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 ON THE 
 
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 Bovrai&CoiiliiPbil* 
 
 M54. M55 & \m>%. 
 
36th Coxuress, ) SENATE. ( Ex. Doc. 
 
 1st Session. J i No. 59. 
 
 EEPORT 
 
 THE ART OF WAR IN EUROPE 
 
 1854, 1855, AND 1856, 
 
 MAJOR RICHARD DELAFIELD, ' 
 
 CORPS OF ENGINEERS, 
 
 FROM HIS NOTE! AND OBSERVATIONS MADE A3 A MEMBER OF A 
 
 MILITARY COMMISSION TO THE THEATER OF WAR IN EUROPE." 
 
 UNDER THE ORDERS OF THE 
 
 HON. JEFFERSON DAVIS, SECRETARY OF WAR. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GEORGE W. BOWMAN, PRINTER. 
 1860. 
 
 ■^ 
 
■lis- 
 
 "i r»r.& e ; rom 
 U. S. Soidier's Home Uby* 
 Oct.28.1931 
 
In- the Senate of the United States, 
 June 16, 18G0. 
 
 Resolved, That the Reports of Majors Dclaficld and Mordecai upon tlic Crimean War bu pniilcd, and Urn ihousand extra 
 ropies; two thousand of which tor the use of the War Depnrlmcnt. 
 
 ASBURY DICKINS, 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 5776 
 
 ■m- 
 
INTRODUCTIOJN 
 
 A telegram of the 3d ofi^April, 1855, from the War Department, required Major Delafield, 
 of the Corps of Engineers, then superintending the defenses of the harbor of New York, to repair 
 to Washington immediately and report in person to the Secretary of War. The first conveyance 
 that oflered enabled him to do so on the morning of the 5th, wlieu, after an interview with the 
 Hon. Jefferson Davis, Secretary of War, the following order was received constituting a 
 Military Commission to the theater of war in Europe : 
 
 > War Department, }Vashington, April 2, 1855. 
 
 Gentlemem: You have Ijeun selected to form a commission to visit Europe, for tlie purpose of obtaining information with 
 regard to the military service in general, and especially the practical working of the changes which have been introduced of lata 
 years into the military systems of the principal nations of Europe. 
 
 Some of the subjects to which it is peculiarly desirable to direct your attention may be indicated as follows: 
 
 The organizatioit of armies and of the departments for furnishing supplies of all kinds to the troops, especially in field 
 service. The manner of distributing supplies. 
 
 The fitting up of vessels for transporting men and horses, and the arrangements for embarking and disembarking them. 
 
 The medical and hospital arrangements, both in permanent hospitals and in the field. The kind of ambulances or other 
 means used for transporting the sick and wounded. 
 
 The kind of clothing and camp equipage used for service in the field. 
 
 The kinds of arms, ammunition, and accoutcrments used in equipping troops for the various branches of service, and their 
 adaptation to the purposes intended. In this respect, the arms and equipments of cavalry of all kinds will claim your particular 
 attention. 
 
 The practical advantages and disadvantages attending the use of the various kinds of rifle arms which have been lately 
 introduced extensively in European warfare. 
 
 The nature and efficiency of ordnance and ammunition employed for field and siege operations, and the practical eft'ect of 
 the late changes partially made in the Fi'ench field artillery. 
 
 The construction of permanent fortifications, the arrangement of new systems of sea-coast and land defenses, and the 
 kinds of ordnance used in the armament of them — the Lancaster gun, and other rifle cannon, if any are used. 
 
 The composition of trains for siege operations, the kind and quantity of ordnance, the engineering operations of a siege in 
 all its branches, both of attack and defense. 
 
 The composition of bridge trains, kinds of boats, wagons, &c. 
 
 The construction of casemated forts, and the effects produced on them in attacks by land and water. 
 
 The use of camels for transportation, and their adaptation to cold and mountainous countries. 
 
 To accomplish the objects of your expedition most eflectually in the shortest time, it appears to be advisable that you 
 should proceed as soon as possible to the theater of war in the Crimea, for the purpose of observing the active operations in 
 that quarter. You will then present yourselves to the commanders of the several armies and request from them such authority 
 and facilities as they may be pleased to grant for enabling you to make the necessary observations and inquiries. 
 
 You may find it practicable to enter Sebastopol and to proceed through Russia to St. Petersburg, with the view of visiting 
 the works and seeing the operations which may be carried on in the Baltic. Should it not be possible or advisable to enter 
 Russia in this way, you may be able to accomplish the same object by passing through Austria and Prussia. In returning 
 from Russia, you will have an opportunity of seeing the military establishments of Prussia, Austria, France, and England. 
 
 The arrangements of your journey must be regulated in a general measure by the state of aflairs existing on your arrival 
 in Europe and the information you may acquire there. 
 
 Letters are herewith furnished to you for our M'mislers in Europe, requesting them to afford you the aid in their power in 
 accomplishing the objects of your mission. 
 
 Funds for defraying the expenses of your journey are placed in the hands of Major Mordecai, who will disburse and 
 account for them. You ara authorized to use a portion of these funds in purchasing for this department new books, drawings, 
 and patterns of nrms and equipments, which you may consider of sufficient ^'alue in our service to warrant the expenditure. 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Reserving uiilil your return lo the United States a full account of your expedition and tliu information you may obtain, 
 you will report to the Secretary of War from time to time, ns opportunity may oflcr, the progress of your journey, ond 
 remarks on the subjects within llie scope of your instructions which you may wish to communicate. 
 
 All correspondence of this kind, proceeding either from the Commission jointly or from any member of it, will be for- 
 warded, according to military usage and regulations, through the senior officer present. (Major Delafield was the senior 
 member of the Commission.)- 
 
 It is desirable that you should return home by the 1st of November, 1855. If you should find it essential for effecting the 
 objects of your mission in a satisfactory manner to remain longer than that time, you will report the circumstances, so as to 
 give time for an answer, in due season. 
 
 Reliance is placed on your judgment and discretion to conduct your movements in such a manner as to give no reasonable 
 ground for suspicion or offense to the military or other government authorities with whom you may have intercourse. 
 
 Very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 
 JEFFERSON DAVIS, 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 Major R. Delafield, 
 Major A. Mordec.h, 
 Captain G. B. McClell.\x, 
 
 United States Jlrmij. 
 
 On the 9tli of April, tlic Secretary of War wrote to our Minister in London, informing liiin 
 that the President had been induced to dispatch these officers to make observations on the 
 armies and fortifications of the belligerents as to wliat is now valuable ; that application was 
 made to the diplomatic I'eprcsentatives of Prussia, Austria, Russia, France, and England, for 
 such letters as miglit be agreeable for them to give. 
 
 Favorable and satisfactory replies were put into tlic hands of the Commission at once by all 
 these dij^lomatic authorities but the French, the Minister of which government first desired to 
 inquire if by the words "seat of war" the Secretary of War intended "the camp of the Allies 
 in the Crimea, and no other place whatever?" To this inquiry the Secretary replied, that he 
 intended by the phrase "scat of war" to include the whole field of active operations, so that 
 useful observations might be made wherever opportunity offered ; that the first point to which 
 the officers will be instructed to i^roceed is the camjj of the Allies at Sebastopol ; they would, 
 of course, announce their arrival to the commanding generals, and do nothing whilst there 
 without their consent, and when about to retire would take leave and pursue the same route 
 by which they had approached, or some other to which no objection existed ; that the second 
 jjoint which it was projiosed to visit is the Island of Cronstadt, and here they would observe 
 towards the commanding general of the Russian forces the same course which had been followed 
 in the camp of the Allies ; that if other fields should afford opportunities to imi:)rove our knowl- 
 edge of the science of war, it was the wisli of the Secretary that they should be made available 
 for the advancement of our own service ; that the characters of the officers selected for this duty 
 gave him full assurance that they will in nowise forget the obligations of strict neutrality, nor 
 depart from the path of nicest honor, or fail in military proprieties so well understood by 
 educated soldiers. He hoped that M. Sartiges would feel that no obligation was imposed on 
 him by his polite suggestion when last he had the pleasure of an interview with him, as then 
 he (M. S.) only anticipated the request whicli the Secretary had previously determined to make 
 of sending a commission to Europe. 
 
 To this communication the French Minister replied : " Votre liaute recommendations et le 
 merite personnel de Messieurs les officiers charges de cette mission vous sont un sur guaraut de 
 I'accueil honorable que leur sera fait en France par le gouvernement de I'Empereur auquel je 
 m'empresserai de transmettre votre lettre. N'ayant pas d'occasion d'entretenir des rapports 
 direct avec son Excellence M. le Ministre de la Guerre, j'ai I'lionneur de vous envoyer pour etro 
 remise a MM. D., M., ct McC, unc lettre d'introduction personnelle addressee a son Excellence 
 M. Drouyn de L'Huys, qui pourra fournir a ces Messieurs les indications qui leur scront 
 necessaires, ce que je regrettc de ne pas etre a m#me de faire moi-m§me." 
 
INTRODUCTION. vii 
 
 Our Miuister in Paris was in like manner inlbrmecl of tlie object oi' the Commission and tlic 
 wishes of the President. 
 
 With these letters of the diplomatic functionaries, and those to the American Ministers in 
 Europe, the Commission sailed from Boston on the 11th of April, 1855. On the 2'7th of April, 
 through the courteous attention of our Minister at London, Mr. Buchanan, the Commission had 
 a personal interview wuth Lord Clarendon, who, on perusing Mr. Crampton's letter of intro- 
 duction, remarked that the object of our visit had been communicated by the last steamer, in 
 dispatches from Mr. Crampton. The Commission stated its wishes to witness the practice of 
 the armies now in the field, as well as the fleets engaged in the war, and desired letters from 
 his government authorizing such facilities to be extended as would secure the object, and so far 
 as the commanding generals in their discretion should see fit. 
 
 Lord Clarendon at once replied, that, so far as he could answer, ever)- flicility would be 
 extended to the Commission ; and tliat, although he could not speak for Lord Panmure authori- 
 tatively, we might rely upon our wishes being acceded to ; that he would see Lord Panmure, 
 whose business it was to give the necessary letters, at an early moment, (Lord P. being then 
 confined to his bed by indisposition.) In the course of this interview. Lord Clarendon stated, 
 tliat as to going from their camps to that of the enemy, he could see no objections in our case ; 
 that the character and honor of officers of the American array was of itself sufiicient to justify 
 Lord Raglan in acquiescing thereto. 
 
 On the 29th, Lord Clarendon inclosed letters of introduction to Lord Raglan and Sir Edmund 
 Lyons, adding if in any way he could be useful to Major Delafield and his brother officers, or 
 assist the mission with which they were charged, he begged that they would freely command his 
 services. Introductory letters to the Admiral of the Baltic fleet and to the officers in command 
 at Constantinople were requested, which received the like courteous attention. 
 
 Changes in the ministry in France caused some delay in obtaining an interview with the 
 Minister of Foreign Affairs of that government, to whom the Commission could alone make 
 known its wishes and obtain such an official recognition as would secure to it admission to their 
 military establishments. Through our Minister, Judge Mason, we had an interview with Count 
 Walewsky, the successor to Drouyn de L'Huys. Count Walewsky at once and promptly stated 
 that Judge Mason had explained to him that the Commission wished to go to the Crimea ; that 
 lie would be very happy to give letters to the Commanding General there which would procure 
 us the necessary facilities, but that there was an imperative rule in the French military service 
 that no foreign officer could be permitted to go into their camp and afterwards to pass into that 
 of the enemy ; that therefore it would be necessary for the members of the Commission to give a 
 promise to our Minister that we would not go from the French camp to any other part of the 
 Crimea. The Commission stated distinctly such was not its purpose^ and showed him the letter 
 of the Secretary of War, of the 5th of April, to M. Sartiges, as the best explanation of our 
 intentions, and that the Commission had no intention of going directly from their camp to their 
 enemy's or from the camp of the Allies into Sebastopol, but that it was quite as interesting to 
 them to see the defense as the attack, and that they did propose, after visiting the allied camjj, 
 to go into Russia, and after visiting the places on the Baltic they might wish after some months 
 interval to visit Sebastopol. Count Walewsky replied that such an arrangement would not affect 
 tlie question; that the Commission must engage not to visit the Crimea after going to the allied 
 camp ; that no one could, as a right, ask the privilege of going to their camps ; that it might be 
 refused and had been refused without assigning any reason ; but that the Emperor, wishing to 
 show his good disposition towards the United States, would willingly consent to our going there 
 on the conditions which he had mentioned ; that if the Commission chose to go first to the 
 Russian side it was no concern of the French. Count Walewsky requested the Commission 
 would consider the matter and inform him of their determination through Judge Mason. 
 
 The Commission then stated there were many establishments and objects of interest in a 
 
VIU INTRODUCTION. 
 
 military puint of view in France, wliich it would be glad to see on its jouruej' out of the country 
 or returning to it. To which Count W. replied, that on that subject there would be no difficulty, 
 and the permission would be accorded with pleasure. In the course of this conversation, Count 
 Walewsky stated that the imjicrative rule established by the French government precluded 
 going to any Eussian post or army in the Crimea at any time ai\er having visited the allied 
 army operating in that quarter, and that the rule would ajiply to entering the Crimea after 
 conforming with the instructions of the War Department in visiting Cronstadt. 
 
 Under these circumstances the Commission determined not to. accept the favor of entering 
 the French camp with the conditions attached to it, but confine its request for authority to visit 
 .specified military and naval establishments in France only, for the purpose of collecting informa- 
 tion that might prove useful to our military service. This determination was communicated to 
 Count Walewsky through our minister. Judge Mason, with the request he would forward to the 
 Commission by mail the authority of the French government to visit such of the enumerated 
 estahlishments as it might be pleased to grant. 
 
 On the 28th of May, tlie Commission left Paris with the determination of proceeding as fast 
 as practicable to the Eussian camjD in the Crimea, via Prussia, directing its movements first 
 upon Berlin to confer with the Eussian minister in that city, to whom the Eussian minister in 
 Washington had given a letter. This letter from Baron Stoeckl to Baron de Budberg stated: 
 " Ces officiers ont ete designes par le President pour aller en Europe, afin d'etudier les perfection- 
 nements qui ont ete introduits recemment dans I'art militaire. Us ont Tordre de se rendre a 
 Constantinople et de la a Sevastopol ou a Odessa, ou bien de partir directment pour St. Peters- 
 burg en passant par Berlin. Dans ce dernier cas, je vous prie Monsieur le Baron^ de vouloir 
 bien viser les passeports de ces officiers et de leur faciliter les moyens de continuer leur voyage." 
 
 While in Berlin, through the kindness of our minister, Mr. Yroom, the Commission had an 
 interview with Baron Manteuffel, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Prussia, who, in the most 
 prompt manner, stated that he had in some measure anticipated the wishes of the Commission 
 and written to the Minister of War in relation to obtaining information in Prussia on the art of 
 war as practiced by them, and, in conformity with our request, he would give us authority to 
 visit all such places as the Commission would name on its route into Prussia on returning from 
 St. Petersburg, it having been explained to him the intention of first going to the Crimea via 
 Warsaw, and thereafter to St. Petersburg; and that he would give authority to visit any other 
 of the military establishments of Prussia on making known the wish to do so, after returning to 
 Berlin. 
 
 Through Mr. Vroom, the Commission in like manner had an interview with Baron de 
 Budberg, who informed it that he had received orders from St. Petersburg in relation to the 
 American officers constituting this Commission, and would indorse the passports and give letters 
 to facilitate the object of the mission. This was in answer to the expressed wish to proceed to 
 the Crimea, via Warsaw and Kiev, on the Dniper. The same evening Baron de Budberg called 
 upon the Commission and delivered a sealed package to M. de Krusenstein, Directeur de la 
 Ohancellerie, &c., a Varsovie, together with the passports indorsed by him in person. 
 
 On the 4th of June, immediately after arriving in Warsaw, Baron de Budberg' s commu- 
 nication was delivered, and the following letter written to him on the Gth: 
 
 " I have the honor to inclose heijewith, for the information of Marshal Prince Paskievitch, the copy of a letter from the 
 Secretary of War of the United States to M. de Stoeckl, Charge de Afiaires of the Emperor of Russia at Washington, and also 
 of an open letter addressed by him to Baron de Budberg, at Berlin, given to the undersigned in the United States by M. de 
 Stoeckl, by request of the Secretary of War. 
 
 " We had the pleasure of seeing Baron de Budberg, in Berlin, on the 1st instant, when the letter of M. de Stoeckl was 
 delivered to him. He then informed us that he had previously received instructions from St. Petersburg in relation to our 
 mission ; that he would cause our passports to be specially indorsed by order of the Emperor, and would give us letters to 
 yourself, requesting the necessary facilities from Marshal Price Paskievitch to expedite our journey and the object of our 
 mission. We had the honor of handing you Baron de Budberg's letter on the 4th instant, and now inclose th« within to make 
 
INTRODUCTION. IX 
 
 known the fact of our constituting a Commission, under the orders of the President of the United States, for the purpose set 
 forth in M. de Stoeckl's letter. I will also do myself the pleasure of submitting for your perusal a circular from the Secretary 
 of State of the United States to the diplomatic and consular agents in Europe, making known to them the fact of our consti- 
 tuting a Commission to proceed to the Crimea for the purpose of observing the military operations there and elsewhere in 
 Europe. 
 
 "MAJOR DELAFIELD, in behalf of the Commission." 
 
 This called forth a statement from Baron Krusenstein to the eifect that Prince Paskievitch 
 was then absent, would not be back in some days, and that it was not in his power to authorize 
 the Commission to proceed to the Crimea, or see the fortifications of Warsaw and Modlin, but 
 that he would write or see the military governor of Warsaw, and no doubt put us in the way of 
 seeing the fortifications of Warsaw. 
 
 Baron Krusenstein had informed the Commission that our constituting a Commission acting 
 under the orders of our government did not apj)ear in any document in his possession ; that he 
 had not been so informed by Baron de Budberg, and was ignorant of the fact until the Com- 
 mission had so stated to him. To rectify so important an omission, that seemed in some measure 
 to thwart the object of the mission, the letter of the 6th was written to Baron Krusenstein. 
 This evidence of the ofiicial character of the Commission was delivered in person on the 7th of 
 June, and appeared quite satisfactory. The letter of the Secretary of State was handed back 
 without perusal, stating it was quite unnecessary, adding that the letter of the Commission to 
 him stating it was acting under the orders of our government was enough. 
 
 On the 9th of June, Prince Paskievitch gave authority to visit the fortifications of Warsaw 
 and Modlin, ordering a colonel of engineers to accompany and explain anything that might be 
 desired ; at the same time informing us that he could not give authority to go from Warsaw 
 direct to the Crimea, and that he would recommend us to go to St. Petersburg, where all 
 necessary authority rested and was to be obtained. 
 
 It was not without surprise and disappointment the Commission found itself in Warsaw, 
 witliout its object being proj^erly stated, and that their passports were of no more avail than 
 those given to any travelers, thus compelled to undergo continued delay in their anxious desire 
 of proceeding immediately to Sebastopol. 
 
 The only course then left, was to proceed to St. Petersburg, and there renew our efforts to 
 attain the object of our mission. 
 
 Before leaving Warsaw the Commission had an interview, and received other polite atten- 
 tions from the veteran hero. Marshal Paskievitch, when the business of the Commission was 
 stated to him in person, which resulted in a renewal of what Baron Krusenstein had stated. 
 Although much profitable information was obtained at Warsaw and Modlin, the great object 
 of the Commission had not yet been entered upon; both France and Russia interposing unex- 
 plained difficulties, through the meshes of diplomacj'' ; all of which could have been avoided by 
 going, as many civilians had done and continued to do, direct to Sebastopol, via Constantinople. 
 This course was, however, denied to the Commission, from the very fact of being in a national 
 capacity for public purposes, which could only be recognized and sanctioned through the formula 
 of diplomacy. The probability of witnessing a bombardment of the works of Cronstadt by tlie 
 allied fleet, and other great military events in that quarter, together with the fiict of our 
 instructions requiring a study and examination of these important sea-coast defenses, in some 
 measure compensated for the disappointment exjierienced in not going direct to Sebastopol. 
 
 On the 19th of June we reached St. Petersburg, and on the 25th, through the kind atten- 
 tion of our Minister, Mr. Seymour, we had an interview with Count Nesselrode, the Prime 
 Minister, on the subject of our mission, expressing to him our desire to see the defenses of 
 Cronstadt and other military establishments about St. Petersburg, as also of Helsingfors, Swea- 
 borg, and Revel, together with authority to go to Sebastopol, and leave the Crimea by such 
 route as might be approved by the Russian authorities ; to examine all the works at Sebastopol, 
 2 D* 
 
X ^^^^^^KWr^'^^r INTRODUCTION. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 and visit the army in the fiehi, together with such places as we might pass through — as Odessa, 
 Nicolaieff, and Pericop. Mucli time was passed in awaiting a final answer to this request. 
 
 On the morning of the 26th, by appointment^ the Emperor desired we should he presented 
 to him, and witness a review of some thousands of troops on the Champs de Mars. The troops 
 being drawn up on three sides of a square, the Minister of War, Count Dalgourouki, conducted 
 us to the center, the Emperor's station, and there presenting us, a short conversation ensued, 
 the interesting part of which was his assent to our going to Cronstadt, and ending with a declar- 
 ation on his part of the hope that the United States and Russia would continue always in peace 
 and in friendship. 
 
 On the afternoon of the same day Lieutenant Colonel Obrescoff, of the Guard, and Aid-de- 
 Camp of Prince Dalgourouki, called upon us by direction of the Minister of War, to accomjiany 
 us to the several military establishments in the vicinity that we had expressed the desire to 
 examine, including Cronstadt. During the absence of the Minister of War, Colonel Obrescoff 
 was directed to report to Baron Lieven, the Adjutant General, to whose care and attention our 
 business had been confided. 
 
 On the 9th of July we wrote to Baron Lieven, saying we had now seen, under the kind 
 guidance of Colonel Obrescoff, all the establishments he was authorized to show us ; and, being 
 unemployed, we would be much obliged by having an answer to our request concerning other 
 places, a memorandum of wliich had been handed to him on the 2d of July; urging, at the same 
 time, the importance of knowing as soon as possible what arrangements we should make for our 
 departure. No answer to our request, (conveyed first through oi^r Minister to Count Nesselrode 
 and afterwards through Baron Lieven,) except the partial one of seeing the military establish- 
 ments in the neighborhood of St. Petersburg, had been received up to the 12th of July. Whether 
 it was that the great and important events of the moment engrossed the time and attention of 
 the bureau charged with our business, or a reluctance to admit, during the crisis of active opera- 
 tions, any one to the field of action, we cannot conclude; but the vexatious annoyance of. pro- 
 crastination could but be felt by the members of the Commission. 
 
 To pass the time profitably while awaiting an answer to our request to go to Sebastopol, the 
 Commission solicited and obtained letters from Baron Lieven to the authorities at Moscow to 
 visit and examine the military establishments in that vicinity, including the Kremlin. On the 
 13th of July Baron Leiven called on us and then stated that on the subject of Sebastopol, Swea- 
 borg, and Revel he must speak with frankness and sincerity to us, that his country had no 
 secrets or information on military science to withhold from us, as we had seen by the manner in 
 which their establishments here were thrown open to our examination, hut that the commanding 
 officers of these places had requested that strangers or other persons not concerned in the opera- 
 tions should not be permitted to visit them, as such visits occasioned them a great deal of 
 embarrassment ; that a Prussian officer the past year and a Greek officer this year had been 
 refused ijermission to go to Sebastopol in conformity with the rule they had made, and although 
 the Emperor might, of course, overrule such objections, yet he felt bound to pay deference to 
 the views and wishes of his commanders placed in such responsible positions, and therefore our 
 request could not be granted; that as to the forts of Sebastopol, in seeing Cronstadt we would see 
 the best works that had been constructed for harbor defense ; that the forts of Revel were of no 
 interest, and those of Sweaborg were old Swedish works, on a system no longer followed, and 
 that those of Sebastopol were on the same plan as those of Cronstadt, but of inferior material, 
 being of limestone mixed with sand. 
 
 Nothing could be urged in reply to the Emperor's answer. 
 
 On the lith of July we attended a drill of two squadrons of cavalry, ordered expressly for 
 our examination by the Commanding General. On the 15th, visited the camp at Crasno Cello 
 of 50,000 men of infantry and artillery. 
 
 On the 17th of July we again visited the Island of Cronstadt, being received and conducted 
 
INTRODUCTION. XI 
 
 through and about all the permanent and temporary defenses by several officers of engineers and 
 consular agents. 
 
 On the 19th we proceeded to Moscow, where, under the guidance and kindness of Prince 
 Ouroussoff, Major and Aid-de-Camp to the Governor, we found many things to note of interest 
 connected with the military establishment of this nation ; and hastening back to St. Peter.sburg, 
 left that city on the 2d of August and arrived at Konigsberg, in Prussia, on the 8th, where we 
 had an opportunity of examining, under construction, the extensive system of fortifications of 
 the Germans. Fi'om thence we proceeded to Dantzig, examining the old and new defenses of the 
 continental engineers of that fortified city. On the 15th we arrived at the important fortress 
 of Posen, for a very correct knowledge of which we are indebted to Spanish authors, verifying in 
 person the knowledge of this German system, derived from continental military writers. 
 
 Proceeding to the mouth of the Oder, some new sea-coast defenses were found to be under 
 construction. The commandant not having received the authority of his government, could not 
 permit us to examine them. A telegram from the Minister of War at Berlin to show everything 
 connected with the defenses at that place was received in time to admit of examining these 
 modern Prussian casemated sea-coast works. 
 
 On the 23d of August, at Schwedt, we gained a very correct knowledge of every branch of 
 the school of equitation at tliat place. 
 
 On the 2oth the commission had returned to Berlin, and renewed its application through 
 our Minister, Governor Vroom. Yet no answer was received from the Minister of War up to 
 4th of September, when the commission called in person upon Count Waldersee, the Minister, 
 who then promptly acceded to our request, sending the next morning ticlcets of admission to 
 eleven enumerated military establisliments in Berlin and Spandau. Baron Manteuffel took 
 occasion, on the 8th of September, to respond, through Governor Vroom, to each and every 
 request, authorizing drawings of barracks, of the arsenal at Spandau and its machinery, with 
 books of regulations, and other matters, to be furnished on the personal application of the 
 Commission. 
 
 No reply had, to tliis period, been received from the French government in answer to the 
 request to visit their camps in the Crimea. The siege operations about Sebastopol appearing 
 from the published reports to be coming to a crisis, we determined to hasten to the Crimea, 
 relying upon the letters already received for the English commanders, and trusting to the 
 courtesy of Marshal Pelissier for the facilities we might find necessary in the French camp. 
 
 When passing through Vienna, the Austrian Minister of Foreign Afiairs, Count Buol 
 Schauenstein, on the application of our Minister, Mr. Jackson, authorized our visiting such of 
 their military" establishments on returning from the Crimea as were opened to strangers. 
 
 Hastening forward, via Dresden, Laybach, Trieste, and Smyrna, we found ourselves at last 
 on the line of oi^erations of the allied army at Constantinople, on the 16th September. Through 
 our Minister, Mr. Spence, we had an interview with Baron Tecas, the Sardinian Minister, who 
 favored us with introductory letters explaining the object of our mission to General La Mar- 
 mora, commanding the Piedmontese army in the Crimea. 
 
 To the courtesy of the English naval authorities we were indebted for a passage in the first 
 steamer that left for Balaklava, where we arrived on the morning of the 8th October. General 
 Simpson, the successor of Lord Raglan as commander of the English army, on learning our 
 arrival, sent two ofiicers of his stafl; to conduct us to quarters he had caused to be assigned us in 
 the camp of the fourth division, on Cathcart's hill, a locality that overlooked a great extent of 
 the field of operations. He caused us to be provided with rations for ourselves and servants and 
 forage for our horses during our entire sojourn in the Crimea. Every official and personal 
 facility and kindness was extended to us by the officers of the English army ; and to General 
 La Marmora we were indebted for his courteous attention in detailing an officer of rank of his 
 staff to conduct us through the Sardinian camps and outposts. 
 
 During the whole period the commission remained in the Crimea an officer of the English 
 
Xll INTRODUCTION. 
 
 army, under the authority of General Simpson, was our daily companion to escort us wherever 
 there was anything of interest to be seen, accompanied on several occasions by their engineer 
 officers. 
 
 Immediately after establishing ourselves on Cathcart's hill, we made it our first duty to call 
 upon General Pelissier, to pay our respects to the successful general of the campaign, to explain 
 to him the orders of our government, and the fact of not having to that date received the 
 authority of the French government to visit their camps, as anticipated from the conversations 
 with Count Walewski, at Paris, in May. We saw on this occasion General de Martimprey, Chief 
 of the General Staff, who informed us the marshal was engaged, and could not then see us. General 
 Martimprey then stated to us his belief that letters had been received at their headquarters 
 relating to our mission. On our request, he gave us a "pass" to visit the French trenches-, 
 Sebastopol, the Malakoff, and the docks. General Simpson had given us a similar one. They 
 ■viexe printed passes, such as were given to any visitor to the Crimea, and authorized no addi- 
 tional facilities than such as were open to other officers of the American service then on a visit 
 to the Crimea, (Captain Porter and Mr. Heap, of the navy, and Captain Wayne, of the army,) 
 as well as other travelers not accredited officially to the commanders ; nor was any obligation 
 asked or required of them. At this interview General Martimprey kindly gave us an intro- 
 duction to the Chief Engineer, General Niel, on whom we called. Being absent at the moment, 
 we failed to have the pleasure of an interview with this distinguished engineer. An officer of his 
 staff was kind enough to lay before us the plan of the siege works from the commencement of the 
 operations to the final assault on the 8th September, which served to give a comprehensive idea of 
 operations extended over many miles, that no other means could have subserved in the time 
 allowed for our sojourn in the Crimea; a favor that was duly appreciated. 
 
 On the 15th October the Commission again culled at the headquarters of General Pelissier, 
 to pay our respects and explain the nature of our business, and again saw General de Martim- 
 prey, to whom we expressed our desire to see the marshal. He informed us he was then engaged, 
 and could not see us, and that no communications had been received to that date by the marshal 
 in relation to us. On expressing the hope we might have an opportunity of seeing him, he 
 informed us that the marshal would appoint a time for receiving us. 
 
 On the afternoon of the 2oth of October we received from the English post office at Balaklava 
 dispatches from our Minister, Judge Mason, that had been received at the French post office at 
 Kamiesch on the 12th of October, mailed at Constantinople on the 9th October ; and, although 
 sending for and receiving letters from the post offices, this important official dispatch from Judge 
 Mason did not come to hand until the 2oth, to which date we had received no intimation from 
 General Pelissier 's headquarters of the appointed time to see us. 
 
 This long looked for authorization from the French government, received with Judge 
 Mason's dispatches, was as follows : 
 
 MiNISTERE DES AfFAIRES EtRANGERES, 
 
 Direction Politique, Paris, le 22 Septembre, 1855. 
 
 Monsieur le Mar^chal : MM. Delafield, Mordecai, et McClellan qui auront I'honneur de vous remettre cette lettre, 
 font partie de I'armee des Etats-Unis, et avaient ete charges par leur gouvernement d'etudier, tant en France qu'en Russie, et 
 parliculierement en Crimee, les progres de la science militaire. 
 
 Lorsque ces otEciers so presenterent ici, il y a trois niois et solicitercnt de moi une lettre d 'introduction a vous, je leur 
 repondis que je ne pourrais la leur accorder que sous la condition qu'apres avoir ete en Crimee, ils ne se rendraient point en 
 Russie. Se considerant comnie obliges par les instructions de leur gouvernement a visiter les elablissements militaires de cat 
 etat, ils refuscrent de donner la promesse que j 'exegeais d'eux. 
 
 Apres avoir effectue leur voyage en Russie, ils se sont de nouveau adresses a moi par I'interraediaire du Ministre des Etats- 
 Unis qui m'a declare qu'ils s'engageaint sur I'honneur a ne se rendre ni en Russie, ni dans aucune possession Russe, apres 
 avoir visite nos lignes el nos etablissements militaires en Crimeo. 
 
 Mr. Mason d'ailleurs s'est porte garanl de cet engagement formel, des lors, je n'ai plus hesite, a leur accorder la lettre 
 d'introduction qu'ils solicitaient. En consequence, Monsieur le Marechal, j'ai I'honneur de recommander ces officiers a votre 
 bienveillant accueil. 
 
 Agreez, &c., &c., 
 
 WALEWSKY. 
 
 i 
 
INTRODUCTION. Xlll 
 
 Up to the day of receiving this letter of Count Walewsky to Marshal Pelissier, we had heen 
 accompanied in all our excursions and examinations hy an officer of the English army, and 
 having received no intimation of any time being fixed to see General Pelissier, even to the hour 
 of leaving the Crimea, we were precluded from all opportunity of presenting ourselves to deliver 
 the letter of Count Walewsky, commending us to his attention. 
 
 It was a source of regret that we liad no opportunity of paying our respects in person to the 
 distinguished commander of the French army, the hero of the Malakoff ; and that the terms 
 upon which Count Walewsky was willing we should examine the French camps and army under 
 command of the Marshal, were such as we could not accept. Although not losing any profitable 
 information thereby, we had to regret the opportunity of conferring with so many talented and 
 gallant officers, as would have been the case, could our intention of camping half the time with 
 the French army not have been thwarted by these untoward formalities of diplomacy. The letter 
 of Count Walewsky to Judge Mason, of the ITtli September, attached the condition, " a ne se 
 rendre ni en Kussie, ni dans aucune place militaire dependant de cette puissance, apres avoir 
 visite le camp Fran^ais." While in May his limitation was far from covering the entire Russian 
 dominions as now exacted, a restriction that could only be accepted by us on the previous sanc- 
 tion of our government. 
 
 The result was, that the Commission confined its examination to the camps, depots, parks, 
 workshops, &c., of the English, Sardinian, and Turkish armies, never entering the French 
 camps in the Crimea, except on visits of courtesy. 
 
 In an official letter to Judge Mason, of the 3d December, 1855, we stated, that although we 
 were precluded the pleasure of availing ourselves of Count Walewsky's favorable intentions, we 
 nevertheless felt ourselves under as great obligation to conform to the spirit and meaning of all 
 that passed between us and him on the 24th of May, as though the " word of honor" particu- 
 larly noted in the Count's letter had been given, an obligation equally obligatory in relation to 
 the English, Sardinian, and Turkish armies, as well as their opponents the Russians, from each 
 and all of whom facilities were cordially extended to us, without conditions of any kind being 
 demanded. 
 
 On the 2d of November, 1855, we left Balaklava in an English transport, under the authority 
 of General Simpson. 
 
 Since these occurrences, I have learned, that at the time we first applied to the French gov- 
 ernment in April, the Emperor had then written to General Canrobert of his intention to take 
 the field with an army, and forwarded his plan of a campaign ; and at the time we applied to 
 the Russian government, it had received advices of the necessity of making preparations for 
 evacuating the south side of Sebastopol. 
 
 After spending some days in Constantinople and Scutari to examine the hospitals and depots 
 of the Allies, we left there on the 13th of November, in an Austrian steamer, for the mouth of 
 the Danube, intending to ascend that river in steamers to Vienna. Delays at Varna, as well as 
 at the mouth of the Danube, compelled us to return to Constantinople and take the route up the 
 Adriatic to Triest and again over the Semmering railroad to Vienna. This afforded an oppor- 
 tunity of examining the defenses of Varna, which, in connection with Shumla, had formed barriers 
 against the Russians in former campaigns. It also gave us additional information, in relation 
 to the most remarkable engineering skill and extended works on the Semmering railroad of which 
 we have any knowledge ; the plans of which have been deposited in the library of the War 
 Office. 
 
 On the IGtli of December, we had returned to Vienna. An interview with Count Buol caused 
 us to be introduced to an officer of the general stafl", who accompanied us daily to examine the 
 Austrian military establishments that occupy a prominent part of my report. 
 
 From the Grand Dukes William and Leopold, the former as Commander of the Army and 
 the latter as Chief Engineer, we received authority to visit their military and naval establish. 
 
XIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 nients in Venice, Verona, Mantna, and Milan, which occupied us between the 14th and 25th 
 of January. At Venice, the Governor ordered an officer of engineers to accompany and throw 
 oi^en to us, all matter of interest in that city and vicinity, at the same time ordering his steam 
 yacht to convey us about the lagunes and harbor defenses. At Verona we were most kindly 
 received by the veteran hero Marshal Radetsky, who contributed in everj^ way to the attainment 
 of our wishes, as well as to our personal gratification. An officer of engineers was here also 
 ordered to accompany us to the military establishments, which being recent modifications on an 
 extensive scale, according to the present German system of fortification, ingrafted iipon the oldest 
 bastion system, were of especial interest. To our Minister at Vienna, Mr. Jackson, we took 
 occasion to say, that in all our intercourse with the functionaries charged with the various estab- 
 lishments we had been authorized to visit, facilities and courteous receptions had invariably been 
 extended to us ; and that our intercourse with the officers of the Austrian government and army 
 has been every way agreeable, calling for an expression of our most respectful acknowledge- 
 ments. 
 
 At Genoa, through our consul, Mr. Herbemont. we received from the Governor every facility 
 for' examining the defenses and matters of military interest in his power to throw open to us. 
 Some difficulty, however, between Turin, the telegraph, and different authorities at Genoa, 
 interposed to prevent our seeing some of the recent military constructions in that vicinity. 
 
 On the 2d of February we arrived at Toulon, and, with the authority previously obtained 
 from the French government, examined the military and naval defenses of that important 
 depot. The system of conducting visitors through and about the public works we now found to 
 be entirely different- from that of other nations. Printed tickets of admission had been sent to 
 us from Paris, which commanded the services of a porter to conduct us through the buildings, 
 docks^ and vessels; thus again preventing our making the acquaintance of officers of rank and 
 talent in their marine as well as army. Much information will be found in my report in rela- 
 tion to this naval establishment. 
 
 At Marseilles we spent the Yth February, examining the details for transportation of cavalry, 
 and arrived at the important fortified city of Lyons on the 8th, where Marshal Castillon gave us 
 tickets of admission to visit the recent labors of the French engineers, of which I had very 
 excellent descriptions in the writings of the continental engineers, now verified by this exami- 
 nation, made according to the prevailing system of being shown about the localities by a non- 
 commissioned officer. Belfort, another modern work of the French engineers, we had like 
 authority from the French government to visit, and we had the pleasure of being shown about, 
 and having an explanation of the combination of the labors of Vauban with those of the present 
 French engineers, by an officer of that arm of the service, through a part of the works. 
 
 At Strasbourg, on the 17th February, General Grouchy directed an officer of engineers and 
 one of artillery to accompany us through the defenses of this extensive frontier fortress, together 
 with its hospitals and other military buildings ; presenting, however, little of special interest, 
 except as being one of Vauban's enlarged fields of engineering skill and talent. 
 
 Eastadt, one of the frontier fortresses of the Germanic Confederation, was visited on the 
 route to Coblentz. Having no authority to visit this extensive and modern labor of the German 
 school, through a visit to the Commanding General we succeeded in being, conducted by an 
 officer of his staff, in a hasty walk about the interior, confined mostly to the streets of the city. 
 By observations from the railroad stations, along the glacis of the works that was a public 
 promenade, added to the information possessed from continental engineers, the opportunity 
 sufficed to ingraft upon the memory the important features of this system as given to us by the 
 writings referred to. It will be found in my report sufficiently explained for our purposes. 
 
 At Coblentz we were again disappointed in not finding the authority of the Prussian Minister 
 of War to visit that interesting system of defenses. On the 8th of September, through our 
 minister. Governor Vroom, we had been advised that orders had been given. A telegram to 
 
 1 
 
INTRODUCTION. XV 
 
 Count Waldersee, the Minister of. War, was promptly answered on the 21st February, which 
 served to throw open to our examination all the works composing the defenses of the two sides 
 of the rivers, and enabling us to comprehend the published accounts most satisfactorih^ The 
 commandant of the place very obligingly authorized an officer of engineers to conduct us to 
 posts of the military establishments, occupying our time fully until the return telegram, when 
 he conducted us throughout tlie whole. 
 
 It appeared, in the end, that Count Waldersee had given orders as early as the 10th of 
 September to allow us to see all parts of these defenses. 
 
 Cologne was the next point o^' military interest, but unfortunately we had no authority 
 from any source to examine this stronghold. The published accounts, however, are very minute, 
 and served, with the walks and rides open to all travelers, to give all the desii-ed information of 
 another example of the new German school ingrafted upon ancient works and described in my 
 report. 
 
 The 24th and 25th of February were spent at Liege, where our time was occupied at the 
 national foundery for artillery and another for small arms, both on more extended scales than 
 any corresponding establishments in Europe at that time. Numerous private factories of arms 
 exist in this city, from all of which, during the year 1854, no less than 562,000 stands of small 
 arms had been manufactured for the European as well as other nations. 
 
 On the 1st of March we had returned to Paris and at the earliest moment had an interview 
 with Marshal Magnan, to whom we were informed we should jaresent ourselves, in the authority 
 previously obtained by Judge Mason from Count Walewsky. The Marshal indorsed the author- 
 ity we had previously received, informing us that would suffice and secure all necessary facilities. 
 At Vincennes, the Commandant countersigned the authority we presented and put a sergeant at 
 our disposal for two days to conduct us about the place. Under like circumstances we visited all 
 other military establishments in Paris that could be thrown open to us. Matters relating to the 
 artillery we were desirous of examining, but failed to obtain authority therefor on a personal 
 application to Marshal Vaillant, the Minister of War. While at the same interview he gave us 
 an order on the Engineer Bureau for jilans of their system of barracks and other military 
 buildings. 
 
 The Commission, on the 18th March, proceeded to Cherbourg, with the tickets of admission 
 to that establishment which secured admittance to all the works both military and naval in like 
 manner as at others in France, under the conduct of a non-commissioned officer. It will be 
 observed that published maps and plans constitute the illustrations of my report for the public 
 works in France as well as other countries. At Havre the new works of defense under construc- 
 tion not having as yet been published to the world by any continental writer, I do not, in conse- 
 quence, enter into any explanatory details thereof. 
 
 On the 24th of March we left Havre, and arrived in London the same night. Our Minister 
 (Mr. Dallas) had a personal interview with Lord Palmerston and at once obtained the concur- 
 rence of the government to see its military and naval establishments in and about London and 
 on the channel. Up to the 12th of April, however, from some unexplained and unaccountable 
 cause, no such authority had been sent to us. On the 13th April Mr. Dallas received a note 
 from the Foreign Office assuring him that orders had been issued by the War Department and 
 Board of Admiralty for our admission to the naval and military establisliments enumerated in 
 our request; and thereafter visited the arsenal and dock-yards at Woolwich and vessels at Ports- 
 mouth, and the defenses near Yarmouth, on the Isle of Wight, and received every courtesy and 
 facility we could desire from the military and naval officers at those stations in furthering the 
 object of our visit. The last official act of the government was an invitation, through Mr. 
 Dallas, to be present at the review of the fleet at Portsmouth ; and when at Liverpool receiving a 
 communication from General Wetherall, dated the previous day, from the Horse Guards, stating 
 that the Field Marshal and Commander-in-Chief having learned of our Minister having made 
 
XVI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 known our desire to see the military establishments of England, he had ordered that every 
 facility should he afforded us in oiir visits on receiving an intimation of the stations we intended 
 to visit; and understanding that we were then at Liverpool, Lieutenant General Sir Harry 
 Smith, Bart., Gr. C. B., commanding at Manchester, had been directed to place a staff officer in 
 communication with us with a view to our admission to the establishments situated in the 
 northern and midland districts of England. An officer of the Dragoon Guards called to accom- 
 pany us and carry into effect the wishes of the Commander-in-Chief. 
 
 On the ISth of April we informed Mr. Dallas that every facility had now been extended to 
 us for attaining the object of our wishes contained in his request to Lord Palmerston of the 31st 
 of March, and that we had greatly to regret that the receipt of those documents at that date 
 prevented our availing ourselves of the favor, as we embarked the succeeding day for the United 
 States. To Professor Agnel, of the United States Military Academy, I am greatly indebted for 
 translations from Sijanish writers. 
 
 Under such circumstances the information in the following report was collected in less than 
 a year, attended -with frequent delays in having first to receive the authority of the several 
 governments, most of which, engaged in an arduous contest occupying the time and doubtless 
 the anxious cares of all their authorities, they could but look upon our business as but secondary 
 in importance to the welfare of the interests at stake in the great contest then waging among 
 them; which may in many instances have been the cause of the procrastination and delay we 
 had to experience, and in some cases thwarting our purpose of communicating to our brother 
 officers more matters of interest to them. 
 
 KICHAED DELAFIELD, 
 Colonel of Engineers, Superintendent of Military Academy. 
 
 West Point, November 19, 1860. 
 
LETTEll TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR. 
 
 FoET ElCHMOND, HaRBOR OF NeW YoRK, 
 
 August 11, 1856. 
 
 Sir : I desire now to lay before you a general outline of the notes and observations, with 
 other information collected by me as a member of the Military Commission to the Crimea, &c., 
 instituted by your special order of the 2d April, 1855, with the hope you may not be disap- 
 pointed in the expectations then formed of deriving therefrom some advantages for our military 
 service and general welfare of the country. 
 
 The contest that commenced, in 1854, between the principal military and naval powers of 
 Europe, gave rise, during its progress, to the belief that the art of war had undergone some 
 material changes since the days of Napoleon and Wellington, and that new principles of attack 
 and defense had been resorted to, in the prolonged defense by the Eussians of the land and sea 
 fronts of Sebastopol, and in the great preparations made by the allies for reducing the sea- 
 defenses of Cronstadt and Sebastopol. 
 
 On examination this change will be found mainly in the increased magnitude of the engines 
 of war, and the perfection to which they have been brought by the unceasing application of 
 talent and skill to their improvement, accomplished by the accuracy and rapidity of workman- 
 ship by the machinery of the arsenals of the present day, and that few new principles have been 
 introduced with much success in the late contest. 
 
 For a long period the continental powers had been occupied in preparing large quantities of 
 munitions of war, on which they had bestowed all the skill and intelligence that could be com- 
 manded from the fruits of the various theoretical and practical seminaries, established in every 
 kingdom. Like attention was given to the personal of their armies. Officers, non-commissioned 
 officers, and private soldiers, as well as the auxiliary branches of the profession, such as the 
 medical, veterinary, transport, commissariat, ponton, topographical, engineer, and other 
 branches of service, were, as a general rule, all provided with special schools of instruction, 
 both theoretical and practical. To such an extent has it been carried on the continent, that the 
 military profession is not only indispensable for the protection of tlie existing governments 
 against each other's encroachments, but places that profession first in importance in the estima- 
 tion of the sovereign power, taking rank and receiving honors, the highest in the gift of the 
 monarch to bestow upon a subject. 
 
 It is important we should understand this in connection with its bearing upon the welfare 
 of our country in a political as well military point of view. The continental nations are com- 
 pelled to keep large standing armies on foot, and great military resources prepared, from their 
 apprehension of each other. As one power increases its military efficiency, whether by the 
 invention of a new weapon, or by men and fortresses, the neighboring nations, as a means of 
 self-preservation, are compelled to do likev/ise. The tendency is thus constantly to increase ; 
 although clearly and well understood by the various governments to be impoverishing the 
 1 D 
 
2 LETTER TO TUE SECEETARY OF WAR. 
 
 nation, by withdrawing «o much industry from the soil, manufactures, and commerce, while it 
 increases the expenses of the State, at the same time that it diminishes its ability to create wealth 
 to fill its cofi'ers. 
 
 We must for a long time to come look to this continued preparation in the art of war as an 
 established fact, and study its consequences in our relations with the Eastern World. We must 
 bear in mind, that so important is the military profession, or the art of self-defense, as it has 
 now become, with the neighboring powers of Europe, that the youth of the nobles, as well as 
 the princes of the reigning families, receive military educations. As a consequence, the reigning 
 monarchs are professionally educated soldiers, with ability to judge imderstandingly of the 
 merits of any improvements proposed in the art of war, and capable of commanding either as 
 infantry, cavalry, or engineer officers, with a talent and skill equal to any of their generals, 
 only surpassed by such as possess that genius with which nature alone gifts the mind. 
 
 The three Emperors of the continent at the present time, to wit : of Eussia, Austria, and 
 France, are ^unquestionably highly educated statesmen and soldiers. One of them is a writer, 
 and inventor of military science and art. They are not mere instruments of royalty, controlled 
 by counselors of state of superior intellect, but hold in their hands the power and resources of 
 their respective nations, governed only by their best ji;dgments and council of ministers of state. 
 
 This great preparation and resources for war exist, and must continue to exist, as a precau- 
 tionary measure, with a tendency to increase by all that art and science can bring to its aid, 
 directed by the minds of a few individuals, with power to apply it with all the celerity that 
 singleness of purpose can effect, wheresoever the governing spirit may be influenced, either 
 by interest, the blind infatuation and wickedness of the human mind, or self-defense. 
 
 We should not be indifferent spectators of this perfection of the military art and its concen- 
 tration in command of the few. The moneyed interest, as a general rule, is in the hands of the 
 nobles and aristocracy. Their welfare and happiness is that of the monarchy. Every principle 
 upon which that form of government exists is antagonistical to our own. Every political letter, 
 or friendly and social one, written from our country to an European, carries information of the 
 privileges and rights of man and property, as here rmderstood and practiced, entirely at variance 
 with those governing the nations of Europe. 
 
 The foundation of their system, and the prosperity and happiness of the wealthy classes, is 
 constantly warred upon by our individuality of thought, and its expression in the freedom of our 
 press. It must not then be surprising that we can have no friexds politically in the governing 
 powers of the Eastern World, and it requires no stretch of the imagination to look forward to a 
 combination of the powers of those antagonistic forms of government to attempt to check the 
 growing influence that constantl}', though slowly, tends to crush the ruling principle, and with 
 it involve the governors, nobles, aristocracy, and monarchs in ruin. Their self-preservation must 
 always cause them to look with anxiety and a^iprehension to our growth, and ere it becomes all 
 powerful to combine in some way to protect themselves. 
 
 The peaceful arts are a counterpoise to the disturbance of amicable relations, yet they did 
 not suffice to prevent the combination of several monarchies to restrain the growing power of 
 one of their neighbors, and may have no stronger influence to prevent a combination against 
 our Eepublic when its growth in like manner endangers their prosperity. 
 
 Our resources are unquestionably great, and equal to several of the powers of Europe com- 
 bined, but our preparation in material, equipment, knowledge of the art of war, and other means 
 of defense, is as limited and ineflicient, as theirs is powerful and always ready. 
 
 As a nation, other than in resources and general intelligence of our people, we are without 
 the elements of military knowledge and efficiency for sudden emergency ; while no nation on 
 earth can more certainly put itself in a condition to set any hostile force at defiance. 
 
 We possess a nucleus of military knowledge in the country barely sufficient for the wants 
 I if our aimy in time of peace, without facilities for practicing the arts of the several arms, or 
 
LETTER TO THE SECRETARY OF WAR, 3 
 
 means of forming, creating, or instructing any of the personnel than the officer. The auxiliary 
 branches are not provided for. Our sea-coast defenses are not conducted with as much energy 
 as an individual bestows in building a residence for his family ; the latter, in many instances, 
 expending more in a year on his dwelling than our people will authorize to be expended in the 
 same time for the defense of a city. It is imdeniable that of the number of guns needed for tlie 
 defense of our sea-coast the nation does not contain, including the whole standing army, men 
 enough that know how to fire hot and hollow shot to provide a single man for a sixth part of 
 the guns. 
 
 In this unprepared state, on our part, several of the powers of Europe have steam transports 
 and munitions, with fleets superior to our own, ready at any moment to throw on our coast, in 
 no longer time than is necessary to steam across the Atlantic, disciplined armies that could land 
 in six hours after anchoring, do us injury and cripple our resources to an extent that would 
 require a long time to restore. 
 
 The late European contest has shown how rapidly the continental powers could march to 
 the coast and embark detachments of from ten to twenty thousand disciplined troops in steam 
 transports, accommodating a thousand men each, with supplies for a voyage equal to crossing 
 to our shores; yet with a blind indifference, professing at the same time to be all powerful, our 
 people neglect the many calls and statements of those they appoint to study this subject, leaving 
 us at the mercy, in the first years of a conflict, of either of the naval and military powers of 
 the Old World.' 
 
 Viewing the subject in all its bearings, I am more impressed than ever with our comparative 
 want of preparation and military knowledge in the country, and that the Secretary of War will 
 do a great good service to the nation by increasing the materiel and munitions, means of 
 defense, and the diffusion of military information in every possible way that our institutions 
 will permit, without creating any more of a standing army than the growth of the country calls 
 for, preparatory to that great struggle which sooner or later may be forced upon us, and to 
 resist which, with our i^resent means, we are comparatively unprepared. 
 
 With the hope that what it may be in my power to lay before you may conduce to such end, 
 I herewith communicate the information collected by me under your instructions of the 2d 
 April, 1855. 
 
 RICHARD DEL AFIELD, 
 
 Major of Engineers. 
 
 Hon. Jefferson Davis, 
 
 Secretary of War. 
 
REPORT. 
 
 The introduction of the long gun to fire shells horizontally, both for land and sea service, 
 with a tendency to increase the calibers; and of the rifle, with various modifications for all 
 small arms, may now be considered as the settled policy and practice of all the military powers 
 of Europe. 
 
 The belief in the superiority of these two principles was so well established, that all the 
 powers engaged in the late great contest, as well as the neighboring neutrals, were driven to 
 follow each other in their introduction as fast as their manufacture would permit. For want of 
 time to provide the most approved weapons, modifications of the existing arms in the arsenals 
 and depots were resorted to by the different powers. 
 
 Field guns in like manner underwent a material change, by the adoption of the Napoleon 
 12-pounder as a substitute for the light pieces, with modified improvements in the shrapnell 
 shell for these pieces and those of heavier caliber. 
 
 France has already in her arsenals several hundred of this new model Napoleon 12- 
 pounder, (the idea of the present Emperor ;) and, as a consequence, England, Austria, Saxony, 
 Prussia, and Russia have been manufacturing and introducing them in their armies. This 
 change in the calibers of artillery, now generally adopted in Europe, calls for action on our 
 part, to say how far we should introduce a similar armament where at present our light 
 6-pounder would be of no avail, and is a particular considered worthy of attention. All 
 needful information relating to the size of this new field piece has been collected. 
 
 In the armament of sea-coast batteries, the eight and ten-inch diameter long guns may now 
 be considered as adopted for all the harbors and water defenses of Europe, to the abandonment 
 of all lighter ones other than the 42-pounder, which we must consider as still necessary to be 
 retained for hot shot that can be advantageously used at ranges far beyond that of the shell or 
 solid shot from the eight or ten-inch gun. Russia was substituting these heavy guns daily in 
 her sea-coast defenses at Cronstadt for the 36-pounders in presence of her enemy's fleet. In the 
 interior, at her fortresses, she was mounting similar guns on the salients and other commanding 
 points. 
 
 We may consider that an additional degree of strength and power of resistance has been 
 gained by the introduction of these long eight and ten-inch guns in the armament of fortresses, 
 by forcing the assailants to commence their operations at some two thousand yards from the 
 fortress, instead of six or seven hundred, as heretofore, against the lighter armaments. 
 
 One of the elements of the protracted and gallant defense of the entrenchments about Sebastopol 
 is due to the introduction of the heavy armament of the Russian fleet in the batteries along the 
 crest of the hills above and around the harbor of Sebastopol. 
 
 They forced the allied army not only to commence their operations at more than two 
 thousand yards from the Russian defenses, but to use guns of corresponding range, and to 
 encamp their armies and establish their depots at greater distances, thereby consuming so much 
 
6 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 more time to work by the slow progress of the saj) up to the Kussian entrenchments. This 
 element is worthy the study and reflection of our artillery officers in the armament and defense 
 of the land fronts of our sea-coast defenses, and of the Secretary of War in enabling them to 
 practice its uses. 
 
 It is not only Eussia that has introduced this heavy armament in her fortresses. The same 
 was noticed in Prussia, the works of the Germanic Confederation, Austria, France, Sardinia, 
 and Belgium. 
 
 Its advantages should not be lost sight of, in all our land as well as water batteries, 
 securing to the defense the means of destroying or injuring an enemy at a greatly increased 
 distance, gaining time in the defense, while it renders the establishment of ricochet enfilading 
 batteries on the prolongation of the lines of defense more "difficult and often impracticable. 
 
 The rifle is now the common arm for the infantry of all the European armies. The carbine 
 and pistol are being made and introduced on the same principle, and all of them for the use of 
 what is generally called the Minie ball. The smooth bore is no longer made for military 
 service. Its use may be considered as confined to old j)atterns that circumstances have not yet 
 permitted to be altered. The percussion lock is universal. 
 
 The Austrians seem to have adopted the most uniform system in the 
 application of the rifle for their army. The bore and lock of their musket, 
 carbine, and pistol are all of the same pattern, and a ball common to the 
 three has been adopted, thus making the only difl'erence in the ammuni- 
 tion to consist in the quantity of powder in the cartridge, while the lock 
 and some other parts of each weapon are common, and can be repaired by 
 substitution of parts from either. Patterns of these arms were presented 
 by the Austrian government. 
 
 None of the other powers seem to have definitively adopted the best or 
 satisfactory shape of the ball, although all have taken the rifle principle. 
 On the battle field of Inkerman and trenches in front of Sebastopol I 
 picked up balls that had been fired of the ordinary spherical shape; the 
 English Enfield rifle balls. Figs. 1 and 2; the Eussian solid conical ball, 
 Fig. 6; their short hemispherical ball, Fig. 5; and the Minie ball of the 
 French, Fig. 4. 
 
 While all agree that great advantages are gained with the rifle^ and 
 have adopted it, still a great contrariety of opinion exists as to the best 
 form of ball, and principle, even, by which it is made to partake of the rifle 
 twist of the gun barrel. 
 
 1. The tige principle, or forcing the end of the ball open, to fit the bore and rifle grooves, 
 by driving it on a projecting spike in the bottom of the gun, attached to the breech, and rising 
 through the charge of powder, as in Fig. A, is practiced by some, and in the French service. 
 
 For loading with such balls the head of the rammer must be counter sunk to fit the head of 
 the ball. 
 
 Fig. 0. Full iizc. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 5. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 6. Full sizt. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. - 7 
 
 2. Another principle has been adopted by the English for their Enfield rifle, which 
 consists in forcing a cup or cone in a hollow or opening in the bottom of the ball, thus 
 expanding it, to fit the rifle grooves. This is effected by the action of the powder. The shape 
 of their ball, Fig. 1, differs from most others. The cup or cone of the balls used in the Crimea 
 by the rifle brigade were of iron. They were found objectionable, sometimes cutting off a 
 ring of lead, that was left in the gun. A substitute was afterwards adopted of solid wooden 
 cups or cones. Others made of papier mache had also been tested. (See Fig. 3.) 
 
 Fig. 2 is the section of a larger ball on the same principle, picked up in the Crimea. 
 
 3. A third principle has been adopted by the French, Russians, and others, of an open 
 hollow base in contact with the powder, which is forced open by the blast, thus filling the bore 
 and fitting the rifle grooves, as in Fig. 4, with three exterior grooves; and a modification 
 of the same as in Fig. 5. 
 
 4. A fourth principle, adopted or in use by the Eussians, is a solid ball with two slight 
 projections on the cylindrical part of the solid, made to fit two grooves cut in the bore of the 
 gun. They also were used at Sebastopol. Fig. 6 gives its size and proportions. 
 
 Full size. 
 
 Fig. 8. Full size. 
 
 Fi". 9. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 10. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 11. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 13. Full size. 
 
 5. The Sardinian army used in the Crimea a modification of the preceding as shown in 
 Figs. 7 and 8. 
 
 6. The Sardinian army retain as yet, for part of their infantry^ a smooth-bored musket, for 
 which their army in the Crimea used a ball of the size and shape of Fig. 9. 
 
 7. The Zouaves of the French army were found using a solid cylindro-conical grooved ball, 
 as in Fig. 10, in a tige rifle. 
 
 8. The Austrian rifle of 1856 has a ball acting upon a different principle from any of the 
 preceding. It is a solid cylindro-conical ball, with two deep grooves cut in the cylindrical part, 
 such that the parts between the grooves are forced together and outwards, or "upiset" by the 
 explosion of the powder, to fill the bore and fit the rifle grooves, as in Fig. 11. 
 
 9. The Saxon army uses a rifle ball of the same principle as the Austrian, but with a single 
 groove, of the form and dimensions of Fig. 12. , 
 
 Other forms and shapes are in use, yet no one of them has secured the confidence of all. 
 Nor, indeed, does any one power seem to be fully satisfied, or to have finally determined which 
 is best. 
 
 While at Viucennes it was ascertained that the French were still experimenting on a largo 
 scale in ^e daily practice of firing thousands of rounds of different descriptions of balls at 
 targets, to endeavor to find tlic best results from trial. 
 
 Fig. 13. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 1 1. Full si/.p. 
 
 Fig. 15. Full size. 
 
 Fig. ir>. Full size. 
 
 Fig. 17. Full size. 
 
8 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 They were, at the time, using a grooved cylindro-couical ball, with an iron cup or cone, 
 having the vertex of the ball slightly truncated, of the form and size of Fig. 13. 
 
 A ball of the size and shape of Fig. 14 was being jirepared at the laboratory at Vin- 
 cennes at the same time. Other modifications of the cylindro-conical ball, with and without 
 grooves, the latter of different shapes, without the cui), with varied thickness of the metal to be 
 expanded to the rifle grooves, were in like manner being tested. Figs. 15 and 16 give the size 
 and dimensions of two of these modifications that commanded most favor, so far as the exjieri- 
 ments had gone. 
 
 Another experimental ball was obtained in Prussia, made of cast-iron. Its form and size 
 is given in Fig. 17. No information was had in relation to it. 
 
 A greatly increased range, with precision of fire, is secured to the European armies by the 
 introduction of the Minie rifle, which is decidedly better for military purposes than the old 
 pattern, as it can be loaded with greater facility and ease. This accuracy of fire at long ranges 
 is only to be obtained by great elevations, measured by a movable sight or hausse, without which 
 many of its advantages would be lost. Patterns of the various modifications of the hausse were 
 obtained from different nations, and will be made available for the examination of the officers of 
 the army. 
 
 It thus appears there is a wide field ojien for the study of our infantry officers in the form 
 and shape of the ball best suited to the rifle for our service, and that the Secretary of War may 
 promote the interest of this arm of our service by calling the attention of the infantry officers to 
 this as yet unsettled desideratum, the best form and size of the rifle ball. 
 
 . BKEECH-LOADING SMALL AKMS. 
 
 Carbines. — Of breech-loading small arms the Emperor Napoleon has the merit of having 
 made improvements as satisfactory (so far as tested) as his changes in field artillery of intro- 
 ducing a light 12-pounder gun as a substitute for all the smaller calibers. The carbine in use 
 of the Cent Garde is of his invention. It has a very small bore, is rifled, loads at the breech, 
 and fitted with a long straight saber as a bayonet. Without a hausse it gives precision of fire 
 to hit the size of a man at the distance of six hundred meters, and with a hausse a maximum 
 range exceeding fifteen hundred meters. A peculiar merit of this carbine is the simplicity of 
 the lock, composed of three pieces only. The Cent Garde is a mouated corps. 
 
 Muskets. — It is a remarkable fact that notwithstanding a knowledge of breech-loading 
 small arms for at least two centuries, and that every museum of arms in Europe has numerous 
 specimens, no satisfactory weapon for war purposes has as yet been invented. The success of 
 Sharp, and other inventors in tliis country in carbines, is well known, and being tested by some 
 of the European powers for their cavalry. 
 
 Prussia alone, of all the continental powers, has adopted such a system for her infantry, 
 using therefor the needle gun; and although in use in her army for many years past, and well 
 known in all its details, no other nation has been willing to follow her example. Celerity and 
 rapidity of fire are the main points aimed at by the many inventors and advocates of this modi- 
 fication of the musket. We know that with the present weapons hundreds of rounds of ammu- 
 nition are fired without producing any efiect, and probably not one shot in a thousand rounds 
 issued to the soldier ever does execution. The late contest, as well as all previous wars, 
 establishes this waste of cartridges. It is steadiness and aim at the object by the soldier that 
 must be secured, a principle at variance with rapidity and celerity. 
 
 Other than Prussia, Norway is the only country that has adopted a breech-loading musket. 
 Its construction is not such as to recommend it for our service, yet a model has been purchased 
 that it may be understood by such as seek information on the subject. While this principle is 
 not considered very desirable for the infantry, for cavalry it is a great desideratum to obviate 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 9 
 
 the difficulty of loading on horseback. Most of the European armies are directing their atten- 
 tion to siich a weapon for cavalry, all preserving the Minie rifle principle. 
 
 A modification of the holster pistol, seen in the Austrian arsenal, in some measure super- 
 sedes the necessity of even the breech-loading carbine. They have manufactured a rifle pistol, 
 loading at the muzzle with the ball Fig. 11, carried ordinarily in the holster, presenting no 
 difficulty in loading when mounted. It is attached at pleasure to a wooden but, similar in form 
 to that of the musket, which is carried by a sling over the shoulder. When attached to the 
 pistol it forms a short carbine, with all the precision of fire of the rifle for distances between 
 100 and 150 yards ; and in close quarters can be used as an ordinary pistol, either with or 
 without the but. This is certainly preferable to the ordinary holster pistol, and may well be 
 considered as worthy of being substituted therefor to the entire abandonment of the present 
 model holster cavalry pistol. 
 
 Ring for shoulder 
 belt. 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 The above figure indicates the arrangement for attaching and disengaging the but at 
 pleasure, and the ring for slinging the latter over the shoulder.* 
 
 EIFLE CANNON. 
 
 An attempt is being made by several of the European powers to adapt the rifle principle to 
 the heaviest artillery, and has been so far successful as to cause its introduction into the arma- 
 ment of part of the expedition destined against Cronstadt in 1856. 
 
 The Lancaster gun, used by the English artillery at Sebastopol, is an example of a rifle 
 cannon of the heaviest caliber. The bore of this gun, instead of having a circle for its section, 
 has an ellipsis of 8" and 8f" diameters. It is generated by the motion of such an ellipse, with 
 its center always in the axis of the gun, making a revolution (i. e. the section) of about one 
 quarter of a turn in the length of the bore, thus forming a continuous elliptical cylinder, with 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 • I find, on returning to the United States, that a similar weapon has been designed, manufactured, and in some part 
 introduced into our service, under the direction of Colonel Davis, Secretary of War. Its introduction into the Ausli-ian 
 service was certainly but recent. The first and only arms of this description noticed were in the Austrian arsenal of construc- 
 tion at Vienna. I cannot pretend to say that this information is derived from Austiia. It is quite as probable that some 
 traveler in this country interested in the Austrian military service may have seen it in our workshops, and, as myself, a 
 stranger to its previous use, have sent it to his country. 
 
10 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the greater axis in the vertical plane at the muzzle section gradually becoming horizontal at the 
 breech section; or, in other words, the whole length and section of the bore is a rifle twist of 
 one quarter of a turn in its length, (this is given as about the ratio of the twist, more definite 
 information not being accessible,*) as in the above Fig. 19. The points a h, at the muzzle, 
 make so much of a turn in passing to the breech as to assume the positions c d. 
 
 The ball is a wroughf-ivon shell of the form and size indicated in Fig. 20, 
 ascertained by measurement of one found in the trenches at Sebastopol. 
 
 The use of these guns in the siege was by no means sati.sfactory, so far as I 
 could ascertain, giving neither precision of fire nor extraordinary ranges; while the 
 gun more often failed by bursting than other calibers. The principle, however, 
 appears to meet with favor, and is still studied and being tested by the English 
 ofiicers.t 
 
 Another method of giving the rifle principle to heavy guns consists in casting a 
 segment of a sj^here (nearly) on the side of the cylindrical part of a shot, with cor- 
 responding grooves in the bore of 
 3<iforj_. j the gun, making about one turn in 
 
 twenty feet. It is somewhat like the 
 principle of the solid musket ball. 
 Fig. 6, with a difference in shape of 
 the projections, as shown in the an- 
 nexed Fig. 21, giving the form and 
 size (nearly) of the shot. 
 
 The bore of the gun has a circu- 
 lar section of 6|" diameter, with two 
 grooves cut in it, as in the annexed 
 Fig. 22, which in the length of the 
 bore have a twist equal to one turn 
 in six meters. 
 
 Guns of this pattern were adopted for many of the gun-boats fitted out by France for 
 operations in the Baltic for 1856 ; some with four and others two guns each, with screw pro- 
 pelling steam engines. Its adoption in so important an enterprise as against the Kussian 
 defenses in the Baltic, indicates great confidence in its excellence ; in confirmation of which I 
 may mention having seen large piles of the shells, amounting to many thousands, in depot, all 
 apjjarently new. 
 
 Several other experimental rifle cannon were observed at the arsenals, &c., visited from 
 time to time, for field service or experiment only: such as for a cylindro-conical ball, with four 
 wings on the length of the cylindrical part, set to correspond with the twist of the rifle grooves. 
 These wings were made of brass, and set with wedges. 2. The same form of shot with segments 
 
 of spheres on ojjposite sides of the cylindrical part cast on the ball 
 corresponding with the large one. Fig. 21. Some of these latter 
 were hollow, others solid, and of about two inches diameter, as 
 was the case with those with wings. A very remarkable one, and 
 ' at the same time unintelligible without explanation, was a flat- 
 tened spherical shell, one diameter being 4f", and circular; the 
 other 3|", as in the annexed Fig. 23. 
 
 * See Sir Howard Douglass on Naval Gunnery, pages 170, 611. 
 t Ibid, pages 170, 363,011. 
 
 Section 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Side. 
 
 Section at muzzle. 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 Fig. 23. Sections. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 11 
 
 Two other cast-iron balls were seen, of a very peculiar shape, ^ -^^ ^ -^ 
 
 intended, apparently, as a substitute for the rifle groove. They (f "n^.-'^! f ....~^,\ 
 
 were cylinders of about four inches diameter, with a flattened ^j 'i-'' | I vV7 ) 
 
 spherical head, from which three spiral openings communicate { ■ ■ ''■ \ \. \\ J 
 with the open interior of the cylinder. The cylindrical part was I i f~~1 ,,-^J^]^]]mV— ■ 
 
 formed with grooves. The second one difi"ered from the first only i, ; g k ; ■ 7 
 
 in the shaj^e of the grooves. I was informed the grooves were I. j \ — ^ ^ j ^ . . — \ 
 
 intended to be filled with lead, to bring the ball to the diameter of / ,' W i "^ .. V ^ 
 
 the gun. The authority, however, was not very reliable, yet the Fig. 24. Fig. 25. 
 
 best at command. The preceding Fig.s. 24 and 25, will give all 
 
 the information obtained in relation to them. Such were the experiments making in kifle- 
 CANNON that came within the range of my observations. 
 
 Gun Cotton still continues to command attention as a power suitable for artillery. The 
 Austrians have six field batteries fully equipped and specially constructed for this power, and 
 have such confidence in its superior advantages as. to have constructed many new brass guns of 
 four and five eighths inches bore, and 24-pounder howitzers, during the past year. Their average 
 weight is 858 pounds, and in length thirty-eight inches, from the rear of the base ring to the 
 muzzle ; the circumference of the base ring about forty inches. 
 
 So much is this description of field artillery prized by the Austrian committee of artillery 
 that no other jjart can be seen than the guns in the yard of the arsenal. 
 
 The Austrians were making experiments with a light 12-pounder gun, (in imitation of the 
 Napoleon gun,) as a substitute for their smaller field guns, to be of cast-iron, weighing only 700 
 pounds ; it is sixty-seven inches from the rear of the base ring to the muzzle, and eleven inches 
 and a fraction diameter of base ring. 
 
 The Turks are not behindhand in the improvements of artillery, or rather the modifications 
 called for to compete with their enemies. 
 
 For a long time their brass guns on the Dardenelles and Bosphorus have been known as the 
 largest sea-coast guns in use in any European works. They are provided with stone shot, have 
 to be loaded on the outside of the fort, and, having no trunnions, can only be fired with a fixed 
 elevation, and in most cases on a carriage or block that admits of no horizontal rotation. They 
 are now substituting cast-iron guns of eleven inches diameter of bore, of ten feet one inch in length 
 from muzzle to base ring, and ninety-eight and a half inches circumference of base ring. Many 
 new guns of this pattern were seen in the marine depot, as well as in the artillery arsenal, at 
 Constantinople ; they were of English manufacture. 
 
 This tendency to increase the size of guns, in addition to what has been already stated, was 
 observed in England in the manufacture of 18-inch mortars, and preparations for a 3-feet 
 (diameter of bore) mortar, for which many of the shells were in depot at Woolwich. 
 
 An Austrian cast-iron sea-coast gun of nine and three eighths inches diameter, seen in the 
 boring mill in course of construction, at the arsenal at Vienna, was eight feet in length, from 
 base ring to muzzle, and twenty-five and three quarters inches in diameter at base ring. 
 
 This enlargement of caliber has, since the period of our revolution, been steadily on the 
 increase, especially in the fleets of all nations ; 18 and 24-pounder guns, once common in the 
 armament of frigates, and even ships-of-the-line, are now totally abolished, the 8-inch gun being 
 a common substitute. 
 
 The lesson to be derived from these facts on the increased size of European artillery, should 
 cause us to lose no time in substituting the like for the 24 and 32-pounders, on which we at this 
 moment must mainly rely. Our people should know the fact that we have but few of the large 
 guns, while all Europe has adopted them for land and sea service ; and if we do not profit by the 
 lesson, and arm all our sea-coast defenses that can be approached by steam gun-boats armed with 
 
12 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the modern artillery, we must suffer the consequences — only to be averted by Congress author- 
 izing the preparation in time for the contest that, sooner or later^ will come upon us, and bring 
 with it immense losses and national disgrace, or a heroic defense, as the Congress of the nation 
 shall will. With it rests the choice and consequences. 
 
 I may bring to notice another fact in the armament of our sea-coast batteries, that late 
 experience requires we should not overlook. On many of our narrow channels we have adopted 
 the 8-inch chambered gun^ for such comparative short ranges, and for hollow shot only. We 
 now know that floating batteries, covered with four and a half inches of wrought iron, can cross 
 the Atlantic, and are proof against 32-pounder solid shot and 8 and 10-inch hollow shot ; but at 
 the same distance (400 yards) the 8 and 10-inch solid shot will pass through the 4^-inch iron 
 plates, or break the fastening. 
 
 This single fact should cause us to renew our investigation in the armament of sea-coast 
 batteries with the 8 and 10-inch light gun, or howitzers for hollow shot only, to the end that we 
 abandon all further manufacture of such a gun, as a dangerous economy. 
 
 Gun Carriages and Casemates. 
 
 We labor at present under difficulties in the armament of our sea-coast batteries, by the 
 universal adoption of timber chassis and truck carriages, a modification, in some particulars, of 
 the French system for their fortresses, but not such as they use for their sea-coast, where cast-iron 
 is the material princijially employed. 
 
 Our wooden carriages are not only liable to rot, but, in a casemate and in barbette, are 
 subject to such frequent changes from warping as to render entire batteries unfit for service. In 
 'some cases the chassis will rest but on three wheels ; in many, the center stock is so twisted that 
 the upper carriage is liable to be thrown off, dismounting the gun, whenever the recoil brings 
 the gun to the rear of the chassis ; and in few instances, that have passed under my notice, is the 
 prop at the end of the center rail of the chassis such as to take any bearing whatever on the 
 platform. These imperfections, with others, have doubtless induced the European artillerists to 
 seek for correctives, and they have obtained them in the adoption oiiron carriages. 
 
 The French marine charged with the sea-coast batteries have adopted for their barbette 
 platforms a cast-iron chassis, and cast-iron truck carriages for their heaviest guns, and a combina- 
 tion of wood with torought-irou for the casemate chassis, with a cast-iron truck carriage similar 
 to that for the barbette battery. Figs. 26 and 27 represent these two carriages, extensively in 
 use in the sea-coast batteries at Cherbourg. 
 
 So well satisfied are they with these metal carriages that they now propose cast-iron for their 
 garrison and siege guns, the plans of which are given in Figs. 28 and 29. Our practice is to 
 make a carriage of dimensions peculiar to, and adapted for, each caliber of gun, while the French, 
 both for their sea-coast batteries under the marine, and siege and garrison batteries under the 
 artillery, have one carriage common to several calibers, the arrangement for which is shown in 
 Figs. 28 and 29 ; the alteration being effected by changing the trunnion beds, with washers, &c., 
 to enlarge or diminish the width between the cheeks. This principle was noticed in the depots 
 at Strasburg, as well as at Cherbourg, and forms part of the system proposed for cast-iron car- 
 riages for the fortresses, on the plan of Figs. 28 and 29. The Russians, in like manner, have 
 adopted the principle of one carriage common to several calibers. Another detail in the con- 
 struction of the French chassis carriage that commanded my attention, was the general use of a 
 supjiort under the center of the chassis rails, as in Figs. 27 and 29. 
 
 Prussia has adopted an extensive system of wrought-iron siege and garrison carriages, with 
 varied modifications, adapting the parts to the casemate, low and high barbette, and embrasure 
 batteries, as well as for siege purposes, with corresponding facilities of similar material for 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 13 
 
 transport. This system will, I trust, be sufficiently illustrated for my present purpose by an 
 examination of Figs. 30, 31, 32, and 33. It has been designed for all the different calibers and 
 descriptions of artillery, from the 6-pounder field piece to their 50-pounder bomb-cannon, with 
 arrangements adapting the garrison carriage for a casemate carriage, the ordinary garrison 
 carriage for either a high or low barbette carriage, and all these with fiicilities and arrangements 
 for land transport for siege purposes. The system received additions and improvements as late 
 as 1855, having been first approved by the War Department of Prussia in 181:9, and published 
 under its authority at Berlin, in 1850. Some of these wrought-iron carriages were seen in the 
 arsenal at Berlin. A copy of the publication was afterwards requested of and received from 
 Count Waldersee, the Minister of War. It is, I conceive, an important fact that this military 
 nation has adopted wrought iron for its artillery, and worthy the attention of the artillery 
 officers of our service, as encouragement to improve our own sea-coast defenses in this particular. 
 For more minute details of this system, reference must be had to the work presented by the 
 Prussian government, and deposited in the War Office at Washington. 
 
 Kussia also has adopted wrought-iron chassis and carriages for both garrison and sea-coast 
 batteries. To her praclfce in this particular I invite the attention of the Secretary of War, as 
 combining the greatest advantages, and more worthy our study than that of any other I had 
 the opportunity of seeing. 
 
 In many of the temporary batteries constructed during the late contest, both on the sea- 
 coast and interior fortresses, the Avrought-iron chassis and carriage conforming with Figs. 34, 
 35, and 35 a, had been introduced. 
 
 The following notes, descriptive of the wrought iron gun-carriages of the Russians, are from 
 their Text-book on Artillery, by Colonel Kezvoy. For the translation from the Eussian lan- 
 guage, I am indebted to my associate, Captain G. W. McClellan : 
 
 The principal experiments upon iron garrison carriages are the propositions of Colonel 
 Venglofskein. They were made, in 1841, at Warsaw and Cronstadt. The satisfactory results of 
 these experiments induced others on a much larger scale. For this purpose, with the approba- 
 tion of the Emperor, Colonel Venglofskein prepared, at the Eaivolofsk iron works, one carriage 
 and platform for the following guns: 36, 24, 12, and 6-pounders; along howitzer (licorn) of 
 36 pounds, and short one of the same caliber; a long and short 18-pounder; and also for the 36 
 and 30-pounder marine howitzers. For all the carriages three iron traversing platforms or 
 chassis were prepared. 
 
 These iron carriages (see Figs. 34 and 35) consist of the axle, (a,) two wheels, two cheeks 
 or supports, (&,) two uprights or stanchions for trunnions, (c,) the socket of the elevating screw^ 
 (/,) and the upper head of the elevating screw, (d.) The cheeks are connected at the middle by 
 the transom, (e,) and at the trail by the bolts, (k and I.) On the bolt (/>;) shoulders are formed 
 keeping the cheeks apart; also a roller to relieve the motion of the trail on the central piece of 
 the chassis. Each stanchion (c) consists of two parts, between which leather is placed. To the 
 cheeks are secured trail braces, serving to keep the trail of the carriage on the chassis should 
 the bolt (A-) break. 
 
 The carriage axles are generally of two kinds — the large or long, and the small or short, 
 differing only in length. The wheel (222 and 224 of Fig. 34) consists of two cross-pieces or 
 sections, (n,) forming collectively, the hub and spokes of the whole circle, felly, (p,) fastened by 
 tenons to the cross-pieces or spokes, and of a continuous tire (q) driven on over the fellies, and 
 of two concentric naves, (o, 224 of Fig. 34.) These concentric naves, of equal dimensions, are 
 placed on the two faces of the cross-pieces, and riveted to them. 
 
 The tire and fellies have holes through them for inserting handspikes to run the gun into 
 battery. 
 
 These iron carriages are mounted on either traversing or on stationary chassis or platforms. 
 
