A V^ . KJ, XliiJJX^± V/X X X\J No .:. Class... Case ^ 1 Shelf ^ This Book caiwofibe taken from the Library © i A GRAMMAR ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. J 6,4. GRAMMAR OF THE ANGLO-SAION LANGUAGE, BY LOUIS F, RLIPSTEIN, AA. LL.M. AND PH.D. OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN. NEW YORK: GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY, AND 142 STRAND, LONDON. j^rr /fee* ^e ^%&++*-* &y&r^*+*>st~' *^~- J?fz~*s~^ f**&r s/> /for. <& ^ i^ % Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1843, by LOUIS F. KLIPSTEIN, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. W. BENEDICT, PRINTER, 10 SVRt'CE STREET. TO ORVILLE HOEWITZ, ESQ., THIS VOLUM IS SI NCERELY INSCR IBED WHO HAS EVER ADMIRED HIS TALENTS AND SCHOLARSHIP, AND APPRECIATED A FRIENDSHIP.. WHICH A CLOSE INTIMACY OF YEARS HAS TENDED ONLY TO STRENGTHEN. CONTENTS. PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I. Page The Alphabet and Pronunciation, - - - - 31 CHAPTER II. Change of Letters, - - - - - -,-35 With regard to Consonants, 3d With regard to Vowels, 37 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. Parts of Speech, - - - - - - - -39 Numbers, 39 Cases, 40 Genders, ..------.40 Declensions, --------- 41 General Rules lor the Declensions, - - - - 41 CHAPTER II. The Articles, . . 42 CHAPTER III. Nouns, - 43 Synopsis of the Declensions, - - - - - 43 1 CONTENTS. Page Declension of Nouns, 43 First Declension, 43 Second Declension, 47 Third Declension, 49 Irregular Nouns, -.50 Origin and Formation of Nouns, 54 Proper Names, ---57 CHAPTER IV, Adjectives, ---------59 Synopsis of the Declensions, - - - - - 59 Declension of Adjectives, ------ 60 Indefinite Adjectives, -60 Definite Adjectives, -62 Comparison of Adjectives, - - - - - - 64 A List of Irregular Comparisons, 64 Origin and Formation of Adjectives, - - - - 67 CHAPTER V. Pronouns, 69 Personal Pronouns, 69 Adjective Pronouns, ------- 72 Definitive Pronouns, -------74 Relative and Interrogative Pronouns, - - - -.76 Origin and Formation of the Articles and Pronouns, - 77 CHAPTER VI. Numbers, 79 Origin and Formation of the Numerals, - - - 84 CHAPTER VII. Verbs, 85 Conjugations, - - -- - . . -85 Moods, 85 Tenses, ---------85 Numbers, ----.. • * ~ 86 Persons, 86 2 CONTENTS. Page Participles, - - 86 Gerund, 86 Conjugation of Verbs, -------86 The Simple Order, 86 1st Conjugation --------86 Remarks on the 1st Conjugation, 93 The Complex Order, 93 2d Conjugation, - - - - - -,- -93 Remarks on the 2d Conjugation, - - - - - 95 3d Conjugation, 95 Remarks on the 3d Conjugation, 97 Formation of the Different Parts of the Verb, - - 98 Auxiliary Verbs, - - - - - - - -101 Compound Tenses, - 108 Impersonal Verbs, -108 Mixed Verbs, 100 Anomalous Verbs, - - - - - - -109 Negative Verbs, - - - - - - - -111 A List of Complex \erbs, 113 Imperfect Verbs, 154 Origin and Formation of Verbs, ----- 154 CHAPTER VIII. Adverbs, 156 CHAPTER IX. Prepositions, - ------162 CHAPTER X. Conjunctions, - - 167 CHAPTER XL Interjections, 169 Origin and Formation of the Indeclinable Parts of Speech, - 170 r>\ CONTENTS. PART III.— SYNTAX. Page Construction of Sentences, 172 Concord, 173 Government, 175 PART IV.— PROSODY. Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry in General,' - - - -182 A List of Anglo-Saxon Phrases, - -186 Appendix A, 194 Appendix B, - - 200 Appendix C, - - - ...... 207 Appendix D, ....„..-. 209 PREFACE. It has been asserted by some that the common people of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, speak the language of their respective countries mostly in accordance with what is written among them, while the same class in England, and we may add in our own country to a certain extent, are generally deficient with regard to the received principles of correct speech in the quality and use of words. Without saying how far the assertion holds good, we will only re- mark that the philologist and the attentive observer who understands the language of his forefathers, will at once perceive that what is supposed to be incorrect, is in the majority of cases the genuine Anglo-Saxon, which ex- presses itself through its natural channel. Above the class to which we have alluded, a superstructure has been raised in the various elements which have entered into the com- position of our present English since the days of Gower and Chaucer, of Surrey and Spenser, and which took their rise, indeed, considerably anterior to that period, if not with the Norman Conquest. The languages of Italy, Spajn, and Portugal, on the contrary, have remained compara- tively stationary since their first formation, and, from their PREFACE. very nature, they must be spoken by all conditions of so- ciety with but little difference. If we are partly led to the study of the Latin and Greek languages from the light which they throw upon the structure of our own, the Anglo-Saxon, for the same reason, has claims upon us almost equally great, forming, as it does, the broad basis upon which the others rest. So true is this, that it can be safely affirmed that no one has a thorough knowledge of English, who is unacquainted with an element of so much importance. It is from a desire of making American youth who glory in their Anglo-Saxon descent acquainted with the language of their ancestors, that the author has been induced to issue the following pages. He has long perceived the want of something of the kind from the press in this coun- try, while the subject has of late years received so much attention in Great Britain, and trusts that he has at last met it in a certain measure. How far he has succeeded in his attempt, he leaves it to the literary portion of the community to judge. The principal authorities consulted in preparing this work, have been the Angelsaksisk Sprogloere of the late distinguished philologist, Prof. Rask, of Copenhagen, the learned Deutsche Grammatik of Prof. Grimm, and the Compendious Grammar of the Primitive English or Anglo- Saxon Language and larger Dictionary of that eminent Saxon scholar, the Rev. J. Bosworth, LL.D., PH.D., etc., etc., etc. In the general order and arrangement of his matter the Author has differed both from Prof. Rask PREFACE. and Dr. Bosworth, and likewise from them and the rest who have written upon the subject in many of his views of the language. In some few instances he has used the expressions of others, either through inadvertence, or where he had found the same employed by more than one to such an extent as to become common property. It was intended at first to introduce the Ablative, but upon mature reflection deemed unnecessary, as, however general and express that case may have been in earlier times, with the exception of a few peculiar forms, it evi- dently does not belong to the language as we now have it, distinct from the Dative. It would seem to have been gradually laid aside, while the Dative finally, in almost every instance, was used in its stead. The accent has been employed in every case in which analogy would justify it. How much the proper pronun- ciation of words depends upon its adoption, will be easily seen. Not only has the monkish character been rejected and the Roman substituted in its place, but the |>, [>, has been represented by Th, th, and the D, ^, by Th, th. While nothing is lost by this further change, typographical uni- formity has been gained. St. James , Santee, S. C, June, 1848. ABBREVIATIONS. ABBREVIATIONS. Norn., N. Nominative. Gen., G. Genitive. Dat., D. Dative. Ace, A. Accusative. m. Masculine. /• Feminine. w. Neuter. Pron. Pronoun. Inf. Infinitive. Ind. Indicative. Sub. Subjunctive. Imp. Imperative. Indef, i. Indefinite. Perf , p. Perfect. Part;#p. Participle ; Perf. Part Ger. Gerund. Con. Conjugation. 01. Class. Anom. Anomalous. Irr. Irregular. Eng. English. INTRODUCTION. ON THE STUDY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. Language may properly be defined to be " the expression of ideas either by sounds or signs." To the former we give the more specific name of spoken, and to the latter that of written language. It is the capacity of expressing ideas through language which confessedly raises man, " the noblest of God's creatures," above the other works of his hands, and which places him in the scale of being " but a little lower than the angels." It is also a line of demarkation that is continually broadening, for just in pro- portion as civilization advances and the arts and sciences progress and develop themselves, does language become more useful in itself and more admirable in its structure, until the nicest shades of meaning, and the finest and most hair-splitting distinctions in thought, may be set forth and conveyed to other minds with a precision truly wonderful. So far, indeed, is this true, that whether existing as cause or effect, the curious inquirer may trace the wavy line of civilization from the wild hordes of Tartary to the polished inhabitants of Berlin, by exactly following the progress and more elevated structure of the languages of the divers countries through which he may pass, from the disjointed jargon of Beloochistan to the learned and philosophic lan- guage of Germany. It will be further found on inquiry o INTRODUCTION. and reflection, that the desire of becoming acquainted with the various signs and sounds used by the inhabitants, both ancient and modern, of different portions of the earth for the expression of the same ideas, has also kept pace or rather increased with social and intellectual improvement among nations. The North American Indian, proud of his native forest and of his naked form, feels his unwritten gib- berish adequate to all his wants, and never spends a thought on the mode in which neighboring nations differ from his own tribe in their forms of speech, The Turkish mer- chant or the Mohammedan dervis, one half animated under the influence of his opium and his pipe, is satisfied if he can give vent to the few words understood by his customer, or misapprehended by his votary, his dull intellect having never been taught to stray beyond the confines of his cof- fee or his sherbet. But pass within the borders of enlight- ened France, or cross the channel which separates the continent from the research of England, and you may be- hold men who, not content with studying the various lan- guages that are now spoken throughout the different king- doms of Europe ; who, not satisfied with analysing the Latinity of Lucan, the Greek of Aristophanes, or the He- brew of Maimonides, are searching for the hidden myste- ries contained in the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and in the still more curious and recondite inscriptions of Central America, or are loading their brains with the numerous dialects of the vast territory of Hindostan. One may there admire the labors of a Champollion or a Jomard, of a Clarke or a Porson, of a Sir William Jones or a Warren Hastings. We have intimated that this desire has increased with the rise and progress of the arts and sciences, and the gene- ral diffusion of letters. Is not this true ? Compare the condition of the European world from the fifth to the fif- 10 INTRODUCTION. teenth century ; from the time when the swarms of bar- barians from the northern hive overspread Italy, till the period of the invention of printing, of the compass, and of gunpowder. Then all learning, and all desire for learning, Were confined to the cloister to a knowledge of writing, and of the Latin and Greek languages for performance of religious rituals, and the understanding of the New Testa- ment. Then every tribe and every feudal territory looked upon its neighbors as barbarians whose dialects, or whose customs and laws, were unworthy of being known. Now the craving for foreign languages is without limit : every school-miss must smatter some French, or be able to repeat in the original some of Goethe's lyrics ; and no man thinks himself educated, even in this steam-generating age and country, without a tolerable acquaintance with the classics, and some knowledge of more than one modern language besides his vernacular. And should not this increased and ever increasing desire of becoming acquainted with the modes of thought and expression of those nations which are now numbered with the dead and belong only to his- tory, as well as of those which are still in existence, but which are separated from us by territorial limits and by difference of language, be, within certain bounds, encou- raged ? We answer that it should, and we would endeavor, as far as we are capable, to give it a right direction. That there are defects in our present system of education, no one can doubt. Too much, by far too much time is spent by our youth in lumbering their heads with the languages of ancient Greece and Rome ; in scanning hexameters and writing anapests. Years of exertion when the mind is fresh and the memory strong, are to a great extent wasted in the acquirement of information which can, comparatively speaking, be but of little practical advantage in future life. Who will question for a moment that all the boasted disci- INTRODUCTION. pline of mind so fondly attributed to a study of the classics, and all the elegance of taste supposed to be derived from a familiarity with Cicero and Virgil, may be equally in- ' sured from a thorough knowledge of the language and writings of Mendelsohn, of Schiller, and of Goethe, at the same time that we are mastering a living tongue used by millions of the most enlightened of men, and of incalcu- lable benefit in our intercourse with the world ? Change of case by change of termination, declension of articles, prepositions governing genitives, datives, and accusatives, and inversion of sentences, may all be found, ready to tempt the ardor and puzzle the ingenuity of the student. Let us be understood. We live in an age of energy and of improvement, and in a country peculiarly distinguished for its rapid advancement and for the restless and unwearied ambition of its inhabitants. We are men at a time of life when tutelage has not ceased in other countries. We leave our homes and our friends, mere youths, in search of a new settlement and a sudden fortune, and do not return to the place of our birth until we can write ourselves " the member" from some western district, or have been favored by the blind goddess. All here have equal political rights ; the highest honors and the noblest stations are open equally for the rich and the poor, for the high and the low ; and the consequence is, a corresponding population — a popu- lation anxious to acquire only those elements of informa- tion which can be brought into immediate use. And hence there never has been a land that has given rise to so much improvement in the arts — without science j to so many orators — without learning ; to so much legislation — without statesmen. We make a professional man as we make a journey — by steam ; we select a congressman as we select a wife — by accident, or under the influence of feeling. In such a country, we confess, we do not expect 12 INTRODUCTION. to find men devoting their whole lives to the thorough and masterly comprehension of dead languages, in this way secure of a place among the scholars and the venerated men of learning among their own people. We do not, in the present state of things, expect to find an American Porson or Schrevelius. Such men are too plodding, such learning is too solid for so energetic and so electro-mag- netic a country. We would endeavor, then, but without taking away the means of acquisition from those desirous of emulating European scholarship and erudition ; we would endeavor, I say, to make education more practical and better adapted to the age and country in which we live. We would have more time bestowed in our colleges upon the modern languages at the expense of Latin, and especi- ally of Greek ; and we would also extend the ordinary pro- grammes of our schools so as to embrace the Anglo-Saxon, the full sister of the German and English, the daughter of the same common parent, the Teutonic, for the reasons which we are about to assign. It will scarcely be denied that the first object of all who have any pretensions to the outlines of an education, should be a thorough comprehension of their mother tongue — its power — its character — its elements. Nothing has ever appeared to us more ridiculous than the abundant and pedantic Latin and Greek quotations of a man igno- rant of his vernacular — learned in Horace and Juvenal, but shamefully negligent of Murray and Webster — at home in all the wars of Ceesar, but to whom the splendid produc- tions of our mighty Shakspeare are a sealed book. Such a man reminds us of a mathematician who can calculate the recurrence of an eclipse with accuracy, but who can- not work out the simplest question in discount j of a che- mist who will furnish us with the most correct and minute analysis of the waters of a mineral spring, but who blun- *13 2 INTRODUCTION. ders in decomposing common chalk. We hope the day is not far distant when such men may be rarely met with, and we think it will depend in some degree on the intro- duction of the study of the Anglo-Saxon into our colleges. The English, like all other languages of the present day, is a derivative language, and its great bulk comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon, the Latin, the Greek, and the French. Of these four by far the greater number of words, and those of the most important, necessary, and forcible sorts, are derived immediately from the Anglo-Saxon.* From the information that we can collect on the subject, it may be set down as very nearly certain that about five-eighths of our language is Anglo-Saxon, three-six- teenths Latin, one-eighth Greek, and the remainder a compound of French, Spanish, and other tongues. It will thus be seen how important a part, even numerically consi- dered, the Anglo-Saxon plays in the formation of the Eng- lish. Sharon Turner, whose history of that ancient people is replete with learning, with industrious research and with correct views, has, in his Chapter on the Language of the Anglo-Saxons, marked the number of words immedi- ately derived from that language in several passages select- ed from the Bible and from some of our most classic writers, such as Shakspeare, Milton, Thomson, Addison, Locke, Pope, Swift, Hume, Gibbon, and Johnson. On counting the number of Anglo-Saxon words, and comparing it with the number derived from other sources, it will be found * Under the head of William the Conqueror, Hume in his celebrated history has the following sentence: "From the attention of William, and from the extensive foreign dominions long annexed to the crown of England, proceeded that mixture of French which is at present to be found in the English tongue, and which composes the greatest and best part of our language." Our remarks will be found to be in collision with those of the great historian, and yet we think there can be little doubt that in this instance Hume has fallen into error. 14 INTRODUCTION. that in no selection is more than one-third not Saxon, and in some less than one-tenth, the largest proportion of words of Saxon origin being contained in those authors who are confessedly the most forcible in their expressions, and the most admired as models of strength ; the translation of the Bible by the Bishops, commonly known as King James's Bible, standing at the head of the list for the number of Saxon words, as it unquestionably does for terseness and force of language. We should, therefore, be doing injus- tice to the services rendered us by the good old Saxons, were we to look merely to the number of words transplanted from this source into the vernacular. For although of the forty thousand forms, exclusive of inflections and partici- ples, now comprising the English language, more than twenty thousand, which exceeds the number of words contained in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Lexicon, are incor- porated into it from the Anglo-Saxon, yet we believe that we are far more indebted to our Saxon progenitors be- cause of the peculiar kinds of words we have obtained from them, as well as from the influence which they have exerted on the grammatical construction and the idiomatic expressions of our language, than on account of the actual proportion of them. Sir Walter Scott, than whom no man knew better the power of our most forcible language, or has probed more deeply the sources of its strength and flexibility, has borne testimony to the value and energy of our Anglo-Saxon derivatives in that masterpiece — his Ivanhoe. In a conversation between Gurth, the swine- herd, and Wamba, the jester, in which Gurth is calling upon Wamba to " up and help him, an' he be a man," to get together the wandering swine, Wamba says : " Gurth, I advise thee to call offFango, and leave the herd to theii destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of travel- ling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can 15 INTRODUCTION. be little else than to be converted into Normans before morning to thy no small ease and comfort." "The swine turned Norman to my comfort!" quoth Gurth ; " expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed to read riddles." " Why, how call you these grunting brutes, running about on their four legs ?" demanded Wamba. " Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, " every fool knows that." " And swine is good Saxon" said the jester, " and how call you the sow when she is flayed and drawn and quar- tered, and hung up by the heels like a traitor." " Pork," answered the swine-herd. " I am very glad every fool knows that, too," said Wam- ba, " and pork, I think, is good Norman French, and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name ; but becomes a Nor- man, and is called pork, when she is carried to the castle hall to feast among the nobles ; what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha ?" " It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate." " Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba in the same tone. " There is old alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondmen, such as thou ; but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consume him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner ; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."* * These remarks might be extended to other words of the same class — the Saxon sheep was converted into the Norman mutton, for the use of the feudal lords and a voting hen tasted more palatable 16 INTRODUCTION. And again he adds, in speaking of the introduction of the language of William the Conqueror, " In short, French was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of jus- tice, while the far more manly and expressive Anglo-Saxon was abandoned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew no other." An elegant writer in the Edinburgh Review, of 1839, sums up thoroughly and beautifully, and more forcibly than we could, the items of the debt of gratitude we owe to the Anglo-Saxon (as by far the most important and in- fluential element of our language), in the following words, which we are glad to adopt. " In the first place," says the reviewer, " English Gram- mar is almost exclusively occupied with what is of Anglo* Saxon origin. Our chief peculiarities of structure and of idiom, are essentially Anglo-Saxon ; while almost all the classes of words, which it is the office of Grammar to in- vestigate, are derived from that language. And though these peculiarities of structure may occupy little space, and these words be very few compared with those to be found in Johnson's Dictionary, they enter most vitally into the constitution of the language, and bear a most important part in shaping and determining its character. Thus, what few inflections we have, are all Anglo- Saxon. The English genitive, the general modes of forming the plural of nouns, and the terminations by which we express the compara- tive and superlative of adjectives, er and est ; the inflec- tions of the pronouns ; of the second and third persons and seemed better adapted to Norman stomachs, served up as a French pullet, &c, &c. It was the perusal of the above quotation from the admirable production of the Wizard of the North, many- years since, that first turned the writer's attention to the study of the Anglo-Saxon ; nor is this ihe only favor that he has to acknowledge as conferred on him, by a careful attention to the writings of this great Novelist, Poet, Historian, and Antiquary. INTRODUCTION. present and imperfect of the verbs ; of the preterites and participles of the verbs, whether regular or irregular, and the most frequent termination of our adverbs (ly) are all Anglo-Saxon. The nouns, too, derived from Latin and Greek, receive the Anglo-Saxon terminations of the geni- tive and the plural, while the preterites and participle of verbs derived from the same sources, take the Anglo-Saxon inflections. As to the parts of speech, those which occur most frequently, and are individually of most importance, are almost wholly Saxon. Such are our articles and de- finitives generally : as a, an, the, this, that, then, those, many, few, some, one, none; the adjectives, whose com- paratives and superlatives are irregularly formed, and which (for reasons on which it would be irrelevant to speculate here) are in every language among the most ancient, com- prehensive in meaning, and extensively used : the separate words more and most, by which we as often express the forms of comparison as by distinct terminations ; all our pronouns, personal, possessive, relative, and interrogative ; nearly every one of our so-called irregular verbs, including all the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will, may, can, must, by which we express the force of the principal varieties of mood and tense ; all the adverbs most frequently employed, and the prepositions and conjunctions almost without ex- ception. " Secondly. The names of the greater part of the objects of sense, in other words, the terms which occur most fre- quently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid con- ceptions, are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of the most striking objects in visible nature, of the chief agencies at work there, and of the changes which pass over it, are Anglo-Saxon. This language has given names to the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, stars ; to three out of the four elements, earth, fire, water / three out of the four sea- ls INTRODUCTION. sons, spring , summer, winter ; and, indeed, to all the natu- ral divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, midday, midnight, sunrise, sunset; some of which are amongst the most poetical terms we have. To the same language we are indebted for the names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail, sleep, thun- der, lightning ; as well as of almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful in external scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and stream, &c. The same may be said