela- tive flavor, strength and color should be considered. For sponge, stronger flour should be used than for doughing, and the proportion is as follows: Out of ten points consider for sponge, five for strength and the other five equally divided in flavor and color. For doughing, take two points for strength, three for color and five for flavor. For such a blend use half of water for the setting of sponge and lift the other half on for doughing. When sponge is broken down and mixed with water, lifted on for doughing, the mixture will then represent half of its bulk in water. 38 This means that if a baker wishes to make, for instance, 15 pounds of graham bread from the white bread sponge, he will dip six quarts of this diluted sponge into another vessel. The 6 quarts represent 3 quarts of water; and, since 1 quart of water on the average represents 5 pounds of pan bread, or 4>^ of Vienna, the advantages to make the different kinds of bread by dipping out sponge and adding other ingredients than used for plain bread can be easily seen, since a batch can be just as well calculated as if a straight dough is made. A sponge has its different stages of ripeness and should never be set too soft. The stiffness of the bread sponge should be regulated by the strength of the flour used. A sponge set medium stiff, that has risen and begins to recede, is ready for Vienna bread. For water-bread it should have its first drop, that is when the sponge drops back about two inches. The sponge at this stage will give more crust to the bread. For rolls and sweet rolls the sponge should have its first drop, but, if a bread of a very large expansion and hard crust is desired, a stronger flour must be used for sponge and the same allowed to come up again after first drop, and the water lifted on as soon as it commences to recede the second time. This will show the following: A green or young sponge will make a closer-grained loaf, with better flavor and lighter crust, while age in sponge means expansion, lightness and whiteness of loaf and a heavier crust. Too much age in sponge will influence the color of the bread too much by making a pale loaf; but this can be partly remedied by washing the bread before baking with a dilution of egg-water or boiled cornstarch thinly diluted with water. An over-ripe sponge will make a heavy and often sour 39 loaf of bread. Therefore, if a sponge gets ready too quick through change of temperature of the shop, the water and salt should be added to the sponge and the sponge broken down fine. In this manner it can be delayed considerable time without injurious results to the bread. DOUCHING. The sponge system of bread-making was so universally in practice until recently that the doughing in this respect needs but a short explanation. After the sponge is ready the remaining water is lifted on, in which the salt has been previously dissolved. After the dough is mixed smooth then add the lard and mix thoroughly. If sugar is used, dissolve same with the salt. After the dough is mixed, allow to rest for one hour and fifteen minutes to one hour and a half, that is, until it will sink back when the hand is inserted into the dough and withdrawn quickly; then cut the dough over, laying the same dry while working; allow to rest from 10 to 45 min- utes, according to quality of bread desired. A sponge dough should never get full proof the second time after the first proof is worked out of it; but, by laying same occasionally together, it can be kept in good condition until all is scaled off and moulded into loaves. For straight dough — which is the more simple way of making bread — the yeast is dissolved in part of the water, the salt in another, then all the water lifted in a trough or machine and the flour added. The dough should be worked for at least ten minutes before the lard is added, and as soon as the lard is added and the dough worked smooth with the same, then allow to rest for proof. It is a wrong theory to add the lard at the first stages of 40 doughing, as it will not give wanted results and the flour will not absorb the same quantities of water as if the lard is added after the dough is partly mixed smooth. A dough is bad or good in the ratio to the perfect incor- poration of the flour with other ingredients, the temperature at which dough is made and kept and the quality of material employed. All these points need their due consideration. The temperature of the bakeshop during the operation of moulding is another important feature, as a dough fer- ments more while it lays on the bench than at any other stage. This shows that aerating of a slow dough often hastens fermentation and ripeness of dough. So, the same as the sponge has its different stages of ripeness, a straight dough also has its different stages of ripeness. A dough that would be over-ripe for a 13/^ lb. pan loaf would not be ripe enough for rolls or a hard crusty bread and, again, much depends upon the oven. Therefore, no strict rule can be followed to meet all instances. A hot oven can stand more fermentation or a more over-ripe loaf, as it will help to keep up the loaf in the oven, while too hot an oven for a green or young loaf would hinder the latter to develop and be apt to give too much color. This is the same in the sponge and straight dough systems, and the important point, therefore, is that each baker must know his oven and that he must bring on his dough to meet his baking facilities. The best all-around system, and likewise by far the most prominent one, is that known as the "straight-dough method." Very few who worked straight dough system ever return to the longer system of sponge dough. Shorter sys- tems for the manufacture of bread are decidedly gaining 41 ground. Sweetness and palatableness in bread are bound to continue to prevail and this is best obtained by the straight dough method, which also gives the largest yield and by its simplicity of method is by far the best for commercial purposes. Generally speaking, sponge is best used for fancy breads and straight dough for the average bread, for in this manner the advantages of both systems can be best appropriated. A straight dough should never be made without the use of a thermometer, to get uniformity day after day, for after the dough is once made the temperature of the dough is not easily affected. In this respect the sponge has its advantage, since if the sponge is too quick, colder water can be lifted on for dough and vice versa. If the sponge is too slow the water may be heated, but should never be more than 112 F., since it otherwise may scald the sponge. It must be remembered here that "Practice makes per- fect," and a master baker must watch all conditions closely and guide his work according to his findings, since there are so many different items that are apt to change the march of a shop, and the water is not one of the least to be con- sidered. Sometimes water is hard and, again, in other shops soft, and this has just as much to do with the fermentation as has the temperature of the water. The softer the water the quicker the fermentation, while hard water will require more yeast. The boihng of water sometimes has a softening ten- dency, but not always. A baker that is forced to bake with hard water should keep his temperature a little higher than if softer water is used, and here it must be stated that the cooler the fermentation is brought on the more resistance 42 will be in the dough and the better the flavor and uniform- ity of bread. Therefore, such changes cannot be effected only by heating water, but also the quantity as well as the quality of yeast used must be considered together with temperature of the water. YIELD. The question arises : What causes the different yield of flour.'