14 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. • 
 
 The traversing iron chassis consists of three rails, (222 and 227 of Figs. 34 and 35,) two 
 outside ones (r r) and a middle one, (s.) Each rail consists of two iron hars. The inner bars 
 of the outer rails have flanges, which prevent the carriage from running off the rails. At the 
 rear ends of the outer rails are fastened pieces or chocks ()•) to stop the recoil of the piece. To 
 the rear ends of the inner bars of the outer rails are fastened the strong thick pieces, (t,) with 
 holes, in which fit the stanchions, (m.) On the upper ends of these stanchions are placed two 
 iron pieces, (v,) which support the weight of the gun, when it has recoiled, and thus relieve 
 the rails. The outer rails are connected by four cross bolts, (y, 222 of Fig. 34.) The front one 
 has a hole in its middle for the pintle, around which the chassis traverses, (227 of Fig. 35 ;) and 
 also, at equal distances, two holes for the stanchions (z) of the front rollers, which traverse on 
 the iron plate, (;'.) 
 
 In the center of the chassis is a reenforced hole. The middle rail rests upon the third 
 and fourth trans^lns, (y y,) terminating at the second. The support or prop (s, 222) prevents 
 the rail from yielding to the weight of the piece during the recoil. It may be lengthened or 
 shortened by the arrangement w. 
 
 In loading and aiming the piece, the men for these purposes staiW on the gratings, (a,) 
 which are secured to the chassis. To ascend easily when the piece is mounted very high, the 
 steps (/;) are secured to the chassis. 
 
 The curved rail track for the hind wheels rests on the planks, (A ;) but the cast-iron plate 
 (i) rests on the block platform, (B.) The plank, as well as the platform, rest upon the longi- 
 tudinal beams, (C.) The upper surface of the platform (B) should be so arranged that the gun, 
 when horizontal, should not be more than six inches above the crest of the parapet, and with 
 the medium and low carriages, not less than eight inches above the sole of the embrasure. The 
 upper surface of the plated planks (A) should be two inches higher than the upper surface of 
 the platform, (B.) 
 
 For carriages on traversing chassis, there are three different arrangements, viz: the high 
 one, 222 of Fig. 34; the medium, 228; the low, 229 and 230 of Fig. 35. The high one is 
 employed in firing over a parapet, the medium for firing through a shallow embrasure of a 
 foot and a half deep, and the low for firing through a deep embrasure of two and a half feet. 
 
 The pintle around which the chassis traverses, the wheels, stanchions, and cheeks, are 
 made higher for the high carriage than for the medium ; but to prevent the pintle bending from 
 the effect of the discharge, it is strengthened by the brace (p^ , 222) of bar iron. Through its 
 upper end the pintle passes ; at the lower it is fastened to the plate, (t.) To increase the 
 strength of the chassis of the high carriage, props (q^) are placed under the outer rails at the 
 third transom. 
 
 The low arrangement differs from the medium only in the fact of the longitudinal beams, 
 (C, 222 and 234 of Fig. 35 a,) are sunk into the terreplein instead of resting on it, and the 
 rear support of the middle rail is replaced by a shorter one. 
 
 The table platform on which these iron carriages are sometimes placed have the form of 
 those described in "Kezvoy's Notes on Artillery," pages 129 and 130. The traversing beam, 
 (A, 229 of Fig. 35,) for the use of the iron carriage, is strengthened on top and on the sides by 
 iron plates. 
 
 To the axle of the carriage are attached the arms, (n, 229,) having at the lower end of 
 each arm vertical rollers, which touch the sides of the beam, (A.) 
 
 The dimensions of the parts of the table platform, and other observations, will be found 
 in table fifty-seven of Colonel Eezvoy's work, two copies of which were purchased by the 
 commission. 
 
 A heavier gun, to give longer ranges than these carriages had been designed for, became 
 necessary to contend with the heavy armament of the English and French fleets. For this 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 15 
 
 purpose, a new model 68-pouncler gun was cast, and were substituted in the casemates and 
 barbette batteries at Cronstadt, wbile tlie enemy's fleet was before the place. These large guns, 
 calculated for the longest ranges as yet obtained from any gun, were being mounted on a icrought- 
 iron chassis and carriage of peculiar construction^ well worthy our particular attention. (See 
 Figs. 36 and 37.) The reader will observe its extreme simplicity, consisting of the substitu- 
 tion of plate-iron of about one half inch thick, put together with rivets, to form the carriage, 
 as it were, of hollow boxes of the form and shape of the wooden carriage, or, in other words, 
 introducing the ticbular system. 
 
 In this carriage a device exists for traversing the gun, of such importance as to be 
 worth introducing, for our sea-coast carriage. The horizontal traverse of the gun is eflected, in 
 our service, by the use of handspikes. We may imagine the difficulty of obtaining a correct 
 aim thereby, and how useless to seek precision of fire with such means only for aiming. In this 
 Kussian carriage a tangent-screw, working the axles of the after wheels of the chassis, enables the 
 gunner to obtain the same accuracy horizontally that the ordinary elevating screw secures in the 
 vertical plane. This simple detail will, I doubt not, command the attention of our artillery 
 officers. 
 
 Several thousand gun carriages are necessary for our extended sea-coast. If these are all 
 made of wood, after our present model, it is very questionable whether it be in the power of 
 the Ordnance Department to keep them in repair. As to their renewal, in case neglect of 
 annual repairs should call for such, it would be impracticable to do so in any reasonable 
 period. 
 
 I know of no system, that should command our attention, better adapted to our sea-coast 
 defenses than this wrought-iron tubular one of the Faissians. Heretofore we imitated the English 
 and French in a cas^-iron sea-coast carriage, and a wooden chassis with cas^-iron transoms. 
 These have never received such fa\'tir as to cause their continuance ; a single shot striking the 
 cast-iron carriage is likely to break it in many pieces, whereas the wrought-iron tubular carriage 
 may be shot through and through in many places without destroying its efficiency, while the 
 bolting of a plate of metal over the shot-hole restores it to usefulness with comparatively little 
 labor. Carriages for field artillery had, in like manner, been made of wrought-iron plates, both 
 on the tubular principle and with angle-iron riveted to plates, after the design of one of the 
 Archdukes. They had been tested by being fired at with shot, wooden carriages being subjected 
 to the same trial. Satisfactory results were obtained in favor of iron, so far as the experiments 
 had been carried. But it is for our sea-coast that I most earnestly invite attention, by the 
 introduction of a wrought-iron tubular (or box) carriage and chassis, in imitation of Eussian 
 experience and skill. The immediate construction of one of them would be of advantage to the 
 military profession. 
 
 In connection with the carriage, I will bring to notice a detail in the construction of our 
 casemates of much importance, introduced in foreign service, and worthy the consideration of 
 our engineers. The details of our casemates, as latterly arranged, from the continued study of 
 our present chief engineer, are beyond doubt better by far than those of any European power I 
 examined. None agree in uniformity of dimensions or in details for any one caliber. The only 
 common principle seems to be in having the gun mounted on a carriage, upon a chassis. The 
 dimensions of the embrasure are as varied as the number of existing nations using them. While 
 the Russian sea-coast defenses at Cronstadt are the best in masonry and carriages, they present 
 au exterior opening of embrasure that takes much from the cover and shelter a casemate is 
 intended to secure, and has but limited horizontal traverse. We have made experiments, and 
 altered the material of our embrasures several times, with the view of remedying the known 
 defects, and obtaining greater security to the gunners. At Sebastopol, the Russians sufi'ered 
 greatly from musketry-fire through their embrasures. This was mostly owing to their having 
 
16 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 no other carriages than the low truck carriage from their fleet. It forced their engineers to cut 
 the sole of the embrasure down, in the parapet, to within two feet of the platform. They resorted 
 to an ingenious device — a rope mantelet— as a partial remedy. (See Fig. 38 and Frontispiece.) 
 The lining of the cheeks of the embrasure, of such an extraordinary height, with gabions, was 
 another source of loss of men to them, by the facility with which these gabions were destroyed 
 by the artillery of the Allies, and not reparable until nightfall enabled the defenders to go on 
 the outside of their entrenchments. Here again an ingenious application of unusual expedients 
 afforded them partial security. The water-tanks from the fleet were lor ought -iron boxes, of four 
 to six feet square, made of about three-eighths-inch iron ; these were used to form the cheek of 
 the embrasure, filled with earth, forming a better embrasure than any other material, the balls 
 penetrating them doing no other injury than making holes but little larger than the diameter of 
 the shot. In three such tanks, forming one cheek of an embrasure, I counted twelve shot-holes 
 through which balls had penetrated the tanks and earth within, or reflected them ; and without 
 damage to it, as a lining and substitute for gabions or facines. 
 
 Both these expedients were called for by the Eussians being forced to use a truck carriage, 
 (see Fig. 38; also, Views of the Interior of the Kedan, &c.,) and, as a consequence, a,loto 
 emhrasure. We have sought to protect our gunners latteidy by wrought-iron throat plates and 
 shutters for our casemate embrasures, retaining, however, the loiv carriage^ and, as a consequence, 
 an embrasure exposing the gunners^ as well as interior of the fort, to any shot or shell entering 
 it ; thus subjecting ourselves to the same evils caused by a low truck carriage to the Russians at 
 Sebastopol, while we have it in our power to correct it very eifectually by raising the embrasures 
 to adapt it to a carriage of precisely the same height as that used for the barbette battery of the 
 same work, when every embrasure shot must pass over the heads of the men about the gun, as 
 well as over the heads of all who may be passing across the parade. 
 
 This simple detail does not seem to have commanded' the attention of the engineers, in 
 seeking to correct the difficulties, old patterns and models being still forced upon us. That the 
 corrective ofi'ers no obstacle in practice, may be deduced from the varied practice of ourselves and 
 the Europeans, all differing in the height of the sole of the embrasure above the platform. 
 
 In substituting the new wrought-iron carriages in their casemates at Croustadt, the Russians 
 had to sink the platforms of the gun rooms about ten inches, thus, in effect, raising the sole of 
 the embrasure from two feet nine inches (see Fig. 57) to three feet seven inches ; while the 
 Austrians vary from four feet eleven inches in casemates to five feet eleven inches in barbettes, as 
 shown in Fig. 38 a ; and the French from 3.44 feet in casemate to 6.24 feet in barbette, as 
 shown in Figs. 26 and 27 ; and propose to raise it, in casemates, as high as 4.70 feet, as shown 
 in Fig. 28. Such irregularity would plainly indicate that security to the gunners has not been 
 studied in this particular, although the first principle taught us for the height of our parapets 
 is to cover a man's head. 
 
 Another detail about the casemate embrasure, the study of an English officer, noticed at 
 Woolwich, may well command our attention. Our practice is to give the casemate chassis a 
 horizontal traverse, by an iron tongue centered two feet from the face of the wall ; a shot striking 
 the front of this part of the masonry is apt to disable the carriage altogether ; and we are not 
 without exjjcrimental knowledge to prove the evil of such a construction. The plan of the officer 
 referred to, as seen at Woolwich, was to rest the chassis on four concave truck-wheels, (one at 
 each corner of the carriage,) two of them moving on a convex or edge rail for the hind transom, 
 and the other two on a similar rail under the front transom, instead of plate rail under both 
 transoms, as we universally practice. The section of the 
 English rail is shown in the annexed figure. A carriage tra- /' •' "? \ 
 
 °_ . ^ Platform. 
 
 versing on such rails is found to work well, and not liable to be ^ ^" ^ 
 
 thrown off the track bv the recoil of the gun. 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. ] 7 
 
 The Austrians have adopted a barbette gun carriage that confirms the practicability of the 
 preceding arrangement for casemates, and presents some other advantages wortliy of our 
 attention. Tlie pintle center of the chassis is on a four-wheel truck carriage, movable the entire 
 length of the battery, on a tram rail-track near the foot of the interior slope of the parapet, as in 
 the figure, (38 a.) This carriage, resting entirely on truck-wheels, is in common use in 
 Austria, having my attention drawn to it in their 7ieivly-constri\cte([ sea-coast batteries at Venice, 
 in the land defenses at Verona, s^jecially provided for by their Committee of Artillery. 
 
 We have, then^ these assurances that the tongue-hole in our casemates is superfluous. 
 Even should we be so wedded to our present model as not to dispense with it, it is worthy of 
 consideration whether the rails and truck-wheels should not have the above suggested forms 
 given to them, that the carriage may be serviceable, by simply disengaging the iron tongue when 
 necessary. I consider we may greatly jjromote the jiublic interest by having some one of the 
 casemates now being constructed modified in conformity with European experience and practice, 
 in both carriage and embrasure, in order that we may dispense with the tongue-hole, and protect 
 the gunners by raising the sole of the embrasure. 
 
 So great are the evils to be apprehended from embrasure shot in the works at Cronstadt, 
 that their engineers were constructing (while we were there) wooden blindages and parados, 
 within the casemated forts, to cover the communications to the magazines and stair-cases ; and 
 in the temj^orary batteries at both Cronstadt and Sebastopol, in the rear of every gun, was an 
 earthen traverse. In our sea-coast casemated works not a charge of powder can leave a magazine 
 without being exposed to an embrasure shot while crossing the parade and traversing the case- 
 mates. A corrective for this acknowledged evil has been adopted in some new English sea-coast 
 casemates, for the defenses of Portsmouth, by constructing an earthen j)arapet or continuous 
 traverse in the rear of, and parallel with, the entire length of the battery. Simply raising the 
 sole of the embrasure to the same level as that adopted for the crest of the barbette battery 
 corrects the evil. 
 
 The Austrian gun carriage shown by Fig. 38 a, presents other advantages that should not 
 be lost sight of. By the facility with which the armament of a battery thus mounted can be 
 moved to any part of the rampart without dismounting the gun, a concentrated fire of several 
 pieces can be brought to bear upon a point ; in case of injury to any one gun or carriage, the 
 adjacent ones may be substituted from the right or left ; and at any moment during a bombard- 
 ment, the armament may be run under cover of the traverses, and returned to battery rapidly. 
 Our joractice is to fix the gun and carriage immovably in one locality, and no other can be 
 substituted for it without dismounting and removing guns and carriages by manual labor and 
 mechanical contrivances. I conceive this particular to be of so much interest as to present the 
 three figures, 38 a, giving drawings in detail of this Austrian system, in use in the sea-coast as 
 well as garrison batteries. 
 
 Fig. 38 be is a section of a casement of one of the harbor defenses now under construction. 
 It is of interest, as giving the arrangement of a wooden rail track with iron plates for this 
 Austrian sj'stem, as constructed at Venice; besides which it gives their peculiar drainage of the 
 ramparts, and the use of earthen parapets instead of stone parapets, (or brick,) that I can but 
 look upon as a serious evil in our service, not supported by any European practice at this time. 
 
 It will be observed, by reference to the Austrian gun carriages in Fig. 38 a, that the same 
 chassis and truck carriage is used for the high and low parapet or embrasure, and that the 
 difference in height is arranged by substituting a large wooden wheel, fifty-four inches diameter 
 with a bolster center trail (a a) in one case, or a small iron wheel, tlairty inches diameter, in the 
 other. 
 
 Fig. 38 b is the adaptation of the principal parts of the same carriages for a fixed position 
 and permanent pintle center for barbette batteries with a horizontal traverse of 155°. In this 
 
18 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 as in the preceding arrangement, (Fig. 38 a,) it will be seen that the substitution of thirty-inch 
 and fiftA'-foiir-inch wheels adapts the same truck carriage for dififerent heights of parajjet, and 
 that thirty-inch wheels are placed under the after transom of the chassis for the horizontal 
 traverse; either for an extended horizontal traverse of 155°, or for embrasures cut in the 
 parapet, securing the advantages of the two parapets (barbette and embrasure) for any period of 
 the defense, by simply changing the wheels and bolster. 
 
 For casemates the Austrians use the same truck carriage, as shown in Figs. 38 a and 38 b, 
 resting on a platform, on thirty-inch wheels under the forward transom, (see Fig. 38 c,) while 
 the hind transom rests upon and .slides on the directing or traversing trail, as a substitute for the 
 chassis. The traversing trail is fixed, as a center of rotation, in the plane of the interior face 
 of the scarp, and is provided with a forward transom under the axle of the truck carriage, when 
 in battery, which rests upon spheres in a depressed rail track. The directing or traversing trail 
 is also supported under the after transom of the truck carriage, when in battery, by truck wheels, 
 (a.) This casemate carriage is adapted to embrasures for 46° of horizontal traverse. For flank 
 embrasures or other localities requiring a smaller horizontal traverse, as 14°, the directing or 
 traversing trail is used and centered under the axle of the truck carriage, when in battery, by a 
 bolt. (See Fig. 38 d.) 
 
 This Austrian system was adopted by their Committee of Artillery in 1852, and from the 
 appearance of their storehouses and depots is being extensively carried into efiect. In bringing 
 it into notice, the hope is entertained that, in connection with the wrought-iron system of Russia 
 and Prussia, our officers may devise carriages for our own sea-coast defenses combining the merits 
 and advantages of all thus far introduced in the defense of garrison and sea-coast batteries. 
 
 Fortifications. 
 
 The reliance upon fortifications, both for the defense of harbors and roadsteads again,st fleets^ 
 and of depots, arsenals, and strategic points on frontiers, appears greater and their value more 
 appreciated at the present time than ever. 
 
 England, notwithstanding her preponderating naval armament, is fortifying Portsmouth 
 by casemated works, to close the entrance at Yarmouth, by an enceinte about the dock-yard, and 
 by a system of permanent detached forts, varying from four to nine thousand yards in advance, 
 adapted to the range of modern artillery. The old enceinte of Havre is being demolished, and 
 detached forts in rear, on the heights, are now being constructed. 
 
 Cherbourg continues to be strengthened on the water fronts by casemated forts, and on the 
 land with an enceinte about the dock-yards, covered by detached forts on the surrounding 
 heights. (See Plates I and II.) 
 
 At Toulon the old enceinte is being pulled down, and a new one being constructed in advance 
 on more elevated ground, covered by detached forts on the surrounding heights. (See Plate 18.) 
 
 Paris, in like manner, is inclosed by continuous bastioned fronts, and covered by detached 
 forts on surrounding heights and other localities ; as is also the system more recently pursued at 
 Lyons. (See Plates 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.) 
 
 The Austrians are now adding to the defenses of their dock-yards at Venice and Pola by 
 detached forts, commanding all the lagoons and passes leading thereto, these detached works 
 having interior defensive redoubts. Peschiera has an enceinte covered by a system of new 
 detached works. The same system prevails at the new defenses of Cologne, Coblentz, Mayence, 
 and Eastadt, and other works of the Austrians and Germanic Confederation. 
 
 Prussia is fortifying Posen and Konigsberg with continued enceintes and detached forts in 
 advance. 
 
 Ilussia_, not having had time to complete her defenses, has been compelled to cover her dock- 
 yards, while in a state of war, in the presence of her enemy, by detached forts and entrench- 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 19 
 
 ments, so much in advance as would shelter her depots from bomhardment. At Cronstadt she 
 ■was busily engaged constructing a line of detached works far in advance of the enceinte of the 
 city and dock-yards, to prevent a bombardment of the latter during an attack on the former. 
 (See Plates 9 and 10.) At Sehastopol time had not permitted her to cover the dock-yards and 
 military depots up to the appearance of the allied army before the place. A small circular 
 masonry tower for two tiers of musketry and five guns in barbette, called the Malakoff, not 
 exceeding twenty-eight feet radius, and garrison not above one hundred men, was the only 
 defensive Avork then in existence covering the rear of the dock-yards. Here her engineers were 
 forced into the system of entrenchments, yet not so distant as effectually to cover the depots. 
 The best the occasion would permit did not prevent the bombardment from acting injuriously 
 upon the defenses, the city, and depots simultaneously. On her frontiers she selects strategic 
 points and fortiiies them as depots, as at Modlen. Having no interior city to cover, her system 
 is more concentrated, consisting of an enceinte with very salient ravelins, and an interior citadel 
 supported by extensive bomb-proof caserns. At Warsaw the citadel becomes the depot. It is 
 covered by detached advanced works, mutually supporting each other. On other points of her 
 Polish frontier she has under construction other new depots fortified in like manner. 
 
 The present increased caliber and long range of artillery has made it necessary to carry the 
 defenses of any point at least 7,000 yards in advance of it. This renders detached forts most 
 advantageous, while an interior circumscribing system of defense is generally adopted, as an 
 additional security, and essential to guard against reaching tlie object of attack, should a single 
 outwork fall. 
 
 The cities of Antwerp and Copenhagen are about to have their old enceintes demolished, and 
 new ones constructed in advance, on the preceding system. 
 
 All the works here referred to are the labors of modern engineers in whole, or modifications 
 of older works ; most of them are of recent construction, and some are now in progress. 
 
 We derive from them the important fact that all the military science and experience of 
 Europe coincide in opinion of the necessity for fortifications at strategic points, depots, dock-yards, 
 and arsenals. In the defense of simply a city, not a center for great resources, a change has 
 taken place in modern times ; or rather such cities as formerly were strategic points, and also 
 depots, having ceased so to be, their defenses have been destroyed, no longer inviting a siege 
 that carries with it the destruction of the city. Berlin, for example, has no fortifications ; and 
 those of Vienna are enveloped by the growth of the modern city. St. Petersburg and Moscow 
 have no land defenses. 
 
 These facts are of interest to us mostly in arranging the defenses on the land fronts in the 
 rear of our sea-coast defenses, the latter being with us the most important study in fortification. 
 There is, however, one important lesson to be derived from European experience and practice 
 in the varied traces and profiles of these works. France, for a long period, has been looked upon 
 as the school for every principle connected with the art of war on the land. We have almost 
 blindly adopted her ideas in fortification, while not a single nation in Europe, whose defenses I 
 had the opportunity of examining, does so. The Metz school of fortification, the basis of our 
 system of instruction, is not followed or ajiproved by the principal European powers ; and her 
 own engineers have recently broken through the theoretical teachings in applying the principles 
 to practice. At Lyons and the detached forts at Paris, the detached scarps are common ; in the 
 modification and repairs of old works, the ramparts are thrown back, and a detached scarp thus 
 obtained ; in like manner, some of her engineers introduce the Carnot wall in the ditches, while 
 at Cherbourg and Toulon the solid scarp, backed by ramparts of earth and surmounted by high 
 cavaliers in the bastions, is adhered to, and being constructed at this moment. (See Fig. 40.) 
 
 Eussia, Prussia, Austria, and the Germanic Confederation, have all abandoned the Metz 
 school, in trace and profile. It is time we, too, should no longer blindly persevere in it, but 
 
20 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 inform ourselves of the merits of the systems of the other continental powers, and not confine our 
 study to the Metz school alone. 
 
 All modern changes in artillery tend to confirm the propriety of studying more closely 
 continental experience and practice. Their rampart is earth, with exterior slope of earth ; it 
 cannot be so injured by any artillery but that repairs at night can make good any damage done 
 in the day. To guard against assault, a high counterscarp is adopted by some ; for such purpose 
 it is as eflectual as a scarp, and cannot, by any distant fire, be injured or destroyed ; from the 
 glacis, and by mines only, can it be overturned. To command the ditches, they in general 
 construct a detached scarp, that cannot be seen or injured by distant artillery as readily as the 
 ordinary full scarp ; its crest is always some feet below the crest of the counterscarp. Caponniers 
 and flank casemates, with masonry redoubts in the gorges, are the accompaniments of these 
 systems. 
 
 While they diff'er from the Metz school in their profile, so, too, do we find they have departed 
 from the common bastion and ravelin trace, and in the extent of the "front." 
 
 The present musket-shot or rifle range, and artillery fire, have given greatly-increased 
 lengths to their "fronts." In many cases, as at Konigsberg, Posen, and Modlen, they exceed 
 500 yards. Covered artillery fire, by casemates, caponniers, and Haxo batteries, are considered 
 by all of them as indispensable. In preparing the Russian frontier fortresses for defense, her 
 engineers were constructing casemate or Haxo batteries on the salients of the probable fronts of 
 attack. At both Cronstadt and Sebastopol, caponniers for artillery fire were constructed, and 
 being constructed, in the entrenchments and other temporary batteries, (in the ditches.) 
 
 Artillery fire is, with the continental engineers, more relied upon than infantry. That 
 genius in his profession, Totleben,* the engineer of Sebastopol, constructed most of his defenses 
 to command the approaches to them by distant, as well as near artillery fire. Such, indeed, was 
 the shape of the ground, he could avail liimsclf of but little flanking or direct musketry fire. 
 His banquetts were pieces of board or scantling, forming steps between the embrasures, fastened 
 to the gabions of tlie interior slope of the parapet, as in Fig. 38. The ditches of the salients of 
 the Eedan and Malakofi" were without such defense. That of the MalakofF would not admit of 
 flank defense by either artillery or infantry, being a segment of a circle. (See Fig. 54.) 
 
 The continental engineers diff'er in their opinions as to the profile of the counterscarp. The 
 Prussian works on the Rhine, about Coblentz, and some of the modifications of the fronts of the 
 enceinte of Verona, have, instead of a masonry counterscarp, a long earthen slope, to facilitate 
 sorties. (See Fig. 42.) In garrisons composed of army corps and all arms, it is an important 
 consideration ; but with garrisons such as our sea-coast forts require, it is comparatively an 
 unimportant particular. While such a slope certainly secures the advantage claimed for it, at 
 the same time, as a consequence, any masonry in the ditches — as the detached scarps of the 
 works in question, or the caponniers — is exposed to distant artillery, as no shot or shell can be 
 thrown towards such defenses to graze the counterscarp that will not act more or less injuriously 
 on the masonry in the ditches. This modern idea may not find advocates even to retain such a 
 profile for the few places in which it has been introduced. (See Fig. 42 ; see, also, Plate 3.) 
 
 Fig. 40 represents a profile of the continuous bastioned front surrounding the city of Paris. 
 The scarp is about twenty-five feet high, with an earthen counterscarp exposing, in part, the 
 scarp. The ramparts of the new works under construction at Havre, Cherbourg, and Toulon, 
 are of this character. 
 
 Fig. 41 is a profile of many parts of the detached forts about the city of Paris, and intro- 
 duced in several other works, as in the recent constructions at Lyons, and modifications of old 
 works. (Plates 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7.) 
 
 * Totlsben — pronounced Tot-la-ben 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 21 
 
 Fig. 42 is a profile of the Prussian detached scarp, independent rampart, and long slope 
 from ditch to crest of glacis for counterscarp, as constructed in some of the works at Coblentz and 
 Verona. 
 
 Fig. 43 is a modification of the preceding, in which the detached scarp supports so much of 
 the foot of the rampart as to give an elevated terreplein, raising the loop-hole about ten feet 
 above the bottom of the ditch, with an ordinary counterscarp, as in some of the detached forts at 
 Coblentz. 
 
 Fig. 44 is the profile of a Russian work, having a detached scarp, independent rampart, a 
 small wet ditch with live hedge, and earthen slope for counterscarji. This is covered by strong 
 masonry redoubts, detached, and in advance of the main work. 
 
 Fig. 45 is a general profile of the rampart, scarp, ditch, and covered way of Prussian works, 
 as at Posen. 
 
 Profiles with relieving vaults are common in the French works ; and counterscarp galleries 
 are as common in the Prussian, as well as French. 
 
 The confidence reposed by each and every nation in the officers constituting the " American 
 Commission," giving them access, as a general rule, to all the sea-coast defenses and fortresses 
 they desired to examine, will not justify descriptions to be given to the extent of the information 
 gained in the various localities of the plans of the resj^ective works. So far as European profes- 
 sional writers have obtained and published plans of the works examined by me, and as can be 
 seen by any traveler, I feel at liberty in introducing the various systems from their labors and 
 such observations, without, however, vouching for any more accuracy in such publications than 
 is sufficient to explain the systems. 
 
 The accompanying figures (46, 47, and 48,) and plates referred to, will suffice, with the 
 preceding profiles, to give a general knowledge of the systems for land defenses now practiced in 
 Europe. A more detailed description will be given of some of the localities referred to in a 
 subsequent part of this report. 
 
 In the "trace," France retains the bastioned system, with full ramparts, scarps, and 
 counter-scarps, as at Paris, Lyons, Belfort, Toulon, Havre, &c.; but slightly modified in profile. 
 
 Prussia, Austria, and the Germanic Confederation, abandon the bastion trace, and adopt 
 the polygonal earthen ramparts, witli detached scarps, obtaining both high and low flank fire 
 from masonry caponniers and redoubts, or bomb-proof caserns. 
 
 Russia retains the bastion trace, with earthen ramparts and detached scarps, covered by 
 very salient ravelins or detached works, with a secondary flanking fire in the ditches from the 
 loio masonry detached scarps and caponniers. 
 
 All these powers introduce casemates and bomb-proof caserns, as an indispensable requisite. 
 
 Fi^. 40. Profile of the enceinte of the city of Paris. 
 
22 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 41. Profile of parts of the detachcdTorts around the city of Paris. 
 
 Fi". 42. Profile of Prussian works and some Austrian. 
 
 Fisf. 43 Profile of Puissian woiks 
 
 Fi";. 44. Profile of Russian works. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 23 
 
 Fifr. 45. Profile of Prussian works, as at Poscn. 
 
 ^% 
 
 Ditch flanked by Caponniers. 
 
 / 
 
 Fig. 46. Profile of modern practice of French Eii^'ineers, as at detached forts at Lyons. 
 
 Fig. 47. Profile of scarp en dcchnrge. Modern practice of French Engineers, as at Lyons, &.C. 
 
 \ 
 
 Fig. 48. Profile of a battery a la Haxo. Modern practice of French Engineers, as at Lyons, Belfort, &c. 
 
24 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Sea-Coast and Harbok Defenses. — On this stibject we liave less to learu from the Europeans 
 than of any other part of the art of war. To follow their example in constructing permanent 
 fortifications for the protection of harbors, roadsteads, and depots, is the most important part of 
 their experience for us to imitate. Let but our Congress and people, in good time, allow the 
 great inlets from the ocean to be protected by permanent works of defense, similar in character 
 to those of Cronstadt, Sweaborg, Sebastopol, Cherbourg, &c., armed with ordnance and provided 
 with munitions, such as fleets at the present time would bring against them, and cease to enter- 
 tain such jealousy of a portion of her own citizens as prevents their learning how to use these 
 forts and armaments ; then with our resources we may feel secure, and with other means at com- 
 mand fit out armaments to meet our enemy on their own coasts, the most advantageous means 
 of annoying them and adding to our own protection. 
 
 The value and utility of the works now under consideration have been well tested during 
 the late contest. Cronstadt, to the end of the war, set the enemy's fleet at defiance, saving St. 
 Petersburg. Sweaborg resisted a bombardment, and not only prevented the entrance of the 
 enemy's fleet into the harbor, but, from the power ^and efficiency of the sea-coast forts, set the 
 fleet at defiance, while gun and mortar boats alone ventured to bombard the forts without power 
 to subdue them. Sebastopol, besieged on the south side, was attacked by the combined allied 
 fleets of England, France, and Turkey, and failed to produce any material damage to the Russian 
 harbor defenses, the efiect of the bombardment during several hours on the masonry of their 
 works being only to shake the arches of two embrasures, (repaired immediately afterwards,) the 
 fleet retiring at dusk without producing any result, after sustaining considerable damage 
 in men and ships. 
 
 The injury done to the English ships, contending with but a part of the Russian works, 
 (part only of those bearing seaward,) was considerable. The Albion received several shells close 
 to the water line, three entering the cock-pit, and was twice set on fire. The Retribution and the 
 London had their mainmasts shot away, and, being on fire^ were obliged to he hauled ofl". The 
 Queen was forced to withdraw^ a red-hot shot having set her on fire. The Agamemnon lay near 
 Fort Constantino, (see Fig. 49 and Plate 8,) and in consequence suffered severely. The French 
 ships that attacked the forts on the south side (seaward only) sufi^ered severely. The Ville de 
 Paris received a shell which blew away part of her poop, wounding a great number of men. 
 
 Here was a successful resistance by casemated forts, contending with one of the most pow- 
 erful fleets that ever floated, the forts being armed mostly with 36-pounders, the Russians not 
 having had the opportunity of introducing many long-range 8-inch guns. Even after the evacu- 
 ation of the south side of the harbor of Sebastopol by the Russians, when one large casemated 
 fort (Paul) had been blown up by them, the quarantine water batteries, Forts Nicholas and 
 Alexander, in possession of the allied army, and every inducement presenting itself to complete 
 the conquest of this stronghold, the army receiving large reinforcements and making efibrts by 
 the valley of Baidar ; a continued bombardment going on between the two sides of the harbor 
 from French and English batteries constructed near Fort Nicholas and the western point of 
 Artillery Bay; still this powerful combined fleet did not venture a second attack on what 
 remained of these casemated water batteries. More encouraging examples of the value and 
 utility of sea-coast fortifications cannot well be desired, and should serve to increase the exertions 
 of our people in the defenses of our own harbors by similar structures. These Russian harbors, 
 with others, (Revel, Odessa, &c.,) were closed against fleets carrying heavier armaments than 
 ever before floated, by jjermanent fortifications, while her own fieet, less powerful than her 
 antagonist, could only be used as hulks — a proof that dependence cannot be placed in a fleet 
 unless stronger than your adversary and capable of keeping the sea. 
 
 In the masonry of these casemated works at Sebastojjol there was no peculiar excellence; on 
 the contrary, the material of whicli they were constructed was very indifferent and badly put 
 together for the purpose. The plan and sections of the forts, as well as the details, were on the 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 25 
 
 same general system as those of Cronstadt, but the material and combination were very indiffer- 
 ent. Specimens of tlie stone deposited by me, in tlie ofBce of the Chief Engineer and Cabinet 
 of Minerals at West Point, will sliow how indifferent was the material of which the walls were 
 built. The opportunity was had of examining the interior and exterior faces and center of the 
 scarps of Fort Paul, then in ruins, having been blown up by the Kussians; of the Malakoff 
 Tower, battered down by the allies ; and of the crennated wall and its casemated flanks, on the 
 western side of the city of Sebastopol, more or less injured by the random fire of the French 
 batteries. All these walls were built of soft stone from the same quarries, (see samples,) laid as 
 headers and stretchers in regular courses from eight to ten inches rise and twelve inches to three 
 and a ha],f feet on the face, on tlie interior and exterior faces : filled between with very small rubble 
 masonry of the same material. Yet such masonry resisted the fire of the fleet ; and the crennated 
 wall, covering the western side of the city, constituting parts of the quarantine and central 
 bastions, resisted all the I'andom firing of tlae French batteries, during the entire siege, without 
 breeching them, although shattered in some places to need strengthening by temporary expe- 
 dients. With a breeching battery constructed purposely on the land, although at an extraor- 
 dinary distance, (upwards of 2,000 yards,) tlae Malakoff Tower was destroyed at an early period 
 of the siege, (Fig. 50, and harbor of Sebastopol, Plate 8,) all the barbette and second loop-hole 
 tiers being battered down ; while the ships at about half the distance, on similar masonry, pro- 
 duced no result. The stone of all these batteries is, in strength and durability, very similar to 
 that of the Capitol and President's House at Washington. 
 
 In like manner, at Bomarsund, the land batteries soon destroyed the masonry casemated 
 towers, and breeched the gorge wall of the main work, tlius causing the suri'ender of the garri- 
 son ; yet the fleet did not venture to come within range of the guns of the fort, here again 
 showing the value of sea-coast batteries against ships. The masonry of the forts at Bomarsund 
 differed altogether from that of the forts at Sebastopol. The quality of the material was very 
 superior, and similar to that of the works at Cronstadt, (Finland granite — see samples from 
 Cronstadt, deposited with those from Sebastopol.) The solid shot " from the French guns 
 (16-pounders) made no impression on the blocks when they struck perpendicularly in the middle 
 of their faces ; nor did the more powerful 32-pounder English guns split the granite when so 
 struck. But when the blocks were hit by tlie latter near the edge or in a joint of the masonry, 
 they were displaced, and not being backed witli solid masonry, but filled with rubble, the mass 
 was thrown down, and a practicable breech formed." Although the quality of this stone was of 
 the best, yet the manner of iising it was of the worst. The stones taken as delivered were cut 
 (mostly boulders) to give the maximum face. Beds 
 were then formed, making faces of several sides, as 
 pentagons, &c., no regard being paid to parallel sides 
 or horizontal beds. (See Fig. 49 a.) Thus tlie inte- 
 rior and exterior faces were built up, without any 
 material header or stretcher, and the filling was of 
 small rubble. This character of masonry was noticed 
 in other countries than Kussia, not necessary to partic- 
 ularize. The engineers employed on such Avork told Fig. 48 a. 
 me their effort was to introduce a header for every two face stones. After the allied army had 
 destroyed the advanced towers, breeched the gorge, and taken the works of Bomarsund, then 
 only did the fleet make any attempt to destroy the walls of the fort. For " experiment, the Edin- 
 burg took a position, and commenced firing deliberately. At 1,060 yards it was unsatisfactory: 
 390 shot and shells were fired from a Lancaster gun, (its shell of wrought iron weighing 100 
 pounds;) from 68 and 32-pounder solid shot guns, and from 8 and 10-inch shell guns, with 
 hollow shot, and with but little injury to the work. At 480 yards 250 shot and shells were fired. 
 A small breech was then formed in the facing of the outer wall, considerable damage was done 
 4 D 
 
26 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 to the embrasures and other portions of the wall, but no decisive result was obtained ; no prac- 
 ticable breech was formed by which the work might be assaulted, taken, and effectually destroyed, 
 although 640 shot and shells (40,000 pounds of metal) were fired at the scarp — first at 1,060 
 yards, and then at 480 yards. In these cannonades the Lancaster " rifle gun failed in precision 
 at 480 yards, and the shells broke on striking the granite." There are none of the granite 
 scarps of our sea-coast defenses but what are very superior to either those of Bomarsund, the 
 Malakoff, or seaward batteries of Sebastopol ; and we have some not surpassed by those of 
 Cronstadt. This experience, then, should encourage us in every way to persevere in our sea- 
 board defenses. 
 
 The general character of sea-coast and harbor defense is the same with all the European 
 powers. Casemated batteries, of one or more tiers of guns, are resorted to bj^ Kussia, Prussia, 
 Austria, France, and England, and in consequence of the expense of foundations in water or 
 along the river shores. More extended batteries, and separate ones, would doubtless be preferred, 
 did localities permit, to divide, instead of concentrate, an enemy's fire. As a general rule, all 
 these defenses have earthen parapets ; those at Cronstadt and Sebastopol being exceptions, where 
 stone parapets have been constructed. The recently-constructed casemated works at Cherbourg 
 have earthen parapets ; and several now under construction (four on the breakwater) are, in part, 
 so constructed, and the others designed for earth. The new casemated works (now being armed) 
 at Yarmouth, England, have earthen parapets, as is also the case with recent constructions in 
 Prussia, at the mouth of the Elbe. Austria, in like manner, mounts her barbette guns behind 
 earthen parapets in the new works built, and building, for the defense of her naval depot at 
 Venice. At Toulon and Genoa, modifications have recently been made introducing earthen 
 parapets. This is a jiarticular we should not lose sight of, our practice being variable, though 
 it is hoped the earthen parapets are gaining the ascendency. 
 
 I will now proceed to give some more minute information of the plan of defense of particular 
 localities, and details of casemates and other parts of the works. 
 
 Cronstadt, Sebastopol, and Cherbourg, may be considered the three strongest ; and the 
 works of the first (viz : Cronstadt) superior in execution and material, and not inferior in design, 
 to any others in Europe. 
 
 Plates 9 and 10, from a Eussian survey published by the English Admiralty, in 1853, and 
 from other published sources of information, are sufficiently correct to give a good idea of the 
 system adopted by the Russian engineers for this locality. 
 
 The Island of Cronstadt is about midway between Oranienbaum, on the St. Petersburg 
 shore, and Lisi-Noss, on the Finland shore ; distant about twenty-five miles from the city of St. 
 Petersburg. On the eastern end of this island is the city of the same name, of about 15,000 
 inhabitants, concerned in the commercial marine of St. Petersburg. The dry-docks, depot, and 
 navy-yard, as also the commercial docks, extend along the entire south shore of the city. 
 
 Small vessels, of from seven to ten feet draught of water only, can go up the Neva to St. 
 Petersburg ; hence, sea-going ships stop at Cronstadt, (the cargoes are lightered to and from 
 them,) and are moored in the spacious docks on the southwest corner of the city. Adjacent to 
 the commercial docks, are spacious man-of-war docks. Extensive dry-docks communicate with 
 these wet-mooring docks, back of which are large, well-constructed and arranged shops and 
 storehouses. These docks are superior, in material and workmanship, to anything of the kind 
 seen in Europe, these at Cherbourg alone comparing with them. The dry-docks at Boston, New 
 York, and Norfolk, for our Navy, compare favorably with those at Cronstadt. 
 
 The navigable channel for ships-of-war is on the south side of the island, to the southeastern 
 end of which only can twenty-four feet water he found. To the eastward thereof, from twenty- 
 four feet shoaling to eighteen feet, is an extensive bay, into which the river Neva empties through 
 intricate narrow channels, among extensive shoals. The Neva has several mouths or outlets^ 
 formed by islands of great fertility, the summer residences of the nobles and wealthy inhabitants 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 27 
 
 of the city. Nearer the city the islands are more densely settled, and opposite become suburbs 
 of St. Petersburg, occupied by the custom-houses, mint, military schools, public charities, and 
 other public buildings. The great prize aimed at by the Allies, and for which such immense 
 naval armaments were prepared, is on the south shore of the Neva, distant, as before stated, 
 about twenty-five miles from Cronstadt, with its domes and spires in sight, by telescopes, from 
 the anchorage of the Allied lieet. 
 
 Against large ships the channel is defended by Fort Paul, of lYO guns, situated on the shoal 
 putting out from the Oranienbaum shore, on which side there is but. one other work, the Kronslot 
 Castle, of forty guns, under construction, and temporarily arranged with wooden parapets, 
 altogether unimportant in its present condition, yet as good as so many guns on ship-board. 
 
 On the shoals making out from the island, tlie first defensive work, on the approach, is 
 Fort Alexander, of 140 guns ; next to which, on the same side of the channel, is Fort Peter, of 
 100 guns, one of the earliest constructed casemated works ; and then Fort Menchicoff, of forty- 
 four guns, all of lOJ-inch ; from it extends, northwardly, a barbette battery of 130 guns, (?) 
 behind a parapet inclosing the commercial docks, connecting with the permanent ramparts of 
 the city across the island, forming its western boundary. 
 
 In the spring and summer of 1855, while the enemy was in sight, a temporary line of 
 earthen defenses was put up, crossing the island about one and a half miles in advance of the 
 city ramparts, the south flank of which was armed with thirty-three guns ; in addition to which 
 is a battery on the island, behind Fort Peter, of twenty-five guns, both bearing on the channel, 
 thougli at a distance. (See Fig. 55, and Plates 9 and 10.) 
 
 Between the Kronslot and Menchicoff batteries were anchored two ships-of-the-line, of 120 
 guns each, with their broadsides perpendicular to the channel approach. 
 
 The long shoal projecting out from Oranienbaum towards Cronstadt could be crossed only 
 with about four-feet water, yet Fort Paul could be approached in the rear with from six to twelve 
 feet water. This shoal and rear of Fort Paul was, in a measure, guarded by dismantled two- 
 decked ships, anchored between the island and the main, on the eastern edge of the shoal. 
 
 Such were the stationary and permanent defenses on the south side of the island. 
 
 On the north side, between its northeast corner and Lisi Noss on the Finland shore, is an 
 extended and continuous shoal, through which are some intricate channels for gun and mortar 
 steamboats, sloops-of-war, and other steam-propelled vessels drawing not more than eighteen 
 feet water. These channels were defended by a line of dismantled two-decked ships and smaller 
 vessels commanding the shoals, which, with some of the smaller channels, were more or less 
 obstructed by stone, as was stated by distant though reliable authority. The north side of the city 
 was defended by an earthen 
 parapet, commanded and cov- T 
 
 ered in rear by a crennated | 
 
 wall (d la Carnot) connecting [ i 
 
 defensive caserns, terminated I 1 
 
 by a fort at the northeast cor- I F 
 
 ner, cooperating in part with I J 
 
 the moored hulks, as in the ' ' ■ 
 
 annexed figure, (51.) This 
 wall, as well as the inter- 
 mediate caserns, were con- 
 structed altogether of bricks. There are three loop holes under each arch of the Carnot wall. The 
 caserns are two stories in height, with embrasure openings in the second story, commanding 
 the marsh and shoal water on this north side of the island in front of the earthen parapet and 
 rampart. The lower story is for infantry fire only, through loop holes. 
 
 At the time of my visit, the Russians were mounting the heavy sea-coast 68-pounder on 
 
 Fig. 51. 
 
m 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the wrought-iron carriage, and chassis, (Figs. 36 and 37,) and mortars, along this northerly 
 earthen rampart; to do which they cut the rampart as dotted in the figure 51 to give the 
 necessary width of terreplein and heighth of parapet. The experience from Sebastopol induced 
 them to cover the brick scarps, particularly such parts as inclosed magazines or stores, using 
 therefor the surplus earth from the rampart, applied as at cl in the same figure. All these 
 precautions were doubtless taken after learning the fact of numerous light-draft vessels armed 
 with battering guns, being fitted out in France and England, some of which had arrived in the 
 Baltic. The 68-pounder guns being mounted on this north water front were provided with pre- 
 cisely the same carriages as 
 those seen in the casemated 
 forts, (Fig. 36,) but being in 
 barbette required a different 
 pintle center and platform. 
 The pintle was secured to a 
 semicircular cast iron plate, 
 bolted to the sill timbers, 
 imder the traverse timbers of 
 the platform. The pintle cen- 
 ter was set some little distance 
 under or within the parapet 
 recessed therefor. The an- 
 nexed figure (52) gives this 
 arrangement. With this ex- 
 perience, there should no lon- 
 ger be any doubt of the 
 propriety of our adopting a 
 
 UNIFORM MODEL for a gim car- Plan- Fig. 52. 
 
 riage for barbette and casemate use at pleasure, and that they be of wrought iron. 
 
 The land defenses, crossing the island and inclosing the city of Cronstadt on the west, are 
 in part a solid rampart, surmounted with an earthen parapet, a scarp of rubble granite masonry, 
 with wet (lunette) ditch, as in Fig. 53. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 The scarp is arranged with circular casemated (one tier of guns) bastions, with the connect- 
 ing curtains broken forward ; parts of the scarp on the right and left of each bastion is loop- 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 29 
 
 lioled, the intermediate parts having solid ramijarts, the whole covered with a covert way and 
 glacis. There was some lunette or other arrangement on part of this covert way : the general 
 trace was as in the preceding figure, (54.) The circular bastions, and so much of the scarp on 
 the right and left as is loop-holed, form bomb-proof caserns, between which and the town is a 
 wide macadamised road, from whence ramps ascend to the terreplein of the rampart. The north 
 end of the ditch is closed by a battardeau, serving as a caponnier, built of rubble granite, to 
 flank the ditch southwardly, but solid towards the shoal water of the north side of the island. 
 Through it a communication is kept up with the covert way that extends all across the island. 
 The small lunettes on this covert way are flanked with carronades at the shoulder an"-les the 
 particular arrangement of which no opportunity presented to examine. 
 
 The temporary defenses constructing a mile and a half in advance of the western ramparts 
 of the city, forming a second line of defense, were on a line from the site of the "Governor's 
 House," on the north shore, thence to the site of the Kesel battery, passing a little in advance 
 (when prolonged) of Fort Alexander. They consisted of four detached works armed with very 
 heavy artillery, mostly on ship carriages, and were being covered in the rear by an infantry 
 parapet, after the designs of General Behm, of the engineers, then stationed on the island. 
 These four detached works were all armed with 7^ and 10-inch guns, the two center ones having 
 caponniers in the ditches armed with howitzers. 
 
 AH this part of the island is sandy and from 
 four to ten feet above water. 
 
 T-M^Ir-KC/^' 
 
 ^Mrenciiment 
 
 Fig. 55, and Platos 9 and 10. 
 a. Site of Covernnr's House, indicated on the admiraltv survey. 
 h. This redout is silualed on the side of the road to end of island, as indicated on the admiralty survey. 
 
 The above is the arrangement of this line of defense, as near as can be given from a ride 
 along it and walk through the works, and as may be seen from the tops of a ship in the channel. 
 
30 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 The steamboat landing is at the end of a long pier of some two or three hundred yards, at 
 the northeast end of the island, for vessels drawing about seven feet water. Near the navy dock- 
 yard, on the same side of the island, is a defensive casern, through which is the entrance to the 
 city. On the north side of the commercial basin is an extensive casern, used in time of peace as 
 a naval school, removed to St. Petersburg on account of the existing war. From the top of this 
 building a telegraph station, 140 feet above the level of the water, (commanding a view of all 
 the defenses, the Allied fleet, moored in the deep water north of the island and southwest of 
 Tolboukin light-house,) communicates with the city of St. Petersburg, and the Emperor's resi- 
 dence, near Oranienbaum. The land on which the city is built, as well as the island generally, 
 is from six to ten feet above water, with an exception here and there, such as the summer garden 
 in the city, where it may be thirty feet. (See Plates 9 and 10.) 
 
 Numerous steamships, steam gun-boats, sailing gun-boats, and row-boats with one heavy 
 gun, were within the docks, and anchored to the eastward of the island, ready to cooperate with 
 the stationary defenses against an attack by the ship channel or the northern shoals. 
 
 Within and along the bay, towards St. Petersburg, were anchored other two-decked 
 dismantled ships ; and at the mouth of the several outlets of the Neva, earthen temporary 
 batteries had been constructed, armed with 36-pounders on wrought-iron carriages, generally 
 twelve guns in a battery.* (See Plate 10.) 
 
 I now proceed to give a more minute description of some of these works, particularly as to 
 their construction. 
 
 Fort Mexchicoff is a new work, of three casemated and one barbette tier of the heaviest 
 guns, (forty-four of 10^-inch,) all mounted, at this time, on wooden carriages. The work is 
 remarkable lor its solidity and strength, and not surpassed by the labors of the engineers of any ' 
 other European power. The gun is, in part, under an arched recess formed in the scarp (see 
 Figs. 56 and 57) of only three pieces of stone. The embrasure is eight feet four inches wide on 
 the outside, and three feet six inches in the throat. The cheek is formed of one piece of stone in 
 height, and of three pieces from front to rear ; the sole of the embrasure is in two jjieces ; the 
 sill and lintel, on the exterior, are each about four feet rise ; two guns are in one casemate, 
 separated from each other by a pier of three feet ten inches, supporting the recess arch ; the 
 casemate arch is of brick, projecting about four feet into the scarp ; the parade pier was of brick, 
 with a stone impost, forming about fifteen inches rise of the groin of the arch of communication ; 
 the key of the arches, on the interior face of the rampart, was also stone ; the floors are, in 
 general, concrete, some being of brick. 
 
 The trace of this battery is a right line, perpendicular to the directrix of the channel, the 
 flanks being simply a return of the scarp to the rear, at right angles to the front, and pierced 
 with high loop-holes. The staircases in the flanks are of cast-iion, hoarded over, to prevent the 
 steps from being broken by carelessness in daily communication, and handling shot. Temporary 
 parados and blindages of wood have been constructed in various places, closing up the lower part 
 of arches, to prevent embrasure-shot reaching the communications, stairs, and magazines ; the 
 gorge is inclosed by a wall only up to the first tier. 
 
 Fig. 58 gives the arrangement of the stone (Finland granite) of the exterior of the scarp in 
 courses for the three tiers, as well as the curved section of the base of the work washed by tlae 
 waters of the bay ; and suffices as an illustration, also, of the scarps of Alexander and Paul ; 
 that of Fort Peter, although very good, yet, being built at an earlier period, is not so well 
 arranged, its character being varied in size, as well as quality and manner of laying the stone. 
 
 A study of these figures (56, 57, and 58) will give a correct idea of the best constructed 
 scarps in Europe, with stones of unprecedented size. 
 
 The wharf work inclosing the commercial dock, at the southwest end of which is the 
 Menchicofi" battery, is of wood on its southern face, and stone along the west. The trace of the 
 
 •Note. — Seven batteries of twelve guns each, one of six, and one of four, that I had an opportunity of seeing ; probably, 
 tlipre wereothers. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 31 
 
 wooden inclosure is witli 'bastioTis, having wooden jiarapets, but with an occasional gun only. 
 The stern of one of the line-of-battle ships, moored across the channel at this place, was within 
 pistol shot of, and perpendicular to, the flank of the Menchicoff battery ; between her and the 
 one moored near the Kronslot battery, with broadside presented down stream, there was room 
 for a third vessel, and no more, for which opening a new steam screw-ship was ready in the dock 
 just below Menchicoff. 
 
 "id'e'il' 
 
 .?22- 
 
 F'K. 56- 
 
 Casemate and embrasures of Fort Menchicoff, Cron- 
 sladt, from dimensions taken on the 5th July, 1855, by 
 Major Delafield. 
 
 Fi-. 57. 
 
 a''eu£^ <i 
 
 In one of these casematcd batteries the sole of tho embrasure was four feet above the terreplein, and the lintle in like 
 manner four feet.rise, resting on the cheek block the same as the exterior lintle, (Fig. 58.) 
 
32 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 FiR. se. 
 
 The courses of stone in this base are arranged as advantageously as in the upper part ol* 
 the scarp, the sizes being even greater than the ashlar courses. The whole is laid in English 
 Portland cement. 
 
 Exterior face of the scarp of Forts Menchicoff, Alexandcr,_and part of Paul, exhibiting the courses of stone, embra- 
 sures, coping, and base. 
 
 iota /2' 
 
 
 t^' 
 
 t N*-^' 
 
 ^^ 
 
 4' to 5'. 
 
 Fig. 59. Plan of the coping of the parapets of Forts Menchicoff, &c. 
 
 The rise of these coping stones was ahout three feet, varying on parts of the work from two 
 to three feet. The course.s in the base, and from the embrasures to an angle, were not suffi- 
 ciently noted to give the upright joints in the latter or any of the joints in the former, all 
 
 available time having been bestowed on other details. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 33 
 
 The Kronslot Battery lias a tower-bastioned trace ; at present, wooden parapets and Wind 
 ages ; the magazine is covered with earth. The permanent work is now being constructed, and 
 may prove even better than Menchicoif, Alexander, or Paul ; the progress now making indicating 
 an effort to surpass them in size of material, all of which is " Finland granite." The quarries 
 about Lake Ladoga furnish the same description of stone, from whence the present supply is 
 obtained. 
 
 Within the terreplein of this work is a basin, the opening to which is closed by a wooden 
 boom, that serves at the same time to keep off fire-ships from the two vessels moored across the 
 channel. Whether this interior basin is for temporary convenience, to be filled hereafter, or 
 otherwise, I did not learn. The work is to have three tiers of casemates, and a barbette platform, 
 as in the other channel forts. 
 
 Fort Paul, the exterior southern fort, is not yet completely finished, mounting, at this 
 time, 170 guns ; but when finished, will mount from 210 to 220. It has now two casemated and 
 a barbette tier mounted. The guns in tlie rear, firing on the shoal, are of smaller caliber than 
 those on the channel front ; some of these latter are lOi-inch guns ; others of the same caliber 
 were being substituted, from day to day, for the 36-pounders then in battery. 
 
 The shot-furnaces are under the casemates, on the ground floor ; these were kept lighted, 
 ready at any moment to fire up to the requisite heat in a few minutes. Wood had to be used 
 instead of coal, the supply of the latter being entirely cut off; it answered a good purjjose. The 
 furnaces were of a temporary nature, and not as good as our own model. 
 
 The masonry is, like that of Menchicoff, all of the best of "Finland granite," in large 
 blocks, well cut and jointed. The whole exterior shows this kind of masonry, in courses and 
 sizes given in Fig. 58, the blocks, as headers and stretches, partly extending through the wall. 
 On the interior the scarp is constructed of these same granite blocks, from the terreplein of each 
 tier of guns to the extrados of the recess arch, above which, to the level of the next platform, the 
 interior of the scarp shows brick, but of what thickness I did not ascertain. 
 
 The piers and casemate arches are all of brick, excepting the impost of the arch of communi- 
 cation, which is a through and through stone for the parade pier, forming a part of the groin. 
 
 The lower tier of this battery is for hot shot. The barbette guns of this work, 36-pounders, 
 are, in general, mounted on the wrought-iron chassis and carriage shown by Fig. 34. 
 
 The staircases and communications to magazines, &c., were temporarily blindaged with 
 wood, to guard against embrasure-shot, as at Menchicoff. The details of the masonry of this 
 work, as well as the embrasures, are like those of Menchicoff and Alexander. The trace is, in 
 part, flanked with tow^er bastions ; the scarps rise directly out of the water, with the section for 
 base shown in Fig. 58. 
 
 Fort Alexander is the outer work on the north side of the channel ; it has three tiers of 
 casemate guns, and one in barbette, mounting, in all, 140 guns. (?) The general character of 
 its construction is like that of Paul and Menchicoff ; the dimensions and arrangement of the 
 stone in the scarp and about the embrasures being as shown in Fig. 58 ; and, in like manner as 
 Menchicoff, has two guns in a casemate. It is provided with wrought-iron carriages and chassis 
 for 36-pounders, on the barbette battery, as in Fig. 34. 
 
 It was in this work that the new wrought-iron tubular gun carriage and chassis for a 
 68-pounder gun for (Figs. 36 and 3T) solid shot was seen mounted in casemates, to traverse by 
 an endless screw working the axles of the hind truck wheels of the chassis ; and particularly 
 recommended to the Secretary of War as highly advantageous for our sea-coast. The tackle- 
 purchase represented in Figs. 36 and 37 was not worked by the crank and pinion-wheel there 
 delineated at the time I visited this work. The maneuver of hauling the gun from battery was 
 by men handling the fall, and the crank was made to turn the endless screw, giving a rotary 
 motion to the hinder wheels of tlie chassis, to secure a gradual and precise horizontal traverse for 
 ])ointing the gun. 
 
 5 n 
 
34 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 The horizontal traverse of all the casemate guns of these channel defenses was but 44°. In 
 our own constructions, with a much smaller exterior oj^ening, we traverse the guns 60°. 
 
 The coping of tlie scarji forming the parapet of the barbette battery of this work is remark- 
 able from its extraordinary size, being in two longitudinal and one lieader or transverse piece, 
 alternating, dovetailed to each other, as in Fig. 59. These stones were from two to three feet 
 thick, or rise, forming a parapet of seven feet thick. As with the other channel forts, this work 
 rises directly out of the water, hut is made so shoal some distance beyond the foot of the scarp 
 that a row boat cannot approach it, excepting at the regular landing-place at the gorge. 
 
 Several wrouglit-iron chassis and carriages (Figs. 36 and 37) were on the terreplein of this 
 work ready to be put in jiosition, showing a confidence in their superior excellence justifying a 
 change of armament in x>resence of the enemy. The quarters in this work were made bomb-proof 
 with timber, and temporarily, time not liaving allowed that part of the fort to be finished. Tlie 
 staircases were of cast iron, as in tlie other works, and blindaged to guard against embrasure 
 shot. 
 
 No MAGAZINE in any one of these permanent masonry works had any interior lining of wood 
 or other material; a brick surface showed on the sides and over head. This fact is of importance 
 to us, as in all our constructions we bestow much labor and expense in minute details for wooden 
 linings, requiring frequent renewals, while throughout my entire journey, neither on the sea- 
 coast nor frontiers inland, could I discover a single magazine with any other interior surface than 
 brick ; making the subject one of jiarticular note from a knowledge of the practice in our works 
 being so different, and as it would appear from the experience of all Europe, on the shores of 
 the Mediterranean, the Baltic, and the Atlantic, in the fortresses on the Rhine, the Vistula, and 
 the lagoons of Venice, as unnecessary as it is destructible or perishable with time, and 
 expensive. 
 
 Fort Peter would seem to have been the first masonry work constructed for the defense 
 of the channel, and differs essentially in plan and construction, as well as material, from 
 the others. Its trace is two '-fronts," making an angle of about 120°. The central and 
 most salient point is that of a tower bastion, with one tier of casemated guns, of six em- 
 brasures on each face, surmounted by a barbette battery with stone parapet, and below its 
 corresponding bomb-proof apartments for stores. The right and left flanks of these two fronts 
 are smaller tower bastions for four guus on the channel faces in casemates ; arranged otherwise 
 as the center bastion. The curtains are much lower than the bastions, having nine barbette 
 guns on each. The masonry parapet of these curtains is about ten feet thick. The scarps have 
 been built apparently at different periods, some of the stone being in large pieces of granite, 
 while other parts are of small rubble and a different colored stone of small irregular dimensions ; 
 while parts of the gorge masonry are of the character of the rubble masonry. Fig. 49 a. 
 
 The commercial battery jjresents a continuous line of forty-eight guns, eleven of which were 
 bomb cannon parallel with the front of Menchikofif, with a branch of fifteen guns from its 
 northern extreme parallel with the channel. This work has a stone scarp rising from the water, 
 and a stone parapet. Like the temporary wooden battery at Kronslot it is low, and could be 
 commanded from the upper decks of a ship-of-the-line. 
 
 All the masonry of these defenses is built with English Portland cement. 
 All these casemated channel defenses are more or less open at the gorge, its scarp wall rising, 
 in general, but to the level of the first tier of casemates. When it became apparent that the 
 allies were building numerous steam-propeller gun-boats, mortar-boats, and iron-sheathed 
 floating batteries drawing but little water, the channel defenses were no longer the probable line 
 of attack, where the large ships would operate. With this light-draft floating armament, all 
 these defenses were liable to be turned by crossing the shoals, thus subjecting them to a fire 
 through the open and exposed gorges by the rear. Dismantling the fleet to fit the ships as 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 35 
 
 hulks, building steam-propeller gun-boats, mortar-boats, sailing gun-boats, and others propelled 
 with oars, had then to be resorted to in great haste, to guard these shoal waters. (See Plates 9 
 and 10.) 
 
 Between the northeast point of Cronstadt and Lisi Noss, on the Finland shore, no less than 
 fifteen vessels of the Eussian fleet were moored, live of which were two-decked shif)s, five of them 
 heavy frigates, one sloop-of-war ; and four smaller vessels in the shoalcst water near the Finland 
 shore. Four large steamships, several steam brigs, numerous steam schooners, and the gun- 
 boats were held as a movable floating force. There was nothing left of the fleet to put to sea; 
 every vessel was necessary to cooperate in the defense of either the main channel or the 
 approaches across the shoal. It was, in consequence, never after in the power of the Russian 
 admirals to meet the Allies in combat in the Baltic. 
 
 Such were the formidable defenses that for two years set the Allies at defiance, and protected 
 the city of St. Petersburg. It cost the Russians great exertions and some treasure, and the Allies 
 far greater. Russian skill and ingenuity kept pace with that of the Allies ; every new expedient 
 on the part of the latter soon became known to the former, and her engineers, as capable in every 
 way as those of France and England, with a ready talent to turn everything to advantage, were 
 not long in adopting some counteracting defensive means. 
 
 One of the archdukes at the head of the navy was always present in command at Cronstadt. 
 General Bchm, (an engineer of great talent and skill,) a colonel, captain, and three other officers 
 of the same corps, were also stationed on the Island of Cronstadt, actively engaged in adding to, 
 and strengthening the existing works. 
 
 The resources of the empire were fully equal to the crisis ; expedients were always found to 
 surmount any difficulty. The usual supply of fuel (coal) was cut off. Kiln-dried wood was 
 substituted in the founderies for making the largest castings, and answered the purpose. Screw 
 engines for a line-of-battle ship had been finished at St. Petersburg, and the boilers for another 
 were in course of construction at one foundery that was visited, while many small propeller 
 engines were in progress at another establishment for additional gun-boats. The supposed 
 difficulty of procuring engineers for working these engines was overcome by taking from the 
 Moscow railroad natives who had learned their trade since 0217' Whistler and Broion, eleves of our 
 own Military Academy, commenced and completed that same and only railroad in Russia. 
 [The Warsaw road is in progress.] 
 
 No branch of industry or mechanical skill was wanting to meet the exigencies of the 
 moment, that native talent did not supply. The coinage of gold and silver, particularly the 
 gold ruble, was in daily operation at the Mint, which was witnessed in person, while the credit 
 of the State was such that the paper currency held its par value for all ordinary wants, at the 
 same time that we never found any difficulty in obtaining gold at pleasure for the wants of the 
 Commission. 
 
 Large armies were encamped in the vicinity of St. Petersburg, well appointed and equipped, 
 ready to concentrate and march in any direction, of well-disciplined troops, commanded by 
 officers educated at the military schools. No less than 720 young men completed their military 
 education at the schools of St. Petersburg, and were commissioned in the army during our visit 
 to that city. 
 
 At the termination of a review by the Emperor of all the cadets of the schools of St. 
 Petersburg, on the occasion of granting commissions to the graduates, when about 2,500 were 
 under arms as infantry, artillery, and cavalry, the parade being dismissed, the graduates drew 
 round the Emperor promiscuously, when he made a short address to them. The respect mani- 
 fested by these young men for their sovereign was remarkable, indicating an enthusiastic 
 determination to enter upon their career in defense of their country, as well as an admiration 
 and respect for his person that could have been called forth only by the most kind, and even 
 parental, feelings of the monarch towards the students, during their collegiate studies. 
 
36 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Everything indicated resources, ability, and entliusiastic determination to meet whatever 
 crisis could come to pass. Confidence in their ability to defend the city of St. Peter.sburg was 
 unbounded. Families not only remained in the city, and at their summer residences on the 
 islands and shores of the hay down to Oranienbaum, but their ])leasure was jiromoted by steam- 
 boat excursions, with bands of music, to and among their own floating defenses about Cronstadt, 
 in sight of their enemy's fleet, every moment threatening an attach, while the Emperor and 
 Emjiress, with their children and ladies of tlie Court, made their summer residence just within 
 the line of sea-coast defenses, in sight of, and not to exceed twelve miles, or an hour's steaming, 
 or three hour's march by land, of their enemy. 
 
 No system of defense could command more confidence on the part of the population it was 
 intended to defend, and certainly none ever called for greater resources and exertions, on the 
 part of their opponents, in the efl'ort to subdue them. 
 
 The permanent defenses constructed in time of jjeace were equal to their object against every 
 combined, iicrmanent preparation of the Allies. In a resort to expedients, constructed in time 
 of war, the combatants were on equal terms, both parties being enabled to provide with corre- 
 sponding rapidity. Under like circumstances, with the immense resources of our own country, 
 our ability to provide auxiliary sea-coast defenses would be as readily accomijlished as those of 
 Russia,, provided v,'e are prepared against armaments existing at thecommencement of hostilities. 
 
 Such means are then reliable against the fleets of Europe ; but when accompanied by armies, 
 as at Sebastopol, we shall see that additional means become necessaiy to eflect the same security, 
 which Eussia had not the time to perfect, and hence lost a city, a fleet, and dock-yards. 
 
 It is in our jiower to inspire our citizens with like confidence, and our enemy with like 
 respect for our strength and power of resistance. It is only for the people and Congress to will 
 it in tinie. The example of Eussia is a lesson every way entitled to our study and imitation. 
 
 In conclusion, I may remark that the defects of this system of sea-coast casemated batteries 
 at Cronstadt, when compared with our own, consists in the great exterior and throat-openings of 
 the embrasures, the limited horizontal traverse of the gun, the combination of brick with stone 
 on the interior faces of the scarps, and in the trace of the works not concentrating as much fire 
 from a given number of guns on a particular point or channel line. 
 
 I have omitted to state that the practice of the Eussian engineers is the same as our own, in 
 the use of bituminous asphalt or mastic, and that the best pointing they can make, like our own, 
 is defective, from the variable contraction and expansion of the stone in such latitudes. 
 
 Torpedoes, in eflect such as our Fulton used in the harbors of New London, New York, and 
 Lynnhaven Bay, during the war of 1812-15, were also resorted to for the defense of the channel 
 and anchorages about Cronstadt. They were the peculiar invention, as was understood, of 
 Professor Jacobi, and will be noticed hereafter. 
 
 Haebor of Sebastopol. — The defenses of tliis harbor, like those of Cronstadt and Cherbourg, 
 are principally casemated castles of two and three tiers of guns. They are particularly important 
 and interesting to the ofiicers of our army as a study, from the fact of their being of recent con- 
 struction, similar, in a great measure, to the system we have adopted for our sea-coast, and from 
 having resisted the most powerful attack that can, in the present day, be brought against them, 
 by the combined fleets of England, France, and Turkey. (Plate 8.) 
 
 The entrance into tliis harbor from the Black Sea is about one mile wide, with a depth of 
 ten fathoms. It extends eastwardly, with not less than four fathoms water, three and a half 
 miles, beyond wliich it gradually shoals to the mouth of the Chernaia or Black river, which 
 enters at the extreme eastern end, and about four miles from the sea. On the south shore it 
 branches into deep and commodious harbors ; the most eastern of which is the Careening Bay ; 
 next westwardlj', is the Inner harbor, with a branch called Dock-yard and Arsenal harbor ; and 
 next is Artillery Bay. Immediately outside the harbor, on tlie south sliore, is another harbor, 
 called Quarantine Bay, that is under cover of the harbor defenses. These bays are, in most part, 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 37 
 
 surrounded by high and abrupt hills. The entrance into the harbor is commanded, on the north 
 shore, by Fort Constantinc, of about 104 guns — twenty-eight in casemate and fourteen in barbette 
 on the harbor face, including a part of the curved face. (Plate 11, and Figs. 50 b and 50 c.) 
 It is a castle of two casemated and one barbette tiers of guns ; the trace presents a straight branch 
 fronting seaward, another facing in and across the harbor, which two are connected by a curve. 
 The gorge is inclosed only to the height of the first tier of guns, flanked by some low casemates, 
 that rise to the height of the gorge wall ; the communication from one tier to the other is by 
 steps (apparently) within towers. In the dimensions of its details, it resembles the forts of 
 Cronstadt, already described. It is situated at the extreme end of the cape, on a small, low 
 peninsula, with its foundations rising from near the water's edge. 
 
 The ground back of this fort, along the sea-coast, rises gradually to about 130 feet, and 
 thence extending north and eastwardly to the height of about 300 feet, from which heights the 
 interior of the fort is fully commanded. Under cover of this castle, to the eastward, is a small 
 but secure harbor for vessels drawing not more than three fathoms, mucli used during the siege. 
 
 North of this castle, bearing on the anchorage on the sea-front, is a battery of eight guns, 
 within which is the telegraph station ; and still further north, on the cliff, is a battery of about 
 fourteen guns, with a branch facing the entrance into the harbor, and others firing seaward. 
 Beyond this last battery, at the extreme northwestern point of the sea-shore c\\E, was erected, 
 during the siege, a battery of about ten guns, on the sea face, and not less than 130 feet above 
 water. It was important as forming the left flank of the north shore entrenched camp, as well 
 as commanding an anchorage not seen by any of the permanent forts, from which the dock-yards 
 and Russian fleet and storehouses could be shelled. 
 
 Fort Catharixe, on the north shore, is the next permanent work east of Constantine. Its 
 profile is like that of Constantine, having two casemated and one barbette tiers of guns. Its 
 trace is a square, with the angles of the three casemated fronts rounded; one of these fronts faces 
 the entrance into tlie harbor, another faces the Dock-yard Bay, and the third, parallel to the 
 latter, faces the land. The gorge, like that of Constantine, is inclosed with a low wall, rising 
 only to the floor of the second tier. It is flanked by casemated and loop-holed towers on the 
 angles of the square, that rise to the height of the barbette battery. It mounts about fourteen 
 guns in casemates and seven in barbette on the straight face fronting the dock-yard, and forty- 
 two in casemate, and twenty-one in barbette, facing the entrance of the harbor. This work is 
 commanded from the high ground in its rear. This is called by some writers Fort Sieverna, a 
 name also given to the fort occupying the summit of this harbor slope, and key of the position 
 on the land side. Fort Catharine is said, by French authority, to mount eighty guns. (See 
 Figs. 50 a, 50 b, and 50 c, and Plate 11.) 
 
 Fort Michael, on the north shore, is the next permanent work east of Catharine. It has 
 masonry scarps and ditch, with high earthen ramjiarts and parapets ; its gorge inclosed by a 
 " front of fortification." The ramparts are vaulted bomb-proof, as quarters, &c., with a parade 
 wall pierced with looj)-holes. It has, ajiparently, a covered wa}^, with its glacis cut on the side 
 towards the harbor entrance, with a slope of 45°. What guns were mounted in this work was 
 not ascertained. Its position is highly advantageous for defending the line of approach into the 
 harbor, and entrance into the Dock-yard Bay. It is said to moimt at least fifty guns, and appears 
 to be defiled from the heights in the rear. (See Figs. 50 a and 50 e.) 
 
 Intermediate and between these permanent works, batteries were erected, from time to time, 
 during the siege, along this north shore of the harbor, at prominent and commanding points. 
 
 Such were the harbor defenses on the north shore. On the south of the harbor, the perma- 
 nent works are of the same profile and general character as Forts Constantine and Catharine. 
 
 Fort Alexander, situated at the entrance of the harbor, and directly opposite Fort Constan- 
 tine, has two casemated and a barbette tier. It mounts about seventy-lour guns, nearly all of 
 which front the entrance into the harbor. This work is connected with the quarantine batteries, 
 
38 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 to the westward of it, by an earthen parapet. The qxiarantine batteries cooperate most effectively 
 with Forts Alexander and Constantine in the defense of the entrance of the harbor ; they follow 
 the configuration of the shore with a return branch, battering Quarantine Bay, all of which are 
 of earth, and probably constructed during the siege. 
 
 Fort Nicholas is situated at the western point of the Inner and Dock-yard harbors. The 
 general direction of its trace is perpendicular to the line of apjiroach from the sea. It has two 
 casemated and a barbette tier throughout. The right flank of this fort, which is terminated on 
 the Inner harbor by a curve, is three casemated tiers in height, the lower one, closed at the 
 gorge, being probably for store-rooms. This curved part batters the entrance into the Dock- 
 yard and Inner harbor ; from it, and following the shore of the harbor, an earthen battery 
 was constructed, which could fire up the hill slope to the Malakofi' and Kedan, and mounted six 
 guns in embrasures. Fort Nicholas, the largest of the casemated permanent works, mounted 
 upwards of 192 guns, as stated by the French ; its gorge was a wall of masonry rising to the 
 height of the first tier. (See Figs. 50 b, 50 c, and 50 d.) 
 
 Fort Paul, (Fig. 50 a,) also similar in its structure to Forts Constantine, Catharine, Alex- 
 ander, and Nicholas^ was situated on the eastern point of the Dock-yard and Inner harbor. It 
 had two casemated and a barbette tier of guns, defending the ajiproach and entrance to the Inner 
 and Dock-yard Bays. (Figs. 50 b, c, d, and e.) It was blown up by the Kussians on evacuating 
 the city, after the fall of the Malakofi^, and no information was obtained of its armament. In 
 construction, it resembled the other permanent masonry sea-coast forts. The gorge-wall about 
 the gateway remained standing on my visit to it. From it the specimens were taken, of the 
 stone of which all the casemated forts and other masonry defenses, as well as buildings of the 
 city and docks, are constructed. As before stated, sets of these specimens are deposited with the 
 War Department, and in the museum of the Military Academy, and are particularly interesting 
 in connection with the bombardment by the fleet on the l*7th of October, and Malakofl:' Tower on 
 the same day, as well as of the crennated wall, on tlie western side of the city, during the entii-o 
 siege. 
 
 On this south shore, as on the north side of the harbor, some additional and temporary 
 batteries were constructed, during the siege, on prominent and commanding points ; one of which 
 was on the western point of Careening Bay. 
 
 Thus it is seen that these permanent harbor defenses were casemated castles, in principle no 
 way differing from many of our sea-coast works. (See Plate 11, compiled by Professor Weir.) 
 They were all located near the water's edge, and all open at the gorge from the level of the terre- 
 pleins of the second tiers, and commanded from the hills in rear, possessing on the land side no 
 efficient defense other than against escalade. Could the Allies have possessed themselves of the 
 heights in rear of these forts, infantry fire alone could have driven every man from the guns. 
 For the purpose for which they were constructed they answered every condition. The Russian 
 engineers, fully sensible of the liability of all these sea-coast batteries being turned and com- 
 manded in rear, had commenced and made progress in a system of land defenses that time and 
 the resources of the empire did not permit them to perfect ; a loss of time to which in a great 
 measure may be ascribed the loss of their fleet. Had the land defenses been finished as commenced, 
 furnishing bomb-proof shelters for the garrison with masonry counterscarps that could not have 
 been injured until the Allies had progressed to the glacis, it is not probable that to this hour 
 they would have taken the place. 
 
 Another omission, doubtless to be ascribed to want of time and the improbability of so pow- 
 erful a combination ever being brought against the place, was in not closing the entrance into 
 Balaklava Bay, the depot of the English army, and of Kamiesh and Kazach Bays, the depots of 
 the French army. The former could liave been closed from rocky precijiices rising abru^Dtly from 
 the water's edge at the entrance. It does not exceed 200 j'ards in width and ten fathoms in 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 39 
 
 depth ; while the latter would have required breakwaters of 1,500 yards in length and from eight 
 to ten fathoms in depth. 
 
 As neither of these liarbors are necessary for the commercial or naval uses of the empire, 
 and closing them woiikl render an attack on the south shore forever impracticable ; had time 
 permitted, it would doiibtlcss have been done 2)ermanently with stone dykes or some portion of 
 the fleet that was used for a similar purpose at tlie mouth of tlie harbor of Sebastopol and to its 
 permanent injury. The lesson is one for our consideration. For years past we have expended 
 no greater sums on a sea-coast fort than an individual expends in the same time, in many 
 instances, for his residence ; and more than one occasion has passed when an enemy, with a 
 knowledge of our neglect, could have done us as great damage as Russia sustained from a similar 
 neglect. In our case, however, it has heretofore been from apathy and indifference to the subject 
 of national del'euse, and not the want of time or resources, as in tlie case of Russia. That this 
 lesson may not be lost, I must state the severe test to which these casemated defenses were sub- 
 jected in proof of their efficiency and reliability. 
 
 The allied army commenced the siege or attack upon Sebastojiol on the 10th of October, 
 1854, on which day the English and French armies broke ground, tlie former at a distance of 750 
 yards from the Russian intrenchments, and the latter at the distance of 800 meters, as stated in 
 their accounts, though, from the best information I could obtain, it was nearer the double of these 
 distances. During the summer the campaign was on the Danube, which terminated by the 
 Russians raising the siege of Silistria, after a long and unsuccessful attack upon the defenses of 
 that place, defended by the Turks. It must be born in mind that the great object of the Allies 
 was the destruction of the Russian fleet and naval depots in the Black Sea. But little inform- 
 ation had been made public of the nature of the dei'enses of tliese depots and dock-yards, and 
 the results would indicate that the Allies had as little useful information of wliat they were about 
 to undertake as the militaiy profession elsewhere. The termination of the campaign on the 
 Danube, not only by Russia raising the siege of Silistria, but withdrawing her army beyond the 
 Pruth, placed the armies of England, France, and Turkey in a position of inactivity. It was 
 not in the power of the allied commanders to follow the Russian army, having no means of 
 transport suited to the occasion. Their army could rely upon supplies from their ships, but a 
 few days' march from the coast. In this sudden change in tlie plan of the campaign, the diplo- 
 matic authorities decided that the great object to be accomplished was the destruction of the 
 Russian fleets and dock-yards in the Baltic and Black Sea. The season was far advanced when 
 the allied commanders received their orders to destroy the fleets and dock-yards in the Black Sea. 
 Their army was hastily concentrated and reembarked at Varna on the 8th of September, 1854, 
 to the number of 58,000 men in 250 vessels. On the same day the commanding generals, 
 admirals, and engineers,* set sail from Varna to seek information to guide them in the enterprise 
 that diplomacy dictated. This reconnoitering party made Cape Chersonese on the morning of 
 the 10th October, close in to the land, where they saw (see Plate 12) an extensive Russian camp. 
 They coasted along the shore from Cape Chersonese to Cape Loukaul, near the mouth of the 
 Alma, a distance of about twenty-seven miles. They estimated while passing that they saw not 
 less than 30,000 troops encamped. This reconnoitering party then continued northwardly to 
 Eupatoria. A preceding examination by sea appears to have been made, from which it had been 
 considered advisable to efi'ect a landing in the Katcha and Alma Bays, in the vicinity of the 
 30,000 troops that liad been seen encamped ; but this last reconnoissance determined the allied 
 commanders to land at Eupatoria. f Upon such scanty information, thus liastil}-^ obtained, 
 did the allied commanders proceed to carry into efi'ect the orders and policy of the governments 
 
 *Generals Canrobert, Martimprey, Thiry, and Eizot; Admiral Bouet-Willaumez; and Colonels Tiocliu and L^bceuf 
 in the steamer Primauguet: and Generals Raglan, Burgoyne, and Brown in the Agamemnon, Admiral Lyons. 
 
 fOn the 28th of May, 1854, two ships were dispatched to reconnoiter Sebastopol, but returned on the 31st, having been 
 chased away Ijy a superior Russian fnreo. 
 
40 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 of France, England, and Turkey. No previous thought or arrangement -would seem to have 
 been given to the necessary suj^plies and material for a siege. Neither of the armies had a siege 
 train. When it became apparent that the fleet could not enter Sebastopol to effect their object, 
 and that the army could not do so without heavy guns of long range for hot shot, then it was 
 stated in the English Parliament, by one of the Ministers, that a train o{ ticenty-nine j)ieces had 
 been sent out. The result showed that they actually had to use and put in battery 911 (nine 
 hundred and eleven) guns in the English trenches alone, of which 250 only were serviceable at 
 the end of the siege. 
 