of all those productions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms which form the most fre- quent subjects of observation or discourse, or which are in- vested with the most pleasing and poetic associations ; of the constituent parts or visible qualities of organized or un- organized beings, especially of the members of the human body, and of the larger animals. Anglo-Saxon has also furnished us with that numerous and alwa} 7 s vivid class of words, which denote the cries, postures, and motions of animated existence. These are amongst the most ener- getic that any language can supply ; for the same reason that words expressive of individual objects are always stronger than general terms. It is a sound and universal maxim of rhetoric, that the more abstract the term is, the less vivid — the more special, the more vivid. Now, al- most all the words which are expressive of these speciali- ties of posture and bodily action, are the purest Saxon ; such as to sit, to stand, to lie, to run, to walk, to leap, to stagger, to slip, to slide, to stride, to glide, to yawn, to gape, to wink, to thrust, to fly, to swim, to creep, to crawl, to spring, to spurn, &c. If all this be true, we need not be surprised at the fact, that in the descriptions of ex- ternal nature, whether by prose writers or by poets, the most energetic and graphic terms are almost universally Anglo-Saxon. It is as little matter of wonder, that in 19 INTRODUCTION. those simple narratives in which genius and wisdom at- tempt the most difficult of all tasks — that of teaching phi- losophy without the forms of it, and of exhibiting general truths in facts and examples, leaving the inferences to be drawn by the instinctive sagacity of human nature — the terms are often almost without exception Anglo-Saxon. It is thus with the narratives of the Old Testament — the his- tory of Joseph, for instance — and w 7 ith the parables of the New ; perhaps the only compositions in the world which can be translated without losing much in the process, and which, into whatever language translated, at once assumes a most idiomatic dress. The same remark holds good to a certain extent of ' Robinson Crusoe,' i the Vicar of Wake- field,' ' Gulliver's Travels,' and other works, in which the bulk of the words are pure Saxon. " Thirdly. It is from this language we derive the words which are expressive of the earliest and dearest connex- ions, and of the strongest and most powerful feelings of our nature; and which are consequently invested with our' oldest and most complicated associations. Their very sound is often a spell for the orator and the poet to ' con- jure withal.' It is this language which has given us names for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friends. It is this which has furnished us with the greater part of those metonymies, and other figurative expressions, by which we represent to the imagination, and that in a single word, the reciprocal duties and enjoyments of hospitality, friendship, or love. Such are hearth, roof, fireside. The chief emotions, too, of which we are susceptible, are expressed in the same lan- guage as love , hope, fear, sorrow, shame ; and what is of more consequence, to the orator and the poet, as well as in common life, the outward signs by which emotion is indi- cated are almost all Anglo-Saxon. Such are tear, smile, INTRODUCTION. * blush, to laugh, to weep, to sigh, to groan. In short, the words generally expressive of the strongest emotions or their outward signs, as well as of almost all the objects or events calculated to call forth either, in all the more stir- ring scenes of human life from the cradle to the grave, are of Saxon origin. This class of words, therefore, both from the frequency with which they are used and from the depth of meaning attached to them, must necessarily form one of the most important and energetic portions of the language. " Fourthly. The words which have been earliest used, and which are consequently invested with the strongest as- sociations, are almost all of a similar origin. This, indeed, follows from what has been already said ; for, if the words descriptive of the most ordinary objects of sense, and of the principal varieties and signs of emotion, are Anglo-Saxon, such, from the course of development which the human mind takes, must necessarily be the terms which first fall upon the ear of childhood. Still the fact that they are the earliest, gives them additional power over the mind — a power quite independent of the meaning they convey. They are the words which fall from the lips most dear to us, and carry back the mind to the home of childhood and to the sports of youth. That vocabulary was scanty ; but every word, from the earliest moment to which memory can turn back, has been the established sign of whatever has been most familiar or most curious to us. " Fifthly. Most of those objects about which the practi- cal reason of man is employed in common life, receive their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the language for the most part of business : of the counting-house, the shop, the market, the street, the farm : and however miserable the man who is fond of philosophy or abstract science might be, if he had no other vocabulary but this, we must recollect 21 INTRODUCTION that language was made not for the few but the many, and that that portion of it which enables the bulk of a nation to express their wants and transact their affairs, must be considered of at least as much importance to general hap- piness, as that which serves the purposes of philosophical science. " Sixthly. Nearly all our national proverbs, in which it is truly said, so much of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute the manual and vade-mecum of hob-nailed philosophy, are almost wholly Anglo-Saxon. " Seventhly. A very large proportion (and that always the strongest) of the language of invective, humor, satire, and colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo-Saxon. As to invective, the language of passion is always very ancient ; for men were angry and out of temper long before they were phi- losophers or even merchants. The yocabulary of abuse amongst most nations is not only very copious, but always singularly hearty and idiomatic. Almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, contempt, and indignation, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Nearly all the obnoxious words and phrases which cause duels and sudden pugilistic contests, are from this language ; and a very large proportion of the prosecutions for ' assault and battery,' ought, in all fairness, to be charged on the inconvenient strength of the vernacular. The Latin, we apprehend, much to its credit, is very rarely implicated in these unpleasant broils, although it often has a sly way of insinuating the very same things without giving such deadly offence. Again, in giving expression to invective, we naturally seek the most energetic terms we can employ. These, as already said, are the terms which are the most special in their meaning, and the bulk of such words are Anglo-Saxon, particularly those which denote the outward modes of action and the personal peculiarities indicative of 22 INTRODUCTION. the qualities that serve either to excite or express our con- tempt and indignation. Once more, the passions often seek a more energetic expression in metaphor and other tropes ; but then such figures are always sought — and necessarily, considering the purpose — in mean and vulgar objects, and the majority of the terms which denote such objects are Anglo-Saxon. The dialect of the scullery and kitchen alone furnishes our newspaper writers with a large portion of their figurative vituperation, and it is hard to say what they would do without ' scum,' l dregs,' ' off- scouring,' 'filth,' and the thousand other varieties sup- plied from such sources. Similar observations apply to the language of satire and humor. The little weaknesses, the foibles, the petty vices, the meannesses, the ludicrous pecu- liarities of character, with which these are chiefly con- cerned, as well as the modes of speech, dress, action, habit, etc., by which such peculiarities are externally in- dicated, are for the most part Anglo-Saxon. Here, too, as in giving expression to invective, the speaker or writer is anxious for the sake of energy to secure the utmost spe- ciality of terms ; while the metaphors and other forms of figurative expression, to which he is prompted by the very same reasons, are necessarily drawn from the most familiar, ordinary, and often vulgar objects. As to the language of familiar dialogue and colloquial pleasantry, we know it is always in a high degree idiomatic both in the terms and phrases employed, and in the construction, and this is a principal reason why the comic drama in every language —and we may say the same of satire — is so difficult to a foreigner. 11 Lastly, it may be stated as a general truth, that while our most abstract and general terms are derived from the Latin, those which denote the special varieties of objects, qualities, and modes of action, are derived from the Anglo- INTRODUCTION. Saxon Thus, move and motion are very general terms, and of Latin origin ; but all those terms for expressing nice varieties of bodily motion, enumerated some time since, as well as ten times the number which might be added to them, are Anglo-Saxon. Sound is perhaps Latin, though it may also be Anglo-Saxon, but to buzz, to hum, to clash, to rattle, and innumerable others, are Anglo-Saxon. Color is Latin, but white, black, green, yellow, blue, red, brown, are Anglo-Saxon. Crime is Latin, but murder, theft, robbery — to lie, to steal, are Anglo-Saxon. Member and organ, as applied to the body, are Latin and Greek, but ear, eye, hand, foot, lip, mouth, teeth, hair, finger, nostril, are Anglo-Saxon. Animal is Latin, but man, cow, sheep, calf, cat, are Anglo-Saxon. Number is immediately French, remotely Latin ; but all our cardinal and ordinal numbers, as far as million, are Anglo-Saxon, and that would have been so too, if it had ever entered the heads of our barbarous ancestors to form a conception of such a num- ber." How, then, can it be doubted, after this beautiful sum- mary of all the words, inflections, grammatical influences, and advantages, that we have derived from the Anglo- Saxon, that the most certain and shortest method of arriv- ing at a thorough and correct comprehension of the Eng- lish is by the study of its most important and powerful element ? What chemist would think himself acquainted with the properties and characteristics of water, who did not know the virtues of oxygen ? What mineralogist could lay claim to a knowledge of the Granite Rock, who knew not the properties of Mica, or Feldspar, or Quartz ? His knowledge would extend no further than that of the daily laborer, whose life, is spent in hewing the rock into shape — or of the South American water carrier, whose estimate of the properties of his commodity is regulated 2A INTRODUCTION. by the supply and demand. How often has it been re- peated that a study of the classics is important, because it enables us to understand more thoroughly and employ more correctly English words ! And yet we do not derive one half the number of words from the Latin and Greek together, that we do inherit from the Anglo-Saxon ; and, as we have before shown, in the still more important in- fluence on the construction and character of our tongue, the classical languages bear no comparison with the Anglo- Saxon. Indeed, with the exception of some synonyms, and some few mere liquid and poetical derivatives, our Teuton brethren, the Germans, have acted more wisely in making their language all-sufficient for itself, and in form- ing their technical and scientific compound words from ele- ments preexisting in their own vernacular. They have no occasion to do it, and do not resort to what are called the learned languages for their scientific and metaphysical ex- pressions ; and yet no one will pretend to deny, that, as they are the deepest and finest thinkers, so also are they amply supplied with words expressive of the nicest distinc- tions in German transcendentalism, and of the most accurate definitions in science.* Instead of calling in the aid of the Greek to teach them Geography and Astronomy, they are given the same information under the far more expressive and idiomatic words E rdheschreihung and Stemkunde ; instead of relying on the Latin for venesection and ampu- tation, they are equally skilful with the good old German compounds aderlassen and abschneidung — words, which, compounded of elements already existing in the language, * We are aware that some of the late German writers, hankering after foreign idioms, have adopted the French Synonyms of scien- tific words derived from, the Latin and Greek, instead of their own compounds, and, like Carlyle, have only marred the beautiful origi- nal bv their unnecessary Latinisms and Hellenisms. "23 3 INTRODUCTION. are far more forcible, because the components themselves bring to our minds ideas independently of their connexion, just as play-fellow, sweet-heart, and love-letter, speak more directly to the feelings than companion, mistress, and billet- doux, and as thunder-bolt, earth-quake, and whirlpool, carry destruction in their very sound. We would not wish to be understood, as denying that our language has derived greater variety, more elegance, and in some cases more aptness of expression, from the in- termixture of Latin and Greek words. There can be no doubt that to these languages we are indebted for many in- valuable synonyms, for many beautiful and sonorous words, and for some modes of expression that we would not wil- lingly part with : but in most cases, their assistance has been rendered at the expense of vigor and vividness- Strength has been sacrificed to beaut} r , earnestness to ele- gance. Still less would we wish to be understood by what we have said as inculcating an entire neglect of the study of the classics. No one can delight more in dwell- ing on "the linked sweetness long drawn out," of the in- comparable Homer ; no one can enjoy more keenly the beauties of Virgil, or laugh with more real heartiness over the comedies of Terence ; no one can appreciate more fully, or feel more forcibly the strength, the beauty, and the taste, displayed in the immortal orations of Demosthe- nes and Cicero than we have ever done. We would not have them neglected or disparaged. But if they are to be read and studied for the purpose of acquiring a more correct and intimate knowledge of our own language, how much more does the Anglo-Saxon merit the attention of the English, or American, or German student ? If they are not to be neglected, and if so much time is spent in their acquisition by our youth, how much more of the stu- dent's time ought to be devoted to the great fountain of INTRODUCTION. his mother tongue ? We would have every one of our youth make himself acquainted with the character, con- struction, and vocabulary of this language. Deep scho- larship in Anglo-Saxon we do not expect. That must of course be a rare commodity in any country — rarer in ours for reasons already assigned : but a general acquaintance with the language we firmly expect and sincerely hope to see a very common and ordinary acquirement at no remote period — a period when, indeed, it will be considered dis- graceful to a well-bred Englishman or American — " utterly disgraceful to a man who makes the slightest pretensions to scholarship, to be ignorant as multitudes — otherwise well-informed — now are of the history and structure of the English tongue ; and above all, of the genuine relations of modern English to that ancient dialect of the great Teu- tonic family, which has ever been and still is incomparably the most important element in its composition." But to those who aspire to be orators or poets, this study recommends itself with peculiar force. If the speaker is desirous of appealing to the passions — of arous- ing the inmost feelings, he must resort to those words which present most strongly and vividly to the mind the idea he is endeavoring to impress. And surely those words which are most specific — those expressions which are associated with our earliest and tenderest feelings — those phrases which bring to mind our closest ties, are such as are best calculated to rivet our attention and chal- lenge our sympathy. And all such words are, as we have already said, native Saxons. If the poet would pour forth a song framed to draw the tear from the manly eye ; if he would bind together stanzas that should fire us with feel- ings of indignation, or arouse us to deeds of valor, he must seek for tender associations, or for strong and ener- getic language, in the suggestive words derived from the 27 INTRODUCTION. Anglo-Saxon. Examine the speeches of those English or American orators who have been the most effective and powerful in addressing an assembly — who have been best able to play upon the feelings, " sive risus essent mo- vendi, sive lachrymae ;" analyse those English national songs which have electrified whole bodies of men, and stirred up to unparalleled exertion armies of soldiers, and see whether three-fourths of the words in both are not Saxon " as it were to the marrow bone." On the atten- tion of the divine, the philosopher, and the philologist, it urges its strongest claims, in being an important and inte- resting link in the chain of Ethnography. The latest and most astonishing discoveries in modern science — the most improved theories of light — the revelations of geology — the chronology of the Chinese — the city of Petra — all that at first seemed to wage war with the Mosaic cosmogony, has only tended to confirm the sacred account ; and we do not doubt that the further inquiries and researches of such men as Wiseman, the younger Adelung, and William von Humboldt, will place Ethnography among the first of sci- ences, as showing conclusively that all the various lan- guages, dead and living, were derived from one original common parent. The study of the Anglo-Saxon will fur- ther this result ; and therefore must its introduction be acceptable to the friends of the Bible. In the following pages the Author of the Anglo-Saxon Grammar (so far as the writer of this Introduction is able to judge, or has had an opportunity of examining) has brought together all that is valuable and known in regard to the structure and grammatical accidents of the language. The sources from which he has had to draw, and the ma- terials with which he was obliged to construct, are well known to all scholars, to be limited indeed ; and we feel that we are but doing sheer justice, and not stepping aside 28 INTRODUCTION, from propriety, when we say thus in advance, that he has made the. best and most advantageous structure possible out of such scanty materials, and has wisely and judiciously drawn from such limited sources. This is the only com- plete Grammar of the language with which we are ac- quainted, and certainly the only Anglo-Saxon Grammar published in this country. We hope, therefore, that it will not need to be stamped first with the seal of European ap- proval, before it can be received into favor in our own coun- try : but that it will at once, as it certainly deserves, meet with its proper reward, and be adopted as a text-book in our Colleges and High Schools. To that purpose it will be found adapted no less from its size and cheapness, than its real worth. At the same time that it contains all that is necessary and valuable on the subject, it is not encumbered with labored references to collateral languages, which are thought to exhibit great research in the compiler, particu- larly in reference to- a language but little known. From this, the Author (with all the learning that we know him to possess) has judiciously abstained, even at the expense of not being considered so good a linguist as he actually is. At the request of the publishers, and with the permis- sion of the Author, we have written these pages in the hope that they may serve, in some slight measure, to awaken the attention of the American public to the im- portance of the study of the Anglo-Saxon, and may aid by that means in increasing the admiration which we ought to entertain for our noble and sonorous language ; so that every one may realize the praises bestowed upon it by old Camden, who, in his quaint " Remains," assures us that, " Whereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The Italian is pleasant, but without sinews, as a still, fluting water. The French, delicate, but even nice as a woman, scarce daring to open her lippes for fear of marring her 29 3* INTRODUCTION. countenance. The Spanish, majesticall, but fulsome, run- ning too much on the o, and terrible as the devill in a play. The Dutch, manlike, but withal very harsh, as one ready to pick a quarrel. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian ; the full sound of words to the French ; the variety of terminations to the Spanish, and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch : and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good pro- perties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus, when substantialnesse combineth with delightfulnesse, full- nesse with firmnesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and cor- rectnesse with stay'dnesse, how can the language which consisteth of all these, sound other than full of all sweet- ness ?" Baltimore, Md. 9 April, 1848. PART I— ORTHOGRAPHY. CHAPTER I, THE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. § 1. The Anglo-Saxon Alphabet contains twenty-three letters, which we give with their proper representatives in the Roman character, and with their correct sounds. 1 Form. Rep. and Sound. A a a a as in fat. B b b be ?? bad. E c 2 c ke » cot. D b d de ">•> did. e e 3 e e ?? met. F r f ef » find. It s 5 g ghe •>•> got. £ h 6 h ha 5? hat. I i 7 i i if pin. L 1 1 el -)"> Iambi CD m m em V me. N n n en )> neat. o » not. P P P pe » pence. R J* r er » rise. S r s es » . sir. T c t te ?> term. r> r th tha ?> thing. D $ th edh tt smooth. U u 9 u u jj full. F ? w we V willow. X X 10 X ix V six. Y y" y y ?? lyrical 31 ORTHOGRAPHY. § 2. a is pronounced like a in fate ; e like e in mete ; i like i in pine ; u like oo in coo/; and # like y in /yre. J.e has the sound of a in glad, and with the accent, one some- what broader and more diphthongal. 13 § 3. The letters j, k, q, v, and z, are not found in genu- ine Anglo-Saxon. C was used for k, as in Latin, and cw for q. V was only employed as a u calligraphic variation of «," 1S while the proper soft sound of z was never admit- ted in the language. § 4. The Anglo-Saxons used the following abbrevia- tions : for anb aud, *] and J- : for J>at and }>aet that, p : and for oftfte or, and -lice -ly, I. To denote the omis- sion of m likewise, they made a short stroke over the pre- ceding letter : as, J»a for }>am to the : }>onne then, they wrote }>6n. § 5. The only signs or notes of distinction which they employed, were one dot at the end of each sentence, or of each line of a poem, and three at the close of a complete discourse. 14 § 6. The Accentuation will be found wanting for the most part in the printed copies of Anglo-Saxon works, and in some it is altogether omitted. It was generally neglected by the older transcribers. 16 The student will perceive how necessary it is to the proper pronunciation of the language and in fixing the signification of words. Comparison with the Friesic, Lower German, Dutch, Ice- landic, and English, throws much light upon the subject. NOTES. 1 See Appendix A. a c : ch, and tch have in many instances succeeded to this letter, either single or double, in the formation of the English: thus, cild a child, wrecca a wretch. A similar transition has taken place in Swedish from the Old Norse, and in Italian from the Latin, but with- 32 NOTES. out a change of orthography. K, which expresses the peculiar sound of c, has also been adopted : as, cyng a king. Sc has very often passed into sh : as, rise, a fish, biscop or bisceop a bishop, naturalized from the Greek liritrKonog. It is probable that c was sometimes pronounced like Tc followed by y consonant, especially before the soft vowels, a sound still heard in cart , carve, and a few other words : as, cealf, cielf, pron. Jcyelf. Sc follows the same analogy, and was sounded like sk as occasionally heard in shy. 3 e : e before a, o, had the sound of y consonant, as in eorl, E ad- ward, eow, pronounced yorl, Yddward, yow, whence it appears to be inserted after c and g. .It is also omitted after these two letters, and sometimes interchanged with i. A f: /at the end of a syllable, or between two vowels had probably the sound off, whieh is further evident from the substitution of v, in its place in many instances. 6 g:g follows the analogy of c, but it seems also to have had a third sound, that of y, when placed between two of the letters e, i, y, or ae, and not unlikely at the end of words. It had the sound of y in the Moeso-Gothic, a sister dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, and easily passed into that letter in English : as, gear a year, daeg a day, ta'egl a tayl, and by a further change, tail. Cg is usually written for gg : as, licgan for liggan to lie down. It is probable that the liquid sound of c and g did not exist in the earlier period of the language. Subsequently other consonants ac- quired the same sound before u, as now heard in pure, tune, etc. 6 h : the sound of h was very hard, as in heord a herd. At the end of a word or syllable, or united with another consonant in clos- ing a syllable, it was guttural, as is plain from the later and stronger orthography, thurh through, leoht light, dohtor a daughter, in which gh has taken the place of simple h. It is to be regretted that in English there has been a transposition of the h when naturally coming before the w : as, hwit white, hwaer where, hwa who. 7 i; i has the sound of y consonant before e or u, as in iett yet, iugoth youth. Hence, it is said, the insertion of g in the present tense and present participle of all verbs in -ian : as, ic lufige, for ic lufie J love ; lufigende, for lufiende loving, from lufian to love. But see further, § 408. 8 ]? is the Runic D, which in some of the dialects was pronounced 33 ORTHOGRAPHY. TH. £) is a Roman capital with a small hyphen. These two cha- racters are often confounded by writers. b represents the hard and $ the soft sound of th. The former is generally used at the beginning, and the latter at the end of words and syllables. Rather than retain these two characters as is usually done in adopting the Roman, we have distinguished the tha from the edh by two dots under the th, which represents it : as, th. The English sometimes has the soft sound of th where the Anglo- Saxon has the hard one, as in this, there ; and vice versa. 9 u : u before a vowel has the sound of v. 10 x : this letter is but seldom used. Its constituents cs are pre- ferred. 