* And the answer is: The quantity and quality of gluten in them. But unless we go about in a careful manner and study these conditions, little benefit will be derived from the ad- vantages gained in making a careful and well-propor- tioned blend. Therefore, after we have the blend, we must next con- sider the fermentation agent, "The Yeast." Of course, the strongest and most uniform yeast is the best for the yield question, since, through proper manipulation, there need not be any loss noticeable during fermentation, while in stock yeast and other cheap yeasts, the loss extends from 4% to 15% of flour constituents during the process of rais- ing dough. This means that in a barrel of flour from 1 to 30 pounds are consumed during the act of fermentation, and this constitutes the most nourishing qualities of the wheat and flour. This is one of the main factors why good com- pressed yeast is most universally used. Of course, the yield of a flour is also governed by the kind of bread that is being made, and for that reason we must divide bread into two classes, namely, Oven Sole or Crusted Bread, and second, Tin or Pan Bread. The former 43 of these are those that stand independently in the oven, and the dough for such loaves must be stiff enough and have sufficient strength of fermentation to stand upright without any support. In addition to the various causes of variations in the relative yield already mentioned, there are others, such as sifting the flour directly before mixing of the dough and the proper application of machinery. It is undeniable that the use of machinery compels a more systematic procedure. Likewise the loaf divider ar- rests considerable loss in scaling, whereas the dough-mixing machine itself, by giving the dough a good deal of agitation during mixing, develops the gluten, allowing the admission of more water than would be otherwise the case, at the same time producing a dough of the same consistency. The blade, or blades, sometimes called the agitator of a mixer, has a good deal to do with the length of time a dough must be mixed to derive best results. The best test is to look at the dough when finished and thereby judge the length of time best suitable for mixing a dough. For example, a dough ordinarily mixed, say for com- parison sake would require 6 hours for fermentation, then a dough properly mixed at higher speed would acquire its proper age in 4}^ to 5 hours. By shortening the fermenta- tive period naturally more of the desirable ingredients are retained in the dough. This is especially true in reference to the sugar contained in the flour as well as added sugars to the mix. Developing the gluten means partially the soften- ing of the protein contents of a dough, which otherwise is entirely left for the fermentation to accomplish. Another point to be remembered in favor of employing quick methods is that they prevent a dough from slackening 44 too much. In other words, a short fermentation increases the stability of the flour. This is an economical advantage. To sum up, yields are increased by sifting flour imme- diately before using, and by shortening the period of fer- mentation. This is best accomplished by the use of a strong, uniform yeast, bakery machinery, and straight doughs. AMOUNT OF WATER USED FOR DOUCHING WITH REFERENCE TO YIELD. The quantity of water which a barrel of flour will absorb depends upon the strength of the flour, strong flour taking considerably more water than soft flour, also machine- made dough will take more water than a hand-made dough, and again a high-speed dough mixer will admit more water than a low-speed mixer. The direct advantages derived from proper mixing are increased yield, more whiteness, better bread by being more nutritious, or more economical manufacture by saving of ingredients. This increase in yield is due to the develop- ment of the gluten, thereby decreasing the fermentative period and consequently increasing in the same proportion the stability of a flour and making possible the admission of more water. The amount of water used to a barrel of flour differs in accordance with the different kinds of bread on the mar- ket. Dough for pan loaves should be made softer, than dough for loaves to be baked directly on the sole of the oven. Of course, the baker himself must use good judgment and consider the quality of bread before he forces excessive yield. 45 The yield, therefore, is dependent first on the method employed for mixing, secondly on the kind and amount of ingredients added to a dough, and third upon the kind of bread made from such a dough. The direct question of yield remains a much contested question and no answer to suit all circumstances can be given. The aforestated contentions are for comparison of doughs made with the same amount of yeast. The amount of yeast used greatly governs yield. A cool dough, with plenty of salt and yeast, has a stimulating effect not only on the yield, but also on the quality and keeping quality of the bread. SALT. • Salt has a deterrent action upon fermentation, even when used in very small quantities. Its action is directly upon the yeast and is not dependent upon other ingredients in the dough. Salt neutralizes the acidity of the dough, gives flavor to the bread and governs fermentation. Salt, the same as cold, retards fermentation. There- fore, lightness of the loaf can be influenced by the quantity of the salt used. From 1% to 2% of salt is used in proportion to the weight of flour made into bread; for milk-bread use 1-3 less salt than for water-breads, and for sweet-breads only one- third of the salt employed for water-bread. Plenty of salt and a good strong fermentation make a good deal better loaf of bread, as a weak fermentation, assisted by using less salt, not only promotes the likelihood of sour bread, but also makes a loaf without flavor. 46 ROPE IN BREAD. This is the most dreaded bread disease and many bakers do not know the real cause of it. Years ago the cause of rope was ascribed to filth. It was then more common. The bakeries were, many of them, located in damp cellars and it required only excessive heat to develop rope. Rope is a germ disease. The germs are most likely to develop during hot weather in bread that is not sufficiently fermented or not well baked. To make this point clearer, I might say that during extremely hot weather, especially on humid days, a dough heats up more than ordinarily during fermentation. Furthermore, the humidity lends the dough an additional amount of heat, which hastens fermentation with the results that the expansion of the same weight of carbonic acid gas is greater than on a cooler and less humid day. As this gas, which is necessarily produced during fermentation, is enveloped in a dough of higher temperature, it expands to a greater extent than its natural volume. In a word the dough becomes light without being ripe. When the baker turns a dough in this condition of immaturity, the bread will have a tendency to color too rapidly during baking, and consequently will, as a rule, be withdrawn from the oven without being suffi- ciently baked and containing too large an amount of moisture. Naturally it is also low in acidity and such a loaf, insufficiently fermented and insufficiently baked is most readily attacked by ropy germs. Too hot an oven would also have a tendency to bring about a similar con- dition. In all such cases I noted a premature mould appearing on the loaves as early as twenty-four hours after bakings — before rope had developed. The percentage of acidity in a dough controls the premature moulding of bread as well as the development of rope. 47 Before bread can be ropy the germs or spores must be present in large quantities so as to have an opportunity to thrive and develop in the dough during fermentation. This proves that a bakery must be thoroughly infected with the germs or spores before rope can be developed in the bread. Rope causes fine silvery threads in bread, which appear when the loaf is broken apart. Characteristics that accom- pany it are soft, wet, sticky and clammy crumb, a sort of foxy colored exterior, immature crust and a repelling odor. These characteristics are not present during the early stages and frequently do not develop until some twenty- four hours after the bread is baked. The treatment for this dreaded disease is divided into two parts: 1st — Direct application to arrest the difficulty. 