 These considerations are important and interesting to a proper knowledge of the campaign 
 and just appreciation of the commanders. Public sentiment acting upon the governments forced 
 upon the allied generals an operation for which they were unprepared, and about which they had 
 no knowledge of the difficulties to be encountered, and, least of all, of having to encounter the 
 genius of a Totleben, or the persevering and undaunted courage and heroism of Gortschakoff, 
 Menschikoff, and their gallant associates. 
 
 On the 8th September, 1854, the allied army landed at Eupatoria, about sixty miles by water 
 north of Sebastopol, and defeated the Kussians in force under Menschikoff at the Alma on the 
 20th September, 1854. (Plate 12.) On the 23d September, 1854, they moved forward seven 
 miles to the Katcha, and on the 24th crossed the Balbec. From the dispatches of Lord Eaglan 
 it appears that after deliberation with Marshal St. Arnaud, they relinquislied their communica- 
 tion with the Katcha with the hope of establishing it by the Balbec, and they abandoned the 
 Balbec in consequence of seeing (now for the first time) that the Eussians had established a work 
 which commanded the entrance of the river and debarred its use for the disembarkation of troops, 
 provisions, and materials. The result of this information caused an abandonment of the precon- 
 ceived plan of attacking Sebastopol and destroying the fleet from the north shore of the harbor, 
 and the determination to move upon and take possession of Balaklava and Kamiesch Bays, as 
 convenient depots from whence to attack the city and destroy the fleet and dock-yards from the 
 south side. 
 
 On the 25th September the English army moved rapidly upon Balaklava, accompanied by 
 the field batteries and cavalry, taking the high road by the McKenzie farm, encamping that 
 night on the Tschernaya, from whence Lord Eaglan sent back information to the admiral of this 
 sudden change in the plan of operations, and took possession of the little town and harbor of 
 Balaklava on the morning of the 26th September at the same moment that the fleet entered from 
 sea. The French army followed the English the succeeding day from the Balbec, descending 
 the heights of the north shore by the road at McKenzie farm, a route that was soon closed by 
 the Eussians not to be again available to the Allies, although great efforts were made to reopen 
 it by General Pellissier after the evacuation of the city by the Eussians. No other route existed 
 beyond the range of the Eussian defenses, to move to and from the north shore heights, excepting 
 this by McKenzie's farm. From a point in the harbor of Sebastopol about ojDposite Careening 
 Bay eastward, by the way of the ruins of ancient Inkermann, as far as Mangup Kale, the ascent 
 to the hills is impracticable to troops, and mostly to individuals, at any other place than by the 
 McKenzie farm road. On all this distance the heights are terminated by inaccessible cliffs and 
 precipices, (Plate 12,) resembling the "palisades" of the Hudson river near New York, the foot 
 of the slope being steep with a vertical rocky summit. The French army moved also on Balak- 
 lava, arriving there on the 27th September, 1854, covering their rear against the Eussians by a 
 line of redoubts crossing the Balaklava valley. Here in this valley of Balaklava a new pl.\n of 
 operations had to be formed and information collected for carrying it into effect. From the 
 landing at Eupatoria on the 8th September to the arrival of the allied army at Balaklava on the 
 26th September a plan of the campaign had been determined, a severe and sanguinary battle 
 fought, various changes in the plan attempted, all resulting in the entire loss of so much of the 
 season, other than in the moral effect of a victory on first meeting the Eussians; thus landing 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 41 
 
 an army of 58,000 men on the sea-shore, marching sixty miles across and through the 
 enemy's country to meet the fleet and transports at another point on the sea-shore, to commence 
 anew the object of tlie expedition — consec]^uences arising, as we tliink, from being forced into a 
 campaign unprepared. 
 
 Having established a new base of operations, (Plate 8,) the English army resting on Balak- 
 lava and the French on Kamiesch Bay, on the 2v th September two divisions encamped on the 
 plateau overlooking the city of Sebastopol. The next day the chiefs of engineers of the English 
 and French armies reconnoitercd the scene of their proposed operations. Few localities present 
 greater irregularities of surface, or greater facilities for observing from commanding heights the 
 city, its defenses, dock-yards, and fleets. From an inspection and examination of the several 
 figures to which reference has already been made, there is no room to doubt that the engineers 
 had the opportunity of selecting the most favorable points of attack and lines of approach to 
 attain the object, the destruction of the fleet and naval depot. 
 
 It would seem that the plan of operations now to be undertaken was a combined attack by 
 land and sea, and that on the land side the formalities of a siege were deemed indispensable. 
 They had ascertained that the army then encamped on the plateau overlooking the city, the 
 dock-yards, thj fleet, and most of the harbor defenses, should not attempt to carry the position 
 by assault. The engineers could come to no other conclusion than that the enemy's^^eei could 
 not be destroyed without heavy guns, mounted in advantageous positions, to fire hot shot and 
 shells. Lord Kaglan, then the commander-in-chief of the allied army, (Marshal St. Arnaud 
 having resigned on the 26th September,) writes of the undertaking as an attack on the city of 
 Sebastopol, and that he was disembarking his siege train on the 28th of September therefor. He 
 had the day previous to making this statement an opportunity of taking a good view of the 
 place. From this time all idea of assault, and of the destruction of the sea-coast or harbor 
 defenses by the fleet, were relinquished, and the boasted superiority of fleets against forts was 
 silenced, to be, as the result proved, more definitively refuted by the entire failure of the fleet, 
 even with the cooperation of a land attack. 
 
 It is of much interest to have defined and understood the difficulties that prevented the 
 assault of the place and driving the gunners from the open casemated forts of the harbor. 
 (Plate 8.) From the best information I could obtain on the spot and from a Russian officer who 
 served in the Mast bastion most of the siege, there were not more than 12,000 soldiers and sailors 
 in Sebastopol and on board the fieet, at this moment, to resist 58,000. Menschikoff's army 
 appears to have retreated, after the battle of the Alma, on Batkchi-Sara'i. 
 
 Of permanent defenses there existed on the western side of the city two irregular "fronts," 
 with a return on the water front, commanding the rear of Fort Alexander ; and on the extreme 
 south terminated with a masonry tower, forming a redoubt of the Central or Tower bastion, as it 
 was afterwards called. The bastion formed by the junction of these two fronts was called the 
 Quarantine bastion ; from it to the harbor these defenses consisted of a masonry scarp of about 
 thirty feet, supporting a solid earthen rampart. From the Quarantine bastion to the Tower or 
 Central bastion the work consisted of a crennated or loop-holed scarp of about thirty feet height 
 
 and five feet thick, slightly strengthened at distances of about Fig. ei. 
 
 seventy-five yards by interior buttresses, arched to cover one loop- {mm m Mm^< 
 
 . /fi \ mi /- • 1 1 \BMB5Wlial| ipMfifl |)[''l''Wiiii»iaMi|««iil.»P1li> 
 
 hole, as m the annexed figure, (ol.) inere was an unfinished prrJ K 
 
 ditch following the trace of this scarp, forming a cover to about "ayjy'tV""''' '!^' !^ Tj'yii^io" 
 one third of the wall in height, with about forty feet width of ■>-=•«"""■•-- " '■'='"■''" »<■.« buttress. 
 ditch. This crennated wall was in two places broken en cremalliere to make casemated flanks of 
 two guns each. The intermediate part was in right lines without flanking defense, except appa- 
 rently temporary earthen bastions thrown up in front of it, making this wall an iuclosure for 
 the gorges. The exterior slope of this Central or Tower bastion was faced with cut stone in 
 courses, piled regularly in the slope, as a pavement. The material had doubtless been prepared 
 6 D 
 
42 
 
 ART OF WAR IX EUROPE. 
 
 at some former period for continuing the fortifications, or may have heen from the ruins of the 
 Tower. Whether this central bastion existed on the landing of the Allies, or was thrown up 
 during the siege, I did not learn. 
 
 SKErCH OF THE CREXXATED OR LOOP-HOLED WALL. 
 
 Terreplein 
 
 Kuins of barracks. 
 The ground on this side the buildings descends rapidly 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 
 The crest of the parapet of the bastion was in the same plane as the crest of the crennated 
 wall. The whole of this wall was in courses of from eight to ten inches rise, the longest 
 stretchers measuring thirty inches, and not more than ten to twelve inches on the bed. It was 
 a very indiiferent scarp for strength, although handsomely put together, both on interior and 
 exterior, filled in with bad rubble-stone masonry. I incline to the belief that the wall with 
 casemated flanks was the only part existing at the commencement, and that these earthen 
 bastions were added after the French selected the western side of the city for their attack. 
 There was a necessity for protecting this wall, as the counterscarp covered, not to exceed one 
 third of its height, and could never have been calculated to resist artillery, but simply to cover 
 this western side of tlie city against a.ssault. The tower terminating this wall I did not see^ it 
 being in ruins and probably covered up with temporary works. Such were the permanent and 
 only defenses on the western side of the city at the commencement of operations. 
 
 From the tower at the termination of this wall, on a line following the crest of the bay 
 slope, to the western point of Careening Bay, is a distance of about 6,500 yards. On this line, 
 afterwards fortified by the Russians, there existed no defense of any kind whatever but the far- 
 famed Malakoff tower, which, with its two tiers of loop holes for infantry and five guns in 
 barbette, constituted the whole defense. The tower at the end of the crennated wall was masked 
 from this line by the houses of the city and an intervening hill, afterwards the site of the Mast 
 bastion. Hence we see that the only obstacle to the assault of the city, or seizing the crest of 
 the bay or harbor slope, which would at once have led to the destruction of the fleet and fall of 
 the south shore, was this little five-gun tower and such resistance as the buildings of the city, 
 the hosi^ital and dock-yard barracks and storehouses, with stone walls of two feet thick and 
 upwards, might present, together with the guns of the fleet, movable from place to jjlace, com- 
 manding all the ravines, and the ascending slope from the harbor to the Great and Little Eedans 
 the Malakofi", and Sapoun heights. It was this state of things that determined the Allies not 
 to assault the place, or even to attempt the less hazardous one of the Malakofi' tower, the pos- 
 session of which would have enabled them to drive the garrisons from the harbor forts and 
 destroy the fleet. (See Fig. 50, and Plate 8.) Once under the walls of the Malakofi", the 
 defenders and assailants were on equal terms. The walls afi'orded no more protection to the 
 Russians on the inside than to the assailants on the outside. Kot a shot could be fired at or 
 defend the foot of the scarp, doorway, or the intervening space between the loop holes. Once at 
 the foot of the scarp, its defenders were at the mercy of the assailants, and could have been 
 silenced and conquered, by the same artifice to which the French general resorted, at the final 
 capture. The more slow and supposed certain means of destroying it by heavy artillery was 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 43 
 
 adopted. On the southern and western side the tower could be approached to within 200 yards 
 under cover of the Karabelnaia ravine, and at a distance not exceeding 600 yards was the unoccu- 
 pied Mamelon Vert, affording another covered approach, along the ridge upon which the tower 
 is situated. The ground about the Malakoff was forty-three feet lower than the crest of this 
 Mamelon Vert, (see Plate 8, and Figs. 54 b and 61 a, showing the relative heights and ground 
 between these two localities.) This Mamelon Vert was not only a cover for approach, but com- 
 manded by forty-three feet the entire site of the Malakoff, yet, strange to say, the Allies never 
 occupied it until the next spring, and then only after the Kussians had fortified (late in February, 
 1855) and most gallantly defended it. It was taken on 7th June, 1855. 
 
 It will now be understood that the only obstacle that prevented the Allies from occupying 
 the crest of the hills above the harbor on the line of 6 500 yards that I refer to, was this little Mala- 
 koff' tower. It is there'bre worthy of a more particular description on account of its importance at 
 this moment of the operations, as well as from the general 
 though erroneous impres ion that to it was in a great 
 measure to be ascribed the prolonged resista^ice of the 
 Russians. (See Figs. 53 a, 50.) In plan it wa) a circular 
 stone wall of five feet thick, the exterio^- of whxh is 
 described with a radius of about twenty-eight feet, and 
 might possibly have been thirty feet. The gorge was term- 
 inated by radii inclosing the work with about 225° of the 
 circle. The entrance was on the conter of the gorge, the 
 branches of which were pierced with five loop holes each. 
 It communicated with a vaulted passage, extending right and left, of about six feet wide, and 
 parallel with the interior face of the scarjD. This interior space was arched, the scarp wall 
 forming one pier, the other being in the center of the tower, and same general outline as the 
 walls of the tower. A communication existed to a second tier of the same general arrangement, 
 by stone steps worked in this center pier, within the body of which and under the staircase was 
 a very small hollow space sufficing for a limited supplj^ of ammunition. The superior terreplein 
 was open to the heavens and unobstructed, mounting five guns behind a masonry parapet. In 
 the gorge of the second tier, over the entrance, was an embrasure. The scarps and other walls 
 were built of a soft stone, (before referred to,) in horizontal courses inside and out, and of not 
 more than eight to ten inches rise, filled in with very indifferent rubble masonry, laid in poor 
 mortar, though doubtless the best the country would produce. An examination of Fig. 50, 
 exhibiting the remains of the tower in elevation after the siege, with Fig. 53 a, and the above 
 description, will, I trust, make the defensive character of this structure suffici ntly understood. 
 
 The day the allied army moved on Sebastopol from the Alma, the Russians commenced to 
 guard the entrance into the harbor. Seven large ships, five of which were two-deckers, the other 
 two, frigates, were sunk at the entrance into the harbor on a line of not less than TOO yards in 
 length, leaving their "mast-heads generally" above water. AVhether seven ships on a line of 
 that length, and in from four to ten fathoms water, formed an impassable barrier, I must leave 
 to my nautical readers to determine. 
 
 That the French and English had most able and intelligent engineers, with talent and skill 
 equal to those of any nation, cannot be doubted. For the omission of many acts that could and 
 should have been done, we must look to the divided councils in the allied commanders, the 
 want of information of their enemy's strength, as well as of the ground, the want of preparation, 
 and the orders from the governments. It may be that the chiefs of engineers who reconnoitered 
 the place on the 27th September were not the men for tlie occasion, and that the cautious policy 
 and formality with the attendant delay of a siege against the little Malakoff, the only obstruction 
 on a line of 6,500 yards, emanated with them. Certain it is, their successors, both commanders and 
 engineers, undertook many more hazardous tasks during the protracted operations that followed. 
 
44 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 calling for more gallantry and heroism than an attempt to take possession of the hill crests over- 
 looking the harbor. 
 
 The formality of a siege being determined, the two armies commenced their arduous task, 
 by landing guns and other munitions on the 1st October, and breaking ground on the 10th on a 
 circuit, when completed, of not less than 11,500 yards, or about six miles, the French operating 
 on the western and the English on the eastern part of the line, so disposing their forces, doub- 
 less from the proximity of their respective transports and depots at Kamiesch and Balaklavabays. 
 
 Fi'om this moment commenced one of the most determined, persevering, and resolutely 
 contested combats of modern times. It cannot be said in the commencement to have been a siege, 
 as there was nothing of a permanent defensive character on the front of attack worthy of the name. 
 
 As soon as the Eussians discovered their enemy had abandoned the idea of attacking the 
 north shore, and showed themselves in force on the south, then they commenced to occupy and 
 fortify the crest of the hills overlooking th^-ir dock-yard and fleet. 
 
 Their first labor was to throw up an entrenchment surrounding the MalakofF, which became 
 the Korniloff bastion, and afterwards an inclosed work with a traverse across its center, arranged 
 as a bomb-proof shelter. (Figs. 50, 54 a, 61 a, 62, and 63.) 
 
 They commenced by covering the base and lower tier of the tower with an earthen parapet 
 on a circular trace, (hence not flanked,) its crest about fourteen feet above the natural surface, 
 with ditch about twelve feet deep,* and in many parts not over sis feet deep. From the extremes 
 of this curve, branches retired to the rear and crest of the hill, thence on the left across a depres- 
 sion or hollow, with a slight parapet and ditch, covered in front with trous-de-loups, connecting 
 this Korniloff bastion with the Little Eedan ; and on the right the parapet fell rapidly down the 
 declivity into the Karabelnaia ravine, with irregular faces, adapted to the slope, along which was 
 the Gervaise battery, which, by a curved fire, flanked the ground in front of the circular part of 
 the bastion. (Plate 8.) 
 
 It will be observed that the location of this bastion is one of the most salient points of the 
 Russian line of defense, and on the end of one of the spurs of land coming from the plateau on 
 which the allies were encamped, the ravines on each side being some two hundred or more feet 
 deep, and in places too steep to be crossed. In the rear of this bastion the ground slopes rapidly 
 towards the dock-yard, on which slope an inclosed work was thrown up, which secured the gorge 
 of the bastion at the same time that it gave a line of defense commanding its terreplein. This 
 work on the slope had no flank defenses. Two of its branches were so broken as to throw a 
 curved fire on the ground on right and left of the bastion. The branches joining the gorge 
 traverse served also to flank the ground in front of the curtain joining the Little Eedan, and in 
 front of the lines connecting with the Gervaise battery; making these branches in rear of the 
 gorge as advantageous as flanks or cavaliers. It certainly was skillful engineering so to direct 
 these branches as to conceal them from view in front by the bastion, not subject to enfilade or 
 distant direct battery, and at the same time come into full efi'ect when the curtains were attacked. 
 
 The height of the crest of the piarapet of the Kornilofi" bastion rose to cover about two feet of the 
 second tier of looji holes in the Tower, or about fourteen feet above the natural level. The French 
 engineer, Niel, in his official report of the capture states^ the "fort of the Malakoff" is 350 
 meters in length and 150 meters in width. I can only understand this to refer to the depth of 
 the bastion and inclosed work behind the gorge, as being together 350 meters, and from right to 
 left, as measuring 150 meters. (Figs. 54 a, and 50.) 
 
 The ground in front of the circular face was mined, with galleries opening from the counter- 
 scarp. To communicate with the bottom of the ditch and these mining galleries an underground 
 
 *French writers state that tlie ditch on front of the circular part was six meters deep and seven meters wide. When I 
 crossed it there was no such depth to be found except at the opening into a mining gallery. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 45 
 
 passage was made from the terrepleiu of the bastion, passing under the Malakoff tower and 
 parapet into the ditch. (Fig. 54 a.) 
 
 On the left of the tower and on the terreplcin of the bastion are entrances into temporary 
 bomb-proofs, formed against the scarp of the tower and the circular parapet. The traverse closing 
 the gorge was a continuous bomb-proof, entered from the work in rear. In the reentering formed 
 by its two branches, the parapet was broken as a communication, the ditch being crossed by a 
 slight wooden bridge. (Plate 8 and Figs. 50 and 54 a.) 
 
 Numerous traverses between the guns existed throughout this work, some of which were 
 constructed as bomb-proof shelters. 
 
 The Great Beclan was another important site occupied by the Russians and fortified on the 
 appearance of the allied army. Upon this work the English army directed all its energies from 
 the commencement to the end of the siege. It was located on the end of the spur coming from 
 the plateau on which the allies were encamped, and between the Karabelnaia and Woronsoff ravines. 
 This work was in trace a regular bastion, the branches connected with its flanks retired to the 
 right and left down into the ravines, from which a curved artillery fire battered the approaches 
 on the capital of the bastion. Its faces and flanks battered the approaches on the Mast and 
 Korniloff bastions, leaving very little fire from the work itself on the capital. The batteries on 
 the branches descending the slope towards and into the AVoronsoff' valley were called the Barrack 
 batteries, from being in front of the dock-yard barracks. In profile and general construction 
 these works were the same as those of the Korniloif bastion. On the right of the Redan, and on 
 the branch connected with its flank, is a low four-gun battery, that could fire on about half the 
 distance over which the English advanced from their trenches to the assault; the guns could not 
 traverse sufficiently to act on the half of this distance nearest to the salient. A second and still 
 lower battery, armed with ship's swivel guns, mounted on posts set in the ground, (see Fig. ^1h,) 
 flanked the near approaches to the Redan by a curved fire. On the left is a corresponding low 
 branch armed with four guns, flanking the ground in front of the face of the bastion, hut not the 
 ditches. On a lower branch one gun, firing through an oblique embrasure, commanded fully 
 and directly the face of the Redan. On its left face another oblique embrasure had been cut in 
 the parapet, giving the gun a slight bearing on tlie approaches, otherwise not a gun from the 
 faces of this work could bear on the English approaches or assault. The ditch of the low swivel 
 battery on the right (Fig. 57) was flanked by a caponnier. (Figs. 55 a, 58 a, 59 a, and 60 a.) 
 
 The guns on the faces of the bastion (Redan) were covered by traverses from gun to gun, or 
 for every two guns. On both sides and ends, as well as along the interior slope of the parapet 
 on each side of the embrasure, narrow banquets were formed for infantry ; in constructing which, 
 great use was made of wattling, instead of gabions and facines, an arrangement to give increased 
 infantry fire and space in the gun rooms. The scarps and counterscarps were in many places 
 walled up with loose stone, quarried from the ditches. 
 
 Figures 58 a, 59 a, and 60 a, are perfect representations of the interior of the Redan at the 
 moment it was evacuated by the Russians on tlie night of the 8th and 9th September. They 
 show the construction, tlie armament, the material, the ammunition left about the guns after the 
 bombardment, and the destruction, within these defenses, by the allied batteries. No language 
 can give greater accuracy of detail than these photographic views taken on the spot. It will be 
 observed that this Redan is a salient bastion in the line of the Russian entrenchments, battering 
 the approaches on the Mast bastion on the right, and of the Kornilofi" bastion on the left. It 
 was in part and mostly closed at its gorge, not however by a second line of defense fronting the 
 allied attack, but, on the contrary, fronting towards the harbor of Sebastopol, making it, as in 
 the case of the Korniloff' bastion, an inclosed work, the gorge, doubtless, being so arranged to 
 prevent this important point being turned and taken in rear. The left half of the gorge inclosure 
 was in very perfect order and condition when I examined it, showing the flanking arraugement 
 and the ditch on the harbor side. The right half was not perfect, either from having been dis- 
 
46 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 turbedhy mines partially filling the ditches, or never having been finished. The ground in front 
 on the prolongation of the capital of the bastion, (Kedan,) for a distance of 250 yards, to the most 
 advanced trench of the English, was quite level, from thence it gradually rose as it approached 
 the allied camjJ. 
 
 The Mast bastion was a third important site occupied by the Russians, and fortified on the 
 app)earance of the allied army. Upon it the French army devoted their first labors, gradually 
 extending them in front of the crennated wall^ and entire western side of the city, as their main 
 and only attack; but at a later period, after the arrival from Paris of General Niel of the engi- 
 neers, it became secondary, and the main effort was directed upon what was then first recognized 
 as the key of the position, the site of the Korniloflf bast'on. 
 
 This Mast bastion is another salient in the line of entrenchments thrown up by the Eussians. 
 It is on a hillock, at the south end of the city, at the head of the Inner harbor, on a more 
 extended spur coming from the south, which, unlike the others, extends the whole lenglh of the 
 Inner harbor, and falls abruptly near Fort St. Nicholas. Upon it the eastern part of the city is built. 
 This hillock is separated from the citj^ by a depression, making it an isolated point that called 
 for sj)ecial ajij^lication of engineering skill to fortify it. It became a detached fort, the key of 
 the position, and the mo.st southern and salient of all the ground occupied by the Russians. 
 Under cover of its eastern slope the Allies could have advanced upon it, with no other opposi- 
 tion than one gun from the Malakoff bearing obliquely on their flank, and more than 2,500 yards 
 distant. Like the site of the Kornilofi" bastion and Redan, had it been seized by the French, 
 and their batteries established upon it, the Russian fleet would have been in their power. But 
 the cautious policy that dictated the formalities of a siege against literally nothing but the little 
 Malakoft' tower, doubtless inspired the Russians with increased energy, and the determination 
 to occupy and fortify this site in connection with the two before described. Thus they partially 
 inclosed their position, by a line of detached forts, on the three most commanding sites that 
 overlooked their dock-yards, and many of the harbor defenses, as well as Inner harbor, in which 
 the fleet operated. My notes made on the ground do not suffice to give a sketch of the trace. It 
 had a stronger profile by far than any other ])art of the Russian temporary entrenchments. It 
 had two long faces, one fronting the city ravine, flanked by two guns in a caponnier, and the 
 other by a flank armed with four guns. The glacis was mined. The ditch is about thirty feet 
 wide, and cut in soil that remained nearly vertical. At the foot of the scarp, in the ditch, was 
 a line of palisades, that remained in good condition at the end of the operations, being eflectu- 
 ally covered by the glacis. The tliickness of the parapet is about fifteen feet on top, and not less 
 than twenty feet in height above the natural level of the country, with ten feet depth of ditch 
 below the same level. On the left or eastern face there is a formidable battery on the glacis, 
 commencing at the crest of the counterscarp, with a branch commanding the salient of the two 
 long faces, and a second branch battering the ground in front of the Redan. This Mast bastion 
 or detached fort was closed at its gorge by a strong entrenchment mounted with artillery. Parallel 
 to each of the long faces is a cavalier traverse, under which extensive bomb-proof shelters were 
 formed. This structure served as a parados as well as a traverse. All the guns in the other posi- 
 tions were separated by traverses on the sides as well as rear, forming gun rooms of from one to 
 four guns in each. The site of this detached fort, that assumed the name of Mast bastion, was a 
 pleasure garden on the outskirts of the city. It occupied nearly the entire surface of the hillock ; 
 below it on the slope, descending to the Inner harbor, numerous batteries were constructed from 
 time to time battering the approaches on the Redan and Malakoff, with one face, and the French 
 approaches on the Mast bastion from the other. These batteiies took the name of Garden bat- 
 teries. On leaving this detached fort I passed between the hillock upon which it is situated and 
 tlie ridge upon which the Central or Tower bastion is located, and thence down the main street 
 of Sebastopol to the water at the head of Artillery Bay, and remarked that all the city on the left 
 of the road, and on my left as I turned into the Woronsofl" road, and on my right and left as I 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 47 
 
 descended that road oi" street to the water, was a total ruin. Not a habitable building was seen 
 over the entire surface of what was once a very handsomely built city. No shelter of any kind 
 was perceived for the troops defending the city during the siege other than the bomb-proofs in 
 the harbor forts, and the temporary ones constructed in the traverses, &c., about the entrench- 
 ments. 
 
 The destruction of everything throughout the works of defense indicated the greatest heroism 
 and untiring devotion to duty, as well as perseverance and indomitable fortitude and courage on 
 the part of the defenders of the city. On other occasions, crossing the city from the crennated 
 wall down the road to the head of the Inner harbor, along the barracks, hospitals, dry-docks, 
 and through the Karabelnaia faubourg, an opportunity was had of seeing the entire city, 
 presenting a scene of total demolition and entire destruction. Not a single house was discovered 
 that was habitable, not even an outbuilding that had not been more or less destroyed. How 
 much of the damage was done by the batteries of the Allies, and how much by the Russians, by 
 tearing down buildings for material for bomb-proof shelters and blowing up on evacuating the 
 place, it was not possible to discriminate. The effects of shot and shell were seen, however, in 
 every direction. The only exceiition that came to my knowledge was, in a range of storehouses 
 along the dock-yard harbor. Most of these, entirely beyond the range of the batteries of the 
 Allies, remained in good condition, and were not destroyed by the Russians on retreating, as in 
 their vaulted basement rooms had been deposited for interment the dead of the last day's contest, 
 that time did not permit them to attend to. 
 
 Not a human being remained in the city or its ruins on its being entered by the Allies. A 
 few cats, dogs, and rats were the only living creatures found iu the place, and no property worth 
 naming, other than munitions of war in a damaged state. Desolation and ruin were the 
 remaining fruits of this long-contested artillery combat, or, as said at the time, "blood-stained 
 ruins alone were left to the victors as the fruits of this siege." An examination of figures 50 a, 
 50 b, and 50 c will show the ruined condition of several large and handsome buildings, as well 
 as entire streets, and particularly in the Karabelnaia faubourg. 
 
 The glacis of the Mast bastion was covered with sharp spikes driven upwards through boards 
 slightly concealed with earth, making it impossible to pass over the ground except on beaten 
 tracks, or where they had been broken up and destroyed by the fire of the Allies. The same 
 obstructions were placed in the bottom of the ditches. To overcome these obstacles the Allies 
 used bags of wool and small bundles of straw, which the storming parties carried, throwing them 
 in the ditch on top of the spikes, from the counterscarp. The men carrying these hags and the 
 scaling ladders, slung their muskets, joining in the assault after placing the ladders and throwing 
 the bags. Another description of spike was also used by 
 the Russians in the bottom of the trous-de-loups and ditches. 
 I observed them in front of the curtain connecting the Great 
 and Little Redans. They were barbed-headed spears, with 
 three and four points on a stem driven into plank. Some 
 thirty or forty of these were fastened to rectangular masses 
 of boards, and placed in the bottom of the trous-de-loiq^ts. ■■\ K 
 
 M 
 
 im 
 
 \\ 
 
 / 
 
 (See annexed Fig. 56 a.) They rose about six inches above ■ \ ^'i 
 
 the planks to which they were fastened, and were made of . \ \^ 
 
 three sixteenths of an inch iron — probably old ramrods. In 
 the annexed figure they are greatly enlarged in comparison 
 with Wi&trous-de-loup, for convenience of illustration. 
 
 The Allies concentrated their first efi"orts in the direc- 
 tion of the Mast bastion and the Redan. Other points were ''^' 
 combated only as they influenced the labors on these two. The French directed their attack on 
 
48 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the former, and the English on the latter ; each party gradually extending their approaches to 
 the right and left. 
 
 From the 28th September to the 17th October, the Allies had been laboriously at work 
 mounting heavy artillery behind temporary and hastily constructed earthen parapets. The 
 French transported theirs from Kamiesch bay, over a distance varying from 7,500 to 10,000 
 yards; and the English from Balaklava bay, over a distance of about 15,000 yards. While the 
 Eussians brought theirs from their dock-yard, arsenal, and fleet, over a distance varying between 
 1,000 and 1,500 yards. They had to resort almost entirely to ships' guns, on ships' carriages; 
 and the Allies resorted in a great measure to the smaller vessels of their fleets for guns and 
 munitions, and to their sailors for artillerists and labor. (See Fig. 54 b, and others.) 
 
 Having succeeded in putting in battery about 126 guns, and all the needful ammunition 
 and supplies, they considered their prejiarations sufiicient to insure the success of a combined 
 attack by land and water. 
 
 The details and construction of the besiegers' batteries is shown in Fig. 57 a. It is a 
 perspective of the interior of Chapman's battery, embracing three guns mounted on ships' 
 carriages, placed in blinded embrasures, exhibiting the parapets, traverses, and cheeks of 
 embrasures, revetted with gabions and sand-bags, repaired and put in order after a bombard- 
 ment, with the ammunition ready for another attempt. In the rear is seen the spent shot 
 scattered about the ground from Eussian batteries. Some ofiicers and men are seen close imder 
 cover of the parapet, awaiting orders for more active service. I may here state that, these 
 figures of reference having been made on the ground by the photographic art, reliance can be 
 placed in the most minute accuracy of details, as representing the condition of things at a 
 particular moment. I can offer no language to convey to the mind a more perfect description. 
 
 The Eussians had succeeded, during the same period, (28th September to 17th October, 
 1854,) in mounting about 156 guns, 76 of which were on the English line of approach, and 80 
 on the French approaches. 
 
 Thus prepared, the bombardment commenced at half-past six on the morning of the 17th 
 October, 1854, by the English and French batteries opening fire on the Eussians, who as 
 promptly and vigorously returned it. For three hours the fire from these 282 guns continvied 
 uninterruptedly, when, at half-past nine, the explosion of a magazine in two of the French 
 batteries suspended their fire for the day. About three, p. M., a similar disaster occurred in 
 the Eedan, but not to diminish its fire. At dark the firing ceased on both sides. 
 
 In less than a hour from the commencement of this bombardment, (and it is even stated as 
 within twenty minutes,) the fire of the Malakofi" tower was silenced, and by guns from the 
 most distant English batteries, and as informed by officers who were present, not less that 2,000 
 yards from the tower. Such only was its strength and power of resistance. But the moment 
 for profiting by its demolition had passed. Covering masses of earth had been thrown up in 
 front of its basement story, forming the lines of intrenchments I have endeavored to describe, 
 presenting new and extended lines of obstacles. 
 
 The combined fleets commenced to prejjare for action with the sound of the first gun from 
 the land batteries. Steamers were lashed to the ships-of-tlie-line, thus towing them into action. 
 It was nearly noon before the whole fleet was under way, the French leading, the Turks following, 
 and the English in the rear. So soon as the leading ships came within 2,000 yards of the 
 nearest batteries, the Eussians opened fire upon them. As fast as the leading ships reached the 
 nearest and appointed station, they anchored, when those next astern followed on the outside 
 and anchored next ahead, thus forming from rear to the front by an inversion of the order of 
 sailing; whereby the ships sustained no fire imtil coming to their destined position. By this 
 arrangement the French fleet first anchored, and engaged the Quarantine batteries and Fort 
 Alexander, the Turks took a central position in the mouth of the harbor, and the English 
 anchored opposite Fort Constautine and the Cliff batteries, varying in distance from 600 to 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 49 
 
 1,500 yards from the forts. The order given to the captains is said to have heen to keep 1,200 
 yards oif. 
 
 The attacking force consisted of — 
 
 1 ship of 130 guns 130 guns. 
 
 6shipsofl20 " 720 " 
 
 1 ship of 100 " 100 •' 
 
 1 " 92 " 92 "■ 
 
 1 " 91 " 91 " 
 
 5shipsof 90 " 450 " 
 
 1 ship of 84 " 84 " 
 
 Sshipsof 80 " 240 " 
 
 1 ship of 78 " 78 " 
 
 1 " 70 " 70 '< 
 
 1 " 50 " 50 " 
 
 1 " 30 " 30 " 
 
 1 " 21 " 21 " 
 
 Making a total of 2,156 guns in the battering ships, besides numerous frigates, steamers, and 
 small vessels, not calculated to face a land battery. Of this number, one half, or the broadside 
 of each ship only, couhl be brought to bear on the forts. The outer forts only, as before enume- 
 rated, mounting collectively 261 guns, could bring theh" batteries to bear upon the ships, and 
 of this number not to exceed 200 guns fronted towards the fleet; hence it was a contest between 
 1,078 guns behind wooden walls, and about 200 behind masonry and earthen parapets. 
 
 Tlie cannonade commenced about one o'clock, and continued uninterruptedly until half-past 
 six in the evening, when the fleets ceased firing and stood out to sea, having done no such 
 injury to the forts as in any way to destroy their efficiency. Tlie face-stones of the masonry 
 were in many places broken, and the space between two embrasures in Fort Constantino was 
 broken tlirough, but not to injure the batteries. The fleets suffered considerably ; two of the 
 large English ships were so damaged, that repair was impracticable without going to the dock- 
 yards at Constantinople ; one of these sustained serious damage from plunging shot, seven of 
 which penetrated the ship's side vmder water, and several of them were set on fire by hot shot, 
 and had to be towed out of action by the steamers. One of the French line-of-battle ships was 
 so damaged by the bursting of a shell in the engine-room, as to make it necessary to send her to 
 France to repair the machinery ; and another received a plunging shot through her side tivo feet 
 under the water line. 
 
 After twenty days of unceasing labor by an army of 50,000 men, (58,000 landed and 
 marched to the Alma,) with siege batteries mounting 126 guns, and a fleet of ships-of-the-line 
 mounting 2,156 guns, did this combined attack by land and water, from morning to night, fail 
 entirely in the great object for which it was undertaken : the destruction of the Russian fleet 
 and dejjots in the Black sea. 
 
 The next day the land batteries continued firing; but the fleet never after renewed its 
 attempt to destroy or attack the harbor defenses, not even after the army had possession of all 
 the defenses on the south side, and every effort was being made by Generals Pellissier, Simpson, 
 and La Mamora, to take the north shore. It was arranged that the fleets should make another 
 attack, simultaneously with the last and final assault, on the 8th September, 1855, but were 
 prevented by one of those unforeseen contingencies to which naval armaments are peculiarly 
 liable : a gale of wind prevented the large ships leaving tlieir anchorage on the appointed day. 
 I can but draw the important conclusion from these facts, that jjermanent sea-coast batteries 
 are to be relied upon for tlie defense of our harbors ; tliat they are superior to every known 
 floating battery; and tliat the present experience of the best naval as well as military 
 7 D 
 
50 ART OF WAR IN EtTROPE. 
 
 authorities of Europe, now confirms tlie supremacy of land 'batteries over tliose in the fleets of 
 the present day. 
 
 The results of this combined effort proving so fruitless to the Allies, their means on the spot 
 mostly exhausted in this first bombardment, and innumerable difiiculties presenting themselves, 
 and still worse to be looked for during the approaching inclement season, Lord Raglan is said to 
 have so far despaired of success as to call a council of superior officers to consider the propriety 
 of raising the siege or persevere and winter in the Crimea. The latter counsel prevailed, and 
 corresponding arrangements were made by all parties. 
 
 After fortifying these most important points, that resisted this first bombardment, the 
 Russians persevered in the same policy, constructing similar works at the site D, Plate 8, called 
 by the Allies the Little Redan, and then, as time permitted, connected these salient points by 
 entrenchments, either to the crests of the ravines or down their slopes as far as the ground was 
 adapted to their purposes. 
 
 This labor being accomplished, and their enemy still occupying unusually distant positions, 
 selected with no other object that I could discover than the destruction of the little Malakofi" 
 tower, which object was completely frustrated by the skill of the Russian engineers in covering 
 their position, and arming batteries more rapidly than their enemy, they moved forward in 
 advance of this line, and occupied the Mamelon Vert, in front of the Korniloff bastion, (the 
 Malakoff tower within being mostly destroyed,) the Selenghinsk, Volhynia, and Sapoun redoubts 
 on the left and in-^advance of the Little Redan, a stone quarry excavation in front of the Great 
 Redan, and inclosed by a continuous line the ground between the quarantine shore batteries and 
 Quarantine bastion. These advanced works flanked the besiegers' approaches and previous 
 parallels, forcing them to increased labor in defiling various parts, and to the construction of new 
 batteries preparatory to overcoming this second line, throivn up after the failure of their first 
 bombardment on the lYth October. 
 
 The difficulties encountered by the allies from sickness, the severity of a winter campaign 
 without suitable shelter for men or horses, the rain, at times, flooding their trenches, at others, 
 covered with snow, rendering the roads from Balaklava, over a rich soil, (not unlike the soil of 
 our Western praries,) almost impassable ; the want of intrenching tools, guns, ammunition, and 
 even forage, fuel, food, and clothing, in consequence of the late season of commencing the cam- 
 paign and of jjrevious preparation and knowledge of the task they had undertaken, and the total 
 failure of their first bombardment, gave time, and again inspired the Russians with renewed 
 vigor and perseverance, inducing them to push forward once more and in advance of this second 
 line of detached works, (though necessarily with the opening of the spring, renewed opposition, 
 and nearer approach to the allies,) with less formidable works, confining themselves to the selec- 
 tion of favorable sites in front of the quarries, the Mamelon, and other places, where, during a 
 night, they would make small lunettes, covering from ten to twenty men, and in other places 
 barely sufficient for the cover of an individual. These small works took the name of rifle pits. 
 The smaller ones were, in some instances, piles of loose stone collected and thrown together 
 sufficient to conceal a inan lying down, others were formed of two gabions laid end to end, forming 
 an obtuse angle, filled with stone or earth. These rifie pits were located beyond the influence 
 of the allied artillery, covering individuals and small parties of infantry, firing on workmen in 
 the allied trenches, heads of saps, and unfinished batteries. Some of them were in deep ravines, 
 under batteries into which the artillery could not be depressed. This mode of defense certainly 
 was unusual, and only to be practiced with troops who are individually inspired with the cause 
 of their country, a credit that must be accorded to the Russian soldiers throughout this contest. 
 Such deeds of daring and individual courage could not be the result of military command alone. 
 
 These rifle pits in front of the Mamelon were, more properly speaking, a line of advanced 
 lunettes. So formidable were they, as to resist the attacks of the French on the loth and 17th 
 of March, and were only taken on the 22d of March, 1855, by a powerful night attack by 12,000 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 51 
 
 French troops, when they were connected and formed part of the advanced parallel of that date. 
 In front of the Redan the English could not advance without fir.st driving the Russians from the 
 pits in that front, which they were not prepared to imdertake hefore the 19th of April, 1855. 
 
 On the 9th of April, 1855, the second bombardment of these temjjorary earthen defenses was 
 commenced by the Allies on the whole line, from the Quarantine battery around to the Sajioun 
 redoubt, and continued throughout the 10th without producing any favorable result. 
 
 After this unavailing and fruitless second bombardment, the Emperor Napoleon despaired 
 of success, became dissatisfied with the plan of the campaign, proposed his own, which was sub- 
 mitted to, discussed, and rejected hj tlie opposition to it, eventually causing the resignation of 
 General Canrobert, the French Commander, who advocated and urged carrying into effect the 
 Emperor's views. 
 
 On the 28th of April, 1855, Napoleon wrote to Canrobert, giving a circumstantial outline 
 of his plan of a campaign, in which he proposed to take the field in person. (See Plate 12.) 
 
 Canrobert stated the difiiculties to be in the want of a great commander over the Allies ; some 
 man of great authority, high position, and sufficiently old experience to dominate over every 
 thing. That the want of unity begat delaj^s^ hesitations, and differences; that such had always 
 existed, creating obstacles and delays at every moment ; throwing insurmountable difiiculties 
 around the expedition. 
 
 This language of Canrobert can be understood as applying to no other commanders than 
 Napoleon and Lord Raglan, and most disparaging to the English commander. 
 
 The proposed plan of the Emperor, as given in his letter of the 28th of April, 1855, was to 
 stand on the defensive before Sebastopol ; take the field and operate on Simpheropol and Baktchi- 
 Sarai", by sending into the valley of the Baidar 40,000 men, occupying it I'rom Skelea, as far as 
 the bridges of Teule and Tchorgaum, and the four roads crossing the Tchernaya, thus threatening 
 the Russian flank on McKenzie's heights. 
 
 The active army then before Sebastopol of 40,000 men, extended into the valley of the Baidar, 
 was to be joined by a corps d'armee under the Emperor in person, who, coming from Constanti- 
 nople, would recounoiter the Phoros Pass. 
 
 The first movement was for Napoleon's corps d'armee to proceed to Alouchta, where the 
 beach presented a favorable landitrg, marching immediately beyond the defile of Ayen (Aien) 
 with 3,000 men, who would, if practicable, take possession and hold this pass, when the Emperor 
 would land the rest of his force. The 40,000 troops in the valley of the Baidar would move 
 along the sea-shore road by Yalta. In three days he calculated to unite these two army corps at 
 Simpheropol, and then with this force of 65,000 men advancing by way of Baktchi-Sarai on Sebas- 
 topol, with his left on the mountains, would join Lord Raglan, who would have advanced from 
 Baidar to Albat, on the Balbec, and thus drive the Russians into the sea. His calculation was 
 to keep up his communication with the sea and landing of Alouchta as far as Sim2)heropol, about 
 nine leagues from his transports. 
 
 If the advance of 3,000 men found the defile of Ayen (Aien) fortified and could not be taken, 
 then they would reeiubark and laud at Balaklava, and the diversion it was intended to make on 
 Simpheropol would have been made by Baidar. 
 
 This plan was laid before the allied commanders by Canrobert on the 1st of May, 1855. 
 Lord Raglan decidedly disapproved of relinc[uishing all their efibrts, and losing the anticipated 
 fruits of all their severe labors, to take up a new plan in the open field. He preferred rather to 
 operate by Eupatoria, which Canrobert opposed, in accordance with the Emperor's views, and 
 finally relinquished his preference. At this meeting Lord Raglan considered the road from 
 Alouchta to Simpheropol too exposed, and that from Baidar to Baktchi-Sarai preferable, but he 
 yielded his opinions, as Canrobert thought, rather from weariness of discussion than from con- 
 viction. The consequence was that at each instant, and in every question of detail, the tacit 
 opposition of his mind made itself felt without his intending it. 
 
52 AET OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Canrobert considered a general assault as terrible and doubtful, and lience favored the views 
 of the Emperor. He even proposed to give up to Lord Eaglan the supreme command, entreating 
 the Turkish commander, Omar Pasha, to do likewise. Eaglan, at first, astonished, refused, 
 then hesitated, then accej^ted, and afterwards demanded that the French troops should occu^jy 
 and defend the English trenches. This Canrobert refused, stating that the English trenches 
 could alone be occupied by the English. From that moment they could come to no mutually 
 favorable understanding. 
 
 The first blow confirming these divided councils was Raglan's order recalling the Kertch 
 expedition, and the refusal of Eaglan to cooperate with Canrobert in the Emperor's plan of 
 campaign. 
 
 From that moment Canrobert considered his association with Lord Eaglan as calculated to 
 jeopardize the operations of the Allies, and, keeping his views secret, asked to be relieved, and to 
 surrender the command of the French army to Pellissier ; he to take the latter's division, as a 
 subordinate, ascribing his ill-health as the cause. 
 
 On the 19th of May lie states that the very false position towards the English army in 
 which Lord Eaglan had placed him, the sudden recall of the Kertch expedition, to which, he 
 says, the English attached great importance, convinced him he should not direct as chief an 
 immense army, whose confidence he had obtained, and from that moment considered his duty 
 required him to use a letter^ then in his possession from the Emperor, investing Pellissier with 
 the chief command, who received it with becoming modesty and reluctance on the morning of the 
 19th of May, 1855. 
 
 After the bombardment of the 9th of April, 1855, the Allies were again forced to the tedious 
 and laborious labors of the sap and construction of additional batteries. The second line of 
 Eussian advanced works then became the point of attack. On tire 22d and 23d of May — Pellis- 
 sier, then in command — after long-continued and obstinate combats, the French succeeded in 
 taking the Eussian works in front of the Quarantine bastion ; and on the 24th and 25th of May, 
 after equally hard-fought and sanguinary combats, the French took the advanced works in front 
 of the Central bastion. On the 7tli of June, after other hard-fought battles, the English took 
 the Eussian defenses of the quarries, and the Frencli those of the Mamelon, thus becoming 
 masters of the second line of detached forts, which enabled them to resume their labors against 
 the first defenses thrown up to oi^posc them. 
 
 On the 17th of June, 1855, the tlitrd bombardment commenced and continued through the 
 day on the whole line of the Eussian works. This was preparatory to storming the salient points 
 of their line. On the 18th, at 3, a. m., the French commenced the attack on the extreme 
 Eussian left, which finally became general, the Malakoffand Eedan being the special objects of 
 the French and English ; but, like the previous ones, failed, and proved as unavailing and 
 fruitless as the two preceding ones, wlien again the Allies had to resort to the slow process of 
 the sap. Lord Eaglan died on the 29th of June. 
 
 On the morning of the 5th of September, 1855, t\\Q fourth bombardment commenced by the 
 French batteries opening fire, which the English soon after followed, on the whole line of Eussian 
 works, (their first line,) from the Quarantine around to the Careening Bay. Tbis tremendous 
 bombardment continued to noon on the 8th of September, when, after well-concerted arrange- 
 ments, a successful assault was made by the French on the Malakoff or Korniloff" bastion, which 
 they held, notwithstanding repeated and desperate efforts by the Eussians throughout the day to 
 retake it. Although the assault was made about the same time on the Little Bedan, the Great 
 Redan, the Mast, and Central bastions, Eussian courage and unyielding determination frustrated 
 the most powerful efibrts of the allied generals at each of these four last-named points. 
 
 The same night, unknown and unobserved by their enemies, the Eussians evacuated all 
 their defenses on the south side of the harbor, and crossed to the northern forts over a temporary 
 bridge of more than a mile in length, having previously carried off all that might be needed in 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 53 
 
 the northern works — a masterly retreat that does great credit to Kussian military genius and 
 discipline. 
 
 Such was the efficacy and power of temporary field fortifications, with inexhaustible supplies 
 of the munitions of war. 
 
 It must not he supposed that these extensive Russian defenses were thrown up and defended 
 by the small garrison within Sebastopol when the Allies first appeared on the plateau before it. 
 Doubtless General Gortschakoif had drawn the army from the Alma into the city, as well as 
 other troops stationed in the Crimea. On the 25tli of October, 1854, eight days after the com- 
 bined land and sea attack, the garrison was of such strength as to admit of a sortie and attack on 
 the English depots at Balaklava by 25,900 men, under General Liprandi, and the next day 
 another sortie from the place by 9,000 men, and on the 5th of November the Russians made 
 another desperate attack at Inkerman, with between fifty and sixty thousand men, (as estimated 
 by the Allies,) while, during each of these actions, the entrenchments were fully garrisoned and 
 defended. 
 
 There is a lesson to be drawn from these operations not without interest to us. "We have 
 seen that the sea-coast defenses could be relied upon for security against the most powerful fleet 
 that could attack them. More ships could not find room to anchor before them in a hostile 
 attitude. 
 
 At the same time we find these harbor defenses were of no value without being properly 
 protected in the rear ; and to do so temporarily and at the spur of the moment, required 
 a very large army, and the dismantling of a fleet, to afford the necessary armament and muni- 
 tions. 
 
 Now, ive have no such fleets, nor have we depots of munitions of war at our several sea-coast 
 defenses from which, if we had the men, to arm temporarily constructed land defenses. 
 
 And it may not be amiss to recall to recollection the fiict, that the Ordnance Depart- 
 ment had not^ at a jjarticular moment during a late administration of the War Department, as 
 many guns of all calibers for the entire sea-coast of the United States as were used by the Allies 
 in this one campaign. At that time it was not in our power to have remounted with suitable 
 artillery any of our principle sea-coast defenses. I trust that the memorable example now 
 brought to our knowledge of what may be necessary for our own welfare, will enable us, with 
 more certainty, to attain the object then proposed of increased attention to the sea-coast 
 armaments. We must give due attention to these particulars in time of peace, and I must be 
 permitted to notice the necessity of making the gorges and land defenses of our sea-coast forts 
 sufficiently strong, the importance of which is not, I apprehend, duly appreciated. Nor must 
 it be inferred from the labors and resolute defense of the Russians, that thei'e were any new princi- 
 ples, in the art of war, introduced or practiced by them in this heroic struggle ; in support of 
 which, I may bring to recollection several instances of our having resorted to temjjorary defenses 
 precisely similar in principle, and in nearly every detail of construction, to those constructed by 
 the Russians around Sebastopol. 
 
 During our revolutionary struggle General Washington caused West Point to be fortified. 
 Kosciusko, as the engineer, constructed at that time Fort Clinton, on the crest of the river's slope. 
 The bastion projecting on the plain is very similar in form, shape, and general dimensions to 
 the Redan at Sebastopol. Similar works were constructed at Yorktowu, Virginia, by Cornwallis, 
 during the same period ; where the heights of the river's bank, location of the works between 
 deep ravines, and commanding ground occupied by our troops, with the dimensions and general 
 trace of the works, assimilate them to the Russian defenses. At a later period (1814) the inhab- 
 itants of New York and Brooklyn, under General Swift and Colonel Gadsden, of the corps of 
 engineers, fortified Brooklyn and Harlaem heights with similar temporary defenses, a part of 
 which (Fort Green) covering the rear of the navy-yard, was in construction and character, as 
 well as in many of its topograi)hical features and purposes, like the Mast bastion at Sebastopol. 
 
64 ART 0? WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 And another instance that will familiarize the character of the Russian works to many of our 
 southern friends, is that of the defenses thrown up hy General Jackson in 1814 and 1815 below 
 New Orleans — similar in construction, though differing in having wet ditches, and on a low, flat 
 country. And a still more recent similarity existed in the works constructed by Colonel Mans- 
 field, of the corps of engineers, on the Rio Grande, opposite Matamoras, where the work, as in 
 the case of the Russians, was done under fire of the enemy, and where he resorted to similar 
 expedients to provide bomb-proof shelter for the garrison. I am induced to bring these instances 
 in different parts of our country to notice, to make the facts more clearly understood, citing 
 remote and recent periods to show that the art of fortification is as it teas. 
 
 In making these comparisons it is well to state that the prolonged resistance of the Russians 
 arose from the immense resources at command, securing constant supplies of ammunition and 
 guns to replace those in battery as fast as they were disabled. In one locality I counted 
 twelve guns that had been destroyed by the Allies in a battery mounting only four. The greatly 
 increased size of the caliber of the guns, derived from this unprecedented source, may be added as 
 another element in prolonging the defense. 
 
 Marshal Vaillant finds an explanation for the want of foresight and due preparation of the 
 Allies, in the energy of the defense, the great number of guns that the place put in battery, and 
 the defect of the investment, which gave to the siege a peculiar character, permitting the Russians 
 continually to renew and restore their provisions, &c. General Canrobert stated that the difficul- 
 ties of the Allies were of two descriptions, the one arising from the slight covering of earth over 
 rock, diminishing as their approaches advanced, and the other from the number and caliber of the 
 enemy's guns on a front almost a straight line, and very extended. This latter axiom in fortifi- 
 cation, combined with the numerous traverses introduced by the Russians in all their batteries, 
 counteracted the effects of ricochet batteries, even where it became practicable to establish them 
 against this fortified straight line. The Russian batteries could in consequence only be destroyed 
 by direct fire, and as the Russians could mount guns faster than the Allies from the proximity 
 of their depots, we can understand why such an immense number of guns became necessary to 
 subdue them. The French engineer Niel states that, on the last day, the Allies had moimted 
 in battery seven hundred,* and the Russians eight hundred guns ; and that the English had 
 two hundred of the seven. From these figures we may infer the immense number neces- 
 sary to have supplied the combatants with 1,500 at the close of the operations. I learned the 
 fact that the English army had a total of 911 (nine hundred and eleven) guns in their artillery 
 park during the siege, of which 250 only were serviceable at the conclusion. On account of the 
 difficulties stated by General Canrobert, and after the formality of a siege had been determined 
 upon, there was no other way of driving the Russians from their hastily-constructed batteries 
 than by dismounting their guns by direct fire, and driving the garrisons from the bastions and 
 batteries by mortars and howitzers. For this latter neither of the allied armies were prepared 
 for want of previous knowledge of the task before them, and being unexpectedly forced by the 
 governments to undertake it without proper supplies. As the fleet could furnish no howitzers, 
 and but few mortars, it was late the next year before the Russians began to suffer from them. 
 
 The annexed table, for which I am indebted to a highly distinguished English officer 
 present during the whole siege, shows the immense number of projectiles fired from their 
 batteries, mounting about 200 guns as a maximum. It is of particular interest to the artillery 
 officer, showing the number of rounds fired from each caliber and the periods when they were 
 brought into action. 
 
 *Marslial Vaillant, the French Minister of War, states, in his report to the Emperor, that, on the day of the final assault 
 of the Russian defenses, the armament of the artillery was composed of G20 guns. This excess of 120 guns, over General 
 Kiel's statement, no doubt arises from the Marshal including the armament of the eight redoubts covering the depots at 
 Kamiesch, and in the park of artillery, while General Niel's statement refers to the number in battery before the place. 
 
ART OF WAR IN KUROPE. 
 
 55 
 
 Statement of the number of rounds issued to the batteries in the English trenches each month from 
 the commencement to the termination of the siege of Sebastopol. 
 
 Months. 
 
 October, 1854*.... 
 November, 1854.. 
 December, 1854.. 
 
 January, 1855 
 
 February, 1855... 
 
 March, 1855 
 
 April, 1855 
 
 May, 1855 
 
 June, 1555 
 
 July, 1855 
 
 August, 1855....'.. 
 September, 1855.. 
 
 Grand total ... 
 Unexpended., 
 
 Consumed . 
 
 Mortars. 
 
 114 
 256 
 2,182 
 6,079 
 4,617 
 9,520 
 8,038 
 6,854 
 3,063 
 
 40,723 
 1,378 
 
 39,345 
 
 2,961 
 
 548 
 
 131 
 
 108 
 
 76 
 
 1,421 
 
 4,262 
 
 1,251 
 
 4,133 
 
 8,318 
 
 10,104 
 
 5,363 
 
 38,704.' 
 1,361 
 
 2,047 
 
 2,089 
 296 
 
 4,432 
 1,258 
 
 37,343 
 
 3,174 
 
 426 
 50 
 
 87 
 
 20 
 
 1,467 
 200 
 
 2,829 
 1,049 
 1,688 
 
 7,816 
 2,969 
 
 4,847 
 
 Guns. 
 
 207 
 
 534 
 
 2,920 
 
 1,346 
 
 2,035 
 
 1,076 
 
 14,065 
 3,399 
 
 1,289 
 
 6,276 
 12,305 
 15,709 
 16,495 
 
 2,346 
 833 
 
 1,945 
 
 8,118 
 1,112 
 
 74,662 
 10,382 
 
 310 
 
 1,033 
 
 223 
 
 1,172 
 
 3,176 
 
 11,473 
 
 25,761 
 
 10,564 
 
 7,262 
 
 6,327 
 
 17,827 
 
 2,610 
 
 87,936 
 25,020 
 
 23,191 
 
 3,716 
 
 42 
 
 6,885 
 
 4,961 
 
 719 
 
 156 
 
 360 
 52 
 50 
 
 40,953 
 
 8,746 
 
 483 
 
 1,394 
 
 5,022 
 
 29,131 
 
 58,007 
 
 34,486 
 
 41,492 
 
 27,858 
 
 18,910 
 
 16,041 
 
 39,670 
 5,941 
 
 7,006 64,280 
 
 62,916 
 
 33,729 
 
 462 
 60 
 
 302,523 
 
 49,481 
 
 402 
 
 253,042 
 
 * In addition to this consumption in October, there was the ammunition supplied by the navy for 32-pounders, 8-inch, and 
 68-pounders used during the first bombardment. 
 
 The total of Englisli guns was 911, which fired 253,042 shot, with 2,684,804 pounds of 
 potvder. The propriety of using such an immense number of 8 and 10-inch projectiles is very 
 questionable. Fired horizontally into the earthen parapets, they produced no injury in a day 
 that was not repaired at night with a few shovels, or at most wheelbarrows, full of earth ; and 
 for dismounting the Eussian artillery an 8 or 10-inch gun was no more serviceable than the 
 32-pounder, while the labor of keeping these heavy guns supplied with ammunition broke down 
 their land transport service. 
 
 The French evinced no more foresight and discrimination in preparing for this contest than 
 their allies, notwithstanding their depots were well stored. They considered it sufficient to send 
 from the arsenal at Toulon sixty pieces of artillery. Three supplementary siege trains were after- 
 wards forwarded from Marseilles and Toulon, the first of fifty-eight pieces, the second of forty- 
 eight pieces, and the third of 150 pieces — all of them provided witli from 1,500 to 2,000 rounds 
 each. From 7,000 to 8,000 war rockets, ranging from 5,000 to 7,000 meters, were forwarded 
 with the above. 
 
 Besides the preceding, General Canrobert, finding himself before an open city filled with 
 munitions of war in the hands of skillful engineers and artillerists, drew at once from Constanti- 
 nople 160 pieces, and called upon the fleet for an additional number and of the largest caliber, 
 from which source no less than 605 pieces were obtained during the contest, 238 of which were 
 in battery on the day of the last assault. All this did not suffice to subdue their heroic enemy. 
 
 Before the close of the siege the Emperor Napoleon seems to have concluded that but little 
 could be gained by firing horizontally against earthen intrenchments other than dismounting 
 guns, to which those of the Fiench were equally liable ; and ordered 400 mortars (the English 
 ordered 200 at the same time) to be forwarded from France provided with 1,000 rounds each, 
 calculating to throw over the parapets and into the intrenchments of the Kussians 830 shells per 
 hour. A part only of these mortars arrived in time to be put in battery. 
 
66 • ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 The total quantities of artillery stores that this protracted siege and remarkable defense 
 called for, on the part of the French, and for which sixty guns were supposed to he sufficient, 
 amounted to 1,676 guns of all calibers, 2,083 gun carriages, 2,740 transport wagons, 2,128,000 
 shot and shells, and 8,800,000 pounds of powder. If to this I add the supplies of the English 
 army^ the totals amount to 2,587 guns, 2,381,042 shot and shells, and 11,484,804 pounds of 
 powder. 
 
 The engineers of the United States, when calculating the strength to be given to our national 
 sea-coast defenses_, are apt to take as their guide, as a basis for resistance, the naval power of the 
 jjrincijjal European nations. The immense resources, as shown above, suddenly called into 
 activity in tliis contest with Russia prove a facility for equipping forces beyond former precedent, 
 and to such an extent, as should induce us to renew our study of this problem, and induce the 
 authorities of our country to reflect well upon the consequences of wars with nations that can 
 expend hundreds of millions, and perfect immense naval and military armaments with such 
 remarkable rapidity. We must admit the conclusion that a European power can suddenly equip 
 a large army, transport it on the ocean 3,000 miles, and maintain it in a hostile attitude for a year 
 and more. We are abundantly supplied with all the elements, but in preparation much of the 
 national strength yet remains in its elementary state, growing, it is true, in the proper direction, 
 but very slowly. Most fortunate will it be if the procrastinating delays attending our labors 
 shall not find us less powerful than we should be at the time of testing the value of our defensive 
 works. 
 
 The caliber of the English artillery I have given in a preceding table, showing the consump- 
 tion of ammunition for each. From the official French reports their siege train consumed or 
 fired — 
 
 195,600 balls, from 24-pdr. cannon, or 6.011 inches bore. 
 87,920 balls, from 16-pdr. cannon, or 5.264 inches bore. 
 166,000 howitzer shells, from 22 ct. howitzers, or 8.795 inches bore. 
 78,000 howitzer shells, from 16 ct. howitzers, or 5.958 inches bore. 
 41,000 bombs, from 12 ct. mortars, or 4,745 inches bore. 
 154,350 bombs, from 32 ct. mortars, or 12.799 inches bore. 
 
 13,850 bombs, from 32 ct. sea-coast mortars, or 12.799 inches bore. 
 202,000 bombs, from 27 ct. mortars, or 10.790 inches bore. 
 142,500 bombs, from 22 ct. mortars, or 8.782 inches bore. 
 75,000 hand grenades, or 3.189 inches bore. 
 3,100 rounds of canister, from 24's and 16's, or 
 
 1,159,320 projectiles used by the siege train proper. 
 The unusual and extraordinary calibers used by the French in their siege batteries were 
 drawn from the fleet altogether, and constitute no part of their prescribed siege train. They 
 consisted of — 
 
 8 cannon of 50. 
 
 338 cannon of 30, No. 1. 
 18 cannon of 30, No. 2. 
 6 rifle cannon of 30. 
 
 9 howitzer cannon of 30. 
 71 howitzers of 80, No. 1. 
 17 howitzers of 80, No. 2. 
 
 And 138 pieces of various calibers destroyed, and 140 Turkish guns, not enumerated. 
 These guns from the fleet fired 968,680 shot and shells, but in what proportion per gun or 
 caliber I have no record. It may be inferred that the use of these large guns, both by the French 
 and English, was more a matter of necessity than preconcerted arrangement and choice. Having 
 
AKT OF WAR IN EURO T 57 
 
 little or no siege train in the beginning, ship's guns were first resorted to. Each bombardment 
 rendered many of those in battery at the time useless ; making new calls on the fleet and other 
 sources indispensable from time to time, and to the full extent of their means of supply. And 
 hence this extraordinary use of large guns to dismount the Eussian batteries behind earthen 
 parapets, and a corresponding enormous consumption]^of powder and ball. 
 
 For the infantry of the French army no less than 61,606,869 musket cartridges were pro- 
 vided, being at the rate of 607 rounds per man, of which sixty were carried by the soldier, and 
 the residue in the train. 
 
 Some idea of the labor of the troops may be formed from the extent of the trenches. The 
 artillery of the French army alone constructed 118 batteries, requiring 800,000 sand bags, and 
 50,000 gabions. The manner of using these sand bags and gabions is shown in Figs. 57 a and 
 61. The former is an English battery, where the gabion is used to form the base of a traverse 
 between two guns, the superior part of which is faced with sand bags, which material is also 
 used in this instance for revetting most of the interior of the battery. In Fig. 61 is shown the 
 interior of a French battery. The gabion is used throughout to form the base, surmounted by a 
 row of facincs, and finished above with the sand bags. 
 
 Fig. 54 b shows the manner of putting the gabion in place when under fire of the enemy. 
 It is a cylindrical basket, open at each end, with pointed xapright sticks projecting from the ends 
 to keep them in place and prevent slipping. Starting from some shelter (behind a hill for 
 example) the leading man places one of these gabions in front, between himself and the enemy, 
 immediately after, filling it with earth dug from under his feet, soon covering a place in advance 
 of him with one of these baskets filled with earth. Some additional earth thrown on the outside 
 of the basket j^laces him in a ditch secure from the enemy's infantry and grajje. He puts up 
 another gabion in advance, while other men follow behind, widening and deepening the trench, 
 throwing all the earth on the outside of the gabion, and between themselves and their enemy. 
 It must be understood that these trenches and breastworks cannot be run directly towards the 
 enemy. In such case no shelter would be gained. They are, as a general rule, directed obliquely 
 towards and outside of the enemy's works. After progressing a convenient distance, the direction 
 of the trench is turned to the outside of the other flank of the enemy, thus gradually nearing the 
 point of attack by "zig-zag" approaches. By this slow, systematic, and gradual method did 
 the Allies work themselves up under cover to within twenty-five yards of the Malakofi" or Kor- 
 niloff bastion, and two hundred and twenty-five yards of the salient of the Kedan, preparatory to 
 the final assault. Figs. 58 a, 59 a, 62 a, and 63 show the materials and formation of the Russian 
 batteries and breastworks, similar in general to those of the Allies. 
 
 In all this process a remarkable change has been introduced, during this siege, in the labor 
 of the sapper. In former sieges, and as taught at the military schools, the leading man (and 
 second file, who puts up the gabion, has been protected by a head-piece and breast-plate of metal, 
 musket-proof. In front. and at the head of the sap, the practice was to roll forward, as fast as 
 the work progressed, a large gabion, of six feet in length by four in diameter, filled with facines 
 or other matters to make it shot-proof. These precautions were all thrown aside and abandoned 
 from the commencement or early part of this siege. The whole operation was performed by the 
 sapper, in the dress most convenient for labor and best adapted to the climate, without any other 
 shelter than such as he made for himself with his pick, shovel, and gabion. This resulted, in 
 some measure from necessity, from emulation among troops of difi'erent nations, and from the 
 introduction of the sailor iu the trenches, a character who would naturally throw aside anything 
 that impeded muscular effort and exertion; combined with the inclination of all to throw aside 
 and avoid any unnecessary labor and fatigue where the troops sufl'ered the greatest privations 
 and hardships, not only in the saps and trenches, but even when relieved and returned to camp 
 for a respite. 
 
 The engineer service of the French army constructed no less than forty-nine and three 
 8 D 
 
58 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 quarter miles in length of these trenches in front of Sebastopol, and nine and a half miles in 
 length about Kamiesch and other localities, and 1,251 running metres of mining galleries, 
 some of which were fifty feet below the surface of the ground. This branch of the service used 
 80,000 gabions, 60,000 facines, and nearly 1,000,000 of sand bags, in addition to the quantity 
 used by the artillery previously stated. 
 
 The number of men to accomplish such a laborious task, and at the same time defend the 
 works against sorties, &c., was proportionally great. The French transported to the Crimea 
 309,268 men, and 41,974 horses and mules; of this number they lost by sickness and the enemy's 
 shot, 69,229. The English lost in officers alone 436, of whom 225 were of disease, and 211 
 killed in action, or died of wounds. 
 
 As to the means of transporting all the men, horses, wagons, forage, subsistence, clothing, 
 camp equipage, (including 2,900 portable houses for the French army,) hospital stores, cavalry 
 equipment, and land transport train, with what has been previously enumerated, nothing now 
 in use but the power of the steam engine could have effected the object in the twelve months 
 during which the siege lasted. 
 
 For the first time in the art of war, and during this siege, was the railroad resorted to as a 
 means of transport in presence of an encmi/, and I feel warranted in saying that the English army 
 could not have performed its immense labor without its use. So advantageous was it found, that 
 even after the evacuation of the city of Sebastopol, it was being prolonged by a branch to the 
 camp of the Sardinian army on the Tchernaya, doubtless with a view to ulterior operations 
 against the north side of the harbor. Of the immense supplies of all kinds forwarded from 
 England and France, we are quite safe in assuming it as a fact, that within those countries the 
 transportation could not have been accomplished in time without the railroad. 
 
 A stationary steam engine was used on the railroad from Balaklava to the English depots, 
 at the head of an inclined plane, to overcome a steep grade. 
 
 The supply of bread to the allied armies was attended with extraordinary difficulties, that 
 called for talent and expedients to surmount and overcome. While flour could be transported 
 with accustomed ease, hard bread was foiind to occupy such bulk as to make it impracticable to 
 carry it from the English ports. In addition to which the scurvy, and other diseases, made freshly 
 baked bread very necessary, and the prevalence of cholera rendered it very inexpedient to allow 
 the soldier to make his own bread at the camp fire, even where fuel could be had. This difficulty 
 was finally overcome by the application of steam, and in a way to make it worthy the attention 
 of our commissary as well as quartermaster generals. 
 
 Our practice is to suj^ply several of our distant posts with hard bread, transported by land 
 and water. We make u^j the bread in round or square cakes, and pack it in water-tight casls. 
 Preservation from damp and rain is certainly efi'ected, but great loss arises by the bread becoming 
 pulverized after a transport of any considerable distance in wagons. No form of package could 
 well be devised for packing square or small round cakes of bread worse calculated than the barrel 
 or cask. The void spaces constitute a large proportion of the interior of the package, which by 
 no method can be so filled with bread as to prevent the contents shaking and finally breaking to 
 pieces, much of it even into dust ; and the weight of the barrel is a large proportion of total 
 weight transported. 
 
 The French army is supplied from extensive flour mills and bakeries under a branch of the 
 military service. At Marseilles I visited one of these establishments, and noticed their system 
 of packing. All the bread was made in flat square cakes, of a uniform size, and packed in rectan- 
 gular boxes of such size as to receive a uniform number in width and depth. In these boxes the 
 whole supply was carefully packed by hand, wedging with pieces any interstices that might exist 
 from irregularity of the bread in baking. The weight of the box, when filled, is such that a man 
 can conveniently carry it; and its length, breadth, and depth, are made to suit the transport 
 wagon ; thus securing the greatest weight of bread in the smallest possible compass with least 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 59 
 
 Door 
 
 Door 
 
 Fig. 65. 
 
 weight of package. The boxes were well made, and quite secure against rain and moisture with 
 ordinary care. I can but think these considerations have not sufficiently commanded the atten- 
 tion of the officers of our army charged with these subjects. 
 
 An iron steam ship, called the Abundance, was fitted up as a bakery, in England, and sent 
 to Balaclava. Below deck she was fitted with four ovens of eleven feet deep, and about the same 
 width ; of the same shape and arrangements for heating and regulating as those constructed by 
 us at Forts Hamilton, Wood, and Columbus, in the harbor of Plan. 
 
 New York. These four ovens were placed two in a room, side 
 and side, encased in iron, the arch or top of brick, and the 
 hearths of tile. They were heated with coal from a fire-place (a) 
 on the side of the oven door. (See annexed Fig. G5.) Each oven 
 holds 375 loaves of bread of three pounds, or two rations the loaf. 
 They were worked day and night, with eight men in a room 
 maneuvring two ovens, who labor eight hours continuously, when 
 they are relieved, and rest sixteen hours before going on duty 
 again ; requiring twenty-four men for the two, and hence forty- 
 eight for the four ovens in the ship; baking 18,000 pounds of 
 bread in a day. To effect this, an eight-horsepower steam engine 
 
 is put on the main deck, near the bow of the ship, arranged with tubular boiler and cylinder 
 of eighteen-inch stroke, similar to a locomotive engine, which kneads the dough, and turns the 
 blowers or fans for ventilating the oven rooms, and other places. 
 
 The flour, yeast, water, and salt, are thrown into a trough on the main deck ; from the bottom 
 and end of this trough the mixture passes into a "pug-mill," (Fig. 66,) 
 immediately vmder it, on the lower or oven deck. This mill is three 
 feet one inch diameter on top, slightly conical, and three feet six inches 
 high. In its center is a two and three quarter inch square, upright, 
 iron shaft, upon which is secured eight horizontal knives, or cutters, 
 of fourteen inches long, two and a ^half inches wide, and five eighths 
 of an inch thick on the back. These being turned by the engine mix 
 or knead the dough, as it comes down from above through the trough 
 (b) and passes out on the side near the bottom through a door (c) on 
 the table, where men receive it, form it into loaves, from whence it is 
 put into tlie ovens, after sufficient time has elapsed to allow the yeast 
 to perform its functions. One of these mills suffices for two ovens, or 
 one in each oven room. 
 
 Each oven room, as well as mixing room, has a horizontal pipe running through it of ten 
 inches diameter, at the end of which is a fan worked by the engine, exhausting the air from it 
 near the deck. Through openings into this pipe from the rooms the hot or warm air passes, and 
 is drawn out by the exhausting fan ; while the air of the room is replenished by cool atmospheric 
 air through the hatches. Each of these pug-mills is said to hold fourteen bushels of dough. 
 
 On the top of the pairs of ovens is formed a warm-water tank. The heat from the oven 
 suffices to warm all the water required in the process, and is drawn off by faucets. Cold water 
 is supplied in the mixing and oven rooms, through faucets at command of the attendants. 
 
 The supply of coal is in bunkers of iron, forming the sides of the oven rooms, and is taken 
 from them by a door near the floor made in each bunker. 
 
 The engine uses coke, and not coal. 
 
 After the bread is taken from the oven it is passed up to the main deck, where it is placed 
 in racks, and from thence issued to the land transport corps, on the order of the deputy commis- 
 sary general, who is charged with the whole baking establishment, receiving his requisitions 
 from the chiefs of corps. 
 
 Fig. 66. 
 
60 ^^^^^^^^P^^ART Of'waR EUROPE. ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 
 
 The ship is about COO tons burden, and has on board fifty-two hands for all and every pur- 
 pose. The four ovens, working with perpetual fires, can bake eighteen batches per day each. 
 The engineer of the ship suggested certain alterations as improvements — such as having a hori- 
 zontal i3ug-mill on the main deck, thus dispensing with the mixing trough, and doing all the 
 kneading out of and above the oven rooms. He would prefer putting the small engine for this 
 purpose on the deck, to avoid excessive heat below in the summer time. 
 
 A flour-mill was found advantageous to grind tlie wheat procured on the shores of the Black 
 sea, and without which it would have to be sent either to French ports, on the Mediterranean, 
 or England and returned. For this purpose the screw steamer Bruiser, of about 600 tons burden, 
 was fitted up with a flour mill worked by the engine of the ship, disengaged from the propeller, 
 with steam, regulated by a governor to give a power of about sixteen horses. It is arranged with 
 four pair of burr-stones of three feet six inches diameter, under the middle hatch on the main deck, 
 ranged fore-and-aft. The wheat is deposited in the hold of the ship as a store room, from which it 
 is raised by the ordinary elevator to the main deck, thence horizontally in a trough by a creeper 
 screw discharging into the hoppers over the burrs. From the burrs the flour is conveyed 
 to the bolting cylinder, which is a fine luire vertical cylindrical seive, with an interior revolving 
 brush, rotating with great velocity, that throws the flour to the wire surface of the cylinder, 
 through which the finer particles pass, falling in a box below, while the bran descends to the 
 lower end of the seive, and escapes by its gravity to the outside. The flour is taken up by an 
 elevator and delivered in bags on the main deck, from whence it is conveyed away for use. This 
 mill suffices to grind as much flour as the bakery ship requires from day to day. 
 
 A steam ship was also fitted up for condensing steam from the sea luafer to supply the troops 
 with fresh water. Although I did not see it, favorable representations were made of its efficacy 
 and success. I was informed the Kussians resorted to a similar plan in Sebastopol after the 
 supply by the aqueduct was cut off' by the Allies. The condenser was laid aside by the English 
 at Balaklava, as, from time to time, the supply from springs proved abundant. 
 
 A steam saio-mill was found necessary. It was erected on the land at Balaklava, and con- 
 tinued to work for various purposes a month after the fall of the city and south side. This mill 
 works three circular saws in cast-iron benches. The saws are about three feet diameter and 
 under. They are worked by a portable steam engine, with locomotive boiler. It drives under 
 the same shed one drilling machine, one large and one small turning lathe, two grind-stones, 
 one hay and straiv-cutter lor the land transjjort teams. This shop is provided with three vise 
 benches and tools, with a portable forge. 
 
 A factory ship for steain machine shops was still another indispensable application of this 
 power in forwarding the operations of this siege. The iron screw steamer Chasseur, of 400 tons 
 burden, was fitted up and arranged for manufacturing wrought and some cast-iron work. The 
 machinery is arranged in the hold of the ship. There are two lines of shafting slung or suspended 
 from the main deck timbers, each carrying eight pulleys, with bands, driving counter shafting 
 for machines or tools below. Tlie counter shafting is attached and secured to the main (iron) 
 beams of the lower deck. The ajjparatus consists of one shaping machine, one small drilling 
 machine from one eighth inch to one inch, one foot lathe, one slotting machine, one screw-cutting 
 machine, one small i^laning machine, one large drill or knifing machine, one large planing machine 
 in center of ship, (athwart,) one large gap lathe, with movable frame, one punching and shearing 
 machine, four hand lathes, amidshii^s, arranged fore-and-aft over the keel of the ship, two 
 screw-cutting lathes, one small self-acting lathe, one medium drilling machine, and two smiths' 
 hearths, of two fires each, set up at the forward end of the ship, one on each side. 
 
 The ijower to drive this machinery is a portable steam engine, with locomotive boiler of 
 twelve-horse power. In addition to tlie preceding machines and tools, there are two circular 
 saws driven by the same engine, arranged for saws from five feet down to eighteen inches diameter. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. ■ 61 
 
 One of the saw frames or beds is of iron, and on the epar deck. It will cut timber thirty feet in 
 length, the table being adapted thereto. 
 
 The works are conducted and managed by — 
 
 1 overseer or chief. 
 . 1 master fitter. 
 
 1 master joiner. 
 
 1 master smith. 
 
 4 blacksmiths. 
 
 4 fitters. 
 
 6 joiners. 
 
 4 strikers for forges. 
 
 1 pattern maker. 
 
 1 iron moulder. 
 
 1 iron founder. 
 
 1 brass fovmder, fitter, and turner. 
 
 1 horse-shoe maker and horse-collar maker. 
 
 1 brick maker. 
 
 3 sawyers. 
 
 Making a total of 31 
 
 The engineer and stokers of the ship attend to and work the engine in the workshoj^. The 
 vises and benches are behind the machines, and against the side of the ship ; over these work- 
 benches are shelves for stowing supplies of iron. 
 
 The sliip's propelling engines are two thirty-five horse-power cylinders, working the screw 
 shaft about sixty revolutions per minute. She was built for a collier, and altered to suit the 
 present j^urpose. Shewas moored in the liarbor of Balaklava, near the other factory ships. 
 On shore, adjacent to this vessel, a portable cupola-furnace is erected^ by which castings are 
 made for such cast-iron pieces as may be wanted. The Chasseur is an appendage to the fleet, 
 accompanies it, and is said to have been very serviceable. 
 
 Still another useful and novel application was made of steam power during this siege that 
 contributed greatly to the preservation of the lives of the sick and wounded, for wliich I can but 
 believe the military profession is indebted to the commanding influence of that estimable and self- 
 sacrificing lady. Miss Nightingale. The practice of armies, until lately^ has been to bestow very 
 little study or attention to the wounded immediately after the close of an action. The surgeons 
 of an army constitute a very small minority, and no one believes his lot will throw him in the 
 hospitals. The consequence of which is, that the voice of the medical and surgical branches of 
 the military service commands but little influence and support beyond that given by the few 
 whose duty it is to heal and cure. 
 
 From the time a soldier was wounded to the hour of his being restored to duty or decently 
 interred with Christian rights and ceremonies. Miss Nightingale's influence was experienced, 
 and resulted in numerous improvements, of which a sick and wounded transport ship or movable 
 hospital was one that was well worthy of notice. 
 
 The iron screw steamer Brandon, of 501 registered tons, or 830 tons carpenter's measure- 
 ment, was fitted up exclusively for this purpose. She was arranged with a small ward room, 
 quite forward, for sixteen beds, another further aft with forty-eiglit beds, behind which is the 
 furnace and engine room, and then a third ward to the stern of the ship containing about fifty- 
 seven beds — making in all about one hundred and twenty beds. 
 
 The ward for forty-eight beds is twenty-six feet two inches wide by forty-five feet four inches 
 long, and six feet four inches between the beams and deck. The berths are, in general, arranged 
 
62 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 for two beds side and side. They are seventy-three inches long, fifty inches wide, with a wooden 
 platform or bottom two feet above the floor or deck, with sides and ends six inches high to keep 
 the bedding, &c., in place. Every two berths are separated from each other by spaces of eighteen 
 inches in the clear. The head of the berth is placed against the side of the ship, with a shelf or 
 seat between the pairs. Clothes-pins, about twelve inches apart, are arranged to the timbers 
 over the heads of the berths on the ship's side. Strips of wood, forming lattice frames, are 
 secured to the deck timbers, making a place for knapsacks over each bed. This ward, with 
 forty-eight beds, is provided with a table in the middle of the room, a stove, a bath tub, and two 
 long shelves against the bulkhead. The hatchway is eight feet by eight feet six inches, and 
 must be of such size that a man on a stretcher can be safely and comfortably lowered. Each 
 bed is provided with a man-rope fastened to the deck over the patient, long and near enough to 
 enable the wounded or sick person, when lying down, to take hold of conveniently^ either to assist 
 in turning himself, or for relief in a sea way. 
 