11 y : the sound of this letter originally approached nearer that of the French u or the German u, than any which we have in English. The z'-sound, however, must have taken its place at a very early period. 12 Ae is set down by some as a distinct letter, as the Anglo-Saxons never admitted diphthongs, and such it must always be considered. Oe is seldom met with. It was introduced by the Scandinavians, but never adopted to any extent. Its sound is that of e. 13 Hence the peculiar form of our w, in Old Saxon written uu. But the Anglo-Saxon character is very ancient, — probably Runic in its origin. 14 In employing the Roman character, we have thought it better to introduce the signs now in use. * The grave, circumflex, and acute accents have all three been sometimes employed, but we think that the last alone is sufficient for all practical purposes. It is now impossible, to determine the nice shades of pronunciation in the language. 34 CHAPTER II. CHANGE OF LETTERS § 7. The student will observe many irregularities in the Anglo-Saxon language. These proceeded from the variety of writers, their little acquaintance with each other, the inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time, and other causes. Irregularities must obtain to a great extent in the early stage of every language. 1 The Anglo-Saxon writers very often confounded some letters, and used them indifferently for each other. They transposed, substituted, and inserted or added both vowels and consonants. The following are some of the principal changes. 2 1 . With regard to Consonants. § 8. -S,/, and u before a vowel, 3 are often interchanged : 1 Many of the various forms of words that we meet with evidently owe their existence to the carelessness of transcribers, while others belong to a difference of dialect. The Anglo- Saxon in its purest days, though in its early stage, was a highly cultivated tongue, with all the elements of indefinite improvement within itself. 2 The changes or permutations which letters, especially the vow- els, undergo in the derivation and inflection of words in Anglo-Saxon, are very numerous. These will be better learned as they appear in their proper places. « 3 Also p. " In all languages, and especially in the dialects of cog- nate languages, the letters employing the same organs of utterance are continually interchanged." 35 CHANGE OF LETTERS. as, beofer, beber a heaver ; l'fig, iuig ivy; ofer, ober, ouer over. § 9. C interchanges with g, k and q : * as, thonces, thonges of thanks; cyth, kyth kindred; cwen, quen a woman, wife, queen. It also, either single or double, frequently becomes h before s or th, and especially before t : as, ahsian for acsian, or axian to ask ; he sehth for he secth he seeks, from secan to seek ; hi strehton for hi strecton they stretched, from streccan to stretch. § 10. D and t are often used indiscriminately for each other : as, he mette for he metde he met, from metan to meet. § 11. G is changed into h in many cases : as, dahum for dagum with days ; burh for burg a town. It is added to words which end with i : as, hig for hi they ; and omit- ted in those which terminate in ~ig : as, dri for drig dry. It is also omitted before d and th : as, maedn for maegdn a maiden ; maeth for maegth power ; and before n, it is either left out, or gn becomes gen, or is transposed to ng : as, waegn, waen a wagon, vmin ; thegn, then, thaegen, theng, a servant, thane; regn, ren, reng rain. Ng is like- wise changed into nc and ngc : as, sang, sane a song ; ring, ringc a ring. § 12. H is sometimes changed into g : as, he thag for he thah he grew, from theon to grow. It is also found added to monosyllables ending in a vowel : as, freoh for freo free. § 13. L is written double or single indiscriminately at the end of monosyllables, but the reduplication ceases when, in lengthening the word, a consonant follows: as, well or wel well; N. eall, A. eal-ne all. It is also fre- quently aspirated : as, hlutan for lutan to bow. 4 K and q in later Saxon. Q combining one u- sound in itself, is followed by this letter instead of w, when substituted for c. CHANGE OF LETTEBS. § 14. M sometimes interchanges with/: as, emne- theow, efne-theow a fellow-servant. § 15. iV" follows the same law in regard to reduplication as /. § 16. R is often transposed in words : as, forst for frost frost ; gaers for graes grass. Like /, too, it is aspirated ; as, reod, hreod a reed; reol, hreol a reel. § 17. X is frequently supplied by cs : as, neorcsen for neorxen quiet ; or, it is changed into sc : as, tusc for tux a tusk or tuks. 2. With regard to the Vowels. § 18. A and ae interchange as follows : A and ae: as, apl, aepl an apple ; aecer, acer a field. A , aa, ae, ai and e : as, ac, aac, a'ec an oak ; ad, aad a heap ; a'er, ar, er ere, before ; an, a'en, ain one. A and e : as, arc, ere an ark ; elne, alne an ell. A and o, particularly before n in a short syllable : as, man, mon a man ; sand, sond sand ; ob, ab a beam. Ae and e: as, aeft, eft again; egsa, aegsa/ear. Ae and oe : as, aeghwaer, oeghwaer everywhere. Ae and y : as, aelc, ylc each one. § 19. Ej ea and eo as follows : JE, ae and ei : as, ege, aege, eige terror. .Ea, e, a, ae, and eo: as, ceaster, cester a fortified town ; eall or eal, al, ael all ; Easter, Eoster Easter. Ed, e and ae: as, eac, ec, a'ec also; ea, a'e water; ed and #: as > eathelic, ythelic easy. Eo, e and y : as, seolf, self, sylf self ; ea, io and i : as, seoc, seac, sioc, sic sick ; cm, and m, especially after iy : as, eowu, euwa an ewe ; sweord, swurd a sword. Note. — E is not unfrequently added at the end of words which do not require it, and rejected in many cases where it naturally belongs. 37 CHANGE OF LETTERS. § 20. / is interchanged with e and y : as, igland. egland, ygland (igland, egland, ygland ?) an island ; and likewise goes into ie and ii : as, il (il ?), iel, iil a hedge-hog. T and y also interchange : as. hi, \\j they. §21. is changed into e, i, u and y besides a : as, on, an, en, in in ; pearroc, pearruc a park ; ofer, yfer a shore. § 22. U is sometimes converted into eo, o and y : as, scucca, sceocca, scocca a devil; ufera, yfera higher. § 22. Y is changed into e, o, ie and i : as, yip, elp an elephant ; yrf, orf, ierfe, erfe cattle ; ylc, ilc same. Also #, into eo and u : as, yrre, eorre ire, anger ; ytra, litra outer. § 24. The forms which the same word often assumes, are various : as, safe, se, seo, sewe, siew a sea ; hwom, hwem, hwaem, hwamm, huomm, waem a corner ; stare, staer, stearn, staern a thrush ; rinan, renian, regnan, hregnan to rain; forod, forad, forud, frod old, debilitated? 6 The most of the forms coming under our notice in the inflection of words, will be given tor the convenience of the student. PART II— ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. PARTS OF SPEECH. § 25. There are nine Parts of Speech : the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection. § 26. These are divided into declinable and indeclinable. The declinable Parts of Speech are, the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun and Verb : the Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection are indeclinable. NUMBERS. § 27. There are two Numbers in Anglo-Saxon, the Sin- gular and Plural : as, smith a smith, smithas smiths. A Dual form, however, evidently exists in the pronoun of the First and Second Persons : as, ic I, wit we two : tliu thou, gyt ye two. 1 § 28. Nouns follow the declension to which they belong with regard to the formation of their plurals. But some are the same in both numbers : as, cild child, or children ; 1 Wit and git as Duals are also found in the Moeso- Gothic. One might suppose them to he the remains of a Dual that existed gen- erally in a more original language. But is not wit contracted from we we, and twegen, twa two] and gyt from ge ye and twegen, twa ? ETYMOLOGY. wif wife, or wives ; word word, or words. Others are used only in the singular : as, gold gold ; seolfer silver ; while many names of nations are found in the plural alone : as, Dene the Danes; Angle the Angles. Irregular plurals also exist : as, hoc a hook, be'c books ; mus a mouse, mfs mice; aeg an egg, aegru eggs. CASES. § 29. The Cases are four, the Nominative, Genitive, Dative and Accusative. 2 GENDERS. § 30. There are three, the Masculine, Feminine and Neuter. The Masculine and Feminine genders are often assigned to things without life. Hence there are two wsljs of dis- covering the gender of nouns : 1 . By the Signification ; 2. By the Termination. 1. By the Signification. § 31. The names of all animals of the male kind are masculine and those of the female kind are feminine, what- ever the final letter or syllable may be. 2. By the Termination? § 32. The Masculine terminations are, -a ; -el, -ol, -ul, or -1 ; -els ; -end ; -ere, or -er ; -ing ; -m ; -nath, -ath, or -oth ; -ot, or -t ; -scype or -scipe. 2 The Ablative case properly belongs to the Anglo-Saxon, but it is the same as the Dative, with the exception of a few distinct forms given by some grammarians. 3 These rules for determining the gender of nouns from the final syllable can be only general. The best mode of ascertaining it is by comparison with the Icelandic and German. 40 GENDERS AND DECLENSIONS. The Feminine are, -d, or -t ; -en ; -estre, -ystre, or -istre ; -isse, -ysse, or -esse ; -ele ; -nes, -nesse, -nys, or -nis ; -u, or -o ; -ung, or -ing ; -uth, or -th. The Neuter are, -ed, -et, or -ed ; -ern ; -incle ; -ling. Note 1. — Sunne or sunna sun is feminine, and raona moon is mas- culine. 4 Note 2.— The gender of compound words may be ascertained by that of the last part. DECLENSIONS. § 33. There are three Declensions, the First, Second and Third, distinguished by the ending of the Genitive case singular. General Rules for the Declensions. § 34. The Dative case singular is either like the Geni- tive, or it is formed from it by rejecting the s when the termination is -es. The Accusative singular is always like the Nominative, except when the Genitive ends in -an : it then takes the same termination. In all the declensions the Genitive plural ends in -a ; 5 the Dative in -urn, or -on 6 and the Accusative is like the Nominative. 4 The same is the case in many other languages. 5 Sometimes preceded byew^and again by r insertive. 6 Sometimes -an. CHAPTER II. THE ARTICLE § 35. The Anglo-Saxon has two Articles, both definite : se, seo, thaet, and the the. The former is declinable, and put before proper as well as common names : the latter is indeclinable, and often used for all the cases of se, seo, thaet, especially in adverbial expressions and in corrupt forms of the language. §36. Se, seo, thaet comprises the three genders, and is thus declined : Singular. m. N. se f. seo n. thaet the. G. thaes tha'ere thaes of the. D. tham tha'ere tham 1 to, for, with the A. thone tha thaet the. Plural. N. m. f. n. tha the. G. thara of the. D. tham to, for, with the. A. tha 2 the. For the origin of the Article, see § 119. 1 The peculiar form given for the Ablative singular is, m. f. n. thy' tha'ere thy'. As, mid thy' athe with the oath. Express forms in every case seem to be instrumental. 2 The following forms are also found : se, seo ; — seo, sio, theo, thaeo 5 — thaet both Nominative and Accusative, that, thet : — thaes, thas ; — tha'ere Genitive and Dative, there ; — tham, singular and plural, thaem, than and thon employed chiefly in adverbial expressions, thi also used like the, and thy' and thig; — thone, thaene, thaenne, thaen, thene, thanne ; — tha, principally the plural, thin, thy' and even tegg and teyy ; — thdra, tha'era, and also teggra and teyyra. 42 CHAPTER III. NO UNS . § 37. Nouns are divided into Proper and Common, both declinable. § 38. Synopsis of the Declensions. 1. j Singular. Plural. m. n. n. m. n. n. N, - - - -as -U. G. -es -es -es. -a -a -a (-ena). D. -e -e -e. -urn -um-um (-on, -an). A. - - - -as -u. m. f. n. 2. m. f. n. N. -a -e -e. -an -an -an. G. -an -an -an. -ena -ena -ena. D. -an -an -an. -um -um -um. A. -an -an -e. -an -an -an. f. f. 3. f. f. N. - -u. -a -a. G. -e ■e. -a -ena. D. -e -e. -um -um (-on, -an). A. -e -e. -a -a. DECLENS: [ON OF NOUNS . First Declension. § 39. This Declension is known by the Genitive sin- gular in -es. It includes a large part of the Anglo-Saxon nouns : almost all masculines ending in -dom, -end de- rived from participles, -ere, or -er, -els, -ing, -erd, -ord, -est, -ath, -eth, -oth, -scype, or -scipe, and generally those in -1, -m, -n and -r : also neuters in -e and -incle, those 43 ETYMOLOGY. ending in one consonant or more, dissyllables in -el, -ol, -ul, -en and -er, and the terminations -ed, -et, -od. §4C . Nouns ending in a consonant add -es to form the Genitive, while those in -e take -s alone : as, 3 Se smith the smith. Singular. N. se smith the smith. G. thaes smith-es 4 of the smith. D. tham smith-e to, for, with the smith. A. thone smith the smith. Plural. N. tha smith-as 5 the smiths, G. thara smith-a of the smiths. D. tham smith-um to, for, with the smiths A. tha smith-as 5 the smiths. Se ende G the end. Singular. N. se end-e the end. G. thaes end-es of the end. D. tham end-e to, for, with the end. A. thone end-e the end. Plural. N. tha end-as the ends. G. thara end-a of the ends. D. tham end-um to, for, with the ends. A. tha end-as 7 the ends. 3 The English Possessive or Genitive is derived from the Geni- tive singular of this declension, the e being omitted and the apostro- phe taking its place : as, Abrahames God Abraham's God, or the God of Abraham. 4 -es : sometimes -as, and -ys. 6 -as : occasionally -es; but in both cases only in that confusion of dialect styled Bano-Saxon. V. Analcda Anglo- Saxonica, Intro- duction, § 78. c Ende, aendej g:-ende. 7 It will be observed that nouns in -e differ from those ending 44 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. § 41. When monosyllables having ae before a single vvuuvuuui vyj. UU1U1C OU, Ol, . broth -rum A. broth-ra 20 ETYMOLOGY. § 60. Some nouns chiefly monosyllables, containing the vowels, a, d, u, and u, change these vowels in the Dative singular, and in the Nominative and Accusative plural : as, man 21 a man. Singular. N. man a man. G. man-nes of a man. D. men to , for, with a man. A. man a man. Plural. N. menn 22 men. G. man-na of men. D. man-num 23 to, for, with men. A. menn 22 men. se toth the tooth. Singular. N. se toth the tooth. G. etc. toth-es of the tooth. D. teth to, for, with the tooth. A. toth the tooth. Plural. N. tha teth the teeth. G. etc. toth-a of the teeth. D. toth-um to, for, with the teeth. A. teth the teeth. 21 Man, mann, mon, both Norn, and Ace. ; but sometimes mann* an and monnan in the latter, as if from 'manna', ' monna'. 22 Menn, men. 23 Mannum, manum. 52 N. cii G. cii-s D. C J A. cu N. cf G. cii-na D. A. c 7 N. seo burh G. etc.burg-e D. byrig 24 A. burh N. tha byrig 24 G. etc. burg-a D. burg-um A. byrig 24 IRREGULAR NOUNS. CU a COW. Singular. a cow. of a cow. to, for, with a cow, a cow. Plural. cows. of cows. cows. seo burh the city. Singular, the city, of the city, to, for, with the city, the city. Plural. the cities, of the cities, to, for, with the cities, the cities. §61. So also boc a book, broc breeches, fot a foot, gos a goose, liis a louse, miis a mouse, turf a turf, make in the Dative singular and in the Nominative and Accusative plural, bee, brec, fet, ges, lys, m^s, tyrf. § 62. Faeder a father, is indeclinable in the singular, 25 but the plural has the regular forms of the first declension. § 63. Nouns in -eo, or -eoh, preserve the 6 through all the cases except the Genitive and Dative plural : as, feo (feoh) money, Gen. feos, Dat. feo, etc. 24 Byrig, by rib, byrg, byrh, • 25 Faederes is sometimes found in the Genitive 63 5* ETYMOLOGY. § 64. Sa'e sea, a'e law, and ea water, are not declined in the singular, except in the Genitive, which, especially in composition, makes sa'ees, sacs and eas in the case of those two nouns. 26 § 65. Some nouns in -u change this letter into w or ew in the oblique cases : as, seam 27 device. Gen. searewes, or searwes, etc. Eowu 28 a ewe, has eowes in the Genitive singular, and eowa in the Nominative and Accusative with eowena in the Genitive plural. § 66. Feld 29 a field, has felda in the Dative, while the Genitive terminates in -es. § 67. The Dative of duru a door, is dura and duran besides the regular form dure. § 68. Freond 30 a friend, and feond 31 an enemy, have frjnd and fynd in the Nominative and Accusative plural. § 69. The termination -waru the population of a place collectively, has -e, -as, or -an in the Nom. plural. § 70. The inflection of names of men formed from femi- nine substantives is according to that of their primitives. § 71. Some nouns are indeclinable throughout : as, aethelo nobility. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. § 72. Nouns may be divided into Primitive and Se- condary. § 73. All Primitive Nouns in Anglo-Saxon are mono- syllabic in their nature : as, wer a man, ac an oak, mod mind, heord a herd. § 74. From these Primitive Nouns were originally formed many adjectives and verbs, which gave birth in 26 Ed, ewe, also has the form \6 for the Dative. 27 Seara, searo, syru. w Eoivu, euwa. 2 9 Feld, feald, fild. 30 Freond, frend, friend, si Feond, fiend. 54 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. turn to other nouns. It was also by combining two or more words that many were made. These either appear with their constituents in full, or they present one com- plete word or more, together with the fragment of another having a definite signification. § 75. The Secondary Nouns were formed : 1. By the union of two or more primitive nouns : as, accorn an acorn, from ac an oak, and corn a corn ; win- treow a vine, from win wine, and treow a tree ; ealand an island, from ea water, and land land. 2. By adding significant terminations, which are in fact other nouns, to primitive nouns and words already com- pounded, or derived : 32 as, cildhad childhood, from cild a 32 The following are the most of the terminations with definite meanings, which enter into the composition of common nouns : -a, denoting a person, an agent or actor, and sometimes an inanimate object. -dom, expressive of authority, property, right, office, quality, state or condition : Eng. -dom. . -e, denoting either a person, or an inanimate object. -els. causative. -end, denoting the agent. -en, with the idea of possession, or subjection. -ere, -er, from wer a man, and signifying a person or agent : Eng. -ex -em, from aern a house or room, denoting place. -estre, -istre, -ystre, either a complete word or the fragment of a word once probably signifying a woman : Eng. -stress, -ess. -had, which expresses person, form, sex, quality, state or condition: Eng. -hood. -ing, denoting, 1. action; 2. origin, and as such forming patronymics : Eng. -ing. -isse, -ysse, -esse, softened from ides, idese, a female ; Eng. -ess. -lac, -la'ec, -lacu, expressive of offering or giving : Eng. -lock. -ling, denoting, 1. a state or condition; 2. an image, example, and forming diminutives, besides seeming very often to imply contempt: Eng. -ling. ETYMOLOGY. child, and the termination -had ; sacdere a sower or seeder, from sa'ed seed, and -ere ; sangistre a songstress or song- woman, from sang a song, and -istre ; carleasnys careless- ness, from carleas careless, and -nys. 3. From verbs : as, gitsung desire, from gitsian to de- sire ; halgung a hallowing, consecration, from halgian to hallow, consecrate ; swutelung a manifestation, from swu- telian to manifest. 4. By employing primitive nouns without any change in a variety of figurative senses : as, cniht a boy, and also a youth, servant, attendant, disciple, client and soldier, a KNIGHT. 5. By the union of significant prefixes to primitive nouns and others already formed in any way: as, sib peace, concord, unsib discord, enmity ; rihtwfsnes, right- eousness, onrihtwi'snes unrighteousness ; cenning birth, ed- cenning regeneration. 22 -nes, -nis, -nys, signifying quality or state, and forming abstract nouns : Eng. -ness. -raeden, denoting, 1. a state or condition ; 2. the manner, reason, law or rule of action. -ric, as a termination, expressive of dominion or power : Eng. -ric. -scipe, scype, signifying state, office or dignity : E)ig. -ship. -ster, denoting guidance, direction, from steor-e id. -ung, denoting action or passion. -waru, from wer a man. See again § 69. Besides these there are others the significations of which cannot well be defined, but which seem to denote action, condition, quality, endowment, or the like. They are, -ed, -od, -ot, -d, -t ; -el, -ol, -1,-elej „nd, -natb, -noth, -ath, oth, -uth, -th, -o. -u, etc. 33 The prefixes being more or less common to different parts of speech, we deem it best to give them all in this place. They are, a-, ae-, negative, deteriorative or oj)positional. But a prefixed to verbs especially, in many cases either does not alter the meaning, or it adds some little force or intensity to the original signification : Eng. a-, sometimes in the latter sense. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. PROPER NAMES. § 76. The names of men and women as well as of places among the Anglo-Saxons being significant, are fre- quently compound words. Those of individuals appear to have been mostly the effect of caprice or the effusions of ael-, eall-, eal-, signifying alb: Eng. all-, al-. aeg-, sometimes ge-, from aelc each, every, and signifying every, united with pronouns and adverbs. and- denoting opposition. be- ; this prefix is used in various ways : 1. it is privative ; 2. it de- notes nearness 1 , intensity or excess ; 3 it usually gives an active signifi- cation to verbs ; 4. it seems to add nothing to the meaning : Eng. be- in some cases. ed-, signifying again. for- is either the English for, or it gives the idea of privation or deterioration. It is often confounded with fore-, although very differ- ent in meaning. ge- is employed in different ways like be-: Lit forms a sort of collective; 2. it often seems void of meaning ; 3. it gives verbs an ac- tive signification, or changes them from literal to figurative; 4. it is a mere augment. mis-, denoting a defect, an error, evil, unlikeness : Eng. mis- n-, negative : Eng. n-. on-, either privative or signifying in, on, upon: Eng. in-, un- or zVt, on, upon, detached. or-, privative. oth-, signifying from, out, out of; and sometimes like and-. to-, either to in English, or with tbe idea of deterioration. In the former case it should be written with the accent, in the latter, with- out it. sam-, signifying either half, or, when used as an abbreviation of samod, together with. un-, denoting privation, deterioration, or opposition. It is supposed either to be allied to the German ohne without, or to be derived from the prefix which follows. It is very probable that on- privative has the same origin : Eng. un-, in-. wan-, won-, from wana wanting, lacking, and implying a deficiency. wither-, denoting opposition. V. Anal., Anglo- Sax., Glossary, pass. 57 ETYMOLOGY. vanity ; but without doubt many were received from the illustrious in the early history of the race, and perpetuated from one generation to another. 34 The following are examples of compound proper names : 1. Names of men : as, Aethelwulf a noble wolf. Egbert bright eye. Dunstan a mountain stone. Sigfred the peace of victory. Eadric 35 happy and rich. 2. Names of women : as, Eadgifu a blessed gift. Aelfgifu. an clf-favor. Selethrytha a good threatener. Wynfreda a joyous peace. 34 The Anglo-Saxons sometimes added distinctive appellations to their original names. These were taken either from some peculi- arity of appearance, or from residence, office, trade, possession or affinity. Not unfrequently, too, the addition expresses the name of the individual's father. Thus we find, Wulfsic se blaca, Wulfsic the Pale; Eadric se hwita, or Eadric the White ; Aelfric aet Bertune, Aelfric living at Bertune; Leofwyn ealderman, or Leofwyn an Elder- man or Senator; Sweigen scyldwyrtha, or Sweigen a Shieldmaker ; Aegelpig munuc, or Aegelpig a Monk ; Eadwig his maeg, or Eadwig his Friend or Kinsman; Aelmaer Aelfrics suna, or Aelmaer Aelfric's Son; Wulfrig Madding, or Wulfrig the Son of Madd or Maddson. Hence the names of the Whites, Greens, Cliffords, Brightons, Alder- mans, Cooks, Smiths, Canons, Friends, Johnsons, Eppings, and those which owe their origin to ridicule or derision, and other causes. But it was not until after the Norman conquest that surnames became generally established in England. 35 Ric is used in the composition of male names both as a prefix and as a termination. 58 ADJECTIVES. 3. Names of places : 36 as, Cynges-tun the king's town, Kingston. Cyric-burh the church city, Chirhury. Waering-wic a fortress-dwelling, Warwick. CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES. § 77. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon have variable termi- nations, to correspond with the nouns which they describe. § 78. They have two forms of declension, the Indefi- nite and Definite. § 79. The Indefinite form is used when the adjective stands alone with its substantive : the Definite when it is preceded by an article, or by a demonstrative or possessive pronoun, even when the last is governed in the Gen. case. § 80. Synopsis of the Declensions. Indefinite Terminations. N. Singular. m. f. n. Plural. m. f. n. -e. G. -es -re -es. -ra. D. -um -um -um. 1 -um. A. -ne -e - -e. 36 There are some terminations which are common to names of places : as, burh a city, tun a town, ceaster, or cester from the Latin castrum a fortified camp, cities so called being on such sites; -wic, the present -wich, as well as -wick, a dwelling, station, village, castle cr bay, according to the situation of the places, and others. 1 The distinct terminations given for the Ablative singular are. m. f. n. -e -re -e. 59 ETYMOLOGY. N. Singul m. -a Definite Terminations, ir. f. n. -e -e. Plural. m. f. n. -an. G. -an -an -an. -ena. 2 D. -an -an -an. -um. A. -an -an -e. -an. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. Indefinite Adjectives. §81. All Adjectives of one syllable, except those which contain ae before a single consonant ; also those ending in -e, participles in -ende, 3 -od, ed ; dissyllables in -el, etc.. are declined in the following manner : god good 2 Indef. Participles generally have -ra instead of this termination. 3 Nouns in -end derived from Indef. Participles and denoting the agent, are declined, as before stated, according to the 1st declension and should never be confounded with the participles themselves. The Anglo-Saxon writers always made the distinction. 