2nd — Sanitary measures to kill the germs and insure against a recurrence of the trouble. The first part, arresting the disease, we will now discuss. I have had a good many cases under my care and treated them first by the direct application of organic acid, obtain- ing remarkably good results. I began by using lactic acid U. S. P. "Merck," one-tenth of one per cent of the weight of flour employed in doughing; that is one and six- tenths ounces of lactic acid for each 100 lbs. of flour used. I allowed the dough to ferment one-half hour longer than usual and by this method secured a loaf that did not differ materially from the regular bread to which the trade had been accustomed. I consider this very important. The next step was to see that all stale returns of bread (manufactured before using lactic acid) were strictly kept 48 from the premises. These return loaves were burned or destroyed absolutely in some other way. We then proceeded to clean the bakery and utensils by whitewashing or painting the walls, cleaning the floor and utensils either with live steam or with a hot solution of boracic acid. When live steam is used it must be introduced through a steam hose with a suitable nozzle; the pressure should be 90 lbs. and the nozzle should touch the utensils and the floor. After cleaning, the shop was secured air tight and fumigated; either by the use of 40% U. S. P. formaldehyde, using a 10% solution, by adding one part to nine parts of water and sprinkling same freely over the floors; or formal- dehyde candles, free from sulphur, were used to effect satisfactory fumigation. In shops where baking had to be conducted continuously from the beginning to the end of the week, we sprayed a moderate amount of formaldehyde around the bakery every day — as much as we could without having the fumes affect the workmen. A thorough fumigation was resorted to at the earliest opportunity the following Saturday. After two or three days we reduced the amount of lactic acid by one-third; after another week we cut down the acid another one-third, and continued to employ this small quantity for two weeks more, or until we were absolutely sure that no stale returns from any source could be the means of reinfecting the bakery. Do not overlook the necessity of thoroughly cleaning the interior of all your wagons and the importance of requesting your grocer customers to keep all bread boxes open after removal of bread, so as to give the boxes a good airing. 49 I have attempted to eliminate ropy bread by making the dough stiffer, using less sugar, giving the dough greater age, baking bread more thoroughly and cooling it rapidly. In addition, I applied sanitary measures by sterilizing utensils, whitewashing and fumigating. In a number of cases, excellent results were obtained in this way without the use of lactic acid, but other cases would not yield to this treatment. Probably the reason was that it is almost impossible to get a bakery airtight, so that by fumigation you will kill all the rope spores. These spores which produce the disease in bread must be subjected to fumiga- tion for eight hours, so you see how difficult it is. I wish to emphasize in the strongest possible terms that the application of lactic acid in proper proportions imme- diately and absolutely arrests the development of rope in bread. I also wish to emphasize that the necessary cleaning and sanitary measures must be promptly exercised to avoid a recurrence of the trouble. The use of lactic acid will not have an unfavorable result on the quality of the bread and the baker need have no fear about using it in the proper proportions. I fully realize that the study of rope involves many principles, but I wish to state once more that the applica- tion of organic acids is not only the quickest but the only safe and immediate remedy when applied in connection with the necessary cleansing and disinfecting measures. In referring to organic acids, I wish to state that lactic is to be preferred, but when it can not be obtained, acetic acid in the form of vinegar may be applied with satis- factory results. When using vinegar, I employed 1% of 90 grain vinegar to the weight of flour used in doughing. After two or three days application we reduced this to ^ of 1% and after a week to }/2 oi 1%, continuing to use this amount for at least two weeks more. 50 When vinegar is used to eliminate rope, there is bound to be a sour smell about the premises, but this disappears quickly after the baking and when vinegar is used in the proportions given no trace of sourness remains in the bread. The use of vinegar, however, slightly affects the bloom and color of the crust; there is a paleness with an inclination to grey, which is not found when lactic acid is used. The inside of the loaf when vinegar is employed is whiter than usual. It would be perfectly safe for a baker experiencing an attack of rope to rely on the immediate application of vinegar, if he cannot obtain lactic acid or if for the sake of economy he prefers to use vinegar. The cost of vinegar would be approximately 3 cents for every 100 lbs. of flour and of lactic acid 8 cents for every 100 lbs. of flour. I have experimented with smaller proportions of acids for a start and while laboratory tests show that these may be used, for practical purposes the proportions stated herein are the most satisfactory. It has been stated that yeast may be at fault in pro- pagating rope in bread. This idea was probably advanced before bakers knew the proper remedies for fighting rope, because there is no question but that organic acids, lactic or acetic (vinegar) will immediately check the trouble and all yeast has to be made in acidified media. In other words, yeast is manufactured in acid mashes and therefore cannot be infected by germs of rope. To sum up; when the disease asserts itself, it is necessary to secure either lactic acid or vinegar immediately. Add it to the dough in the proper proportions by diluting it in the bulk of the water used. Dissolve salt and yeast separately in part of the water, add the salt solution to the bulk of tiie water containing the acid, next add sugar, milk 51 and malt and finally the flour. Start to mix and after the machine is in operation for a few minutes, add the yeast. Allow the machine to mix for a couple of minutes more until the yeast has been thoroughly incorporated and then add the shortening. In connection with this treatment, I wish to call your attention especially to the fact that I allow the dough a half hour more time for fermentation when lactic acid is used, whereas by the use of vinegar I allow the regular period of time for fermentation. As a final precaution, I warn once more that all stale bread must be kept from the premises until one has the assurance that the disease no longer exists and is entirely eradicated, which fact must be corroborated by the actual condition of returns of stale bread. Further, all bread wrapped in waxed paper must be thoroughly cooled before being wrapped, which naturally requires a longer time in hot weather than in cooler weather. Wrapping bread too hot in airtight packages alone can be the cause of generating ropy bread. All bread, including such that is sold without being wrapped, should be so situated after baking as to secure a rapid and complete cooling before wrapping or packing. When rope in bread has made its appearance it is well to make the dough a trifle stiffer and to secure a strong fermentation, as more ripeness and lightness of dough is necessary to obtain the best results. Adherence to strict rules as set forth herein and ener- getic application to enforce the sanitary measures have given me immediate results in eliminating rope in bread. The sanitary measures are absolutely necessary, lest some of the spores may remain dormant about the bakery, which a subsequent spell of hot weather, either the same or the 52 following summer may again develop into a suflScient amount of spores to cause a recurrence and an outbreak of new spores; in short, then the application of organic acids arrests the disease immediately. The application of proper sanitary measures eradicates the trouble. The precaution against this trouble lies in making the doughs a trifle stiffer, allowing them to become very light on first rise before turning of dough by holding the ovens a trifle on the cool side to insure thorough baking and finally attend to the proper cooling of the bread before wrapping and packing. If this precaution if taken during extremely hot weather the chance for ropy bread is almost impossible. Remember an ounce of prevention is worth pounds of cure. FLAVOR IN BREAD. Bread possesses different flavors and the difference in flavor depends upon the amount of soluble carbohydrates and the quantity and especially quality of gluten contained in a flour. It also depends upon the process of fermenta- tion and general manufacture employed as well as on the ingredients and amount of various ingredients added to a dough. The most important among these ingredients are the amount of salt and Yeast used. Without a goodly amount of salt, the palate can not recognize the flavor; without it the bread would be insipid. 