 The sides of the ship are sheathed or ceiled with wood, leaving a clear space for air and 
 ventilation of about three inches between it and the iron of the vessel. Openings of about four feet 
 long and three inches wide are made the whole length of the ward in this wooden sheathing, 
 about four feet six inches above the deck, that may be opened or closed at pleasure. The ward 
 has four circular windows of five inches clear diameter through and on each side of the ship. 
 The hatchway is provided with two step-ladders. The water-closets are on deck, to \. hich all 
 men go who are capable ; others are provided with close stools in the ward. 
 
 One sergeant and ten men are detailed as orderlies or nurses for every 100 sick or wounded. 
 They are taken from the regiments indiscriminately. One of the ten acts as cook. 
 
 No apothecary or hospital steward was provided for this ship on the short voyages between 
 Balaklavaand the general hospital at Scutari. 
 
 The general arrangement of the S''''' "f "»'= ^^'p- 
 
 beds in the ward, with forty-eight 
 beds, is, as shown in the annexed 
 Fig. 67 ; and the same general ar- 
 rangement existed in the others. 
 
 The ship had engines rated at 
 175 horse power, consuming twenty 
 tons of coal in twenty-four hours. 
 They are upon Wolf's i^rinciple, con- 
 sisting of two cylinders, of forty 
 inches diameter, and three feet stroke 
 each, working twenty-two pounds of 
 
 steam expansively, driving a nine foot cog-wheel, working into a four and a half foot pinion. 
 The steam from these two cylinders passes into two cylinders of sixty inches diameter, where it 
 is condensed, working another nine foot wheel, which also works a four and a half foot pinion 
 on the main shaft. These condensing cylinders are also of three feet stroke. Thus combined 
 they make from forty to forty-two revolutions per minute, and, with the gearing, give from one 
 hundred to one hundred and five revolutions per minute of the screw propeller. The boilers are 
 tubular. The sick and wounded transported in this ship (a chartered vessel) are provisioned by 
 the Navy Department, under the captain's management, or occasionally by the owners, and 
 allowed by the government a fixed price per head for a stipulated ration. Extras and hospital 
 supplies are provided by an army surgeon who accompanies the troops. The sick and wounded 
 are brought alongside the vessel in boats. Such as are capable walk on board by a gang-way 
 stairs. The others laying on a stretcher, (to be hereafter described,) a kind of hand-barrow cot, 
 are raised by attaching slings to the four corners of the stretcher. The slings are hooked to a 
 tackle purchase from the jib of an iron crane permanently secured to the deck of the ship, which. 
 
 I 
 
 Hatch. 
 
 -i^S.'i ' 
 
 e~ ~~^''^ — — T^ -.V '^ 
 
 ^ r^ ^^r r^^^T -r^ 
 
 2 S to 
 
 Side of tlie Ship. 
 Fig. 67. Plan. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 63 
 
 overhanging the side of the ship, raises the man free from the side of the vessel, and by turning 
 the crane on its axis, he is lowered on the same stretcher into the ward, where two men stand 
 ready to take hold the handles of the stretcher and convey him to his bed. The whole maneuver 
 was performed with great care and gentleness, securing the greatest comfort to the soldier. Six 
 steamers were thus fitted as hospital ships. 
 
 Here we find that the English army resorted to no less than nine special applications of steam 
 2)0iver to facilitate their operations in this siege ; all of which were devised and put in practice 
 after the contest had commenced, and the absolute necessity for some extraordinary means became 
 manifest. Knowing the advantages of such applications of steam, when the time comes we may 
 profit by this experience, and more successfully by being better enabled to foresee and prepare 
 any or all similar arrangements as circumstances may call for. 
 
 An army can become inefiicient and paralyzed by di-afts made upon the ranks as substitutes 
 for these several applications of steam. The lesson is of value to us, and should not be forgotten. 
 
 The transjjort of artillei'y and cavalry horses on long sea voyages was brought to a remarkable 
 degree of perfection during the Crimean campaign, in both the French and English services. 
 The most perfect arrangements, and which I cannot recommend too favorably, are those intro- 
 duced, and most successfully put in operation by Captain Priest, of the Eoyal Navy, as com- 
 mander of the iron screw steamer Himalaya, of 3,500 tons burden, with 380 horsepower engine. 
 
 Thi^hip was built as a passenger packet, and fitted up for the transport of hgrses for the 
 English army. From the first of June to the middle of October, 1855, she transported 3,000 
 horses ; out of which number only three were lost. The voyages were from England to Balaklava, 
 thence to Kasatch, thence to Kertch, thence to Constantinople, thence Malta, thence Genoa, and 
 thence to Balaklava — all made in the course of four months, and in the warmest season of the 
 year. 
 
 She is arranged with stalls for 200 horses on the spar deck. 
 
 130 horses on the main deck. 
 50 on the orlop deck. 
 
 Making a total of 380 horses carried at a trip. 
 
 The forage is stowed in the after hold. On the spar deck the platforms of the stalls are 
 raised two inches ofi" the deck, to admit of cleaning, draining, and washing. The platform is in 
 sections for every two stalls, and may be shifted. Every eight stalls can be moved bodily by 
 disengaging some fastenings. Every stall is numbered. The platforms or floors are made of 
 elm plank in preference to any other. Between decks four posts of four and a half inches by 
 five inches stuff, secured to the deck below and beams above, at the corners of the stall, form the 
 rectangle within which the horse is placed. They are spaced six feet six inches from front to 
 rear, and two feet three inches to two feet four inches in width. Grooves are formed by nailing 
 battens on the faces of these uprights to admit of two-inch plank, on the sides and ends, which 
 are padded, inclosing the stall. This padding is of cow-hide felt, wherever the horse can reach 
 it with his mouth, and with straw in other places, it being found that the straio stuffing, although 
 well covered by blankets or other woolen material, is discovered by the horse and certain to be 
 eaten if within his reach. (See Fig. 67 a.) 
 
64 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 To the head boards is hung a 
 feed box. The other end of the 
 stall is placed so far from the side 
 of the ship as to admit of a passage 
 between it and the ship, and of a 
 person passing freely to clean that 
 end of the stall ; two feet suffices 
 for this passage-way. (Fig. 67 a.) 
 
 Halter rings are provided in 
 every head post, four feet above the 
 floor, to which the horse's head is 
 secured by a rope halter attached 
 to a canvas head stall. It is neces- 
 sary to have a double halter fas- 
 tened to the halter rings on right 
 and left, to prevent the animals 
 interfering with each other while 
 feeding or at rest. 
 
 Sling eye-bolts are fastened to 
 the deck over the center of each 
 stall, by which the horse is sup- 
 ported with a wide band (No. 3) 
 passing under his belly, whenever 
 his situation requires it, and never 
 done until necessary, it being best 
 to let the animal rest on his feet as 
 long as possible. The size of this 
 sling or belly band is four feet by 
 two feet, with a strong piece of 
 wood sewed in the canvas at each 
 end, keeping it extended. To this 
 attached the slinging ropes, 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Bridle sUnga 
 
 is 
 
 Canvas sllng. 
 
 ■■i X ■ 
 
 of ropes. 
 
 Fig. 67 a. 
 
 formed as a bridle. (See No. 3.) 
 
 The height from the deck to the beams of the spar deck is six feet ten inches. The head 
 board and two side boards are about twelve inches wide ; they ship and unship at pleasure. 
 When the horses are coming on board all these side pieces are disengaged, when the horse passes 
 from the hatchway through this open passage to the most distant stall ; then the side plank is 
 put in place, another horse is brought and placed alongside ; thus filling every stall to the hatch- 
 way by an uninterrupted jjassage. They are taken out in the inverse order, commencing with 
 those nearest the hatchway. In case a horse is sick or disabled, and it is found necessary to 
 move him while at sea from his stall, the feed box is unhooked, the head board is unshipped, and 
 he is taken thence into the narrow passage or gangway separating the rows of stalls and between 
 the feed boxes of contiguous rows. 
 
 Although in this ship the padded tail board was permanently fastened to the upright corner 
 posts, it was considered advisable that it, as the other pieces inclosing the stall, should be made 
 to ship and unship at pleasure, and that stronger stuff than two-inch plank should be used, as 
 the animal is apt to throw his weight back and rest upon it, for which reason the upper inner 
 corner should be well rounded and padded. 
 
 The regulations of the ship, no matter what troops come on board, must be strictly observed. 
 They require that the decks under the stalls be washed daily ; the stalls cleaned after every feed, 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 65 
 
 and especially at seven p. M. ; the men who are on duty to watch and guard the horses never to 
 be allowed to quit their posts unless instantly replaced by a relief, the guard of the stalls send 
 for a non-commissioned officer and farrier when necessary, never leaving to go for them ; nostrils 
 of the horses to be sponged morning and evening ; mangers washed with vinegar and water in 
 the morning and evening ; stalls sprinkled occasionally with solution of chloride of zinc ; feed 
 not to exceed six pounds of corn per day, there being great danger in overfeeding ; feed and 
 water at 6, A. M., 11, A. M., and 5^, p. m. ; all refuse feed to be reported to the non-commissioned 
 officer and farrier: it is an indication of the health of the animal. The ration at sea is about 
 nine pounds of hay to four or five pounds of corn, with bran at discretion. This allowance is 
 found to be abundant on trial. Every eight stalls are provided with a scraper, brush, and shovel. 
 The chloride of zinc is freely used throughout the between decks, as also chloride of lime. 
 
 This ship was officered and manned as follows : 1 commander — an officer of the royal navy, 
 in this instance Captain Priest, to whose kindness I am indebted for all the facts and details here 
 given; 3 lieutenants, 1 master, 1 second master, 2 master's assistants, 1 gunner, 1 surgeon, 
 1 purser, 1 chief engineer, 6 assistant engineers, 4 boatswains, 1 carpenter, 20 royal marines, 
 40 stokers, 20 boys, and GO seamen. 
 
 The organization and discipline of the service is such that a second class boy takes command 
 of the ship before surgeons, engineers, or any civil officer or non-combattant. 
 
 Ample provision is also made for the troops that accompany the horses : sixteen berths are 
 provided in two large state rooms as a hospital exclusively; an apothecary shop, water closets, 
 and a bath room are fitted up adjoining these state rooms. The troop deck is on the same deck 
 as the hospital and apothecary shop, with windows or ports through the ship's side for ventila- 
 tion. On the same deck is a commissariat provision store, a spirit room, a bread room, and slop 
 room, (clothing.) No horses are on this deck. The commander of this admirably arranged 
 transport does not recommend hammocks for the troops ; his experience induces him to give the 
 preference to the troops sleeping on the deck, rolling up their blankets by day. 
 
 The engine of this steamer has two cylinders of eighty-two inches diameter, in which is a 
 trunk of thirty-two and a half inches diameter and three feet stroke, making fifty revolutions 
 per minute. During voyages requiring four months of time she made 2,600,762 revolutions, 
 averaging the entire j^eriod six and a half miles per hour. 
 
 Condensed steam from sea-water is used in part for watering the horses. 
 
 To prevent the inboard pressure of the screw, collars working against hard 'WOOD were found 
 more advantageous than metal. 
 
 The boilers of this ship are arranged along each side, with furnaces opening in a furnace 
 room facing each other and towards the middle of the ship. They are formed of partitions of 
 three-inch water way and three-inch fire flue, • — - — 
 
 Gangway between boilers and ship's side. 
 
 I . 
 SBoilcVs a, 
 
 aiJdUi 
 
 •/UtftS 
 
 S Betlci 
 
 n iTu. ' 
 
 °Iioliri anit 
 ^uf/ifzi'e doors 
 
 placed vertically, with the smoke or fire flue / 
 
 coming together in the common flue a a a, 
 (Fig. 67 b,) communicating with tlie common 
 smoke stack or pipe rising over the center of 
 the furnace room. This arrangement of ver- 
 tical partitions is preferred to tubes, as they 
 never choke with soot. From the furnace floor, 
 up through all the decks, the space h c d e\s 
 open for ventilating the furnace room, for 
 which purpose Captain Priest has abandoned 
 the ordinary wind sail as fallacious in prin- F'g- «' t. rian. 
 
 ciple, and introduced a most simple and highly advantageous arrangement that fulfills all the 
 requisites. To ventilate the furnace he forms from near the floor of the furnace room to the 
 9 D 
 
 SS\ 
 
 'tlej 
 
 fiJui 
 
66 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
 deck vertical spaces or compartments, separated from each other by sail cloth, such that the 
 
 warm air may freely ascend one cohimn and the cold air de- 
 1 '3 scend the other uninterruptedly, not coming in contact with 
 
 I I each other. (See Fig. 68.) For this jnirpose he simply 
 
 I ;| = divides the furnace-room hatchway into three equal spaces 
 
 hy fore and aft partitions of sail cloth, as in the annexed 
 figure, where the heated air from about the furnace, ash jjit, 
 and front of the boiler, ascends by the partition a a, while 
 fresh atmospheric air descends by the adjacent partition h b. 
 He has found this arrangement very satisfactory and conve- 
 nient, working by natural causes, and not as with the wind 
 sail, relying upon the force of the wind to drive a column of 
 air against one that in most cases is ascending from natural 
 causes. The simplicity and efficiency of Captain Priest's 
 design recommends it to all parties interested in steamers 
 navigating warm latitudes. So perfect was the discipline, 
 ventilation, and purification by chlorides, of this sliip, 
 throughout, that it was not possible to discover from the 
 smell that horses had ever been transported in her. One 
 day sufficed to take on board all the animals she could ac- 
 commodate. 
 
 The officer charged with overlooking and inspecting the horse transj^orts in England destined 
 for the Mediterranean recommended, as the result of his experience, the following system as best 
 calculated to land the horses at their destination sound and fit for service : Fasting for some hours 
 before embarkation in all cases where slings are used to get them on ship-board, as the pressure 
 of the slings on the distended belly is apt to injure the animal. When practicable, walk the 
 horses on board by a gangway, as M'ell as from the spar to the lower deck by an inclined plane 
 in the hatchway, which is practicable in some steamers having long hatchway openings. For 
 hoisting on board, a canvas horse sling is preferred to the solid wooden horse box, as more expe- 
 ditious and much less dangerous. In the former case tlie horse cannot injure himself by kicking, 
 while in the latter he may do so against the sides of the box. 
 
 A projjer sling must have a breech band and breast girth ; to the latter should be attached 
 a band passing over the withers to prevent its slipping down below the breastbone. These parts 
 must all be securely fastened to each other and tested by an excess of weight. The danger to 
 guard against is slipping through the slings. When hoisting, no delay should be permitted. 
 It should be done in the shortest time compatible with safety. At the commencement, after a 
 certainty that all is right, it should be done rapidly, to raise the horse off his feet, and free him 
 from surrounding objects before he has time to do any injury by kicking. A guide rope attached 
 to his head collar, and men between decks and at the gangway, must not be omitted. The 
 comings of the hatch as well as stanchions about it should be well padded. As an additional 
 precaution, a head collar should be provided, with a large pad on top to prevent injury should 
 the horse strike his head against the deck beams when lighting on his feet. A bed of straw or 
 sawdust should be provided on the deck upon which to lower the horse ; at which moment four 
 stout resolute men should stand by to prevent his kicking and plunging imtil the slings are 
 removed, and the animal is safely secured in his stall. While one holds him by the head collar, 
 another rapidly unhooks the tackle purchase, and two others let loose the breech and breast 
 bands. At this moment the ship's head collar should be slipped on under the one used in 
 slinging him. 
 
 The horses should go on board and be placed in stalls in the same order as when in their 
 stables, or at picket ropes on land. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 67 
 
 Every horse's shoes should be carefully examined and put in perfect order before going on 
 ship-board, and the hind corkings removed. Hand-rubbing the legs is important for the well- 
 being of the horse under the restraints of a sea voyage, and should be daily practiced. The ship's 
 head collar of canvas, with two strong tarred ropes to each, with a stout throatlatch, is the 
 only reliable halter. They should be tied short, and a supply of spare collars must always be 
 on hand, with canvas and other material to repair them. 
 
 For the first few days feed sparingly, giving bran freely. Never exceed six pounds of oats, 
 half a peck of bran, and ten pounds of hay, with six gallons of water per day, diminishing this 
 allowance as the judgment of the commander of the troops shall prompt. Bran may be given 
 every other day after the horse is habituated to the sea and feeds well. Constipation is the 
 danger to guard against. 
 
 Vinegar should be freely used washing the mangers, horses' mouths, noses, and occasionally 
 their docks, doing so daily in hot weather. Chloride of zinc, chloride of lime, and ground 
 calcined gypsum, (plaster of Paris,) should, one or the other, be frequently used for purifying 
 between decks. The first is the most effectual disinfecting agent, and can be applied with great 
 facility as a solution from a sprinkling pot. 
 
 Ventilation is all important, and cannot be too strictly attended to. If windsails be the 
 only means at command, they must be constantly watched and trimmed to face the direction of 
 the wind. Special attention should be jsaid to having the lower end near the deck to carry down 
 cool air and displace the warm. If the end is allowed to terminate near the ceiling or timbers 
 over head, it serves as a chimney or flue for the ascent of the highly-heated air from the ship, 
 instead of a conduit for cool air down. 
 
 The supply of water on a long voyage requires great attention. An allowance of six gallons 
 per day can be made more than sufficient for many horses, by taking part of it to moisten or wet 
 the hay, oats, and bran before offering them to the horse. 
 
 Horse slings, or more properly hammocks, should be supplied for every horse on board, 
 nothing contributing more to the comfort and relief of the animal, and oftentimes saving him 
 from falling in his stall, and almost as a consequence the loss of the animal, if from weakness, 
 by sickness, or confinement of a long voyage. They should be used in calm or moderate weather 
 only, and never in a rough sea and stormy weather. If slung in rough weather he has no 
 control over himself with his feet to resist any motion, and swings about from side to side, or 
 forward and backward, to his injury. If left to himself' the horse will accommodate his motion 
 to that of the ship, provided that he has the free use of his legs. After standing several days 
 and nights the wearied animal then requires some artificial means of securing rest. Selecting 
 smooth sea, and drawing the slings gently and firmly under him, without taking him off" his legs, 
 the animal soon avails himself of this novel relief. It should be placed in the center of his belly, 
 and there confined by the breast and breech bands. After the horse has learned the use and 
 had the comfort of the hammock, great care must be taken when replacing it. The fastenings 
 must then be attached and secured with great quickness before his whole weight is thrown on 
 the canvas, and relaxation of all the muscles, when, if not supported, he falls in the stall. 
 
 Nose bags should not be used on shipboard. In the confined and heated hold of a ship the 
 animal requires all the air he can get, instead of being deprived of it by eating from nose bags. 
 The movable feed box is a convenient and proper substitute. 
 
 Previous to disembarking let every shoe be examined and secured to the horse's foot. A 
 loose shoe may cause much injury when in the slings. For some days after landing from a long 
 voyage, if practicable, let the horse take his own ease and comfort, giving him a good straw bed, 
 walking him frequently, but never backing him or putting him in traces. 
 
 In our service for disembarkation horses have frequently been forced and thrown overboard, 
 and made to swim ashore. Such a practice never should be permitted. Once treated in this 
 way he can no longer be depended on for fording or swimming streams. 
 
68 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 Fig. 68 a. 
 
 Many arrangements were made by the Allies during this campaign about Sebastopol for 
 moving the wounded from the field of battle to the ambulances, stationed near the columns of 
 attack, thence to the camp or field hospitals, and finally as health permitted to the general 
 hospitals near Constantinople. 
 
 The important elements in effecting this were, first, the earliest possible attention to the 
 wounded on or nearest to the field of battle. Next, the most expeditious means of transport with 
 least number of animals, wagons, and attendants, combining the greatest comfort to the wounded 
 soldier ; and then such means of transport as could be used on any battle field, whether in the 
 bottom of a ditch, on a steep descent of a ravine, over plowed, stony, or other rough ground, 
 still securing ease and greatest comfort to the wounded. 
 
 Never before this siege was so much attention bestowed upon this branch of the military 
 service, and I may be indulged in again referring to the virtues of that good lady, Miss Nightin- 
 gale, as the foundation of power, from which all the new arrangements and ajipliances emanated. 
 Not that she contrived, devised, or was aware of what machines were best suited for these pur- 
 poses. Within sound of the hostile cannon, and even in sight at Balaklava of the battle field, 
 having frequently under her eyes the hundreds, and even at times thousands, of men suffering 
 from wounds of every imaginable part of the body, this lady could well see, and had the power 
 to make known, in a voice not to be neglected, all the requirements of the medical staff. Coming 
 from such a source, public sentiment enforced attention and compliance with her representations 
 and requests. 
 
 The ambulance stretcher is composed of (see 
 
 Fig. 68 a) two wooden frames, the lower one with 
 
 handles, carrying an upper one, secured at one end 
 
 with a hinge (a) and rising slightly towards the 
 
 other, retained in the inclined position by India 
 
 rubber springs at b and c, which are encased with 
 
 spiral steel cases. The bottom of the stretcher is formed of leather and stuffed at the elevated 
 
 end of the wooden frame to form a pillow. Eollers are attached to the under part of the lower 
 
 frame at e e, to facilitate its being shoved in the ambulance wagon from the rear. 
 
 This stretcher is made to convey a wounded soldier from the spot on which he falls to the 
 ambulance dejiot. It is there placed on the supports a (Fig. 70) in the rear of the ambulance, 
 where it serves as an amputating table, or for simply dressing the wound, as the urgency of the 
 occasion demands. With the soldier still reclining upon it, it is shoved into one of the four com- 
 partments, h, c, d, e, of Fig. 69 ; or he takes a seat in another j^art of the ambulance, depending 
 upon the wound, when the stretcher is again carried to the battle field for another hero. 
 
 The carriages and conveyances for transporting the wounded from the battle field to the 
 camp hospitals of the English army were of various patterns, all answering the jDurpose in part 
 or in whole, and in use to test the relative advantages of each. They consisted of: 
 
 First. A four-wheel wagon for ten men, drawn by four horses, with two drivers. 
 
 Second. A four-wheel wagon for seven men, drawn by four horses, with two drivers. 
 
 Third. A four-wheel wagon for six men, drawn by four horses, with two drivers. 
 
 Fourth. A two-wheel cart for seven men, drawn by two horses, with one driver. 
 
 Fifth. Litters on a mule for two men. 
 
 Sixth. Chairs on a mule for two men . 
 
 The ambulance for ten wounded men is arranged to carry four of them on stretchers in the 
 body of the wagon. Six others occupy the forward part on seats, three on each side, with their 
 backs towards each other. (See Figs. 69 and 70.) 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 69 
 
 Gan-racic, &c. 
 
 /^ ^ 
 
 
 ^ ' 
 
 k ' 
 
 
 ^ 21" 
 
 Rear of the ambulance for 
 ten men. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 The hind 
 
 t 
 
 v -A^H-^vWil,'?t!\.^-»'' 
 
 wI23 
 
 70. — English ambulance. 
 
 The rear of the wagon opens, showing four (Fig. 69) apartments of six- 
 teen inches rise and twenty-one inches wide each, to receive stretchers with a 
 wounded man. The stretcher is eighty-seven inches long, including five 
 inches at each end for handles, and twenty inches wide. Some of the ambu- 
 lances were arranged with rollers let into the bottom of the compartments h, 
 c, d, e, on which the stretchers were rolled or shoved forward in the wagon, 
 while others were arranged with rollers on the stretchers, as shown in Fig. 
 68 a. On the top of the two upper compartments is an arm rack, on which 
 the muskets, knapsacks, and accouterments of the ten men can be stowed. 
 
 The carriage is on four wheels, the body supported by four elliptical springs 
 wheels are four feet ten inches, 
 and the forward ones three feet 
 two inches diameter. The six 
 men capable of setting up are pro- 
 vided with cushioned, armed seats, 
 with high backs, and leather straps 
 to each seat to buckle in front of 
 the man, and as an additional se- 
 curity are provided with a foot 
 board. Behind the ambulance at 
 a on each side the wagon is 
 the iron support, on which the 
 stretcher is deiDOsited, that the 
 wounds may receive either dressing or amputation, as the case and urgency may demand. 
 These irons are movable on centers attached to the bottom rail of the wagon, and when not 
 required for use are raised and strapped to the side. The whole carriage is covered with a 
 canvas top, without painty left white to reflect the sun. 
 
 Tlie sides of the stretcher compartments are closed with wire nettings to admit free ventila- 
 tion to the four men in this contracted space. 
 
 A basket is slung under the body between the hind wheels for packs and articles found 
 necessary, and a box is formed under the six front seats for corn or oats for the horses. 
 
 Second. The ambulance for seven men is arranged to carry four 
 on stretchers, precisely as in the preceding one. The ventilation, 
 however, is better, having the upright division between the stretchers 
 of open slats and an iron rod, thus: 
 The sides of these four compartments are arranged with sliding blinds, thus always having the 
 interior space between two lower stretchers open and free for circulation of air, with the means 
 of opening or closing one or both sides at pleasure. This was found very necessary during the 
 winter season in the Crimea. The side blinds are eight inches high on the whole length of the 
 compartment. The other three men are on a seat across the front of the wagon, having a foot 
 board and security straps, and a box for forage under them. This ambulance is also on four 
 elliptical springs, the wheels being forty-nine inches for the hind and thirty-five inches for the 
 fore ones. The height of wheel is preferred to the larger ones on account of the increased facility 
 of getting the wounded in and out. It, like the preceding one, has iron rests upon which to lay 
 the stretcher, to dress or otherwise attend to the wounds before reaching the camp hospital. 
 
 Every ambulance carries a spare elliptical spring lashed to the front of the carriage. 
 
 Third. Another arrangement is for eight wounded men, in a wagon drawn by four horses, 
 with two drivers, (postilions ;) two of the wounded resting on stretchers (same as Fig. 68 a) on the 
 floor of the wagon ; three sit in front facing the horses, and three in the rear facing to the rear, 
 with a foot board outside. This ambulance is of more recent construction than Nos. 1 and 2, 
 
70 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 and considered an improvement. It is provided in the rear and under the tody of the wagon 
 with a small ladder that draws out in length sufficient to reach the ground, when it serves for 
 the men to get on the back seat. It has no arm rack, but is provided with a large square basket 
 slung under the hind wheels for knapsacks, &c., &c. 
 
 Fourth. The fourth wheeled carriage is a cart with wheels of forty-two inches diameter. The 
 body is five feet long and only two feet four inches wide. It has a seat on each side for three 
 men facing outwards, with a foot board outside the wheels. In the body of the cart and between 
 the two side seats is a stretcher, slung with leather straps. Below this stretcher the body of the 
 cart is arranged for medical supplies, instruments, &c. From the rear is an opening to a set of 
 drawers, extending from the rear to within about a foot of the front of the cart body. These 
 drawers are the width of the cart in the clear, there being three of them over each other, divided for 
 bandages and such things as are indispensable on the field. From the front is an opening into 
 a box occupying all the space in the body not taken up by the drawers, which serves for halters, 
 &c., &c. This cart is drawn by two horses and has one driver, the horses abreast, one in shafts 
 the other drawing by an outrigger. It can carry no forage unless the front box be used for oats 
 or barley, which is sometimes done. In all these ambulances no arrangement is made for a 
 supply of water, an indispensable requisite for the wounded. It is always in great demand, and 
 especially by those who may have been left some time on the field of battle without surgical 
 attention. 
 
 The Sardinian ambulance has such a provision, in two rectangular metal boxes or tanks 
 attached to the sides of the body of the wagon over the front axle. These metal boxes are 
 encased in wood to keep the water cool. The water is drawn from the tanks through faucets. 
 The Sardinian ambulance itself is but an ordinary American omnibus^ with seats on each side 
 for six wounded men, who can sit up facing each other. In case they are so wounded as to 
 require stretchers, then one can be placed on the floor and one on each seat. Being drawn by 
 four horses with two postilions, it furnishes but little comfort or accommodation in proportion 
 to the men and horses required. 
 
 Improvements and modifications continued to be made from time to time during the siege, 
 as experience pointed out defects in those in use or suggested additions and alterations. The 
 annexed figures (71, 72, and 73) represent in detail the last modifications and arrangements for 
 a four-wheel ambulance adopted for the English army. The stretcher is the same as those previ- 
 ously used, and the principle is adopted of stretchers for one fourth the number of wounded who 
 require transjiortation, or two stretchers and six seats to the ambulance. Water, a gun rack, 
 receptacle for the soldiers' clothing, accouterments, &c., and drag shoe are provided. 
 
 ENGLISH HOSPITAL WAGON, SEPTEMBER, 1855. 
 WEIGHT COMPLETE, 12J CWT. 
 
 5^ B 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 71 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 DESCRIPTION. 
 
 This wagon is calculated to carry eight men, viz: two in a recum- 
 bent position, three sitting on the seat in front, three in rear. The body 
 of the wagon is suspended by Mr. Fuller's India rubber springs, fitted 
 underneatli, with straps to check too mucli motion. The two cots are 
 fitted with small rollers so that they can be easily run into their posi- 
 tion. They are also fitted with India rubber springs. 
 
 Each wagon carries a nine-gallon cask of water on the fore car- 
 riage, a three-man camp kettle and water bucket slung underneath, also 
 a grease tin and drag shoe. 
 
 A wicker basket is suspended from the top of the wagon to carry 
 the men's knapsacks, &c., and straps on the sides for the muskets; a 
 ladder is fi.Ked to the side of the wagon to enable the men to get in and 
 out of the front seat easily. The fore and hind wheels are of equal 
 diameter, viz: four feet two inches, and the under carriage is in every 
 respect similar to the land transport wagon. 
 
 N. B- Some of the hospital wagons are fitted with steel springs and 
 five-feet hind wheels, but in other respects are similar to this one. 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 There is a peculiarity in the four springs supporting the ambulance body, which here is 
 slung or suspended by four coils of India rubber cord, as shown in Figs, c cZ of Fig. 74. It was 
 considered a good arrangement, more reliable than a steel spring, and renewed with greater 
 facility. Occupying but little space, several spare ones can be carried with each wagon. They 
 are worthy of trial on some of our long prairie and western routes of march towards the Pacific. 
 The plan with transverse and longitudinal vertical elevations (Figs. 71, 72, and 73, with the 
 marginal notes) represent fully all the details and advantages of this last modification for a four- 
 wheel ambulance. 
 
 The wheels of this ambulance conform with all the wheels of the land transport train, an 
 important particular in military equipments and trains ; and although studied and practiced for 
 our artillery, has never, to my knowledge, been attended to by our Quartermaster's Department 
 in a way to make it general and suitable for the whole country. 
 
 The four-wheel ambulance drawn by four horses did not suffice during this siege; it could 
 not approach the enemy's works within gunshot, except at periods of armistice for burying the 
 dead, and then only on a few places where the trenches and zig-zags had not cut up the ground. 
 Nor could it go among many of the hills and ravines where the armies were encamped. 
 
72 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 To obviate, in some measure, these difficulties, the Eaglisli adopted what they called a 
 Maltese cart. (See Fig. 74.) 
 
 FIG. 74. MALTESE CART, FITTED AS AN AMBULANCE, TO CARRY TWO MEN. 
 
 WEIGHT 5} CWT. 
 
 Fig. a. Elevation ^of cart. 
 
 Fig. c. India rubber spring 
 with leather casing. 
 
 '-^^ 
 
 Fir. d. Tndia rubber spring 
 with liuU' of casing removed. 
 
 Fig. e. Flan of cart. 
 
 
 -«- 
 
 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 m=3 
 
 Fig. f. Litter witli side folded down, as shown by dotted lines. 
 
 End view of cart. 
 
 Fig. g. Litter when packed for traveling. 
 
 REMARKS. 
 Two cross pieces are bolted on to the ordinary Maltese cart, one in front the other in rear. To these four iron standards 
 are fixed, from which two boards are suspended by Mr. Fuller's India rubber rings. On these boards two of Mr. Holmes's 
 folding litters are carried. Each litter is furnished with mattress, pillow, canvas hood, and apron. The men's muskets, 
 knapsacks, grease tin, and water barrel for three and a half gallons, are strapped underneath the cart. This cart is fitted with 
 an outrigger and swingletree for a second horse, in case of necessity, and a prop underneath to support the cart in case of the 
 horac fallin". 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 73 
 
 This cart is provided simply with a grated platform suspended with India rubber springs, 
 (c d,) upon which two stretchers are placed. There is a peculiarity in the stretcher, which has 
 permanently-hinged sides and a hood. It requires one horse and a driver for two meia, but has 
 the advantage of going where the four-wheeled ambulance cannot. The cart described as the fourth 
 arrangement is capable of carrying seven men, and would seem to be a better arrangement, 
 although these Maltese carts were being made at the last moment of operations in the Crimea. 
 
 None of these ambulances were found suitable for all cases on the field of battle and its 
 vicinity. The requisites for an ambulance should be such as to adapt it to the battle field, 
 among the dead, wounded, and dying — in plowed fields, on hill tops, mountain slopes, in siege 
 batteries and trenches, and a variety of places inaccessible to wheel carriages, of which woods, 
 thick brush, and rocky ground, are frequently the localities most obstinately defended, and 
 where most soldiers are left for the care of the surgeons. These difficulties were felt in a great 
 degree by all the armies allied against Eussia in the siege of Sebastopol, and the consequence 
 was that the English, French, and Sardinian armies adoj^ted finally, in part or altogether, 
 pack mules, carrying litters or chairs. The careful and sure-footed mule can wind its way over 
 any road or trail, among the dead, dying, and wounded, on any battle field, as well as in the 
 trench and siege battery. It required but suitable arrangements to support the wounded from 
 the mules or horses' back to attain the desired object, and this the allied armies finally 
 accomplished and put in practice. The merit of the plan renders it worthy our consideration, 
 particularly so in our Rocky Mountain and other distant expeditions. 
 
 There are some diiferences in the details of construction of the litters and the chairs used 
 by the armies in the Crimea. 
 
 The English litter (Fig. T5) 
 is made of a iurou(/Jd-iro7i frame 
 in three lengths or parts, the cen- 
 ter one being fastened to the jjack- 
 saddle and the other two hinged to 
 it, one opening towards the head 
 and the other towards the tail of 
 the animal. The center part is two 
 feet three inches long, having on 
 its inside rail two eye-bolts project- 
 ing far enough to enter eyes on the 
 frame of the saddle, through which 
 a bolt extends, thus securing the litter to the pack-saddle, admitting its folding up against the 
 animal. 
 
 The part opening towards the head of the mule or horse is one foot ten inches long, with a 
 foot-board rising six inches at the end nearest the animal's head. This foot-board is hinged 
 to the frame, folding, when not in use, flat in the plane of the frame, or retained at any 
 convenient elevation as a foot-board by a stop on the back of the hinge joint. 
 
 The head frame is also one foot ten inches long, and hinged to the center one on the inner 
 and outer rail. Its inclination is variable, to suit the comfort of the wounded soldier, and may 
 be either erect as the back of a chair or inclined with any angle for a pillow. This inclination 
 is regulated by a leather strap attached to the saddle on the inside, (o,) and by a similar strap 
 (p) to a standard on the outside of the middle frame. The center frame has on its outside two 
 standards (h, i) of iron rising twelve inches above the frame, one attached to each end of it. 
 They are secured by a hinge admitting their folding towards each other. 
 
 To put a man on this litter, he is brought to it on a stretcher. The two twelve-inch 
 standards (A, i) are folded down to the rail, when he is lifted on the stretcher and placed on the 
 sacking bottom of the litter. The standards are then raised vertically, the side straps (o, p) 
 10 D 
 
74 
 
 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 attached to tlie head frame adjusted, as also straps from the saddle (r, r) to the head of each of 
 these standards across and over the man. 
 
 The whole arrangement, with mattress, oil-cloth cover to protect the soldier from rain, pack- 
 saddle, and two litters, one for each side, weighs 142 pounds. The head frame is arranged with 
 a canvas hood on a set of iron wires, adjusted 
 to a common center as a gig top, to protect the 
 man's head from the sun and weather, and sup- 
 ports at the same time the oil-cloth cover that 
 extends over his body and legs. When not in 
 use the foot-board a folds down on the sacking 
 bottom as dotted in Fig. 75. The frame b folds 
 over on the center one, (c,) turningon the joint rf. 
 The head frame folds in like manner on the 
 center by the joint e. The two uprights h i fall 
 or turn on the centers kl, in a line with the 
 side rail, when the whole folds up against the 
 saddle, turning on the attaching bolt ?i. The 
 annexed section (Fig. 76) of a litter on each 
 side of the animal shows the attachment of the 
 iron frame of the litter to the pack saddle by 
 the bolt n, the standards h or i, and the straps r r 
 from these standards to the pack saddle. 
 
 Another form of pack-saddle litter much used by the French army is a wrought-iron chair. 
 It answers the jiurpose equally as well as the one previously described for all men wlio.se wounds 
 enable them to sit up. As in the former case, there is one on each side of the animal, the men sitting 
 face to the front. This chair is arranged to hook on to the pack-saddle, and when disengaged the 
 saddle is perfect for any other tranisport for the medical department. This arrangement is import- 
 ant. These chair litters maybe carried in wagons of the train, and used immediately after an action, 
 hy horses or mules of the train not then at work. The seat (Fig. 77) is a square bottom formed of 
 hoop iron, covered with a leather cushion. The outside arm (a a) 
 is hinged to fold down on the seat^ and with the latter folds up 
 against the pack saddle when not in use. It is provided with a 
 back strap {h) from the outer arm to the inner one, and a similar 
 strap (t) to prevent the man falling out. The inner arms form- 
 ing the side of the chair next to the animal are terminated with 
 hooks, by which the chair is suspended to the pack saddle. It is 
 provided with a foot-board suspended from the front rail of the 
 chair by leather straps which, with buckles, may be shortened or 
 lengthened at pleasure. One hundred and sixteen chairs and 
 litters were in use, and sufficed to transport all the wounded from 
 the sanguinary battle field of lukermann in a very short time 
 after the action terminated, proving very satisfactorily that they 
 combined greater advantages than any previous arrangement. 
 
 The objection to the English litters and chairs is the difficulty of lifting and placing a 
 wounded soldier in them. He cannot, in a variety of cases, be lifted on the litter attached to the 
 animal without subjecting him to great bodily pain. Broken bones and severe wounds called for 
 a modification of litters permanently attached to the saddle. The Sardinians and French made 
 such an alteration as overcame these difficulties. It consisted in making the uprights /i i 
 (Fig. 77) of wood, extended about si.x inches below the bottom of the chair, and in like manner 
 prolonging the iron inside frame, thus forming legs to set it on the ground, where the wounded 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 75 
 
 man is placed in it, when the whole is raised and attached hy the hooks to the pack saddle. 
 Both the litters and chairs of the Sardinians and French were thus made, and, like the English, 
 capahle of folding together against the side of the animal. 
 
 I witnessed the transport of 196 sick and wounded French soldiers with their arms, accouter- 
 ments, and knapsacks, on the route from the Tchernaya to Kamiesch Bay on these litters and 
 chairs. Fifty-two of them were on twenty-six mules in the horizontal litters and 144 seated in 
 chairs on seventy-two other mules. A driver was provided for every two mules or four wounded 
 men. The appearances, with such an examination as I gave the whole equipment, were so 
 favorable as to recommend it for trial in our service. To make the system l)etter understood I 
 annex two additional figures (78 and 79) showing the animal, the equipment, and position of the 
 soldier, for which compilation and drawing I am indebted to Professor Weir. 
 
 The temporary slielter for the sick and wounded in the field did not differ materially from 
 the hospital tent in use for our troops. The severity of the climate made it necessary to provide 
 more durable and comfortable apartments than could be formed of canvas for the general field 
 hospital during the winter. 
 
 For this purpose the ridge of high ground immediately east of the entrance into the harbor 
 of Balaklava, facing the sea, was selected by the English. The Sardinian hospital was on the 
 western slope of the same hill. In the first position the English erected a line of huts for officers 
 and men. They were inclosed with rough weather-boarding on scantling of three inches by four 
 inches, and floored with plank, without interior ceiling of any kind, and not unlike in construc- 
 tion, our temporary railroad shanty, except in uniformity, all of them being precisely alike. 
 
 Every man was provided with a bunk of wood or iron, a mattress, sheets, blankets, and 
 pillow. In the center of each apartment or hut was a table, on which is always to be found a 
 supply of lint, bandages, adhesive plaster, and other dressings for wounds. The bunks are 
 arranged on each side the hut, head to the side of the building, witli a space of about three feet 
 between them. The doorway is inclosed with a stormbreaker, part of which is partitioned off for 
 the orderlies in attendance night and day upon the inmates. 
 
 The cooking is all done in a building at one end of the row of huts in a set of kettles. Three 
 cooking-stoves, in addition to the large kettles, had been recently put up in the same hut on the 
 recommendation of that artistic cook, Soyer. In an adjacent hut a brick oven and some stew- 
 holes, formed in masonry, were being constructed. The oven was heated by a fire on the floor 
 or hearth. 
 
 The surgeons occupy adjacent huts. A Protestant and Koman Catholic clergyman were in 
 constant attendance. The supplies are furnished on the same general system as at the general 
 hospital at Scutari, to be hereafter described. 
 
 Whenever the health of the invalid justified, he was sent on board one of the transport hos- 
 pital ships to Scutari, or England, as his condition made necessary. It was in the extreme 
 eastern hut at this locality that I had the pleasure of paying my respects to the lady whose 
 influence, in a great measure, commanded these comforts for the soldier. Her apartments and 
 building were no better than the hospital huts. They were, however, like every building over 
 which she extended her benign influence, distinguished for perfect neatness, method, and order 
 throughout. As an American soldier I thanked her for the beneficial influence she had awakened 
 in behalf of the medical branch of my profession. In reply, she hoped the sufferings of the 
 soldier had been alleviated, but disclaimed any merit for the part she had taken. The soldier of 
 every nation can find cause to honor and respect Florence Nightingale. 
 
 The transportation of medical suj^plies, surgical instruments, and hospital stores, both for 
 the field as well as general hospital, was of equal importance, as the arrangements for moving 
 the wounded. All the armies engaged in this war had to reorganize this branch of their service. 
 
 The English organized a " brigade for hospital conveyance," which was new in personnel 
 and materiel. Its train consisted of twenty carts, five store wagons, one forge cart, and one cart 
 
76 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 for stores and portable forge. The carts were for two horses, one in shafts, and one attached to 
 an outrigger ; two other horses could he attached in case of necessity. The wagons were for four 
 horses. This organization was for two divisions of their army, composed of six regiments each. 
 The principle aimed at was so to arrange the entire ambulance train as to accompany any arm, 
 that wherever a gun could go a spring cart should be able to follow. 
 
 The whole of this train was under the staff surgeon of the division ; none of the wagons, carts, 
 horses, or drivers being subject to the orders of any other department, except with the authority 
 of the general of division, who best knew when to break up or sacrifice any part of his entire 
 means of transport. This is a provision worthy of our attention. The details and requirements 
 of this branch of the service should not constitute a part of the general transport service of the 
 arni}^, as heretofore has been the case in our service. No person can so well preserve the efficiency 
 of the surgical and medical apparatus as he who best knows its uses. 
 
 The conveyance cart runs on two wheels corresponding in size with those of the artillery 
 gun carriage. It is covered with canvas, painted white, curtains of the same material all round, 
 and an apron attached to the foot-boards before and behind. Under the front seat is a small chest 
 containing two sets oi iron splints in boxes, a small box of surgical stores and medicines, with 
 leather straps for convenience of handling, an oil lantern, pickets and picket ropes, a pick-ax, 
 spade, hand-saw, a bag with hammer and nails, two brass cocks for water tanks, and four horse- 
 shoes. It also carries ten stretchers or bearers, with appropriate slings, two ten-gallon water 
 casks under the axle, a filter in a wicker case, and sling, capable of clarifying fifty gallons of 
 water in twenty-four hours, (weighing eighteen pounds,) with a funnel and a pint drinking cup ; 
 also a water bucket for the horses, and camp kettle for three men, and a box with mess furniture. 
 Two spare springs and a spare axle are carried for every three carts in the store wagons. 
 
 Ten of these carts have round tops or covers, with seafe inside for sixteen men — that is, three 
 in front, three in rear, and ten in the middle. 
 
 Ten others have flat tops, carrying two bearers on vulcanized springs, and rollers on the 
 floor of the cart, and nine persons before and behind — making in all eleven persons. A twelfth 
 may be slung on a bearer from the roof. Side seats on hinges are provided in case the bearers are 
 not required. 
 
 On drawing out two iron supports at the end of each cart, the front seat, which is movable, 
 makes a table, when placed upon them, for operations or other purposes. All the carts are 
 numbered 1 to 20, and marked "Hospital Conveyance Carts." The muskets, knapsacks, and 
 accouterments are to be carried below the carts^ the barrels of water and stores being left at the 
 field hospital while the carts are conveying the wounded to the depot or regimental hosi^ital. 
 The faucets for the water tanks are provided with movable keys to i^revent waste and any other 
 use of this indispensable comfort than for the wounded. 
 
 The five store wagons are mounted on two sets of springs — one of steel and the other of 
 vulcanized India rubber ; when not in use transporting stores, they then become useful in trans- 
 porting the sick and wounded. When empty they weigh sixteen hundred weight each, and 
 carry stores amounting in weight to twenty-seven hundred weight — making the wagon and load 
 'forty-three hundred weight for four horses. 
 
 These wagons are lettered A, B, C, D, and E, and marked on the side "Hospital Store 
 Wagons," the letters being indispensable, as each wagon is provided with its sjDecial sup2)lies, 
 known by inventories, with which every attendant is familiar. The boxes, bales, tents, &c., 
 in these wagons, as well as the packages in the carts, are all locked or secured, and the keys 
 aflixed to or upon them, and the contents of each is painted or printed on the covers or lids in 
 two places, to be seen from either side of the wagon, or wherever it may be. 
 
 The personnel for this train consists of one sergeant-major, four other non-commissioned 
 oflicers, and sixty-nine drivers^ making a total of seventy-four, which gives the smallest admis- 
 sible number of supernumerary drivers. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 77 
 
 On the marcli tlie staff surgeon of tlie division has attached to him a horse or mule, with 
 pack-saddle and two panniers, containing a case of " capital instruments " and a small supply 
 of medicines and surgical instruments for immediate use. For regimental use, two panniers of 
 basket work, each 13" x 15" x 26", are provided, one for medicines and the other for instruments. 
 These are transported by mules on pack-saddles. Boxes containing regulated supplies for a 
 detachment less than a company are also provided for contingent service, at small posts where 
 but few men can need medical care. In other European armies, a soldier in each regiment on 
 a march carries two small leather boxes attached to his waist belt, about the size and resembling 
 the cartridge box. These will be described hereafter. 
 
 The store wagons A, B, C, have four cases in each, adapted for transport on pack-saddles. 
 Number 1 contains a supply of medicines and surgical apparatus. Number 2 contains nitric 
 acid, sulphuric acid, and perchloride of iron. Number 3 contains medicines and surgical appa- 
 ratus. Number 4 contain splints, arm slings, gutta percha sheets, straw splints, and Guthrie's 
 Commentaries on Wounds. These same wagons A, B, C, each contain bedding, tents, air beds, 
 cooking kettles, mess furniture, towels, bed pans, close stools, urinals, candles, matches, ax, 
 thread, needles, sugar, tea, brandy, and other articles of like necessity. 
 
 The wagon D carries marquees, officers' tents, four bales of bedding, and three bundles or 
 thirty-six water decks, (sacks for water beds, or India-rubber sheets.) 
 
 The wagon E contains the same articles as in D. Each of the five store wagons contains 
 sets of horseshoes and nails, grease, spare washers, linchpins, India rubber springs, screw- 
 wrench, &c. 
 
 The forges have each a sack of coals and set of farrier's tools. 
 
 In the United States the supplies of medicines vary with the climate, and differ materially 
 from that for European armies. I have, in consequence, omitted giving other particulars of the 
 contents of the different boxes in the different wagons and carts, which information can be 
 furnishedj if desired. I did not succeed in obtaining such details of these conveyance carts and 
 store wagons as will enable me to give any other particulars of their construction than here 
 stated. 
 
 The French hospital-stores wagon is on a model designed specially for this campaign in the 
 Crimea, resulting from experience with others somewhat similar, used in Algeria, since 1845. 
 
 Fig. 80 shows the general exterior arrangement, on a vertical plane, of the wagon body, 
 which rests on four elliptical steel springs. 
 
 Fig. 80. FRENCH HOSPITAL-STORES WAGON. 
 
78 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Figs. 81 and 82 represent elevations of the front and rear, thrown open, showing the sub- 
 divisions for baskets, boxes, and drawers, at the ends of the wagon. 
 
 Fig. 83. Back of the wagon. 
 
 Fig- 81. Front of the wagon. 
 
 A.... 
 
 ^( 
 
 Blanhr, j^fooo^.o^i ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ,! Ba%\,c\ No. IS 
 
 j BasUct No. 16 i 
 
 
 
 1 1 1 IK'-l 
 
 
 i Bttslct No. 7 
 
 ^-'A- -- 
 
 Bashci Ko. 6 i 
 
 
 
 — ^T ra ^ 
 
 
 BamtNol 
 
 
 b-i i;<i 
 
 
 S 1 
 
 ....B 
 
 ....D 
 
 Ql 
 
 Apparatus \ 
 
 i£. 
 
 JL 
 
 Case Mt H 
 
 i-i 
 
 JAflarn'MS 
 
 
 -.B 
 
 Figs. 83 and 84 represent the subdivisions as seen on the right and left sides of the wagon 
 
 body. 
 
 Fig. 83. Left hand side of the wagon. 
 
 Fig. 84. Right hand side of the wagon. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 79 
 
 Figs. 85, 86, and 87 are plans of the top, middle, and bottom^ on different planes passing 
 horizontally through the body of the wagon. 
 
 Fig. 85. Section through A B. 
 
 k 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ e(Me.JVo2l 
 
 X-fii 
 
 Basket Mo 20 
 
 <¥ 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 -i 5^ 
 
 <- Basket; Uo/S 
 
 ,.'■ /2L-. — . 
 
 ! Basket fill li 
 .: fl/&j . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ; fa, 
 
 ; Baskel' ^'o// 
 
 ■ . "A 
 
 i Basket/VvIS 
 J....'//i, 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 .... — ./<,//, 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 ■■f 
 
 
 
 Fig. 86. Section through C D. 
 
 
 
 
 
 k 
 
 
 
 
 v^ Basket No. 12 
 
 [ .u,_ 
 
 S5 Basket No. 10. 
 J ify. 
 
 > 
 
 Basket 8. 
 
 ....'/si 
 
 ~^ Cisket 6. 
 ...: % 
 
 
 
 
 ....... jUJ 
 
 ; / 
 
 i ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 ~* Basket No.l3 
 
 : Basket No. 11. 
 
 
 Basket No. 9. 
 
 '>^ Basket 7. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -| C,^.2— 
 
 
 'M 
 
 ■-! % 
 
 
 isi 
 
 '■■ °/e3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 87. Section through E F. 
 
 [^ 
 
 Basket No. 4. 
 -^K- 
 
 Basket No, 3. 
 
 9^0- 
 
 ^ 
 
 Basket No. 5. 
 
 : ^ 
 
 -Oy'iS- 
 
 -fiS 
 
 Fig. 88 is a plan of the exterior of the top. 
 
 Fig. 88. Plan of the top or exterior. 
 
80 
 
 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fl". 89. MODEL OF A CAMP BEDSTEAD FOR THE AMBULANCE TRAIN. 
 
 •^^ 
 
 Transom with the legs folded. 
 
 Transom with the legs opened. 
 
 SOP 
 
 llinse of tho 
 Huh: mil. 
 
 Side mil. 
 
 1°°^^:°°! "\ 
 
 Fig. 90. NEW MODEL OF THE PACKING CASE. 
 
 An examination of the numbers on the different figiires, which indicate the corresponding 
 basket, box, or drawer, will sufficiently explain the whole interior arrangement, and the 
 dimensions of each compartment will serve to give a correct idea of the size of the whole. The 
 various compartments are designed to hold supplies for two thousand men in a European cam- 
 paign. Five of these wagons are provided for a division of ten thousand infantry. 
 
 Each apartment is packed to hold when full a regulated allowance of the following articles: 
 
 Basket Nos. 1 and 2, linen lint. 
 
 Basket No. 3, olive oil in tin cans, lamp oil in tin cans, alcohol in two bottles, vinegar in 
 two bottles, liquid acetate of lead in a bottle, solidifiable mixture in a bottle, a box of sea salt, 
 
ABT OF WAR IN EUROPE. 81 
 
 assorted corks, a wrought-iron tinned saucepan, a marble mortar with boxwood pestle, a bone 
 and strap, both in a case, a syringe, and two sucking bottles. 
 
 Basket No. 4 contains a bidan, (saucepan,) candlesticks, soup spoons, soup cups or bowls, 
 a skimmer, goblets, lantern for candles and one for oil, ptisan pitchers, a broth pail, kitchen 
 knives, a field pot, hanger and hooks, meat forks, two wrought-iron tinned kitchen pots, and a 
 bag of tools. 
 
 Basket No. 5 contains large pieces of linen for wouads — as slieets, stuffed cushions for 
 wounded, arm slings, trusses, carded cotton in a bag, strips of pasteboard, three bags of 
 groceries, cord, twine ; ivire fracture apparatus for tliighs, legs, arms, and forearms ; assorted 
 splints for fractured thighs, legs, arms, and forearms, and right-angled splints; packing needles; 
 small pallets. 
 
 Basket No. 6 contains sheets of large linen for wounds. 
 
 Basket No. 7 contains linen lint, and curled horse-hair in a bag. 
 
 Numbers 8 to 13 contain, each, large linen for wounds, assorted roll-bandages, small linen 
 for wounds, bandages of assorted sizes and compresses of assorted sizes, perforated compresses, a 
 bundle of rags, and linen lint. 
 
 Box No. 14 contains sets of surgical instruments, each with rolled bandages, assorted com- 
 presses, perforated compress, lint, syringe, box oi appareils, coverings for dressings, small square 
 phials, cupping glass, capsules, sponge, adhesive plaster, punk, and pins ; large prepared linen 
 for body bandages, square and T bandages, triangular bandages, slings, suspensory bandages, 
 small linen perforated compresses, needles in a case, pins, fine sponges, sewing thread, ligature 
 thread, and tape. 
 
 Basket No. 15 contains the same as Nos. 8 to 13. 
 
 Basket No. 16 contains sail-cloth bags with draw string fastenings, four of them containing 
 rolled bandages, assorted compresses, perforated compresses, and lint. 
 
 No. 17 contains the same as Nos. 8 to 13. 
 
 No. 18 contains large prepared linen ; bandages for thighs, legs, arms, and forearms ; 
 stuffed cushions for wounds of the thigh, legs, arms, and forearms ; right angle splints, and 
 small pallets. 
 
 No. 19 contains strips of pasteboard, linen lint, and two sets of surgical apparatus, the 
 same as in No. 14. 
 
 Box No. 20 contains an assortment of medicines, assorted phials, earthern pots, male 
 catheter, stomach tube, small spatula, scales and weights, cork, (broches,) an amputating and 
 trepanning case, a box of extra amputating knives, knives Nos. 2 and 4 each in a separate case, 
 box of gum arabic, sugar, wax, adhesive plaster, a box of paper, quills, pencils and penknives, 
 soap, aprons for surgeons and attendants, coarse and fine towels, inkstands, candlesticks, tinder 
 box, lantern for candle, needles in a case, sewing thread, carded cotton, and three sets of 
 surgical apparatus, as in No. 14. 
 
 Box No. 21 contains large prepared linen for body bandages ; square, T, and triangular 
 bandages, slings, suspensory bandages and perforated compresses, small linen, needles in a case, 
 pins, sponges, sewing thread, ligature thread, and tape. 
 
 On top of the wagon is a case containing gray blankets, sets of leather straps for litters, 
 suspending straps, litter pole handles, a i'rame for the litter poles, an operating table with a back, 
 a spade, an ax, a pick, a bill-hook, a hand saw, and padlock to secure the interior of the wagon. 
 
 The Perforated Compress, or bandage, I understand to be a new application in surgery, and 
 so highly prized by the French surgeons as to be worthy special description. (See annexed 
 figure.) It is packed in cases numbered 8 to 13, 14 and 19, making it most accessible at all times, 
 and in combination with various sets of surgical apparatus. A sample of it was obtained by 
 me from the military hospital at Strasbourg, and I learned it was in general use in the French 
 service. It is a bandage of soft unbleached linen, of about forty-two threads to the square 
 11 D 
 
82 
 
 ART OF ^AR IX EUROPE. 
 
 inch, foldeu in seven thicknesses or layers to a uni- 
 form width of two and one eighth inches. Thus folded 
 it is perforated through and through with holes of five 
 thirty seconds of an inch diameter, in rows across the band- 
 age, alternating six and seven holes in a row, so arranged 
 that the holes in one row are opjjosite the spaces of the 
 other, the rows being five sixteenths of an inch from each 
 other, (center to center.) This compress was not known 
 in the charitable hospitals of our country on my return 
 from Europe, and not in use by the surgeons in any of 
 our military hospitals, so 'ar as I can learn, and to whose 
 consideration I beg leave to present it. 
 
 A camp cot or bedstead is a necessary appeuda e 
 to the ambulance train and field hosp tals. Ti.e Ei g- 
 lish do not appear to have devised any specially for this service. Tlie extraordinary num- 
 ber required for the field hospitals before Sebastopol, compelled both the French and English 
 to make use of their permanent hospital bedstead. The French ambulance cot is in part shown 
 in Fig. 88, prepared for transportation on top of the hospital store wagon. In Fig. 89 I have 
 shown the details of its construction. The side pieces or rails are in two equal parts, jointed 
 with an iron hinge to fold together. The head and foot transoms have openings at each end, 
 through which the ends of the rails are passed, forming a rectangular frame. The sacking 
 bottom, formed of strong sail-cloth, is permanently secured to both the head and foot transom, 
 and its sides sewed with a large hem or fold admitting and firmly encasing the side rails. The 
 transoms have iron legs, centred with a pin to admit of being opened out for use, or folded up in 
 a line with the transom. The sacking bottom is kept extended by leather straps secured to the 
 rails, buckling into a staple on the end of the transoms. For transportation the tranisoms are 
 rolled xip in the sacking bottom, the side pieces are folded in half on the hinge joints when the 
 whole is inclosed in a tarpaulin envelop. For transport on pack saddles they are arranged five in 
 a pack, including blankets, as shown in Fig. 90. The weight of this camp bedstead is unknown. 
 
 A camp cot was devised for the ofiicers 
 of the English army that appears well 
 suited for the above purpose. I used one 
 of them while in camp in the Crimea, and 
 consider they possess advantages that may 
 make them acceptable to my brother ofiicers, and are worthy the consideration of the Surgeon 
 General's Department. (See Figs. 91, 92.) The side pieces or rails are round, about two inches 
 
 diameter, in three equal parts, united by metal socket-joints. The 
 sacking bottom, of strong sail-cloth, is sewed at the sides with a fold, 
 large enough for the rails to pass through and become closely encased. 
 Three sets of cross legs, permanentlj' centred with iron pivots, have 
 their upper ends (Fig. 92) formed witli a tennon, that enter mortises 
 in the side rails, openings therefor being made in the sacking bottom 
 near each end and in the middle. Cords are attached to the head of 
 the legs at a, pass down and fasten to the foot of the other leg at b, 
 keeping them extended, pressed into the mortises in the rails, and stretching the sacking bottom. 
 This arrangement of a camp cot, is light, strong, and put together in a few minutes ; when 
 apart, the two rails form six pieces of equal length, tlie three pairs of legs each fold together in 
 a line, these are rolled up in a sacking bottom, the pillow and blanket rolled outside, and the 
 whole encased in a painted canvas cover, secui-ed with straps sewed on the oil-cloth, or by a cord 
 and eyelet holes in the canvas. Thus put up, it is convenient for transport either in the hospital 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 83 
 
 store wagon, or on pack mules. An India rubber sheet accompanies the bedding, preserving the 
 latter from rain, and in case of its being occupied by a wounded officer or soldier secures increased 
 cleanliness. 
 
 The Russian hospital-stores wagon differs from that of any other army, possessing merit in 
 its adaptation to their country and its roads. It is a nearer approach to the dispensary of the 
 military hospitals — instead of the articles being packed in boxes or cases that must be removed 
 from the wagons to be accessible, they are arranged in drawers and boxes, on shelves and tills, 
 all open to view and to be at once handled for use by opening the exterior door and drawing 
 out the cases or apartments in which they are secured for transportation. 
 
 Two wagons are, however, needed in this system to contain all the articles required by the 
 surgeon. Each wagon is mounted on four elliptical springs, and fitted with a pole for four horses 
 corresponding with their artillery equipment. 
 
 Fig. 93, Nos. 1 and 2, represent the body of one of these wagons, the articles being contained 
 in apartments accessible by opening two doors in the rear of the wagon, one on each side, and 
 two drawers and a door in front. The four compartments {a, h, c, d, No. 1,) are closed by a 
 single door 3' U" inch wide by 21" high, hung on the lower edge to the rail of the wagon body, 
 with stops to hold it in a horizontal position, when it can be used as a table. These four 
 compartments extend half across the wagon, and the opposite side is arranged in like manner. 
 
 The door closing the lower part of the rear of the wagon is hung on the upper line, (n,) with 
 a brace to hold it in any po.sition when raised, forming a shelter from rain or sun. The upper 
 part is formed in two large closets, one having a door from the rear, hinged and falling on its 
 lower edge, and the other from the front hinged in like manner, behind the driver's seat — making 
 in all eight compartments on the sides, four long drawers behind, and a closet front and rear. 
 
 Fig. 93. EUSSI.AN HOSriT.'VL WAGON, No. J. 
 
 1. S;de view. 
 
 -.-d 
 
 >i {a DRAWER 2 trD£i:P': 
 
 ^ Si 
 
 .i'i 
 
 . 37^':.. 
 
 2. End view. 
 
 No. 2, of Fig. 93, represents the end or rear of the wagon. 
 The closet above the four drawers is of the depth of the 
 latter. The drawer handles are let into the face of the drawer, 
 folding flush with its surface by a hinge. They are all placed 
 below, the better to command the weight within. 
 
 Fig. 94 (Nos. 3 to 16) represents the body of the second 
 wagon, the contents of which are accessible by raising the top, 
 a double door on each side, two drawers in front under the 
 driver's seat, and a double door in rear, one half falling and 
 the other half raising on the horizontal edges. An examination 
 of this figure and the several numbers, three to sixteen, will sufficiently explain all the details 
 of the interior apartments and their subdivisions. This information I procured at the arsenal 
 
84 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 in St. Petersljurg, ty measuring the wagons. The contents for the various apartments I did 
 not ascertain, there heing no one present connected with the medical department to refer to. 
 
 Fig. 94. RUSSIAN HOSPITAL WAGON, No. II. 
 .*?. Left side view. 
 
 D/^IVEKS SHAZ 
 
 ^ 
 
 /SIlsr'ircA 
 
 <5^ 
 
 x 
 
 m 
 
 1 1 
 
 J^ 
 
 ^No\ 1/ SMALL. 
 
 ILji I 
 
 HJfJDL C C i 
 
 (cZ) 
 
 A. Sidt^ view ol drawjrs, c and a. 
 
 DP^N ON TOP\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 H Handle clown for use. 
 
 5. Plan of drawLT, l. 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 fj; 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 This top opens upward?;, Iirnged on the line a, h. Within ^ 
 
 and under this roof cover is a Hoor over llic drawers of "ii^ 
 
 loose boards, which, on being raised, opens tiie spaee down .^ 
 to tbe bottom of tJic wagon. 
 
 7. Right side view. 
 
 «^" 
 
 /■^ SF6CES (3^"rSQiVr If-' DEEP 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 7-4 
 
 */fCES 
 
 &'■ 
 
 22' OHAWER 8"0£EP 
 \ OF BACK, 
 
 (^y 
 
 oo 
 
 DRIVERS SEAT 
 
 omwEH (b) 
 
 OR A H CR (a) 
 
 D 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 85 
 
 8. Plan of drawer a, "n 
 
 I, gilt s lit'. 
 
 _i.i< 
 
 I C 
 
 9. DlTiwiT r, in rear. 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 57/ 
 
 ■5^ 
 
 \\\\^ 
 
 
 
 fl 
 
 OPEN oh rms \ 
 
 L 1 
 
 racE 
 
 to 
 
 :n kaiulle dou-n. 
 
 10. Rear of the wagon. 
 
 ^'..M" 
 
 r. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 °S! 
 
 b 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 OFI 
 
 1 
 
 It 
 
 6 
 
 Oh' 
 5 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 /'J-. 
 
 <5/< 
 
 c 
 
 §1 
 
 
 11. Plan of drawer e, 
 in rear. 
 f is the sami', cxcrpt that 
 Uic divisions are ail 
 equal. 
 
 /y- 
 
 1 4- 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 12. Front of the wagon. 
 
 14. FlaD of drawer 6, in rear. 
 
 J3. Plan of upper half of drawer a, and of lower 
 
 handle down. 
 
 15. Plan of (Irawcr ft, under tlie driver's 
 
 or under part of d, In front, under Ibe drlver^s 
 
 seat. 
 
 
 / 
 
 o o o 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 -*' / 
 
 
 Austria, Saxony, and Prussia, in like manner, have tlieir ambulance and hospital-store 
 wagons, each possessing some peculiar merit adapting them to their respective armies. These 
 must form a second part of this report, to be made when time is allowed me to do so. 
 
 The shelters for the troops in the Crimea, during this campaign, varied with the climate, 
 and the variable temperature gave rise to some important modifications and changes in the 
 previously established systems. Tents and huts were the principal arrangements. Of the five 
 nations engaged in this contest no two of them had the same form or system. 
 
 We have copied, of late years, the French model; and they, from the experience in this 
 summer and winter's campaign, on soil similar to our western prairies, having found their system 
 to be unsuited, abandoned it, and substituted a modification of those in use by their allies. 
 This experience is of much consequence to our army, which encamps on every variety of soil, and 
 in a country covering all extremes of climate. 
 
86 
 
 ART OF WAR I>f EUROPE. 
 
 SARDINIAN TENT. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
 The tent of the Sardinian army I consider to be 
 of a better imttern than either the French or Eng- 
 lish, and in irost particulars resembles the Turkish 
 tent. They have conical bodies, with a small seg- 
 ment cut off on top ; with a cylindrical base of about 
 twenty inches high at the bottom, giving room for a 
 man's head anywhere around the tent when lying 
 down, which, in the English and French tents, is 
 not the case. (See Fig. 95.) 
 
 The dimensions of the Sardinian tent are as in 
 the annexed figure. It is supported by a box of 10 
 inclies square, closed on to;) with a circular piece of 
 board, supporting the top of the tent. The lower end of this box stands or rests on the ground, 
 and as any other tent pole. The advantage claimed for it is, that it serves as a box within 
 which to pack the tent and pins for transportation or storage. This box, as a substitute, may 
 be suitable to the climate and roads of Sardinia, but cannot be recommended for our service. 
 The slope of the canvas is about forty-five degrees, and the base a circle of about sixteen feet 
 diameter — the height being only seven feet six inches. The height, and wall side of twenty 
 inches, with flat top for ventilating openings, constitute the peculiar advantages of this tent. 
 
 In addition to the above, the Sardinian soldier is provided with the tent-abri, that he may 
 at all times and under all circumstances have at command shelter against rain, and which, 
 combined with his companions', suffice to make a good tent. This tent-abri is composed of a 
 rectangular or square piece of canvas of five feet side, with eyelet holes worked on two sides, 
 admitting of two, three, or more, pieces being used in forming a shelter for as many men as 
 contribute their resjjective pieces. 
 
 Sticks are used as supports for a string or cord that forms the ridge. This cord, after 
 passing over a stick at the head and foot of the intended shelter, is extended to the ground, 
 where it is fastened with a pin driven in the ground, and serves as a stay. Every soldier 
 carries one of the five foot square pieces, any two, three, or four sufficing to form a shelter for 
 the night on the march or on a scout; and in our service might prove very advantageous. It is 
 also a substitute for blanket covering when desired. 
 
 The French army is provided with the same convenient shelter. In their service the 
 soldier carries the necessary sticks. Some of them are quite short, in two pieces, with a socket 
 joint to unite them at pleasure. These two pieces are carried in a vertical position on the side 
 of the knapsack, while others sling their muskets over the shoulder and use the stick as a c ne. 
 The idea may prove advantageous to our service on many expeditions where the tent i , not 
 available. For the health of an army some shelter at night is very important. 
 
 The Turkish tent resembles the Sardinian in general form, differing mostly in the dimen- 
 sions. It is supported by a pole (instead of a box, as the Sardinian) eight feet high. The 
 upper part of the tent is a perfect cone, resting on a circular base of fourteen feet diameter, below 
 which is a wall of one foot high. There are nineteen breadths of canvas, each measuring 
 twenty-five and a half inches, forming the circuit of the base. It, like the Sardinian tent, is 
 remarkable for the flatness of the roof slope, yet it has proved to be sufficient to shed the rain. 
 It is deficient in ventilating arrangements, having no openings on top, although well adapted 
 therefor at the base by raising the one foot wall. 
 
 The Sardinian army, in preparing for the winter of 1855-56, without incurring any 
 expense, was enabled to hut itself in apparently very comfortable, warm, dry, and durable huts, 
 while their allies have, at great cost, imported materials for their huts from England and 
 France, and bestowed much workmanship of carj^entry, as well as iron work, to form and put 
 up temporary huts that do not possess the warmth of the Sardinian's, although more dry in 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPB. 
 
 87 
 
 1^ 
 
 IhiO. METRES 
 
 damp, wet weather, and at such times more healthy. The Sardinians excavate a half story, 
 say two and a half feet helow the surfiice, on 
 4.40 meters by 2.20 meters. Over this they 
 set rafter poles, to and about which they in- 
 terweave horizontal poles or wattling, Ic.rm- 
 ing a basket-work. Over this they lay about 
 six inches in thickness of clay, tempered into 
 a thick paste with water preparatory to put- 
 ting it on. If dry grass, straw, or hay is 
 mixed with the clay to form an exterior sur- 
 face, it forms a thatch that is still more dura- 
 ble and impervious to water. The doors all 
 faced the south, in one of the gables, with a Fig. %. 
 
 window opening or hole at the opposite end, 
 
 and a fireplace on the side. (See Fig. 96.) Brush, saplings, and clay sufficed for these huts, 
 and which the Sardinian array had at command about their camps on the Tchernaya. They 
 were calculated for six men each. The roof was set some distance outside the excavation, which 
 gave a surface under the eves convenient for the deposit of accouterments, &c. The roof projects 
 over so much of the doorway as suffices to cover the steps descending to the depth excavated for 
 the floor. The window opening is generally formed of some empty packing-box, which latter 
 were often used sunk in the eartli on the sides of the hirt, as closets, and fortunate was the squad 
 which could find a few additional ones as substitutes for chairs, tables, and other like articles 
 we are apt to consider as indispensable to our comfort beyond the sphere of camp life. 
 
 ENGLTSII TENT. 
 
 The English tent, with the last modifications, adopted during this campaign, is similar to 
 their former j^attern, a cone with circular base resting on the ground. The modifications shown 
 in the above figure (97) consist in the fastening of the tent cords to each seam of the canvas 
 about two feet six inches from the base, all below being fastened at pleasure, by loops passing 
 over the same pins that secure tlie cords. The advantage of this arrangement is, free ventilation 
 of the interior of the tent by raising all that part below the attachment of the tent cords. 
 
 The canvas near the vertex of the cone is sewed to either leather or hide, forming the 
 termination of the tent. This part receives the tent pole, and through it ventilators are made, 
 
88 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 SO arranged as to guard against rain or snow, while the hide or leather gives the necessary strength 
 for the head of the pole. The tent jiolc is in two parts, put together with a metal socket-joint. 
 
 The French, in abandoning their own model as unsuited to the varied service of this cam- 
 paign, ado2itcd the Turkisli and English models, apparently as they could procure the one or the 
 other. No opjiortunity presented for procuring the details of their present arrangement. 
 
 Such was the severity of the winter in the Crimea, tliat the troops needed more j^rotection 
 than canvas would afford. During the winter of 1854-55, the Eussians held possession of all the 
 wooded country. Not until the 19th of April, 1855, were they driven from Canrobert's hill, 
 nor until the 25th of May fi'om the Tchernaya, and, as a consequence, wood could not he 
 procured either for fuel or huts. The suffering of the allied armies was great heyond jDrecedent, 
 which led to the necessity of importing from England and France small buildings j^repared 
 ready to be put together on coming in possession of the troops. In 1854 and 1855, tlie French 
 provided 2,900 of these huts, calculated for T5,000 men, and the English 1,500, (how many more 
 I did not learn,) calculated for 30,000 men. Those of the latter were twentj'-eight feet long, 
 sixteen feet wide, and eleven to twelve feet high under the ridge. The sides were six feet high, 
 and, with the roof were formed of three-quarter inch boards, made in sections, convenient for 
 handling and transportation. The frame to which these sections were attached, was two inch 
 by four inch stuff. Tlie floor was of one inch boards, three feet in the center being left open, 
 where the stove was placed. Some of those made the second winter of the campaign were of two 
 thicknesses of thin boards, having felt or similar material between them. At tlie junction of the 
 roof-sections sheet iron was in some cases introduced to make a water-tight joint. These English 
 huts were calculated for twenty to twenty-five men. They weighed two and a half tons each. 
 
 RUSSUN TENT. 
 
 The Eussian tent differs from all others in its form and shape. The base is a square of 
 fourteen feet ; five feet above the base it falls in to ten feet square, above which it terminates 
 with a pyramid of four feet vertical height. (See Fig. 98.) It is supported by a center pole of 
 nine feet in length, and four cords, one from each angle of the ten feet square section, (a, a.) 
 These cords are fastened to pins in the usual way. Their practice is, at all permanent camps, 
 to excavate the ground under the tent about two feet deep, the earth from which is thrown 
 around the outside of the tent, slightly raising it above the natural surface, and sloping from 
 the tent ; by which arrangement the rain water is carried off, and the excavation is kept dry ; 
 a frustrum of a cone is left in the center of the space occupied hj the tent, on which the pole 
 stands, and about which the arms are stacked. 
 
 All these European tents, liaving but one straight pole, and that in the center, admit of the 
 excavation of the ground within and beneath them — which is the practice in permanent camps — 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 89 
 
 leaving a small mass in the center as a rest or support for the pole. Against this mass of earth 
 a fire can be made for warmth, to dry the tent, or for cooking in bad weather. The pole can be 
 set out of the center, removed from the fire, as its perpendicularity is not essential. The 
 Russians had large camps of these tents on the north shore of the harbor of Sebastopol, but 
 none in the city or limits of the besieged district. Within that sphere there was no rest for the 
 soldier, but in some temporary expedient as a bomb-proof. The buildings of the city, being 
 mostly stone, were converted into bomb-proof shelters by propping and bracing the lower floors 
 and covering them with earth. In other places exca,vations were made about six feet deep, 
 covered with timbers from the dockyard, as well as roofs and ruins of the city structures, then 
 facines, and over this several feet of earth. 
 
 Great labor and persevering industry was bestowed on these temporary expedients for 
 securing a night's rest undisturbed by shot and shell. In the Redan I observed a novel arrange- 
 ment, that must have cost the occupants a great deal of time to have completed, and have been 
 imdertaken by resolute men, who looked forward to a prolonged resistance. It consisted of 
 seventeen apartments excavated in the 
 
 solid rock, each capable of sheltering two bomb-proof shelter in the redan. 
 
 men comfortably, and three with some original surface 
 
 exposure. 
 
 The annexed figure (99) is a section 
 of these bomb-proofs, each of the seven- 
 teen apartments being seven feet wide, six 
 feet long, and three feet deep. They were 
 in a continuous line, and separated from 
 each other by masses of the rock about 
 two^feet thick. At what time these sin- 
 gular excavations were made I could not 
 
 ascertain ; many of them on the end of the line were unfinished ; all the finished ones had 
 about and within them the evidences of having been used by the defenders of the Redan as 
 bomb-proofs, though probably designed as their last resting place. 
 
 The customs of the different .continental nations as regards their food, in the variety of 
 articles and in the manner of preparing them, difier very materially. We should not draw any 
 information from their methods of feeding and cooking for their armies, without considering this 
 fact; and when attempting to apply any of their arrangements for our service, to recollect that 
 we also have our peculiarities and preferences, in difierent parts of our country, as marked as the 
 continental neighboring nations. Although the fixtures and apparatus of the Russians are well 
 adapted to their purposes, (some of the details of which I shall particularize as worthy of our 
 imitation,) we could not feed our troops upon the component parts of their ration, since they 
 are accustomed from youth to the acidulated soup and rye bread made in their own peculiar 
 way, which would be altogether unsuited and unpalatable to our people. The wheaten bread 
 supplied to travelers in Russia is of a very excellent and superior quality, and in Moscow it was 
 decidedly better than any it has been my lot to eat in any other place, yet the preference of the 
 people is for rye bread, not imfrequently spiced with anise-seed. 
 
 With the continental armies generally, greater reliance is placed upon vegetable matter, 
 studying the least consumption of animal food, at the same time adojDting every means to economize 
 fuel ; while with us meat constitutes a princii^al element of the ration, vegetable matter being 
 secondary, and only in such quantities as to prevent disease, and the consumption of fuel does 
 not seem to have been a consideration in the design of our camp and mess furniture. 
 
 Our practice is to provide camp kfettles, and mess pans only for squads or subdivisions of a 
 company, these are of such form and shape together with their being the common property of the 
 12— D 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
90 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 squad, tliat they must necessarily be carried in the baggage wagons, or on the mule packs — and 
 are never at hand when the troops halt after making the day's march. 
 
 The European practice, as a general rule, is to provide every man with some part of his mess 
 furniture, appended to his knapsack ; when brought together, suflBcing for the many, at the same 
 time that the individual can never suffer, always having the means at hand of preparing food 
 without awaiting the arrival of baggage trains. Their system has the advantage of dispensing 
 with some transportation, and of the soldier being ready to prepare anything that may be at 
 hand, without being subjected to the delays of the train, which oftentimes is some hours behind 
 the troops. 
 
 Their system for economizing fuel is worthy our study in the arrangement of suitable mess 
 furniture, in consequence of wood becoming scarce about many of our garrisons. On many routes 
 over extended prairie districts it is not to be found, making it oftentimes necessary to rely upon 
 Buffalo dro^jpings as a substitute. This dependence can last no longer than while these districts 
 are frequented by the wild animals of the prairies. A knowledge then of some of the European 
 devices for garrison and field service may be acceptable, preparatory to the introduction of some 
 more suitable arrangement than we now have. 
 
 The allied troojjs before Sebastopol suffered greatly for want of fuel ; so much so, as to resort 
 to digging up the roots of the vineyards, after having consumed all the vines and brush found 
 within the limits of their sentinels and outposts. I have already described the expedients of the 
 English army for baking bread in a steam bakery shijj, and some arrangements in their hospital 
 at Balaklava, and the economical arrangements of the French, in transporting their supply of bread 
 from Marseilles. ' 
 
 Without doubt, the most important particular as regards subsistence of troops in the field, is 
 the recent introduction of desiccated food, which was adopted for the first time as a reliable article 
 of the soldier's ration in this Crimean campaign, and used extensively by the Russians as well as 
 the Allies. It requires much less fuel than the ordinary ration, and dispenses with a large pro- 
 portion of the transjiortation requisite for the ordinary subsistence stores. 
 
 From Paris, the "Commission" forwarded to the Secretary of War samples of the compressed 
 vegetables and meats prepared by diolet. Others were brought home by the Commission, in 1856, 
 and distributed by the Commissary General to remote posts for trial. Although they had been 
 put up more than a year they were still sound and in good order. 
 
 Their utility, however, no longer remains a matter of doubt and uncertainty such as to make 
 further trial or experience necessary. It is only to select good articles and have them faithfully 
 prepared to insure all the advantages claimed for the military service by their introduction as a 
 component part of the ration. 
 
 I witnessed extensive supplies in the depots of the English army, manufactured in their 
 own country, after their peculiar method, as well as from the Paris manufactory of Cholet. 
 The total quantity provided for their army I had no means of ascertaining. Many thousand 
 rations of this description of food were sent out from London to the English army by private 
 subscription of individuals, as the most acceptable offering in their power to bestow upon their 
 troops — an evidence of the confidence they had in its superior excellence. 
 
 The French army, both for the troops in the field as well as for the sick and wounded in 
 the hospitals, were supplied with it to a great extent, altogether amounting in weight to 
 7,894,920 pounds avoirdupois, not including the supply for the hospital. The proportions of 
 the different kinds furnished to the troops in the field were — 
 
 Of dried vegetables 424,000 pounds. 
 
 Compressed vegetables, prepared by Cholet 752,180 
 
 And of conserve of beef. 0,718,140 " 
 
 7,894,920 
 or a total of 3,947 tons. 
 
• ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 91 
 
 Of the preserved beef, a small part was manufactured in France by M. de Lignac and M. 
 Apert ; all the rest was of English manufacture, of which 888,800 pounds was in powder, or 
 finely-ground gelatine, (viande en 2Mudre.) 
 
 For the hospitals other descriptions of prepared concentrated food were supplied ; the pre- 
 ceding constituting a part of the hospital supplies as well as for the troops in the field. The 
 whole quantity forwarded to the hospitals at Constantinople and the field hospitals in the 
 Crimea consisted of — 
 
 Concentrated milk 17,600 pounds. 
 