60 Singular. m. f. n. N. god god god good. G. god-es god-re ! god-es of good. D. god-urr l god-re god-um to, for, with good. A. god-ne god-e m. f. n. god Plural good. N. god-e good. G. god-ra of good. D. god-urn to, for, u ith good. A. god-e good. § 82. Mono syllables ending in a single consonant pre- ceded by ae, w henever the same consonant is followed by DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. a 9 e, 0, or w, in the course of inflection change ae into a ; and thesej as well as polysyllabic adjectives formed by the derivative terminations, -ful, -ig,-isc,-leas, -lic,-sum, etc., and participles passive of the 2d and 3d conjugations in -en, make the Nominative singular feminine, and the No- minative and Accusative plural neuter in,-u : 4 as, laet 5 late. Singular. N. m. laet f. lat-u n. laet late. G. lat-es laet-re lat-es of late. D. lat-um laet-re lat-um to, for , with late. A. laet-ne lat-e laet Plural. late. m. N. lat- f. e n. lat-u late. G. lael -ra laet-ra of late. D. lat- um lat-um to, for, with late. A. lat- e lat-u late. § 83. Adjectives ending in -e, drop the e in declining : as, niwe new. Singular. in. f. n. N. niw-e niw-e niw-e new. G. niw-es niw-re niw-es of new. etc. etc. etc. Plural. m. f. n. etc. ' N. niw-e new. G. niw-ra etc. of new. etc. 4 Adjectives formed by derivative terminations, and participles in -en, are found however without the feminine in -u, while the neuter plural terminates in -e. 5 Laet, lat. 61 Q ETYMOLOGY. § 84. Those which end in a single consonant after a short vowel, double the consonant in declining ; but one consonant is omitted before -ne, -re, -ra : as, grim severe. m grim Singular. f. n. grim grim severe. grim- etc. mes grim-re etc. grim-mes etc. of severe etc. Plural. N. m. f. n. grim-me severe. G. grim-ra etc. of severe . etc. § 85. Dissyllables, when the inflection begins with a vowel, are often contracted halig holy. Singular. N. G. m. halig; halg-es f. n. m halig halig halig-re halg-es. holy, of holy etc. etc. etc. Plural. etc. m. f. n. N. halg-e holy. G. halig-ra of holy. etc. etc. Definite Adjectives. § 86. The inflections of Definite Adjectives are the same as those of the second declension of nouns. § 87. The definite termination of the Nominative sin- gular masculine, is always -a, and that of the feminine and neuter, -e : as, DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. se goda, seo gode, thaet gode Singular. v the good. m. f. n. N. se god-a seo god-e thaet god-e. G. thaes god-an tha'ere god-an thaes god-an. D. tham god-an thaere god-an tham god-an. 6 A. thone god-an tha god-an Plural. m. f. n. thaet god-e. N. tha god-an. G. thara god-ena. D. tham god-um. A. tha god-an. § 88. In all cases at i before a single consonant is changed into a in accordance with the rule given in § 82. se lata, sec ) late, tfiaet late the late. Singular. m. f. n. N. se lat-a seo lat-e thaet lat-e. G. thaes lat-an tha'ere lat-an thaes lat-an. D. tham lat-an tha'ere lat-an tham lat-an. A. thone lat-an tha lat-an Plvral. m. f. n. thaet lat-e. N. tha lat-an. G. thara lat-ena. D. tham lat-um. A. tha lat-an. § 89. Some adjectives, as, waedla poor, wana deficient , wanting, wraecca wretched, have only the definite form of declension, even when used in an indefinite sense. 6 The peculiar form given for tue Ablative singular is made by thy', tha'ere, thy' : as, m."" f. n. thy' god-an tha'ere god-an thy' god-an. 63 ETYMOLOGY. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. § 90. There are three degrees of comparison, the Posi- tive, Comparative, and Superlative. § 91. The Positive becomes the Comparative both defi- nite and indefinite by annexing the termination -ra for the masculine, and -re 7 for the feminine and neuter : as, smael small, smael-ra, smael-re smaller, indefinite, and se smael-ra, seo, thaet smael-re the smaller, definite. § 92. The Superlative is formed from the Positive inde- finitely by adding the termination -ost or -est, and defi- nitely by adding -esta for the masculine, and -este 8 for the feminine and neuter : as, smal-est smallest, and se smal esta, seo, thaet smal-este the smallest. Irregular Comparisons. § 93. The following list contains the most of these : Pos. a'er, adv. 9 Comp. a'era Superl. a'erest. ere, before eald old before yldra elder, older first. yldest. eldest, oldest. feaw feaw ost. few feor, adv. far fyrra farther fewest. fyrrest. farthest. 7 The termination -or, sometimes -ur and -ar, through which -ra, -re are ohtained, is never used but adverbially. 8 Instead of -ost, or -est, we sometimes find -ust and -ast, and in the place of -esta, -este, not unfrequently -osta, -oste, we meet with -ista or -ysta, -iste or -yste. 9 Variations in this and the following comparisons : A'er, ar, ear, er : a'era, a'erra, erra : a'erest, a'erost, erest. eald, aeld. feaw ; properly a Definitive Pronoun. See $ 107. feor, feorr. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. Pos. Comp. Superl. geong gyngra gyngest. young younger youngest god betera betst. good better best. heah hyrra hyhst. high higher highest. lang lengra lengest. long longer longest. lytel laessa laest. little less least. mycel mara maest. much more most. neah nearra nyhst. near nearer nearest. sceort scyrtra scyrtest. short shorter shortest. Strang strengra strengest strong stronger strongest. yfel wyrsa wyrst. em/ or 6acZ worse worst. Some form the Superlative by -mest, -myst, from maest most: as, geong, geonc, ging, gmng, gung : gyngra, geongra. betera, betra : betst, betest. heah, heag, heach, hea : hyrra, hyra : hyhst, hehst. lang, long. laessa, laess, indefinite. mycel, micel : maest, mest. neah, neahg, nah : nyhst, neahst. sceort, scort. Strang, strong, streng, straeng. wyrst, wyrrest, wyrest. 65 „ 6* ETYMOLOGY. Pos. Comp. Super!. aeft, adv. aeftera aeftermest. behind after aftermost. forth, adv furthra fyrmest. forth further foremost. inneweard innera innemest. inward inner inmost. laet laetra laetemest. late later latest. midd midmest. middle middlemost. nitheweard nythera nithemest. downward lower nethermost. northeweard northmest. northward northernmost. upweard ufera ufemest. upward upper upmost. uteweard utra litemest and fte and ftera. and ^temest. outward outer outmost. si'th sithra si'thmest. late later latest. 9 Aeft, eft, aefter, efter, aeftan : aeftermest, aeftermyst, aeftemyst, aeft- mest. fyrmest, formest, fyrst, first, fyrest. inneweard, inneward, inweard : innemest, innemyst, innost. laet, lat, as already given : laetemest, laetmyst. nitheweard, nytheweard, nythewerd : nythera, neothera, neothra : nithemest, nythmest sithmest, sithest. ufera, ufora : ufemest, ufemyst. uteweard, utewerd : utra, utera, uterra, uttera, uttra : and, y'tera, y'ttra. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. § 94. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon owe their origin either to nouns or verbs. 1. They are nouns used in a descriptive sense : as, hige diligence and diligent ; lath evil and pernicious. 10 2. They are nouns with meaning terminations added to them : u as, gold gold, gold-en golden ; blod blood, blod-ig bloody ; wer a man, wer-lic manlike, manly ; waestm/rm7, waestm-baer fruitful; faeder a father, faeder-leas father- less ; a'e a law, a'e-faest fixed in the law, pious. 10 In the course of time slight changes were made in many in- stances for the purpose of distinguishing the adjective from the noun. 11 The following are these terminations: -baer, -baere, -bor, having the signification of producing, and rela- ted to the root of beran to bear, produce, which also probably comes from the Teutonic bar fruit. -cund, denoting a kind, origin, or likeness, from cynd id. -e seems to be merely distinctive. -ed, -ad, -od, -ud, -yd, -d, -t, probably the Perfect participle of a lost verb, and signifying furnished or provided with. Adjectives and participles thus formed usually have ge- prefixed to them, and such words may be considered as belonging in every instance to the latter class. Eng. -ed, -d. -en and sometimes -an, from unnan to give, grant, and denoting addition. See farther § 408. Eng. -en. -ende, possibly from the same verb, the termination of participles indefinite. -ern from aern, as in nouns, and denoting towards a place. Eng. -ern. -faest, signifying fast, very, perfectly, effectually. Eng. -fast. -full, -ful, expressive of fulness, completeness, or perfection. It is also a prefix. Eng. -ful. -ig, signifying addition, probably from ican to eke, add. Eng. -y. -iht, the same. -18c, denoting the external quality of a subject, like. Eng. -ish. (P ETYMOLOGY. 3. They are formed from nouns as well as from othei adjectives by significant prefixes : 12 as, mod mind, ae-mod out of mind, mad; geleafiic credible, un-geleafiic incredible ; mihtig 13 powerful, tir-meahtig exceedingly powerful. 4. They are formed by the union of nouns and numerals : as, an-eage one-eyed, from an one, and enge an eye ; twy- feald twofold, double, from twy two, and feald 14 a fold. 5. They are formed from participles : as, bebeodendlic imperative, from the indefinite participle of the verb be- beodan to command, with the termination -lie : or they still present the participial form alone : as, berende fruit- ful, from beran to bear. 6. They present compound forms from simple adjectives, or from simple adjectives and participles : as, ylpen-ba'enen made of ivory, from ylpen belonging to an elephant, and baenen formed of bone ; ethel-boren noble-bom, from ethel noble, and boren born. 7. They are further formed from pronouns and adverbs with significant terminations : as, lire-lendisc 15 of our country ; ute-weard outward external. -leas, denoting privation. It is also used as a prefix. Eng. -less -lie, expressive of similitude, or likeness. Eng. -like, -ly. -ol, -ul, -el, -al, usually denoting a mental quality. sum, signifying diminution^ from the pronoun sum some. Eng. -some. -weard, denoting situation, direction. Eng. -warOf. -wis, signifying wise. V. Anal. Anglo-Sax Gloss., pass. 12 See § 75. Note (33). 13 Mihtig, from miht, mealit, maeht, merit and -ig. u A'n-feald, twy'-feald, etc.. are considered numerals by som^ In that case, feald becomes a ' numeral termination.' 15 -lendisc as a termination compounded of land land, a coivrdry^ and -isc, signifies belonging to a country. PRONOUNS, 8. The increase of the same adjective from the Positive, is by means of significant endings. 16 CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS § 95. Pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are divided into Per- sonal, Adjective, Definitive, Relative and Interrogative. 1 . Personal Pronouns. § 96. These are ic, thu, he, heo, hit, with their plurals we, ge, hi, and the duals wit and git. § 97. Declension of the First Person ic i". Singul ar. Plural. N. ic I. N. we we. G. min of me G. ure of us. D. me to, for, with me. D. us to, for, with us. A. me me. A. Dual. us us. N. wit we two. G. uncer of us two. D. unc to, for , with us two. A. unc us two 16 The termination of the comparative is from aer before, first with respect to time, and then to quality : that of the superlative, from est, aest abwndance. Eng. -er, and -est. ETYMOLOGY. § 98. Declension of the Second Person thu thou. Singular. Plural. N. thu thou. N. ge ye or you G. thin of thee. G. eower of you. D. the to, for, toith thee. D. eow to, for, with you. A. the. thee. A. Dual. eow you. N. git ye or 2/ow ftuo. . G. incer of you two. D. inc to, for, with you two. A. inc yow ftoo. § 99. Declension of the Third Person he, heo, hit he. she, it. Singular. Plural. N. he he. \ G. his 0/ Aim. \ D. him to, for, with him. j A. hine him. § N. heo she. I N. hi they. G. hire of her V G. hira of them. D. hire to, for, with her. / D. him to, for, with them. A. hi her. [ A. hi 1 them. N. hit it. \ G. his of it. \ D. him to, for, with it. J A. hit it. J 1 The following different forms are found in the preceding de- clensions : me, Dat. and Ace, men, mec, mech, meek: tire, user, owre : us, Dat. and Ace , usic, usich, usig, usih, but used chiefly by the poets : wit, wyt : iwc, Dative and Ace, ungc. 70 PRONOUNS. § 100. Sylf 2 se//is declined like god, and added to per- sonal pronouns in the same gender and case as follows : Singular. Plural. N. icsylf I myself. N. wesylfe we ourselves. G. mi'nsylfes of myself G. liresylfra ..,, of ourselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. thiisylf thyself N. gesylfe ye yourselves. G. thinsylfes of thyself G. eowersylfra of yourselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. hesylf he himself. N. hisylfe they themselves. G. hissylfes of himself. G. hirasylfra of themselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. heosylf she herself. N. hisylfe they themselves. G. hiresylfre of herself. G. heorasylfe of themselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. hitsylf itself G. hissylfes etc. of itself etc. § 101. Sylf sometimes takes the Dative of the personal pronoun before it : as, mesylf myself thesylf thyself him- sylf himself. It is also annexed to nouns : as, Petrus-sylf Peter's self Crist-sylf Christ himself But when used de- finitely, it signifies the same : as, se sylfa man the same man. th€, Dat. and Ace, theh, thee : cower, eowr, iower, iuer, iuerr, iur, iure : eow, Dat. and Ace, eowih, eowic, iow, iowih, iu, iuh, iuih, iuch, iwh, geow : git, gyt, inc, incg : incer, incere, incer, inca : inc, Dat., incg, incrum: inc, Ace, incg, incit. his, hys : him, hym, hien : hine, hyne : hc6, hid, used also for he and hi: hire, hyre, hiere : hit, Nom. and Ace, hyt, it: his, hys: him, hym. hi, Nom. and Ace, hfg, hie, hy' : hira, hyra, heora, hiora, hiera : him, heom, eom, hiom. 2 Sylf silf, self, seolf. ETYMOLOGY. 2. Adjective Pronouns. § 102. The Adjective Pronouns are only the Genitive cases of personal pronouns taken and declined like the indefinite form of god. They are mm my, thin thy, uncer our two, incer your two, ure our, and eower your. The personal pronoun of the third person has no declinable adjective pronoun, but the sense of the same is always expressed by his, hire, hira, the Genitive cases of the primitive forms. § 103. To define the reciprocal sense in his, hire, hira, more accurately, the word agen 3 own, declined like god, is ti elded : as, To his agenre thearfe to his own necessity. This sense the poets also express by sin : as, Ofsloh broth- or si'nne slew his own brother. § 104. Declension of mm my. Singular. m. f. n. N. min min min my. G. mm-es min- -re min-es of my. D. min-um min- -re min-um to, for, with my. A. min-ne min- ■e min Plural. m. f. n. my. N. min-e my. G. mm-ra 4 of my. D. min-um to, for, with my. A. min-e my. 3 Ji'gen, agan, agn, a'egn, agien. * Minra, menra. 72 PRONOUNS. § 105. Declension of uncer our two. Singular. N. m. unc-er f unc-er n. unc-er our two. G. unc-res 5 unc-re unc-res of our two. D. unc-rum unc-re unc-rum to, for, with our two. A. unc-erne unc-re unc-er Plural. our two. N. m. f. n. unc-re our two t G. unc-ra of our two. D. unc-rum to, for. with our two. A. unc-re our tvjo § 106. Declension of lire 6 our. Singular. N. m. ur-e f. ur-e n. ur-e OW'. G. lir-es ur-e ur-es of our. D. ur-um ur-e ur-um to, for, with our. A. ur-ne lir-e lir-e our. 5 The contraction of the Possessive Pronouns in -er, when the syllable of inflection begins with a vowel, is common. 6 U're, user, usser, but chiefly poetic. User has a distinct but ir- regular form of declension, as follows : Singular. f. n. us-er us-er us-se us-ses us-se us-sum us-se us-er Plural. m. f. n. us-se or us-er us-sa us-sum us-se or us-er 73 m. N. us-er G. us-ses D. us-sum A. us-erne N. G. D. A. 7 ETYMOLOGY. Plural. N. ur-e our. G. \ir-ra of our. D. lir-um to, for, with our A. ur-e our. 3. Definitive Pronouns. § 107. The Definitive Pronouns are those which define or point out either classes or individuals. The following are the most of them : 7 aegther either. na'enig none. aelc each. naht nothing. afenig any. nan no one. aenlypig each. nathor neither. aht anything. other other. an one. sum some. athor either. swilc such. begen both. thes this. eall all thyilic such. genoh enough. unmanig few. manig many. ylc 8 same. 7 Others are feaw, few few, Gen. feawa, Dat. feawmn, and fela, faela, feala, feola much, many, many a one, also used as distributives with the Genitive of nouns; man, mann, mon one, they, properly a noun; and thyslic, thislic, like, thyllic, such, of this sort, this like. 8 Other forms of these pronouns are: aegther, egther; — aelc, ealc, elc;- a'eneg, a'eni, a'eng, a'eniht, ani, enig, eneg ; — a'cnlypig, a'enlipig, a'enlipug, a'enlep, a'enlypic ; — aht, xiht, auht, awht, contracted from awiht, awuht, augments of wiht, wuht a thing, creature; — an, a'en, ain; — other, auther, aether; — begen, asunder the declension of the word § 109; — eall, eal, aeall, ael, all, al, geall; — genoh, genog, noh; — manig, maenig, maeneg, maeni, maneg, mani, meneg ; — na'enig, na'eneg, nenig ; — naht, neaht, nauht, nawht ; noht contracted from nan uht, nanwuht ; — nan, na'en PRONOUNS. § 108. All these, with the exception of begen and thes, follow the inflection of indefinite adjectives. Begen and t&es are declined as follows : § 109. Declension of begen both. N. begen ba both. G. beg-ra beg-ra of both. D. bam bam to, for, with both. A. ba ba 9 both. § 110. Declension of thes this. Singular. N. m. thes f. the 6s n. this this. G. this-es this-se this-es of this. D. this-um this-se this-um to, for, with this A. this-ne thas this this. Plural. N m. f. n. . thas these. G this-sa of these. D this-um to, for , with these. A thas 10 these. nen : — ndlhor, nauther, nawther ; — other, othyr ; — sum, som ; — swilc, swylc, swelc ; — thes, see § 110; — thyllic, thylic, thylc, thillic, thillec ; unmanig, unmaneg ; — ylc, ilc. 9 The following variations are met with: begen, beggen, beagan, bugan ; — bd, both Nom. and Ace, bu; — begra, begea ; — bam, ba'em. A compound form also appears ; as, batwa, butcr, bvitwer, buta, bute, literally both the two. Thus we have, Batwa Adam and Eue Adam and Eve both together. Begen, and sum signifying some, about, as sume ten some or about ten, are usually regarded as numerals, like anfeald, etc. Indeed sum, eall, and other pronouns of the kind, might very properly be styled indefinite numerals. The number combined with sum, in most cases, is put in the Genitive plural. 10 The variations in this pronoun are : theds, thids ; — this Nom- and Ace, thys ; — thises, thisses, thysses, thesse3 ; — thisse, thysse 75 ETYMOLOGY. § 111. The Definite that is expressed by se, seo, thaet. 4. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. § 112. The articles se, seo, thaet and the are generally used for the Relatives who, which, that. The Interroga- tives hwa who ? hwaet what ? are thus declined : Singular. m. f. n. N. hwa who. hwaet what. G. hwaes whose. hwaes of what. D. hwam to, for, with whom. hwam to, for, with what. A. hwone whom. hwaet 11 what. § 113. Hwaet is sometimes used for hwa: as, Hwaet is thes, Who is this ? Hwaet is tiles mannes sunu, Who i this son of man ? § 114. Like hwa, hwaet, are also declined : m. f. f n. aeghwa whoever. aeghwaet whatever. lles-hwa who else ? elles-hwaet what else ? gehwa whoever. gehwaet whatever. ?wa-hwa-swa whosoever. swa-hwaet-swa whatsoever. § 115. Hwylc 12 whol which? or what? and swa-hwylc- thissore, thjrssere in the Gen. and Dat. both ; thisum sing, and plur., thysum, thissum, thyssum, thison, thyson, theossum ; — ihisne, thys- ne ; — thissa, thissera. The express form given for the Ablative singular is, m. f. n. thise thisse thise. 11 In this pronoun we find : hwa, hua, wua; hwam, hwa'em ; hwone, l.waene. The distinct form given for the Ablative singular is, m. f. n. hwi or hwy'. 18 Hwylc, hwilc, hwelc. 76 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS. swa whosoever, whichsoever, or whatsoever, are declined like indefinite adjectives. § 116. Hwylc and its compounds are often used in a definitive sense, signifying each, every one, etc. § 117. Hwaether whether ? which of the two? has the same declension as hwylc. Its compounds are definitive. § 118. He who is expressed by se the, or the the. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS. § 119. Pronouns, as well as the Articles in Anglo-Saxon, have been supposed to be derived from nouns and verbs. 1. Se, seo are said to come either from saegan to say, or from seon to see, and thaet and the, from t.liicgan to take. 2. He, heo, hit are likewise considered as owing their origin to hatan to call, name. But what is the origin of ic and thu ? The derivation of the Articles and of the Pronouns of the third person from verbs we think not only very improba- ble and far-fetched, but unnatural. Se, which exchanges the sibilant for th out of the No- minative feminine, is in English, the ; in German, der ; in Dutch, de ; in Danish and Swedish, den ; while the initial of the kindred word in other cognate languages or lialects, with the exception of the Moeso-Gothic which has sa, is either th, or d. 13 We therefore consider the and theo to be more ancient forms than se and seo. 14 Anyone closely observing the sound of the, will perceive ro t tv, to, or more anciently do, Or), Qor. 14 Se is evidently a softened form of the, and so with regard to the Moeso-Gothic sa. 77 7# ETYMOLOGY. that it is original and arbitrary, and in itself definite with regard to another person or thing. 15 Ic, and in English, I ; in Dutch and Moeso-Gothic, ik; in German, ich ; in Danish, jeg ; in Swedish, jag ; in Ice- landic, eg, jeg ; 16 in Latin, eg-o ; in Greek, £y-u ; in Sla- vonic, az ; in Lithuanian, asz ; in Hebrew, as a postfix I ; in Zend, az-em ; in Samkrit, 17 ah-am ; in Malay, ek-o, all indicate a common source and an original sound pointing to the individual speaking in his own person. Thu, in English, thou ; in Dutch, German, Danish, and Swedish, du ; in Moeso-Gothic and Icelandic, tliii ; in Latin and Hindustanee, tu ; in Greek, English. 17 V. Anal. Anglo-Sax., Introd. § 4. Note (3). 18 The same difference is perceptible in the plural of these pro- nouns in all the persons, as well as in the oblique cases. NUMBERS. Swedish in the place of the modern sjelf self, and the He- brew nephesh was likewise employed to express either idea. A'gen own appears to be no other than agan to have or possess, to own ; or it may be the perfect participle of the same verb. 5. Thes this in its sound seems to be definite with respect to something near. Compare it with thaet that. 6. Hwa who? seems to be arbitrary, and to contain the interrogative within itself. 7. Some of the Pronouns are compounded : as, maenig many, from man one, they, and the termination -ig ; na'enig no one, from ne not and a'enig anyone, and a'enig itself, from afen one and -ig ; hwaet what, from hwa who and thaet that ; hwylc which ? from hwa and lie like ; swyle such, from swa so and lie. Other examples might be given. CHAPTER VI. THE NUMERAL. § 120. The Numeral combines the Substantive and the Adjective, and ought to be treated as a distinct Part of Speech. It is divided into Cardinal and Ordinal Num- bers : as, an one ; se forma, seo, thaet forme the first. 1. Cardinal Numbers. These are, 1 an one 2 twegen, twa, twa two 3 thr^", threo, threo three 4 feower four 5 fif five 6 six six 79 ETYMOLOGY . 7 seofon seven 8 eahta eight 9 nigon nine 10 tyn ten 11 endlufon eleven 12 twelf twelve ]3 threottyne thirteen 14 feowertyne fourteen 15 fiftyne fifteen 16 sixtyne sixteen 17 seofontyne seventeen 18 eahtatyne eighteen 19 nigontyne nineteen 20 twentig twenty 21 an and twentig one and twenty etc. etc. etc. etc. 30 thrittig thirty 40 feowertig forty 50 fiftig fifty 60 sixtig sixty 70 hundseofontig seventy 80 hundeahtatig eighty 90 hundnio-ontio: ninety 100 hundteontig, or liund a hundred 110 hundenlafontig a hundred and ten 120 hundtwelftig a hundred and twenty 200 twahund two hundred 1000 thusend 1 a thousand etc. etc. . * The following are some of the variations of the Cardinal Num- bers. It is deemed unnecessary to give those of the Ordinals, as an idea may be formed of them from the others. an, see under § 121 ; twegen and thri/, under § 121, 1, and $ 121, 2 ; feower, feowr, fewer ; sir, syx, sex, sexo, seox, siex ; seofon, seofan, 8u NUMBERS. 2. Ordinal Numbers. These are, 1st se forma the first 2d se other the second 3rd se thridda the third 4th se feortha the fourth 5th se fifta the fifth 6th se sixta the sixth 7th se seofotha the seventh 8th se eahtotha the eighth 9th se nigotha the ninth 10th se teotha the tenth 11th se endlyfta the eleventh 12th se twelfta the twelfth 13th se thrytteotha the thirteenth 14th se feowerteotha the fourteenth 15th se fif teotha the fifteenth 16th se sixteotha the sixteenth 17th se seofonteotha the seventeenth 18th se eahtateotha the eighteenth 19th se nigonteotha the nineteenth 20th se twentugotha the twentieth 21st se an and twentugotha the one and twentieth. etc. etc. etc. etc. 30th se tlirittigotha the thirtieth 40th se feowertigotha the fortieth 50th se fiftigotha the fiftieth 60th se sixteogotha the sixtieth seofen, siofon, siofun, syfan, syfon, seofa ; eahta, ehta, aehta, ahta , nigon, nygon, nigan, nigen, nyga ; tyn, ten, tin ; endlufon, endleofun, aendlefen ; feowertyne, feowertine, feowertene ; fiftyne, fiftene, fiften ; sixtyne, sixtene ; seofontyne, seofontine ; nigontyne, nigontine, nigan- tine, nygantyne ; twentig, twenta, tweontig ; thrittig, thritig ; feower- tig, feowrtig ; sixtig, sixteg, sextig. ETYMOLOGY. 70th se SOth se 90th se 100th se 110th se 120th se § 121. and thr^ hundseofontigotha the seventieth hundeahtatigotha the eightieth hundnigontigotha the ninetieth hundteontigotha the hundredth hundendlufontigotha the hundred and tenth hundtwelftigotha the hundred and twentieth. An one is declined like god. 2 Twegen, twa two , threo three are declined in the following manner N. G. D. A. 1. m. twegen tweg-ra twam twegen two. f. n. twa twam twa 3 two. of two. to, for, with two. two. 2. thrjr three. f. n. threo threo-ra thrym threo 4 three. of three. to, for, with three, three. N. thrf G. threo-ra D. thrym A. thr^ § 122. Feower four makes the Genitive feowera ; and we sometimes find fifa, sixa, seofona as the same case of fif five, six six, seofon seven. When used absolutely, tyn ten makes the Nominative and Accusative tyne and the Dative tynum : also twelf twelve, the Nominative twelfe, the Genitive twelfa, and the Dative twelfum. 2 When standing definitely as a pronoun, it signifies alone. 3 In the declension of twegen, we have twa, tii, tua, tuu, tw'2h or twig, tufg, twy' either in the Nom. and Ace. or in both; twegra, twe'- gera, twega ; twam, twae'm. 4 In thry' likewise: thry', thrf, thrfg, thry'ae, threj thred, thridj thrym, thrim. &WBERS. § 123. Twentig and the other numeral* \r -tig are thus inflected : m f. n. N. twentig twenty. G. twentig-ra of twenty. D. twentig-um to, for, with twenty. A. twentig twenty. § 124. All these numerals in tig are used in the Nomi- native and Accusative, both as nouns which govern the Genitive and as adjectives which agree with nouns in the same case. § 125. Hund and hundred 5 a hundred and thusend a thousand are treated in their inflection as nouns of the first declension. § 126. All the Ordinal Numbers with the exception of se other the second are declined definitely : as, se forma seo, thaet forme the first. § 127. Healf 5 half when used as a numeral is generally placed after the cardinal or ordinal which agrees with it. and which it diminishes by the one half of a unit : as, six healf marc five marcs and a half; thridde healf two and a half. § 12S. Distributives are made by a repetition of the Car dinal numbers : as, six and six six and six, by sixes. § 129. The Anglo-Saxons also expressed numbers by the different positions of the letters I, V, X, L, C, and M. 7 5 Hundred is, properly speaking, a noun with the signification of centuria in Latin : it not only means the number hwidred, but it is applied to a division of a cownty : as, innan his hundrede within his himdred. It is compounded of hund and red, a word supposed to mean a stroke or line, " it being the ancient custom to count or num- ber by strokes or lines." 