53 A goodly amount of salt requires a goodly amount of Yeast. Plenty of salt and Yeast assure best results. Some of the chief causes for bread lacking in flavor are : Insufficient salt, insufficient Yeast, or doughs that are carried too long or too warm, or both. VIENNA BREAD. Vienna bread differs in nearly every shop, and in many bakeries is far from being the genuine article. It is made both over the straight and sponge dough method. The proper manipulation of a Vienna dough requires a tight dough, about 15 pounds of flour to every gallon of liquid employed for doughing, plenty of good yeast, and approximately Yi hour's more time in fermentation than would be required for pan bread. It is also indispensable to have a good supply of steam for the oven. It was the carefulness of the Vienna baker, together with the good material employed, that gave him his fame, and not the addition of milk in bread, as some bakers seem to believe. It is mostly due to the care taken that gives Vienna bread its quality. 54 HOME-MADE BREAD COMPARED WITH BAKERS' BREAD. The name "Home-made" bread does not merely refer to bread made by the housekeeper, but it is also the name for a bread which a baker strives to make a perfect loaf as similar as possible to the home-made loaf. The bakers' bread, therefore, generally is divided into three classes, namely, water-bread, milk-bread and home-made bread. The w ater-bread has more crust than the others, because it is largely the crust of this bread that gives it its flavor. The Vienna bread is made with and without milk, and should never be made of an over-ripe dough. Its crust should be thin and crisp and the grain fine and close, and, if broken apart, should be flaky. The home-made bread is either made with or without milk. More or less shortening is used in different bakeries, and sometimes white Indian meal, previously scalded, is added to get more moisture and a closer grain to the loaf. The main part in home-made bread, therefore, is not its whiteness and lightness, but its flavor, grain and the par- ticular shape of the loaf to meet the demands of the trade. This can be accomplished in several ways; one is the addition of Indian meal, which should be previously scalded by pouring the same into boiling water over the fire, and stir until scalded dry. Then take it off and add a small amount of lard, allow to cool off, dilute with water, and rub through a sieve before adding to the dough. Another way is to make a stiff dough and not give the bread too much proof before baking. It can also be made of a regular dough, by taking a piece 55 of plain dough before it gets full proof, mould into loaves and bake off when double original size. Therefore, it can be seen that home-made bread in itself has no degree of perfectness over a rightly made baker's bread, but is merely made to meet a demand of such who do not believe in a light and flaky loaf of bread. BAKERS' MACHINERY. The motive power should be first considered. It is my belief that electric motors are most practical, as they are always ready and require no special trained man. If belt- driven machinery is used, it is well to remember that a long drive (that is, a long belt) will better grip a pulley and pre- vent slipping. The power which a belt can transmit is pro- portionate to the speed at which it travels. To double the belt speed will double the capacity for conveying power. The next machine of importance is the flour sifter. The important point in connection with this machine is, "sift your flour directly before mixing of the dough." The mixing machine should be one that gives the dough a good deal of agitation, and the advantages derived from proper mixing are increased yield, more whiteness and better bread. (See yield.) Likewise, the machine loaf divider, rounding-up ma- chines, moulders and conveyors have long ago evolved from the experimental stage and have proven a complete success. 56 The large variety of machines on the market today makes it possible that all bakers interested in the use of machinery can be satisfied; they only have to study the suitability of their own case. The proper use of machinery results in economy in labor, by creating more system, economy in manufacture, by in- creased yield and better bread of more whiteness of the crumb and more nutritious bread, by shortening the time necessary for fermentation. HOLES IN BREAD. Large holes in bread are caused through irregular fer- mentation. All bread will contain some holes, and the dif- ference in this respect constitutes the grain of the bread. A loaf made of a young dough will have a closer grain than one made of a stronger fermentation. The grain and texture of a loaf, therefore, is partially regulated by the temperature of dough, length of fermenta- tion and amount of salt used. But there is a limit. As soon as a fermentation passes a certain point, the acid contents of the dough will affect the holes in the bread, sometimes cutting and softening parts of the gluten, and thus cause large holes. This, how- ever, is not the only cause. Bad workmanship, and, as before stated, improper fermentation, often caused through poor yeast, defects in dough-making and moulding of loaves being among them. 57 The expansion of unevenly distributed gas and particles of undeveloped gluten is mostly the cause. The former is usually caused through poor moulding by inexperienced bakers, or a dough is too tightly moulded after having too much proof. The undissolved gluten is caused by either a poor fer- ment, by the use of poor yeast or too high a temperature of dough, which causes too much acidity in the dough. The heat of the oven is also very important. In sponge bread the large holes are most numerous and often caused through the sponge not being properly broken down and the dough being poorly mixed. Again, some bakers dust too much flour during the pro- cess of moulding, and this often causes the ruin of loaves through large holes. Again, by the use of moulding machines, which have been in use for a long time, so that the rollers were considerably worn, I have noticed that the loaves would not curl up prop- erly, and have traced the cause of large holes to this source. Flour that has been in damp storage, or flour that has been exposed too long to a temperature below the freezing point, may also be the cause of large holes in bread. The salt is another important factor, as improperly dis- solved particles can be the cause as well. There exists many conflicting opinions, simply because it is a rather difficult matter to correct the evil of "large holes." I would recommend a softer dough; in fact, as soft as it can be handled to advantage; a cool fermentation, 4 58 ounces of salt to the gallon of liquid and sufficient yeast to bring the dough in time to the bench without prolonging the process of fermentation, and finally more malt extract in place of sugar and a goodly quantity of a well-refined oil. EXPANSION OF THE LOAF. The size of the loaf of bread is regulated by the re- spective age given to the dough. If you want a close- grained, medium-sized loaf of bread, scale your dough immediately after the second rise; if a larger loaf is desired, give your dough }/2 hour more time after second turn. This refers to plain bread. In home-made and Vienna bread, the dough may be allowed to rest Y2 hour longer after the "third" rise, providing a larger loaf is desired. The respective time for a dough to acquire its necessary proof for the "first, second and third" rise, is as follows: First rise 3 to 3 J^ hours. Second rise 1 to V/i hours. Third rise ^ to 1 hour. Total time 4^ to 6 hours. According to w^armth of dough and shop; also amount of yeast used. The straight-dough method is the easiest and safest way of making the very best bread. 