 Concentrated essence of beef 2,200 " 
 
 Beef soup, (bouilli) 7,160 " 
 
 Granulated gluten 6,600 " 
 
 Cholet's prepared vegetables 114,400 " 
 
 Other and difi'erent prepared vegetables 55,000 " 
 
 Making a total for the hospitals of 152,960 " 
 
 or 76j*/5- tons. 
 
 The French surgeons speak of the concentrated milk manufactured by Lignac, the essence 
 of beef manufactured in England, and the preserved vegetables of Cholet and Masson, as per- 
 fectly successful for the hospital service, in both warm and cold weather. 
 
 The Russians also (as I was informed) resorted to the use of these jjrepared concentrated 
 rations at Sebastopol. To them it was of even more importance than to the Allies, as the latter 
 could draw their supplies by sea, whereas the former had to do so by a long land transport, 
 and at certain periods, over roads almost impassable. We must conclude that they procured 
 them from English and French factories, through neutrals. The continuous line of railroad 
 from Paris and ports on the English Channel to Warsaw, thence by excellent macadamized 
 roads to Kief, and thence to and through the Crimea by roads best known to themselves, put 
 it in the power of the Russians to supply themselves uninterruptedly, although at great cost 
 and labor. 
 
 During a visit to the manufactory of M. Cholet, in Paris, in May, 1855, I observed several 
 kinds of vegetables, then in different stages of preparation for the French army in the Crimea. 
 It appears that the vegetables are all cut into thin slices, then partially dried by some artificial 
 process, when they are pressed in cakes about one inch thick by very powerful machines, appa- 
 rently hydraulic presses of many tons pressure. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, and cabbages were 
 mixed together. 
 
 Potatoes are cut in two ways — one in thin slices of one sixteenth of an inch in tiiickness, 
 
 and the other in prisms of this section and size ^n , which when dried takes this form 
 
 The thin slices are to mix with other vegetables in compressed cakes, and the latter, thoroughly 
 
 dried for use by itself, put up in a hard dry state, without being compressed. Turnips and 
 
 carrots are cut up in thin slices ; cabbage is deprived of the thick stock, retaining the leaf or 
 
 flat parts. 
 
 75 rations of the dried potatoes purchased from Mr. Cholet weighed 7 lbs. 8 oz. 
 
 4 do of his Julien soup do " 4 '■ 
 
 60 do do in tablets of three rations each do 2 " 12 '•' 
 
 84 do of his spring vegetables in tablets of six rations each do 2 " 12 " 
 
 Forty thousand rations of these compressed vegetables put up for transportation occupy a 
 
 space of one meter cubed only, and weigh 4,000 pounds, including the packing cases. The 
 
 whole are put up in tin canisters of about one cubic foot each. 
 
 In our mode of packing pork for the army we transport thirty-seven and one half per cent. 
 
 of unnecessary weight in the brine, salt, and wood of the barrel; and in flour about nine per 
 
92 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Side loop. 
 
 Elevation. 
 
 Hatulle of ilie cover. 
 
 Side loop. 
 
 r=v 
 
 ffS 
 
 A 
 
 I Side loop for tlie 
 ' leather sirap. 
 
 cent, of wood ; in liard bread, about fifty per cent. ; all of which could be saved by adopting 
 compressed concentrated meats and vegetables. To cook this description of food, together 
 with other kinds furnished the French army, 150 iron ranges or cooking stoves were used, of 
 which sixty were portable. For baking bread in the field, the French have several methods of 
 constructing the necessary ovens, depending upon the material at hand. They are sufficiently 
 described in Laisue's Aide Memoire, pages 113 to 121. 
 
 Mess Furniture. — In the Sardinian army the arrangement is to provide every man with a 
 mess- can and a canteen, and for every sixteen men a camp kettle. 
 
 Their mess-can for infantry is of the form and dimensions nan. 
 
 given in the annexed figure, arranged with loops of the same ^f ^,^ j" \i 
 metal as the can, through which to pass leather straps, one hori- 
 zontal through a and h, the other vertical through c and d, to 
 secure it to the knapsack. 
 
 Every soldier is provided with one of these, and, in 
 addition thereto, every sixteen men have an iron camp 
 kettle of eleven inches diameter and twelve inches deep, 
 slightly conical, with a strong iron bail handle and aflat 
 cover. 
 
 In a camjj of some duration these camp kettles 
 are set in ranges, made of such materials as may be at 
 hand. In the Sardinian camp, on the banks of the 
 Tchernaya, they were set in clay, as in the annexed 
 figure, all the edges of the openings of the fireplace, 
 as well as those in which the kettles are set, being 
 lined and guarded with iron hoops from old useless 
 barrels or packing boxes. The saving of fuel by this 
 arrangement, compared with an open fire, is very 
 great; in addition to which, the provisions can be 
 cooked in less time, more thoroughly, and with more 
 cleanliness. It recommends itself from its simplicity and facility of construction in most places, 
 combined with eflSciency. 
 
 A water canteen, with the preceding, constitutes the entire mess furniture of the Sardinian 
 soldier, so far as I could see, in their camp in the Crimea. The water canteen was made 
 entirely of wood, and as in the annexed figure. Its only 
 merit is strength ; objections may be made to it when 
 compared with tin, as liable to absorbing impurities from 
 the watei-, and becoming useless after being stored in a 
 dry warehouse for some time, when, from shrinkage, the 
 hoops are apt to fall off and the canteen fall to pieces. 
 It is arranged with a wooden screw stopper on top and 
 carried by a suspending cord over the shoulder. The 
 hoops arc also of wood. It may easily be taken to pieces and cleaned within by driving off the 
 hoops, but this requires leisure time, with some mechanical aptitude. 
 
 The knapsack of the Sardinian soldier, upon which he straps his mess can, is made 
 of leather, twelve inches by fifteen inches by three inches and a quarter, in which he carries one 
 pair of pants, one pair of shoes, one pair of leather gaiters, one shirt, one pair of worsted drawers, 
 and a blanket, wearing habitually his great coat. These, with a haversack of linen, lined inside 
 with the same material, with arms and accouterments, constitute the full equipment of an 
 infantry soldier. It is well to remark that he is furnished with a change of clothing and no 
 more, not being required to carry on his back a wardrobe for change of seasons or prolonged 
 
 .*^ection of bottom. 
 
 
 a a a, &e., loops lor shoul- 
 der strap. 
 
 -Mi's:: 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 93 
 
 use. Every article over and above his daily wants as a soldier is provided for in the most 
 economical way of transporting it in bulk and issued when required. By such a system troops 
 are ready at any moment on the march for active and efficient service. 
 
 The English field artillery carry mess kettles for the men of the respective guns and caissons 
 slung under the carriages, five kettles being provided for the men of one section of a battery. 
 This camp kettle is ten inches deep and twelve inches in diameter, fitted with a strong iron bail 
 handle. It has a cover that serves as a frying or stew pan of twelve inches diameter and three 
 inches deep fitting down over the kettle one and a quarter inch. The cover is provided with 
 loops, through which leather straps are passed to secure it to the kettle when slung imder the 
 gun or caisson on the march. 
 
 In addition to the above, every man carries a mess canteen of the form and dimensions of 
 the accompanying figures, with one flat surface of six and three quarter inches by five and a 
 half inches that comes in contact with the surface of the knapsack to wliich it is strapped; it has 
 a wire bail handle, so curved as, when not in use, to fit the rounded surface of the canteen. 
 
 Bail handle. 
 
 Inside vessel. 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 C 
 
 6|" scant. 
 
 On the top and within to the depth of two and a half inches is fitted a tin pan, answering 
 as a plate, serving to separate his dry food from coffee, soup, or other provisions that may be 
 beneath it in the can. Into this latter is fitted the cover of one and a half inch deep, serving as 
 another plate, the edges of which overlap and close the entire canteen. These three parts, on 
 being i)ut together for the march* are encased in a leather or canvas closely-fitting pouch, upon 
 which straps are secured wherewith to attach it to the back of the knapsack. 
 
 A canteen for water is also provided for every soldier. It is made of wood, put together 
 with hoops, of the form and dimensions of the annexed Fig. A. It is seven inches diameter, 
 and three and three quarter inches thick, and liable to the same objections as that of the Sar- 
 dinian army. 
 
 1L~?\ 
 
 -'■^' v^ 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 D. 
 
 The English infantry soldier's mess furniture is, in general arrangement, the same as that 
 of their artillery, difi"ering in dimensions, being considerably smaller in cubic contents, and 
 without the bail handle, which is a great convenience to the soldiers when rising it for making 
 coffee, &c. The details are given in the above Figs. B, C, D. 
 
 The cover sets flush with the top of the can, having but a small flange fitting inside the 
 
94 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 can. Both it and the interior vessel, as well as the can, have less depth than the one for the 
 artillery. 
 
 Every fourteen men are provided with a camp kettle, of the shape and dimensions of 
 Fig. E. It is fitted with a flush cover, somewhat countersunk, io fit the knapsack closely, 
 to prevent wabbling. It is carried alternately by the men of the squad to which it belongs. 
 It will be seen that its dimensions are materially smaller than the one for the artillery, 
 and has no such cover to substitute for a stew pan or bread-baking pan. It is provided with 
 a strong bale handle. 
 
 The water canteen is the same as that for the artillery soldier. 
 
 The French system difi"ers in detail very materially from that of their allies. Their troops 
 of infantry, for example, are divided into squads of eight men each, to which is issued one 
 gamelle, one bidon, and one marmite, and to each individual one water canteen. Such is the 
 regulated arrangement. In the Crimea their necessities and other circumstances caused an 
 issue of two gamelles, one hidon, and one marmite to every fourteen men. By this system the 
 men must necessarilv come together. 
 
 The annexed figures give the form and dimensions of the diflerent vessels. In them the 
 soldier cooks fresh or salt meat, rice or beans, preserved vegetables, and coffee. 
 
 The Marmite, in two parts. 
 
 The Bidon. 
 
 Tlie Gamcllo 
 
 ^ g/q/L HANDLE _ 
 
 . '"v'-i^'io'/s" 
 
 e 
 
 Canteen for water. 
 
 The lower part of the marmite, of nine inches by ten and one half inches, furnished with 
 an iron bail handle, serves for boiling. Its cover^ of three inches by ten and one half inches, 
 can be used for boiling by the steam of the lower part, or may be detached and used by itself 
 for boiling or stewing. It is arranged with a handle on the side. 
 
 The bidon is a water vessel, or substitute for our pail. It may be used for boiling. One 
 half of the top is closed, giving much additional strength. To the covered part is attached a 
 strong wire handle, and under the covered part is a spout through which to pour water or coffee. 
 
 The gamelle is a plain deep dish, which may be used as a stew pan. 
 
 The last figure is the general form of their water canteen, made of tin. Its dimensions I 
 fiiiled to obtain. It is covered with cloth to protect the water from the sun's rays, to keep it 
 comparatively cool, and very cool if the cloth can be kept wet without incommoding the soldier. 
 It is suspended by straps over the shoulder. 
 
 The mess furniture is carried alternately by the members of the squad. This system does 
 not admit of the soldier's carrying his day's provision, or of his having at command the means 
 of cooking for himself independent of the sqiiad to which he belongs. 
 
 The Russian soldier is equipped with a mess can not unlike the English and Sardinian. 
 Its dimensions I failed to obtain. 
 
AET OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 95 
 
 Ciivcr uf llic cup c. 
 
 Cup fitting inside of 
 the can. 
 
 8ucli was the mess furniture provided for the armies of France, England, Sardinia, and 
 Kussia, for field service. 
 
 As we have in our service to devise some systematic arrangement suitable for our troops in 
 the field, adapted to our varied climate, face of the country, as well as varieties of food, I ofi'er 
 the systems observed in other armies of Europe, not engaged in this Crimean campaign. 
 
 The Prussian soldier's mess canteen is in principle the same as that of the English^ Sar- 
 dinian, and Russian, and in detail and dimensions should 
 be considered in connection when maturing a system for 
 ourselves. It consist.^ of the tin can shown in the an- 
 nexed figure, in which to boil or stew, provided with 
 the cover a, that may be used as a dish, cup, or frying- 
 pan. It is arranged for a movable handle (b) that can 
 be used with either this cover (a) or a vessel (c) made to 
 fit inside of the can, which latter may be used for the 
 same purposes as the cover (re.) To make this interior 
 vessel (c) more serviceable, it is provided with a flat 
 cover, (d,) corrugated to give it strength. The can has 
 a wire bail handle, which disengages and is packed with 
 the movable handle {b) inside the canteen, the whole 
 being strapped behind the knapsack. The cup (c) has 
 small wire handles folding down at pleasure, whereby 
 to lift it from the canteen. This cup is made slightly 
 
 conical, to give room for the loop to which the handle (b) is attached. A haversack is also 
 provided for each soldier. 
 
 The Austrian arrangements differ from all the preceding, and adapted to squads only. I 
 found three different sets of camp kettles in use ; a change in the existing system was about 
 being introduced. 
 
 The most general arrangement is to provide a camp kettle for every squad of twelve 
 to fourteen men each. At the Tete de Pont, opposite Mayence, they were divided in messes 
 
 of thirteen; and as a general rule, in all the garrisons, cat in their dormitories. Their 
 
 mess-can appears to have been designed to answer the two purposes of garrison and field 
 
 service. 
 
 The cooking vessel consists of a tin frustrum of a cone, 
 
 resting on three iron legs of six inches in length ; within it, 
 
 passing through the bottom and rising through the cover, is 
 
 another cone, serving as the furnace or fireplace. The bottom 
 
 of this interior cone is arranged with a movable iron grating, 
 
 upon which a charcoal fire is made. To increase the draft of 
 
 the furnace another joint of conical pipe is set over the lower 
 
 one, resting on the cover of the mess kettle. When not in 
 
 use, or as prepared for transportation, this second conical pipe 
 
 is put within the first, by removing the iron grating. The 
 
 provisions being cooked, the grating upon which the fire rests 
 
 is withdrawn, when the coal falls down leaving the mess-can, 
 
 without fire, to be taken to the mess table in the dormitory, 
 
 or to the squad wherever it may be assembled. The mess 
 
 kitchens, in garrison, are arranged to suit this apparatus. In 
 
 the center of the apartment are two masonry tables of about three feet wide and fifteen feet 
 
 long each ; the cans are placed thereon in two rows close together, remaining there as long as 
 
96 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the fires are burning. The fumes of the charcoal rise to the crown of an arch covering the two 
 tables, from whence a chimney conducts them to the roof. 
 
 The merit of the plan is the economy of fuel and rapidity with which food can be cooked 
 in such a vessel, surrounding the fire. The social and good feelings kept up by the men living 
 as one family, under the same non-commissioned officer, in their own quarters, whether in 
 garrison or camp, and not thrown together in large bodies in mess rooms, is another advantage. 
 All kinds of provisions must be cooked in this same can ; one of the inconveniences, as boiling 
 only can be done with it. In the field they are transported in the baggage wagons. This may 
 be considered its greatest disadvantage, as they are not at hand when the troops 
 halt, and most need it ; nor does the system admit of the soldier carrying, for 
 the day, any other than dry food in his haversack. In addition to this mess 
 kettle, every soldier has a tin dish or small can, in which he receives his ration 
 from the mess kettle. The annexed sketch gives an outline of its form and 
 dimensions. 
 
 The second system, I observed in the barracks of the new arsenal, at Vienna. A kitchen 
 is there provided for every one hundred and ninety-six men, on the same floor as their quarters. 
 The squads are provided with a plain mess kettle of eleven inches diameter on top, seven inches 
 at the bottom, and nine and a half inches deep. These are placed on a metal tablet, heated by 
 a furnace from beneath, the fireplace being at each end, and chimney in the center on the side. 
 This hot table is fourteen feet six inches long by three feet wide, and two feet ten inches high 
 above the floor. Although this method of cooking on a hot table, placing the food in plain 
 camp kettles, appeared of recent introduction, for which the kitchens in the new barracks at the 
 arsenal, in Vienna, were expressly built, yet I judged it was looked upon as unsatisfactorj', and 
 that a third arrangement was then being introduced in the infantry barracks in the same city, 
 Avhere the necessary alterations had been made to test its merits. 
 
 Thie third system consisted of two camp kettles, placed back to back— thus forming the 
 frustrum of a cone — set down in a furnace or stew-hole. Every two camp kettles have one 
 circular opening in the top of the masonry furnace, into which they are placed and lifted out, at 
 pleasure, by a bail handle ; each of the kettles is furnished with a cover, which answers for a 
 dish or stew pan. 
 
 /syg" 
 
 A. Form of top. 
 
 To increase the heating surface about the camp kettles, a space of one inch is left between 
 them when over the fire in the furnace or stew-hole, and a demi-cone is cut from the bottom of 
 each, open on the flat sides, which, Avlien togetlicr, make a cone of four inches circular base and 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 97 
 
 six inches high. The form of the top of these kettles is with one straight side, and the other 
 outline curved, as in the preceding figure, (A,) in which the hase of the demi-cone is dotted. 
 
 These kettles are made of cast-iron, as is also tl e cover. One of these is allowed to every 
 thirteen infantry soldiers. For the cavalry a smaller one of the same pattern is allowed to every 
 six men. • Its dimensions are 9" x 7" on top, 9" deep, and 8" wide on the bottom. The cover is 
 4" high, by 9" x 1". 
 
 The system for sujiplying provisions to the Austrian troops makes the squad arrangement 
 necessary, and has doubtless had its influence in the size and form of the cooking apparatus. 
 
 The government furnishes the bread to every soldier at the rate of one and a half pound 
 per day each, and a daily allowance of money to purchase meat and vegetables, or other articles, 
 as the soldier may choose. Five crutzers per day for infantry, six for grenadiers, and seven to 
 eight for special corps is put into the hands of the company commander from the military chest. 
 A sergeant distributes it to the corporals of the mess squads; the latter, in company with two 
 privates of the mess squad, expends the money in conformity with the wishes of their com- 
 panions. For every brigade there is a commissary, who examines the accounts, countersigns 
 them, and gives the order for tlie money on tlie military chest. This certified account goes into 
 the military chest as evidence of tlie withdrawal of such an amount of money and its application. 
 The keys of the military chest are kei)t generally by three persons, all of whom must be present 
 when the chest is opened, who must know for what the money is taken out; nor can the chest 
 be opened without the three keys in jiossession of the respective keepers. 
 
 Although their system is not applicable to our service, yet some of its details are worthy 
 our consideration, particularly where men mess in squads and fuel is very scarce. 
 
 Transports for Troops and Supplies. 
 
 France and England have constructed troop ships destined for reenforcing or relieving, from 
 time to time, their armies in the colonies, or to dispatcli a force suddenly on any belligerent 
 expedition. Some of these vessels are fir*t-class screw steamers. 
 
 Their advantages, however^ do not compensate for the great expense attendant upon keeping 
 a large number unoccupied in time of peace to make them their only reliance in time of war. 
 
 They are looked upon as a necessary appendage to the military and naval armaments of the 
 European powers, and not to be lost sight of by our government when looking to the hostile 
 elements that may be brought against us. France and England have a number that can at any 
 moment be used to transport armies, probably, of twenty thousand men. Their respective 
 colonies give employment to them in time of peace. When, however, such armies have to be 
 transported as took the field against Russia, then reliance had to be placed in the mercantile 
 marine of all nations. The system of France and England is arranged accordingly. 
 
 The most methodical and systematic about which I succeeded in gaining information was 
 that of England. As we have now so frequently to transport troops by sea, both on the Atlantic 
 and Pacific, as well as the Gulf of Mexico, the details of chartering and fitting out their trans- 
 ports may, in part, be worthy our attention. 
 
 The English Admiralty have prepared sets of "Rules and Regulations to be observed in 
 Tendering, Surveying, &c.. Ships to be employed as Transports;" "Instructions for Agents of 
 Transports Afloat;" " Instructions for Masters on board Hired Transports/' &c.; and "Instruc- 
 tions for Troops." 
 
 These four codes, published in 1854 and 1855, regulate the whole transport service, whether 
 of troops or munitions of war generally, and were enforced in transporting the army and supplies 
 to the Crimea. In the first code eight articles are appropriated to tenders or ofiers to charter. 
 
 13 D 
 
98 AET OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 They provide : 
 
 1. No ship to be tendered unless in port. The classification at Lloyd's and tonnage by 
 stipulated measurement and the national flag to he stated, and according to prescribed forms. 
 
 2. Ships tendered of a class known at Lloyd's below ^ (red) for troops or ^ (black) 
 for stores will not be accepted. 
 
 3. First-class shi])s tendered for stores of less quantity than half their tonnage, not 
 required to be surveyed ; but all ships tendered for troops, passengers, or ammunition, must be 
 surveyed. The owners are held accountable for the quantity of stores, &c., engaged to be 
 received on board, and liable for expenses incurred on anything excluded. 
 
 4. Troop ships must not be less than five feet eight inches from deck to beam, tlie 
 deck not less than two inches thick, properly laid on the beams, fitted with head jjump and 
 lightning conductors, provided with charts of the voyage and one or more chronometers, to be 
 inspected by an officer who musters the crew. 
 
 5. Store sliips must, when required^ receive four passengers to every one hundred tons 
 of goods shijiped. 
 
 6. The entire jirescribed form of tender must be filled up and signed. The decision will 
 be guided by the character, capacity, aud eligibility of the ship for the performance of the service, 
 without reference to rate. 
 
 v. Payments made according to new measurement tonnage, or as specially mentioned 
 and agreed upon. 
 
 8. No troop shijj to be subject to port charges in the colonies. Ships carrying powder 
 or other ammunition must stow it under two decks, aud fitted with lightning conductors previous 
 to being surveyed. 
 
 Five other articles relate to manning the ships, requiring : 
 
 1. That troop and freight ships have four men to every one hundred tons new measurement 
 and in proportion for fractions of a hundred, with two boys to every ship. 
 
 2. Not ajiplicable to our country. 
 
 3. The crews, exclusive of the hoys, to be not less than one half of able seamen, the 
 remainder officers and ordinary seamen who must have been to sea. 
 
 4. TroojJ and freight ships must be manned with British subjects. 
 
 5. Ships for stores only to be manned as in the merchant service. 
 Ten articles regulate the survey of the ship : 
 
 1. Unimportant. 
 
 2. Ships which have touched the ground or performed a voyage since last survey must be 
 examined in dry-dock or on the ways. The surveyors to decide whether ships under twelve 
 months old, not having been to sea, aud those under class A 1 tendered for less than half tonnage 
 of stores, are to be docked or laid on ways. 
 
 3. The holds and between decks to be clear fore and aft, the keelson, timbers, breast hooks^ 
 and transoms clear and exposed to view, and stage erected to examine the beams fore and aft. 
 
 4. Listings not to be cut in ships of class A 1 ; below that, when required by the surveying 
 officer, will be cut two to three inches wide between the breast hooks ; about twenty feet in 
 length between keelson and second futtock heads; about one third the length of the ship from 
 forward and same length from aft at the second futtock heads; about one third the length of the 
 ship amidships, under the clamp of the hold beams ; about twenty feet from each end above the 
 spirkitting, between decks, and other jjlaces as directed by surveying officers. 
 
 6. Not important. 
 
 T. The owners to cause such bolts to be driven out and other works performed as required 
 by surveyors, and furnish the latter with all desired information. 
 
 8. Accepted ships proceed to government dock-yards, where all the fittings are made; bulk- 
 heads put up and other works performed, as usually required by the surveyors ; no alteration is 
 to be permitted without the sanction of the surveying oflicer. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 99 
 
 9. All troop ships to Ccarry four boats of suitable size, one a long boat and one a life-boat, 
 the whole supplied with all requisites ; also two life-buoys, placed ready for immediate use. 
 
 10. Unimportant. 
 
 The nest twelve articles are instructions to surveying officers ; they require : 
 
 1. All regulations to be strictly adhered to, if omitted for special reasons, the same must be 
 stated in the report of survey. Surveying officers report any neglect or deviation from regula- 
 tions by owners, masters, brokers, or others concerned. 
 
 2. They will see that the "listings" are cut as directed, and, with stahhe7-s, examine the 
 keelson, breast hooks, transoms, floors, timbers, ceiling, and mast steps. 
 
 3. Carefully inspect the beams, decks, knees, waterways, and comings of the hatchways. 
 
 4. Examine the spars, rigging, and sails as far as practicable, and ascertain whether the 
 ship is properly supplied with spare rope, sails, &c. 
 
 5. Examine the riding bitts and see that the anchors and cables are proportioned to size of 
 ship ; troop ships to have three bower anchors with three hundred fathoms of chain cable, also 
 a kedge anchor and chain. 
 
 6. Examine the copper on ship's bottom, ascertaining whether, by rubs or wrinkles, she has 
 been aground or strained; in which case the caulking under the copper, in several places, is to 
 be tried. 
 
 7. The throats of the knees (and the throat bolts driven out if necessary) and the beams on 
 the shelve pieces carefully inspected to ascertain whether the ship worked or strained on last 
 voyage. 
 
 8. Pumps, pintles, and rudder gear to be examined. 
 
 9. Compasses to be examined, and the master's attention called to deviations from proximity 
 to iron, &c. 
 
 10. Unimportant. 
 
 11. No works nor alterations allowed after the ship has been surveyed, without sanction of 
 surveying officers, nor any allowed tliat will in any way inconvenience the government passengers, 
 or be detrimental to the service on which she is to be employed. 
 
 12. Iron steam vessels must have water-tight compartments according to law. 
 
 The next twenty-two articles regulate the accommodation of troops in chartered transports 
 and freight ships. The amount of tonnage required is about 270 tons, new measurement, to 
 each 100 men, and sufficient space must be allotted for all the troops below deck ; but the 
 amount of accommodation will depend on the number of hammocks which can be hung up. 
 
 Article 1 requires that the military officers' mess-place be under the poop. 
 
 2. The commander of the troops shall have the aftermost cabin under the poop, on the port 
 side. 
 
 3. Corresponding cabin on starboard side for officers' wives and their families. 
 
 4. The government agent has the foremost cabin under the poop, on starboard side. 
 
 5. The master to have corresponding one on port side. 
 
 6. One cabin under the poop to be fitted up as pantry for military officers' mess. ■ 
 
 7. The remainder of space under the poop fitted for military officers' cabins. 
 
 8. Each cabin to have sleeping berths and wash hand stands. 
 
 9. Officers' cabins to be not less than thirty superficial feet for one, nor less than forty-two 
 superficial feet for two officers. When more than two in a cabin, ten additional feet for each, 
 independent of space for bed, which shall never be less than six feet long. 
 
 10. Mess-place of agent and master in the aftermost part of the lower deck, on starboard 
 side. 
 
 11. Two cabins on lower deck for officers of the ship, adjoining the mess-place of master 
 and agent. 
 
 12. Two aftermost berths on port side to be appropriated for a hospital. 
 
100 
 
 ART OF WATS. IN EUROPE. 
 
 13. The aftermost starboard .sleeping berths to have canras screens separating them from 
 the men, to be appropriated for soldiers' wives and children. 
 
 14. The water closets to be as follows: One for commanding officer, under the poop, on 
 port side; one for officers' ladies and children, on starboard side; two for officers, imder forepart 
 of poop, on port side; two for soldiers' wives, non-commissioned officers, &c., under the after 
 part of forecastle. Kone to be allowed on the lower deck. 
 
 15. All standing bed places to be kept three inches from the ship's side, to prevent the 
 bedding getting wet; and tho.se for women not less than six feet long and three feet wide for 
 one woman and two children under ten years of age, or two women. 
 
 IG. All troops to have sufficient si^ace below deck to sleep in hammocks, and have two 
 blankets. 
 
 17. After providing for the officers, their families, the women and children, and the sick, 
 the allotment of space for the troops shall be for each hammock fourteen inches in width and 
 nine feet in length, with the clews to lock in three feet at each end, as in the annexed sketch. 
 
 PLAN FOR BERTHING H.\M.MOCKS. 
 
 18. The ships to be fitted with as many air tubes from the deck and scuttles from through 
 the sides as may be necessary to insure proper ventilation. 
 
 19. Arm racks shall be fitted between decks, before the fore hatchway. 
 
 20. The cabins numbered and appropriated as before specified, no alterations to be per- 
 mitted, and no other use of them, unless by mutual consent of the officers embarked. 
 
 21. Arm racks to be fitted only when specially ordered. 
 
 22. When the knapsacks cannot be conveniently arranged between the beams, convenient 
 racks must be provided elsewhere. 
 
 23. Kegulates the weight and space in cubic feet to be allowed for baggage of officers and 
 regiments. Field officers, according to arm of service, having 18 to 27 cwt., and 90 to 135 
 cubic feet of space; captains, 12 to 18 cwt., and 60 to 90 cubic feet; subalterns, 6 to 12 cwt., and 
 30 to 60 cubic feet ; a troop of cavalry, if above fifty rank and file, 12 cwt., and 60 cubic feet ; 
 a company of infantry, if above fifty rank and file, 18 cwt., and 90 cubic feet ; an officer's wife, 
 including children under fourteen years of age, 6 cwt., and 30 cubic feet ; children above fourteen 
 years of age, i cwt., and 2i cubic feet; each soldier's wife, including children, 1 cwt., and 5 
 cubic feet. 
 
 Provision is made for bands, non-commissioned staff, farriers, &c., but the preceding suffices 
 my present purpose of making known the system. 
 
 The officers, for themselves and families, may provide their own victualing, but the troops, 
 their women and children, are victualed by the master of the transport. The allowance to every 
 soldier, male passenger, woman, or child, is stipulated, according to a scale for daily, weekly, 
 and alternate days of issue, of eighteen diff'erent articles constituting the sea rations. The 
 iveUjhts and measures for ascertaining tlie quantities are provided by the government, and paid 
 for by the ship's owners. All children above ten years of age to be victualed as adults. Water 
 casks and water provided by ship owners to contain a supply for six pints per day, out of the 
 tropics, and one gallon per day, to each individual, when within the tropics, which quantities 
 are to suffice for all purposes. 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 101 
 
 At the end of a voyage the government agent, or if none on board, then the commander of 
 the troops, is re(|uired to make a report setting forth in detail the manner in which the regula- 
 tions in detail have been carried into effect. Should there be any cause of complaint, relative to 
 provisions or other stores, the commander of the troops orders a survey by officers, at which the 
 master and mate are requested to be present. Tue report of this board may be handed to the 
 commander of any ship of war or naval agent for such investigation as may be considered neces- 
 sary. The time for which sliips shall bo victualed is stipulated lor various ports, proportioned 
 to the average of very long voyages. 
 
 The charter-party provides all the preceding conditions applicable to ship and owners, and 
 in addition, that there shall be three windsails, two water hoses, scrapers, brooms, swabs, &c., 
 for keeping ship clean ; coals, wood ; improved fire hearths, with funnels and coppers under 
 cover to contain one quart for each person embarked ; a pint tin pot and spoon for each, and a 
 platter for every six persons ; hen coops, candles, hammock stanchions for bedding round the 
 waist, with painted hammock cloths ; scuttles to be cut in the 'tween decks ; the upper deck to 
 be cut for air tubes and water closets ; sufficient ballast, screened and washed. Ships' stores are 
 also specified, under the heads of boatswains' and carpenters' stores. 
 
 Such were the means adopted to secure safe and commodious ships, and the necessary sup- 
 plies while on board, for the troops. 
 
 I now proceed to give the outline of the regulations governing the agent, or, in other words, 
 supercargo put on board transports. These were revised and published for the English trans- 
 port service, in March, 1854. 
 
 The first regulation prohibits this agent taking his ''wife or family, or any part" of his 
 family, to sea with him, or the wife or any relation 'of the master, or any other person not 
 forming part of the crew. He is required to keep a journal or log-book, giving a circumstantial 
 account of all his proceedings. Although not to interfere directly in navigating the vessel, yet, 
 on approaching land, he must keep the hand lead constantly going, and may, on his discretion, 
 employ a pilot, whether the master desires to do so or not. When arriving in port, he is to 
 examine the supplies and cause the master to make good any deficiency required by the charter- 
 party, at the same time mustering the crew and causing the complement to be perfected, if 
 necessary. When in a foreign port, and cannot ship sailors, he may apply to a national ship 
 of war and receive the necessary assistance. 
 
 He sees that the windsails are properly attended to, that airing stoves be used between 
 decks when necessary, that all filth and dirt be removed, and whitewashing be done whenever 
 the transport is cleaning or refitting. At all times he is to attend to cleanliness, allowing no 
 dogs to go on shipboard, and no poultry or pigs at any time to be kept below. 
 
 In cases of sickness, he is to make frequent use of chloride of lime and airing stoves in the 
 hold, and whitewash with lime and white copperas, in the ratio of one pound of the latter to the 
 bushel of quicklime, using it hot. 
 
 He locks and retains the keys of all unoccupied cabins, mess-rooms, &c. 
 
 When embarking and disembarking troops, he orders that the boats' crews never absent 
 themselves while waiting for troops, and sees that seamen are placed in the chains with rope in 
 hand to throw to vessels, steam-tugs, &c., coming alongside. 
 
 No woman other than the lawful wife of the soldier is to embark with the troops, and of 
 those embarked only in the authorized numbers. 
 
 The regimental allowance of baggage is stowed away under his direction, and not to 
 incumber the decks or berths. In addition to the allowance of baggage, troops are to have, for 
 use during the voyage, room for potatoes, at the rate of three quarters of a pound per man per 
 diem, the time being estimated. 
 
 He sees that the troops, women, and children, when embarked, are victualed agreeably to 
 the prescribed scale, and that forage is provided for horses, at the rate of ten pounds of hay, six 
 
102 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 pounds of oats, half a peck of bran, and six gallons of water, whicli is never to be exceeded. 
 The master is to issue daily a small quantity of vinegar for wetting the horses' mouths and 
 nostrils. The government furnishes the forage, wliich is delivered to the master of the vessel, 
 who is held responsible ; any deficiency is charged to the ship owner. In case of sickness, the 
 agent may require the master to furnish flour, rice, and oatmeal, commuting for the salt meat 
 ration. The master is required to lay in hospital stores in such quantities as the surgeon and 
 himself shall determine. The stipulated ration is to be printed and hung up between decks for 
 general information. All stoppages of the spirit ration by officers of the troops, for punishment, 
 revert to the master. Temperance men are allowed double rations of sugar, chocolate, and tea, 
 as a substitute for each spirit ration stopped from them. The sanie commutation is made for 
 women and children, who are never to be allowed spirits. The agent must see that no ship goes 
 to sea without the proper supplies of provisions, stores, and medical comforts, and that they be 
 timely demanded and put on board. He sees that the master keeps correct accounts of the 
 receipts and expenditures of the provisions. 
 
 No passenger is allowed to embark without written authority from the commander-in-chief. 
 He, on application to the officer commanding, has a non-commissioned officer detailed to take 
 charge of the materials of the cabins and berths, preventing their being destroyed or injured. 
 The orderly officer of the day sees that the hammocks are hung up before setting the watch, and 
 regularly lashed up every morning, carried on deck and stowed away, exposed to air ; the agent 
 to afford every assistance. The bedding and hammocks remain on board when the troops disem- 
 bark, when the agent has them cleansed and stored in some dry place on board for future use, 
 separating new from old, none of the new to be used until all the old is issued. When used by 
 the sick, or unfit for use from other causes, the agent applies to the commander-in-chief for a 
 survey. Condemned parts may be thrown overboard, to be replaced as soon as possible. The 
 agent calls attention of the commander of the troops to any neglect or inattention to cleanliness ; 
 and when troops are disembarked he causes the bottom boards of berths to be lifted and washed, 
 cleansing and whitewashing all other parts, the boards being piled on deck, separated for 
 airing. 
 
 On arrival in port the agent reports to the admiral or chief of the navy-yard, showing his 
 orders and acting as directed. 
 
 In the absence of navy-yard authorities he reports to and receives orders from the senior 
 naval officer present in the port, and in the absence of any of these he communicates with the 
 civil authorities of the navy, complying with their requisitions if not inconsistent with his orders. 
 No military officer, however, is to interfere with the agent, and any orders giving by the civil 
 functionaries are at once to be reported. 
 
 Any circumstances retarding the voyage he communicates to the proper authorities, request- 
 ing the necessary assistance. Private goods cannot be received on board without written orders 
 of a superior, he being allowed, as well as the master, to take packages in his own cabin. 
 
 He allows no specie belonging to individuals to come on board without orders from the 
 admiralty or commander on any foreign station, the freight to be accounted for to the govern- 
 ment. The stores for the agent's use are supplied annually. The agent will be appointed with 
 a number to correspond with and be painted on both sides of the sliip at the expense of the 
 owners. If the ship is damaged the agent uses his best endeavors to forward her repairs, and 
 if incapable of continuing the voyage he orders her home, unless the master accepts her discharge 
 abroad, at a sum not exceeding one month's hire. The agent is to guard against accidents from 
 fire, allowing no spirituous liquor to be drawn off anywhere except on the upper or main deck, 
 and by daylight only ; and when candles are required below, a careful officer is to attend with 
 good lanterns and not allow the lights to be taken from them. Smoking in any of the cabins 
 or between decks, or even lighting cigars or pipes, causes a mulct on the ship's freight. Fires 
 must be extinguished as well as lights at a fixed period. The agent is not to receive any fee. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 103 
 
 gratuity, perquisite, or reward, either for brokerage, commission, execution, or non-execution of 
 any of his duties, nor is he allowed to live at the expense of the owners or master, or have any 
 interest or property in any transport, or any share in any ship or vessel employed as a transport, 
 or any interest respecting the hire, pay, or profit of a transport ; nor is he to recommend any 
 tradesman or pilot for employment unless applied to by the master in writing. Finally he is 
 to use all possible care and good husbandly in every respect, and be guided by the master's 
 instructions, so far as they relate to his duties as agent afloat, although not incorporated in these 
 instructions. 
 
 The allowance to every soldier for whom passage and victualing shall have been ordered to 
 be provided, is regulated for every day in the week, and in course of twenty-eight days it amounts 
 to 28 pounds of biscuit, 14 gills of spirits, 18|- ounces of preserved potatoes, 5^ pounds of salt 
 beef, 34 pounds of flour, 4|- pints of peas, 10^ pounds of salt pork, 7 ounces of tea, 35 ounces of 
 sugar, 3^ pounds of preserved meat, |- of an ounce of pepper, 18| ounces of chocolate, f of a pint 
 of oatmeal, |^ of a pint of vinegar, IJ ounce of mustard. 
 
 If necessary to issue substitutes for the above, 1 pound of biscuit, 1^ pound of soft bread, 
 1 pound of flour, 1 pound of rice, 1 pound of sago, and 1 pound of barley are to be considered 
 equal to each other; | pint of wine, 1 quart of strong beer, and ^ a gill of spirits are to be con- 
 sidered equal to each other ; 1 pound of rice, 1 pint of peas, 1 quart of oatmeal, ^ pint of split 
 jjeas, are to be considered equal to each other ; and 1 ounce of cocoa, 1 ounce of coffee, and ^ 
 ounce of tea, are to be considered equal to each other. 
 
 Six pints of water per day is issued when out of the tropics, and one gallon per day to each 
 individual when within the tropics, to sufiice for all purposes. 
 
 The medical comforts for 100 men, on the voyage from England to the Mediterranean, con- 
 sists of 30 pounds of sugar, 4 pounds of tea, 18 pounds of barley, 6 pounds of sago, 4 pounds of 
 arrow root, 12 bottles of wine, 29 pounds of preserved meats, 8 pounds of preserved potatoes or 
 rice, 60^- pints of essence of beef, T pounds of soap, 15 pounds of chloride of zinc for every 100 
 tons the vessel measures^ 44 to 65 pounds of lemon juice, and 44 to 65 pounds of sugar. 
 
 Whenever troops are embarked, the commanding officer at the port from which the em- 
 barkation takes place directs a medical officer to repair on board each vessel and make a minute 
 inspection previously to the embarkation of the troops. He reports the state and condition of 
 each ship, stating the name, number, and tonnage of the vessel ; the number of officers and men 
 to be embarked ; the height between decks ; the supplies and state of the ship's water, provisions, 
 medical comforts, and bedding ; the means of fumigation and ventilation ; and the state of the 
 well and of the orlop deck, or between decks. If the bilge water be offensive, fresh water must 
 be let in^ and care taken that the cables be properly stowed away, that no wet ones be left on 
 the orlop or 'twixt decks. 
 
 The commander of the port also orders a staff officer to make such insijcction of transports 
 as may satisfy him that they are in every respect fitted for the accommodation of the troops and 
 provided with proper stores for their use. 
 
 Embarkations take place under the immediate direction of the commander of the port, and 
 the troops remain under his orders after they are on board until they clear the j^ort and go to 
 sea. In case of detention, he orders the transports to be visited and the men inspected by a staff 
 officer ; calling for such reports from the commanders on board as will afford satisfactory informa- 
 tion as to the state of the detachments under their orders. 
 
 On arrival at the port of disembarkation, the com'manding officer at the port orders the 
 transport to be immediately visited, the men insxiected by a stafi' and medical officer, ascertainino- 
 what casualties have occurred, whether the ship has been jjroperly found, and the men supplied 
 with accommodations and provisions according to regulation. On landing, the commander at 
 the port takes care that the troops are forwarded to their destinations by the most convenient 
 means. 
 
104 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 The embarkation and disembarkation of brigades and divisions takes place under the super- 
 intendence of the general officers who are attached to them, who ascertain, by visiting each 
 transport, that all due preparation is made for the comfort of the troops, that the strictest 
 discipline is established on board, and that the regulations are strictly observed. Prior to the 
 embarkation, the commanding officer is to furnish the captain or master of the vessel with a list of 
 the names of the officers and men of the detachment, and a separate list of the women and 
 children to be embarked, in order that each person may be entered on the ship's books and no 
 delay take place in the issue of their jjrovisions. 
 
 Embarkation and disembarkation returns are made by commanding officers, showing the 
 strength and condition of their commands, the details of which are of no special interest to us. 
 
 Duties on hoard of sMp. 
 
 No situation requires more urgent personal superintendence and care, or in which stricter 
 conformity to regulations is more indispensably necessary, than that of troops on shipboard by 
 their officers. No officer, under any pretense, is to quit his ship without the sanction of the 
 officer commanding on board ; nor sleep out of the ship without such authority. 
 
 The command on board is vested in the senior officer, to whatever branch of service he may 
 belong, who is bound to exercise it, being responsible for any breach of discipline, whether the 
 officers and men are of his regiment or not, or are detachments of different corps. 
 
 Soldiers on board ship should be provided with and wear a coarse canvas frock. 
 
 As soon as the troops are on board, and before being dismissed, the commanding officer is 
 to see that the arms and accouterments are deposited in the racks prepared for them ; that the 
 accouterments are placed over the men's berths. The men must be allotted to berths regularly, 
 b}' companies, their pac'cs Icing liung up near their berths. While this arrangement is making 
 the men are divided into messes, after which they are shown to their berths. 
 
 When necessary that the troops keep their ammunition in their pouches, great caution 
 must be observed. The quantity in the pouches should be limited by circumstances. The 
 reserve ammunition is to be in charge of the commanding officer, and the pouches carefully 
 secured, each man's near his own berth. 
 
 With a view to health and comfort, the non-commissioned officers and men are to be divided 
 into three watches, one of whi;h is to be constantly on deck, with at least one subaltern officer 
 in charge of the watch. An officer of the day is detailed on board each transport. He sees that 
 all orders are obeyed and every regulation relating to troops on board transports strictly carried 
 into eifect. He is al.so the offic3r of the guard. 
 
 A guard, in proportion to the number of soldiers, or by the sentries required, must mount 
 every morning at nine o'clock, being exercised with arms when the weather permits, in port or 
 at sea. In harbor the sentries upon deck mount with their arms, at sea with their bayonets 
 only. 
 
 The men of each watch are appointed to stations best calculated to assist the sailors in 
 working the vessel. The non-commissioned officers and men not belonging to the watch are to 
 be ordered below when required by the master of the transport, that they may not impede the 
 working of the ship. 
 
 The officer commanding the troops must make, with the master, arrangements for quarter- 
 ing the troops in case of fire or an enemy, that every man may, in an instant, be at his station; 
 care being taken that too many men are not on deck, those not wanted being formed as a reserve 
 between decks. 
 
 The troops must parade at , a. m., without shoes and stockings in warm climates, every 
 
 man appearing as clean as his station will allow, with hands, face, and feet washed, and hair 
 combed. They parade again at half an hour before sunset. The cooks are to appear clean on 
 
ART FO WAR IN ETJROPE. 105 
 
 parade once a day. The recruits must be drilled daily, weather permitting, one hour in the 
 forenoon and one hour in the afternoon. 
 
 In warm climates the frequent washing of every part of the body is strongly enjoined. 
 To this end, two large tubs are to be fixed upon the forecastle ; when these cannot be obtained 
 buckets of water poured over the body will prove an efficient substitute. The men are to wash, 
 comb, and brush their heads every morning, to shave and put on clean shirts twice a week at 
 least, and must be furnished with the means of changing wet clothing. Great attention must 
 be paid to the water closets, buckets of water must be thrown down repeatedly during the day to 
 prevent the soil from sticking to the sides of the ship. 
 
 The bedding is brought on deck every morning, weather permitting, by o'clock, well 
 
 aired, in conformity to agent's regulations. This regulation applies equally to married people, 
 who are, by a partition, confined to a particular part of the ship. During the day this partition 
 must be taken down for free ventilation. 
 
 The bedding being brought up, the men sweep, scrub, and scrape the berths and decks. 
 The upper decks are washed every morning by the morning watch previous to the bedding being 
 brought up, but no washing hetiveen decks is to take place oftener than once a week, and then 
 only in dry weather. 
 
 The boards of the lower berths are to be removed once or twice a week to clean under them. 
 
 The officer of the day is always to be present at the cleaning of the berths ; when done, he 
 reports to the captain of the day, if any, or to the commanding officer. 
 
 At dinner time the officer of the day attends to see that the men are regular at their messes. 
 Any neglect in victualing the troops he is to observe, report to the commanding officer, and, if 
 necessary, to the agent of transports. 
 
 Wheu rum or other spirit is issued it must be mixed with at least three parts of water to 
 one of spirit. Issues before breakfast of a part of the spirit ration is strictly prohibited. The 
 officer of the day attends to the mixing and issuing of the spirit ration. 
 
 The coppers must be carefully cleaned, both before and after use. Every precaution must 
 be taken to prevent the men bringing liquor on board. 
 
 At sunset the bedding is taken down, and any time during the day on the appearance of bad 
 weather. 
 
 At o'clock in the evening every man is to be in his berth, the officer of the day seeing 
 
 to this in person. 
 
 To guard against fire, a sentry is constantly posted at the caboose, or one on each side if 
 necessary, with orders not to allow fire to be taken without permission. All lights must be 
 extinguished at eight o'clock at night except those guarded by sentries. A report of this order 
 being enforced is to be made at the time to the commanding officer by the officer of the day. 
 The officers' lights must be extinguished at ten o'clock, unless otherwise authorized by the 
 commanding officer, which he grants only in case of sickness or other emergency. 
 
 No smoking is to be allowed between decks, nor any lights among the men, except in 
 lanterns. The orderly officers and non-commissioned officer of the day are held responsible for 
 the enforcement of these provisions. 
 
 For the sake of exercise, the troops should be required to repair to quarters by the beat to 
 arms. Those quartered to guns (if any are on board) should be frequently instructed and 
 practiced in that exercise. 
 
 Arms and accouterments must be inspected frequently. The locks and barrels must be 
 greased to prevent rust, to which they are particularly liable at sea. 
 
 The troops must be inspected in marching order once in each week, to see that their neces- 
 saries are properly packed and packs well put on, and that the whole of their appointments are 
 kept in serviceable order. 
 14 D 
 
106 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Frequent fumigation of the ship is deemed highly material. For this purpose, mix four 
 ounces of common salt, one ounce in powder of oxyd of manganese, one ounce (fluid) sulphuric 
 acid, with two fluid ounces of water. The water and acid must be mixed together and poured 
 over the other ingredients in an earthen basin placed in a vessel of hot sand. 
 
 The use of windsails must be carefully attended to, especially to prevent an inexperienced 
 or other soldier fixstcning or closing up the bottom of them — a practice not unusual on board 
 transports. The sergeant of the watch is to be held responsible for this duty. 
 
 The men are not to be permitted to sleep on deck in warm weather. The doing so is found 
 to be productive of fevers and fluxes. 
 
 Exercise being indispensably necessary to preserve health, the men should be induced to 
 dance and wrestle ; at other times causing squads to move round the deck in double quick time, 
 for ten or twelve minutes, taking all in succession ; practicing this for an hour in the morning 
 and in the afternoon, when the weather permits. 
 
 In port, the men should be permitted to bathe, provided there be no danger from sharks, 
 and a boat be at hand to relieve any one in danger from any cause. Ten only to be in the water 
 at a time, and then on the same side of the ship as the relief boat. 
 
 The surgeon must examine the men at morning parade, to see whether there be any appear- 
 ance of disease in any of them. The sick must be separated from the healthy as much as pos- 
 sible. Upon the first appearance of any acute infectious disorder, the signal is to be made to 
 the hospital ship, and the diseased men removed to her. The medical men must guard the troops, 
 when they get in hot climates, against costiveness, allowing them to purchase, when arriving 
 in port, such fruit and vegetables as the medical ofiicer on board may deem proper"?" 
 
 It is the duty of the commanding ofiicer to repress by the most decided and summary 
 measures any tendency to insubordination, to check every species of immorality and vice, and 
 discountenance to the utmost in his power, in any individual under his command, whatever may 
 disturb the comfort of others, or interrupt the harmony and good understanding which should 
 subsist on board. 
 
 The masters of the transports have instructions from the Admiralty to afford every assist- 
 ance to the military officers in maintaining due discipline among the troops, to prevent drunk- 
 enness, and to suggest to the commanding officer all measures necessary for the due observance 
 of cleanliness and ventilation of the vessel. They are also instructed to prevent the officers of 
 the ship from entering into any dispute or altercation with the troops, and to impress upon the 
 minds of the officers that the troops are not on any account to be struck or punished by them, 
 nor even to be addressed in harsh language by them. The entire charge of the discipline of the 
 soldiers is to rest upon their own officers ; and should any complaint arise, it must be stated to 
 the officer of the detachment, who must take such steps as the circumstances requii'e. 
 
 These regulations conclude with an earnest recommendation to the commanding officer on 
 board each transport to cause Divine service to be performed on every Sunday the weather will 
 permit. In case no clergyman be on board, the commanding officer, or some intelligent and 
 respectable officer, is to perform this duty. Independent of the religious view of the subject, 
 which demands the discharge of so important and sacred a duty, the regular performance of 
 Divine service has ever been found to produce and i^romote cleanliness and good order among the 
 soldiery. 
 
 When troops are embarked on board ships of tvar the officers and soldiers from the time of 
 embarkation are (by law) to conform themselves strictly to the regulations established for the 
 government and discipline of the ship in which they are embarked, and to consider themselves 
 as under the command of the senior officer of the ship, as well as of the superior officer of the fleet 
 {if any) to lohich such ship belongs. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 107 
 
 Embarkation of Horses in Transports. 
 Regulations and instructions for cavalry officers. 
 
 The horses of the cavalry require peculiar attention at the time of embarkation, and while 
 they are on board ship every officer of the cavalry is expected to feel that he has a most important 
 duty to perform on these occasions, on which depend, in fact, the means of his being usefully 
 employed in the field, when he reaches his destination. 
 
 The following regulations are required to be strictly observed : 
 
 The horses must not be heated at the time of embarkation. With this view, avoid, if 
 possible, a long march on the day of embarkation. In cases where this cannot be attained, at 
 least two hours should intervene between the arrival of the horses at the place of embarkation 
 and their being put on board. If they cannot be placed in stables, they should be so disposed 
 as to be thoroughly dressed and cleaned. The first night on board they should have a mash 
 with some nitre, and during the passage bran should make a large part of their daily ration. 
 Care must be taken that they are not heated by being overfed. 
 
 The dragoon should wash the fetlocks and hool's at each stable hour, and be attentive to 
 wash the horse's face, eyes, and nostrils with a sponge. If the horse appears heated, and refuses 
 his food, an early bleeding (?) will in general restore him. The object of all others requiring 
 the greatest attention is that the hold be well ventilated by windsails, shifting the ends to 
 different parts of the hold. 
 
 In cases where the hold has been kept more than usually close, great advantage will be 
 found in washing the manger with vinegar and water, and occasionally the nostrils of the horses 
 with the same. 
 
 One stall on each side of transports must remain vacant, and some spare slings should be 
 provided, in case of illness or accident.* 
 
 After disembarkation, a cooling regimen, with gentle exercise, are the best means of 
 restoring the horses to their wonted vigor and fitness for service. 
 
 Soldiers' Wives. 
 
 For garrison duty, on foreign service, the lawful wives of six men in a hundred are per- 
 mitted to embark. When embarked for India or New South Wales, twelve to one hundred are 
 permitted to embark. But when embarked for active field service the wife of no soldier of the 
 regiment is permitted to embark. 
 
 No greater proportion of sergeants' wives is to be selected for embarkation than the sergeants' 
 wives bear to the wives of the corporals, drummers, and privates of the battalion. 
 
 Some additional notice of this code of instructions for the captain or master of the transport 
 is necessary to explain more satisfactorily the duties and responsibilities of other functionaries 
 on board ; otherwise it would not jiossess interest for us. 
 
 The master is required to receive and obey all orders of the agent whose pennant may be 
 hoisted on board his ship, and in his absence, of such other officer as he may be^J^ncef? under. 
 
 All comj)laints of neglect of the master in victualing the troops must be attended to by the 
 agent, who will prevent every mismanagement. 
 
 If any misunderstanding arises between the master and crew, or any of the officers or troops, 
 the master will refer the same to the agent. 
 
 *Spare stalls at the end of each line of stalls enable the officers, at pleasure, to have every horse groomed, by shifting 
 them in succession ; to which end, the stalls must be arranged with shifting padded side boards, as described in tho Himalaya 
 transport. / 
 
108 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 He is to give the agent every information in his jjower, with regard to the quantities of the 
 different stores and provisions shipped for the troops, &c., observing that no part thereof is to 
 he applied to his own use or the ship's crew, or to any other purpose than that for which they 
 were shipped. 
 
 He is frequently to examine the condition of the supplies, and report the same to the agent, 
 who verifies his accounts of receipts and expenditures from time to time. 
 
 On first fitting out the ship, provisions and other stores will be supplied by the captain 
 superintendent at Deptford, for the service upon which the ship is destined, to the master, who 
 charges himself with every description of stores put on board on accoimt of the public service ; 
 and he is to see the ship does not proceed to sea with troops without the proportions of pro- 
 visions, stores, and medical comforts for the number of troops ordered to embark. 
 
 He is at all times to take care that the ship be complete in men and stores, in conformity 
 with the charter-party. He signs receipts for the supjjlies received at Deptford or elsewhere. 
 
 He is not to allow rum or other spirits to be drawn off at any time, in any place, except on 
 the upper or main deck, and by daylight; requiring a steady officer to attend, with good lan- 
 terns, whenever a light is needed below decks, not allowing the light to be taken out of the 
 lantern. All provisions are to be served out by him by full imperial measures and weights, duly 
 stamped. 
 
 When troops are embarked he causes the windsails to be set and kept properly trimmed, 
 and airing stoves used whenever necessary. He is to cause the greatest attention to be paid to 
 cleanliness, allowing neither pigs nor poultry to be kept below, and no dogs to be kept on 
 board. In case there should have been sickness on board, he causes the vessel to be frequently 
 fumigated, and chloride of lime to be used when necessary, as well as airing stoves, in the hold, 
 frequently whitewashing with lime and white copperas, as before described. 
 
 Previous to troops being disembarked their bedding is to be returned to the master, who 
 has the hammocks scrubbed and dried, the beds and blankets shaken and aired, and the whole 
 put in a dry storeroom, kept ready for further service, separating new from old, using none of 
 the new until all the old is first issued. 
 
 Bedding used by the sick, or otherwise defective, to be surveyed, and if condemned may be 
 thrown overboard, replacing the deficiency as soon as practicable. He is to pay particular 
 attention to the preservation of provisions, bedding, bed cabins, horse stalls, and stores of every 
 other description on board the ship. He is to afford every facility for removing, airing, and 
 slinging the hammocks, under the direction of the officers commanding the troops. 
 
 No more women are to be provided with victuals than the stipulated number. 
 
 In case it be necessary to purchase fresh provisions or refreshments at any port put into on 
 the voyage, the master does so, on the written authority of the agent, drawing a bill at three 
 days' sight therefor upon the accountant general of the navy, forwarding the agent's certificate 
 of purchase and receijit, the ship being charged with such purchases until 2iroper vouchers are 
 produced. 
 
 If there be no agent on board, immediately on anchoring the master announces his arrival 
 and proceedings, by letter, to the Secretary of the Admiralty. He reports also to the admiral or 
 agent of the navy-yard, naval commander, or senior naval officer, as the case may be, in the 
 port of arrival. Other details are given of the manner in which the master shall keep his 
 accounts and returns for victualing the troops, all of which is done on scales of stipulated 
 allowances. 
 
 Such, in genei'al, were the rules and regulations by which the English army, as Avell 
 as a part of the French army, were transported during this Crimean campaign. It is the 
 same which for a long series of years the English government has practiced for tran.sporting 
 their troops to their extended dominions throughout the world, perfected by their necessities 
 and experience in this last and greatest eftbrt. I think there is no room to doubt it is the best 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 109 
 
 system now in practice by any nation, and one from which the officers of our army may derive 
 many useful and valuable ideas when placed in command of troojjs on board transports, or char- 
 tering ships for this purpose. 
 
 Jacobi Mines at Sebastopol, Cronstadt, &c. 
 
 Torpedo mines, if I may use this name given by Fulton to self-acting mines under water, 
 were among the novelties attempted by the Eussians in their defenses about Cronstadt, as well 
 as at Sebastopol. 
 
 Around and about the Island of Cronstadt and the anchorages that the allied fleet would 
 probably occupy, as well as the channels of approach, and anchorages abreast of the castles 
 defending these channels, numerous submerged mines — or, as Fulton called them, torpedoes — 
 were placed, to explode by the contact of any vessel running against them. Their peculiar 
 arrangement was entirely new, and, as I believe, the conception and idea of Professor Jacobi, an 
 eminent Kussian chemist and philosopher. 
 
 At Sebastopol, when examining the Mast Bastion, while the French troops were excavating 
 in the ditch, at the foot of the palisades under the salient angle, for these very mines, one of 
 them exploded, killing and wounding several. Very many were placed throughout the defenses, 
 all so arranged tliat by stepping upon them explosion was instantaneous. To guard against 
 accidents to the troops expi.-ed to this hidden danger when moving off of frequented or beaten 
 paths, the precaution of searching for them was adopted ; this search was in progress when the 
 explosion took place in the ditch of the Mast Bastion. I had an opportunity of seeing one of 
 these mines, in the English engineer depot, after its explosive apparatus and material had been 
 removed. They consisted of a box of powder of eight inches 
 cube, (a, Fig. 101,) contained within another box, leaving a ,, y 
 
 space of two inches between them, filled with pitch, rendering /V^^''-': Ji:": 
 
 the powder in the inner box secure from wet and moisture, when la -'i-/^" U-^- 
 
 buried under ground. The toj^ of the exterior box was placed 
 about eight inches below the surface, and upon it rested a piece 
 of board of six inches wide, twelve inches long, and one inch 
 
 thick, resting on four legs of thin sheet iron, (o,) apparently i "^ ^i /' ^>^ 
 
 pieces of old hoops, about four inches long. The top of this 
 piece of board was near the surface of the earth covered slightly, 
 so as not to be perceived. On any slight pressure upon the j,. ,yj 
 
 board, such as a man treading upon it, the tliin iron supports 
 
 yielded, when the board came in contact with a glass tube («) containing sulphuric acid, breaking 
 it, and liberating the acid, which diffused itself within tlie box, coming in contact with chloride 
 of potassa, causing instant combustion, and, as a consequence, explosion of the powder. Tlie 
 preceding figure represents the arrangement of the parts. The explosive mixture was learned 
 from uncertain data. There can be no doubt of the certain means of exploding powder by 
 Professor Jacobi's arrangement, but the materials above stated may be doubted ; we know, 
 however, that a mixture of chlorate of potassa and sugar on to which sulphuric acid is poured, 
 will, without fail, create instant combustion. Tliis combination recommends itself to our atten- 
 tion, being certain in its effects, and quite as little liable to accidental iufluences as any other, 
 and may have been tlie one adopted by Professor Jacobi, though not at once discovered or 
 observed in the field for want of chemical means to analyze such as were taken from the primers. 
 
 Another arrangement, found at Sebastopol, was by placing the acid within a glass tube of 
 the succeeding dimensions and form. This glass was placed within a tin tube, as in the following 
 figure, which rested upon the powder box, on its two supports, a, b, at the ends. The tin tube 
 opens downwards into the powder box, with a branch (c) somewhat longer than tlie supports. 
 
 
 2;:; 
 
 
 cL 
 
 
 
 8" 
 
 
 
 PITCH 
 
110 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Glass tube. 
 18| inches long. 
 
 Interior diameter 
 
 Exterior diameter. 
 
 3a 
 
 Tin tube. 
 19J inches long. 
 
 Exterior diameter. vC; 
 
 r£ 
 
 TV 
 
 7^ 
 
 D 
 
 Powder box. 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 (a, b.) This, as in the case of the preceding arrangement, was buried in the ground, leaving 
 the tin tube so near the surface that a man's foot, or other di.sturbing cause, bending it, would 
 break the glass within, liberating the acid, which, escajDing through the ojjening of the tin into 
 the box, came in contact with the potassa, or whatever may have been the priming, and by its 
 combustion instantly exploded the jjowder in the box. What I call a tin tube, I incline to 
 believe, was some more ductile metal, that would bend without breaking. For this information 
 I am indebted to the kindness of an English officer of artillery, who loaned me one in his pos- 
 session, and from which the measurements were made. What the arrangement was for those 
 iTsed under water, I did not learn. While at Cronstadt, they were known but to the few 
 Russian officers whose duty it was to apply them, and from whom, of course, no inquiry could 
 be made. The size I judge to have been about that of a barrel, and slightly conical. They are 
 no longer secret, as the allied fleet raised many of them from the anchorages in the Baltic. 
 
 Use of Telegraphs and Electrics generally in the Crimea. 
 
 The electric telegrajih was another novelty in the art of war, first used during this 
 memorable siege. It was used for communicating the wants of the armies to their respective 
 governments, and was so far imquestionably useful. For conveying the orders of the govern- 
 ments to their re.spective commanders (if I attach any weight to the 02)inion of officers at the seat 
 of war) its advantage was somewhat questionable. By it, orders were sometimes given that 
 more circumstantial information, only to be gained in sight of the enemy, would have shown to 
 be highly inexpedient. It was an irrcsistable temptation to exercise that "great authority, 
 high position, and sufficiently old experience to dominate over everything" that Canrobert 
 pointed out as necessary to success ; but which was doubtless considered as existing on each side 
 of the channel, and not without claims in Sardinia, and even in Constantinople, as well as in 
 France. It was successfully used between the English trenches, headquarters, and depots. 
 
 The extent of the field of operations over which the allied armies were daily and nightly 
 occupied, caused the introduction also of the ordinary semophoric telegraph to communicate 
 information to the headquarters of the generals. Located on prominent sites the movements of the 
 Eussians were watched and regularly reijorted. Fig. 50 represents one of these telegraphs, 
 erected by the French on the ruins of the Mai akoff Tower after its capture ; several others of the 
 same kind were erected in advantageous localities. 
 
 After the evacuation of the south shore defenses and city of Sebastopol by the Russians, the 
 Allies blew up the dry-docks, the storehouses on the wharf, communicating with Fort Paul, 
 (Fig. 50 d,) Fort Nicholas, (Figs. 50 b, c, and d,) Fort Alexander, and the barracks, with con- 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Ill 
 
 tiguous hospital buildings, (Fig. 64,) as also the creimated wall west of the city. (See Plate 
 Sand Fig. 50 d.) 
 
 The labor and time attending these operations were very great. Tlie English government 
 ordered that the dry-docks should be blown up, in October, 1855, about which time the mining 
 process was commenced. It was only on the 1st of February, 1856, that the last mine was 
 exploded to effect the object. To the English was assigned the destruction of about half the 
 docks, namely: three docks on the south end and one half of the side walls of the basin. These 
 three docks were each 236' long by 95' 4" wide on top. On the bottom they were 191' feet long 
 and 40' wide. It required, to destroy the part undertaken by the English, eleven charges of 
 powder of 160 pounds each and two charges of 300 pounds each. The shafts were made behind 
 the revetment walls, and thirty feet deep ; others were made along the centers and in the bottom 
 of the docks to a depth of twelve feet. The bottoms were blown up first and then the sides. 
 The French charges for the bottom mines were six feet deep, and those of the English, in similar 
 places, ten feet six inches deep. 
 
 The mines in Fort Nicholas, blown up by the French on the 4th of February, 1856, required 
 106,000 pounds of powder. 
 
 All these mines were exploded by the voltaic batteries, yet not without difficulty and dis- 
 aster to the operators. The English officers considered the process they used not reliable for 
 military purposes. What particular voltaic battery and. fuze were used by the English engineer 
 officers on this occasion, I have not learned. The success attending this method by other nations, 
 as well as themselves at other places^ is sufficient to induce us to persevere in perfecting its 
 application to our torpedo system for the defense of harbors, as well as mines generally, and 
 blasting rocks for either civil or military purposes, under water as well as under ground. 
 
 So well assured are the Austrian engineers of the advantages of electrics to mining and 
 blasting generally, that they have prej^ared jjor table batteries as a part of their mining train. 
 At Neustadt, near Vienna, Lieut. Col. Scholl, of the engineers, was engaged in the construction 
 of an admirably well designed pile of buildings for the school of engineers and artillery, the 
 whole exterior of which is built of different colored marbles obtained in the mountains of that 
 neighborhood. Most of the quarrying of this marble is done by igniting the powder by elec- 
 tricity, generated by a seventeen inch diameter plate of glass, collected in a Leyden jar, six and 
 three quarter inches diameter and twelve inches high. A wire from the jar conducts the fluid 
 to the quarry, distant about a mile up the mountain, some hundred feet above the location of 
 the electrical apparatus; there it is united or connected with the fuze rod, that is introduced into 
 the charge of powder, at the desired moment. Hundreds of charges have been exploded under 
 Colonel Scholl's direction, without fail or accident, by the simple and old method practiced by Dr. 
 Franklin of generating or exciting into activity the electric fluid. 
 
 AUSTRIAN FUSE FOE ELECTRICITY. 
 
 oA. 
 
 WIRE C0fmVCTOR\ENCASCO IN PITCH 
 
 , HORIZONTAL; PROJECTION 
 OF EXjTERtOR 
 
 "V;~£"o'7jo7>c"o?~£rt/ ic'as'cd" 
 
 SECTION AtA.B^^^^. 
 
 £ 
 
 V/me CONDUCTOR ENCASED 'A' PITCH 
 
 VEKTICAL PR0JE0TI8N OF EVTEHIOU 
 
 V\i. lo:i 
 
112 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 The success attending Colonel Scholl's labors is due to the fuze of which he is the inventor, 
 and to whom I am indebted for one of them, from which the preceding figure (103) is sketched in 
 full size. 
 
 It is terminated by a wooden cone that is thrust into the powder to be exploded, by means 
 of a wooden rod of such length as the case requires. Tlie cone is hollow; within the cavity and 
 at the end nearest the base is gun-cotton, to keep which in its place and to preserve it from 
 moisture the opening into the base of the cone is closed with a cork stopper. This cork is split 
 at the end from the cone, to receive the end of the wooden rod, formed as a wedge, and to which 
 it is tied by two bands of twine ; a fine brass wire, a a a, conducts the electrical charge from the 
 Leyden jar at the distance of a mile or more, as the electrical apparatus may be located. This 
 wire is suspended on poles as ordinary telegrajdiic wires. Near the mine it is attached to the 
 end (a') of the wooden rod, and thence passes in a small groove (c) sunk in one side of the rod, 
 completely encased in rosin or pitch, passing out of this groove near the base of the cone, whence 
 it passes through the cone, at n, to the interior, and in contact with the gun-cotton; after passing 
 thi'ough the solid part of the cone, it then passes through rosin or pitch to prevent moisture, 
 and communicates with the gun-cotton. Between the gun-cotton and the rosin or jiitch is 
 interposed a piece of pasteboard, through which the wire, a a a, also passes. Another wire, 
 0, passes from the gun-cotton, pasteboard, pitch, and cone, along the opposite side of the 
 stick, and is put in contact with the earth at the orifice or opening into the mine. The three 
 views of this fuze given in the preceding figure, will, with this description, suffice to make it 
 understood. It must be observed that the ends of the wires within the mass of gun-cotton come 
 within a short distance of each other, and that the electric spark, as it passes from one to the 
 other, sets fire to or explodes the gun-cotton, breaking the wooden cone, and thus igniting the 
 powder in which it is placed. 
 
 Very satisfactory results have been obtained by our own engineers in the use of electrics for 
 blasting under water, and at our Military School at A¥est Point, the cadet is practiced in its use 
 as applied to military mining. Its importance, however, to us as a most powerful auxiliary in 
 harbor defenses, justifies my appending the latest improvements on this subject that came into 
 my possession in Europe. 
 
 The best description of the apparatus for applying electricity to the art of war in the field, 
 that came to ray knowledge, is that of the Spanish engineer Colonel Gregorio Verdu. I am 
 induced to give it in his own words, as convej'ing the most satisfactorj'- information in my 
 possession on this new element, but recently introduced in the attack and defense of fortresses, 
 &c. To Lieutenant Piatt, of the United States Artillery, I am indebted for the translation of 
 Colonel Verdu' s system. 
 
 New Method of Setting Fiee to Mines by Electricity. 
 Old method. Fundamental principle. 
 
 If, in a metallic conductor that can communicate by its extremities with the two poles of a 
 pile, we make a break, and interpose in it a small iron or platina wire, the ignition of this 
 interpolated metal will, at the very instant we close the electrical circuit, be sufficient to inflame 
 powder. 
 
 This effect of dynamic electricity, when produced by the jjile, is the one it principally con- 
 cerns us to use in order to set fire to military mines, employing for that end hydro-electric piles 
 of a single liquid, as those of WoUaston or Munck ; or piles with a constant current, as those of 
 Daniel or Bunsen. For a metallic conductor, ribbons of red copper are made use of, and what 
 is better, wires of the same metal, sometimes covered with an insulating substance, but generally 
 uncovered and not insulated. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 113 
 
 Necessity of employing powerful piles. 
 
 It cau be readily conceived that the physical effect which it is desired to obtain in this case 
 with the pile, resulting without doubt from the difference in the conductibility of the copper, of 
 the circuit, and of the interpolated metal, must be sufficiently energetic, since a temperature of at 
 least 500° is necessary in order to heat to incandescence the iron or platina wire. So that if we 
 should wish by this means to inflame powder at distances not exceeding 275 yards, we should 
 require a battery of great power, not only from the number, but at the same time from the 
 surface of the elements ; for to produce this eifect, intensity and tension are at the same time 
 necessary in the electric current. 
 
 English pi'ocess. 
 
 Lately, towards the close of 1851, a new process was tried in England which differed from 
 the preceding in this : that in Ihe place of employing as an interpolating substance an iron or 
 platina wire, there was substituted a small tube of gutta percha, the interior surface of which 
 was covered with sulphuret of copper. 
 
 The electro-prime mover apparatus was composed of a certain number of small piles con- 
 structed according to the principle of Wollaston. Each of these was formed of a gutta percha 
 case having twelve compartments, in which were introduced the same nimiber of pairs, zinc and 
 copper, about five and a half inches square. In place of a liquid excitant, in these piles, quartz 
 sand moistened with water acidulated with sulphuric acid was substituted. In this process, 
 as in the preceding, the direct current of the pile is made use of; but the greater tension which 
 it produces and the nature of the interpolated substance ought to contribute in a great degree to 
 bring about the desired effect, namely, the ignition of powder at greater distances. Still, 
 whether from the alteration which the sulphuret of copper may undergo, or from want of energy 
 in the battery itself, which does not give a constant current, or from other causes in this process 
 which have not as yet been studied, we can afBrm, in the presence of reiterated experiments 
 which we have made with care in our school of practice, that the results have not corresponded 
 in any degree with the proposed object. 
 
 Intrtcacy and insufficiency of the old methods. 
 
 Such were, until the present time, the methods tried with the most success for applying 
 electricity to the explosion of mines. 
 
 Apart from their requiring the employment of powerful batteries and often the use of two 
 conducting wires, difficulties in a practical and military point of view were met with almost 
 constantly ; they gave uncertain results, especially over considerable distances, and, finally, 
 they did not permit the obtaining of simultaneous explosions of three, four, or a greater 
 number of charges. So that the general process, apart from the advantage which it presented 
 over the ordinary means of setting fire to powder from a given distance, left much to be desired 
 with respect to the multitude of applications of which it was susceptible in war, and the useful 
 and important innovations which it was naturally destined to aid in introducing in the art of 
 defensive mines. 
 
 Netv pirocess. 
 
 While applying for the first time to this process the use of that which we call in physics 
 currents of induction, and while studying, on the other hand, from numerous experiments, the 
 effects of these currents upon difi'ercut chemical compositions, both inflammable and explosive, 
 15 D 
 
114 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 we have succeeded in finding a simple and practical, and, at the same time, sure and economical 
 method for inflaming powder at distances, so to speak, unlimited. 
 
 Its description. Distinct parts of wJiich it is composed. 
 
 We will now describe the nature and disposition of these means, with the details indis- 
 pensable to their being put in use. 
 
 The apparatus,, or the principal parts that are made rise of in this process, are four in 
 number, to wit : 
 
 1. An hydro-electric pile which is reduced, in this case, to a single element of Bunsen, A. 
 (Fig. 12, Plate 13.) 
 
 2. A multijilier of the current of induction, represented by B. 
 
 3. A metallic conductor insulated by gutta percha, C C. 
 
 4. Mine-primers which by their inflammation produce that of the powder. 
 Let us examine successively each of these difi"erent parts. 
 
 I. Electro Prime Mover Apparatus or Pile. 
 
 Bunsen' s element. 
 
 It is reduced, as we have said, to a single element of Bunsen, of medium size, which we 
 have represented by A; the separate pieces of which it is corajjosed are seen in Fig. 18, Plate 13; 
 they consist of a porcelain cup, (a,) a cylinder of amalgamated zinc, (6,) a porus earthenware 
 cup, (c,) and a prism of charcoal, (cZ.) The porcelain cup is filled with water acidulated with from 
 an eighth to a tenth of sulphuric acid, and in the porus cup into which is introduced the prism of 
 charcoal, is poured the ordinary nitric acid of commerce. The cylinder of zinc and the prism of 
 charcoal have fitted to them metallic pieces, {E and d,) with screw clamjjs for establishing the 
 necessary communications. 
 
 II. Multiplier of the Curre>-t of Induction. 
 Nature and arrangement of the apparatus of induction. 
 
 This apparatus, constructed with the greatest care by Euhmkorf, is like the one which this 
 skillful artist used recently for making experiments upon electrical light ; but it has been suitably 
 modified to suit the object intended. The principles upon which it is based are connected with 
 the interesting theory of the phenomena of induction discovered by Faraday in 1831. 
 
 Figs. 14 and 15. Plate 13, represent the plan and vertical projection of the apparatus reduced 
 to one third of its natural size. Figs. 16 and 17 are two views of the same apparatus, the one 
 from the front and the other from the rear on the part corresjjonding to the battery. 
 
 Around a cylindrical bar a h, (Figs. 14 and 15,) formed by soldering together at their 
 extremities a number of pieces of iron wire of equal lengths, is rolled a copper wire (c) about 
 .078 of an inch (?) in diameter, insulated by silk or guralac, and which may communicate by means 
 of the metallic piece {d) with one of the poles of the pile; after having made three hundred turns 
 upon this iron bar, this wire terminates, running through the small column (e) at a hammer of 
 soft wrought iron, (/,) which rests upon another column of metal r/, (Fig. Ifi.) The upper surface 
 of this last and the lower surface of the hammer (/) are coated with thin plates of platina, which 
 facilitate the contact. 
 
 Another copper wire {i i) starts directly from the screw clamp, (/:,) which may be made 
 to communicate with the second pole of the battery, and terminates at the lower part of the 
 same column, (</.) Above the first wire coiled around the iron bar, another wire, much finer, 
 about .0013 of an inch (?) in diameter, and insulated in the same manner, is wound, making from 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 115 
 
 twenty-five to thirty thousand turns. Its two extremities (s and t) communicate witli the two 
 metal spindles, (m and n,) fastened by collars to the glass rod p q. The two heads of these 
 spindles (m and n) constitute in this way the poles of the inducted current which is established, 
 as we shall see, in this second wire. 
 
 The screw clamp k (Figs. 14 and 17) is put in communication, by an end of conductor, with 
 one of the poles of the battery, the zinc, for example ; and the button z, by means of the small 
 screw clamp o, with the opposite pole. By turning this button its metallic arm (o) engages itself 
 in the piece d, and the metallic current is closed. 
 
 Let us now see how this ajjparatus works. 
 
 Let us suppose the battery charged and the communication established ; that is to say, the 
 metallic arm (o) in contact with the piece d. 
 
 Primitive current. 
 
 The direct current of the pile enters by one of the extremities of the largest wire by d c, 
 (Figs. 14 and 16,) runs through all the coils of it around the bar, passes through the hammer 
 (/) and the column g, and goes out by i i and the screw clamp k, to meet the opposite pole of 
 the battery. 
 
 Interruption of the circuit. 
 
 The electric circuit being closed in this manner, for a very short time, the bar of iron (a b) 
 placed in the axis becomes magnetized by induction, and acquires polarity at a and b, imder the 
 influence of a current inverse to the primitive current, or that of the pile in which it is produced. 
 The pole b attracts the hammer /, which breaks the circuit at h, or at the contact of the two 
 platina plates; but the action of the current upon the iron bar ceasing at the same instant, this 
 returns to its natural state or looses its magnetism, and the hammer (/) falls again by its own 
 weight, and reestablishes tlie interrupted communication. The bar of iron becomes magnetic 
 anew and attracts the hammer, the current is interrupted a second time, and so on — the inter- 
 ruptions being produced with such rapidity that the movement of the liammer is scarcely 
 sensible to the eye, although its vibrations can be distinctly heard. 
 
 Inducted and intermittent current. 
 
 This same current, which is still that of the pile, creates by induction another current much 
 more energetic in its tensional power, in the multiplied spiral which is formed by the finest 
 wire, the extremities of which terminate in the spindles m and n. The intermissions of the 
 primitive current occur naturally in the inducted current; and, finally, when the two poles 
 {m and n) are united by means of a metallic wire, a rapid succession of extremely energetic 
 sparks are produced, which have properties comparable to those of statical electricity, and 
 others again very interesting, to the careful study of which natural philosophers are now apply- 
 ing themselves. 
 
 'o 
 
 Its effects. 
 
 For the object with which we are occupied it will be sufficient to say, that these sparks are 
 transmitted, through the medium of metallic conductors, to distances to which we have not been 
 able to assign limits, preserving sufficient intensity to inflame powder, and for a still greater 
 reason, other chemical substances more sensitive to the action of electricity, provided they are 
 disposed in a suitable manner in the break in the wire conductor. 
 
116 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Substitution of an inducted current for a direct current. 
 
 Upon the whole, we have substituted for the continuous and direct curi-ent of the pile (too 
 feeble in its eflects for that which we wish to obtain) an inducted current, (producing interrupted 
 sparks,) extremely energetic and calculated to attain the proposed end under all possible circum- 
 stances. 
 
 III. — Electric Gonductor. 
 
 Copper wire and insulating substance. 
 
 This is a wire of red copper, a little less than .018 of an inch (?) in diameter, insulated by one 
 or two layers of gutta percha as we tind it prepared an 1 cheaply sold in commerce, since it is 
 made use of in the electric telegraph. When the wire is ^oated with two insulating layers, the 
 second, on the outside, is usually mixed with two or three hundredths of sulphur, in order to 
 render it more unchangeable and less fusible. For the different experiments where we were in 
 the habit of placing the wire without burying it, leaving it exposed to the heat of the summer 
 sun, we had coated it with a second layer of gutta percha, in which was incorjjorated a little 
 white oxyd of zinc. This whitish and less fusible covering than the natural gutta percha prevents 
 the softening of the insulating material by the direct heat of the solar rays, which, it appears, 
 penetrates and melts it easier than dull heat. In fine, we may, although that may not be indis- 
 pensable, employ the same conductors covered on the exterior with lead, as they are made for 
 the electric telegraph ; but this need not be done, except for the short lengths, which have to 
 remain for a long time under the waters of ditches or rivers, or for the conductors of charges 
 intended for the defense oi harbors by submarine explosions. 
 
 Excellent properties of the ordinary conductor. 
 
 The total diameter of the ordinary conductor, that is to say, covered witli one or two layers 
 of gutta percha, is from .315 to .354 of an inch.(?) In this stfite it preserves the necessary flexi- 
 bility to enable it to be coiled up and reduced to a small compass when we wish to transport it. 
 It is very durable, and sufficiently unalterable in its nature to remain a long time under water 
 and in dry and moist soils. It serves indefinitely in all experiments, and it is rare that the 
 explosions destroy the extremities of it. In the numerous trials of this kind which for two 
 years have been made in our school of practice, the same conductor has always been used, which 
 has not undergone any alteration, and which has preserved nearly the same length. 
 