6 Healf, half. 7 It would seem that the letters I, X, E, CD, were first assumed to represent the decimal numbers 1,10, 100, 1000, and then by bisecting 83 ETYMOLOGY. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE NUMERALS. § 130. 1. The Cardinals an, twegen, thry, feower, fif, six, seofon, eahta, nigon, are evidently simple. 2. Tyn appears to be a contracted form from twa two and hand a hand ; signifying both the hands or ten fingers, the common way of counting in the early stage of man- kind, as always with children. 3. Endlufon and twelf are compounded from an and twegen, twa, and laefan to leave. 8 Threottyne, feower- tyne, fiftyne, sixtyne, seofontyne, eahtatyne, nigontyne, owe their origin to tyn and the simple numbers an, twe- gen, etc. 4. Twentig is compounded of twa, tyn and the termina- tion -ig, and signifies two tens or twice two hands added to- gether. The same formation obtains in all the numerals which end in -tig. It is true that from seventy to a hun- dred and twenty inclusive, hund is prefixed, but more as a refinement than anything else, since it is sometimes omit- ted when the same word, used to express a hundred, goes before. In ancient times hund signified only ten, but its meaning was afterwards extended to ten times ten. 5. The tens are increased by placing the units first with and and, but after hund a hundred the smaller number is set last, while the noun is repeated. When the smaller number is placed before hund, it denotes multiplication. Thus, an and twentig one and twenty ; an hund wintra and thrittig wintra one hundred and thirty years. 6. Thusend is thought to be nothing but the more com- the three last were given V ( U) 5, L 50, and D 500. After that, nothing more was wanting in order to complete the system than to place the different letters in additive and subtractive positions. 8 See Appendix C. 84 VERES. plete Moeso-Gothic tigos hund or taihuns hund ten times a hundred. 7. Ordinals are formed from the Cardinal numbers, as six six, se sixta, seo, t&aet sixte the sixth. CHAPTER VII. VERBS. § 131. Verbs in Anglo-Saxon may be divided into two orders, the Simple and the Complex j 1 and also subdivided into Conjugations and Classes. They are likewise Mixed and Anomalous. CONJUGATIONS. § 132. There are three Conjugations, the 1st belonging to the Simple order of verbs, and the 2d and 3d to the Complex order. Under each of these are arranged three Classes. Moods. § 133. These are four, the Indicative, Subjunctive, Im- perative and Infinitive. TENSES. § 134. The Tenses are only two, the Indefinite and the Perfect ; the former referring either to the present time, or to a future period. 1 Complex verbs receive their appellation from the complex mo- difications which the vowels of their roots undergo in forming the Perfect tense. 65 8 ETYMOLOGY. NUMBERS. § 135. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural. PERSONS § 136. Each number contains three Persons, the 1st, 2d, and 3d. PARTICIPLES. § 137. There are two Participles, the Indefinite and the Perfect. GERUND. § 138. The Gerund, termed by some a Second Infinitive, is always preceded by the preposition, to. 2 With the verb of existence, it has a passive signification, or expresses what ought to be done. 3 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1. The Simple Order. § 139. This Order is distinguished by having the Per- fect tense of two or more syllables with the termination -ode, -ede, -de, or -te, 4 while the Perfect Participle ends in -od, -ed, -d or -t : as, 1st Conjugation. Class. Inf. Perf. 1 luf-ian to love luf-ode loved Perf. Part. luf-od loved. 2 baern-an to burn baern-de burned baern-ed burned. 3 syll-an to give seal-de gave seald given. 2 This particle is never found before the Infinitive in Anglo-Saxon as in English. 3 The Gerund combines the nature of the noun with that of fhe verb, just as the Participle unites the properties of the adjective and of the verb. 4 The difference between the endings -de and -te, and -d ^nd -t, depends altogether upon the hardness or softness of the preceding consonant. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. § 140. Inflection of the verb lufian to love, 1st Class. Indicative Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ige / love. 2 thii luf-ast thou lovest. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ath he, she, it loveth or loves. Plural. 1 we luf-iath 5 . we love. 2 ge luf-iath ye or you love. 3 hi luf-iath they love. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ode I loved. 2 thii luf-odest thou lovedst. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. Plural 1 we luf-odon we loved. 2 ge luf-odon ye or you loved. 3 hi luf-odon they loved. Subjunctive Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ige / love. 2 thu luf-ige thou love. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ige he, she, it Iovp.. 5 Lvfiath, lufige. The form of the first person singular is used for the plural whenever the pronoun follows the verb, as in asking a question : and in accordance with this rule, the second person plu- ral of the Imperative, which is always like the plural of the Indefi- nite Ind., assumes the same form; but never when the Nominative is omitted. 87 ETYMOLOGY. Plural 1 we luf-ion we love. 2 ge luf-ion ye or you love. 3 hi luf-ion they love. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ode I loved. 2 thu luf-ode thou loved. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. Plural. 1 we luf-odon we loved. 2 ge luf-odon ye or you loved, 3 hi luf-odon they loved Imperative Mood. Singular. 2 luf-a thu love thou. Plural. 2 luf-iath (ge) love ye or you. Infinitive Mood. Indefinite Tense. luf-ian to love. Participles. Indef. luf-igende loving. Per/, luf-od loved. Gerund. Indef. to luf-igenne to love, about to love ; of, in, and to loving and to be loved. Lufodon, lufedon ; — lufion, lufian ; — lufian, iufigean; — lufigende, lufiende ; — lufod, gelufod, -ad -ed ; — lufigenne, lufienne. For the insertion of the g in such cases as hinge, lufigenne, see again § 1, Note 7, with § 408. A conjunction such as gif if, thaet that, theah though, accompanies the Subjunctive mood. CONJUGATION OF VERBS. § 141. Inflection of the verb baernan to bum, 2d Class. Indicative Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. . I burn, thou burnest. he j she j it burneth or burns. Plural, we burn, ye or you burn, thsy burn Perfect Tense. Singular. ic baern-de I burned. thu baern-dest thou burnedst. 1 ic baern-e 2 thu baern-st 3 he, heo, hit baem-th 1 we baern-ath 6 2 ge baern-ath 3 hi baern-ath he, heo, hit baern-de 1 we baern-don 2 ge baern-don 3 hi baern-don ic baern-e thu baern-e he, heo, hit baern-e we baern-on ge baern-on 3 hi baern-on 69 he, she, it burned. Plural. we burned,. ye or you burned, they burned. Subjunctive Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. I burn, thou burn, he, she, it burn. Plural, we burn, ye or you bum. they burn. 8* ETYMOLOGY. Verfect Tense. Singular. 1 tc naerp-de I burned. 2 %hu baern-de thou burned. 3 he, heo, hit baern-de he, she, it burned. Plural. 1 we baern-don we burned. 2 ge baern-don ye or you burned 3 hi baern-don they burned. Imperative Mood. Singular. 2 baern thii burn thou. Plural. 2 baern-ath (ge) burn ye or you Infinitive Mood. Indefinite Tense. baern-an to burn. Participles. Indef. baern-ende burning. Perf. baern-ed burned. Gerund. Indef. to baern-enne to burn, about to burn ; of, in, and to burning and to be burned. 6 — Baemath, baerne : —baerndon, berenedon : — baernon, baernan — baernan, forbaernan, onbaernan, so CONJUGATION OF VERBS. § 142. Inflection of the verb syllan to give, 3d Class. Indicative Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic syll-e J give. 2 thii syll-st thou givest. 3 he, heo, hit syl-th 7 he, she, it giveth or gives. Plural. 1 we syll-ath we give. 2 ge syll-ath ye or you give. 3 hi syll-ath they give. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic seal-de I gave. 2 thii seal-dest thou gavest. 3 he, heo, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. Plural. 1 we seal-don we gave. 2 ge seal-don ye or you gave. 3 hi seal-don they gave. Subjunctive Mood. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic syll-e I give. 2 thii syll-e thou give. 3 he, heo, hit syll-e he, she, it give. 7 Sylth, silth :— syllaih, sylle:— sealde, gesealde: — syllan, sellan, selan, gesyllan :— seald, gesealdi—syllanne, syllenne. We will here observe that a-, be-, for-, ge-, to-, and in some few instances, on-, are indifferently and interchangeably prefixed to verbs, especially to peifect tenses and perfect participles ; ge- to the per- fect tense is universal. Some verbs are not met with in their sim- ple state, but only occur with these prefixes. Very often indeed they affect the signification of the simple word. 91 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. Plural. 1 we syll-on ™ e ff ive - 2 gesyll-on ye or you give. 3 hi syll-on ^ ^' Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic seal-de I 9 ave - 2 thd seal-dest thou gavest. 3 he, heo, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. Plural. 1 we seal-don «* 9 ave - 2 ge seal-don ye ov you gave. 3 hi seal-don they gave. Imperative Mood. Singular. 2 syl-e thu ffive thou. Plural. 2 syll-ath (ge) give ye or y4 Leogan, iigan, ly'gnian ; — ledg, leah, ledh. «° 5 Licgan, licgean, lieggan, ligan, liggan, lyegan ; — lith, ligth, lihth ; — la'egon, lagon. 133 12 ETYMOLOGY. § 306. h'han to lend. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part. Ind. Indef. ic li'h-e. . — Per/, ic lah § 307. h'than 106 to sail. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, lith-en Ind. Indef. ic li'th-e — Per/, ic lath, thu lid-e, we lith-on. § 308. lutan 107 to bow, lout, incline, lurk. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, lot-en. Ind. Indef. ic liit-e he \ft. — Perf ic leat we lut-on. § 309. Melcan 108 to milk. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, molc-en. Ind. Indef. ic melc-e. — Perf ic mealc we mulc-on. § 310. meltan 109 to melt. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, molt-en. Ind. Indef ic melt-e — Perf. ic mealt we mult-on. 106 Lilhan, ledthan ; — lithen, geliden ; — lithon, lithan, lidon. 107 Lutan, lutian, hliitan, ledtan ;— ledt, hleat. ' 108 Melcan, melcian, meolcian. 109 Melton, miltan, myltan. 134 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 311. metan 110 to measure, mete. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, met-en. Ind. Indef. ic met-e he mit. — Perf. ic maet we maet-on. § 312. migan 111 to make water, minge. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, mig-en. Ind. Indef. ic mig-e he mih-th — Perf. ic mah we mig-on. § 313. mi'than to hide, dissemble. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, mith-en. Ind. Indef. ic mith-e. — Perf. ic math. § 314. murnan to mourn, care for. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, morn-en. Ind. Indef ic murn-e he myrn-th. — Perf. ic mearn we mum-on. § 315. Neotan 113 to enjoy, 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, not-en. Ind. Indef ic ne6t-e. he nft. — Perf. ic neat we nut-on. 110 Metan to paint, adorn, has the p. mette and the pp. metod. 111 Migan, miegan, mengan ;—mige, mihe. 113 Neotan, nidtan. 135 ETYMOLOGY. § 316. niman 119 to take. 2 Con. 1 CI. Per/. Part, num-en. Ind. Indef. ic nim-e he nim-th. — Per/, ic nam we nam-on. § 317. Ondra'edan 11 * to dread. 2 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, ondra'ed-en. Ind. Indef. ic ondraed-e thii ondra'et-st, he ondrafet. — Per/, ic ondred we ondred-on. § 318. onginnan 115 to begin, attempt. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, ongunn-en. Ind. Indef. ic onginn-e he ongin-th. — Perf. ic ongan, thii ongunn-e we ongunn-on. § 319. ongitan 118 to understand, get. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, ongit-en. Ind. Indef. ic ongit-e he ongit. — Perf. ic ongeat we ongeat-on. 118 Niman, neman, nioman ; — nam, nom. 114 Ondra'edan, ondredan, ondreardan. 115 Onginnan, ongynnan, beginnan ; — onginth, onginnath, ongin- neth ; — ongan, ongean. 116 Ongitan, ongytan, ongetan, ongeotan, ongietan, getan, geatan, gytan ; — ongit, ongyt ; — ongeat, onget. 136 LISi "* C ^IPLEX VERBS. § 320. onligan to grant, bestow. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part. Ind. Indef. ic onh'g-e. — Per/, ic onlah 117 we onlig-on § 321. Rennan 118 to run, flow. 3 Con. 1 CI. Per/. Part. Ind. Indef. ic renn-e. — Per/, ic ran. § 322. reocan 119 to reek. 3 Con. 3 CI Per}. Part, roc-en. Ind. Indef. ic reoc-e he ryc-th. — Perf. ic reac we ruc-on. § 323. ri'dan to move, ride. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, rid-en. Ind. Indef. ic rid-e he n't m — Perf. ic rad we rid-on. § 324. rowan to row. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf Part, row-en. Ind. Indef. ic row-e he rew-th, we rew-oth. — Perf. ic reow we reow-un. 117 Onldk, onleah, onlag; — onligon, onlehton from onligan, onle- gan to kindle, irritate. 118 Rennan, reonan, rinnan. See also § 195. 119 Reocan, recan, rcccan. 120 Rit, ridetiu 137 12* ETYMOLOGY. § 325. Sawan to sow. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, saw-en. Ind. Indef. ic saw-e he sa'ew-th. — Perf. ic seow 121 we seow-un. § 326. scacan 122 to shake, evade, shack. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, scac-en. Ind. Indef. ic scac-e. — Perf. ic scoc we scoc-on. § 327. scafan to shave. 2 Con. 3 CI Perf. Part, scaf-en. Ind. Indef. ic scaf-e he scaef-th. — Perf. ic scof we scof-on. § 328. sceadan 123 to divide, shade. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, scead-en. Ind. Indef. ic scead-e. — Perf. ic sceod we sceod-on. § 329. sceran 124 to shear, shave, allot. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, scor-en. Ind. Indef ic scer-e he scyr-th — Perf. ic sca'er we scafer-on. 121 Seow, sew. 122 Scacan, sceacan ; — scace, sceace y—scoc, scedc. 123 Sceddan, scadan, sca'edan. 124 Sceran, sciran, scirian, scyran, scieran ; — sca'er, scear;— vca'eron, scearon. 138 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 330. scinan to shine. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, scin-en. Ind. Indef ic scin-e he sci'n-th. 125 — Perf. ic scan we scin-on. § 331. scrithan to wander. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part. Ind. Indef. ic scrith-e. — Perf ic scrath. § 332. scufan 126 to shove. 3 Con 3 CI. Perf. Part, scof-en. Ind. Indef ic sciif-e he scyf-th. — Perf ic sceaf we scuf-on. § 333. scyppan 127 to create, form, shape. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf Part, sceap-en. Ind. Indef. ic scyp-e. — Perf ic scop we seop-on. § 334. seothan to boil, seethe. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, sod- en. Ind. Indef ic seoth-e. — Perf ic seath, tftii sud-e we sud-on. 125 Schitk, scineth; — scan, scean. 126 Scufan, sceofan ; — scofen, scofan. m Scyppan, sceapan, sceppan, scipan ; — sceapen, scapen, gesceap- en ; — scop, sceop ; — scopon, sceopon. 139 ETYMOLOGY. § 335. sigan to fall, fail. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, sig-en. Ind. Indef. ic si'g-e he sih-th. — Per/, ic sah. we sig-on. § 336. sihan 128 to strain, sile, sie. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per}. Part, sih-en. Ind. Indef. ic si'h-e. — Perf. ic sah we sih-on. § 337. sincan 129 to sink. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, sunc-en. Ind. Indef. ic sinc-e. — Perf. ic sane we sunc-on. § 338. s'mgan 180 to sing. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, sung-en. Ind. Indef. ic sing-e he sing-th. — Perf. ic sang we sung-on. § 339. sittan to sit. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, set-en. Ind. Indef. ic sitt, thu sit-st, he sitt, 131 we sitt-ath. — Perf ic sa'et we sa'et-on. 128 Sihan ; also sedn ; i. ic sed; p. ic seah, we sugon. 129 Sincan; besincan,very common. 130 Singan, syngan ; — sangen, asungen ; — sang, sane, song. 191 Sitt, sit. 140 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 340. slapan 1312 to sleep. 2 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, slap-en. Ind. Indef. ic slap-e he slafep-th. — Perf. ic slep we slep-on § 341. slean 133 to slay. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, sleg-en. Ind. Indef. ic slea he styh-th. — Perf. ic sloh, thu slog-e we slog-on. Imp. sleh thu. § 342. slifan to split. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf Part, slif-en. Ind. Indef ic slif-e he slif-th. — Perf. ic slaf we slif-on. § 343. sh'tan to tear, slit. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, slit-en. Ind. Indef. ic slit-e he slit. — Perf ic sldt we slit-on. § 344. smeocan 134 to smoke. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf Part, smoc-en. Ind. Indef ic smeoc-e sm^c-th. — Perf ic smeac we smuc-on. 132 Slapan, slepan. m Sledn, slan, slagan ; — slegen, sclawen ; — sled, sleah ; sly'Mh, slihth ; — sloh, slog ; — sleh, sly'h thu. 134 Smeocan, smecan, smedgan, smdcian. 141 ETYMOLOGY. § 345. smitan to smite. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, smit-en. Ind. Indef. ic smit-e he smi't. — Perf. ic smat we smit-on. § 346. snithan to cut, slay. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, snid-en. Ind. Indef. ic snith-e thu snit-st. — Perf ic snath we snith-on. lw § 347. spanan to allure, persuade. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf Part, gesponn-en. Ind. Indef ic span-e, thu spaen-st, he spaen-th. — Perf ic spon we spon-on. § 348. spannan 138 to span, measure, join. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part. Ind. Indef. ic spann-e. — Perf. ic spenn. § 349. spinnan to spin. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, spun- en. Ind. Indef. ic spinn-e he spin-th. — Perf. ic span we spunn-on. 135 Snithon, sneddun. m Spanan, spenan ; — spdn, spedn \-sp6non, speonon. 142 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 350. spi'wan 137 to spit, vomit, spew. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, spiw-en. Ind. Indef. ic spiw-e he spiw-th. — Perf. ic spaw we spiw-on. § 351. spowan to succeed. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part. Ind. Indef. ic spow-e. — Perf. ic speow we speow-un. § 352. sprecan 138 to speak. 2 Con 1 CI. Perf. Part, gesprec-en. Ind. Indef ic sprec-e, thii spryc-st, he spric-th. — Perf. ic spra"ec we spra'ec-on. § 353. springan 139 to spring, spread. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, sprung-en. Ind. Indef. ic spring-e he spring-th. — Perf. ic sprang we sprung-on. § 354. spurnan to spurn. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, sporn-en. Ind. Indef. ic spurn-e he spyrn-th. — Perf. ic spearn we spurn-on. 197 Spiwan, spedwian ; — spdw, spau. 138 Sprecan, specan, spreocan ; — sprycst, spriest, spricest ; — spricth, sprycth, spreceth, spycth. 139 Springan, spryngan, sprincan; — springth, spryngth; — sprang, spranc. 143 ETYMOLOGY. § 355. standan 140 to stand. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, gestand-en. Ind. Indef. ic stand-e, thii stent-st, he stent. — Perf. ic stod we stod-on. § 356. stelan 141 to steal. 2 Con. 1 CI. Per/. Part, stol-en. Ind. Indcf. ic stel-e he styl-th. — Per/, ic stael we stafel-on. § 357. steorfan to die, starve. 3 Con. 1 CI Perf. Part, storf-en. Ind. Indef. ic steorf-e he styrf-th. — Perf. ic staerf we sturf-on. § 358. steppan to step. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, gestep-t. Ind. Indef. ic stepp-e he step-th. — Perf. ic stop we stop-on. § 359. stigan 142 to ascend. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, stig-en. Ind. Indef. ic stig-e he stih-th. — Perf. ic stah we stig-on. 140 Standan, stondan ; — stentst, standest ; — stent, stynt ; also stadath for standath. 141 Stelan, staelan. J 43 St{gan, sty'gan. 144 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 360. stincan 143 to smelly perfume, stink. 3 Con. 1 CI. Per/ Part, stunc-en. Ind. Indef. ic stinc-e he stinc-th. — Perf. ic stanc we stunc-on, § 361. stingan 14 * to sting. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, stung-en. Ind. Indef. he sting-th. — Perf. ic stang We stung-on. § 362. siican 14& to suck. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, soc-en. Ind. Indef. ic siic-e he s^c-th. - — Perf. ic seac we sue-on. § 363. swapan to sweep, brush. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, swap-en. Ind. Indef ic swap-e he swaep-th. x46 — Perf ic sweop we sweop-on. § 364. swefan to sleep, go to sleep. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, swef-en. Ind. Indef. ic swef-e he swef-th. — Perf ic swaef 147 we swaef-on. 143 Stincan, stencan. 144 Stingan, styngan, ofstingan. 145 Stican, sy'can, sugan. 146 Swa'epth, swapeth. 147 Swakf, swaf. 145 13 ■ ETYMOLOGY. § 365. swelgan 1 " to swallow, 3 Cod. 1 CI. Per/. Part, swolg-en. J«d Jnrfe/. ic swelg-e . he swylg-th. - Perf. icswealg ■ we swulg-on. § 366. swellan to swell. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, swoll-en. Ind. Indef. ic swell-e he swil-th. - Perf. icsweoll we swull-on. § 367. sweltan to die. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, swolt-en 160 Ind. Indef. ic swelt-e he swylt. _ Perf. icswealt we swult-on. § 368. sweorcan to dim, darken. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf Part, sworc-en. Ind. Indef ic sweorc-e. - Perf. icswearc we swurc-on. § 369. swican 151 to deceive, wander, offend. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, swic-en. Ind. Indef. ic swi'c-e. - Perf. icswac we swic-on. 148 Swelgan, swilgan, swylgan. 149 Swylgth, swilgth, swelgth ;—swealg, swealh. 150 Swollen, swulten ;—sweaU, sweolt. 161 Swican ; beswican. to seduce. 146 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 370. swifan to revoke. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, swif-en. Ind. Indef. ic swif-e. — Perf. ic swaf we swif-on. § 371. swimman to swim. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part. Ind. Indef. ic swimm-e he swim-th. — Perf. ic swamm we swumm-on. § 372. swincan to toil. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, swunc-en. Ind. Indef. ic swinc-e. he swinc-th. — Perf. ic swanc we swunc-on." a § 373. swindan to vanish. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, swund-en. Ind. Indef ic swind-e he swint. — Perf. ic swand we swund-on. § 374. swingan 153 to scourge, beat. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, swung-en. Ind. Indef. ic swing-e he swing-th. — Perf ic swang we swung-on. 183 Swuncon, swuncgon. m Swingan, swyngan j— swang, swong. 147 ETYMOLOGY. § 375. Tacan to take. 2 Con. 3 CI. Per/. Part, tac-en. Ind. Indef. ic tac-e. — Per/, ic toe. § 376. teon 164 to draw, tug, tow, create, accuse. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, tog-en. Ind. Indef. ic teo, thii tyh-st, he tyh-th, we teo-th. — Perf. ic teah, thii tug-e we tug-on. Sub. Indef. ic teo we teoh-th. — Perf. ic tug-e we tug-on. Imp. teo thii. § 377. teran to tear. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, tor-en. Ind. Indef. ic ter-e, thu tyr-st, he tyr-th. — Perf. ic taer we tafer-on § 378. tosh'pan 165 to dissolve. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, toslip-en. Ind. Indef. ic tosli'p-e he toslip-th. — Perf. ic toslap we toslip-on. m Teon. tidn, tedgan ; — teo, tedge ; — ty'ht/i, tihth ; — tedh, teh, tedde, tidde, trug ; —tuge, teddest ; — tugon, trugon ; — ted, sub. indef, tfhte ; — ted, imp. tedh. 156 Toslipan ; slipan, slippan, to slip, relax . 148 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS." § 379. toslupan to loosen. 3 Con. 3 CI. Per/. Part, toslop-en. 168 Ind. Indef. ic toslup-e he toslf p-th — Per/, ic tosleap we toslup-on. § 380. tredan to tread. 2 Con. 1 CI. Per/. Part, tred-en. Ind. Indef. ic tred-e he trit. — Per/, ic tra'ed we traed-on. § 381. rOieotan 16 * to howl 3 Con. 3 CI. Per/. Part, thot-en. Ind. Indef. ic theot-e he thyt. — Perf. ic theat we tljut-on. § 382. therscan 158 to thresh. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, thorsc-en. Ind. Indef. ic thersc-e . he thyrsc-th. — Perf. ic thaersc we t.hursc-on § 383. thrawan to throw , cast. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, thraw-en. 16 * Ind. Indef. ic thraw-e. — Perf. ic threow. 166 Toslopen, slopen. 151 Theotan, thiotan. 168 T/ierscan, thaerscan. 350 Thrdtoen, thra'ewen. 149 13* ETYMOLOGY. § 384. thringan to crowd, throng, rush on. 3 Con. 1 CI. Per/. Part, gethrung-en, Ind. Indef. ic thring-e. — Perf. ic thrang we thrung-on § 385. thwean to wash. 2 Con. 3 CI. Per/. Part, thweg-en. Ind. Indef. ic thwea, 160 thu thw^h-st, he thwih-th. — Per/, ic thwoh we thwog-on. Imp. thweah. § 386. Wacan to arise, awake. 2 Con. 3 CI. Per}. Part, wac-en. Ind. Indef. ic wac-e he waec-th. — Per/, ic woe we w6c-on. § 3S7. wacsan 181 to wash. 2 Con. 3 CI. Per/. Part, gewaesc-en. Ind. Indef. ic wacs-e. — Perf. ic woes we wocs-on. § 388. wadan to wade. 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, waed-en. 169 Ind. Indef. ic wad-e he waet. — Perf. ic wod we wod-on. 160 Thwea, thweah ; — thwitith, thwehth ; — thwoh, thwohg ; — thweah, thweh. " 161 Wacsan, waxan ; — woes, wax. 162 Waeden, gewod. 150 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 389. wealcan to roll, turn from side to side, walk. 2 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part. Ind. Indef. ic wealc-e. — Per/, ic weolc. § 390. wealdan 161 to govern, wield. 2 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, ge weald-en. Ind. Indef. ic weald, thu weald-est, he weald. — Perf ic weold we weold-on, § 391. weallan 162 to boil, well. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, geweall-en. Ind. Indef he wyl-th. — Perf ic weoll. § 392, weaxan 163 to grow, wax. 2 Con. 2 CI. Perf Part, weax-en. Ind. Indef ic weax-e thu wyx-t, he wyx-th. — Perf. ic weox we weox-on. § 393. wegan 164 to weigh, bear, carry. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, geweg-en. Ind. Indef. ic weg-e. — Perf ic wafeg we wa'eg-on. 161 Wealdan, wyldan ; — wealdest. weltst, wyldst ; — weald, wealdeth, weak, welt, wylt. 162 Weallan, welan ;— geweallen, wollen; — wylth, wealleth ;— -weoU, weol. 163 Weaxan, wexan; — wyxth, weaxath, weahxath, wexth ;— weox, waex, weocs, weohse. W4 Wegan, waegan ; — waeg, wa'eh. 151 ETYMOLOGY. § 394. weorpan 186 to throw. 3 Con. 1 CI. Per/, fart, worp-en. Ind. Indef. ic weorp-e he wyrp-th. — Per/, ic wearp we wurp-on. § 395. wepan to weep. 2 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, wep-en. Ind. Indef. ic wep-e he wep-th. — Per/, ic weop we weop-on. § 396. wind an to wind. 3 Con. 1 01. Perf. Part, wund-en. Ind. Indef. ic wind-e he wint. — Perf ic wand we wund-on. § 397. winnan to toil, win. 3 Con. 1 CI. Perf Part, wunn-en. Ind. Indef ic winn-e he win-th. — Perf ic wan 166 we wunn-on. § 398. withsacan 167 to deny, contradict, 2 Con. 3 CI. Perf Part, withsac-en. Ind. Indef ic withsac-e he withsaec-th. — Perf ic withsoc we withsoc-on. 165 Weorpan, wurpan, wyrpan, werpan. 