59 MILK BREAD. A Spring patent of medium strength or a blend resem- bling the same, is best adapted to this class of bread, as in too strong a flour, with too much fermentation, also part of the ingredients added would be consumed. This bread is made with both the sponge and straight dough system. For loaf bread a young sponge is required, and the straight dough handled equally young. For milk rolls, which require a larger expansion, especially rolls baked on the oven sole, like "German Coffee Rolls," a stronger fermentation must be made. A sponge for the latter should have the second rise, and taken before it recedes the second time. For young sponges, milk can be used to advantage in the sponge, while for milk rolls, unless all milk is used, it is best to use it in the dough. The reason for this is that less sugar can be employed and the same rich color given to the rolls. What the color has to do with the flavor of small bread, every baker knows. It is always safer to scald the milk before use, and then allow it to cool off. RIPENESS OF SPONGE, SPONGE DOUGH AND STRAIGHT DOUGH. A sponge set at the average stiffness should be ready for its first drop in from 3 to 4 hours, according to tempera- ture in shop and strength of flour used. After the sponge commences to recede, it will take on the average half an hour before it has dropped back and commences to rise again. From this stage it will require another half hour 60 before it will be ready for the second drop. Therefore, a sponge ready for its first drop, will require one more hour to get ready for the second drop. In straight dough, the age to the dough is given by allowing it to rest from 3 to 33^ hours, or until light enough so that it will recede if touched by the hand. Then lay your dough together, allow to rise again, but not quite as high as first time, about 3 inches less. Lay over again, and proceed to scale for plain bread. For richer doughs, where more ingredients, as sugar and fat are added, allow doughs to get proof the third time, lay over once more, and 15 minutes thereafter it is ready for the bench. The proper amount of space to give a straight dough in dough trough for full development is 7 cubic feet for every 100 pounds of flour used for doughing. YEAST-RAISED CAKES. In making yeast-raised cakes, the raw material employed, both in quality and quantity, is a very important point. To begin with the flour, the richer the cake the softer should be the gluten contained in the flour. It is a well-known fact that the softer the dough for sweet goods the richer they will be after baking. There- fore, the stiffness of the dough must be regulated with the strength of the flour, A soft Winter wheat patent, one very fine in quality of milling, will give very good results. A stiffer dough, one more easily handled, can be made by the use of such a flour than if a blend containing Spring wheat flour is used. 61 Of course, there are different kinds of sweet cakes, and in such as American tea and coffee cakes, large expansion is often wanted. Then stronger flour must be added. But just as the percentage of strong flour is increased, so the shortening materials, such as eggs, butter, lard and sugar, must also be added in the same proportion, to overcome the effects of the strong flour upon the richness of the cake. Sweet cakes are governed by a directly opposite rule from that which governs the bread-making, and this in direct proportion to the richness of the cake. The bread baker selects flours which shall absorb the greatest quantity of water, together with a due regard to quality, and this because flour is his most expensive ingredient. In the manufacture of cakes it is the opposite, because in rich cakes, flour is about the cheapest substance, and is apt to increase the cost of manufacture if it is too strong. This is because the wetting up is not done by water, but partially by milk and the other parts in some cakes alto- gether by fats, eggs and such other materials which may be employed. Strong flours, which absorb large quantities of water, will also absorb a large quantity of eggs, and since an egg itself is a binding material in the manufacture of dough, it is for this reason that strong flour has little advantage to be used in cakes. If strong flour is used alone, it will always make a drier cake, with same proportion of enriching ingredients, and lacks the mellowness of a cake made of a soft Winter patent. The next point for consideration in the manufacture of fermented cakes is the yeast. Little need be said concern- ing this, as the nature and properties of yeast in fermenting dough have been fully explained, so that it is only necessary to remind the reader that more yeast is used for cakes than for bread. A remarkable fact, and one which no first-class cake (5-2 baker will refute, is that, in shops where other yeast is eniployeJ. Fleisehiuaim's Coiuiiressed Yeast is always used for the richest eakes. and. while some of the other yeasts sometimes make good bread, they often prove a failure when used for a rieh dough. 1 wish to make the point very strong to the reader that the following recipes, especi- ally in the manufacture of cakes, must be worked with Fleischmann's Compressed Yeast, as 1 would not wish to have the correctness of the recipes criticised through failure caused by the use of other yeasts. The anunint of compressed yeast for sweet cakes is from ^ J ounce to -i ounces per quart of liquid, and, therefore, is regulated by the richness of the dough. All sweet doughs should be made and handled as soft as possible to improve the quality of the cake. With reference to eggs, everyone knows that when properly used, they improve the lightness of the cake, and, therefore, act in two ways upon the quality of the dough. The other effect they have, besides improving the richness of the cake, is their binding qualities, and in this respect it can be tigured that, unless a larger amount of shortening is used, one egg possesses the binding quality of l^o ounces of tlour. Therefore, the recipe calling, for instance, for -4 eggs to the pound of tiour. and if it is the desire to make this cake richer, the amount of eggs can be doubled, and then, accordingly, t^ ounces less tlour be used. This would bring the result that only 10 ounces of Hour would be used to the 8 eggs, which represent nearly a pint of liquid and naturally make a very soft dough; but the result will be, also, a very rich cake. This refers to the cake where no milk or water is used for doughing. If milk is used and a larger amount in liquid measure- ment than eggs, only one ounce of Hour should be reduced 63 from the original umount for each additional egj^. For very rich cakes the white of the eggs should always be beaten to a froth, and when light, one ounce of each pound of sugar beaten into it thoroughly. The butter or lard is creamed with the rest of the sugar, and, when very light, the yolks, OIK! by one, added, (ireat care must be taken that neither the whites of the eggs nor the shortening with th(; yolks griddles, and should this hapi>en, it is better to save this mixture for some cheaper cakes, where it is of less import- ance. The safest way to prevent the griddling of the in- gredients is to have them as cold as possible, and in very hot weather, set the mixing l>owl into another larger one con- taining ice water. If butter is used instead of lard, it will not only improve the richness of the cake, but also its light- ness. Butter itself has a lightening tendency when used in cakes, while lard alone has only a shortening tendency. The amount of sugar used, on the average, in all sweet cakes, should not be more than 25% of the weight of the flour; that is to say, 12 ounces to each quart of milk or liquid. If eggs are used alone, comparatively less sugar is employed, since too much sugar has the tendency to make the cake heavy, and if a sweeter cake is desired, naturally more yeast must be used. Salt is used in proportion to the richness of the cake. For sweet dough in which milk is used predominantly, two- thirds of an ounce of salt may be used to each quart of milk, while in a dough w'here no milk is used, but eggs alone for wetting, a proportionate less amount of salt is employed. No general rule can be given for this, as it depends a good deal upon the quality of the cake. Yeast-raised cakes naturally require a slower oven than bread, and the heat of the oven is regulated according to the richness of the dough. The most difficult thing is to incorporate the sugar 64 shortening and eggs witli the sponge, which should be hfted in very light and not beaten in. GLUTEN FLOUR. Gluten flour is a product made from white wheat flour, and its value for bread to serve in the case of persons suffering from diabetes, depends whether or not it is free from starch. A good gluten flour sometimes can be obtained from starch factories, where the remaining gluten is dried and then powdered. A good way to obtain a reliable gluten bread is by the following process: Take white wheat flour, make into a stiff dough, using only water. Allow this dough to rest, submerged in water for about one hour. Next place the dough into a muslin bag, and wash under a stream of water until the washings are no longer milky and the water runs off clear. Allow this gluten to lay in water over night, which softens the gluten, and makes it possible to add in the morning the necessary salt, a little bran or ground almonds, and a moderate quantity of egg. Add a small proportion of Compressed Yeast, allow the dough to ferment until light, then pan, and when double original size, bake in brisk oven. 65 MEASURES. The attention of bakers in Canada is called to the difference between the Imperial Measure, commonly used in Canada, and the Wine Measure, used in the United States. The Imperial Gallon is equal to 1 1-5 gallons. Wine Measure. All recipes in this Treatise are based on the Wine Measure. Bakers using the Imperial Measure must adjust their calculations to the Wine Measure by sub- tracting one-sixth of Imperial Measure for every gallon specified in recipes. (i(> PART II. n RECIPES GENERAL HINTS. Be careful in the selection of flour. The best is the cheapest. In winter it is always well to store flour for immediate use where it can not get chilled. Doughs and sponges should always be mixed well. Use as little flour as possible in kneading and moulding of dough. Never stop kneading dough or mixing sponge, as it will often cause lumps in bread. Always weigh the ingredients, especially salt, to obtain uniformity. Never dissolve compressed yeast in water more than lukewarm, as hot water will kill the yeast. A little more salt should be used in warm weather than in cold. Cold and salt retard fermentation; heat hastens it. Salt neutralizes the acidity in the dough. Sugar hastens fermentation, if used in small proportions. 