 Splicings and soldering. 
 
 In order to join the two extremities of the conductors, we uncover and remove the gutta 
 percha for a length of some .236 or .315 of an inch, clear them well, and applying them one to 
 the other twist them together with pincers. If the contact is to be permanent, we solder them 
 together with pewter ; but ordinarily this precaution is not necessary. In every case^ we cover 
 the joint with a sheet of softened gutta percha. If this method of uniting the two extremities 
 without the jjewter solder appears still to take up too much time to allow it to be executed before 
 the enemy, or in hasty operations, (although in our experiments it has taken but a very 
 short time,) a kind of vise represented in Fig. 22, Plate 13, can be used, which is afterwards 
 covered with softened gutta percha, or else with a piece of tube of the same substance, or even 
 simply with gum elastic. 
 
RT OF VfAR IN EUROPE. 117 
 
 IV. — Electric Primers for Mines. 
 Manner of preparing tJ cm. 
 
 The preparation of these primers is very important for the com-ile^e success of the methods 
 which are under consideration. It is advantageous, if not indispensable, to employ in them, 
 as for Statham's English primer, pieces of gutta percha tubes lined on the inside with sulphuret 
 of copper. 
 
 The distinguishing characteristic, and that to which is due in a great measure both the 
 certainty of the result and the simultaneousness of the explosions, consists in tlie use of the 
 fulminate of mercury— a siibstance which, among all others we have tried, including among 
 them ordinary powder and pyroxile, has proved to be the most sensitive to electrical action. 
 
 For our experiments we had prepared them in the following manner : 
 
 Tubes of gutta percha lined ivith sulphuret of copper. 
 
 We begin by forming small tubes of gutta percha, lined in the interior with sulphuret of 
 copper. To this end, we incorporate with this substance about a tenth of flour of sulphur. 
 This mass is worked up warm, making use of a porcelain capsule placed upon a sand bath, until 
 the mixture has acquired the greatest homogenity possible. With this paste we cover some 
 pieces of copper wire, from 19.685 to 23.622 inches in length, and of the same diameter as the 
 conducting wire. After an interval of from six to ten days, according to the temperature, there 
 are obtained small tubes from 3.937 to 5.905 inches in length, by withdrawing the copper wire, 
 after having made upon the envelope with a knife incisions at the proper distances. The coating 
 of sulphuret of copper adhering to the sides of these tubes ought to be very thin, and it is neces- 
 sary to be certain that it is in a proper state, by trying a little piece of the tube (after having 
 made in it a longitudinal incision as far as the axis) between the prolonged poles of the appa- 
 ratus described. If small sparks should be seen to form, or particles of the sulphur inflame, 
 then these tubes can be employed in the preparation of the primers. They are then cut in 
 pieces .787 of an inch in length, in the middle of which are made oblique incisions in order to 
 form an opening c. (Fig. 19, Plate 13.) 
 
 Ends of copper tvirefor the primers. 
 
 On the other hand, there are prepared pieces of copper wire covered with gutta percha, 
 11.811 inches in length, upon which the insulating layer is much less thick than upon the 
 electric conductors. The extremities of these wires are uncovered, and, after they have been 
 scraped, we introduce one extremity of each piece into the small guttapercha tube ab, (Fig. 19,) 
 leaving between them an interval of .078 to .157 of an inch. The wires are finally bent with 
 pincers in order to give to them the disposition shown in Fig. 20. 
 
 Fulminate of mercury. 
 
 In this state the primers are ready to receive the fulminate of mercury, which ought to have 
 been dried beforehand in small quantities, in order to avoid accidents. This substance is 
 kneaded up with a little gum water, and a small fragment of the paste, about the size of a lentil 
 seed, is placed between the two metallic extremities. It is then dusted with a little mealed 
 powder, allowed to dry, and the primer is finished. 
 
 Last operation in order to insure the transportation and use of the primers. 
 
 Nevertheless, in order to make use of them with safety, it is necessary to inclose their 
 extremities in a kind of muff of gutta percha filled with powder. 
 
118 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 These muffs are very easily made with a wooden former and a small sheet of gutta percha^ 
 exposed an instant to the action of heat; after having softened a little the edges of the sheet, the 
 extremity of the primer is introduced, it is immediately tilled with good powder, and it is closed 
 up hj pressing the edges around the wire while they are yet soft. Tlie primers then take the 
 form represented in Fig. 21. In this way they can he transported without danger, and can he 
 stored in the magazines for a long time, up to the moment of making use of them. By way of 
 experiment, we have suhmitted them to repeated shocks without ever having heen ahle to pro- 
 duce an explosion. 
 
 Employment of the Means Described for the Explosion of Mine Chambers. 
 
 Isolated eocplosions. 
 
 Let us suppose the apparatus placed at A, (Fig. 23,) and the conductor carried as far as D, 
 where a mine chamber is constructed, the extremity of the conductor is united with one of those 
 of the j^rimer, by twisting them together or by making use of pincers, as has been observed 
 before. The other extremity (h) of the primer is put in communication with the earth by means 
 of a piece of a conductor insulated or not, from 3.937 to 4.921 feet in length; that is to say, long 
 enough to extend out of the box which contains the powder. 
 
 In order to facilitate this communication with the earth, or the passage of the electric 
 current through the common reservoir, there is attached to the extremity of this wire an iron 
 needle 11.811 inches long, which is stuck into the soil, or which dies off in the depths of the 
 tamping. No inconvenience arises from suppressing this iron needle, and making the end of 
 the conductor enter directly into the earth. 
 
 The end of the ^u'incijDal conductor which is near the apparatus is iixed to one of the poles 
 (m) of the inducted current. The second pole («) remains in constant communication with the 
 earth by means of a piece of copper wire armed with an iron needle. 
 
 The primer being introduced into the center of the powder, and the mine being ready to 
 explode, the fire is instantly transmitted to it, (without its being necessary to lay trains of 
 communication with it,) by putting the apparatus in contact with the battery, by means of the 
 button z, (Figs. 14 and 17.) 
 
 Heterogeneous circuit ohservation. 
 
 The circuit of the inducted current is formed, as we see, by the finest wire of the apparatus, 
 the earth, and the principal conductor. Should it not be admitted in this case that the current 
 of interrupted sparks tend to pass into the common reservoir, as the same effects are explained 
 in relation to statical electricity, or while it maintains itself in a state of tension on the surface 
 of bodies ? 
 
 Multipliecl and simultaneous explosions hi/ means of a single conductor. 
 
 If it should be wished to create several simultaneous explosions, five for example, with a 
 single conductor, a disposition for the experiment would be made as is indicated in Fig. 24, 
 Plate 13.) The five jDrimers communicate between each other ; the extremity of the first with 
 the principal conductor, and that of the fifth with the earth; that is to say, this one is lost in 
 the tamping of the last mine. Thus we should set fire instantaneously to the five, as in the 
 preceding case to one mine. 
 
 If the distance between the mines which are to be blown up simultaneously were greater 
 than that which separates them from the apparatus^ there would be a saving in conducting wire 
 by using one for each mine, and presenting to the pole of the apparatus their extremities 
 united. 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 119 
 
 Simultaneous explosion of a great number of mines. 
 
 By making use of four or five conducting wires only^ tlie simultaneous expjosion of a groat 
 numher of mines can be obtained. Let us suppose it is wanted to blow up twenty-five at once. 
 We divide them into groups of five, whicli may bo placed from each other at as great intervals 
 as may be wished, a fact which constitutes an extremely important advantage in the application 
 of this process to the defense. The five mines of each group communicate by a single conductor, 
 as has been explained before, and as we see in Fig. 25 ; but the free extremities of these five 
 wires are brought together near the apparatus. 
 
 By taking them in one hand, and very rapidlj^ making each one touch the pole of the 
 apjiaratus, which can be done in less than a second, we will obtain twenty-five explosions, 
 whicli are simultaneous, or which will succeed each other with such rapidity, that the interval 
 of time separating them is insensible. 
 
 Theoretical resume of the preceding dispositions. 
 
 The preceding dispositions are reduced, finally, to presenting in the passage of the inducted 
 current a metallic conductor, which terminates in the earth or the common reservoir, and to 
 establishing in this passage as many breaks as there are mines to explode. (There is produced 
 in each of them the same number of sparks, like those which statical electricity, or the ordinary 
 electricity of our machines, would produce :) in fine, to placing at the points where the current 
 is broken some fulminate of mercury, a substance very sensitive to electrical action, which not 
 only favors the simultaneous explosions, but which produces them at the greatest distances to 
 which they are able to be effected. 
 
 There are no determined limits for the distances nor are there any for the number of the chambers. 
 
 Our first trials having had principally for their object jDractical results, or an immediate 
 application to the defense, we have not as yet sought to determine the limit of the distances at 
 which a single conductor can produce single or simultaneous explosions for the greatest possible 
 number of chambers. This determination, more curious than interesting, since the results 
 obtained satisfy every case which can present itself, will constitute, nevertheless, the object of 
 future experiments. 
 
 The ofiicers interested in the study of this subject will find instruction in a work published 
 in Paris in 1854, by Martin de Brettes, entitled Etudes sur les Appareils Electro Magnetiques 
 destines aux Experiences de V Artillerie, (in England, Russia, France, Prussia, Belgium, and 
 Sweden.) So important, indeed, is the subject that all the military powers of Europe have not 
 only introduced and applied it to the attack and defense of posts, but in its application to the 
 science of artillery. Many valuable experiments already made on the tlieory of projectiles have 
 gone far to do away with the balistic pendulum of the most approved construction. On this 
 latter application of electrics, I would beg to refer the artillery officers to the work of Navez 
 published in 1853, Sur V Application de V Extricite a la Ilesure de la Vitesse des Projectiles 
 More recently Lieutenant Alexander Bessolo, of the Sardinian army, has extended the ap^dica- 
 tion of electrics to proving guns, hollow shot, &c., throwing open a wide field of scientific labor 
 to our artillery and ordnance corps. 
 
 The importance of the subject to the artillery officer is believed to be such as to justify my 
 bringing to their notice tlie novel system of tliis officer of the Sardinian army, who has applied 
 electrics, as a substitute for the hydraulic press, to prove the strength of guns, hollow shot, 
 water, and gas pipes, as well as steam boilers. Lieutenant Bessolo's application of electricity 
 to prove the resistance of cannon, &c., is based ujion a series of experiments on the decomposi- 
 
120 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 tion of water, by the voltaic currents, into its elementary gases, oxygen and hydrogen, under 
 strong i^ressure, (thirty atmospheres,) which tension he applies by a peculiar apparatus to the 
 purposes now under consideration. 
 
 The laws which he discovered, and upon which he founds his system, are 
 
 1. That a current of an intensity sufficient to decompose ivater under the ordinary pressure 
 of the atmosphere will decompose it under any pressure; at least within very extended limits. 
 
 2. That the intensity of the current is independent of the pressure under which the element- 
 ary gases of water are developed ; that is, the electrical motive power and all the resistances 
 foreign to the closed voltameter in which the decomposition takes place remaining constant, the 
 intensity of the current will he sensibly constant during the variation of the pressure. 
 
 3. That the intensity of current being constant, the quantity of ivater decomposed in a closed 
 recipient, and consequently the tension or force of the gases developed, is in the direct ratio of the 
 time used in the decomposition of the water. 
 
 These three laws were tested up to a pressure of thirty atmospheres. The following is the 
 application of these three laws in testing cannon as a substitute for the hydraulic press. 
 
 The plug or stopper A, B, B, (Figs. 1, 2, 3, Plate 14,) used in experiments made with the 
 hydraulic press, a closed "manometer," M, A, U, a " voltimeter," V, the electroids of which 
 are isolated R,i p and n, and a cock (i?) to close the orifice through which the water is introduced, 
 constitute the whole of the apparatus. 
 
 See Plate 14. The glass tube {t, i! , t" , Fig. 3) of the manometer must be properly attached, 
 as much as possible towards the center of the stopper. T.:e upper extremity is closed, and the 
 lower extremity is thrust (open) into the cylindrical basin m., m. 
 
 The pressure is communicated in this iron basin through the opening r, s, closed by acock 
 pierced with small holes, or by any porous material, such as reed, organic tissue, &c. 
 
 The exterior tube, (t, t,) surrounded by an ordinary armature, is graduated according to 
 Mariotte's law, deduced from experiment. 
 
 The "voltameter" F" consists of a glass vase, (o, o, o,) closed by a gutta percha funnel, 
 (o, q, q',) or by a cover lined with an elastic substance, to adjust it closely to the edges of the 
 vase. The whole is placed in a metallic box. 
 
 In the vase, which contains less than one half its capacity of acidulated water, (the sul- 
 phuric acid must be from one fifth to one tenth of the total volume,) the two electrics (a, c) are 
 immersed, formed by two sheets of platina rolled up sijirally, the turns of which are kept 
 apart (Fig. 4) by isolating pins. The height of these jjlates is less than one half the height 
 of the vase. They are respectively attached (Fig. 5) to two j^latina wires («', p', p, d, n', n) by 
 means of a varnish solder or, still better, by pins introduced into notches made in the wires. 
 
 These wires pass through two insulating stoppers — of ivory, bone, wood steeped in warm 
 mastic, glass, &c., &c. — which, screwing into the stopper, (tompion,) or in the same manner as 
 the " grain dolumiere Mathis," communicate metallically to the knobs or buttons (p',n.) A 
 bell {d, d, d, d, of copper or sheet iron) covers the two recipients, and is sunk a little below 
 their opening. 
 
 We now proceed to the method of operating. Let us suppose the monometei; to be in order, 
 the capsule of the voltameter fiu-nished with the accidulated or saline liquid which covers the 
 electroids; the gun placed vertically, with the breach down; the vent strongly closed, and the 
 bore filled with water ; the stopper or tompion arranged as usual, leaving the cock (i?) ojien, in 
 order to add water until the funnel (/) becomes filled. The cock (i?) is then closed, and the 
 poles {P, 2^ of one pile (p, e, three pairs of Bunsen, Fig. 2) are placed in communication with 
 the knobs p, n, screwing up the extremities of two rheop)hores, consisting of copper wire helix 
 or of small ribbons, &c. 
 
 In a short time, according to the intensity of the current and the sjjace not occupied by the 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 121 
 
 water, the manometre M will work the increasing pressures, and will join the regulating tension ; 
 then the circuit must be interrujited hy unscrewing j) or n, and the experiment is complete. 
 
 The instrument might be arranged so as to let the current interrupt itself — that is, when 
 the tension arrives at the fixed or ultimate limits. For tliis purpose one of the screw heads, for 
 example n, would be put in metallic communication with the tompion or stopper, and hence one 
 pole of the pile would be in coiumunication with the mercury of the manometre ; for this purpose 
 it will be sufficient to suppress the non-conducting muff of one of the electroids. The positive 
 pole would conduct, as before, the insulated ctirrent to the "anode" a, whilst the "cathode" c 
 would bo in communication with the mercury through the insulated wire c,fff, g g, going 
 from one recipient to the other, and penetrating the mercury to tlie depth g, g, corresponding 
 with the depression given by the regulating tension. Evidently the mercury, by lowering, will 
 leave uncovered the wire g g ; and, reacting, the ring around the manoniutric tube and the circuit 
 will be interrupted, for the electricity would jjass over the circuit P, (the jiositive pole of the 
 pile,)j3, P', a, -\- the electrolite liquid, -|- c,fff, g g, -'r mercury, -|- the sides of the capsule, 
 + the body of the cover, -f- n,N, (negative pole.) 
 
 To disunite or undo the ojieration, open first tlie cock It, through whicli tlie water will be 
 projected with force, then the gas, until the reestablishmeut of the pressures takes place, when 
 the tompion or stopper can be easily removed. 
 
 It will be remarked that the bell must keep the water away from the liquids of the mano- 
 metre and of the voltametre, and that the difference of level a ^J, Fig. 3, between its edge and 
 that of the funnel /, allows the water sufficiently to enter into the bell to prevent the gases 
 escaping during the operation. 
 
 It results, first, that the whole surface of the bore will be in contact with the water ; second, 
 that the closing line or closing surfaces of the cover being wet, the losses will be prevented more 
 effectually. If such losses should occur they would be immediately perceived. 
 
 The funnel-shaped stopper of the recipient of the voltametre, and the perforated stof)per of 
 the recipient of the manometre, are so arranged to render the machine more manageable and less 
 subject to derangement into whatever position it may be accidentally thrown or assume. 
 
 In effect, the acidulated liquid of the first recipient having no issue owing to the construc- 
 tion of the cover, (like certain glass inkstands,) no other care will be necessary than adding 
 water at long intervals, to replace waste by decomposition or evaporation, whenever the electroids 
 are uncovered. The porous stoppers of the manometre, while allowing the pressure to act, will 
 be sufficient to confine the mercury ; of itself naturally very dense. 
 
 If great precision is desired in the manometre indications, it will be necessary to prevent an 
 exchange of the air between the atmosphere and the manoraetric tube, so that the quantity left 
 in it in the construction remains constant. 
 
 Let us suppose in efiect that we had constructed the manometre under the mean pressure. 
 Let_^; be this pressure, I the length {A, B, Fig. '7) occupied by the air in the tube inserted in the 
 vase. Commencing at the closed extremity ^, the lengths \, ^,\, &c., will indicate in the 
 cylindrical tube, without regard to the weight of the liquid, the pressures 2 p, 3jp, 4^^, &c. 
 Let^; -{- CI) be the actual pressure at any moment of the experiment, (w will be positive or nega- 
 tive,) if in using the instrument the opening B should be uncovered, tlie quantity of air in the 
 tube would become changed. Now the manometric length I would correspond to the pressure 
 23 4- CI), consequently the lengths \, g-, \, &c., represent resjiectively the pressure 2, (j) -\- co,) 3, 
 (p -+- CO,) i, (p + (o,) &c. Thus the indication of twelve atmospheres would relate to the pres- 
 sure 12, (p -\- CO,) and would give for the pressure supported by the gun a difference of 12 co over 
 the pressure established and adopted ; whilst if there had been no exchange of air, the number 
 12 of the graduation would constantly express the absolute pressure 12 ^^j. Thus a careful and 
 proper construction would avoid tlie necessity of calculating the difference between the actual 
 pressure and the regulating pressure, unless we conclude to neglect it. It would moreover avoid 
 16 D 
 
122 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the inconvenience of the introduction of hygrometric gases, which, becoming saturated, ■would no 
 longer be subjected to Marriotte's law. 
 
 The following is the arrangement calculated to render the manometre invariable. Let us 
 suppose the manometre graduated in such a manner as to coincide with the mean pressure of the 
 atmosphere ; let us construct the cylindrical equilateral basin such that the diameter and height, 
 m m, Fig. 3, shall be at least equal to 20, (2 in the barometric height included between the 
 maxima and minima pressure of the atmosphere,) and prolong the manometric tube up to the 
 center t" of the recipient filled with mercury. Whatever may be the position of the manometre, 
 the opening t" will only be free for the passage of air when w is positive, and we shall always 
 have a column of mercury, at least equal to the height J, which will oppose the escape or issue 
 of the air; in the case in which w should be negative, as we always have co <^ o. 
 
 Mercury is selected for the liquid of the manometre because its evaporation is insensible, as 
 well as its. capillary attraction on the surfaces of the tube ; and because its weight renders the 
 series of divisions less convergent ; although it makes it necessary to establish perpendicularity 
 in the experimental process. 
 
 Great surfixce is given to the electroids, and they are made contiguous, in order to reduce as 
 much as possible the resistance of the liquid, and to render the resistance comparable to that of 
 the metallic conductors, in order to obtain greater economy in the dimensions of the pile. 
 
 The advantages of this apjDaratus over the hydraulic press are, first, simplicity, since there 
 is a suppression of the intricate arrangements of a heavy press ; admitting its use with but little 
 expense in most any locality. Second, greater precision, by the substitution of a gradually 
 increasing force to a variable or intermitting one. 
 
 Lieutenant Bessolo applies his apparatus also to measure the velocity of projectiles^ for which 
 purpose his apparatus difl'ers materially from that of Navez, of the army of Belgium. I must 
 content myself with a reference to the printed descriptions of the apparatus of these talented 
 officers for an understanding of this new and valuable application of science to the art of war, 
 trusting that the little now stated may suflice to induce my brother officers to pursue the study 
 and application, that our army may not be behind those of Europe in the science of our profession. 
 
 One of the many advantages obtained by the use of electrics in measuring the velocities of 
 projectiles, is that of obtaining at any angle and at any point of the trajectory the velocity due 
 to such conditions. The ofiicers of the army of Belgium are the first to give us tables of the 
 initial velocities of shells of twenty-nine, twenty, and thirteen centimeters diameter, fired at an 
 angle of 45°. In 1852 and 1853 Navez made the experiments at the practice grounds at Brasse- 
 chaet, in Belgium, from which these tables were deduced. 
 
 The importance of this subject has induced me to make preparations for introducing Navez's 
 apparatus for measuring velocities at the Military Academy, hoping, in time and by the liberality 
 of Congress, to be enabled to disseminate this branch of military science into the army through 
 the graduates of the academy. The "Commission" brought home all the published books on 
 this subject, tliat came to its knowledge, for the library of the War Dejiartment. 
 
 Harbor Defenses. — Cherbourg. 
 
 I have already described tlie defenses of Cronstadt and Sebastopol, two of the strongest 
 harbors and best examples of the application of military science to sea-coast defenses by modern 
 engineers; next to which may be ranked those of Cherbourg, on the French coast of the channel. 
 
 But little information is to be obtained from military libraries on this special branch of the 
 art of defense, the writers on the science of fortification having confined their study mostly to 
 illustrate the principles in their application to the defenses of cities and strategic points on inland 
 frontiers. In our country the study of the engineer is most advantageously bestowed upon the 
 means of closing our liarbors and roadsteads against naval armaments accompanied by land 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 123 
 
 forces, which, most happily for us, iu no instance calls for the fortifying of a city or town, 
 bringing upon it all the evils of a siege or bombardment in an enemy's efforts to reduce the forts. 
 
 No locality affords a better study of what can be accomplished by artificial means than the 
 one under consideration. While Cronstadt and Sebastopol possess the advantages presented by 
 the natural configuration of the channel, adjacent shores, shoals, and a unity of design steadily 
 persevered in nearly to completion, Cherbourg originally possessed no one of these facilities as 
 a basis for the engineer's science. Its strategic position, in connection with the coast of England 
 alone, seems to have been the inducement for creating harbor, docks, and defenses. The disas- 
 trous naval combat off La Houge, first led the French government to select this locality as 
 suitable for a harbor of refuge, for watching the movements of an enemy's fleet in the channel 
 and intercepting his commerce, as a depot for the repairs and construction of the French fleet, 
 and a harbor from whence hostile expeditions could with the greatest advantage set sail, destined 
 against their enemies; England, of all others, being the one most unquestionably that was 
 steadily kept in view from the first conception to the accomplishment of the design. 
 
 Situated at the extremity of a promontory, presenting a salient into the English channel 
 about midway between Brest and Dunkirk, it was favorable for the arrival and departure of 
 vessels at all times of tides and winds. No harbor of any kind originally existed at this place 
 for large ships ; it was an open roadstead, protected by the land from southerly winds only. 
 (Plates 1 and 2.) In 1784, the plan had been matured, and a commencement made in the con- 
 struction of a breakwater, that should inclose a large and spacious harbor. In 1789, such 
 progress had been made as to justify the commencement of the outer defenses of the artificial 
 harbor, one on lie Pelee, commanding the eastern entrance, and the other on the main land. 
 Fort de Querqueville, commanding the western entrance. Fort du Hornet was commenced 
 about the same time as the one on He Pelee, but upon the plan of a breakwater, extending in a 
 line between these last two named points ; whereas it was finally established on the line between 
 He Pelee and De Querqueville. This is one of the first evidences of the want of unity of design 
 in these defenses. In 1802, the defenses of the harbor were again under discussion, when it 
 was determined to construct a fort near the center of the breakwater, to prevent an enemy 
 cannonading vessels anchored in the harbor from an anchorage outside, and beyond the 
 range of the batteries on He Pelee and of De Querqueville, the distance between the two being 
 7,738 yards. It was armed in August, 1803, consisting of a parapet only, and, with its barrack, 
 was destroyed by the hurricanes of 1807 and 1808. The completion of the breakwater made 
 two openings or entrances into the harbor to be defended. The one on the west, of 2,581 yards 
 in width, and that on the east, 1,075 yards in width. Between He Pelee and the main land is 
 another entrance for small vessels, which more recent experience has caused to be defended with 
 batteries armed with heavy guns of long range. 
 
 The western opening into the harbor is obstructed in its- center by an extensive rocky reef, 
 the existence of which was not known until some years after the commencement of the works, 
 which has since led to other modifications in the system of defense. 
 
 The naval depot and dock-yards, with its extensive arsenals, (see Plates 1 and 2,) is situated 
 between the town of Cherbourg and Fort du Homet, a distance of about 1,600 yards, and thence 
 along the bay shore westwardly about 1,500 yards; its western and southern boundary being a 
 curve line connecting the western and southern extremes. 
 
 The problem was to fortify the entrances into the harbor against a floating armament, and 
 fortify the docks against a land attack. Against the former, France may be considered as quite 
 vulnerable on such an establishment as a principal naval depot, and always more or less so from 
 the sea, owing to the various contingencies that may frustrate a reliance upon her own naval 
 forces, or the probable combination of several nations against her. 
 
 Against a land attack she had little to apprehend, except from sudden, unlooked for, small 
 orces attempting to burn the combustible parts of the establishments, or from one of those 
 
124 
 
 ART OF WAR IN KUROPE. 
 
 extensive alliances that would combine all Europe against her, with the avowed policy of looking 
 to the destruction of her naval power as their security for the future. Against any one nation, 
 her system of defense about the land fronts of the dock-yard Avould have been a slight enceinte, 
 guarded by comi^aratively small detached forts on the crests of the adjacent hills. She lias 
 however, adopted, and is now executing the plan of defense, both on the water and land, 
 against the most powerful alliances ; the propriety of which she doubtless fully appreciates from 
 the fact of her having combined with Russia and England to destroy a Turkish naval power at 
 Navarino, which recently would have had a material influence in support of the alliance against 
 Russia ; and, again, in the alliance of England, France, and Turkey to destroy the naval power 
 of Russia. 
 
 It may truly be conceded that such is the jealous rivalry and distrust of the naval powers 
 of Europe, that France has no other safety than organizing the defenses of her dock-yards by 
 land and water against a combination of Eurojoean powers. Nor can this consideration, with 
 propriety, be neglected altogether in maturing the defenses for our dock-yards and naval estab- 
 lishments ; the time will come when an attempt to destroy the growing power and probable 
 ascendency of the fleet of the United States, may be considered quite as necessary as the recent 
 combination to destroy that of Russia. 
 
 The design of the traces of the batteries of De Querqueville and He Pelee was circular. Re- 
 cently the circle has been abandoned, and right lines making an angle of not less than that of 
 a hexigon have been adopted. Fort des Flamands (Fig. 112) one of the latest and best works 
 in the harbor, being so arranged. 
 
 Some of the details of these works are not without interest. The principal battery of Fort 
 de Querqueville is in forty-eight casemates, (see annexed Fig. 104,) on a trace of somewhat 
 
 Granite pavpment. 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 more than a semicircle, diffusing its fire uniformly on an immense circuit, without the power of 
 concentration at any point. Its gorge is closed, with a masonry two-story bomb-proof casern, 
 broken in two equal lines, projecting into the terreplein of the battery, as in the accompanying 
 sketch. Fig. 106. 
 
 The peculiarity of this casern, is the continuous corridor, facing the exterior, separating 
 
 the exterior wall, pierced with loop holes and 
 windows ; from the rooms, the object doubt- 
 less being to obtain space for musketry fire, 
 that would be occupied by piers of arches if 
 the rooms were continued from front to rear, 
 at the same time preserving a covered com- 
 munication throughout the casern. The case- 
 mated battery is constructed with much care. 
 Fig. 106. All the piers, as well as interior and exteriors 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 125 
 
 of the scarp, are built of large masses of most excellent granite, in horizontal courses. The 
 detail most worthy of attention, (see sketch, Fig. 105,) is the study to economize space to obtain 
 the greatest number of guns on a given length of scarp. To eifect this, that portion of the case- 
 mate pier, connected with the scarps, is cut obliquely to admit the traverse of the gun carriage 
 under the arch of communication. At the same time to give the maximum thickness to the 
 scarp with the pintle center suiting their gun carriage. The recess is formed in the scarp, the 
 sides of which are cut oblic[uely to correspond with the pier. A reference to the plan and section 
 of tliis battery in the preceding sketches will make these particulars sufficiently understood ; 
 and it may not be uninteresting to the officers of our corps of engineers to observe, that this is 
 the arrangement of the earliest of these casemated works. The top of this battery is covered 
 with heavy piers of granite, forming a continuous pavement. The rear or land front of this 
 battery appears to have been originally covered by a iield-work. It has given place to more 
 permanent and stronger works. 
 
 It would appear that this circular battery was deemed insufficient for the purpose, and in 
 consequence a branch has been extended to the right and left, nearly on the prolongation of the 
 gorge walls, each of which have solid ramparts, with earthen parapets , prepared for 8-inch guns. 
 The scarps rise from the water, and like the circular battery, are uncovered. These two branches 
 are on a much higher level than the circular casemated work, admitting of a field of fire over 
 the casemates, to the extent of the horizontal traverse of their barbette carriages. A mortar 
 battery is constructed on the terrej^lein, and in rear of the guns of the western branch. This 
 constitutes the full extent of the proposed water batteries for this locality. 
 
 A permanent and strong work is now imder construction, to inclose these extended water 
 batteries, with a bastion trace. The faces of the bastions, being curved, the ramparts solid, with 
 earthen parapets, covering the masonry of the casern in the gorge of the circular battery. Most 
 of the land front is covered with a glacis and covert way. The entrance being in a reentering 
 place of arms, through a small masonry tambour. The outline of this fort, (De Querqueville, 
 given on Plate 1,) is not that of the new work now in progress. There being no published plan 
 giving a correct trace, and its outline not being perceptible without examining it from within, I 
 am not justified in any further notice of its strengtli on the land side. 
 
 The opposite side of this entrance has for its defense a circular casemated battery of two 
 tiers, with one in barbette, located on the extreme 
 western end of the breakwater. It is now under con- 
 struction, the second tier of embrasures being in pro- 
 gress. Each tier will mount twenty-four guns. 
 
 This being a new work, combining, as we may 
 suppose, the most approved details for casemates and 
 embrasures, I annex sketches explanatory thereof. The 
 first (Fig. 107) gives the dimensions of a casemate of 
 two arches of communication 20' 6" wide along the 
 scarp, by 30' 10" deep, and 37' llf" from out to out; 
 from which we may infer it is to have an earthen para- 
 pet. These casemates are all closed in the rear with a 
 wall of 1' 10" thick, pierced with a doorway 3' wide. 
 The rectangular casemates of the fort in the center of 
 the breakwater are 15' C" wide, with communication 
 arches. 
 
 The embrasures are represented in the annexed sketch, (Fig. 108,) showing the exterior 
 openings in elevation, and arrangement of the several courses and pieces of stone in the scarp 
 generally. The four corner stones of the openings form part of the jambs, the two lower ones 
 composing part of the sole of the embrasure, and the two upper ones a part of the arch. Tlie 
 intermediate space is composed of two courses. Between the top of the arch stone of one 
 
 Fig. 107, 
 
126 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 embrasure and the bottom of the stone forming the sole of the one above, the scarp is built in 
 three courses. The stretchers next to the first arch stones were not sufficiently noted to be given 
 with certainty. 
 
 Plan of interior. 
 
 Fig. 108. Elevation of exterior. 
 
 The plan of these embrasures was of the form and dimensions of the annexed sketch, 
 
 (Fig. 109,) with a pintle bolt centered one foot from the 
 interior fiice of the scarp. The height of the interior of 
 the embrasure is the same as that of the exterior, viz : 
 4' 9", while the throat is 3' 11^". 
 
 The sea in front of all these works is at times very 
 heavy. The tide rises eigh- 
 teen feet, when the force of a 
 storm wave would deluge the 
 casemates through the em- 
 brasure openings, unless spe- 
 cial precautions were taken 
 Fig. 109. to prevent it. For this purpose, three-inch plank are 
 
 fitted in the grooves indicated in the above sketch, the jambs being so formed, while the face 
 of the sole and arch are formed with a rabbet. 
 
 All the masonry on the interior and exterior of these scarps must be considered very 
 excellent, the whole being of most compact solid granite in large horizontal courses. The 
 backing and heart of the wall, arches and piers of the casemates, (excepting the angles and base 
 course,) has nothing to recommend it, being small rubble, without bond. The pieces in the 
 arches being somewhat better in shape, though small and slaty. The field of fire through these 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 127 
 
 embrasures is greater than any I know of, with, however, a corresponding width of exterior 
 opening and thin scarp. Such is the character of the work to mount seventy-two guns to 
 cooperate with De Querqueville in defending the western entrance. These two are not deemed 
 suiEcient; and a third casemated fort is now in course of construction near the center of this 
 passage, on the Chavaignac rocks. Tlie foundation, or base for foundation, is being formed 
 with liierres j^erdues, precisely similar to that of Fort Calhoun, at the mouth of the Hampton 
 Eoads. 
 
 A second line of defense for this western entrance has been constructed on the main land, 
 consisting of Fort St. Ann, two bastion fronts of the enceinte of the dock-yard^ and Fort 
 Hornet. These three would cooperate with the first line, in any attempt of a fleet to force the 
 passage ; and, when fully armed with heavy ordnance of long range to fire hollow and hot shot, 
 may fairly be considered enough to annihilate any fieet constructed of timber that might attempt 
 to approach the dock-yards. Fort St. Ann is a simple earthen parapet, whose faces in trace are 
 not materially different from the configuration on Plate 1, and may mount twenty guns in 
 barbette at a most advantageous elevation above water. Bastions 1, 2, and 3, and connecting 
 curtains of the dock-yard enceintes, have the same action as Fort St. Ann, except a little more 
 distant, while the guns on the flanks act most advantageously on the roadstead. There is no 
 other peculiarity in the construction of these fronts to notice, other than the fact of the rampart 
 having an earthen parapet facing a sea-front ; a locality too often urged, as I think, with some 
 of my associates, as justifying masonry parapets, to our serious disadvantage. This parapet is 
 thrown back, forming a chemin-de-ronde, the scarp for this purpose being arranged with arches 
 and loop holes, as a Carnot wall, (two loop holes under each arch.) These scarps have a ditch 
 in front covered by a sea slope. 
 
 Fort du Hornet, at the extreme northeastern end of the dock-yard defenses, besides coope- 
 rating in the defense of the western entrance into the harbor, throws its fire on the Avhole 
 interior of the roadstead and passage into the docks, crossing its fire with the new casemated 
 Fort des Flamands. Commenced in 1789, under the direction of the War Minister, its trace was 
 determined by the direction tlien given to the breakwater, wliich was on a line from its present 
 eastern terminus to this point. The difi'erences of opinion that arose between the Departments 
 of War and Marine, then charged with parts of the design, led finally to the determination of 
 placing the sea-coast defenses altogether, in design, construction, and command, under the 
 Minister .of Marine ; and at the present time we find the system of armament adopted by the 
 marine for sea-coast batteries to difi'er materially from the armament of the fortresses. In the 
 plan of this work the principle is adopted of a casemated covert way masking the lower story of 
 an interior casemated work of two tiers of guns firing over the covert-way battery, the branches 
 of each being parallel and equidistant from each other. The left face commands the approach 
 from the western entrance into the harbor, (see annexed figure,) the middle and longest branch 
 fronts the eastern opening, and the right face commands the approach to the opening into the 
 docks, while all three act advantageously upon the entire roadstead, cooperating with the new 
 Fort des Flamands and the reverse batteries of the forts on the breakwater, making an anchorage 
 anywhere within the harbor as disastrous in its probable consequences as the approach. It 
 mounts about twenty-six 8-inch guns in the casemated covert way, twenty-four guns (sixteen 
 of them of a smaller caliber) in the casemates of the interior work, and eighteen of the same 
 caliber as these last casemate guns, in barbette ; and may be considered as presenting twelve 
 towards the west, thirty-four towards the eastern entrance, and twenty-two towards Fort des 
 Flamands. 
 
 The trace would be represented somewhat as in the annexed Fig. 110, with a ditch at the 
 foot of the scarp of the interior work, detaching it from the casemated covert way. The base- 
 ment story is arched bomb-proof, for quarters, store rooms, and magazines, with loop holes 
 through the scarp. The thickness of the scarp is six feet at the embrasure, (see annexed Fig. 
 
128 
 
 ART OF ^TAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Ill,) throat of the emhrasures three feet ^xiie 3' 8" high, exterior opening of emhrasure 8' 3" 
 wide by 5' 9" high, and the interior 4' 6" wide by 3' 8" high. The pintle bolt is centered one 
 foot from the interior face within the scarp. The casemates of this work differ from the others in 
 having two guns under one arch, arranged as in the annexed sketch, each gun under a recess 
 in the scarp. The pier connected with the scarp is drawn in to 3' G" thick on the arch of com- 
 munication, as in the casemates at De Querqueville, while the opposite face of the arch of commu- 
 nication is eight feet. 
 
 FORT DU HOMET. 
 
 CABE-MflT£a COVEIRr WAY 
 
 iSsLris 
 
 ':i'e"\ \ 
 
 i /J'tf" 
 
 Cut granite on Ihc angles of 
 all the piers. 
 
 131 
 
 Communication. 
 
 Fig. 110. 
 
 Open gallery to the rear 
 
 l».At^^i^.Vm 
 
 
 covered over head. 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 The exterior of this work, in general, is built of excellent granite masonry, in horizontal 
 courses. The arch of the embrasure is formed of seven pieces or courses on the width of 8' 3". 
 The rear of the casemates is closed by a wall with an opening only of four feet wide. This 
 wall is built about six feet within the interior face of the rampart, to give a gallery of communi- 
 cation in the rear of the gun I'ooms without passing through them. All the guns in the barbette 
 battery are mounted on cast-iron carriages and chassis, and those in the casemates on a cast-iron 
 upper carriage with a chassis composed of wrought iron and wood, as described in Figs. 26 and 
 27. The cast-iron pintle of the barbette carriage is bolted to a block of stone, and the ti-averse 
 circles are of wood. 
 
 The terreplein and parapet of the barbette battery are of earth, with half the breast height 
 of masonry. 
 
 The masonry of the interior of the scarps and other j^arts of the work is very unlike the 
 exterior, being small rubble stone, of slaty structure, and not very durable. Tlie angles of the 
 piers are all built in courses of well-cut granite, the intermediate parts, as well as the arches, 
 being of .slaty rubble masonry. 
 
 The water from the rampart is drained from the valley of the arches through the interior 
 face of the ramijart, and also ihrough the scarj). 
 
 The eastern entrance in the harbor is defended by a work on the end of the breakwater, 
 precisely similar to that on the western end ; by a casemated work on He Pelee, mounting about 
 seventy guns^ some of which bear on the shoal between it and the main land ; and by a third 
 work in the interior or second line, that also commands the shoal-water entrance between He 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 129 
 
 Pelee and tlie main land, as well as the interior of the Jiarbor generally and entrance to the 
 docks. This third work, Fort Des Flamands, is of more interest to us, as combining the latest 
 improvements of the French engineers in casemated sea-coast batteries. It is connected to the 
 main land by a causeway, (see annexed Fig. 112,) inclosing a wet ditch on half the gorge front 
 and ou the southeastern front, facing landwards. Thescaips of all the other fronts rise from the 
 the water, uncovered and open to the waves of the sea. The foundations rest on rock, bare at 
 low water. Its trace is very regular, and nearly half of an octagon, the four sides of which 
 have one casemated tier of guns, resting on bomb-proof caserns, storerooms, and magazines, 
 surmounted by a barbette battery behind an earthen parapet. The gorge is a bastioned trace, 
 the faces and iianks of which are bomb-proof caserns, and the curtain a simple scarp, pierced 
 with loop holes below, with a second tier of loop holes near the top, the terreplein for which is 
 formed by arches built against the scarp, affording a masonry cover of seven feet above its terre- 
 jilein, and a continuous communication around the work. The annexed figure gives a general 
 
 FORT DES FLAMANDS. 
 
 e.ss:, 
 
 Fig. 112. 
 
 idea of the trace of this work. It mounts forty-two 8-inch guns in the casemates on the 
 water fronts, and thirty-three guns on the barbette battery, eight of which are 8-inch guns 
 others are 32-pounders. There are in each half bastion two other barbette guns — one of 8- 
 and one 32-pounder, making a total artillery armament of seventy-seven guns. 
 
 The curtain is pierced with thirty-six loop 
 holes in each tier. Six loop holes in the left face 
 of the bastion, and three in the right face ; 
 nine in the flank on the left of the gateway coiu- 
 manding the causeway, and six in the opposite 
 flank. The soles of all these loop holes are 
 made in steps, to prevent musket balls being 
 reflected from their otherwise inclined surfaces. 
 I may here remark that this principle of form- 
 ing off-sets or steps in the faces, soles, and 
 also the top of the loop holes, is now common 
 in European works. (See plan of those at 
 Lyons.) The casemates of this fort (des Flam- 
 ands) differ in dimensions from any of the 
 other forts previously constructed. The an- 
 nexed figure (113) gives all the material dimen- 
 sions of casemate, scarp, and embrasure. The 
 horizontal traverse of the gun, it will be ob- 
 17 D 
 
 four 
 , the 
 inch 
 
130 
 
 ART OF WAR IN' EUROPE. 
 
 served, is not as great as in some of the former constructions, while the exterior opening of 
 the embrasure is about the same. It is to be recollected that this is one of the last-finished 
 caseraatcd sea-coast works of the French engineers, and upon the details of which it is very 
 apparent that studj^ and consideration had been bestowed upon the most minute parts. 
 
 The annexed figure (114) gives some dimensions of a section of the embrasures of this work 
 of special interest as their latest study. The levels of the respective points, from the plane of 
 
 comparison, are noted in figures. The line ab 
 
 W^~~~^ 
 
 136.9 
 LIT. 08 
 
 137..-i6 
 137.74 
 
 138.. 10 
 ISS.^'i 
 
 138. QD 
 139- ■ ■ 
 
 
 m'^ 
 
 0.30 
 
 ...137.88 
 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 is the springing line of the arch from the throat 
 (where it is a semicircle) to the interior face of 
 the scarp ; the crown of this part of the arch 
 being horizontal. The details of the arch from 
 the throat to the face of the scarp, circumstances 
 did not enable me to ascertain. The width of 
 the exterior opening is 2.G0m. by a height of 
 1.80m. under the crown. An examination of 
 the details of these casemates and embrasures 
 indicate no settled principle for thickness of 
 scarp, extent of horizontal traverse, width of 
 casemate, or jiosition of the arches of communi- 
 cation, c and d are openings in tlie cheeks for 
 wooden bars to which the storm shutters are 
 secured. 
 
 The floors of such casemates as are arranged 
 for soldiers' quarters are paved with stone. The 
 guns in the casemates of this work are all 
 80-pounders, mounted on cast-iron carriages, with wood and wrought-iron chassis^ as shown in 
 Fig. 27, and all the barbette guns on wrought-iron carriages and chassis, as shown in Fig. 26. 
 
 All the masonry is, as in the otlier forts, of excellent granite, in large horizontal courses on 
 the exterior, and corners of the piers, about the arches of communication, coping, steps, &c., but 
 the filling and interior face of the scarp, which is seen on the curtain of the gorge, is of indifterent 
 small rubble. The interior of all the casemates is plastered with cement, excepting the granite 
 courses, forming the base and corners of the i^iers, in consequence of which I cannot say how the 
 scarps of the casemated part of this work are constructed. The casemate arches are covered with 
 asphalte. The arches are three feet thick^ above which is a mass of masoniy forming two inclined 
 planes, intersecting over the crown of the arch, to throw the water into the valleys, (as is our 
 custom.) Three feet of earth is then placed over the apex of thi.s intersection. 
 
 The service magazines are iinder the casemates and at the intersections of the water fronts. 
 The communication to them is through two trap) doors in the floor of the casemates, one lialf of 
 such casemate being separated from the gun room by a wall of masonry. By this arrangement 
 the magazine may be considered of two stories, the upper story serving for a supply of fixed 
 ammunition and below it for the general supply of powder. There appeared nothing in the 
 details of these magazines that we could introduce to advantage. Some of them, I apprehend, it 
 will be found advisable to alter. 
 
 The draw-bridge is for Poncelet's chain compensating counterpoise. 
 
 Wliile the forts heretofore described are deemed sufficient, when finished, to command the 
 entrances into the harbor, the entire roadstead was judged to be insecure without a line of case- 
 mated batteries on the breakwater, between the eastern and western circular works alread)' 
 described. The most important of these is Fort Napoleon, situated near the center and at the 
 intersection of the two branches of the breakwater. It has an open barbette covert way battery 
 of fourteen guns, mounted on the carriage, Fig. 2G, behind an earthen ^'xtrapet. Experiments 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 131 
 
 iire being made to ascertain the most suitable covering for parapets exposed as this is to the 
 sjiray, and at times even to sea-water breaking over it. Facincs, hurdles, straw plaited in thick 
 mats, asphalte^ and sods, are all under trial on the superior slope of the parapet. The straw 
 mats and wooden coverings of facines and hurdles may be considered as already discarded and 
 unfit for the purpose. The asphalte and sods remained in order, but the asphalte began to show 
 the loss of its bitumen. They were all applied at tl»e same time. 
 
 Behind this covert-way battery rises a masonry fort with granite scarps, the basement or 
 lower story for caserns, storerooms, &c., except on the rear or harbor front, where its scarp is 
 pierced with embrasures. Above this basement is a tier of casemates all around, to be surmounted 
 by a barbette battery. The casemate and barbette guiis of this fort fronting seaward lire over the 
 barbette guns of the covert-way battery. Whether this was originally designed or arises from 
 the want of unity in pilans of different engineers and periods, I had no means of ascertaining. 
 It is very doubtful whether these three tiers of guns could act simultaneously, esiiecially for firing 
 hollow shot. It is probable that the open covert-way battery is a design for a work to occupy the 
 site of the one destroyed by hurricanes in 1807-8, and that the casemated fort is a later concejjtion. 
 
 The trace of this fort incloses a small court or esplanade, and on the harbor front is a boat 
 harbor formed by stone piers, connected with the breakwater, extending out a short distance 
 into deep water, and thence turning parallel with the gorge of the fort. The masonry of this 
 work is of the same general character as the others, excellent in material and workmanship on 
 the outside courses, but of small, slatj', rubble stone, without bond, through the wall to the rear- 
 The arches are built of the same slaty stone, but of selected pieces, breaking joint through the 
 thickness of the arch. With the exception of the masonry in the faces of all these defenses, I 
 feel justified in saying that the walls of all our sea-coast defenses, constructed since 1817, from 
 Hampton Roads, in Virginia, (south of this they are all of brick,) on our Atlantic coast north 
 and east, are decidedly superior not only to that of the works in the harbor of Cherbourg, but of 
 all the defensive works I saw in Europe, Cronstadt excepted ; and, compared with the latter, 
 some of ours I must even consider as superior. The casemates behind the covert Avay mount 
 twelve guns firing seaward, and a like number in barbette over the casemates — making in all 
 thirty-eight guns bearing on the sea front, and about thirty-three bearing on the roadstead, if 
 an armament is placed in the basement, the casemates above, and a barbette battery over the 
 latter. Appearances indicated such an arrangement, but the progress of the work would not 
 admit of determining these facts. Several mortars constitute a portion of the armament of this 
 fort. They are placed in the covert way to fire seaward, and may fire also to tlie rear, excepting 
 on a jjart intercepted by the fort. 
 
 Between Fort Napoleon and the Circular ibrt at the western end of the breakwater, another 
 casemated battery is now under construction to fulfill the same conditions as Fort Napoleon. 
 Its trace is a right line. The basement story fronting the sea has openings on the scarp for light 
 and ventilation near the crown of the arch, the caserns being for magazines, storerooms, &c. 
 Facing the harbor, however, this basement story is arranged for six casemate guns. The second 
 story is for a tier of casemate guns all around, to mount seven in front and six in rear. This 
 work also being under construction, no idea could be correctly formed of the arrangement for 
 barbette batteries. It will probably mount altogether fourteen in front and twelve in rear — 
 making a total of twenty-six guns. The masonry of this work is like the otiiers in the harbor 
 generally, excellent granite facing in horizontal courses in large pieces, backed with slaty, indif- 
 ferent, rubble masonry. The openings near the crown of the lower arches for light and ventila- 
 tion were being formed with great care ; they were semicircles of about six feet diameter, with 
 large stone forming the arch running from front to rear of the scarp, breaking joint, and cut 
 throughout. The manner of laying or setting this part of the masonry was to fit every stone in 
 place with wooden wedges and splints^ including the key atone; then, with oakum, calk all the 
 surface joints, and with cement grout fill all the joints; the part occupied by oakum being pointed 
 
132 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 after the masonry is tlioroughly set. The cement used in this and all the other works in the 
 harbor is English Portland cement. The excellence of this hydraulic cement may justify this 
 manner of using it, but from our own experience I cannot cite the French s.ystem as worthy our 
 imitation, believing that grout or liquid mortar is the worst of all mortar that can be formed of 
 any one material ; and that the best is that combination that has the least excess of water to be 
 evaporated before the mass can solidify. 
 
 The foundations of all these works on the breakwater are precisely similar to that of Fort 
 Calhoun, at the mouth of Hampton Koads, Virginia, and the experience has in each case shown 
 the necessity of piling up, over the space to be built upon, a mass of material that shall throw 
 upon the foundations a greatly increased weight to that of the fort, its armament, and munitions 
 combined. The first stone thrown on the Rip-Rap shoal for the foundation of Castle Calhoun, 
 was in about twenty feet water, on the 13th of April, 1819.* Not until within the last year 
 was it sufficiently settled and consolidated to justify the removal of the weight of material placed 
 upon it to commence the foundations of the superstructure. In 1784 the first stone was thrown 
 in a cone to form the eastern end of the breakwater at Cherbourg, and at the date of my visit 
 (March, 1850) the load of surplus stone had not been removed from the two circular works to 
 resume operations upon them. 
 
 This experience is well worthy the reflection of all who would undertake the erection of 
 massive works on piles of stone, thrown indiscriminately and loosely together, where the diving 
 bell or coffer dam can be used. 
 
 At the eastern end of Fort Napoleon, on the outside of the breakwater, is piled up nearly 
 to high-water level, by the force of the sea, the ruins and remains of the earlier parts of the 
 first constructed fort and deposits for the breakwater. The pieces of stone are all as smooth and 
 water worn, in pebbles and boulders, as any to be found in river beds or the sea-shore. Nature 
 has already performed that destructive action on the stone at this particular part of the work, 
 where most of the water-worn stone has accumulated. At the same place, large masses of con- 
 crete, that formed part of the foundation of the first fort on this site, rest exposed to the full 
 action of the sea, in unbroken masses, with their edges slightly rounded ; and in general, the 
 larger pieces of stone remain sharp and angular along the front of the work, but how long they 
 may have been deposited I could not learn, new material being frequently thrown upon the 
 outside from the immense rock excavations in progress for building the docks of the naval 
 arsenal. It would seem that the action of the sea has but slight abrading effect upon the stones of 
 the breakwater so long as they remain at rest, and that their destruction is rapid when from their 
 size or shape the sea can put them in constant motion ; then the rubbing and friction of the pieces 
 among and upon each other rapidly diminishes their size, and reduces them to smooth rounded 
 surfaces, in which condition they present no stability other than from gravity alone. The observa- 
 tions made upon the softer material — the masses of concrete, in a great degree remaining uninjured 
 and undisturbed for a series of years in this most exposed part of the breakwater — have induced 
 the French engineers to construct large masses or blocks of this artificial stone as a covering for 
 the most exposed part of the breakwater. Around the western end, and as a protection to the 
 circular casemated fort, partly constructed for the defense of that entrance, I observed great 
 numbers of pieces of this artificial stone, about eight feet long, three feet six inches wide, and 
 two feet ten inches thick, remaining apparently undisturbed by the ocean wave, in form and 
 shape as though just from the moulds in which they were made. As before stated, the cement 
 of all this concrete and hydraulic masonry is the English Portland cement. At an exposed part 
 of the piers, inclosing the harbor at Marseilles, and about the light-house, I noticed the same 
 
 *The first stone for the foundation of this work, or rather for the formation of the artificial island upon which the work is 
 now being constructed, was deposited by the writer, then a lieutenant of engineers, on the 13tli of April, 1819, from the deck 
 of the sloop Semerimis. Since that period the civil engineers of our country engaged on canals and railroads have adopted the 
 name of the shoal on which Castle Calhoun is being built, to denote this particular kind of foundation. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 133 
 
 use of blocks of concrete, and of about the same dimensions as those at Cherbourg, and in the 
 harbor of Algiers we are informed the French have adopted the same method. Where large 
 masses of durable stone cannot be procured, it would appear that masses of concrete of good 
 hydraulic lime serve as a substitute. Another principle the French engineers consider 
 indispensable to the security of breakwaters formed of loose stones^, consists of a super- 
 incumbent weight forming the crest of such works entirely above the buoyant action of the 
 waters and hydrostatic pressure of the waves. To this end, the whole length of the work is 
 surmounted with a well constructed wall of masonry, not less than twenty-five feet thick. Ou 
 the sea side it is carried up with a thicknes.s of about seven feet, forming a continuous covered 
 communication from fort to fort on the whole line of the breakwater. This massive wall, rising 
 above the action of the storm wave, secures the entire structure. Wherever the sea can break 
 across one of these loose stone formations, its destruction is inevitable, as the largest masses of 
 rock we can deposit in such structures are moved about, rounded, and finally swept from the 
 line of the work to a greater or less depth, depending upon the wave. At Marseilles, a similar 
 superincumbent structure has been formed. We have failed to do so at our Delaware Breakwater, 
 which, in its unfinished state, is liable to be thus injured with every easterly gale. The material 
 of both the Delaware Breakwater and foundations of Castle Calhoun, on the Rip-Kap shoal, at 
 Hampton Roads, are greatly superior to that used by the French, which is a security for a longer 
 period against the abrasion of the stone, and becoming rounded ; but a superincumbent mass, as 
 constructed by the French, will alone, as I conceive, preserve our Delaware Breakwater. The 
 construction of the scarps of Castle Calhoun, and its more sheltered position, will render the 
 loose stone foundation of that work j)erfectly secure. 
 
 A reference to Plates 1 and 2 will show the general arrangement of this very extensive and 
 admirably arranged naval arsenal, every part of which capable of floating a vessel of any size, 
 as well as all the ditches of its land defensive works, have been excavated from solid rock. The 
 largest floating or wet-dock is still under construction. The rock excavation serves to form the 
 artificial island for the fort on the Chavaignac rocks, and the interior or filling of the walls of 
 the dock. It is not my purpose to enter into any description of the fitness of things at this 
 establishment, for the purposes of the fleet ; its defense, is my proper study. The naval ofiicer 
 will find much to explain the extent of the dock-yard works in the two plates accompanying this 
 report. 
 
 That it was necessary to inclose the arsenal by a continuous enceinte, cannot well be doubted. 
 The fortifications, for this purpose, consist of an uninterrupted line of bastion fronts on the land 
 side, with granite scarps, surmounted by earthen parapets, and high cavaliers in the bastions, 
 the flanks of which are thrown back on the rampart as far as practicable to command the terre- 
 plein of the curtain ; while they serve at the same time to cover the buildings of the dock-yard 
 and vessels in the docks from some of the distant fire that could be brought to bear upon them 
 from the adjacent heights. Some of these fronts have wet ditches, others are dry with crennated 
 scarp and relieving vaults. The whole land front has a masonry counterscarp rising but little 
 above the water level, surmounted by an earthern slope, rising to the level of a covert way, the 
 glacis of which completely covers the masonry of the scarp. In the dry ditches there are tenailles 
 covering the curtains. A very permanent, wide, and solid stone, arched bridge crosses the ditch 
 to the gate, on one of the wet-ditch fronts, with a draw-bridge on tlie plan of Poncelet's chain 
 counterpoise. 
 
 The masonry of these land fronts appears to be most excellent in material and workmanship, 
 being faced with large pieces of granite. It is probable, however, tiiat the interior and lieart of 
 the scarps and other parts are of the same kind of rubble masonry seen in the harbor defenses. 
 
 In addition to this continuous enceinte, the arsenal is covered on the land side by a line of 
 detached redoubts, encircling the town of Cherbourg, from Fort de Querqueville, on the west, to 
 Fort des Flamauds, on the east. These redoubts arc temporary field works, occuj^ying favorable 
 
134 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 positions ou the liigli ground overlooking the dock-yards; on the south and western sides, being 
 separated from each other hy deep undulating surfaces, in some places amounting to ravines. 
 
 SKETCH OF FORT DU ROULE TO ILLUSTRATE THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES REGULATING ITS TRACE. 
 
 Fig. Do. 
 
 
 N. B. This rough sketch embraces no more iiiformatioi) than may be obtained by any observer, walking around the 
 exterior. 
 
 Fort du Koule is the most prominent of all these detached works, being about some two hundred 
 feet above the level of the sea, and commanding everything within the range of artillery. Its 
 importance is such as to command the attention of the engineers, in the reconstruction on this 
 site of a permanent work with all the elements of defense to resist a siege. It is situated just at 
 the termination of a spur of the high ground along the coast, back of which the country is gen- 
 erally level. A masonry scarp, ditch, and counterscarp cross this plateau with a bastion trace, 
 cutting off the extreme end of this ridge, (see annexed Fig. 115,) which on all other sides is 
 inaccessible to assaulting columns. On two other sides and along the precipice the scarp has a 
 bastioned trace. Excepting on the curtains, the parapet is thrown back, ioUowing an entirely 
 different trace, so arranged as to batter the approaches ou the level ground of the plateau ; while 
 the masonry of the work is for the near defense, and confined almost exclusively to infantry. 
 This apijlication of the principles of fortification, in a departure from the uniformity of the theo- 
 retical trace, is one of the few examples I had an opportunity of witnessing, and is the more 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 185 
 
 instructive, as inviting us to more frequently break through the prescribed formuhi to adapt our- 
 selves to the localities, making use of infantry fire where most applicable, (the near defense,) and 
 the artillery where most required, and on most distant jioints. In the preceding sketch, Fig. 115, 
 a, b, is the front, with a high masonry scarp and counterscarp, which latter is much lower at 
 the salients than at the reentering, to allow the flanks to command most of the declivities on the 
 north and south, while the masonry of the curtain is still covered. There is no parapet to the 
 flanks or faces of this front, the scarp being finished with an infantry banquette behind it, except 
 in the center of the flanks, where there is an embrasure. The parapet is prolonged beyond the 
 curtain on the right and across the gorge of the bastion on the left. Under this latter branch 
 is a bomb-proof communication to the low terreplein of the bastion. Behind the curtain of this 
 front (a, h) is a high cavalier to command the slope of the hill up which the road approaches the 
 work. The front, {h, c,) at the crest of this latter hill slope, has no parapet ; the top of its scarp is 
 arranged for infantry to fire over its crest along the curtain, flanks, and faces; having a ditch 
 Avith masonry counterscarp as ftir as the shoulder angle nearest the gateway. 
 
 The northern front has a parapet on its curtain only ; the faces and flanks will probably be 
 arranged for infantry as the other two fronts. It has a ditch and masonry counterscarp on 
 nearly its whole length, terminating over the rocky precipice. The rest of the enceinte is a very 
 high scarp, following the precipice, with a small square tower flanking the gateway and other 
 adjacent branch. Between this tower and the gateway is a masonry bomb-proof casern, or 
 rather is probably to be, it being in state of preparation. To cover this casern, a high cavalier 
 battery is constructed in the left bastion of the front, {a, e,) under the terreplein of which is a 
 Succession of bomb-proofs. The peculiarity of this work consists in arranging the direction of 
 the batteries (w, o, p, q, r, s) in such manner as to batter the most important distant points and 
 approaches, without regard to tlie trace that regulates the near defense and command of the 
 ditches ; at the same time preserving the action of the small arms on all parts from its most 
 extreme range up to flanking the entire face of the scarps. 
 
 The other detached works of the land defenses are unimportant as a study to us separately, 
 possessing no peculiarity of construction. Collectively^ however, they go to show the necessity, 
 in the estimation of the French engineers, of throwing the defense, or rather the protection of the 
 property and fixtures of the dock-yard, beyond the limit of bombardment — a limit, at the present 
 time, that cannot, with safety, be admitted for the detached forts, at less than four thousand 
 yards. A system of detached forts is indicated in dotted lines on Plate 1 — that I find on a map 
 of this place, lithographed by the draughtsman of the Depot of Marine Charts and Plans — that 
 may point out the line to be fortified in connection with Fort du Roule. 
 
 It is undeniable that an enemy's batteries, of such calibers as water transportation admits of 
 being brought to the attack of this place, once established against the enceinte of the dock-yards, 
 there is nothing within its circuit, destructible by shot and shells, but must be ruined without 
 any necessity of besieging the fortifications. The latter could be no object with an enemy, pro- 
 vided the fleet, stores, magazines, and buildings of every kind could be destroyed without taking 
 the enceinte. There is good reason, then, to believe that the main strength of the defenses must 
 be four thousand yards at least from the property to be protected. Detached forts must then, of 
 necessity, be resorted to, (a narrow isthmus would be the exception to the rule,) and artillery 
 fire be the element for determining the " lines of defense." 
 
 In this view of the case, and I may remark a condition of things common to all our naval 
 depots, it becomes an important study how far we are justified in adopting such a powerful 
 enceinte as this about the Cherbourg docks, when it can fulfill few other conditions than such as 
 a counterscarp, high glacis, and wet ditch present for the security of a place covered by detached 
 forts. France, with her efficient organization and enormous military preparation of materiel, 
 as well as personnel, has little to apprehend from a prolonged siege, notwithstanding her prox- 
 imity to her probable enemy. Our resources are quite as great, although without organization. 
 
136 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 or even preparation of much material. The study of defending our naval depots becomes, I 
 conceive, doiiWy important, and is a consideration that induces me to bestow so much time upon 
 this locality, to make the principles understood that may have governed the French engineers. 
 
 Naval Depot at Toulon. 
 
 (See Plate 18.) At Toulon is another fortified harbor, defending the most important naval 
 establishment in the Mediterranean, becoming of more interest to the French nation, in connec- 
 tion with their possessions in Algeria, and the recent rising up of the two new naval powers of 
 Sardinia and Austria, small at present, yet based upon well-matured plans. Occupying, as they 
 do, strongholds on the shores of the Mediterranean and Adriatic of commanding stragetic 
 properties^ they must influence the belligerent operations in the neighboring seas that may be 
 undertaken bj^ any nation, and become powerful in deciding tlie preponderance of alliances. 
 
 The defenses of Toulon became noted from the fact of the French having driven the English 
 fleet from its anchorage in the harbor, in December, 1792, and of its being the safe and secure 
 depot of the French fleet and army when watched by Lord Nelson, for some months, to prevent 
 the departure of Napoleon with the army under his command. 
 
 In the late campaign against Russia, the allied admirals were censured, and some even 
 displaced, for not meeting the public expectations of their countrymen. Comparisons were 
 made, to their disjiaragement, of what the naval commanders of Nelson's time would have done 
 under like circumstances. The failure of the powerful combined fleets to produce any material 
 effect during two summers upon the harbors of Cronstadt and Sebastopol having shown the 
 superiority of forts when, oj^posed to fleets, this last and only argument (the merit of the 
 commanders) looses its force on an examination of the works that Nelson/at7ecZ to attack, and 
 which was the refuge of his enemy. 
 
 While most of the forts on the hills surrounding the city and dock-yards of Toulon had 
 more or less effect in driving a fleet from an anchorage in the harbor by mortars, they had little 
 or none in defending the entrance against a fleet. 
 
 Three small forts only — L'Aiguelatte, of twenty-three guns; Balaguier of seventeen guns ; 
 and Gros-Tour, of sixteen guns; making a total of fifty-six guns — defended the entrance to the 
 harbor. Ships anchored abreast of them were not exposed to the fire of the hill forts, without 
 equally endangering their own. The approach to these three small forts was free from shoals 
 or rocks, and broad open channels admitted of Nelson's ships sailing unobstructed to the 
 anchorage he might have selected. At Sebastopol and Cronstadt either one of the outer case- 
 mated forts commanding the entrance to those harbors mounted more guns than the three at 
 Toulon. While the forts mounted but fifty-six guns. Nelson had seven hundred and ninety. 
 {Vide Napoleon's Memoirs, vol. 2, pages 170, 173, &c.) In each case under consideration there 
 was a fleet to cooperate with the forts. At Sebastopol, as at Toulon, there were hill forts that 
 could drive a fleet from an anchorage within the harbor. The strength of the forts at Cronstadt 
 to resist battering is greatly suijerior to any works on the coasts of England, France, or other 
 continental powers, the scarps being built of granite, as described in the former part of this 
 report, while those at Toulon are of brick and small-sized soft stone, (sandstone, I believe, with 
 a trace of lime,) afibrding less strength than the materials at Sebastopol. In whatever light the 
 comparison be viewed, I cannot but conclude the allied admirals did all the nature of the case 
 justified ; that the masonry casemated forts were too powerful for timber ships, and that Nelson 
 could have attacked Toulon with more probability of success than Exmouth did Algiers, or 
 Dundas, Lyons, and Napier, witli their allies, could have met with at either Sebastopol or Cron- 
 stadt, or than they did meet with at Sweaborg. 
 
 No profitable information is to be gained from the details of these harbor defenses of Toulon. 
 
* ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 137 
 
 1 may remark that they afford another instance of the rise of bomb cannon and iron gun 
 carriages in the armament of sea-coast works. 
 
 Fort L' Aigudette is a casemated battery of one tier, with brick embrasures, surmounted by a 
 second tier in barbette beliind an earthen jiarapet. Within is a small circular tower of 
 masonry, with embrasures for guns, and a musketry banf[uette, with parapet above them. The 
 interior of this work is commanded from high ground in its rear, within pistol shot. 
 
 Fo)i Balaguier is, in part, casemated, its principal battery is in barbette, and, like the 
 former, commanded from the high ground in the rear ; making it necessary to occupy the crest 
 of this ridge with a permanent bastioned trace, tlie ramparts of which are, as a whole, bomb- 
 proof caserns, with earthen parapets, ditch, and counterscarp of masonry, the crest of which 
 covers the scarps on tlie fronts of attack, at present called Fort Napoleon, formerly Little 
 Gribraltar. 
 
 The third work (GI-ros-Tour) is a masonry circular tower, similar in construction to that in 
 Fort Balaguier, mounting throughout ou the water fronts sixteen guns, as before stated. 
 
 Outside of this line of defenses of the entrance to the harbor, is an extensive roadstead, 
 secure against all winds except from southeast to south. The entrance to it is between the 
 Semiphore, near Cape Sepet and Cape Brun. It has been rendered secure — against use by an 
 enemy as an anchorage, or rendezvous jjreparatory to attacking the entrance to the harbor — by 
 three batteries on the main land, to wit: Fort St. Louis, Fort La Malgue, and a battery at Cape 
 Le Brun. These three cooperate with the three defending the entrance, collectively covering 
 the entire outer roadstead, though at very long ranges, yet sufficient to prevent its use as a safe 
 anchorage. A battery along the shore, under the Semiphore, adds to this security. It is pro- 
 tected in rear by strong works, now in progress, connecting it with the crest of the hill, the key 
 of the position, which is also being materially strengthened. 
 
 The distance from the batteries near Cape Sepet to that on Cape Le Brun is about 3,600 
 yards. Hence, a fleet keeping in the deep water along the shore of Cape Sepet, could approach 
 the forts at the entrance into the harbor without sustaining injury from the batteries on the main 
 land east of the city. This has called attention to the necessity of so strengthening the batteries 
 at the Semiphore, as to force a hostile fleet to seek the middle of the channel, or to lay some 
 ships abreast, and attempt to silence the Cape Sepet batteries, while other parts of the fleet 
 proceeded to the attack of the forts at the entrance into the harbor ; in attacking which they 
 would be beyond the reach, or covered from the fire of any of the outer batteries. 
 
 The authorities charged with the land defenses are now actively engaged in the demolition 
 of the old enceinte of the city, and construction of a new and enlarged one, from four to seven 
 hundred yards in advance. Beyond this continuous inclosure of the city and dock-yards, is a 
 line of detached forts, crowning all the commanding heights, throwing an enemy's operations 
 at least four thousand yards from any part of the naval depot. 
 
 The new enceinte, now in rapid progress, is a series of regular bastioned fronts of about 
 four hundred yards each, with high caponniers in the bastions, dry ditches, tenailles with 
 earthen slopes in front and rear from the bottom of the ditch to crest, covering the scarp of the 
 curtain, and a covert way, with glacis, whose crest covers the scarps of the bastion faces. In 
 the reentering places of arras of some of the Ironts masonry reduits are being constructed, the 
 faces of which are broken, to give a flank fire in the ditch along the faces of the bastions. 
 Earthen traverses are constructed at the junction of the long branches of the covert way with 
 the reentering places of arms. The ramparts and parapets are of solid earth throughout, except 
 at the posterns, one of which has a low casemate on each side of tlie communication. It will 
 thus be seen tliat the strength of this system is similar to that at Cherbourg, with the exception 
 of the wet ditches. 
 
 The line of detached forts in advance of this enceinte ofiers nothing for our consideration, 
 other than as a study of the labors of the French engineers. The different works occupy com- 
 18 n 
 
138 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. * 
 
 mauding sites on the adjacent heights. One of these, Fort La Malgue, on the eastern flank, is 
 the Largest, presenting a barbette battery of twentj^-three guns on the outer roadstead, but 
 which cannot be brought to bear on a ship anchored abreast of Gros-Tour. It contains within 
 itself more of the elements of defense than any other of these detached forts. It and Fort 
 Malbosquet, on the extreme west^ are so near the docks that the latter must inevitably be 
 destroyed after either of them are taken, without making any attack upon the enceinte. The 
 latter works ofier no material impediment to the reduction of either La Malgue or Malbosquet. 
 What may be the ultimate design after completing the enceinte I know not; yet here, as at 
 Cherbourg, greater strength is bestowed upon an enceinte that need not be taken to accomplish 
 the destruction of the buildings and stores of the depot than is put upon an advanced site 
 which, when captured, renders the enceinte superfluous. 
 
 The policy of France appears to be to fortify against the most powerful of European 
 combinations. We may, therefore, expect to see these detached forts on the east and west 
 thrown more forward, extending from the eastern crest of the mountain towards Fort Le Brun 
 on one side, and from Fort Great St. Anthony to the western shores of the Bay de la Seyne on 
 the other. The labor and expense now being bestowed ujion the new enceinte of not less than 
 three thousand six hundred yards of front, would, if placed on these two advanced lines, satisfy 
 some of the conditions of defense to greater advantage, prolonging the resistance where only it 
 can he of much value. Napoleon's experience as a general of artillery has already given 
 this lesson, that does not yet seem to have been remembered by the more recent engineering 
 authorities. 
 
 We may also expect, when the time arrives for an attack upon the harbor forts, that greater 
 censure will be heaped upon a naval armament that shall fail to destroy the three small forts 
 commanding the entrance to this harbor, than manifested itself lately in the failure of the 
 allied fleets in the Black sea and the Baltic against infinitely stronger defenses, which their naval 
 commanders considered themselves justified in attacking. It is very certain that Toulon, in 
 its present condition, could not offer such a successful defense by land or water as her gallant 
 and heroic enemy sustained at Sebastopol against the most formidable armaments that alliances 
 could combine. 
 
 The problem of defilement is called into requisition on a large scale in the disposition of the 
 lines and crests of the new enceinte. From west to east the crests are in a rapidly ascending 
 plane, tangent to the hill at Fort L'Artigues, while at the same time the terrepleins have to be 
 defiled from the hills towards Great and Little St. Anthony. 
 
 Altogether the defenses, both by land and water, present a profitable study to the engineer; 
 and we may look forward with much interest to learn how the French engineers of the present 
 day shall perfect this problem of defense. I may remark that it is of more special interest to us 
 as a study, from the i'act of its combining the defense of an outer harbor and roadstead with 
 that of a most important naval depot. 
 
 The masonry of all these works I consider of a very indiff'ercnt character. Tlie scarps of the 
 new enceinte are being faced with a soft stone, (although durable in that climate,) in horizontal 
 courses of five to seven inches rise, with no bond or union with the backing and body of the 
 scarp, which is even of a more indifferent character of small rubble masonry.* The interior 
 faces of the scarps are, in general, vertical from the base to the crest, with small counterforts at 
 about thirty feet from each other, the face of the scarps being built with a slight batter. The 
 back of all the walls in contact with the earth of the rampart, is plastered with common lime 
 mortar. The masonry of the old enceinte is no better than that of the new. The face is being 
 torn down for material to build the new scarjjs, leaving exposed to view an interior of exceed- 
 ingly rough rubble masonry of small stone. On the water front the old masonry is far better. 
 
 ' Good building stoiip is not found in the neighborhood of Toultm. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 139 
 
 There it is built uf large horizontal courses and well put together. The embrasures in the scarp 
 on the waters of the old wet-docks, are semicircles on the exterior face, about nine feet diameter 
 for the sole, which is formed of three pieces of solid stone. This part of the work has settled so 
 much since it was built as to render these embrasures useless, being within two feet of the water, 
 subjecting the casemates to inundation with storm waves. In consequence of which they have 
 all been closed with masonry, and the casemates appropriated as store-rooms. 
 
 The draw-bridges in the new works are being arranged for Poncelet's chain counterpoise. 
 At Fort Great St. Anthony they are already in place. The masonry of this latter work, and 
 apparently of very recent construction, is even worse than that of the new enceinte. In Plato 
 18, illustrative of the defenses of this harbor, the trace of the several works is by no means 
 reliable; otherwise it is very correct. 
 
 Fort Great St. Anthony is the nearest approach to accuracy. It is a pentagon, with very 
 small flanks, (about fifteen feet,) the gorges of the small bastions being closed with a wall of 
 three feet thick, pierced with loop-holes. The scarps terminate with a thickness of three feci, 
 forming the parapet. An embrasure is cut in the masonry of most of the flanks. Some of the 
 scarps are from thirty to forty feet in height, built of this very indifferent rubble masonry. In 
 the center of this work is a cavalier with earthen parapets, under which are the magazines and 
 quarters. Twelve-pounders would suffice to destroy all the masonry of the parapets. The 
 presumption is that artillery cannot be brought to suitable positions to batter these hill works. 
 It requires but time, with water transportation to a convenient landing, to put pieces in battery 
 on the opposite side of the valley to destroy the whole. The probability is that the armies of 
 France can, with ease, prevent such operations, yet the magnitude of the defenses in general are 
 based on the supposition that a siege is to be resisted. 
 
 English System of Harbor Defense. 
 
 Until recently, England has given little attention to fortifying her extensive sea-coast, or 
 even her dock-yards, relying upon her superiority in naval armament ; in time of war watching 
 her coast with a channel fleet, that at the same time was ready to act on the offensive when 
 favorable circumstances offered. The application of steam as an auxiliary propelling power to 
 ships of war of the largest class, together with the increased capacity of steam transports, has 
 entirely changed the relative strength of England, compared with other nations, and doubtless 
 has been the cause of her commencing a more perfect system of permanent sea-coast defense 
 than she heretofore considered necessary. 
 
 Portsmouth, as one of the largest naval depots, with the most spacious harbors, and the 
 same stragetic advantages as Cherbourg, is now being fortified, with permanent works, against 
 attacks by land and sea. 
 
 To close the entrance into the harbor by the Solent, two casemated forts have been con- 
 structed on the Isle of Wight, at the northwestern end, near Yarmouth. These works are 
 nearly finished, preparations being made to mount the guns. They differ in detail from all 
 other European sea-coast batteries, as well as from our own. The difficulties we are attempting 
 to overcome by wrought-iron throats and shutters for the embrasures, the English engineers 
 have endeavored to surmount by a modification of the Haxo battery and interior traverses. 
 
 The water battery of Fort Victoria (the work nearest to Yarmouth) is a brick bomb-proof 
 casemate, (Fig. 116,) open in the rear, and covered in front to the height of and with an ordi- 
 nary earthen parapet, in front of which is a wet ditch about fifteen feet wide, bounded by scarp 
 and counterscarp. The parapet rises only to the springing line of the casemate arches, covering 
 the men at the guns and all the masonry of the piers, leaving exposed the end and all the 
 intrados of the arch. An embrasure is cut into the solid of the parapet, leaving a breast-height 
 of about four feet ten inches. The gun is centered on a pintle bolt near the face of the breast- 
 
140 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 height wall, causing the horizontal trace of this end of the casemate to deviate from a right line 
 to accommodate the traverse of the gun. The interior face of the parapet is brick masonry, 
 showing two feet six inches thick on top. 
 
 WATER BATTERY OF FORT VICTOltlA. 
 
 <-! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <-. 
 
 
 
 
 ----- - 
 
 
 -' — 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 -■ 
 
 — r 
 
 
 
 
 
 All the (liineiii^iond hi this sketch are approximative, as no measurements were made ot* any part 
 
 of tlie worlt. 
 
 Fig. 116. 
 
 In the rear of these open casemates is a traverse, rising as high as the crown of the arches, 
 which intercepts any shot passing over the parapet and through the openings of the arches, most 
 effectually protecting the interior of the work and communications with the magazines. The 
 annexed figure (117) gives a general outline of the trace of this work. 
 
 FORT VICTORIA. 
 
 Fig. 117. 
 
 The ditch, parapet, casemates, and traverse abut against and are terminated by a defensive 
 brick casern of two stories, surmounted by a barbette battery, mounting four 32-pounders on pivot 
 carriages. A brick masonry parapet connects these two flank batteries, forming the gorge of the 
 work. The barbette parapet is of earth, foced with brick on the exterior or scarp and on the 
 curved parts of the breast-height, the straight parts of which are slopes of earth. 
 
 The casemate guns are ten-inch caliber. The quarters for the garrison are on the flanks 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 141 
 
 Fig. 118. 
 
 and under the barbette batteries. The floor.s of all the casemates for the occupation of troops are 
 wood. The walls of the rooms are brick, without plaster; the ceilings show brick in like man- 
 ner. The magazines are finished in like manner, icithout interior lining of any kind, but have 
 an air passage within the body of the masonry of four inches wide all around from top to bottom, 
 or from the floor to tiie spring of the arch, with openings to the exterior, partly closed, witli 
 copper plates jierforated with half inch holes. The gorge is arranged with arches, forming a 
 continuous terreplein from flank to flank, and pierced with two rows of looj? holes for infantry 
 fire. 
 
 The draw-bridge is maneuvered by a counterpoise solid 
 port-cullis falling from above, kept in place by two grooves, one 
 on each side of the gateway, cut in the masonry of the jambs, as 
 in the annexed Fig. 118. As the upper table a b descends, it 
 raises the draw by the connection of the chains over and under 
 the two pulleys c d secured in the masonry. Eopes are neces- 
 sary to assist in drawing the weight a b down, and a hook sus- 
 pends the counterpoise when the bridge is horizontal. The 
 advantages of this arrangement are its simplicity and forming 
 a double barrier. As a counterpoise, it is of irregular action, 
 requiring a variable power to assist in the maneuver. 
 
 Small service magazines are formed in the traverse, in rear 
 of the casemated water battery, and generally wherever the 
 thickness of the masonry would justify small magazines for a 
 few rounds of ammunition, as, for example, in the thickness of 
 the casemate piers. They are invariably closed with doors 
 opening to the rear or from the direction of an enemy's fire. 
 
 The attention bestowed upon the quarters of the troops, in some of the details, indicated 
 more conveniences to secure health and cleanliness than is customaiy in most barracks. Lava- 
 tories are provided, of suflicient capacity for the garrison, in apartments exclusively for that 
 purpose. The sides of the room are fitted with basins, faucets for supplying water, and waste 
 pipes from the bottom of the basins. Tlie floors of this apartment are paved with stone. The 
 same arrangement was observed in the Wellington Barrack, in the Tower of London. 
 
 Some of my readers will be surprised to learn that in our service not a barrack in the United 
 States, so far as my knowledge extends, (and I have seen most of them,) is provided with any 
 special arrangement for the cleanliness and comfort of the soldiers in this particular. 
 
 A common kitchen is provided in this fort for the entire garrison, the troops eating their 
 meals in their respective quarters. This kitchen is arranged with five iron boilers, set side and 
 side, in masonry furnaces. Each boiler has two hand holes just above the furnace door, (one on 
 each side,) for cleaning the flues. A steam pipe of two inches diameter rises from the lid of each 
 boiler, conducting the steam that would otherwise fill the apartment into a pipe in the masonry 
 alongside the smoke flues. These latter flues have hand holes for cleaning in the chimney 
 breast. The ash pits are on a level with the stone floor, and open into the kitchen. The 
 Kussians and Turks adopt a much more cleanly arrangement, by having the ash pit and furnace 
 doors in a separate apartment, immediately behind the boilers ; thus keeping the kitchen free 
 from ashes, smoke, the dirt from the fuel^ and the inconvenience of the cooks having their feet 
 against and near the ash pits and furnace door when attending to the boilers. 
 