166 Wan, wann, won, woon. 167 Withmcan, sacan. 152 LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS. § 399. wli'tan to look. 3 Con. 2 CI. Per/. Part, wlit-en. • Ind. Indef. ic wli't-e he wlit. — Perf. ic wlat we wlit-on. § 400. wrecan to revenge^ ivreak, defend. 2 Con. 1 CI. Perf. Part, wrec-en. Ind. Indef. ic wrec-e he wric-th. — Perf. ic wra'ec we wrafec-on. § 401. wreon 188 to cover. 3 Con. 3 CI. Perf. Part, wrog-en. Ind. Indef. ic wreo he wrf h-th. — Perf. ic wreah we wrug-on. § 402. wrigan to cover, rig. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, wrig-en. Bid. Indef. ic wri'g-e, thu wrih-st, he wrih-th. 169 — Perf. ic wrah we wrig-on. § 403. wringan to wring. 3 Con. 1 CL Perf. Part, wrung-en. Ind. Indef. ic wring-e he wring-th. — Perf. ic wrang we wrung-on. 163 Wreon, wrydn ; wreoh, wroh. J09 Wrihth, wngth. 153 ETYMOLOGY. § 404. writhan to wreathe, writhe. 3 Con. 2 CI. Perf. Part, writh-en. Ind. Indef. ic writh-e. — Perf. ic wrath we writh-on. IMPERFECT VERES. § 405. Besides the Complex verbs which we have classed under their respective conjugations, there are others that present only the Infinitive, or the Infinitive with a single person or more. The same thing also occurs among verbs of the Simple Order. § 406. We sometimes meet with words that are evi- dently participles, although no verbs to which they can be assigned, any longer exist. Such generally have ge pre- fixed to them when they terminate in -ed, -od, etc. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF VERBS. § 407. In some languages, as in our own, verbs are very often made by the simple employment of nouns with the appropriate signification. This, strictly speaking, is never the case in Anglo-Saxon, though all verbs in that language owe their origin to nouns. § 408. Anglo-Saxon verbs are formed from nouns by the addition of the termination -an or -ian ; as, da'el apart, da'el-an to divide ; blot a sacrifice, bl6t-an to sacrifice; bod an edict, bod-ian to proclaim ; car care, car-ian to take heed, to be anxious. Such forms as beon, teon, fon, hon, are evidently contracted. 170 170 The common opinion is that the terminations which go to form verbs from nouns in Anglo-Saxon, are expressive of giving or bettow- ing, possession and motion, being no other than the infinitives unnan i 154 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF VERBS. Sometimes the termination -gean, -gan or -gian is used ; as, sceawi-gean, sceawi-gan to look : gethyld-gian to en- dure. Indeed, -ian appears to be no other than a softened form of these endings, and to have therefore the same original signification as -an. Thus we have sceawi-gean, sceawi-gan, sceawi-an : gethyld-gian, gethyld-ian ; forht- gean, forht-ian. The last verb has the adjective forht timid for its root. It not unfrequently happens that we find verbs formed in that way from adjectives, and also from words which have dropped out of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary both as nouns and as adjectives, but which are to be met with in many instances as nouns in the cognate languages and dialects. It is very probable, however, that in all such cases the verb preserves the original noun in itself. § 409. In a subsequent, stage verbs were compounded ; as, gethancmetan to deliberate, from gethanc mind, thought, and metan to measure, compare : ut-gan to go out, from lit out and gan to go. give or bestow, agan to have or possess, and g6n to go. An is generally considered the original form of the first verb, as unnan (anan ?) may be a double form like gangan. But are not agan and gan themselves made by means of a significant ending ? And did none of the verbs, into the composition of which these are said to enter, exist before they were formed 1 There can be very little doubt that at one time the infinitives of all Anglo-Saxon verbs had the same forms as the corresponding nouns, and that afterwards one verb, and only one, was employed to distin- guish the former part of speech from the latter. We will also say that that verb was unnan, geunnan, ind. mdef. ic an, gean, signifying to give either to one's self or to another person, or thing. Thus, da'el-an to give a part, bldt-an to give a sacrifice, bod-ian to give an edict, car- ian to give care. Ba'eth-ian to wash, therefore, is not " ba'eth-gan to go to a bath," but ba'eth-gean to give a bath; and so throughout the vocabulary. See also Appendix D. ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER VIII. ADVERBS. § 410. The following^ are the most of the Adverbs in Anglo-Saxon not formed by the termination -lice : a always, ever, forever, aye. adiin down, downwards, a down. aefer ever, always. aeft after, again, behind, aft, afterwards. aeftewearde afterwards, after, behind. aeghwaer everywhere. aeghwanon everywhere, every way, on all sides. aeghwider on every side, every way. aegylde without amends. aelcor elsewhere, besides, otherwise. acne once. aer ere, before, sooner, earlier, first, heretofore, formerly, already, some time ago, lately, just now, till, until. aetgaedere together. aetsithestan at length, at last. aet-somne in a sum, at once, together, also, likewise. aforth always, continually, daily, still. ahwaer-gen everywhere, again, continually. ahwar somewhere, anywhere, in anywise. ahwonan from what place, whence, anywhere, somewhere. algeates always,altogether, all gates. aninga one by one, singly, at once, clearly, plainly, en- tirely, altogether, necessarily. anlapum/row? one part, at once, one by one, asundran asunder, apart, alone, privately. athanon from thence. 156 ADVERBS. awa always, aweg away, out. awoh awry, unjustly, wrongfully, badly. baeftan after, hereafter, afterwards. begeond beyond. benythan beneath, below, under. bufan above, before, beyond, moreover. diineweard downwards. eall-swa also, likewise. eallneg always. eallunga all along, altogether, entirely, quite, indeed, at all, assuredly, utterly, absolutely, excessively. ealmaest almost. eftsona soon after, again, eftsoons. endemes equally, likewise, in like manner, together. et-n^hstan for aet-nyhstan at last, lastly. feor far, at a distance. foran only. fore-weard forwards, before, first. forhwaega at least. forhwa^m wherefore, why. forne before, sooner. forth forth, thence, further, directly, forward. furthan also, too, even, indeed, further . further further. gea yea, yes. geara yore, formerly, for a long time; well, certainly, enough. gehende nigh, near at hand. gehwaer on every side, everywhere. gehwaetheres anywhere, on every side, every way, gehwanon on all sides, round about. gehwider whithersoever, anywhere, everywhere. gelice likewise, also, as. 157 J 4 ETYMOLOGY. gen again, moreover, besides, at length, as yet, hitherto. genog sufficiently, abundantly, enough. geo formerly, of old. geond yond, yonder, thither, beyond. gese yes, yea. gewelhwaer everywhere. gyt yet, hitherto, moreover, still, as yet. heona hence, from hence: — heonon-forth, henceforth. her here, now, at this time : — her-aefter hereafter. hider hither: — hider-ward hitherwards. hindan behind: — hindweard hindwards. hu how, in what manner. hugu, hugu-da'el a little, but a little, at least, hiimeta how, in what manner. huru, huru-thinga at least, at all events, yet, on y. indeed^ especially. hwaene somewhat, almost, a little, scarcely. hwaenne when. hwaer where. hwaet besides, in short, indeed, moreover. hwaethre whether. hwi why, wherefore, for what, indeed. hwider whither. hwon a little, a little while, rarely. hwona whence, where, innan within, inwardly: — innan-weard, inwards laes less. lange long, a long time. litlum with little, in pieces, by degrees. lungre immediately, forthwith. ma more ; rather, of more value ; afterwards. maelum in parts. maest most, more than. na no, not. 158 ADVERBS. naefre never. naes not. na-hwaer nowhere. na-hwanan never, nowhere. na-laes no less, not only. nalles not at all, not, no. ne not, nay, by no means. neah nigh, near, almost. nean nearly, almost. neothan beneath, downwards : — neothe-weard downwards. nese nay, not, no. nin not, no. nither down, downwards, below :-nither-weard downwards. no-hwit by no means, not. mi now, still, since, then. oft oft, often. on-an in one, once for all, continually. on-gean again. on-hinder backwards, behind. on-waeg away. oth until, even to, as far as. raethe soon, quickly, rath. samod also, likewise, together. side far, widely. sith late, lately, afterwards. siththan afterwards, after that, then, thenceforth, since, further, moreover, successively, in order. sona soon, immediately, forthwith, stille, still. sunder asunder, apart. swa thus, so. swithe very, much, very much, greatly. symle always, ever, constantly, continually. tela well, rightly. ETYMOLOGY. to too, also. tuwa twice. tha then, until, while, whilst, when, as. thaer there ; where, whither. thaes of this, for this, so far, so much so, thus, since, that, whereby, whereof thaet from that place, thence, only. thanon thence, whence. thonne then, immediately, when, since, whilst, afterwards* thriwa thrice, three times. thus thus, so. thyder thither : — thyder-weard thitherwards. ufan above, high, upwards, from above. up up, upward : — upweardes upwards. lit out, without, abroad: — lite-weard outwards. utan outwards, without, outwardly. wel well, much, enough, truly. with-ufan above, from above. with-utan without? 1 The forms which the foregoing adverbs take are mostly these : d, aa; — adiin, adrine, of-dune; — aefer, aefre ; — aeft, eft, aefter, ae£ tan; — aeghivaer, aeghwar, -hwer, aghwar, ahwaer, oeghwaer; — aeghwanon, aeghwonon, -hwonene,-hwanun, -hwanum, -hwanan; — aeghwider, ah wider ; — aelcor, aelcra ; — aegylde, agild ; — a'ene, aeene ; — a'er, ar, er, a'eron, ear; — aet-gaedere, to-gaedere ; — aet-somne, to- somne ; — ahwar, ahwer, ahwor, awer, awyrn;— ahwonan, ahwonon; — asundran, asundron ; — dwa, a wo ; — aweg, anweg. baeftan, baefta ; — begeond, begeondan, beiundan ; — benythan, be neoth, beneothan, beniutha; — bufan, bufon, abufan, be-ufan; — duneweard, dune ward. eallneg, eallnig; — eall-swd, aelswa, alswa, ealswa ; — eallunga, eall- enga, eallinga, eallnunge ; — ealmaest, aelmaest ; — endemes, endemest, aendemes, aendemest. feor, feorr, feorran ;— -fore-weard, for-weard ;— -forhwdm, forhwoii, 160 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. § 411. Many Adverbs, especially those which end in -e and -lice, admit of comparison. In that case the final vowel of the positive is cut off, and the syllables -or and forhwi, -hwig -,—furthan, furthon, furthum ; — furthor, furthur, for- thor. ged, ga'e ; — gedra, geare, gearwe, gere ; — gehwaer, gehwar ; — gen, gena, gien, giena ; — genog, gendh, ndh ;— geS, ieo, id, iu; — gese, gyse, ise ;—gyt, git, giet, gieta, get, geta, geot, iette. heona, heonon, heonun, heonone, heonane, hinan ; — her, haer ; — Her-aefter, hyr-after : — hider, hyder, hieder, hither ; — hindan, hyndan ; — hu, hwit ; — hwaene, hwene ; — hwaenne, hwenne, hwonne, ahwaenne ; — liwaer, hwar ; — hwi, hwig, hwy'; — hwider, hwyder, hwaeder; — tiwon, hwonn ; — hwona, hwonan, behwon. innan, inn, inne. lange, longe ; — litlum, lytlum, litlun. md, ma'e, mare, mara, more. mZ, no; — naefre, nefre, nefor; — nd-hwaer, na-whar, na-war, na- wer, na-hwern, hwern, nedhwerno, nedwerno; — nd-hwanan, na- hwenan ; — nd-laes, na-les. nallas, nals ; — nalles, nallaes ; — neah, neahg, neh; — neothan, niothan, nythan, nithan, neothone; — nese, naese; — nilher, nyther, nyihor, nether; nither-weard, nither-ward, nither-wart, nither-werd, nither-weardes ; — no-hwit, nd-wiht, naht, ndht, ndcht. ongean, ongen, angean, agean, agen ; — on-waeg, on-weg ; — oth, oththe. raethe, rath, ratbe. samod, samad, somed, somod ;—sitMhan, syththan, siththen , seththan, sithen, siththa, syththon, sython ; — soma, suna, besone ; — stille, stylle ; — sunder, sun dor, svnder, syndor ; — switke, swythe ; — symle, simle, symble, simble, symbel, aelsymle, semle. tela, tael, teald, teala ; — tuwa. tuua; — thd, thage; — thaer, thar, ther, there, thaera, thara; — thanon, thanone, thanonne, thanun, thanan, thonan, thonon, thona ; — thonne, thaenne, thaen, thanne, thon; — thriwa, thrywa, thriga ; — thus, thuss; — thyder, thider, thaeder, thy ther; ~—thyder-weard, thider-weard, thider- weardes. ufan, ufa, ufane, ufene, ufenan, ufon ; — up, upp, uppe ; — lit, ute. wel, well ; — with-utan, with-uten, with-uton. 161 14# ETYMOLOGY. -ost are added for the comparative and superlative ; as, raeth-e soon, rath-or a sooner , rath-ost soonest; riht-lice justly, rihtlic-or more justly, rihtlic-ost most justly. § 412. Some are irregular in forming the comparative and superlative degrees ; as wel, well, bet 8 better, betst best ; yfele badly, wyrs 4 worse, wyrrest worst. CHAPTER IX. PREPOSITIONS. § 413. Prepositions in Anglo-Saxon govern different cases, and some of them two or more. They govern, 1. The Dative : 2. The Accusative : 3. The Genitive or Dative : and, 5. The Genitive, Dative or Accusative. 1. The Prepositions which govern the Dative are: Aefter 1 after, for, on account of, according to, through, over. efter. A'er ere, before. Aet at, to, next, with, against, in ; of, from. aett. Baeftan after, behind; without "beftan. aeftan. be-aeftan. 2 rathor. rathur. 3 bet, bett, abet. 4 wyrs, waerra, waersa. 1 We have thought it better, in giving the different forms of the Prepositions, to deviate from our common rule in placing such by themselves. 162 PREPOSITIONS. Be 8 by, near to, to, at, in, upon, about, with ; of, from, about, bi. touching, concerning ; for, because of, after, ac- big. cording to ; beside, out of bii. Beheonan on this side, close by. behionan. Benorthan to the north of Betwynan between, among. betweonan. betweonum. betwinan. Bin nan within. binnon. be-innan. Bufan. bufon above. Butan without, except. buton. biitun. Gehende, nigh. Mith with. Neah near, nigh Onforan before Oninnan ivithin Onufan above, upon. on-ufon. on-uppan. on-uppon. 2 Some make a distinction between be and bi, but they both evi- dently have the same origin, and are used indiscriminately by writers. 163 ETYMOLOGY. To eacan besides. T6-emnes along. Toforan before. to-foren. to-foron. to-for. Toweard towards. to werd. toward. t6weardes. towardes. Unfeor nigh, near. un-feorr. With-northan to the north of. 2. Those governing the Accusative are : Abiitan about, around, round about. abuton. onbutan. onbiiton. Begeond beyond. begeondan. beiundan. Behindan behind. Geond through, over, as far as, after, beyond geonda. eond. Mil among, at, mid, in. Ongean against, opposite, opposite to, towards. ongen. angean. agen. Siththan after, since. siththon. 164 PREPOSITIONS. Thurh through, by. With-aeftan behind, after. With-foran before. With-geondan about, throughout. With-innan within. With-iitan without. Ymb round, about. ymbe. Ymb-utan round about, without, beyond, except. ymbe-iitan. emb-utan. 3. Those which govern the Genitive or Dative are * Of of, from, out of, concerning. af. To to, towards, for, under, from. Tomiddes in the middle, in the midst, among. 4. Those governing the Dative or Accusative are : Aetforan close before, close by, before, at. beforan. befeore. Betwuh betwixt, among, betuh. betwy. betwih. betwyh betweoh. betweohs. betux. betweox. betwux. betwuxt. betwyx. betwixt. 165 ETYMOLOGY. For for, on account of, because of, according to. Gemang among. gemong. amang. onmang. ongemang. ongemong. Innan in, into, within. innon. Into into, in. Mid with, by means of, among. myd. Ofer over, above, upon, beside, beyond. ouer. On in, into, with, among, on, upon. in. an. o, oo. Oth to, unto, till. Togeanes towards, to, against, to meet. togenes. Uppan upon ; beyond, after, against, from. uppon. Utan without, beyond. liton. 5. Those which govern the Genitive, Dative or Ac- cusative are : Andlang along, by the side of; through, during. andlong. ondlong. anlongne. onlongne. lang. 16G CONJUNCTIONS. Fram from. fra. from. With against, opposite ; near, about, by, before, by the side of, along ; towards, with, for, instead of, through. § 414. A Preposition is sometimes separated from the word which it governs, and in that case it is placed before the verb in the sentence. Several of the compound pre- positions are also elegantly divided by the nouns or pro- nouns depending upon them. § 415. Some Prepositions are of an inseparable nature, and much used in the composition of Anglo-Saxon words. These will be found among the Prefixes given under § 75. CHAPTER X. CONJUNCTIONS. § 416. Conjunctions in Anglo-Saxon are either single words or phrases. The principal are contained in the fol- lowing list. ac but, whether. and and. andhwaether notwithstanding, but yet. a-the, a-thf therefore, so far that, so much. butan but, unless, except. eac also, likewise, and, moreover. eornostlice therefore, but. fortha because. fortham for this reason that, on this account that, be- cause, for that cause, for, therefore. 167 ETYMOLOGY, forthi therefore, wherefore, for, because. ge and, also : ge— ge, aeghwaether ge — ge, aegther ge — ge both — and, as well — as so — as. gif if when, though. hwaet moreover, but, wherefore, because. hwaethre whether, nevertheless, yet, but, if: hwaether, the — the whether — or. hwi wherefore, indeed. laes-hwon, the laes, the laes the, th^ laes, th^ laes the, las the lest, lest that. naes na, naes ne neither. nathor neither, nor : nathor ne — ne neither — nor. ne neither, nor : nene, neither. nemne but, except, unless. nymthe except, save, unless. ono if: ono hwaet but : ono nu if now : ono gif but if. oththe or, either : oththe — oththe either — or. other-twega or other-thara either of the two, often in the first clause for oththe. sam whether : sam — sam whether — or. set therefore, on that account. sothlice but, wherefore, therefore. swa, swa swa as, so as, as if; swa same, swa some so, also ; swa same swa the same as, as, even as ; same ylce swa in such wise as, so as ; eall swa also ; swa eac so as, also ; swa theah yet, but for all that, nevertheless, however : swa — swa, swa — swa swa so — as, that, swa wel swa so well as; swa thaet so that. swilce as if, as it were, so that, also, moreover, seeing. thaet that ; — 16 thon thaet, in order that. the th-an, whether, either, or, whether — or. theah though, although, yet, still, however; theah the although ; tljeah hwaethere yet, nevertheless, moreover^ but yet, but. 168 INTERJECTIONS. thonne therefore, wherefore, but, than; gif thonne if indeed. thy for, because, therefore : th^ — thy, thf — the there- fore, because; also, for thy — for thy, for thf — the, for thy — for tham, for thi — for tham the, for tfram the — for thy therefore— because. wenre except, saving, but. with thon thaet, so that, provided that. witodlice 1 but, for, therefore, wherefore. CHAPTER XI. INTERJECTIONS. § 417. The following are the most of the Anglo-Saxon Interjections : afaestla O certainly ! O assuredly ! 1 The various forms of the preceding among others are these : ac, oc ; — and, aende, ende, ond ; — a the, d thy' : more properly ever the. butan, buton, butun., biite. edc, a'ec, ec. farth&m, forthan, forthdn, fortham the, forthan the ;—forth{ } forthy', forthig, forthy' the, forth! thonne. gif, gy f - hivt, hwig, hwy'. ndthor ,nather, nathaer, nawther, nauther ; — nemne, nimne, nymne; — nymthe, nimthe, nemthe. oththe, athor, auther, ather, oththon, outher. sam, som ; — swa, swa'e, sua'e ; — swilce, swylce, sole. thaet, that, thaette contracted from thaet the ; — thedh, then, th<5th, tha'eh ; — thonne, thanne. witodlice, witedlice, witudlice. 169 15 ETYMOLOGY. eala O ! alas ! Oh ! eala eala very well ! eala gif Oh if; I wish : eala thaet Oh that ! eala hii Oh how. efne lo ! behold ! truly ! alefne behold all ! eow wo ! alas ! heno behold ! hig 01 hi la hi alas! hiii ha ! hui ho ! la O ! Oh ! io ! behold ! taeg tush ! pish ! wa woe ! alas ! \va la Oh ! O if! wa la wa well-a-way ! well-a-day ! alas ! wei wo ! alas ! wella wel well well ! wel la 1 well alas ! ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE INDECLIN- ABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. § 418. Admitting the view which we have taken of the formation of the Anglo-Saxon verb to be correct, it cannot be considered in any case as the direct source of the ad- verb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. These must therefore have some other origin assigned them. The indeclinable parts of speech are either derived from words which still exist in the language as nouns, adjec- tives or pronouns, or they are themselves primitive words, and, as such, were once used as nouns. In proof of our assertion we will give a few examples. 1. With regard to Adverbs : as, Hwilum awhile, wow, from hwil time, space. Thancesf reely, gratefully jfrom thane favor, thanks, will, 1 The various forms of these are : eala, aeala, eawla, hela ; — efne, aefne, eofne. keno, heonu \—hui, huig. INDECLINABLE PAKi'S OF Si'EECH. Gyt #ef,from giht lime, slaying. This noun in tbe sense of time is still found united with another word ; as, gebed- giht bed-time.. Its other forms are gihth, geht, gyte. Lange a long timers probably no other than the accu- sative fern, of lang long, hwile time being understood. 2. With regard to Prepositions : as, Bi by, near, is the same as by a habitation. Gemang among, taking away the prefix ge, differs but little from menge a crowd, multitude. Menge exists as one of the numerous forms of maenigeo. Thurh, thuruh, through, thorough are the same as thuru, tliuruh, duru a door or passage of any kind. 3. With respect to Conjunctions : as, Eac also, and, moreover, and eaca addition are one and the same. Eac must have been the form of the noun at one time. Gif if and the verb gifan to give must both be referred to nouns no longer in existence, but of which the con- junction may preserve the form. It is evident that the particle was needed in the language as soon as the verb. 4. With respect to Interjections : as, Wa woe ! alas ! which is the noun wa woe, sorrow, af- fliction. 5. Many of the indeclinable parts of speech in the lan- guage are compounds: as, na-hwaer nowhere; be-hindan behind; and-hwaether notwithstanding ; afaest-la O cer" tainly ! 1 We may say that the adverb, preposition, and conjunction, have preserved, in many cases, the root of the noun and of the verb un- changed. But more of this view of the subject elsewhere. 171 PART III— SYNTAX. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. § 419. Syntax, which is divided into Concord and Government, is the arrangement of words in a sentence, according to certain rules established by usage. 1 . CONCORD. § 420. The verb agrees with its nominative in number and person : as, Ic lufige I love. Thu wn'tst Thou writesl. He waes rihtwi's He was righteous. We standath We stand. Ge etath Ye or you eat. VVagas burston TVaves burst. Note. The subject usually stands before the verb, but when tha or thonne then, is introduced before a consequent proposition, ii is commonly placed after it ; although, as in English, the particle in most cases is omitted, and the subject maintains its natural position in the sentence. Negation also, in some instances, has the effect of throwing it after the verb. § 421. A noun of multitude may have the verb either in the singular or plural number, or two verbs of different numbers even in the same sentence : as, Eall thaet folc aras and All the people arose and stodon. stood. 172 CONCORD. § 422. Two or more nominatives in the singular con- nected by and and, either expressed or understood, have the verb in the plural : as, Synderlice hine Petrus and Peter and James and John lacobus and Iohannes and Andrew asked him and Andreas acsedon privately. § 423. The verbs of affirmation or existence may have a nominative both before and after them : as, God wa'es thaet Word God was the Word. Thaet bith Godes weorc That is God's work. Hi'g wurdon gefry"nd They were made friends . § 424. The first of the two nominatives may be one of the singular neuters, this and thaet, belonging to the verb, and referring to a noun, both in the plural : as, Ne synt na this wodes These (this) are not the mannes word words of a madman, § 425. The article agrees with the noun which it defines in gender, number and case : as, Se an we aid a The governor. 'Ilia haethenan The heathen. Thaes lichaman Of the body. § 426. It also is frequently used before proper names, and after possessive and other pronouns : as, Se Johannes John. On thinum tham halgum In thy holy name. naman § 427. All adjectives, including all other words havino- the nature of adjectives, agree with the nouns to which they belong in gender, number and case : as, Lengran dagas Longer days. Theos stow This place. Twegen englas Two angels. Locigende ge geseoth Looking ye shall see. 173 15* § 428. The perfect participle with habban to have does not always agree with the nominative, but is frequently inflected and made to agree with the governed word : as, A'enne haefde he swa One he had made so strong, swithne geworhtne § 429. The relative agrees with its antecedent in gen- der and number, but its case depends upon some other word in the sentence : as, Sum wif seo haefde A certain woman ivho had. Thii the eart Thou who art* Se man, se the The man, he who. Se be tham He by whom. § 430. The relative is frequently omitted : as, Tha wa'es sum consul Boe- Then was there a certain tius wa'es haten consul (who) ivas named Boelhius. § 431. The personal pronoun supplies the place of the relative, when the goes before : as, The thurh his willan Through whose will. The thurh hine Through whom. § 432. The interrogative and the word that answers to it, must be in the same case : as, Hwa'es anh'cnys ys this ? Whose image is this ? Cce- Thaes Caseres. sar's. $ 433. Nouns signifying the same thing agree in case : as, Aelfred Cyning King Alfred. § 434. Sometimes a noun defined by the article is re- peated after the pronoun which expresses it, agreeing with it in the same case : as, He se bisceop He the bishop. 174 GOVERNMENT, 2. GOVERNMENT. § 435. One noun governs another, when a different per- son or thing is signified, in the genitive case : as, Godes mildse God's mercy. Waetera safes Waters of the sea. § 436. A noun united with an adjective, which ex- presses either praise or blarney is put in the genitive : as, This folc is heardes modes. This people is of hard mind. He waes aethelre strynde. He was of a noble race. § 437. Nouns denoting measure, value, age, and the like, are put in the genitive : as, Threora mila brad Three miles broad. Sex peninga wyrthe Sixpence worth. A'nes geares lamb A yearling lamb. § 438. Nouns answering the question when ? are put either in the genitive or the dative ; but how long ? in the accusative : as, This waes feorthes geares This was in the fourth year. Othre sithe At another time. Thaer hi'g wa'eron seofon They were there seven en- dagas fulle tire days. § 439. A noun answering the question where ? may be put in the genitive : as, Eorthan getenge Prostrate on the ground. § 440. Ham home, when the question is made by whither ? is put in the accusative : as, Tha he ham com When he came home. § 441. The cause, manner and instrument in relation to a thing are put in the dative case : as, His agenum willum Of his own will. Micelre stefne With a loud voice. Billum abreotan. With bills to destroy. 