67 PLAIN BREAD— Pan Loaves. 196 lbs. (1 bbl.) flour. !2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 3 lbs. salt. 3 lbs. sugar (better use half malt extract) . 2 lbs. lard. 60 to 64 quarts of water. (See page 44). This bread is best made over the Straight-dough method. Dissolve the salt and yeast separately in part of the water, add the salt solution to the bulk of the water, then add sugar, and next the flour. Start to mix, and after ma- chine is in operation, add the yeast. Continue to mix for several minutes, then add the lard or other shortening that may be used in place of it. Mix dough thoroughly for 15 or 20 minutes. After mixing, allow to rise until it will recede to the touch of the hand. Lay over by pulling the ends and sides well in, and allow to rise again until light the second time. It is then ready to be scaled and formed into loaves. Allow to prove until double in size, then bake in medium hot oven. If the oven is not steam-tight, or no steam is available, then bread requires 23^ times original size for proper proof. OVEN SOLE BREAD. Use same ingredients as for plain bread, and give same age to dough. The dough must be made stiffer, and only 56 to 60 quarts of water are added to the barrel of flour. It is always best to round up pieces and allow to spring on for 10 to 15 minutes before moulding into loaves. A good supply of steam in oven will greatly improve this kind of bread. 68 HOME-MADE BREAD. 196 lbs. flour (1 bbl.) 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 43^2 to 6 lbs. sugar (better use Yl malt extract). 43^ to 6 lbs, lard or other shortening. 3 lbs. salt. 60 quarts water. Scaled at 17 ounces, this will make, approximately, 300 loaves of bread. If scaled at 16 ounces, the yield will be about 318 loaves. Follow same directions as for white bread, excepting that your dough should be allowed to rest }/2 hour longer before scaling off to form into loaves. Bake off at short proof, and use moderate amount of steam in oven. COTTAGE BREAD. Make same dough as described for Home-made Bread. Cottage Bread is baked in round, low tins. Break the amount scaled for one loaf into 6 small pieces, cleave up same as for rolls. Set one piece in center of pan, and let remaining five form a circle. Allow to prove until double original size, and bake with moderate amount of steam in oven. QUAKER BREAD. Make same dough as described for Home-made Bread. Three pounds of dry milk powder or four pounds of condensed milk may be added for this class of bread. It is baked in a twin loaf pan, and should be placed in oven with rather short proof, in order to have the loaves burst nicely where they meet in the center. This bread re- quires only a moderate amount of steam for baking. 69 MILK BREAD No. 1. 196 lbs. flour. ^ 33^ lbs. lard or oil. 2^ lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 9H lbs. sweetened condensed milk, 3H lbs. sugar. containing 6% butter fat. 3^ lbs. salt. 60 quarts water. Dissolve the yeast in the bulk of the water, and proceed in the usual way in mixing of the dough. If the dough is made at the proper temperature, which is from 78 to 82° F., according to season of the year and shop conditions, it should be ready in 43^^ hours time for the fermentation, and then ready for the bench. The respective time for this dough to acquire its neces- sary proof is as follows: First rise 23^ hours. Second rise % hour. Third rise ^ hour. To bench 3^ hour. Total time 43/^ hours. Give short proof before baking, and use moderate amount of steam in oven. This makes an excellent seller, and is a very popular recipe with many large bakers. MILK BREAD No. 2. 196 lbs. flour. 2 lbs. malt extract. 23^ lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 6 lbs. sugar. Sy-z lbs. salt. 4 lbs. dry milk powder. 3J^ lbs. lard or oil. 60 quarts water. First rise 33/2 hours. Second rise 1 hour. Third rise % hour. To bench 34 hour. Total time 53^2 hours. Otherwise, follow same instructions as for recipe for Milk Bread No. 1. This recipe is also very popular. 70 FRENCH BREAD. lf)G lbs. flour. 56 to 58 quarts water. 2M lbs. salt. 13^2 lbs. malt extract. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 3 lbs. of sugar. Some bakers prefer the sponge method for this kind of bread, the larger bakers, however, mostly use the straight dough method. If sponge is used, use same proportions of water for sponge and dough. Allow sponge to come to second drop. Next mix dough, and after mixing, allow to come to full proof. Time, 13^ hours. Work over and allow to rise for 30 minutes more. It is then ready for the bench. Straight dough, which is the simpler way, should be allowed to become very light at first rise; in fact, so light that it will sink readily to the mere touch of the hand. Lay dough together thoroughly, allow to get nearly as light as first time, twice more; it is then ready for the bench. The total time for fermentation of straight dough for French Bread is 43^2 to 5 hours. This bread, to be properly made, requires a good amount of steam for baking, and a moderately hot oven. The respective time for straight dough to acquire its nec- essary proof, is as follows: First rise 3 to S}4 hours. Second rise 1 to 13^ hours. Third rise 3^ hour. Total time 43^ to 5 hours. 71 SANDWICH BREAD. 196 lbs. flour. 54 quarts water. (See page 44). 6 lbs. sugar. 2 lbs. malt extract. 4 lbs. oil or other shortening. 3K lbs. salt. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 2 lbs. milk powder, or 3 lbs. condensed milk (optional). Sandwich, or Pullman Bread, sometimes also called Restaurant Bread, is best made by holding the dough rather tight. The above formula makes a very rich sandwich loaf. This dough requires more time than ordinary bread, as it carries extra salt. Make dough from 78° to 82° F., according to season of the year. As they are placed in covered tins, extra precaution must prevail not to overproof them. The proper proof is about one inch from top of pan. The respective time for straight dough to acquire its necessary proof is: First rise 3i^ to S}4 hours. Second rise 1 to 13^ hours. Third rise ^ ^ hour. To bench J^ 3^ hour. Total time 5}/2 to 6 hours. Sandwich Bread, to be right, should toast very readily, and toast made therefrom should eat short. The grain of the loaf should be very close. In some bakeries. Sandwich Bread is made from the regular run of straight dough, in some cases even from the Vienna dough. To be right, however, it should be made over a special dough. 72 VIENNA BREAD. 196 lbs. flour. 54 quarts water. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 2 lbs. malt extract. 2 lbs. sugar. 4 to 8 lbs. lard or other shortening. 2^ lbs. salt. The respective time for straight dough to acquire its necessary proof, is as follows: First rise 3}4 hours. Second rise 1 hour. Third rise ^ hour. To bench 3^ hour. Total time 53/2 hours. When dough is ready, proceed to scale into required size, and be sure to round up the pieces and allow to rest from 10 to 15 minutes before shaping into Vienna loaves. Lay the loaves smooth side down on cloth-covered boards, pinch up the cloth betvveen loaves, and allow to rest until double in size; then bake with plenty of steam in oven. Oven should be about 20 degrees cooler than for pan bread. Many larger bakers make up the Vienna bread with the moulding machine, which naturally saves a lot of labor. In place of the cloth-covered boards, some bakers use boxes, heavily dusted with white or yellow cornmeal. In this case care must be exercised not to set the loaves too close together so they will touch when they reach their j)roof. If boxes are used, the loaves must be laid smooth side up. 73 ENTIRE WHEAT BREAD. 