 The latrines in this fort are better arranged than in any other fort or garrison that came to 
 my notice, in general, being exceedingly objectionable, arising from the difficulty of adapting 
 them to the uses of crowds of men occupying a single building in a confined space. In this fort 
 they consist of a trough and basin, kept partly filled with water, the former receiving all the 
 waste from the Iiand wash basins in an adjoining apartment. Once or twice a day a trap or 
 
142 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 sluice is opened, which allows all the accumulated matter from the trough to escape into the sea 
 or from where it can be washed away with the rise of tide. If no such outlet exists, it escapes 
 into an extensive covered cesspool. A reservoir, about six feet above the level of the seats of the 
 water closet, is kept filled with water by hand pumps, serving daily as an additional supply to 
 scour the trough basins. The arrangement is far better than any of the continental methods, 
 and is very good as long as attention is given to it. 
 
 Cliff Battery, west of Fort Victoria, is a brick casemated castle, of four tiers of guns, rising 
 from the water, with granite scarps, to the level of the terreplein of the work. The hill behind 
 this fort and shores down to low water being of an exceedingly slippery nature, the work was 
 located in the water, and built by means of coffer-dams. The soles of the embrasures are of solid 
 granite, (see Fig. 120,) extending through and through the scarp. A second massive piece 
 forms the bed for the preceding, on the inner face of the scarp; and into it an iron is secured for 
 the gun-carriage centers of rotation. The floor or pavement of the recess arch is formed of a 
 third piece. Excepting these, the coping, and some angle pieces and foundation, the work is 
 entirely of brick. The upper or third tier of casemates only is arched bomb-proof. The three 
 floors of these casemated tiers are of wood, the sleepers running from pier to pier. Under the 
 traverse circle for the after wheels of the gun carriage the floor is strengthened by a compound 
 girder resting upon cast-iron boxes built in the masonry, as in Fig. 119. 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
 Into this cast-iron box rest the ends of the girder, which is formed of five pieces of teak 
 plank, placed so far apart as to admit of a set of the straining rods passing between them, thus 
 requiring six set.s of these rods. They are secured by a bolt to the pier box, and the opposite 
 ends by a bolt to a bearing plate below the center of the girder. The floor plank is of oak, 
 running longitudinally in the casemate, spiked to the floor timbers and to this compound girder. 
 The iron traverse circle for the hind wheels of the gun carriage rests over this girder. The 
 merit of this plan is to give the necessary strength to support the gun and carriage where it is 
 needed, without incurring the expense of doing so on all other parts of the casemate floors that 
 receive no extraordinary weight. By this system, the whole weight of the gun and carriage is 
 upon this wide compound girder and the stone pavement of the recess arch. 
 
 Under the lower floor, and below ground, are storerooms, magazines, &c. All masses of 
 masonry admitting of it, are arranged as service magazines, for the greater security of what 
 ammunition may be about the gun for immediate use. In every instance they are secured by 
 doors opening to the rear, or from the direction of an enemy's shot. 'i\iQ parapet of the barbette 
 battery is oi earth, faced on the interior and exterior with brick masonry. All the barbette guns 
 are centered on the middle transom of the chassis. Thirty-two pounders were being mounted 
 on this barbette battery, and 10-inch guns are designed for the casemates. 
 
 The trace of this work on the water front presents two right lines, one facing up and the 
 other down stream, with one casemate on the intersection. The directrix passes through the 
 center of this latter casemate, and jjrolonged through a fort on the opposite shore, distant about 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 143 
 
 1,200 yards. The novelty in this work is in the trace, which may be sufficiently explained by 
 the annexed figure, (120_,) representing a general section from front to rear, dispensing with an 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 interior court. The piers separating the gun rooms extend from the scarp back to a corridor, 
 running parallel with the gorge wall. This corridor is separated from the gun rooms by a 
 movable plank partition, to be taken down preparatory to action as the state-room partitions on 
 the gun deck of a ship. The corridor is intended as the mess room, while the gun room becomes 
 the dormitory, each having a fireplace built in the pier. The gun racks, cloak pins, and supports 
 for shelves, are of iron let into the j^iers. The garrison sleep in hammocks, slung in two rows 
 across the gun rooms, for which purj^ose hooks are built in the faces of each pier for the head 
 lashing. The foot lashing is secured to hooks on the under edge of an iron shelf in the middle 
 of the room secured to the ceiling by cast-iron frames, suspending the shelf about seven feet 
 above the floor. 
 
 The small service magazines (re a a, of Fig. 120) are made in each casemate pier, with doors 
 opening on the corridor. All the arches are covered with asphalte, and the barbette terreplein 
 is formed of it, as is the case also at Fort Victoria. The latrines, lavatories, kitchens, &c., are 
 arranged as in Fort Victoria, with the exception of the floors, which in this work are of wood. 
 None of the magazines have any interior lining ; all are constructed with air chambers from 
 floor to ceiling, or rise of the arch, worked in the masonry of four inches in widtli. 
 
 The barbette battery on the water front is protected and covered from the commanding 
 influence of the heights in the rear, within musket shot, by the gorge masonry. The plane of 
 defilement being very steep, the crest of the parapet of the gorge is raised so high as to admit 
 of a vaulted passage (b) behind the barbette battery, with loop holes through the scarp wall, the 
 top of the arch forming a terreplein for another tier of musketry over the crest of the scarp. 
 The gorge wall deviates in part from parallelism with the front of the battery to admit of stair- 
 cases, without interrupting the free communication along the corridors, and at the same time 
 gives some flank defense on the faces of the scarp for musketry through loop holes. 
 
144 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 If the ventilation is satisfactory in this system, (and it is certainly better than at Fort 
 Hornet, and those on the ends of the breakwater at Cherbourg, though not so good as at Fort 
 des Flamands,) it possesses more merit for economy of foundation, and hence superstructure, 
 than any other profile for an artificial site; and its foundations built within coffer dams, com- 
 bining at the same time arrangements adopted on ship-board for berthing the garrison, it is 
 well worthy our study. There may be more ventilating openings than I am aware of; that 
 particular did not attract my notice when visiting the work. 
 
 I understand the English engineers to agree that there is no security for this naval arsenal 
 if ever an invading army can sit down before it on the Gosport shore. From thence, every thing 
 above water can be destroyed with shot and shells, the case being precisely similar to that of 
 Cherbourg on the land side, with the advantage of better harbors for a landing on the English 
 coast than on the French. These considerations have caused them to commence a line of per- 
 manent fortifications of detached works more than four thousand yards from any part of the 
 naval establishment in the rear of and surrounding Gosport. The casemates in some of the 
 works of this line, bearing on the water, have undergone sjiecial study, many of the particulars 
 and details of which are given in the annexed figures. 
 
 Fig. 121 represents the plan of these casemates, including the scarp and embrasure, 
 will be observed that the first arch of communication, of 
 which there are two, rests against the scarjJ ; that the gun 
 is in a recess in the scarp, the openings of the embrasure 
 differing but five inches in width on the interior and 
 exterior, and a horizontal traverse of about fort3'-five 
 degrees. All the angles of the stone forming the exterior 
 opening are rounded off three inches beyond the planes of 
 the embrasures, for the more ready escape of the gases 
 and protection of the embrasure against the action of the 
 powder. Like the French, Russians, and Prussians, they 
 admit of no tongue-hole near the face of the scarp to 
 weaken its strength, a defect it beliooves us to correct in 
 our system. 
 
 It 
 
 Fig. 121. 
 
 _^_±! 
 
 Fig. l->2. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 145 
 
 Fig. 122 is a vertical section through the directrix of oue of these casemates and embrasure, 
 on which the dimensions are accurately given, as is the case with the other figures of this system. 
 
 Fig. 123 is an elevation of the casemate seen from the rear, with all the dimensions of parts 
 seen from that direction. 
 
 Fig. 124 is a horizontal section of the scarp through the embrasure, with the dimensions of 
 the scarp and embrasure, in which the curve bounding the exterior opening is more clearly 
 
 defined than in other figures. 
 
 Fig. 125 is an elevation of the exterior of the scarp, showing the dimensions of the embrasure 
 on the exterior of the wall^ and the courses of stone and manner of building about the embrasure^ 
 by which it will be seen that the arch 
 of 4' 6" opening is formed of nine pieces 
 of stone. The most interesting detail is 
 that of 4' 3" for the height of the sole 
 of the embrasure above the terreplein 
 of the casemate, securing much more 
 protection to the gunner and interior 
 of the work, than our system. 
 
 The examination of a model in the carriage department of Woolwich, of what was repre- 
 sented to me, as the dimensions last adopted for their sea-coast casemates, the height of the sole 
 of the embrasure above the terreplein is 4' 10", indicating a determination to correct the error we 
 are constantly committing in our sea-coast casemated batteries. 
 19 D 
 
 Fig. 1-25. 
 
 rise o this course forming tlie sole 
 llie embrasure was not ascertained 
 
146 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 North Fort, commanding the entrance into tlie harbor of Liverpool, is another recently con- 
 structed sea-coast battery, illustrative of the system of the English engineers. It has the defect 
 
 about 18' 
 
 Fig. 120. 
 
 common to many of our earlier constructions of occupying a site for the defense of a city, the 
 rapid growth and extension of which has brought the forts within the limits of the city. While 
 
 the fort is just being finished, substantial masonry ware- 
 houses, occupy sites immediately above, and within pistol 
 shot of its batteries. The details of its construction are 
 unlike any other I know of. It is possible that a work of 
 more than one casemate tier was originally designed for 
 these foundations, and that the rapid extension of the city, 
 made it expedient to modify it as now finished. There is 
 little room to doubt that a single broadside from a ship in 
 the channel, would dismount the guns, and drive the gun- 
 ners from the terreplein. 
 
 So far as an examination of the surface, enabled me to 
 judge, it is a solid mass of masonry of red sandstone of 
 large masses^ in horizontal courses, well put together, form- 
 ing an open embrasure battery, with stone parapets, every 
 gun being within a deep recess of the parapet, and separated 
 by a solid mass of masonry forming a traverse. Between 
 each gun, and behind this traverse is a stone banquette, for 
 infantry, communicating with tlie terreplein of the battery 
 by a flight of stone steps. From the terreplein of the bat- 
 tery to that of the corps-de-place the communication is also 
 by masonry steps. 
 
 Fig. 127. The trace of the battery is a right line, the scarp of 
 
 which rises out of the water. The gorge is a bomb-proof 
 barrack parallel with the battery, two stories in height, with a flat roof covered with asphalte, 
 surrounded with a breast-height wall. These barracks are returned towards the front with a 
 right angle, terminating the flank of the battery with a casemated tower of two tiers, each tier 
 showing one embrasure on the water front on a line with the main battery, and in the second 
 tier an additional embrasure, firing over and on tlie line of the battery. All the dimensions in 
 Figures 126 and 127 of this fort must be considered approximative, and not exact, as no meas- 
 urement was made of any part of this work. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 147 
 
 Sardinian Naval Depot at Genoa. 
 
 The existing defenses of Genoa, by laud and water, have been the study of engineers since 
 the fourteenth century. To this day it is a stronghold on the Mediterranean, now in possession 
 of the Sardinians, and fortified as one of their naval depots. 
 
 The harbor (see Plate 19, Fig. 1) is an indentation in a straight line of the coast, between 
 the mouths of the mountain rivulets of Polcevera and Besagno, distant about four thousand yards 
 from each other, descending from the Appenines through the ravines in parallel lines for several 
 miles. This indentation in the coast is about one and three quarter miles wide, by one mile in 
 depth. A shelter against all storm winds is created by artificial breakwaters, within a part only 
 of this indentation of the coast line, inclosing a water surface by a semicircle of about half a mile 
 diameter, the longest line being from the light-house towards the center of the city, on which 
 line the two breakwaters or moles are constructed, projecting from the light-house on the west, 
 and from about the center of the city front on the east, approaching each other to within 595 
 yards, which is left as the opening to the anchorage, commercial port, and naval depot. It is 
 not probable that an extensive naval establishment will again be created within this small con- 
 tracted artificial basin, from the shores of which the mountain commences to rise, terminating in 
 the Appenines, leaving as little space on land suitable for dock-yards as in the harbor for a fleet. 
 A dry-dock exists within the walls of the naval establishment. Although the city is susceptible, 
 with its natural advantages, of a prolonged defense on the land side, it has none particularly 
 adapting it to harbor defense. 
 
 Its importance for the future depends on its great commercial advantages, connected as it is 
 with the fertile valleys of the Po, botli at its mouth and towards its soui'ce, by railroads to 
 Venice and Turin. The Sardinian government is giving its attention to the Bay of Spezzia as 
 every way better adapted to their naval purposes ; yet, as a commercial city, destined with wise 
 councils to attain greater prosperity than ever, its protection and defenses will doubtless con- 
 tinue to command attention, which, in connection with the history of fortification, renders the 
 works of some interest in a study of sea-coast defenses. 
 
 The city is inclosed by an irregular continuous basfioned trace on the land side of substantial 
 stone masonry, constructed, it is claimed by historians, as early as 132'7. On the west, north, 
 and east these bastion fronts are as perfect and regular in trace as those at Verona, which are 
 cited as the first invention of the bastioned system by San Micheli in 1500. A very correct out- 
 line of this enceinte of Genoa may be found in the collection of maps published by the Society 
 for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. The city has grown long since to the utmost limit 
 within these barriers, that now only serve as a preventive to its extension and prosperity. Should 
 they ever become available for defense, the city would inevitably be destroyed in any effort of a 
 besieging army to reduce them by artillery. They must yield to the wants of commerce and 
 prosperity of man, as at Toulon, Havre, and other fortifications of past ages — a lesson it becomes 
 us steadily to keep in view, never to allow our forts to check the growth of our cities and towns. 
 Beyond this inclosure, however, is the real barrier and defensive works against an enemy on the 
 land side. They consist also of an irregular continuous masonry bastioned trace of about seven 
 miles in circuit, constructed about 1632. On the southeast they commence on the coast at 
 the mouth of the Besagno, all of one hundred feet above the Mediterranean, running on the crest 
 of the hill bounding the rivulet about one mile and a half, thence northerly along the crest of 
 the same continuously ascending mountain spur to Fort I'Eperon, (Plate 19, Fig. 1,) the most 
 northern point. 
 
 On the western side of the bay these defenses commence at the light-house, following an 
 ascending ridge, nearly parallel with the Polcevera for a mile and a quarter, wlien they deflect 
 to the right along the crest of the same mountain spur, uniting at Fort I'Eperon. This salient 
 
148 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 point of the enceinte is several hundred feet ahove the level of the sea. Outside of this line of 
 ■works the country falls rajndly into dcej) valleys, too steep for the ascent of columns of infantry, 
 and in many jjarts altogether inaccessible ; forcing an enemy's artillery across the valleys to 
 obtain suitable sites for batteries, from whence guns can be brought to bear on the masonry 
 scarps. 
 
 On the eastern side the valley is narrow, and the opposite hills rise suddenly to such a 
 height as to command the city, in consequence of which three detached forts have been constructed 
 forming the key of the defenses on that side. 
 
 Fort I'Eperon is on a spur that oifers advantageous ground for approaching uijonit; to 
 guard against which, and, at the same time, to occupy a commanding site. Fort Diamante has 
 been constructed, at the intersection of a mountain ridge descending towards the Polcevera, 
 from that of the Besagno. This advanced enceinte is materially strengthened by some appa- 
 rent newly-constructed masonry casemated forts, showing, in general, all their scarps^ with 
 crennated bomb-proofs and occasional embrasures for guns. They, in some instances, occupy 
 prominent sites within the line of the enceinte, while others, as L'Eperon, constitute a part of 
 it. The masonry of all these works is of small indifferent rubble; and, in general, is terminated 
 by a thin masonry loop-hole parapet. The flanks occasionally have an open gallery excavated 
 behind the scarps to give a second tier of loop holes — small piers and arches forming the terreplein 
 or banquette for the upper tier. At the light-house a large masonry casern is under construc- 
 tion, the masonry of which, like that in the forts and enceinte, is small rubble, with some little 
 attention to laying it in courses. Such, in general, are the land defenses of this stronghold, in 
 which Massena sustained himself in 1800, with a small army, for two months against a powerful 
 Austrian avmy under Melas, reduced finally by starvation, and not by gunpowder. 
 
 At the same time, the water defenses set the English fleet under Lord Keith at defiance, 
 rendering a knowledge of them of some importance in the study of our harbor defenses. 
 
 From the mouth of the Besagno the scarps of the city enceinte follow the coast along the 
 crest of the hill, falling nearly to the water level at their junction with the eastern mole or 
 breakwater. Behind this scarp are some barbette batteries, and under it, along the shore, is a 
 water battery that appeared to be of recent construction, with one tier of casemates, surmounted 
 by a barbette battery, the branch fronting the sea having an earthen parapet, and the one 
 perpendicular to the shore a brick parapet. This battery was armed with 8-inch guns, the 
 construction of which was peculiar for new pieces^ consisting of a perfectly hemispherical breech 
 and cylinder, without molding, reinforce, base ring, or other irregularity in the shape of the 
 gun, to the trunnions. A breech ring was the only exception to this form. Officers who have 
 given attention to the casting of heavy ordnance will doubtless see good reasons on the part of 
 the Sardinians in departing from the long-established use of ornamental moldings, cascables, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 Guns may be mounted behind the scarps on the crest of the hill, along the water front, 
 which would ©O'er some little opposition to a fleet entering the port ; and with the casemated fort 
 along the shore^ would cooperate with an open barbette battery on Light-house Point, and a 
 small battery on the eastern mole in opposing the entrance of a fleet. After entering the harbor 
 the only resistance would be from a battery on the exterior wall of the dock-yard. 
 
 The batteries along the city front, both on the crest of the hill and at the water's edge, are 
 doubtless indispensable to prevent a fleet anchoring at pleasure and bombarding the city from the 
 sea. These same batteries have a tendency to force a fleet ofi" shore to sustain what injury it 
 may from the light-house battery, when attempting to enter the port. Under the most favorable 
 circumstances for the batteries, a hostile vessel need never approach the light-house battery 
 nearer than half a mile, when she would be three quarters of a mile from the nearest city 
 battery. 
 
 The objects of attack being within the port, there would seem to exist but little to oppose 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 149 
 
 a hostile fleet in such an undertaking. Having once passed within the moles, all the exterior 
 hatteries become powerless, when the dock-yard fort, or bombardment of the city, or destruction 
 of a flotilla, is at the option of the attacking party. Such is all that Admiral Keith found in 
 his day to j^revent his more active cooperation with the Austrians in driving Massena from this 
 city. A flotilla of gun boats, such as were constructed in France and England for attacking 
 Cronstadt in the summer of 1856, would, in all probability, be successful from the sea in 
 bombarding the cit}' of Genoa, to its entire demolition, or laying it under contribution, and 
 withoiit much risk of sustaining great injury from the shore batteries. Altogether, I could find 
 very little in this renowned stronghold as a useful study for application elsewhere, yet of great 
 interest from the fact of these same works having sufliced at a period when artillery was less 
 powerful, and when the admirals of the same jieriod considered them too powerful for their 
 floating batteries ; admirals who are cited at the present day as examples of good judgment and 
 courageous gallantry. 
 
 I noticed that in the recently constructed casemated battery on the sea-shore, under the city 
 walls, the Sardinians had introduced the stone traverse circle, the stone pintle block, and circular 
 recesses cut in the breast height of the parapet to obtain increased horizontal traverse with the 
 muzzle of the gun over the parapet, as is our general practice. They also cut the sides and 
 corners of the pintle blocks to facilitate this increased traverse, tlieir gun carriage (chassis) being 
 so constructed as to interfere with a square block of the necessary height. None of the stone 
 traverse circles have any iron plates upon them, as is our practice. 
 
 In all that this nation is now doing there is an evident study of the most minute and im- 
 portant details in matters relating to the art of war, and hence I greatly regret that through the 
 forms and delays of official etiquette, or some other unknown cause, the American Commissioners 
 were prevented visiting and examining the interior of all these forts in detail, in conformity with 
 authority obtained from the government at Turin, through telegraphic dispatches, by our worthy 
 and excellent consul, A. Herbemont, Esq. The general commanding the division of the Pied- 
 montesc army, of which Genoa was the headquarters, ivrote to our consul that orders had been 
 given to all the commandants of the forts of the enceinte of Genoa, to allow us to enter and see all 
 that might be interesting to us, after the intervention of one day. Having waited the appointed 
 time, the Commission proceeded to the most southeastern work. Fort Guiliano, and were denied 
 admission by the commandant, he having received no orders or authority to do so. 
 
 Austrian System of Hakbor Defense. 
 
 The defense of sea-ports has but recently become the study of the Austrian engineers. The 
 results of the disasters of 1848-49 have forced this nation to build up a naval armament for the 
 protection of her extensive possessions, separated as they now are by the Adriatic. In 1849, the 
 small naval power of Sardinia was sufficient to hold in check the Austrian power in Italy, (by 
 prolonging the defense of Venice,) which was entirely cut off from succor or relief from the con- 
 centrated resources in the arsenals at Trieste and Vienna, by the little, though efiicient, fleet of 
 Sardinia. As a consequence. Marshal Radetsky was compelled to rely upon the Italian provinces 
 for the means of combating the insurgents in alliance with the Piedmontese. 
 
 The reequipment of the extensive dock-yards at Venice, and organization of an entirely new 
 naval depot at Pola, selected to meet all the requirements of the nation, in connection with the 
 balance of power in Europe and her immediate defense, have been determined upon, and are now 
 steadily and at the same time vigorously being prosecuted by the Austrian government. 
 
 The extent to which Austria may carry this new element is not without interest to us as 
 well as the statesmen of Europe. 
 
 Trieste and Venice are becoming the principal commercial cities and ports. A wise policy, 
 now in active operation, has already demonstrated the elements of increased naval strength in 
 the rapid growth of the commerce of these cities, particularly of the former. A magnificent 
 railroad, nearly completed, from Vienna to Trieste, unites the central valley of the Danube with 
 
150 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the head of the Adriatic, making Trieste a convenient outlet for that fertile valley and the industry 
 of its immense population, from Ulm to the Black Sea. Another railroad, already finished, from 
 Milan to Venice, unites the central valley of the Po with the Adriatic, and thence to Trieste, as 
 a common commercial center, having to compete only with the Sardinian road to Genoa. 
 
 The increase in the commerce of Trieste is from 16,782 vessels, measuring 985,514 tons, in 
 1846, to 21,081 vessels, measuring 1,489,197 tons, in 1855. The commerce of this port at the 
 present moment, while the railroad is only in operation to Laybach, is supported by a wagon 
 road to the interior, in importance not unlike our national road, connecting the Ohio with the 
 Atlantic, over the moiuitains from Cumberland to Wheeling, before railroads were opened. The 
 extent of this influence in building up an Austrian commerce may be judged from the fact of my 
 having met no less tlian 931 loaded wagons during the first ten hours ride on this road 
 from Trieste to Laybach, in December, 1855, containing iron, zinc, bituminous coal, ship 
 timber, and an infinite variety of manufactured goods — essential elements in the growth of a 
 navy. After the completion of the railroad from Vienna to Trieste, the analogy will be equally 
 as forcible as after the connection of the valley of the Ohio and western lakes with the Atlantic 
 by our railroads. 
 
 At this date Austria numbers 55,000 sailors, and has already a navy of six frigates, five 
 'corvettes, seven brigs, six schooners, sixteen steamers, and sixty-three gun-boats, and at the time 
 of my visit to the dock-yakds at Venice, in Januarj^, 1856, there were on the stocks, in progress, 
 three steam screw-ships, a large side-wheel steamer being fitted as a troop ship, and a sixty-gun 
 steamship had just been launched. Two thousand men were then at work in this dock-yard, 
 mostly under cover of the extensive building shops, rope walks, and workshops, constructed by 
 the Venetian republic, surrounding four wet-docks, with permanent roofs, supported on exceed- 
 ingly substantial and durable masonry columns and piers, all of which have been repaired and 
 restored to perfect order and condition. The extent of this dock-yard is not less than two miles 
 in circuit, and its capacity for building may be inferred from the fact (stated in the history of the 
 time) of twelve ships, of sixty guns each, and seven frigates being on tlie stocks when the French 
 army took possession of the city in 1796, the facilities for building wliich are now restored. 
 
 English and Swedish models of the present date are adopted for the lines of the Austrian 
 ships now building. The model of the ancient Venetian galley, j^reserved in the museum 
 of this depot, was represented to me as corresponding with the model of screw steamers of war 
 of this date. 
 
 A naval school has also been organized, as essential to the success of this naval armament. 
 Judging from a set of descriptive drawings, made \>y the pupils, and presented on my request, 
 I must infer a high degree of attainment on the part of the eleves now being educated for this 
 navy. 
 
 The ability of Austria to maintain a navy must depend upon her success in fostering and 
 promoting commerce, as without a nursery for sailors, it would be in vain to build a fleet. In 
 November, 1855, I was at the mouth of the Danube, endeavoring, with my colleagues, to find a 
 conveyance up the river to Vienna. Steamboats were at the time running from Galatz, near the 
 mouth, to Vienna, and even beyond. The connection of the line was broken from the sea to 
 Galatz by the sudden withdrawal of the vessel belonging to this part of the route. Here I 
 had an opportunity of seeing the immense commerce of this river, and the trade that Austria is 
 seeking to divert by railroads to the Adriatic. No less than six hundred sea-going vessels were 
 then moored inside the bar, loading, discharging, and awaiting cargo from the up country. The 
 difficulties of navigation are such that vessels take in but a part of their freight inside the bar, 
 then proceed to the open anchorage outside, in the Black sea, and, by ligliters, complete their 
 loading, at great risk and immense expense. It is the commerce indicated by this forest of masts 
 at the mouth of a river in many respects resembling our Mississippi and its mouth at the 
 Balize, that Austria is about to divert, by her railroads, to the Adriatic, and thus foster a nursery 
 for seamen and her fleet. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 151 
 
 To this end, Venice and Fola have been selected as the naval depots, the former, which has 
 already been sufficiently described for my purpose, being confined to building only, as the depth 
 of water over the best bar is but about fifteen feet, with a rise of tide of about three feet. The 
 latter place, Pola, is fast becoming the principal and important naval depot. Its stragetic 
 position is as advantageous, as its harbor is said to be otherwise well adapted to the contem- 
 plated purpose. It faces the mouth of tlie Po, and is so far in advance of Trieste and Venice as 
 to cover and jirotect both, by any floating defenses in readiness under its fortifications. Situated 
 at the salient point of a vast peninsula projecting from the head of the Adriatic, and at the 
 termination of a long line of islands surrounded with rocks, behind which is the coast of 
 Dalmatia and its hardy race of sailors ; it is, at the same time, in secure communication by 
 land with the internal resources of the empire. 
 
 The harbor communicates with the sea by a curved passage, opening to the west, with a 
 minimum width of 750 yards. On the left of the entrance, the Island of Brioni covers the 
 passage or straits of Fasano, which separates it from the main land, forming an extensive outer 
 harbor; To the south is the harbor of Veruda, penetrating the peninsula, but for light-draft 
 vessels only. 
 
 The arsenal, facing the west, is at the end of the city, on an artificial site formed by cutting 
 the adjacent declivities and filling in along shore. 
 
 The quays are upwards of 1,000 yards in extent, along which are the storehouses for rigging, 
 naval stores, and parks of artillery, arranged in the order corresponding to the fitting out or 
 dismantling a ship. In hauling along the quay, the vessel receives successively its masts, its 
 rigging, its artillery, its provisions, etc., and returning, deposits, by reversing the movement, in 
 the same magazines. 
 
 For the defense of these two naval depots, the Austrian engineers are now bestowing their 
 talents in the construction of sea-coast batteries, and have, as we shall see, in some measure 
 adopted their favorite and peculiar system practiced for their fortresses. 
 
 At Pola the system of defense comprehends, first, the fortification of the two islands which 
 rise up in the harbor — the one crossing its fire with the batteries bordering the narrows, render- 
 ing the entrance exceedingly dangerous, if not impracticable, to an enemy. The other commands 
 the roadstead within. It is intended to throw the fire of a besieger's batteries on the land so far 
 off that the entire harbor shall be beyond their range. For this purpose, they have already 
 consti'ucted at the crest of the harbor slope a chain of Maximilian towers, connected by massive 
 earthen curtains. Independent of the great distance separating this enceinte from the vulnerable 
 parts of the arsenal, it prevents the basin from even being seen from without, except from a great 
 distance through the line of the narrows. The extent of this enceinte will not be less than 
 13,000 yards. The want of fresh water about the great enceinte of Pola is not the least of the 
 difficulties a besieging army will have to surmount. The cost of tliese defensive works and 
 establishments for the fleet will not be less than twelve millions of dollars. I had no other 
 opportunity of seeing the defenses and depot of Pola than coasting along shore in a steamer ; 
 the few facts stated are derived from different though reliable sources of information, and con- 
 firmed by observation, so far as it was practicable to form a judgment. 
 
 Venice is defended by fortifications at the diflerent inlets to prevent the passage of vessels, 
 and by a chain of towers on the Island of Lido (see Fig. 2, Plate 19) to prevent the bombard- 
 ment of the city from tlie sea. 
 
 For the defense of one of these inlets, the Committee of Fortifications at Vienna has adopted 
 the plan of a work consisting of a circular masonry tower in the center of a hexagonal earthen 
 rampart for artillery. (See annexed Fig. 128.) At the foot of the exterior slope of this ram- 
 part is a detached crennated masonry scarp of three feet thick, with small open towers at the 
 intersections of the branches or faces for musketry. The entrance is commanded by a caponnier 
 on the center of one of the hexagonal sides, and two other caponniers command the two gorge 
 
152 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 faces of the work. The gorge is closed with the crennated wall only, the earthen rampart ter- 
 minating with two short branches over and ahove half the hexigon. Through the two gorge 
 capouniers, at the end of the earthen rampart only, can the cheniin-de-ronde be entered, to com- 
 municate in front of the rampart by the gates c, c. This communication is closed by other gates 
 (d, d) opening on the esplanade of the battery. It will be observed that the entrance to this 
 work is very unlike the general arrangements for such purj^ose. It is first across the wet ditch 
 by a bridge, with a draw at b, commanded by one of the caponniers and crennated wall forming 
 one side of the hexagon, and thence across tlie esplanade of the gorge through the gates (a, a) 
 
 PLAN ADOPTED FOR THE DEFENSE OF THE CHANNEL LEADING TO THE NAVAL DEPOT AT VENICE. 
 
 Fig. 129, 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 153 
 
 by a draw-bridge, which, when raised, shows a wet ditch in front of these gates, and under the 
 scarp of the reduit from gate to gate. The entrance to the reduit is from tlie esplanade of the 
 battery only. 
 
 The reduit is arranged with loop holes on the lower story, and with an embrasure and two 
 loop holes in each casemate on the second tier. These embrasures are for guns of small caliber 
 only, for the near defense of the work, and not to fire over the main battery (on shipping) simul- 
 taneously with it. There is no barbette above this second tier, it being simply made bomb-proof 
 by five feet of earth over the arches, as in Figs. 129 and 131. 
 
 \/ V V Vj V.i 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 The scarp of this circular tower has seven feet base, including its offsets, as in Fig. 130, 
 resting on five rows of piles of eight inches diameter, each of twelve feet long. The detached 
 scarp (Fig. 129) is only three feet thick. The thickness of the para]iet is eighteen feet, and 
 about eighteen feet above the level of the parade, which latter is three feet above high water. 
 The detached scarp is ten feet above its terreplein and about twenty feet above the bottom of the 
 ditch, which has six feet of water as a minimum. No larger vessel than a sloop-of-vs^ar can 
 approach this work. All that part of the face of the detached scarp in the water is constructed 
 of stone masonry, all other parts are built of brick masonry. The counterscarp has a slope of 
 three vertical on four horizontal. The walls of the reduit are four feet thick, its casemates are 
 eighteen feet wide, with a pier of four feet thick next to the scarp. The passage or communica- 
 tion from room to room is by a corridor next to the interior face, and six feet wide. Asphalte is 
 used to cover the arches, drawing the water through both the interior and exterior walls. The 
 casemate arches are twenty inches thick, of brick, (Fig. 131,) and have a roof of masonry, on 
 which the asphalte is laid. This masonry roof is nine inches thick over the hip of the arch. 
 The height of the casemate to the crown of the arch is in general but ten feet. Large ventilators, 
 say four feet long and two feet high, are made under the crown of the arch, through the scarp wall. 
 
 The main ship channel into the harbor was formerly around the north end of the Island of 
 Lido, (Plate 19, Fig. 2,) and was fortified accordingly. Although not now the best channel, 
 the ancient defenses are still preserved, and some new works have recently been constructed by 
 the Austrian engineers. 
 
 The old works on this island and Fort St. Andrea, opposite, were in part, if not altogether, 
 the plans and constructions of San Micheli, the same engineer that fortified Verona, and to 
 whom the merit of originating the bastion trace is given, although I find it in the defenses of 
 Genoa, constructed long before his time. 
 
 On the north end of the Island of Lido is an extensive water battery, which, with its gorge, 
 incloses several acres. The front on the sea side presents a very long solid rampart, with a wet 
 
 20- 
 
154 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 FORT ST. NICOLO, ISLAND OF LIDO. 
 
 Sea-shore. 
 
 ditch, brick scarp about fifteen feet in height, surmounted by an earthen parapet, and an earthen 
 
 counterscarp rising high enough to give 
 a glacis crest that covers tlie masonry 
 from the sea. The trace of this water 
 front is en cremcdlier, as in the annexed 
 figure, (132,) and of interest, as being com- 
 mon at the present day in a variety of cir- 
 cumstances, more especially for field works. The angles, it will be observed, are in a right line, 
 increasing the width of flanking fire opposite the salients, though not concentrating it in the 
 ditch at that point. For approaching and receding vessels these flanking batteries are well 
 devised. Across the island, inclosing the work on the south, the trace is a bastioned front, with 
 brick masonry scarps, having the orillon or retired flanks. The rampart of the flank is united 
 
 with the curtain, and detached from the faces of the 
 bastion. The masonry of the scarp of the faces 
 projects beyond the angle of the curtain as in the 
 annexed figure, (133,) forming a lower loop hole or 
 musketry defense through the top of the scarp, the 
 rampart behind it being lowered about six feet under 
 the crest of the scarp, which is continued in the 
 same horizontal plane. The principle corresponds with the flanks of the Campo Marzo Bastion, 
 at Verona, a well authenticated production of San Micheli in 1500. It was probably built by 
 Giovan Girolama, the kinsman and pupil of San Micheli, or by the latter in person, both of 
 whom were in the service of the Venetian republic as military engineers. 
 
 The most interesting part of these defenses is the new work built as a citadel, and but 
 recently finished, about central on the terreplein of the defenses of the north end of the island. 
 It is a rectangle (nearly square) with bomb-proof caponniers on the centers of the sides, parapet 
 
 Fig. 133. 
 
 KEEP OR CITADEL REDUIT OF FORT ST. NICOLO, LIDO. 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 155 
 
 broken into the bastion trace, throwing the curtain back of the scarp, which latter is continued 
 on a right line on the side of the polygon to its intersection with the bomb-proof capon- 
 nier. (See Fig. 134.) The curtain has an exterior slope of earth, as is the case with the 
 flanks ; the scarp thus becoming detached, except along the faces of the bastions. Within these 
 solid ramparts is a defensive barrack of two tiers of loop holes for infantry fire. Its trace is a 
 square, with the angles rounded, with an open caponnier from the center of the faces of the 
 square. The faces of this defensive barrack are at right angles to the diagonal of the principal 
 work. The masonry is all of brick, laid as headers througliout on the face of the wall, the bricks 
 being unusually large compared with our practice. They measure 2^' x 5" s 10". The second 
 tier is j^repared for artillery, the floors separating the two tiers being of wood, the ceiling being 
 arched bomb-proof, and without barbette or other defense above. The guns in this reduit or 
 defensive barrack, are mounted on truck carriages, having tackle purchases attached to the side 
 of the carriage, and thence to a ring bolt under the sole of the embrasure to haul the gun to 
 battery, working much like a ship's gun on a marine truck carriage. 
 
 The main work is surrounded with a ditch, with earthen counterscarp. On three sides its 
 crest rises to give a glacis slope covering the scarps. On the center of each of these sides is a 
 prolonged counter glacis, serving as a ramp, to facilitate the retreat of the garrison from any 
 part of the exterior works from which they may be driven. On the front towards Venice the 
 counterscarp is not so high, leaving most of the scarp exposed on that side. The ditches are 
 dry. The communication is by a bridge, with a draw, into the small court between the flank 
 and caponnier, and thence through the latter, under the rampart, into the main work. This 
 may be more clearly understood by referring to Fig. 134. All the arches are covered with 
 asphalte, yet, from subsidence of the walls or other causes, they leak considerably, '^o plastering 
 is to be seen in any part of the work, the casemates being used as quarters, with the bare 
 brick walls. 
 
 The magazines have no lining whatever, being finished as the quarters, showing the bare 
 brick walls only. This is a locality and climate where^ if ever interior wooden linings (as we 
 are in the habit of using at considerable expense and frequent renewal) were necessary, they 
 would be introduced. The moutli of tlie Mississippi could not be more damp and wet from the 
 influence of swamps and lagunes than the neighborhood of Venice, where, as in most all other 
 parts of Europe, our practice is considered superfluous. I have omitted to state that the scarps of 
 this work are about twenty feet in height, as deduced from counting the stones forming the angles. 
 
 The Tower of St. Erasmo is another new Austrian work, on the island of the same name, 
 commanding one of the interior and smaller channels leading to Venice by the north. It is 
 built of brick, with a circular trace. In it I saw guns mounted upon carriages conforming with 
 Fig. 38 a_, and as referred to in a former jiart of this report on the subject of casemates and gun 
 carriages. In this Tower of St. Erasmo the object is to bring the three guns of its barbette battery 
 to fire upon a single point, which, by tlie arrangement of 
 the pintle on a truck carriage, moving on a rail track, can 
 readily be done, although arranged habitually at equal 
 distances from each other and around the parapet. The 
 dimensions of the rail in this particular instance, were as 
 given in the annexed Fig. 135. It was stated to me that 
 repeated experiments and tests had shown that the carriage 
 thus mouirted had resisted all the recoil and other efiects of 
 firing, without ever throwing it oft' the track. 
 
 The most nortliern channel leading to the city of Venice is defended by Fort Tre-Porti^ 
 about being finished by the Austrian engineers, on the southwest end of the coast of Cavallino, 
 distant about four thousand 3'ards from tlie defenses on the Lido channel. It has a solid earthen 
 rampart, with a brick scarp, surmounted by an earthen parapet for a barbette battery. This 
 
156 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 rampart has three branches, (see annexed Fig. 136:) one a segment of a circle, with a right 
 line thrown hack from each end of the segment, the ends of which are connected by a crennated 
 wall forming the gorge. 
 
 There are three caponniers connected with this solid rampart by communications passing 
 under it, defending a wet ditcli. One of these caponniers is on the center of the circular 
 segment. Its masonry rises from the wet ditch, and is covered by the crest of the glacis, 
 which is in a plane three feet above the crest of the scarps. This caponnier has an embrasure 
 to flank the ditches to the right and left. It is vaulted and covered with earth to make it bomb- 
 proof. On each side of the communication passing under the rampart, to the caponnier, is a 
 casern or store-room. The three caponniers stand as isolated and detached works in the ditch^ 
 connected only by a narrow passage inclosed by a crennated wall. At the extremities of the 
 right and left branches of the rampart are similar bomb-proof caponniers, with embrasure guns 
 commanding the faces of the ramj^ait, and loop holes through and around the circular jsarts, as 
 is the case with all of them. The gorge wall has an open caponnier on its center, which, with 
 the branches, are loop-holed. The branches are prolonged beyond the ends of the solid rampart, 
 forming one side of the flank caponniers. All the masonry scarps are about twenty-five feet 
 high, covered by a glacis on the three solid fronts, with an earthen counterscarp from the crest 
 to the water level, below which the j^rolongation of the slope is revetted with stone. The circular 
 parts of the counterscarp in front of the caponniers are revetted with masonry to the crest. 
 
 FORT TRE-PORTI, NEAR VENICE. 
 
 The Lagune to the Adriatic. 
 Fig. 1.%. 
 
ART OF WAR IN ETTROPE. 
 
 157 
 
 Covering part of the gorge, and on the parade, is a large homb-proof reduit, the lower floor of 
 which is paved with stone, and its scarp pierced with loop holes. The second tier is for artillery, 
 subdivided, as below, with piers into single-gun casemates, with a loop hole on each side of the 
 embrasure. The floor is of wood, with a bomb-proof arch of brick, covered with asphalte and 
 earth, surmounted by a barbette battery, with earthen parapet. The masonry of this reduit is 
 covered by the crest of the parapet of the solid ramparts. The casemates of the second tier can 
 only throw a curved fire over the rampart and parapet of the fort. This second tier of the 
 reduit is arranged with embrasures and loop holes in the rear wall, which fire on the waters over 
 the gorge wall and gorge caponnier. The communication from one tier to the other is by steps 
 in a circular tower, constructed within the court of the reduit, on the directrix of the fort. The 
 communication to the interior of the reduit from the terreplein of the corps-de-place is by a door 
 at h, and from the reduit to the exterior is through an inclosed space a, across the wet ditch by 
 a bridge and draw. While the communication to the main work is across a separate bridge, 
 with draw (c) and gate through the crennated wall. 
 
 The counterscarp of the gorge front is on a level with the terreplein of the corps-de-place, 
 and commanded by the loop-hole fire of the gorge caponnier, as well as from the upper tier of the 
 reduit, for which piu-pose the branch of the gorge wall through which the gates are formed, is 
 directed on so much of the face of the reduit, as to give the fire of one casemate, to command the 
 draw-bridges and gates, in cooperation with the musketry fire from the loop holes of the cren- 
 nated wall. 
 
 The gates and a sluice way to maneuver the water in the ditch, are covered by the crest of a 
 glacis to a reentering place of arms, the height of which is about six feet above the level of the 
 bridges ; it serves also to cover so much of the gorge caponnier, allowing the fire from its loop 
 holes to pass over its crest. 
 
 The draw-bridge of the corps-de-place is a rail-car passing under the gates, thus admitting 
 of being maneuvered, whether the gates be open or shut. So much of the draw as is necessary 
 for a counterpoise, when the car or platform is overhanging the ditch, is regulated by weights, 
 to the extent that may be necessary over and above the weight of the draw, when resting upon 
 the rails that project two feet beyond the face of 
 the scarp, as in Fig. 137. It will be observed 
 that this draw may be withdrawn, whether the 
 gates are closed, or being closed, and may be 
 defended by loop holes in the gates at the same 
 time it is being drawn in or forced out by a 
 plank banquette resting on the jambs of the gate- 
 way, as at a. It is also susceptible of being coun- 
 terpoised, and self-maneuvering by a weight 
 descending in a well, attached to a chain passing 
 over a pulley attached to the outer end of the 
 bridge. I may be indulged with the remark, 
 
 that this railroad draw and gate were proposed some years since by a member of the Board of 
 Engineers (Major William H. Chase) for our service, and met with no favor, and now I find it 
 approved and introduced in one of the latest constructions of the Austrian engineers, who have 
 as much experience in details of draw-bridges as the engineers of any country, as well as by the 
 Eussians in their new forts at Warsaw. I can but believe a better knowledge of this simple, 
 efficient, and economical arrangement, will commend it to greater favor in our service. 
 
 The draw-bridge of the reduit of this fort is in too contracted a space to admit of the same 
 arrangement. It is maneuvered by a counterpoise of large cast-iron balls, on the end of a chain 
 passing over a pulley, thence to the outer end of the bridge. There are three of these balls 
 connected by a link coupling, on the right, and four on the left side of the gate. The lower ends 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
158 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 of the series are attached by a staple (see Fig. 138) to the face of the wall, that as the bridge 
 rises the weight is held suspended by this hook, relieving the counterpoising mass gradually ; 
 the weight finally hanging by the hook in the well hole (a) when the draw is up. Motion 
 is given, and force to overcome any extraneous resistance, by an endless chain passing around 
 a drum, (a, Fig. 139,) on which is a cog wheel (h) working into a pinion, (c,) turned by one 
 man, with a crank, {d.) This purchase is made both to lower and raise the bridge by reversing 
 the motion of the crank. The endless chain after passing round the drum (a) from the pulley 
 (o) descends into the well, around the pulley, (x,) and thence up, attaching itself again to the 
 top of the weights. 
 
 — I — 
 
 / T -, INTERIOK r/ef 
 
 I I or j'c^RP 
 
 The embrasures in this work, as well as the loop holes, are in general faced throughout with 
 large blocks of stone, (marble ;) some exceptions to the rule on less exposed localities are faced 
 in the throat only with stone, all other parts being of brick. 
 
 The drainage from the casemates of the reduit, &c., is through the front walls by gutters 
 from the valleys. The roofs are covered with asphalte under the earth. While I was at this 
 fort the weather was so cold as to freeze the water coming through these drainage pipes, before 
 escaping from the wall, thus backing it up as a cistern over the casemate arch, an objection that 
 is found to exist in our own country, as far south as Fort Monroe. It was on the north side of 
 the reduit only that this difficulty existed. The joints of the coping are pointed with asphalte. 
 
 Brick masonry, with stone under water, and at the angles, is the general character of the 
 scarp masonry. The bricks are not very durable in this damp and wet locality, already in some 
 instances showing evidences of decay. 
 
 This work would seem to be intended to prevent an enemy occupying the site, and j)roceed- 
 ing from island to island, finally establishing himself within bombarding distance of the city. 
 The locality is altogether beyond the direct range of the longest guns of the present day, yet 
 near enough to destroy the city by 24-pounders, as used by Eadetsky, in 1849. Its principle 
 defense is directed along the sea-shore of Cavallino, (see Plate 19, Fig. 2,) offering no other 
 resistance to a naval attack and bombardment from the channel of Tre-Porti, than that of the 
 crennated gorge wall and second tier of the reduit, while the barbette battery over the reduit is 
 entirely open and exposed from this direction. I must conclude that some additional defenses 
 are contemplated to guard against this exjiosure. 
 
 The main ship channel at the present time to the city of Venice is through an artificial cut, 
 preserved in navigable condition by stone jetties, around the southern end of the Island of Lido, 
 called the Malamocco Pass. This entrance is defended by a fort on each side, of ancient con- 
 struction, and of no other interest than so far as is connected with the history of fortification. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 159 
 
 The fort on the south side resembles in construction those at the nortli end of Lido, already 
 described. One of its bastions, on the land front, is inclosed at the gorge by an ancient Venitian 
 defensive casern, of bomb-proof arches of brick, a wet ditch, very large embrasures, with deep 
 recesses in the scarp and oblique jambs for the traverse of the gun carriage. The building is 
 two stories high, with a continuous corridor on each story along the inner face, communicating 
 with tlie rooms, that have looj) holes for infantry fire. On the channel side the scarps of the fort 
 rise from the water. At the salients is an enrockment, the superior part of which is formed of 
 large masses of stone, strongly bolted together, breaking the force of the storm waves from the 
 Adriatic. 
 
 The ditches on the land side are wet ditches, faced with masonry from the bottom to about 
 four feet above water, on a slope of about 45°, whicli is prolonged from thence up with earth, 
 forming the exterior slope of the rampart and parapet. 
 
 Connected with the southeastern angle of this fort is an ancient sea-wall, extending some 
 miles along the Adriatic, on a saruhj shore, made to prevent 
 the sea breaking into the lagune. It is formed of large stone, 
 with a slope towards the sea, in steps of six inches rise and 
 ten feet surface, as in the annexed figure, (140.) Thus ar- 
 ranged it has withstood the waves of the Adriatic for some ^. ,.„ 
 
 o Fig. 140. 
 
 hundred years. The base is an enrockment, with its superior 
 slope and crest paved in step.s^, as above. 
 
 The new jetties, at the Malamocco Pass, are enrockments under water, surmounted by a 
 wall of three courses in height, of two feet rise each, well jointed and put together in horizontal 
 layers. Herein we observe the difference in principle between the works of the engineers of 
 former times and the present day, the latter securing durability of breakwaters, as here, and 
 at Cherbourg, Genoa, and Marseilles, by superincumbent weight, composed of large masses of 
 stone, while the former attained their object by a slope similar to the sea-shore, formed in steps 
 of large masses of the same material. 
 
 The land defenses of Venice consist principally of the works near the junction of the railroad 
 with the main land^ called at this time Fort Hainan. It is a double enceinte on a bastioned 
 trace, of earthen ramparts and parapets, with wet ditches, and detached demi-lunes in advance of 
 the curtains of the outer enceinte. In the gorge of the work are two defensive caserns, built by 
 General Chasseloup, of the French engineers, on the same general plan and arrangement as the 
 casern closing the gorge of the bastion in the fort on the south side of the Malamocco Pass, 
 already described. A small rivulet runs through a jiart of the ditches of the fort, where masonry 
 has been used, otherwise there is no masonry in the work of any importance other than the brick 
 bomb-proof caserns. The position is exceedingly strong, surrounded as it is by low, wet, marshy 
 ground, liable to overflow by gust tides, and exceedingly unfavorable for approaches, and still 
 more for the camps of a besieging army. It is worthy of remark, that soon after this Fort Hainan 
 fell into the hands of the Austrians, in 1849, the city of Venice, with a commanding fleet of 
 Sardinians in its waters, was compelled to surrender, notwithstanding the distance is more than 
 three thousand six hundred yards to the nearest part of the city, and only to be ajjproaclied by 
 boats or along the railroad bridge. The surrender of the city was effected by a novel expedient 
 practiced by the Austrians. They dismounted the 24-pounder siege guns, placed the muzzle of 
 the gun against the parapet, and the breech sunk in the ground, giving the bore of the gun an 
 elevation of about 45°, and thus, without carriage or platform of any kind, obtained ranges of 
 5,330 meters with solid shot, and with the howitzer and hot shot 4,250 meters. The same expe- 
 dient was resorted to by the Allies and Kussians at Sebastopol to obtain long ranges to annoy 
 each others encampments. A gun that was otherwise unserviceable, by having a trunnion broken 
 off, could be and was used in this manner. In the Crimea it was found they could not throw 
 
160 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 shells advantageously from guns so placed, having no fuses suitable for the unusually increased 
 range. I saw gr.ns in Chajiman's battery at Sebastopol arranged in this manner. 
 
 The study of these Austrian sea-coast defenses will, I trust, be of much interest to the officers 
 of my corps, who have a wide field for the application of many of its principles on our extended 
 coast ; princijjles in which economy and durability is strikingly blended with efficiency. 
 
 From an examination of the plans of the defenses of Venice, Pola, Verona, Peschiera, Cracow, 
 Prezl, and other places, of which an opportunity was aiforded me during this tour, I found 
 that the general system of Austrian defense for harhors and cities was to surround them with 
 detached forts or redoubts, encoraiiassing a great surface, within which the city is beyond the 
 reach of an enemy's guns, at the same time giving ample space for entrenched camps for the 
 protection of their army, and as a center of stratagic operations. 
 
 The redoubts are for garrisons of from 60 to 200 men ; and in some few instances for 1,000 
 men. They are generally with earthen parapets, of two faces and two flanks ; the gorge having 
 a masonry circular reduit, the lower story covered by the ramparts, with looj) holes for infantry 
 fire, the second story casemated for artillery, surmounted by a barbette battery with earthen 
 parapets . 
 
 In some localities masonry towers alone exist on heights, and in others the counterscarp is 
 crennated. In the largest, the ditch is defended by caponniers at the angles, as at Venice and 
 Verona. 
 
 Detached scarps is a general and fixed princij^le, departed from only by the accidents of the 
 ground, either preventing or rendering it in such particular case inexpedient. 
 
 Tlie old enceintes are preserved as interior lines of defense in some instances, with modifica- 
 tions upon the preceding principles, as is the case at Verona. The old or ancient wall about 
 this city, built by San Micheli, has in some places been retained on the curtains, in front of 
 which earthen ramparts, forming bastions, have been constructed with a detached scarp on the 
 faces and flanks, arranged for the loop holes for infantry ; the flank of the detached scarp being 
 covered by an orillon, formed by prolonging the faces of the detached scarp. At the salient of 
 this detached scarp and of the bastion is a masonry casemated tower for two tiers of infantry fire. 
 The counterscarp is eartli, with steep slopes opposite the faces of the bastions, and a long reversed 
 glacis slope opposite the curtain. Such was the model of a front of the enceinte of Verona, seen 
 on the 5th of January, 1856, at the Museum of the Ponton Barrack at Vienna, on wliich was 
 written "the construction of 1835." At a subsequent date, on visiting Verona, and examining 
 the works, such was found to be the exact arrangement. 
 
 Prussian System of Harbor Defense. 
 
 Prussia has no large naval depots, sea-ports, or roadsteads to call into action the science of 
 her engineers for sea-coast defense to any great extent. Dantzig, on the Vistula, and Stettin, on 
 the Oder, are commercial cities of very considerable trade, which have been fortified by land and 
 water, for centuries past. 
 
 Latterly the increase of trade promoted by railroads, and the growing industry and intelli- 
 gence of lier population, has given a new impetus to the prosperity of these two cities. 
 
 Tlie commerce of Stettin has felt the beneficial efi'ects of an extension of stone jetties at the 
 mouth of tire Oder, allowing vessels of fifteen feet draft of water to come to the docks at Swine- 
 miind, and with its connection by railroad with Berlin, and thus with the interior of the conti- 
 nent, has made it a commercial center of importance to the Prussian government. 
 
 The fortifications of both the mouth of the Oder and the Vistula have lieretofore been mostly 
 low bastioned trace field works, with wet ditches, and without bomb-proof shelters. At this 
 time they are being fortified anew upon the casemate system, with other details peculiar to the 
 German school. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 161 
 
 A visit to these two places enables me to give such information as will, I trxist, sufHce to 
 make the Prussian system sufficiently understood in all that we are interested. 
 
 At the eastern outlet or mouth of the Vistula is the small Fort Neufahr, (see Fig. 141,) 
 finished in 1848, for the defense of this pass. On the water front it consists of a circular case- 
 mated battery, and two short branches of solid rampart, with gateway caponniers connecting 
 with three fronts inclosing the work on the land sides, which have solid earthen ramparts and 
 parapets, with crennated jjalisades and masonry caponniers flanking the wet ditches. 
 
 The casemated water battery is inclosed in its rear to render it entirely separate from all 
 other parts of the work by a crennated wall and draw-bridge. It is two stories in height, the 
 lower one having loop holes only, and the second embrasures, with a barbette above the bomb- 
 proof, covered by an earthen parapet, making two tiers of artillery fire on the water. In the 
 details of the casemates there are some peculiarities well worthy our attention. In eac/i case- 
 mate there is a fireplace worked in the pier about 2' wide, 2' 6" high, and 3' deep, the hearth or 
 sole being about 20" above the floor. This will not only suffice to render the casemates comfort- 
 able as quarters for the garrison, but may be used for heating shot. Between every pair of 
 casemates recesses or cuts are formed in the piers of the arches of communication to introduce 
 timbers as a barricade to cut off and separate any casemate that may be breached and in posses- 
 sion of an enemy. The main openings and gateways are provided with similar cuts in the 
 masonry to barricade them efiectu'ally. In some instances a double cut is formed in the masonry 
 on each side of a gateway^ when the intermediate space may be filled suddenly with sandbags 
 to resist artillery. These details in our service, so far as my knowledge extends, have been 
 greatly overlooked. In Figs. 13 and 18, of Plate 23, the arrangement of the fireplaces is delin- 
 eated ; and on Plates 22, 23, and 24 are several figures giving the barricade arrangements. 
 These are common in the new Prussian works. I noticed them at Konigsberg, Stettin, and 
 Posen, as well as in the casemates of this sea-coast battery atDantzig. The casemate arches of 
 this fort (Neufahr, Fig. 141) are three bricks thick, (nearly three feet,) with five feet of earth over 
 
 ROUGH SKETCH OF FORT NEUFAHR, MOUTH OF THE VISTUL.A.. 
 Sea-front. 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 the crown ; the bricks in this work, as others in G-ermany, being much larger than any used in 
 our country ; a practice we might introduce to great advantage as a substitute for the small 
 brick we are in the habit of using. 
 21 D 
 
1G2 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Being a new work, the dimensions of the casemate and embrasure were noted, and are 
 
 given in Fig. 142, in plan. In the throat at the angle (a) 
 the height is twenty-oue inches, and the sole is thirty-one 
 inches above the floor of the gun room. 
 
 The interior openings, at the period of my visit, were 
 being arranged with icr ought-iron shutters, sliding to the 
 right and left on an iron rail track, as in Fig. 143, with 
 a hole in the plate, through wliich the gun projects. This 
 hole ((/) is closed when the gim is from battery by a circular 
 wrought-iron plate, (/t,) moving or hanging on a center, to 
 admit of being opened or closed at pleasure. The shutter 
 is a wrought-iron plate, (a, h, c, d,) of three quarters of an inch thick, placed against and closing 
 the whole interior opening of the embrasure, (e, e, e, e.) The plate (7i) closing the opening (g) 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Interior elt/valinn. 
 
 Fi?. 143. 
 
 is hung freely on the pin, ({.) The wrought-iron shutter rests upon two small wheeis, (h, Jc,) 
 which travel upon an iron rail, (I, I.) The shutter may thus move to the right or left. That 
 the gun may remain in battery at any angle of elevation, the Plate (a, h, c, d) is adjusted, by 
 raising or lowering the rail track. Q, I,) which for this purpose is supported on pins, (»?, m,) 
 passing through holes in the irons, (y,) secured in the masonry. The top of the shutter is held 
 vertically in its place by the rod, (n.) At o are handles for the maneuver. These shutters are 
 intended to guard the gunners against infantry fire, and possibly grape from field pieces. 
 Another Prussian arrangement for closing a casemate embrasure is given in Plate 20, Fig. 1, 
 which is a wrought-iron plate (E) of one inch thick, between two pieces of oak plank of one and 
 a half inch each in thickness. This shutter (A D) is counterpoised by the weights S, S and 
 suspended by the ropes and pulleys R R, ^ ^, a a, hanging freely, and yielding to the blow of 
 any shot from without. The opening of the embrasure is represented by a, b, c, d. Through 
 the shutter is a circular opening for the gun, (C, H, J.) When the gun is from battery this 
 opening is closed by the plate K, formed of iron and wood, in the same manner as the shutter, 
 and suspended freely by the chain L, in which position two small openings (G and K) remain 
 open for observation and musketry fire, for which purpose the triangular opening N is made 
 in the shutter when the gun is in battery. 
 
 The merit of this arrangement is, in yielding freely to a blow from without, and not 
 destroying or endangering the maneuvering apparatus. 
 
 Figs. 2 and 3, of Plate 20, represent the Austrian arrangement for closing the embrasures, 
 by wooden shutters sliding to the right and left on wooden ways of eight inches square, resting 
 on irons built in the masonry. These two figures give the Austrian arrangement for centering 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 163 
 
 Crown 01' the Arch. 
 
 the gun for horizontal traverse, in sonje instances being done with a ring bolt, as is shown in 
 the elevation, (Fig. 2,) and in others with a bolt, to ship and unship at pleasure, secured by 
 irons built in the masonry of the scarji, as in Fig. 3. 
 
 The manner of forming the gi-oins of brick arches in the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian 
 works, was not only new to me, but struck me most favorably as saving great labor and time, 
 compared with our practice. At this casemated water battery of Fort Neufahr all the inter- 
 sections of the arches of communication with the casemate arch were formed on this principle, 
 which I also noticed, as the common practice, at Konigsberg, 
 Posen, and Vienna, as well as other places. This method 
 when known in our service I feel assured would be greatly 
 preferred to our plan of cutting the groin. I have endeav- 
 ored to explain it by the annexed figures, where a, b, c, d 
 (Fig. 144) represent the pier of an arch ; a, e, the groin 
 or intersection of another arch with the first, as a communi- 
 cation arch between two gun rooms; o, r, the horizontal 
 courses of brick in the casemate arch as far only as the ver- 
 tical c, a, o. These courses^ instead of being continued 
 on the same right lines to the groin, o e, o n, o n, &c., 
 there cutting the brick in triangular wedge-shajjed pieces, 
 as we practice, are made to follow the curves o s, which 
 are described from a as a center, tangent to the respective courses, o r, o r, &c. It will be 
 observed that every course of bricks shows the same rise on the face of the arch, being tbe same 
 on the line of the groin a e as from r r and o o. 
 
 At Konigsburg, Captain Kuntzel, of the Prussian engineers, was particularly obliging in 
 having his masons build up with dry brick a section of a groin, according to their system, to 
 explain it in the most satisfactory manner. The annexed figure (145) explains the arrangement. 
 
 Fig. H4. 
 
 in plan, as he caused the works to be constructed under his superintendence. This example was 
 the intersection of two cylindrical arches of equal span and rise. He divided off the line of 
 intersection of the cylinders or groin in distances equal to the rise of a course of brick, precisely 
 the same as on the "centers," at a h. The courses o r were continued to the line a' c, in no case 
 extending the straight courses further from the groin a p than two feet, from whence the 
 courses were continued always at the same height, ]}, on the line of intersection or groin, and 
 
164 
 
 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 perpendicular to the "center," around to the corresponding course x, y of the communicating 
 arch. The right lined courses in this case would terminate, and be keyed by the courses h e 
 and 7n n, after which there remained the space e, n, s, q, wliich was closed by parallel courses, 
 as indicated by the dotted lines. Although apparently complicated, and not readily explained, 
 it is, in reality, far more simple than cutting the " points of a groin'' according to our system. 
 In other words, build up the groin witli headers, setting the brick perpendicular to the intersec- 
 tion of the two arches, as at t, Fig. 145. In like manner, build up the right cylinders a p, 
 a a, as at u u, then unite these with heading courses following the curves m t u. 
 
 I discovered nothing in the fortifications about the cit?/ of Dantzig of any special interest. 
 They are mostly old, commenced in 1331. The existing enceinte on the eastern side, consisting 
 of a bastioned trace with wet ditches, appears to have been constructed between 1633 and 1637, 
 and a similar enceinte on the west in 1571. In 1665 the hills on the west were fortified by a 
 bastioned trace, making a double enceinte on this side ; and during the period it was held and 
 defended by the French, from 1807 to 1814, they added high cavaliers in the bastions of the 
 enceinte of 1571, with some advanced works. In this condition it remained at the date of my 
 visit. A very correct plan may be found in an account of the defense of the city, in 1813, against 
 the Russians and Prussians, written by Captain P. H. D'Artois, of the French engineers. 
 
 Stettin, on the Oder, like Dantzig, has been a fortified city for a long period, and its defenses, 
 in consequence of little interest, connected with my object. The left of the enceinte is a modifi- 
 cation of the old works, with a combination of the present Prussian system, recently added ; 
 enlarging the city bounds in the southwest to allow for its natural and, at present, prosperous 
 extension. These additions have flat bastions, high earthen ramparts and parapets behind a 
 detached scarp, with casemated traverses in the reentering places of arms, and a casemated 
 reduit in the gorge of the bastions. Some of the flanks are also casemated. A powder maga- 
 zine, now in course of construction, enabled me to obtain all the details of the Prussians for 
 such a structure. Plate 20, Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, gives a plan, sections and elevations, in 
 sufficient detail to fully understand all its parts. The entrance to this harbor, or the mouth of 
 the Oder, is some miles distant from the city, and is defended by two sea-coast batteries, one on 
 the right bank, recently finished, and one on the left, nearly opposite, now under construction. 
 The latter consists of a circular brick reduit, of eighty feet diameter, in the center of a pentag- 
 
 SKETCH OF A FORT UNDER CONSTRUCTION ON THE LEFT B.VNK OF THE ODER, NEAR SWINEMUNDE. 
 
 a is a well-liole 
 for liuiiftii 
 piuis, &r. 
 IVom tier I( 
 licr. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 1C5 
 
 onal earthen work. Tlie lower story of the reduit is arranged with loop holes for musketry, 
 above which are two tiers, of twenty guns each, under homb-proof casemates, above which is a 
 barbette battery of the same number of guns. The casemates of the reduit are not uniiorm and 
 symmetrical, as the staircase is placed near the gateway, instead of in the center of the work. 
 (See Fig. 145 a.) 
 
 Outside of this reduit is a regular pentagonal rampart and parapet, the crest of which 
 rises to the sole of the casemate embrasures. It has a wet ditch, with caponniers, supposed to be 
 built of brick, in conformity with their system, and a glacis rising high enough to cover the 
 palisades on the berm and masonry of the cajionniers, as in Fig. 141. 
 
 The embrasures of the reduit were of the dimensions 
 given in the annexed figure, (146.) It would appear that 
 these embrasures are larger than those constructed in other 
 new works, to adapt them to their new guns and carriages 
 for casemates. 
 
 The scarp and counter scarp of the ditches of this 
 work being of a loose sand, are protected from wash by 
 facines pinned down and placed in longitudinal lines of 
 one each, every two feet from centers on the face of the slope, and sunk into it to the plane of 
 its surface, as in Fig. 147. Not more than one facine was found to be necessary below the level . 
 
 67" 
 
 Fig. 146. 
 
 Fig. 147. 
 
 of the water. Willows are in due time to be planted among these facines, which, by their 
 roots, render the whole permanent and durable. 
 
 The fort on the right bank of the river is a much larger and more imjiortant work than the 
 latter. It is a brick casemated battery, of three faces bearing on the channel, having two case- 
 mated tiers, and an open embrasure battery over the casemates, with hrick parapet, the only 
 one seen exposed to a ship's battery. The gorge of this battery is also casemated, with an 
 earthen parapet and ditch, flanked by a musketry bomb-proof caponnier. The ditch extends 
 round the entire casemated work, the gorge being prolonged to flank two faces of the water 
 battery. (See Fig. 148.) 
 
 The right and left faces of the water front have twenty-four guns each, and the connecting 
 face parallel with the river has fifteen guns, making a total of sixty-three. That is, two case- 
 mated tiers of twenty-one guns each, and twenty-one guns on the rampart bearing on the water^ 
 firing through masonry embrasures, cut in a brick parapet. The projections of the gorge, 
 beyond the right and left faces, are casemated, with three guns in each tier bearing on the water. 
 This battery, with its gorge, becomes a strong reduit to the main work. These projections of the 
 gorge have no terreplein battery or parapet, being simply covered with earth to make them bomb- 
 proof. 
 
 The gorge of this reduit is curved outwards ; its earthen parapet serves as a parados to the 
 batteries on the water front. 
 
 The gorge masonry is covered in the rear and on all the laud side by an inclosed work, 
 
166 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 with a solid eartlieu rampart and parapet; its wet ditch flanked by small low masonry capon- 
 niers, with palisades on the berm, and a high glacis slope, but no covert way; the glacis covering 
 the masonry of the caponniers and the palisades. The cajjonniers in the ditches are covered with 
 earth, to make them bomb-proof. 
 
 SKETCH OF A FORT ON THE EIGHT BANK OF THE OUEK, NEAR ITS MOUTH, NEAR SWINEMUND. (Ste Fig. 150.) 
 
 Fig. 148. 
 
 The gateway to the water batteries is through a small door (a) into the caponnier (6) on 
 the directrix of the work, flanking the ditch of the gorge of one tier of loop holes ; turning 
 from it through the scarp of the gorge you pass to the right and left through a line of gun case- 
 mates, behind which are the quarters, with windows opening on the court of the reduit. This 
 arrangement is carried all around the reduit, but with casemates for guns only on the water 
 fronts. 
 
 Ornamental masonry turretted towers form an interior facade to the entrance (c) to the 
 terreplein of the battery from the gorge. Within these towers staircases are built communi- 
 cating with each tier and the terreplein. Towers (e, e) ai-e also constructed at the extremities of 
 the gorge, with steps within, communicating also with the terreplein of the ramparts. 
 
 The main and only entrance to the work is through the wall connecting the reduit with the 
 extremities of the enveloping land defenses. The termination of the branches connecting with 
 the reduit are casemated, giving some additional flank fire to the gateway and water front gen- 
 erally of the reduit. 
 
 The casemates that have an opening or door opposite an embrasure, are arranged for double 
 timber barricades, as is shown in Plate 23, Fig. 18. Barricades are also arranged in the arches 
 of communication, as in Plate 23, Fig. 13, and Plate 22, Figs. 6, 10, &c. 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 1C7 
 
 29 fi;SE FROM SOLE TO 
 
 cpaiNG or mcH at 
 
 The embrasures of this work were of the dimensions in Fig. 149. The caponniers of the 
 ditches are about eight feet wide inside, thirty-three feet 
 long, four feet thickness of scarp, with three feet of 
 masonry, and five feet of earth, on top for bomb-proof. 
 The casemates are generally twelve feet wide, and six- 
 teen feet deep, for gun room. The otlier part of the 
 rampart under the prolongation of the same arch, is cut 
 off by a partition wall for quarters. The piers are from 
 
 four to five feet thick. All the angles of the piers and inside masonry generally is chamfered 
 about three inches. Every other pier or passage of communication is worked with recesses or 
 cuts often inches wide, from the floor to some distance above the spring of the arches for timber 
 barricades, before referred to, as is the general jjractice in all the Prussian works. 
 
 In this work the draw-bridges are counterpoised by an extension of the floor timbers behind 
 the center of motion, into the terreplein. These are weighted at the ends, and as the bridge 
 rises descend into a well, constructed from the axis of the bridge (or center of motion) back into 
 the parade. This counterpoise was so nearly adjusted to the weight of the bridge that two men 
 hauling chains passing over pulleys, and attached to the outer end of the bridge raised it with 
 ease. 
 
 This fort on the right bank of the river is in a bend, and so directed that a vessel has to 
 come bows on to the lower front until quite near it. 
 Its fire reaches some distance down the jetty, and 
 cooperates with the pentagonal work, before de- 
 scribed, on the left bank, not half a mile distant. 
 The annexed figure (150) will give an ideaofthe loca- 
 tion of these two works. All the bricks in these 
 two works at the mouth of the Oder are, as a gen- 
 eral rale, laid to show headers on the face of the 
 scarps, arches, piers, &c. Tlie mortar is made in a 
 mill with rakes, the lime being first slaked to a 
 paste, and then combined with sand, in proportion 
 of five of sand to one of lime. Until lately, English 
 Portland cement has been used for all the masonry 
 under water. They now manufacture an artificial 
 hydraulic cement, at Stettin, by burning clay, found in adjacent cliffs, combining the powder with 
 some secret substance, producing a cement which their engineers prefer to the Englisli, which 
 has cost them, at the works, $1 25 per 100 pounds. 
 
 I have now given all the information that it was in my power to collect on the subject of sea- 
 coast and harbor defenses, leaving, indeed, but little more to be gained, excepting the labors of 
 the Swedish engineers, who have given great attention to this branch of fortification. I am 
 enabled to enumerate several of their works and general character of their system, trusting that 
 some of my brother officers can, in time, give us more detailed and satisfactory information. 
 
 The defenses of Carlsborg cost twenty-six millions of reals, of ten or twelve and a half cents 
 each. They were ordered to be commenced in 1819. The principal works were finished in 
 1821. The general plan was casemated caponniers in front of the posterns, flanking a Carnot 
 wall in the ditches, with spacious bastions on a trace, giving very obtuse flanked angles, with 
 tenailles and many detached works. Three fronts of fortification witli flanks resting on the river, 
 (or bay?) with a citadel of two tiers, serve as a fortified camp for 47,000 men. The flotilla can 
 cooperate in the detenses of this city. 
 
 At Carlscrona, the fort of Kungsholman was commenced in 1822 and finished in 1846, 
 mounting 182 heavy guns, bearing on the channel, having loop-holed walls and galleries for 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
168 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 musketry. It is a casemated work of several tiers, witli bomb-proofs for the garrison and its 
 numerous artillery. 
 
 The defenses of Landscrona were iinished in 1847. They cover the city only on the land 
 side, consisting of a rampart of earth with demi-lunes, a dry ditch, and covert way. The citadel 
 forms a redoubt of bastioned enceinte, with a wet ditch, demi-lune, and covert way, after the 
 "old Dutch systerh." 
 
 At Guttenburg, Fort Cronan is on the summit of a height, consists of an octagonal tower 
 of three tiers of bomb-proofs. The lower tier is for storerooms, and the other two arranged for 
 ten to sixteen pieces of artillery each. 
 
 At Gulburg there is a ma3onry circular bomb-proof tower of three tiers, the two lower for 
 artillery and the third for infantry. 
 
 At Stockholm a casemated tower was constructed as early as 1549, renewed in 1724, and 
 now remains as a part of the defenses of this city, the lower story being a casemated battery. 
 
 Floating Batteries sheathed with Weought Iron. 
 
 The failure of the combined fleets to produce any overpowering effects upon the harbor 
 defenses of tlie Russians in the Black sea and the Baltic, in 1854-55, induced France and 
 England to use their greatest exertions to devise the means of destroying the sea-coast casemated 
 defenses of their enemy. In their efforts to do so, some new and untried arrangements were 
 made ; and so well adapted and calculated for the purpose as to. make them of special interest to 
 us. The time may come when we must combat similar devices ; and now, while our sea-board 
 is being fortified, we should introduce such additional details of construction and principles as 
 are best calculated to resist these new floating batteries. I present the accompanying notes in 
 relation to these batteries, with the hope of making them understood, notwithstanding it is in 
 the line of another profession than my own, and with which I cannot be expected to have much 
 knowledge. 
 
 Until now, no more efficient means have been devised to oppose sea-coast batteries than the 
 floating batteries constructed by General D' Aryon to bombard Gibraltar, in which great ingenuity 
 was practiced, and every art adopted calculated to protect them against the fire of the forts ; yet 
 they failed in doing any injury to the forts, and were, in a few hours, set on fire and destroyed. 
 Since then a preponderance in the number and caliber of the assailant's artillery, to dismount 
 an inferior number of guns, has been the only principle justifying the attack of forts by fleets. 
 
 Against the Russian defenses of Cronstadt and Sebastopol, as well as Sweaborg and Revel, 
 there was no favorable position that would admit of bringing an overwhelming artilleryfrom 
 ships' broadsides against the forts with any hope of dismounting the guns of the Russian 
 batteries before the ships would be set on fire or sunk. 
 
 Both the English and French naval authorities resorted to the same plan to gain their 
 object. It was, first, the use of floating batteries, of light draught of water, with the heaviest 
 known artillery, protecting tlie crew and vessel by sheathlug the latter with wrought-iron plates 
 of such thickness, ^vhen hacked ivith timher, as to be shot-proof; second, mortar vessels to lay 
 ofl' and bombard from such a distance, as would insure the accuracy of their fire, while it would 
 be exceedingly difficult to injure such small objects as they presented from the forts ; and tliird, 
 gun-boats, with rifled cannon, to be used in the same way. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 169 
 
 SKETCH OF FLOATING BATTERY OF THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH, FOR ATTACK OF RUSSIAN HARBOR DEFENSES. 
 
 Longitudinal elevation of the exterior — Broadside. 
 
 17^ ' ON DECK 
 
 _£JLpAFr< a Th^CK unl r 
 
 '10 tisa /^ 
 
 &>.-El-^.-Cl D □ E3 a" 
 
 "T ^^ 
 
 ■LIGHT IVA Id 
 
 ENGINE [fl"«''"'^, BOILERS 
 
 •' room:. 
 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
 Propeller, 
 
 Propeller. 
 
 1 T 
 
 nsc 
 
 Plan of the interior aubdivisions, 
 
 II y IM y l?>j 
 
 COAL 
 
 ENGINE 
 
 COAL 
 
 P;' 
 
 COAL 
 
 COAL 
 
 ^ 
 
 F'ij i»H -r-r 
 
 S^8 
 
 9^ 
 
 S 
 
 r'?i r?^! t^iji Ki 1 i-ff)^'-vt-«?^- t-^K^-rxj j^'si 1 'I >,^ 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 Cross section. 
 
 95 CH't. 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 Enlarged elevation of the exterior portion of the broadside. 
 Gunwale. 
 
 O O O Q O 
 O O O 
 
 T_ OOP 
 
 ; o o o o 
 
 O O o 
 
 
 O o o o 
 o o O 
 
 '-'port '-^ 
 
 lUl 
 
 a 
 
 IIU 
 
 o o o o a o o 
 o o o o 
 
 Method of bolting the wrought-iron plate. 
 
 Fig, 155. 
 
 22 D 
 
170 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Enlarged cross section. 
 
 For 10" gun 
 of95cwt. 
 
 Light water line. 
 
 The details and construction of these vessels, as far as I could discover, were as follows : 
 
 One of the floating batteries constructing by the English in April, 1855, was 172 feet in 
 length on deck, (see Figs. 151, 152, 153, 154, and 155,) by 43 feet beam, and 17 feet dejith of 
 hole, pierced with sixteen ports on a side, including the bow and stern ports. Figs. 151, 152, 
 and 153 give a very just idea of the model and build of these batteries. The bow and stern were 
 flatter than semicircles ; the stem, sides, and stern nearly verticle, with a perfectly flat floor from 
 stem to stern. These conditions appear to be indispensible to support the immense weight of 
 the iron sides. 
 
 The two first figures give the general outline in plan and elevation with the interior subdi- 
 visions for the propeller engine, furnace room, boilers, shot locker, shell room, and magazine, all 
 below the water line, and bitts and hause holes on the gun deck. The cable passed down from 
 the gun deck through solid timber in the bow, out through the bottom four feet below water. 
 This secured the chain cable from the enemy's shot. An ordinary hause hole is made an a level 
 with the port sills. The gun deck, when cleared for action, was free from stem to stern, with 
 the exception of the smokestack, masts, and security for mooring. The engine was 200 horse 
 power, working three distinct screws of about six feet diameter. 
 
 The armament was sixteen 10-inch long guns of 95 cwt. When at sea these were divided 
 on each side to best suit the trim of the vessel. Before an enemy's battery they were all brought 
 to one broadside. The main or sjiar deck had 9-inch planking on beams twelve inches thick, 
 and same distance apart the latter secured to the side by wrought-iron knees, as in Figs. 153 and 
 154. This thickness of timber was intended to obtain a bomb-proof over all, by covering the 
 deck three feet deep with sandbags. It was found on trial to be impracticable, from the jiort 
 sills being dangerously near the water level, with the armament and munitions, without any 
 additional load. The bulwarks were but two inches thick. 
 
 The wrought-iron sides (Figs. 153, 154, and 155) are i^ inches thick along the broadside, 
 and from 3|- to 4^- inches around the curved surfaces of the bow and stern, varying in length and 
 width to suit the openings, &c., some pieces being as much as twelve feet in length. This thick 
 heavy iron is in five courses, (in general,) commencing on a level with the spar deck, (Fig. 155,) 
 extending down below water to about the light water line, or 4' 6" below the port sills. The 
 plates are bolted to the ship's side, of twenty-four inches thickness of timber and plank, with 
 
ART OF -WAR IN EUROPE. 171 
 
 bolts of If inclies diameter, flush with the outside, the heads being countersunk, with a screw 
 and nut on the inside. The timbers forming the sides of the vessel are placed edge and edge, 
 with 4-inch planking on the outside, making, with the inside sheathing, the 24 inches in thick- 
 ness of timber, to wliich the 4|-inch wrought-iron is bolted. The bottom of the vessel and sides 
 up to the light water line are sheathed with galvanized iron of one twentieth of an inch thick. 
 All the knees are of massive wrought-iron. In the hold of the shij) a four-foot passage extends 
 all around between the side of the vessel and the engine boilers, &c., &c. — the only unoccupied 
 or vacant space below the gun deck. She has four boilers of five feet diameter, and two flues in 
 each. The dimensions of the cylinders and connection with the propeller I did not ascertain. 
 
 The bolts securing the wrought-iron plates to the timber are about 12 inches apart, verti- 
 cally and horizontally around the edge of the plates, and through the middle of the wider plates, 
 as is shown in Fig. 155. The upper row of plates extend from the level of the deck a few inches 
 below the head of the ports, spaced as in Fig. 155. The second row extends down to the level 
 of the port sill. The third is a narrower row. The fourth is one wide and two narrow plates 
 alternating, and the last a continuous narrow row. These vary from 16 to 32 inches in width, 
 bent to fit the mould of the ship, with edges and joints as accui'ately formed as could be done 
 with timber. 
 
 The officers' cabins are about the after guns, made of slight scantling, movable at pleasure. 
 There is little or no accommodation for a crew other than on the gun deck, and still less for pro- 
 visions and water. As a necessary consequence, other vessels always kejit in company to supply 
 their wants. 
 
 The rig of the vessel was with yards and square sails on the foremast, forward of which 
 were the usual fore-and-aft sails to the bowsprit. The main and mizen masts were rigged with 
 fore-and-aft sails only. All three masts were stepped on the gun deck, not to interfere with 
 boilers, magazine, &c., below. The crew consisted of two hundred, including officers. The 
 steering wheel was below deck, the helmsman's head only rising above, covered by a shot-proof 
 hood. 
 
 The first battery^ launched from the same yard as the one just described, had but 07ie screw 
 propeller, which was found altogether inadequate. Objections were made to the closely-fitted 
 joints of the thick iron plates, on the ground of their being no room or play for contraction and 
 expansion. Although I was on board another of these vessels about twelve months after she 
 was built, I learned of no objections on this score. 
 