175 ■■■■■IIIIUIIII SYNTAX. § 442. Nouns are used absolutely in the dative case with participles : as, Gebigedum cneowjim Knees being bent. Him thencendum lie thinking. § 443. A pronoun in the neuter gender sometimes go- verns the genitive case singular : as, Nanthing grenes Nothing green. § 444. Adjectives denoting plenty, want, desert, likeness, dignity, care or desire, knowledge, ignorance, etc., govern either the dative or the genitive : as, Full Halgum Gaste Full of the Holy Spirit. Fugel fetherum deal A bird deficient in feathers. Deathes scyldig Deserving death. § 445. Partitives, superlatives, interrogatives and nume- rals, usually employ the genitive case plural : as, Na'enig thinga iVo one of things. Scipfo, se besta Romana Scipio, the best of the Ro- witena man senators. Twentig wintra Twenty years. § 446. The comparative degree governs nouns and pro- nouns in the dative case, when it can be translated by than: as, Hefigeran tha'ere a'e Weightier than the law. % 447. Verbs for the most part govern the accusative when a direct object is implied : as, Thisne man ic lunge I love this man. Notb. The object is commonly placed before the verb ; devia- tions from this rule, though, are frequent. 176 GOVERNMENT. § 448. Verbs of governing, wanting, enjoying, and the like, require the genitive case : as, He wealt ealles He governs all. Ne thearf he nanes thinges Nor needs he anything. Gif hi thaes wudabenugon If they have enjoyment of the woods. § 449. Verbs of serving, listening, answering, etc., govern the dative case : as, We theowiath blithelice We will serve the king with tham cynge joy. Sunu mm, hlyste minre My son, listen to my coun- lare sel. Tha ne myhton hi'g him Then were they not able to andswarian answer him. § 450. A verb of affirmation or existence may govern the dative : as, Wes us fa'ele freond Be to us a faithful friend. § 451. An impersonal verb governs the dative : as, Me tliuhte It seemed to me. § 452. Reflexive verbs govern the pronoun in the accu- sative : as, Ic me reste I rest myself. Note. Reflexive and impersonal verbs generally follow both the subject and the object. § 453. Verbs of thanking, admonishing, etc., govern the dative case of the person with the genitive of the thing : as, Sceolde his drihtne than- Should thank his lord for cian thaes leanes the reward. Manathone thaes angyldes Admonish that one of the recompense, m SYNTAX. § 454. Verbs of ordering, giving, doing, and the like, govern the accusative with the dative : as, Thas thing ic eow beode This thing I order you. Hwaet gifst thu me What givest thou me ? Doth ge him that sylfe Do ye the same to them. § 455. Verbs of asking, teaching, etc., govern the accu- sative both of the person and thing : as, Hyne axodon tha bi'gspell They asked of him the para- ble. Ic the maeg ta'ecan other i" can teach thee another thing thing. § 456. Verbs of naming or terming govern both the ob- ject and the appellation in the accusative : as, God hetthafaestnisse heo- God called the firmament fenan heaven. Nemde hine Drihten. Termed him Lord. § 457. Sometimes, however, we find the appellation in the nominative : as, Tha wa'es sum consul thaet Then was there a certain we heretoha hatath. consul that we callhere- toha. § 458. But hatan signifying to be called or named, takes a nominative both before and after it : as, Se hatte Lucifer Who was called Lucifer. § 459. One verb governs another that depends upon it, in the infinitive mood : as, Hwaet sceal ic singan ? What shall or ought I to sing ? § 460. The infinitive mood may be preceded by the ac- cusative case : as, Swa ge geseoth me habban As ye see me have 178 GOVERNMENT, § 461. The gerund is always governed by the preposi- tion to which precedes it : as, Ic do eow to witanne i" do you to wit. § 462. Participles and gerunds have the same govern- ment as the verbs to which they belong : as, Cwethende thaet ylce ge- Uttering the same prayer. bed Hearran to habbanne A lord to have. § 463. The perfect participle of a verb which governs two cases, when united with a verb of existence, retains only the latter of them : as, Wa'es him nama sceapen A name was given him. § 464. Adverbs qualify other words, and some of them may be defined by the indeclinable article : as, Wi'slice ic sprece I speak wisely. To mice! Too much. Neah fif thiisenda wera Almost five thousand men. S withe wel Very well. The laes The less. Th^- ma The more. § 465. Two or more negatives strengthen the nega- tion : as, Ne geseah naefre nan man No man ever (never) saw God (not) God. § 466. Some adverbs govern the genitive : as, Forth nihtes Far in the night. Mid laes worda With less words. Nehst tha'ere eaxe Nearest the axle. Note. Adverbs for the most part are placed arbitrarily in the sen- tence. IN e always stands before the verb which it qualifies. Words compounded with this particle do not express a complete negation un- 179 SYNTAX. less it is also added in its simple state, and occupies its proper posi- tion. When na having the sense of not, is used in connexion with it, the verb is placed between them. Nor and not are expressed by ne ne when one ne already precedes, or after neither neither, by only a single ne in each member. § 467. Prepositions govern different cases as specified in § 413. Thus, Tomiddes hyra In the midst of them. Of aelcum treowe Of every tree. Thurh me sylfne By myself, § 468. Conjunctions connect sentences and parts of sen- tences, as well as words of the same kind : as, Ic eom win-eard and ge i" am a vine and ye are synt twigu branches. Gesceop God heofenan and God created heaven and eorthan earth. Oth thone an and twentugo- Until the one and twentieth than daeg thaes ylcan day of the same month. month es. § 469. The conjunctions gif if thaet that, sam whether, theah though, swilce as if etc., are followed by the sub- junctive mood when anything doubtful or contingent is implied : as, Gif he wille and cunne his If he will and can confess da'eda andettan his deeds. Hwaet do ic thaet ic ece What shall I do that I may h'f age have eternal life ? Sam hio monnum god Whether it may seem good thince to men, § 470. But when a simple declaration is made, the in- dicative follows : as, Gif we secgath If we say. 180 GOVERNMENT. §471. The verbal conjunction utan, uton, utun let us, governs the infinitive : as Utan biddan God Let us beseech God. Uton gan heonon Let us go hence. Utun faran to Bethleem Let us go to Bethlehem. § 472. Interjections may be followed by a nominative, dative or accusative case : as, La thu liccetere O thou hypocrite ! Wa tham men Wo to the man ! Wa, eow boceras Wo to you scribes ! § 473. The indefinite form of the adjective is used with common nouns, when the interjection is either expressed or understood : as, Ea!a, leof hlaford Alas! beloved master. Awyrgede woruld-sorga Accursed worldly cares ! § 474. But with pronouns of the first and second persons, the definite form usually occurs : as, Ic wrecca Wretched me ! Thii stunta Foolish thou I 181 16 PART IV.— PROSODY. OF ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. § 475. Anglo-Saxon poetry in its nature resembles the abrupt, nervous expressions of man in his uncultivated state. Its leading characteristic is periphrasis, which is always mingled with metaphor, and sometimes in great abundance, while artificial inversions of words and phrases are not uncommon. In its constitution it is precisely such as we would expect to meet with in an age when bards sung the praises of heroes, taking up and arranging the epithets showered upon them by the applauding multitude, interspersed with any ideas that might occur to their own minds. And this feature appears as well when sacred sub- jects are the poet's theme as any others. The praises of the Deity and of the warrior chieftain are celebrated in like strains. § 476. The poetry of the Anglo-Saxons is of two kinds, native or vernacular and Latin. The latter originated from the Roman and follows the same laws. It is the con- struction of the former that requires a brief consideration in this place. § 477. The only rule which they appear to have ob- served in the composition of their native verses was that of pleasing the ear, and this they effected by combining their ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. words into a rhythmical cadence. iU Rhythmus," says Bede, " is a modulated composition of words, not accord- ing to the laws of metre, but adapted in the number of its syllables to the judgment of the ear, as are the verses of our vulgar (or native) poets. Rhythm may exist without me- tre, but there cannot be metre without rhythm, which is thus more clearly defined. " Metre is an artificial rule with modulation : rhythmus is the modulation wilhout the rule. Yet, for the most part, you may find, by a sort of chance, some rule in rhythm, but this is not from an artificial government of the syllables. It arises because the sound and the modulation lead to it. The vulgar poets effect this rustically : the skilful attain it by their skill.'" § 478. This rhythmus " the skilful" produced b} T such a choice and arrangement of their words, not disregarding accent, that the same length of time was required for pro- nouncing any two or more corresponding lines in a poem, although one of them might contain fewer syllables than the other. But in general they were satisfied with a near approach to the proper cadence. The following examples will illustrate the principle. Thus, Thohton tilian Fylle on faetum — Urig faethera Salowig pada — Wordum he'figen, Modum lufien — Heafod ealra Heah gesceafta, Frea Aelmihtig- Judith. i83 Again : Also: PROSODY. Wereda wuldor - cyning — Ymb the heolster - sceado — Thurh thfnra meahta sped. — Caedmon. Mine wea - thearfa ongunnon, Thaet thaes monnes Magas hycgon, Thurh tyrodne gethoht, Thaet hy todaeldon unc : Thaet wit, gewidost In vvoruld - rice, Liftlon lath - licost, And mec longade. Hat mec hlaford mm Her heard niman. Exile's Song, And lastly : Thaet is wyrthe, Thaet the wer - theoda Secgon Dryhtne thane Dugutha gehwylcre, Tiie us, sith and cer, Simle gefremede, Thurh manigfealdra Maegna geryno. Hymn on the Creation. § 479. Alliteration, though sometimes used, was never a fundamental principle in Anglo-Saxon poetry. It con- sists in employing three words beginning with the same letter, if a consonant, in two adjacent and connected lines of verse. The most important alliterative letter, termed ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENERAL. the chief letter, always stands in the second line, while the two others which are called assistants, occupy places in the first. The following extract from a poem on the Day of Judgment, furnishes examples of this sort of alliteration, and likewise contains rhyme. Thus, Swa /telle Aearthu Swa Zieofenes maerthu , Swa Zeohte /eoht, Swa /athe niht ; Swa (/irymmes (frraece, Swa (Ziystra wraece ; Swa mid Drihten Jream, Swa mid deoflum hream ; Swa wite mid iwathum, Swa wuldor mid arum; >Swa Iff, swa death, , to read ■ f, > legere. ( leabham ; But nations who had known letters before they became acquainted with Roman literature, would have indigenous terms to express them. The Saxons have such terms. The most common word by which the Anglo-Saxons denoted alphabetical letters was staef ; plural stafas, — Elfric, in his Saxon Grammar, so uses it. The copy of the Saxon coronation oath begins with, ' This writing is written, staef be staefe (letter by letter) from that writing w T hich Dunstan, archbishop, gave the North. Wormius gives these, Lit. Run., p. 58. Hickes, in his Gram. Anglo-Is]., c. I, gives several Runic alphabets. 6 In the Erse Testament, Greek letters are expressed by litrichibh Greigis. Luke xxiii. 38. 196 APPENDIX A. to our lord at Kingston.' In the same sense the word is used in Alfred's translation of Bede, and in the Saxon Gospels. It is curious to find the same word so applied in the Runic mythology. In the Vafthrudis-mal, one of the odes of the ancient Edda of Semund, it occurs in the speech of Odin, who says, ' fornum stavfom,' in the ancient letters.' The numerous compound words derived from staef, a letter, show it to have been a radical term in the language, and of general application. Staef-creft, the art of letters. Staefen-row, the alphabet. Staef-gefeg, a syllable. Staeflic, learned. Staefnian, to teach letters. Staef-plega, a game at letters. Staef-wise, wise in letters. Stafa-heafod, the head of the letters. Stafa-naman, the names of the letters. The same word was also used like the Latin litera, to signify an epistle. 8 The art of using letters, or writing, is also expressed in Saxon by a verb not of Roman origin. The Saxon term for the verb to write, is not like the Erse expression, 7 Edda Semund, p. 3. Tn the Icelandic Gospels, for Latin and Hebrew letters we have Latiniskum and Ebreskum bokstefum. Luke xxiii. 38. The Franco-theotisc, for letters, has a similar com- pound word, bok-staven. s When a letter or authoritative document is mentioned in Saxon, the expressions applied to it are not borrowed from the Latin, as scriptum, mandatum, epistola, and such like ; but it is said, " Hono- rius sent the Scot a ge-writ," Sax. Ch. 39 ; desired the Pope with his ge-writ to confirm it, ib. 38. So Alfred, translating Bede, says, " The Pope sent to Augustin pallium and ge-writ ;" here bor- rowing from the Latin the pallium, a thing known to them from the Romans, but using a native Saxon term to express the word epistle. ]97 17*= APPENDIX A. . from the Latin scribere, but is 'awritan,' or ' gewritan.' This verb is formed from a similar noun of the same mean- ing as staef. The noun is preserved in the Maeso-Gothic, where writs signifies ' a letter.' In like manner the Saxons did not derive their word for book from the Latin liber ; they expressed it by their own term, ' boc,' as the Northerns called it ' bog.' I do not mean to assert indiscriminately, that whenever a word indigenous in a language is used to express writing, it is therefore to be inferred that the people using that lan- guage have also letters ; because it may so happen that the word may not have been an indigenous term for letters, but for something else ; and may have been applied to ex- press letters only analogically or metaphorically. To give an instance : the Indians of New England expressed let- ters, or writing, by the terms wussukwhonk, or wussuk- wheo-. But the Indians had no letters nor writing among: them : whence then had they these words ? The answer is, that they were in the habit of painting their faces and their garments, and when we made them acquainted with writing,* they applied to it their word for painting. 9 But though they could figuratively apply their term for painting to express writing, they had nothing to signify a book, and therefore it was necessary to ingraft our English word 1 book' into their language for that purpose. On the whole, I am induced to believe that the Anglo- Saxons were not unacquainted with alphabetical charac- ters when they came into England. However this may be, it is certain that if they had ancient letters, they ceased 9 Thus wu?sukhosu was a painted coat. Williams' Key to the Language of America, p. 184. ed. 1643, and see his remark, p. 61. The Malays, who have borrowed their letters from other nations, have used the same analogy. Their word " to write," is toolis, which also signifies to paiat. See Howison's Malay Dictionary. 193 APPENDIX A. to use them after their conversion. It was the invariable policy of the Roman ecclesiastics to discourage the use of the Runic characters, because they were of pagan origin, and had been much connected with idolatrous supersti- tions. 10 Hence as soon as the Christian clergy acquired influence in the Saxon octarchy, all that appeared in their literature was in the character which they had formed from the Romans; We know nothing of the compositions of the Anglo- Saxons in their pagan state. Tacitus mentions generally of the Germans that they had ancient songs, and therefore we may believe that the Anglo-Saxons were not without them. Indeed, Dunstan is said to have learned the vain songs of his countrymen in their pagan state ; and we may suppose that if such compositions had not been in existence at that period, Edgar would not have forbidden men, on festivals, to sing heathen songs. But none of these had sur- vived to us. If they were ever committed to writing it was on wood or stones ; indeed, their word for book, hoc, expresses a beech tree, and seems to allude to the matter of which their earliest books were made. 11 The poets of 10 The Swedes were persuaded by the Pope, in 1001, to lay aside the Runic letters, and to adopt the Roman in their stead. They were gradually abolished in Denmark, and afterwards in Iceland. 11 Wormius infers, ihat pieces of wood cut from the beech tree were the ancient northern books, Lit. Run. p. 6. Saxo-Grammaticus men- tions, that Fengo's Ambassadors took with them literasTgno insculp- tas, " because," adds Saxo, " that was formerly a celebrated kind of material to write upon," lib. iii. p. 52. Besides the passage formerly cited from Fortunatus, we may notice another, in which he speaks of the bark as used to contain characters. See Worm., p. 9, who says, that no wood more abounds in Denmark than the beech, nor is any more adapted to receive impressions, ib. p. 7. In Welsh, gwydd, a tree, or wood, is used to denote a book. So Gwilym Tew talks of reading the gwydd. Owen's Diet. voc. Gwydd. 189. APPENDIX B. barbarous ages usually confide the little effusions of their genius to the care of tradition. They are seldom preserv- ed in writing till literature becomes a serious study ; and therefore we may easily believe, that if the Anglo-Saxons had alphabetical characters, they were much more used for divinations, charms, and funeral inscriptions than for lite- rary compositions. " — Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- Saxons, Vol. I, B. II, App., Chap. IV. APPENDIX B. ON THE COPIOUSNESS OF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE." u This language has been thought to be a very rude and barren tongue, incapable of expressing anything but the most simple and barbarous ideas. The truth, however, is, that it is a very copious language, and is capable of ex- pressing any subject of human thought. In the technical terms of those arts and sciences which have been disco- vered, or much improved, since the Norman Conquest, it must of course be deficient. But books of history, belles- lettres, and poetry, may be now written in it, with con- siderable precision and correctness, and even with much discrimination, and some elegance of expression. The Saxon abounds with synonymes. I will give a few instances of those which my memory can supply." Our author here introduces a number of words as sy- nonymes, but which rather express the same objects under different relations. 209 APPENDIX B. u They had a great number of words for a ship, and to express the Supreme, they used more words and phrases than I can recollect to have seen in any other language. Indeed, the copiousness of their language was receiv- ing perpetual additions from the lays of their poets. I have already mentioned that the great features of their poe- try were metaphor and periphrasis. On these they prided themselves. To be fluent in .these was the great object of their emulation, and the great test of their merit. Hence, Cedmon, in his account of the deluge, uses near thirty synonymous words and phrases to express the ark. They could not attain this desired end without making new words and phrases by new compounds, and most of these became naturalized in the language. The same zeal for novelty of expression led them to borrow words from every other language which came within their reach." ********* " But the great proof of the copiousness and power of the Anglo-Saxon language may be had from considering our own English, which is principally Saxon. It may be interesting to show this by taking some lines of our princi- pal authors, and marking in Italics the Saxon words they contain." SHAKSPEARE. To be or not to be, that is the question ; Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them ? To die, to sleep ; No more ! and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ach, and the thousand natural shocks The flesh is heir to! "'twere a, consummation Devoutly to be wished. To die, to sleep ; To sleep ? perchance to dream I 2t)l APPENDIX B. MILTON. With thee conversing I forget all time, All seasons, and their change ; all please alike. Swert is the breath of mom, her rising sweet, With charm of earliest birds ; pleasant the sun When first on this delightful land he spreads His orient beams on herb, tree, fruit and flower, Glistening with dew ; fragrant the fertile earth After soft shoicers ; and sweet the coming on Of grateful evening mild; then silent night With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, And these the gems of heaven, her starry train. Mark that swift arrow ; how it cuts the air I How it outruns the following eye! Use all persuasions now and try Jf thou canst call it back, or stay it there. That way it went ; but thou shaltfind No track is left behind. Fool! 'tis thy life, and the fond archer thou. Of all the time thou'st shot away Til bid thee fetch but yesterday, And it shall be loo hard a task to do. TRANSLATORS OF THE BIBLE. And they made ready the present against Joseph came at noon: for they heard that they should eat bread there. And tchen Joseph came home, they brought him the present which teas in their hand into the house, and bowed themselves to him to the earth. And he asked them of their welfare, and said, Is your father well, the old man of whom ye spake? Is he yet alive ? And they answered, thy servant our father is in good health, he is yet alive. And they bowed down their heads, and made obeisance. And he lifted up his eyes, and saw his brother Benjamin, his mother's son, and said, Is this your younger brother, of whom ye spake unto me ? And he said, God be gracious unto thee, my son. Gen. xliii. 25—29. Then when Mary was come where Jesus was, and saw him, site fell down at his feet, saying unto him, Lord, if thou hadst been here, my ho- 202 APPENDIX B. ther had not died. When Jesus therefore saw her weeping, and the Jews also weeping which came with her, he groaned in the spirit, and was troubled. And said, Where have ye laid him? They said unto him, Lord, come and. see. Jesus wept. Then said the Jews, Behold how he loved him. John xi. 32 — 36. THOMSON. These as they change, Almighty Father, these Are but the varied God. The rolling year Is full of thee. Full in the pleasing spring Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love. Wide flush the fields ; the sofuning air is balm ; Echo t/ie mountains round ; the forest smiles ; And every sense and every heart is joy. Then conies thy glory in the summer months, With light and heat refulgent. Then thy sun Shoots full perfection through the swelling year. I was yesterday, about sunset, walking in the open fields, till the night insensibly fell upon me. I at first amused myself with all the richness and variety of colors vjhich appeared in the western parts of heaven. In proportion as they faded away and went out, several stars and pla- nets appeared, one after another, till the whole firmament was in a glow. The blueness of the aether was exceedingly heightened and en- livened by the season of the year. SPENSER. Hard is the doubt, and difficult to deem, When all three kinds of love togetlier meet, And do dispart the heart with power extreme, Whether shall vjeigh the balance down ; to weet The dear affection unto kindred sweet, Or raging fire of love to woman kind, Or zeal of friends combined with virtues meet : But of them all the band of virtuous mind Me seems the gentle heart should most- assured bend. Book 4. C. 9. 203 APPENDIX B. LOCKE. Every man, being conscious to himself, that he thinks, and that, which his mind is applied about whilst thinking, being the ideas that are there ; it is past doubt, that men have in their minds several ideas. Such are those expressed by the words, whiteness, hardness, sweetness, thinking, motion, man, elephant, army, drunkenness, and others. It is in the first place, then, to be inquired, How he comes by them ? I know it is a received doctrine that men have native ideas, and original characters stamped upon their minds in their very first being. Locke's Essay, Book 11, Ch. L How happy is the blameless vestal's lot! The vjorld forgetting, by tlie world forgot; Eternal sunshine of the spotless mind! Each pray'r accepted, and each wish resign 'd ; Labor and rest that equal periods keep ; Obedient slumbers that can wake and weep; Desires composed, affections ever even; Tears that delight, and sighs that waft to heaven, Grace shines around her with serenest beams, And whispering angels prompt her golden dreams. For her th' unfading rose of Eden blooms, And wings of seraphs shed divine perfumes. YOUNG. Let Indians, and the gay, like Indians, fond Of feather d fopperies, the sun adore ; Darkness has more divinity for me ; It strikes thought inward, it drives bark the sold To settle on herself, our point supreme. TJiere lies our theatre : there sits our judge. Darkness the curtain drops o'er life's dull scene ; 'Tis the kind hand of Providence stretch' d out 'Twixt man and vanity ; His reason's reign, And virtue's too ; these tutelary shades Are man's asylum /rom the tainted throng. Night is the good man's friend and guardian too, It no less rescues virtue, than inspires. 201 APPENDIX B. SWIFT. Wisdom is a fox, vjho, after long hunting, will at last cost you the pains to dig out. ' Tis a cheese, which by how much the richer has the thicker, the homelier, and the coarser coat ; and whereof, to a judicious palate, the maggots are the best. : Tis a sack posset, wherein t/ie deeper you go, you will find it the sweeter. But tnen, lastly, 'tis a nut, which, unless you choose with judgment, may cost you a tooth, and pay you with nothing but a worm. ROBERTSON. This great emperor, in the plenitude of his power, and in possession. of all the honors which can flatter the heart of man, took the extraordi- nary resolution to resign his kingdom ; and to withdravj entirely from any concern in business, or the affairs of this world, in order that he might spend the remainder of his days in retirement and solitude, Dioclesian is, perhaps, the only prince capable of holding the reins of government, who ever resigned them from deliberate choice, and ioho continued during many years to enjoy the tranquillity of retirement, without fetching one penitent sigh, or casting back one look of desire towards the power or dignity which he had abandoned. — Charles V. HUME. The beauties of her person, and graces of her air, combined to make her the most amiable of women ; and the charms of her address and conversation aided the impression which her lovely figure made on the heart of all beholders. Ambitious and active in her temper, yet inclined to cheerfulness and, society ; of a lofty spirit, constant and even vehe- ment in her purpose, yet politic, gentle, and affable in her demeanor, she seemed to partake only so much of the male virtues as to render her estimable without relinquishing those soft graces which compose the proper ornament of her sex. GIBBON. In the second century of the Christian era the empire of 'Rome com- prehended the fairest part of the eaith, and the most civilized portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of tlie provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent reverence. 