150 lbs. entire wheat flour. 46 lbs. white patent flour. 56 quarts water. S}4 lbs. salt. 5 lbs. molasses. 1 lb. sugar. 1 lb. malt extract. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 33^ lbs. lard or other shortening. The directions for this bread are exactly the same as given for Home-made Bread, page 68. In some localities, the use of molasses is not desirable, although it lends this bread a very delicious flavor. In that case, 4 lbs. additional sugar may be used in place of the molasses. Dough made of entire wheat flour ages more readily. The white patent flour is added to make a better appearing loaf. Sometimes entire wheat flour is made of softer wheats. In that case, more patent flour must be added, or at least half of the amount of flour used. Bake off with short proof, and use very little steam in oven. CREAM BREAD. This bread may be made from any of the foregoing recipes for white bread. It is baked in round crimped and covered pans. Be careful not to overproof, as it will spoil the appearance of the loaf. The proper proof is to let the loaves rise until pans are two-thirds full. 74 GRAHAM BREAD. 98 lbs. white patent flour. 98 lbs. graham flour. 56 quarts water. 3 lbs. salt. 5 lbs. molasses. 1 lb. sugar. 1 lb. malt extract. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 33^2 lbs. lard or other shortening. The directions for this bread are exactly the same as for Entire Wheat Bread. BOSTON BROWN BREAD. 25 quarts water. 20 lbs. rye flour. 20 lbs. yellow cornmeal. 20 lbs. graham flour. Yi lb. Fleischmann's Yeast. 1 lb. salt. 1 lb. sugar. 1 lb. lard. 6 lbs. molasses {Yi Porto Rico and Y2 New Orleans) . 1 lb. baking soda. Mix the two flours with the cornmeal, and set sponge to be 84° F., directly after mixing. Use the Yi pound of yeast and 12 quarts of water for sponge, adding sufficient of the mixed flour to set a soft sponge. Allow to ferment for XYi hours. Next add sugar, salt and molasses dissolved prior in the remaining VV/i quarts water, next add the lard. Mix the baking soda well with the remaining flour, and after the 75 sponge is thoroughly broken down with the liquid, add the flour, and proceed to mix until smooth. Grease brown bread moulds well, then fill half full, and steam for 5 hours. Allow to cool, and pack in waxed paper. RYE BLEND. The Rye Blend is made by mixing the proportioned amount of rye flour with baker's straight. Some bakers, in order to get a nice bloom on the bread, add a small percent- age of patent flour to the Rye Blend. The Rye Blend is usually made by mixing from 25% to 33% of rye flour with baker's straight. The exact amount of rye flour used depends on local conditions and the character of the bread desired. Each baker, therefore, must judge for himself as to the proper proportions of his blend. RYE BREAD. Sponge Method. Set sponge, using: 30 quarts water. 90 lbs. flour, "Rye Blend." 1 lb. Fleischmann's Yeast. Allow sponge to ferment until 3^ hour after it com- mences to recede. The temperature of the sponge directly after mixing should be from 78° to 82° F., which should be regulated according to the season of the year and conditions of the shop. If temperature of shop is normal, this sponge will be ready in 33^ hours. Dough. 28 to 30 quarts water. (See page 44). 3^ lbs. salt. 106 lbs. flour "Rye Blend." After mixing, allow dough to get full proof; lay over 76 and allow to rise from 3^ to ^ hour more. It is then ready for the bench. After being formed into loaves, they should be handled same way as described for Vienna Bread. (See page 72). It will take a sponge dough approximately 134 hours to get its first full proof. The sponge is apt to heat several degrees during fer- mentation, especially during the hot season of the year. It is, therefore, necessary to take the water for doughing ac- cordingly cooler. Each, the sponge and dough made there- after should have the same temperature directly after mixing. RYE BREAD. Straight Dough Method. 196 lbs. flour "Rye Blend." 58 to 60 quarts water. (See page 44). 33^ lbs. salt. 2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. Allow dough, after it has been thoroughly mixed, to get full proof twice. It is then ready to be scaled and formed into loaves. Place loaves on cloth-covered boards, or set in dusted boxes, same as described for Vienna Bread. (See page 72), The respective time for straight rye dough to acquire its necessary proof, is as follows: First rise 3 to 3^^ hours. Second rise 1 to 13<4 hours. Total time 4 to 43^ hours. This bread is best baked off with a good supply of steam for oven during baking. Where no steam is available, it can be brushed over with water before being placed in oven 77 and again directly after baking, that is, the moment it is drawn from the oven. The size of the loaf can be regulated by giving the dough more or respectively less age. More time for fermentation means a larger loaf of bread. RYE BREAD. Double Sponge Method. 196 lbs. flour "Rye Blend." 60 quarts water. 1 lb. Fleischmann's Yeast. S% lbs. salt. Set sponge with 12 ounces Fleischmann's Yeast, 15 quarts water and 40 pounds flour. Allow to rest 3 hours, at which lime it should have about 2 inches drop. Then add 30 quarts water, together with the remaining 4 ounces yeast; break sponge down fine, and add 80 pounds more flour. Allow to rest and rise until it breaks in the middle, or, in other words, until it commences to recede, which will require 2 hours. Now lift on the remaining 15 quarts of water, in which previously dissolve the salt, and with it break down sponge very fine. Next add the remain- ing 76 lbs. flour, and mix dough thoroughly. Allow this dough to rest no longer than 3^^ hour, when it must be made up quickly. It will require proof for oven very rapidly. Where larger batches are required, it is better to m.ix this kind in halves. If this dough lays too long before going to the oven, it will burst the loaves in the oven. Time for scaling until this bread is ready for the oven, approximately 45 minutes. After forming the dough into loaves, proceed the same as described under recipes for Rye Bread, under caption, "Sponge Method." Both sponges and dough should have a temperature of 78 78° to 82° F., directly after mixing, which temperature should be regulated according to the season of the year and shop conditions. RAISIN BREAD. 196 lbs. flour. 60 quarts water. 3 lbs. salt. %}/2 lbs. Fleischmann's Yeast. 5]/2 lbs. sugar. 2 lbs. malt extract. 43^ lbs. lard or other shortening. l]^ to 20 lbs. raisins. Place the raisins the evening before into a suitable re- ceptacle, and put enough water on them to cover. The next morning make a straight dough in the regular way, adding the raisins shortly before the dough is finished mixing. Handle dough same as described for Home-made Bread. (See page 68). When dough is ready, shape into desired loaves. One may then proceed in the regular way of general baking. The amount of raisins used generally depends somewhat upon the price at which they can be purchased. By laying the raisins in water over night, the yield is materially increased; also the bread will remain fresh for a considerably longer period of time. CONCORD BREAD. 2 quarts milk. 4 ounces lard. ]/2 ounce salt. 2 ounces Fleischmann's Yeast. 1 ounce sugar. Dissolve the yeast and the sugar in the milk; add suf- ficient flour to make medium stiff sponge, which should be 79 ready in about 2 hours, or when it has risen and begins to drop back. Add the rest of the ingredients and flour to make medium stiff dough. Let rise again 45 minutes, place in pans, give full proof, and bake in medium hot oven. PULLED BREAD. To be made with either "Concord" or "Vienna" bread dough. Break off into 3 ounce pieces, roll into balls, and let rise 15 minutes. Roll these parts on a well-greased bench into straight, even lengths. Press six of these strands together at one end, and weave them into a braid to form one loaf. Set these loaves two inches apart in a baking sheet, with high rims, greasing between loaves; let rise until light, then bake same as bread. When baked, allow to cool. It is then ready to be pulled apart. It will come apart in long, slender strips of which it was composed before it was baked; put these strips on a baking pan, and set in a hot oven for 15 minutes, when they should be quite crisp and well-colored. They are nice served with morning coffee. PLAIN ROLLS "Sponge System." Ingredients used: 20 quarts of water. 5 pounds of sugar. 1 pound milk powder (or l}4 pounds condensed milk). 10 ounces malt extract. 12J^ ounces salt. 5 pounds lard. 1 pound Fleischmann's Yeast. Directions : Dissolve the Yeast in 12 quarts of water and with this 80 set a sponge of medium stiffness, at a temperature of 80° F. Allow this sponge to come to second drop. Time about three hours. Dissolve the sugar and salt in the remaining 8 quarts of water, add to the sponge. Likewise the lard, milk and malt extract, and proceed to break sponge down fine. Next add sufficient flour to make a stiff dough. Allow to rise until full proof, cut dough over and lay dry, by dusting lightly with flour before knocking down. Then allow to rest 45 minutes more. When ready, mould into round balls, setting them in dusted proof boxes. Allow to rest for 20 minutes more; then, with a ^-inch rolling-pin, press down in the middle; set on baking sheets previously greased, allowing about three inches in width and four inches in length for each roll. Allow to rise until double in size, then brush over lightly with a solution of egg water, and bake in brisk heat and a steam-tight oven. These rolls can also be baked on the oven bottom, and in this case proceed as described for German rolls. PLAIN ROLLS— Straight Dough. This is the simpler, safer and easier way of making good rolls. Dissolve the Yeast and salt separately in part of the water, add the salt solution to the bulk of the water, then add sugar, malt and milk, and next the flour. Start to mix, and after machine is in operation add the Yeast. Continue to mix for several minutes then add the lard. The respective time for this dough to acquire its neces- sary proof is as follows: First rise 3}^ hours. Second rise 1 hour. Third rise ^ hour. To bench 3^ hour. Total time 5}/2 hours. Otherwise follow same instructions as for recipe for "Plain Rolls, Sponge Method." 81 TURN-OVER ROLLS. Take plain roll dough, but instead of pressing the roUing-pin straight down, give it a half turn. Grease the inside of one part of roll with melted lard, and lap over the othei*, pressing the two parts lightly together; then place on slightly greased baking sheets a little apart, and allow to prove until double original size. Then bake in brisk, steam-tight oven. Brush over with water as removed from the oven. FRENCH ROLLS. Take plain water-bread dough, mould into round balls and set into dust-proof boxes. Allow to rest for 15 minutes, and then form into finger shapes. Lay them, smooth side down on cloth-covered boards, and allow to rise until double in size. Place them on peel far enough apart so that they will not touch during baking; brush over with a light solution of egg water, then, with a sharp knife, cut the whole length half through the thickness of the roll, and bake them on oven sole. These rolls need a hot oven. GERMAN DOUBLE ROLLS. Same as German water rolls, but set two rolls very close together when placing on board, the split forming one straight line; then proceed the same as for German water rolls. SOUP STICK. Take plain water-bread dough and roll out the thickness of a lead pencil, and lay on greased baking sheets. Allow to get full proof; then bake in steam-tight oven until very crisp. 82 VIENNA ROLLS. Take plain roll dough and mould into small round balls, lay them in slightly dusted proof boxes, and allow to rest for 15 minutes. Then roll them out into ovals about twice the length of their thickness. Place on greased baking sheets, brush over with egg water, and cut half the length of the roll. Allow to rise until double original size, then bake in steam-tight oven. CRESCENT ROLLS. Take plain roll dough, adding 2 pounds of extra butter to dough. Roll dough into round balls, the same as for rolls, allow to rest for 20 minutes, then, with a rolling-pin, roll into very thin sheets. Brush off all the flour carefully, then roll up very tight, about 6 inches long. The end of the dough must come in the middle of the roll; lay on greased baking sheets and into crescent shapes, taking care to have the end of the dough on top and in the middle of the roll. Brush off with egg water, and give full proof, then bake off in medium hot oven, and, after baking, brush off with water. SALT OR CARAWAY SEED ROLLS. The same as for crescent rolls, but should be baked in straight form. They can be made either out of j)lain water roll dough or plain roll dough. If made out of water dough they should be baked on the oven bottom. Before baking, brush over with egg water, sprinkle with salt, caraway seed, or both. Bake until crisp. 83 GERMAN WATER ROLLS. Take plain water-bread dough and proceed the same as described for plain rolls, only instead of placing and baking them on baking sheets, lay on cloth-covered boards or boxes, the split of rolls downward, setting the rolls in a row on the board, having the split lay with the width of the board. Pinch cloth up between rows of rolls, and when the board is filled, cover carefully. Allow to rise until double in size; then bake on oven sole in steam-tight oven. To get a nice gloss on these rolls, it is necessary to have steam in oven before the rolls are put in. KAISER SEMMEL. Ingredients used: 10 quarts milk. 10 quarts water. 1 lb. salt. 13^2 lbs. sugar. l}4 lbs. lard. 1 lb. Fleischmann's Yeast. Set sponge with the water and Yeast. The sponge should be soft, using about two pounds of flour to a quart of water. As soon as sponge commences to break, before receding add the milk and other ingredients and make a medium stiff dough. The average temperature of the dough should be about 76 degrees F. Allow dough to get full proof, then knock down well, allow to rest for another half hour, or until it has again 2-3 of its full proof, knock down again and allow to rest for 20 minutes more. Roll into small round balls, the same as for rolls, allow to prove for 15 to SO minutes, according to temperature, then make up into proper shapes. The 84 forming of Kaiser semmels takes considerable practice, and great care must be taken in the forming of these rolls. If dough is young, dust the balls with Rye Flour, before making up semmels. VIENNA KIPFEL. Take plain milk bread dough and add 10% of the weight of dough in butter; that is to say, for each 10 pounds of dough add 1 pound of butter. After the addition of the butter, allow the dough to get full proof, then proceed the same as for crescent rolls, but roll looser. Before baking, wash over with egg water and bake in medium hot oven, PARKER HOUSE ROLLS. Ingredients used: 1 quart milk. 1 ounce sugar. 3^ ounce salt. 2 ounces butter, 1 ounce lard. 5 egg yolks. 2 ounces Fleischmann's Yeast. Make straight dough out of the above ingredients and allow dough to get full proof, knock down and allow to prove again to full proof. After knocking down the second time roll up into small round balls, allow to rest for 15 minutes. Then roll into oval shapes and place on previously greased baking sheets or into Parker House roll pans. Allow to rise until double original size, then brush over with a strong solution of egg water and bake off in a medium hot oven. 8r> LAUGEN PRETZEL. Set sponge with two ounces of Fleischmann's Com- pressed Yeast and 4 quarts water. Sponge ^y^ll be ready in 7 hours. Dissolve Y2 lb. salt in 8 quarts water, lift this on sponge, add 5 pounds lard and sufficient flour to make a very stift' dough. Let dough rise for 1 hour, then run it through the rollers several times. Break off and roll into two-ounce pieces, let rest 15 minutes, then form into pretzel shapes. Lay pretzels on boards covered with a cloth, give very little proof. Then put the pretzels into the boiling lye solution until they rise (about one minute), then place on peel, sprinkle with salt and put in the oven as quickly as possible. Bake until they are nicely browned. The lye solution is made with 1 ounce of caustic soda to two quarts boiling water, and must be kept boiling hot when in use. If solution becomes too strong from boiling down add more water. GERMAN SCHNITZ BREAD— Hutzelbrod. Ingredients used: 4 oz. Fleischmann's Yeast. 5 lbs. rye dough. 2 lbs. seedless raisins. 2 lbs. currants. 1 lb. finely chopped citron, Yi lb. chopped orange peel. Gratings from 6 citrons. Y2 lb. chopped almonds. Yi lb. dates. Y - o " o - '^. .^^r ^ ^. o . »* A ^0 .^'\ \^ ^" ,^^