205 1g APPENDIX E. JOHNSON. Of genius, that power, which constitutes a poet; that quality, with- out which judgment is cold and knowledge is inert ; that energy which collects, combines, amplifies, and animates, the superiority must, with some hesitation, be allowed to Dryden. It is not to be inferred that of this poetical vigor Pope had only a little, because Dryden had m.ore ; for every other writer since Milton must give place to Pope ; and even of Dryden it must be said, that if he has brighter paragraphs, lie has not better poems. w From the preceding instances we may form an idea of the power of the Saxon language, but by no means a just idea ; for we must not conclude that the words which are not Saxon could not be supplied by Saxon words. On the contrary, Saxon terms might be substituted for all the words not marked as Saxon. To impress this sufficiently on the mind of the reader, it will be necessary to show how much of our ancient language we have laid aside, and have suffered to become obsolete ; because all our writers, from Chaucer to our own times, have used words of foreign origin rather than our own. In three pages of Alfred's Orosius, I found 78 words which have become obsolete, out of 548, or about one-seventh. In three pages of his Boetius I found 143 obsolete, out of 666, or about one-fifth. In three pages of his Bede, I found 230 obsolete out of 969, or about one-fifth. The difference in the proportion between these and the Orosius proceeds from the latter containing many historical names. Perhaps we shall be near the truth if we say, as a general principle, that one-fifth of the Anglo-Saxon lan- guage has ceased to be used in modern English. This loss must of course be taken into account when we esti- mate the copiousness of our ancient language, hy consi- dering how much of it our English authors exhibit. "— - Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- S axons , Vol. I.,App. r ., Chap. III. 206 APPENDIX C. u The Greeks and Romans, counting only by tens, com- posed their numbers from ten to twenty, with dexa, de- cern, ten ; evdexa, undecim, eleven; dvwdsxa, duodecim, twelve. The German tribes form the same numerals in a similar manner, except eleven and twelve, which were com- posed with Ger. lif; A.-S. laefan, lif, lef, I'f, in other dialects. But as this anomaly entered our numeral sys- tem in a period anterior to the history of our tongues, and is common to all the Germanic languages, the analogy be- tween the kindred dialects is not disturbed by these irregu- larities, but rather advanced. " 18. The cause of this disturbance lies in the old prac- tice of using both ten and twelve as fundamental numbers. a The advance was by ten, thus thrittig, Country Friesic tritich ; feow r ertig, Ab. 2, &c. ; but on arriving at sixty the series was finished, and another begun, denoted by prefix- ing hund. This second series proceeded to one hundred and twenty, thus: hundnigontig, ninety; hundteontig, a hundred; hundenlufontig, a hundred and ten; hundtwelf- tig, a hundred and twenty : here the second series conclud- ed. It thus appears that the Anglo-Saxons did not know our hundreds 100, as the chief division of numbers ; and, though they counted from ten to ten, they, at the same time, chose the number twelve as the basis of the chief divisions. As we say, 5x10 = 50; 10x10 = 100; they multiplied 5 and 10 by 12, and produced 60 and 120. When the Scandinavians adopted a hundred as a chief division — 100=10x10 — they still retained one hundred and twenty; and calling both these "numbers hundred, they distinguished them by the epithets little or ten hundred, APPENDIX. lili-hundrad or hundrad tiraed, and great or the twelve number hundred, stor-hundrade, or hundrad tolfraed. The Danes count to forty by tens, 'thus : tredive, thirty; fyr- retyve, forty; and then commence by twenties, thus: halvtreuiesindstyve, literally in A.-S. thridda healf sirhon twentig* — two twenties — and the third twenty half i. e. fifty. The Icelanders call 2500 half thridie thusand, — Dut. derdehalfduizend, i. e. two thousand, and the third thousand haf; firesindtyve— ; four-times twenty — eighty, and so on to a hundred. The Francs being a mixture of kindred nations from the middle of Germany, when they entered Gallia, partly adopted the Anglo-Saxon mode of numera- tion, and partly that of the Danes, and they afterwards translated verbally their vernacular names of the numerals by Latin words. From twenty to fifty it proceeds in the usual manner, vingt, trente, quarante, cinquante, soixante ; but having arrived at seventy, the same place where the Anglo-Saxons commenced with hund, hundseofontig, it uses soixante dix, quatre vingt, just as the Danes express eighty by firesindsty ve,/oj*r times twenty. As it appears that the old Germans had two fundamental numbers, ten and twelve, it follows that eleven and twelve are the last two numerals of the twelve series, and the first two in the ten series ; hence perhaps came the use of the termination lif or lef in eleven and twelve." — Bosworth, Origin and Con- nexion of the Germanic Tongues. * The ellipsis of the two twenties is supplied in the expression tw£ geare and thridde healf, two years and half the third year, literally in Frs. c. twa jier in t' tredde heal, but custom contracts it to tredde heal jier. Hickes compares this ellipsis with the Scotch expression, half ten, which is also the Dut. half tien, but. in this he is not accurate. The country Friesians not having this ellipsis, prove that it must be supplied in another way. They say, healwei tsjienen, halfway of the f resent hour to ten o'clock. Dr. Dorow has also fallen into the same mistake, p. 127. Denkmaler, I. } 2 and 3. 208 APPENDIX D ON THE STRUCTURE AND MECHANISM OF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. 11 To explain the history of any language is a task peculi- arly difficult at this period of the world, in which we are so very remote from the era of its original construction. We have, as yet, witnessed no people in the act of forming their language, and cannot, therefore, from expe- rience, demonstrate the simple elements from which a lano-uao-e begins, nor the additional organization which it gradually receives. The languages of highly civilized peo- ple,' which are those that we are most conversant with, are in a state very unlike their ancient tongues. Many words have been added to them from other languages ; many have deviated into meanings very different from their primitive significations ; many have been so altered by the change of pronunciation and orthography, as scarcely to bear any resemblance to their ancient forms. The abbre- viations of language, which have been usually called its articles, pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions and interjec- tions ; the inflections of its verbs, the declensions of its nouns, and the very form of its syntax, have also under- gone so many alterations from the caprice of human usage, that it is impossible to discern anything of the mechanism of a language, but by ascending from its present state to its more ancient form. The Anglo-Saxon is one of those ancient languages to which we may successfully refer, in our inquiries how language has been constructed. 209 lg* APPENDIX D. As we have not had the experience of any people forming a language, we cannot attain to a knowledge of its mechanism in any other way than by analysing it ; by ar- ranging its words into their classes, and by tracing these to their elementary sources. We shall perhaps be unable to discover the original words with which the language be- gan, but we may hope to trace the progress of its forma- tion, and some of the principles on which that progress has been made. In this inquiry ] shall follow the steps of the author of the Diversions of Purley, and build upon his foundation, because I think that his book has presented to us the key to that mechanism which w T e have so long ad- mired, so fruitlessly examined, and so little understood. Words have been divided into nine classes : the article., the substantive or noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the verb, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. Under these classes all the Saxon words may be ar- ranged, although not with that scientific precision with which the classifications of natural history have been made. Mr. Tooke has asserted, that in all languages there are only two sorts of words necessary for the communication of our thoughts, and therefore only two parts of speech, the noun and the verb, and that the others are the abbre- viations of these. But if the noun and the verb be only used, they will serve not so much to impart our meaning, as to indicate it. These will suffice to express simple substances or facts, and simple motions of nature or man ; but will do by themselves little else. All the connexions, references, distinctions, limitations, applications, contrasts, relations, and refinements of thought and feeling — and therefore most of what a cultivated people wish to express by language, cannot be conveyed without the other essential abbrevia- 210 AFFENDIX D. tions — and therefore all nations have been compelled, as occasions occurred, as wants increased, and as thought evolved, to invent or adopt them, till all that were neces- sary became naturalized in the language. That nouns and verbs are the most essential and primi- tive words of language, and that all others have been formed from them, are universal facts, which after reading the Diversions of Purley, and tracing in other languages the application of the principles there maintained, no en- lightened philologist will now deny. But though this is true as to the origin of these parts of speech, it may be questioned whether the names established by conventional use may not be still properly retained, because the words now classed as conjunctions, prepositions, etc., though originally verbs, are not verbs at present, but have been long separated from their verbal parents, and have become distinct parts of our grammatical syntax. That the conjunctions, the prepositions, the adverbs, and the interjections of our language, have been made from our verbs and nouns, Mr. Tooke has satisfactorily shown ; and with equal truth he has affirmed, that articles and pronouns have proceeded from the same source. I have pursued his inquiries through the Saxon and other languages, and am satisfied that the same may be affirmed of adjectives. Nouns and verbs are the parents of all the rest of lan- guage ; and it can be proved in the Anglo-Saxon, as in other tongues, that of these the nouns are the ancient and primitive stock from which all other words have branched and vegetated." " The Anglo-Saxon verbs have essentially contributed to form those parts of speech which Mr. Tooke has de- nominated the abbreviations of language. The verbs, 211 APPENDIX D. however, are not themselves the primitive words of our language. They are all in a state of composition. They are like the secondary mountains of the earth — they have been formed posterior to the aucient bulwarks of human speech, which are the nouns — I mean of course those nouns which are in their elementary state. In some languages, as in the Hebrew, the verbs are very often the nouns applied unaltered to a verbal signification. We have examples of this sort of verbs in our English words, love, hate, fear, hope, dream, sleep, etc. These words are nouns, and are also used as verbs. Of verbs thus made by the simple application of nouns in a verbal form, the Anglo-Saxon gives few examples. Almost all its other verbs are nouns with a final syllable added, and this final syllable is a word expressive of mo- tion, or action, or possession. To show this fact, we will take some of the Anglo- Saxon verbs : Bad a pledge. baer a bier. baeth a bath. bat a chib. bebod a command. bidde a prayer. big a crown. bliss joy. blostm a flower. blot a sacrifice. bod an edict. borg a loan. bridl a bridle. broc misery. bye a habitation byseg business. 212 bad-ian to pledge. baer-an to carry. baeth-ian to wash. beat-an to beat. bebod-an to command. bidd-an to pray. big-an to bend. bliss-ian to rejoice. blostm-ian to blossom. blot-an to sacrifice. bod-ian to proclaim. borg-ian to lend. bridl -ian to bridle. broc-ian to afflict. by-an to inhabit. bysg-ian to be busy. APPENDIX D. bysmr contumely. bytla a builder. car care, ceap cattle. cele cold. cerre a bending. cid strife. cnyt a /mo?, comp a battle. craeft art. curs a curse. cwid a saying. cyrm a ??oise. cyth knowledge. cos a &?ss. dael a p«r/. daeg day. deaeg color. bysmr-ian to deride. bytl-ian to build. car-ian to be anxious. ceap-ian to buy. cel-an to cool, cerr-an to return. cid-an to quarrel. cnytt-an to tie. comp-ian to fight. craeft-an to build. curs-ian to curse. cwydd-ian to say. cyrm-an to cry out. cyth-an to make known. coss-an to kiss. dael-an to divide. daeg-ian to shine. deag-an to tinge. If we go through all the alphabet, we shall find that most of the verbs are composed of a noun, and the sylla- bles an, ian, or gan. Of these additional syllables, gan is the verb of motion, to go, or the verb agan to possess ; and an seems sometimes the abbreviation of anan to give, and sometimes of the verbs gan and agan. Thus deagan, to tinge, appears to me deag-an, to give a color ; daelan, to divide, dael-an, to give a part ; cossan, to kiss, cos-an, to give a kiss ; cursian, to curse, cursan, to give a curse ; while we may presume that carian, to be anxious, is car- agan, to have care ; blostmian, to blossom, is blostm-agan, to have a flower ; byan, to inhabit, is by-agan, to have a habitation. We may also say that cidan, to quarrel, is the abbreviation of cid-gan, to go to quarrel ; baethian, to wash, is baeth-gan, to go to a bath ; biddan, to pray, is bidde-gan, to go to pray. The Gothic to pray is bidgan. 213 APPENDIX D. That the words gan, or agan, have been abbreviated or softened into an, or ian, can be proved from several verbs. Thus fylgan, or filigian, to follow, is also filian. Thus rleogan, to fly, becomes fleon and flion. So forhtigan, to be afraid, has become also forhtian. So fundigan has be- come fundian ; gethyldgian, gethyldian ; fengan, foan,and fon ; and teogan, teon. The examples of th.is change are innumerable. This abbreviation is also proved by many of the parti- ciples of the abbreviated verbs ending in gend, thus show- ing the original infinitive to have been gen ; as frefrian, to comfort, has its participle frefergend ; fremian, to profit, freomigend ; fulian, has fuligend ; gaemnian, gaemnigend, etc. Many verbs are composed of the terminations above mentioned, and of words which exist in the Anglo-Saxon, not as nouns, but as adjectives, and of some words which are not to be met with in the Anglo-Saxon, either as nouns or adjectives. But so true is the principle, that, nouns were the primitive words of these verbs, and that verbs are but the nouns with the additional final syllables, that we shall very frequently find the noun we search for exist- ing in the state of a noun in some of those languages which have a close affinity with the Anglo-Saxon. This lan- guage meets our eye in a very advanced state, and .therefore, when we decompose it, we cannot expect to meet in itself all its elements. Many of its elements had dropped out of its vocabulary at that period wherein we find it, just as in modern English we have dropped a great number of words of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. In this treatise, which the necessary limits of my publication com- pel me to make very concise, I can only be expected to give a few instances. Beran, is to bring forth, or produce ; there is no primi- 214 Ai>PEi\DlX D. tive noun answering to this verb in the Anglo-Saxon, but there is in the Franco-theotisc, where we find bar is fruit, or whatever the earth produces ; ber-an is therefore to give fruit or to produce. So maersian, to celebrate, is from segan, to speak, and some noun from which the adjec- tive maera, illustrious, had been formed. The noun is not in the Saxon, but it is in the Franco-theotisc, where maera is fame, or rumor ; therefore, maersian, to celebrate a per- son, is mera-segan, to speak his fame. I have observed many examples of this sort. In searching; for the original nouns from which verbs have been formed, we must always consider if the verb we are inquiring about be a primitive verb or a secondary verb, containing either of the prefixes a, be, ge, for, in, on, to, with, etc., etc. In these cases we must strip the verb of its prefix, and examine its derivation under its earlier form. The verbs with a prefix are obviously of later origin than the verbs to which the prefix has not been applied. Sometimes the verb consists of two verbs put together, as gan-gan, to go ; so for-letan, to dismiss or leave, is composed of two verbs, faran, to go, laetan, to let or suf- fer, and is literally to let go. The Anglo-Saxon nouns are not all of the same anti- quity ; some are the primitive words of the language from which every other has branched, but some are of later date." *.##'#*■■*-•*'"*..-**■'•# " The primitive nouns expressing sensible objects, hav- ing been formed, they were multiplied by combinations with each other. They were then applied to express ideas more abstracted. By adding to them a few expres- sive syllables, the numerous classes of verbs and adjectives arose ; and from these again other nouns and adjectives were formed. The nouns and verbs were then abbrevi- 215 APPENDIX D. ated and adapted into conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs, and interjections. The pronouns were soon made from a sense of their convenience ; and out of them came the articles. To illustrate these principles, from the various languages which I have examined, would expand these few pages into a volume, and would be therefore improper ; but I can recommend the subject to the attention of the philological student, with every assurance of a successful research. The multiplication of language by the metaphorical ap- plication of nouns to express other nouns, or to signify adjectives, may be observed in all languages. Thus, beorhtj light, was applied to express bright, shining, and illustrious. So deop, the sea, was applied to express depth. As a specimen how the Anglo-Saxon language has been formed from the multiplication of simple words, I will show the long train of words which have been formed from a few primitive words. I select four of the words applicable to the mind. The numerous terms formed from them will illustrate the preceding observations on the me- chanism of the language. ANCIENT NOUN : Hyge or hige mind or thought. Secondary meaning : care, diligence, study. Hoga care. Hogu care, industry, effort. Adjectives, being the noun so applied : Hige diligent, studious, attentive. Hoga prudent, solicitous. Verbs from the noun : Hogian, to meditate, to study, to think, to be wise, to be anxious : and hence to groan. 216 APPENDIX D. tt I to study, to be solicitous, to endeavour. Hyggan 5 *' The verb, by use, having gained new shades of meaning and applications, we meet with it again ; as, Hicgan ) to study, to explore, to seek vehemently, to en- Hycgan 5 deavour, to struggle. Secondary noun, derived from this verb : Hogung care, effort, endeavour. Secondary nouns compounded of the ancient noun and another : Higecraeft acuteness of mind. Higeleast negligence, carelessness. Higesorga anxieties, mental griefs. Hogascip ) j tt } prudence. Hogoscip ) Hygeleast folly, madness, scurrility. Hygesceaft the mind or thought. Adjectives composed of the ancient noun and a meaning word: Hygeleas void of mind, foolish. xiygerot / magnanimous, excellent in mind. Higerof ) Hogfeast ? , . TT /. \ prudent. Hogofeast ) Hogfull anxious, full of care. Higefrod wise, prudent in mind. Higeleas negligent, incurious. Higestrang strong in mind. Higethancol cautious, provident, thoughtful. Adverbs from the adjective : Higeleaslice negligently, incuriously. Hogfullice anxiously. 317 19 APPENDIX D. ANCIENT NOUN : Mod the mind ; also passion and irritability. Verbs : Modian } to be high minded. Modigan > to rage. Modgian ) to swell. Adjectives composed of the noun and another word or syllable : Modig ) irritable. Modeg ) angry, proud. Modful full. of mind, irritable. Modga elated, proud, distinguished. Modhwata fervent in mind. Modilic magnanimous. Modleas meek-minded, pusillanimous. Modstathol firm-minded. Modthwer patient in mind, meek, mild. Secondary nouns composed of the ancient noun and some other : Modgethanc thoughts of the mind, council. Modgethoht strength oj mind, reasoning. Modgewinne conflicts of mind. Modesmynla the affections of the mind, the inclinations. Modhete heat of mind — anger. Modleaste folly, pusillanimity, slothfulness . Modnesse pride. Modsefa the intellect, sensation, intelligence. Modsorg grief of mind. Secondary nouns of still later origin, having been formed after the adjectives, and composed of an adjective and another noun : Modignesse ) Modinesse $ moodine ss, pride, animosity. 218 APPENDIX D. Modseocnesse sickness of mind. Modstatholnysse firmness of mind, fortitude. Modsumnesse concord. Modthaernesse patience, meekness. Adverb formed from the adjective : Modiglice proudly, angrily. ANCIENT NOUN : Wit ) ~ . > the mind, qenius, the intellect, the sense. Gewit ) r *\ ' Secondary meaning : wisdom, prudence. Noun applied as an adjective : Wita > . j.jj. j TXT- > wise, skiljul. Wite ) Gewita conscious ; hence a witness. Verbs formed from the noun : Witan to know, to perceive. Gewitan to understand. Witegian to prophesy. Adjectives composed of the ancient noun, and an addi- tional syllable, or word : Wittig wise, skilled, ingenious, prudent. Gewitig knowing, wise, intelligent. Gewitleas ignorant, foolish. Gewittig intelligent, conscious. Gewitscoc ill in mind, demoniac. Witol, wittol wise, knowing. Secondary nouns formed of the ancient noun and another noun : Witedom the knovjledge of judgment, prediction. Witega a prophet. Witegung prophecy. Witesaga a prophet. Gewitleast folly, madness. 219 APPENDIX D. Gewitloca the mind. Gewitness witness. Gewitscipe witness. Witeclofe trifler. Witword the answer of the wise. Nouns of more recent date, having been formed out of the adjectives : Gewitseocness insanity. Witigdom knowledge, wisdom, prescience. Witolnesse knowledge, wisdom. Secondary adjective, or one formed upon the secondary noun : Witedomlic prophetical. Conjunctions : Witedlic ) . _ _ . , Witod[lc \™&ef<>r,but 9 to-tmt. Adverbs formed from participles and adjectives : Witendlice ) 7 . , knowingly. Wittiglice OU! the mind, thought, opinion. ANCIENT NOUN : Gethanc Gethonc Thane ) _ ... _ ~, > the will, thought. Secondary meaning : an act of the will, or thanks. Thing ) __ , , > a council. Gething ) And from the consequence conferred by sitting at the council, came Gethincth, honor, dignity. Verbs formed from the noun : Thincan ) to think) to conceive, to feel, to reason, to con- Thencan S sider. APPENDIX D. Gethencan ) t0 tUnk Gethengcan ) Thancian > (0 thoughtful, meditating, cautious. Gethancol mindful. Thancful thankful, ingenious, content. Thancwurth grateful. Thancolmod provident, wise. Secondary nouns formed from the verb : Thoht >,.... # . .. S thinking, thought. Getheaht council. Getheahtere counsellor Thancung thanking. Thancmetuncg deliberation. Secondary verb, from one of these secondary nouns : Getheahtian to consult. More recent noun, formed from the secondary verb : Getheahting council, consultation. Another secondary verb : Ymbethencan to think about anything. Adjective from a secondary verb : Getheatendlic consulting. Adverb from one of the adjectives : Thancwurthlice gratefully. These specimens will evince to the observing eye how 221 19* APPENDIX D. the Anglo-Saxon language has been formed •, and they also indicate that it had become very far removed from a rude state of speech. These derivative compounds imply much cultivation and exercise, and a considerable portion of mental discrimination. It is, indeed, in such an ad- vanced state, that novels, moral essays, dramas, and the poetry of nature and feeling might be written in pure Anglo-Saxon, without any perceptible deficiency of appro- priate terms." — Sharon Turner, — Hist, of the Anglo- Saxons, Vol. II. , App. /., Chap. 1. We have given these extracts without endorsing, as will have been perceived to a certain extent, all the opi- nions advanced by the writer, differing, as we do in our philological principles, from the Author of the Diversions of Purley, and others of the late English School. Our views, so far as called forth by the language w T ith which we have been occupied, will appear more fully, and at the same time be exemplified, in another volume now in press, and also, at some future day, in a less compendious Gram- mar of the Anglo-Saxon, our expressive and noble an- cestral tongue THE END. 155 Broadway, New York. 142 Strand, London Of late firm of Wilkt & Putnam. New Works in Press, Or recently published, by GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 155 Broadway, New York. G. P. PUTNAM has the pleasure of announcing that, agreeably to his contract with the distinguished author, he has now in the course of publication A new, uniform, and complete edition OF THE Works of Washington Irving, Revised and enlarged by the Author, In Twelve Elegant Duodecimo Volumes, Beautifully printed with new type, and on superior paper, made expressly for the purpose. The first volume of the Series will be The Sketch-Book, complete in one volume, which will be ready on the first day of September. Knickerbocker's History of New York, with revisions and copious additions, will be published on the 1st of October. The Life and Voyages of Columbus, Vol. I. on the 1st of November, and the succeeding volumes will be issued on the first day of each month until com- pleted ;— as follows : The Sketch-Book, in one volume. The Crayon Miscellany, in one Knickerbocker's New York, in one ) ' vol. — Abbotsford, JVewstead, volume. ) The Prairies, 8fc. Tales of a Traveller, in one volume. ? 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