 The experiments that led to, and justified the construction of these batteries, were made by 
 the English, at Portsmouth, in September and October, 1854. They are of sufficient importance 
 to warrant mj quoting from Sir Howard Douglass. He states that a target section of a frigate, 
 "covered with wrought-iron plates 4^" thick, was fired at with 32-pounders, and 68-pounder solid 
 shot, and 8 and 10-inch hollow shot. At 400 yards, the 32-pounder solid shot and 8 and 10-iuch 
 shells merely indented the target 1^, 2^, and 1 inch, respectively. But the 68-pounder solid 
 shot being fired with 16 pounds of powder, penetrated the plates. These were always split at 
 the bolt holes, which were about one foot apart, and it was in consequence recommended they 
 should be bored as far apart as practicable. It was concluded that such iron was a protection 
 against 32-pounders, solid, and 8 and 10-inch, hollow, but very little against 68-pounder solid 
 shot at this short range." The ports of these batteries are 10 feet from center to center, and 3 
 feet wide, leaving only T feet of solid to 3 of open space. None of those constructed by either 
 the English or French proved to be either good sailing or steam vessels. They would not obey 
 the helm in heavy weather, either under canvas, steam, or towing. To obviate this difficulty, 
 a rudder had been placed on each of one of them, nearly abreast the mizen mast. Its eft'ect I 
 did not ascertain. The ports of the line-of-battle ship Marlborough, of 131 guns, are 12 feet 
 rom center to center, and 3' 6" wide, leaving 8' 6" of solid to 3' 6" of open space. An examina- 
 on and compar o n o these dimensions with those of the embrasure openings of our sea-coast 
 
172 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 batteries^ must command miicli greater confidence than the former, in protecting the armaments 
 from being dismounted by embrasure shot. 
 
 The total weight of the wrouglit-iron plates on one of these batteries was 320 tons, requiring 
 100 tons of bolts to secure them to the side of the vessel — making a total of 420 tons. The last 
 vessels of this class, built by the English, and finished late in the spring of 1856, were modified 
 and improved in some particulars. The Thunderbolt was one of this class. She measured 2,000 
 tons, was 186' long, by 48' C" on deck, with 18' 6" depth of hold. Her bow had considerable 
 rake, being shaped, somewhat, like a spoon. Her timbers were put together as in a common 
 ship, with outside planking of 6" thick, over which was the 4" wrought-iron plates. Her sides 
 fell inboard very much. The beams of her weather-deck were fitted edge and edge. The gun- 
 deck was ventilated by means of air-tubes, supplied by fanners worked by a donkey engine. 
 The engine of the battery was 200 horse-power, supplied with steam from four cylindrical boilers. 
 
 The Glattan, another of these batteries, was finished in time to join the fleet in the Black 
 sea early in 1855, though never brought into action. She proved a bad sea-boat, putting into 
 Gibraltar, Lisbon, Corunna, and Ferral, from expediency. 
 
 At Kinburn, three of the French batteries of similar construction, slightly differing in 
 minor details, were brought into action on the 17th October, 1855. They opened fire on the 
 fort at a distance of 800 yards, and sustained little or no injury. They bore the marks of from 
 40 to 50 shots each, amounting to slight indentations only. Some of the Eussian shot entered 
 their ports, the efiects of which I could not learn. The occasion presented no satisfactory tes* 
 of the value and efficiency of these batteries. The Eussian defenses mounted but eighty-one 
 guns and three mortars, while the attacking power was most overwhelming. The English fleet 
 alone mounted 831 guns, and the French force consisted of four ships-of-the-line, several 
 steamers, gun and mortar boats, and the three floating batteries. Three hours' bombardment, 
 combined with a land attack, sufficed to silence the Eussian artillery. 
 
 Of the vessels of this description built by the French, one, constructed at Cherbourg, had a 
 120 horse-power screw propeller, with a crew of 280 men. One, constructed at Brest, had two 
 screws. The one from Cherbourg was armed with sixteen long 50-pounders, (about fifty-six 
 pounds of our weight.) These were eleven feet in length from muzzle to rear of base ring, and 
 weighed 10,252 pounds, and had a range of 4,900 yards. She steamed in smooth water at the 
 rate of one and a half knots per hour. The other French batteries carried but fourteen guns. 
 Their deck timbers were four inches apart, the wooden sides being of the ordinary thickness of a 
 ship-of-war, to which the iron plates were bolted. Although contemplated to cover the decks 
 with sand-bags to render them bomb-proof, such was not done at Kinburn. There, the only 
 precaution was to lower the masts on deck, as well as bulwarks, being hinged for this purpose, 
 thus presenting a very small, low object to fire at. 
 
 Such is all I saw and learned that was reliable in relation to these batteries. It suffices to 
 prove that they can cross the Atlantic, and are proof against all artillery but the modern eight 
 and ten-inch gun, firing solid shot, and that it is a serious error on our part to he arming any 
 of our sea-coast luorhs ivitli guns of this caliber that can fire hollow shot only — a particular to 
 which I have referred in a former part of this report, and which I trust is now supported by 
 sufficient proof to prevent any contemplated extension of such a practice. 
 
ART OP AVAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 173 
 
 IRON BOMB-KETCH, OR MORTAR VESSEL, OF THE ENGLISH, FOR ATTACK OF RUSSIAN HARBOR DEFENSES. 
 
 Longitudinal section. 
 Hatch. 
 
 1 
 
 
 II 1 
 
 
 
 •"' -^ 
 
 
 — ===^ 
 
 p 
 
 fFater line. 
 
 
 -i^Si/ff-' ^ 
 
 
 l/crlarffcj 
 
 
 "•"" 
 
 ' jiii.' ^ 
 
 Water tine. 
 
 
 
 % . 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 20-\ 
 
 
 ^T 
 
 ■^ 
 
 ^5; 
 
 i 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 V5 
 
 i^-- 
 
 ■ — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 Plan of tlie Interior sul)divislons. 
 
 Forward bulkhead seen from bow, 
 2c-'-- —- 
 
 Water tine. 
 
 
 fWlPW^ 
 
 
 '1 fie 
 
 nff 
 
 ife.r^^, 11, ,'„li 
 
 I, way 
 
 Cross sections. 
 
 Water tiite. 
 
 Fig. 158. 
 
 Fig. 159. 
 
 Plan of the mortar platfonn. 
 9' 
 
 «E 
 
 %" Section of the ribs of angle iron. 
 
 1^ 
 
 li'-'i'ya %" Section of side of tlie 
 vessel. 
 
 Fig. 162. 
 
174 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Enlarged longitudinal section through the center of the mortar bed and platform. 
 
 The mortar vessels constructed by tlie Allies expressly for the attack on the Russian sea- 
 coast defenses possess sufficient novelty to make a knowledge of them desirable, particularly as 
 they are likely to be used in future naval armaments against similar defenses elsewhere. That 
 these vessels can do immense injury to a fort, without the chance of being injured in return, is 
 undeniable. It is equally certain they can cross the Atlantic, requiring only suitable convoy ; 
 and when on an enemy's coast, protected by a superior fleet to their opponents, are powerful 
 elements in the attack of forts, cities^ and towns. It becomes us to study how to counteract 
 their effects, and the most advantageous way of combating them in our shoal waters, bays, and 
 roadsteads. 
 
 An experimental ikon vessel of this character was first built in a private dock-yard, on the 
 Thames, and proved so satisfactory as to induce the English government to cause many to be 
 constructed to take part in the campaign of 1855 against Cronstadt and Sebastopol. They were 
 about sixty-one feet long on deck by twenty feet beam, with seven feet depth of hold. Twenty 
 feet in length in the center is cut off with iron bulkheads athwart the vessel, at about twenty- 
 three feet ten inches from the bow, and seventeen feet two inches from the stern. This twenty 
 feet is for the mortar, shell-room, and magazine. (See Figs. 156 and 157.) The vessel has a 
 flat floor amidships, with wall sides, curved to join the bottom about eighteen inches up the side 
 and under the bottom. 
 
 The mortar platform is supported from the floor of the vessel (Figs. 157 and 159) by five 
 plates of iron, dividing the center compartment into four equal parts, leaving a gangway on 
 each side. The mortar bed and platform is within an octagonal wooden frame or box, (Figs. 
 15*7, 160, and 161,) formed of seven-inch timber, resting about four feet above the bottom of the 
 vessel, on the longitudinal upright iron plates. Under the platform was a space for shells. 
 These vessels were rigged with two masts, on hinges, to raise and lower at pleasure. The ribs 
 were of angle iron of three eighths of an inch thick, to which the side plates, of same thickness, 
 were bolted, as in Fig. 162. 
 
 The bed on which the mortar carriage rested was supported by sixteen India rubber or 
 gutta percha cylinders, (Figs. 160 and 161,) of seven inches diameter by three inches rise, 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 175 
 
 arranged as in Fig. 160. The mortar and its carriage traverses upon a brass circular slide, 
 attached to the spring bed, retained in the center of this bed by a six-inch pintle bolt. The 
 brass traversing plate is five feet interior diameter. The spring bed is of timber of about fifteen 
 inches thick. 
 
 The two masts are rigged with fore-and-aft sails. An iron crane is fixed in the deck to 
 raise the shell from the hatch, just behind the foremast. On swinging round, or turning on its 
 center, it brings the shell in a position to lower into the mortar. 
 
 The magazine is approached from the fore hatch through the cabin by the passage or gang- 
 way between the mortar bed and side of the vessel. The shell room has a door in the bulkhead 
 from the forward cabin. 
 
 The mortar vessels built by the French for the same destination (Cronstadt and Sebastopol) 
 differ somewhat from those of the English. Those that I saw at Cherbourg were two-masted 
 vessels, rigged as brigs, drawing six feet water, armed with hvo 13-inch mortars, cast upon an 
 iron platform or bed plate, each weighing 9,4G0 pounds. They were placed side and side, in 
 the middle of the vessel, on deck, between the masts, on solid platforms of timber built up from 
 the keel. Tlie crew, munitions, &c., were stowed forward and aft the mortar beds. Tliey draw 
 rather less than six feet water, without their armament. Five of these ketclies were in the 
 docks at Cherbourg in March, 1856. They are unlike the English, being constructed entirely 
 of wood, instead of iron. 
 
 The Gira-BOAT was the third description of floating-battery fitted out by the Allies for the 
 same destination as the iron floating-battery and iron bomb-ketch. The gun-boat system has 
 been known to our service since the administration of President Jefi'erson, when, and up to the 
 war with Great Britain, from 1812 to 1815, it was relied upon as a means of harbor defense; now, 
 however, it is designed for the attach of the most powerful harbor defenses, and as a consequence, 
 its armament has undergone a material change to adapt it to injure the forts, and more especially 
 floating hulks, with long-range guns, without being subjected to the chances of injury. 
 
 Those fitting out in a private dock-yard in England were one hundred and six feet long on 
 deck, by twenty-two feet beam, with eight feet depth of hold, drawing seven feet water aft, and 
 five and a half feet forward. They were being designed for two heavy guns (said to be for the 
 Lancaster gun, which, however, about tlie same period had been found a failure) and two howit- 
 zers, carrying sail on three masts, and provided with stream screw propellers. 
 
 The beams of the decks over the boilers were of wrought iron. The bulwarks were carried 
 up their entire height of solid timber, corresponding to the hull of the vessel, planked outside and 
 inside on solid timber. The steam engine was said to be of twenty horse power cylinders. This 
 class of gun-boats measured two hundred and thirty-two tons. The combined steam power of 
 the cylinders is set down as a sixty horse power machine. 
 
 Another class were three masted, with fore-and-aft sails, mounting one G8-pounder gun 
 amidships, and one 32-pounder abaft the mainmast ; both on circular traversing carriages. 
 
 Another class were one hundred feet long on deck, twenty-two feet beam, with seven feet 
 ten inches depth of hold, of two hundred and twelve tons measurement, two engines of thirty 
 horse power each, drawing six feet six inches water when loaded, and mounting two 68-pounders, 
 of 95 cwt. These were lugger rig, without bowsprit. 
 
 The French constructed two classes of these gun-boats. The one rigged as brigs, of one 
 hundred and thirty feet long on deck, mounting four of the rifle cannon, described by Figs. 21 
 and 22, in the commencement of this report. They were mounted on the common ship carriage, 
 elevated and depressed with the quoin, and placed on the waist of the vessel, two on each side, 
 between the smoke-stack and the mainmast. They are pierced with four spare ports, whether 
 for shifting these same guns, or additional armament, I did not ascertain. They draw eight feet 
 six inches water with guns on board. They have screw propellers. 
 
 The second class are rigged as hermaphrodite brigs, a little shorter and much narrower than 
 
176 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the first class, mounting two rifle guns (of Figs. 21 and 22) between the smoke-stack and the 
 mainmast, and, like the first class, had steam propellers. Six of the former and eight of the 
 latter class of these steam-propeller gun-boats, armed with this new description, were in the 
 dock-3'ards at Cherbourg, apparently ready for Cronstadt. 
 
 Such are the new elements called forth during the eventful war against Eussia for the 
 attack of sea-coast and harbor defenses, whether of stone casemated forts, earthen ramparts and 
 parapets, or wooden hulks. It will be observed that steam-propelling power, the rifle cannon, 
 long range and heavy caliber, in wrought-iron vessels, are the new features adopted by both 
 France and England. 
 
 It is the bounden duty of the oflicers of our army and navy to study this branch of the art 
 of war, and be prepared to recommend to the Executive the proper means of meeting such arma- 
 ments to the greatest advantage, whenever the time may come to oppose it. We have not only 
 to construct forts to resist their artillery, but must devise the best floating armament to drive 
 them from any anchorage they may take, at the same time that we look well to the shoal chan- 
 nels leading to our cities. 
 
 It is more than probable that success would have attended an attack by a flotilla of these 
 three descriptions upon the hulks moored along the shoals from Cronstadt to Lisi Noss, (Plates 
 9 and 10,) when the combat would have been with a similar flotilla built by the Russians, with 
 the cooperation of steamers of a larger class, and numerous gun-boats propelled with oars, pre- 
 pared on the spur of the moment. 
 
 It is remarkable tliat the Eussian government succeeded in building steam gun-boats to cope 
 with this new attacking power about as fast as France and England. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Modern Systems of Fortification. 
 
 The defense by fortifications of inland cities and strategic points on frontiers on the continent 
 of Europe, has of late years received increased attention from the various governments, and called 
 forth the talents of the engineers of the continent generally, resulting in so many different ways 
 of applying the principles of fortification, and difi"ering so much from each other as to have given 
 rise to the distinctive appellation of the French and German schools. 
 
 We are particularly interested in a full knowledge of this subject, as all the land defenses 
 of our sea-coast and harbor fortifications must be constructed on some one or other of these 
 systems. 
 
 I had an opportunity of seeing several of the most recent works of the Eussian, Prussian, 
 Austrian, and French engineers. Perfect plans of them would make their several systems 
 known. These could not of course be obtained by me on visiting and examining their fortresses, 
 and I am justified in communicating only so much as has already been published and known to 
 the professional engineer. 
 
 Fortunately European ofiicers have, during the construction of all these recent works, so 
 watched their progress as to leave very little to be gained beyond what they have from time to 
 time communicated through the press. My labors are in consequence greatly simplified by 
 availing myself of those of the several authors who have described the works in question, and 
 especially to those of a Spanish engineer officer, who, in 1854, succeeded in giving the most 
 satisfactory account of the modern continental systems, comparing them with each other. 
 
 To make the subject understood, it is necessary to commence with a review of the French 
 system, confining myself to the more recent labors of Mezieres, Dufour, Noiset, Haxo, and 
 Choumara, in their various modifications of Vauban and Cormantaigne. The theoretical labors 
 of these writers of our own times do not conform so strictly with their practice as to enable us 
 to decide what may be denominated the true modern French system. A reference will, there- 
 fore, be made to their labors at Paris, (Plate 3,) Lyons, (Plates 4, 5, 6, and 7,) Grenoble, (Plate 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 177 
 
 21, Fig. 4,) &c., to decide this question, adding the actual state of fortification in France, 
 explanatory of their modern system. 
 
 In explanation of the German system, a description is first given of the elementary works 
 composing it, and of an independent enceinte, combining the general principles of its organiza- 
 tion. Examples are given from places of most importance, combining the fundamental maxims 
 which serve as the basis and constitute the special character of this new German school. The 
 application of this system to marshy ground, is illustrated by two noted examples. An analysis 
 of the German "fronts of fortification " follows. 
 
 Next, referring to the defects generally attributed to the German system, the cost is given, 
 as also the details relating to casemates ; to which is added an application of the German prin- 
 ciples to the improvement of existing fortified places. 
 
 In presenting this branch of the art of war as practiced in Europe at the present period, 
 from information previously collected by a talented Spanish engineer, who possessed and had 
 access to most reliable sources of information, I render the best service in my power to my brother 
 officers ; combining only so much from my own observation of such fortresses as I visited as may 
 serve to make known some details of special interest to our country, and as an additional verifi- 
 cation by an eye witness, with whom many of them are personally acquainted. 
 
 In 1814, Dufour proposed, as his principal object, to diminish the weakness of the demi-lune 
 in consequence of the great salient given to it by the then most approved trace of Mezieres, and 
 which counterbalances in many respects the advantages this important work is intended to 
 aflbrd. By means of his elevated traverse or cavalier, in the salient of the demi-lune, (see Plate 6 
 of his work, published at Geneva and Paris in 1822,) he proposed to protect its long branches 
 from ricochet, and by filling its interior with stones, render a lodgment on its ruins impracti- 
 cable. Combining the redoubt of the reentering jdace of arms with the cut of the demi-lune, 
 he protected completely the body of the place, and removed from the bastioned system the great 
 defect of having its bastions exposed to fire upon the besiegers gaining the crest of the glacis at 
 the salient of the demi-lune. 
 
 In 1822, Noizet, having in view the same object of correcting the bastioned system of his 
 predecessors, formed, with the redoubts of the reentering places of arms, the cuts of the demi-lune, 
 and the redoubt of the latter, one single covering work, (see Plate 21, Fig. 1,) and, introducing 
 other remarkable improvements, presented a trace that may be considered as the "modern 
 system corrected." It serves as the basis of instruction at the present time at our Military 
 Academy, and may justly be considered as combining the principles of the science to as great an 
 extent as any one system that can be placed before the student. 
 
 In 1826, General Haxo, the director — or, as we say, the superintending engineer — of 
 various modern French fortresses, conceiving the necessity of covered fires, made himself known 
 by his peculiar casemates placed upon the terrepleins of the works ; (see Plate 29 ;) a caponnier 
 analogous to that in the German system (see Fig. 2, Plate 21) serving also as a redoubt to his 
 demi-lune. And in this system we see introduced anew, by one of the most talented French 
 engineers of our time, the principle of covering the batteries of the flanks, and applying casemates 
 to the bastioned system, although in a manner more or less restricted; a principle since followed 
 on no inconsiderable scale by other engineers in fortresses recently constructed or repaired in 
 France. It is remarkable that, although in the first bastioned traces of which we have any 
 knowledge — those at Verona and Fort St. Andrea, at Venice, built by San Micheli, for whom 
 is claimed the invention of this trace — we find the modern casemate, it was discontinued after 
 Vauban and Coehorn's days;.and in the present century no work, either for land or sea-coast 
 defense, is considered tenable without them for the protection of both munitions, garrison, and 
 artillery. 
 
 In 1837, Choumara, a successor of so many distinguished writers, discovered and pointed 
 out ideas and principles which, if not entirely original, were presented by him as true theories 
 23 D 
 
178 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 and of general apijlication to traces already known. He advocates detaching the scarp from the 
 parapets, and introduces an interior glacis, (see Fig. 3, Plate 21,) using military buildings as a 
 means of afibrding interior retrenchments to his fronts. 
 
 This application seems excluded as a principle from the French system, as exemplified in 
 several of their recent constructions ; nevertheless it becomes a part or element of defense, as 
 exemplified in the detached forts of the city of Lyons, where defensive barracks constitute a 
 material element in the defense. (See Plates 4, 5, 6, and t.) 
 
 After considering the systems and opinions of the most celebrated French engineers, it 
 remains to point out icMch represents essentially the true French system; and in what degree the 
 modifications and ideas of others have entered into it. 
 
 The study of fortified places constructed and repaired since the peace of 1815, in France, 
 would appear to offer the most certain means of deciding this question. Yet, on the one hand, 
 we see places, particularly Paris, (Plate 3,) which with its immense interior bastioned enceinte, 
 and its line of detached forts, consisting of four and five-sided bastioned forts, without outworks, 
 presents us an example of the exclusive application of this system, justifying us in considering 
 it as the prevailing and special system of the French corps of engineers. 
 
 On the other hand, Lyons (Plates 4, 5, 6, and 7) and Grenoble, (Plate 2\, Fig. 4,) places 
 also of the first rank by their position and importance, present, on the contrary, a type of forti- 
 fication which, although based upon the same sytem, has undergone modifications and possesses 
 defensive elements which have always been considered as foreign and even opposed to the spirit 
 of this system. Special circumstances, other than military, may have rendered practicable in one 
 what might have been impracticable in the other, which would explain the apparent contradiction 
 in plans emanating from the same Central Bureau or Committee of Fortification. We are led to 
 conclude that the present system of fortification in France, has for its essential basis the system 
 of Cormontaigne, modified in its application to the construction of places, according to their 
 object and importance ; in some instances not departing from the spirit of the bastioned system> 
 as in the case of the school of Mezieres and jSToizet, and in the other introducing covered fires 
 and using barracks as a means of defense; the latter under special and restricted circumstances. 
 
 It would appear, then, that on the one hand the bastioned system is considered as preferable 
 and fulfilling best the requirements and objects of the defense; and that on the other, aware of 
 its inefiiciency, other means are sought ; thus not deciding entirely in favor of its adoption. 
 
 There are those who attribute this state of the science in France to the weighty consideration 
 that the total abandonment of the bastioned system, and the substitution of any other, would 
 entail, as a consequence, the immediate discredit of the existing fortresses, of which France 
 possesses a greater number than any other country, and hence they exclude all improvements 
 and alterations not in accordance with the system of existing constructions. The new enceinte 
 now rmder construction at Toulon, as well as that at Havre, must strengthen the belief that the 
 French Committee of Fortification are wedded to the simple bastioned system. 
 
 To appreciate this system, and compare it with the German, we must examine minutely the 
 improvements proposed from Cormontaigne's time to the present, and see which have been applied 
 in modern French fortresses ; and I am induced to enter hpon this examination as best calculated 
 to unfold to my readers the present state of this science, as applied by the continental nations. 
 
 A comparison between places latterly constructed in France and Germany will lead us to 
 consider the importance of fortifications in respect to size, the military resources they may 
 command, and the protection they may afford by their stragetic position to armies in the field. 
 
 It is generally conceded that places of war should be large and few in number on a national 
 frontier, and that by this means alone can fortification recover the importance it has lost by 
 the advance of armies through Europe, notwithstanding their existence. The cause of the 
 decline of fortification, and the secondary part which fortresses have played in the late wars, 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 179 
 
 proceeded from the fact that they were no longer in keeping with the strength, niohility, and 
 powerful means rapidly attained by modern armies. 
 
 This condition of things is now rapidly undergoing a change by the study of engineers to 
 fortif}^ stragetic points, protecting great resources, and securing spacious entrenched camps 
 within the influence of their detached forts, instead of, as heretofore, fortifying a city for the 
 protection afforded to it alone. 
 
 Fortified places should be large, to compel an invading army to lay siege to them. Garri- 
 soned with not more than six thousand men, they do not fulfill this object against invasion, 
 since the effect is neutralized by mei-ely leaving an equal force to blockade them and secure the 
 communications of the invading army. They should also be large, to offer a counterpoise to the 
 attack, the first element of defense in the strength of a garrison, provided the works insure 
 repose to the troops not under arms, and that the provisions and munitions of war be completely 
 secured. The Russians at Sebastopol labored under this serious difficulty. They found no 
 repose, and little or no shelter within the works to be defended, having to seek it at a distance, 
 and beyond cannon range in the rear. The necessity for this security is fully admitted and 
 shown in the practice of our engineers in their numerous casemates, notwithstanding the frequent 
 objections made to them as unsuitable for barracks in time of peace. While it is admitted they 
 cannot be made as comfortable as dwellings specially designed for residences, yet the conditions 
 of defense for which the works are built demand the security and rest of the garrison that can 
 be obtained in no other way. 
 
 The European engineers lay down as a principle, that with a small garrison, fortifications 
 may be secure, and able to resist a siege^ as well as unforeseen attack ; and that they may shelter 
 and provide for an imposing force, when necessary. The Spanish officer. Colonel Clavijo, from 
 whom I quote largely, concludes that the German fortresses are calculated to fulfill these 
 conditions by their numerous caserns and casemates. While under the French system it is 
 proposed to be attained by constructing retrenched camps under their protection, and hence he 
 examines the two systems under this point of view. 
 
 To make this comparison, some measure of theoretical attack has to be established. This 
 measure in time is derived from the number of cubic yards of earth to be removed under the 
 peculiar method and circumstances of a siege in constructing the parallels, saps, batteries, &c., 
 from the opening of the trenches to the formation of a practicable breach. For this purpose it 
 may be conceded that the defense of Vauban's system be fixed at nineteen days' labor, and 
 Cormontaigne's at twenty-five days. Tliis measure is necessary to give a clear and explicit idea 
 of the true value of the systems under consideration, as well as a sure means of appreciating the 
 modifications and improvements which the subject has undergone up to the present time. 
 
 The great step taken by Cormontaigne, in advance of Vauban, would seem to consist in 
 having made the demi-lune fulfill an object which it did not before his time, or which it 
 fulfilled but imperfectly. In the first bastioned systems the sole object of this work was to afford 
 the defense a secure point on the outer side of the ditch. It was nothing more than a "teie-de- 
 pont." At a later period it was enlarged, that it might cover the gate more effectually, and 
 Vauban increasing its dimensions still further, covered even the shoulder angles of the bastions ; 
 and, from its greater projection, it gave a cross fire in front of the bastion, and from its short 
 flanks commanded the breach on the face of the bastion in reverse. He thus made the work 
 contribute considerably to the defense of the front, whilst reenterings were formed, which the 
 besieger had to penetrate and pass through under this fire in order to reach the counterscarp of 
 the ditch of the place. 
 
 Cormontaigne not only increased the advantages resulting in favor of tlie defense from this 
 dhsposition, but he made of the demi-lune a work, the taking of which is indispensible in order to 
 carry on the attack against the enceinte. Thus, although in the attack on Vauban's system it 
 might be necessary to cannonade and silence the fire of his demi-lune, it was not equally nece.s- 
 
180 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 sary totake it ; whilst in Cormontaigne's improvement, the taking and holding of the demi-lune, 
 is necessary for the ulterior operations of the siege. Thus the attack on the different works 
 became successive, and in accordance with a general principle, otherwise any multiplication of 
 works becomes useless if not prejudicial. 
 
 The redoubt of Cormontaigne's reentering places of arms is another of his great improve- 
 ments on Vauban. Their first effect was to render any attack of the covered way by storm 
 impracticable. 
 
 Cormontaigne's demi-lune without flanks covers the front more effectually — to which the 
 redoubts of the reentering places of arms greatly contribute — than Vauban's. 
 
 The same remark may be applied to another principle of Cormontaigne, to wit: giving a 
 small command to his scarps, without their losing the necessary height to prevent escalade, and 
 to avoid the masonry being seen from a distance. Places before Vauban's time had this defect 
 of exposing the masoniy, though of much less consequence on account of the state of artillery 
 at that period, and which he allowed to exist in his designs in order to obtain greater relief. 
 The successive improvements in artillery rendered Cormontaigne's idea necessary ; and its con- 
 tinued improvement calls loudly for the suppression of all unnecessary masonry that can be 
 battered by artillery. These two improvements of Cormontaigne — the redoubt in the place of 
 arms, and suppressing the masonry exposed to view from without — do not enter into the valuation 
 of the duration of the siege, notwithstanding they are decided improvements. 
 
 Cormontaigne's conceptions may then be reduced to two points ; first, that his system has 
 had the effect of really obliging the besiegers to execute the works and labors on which the the- 
 oretic attack of the bastioned system is founded ; and, second, of having increased the duration 
 of the defense by the time strictly required for the taking of the demi-lune. 
 
 It devolved on Cormontaigne to elucidate the advantages of the bastioned system when 
 applied to polygons of a great number of sides, and especially when the fronts are in a right line. 
 But this is an advantage of site and locality. Totleben availed himself of it in a remarkable 
 degree at Sebastopol ; so much so, indeed, as to be assigned, in Pellisser's official dispatches, as 
 one great cause of the prolonged resistance of the Russians. 
 
 Whatever may be the system upon which the sides of a polygon are fortified, the defensive 
 value of the place will always increase in proportion as the angles become more open, and will 
 reach its maximum when the sides form a continuous right line. In effect, the great and most 
 powerful advantage of the attack over the defense consists in the surrounding and enveloping 
 position of the siege works in relation to those of the place, in their greater extension, and the 
 wide field at the disposal of the besieger, on which to mount his numerous artillery, and make 
 it converge towards the place. The moment the fronts of the attack and the defense tend to 
 equalize each other, this disadvantage disappears, or is transmitted to the defense. This prop- 
 erty of the bastioned system is only a particular case of a general principle between the relations 
 of the attack and defense. It would be more correct to say that it particularly affects the bas- 
 tioned system or French school ; which^ by the nature of its trace, presents to the enemy the 
 prolongations of its principal lines, affording him a sure means of destroying the uncovered 
 artillery from a distance. The only real advantage, and one inherent in this system, secured 
 by this principle, is the formation of deep reenterings between the demi-lunes and bastions, by 
 which the besieger is compelled to progress slowly, viewed in front and flank by the collateral 
 works. 
 
 In order to render these reenterings really dangerous for the attack, the works forming them 
 must preserve their artillery for the proper moment, and the very directions of the lines of these 
 batteries are the cause of their early destruction. 
 
 Here, also, we may ask whether it is in the power of the engineer, when tracing the plan of 
 a fortification, to select the polygon he has to fortify. Will the idea often be realized of inclosing 
 the site with a triangle or a quadrangle, on the sides of which three or more fronts may be 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 181 
 
 extended, and secure at the same time the angles, the only weak points, by sj^ecial means? In 
 the Crown works of Belle-Croix and Moselle, at Metz, Cormontaigne has left two great examples 
 of the application of his principles, but they by no means demonstrate how a similar result could 
 always be attained. A judicious application to the site is what must constitute the full value of 
 the hastioned system ; but this truth, for the very reason that it is undeniable and of equal appli- 
 cation to any system, rather serves to leave a vague field for the defense of the system than afford 
 a sure means of analyzing it. 
 
 An incontestable result of Cormontaigne' s large demi-lune is the greater development it 
 entails upon the siege works, in any of the attacks directed against this system, as also the 
 material increase of siege artillery ; thus, when operating against two demi-lunes and the inter- 
 mediate bastion, (as must be the case when the latter has been previously retrenched,) the parallels 
 must be extended until they reach the prolongation of those faces of the collateral demi-lunes 
 which bear upon the attack, and the taking of these demi-lunes becomes indispensible. If, on the 
 contrary, the bastions have no retrenchments, (and to oblige the besieged to retrench two bastions 
 at the same time the attack is directed against one front,) the works could not be less extensive, 
 since they must embrace three demi-lunes in order to attack and take the central one, cannon- 
 ading and silencing the two collateral ones. 
 
 In Cormontaigne's time this circumstance was considered as one of the last or greatest 
 importance, and the system that gave rise to it as infinitely superior to anything preceding. 
 The same importance cannot be attached to it at the present day, on account of the great increase 
 in the strength of armies, both in numerical force and materials of war. Vauban stated that 
 his places had been constructed to resist thirty or forty pieces of artillery, the number then com- 
 monly used in attacks ; but the besiegers bringing from eighty to one hundred guns into the field, 
 it becomes necessary to change and increase the means of fortification in the ratio of the increase 
 of the means of attack. 
 
 We now propose to show the variations introduced in the hastioned system by the French 
 school after Cormontaigne, and how far the defense has been strengthened thereby. This subject 
 involves two great difiiculties. In the first place, allotting the strict valuation and nothing 
 more to the improvements introduced by each school and each author ; and in the second place, 
 selecting or rather discussing only those really applicable to the system and dictated by its nature 
 and spirit. 
 
 AVe will commence with the first inquiry, namely : how much has the time of the defense 
 of the hastioned system been increased by each innovation? We cannot offer a definite opinion 
 upon the question of how far the modern French school may be considered as having admitted 
 these new improvements. The only approximate course will be to examine what improvements 
 have actually been admitted in places recently constructed in France, concerning which we have 
 the most accurate information. 
 
 . This method, even, is unfortunately insufiicient, since it can be shown by a comparison 
 between these very places that the principles adopted in some appear to be discarded in others, 
 rendering it impossible to determine the system prevailing in France with the accuracy to which 
 we can approximate to those prevailing in Germany. 
 
 School of Mezieres, or the System of Chatillon and Duhignan, A. D. 1750. 
 
 These engineers had in view a two-fold object : first, the improvement and, we may say, the 
 perfecting of each detail in the system of Cormontaigne ; and second, the introduction of case- 
 mates for artillery and the partial introduction of loop-holed galleries. 
 
 As regards the first point, having retained the same relations between the difi'erent lines of 
 the front, they only changed the angle of defense, which they made 90°^ as Pagan had done. 
 
 To cover more efficiently the terreplein of the tenaille, they gave its parapet a short return 
 
182 ART OF WAR IN EUnOPE, 
 
 at the extremity of its wings ; and, in like manner, they gave two small flanks to the redoubts 
 of the reentering places of arms. They gave the greatest possible salient projection to the 
 demi-lune compatible with the condition that its branches when prolonged should intersect the 
 faces of the bastions twenty yards from the shoulder angles, and reduced the terrepleins of its 
 faces to a minimiim to admit of artillery, so that an enemy could not find room to establish 
 batteries in them. 
 
 The gorge of its redoubt terminated on the line of the polygon to avoid the breaching of the 
 extremities of its flanks from the lodgment in the covert way, as also to cover its staircases — 
 other communications of the counterscarp were covered in like manner, as also the postern of the 
 demi-lune, the postern of its redoubt, and those of the redoubt of the reentering places of arms. 
 The retrenchment cavalier of Cormontaigne's bastion was modified with the same care, providing 
 loop-hole fires to command its ditches, which before were undefended. 
 
 Endeavoring to make the breach in the face of the bastion (opened through the ditch) of 
 the demi-lune less dangerous, they placed the cut of the bastion face on the isrolongation of the 
 ditch of the demi-lune, closing it by the scarp increased to twelve feet in thickness. This ren- 
 dered the breach more difficult to effect, and its ascent over the debris of masonry still more so, 
 but on the other hand the face of the bastion could not defend the ditch of the demi-lune, and 
 the ditch of the redoubt of the latter had to be defended by the tenaille and curtain. This school 
 partially admitted casemates, which were placed in the flanks of the redoubt of the demi-lune, 
 perfectly covered by the branches of the latter. Their fires were only vertical, either against a 
 lodgment in the salient of the bastion covered way or against the passage of the ditch. Even 
 admitting the slight effect of a fire from these batteries, it is not easy to account for their omis- 
 sion by succeeding innovators seeking for like advantages. In the salient place of arms of the 
 demi-lune they constructed a tambour, completely covered by the crest of the glacis, which con- 
 tributed to the defense of the covered way foot by foot, and guarded it against being taken by 
 storm. 
 
 Another idea of this school, and recently introduced in many of the detached forts around 
 Paris and Lyons, is the construction of large bomb-proof shelters, without any offensive object, 
 as security for the garrison and munitions of war against vertical fires. (See plan and details of 
 these bomb-proof quarters in Plate 30, 31, and 32, presented by Mar.shal Yaillant, Minister of 
 "War, in 1856.) 
 
 The opponents of casemates see in these bomb-proofs a danger to the place as soon as the 
 enemy can open a heavy battery upon them, by firing projectiles with slight elevation. For the 
 defense of the ditches of detached lunettes, this school proposed to close their gorge by a bastioned 
 loop-holed wall, and to make a loop-holed gallery in the counterscarp, with communications to 
 casemates for artillery on the most suitable localities to flank the ditches. 
 
 School of Mezieres, wider Dobenheim and Lesage, or Modern System, A. D. 1808. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 All casemates previously introduced are rejected by these authors, including the covered 
 tambour or masonry block-house in the salient place of arms of the demi-lunes. They endeavored 
 to restore the bastioned system in its simplicity and purity, simply proposing to themselves to 
 perfect the ideas of Cormontaigne, while their immediate predecessors proposed the jierfecting of 
 each detail of his system. 
 
 The trace of the front remained the same, with angles of defense of 90°. The relief of the 
 tenaille varied, being greater at the wings, gradually increasing from the center, the better to 
 cover the masonry of the flanks. The demi-lune covered thirty meters of the faces of the bastions 
 from the shoulder angle, and its projection a maximum, or that of an equilateral triangle, 
 the base of which is a line joining the.se points. The width of its rampart was twenty meters, 
 and the ditch of its redoubt was completely commanded from the faces of the bastions. The 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 183 
 
 flanks ot this redoubt are traced so as to see and command in reverse the breach in the faces of 
 the bastion that might be made through the ditch of the demi-lune. The gorge of the redoubt 
 terminated on the line of the polygon, and the covering lines of the demi-lune terminate in like 
 manner, thus an ascent to the redoubt could not be seen from the crowning of the salients of the 
 bastions ; and those parts of terrepleins, which might be swept from either the salient of the 
 demi-lune or bastion, are cut off or suppressed. This construction takes from the redoubts of the 
 reentering places of arms those parts liable to be seen by the enemy, and gives a secure space for 
 the staircases and ramps. 
 
 The crest of the glacis of the reentering places of fft-ms is circular, to secure them more 
 effectually against ricochet. The most important of their modifications is the cut in the faces of 
 the demi-lune. This disi^osition converts the extremity of the wings of the demi-lune into what 
 may be called a "demi-lune place of arms;" the taking of which will detain the besieger from 
 one to two days, should he deem it expedient to take them, in order to sweep or command from 
 them the interior of the redoubt of the reentering place of arms. 
 
 Converting the stone staircases into ramps is another important modification ; this can be 
 done without inconvenience in the gorges of the tenaille, of the redoubt, of the demi-lune, of the 
 demi-lune places of arms, and for an ascent from the ditches to the terrepleins of the latter work, 
 and in the reentering angles of the redoubts, of the reentering places of arms ; although want of 
 space at most of these points compels the construction of very steep ascents. This is not the case 
 with the large ramps proposed in the rounded salient angles of the counterscarp of the demi-lune 
 and bastions. It is true that these ramps favor a sortie by the garrison, which is difficult with 
 staircases ; but, on the other hand, the defenders, when retreating, might be pursued through 
 the ditch, and thus imminently endanger the place, if during the existence of a practicable 
 breach in the bastion. 
 
 These ramps are only admissible when supported by casemated redoubts, with special com- 
 munications independent of those conducting to the covert way, to enable the garrisons of those 
 redoubts to act indeijendent of and not to interfere with the movements or retreat of the sortie 
 parties. 
 
 This consideration and the variety of opinions upon this point between the partisans of this 
 system, induces us to believe that such ramps are not compatible with the spirit of the system, 
 and are not admitted by the French school. Their importance has, however, led recently to 
 modifications, and their introduction in some of the new works, xuith a cut intercepting the con- 
 tinuity of the communication, which is covered temporarily with a few boards, removed at pleasure 
 and in a few seconds. 
 
 All these improvements of detail contribute, without doubt, to cover and conceal the move- 
 ments of the garrison while reinforcing points attacked ; and they may be termed, as it were, 
 the finishing touch to Cormontaigne's construction. We can, however, attribute no other value 
 to them ; they may be assimilated to the improvements made in siege works since their creation 
 by Vauban. The system is essentially the same, and there is no perceptible variation in the 
 duration of the defense, from the point this school took hold of Cormontaigne's labors. 
 
 Nothing is said concerning the reliefs, because the modifications tliey have undergone are so 
 immaterial as not to deserve special notice. Some modern French engineers have proposed to 
 determine, in the first place, the length of the curtain, from the sole consideration that each half 
 should be completely swept by the opposite flank, giving to the latter the minimum relief, 
 namely: thirty feet of scarp plus seven feet for the height of the line of fire ; the curtain thus 
 attains a length of upwards of 130 yards. Introducing afterwards other conditions relating to 
 the size of the curtain angle, the desired trace was determined ; but its analysis demonstrates 
 that the proportions of its difierent lines are very far from satisfying tlie defense to the same 
 degree as the system of Cormontaigne. The result is that part of the flanking arrangements 
 must be sacrificed or, rather, that these are very tar from being perfect in the bastioned system. 
 
184 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Even in case of the increase of this relief, as will frequently happen, the defect will be still 
 greater. Kigorous flanking arrangements are then incompatible iuith the bastioned system, and 
 even were they not, the tenaille, a work indispensably necessary^ still remains as an obstacle, 
 since without it the curtain would be breached and there could in consequence be no interior 
 retrenchments in the bastions. 
 
 At the present moment an attempt is being made in the new enceinte under construction at 
 Toulon, to obviate this defect of the tenaille, by dispensing with a scarp of masonry and substi- 
 tuting a continuous exterior slope of earth, the prolongation of which is in a plane beneath the 
 plane of musketry fire from the flanks ; a modification noticed heretofore when referring to the 
 defenses of that naval depot. 
 
 System of Dufour, A. D. 1814. 
 
 The system of Dufour is distinguished by two principal ideas: 1. Preventing a besieger 
 opening a breach in the body of the place from the crowning of the salient of the demi-lune, and 
 consequently preserving the former intact until the moment the besieger occupies its counter- 
 scarp. 2. To shelter the demi-lune from ricochet, by constructing in its salient angle and upon 
 the terrepleins a mask or cavalier twelve feet thick and twenty-five feet high. 
 
 Dufour is the first who has treated of closing the ditch of the demi-lune to prevent the breaching 
 of the faces of the bastions along this ditch. For this purpose he unites the cut or place of arms 
 of the demi-lune with the redoubt of the reentering place of arms^ the result being a single work, 
 a tenaillon, the masonry of which is covered by a glacis made in the demi-lune ditch. Although 
 this idea has not yet been applied, we cite it because it has been considered by those who have 
 subsequently endeavored to remed}' this defect in the bastioned system. 
 
 The first objection to this project is that the magnitude and cost of the proposed work is not 
 in proportion to its success, and that it will scarcely increase the difficulty of the passage of the 
 demi-lune ditch, from the circumstance of its interior face being exposed to ricochet. The demi- 
 lune, and its redoubt being taken, the tenaillons will be abandoned if their relief has been subor- 
 dinate to the demi-lune redoubt, and if the respective commands of these latter works are inverted, 
 the demi-lune redoubt would become untenable, when the former are first attacked. Nothing is 
 gained in the theoretic duration of the defense by the exterior works of this system. All that 
 has been attained for the garrison is removing the apprehensions caused by the breaches of the 
 bastions from the crowning of the demi-lune. The besieger is notwithstanding obliged to construct 
 a breaching battery against the bastion, but this does not increase his labor, the construction 
 of this battery having been included in the estimate or valuation of time of the resistance of 
 Cormontaigne's primitive system. Nor is the object well fulfilled by the mask in the demi-lune, 
 filled in with stones to prevent a lodgment on its ruins. Completely viewed from a distance it 
 will soon be demolished, leaving the wings exposed to ricochet, while it has at the same time 
 deprived the garrison of the use of this salient of the demi-lune, so important in its influence 
 ujion the enemy's approaches upon the collateral works. 
 
 The cotemporaries of Dufour feeling the same difficulties, have labored to overcome them in 
 other ways. Bousmard and Chasseloup threw the demi-lune forward, making it entirely discon- 
 nected through its ditches with those of the body of the place. The ideas of the latter were 
 carried into efl'ect on a most extensive scale under the orders of Napoleon I, in the defenses at 
 Alexandria, on the Po ; a part of which still remain perfect, most of the fortress having been 
 blown up by conventional agreement. This original conception of Chasseloup, (his primitive 
 construction,) is to be found in a well-executed plan in the writings of Dumas, and a theoretic 
 description of a front in Papers of the Royal Engineers ; Maurice's Modern Fortification; or in 
 Teliakofl'sky's Manual of Fortification, the text book on this subject of the School of Engineers 
 at St. Petersburg. Dufour's conception for closing the ditch, in a modified form, is now taught 
 at the Engineer School of Mctz, in Noizet's system, to be next described. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 185 
 
 System of Noizet, A. D. 1822.— (See Plate 21, Fig. 1.) 
 
 The essential characteristic of tliis trace is a traverse closing the demi-lune ditch, and 
 uniting the redoubt of the reentering places of arms with the cut or demi-lune place of arms ; 
 and the latter being in safe and easy communication with its redoubt. These works may bo 
 considered as f )rm;ng a continuous whole or first line of defense, having for a central point the 
 demi-lune redoubt. 
 
 The gorge of this traverse is revetted, and is a continuation of the counterscarp of the bastion; 
 its superior slope descends like a glacis, along the demi-lune ditch, and across the latter is a 
 single and open caponnier, establishing a communication with the redoubt of the place of arms. 
 The extremities of the demi-lune are terminated at ten meters from the counterscarp to allow 
 enfilading by the flank of the opposite bastion through the above-mentioned single caponnier and 
 the ramp leading to it from the bottom of the ditch ; this ramp also giving ascent to the demi- 
 lune cut. The ditch of the redoubt of the demi-lune is also closed by a traverse in the shape of 
 a glacis. The gorge of the demi-lune redoubt is retired with respect to these traverses, and 
 affords a safe communication from the caponnier, on the perpendicular, to the above-mentioned 
 ramp. 
 
 The first object of this traverse is the same as tlie one had in view by Dufoiir, namely : to 
 prevent a breach in the bastion through the demi-lune ditch. The second object may be con- 
 sidered of equal, if not even of greater importance. We see here for the first time an easy and 
 protected communication between the body of the place and the exterior ; and, also, the possi- 
 bility of reinforcing in time the covered way and its redoubts. 
 
 The principle, indisputably acknowledged at present, that the means of retreat from a ivork 
 should be independent of those provided for the retreat from the worh tvhich it is destined to protect, 
 is here also applied. The garrison in the covered way need not pass through the interior of the 
 redoubt ; the gorge of the latter is in communication with the covered way, and from the latter 
 the traverse is gained. 
 
 But has this traverse, or can it have the thickness and height necessary to resist effectually 
 the counter-batteries on the demi-lune salient, and at the same time allow the bastion to flank 
 the ditch? The difficulty involved by this idea is, in regulating these conditions properly. On 
 the other hand, this communication is only covered by a single open caponnier, which would be 
 easily ruined by the artillery of the demi-lune salient, causing the redoubts to be abandoned and 
 cutting off a retreat from them. If the redoubt of the place of arms were casemated, and likewise 
 the traverse, to which a flanking battery might then be obtained for the demi-lune ditch, the 
 defense of the system would be greatly improved. But this would introduce elements foreign to 
 the bastioned system which Noizet wished to preserve in its purity. The author's conception is 
 a most luminous one, and if its execution were possible, it alone would suffice to give the system 
 one of the most essential properties in all sound fortification, namely, rendering it susceptible of 
 the most active defense, relative to the strength of the garrison. 
 
 This difficulty in construction of preserving the flanking arrangements of the demi-lune 
 ditch, in connection with these traverses, has been experienced by the Eussian engineers in some 
 of their new fortresses in Poland. They liave made it a masonry traverse bomb-proof caponnier, 
 through which the communication is kept up. A plan and elevation of this Kussian method of 
 surmounting this difficulty, such as I saw on the Vistula, is given in Plate 27, Figs. 2 and 5, of 
 Teliakofi'sky's Manuel of Fortification. 
 
 The disposition of the gorge of Noizet's demi-lune redoubt (Plate 21, Fig. 1) is remarkable 
 in tliis, that the staircases leading to its terrcpleins being within the extremes of the flanks, near 
 the ends of the same, posterns have been opened in these ends to render a retreat from the demi- 
 lune independent of a retreat from the redoulit, in conformity with tlie principle already 
 24 D 
 
186 ART OF WAR IN EURORE. 
 
 announced. (It will be observed that this principle of independent communications is studiously 
 observed by the Austrians and Prussians in all their new works ; some of which I have already 
 referred to, in the defenses of Venice, the mouth of the Oder, and the mouth of the Vistula.) 
 
 These communications and the ramps of the wings of the demi-lune allow this work to be 
 strongly defended, and likewise prevents the passage of the ditch of the redoubt. The bastioned 
 system has gained in Noizet's hands all that it could gain, without departing from its principles ; 
 and even admitting this, we cannot find, on subjecting it to the standard of measure of duration 
 of defense, that it calls for or requires more time than the previously-described systems. 
 
 Noizet has admitted loop-holed galleries, only for the counterscarps of the redoubts of the 
 reentering places of arms, doubtless on account of the little depth of his ditches. We do not 
 pretend to enter into a discussion of all the other details of his system, whicb have no essential 
 influence. We might here terminate our glance at the bastioned system, and consider what we 
 have denominated the " modern system corrected," as the true expression of the French school. 
 We should thus have a fixed and very determinate basis for our comparison with the German 
 scbool. 
 
 But Noizet was siicceeded by Haxo, and by Choumara, and both have proposed new modi- 
 fications, and introduced new works in the bastioned trace, rejected by their predecessors, who 
 considered their defects greater than the advantages sought to be attained. 
 
 Bousmard and Chasseloup also took up the bastioned system, deviating totally from its 
 simplicity, to the extent of creating a distinct mode of defense. And although the French 
 school has appreciated the merit of their conceptions, as it now appreciates those of Haxo and 
 Choumara ; and although Napoleon I approved and adopted Chasseloiip's system for the 
 fortification of Alexandria, to serve as the key to Lombardy, the principles of this system are 
 not those of the French school, and must not enter into account in its analysis. 
 
 The casemated tenaille, for example, does not belong to this school, nor do the casemated 
 redoubts of the reentering places of arms, and the salients of the covered way of the body of the 
 place and demi-lune, nor do the subterranean galleries leading to them, and to the detached demi- 
 lune. Noizet's system being the basis of instruction in the science of fortification at Metz, as 
 well as at our own military school, I have judged it of sufficient importance to append a full and 
 complete description of its trace in all its details. (Plate 21, Fig. 1.) The exterior side A A' 
 is 360 meters. The perpendicular B V is one sixteenth of A A'. The faces are 110m. The 
 flanks are traced as by Vauban, and are 45m. Draw E K' parallel to and 3.50m. from A A'. 
 
 The main ditch is 30m. wide at the salients. One point of the counterscarp is determined 
 by drawing D' G through the curtain angle D' and the extreme angle G of the demi-lune. 
 S the point where it intersects K K' is a point of the counterscarp ; through it and tangent to the 
 arc described from A, with a radius of 30m., draw Q S, it will be the counterscarp. 
 
 Demi-lune. — The salient angle is 60°. It is an equilateral triangle, the side being 190m. 
 One side is drawn through H' and H" points on the bastion faces at 30m. from the shoulder angle. 
 The faces are 150m. ^ and end 10m. from the exterior side or line of the polygon. 
 
 Reentering Place of Arms. — The angle is to be found from the prolongation of D'S G ; and 
 also upon the line so drawn from the covering point V, as to make the angle P O'=60°, which 
 determines the direction of the face P 0. The face P Q is parallel to the demi-lune counter- 
 scarp, and 25m. from it. The prolongation of V 0, drawn from the covering point V, gives the 
 magistral of the passage 0'. 
 
 Cut in the Demi-lune. — Produce P 0, giving M. Erect M N perpendicular to the scarp. 
 
 Demi-lune Redoubt. — Draw a line parallel to the scarp of the demi-lune, and 30m. from it; 
 where it intersects the capital is the salient of the redoubt. The magistral of the cut, produced 
 24m., gives the extremity of the face of the redoubt. The line q, drawn through the covering 
 point of the redoubt, gives the direction of the ramp of the demi-lune place of arms. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 187 
 
 Traverses of the Covered Way. — First traverse T : Draw the line ss' parallel to and 12in. 
 from the demi-lime counterscari], and ee' parallel to, and Gm. from ss', ee' intersects the crest of 
 the hastion reentering place of arms at a. If ^ye draw an intermediate line at 2.50m. from n, 
 its intersection h with the crest of reentering place of arms produced, will be a point of the inte- 
 rior crest of this traverse. Join h with the covering point V, and draw b c perpendicular to h V, 
 and 6 c is the interior crest of the first traverse. Its thickness is 6ra. To get the passage around 
 it, draw d g perpendicular to the capital, and at 6m. from it ; the parallel of gr ff is the "crotchet" 
 or passage. Second traverse : Describe an arc of 6m. radius from g and draw V r tangent 
 to it ; it intersects the counterscarp at I. Through I draw I V perpendicular to the tangent V r. 
 This is the direction of the crest of the second traverse. Its thickness is 4m. — draw I" J!" parallel 
 to 1 1' and 4m. from it. Through g draw gi/ until it intersects the second parallel £ s' , than draw 
 //' perpendicular to the capital of the demi-lune, and take the point Z"at 2.50m. distance from g f 
 and on I" I" it should also be 6m. from//'. If it is not, draw another line g f, and go through 
 the same construction until a point of the line V I'" is obtained, which will satisfy the condi- 
 tion of being 2.50m. from gf and. 6m. from//', these two lines will form a part of the interior 
 crest. Lay ofi'4m. on//', from/ to w, and then describe an arc from co of 4m. radius. Join to 
 with 7/ and we have the two lines of the passage around the traverse, or " crotchets' ' of the passage. 
 
 The fronts of Haxo and Choumara give rise to similar reflections to those upon tlie innova- 
 tions of casemates, &c., in the French bastioned system, yet we cannot refrain from noticing 
 them, even should we have no other object than showing how far tliey are applicable, and in 
 what degree the idea of these two talented French engineers may be regarded as appertaining to 
 the bastioned system, at the same time that we give the views of an officer of the French Corps 
 of Engineers, whose peculiar views are forcing themselves into notice from their merit. 
 
 System of General Haxo, A. D. 1826.— (Plate 21, Fig. 2.) 
 
 The observations we are about to make are in conformity with the concise description of this 
 system published by Maurice de Sellon, there being no fortress yet built upon Haxo's plan, 
 although he has had the opportunity of introducing many of his details. 
 
 The exterior side of the polygon is 360 meters. The perpendicular is one ninth of the side, 
 and the length of the faces of the bastion are one sixth of the same side. The tenaille is separated 
 from the curtain and flanks six meters, and has six casemated guns on each flank. These case- 
 mates, like all those of the terrepleins of this system are those bearing the name of the author, 
 and represented in Plate 29, taken from the recently constructed detached forts about Lyons, 
 where they are in general use ; and I may here add, that I saw them also in several new works 
 of the other continental powers. 
 
 This first enceinte of Haxo's is covered by two revetted counterguards, which extend past the 
 flanks of the tenaille, and are connected by a mask of earth covering the masonry of the tenaille. 
 In this manner the body of the place is made to consist of two enceintes ; the first formed by the 
 counterguards and a curtain of earth ; and the second of a bastioned front, with a tenaille. The 
 artillery being covered by the casemates of this author, he has been able to reintroduce the bat- 
 teries of two and three tiers, of previous plans, and free from all their defects. Thus the bastion 
 has three tiers of guns for firing simultaneously and in union with the counterguard. This 
 author admits in his trace the ^5n'?tcipZe of making the directions of his parapets and terrepleins 
 independent of the scarjjs, by which his high batteries are made to serve as traverses for the lower 
 batteries and for the curtains. 
 
 The bastions are divided into two parts by a ditch ten yards in width. The communications 
 between the body of the place and its principal ditch are efi'ected by two ramps placed at the 
 junction of the counterguards with the eartliern works of the tenaille. 
 
 We must remark that the interior of the bastion is so occupied by the triple battery as to 
 leave room neither for the construction of a new retrenchment or space to deploy the troops des- 
 
188 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 tined to oppose the storming of the breach. Colonel Clavigo takes exception to the simulta- 
 neous action of the triple tiers of batteries on the ground of danger from one firing over the other. 
 As the gunners are effectually and entirely covered by the casemate arch, (see Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 
 4, of Plate 29,) I omit his criticism. In Fig. 1, I have given an example of a barbette battery 
 (n or a') firing over a Haso casemate, (h,) showing very clearly that no apprehensions or anx- 
 ieties can arise with any good reason in the minds of the gunners in the casem te h. 
 
 The works on the outside of the ditch have a peculiar disposition. The large demi-lune and 
 its redoubt are traced like Cormontaigne's, but the wings or branches terminate on the pro- 
 longation of the faces of the redoubts of the reentering places of arms, closing with a wall the 
 demi-lune gorge. 
 
 The space between this gorge and the counterscarp of the main ditch is occupied by a glacis, 
 partly prolonged in the direction of the demi-lune ditch, and terminated at about 6m. from the 
 gorge of the latter work, forming a mask in continuation of the crest of the bastion counterscarp. 
 Between these two glacis, and on the capital of the front, is a caponnier similar to Montalam- 
 bert's, separated from these glacis by two lateral ditches. Its object is to sweep these glacis, the 
 crowning of the reentering place of arms, and also to take the breaches of the counterguard in 
 reverse. On the right and left, and at the extremities of these glacis, are the places of arms, 
 the center of which is occupied by masonry casemated redoubts. The communications between 
 all these parts are spacious and convenient, and so well commanded by the caponnier that the 
 enemy cannot effect a lodgment in them without first destroying this work. 
 
 The main ditch, through the lateral ditches, communicates with the ditch running between 
 the wall of the demi-lune gorge and the foot of the glacis, and the ditch of the demi-lune is 
 gained by a gentle ramp ; and, in addition, a species of narrow caponnier leads to the gate of 
 the gorge of the redoubt of the reentering place of arms. 
 
 Staircases built against the central caponnier allow an ascent from the main ditch to the 
 caponnier ditch, from which the demi-lune redoubt is gained, and the ditch of the latter work 
 also reached. Another sjiecial communication leads from the caponnier ditch to the cuts of the 
 demi-lune, and a postern under this cut communicates with the ditches of the former. We see 
 then, first, that imohstructed openings through the ditches of the demi-lune and its redoubt, 
 with the ditches of the faces and curtain of the main work, have been completely closed, and that 
 neither the bastion, the counterguard, nor the curtain can be breached, before taking all the 
 exterior works ; second, that the latter will cost the besieger much time ; that he will have to 
 resort to the mine to take the casemated redoubts of the reentering places of arms, and batter 
 from his lodgments on them the covered artillery of the caponnier, until then intact. 
 
 According to Maurice de Sellon, the duration of the defense of this front has been calculated 
 at fifty-four days from the opening of the trenches. The author does not enter into the details 
 of the mode of conducting the siege, but without doubt the greater part of this time must be 
 considered as included in the taking of the exterior works, supported as they are by casemated 
 fires. This circumstance does not allow us to apply to this system the analysis or siege scale of 
 duration of the defense, which has served as a comparison in the previous modifications of the 
 bastioned system. Since these works are of a distinct nature, they will require different means 
 of attack ; the discussion of which is unnecessary to the object I have in view — that of making 
 the present state of fortifications in France known to my readers, as I saw it. 
 
 In our opinion tiiere are many points of similarity between the German system and General 
 Haxo's ; and rather than a modification of the bastioned system, it might be considered as an 
 application of the princi25les of the German traces. This system has not been applied to any 
 of the numerous French fortresses, although some of them have been under the inventor's direction. 
 His casemates alone (Plate 29) may be considered as adopted by the French school, replacing 
 advantageously the blindages to be constructed during the first days of the siege. 
 
ART OV WAR IN EUROPE. 189 
 
 I append a description of the trace of General Haxo^ system to make it better understood. 
 (Plate 21, Fig. 2.) 
 
 The exterior side C Dzz:360 meters. The perpendicular is one ninth, =:: 40m. ^ to the point 
 A- The flanks H F and E G are perpendicular to the lines of defense, and 53m. long. The 
 faces D F and C E are 68m. long. The ditch between the bastion and counterguard is 15m. 
 broad. The faces of the counterguard are 127m. long; their counterscarps being directed on 
 the point of the perpendicidar A', at 35m. from the point C. The faces of the counterguard 
 overlap the shoulder angles of the bastions 40m. The counterguard is divided at 77m. from the 
 salient by a cut 5m. broad, leaving for a retired battery 45m. The exterior line of tlie counter- 
 guard is 45m. from the exterior side of the bastion. The length of the curtain is 200m. Width 
 of ditch between the tenaille and flanks =36m. Same between the tenaille and curtain =i:12m. 
 The curtain of the tenaille=140m., its flanks=:12m., and its faces :^22m. The interior crest 
 of its flank batteries :=: 20m. 
 
 The main ditch in front of the counterguard is 20m. broad ; its counterscarp being directed 
 on the perpendicrdar at the point ©, 17m. from C. 
 
 Flanking Caponnier. — Its salient P is 95m. from C ; its faces are directed on points 5m. 
 from the shoulder angles of tlie counterguard, and 27m. in length. Its flanks U' V are 33ni. 
 The middle point of its gorge is on the lino joining the salients of the counterguard. 
 
 The demi-lune is laid out on an equilateral triangle, having for its base the line M" M'", 
 255m. in length from points on the bastion faces 17m. from the shoulder angles. The demi-lune 
 faces are 150m. long, divided to give the salient face 100m. and the cut 5m., and its termination 
 45m. for the demi-lune place of arms, the demi-gorge lines of which are each 55m. long, and 
 directed on points 3m. in front of the shoulder of the casemated caponnier. The salient of 
 the demi-lune redoubt is 50m. in advance of the salient P of the caponnier. 
 
 The counterscarp W e'" and A' e' e" changes direction at the points e" and e'", distant 
 105m. from A' and B', in order to form the mash, and is then directed 10m. in front of the 
 gorge of the casemated caponnier, ending 12m. from its flank walls. To find the point g, draw 
 through X (the end of the perpendicular erected on the demi-lune face to determine the broken 
 cut) and V, (the extremity of the flank of the demi-lune redoubt,) a line which, prolonged, will 
 intersect the line A B of the counterguard salients at 6m. from the flank wall of the casemated 
 caponnier. 
 
 Next, to construct the redoubt of the reentering place of arms, the point e' being taken at 
 33m. from e", erect the perpendicular e' h, to the counterscarii at that point, giving it the 
 length of 36m. Next draw h d perpendicular to h e', and produce it to intersect the magistral 
 of the demi-lune in the point W; through W draw a parallel to the exterior side, and 2m. in 
 rear of this draw the parallel W, which will give the point g, and the thickness of the mask, or 
 rather the length of the wall / g. The face b d oi the redoubt of the reentering place of arms 
 is 20m. long. The ditch of the demi-lune is 12m. wide within 90m. of its salient; in rear of 
 this it is 16m. wide. 
 
 CJioumara's System, A. D. 1846.— (Plate 21, Fig. 3.) 
 
 While treating of the system of this engineer, we do not pretend to give a complete idea of 
 it, nor to analyze the accuracy of the author's arguments to prove that its defense can be pro- 
 longed to 100 days. The work of this author, " IJemoires sur la Fortification," has been 
 eulogized by many writers of distinction, and even by the French Committee of Fortification. 
 We have, however, nowhere read a complete analysis of his system, but only general reflections 
 upon the most remarkable ideas set forth by him. Aware of the difficulty we should find in 
 describing it briefly, and giving an opinion upon so grave a question, we confine ourselves to 
 mere indications, with the sole aim of examining which of his principles have been admitted by 
 the French school. 
 
190 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 1. Independent scarps and terrepleins. — This principle, already in use before Choumara, has 
 been developed by him, making it a special theory, and demonstrating the many and happy 
 applications that can be made of it in any system. Taking up the bastioned trace, to which he 
 gives the preference, he makes the foot of the scarp follow this trace, while in each bastion the 
 parapets and terrepleins liave directions distinct from the scarps, according to the object they 
 are intended to fulfill. Tlius, in the bastions_, he gives a return (a) to the parapets near the salient 
 angle, forming a kind of lunette, the flank of which serves as a traverse for the contiguous 
 portion v u, directed perpendicular to the ditch of the demi-lune. Breaking it again, he obtains 
 another large shoulder, v' , for the remaining part of the demi-lune ditch. On the flank, and on 
 the part near the shoulder angle, the parajjet is supported by the scarp, and serves as a large 
 epaulement (L) for the other and interior parts of the outworks. 
 
 This disposition gives a low corridor or gallery, (M,) covered by a parapet for musketry, 
 which, in some parts, has sufficient space to admit of the establishment of a low battery. The 
 author adds to this three large casemated traverses for cannon in each bastion, viz: in the 
 salient and in each shoulder angle, the principal object of which is to annul the eflect of ricochet 
 fire on those points where it was not obtained by breaking the line of the parapet. In an 
 analogous manner are disposed the demi-lunes and redoubts of the reentering and salient places 
 of arms, rounding in the latter the terrepleins and principal parapets at the salient angle to 
 obtain fires of artillery in the direction of the capitals, and in the sectors otherwise destitute 
 of fire. 
 
 There is no doubt that by this method the efi'ect of ricochet fire, the most powerful means of 
 attack, is greatly neutralized ; but to obtain this end we must suppose the bastion thus arranged to 
 have faces and flanks of unusual extent, otherwise the space for the batteries and the interior 
 space of the bastion would be inconveniently reduced to the manifest prejudice of the defense. 
 To obviate this difficulty Choumara increases his front considerably, basing this change upon a 
 second principle, which is — 
 
 2. That the lines of defense should not be regulated by the range of musketry. — The author 
 founds this principle upon the fact that this arm cannot prevent siege works on the glacis, nor 
 even of the passage of the ditch, and that artillery alone can impede tlie approaches of the 
 besieger ; and that hence the range of field artillai-y should determine the dimensions of the 
 front, giving it such length, that from the trench cavaliers to the flank, there should be a dis- 
 tance of 500 meters, which is the point blank range of 4-pouuders. A front of 600 meters of 
 exterior side would fulfill this condition. Choumara fixes it at 500, not to annul entirely the 
 effect of musketry, (the recent improvements in tlie rifle musket were not then known.) 
 
 This extent of front gives 166m. for the faces of the bastions, and by retiring the curtains in 
 rear of the lines of defense, he obtains flanks of 85m. The great space in these bastions, allows 
 also the construction of interior retrenchments, but tlie great extension of the front increases 
 also the defensive properties, and to these we shall have occasion to refer hereafter. 
 
 We are not aware how far the French school sanctions this innovation which militates against 
 a principle hitherto regarded as incontrovertible, and which has served to determine the dimen- 
 sions of the different lines of the bastioned system, namely : that the lines of defense should not 
 exceed the effective range of the wall piece, computed at 280m. , this being the heaviest weapon that 
 can be commodiously managed by the individual soldier on a minimum line of breast-heights. 
 
 The greatest inconveniences would arise, from the impossibility of aj^plying a system of 
 fortifications adapted to polygons only, of not less than 500 yards, or even of 400 yards. 
 
 Thus for example, how could the principle of independent parapets be applied to the de- 
 tached forts of Paris, most of their fronts being from 250 to 300 meters ? There was no option 
 between a size entirely out of proportion to the intended object which Choumara' s fronts call 
 for, and the simplicity belonging to the old bastioned fronts; and, again, several of these 
 detached forts occupy commanding sites, as Forts Valerian, Bisetre, Nogent, Easny, and Noisy, 
 
ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 191 
 
 for example ; to have adopted a system requiring fronts of 400 to 500 meters and upwards, would 
 have thrown the defenses down the slopes of the hills, and in some instances into the valleys- 
 (See Plate 3.) The impossibility of applying this system calling for such an extended front is 
 even more strikingly exemplified in the detached forts about Lyons, (see Plates 4, 5, 6, and 7,) 
 where the irregularity of ground is greater than around Paris. The site of Forts Loyasse, St. 
 Irenec, and others, at Lyons, could not have been occupied by a system demanding such an extent 
 of front to develop its principles. Belfort, another new and recent construction of the French 
 engineers, in like manner could not have been fortified on this principle ; nor, indeed, is it sus- 
 ceptible fully of application in the enceinte now under construction about Toulon and Havre. 
 
 Third Princiiyle — Interior Glacis. — These glacis (F F, Plate 21, Fig. 3) in the ditches^ with 
 masonry revetments on the inside, are separated from the scarps by a space of fifteen meters, 
 which constitutes the main ditch. The altitude of the crest of their revetments is equal to that 
 of the covered way, (and occasionally to that of the crest of the exterior glacis,) and from this 
 crest descends to the foot of the counterscarp. These glacis extend throughout the ditch, closing 
 the openings between the shoulder angles of the bastions and the flanks of the tenaille, and also 
 extend about the slopes of the earthen caponnier (situated on the perpendicular) which leads to 
 the demi-lune. One of the objects of these ditch glacis is to close the thoroughfare openings of 
 the demi-lune ditches; and another, the principle one, to prevent the opening of a breach in the 
 body of the place from the crest of the main glacis. It is sufficient to examine a profile to be 
 convinced that a battery so placed can only see a small portion of the scarp, the ruins of which 
 cannot fill the fifteen meter ditch which surrounds them, especially if the earth of the parapet 
 does not rest on the coping of the scarp, and much less in the case where it is supported by 
 relieving arches. These glacis, according to Choumara, will prolong the defense considerably; 
 in eff'ect the besieger would 'reach the first counterscarp, and after effecting his descent of the 
 ditch, would find himself at the foot of a new glacis, where he would have to construct approaches 
 similar to those he found necessary for passing up the exterior glacis ; and this, after losing his 
 enveloping position, and viewed in flank by the batteries of the tenaille and flank of the bastion. 
 Having reached the crest of this sunken or interior glacis, he would then have to establish his 
 true breaching batteries, and would have to eff'ect a new descent of the ditch. 
 
 Choumara estimates the increase given to the defense by this glacis, as follows : In Cormon- 
 taigne's system the besieger reaches the counterscarp on the fifteenth day, and debouches into 
 the ditch ; from this point he only required eight days to take the place, altogether twenty-three, 
 having employed thirteen from the first parallel. Supposing he finds now an interior glacis, he 
 will have to repeat^ and in a worse position, the work he required to reach the breach from the 
 third parallel ; the duration of the defense will then be twenty-three days — plus fourteen, or 
 thirty-seven days. 
 
 Although we cannot support our opinion by the authority of any writer of note, we do not 
 hesitate to affirm that the result expected from the conception is much exaggerated by the author. 
 In reality the besieger having reached the counterscarp, his first step must be the construction 
 of the counter-batteries to destroy the flank and tenaille. The width of the ditch (45 meters) 
 added to the width of the covered way, gives him a large space in which to establish this battery, 
 and make it superior to that of the flank it is intended to destroy. 
 
 If the disposition of the bastion has preserved the flank batteries intact, the construction of 
 the counter-batteries will present great difficulties, and will employ more than the usual time; 
 but we cannot admit the impossibility of its final construction. The battery established, and 
 the battery of the opposite flank destroyed, the passage of the glacis, and tlie destruction of its 
 sustaining wall by the mine, will become easy. The truth of this consideration appears to us 
 evident on reflecting that, upon crossing the exterior glacis, the ground is swept by all the fires 
 the place has been able to preserve ; whilst, to cross the interior glacis, the besieger has to con. 
 tend with only the fires of the flanks, and these he ruins before beginning new works, just as if 
 he had to cross an ordinary ditch. 
 
192 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 On tlie other liand the interior glacis coTers very satisfactorily the masonry of the scarps, 
 with the exception of what it was most expedient to leave open, namely : the masonry of the 
 flanks. 
 
 Again, tlie ditch of 15 meters is not an obstacle of such a nature as to protect the place from 
 a coup-de-main, after the destruction of a part of the scarp, and the partial filling in by its 
 ruins. 
 
 Finally we may ask, is the execution of this conception practicable ; nay, is it possible. 
 The considerations of the author do not convince us that a due proportion has been observed 
 between the earth, from the slight excavations of the front and its large terrepleins ; although, 
 on this account, the scarps are constructed with relieving arches left empty. 
 
 If to obtain this earth a greater width is given to the ditches, the objections become more 
 grave, since there would be a proportional increase in the facility of crowning the counterscarp, 
 and by destroying the flank batteries in order to advance subsequently over ground fully swept 
 by direct fires. Great stress should not, however, be laid on the equalization of excavation and 
 embankment, as by means of railroad transport the expense of procuring embankment beyond 
 the trace, is inexpensive compared with the masonry structures of equal advantage of other 
 systems. 
 
 Fourth Principle. — Making military edifices enter into tlie system of defense, and serve as 
 interior retrenchments ; the latter with a double object, namely, to serve as redoubts to the 
 bastion, and as a defense of the gorge of collateral bastions, when the besieger has entered the 
 place through one of them. This idea, previously suggested by Bousmard, has always been 
 opposed by the majority of tlie partisans of the bastioned system, and admitted by very few 
 
 ineers. 
 
 We must regard it as foreign to tlie French school of the bastioned system, notwithstanding 
 we find it adopted in the detached forts of Lyons, though upon a small scale, yet in many of the 
 works ; and, in general, forming the curtain of the gorge front, as at Vitriolerie, Colambier, 
 La Motte, Villeurbaume, Broteaux, Charpennes, &c., (see Plates 5, 6, and 7 ;) and in the last 
 constructed of the detached works about Paris, where it has been admitted on the gorges of the 
 redoubts of Faisanderie and G-ravelle ; an indication that it is growing in the estimation of the 
 French engineers. (Plate 3.) 
 
 Eesumc of Choumara's Proposed Improvements. 
 
 The proposed improvements of the French bastioned front, delineated in Fig. 3, of Plate 21, 
 are comprised in the following resume and outline : 
 
 1. A general disposition of the bastions to favor the interior defense, to prevent surprise, to 
 put the besieged in a condition to sustain the assault upon the bastion exterior to its retrench- 
 ment. 
 
 2. Particular disposition of the bastion attacked from the exterior, to be made after the front 
 of attack is determined. (First retrenchment and second retrenchment.) 
 
 3. Tenaille, with flanks. 
 
 4. Interior glacis in the ditch of the enceinte, with cuts in the parts corresponding to the 
 demi-lune ditch, {lo' .) 
 
 5. The demi-lune modified with retired parapets, and casemated traverses, &c., on the 
 cajjital, (a! a.) 
 
 6. Redoubts of the places of arms of the covered way, detached from the counterscarp of the 
 demi-lune ditch. 
 
 7. Redoubt of the salient place of arms of the bastioned covered way, with rounded parapet, 
 corridor, chemin-de-ronde, &c., preferable to the sixth arrangement. 
 
 8. Redoubt of the salient place of arms of the demi-lune covered way, with rounded parapet, 
 &c., (K K.) 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 193 
 
 9. Casemated traverses to cover the faces and flanks of the works, (a a, b h.) 
 
 10. Corridors and chemin-des-rondes generally. 
 
 11. Defensive barracks and magazines in the bastions, (I I,/' /'■) 
 
 12. Ditches of the retrenchments specially arranged. 
 
 13. Ditches of the bastions, demi-lune, and redoubts of the covered way specially arranged. 
 
 14. The crest of the covered way specially arranged, as also the exterior glacis. 
 
 15. Interior glacis along the covered way. 
 
 16. Interior glacis of the enceinte. 
 
 17. Special arrangement of the ramps of communication. 
 
 Such are the various modifications Choumara considered necessary to perfect the most 
 approved French system, in 1824. 
 
 Comparison hetioeen the theoretic systems revieioed, and the recent practice of the French Engineers, 
 
 as at Parts, Lyons, Grenohle, and Bayonne. 
 
 The fortresses of Grenoble and Bayonne offer us examples of the different modifications of the 
 bastioned system we have reviewed, and if not conforming to it in every respect, they show 
 clearly the predominating idea and what delects in the bastioned system it has been endeavored 
 to correct. We may venture to say that considerations connected with the importance of the 
 jjlace, its situation in the defensive system of the country, as well as motives of economy, have 
 had some direct influence in modifying the plans and conceptions of the authors of these 
 defenses. 
 
 The enceinte of Grenoble, situated on a plain on the left bank of the Isere, is comjjosed of 
 fronts like that represented in Fig. 4, Plate 21, forming with each other rather obtuse angles. 
 The body of the place consists of bastioned fronts with an exterior side of 360 meters. The 
 scarps, constructed with relieving vaults, have a tier of loop holes for musketry. The ditch, 
 40m. wide, is divided in two 2)arfs by a mash of earth, one part dry with a width of 15m., and 
 the other wet and dry at pleasure. This mask is connected with the tenaille, running parallel 
 with the curtain and flanks, but in front of the latter it is lower. It is provided with a musketry 
 banquette throughout. There is no military edifice in the interior of the bastions, nor have 
 their parapets any casemates such as General Haxo, director of the place, executed in its citadel. 
 
 On the outside of the ditch is the demi-lune of ordinary dimensions ivithout masonry revet- 
 ment. Two small flanks j)arallel to the capital, detached and retired within the branches of the 
 demi-lune to allow a j^assage between them and the extremities of the demi-lune, are destined 
 to sweej) the interior of the reentering place of arms and protect a retreat from them. The 
 opening of the demi-lune ditch, with that of the bastion face, is closed by a glacis, the gorge of 
 which is a continuation of the counterscarp of the main ditch. Between this glacis and the 
 scarp of the demi-lune there is a narrow ditch, which serves to connect the water of the ditch of 
 this work with the main ditch, and over which the besieged may pass with facility. The main 
 ditch has a dry passage by means of a caponnier extending from the tenaille to the gorge of the 
 demi-lune, by which it is connected by a draw-bridge over a small wet ditch. 
 
 The demi-lune and places of arms have no redoubts. The exterior of these fronts is nothing 
 more than Haxo's ideal front, less the casemated redoubts of the reentering places of arms of the 
 demi-lune redoubt, and the central casemated caponnier. The earthen mask is substituted for 
 the one formed in Haxo's front by the counterguards and tenaille. We may then regard it as 
 a simplification of General Haxo's front or as its application to marshy ground. 
 
 These defenses of Grenoble are worthy of special notice in connection with this fact of wet 
 and dry ditches, an idea so ably availed of by Coehorn in his systems. In the sequel we shall 
 have occasion to notice the same princijjle at Lyons, and certain German works wherever the 
 locality has admitted it. 
 
194 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 If ditches constantly full are of more difficult passage than dry ones, in comparison with 
 the latter they present many disadvantages which may be summed up in the three following: 
 
 1. Confining the defender in such a manner as to render his sorties and other offensive 
 operations extremely difficult if not impossible. 
 
 2. Weakening greatly the defense of the works on the outer side of the ditch, from the 
 retreat of their garrisons being compromised, and causing delay in retreat, they are abandoned 
 before they have fulfilled the object for which they were constructed ; and 
 
 3. Because attacks with the bayonet against the passage of the ditch are out of the question, 
 there being nothing to oppose it but fires from the parapet which may have been silenced before 
 this time. 
 
 Thus it is that Vauban condemns these ditches as the worst of all. 
 
 But if, after the example of Coehorn, a dry ditch is placed behind a wet one the defects 
 enumerated are greatly diminished, and new advantages become apparent for the besieged. 
 
 In effect, dry ditches facilitate sorties, and the troops in retreat find a secure point to which 
 the besieger will not dare to follow them, since, in this position, he would be exposed in every 
 direction to the fire of the enceinte. From this dry ditch, at Grenoble, the besieger is opposed, 
 by fires of very short and certain range, in all his efforts to cross the wet ditch. When the 
 latter reaches the breach, and attemj)ts to penetrate through its narrow defile, the besieged can 
 oppose him with every kind of resistance from the dry ditch. The circumstances, then, are most 
 favorable ; whilst the assaulting column, confined to a narrow place, is not protected by his 
 previously-constructed batteries, and draws no advantage from numbers. 
 
 This front, at Grenoble, greatly facilitates sorties, considering the existence of ditches partly 
 wet, because they are effected through the earthen caponnier ; on the other hand, the latter is 
 open to the besieger, since there is no redoubt to check the pursuit to which sorties are exposed. 
 The demi-lune and places of arms appear to facilitate the active operations of the besieged, 
 rather than works intended for a first defense, in which the besieger will find himself alternately 
 exposed to the fire from the walls and the attacks of the garrison. This idea, however, supposes 
 the garrison to be strong and inured to war, and is in harmony, doubtless, with the part this 
 work was destined to perform in the strategic operations for the defense of the South of France, 
 before the extensive fortifications at Lyons had been fully matured. 
 
 There are none of Haxo's peculiar casemates in the enceinte of Grenoble ; their introduction 
 is limited to certain determinate positions ; for example, at the elevated front of La Bastille, 
 the curtain of which forms a cavalier, looking over the narrow strip of ground that may be 
 occupied by the besieger, and also in some of the reentering angles of the irregular enceinte of 
 this fortress, and in one of the fronts of Fort Loyasse, at Lyons, constructed on a declivity. 
 While Austria, Russia, and Prussia have adopted them in various localities, there are engineers 
 who take exception to them, and Colonel Clavijo expresses himself as doubting the justness of 
 the merit bestowed upon them. He says : " Intended, as they are, to cover the artillery on the 
 terreplein, these batteries have been regarded as a sure means of protecting bastioned fronts 
 from the effect of ricochet fire, restoring to fortification all the strength it had lost by the intro- 
 duction of this fire." 
 
 This indication is sufficient to show the importance of the question. These batteries (see 
 Plate 29) consist of an arch, a part of which is horizontal and perpendicular to the face (c. Fig. 1) 
 and the remaining part, (6,) toward the embrasure, sloping downwards. This arch is built on 
 the terreplein, and against the parapet, giving the latter the profile represented in Fig. 1, for 
 the purpose of covering the greater part of the masonry of the front of the casemate, and as 
 seen in Fig. 4, and obliquely in Fig. 2. Cheeks to the embrasures are formed in the thickness 
 of the parapet, as seen in plan in Fig. 3, and in section and elevation in the three other figures 
 of this plate. Behind the casemate arch, in some localities, is a court or well, the bottom of 
 which is considerably lower than the floor of the battery. It is walled up in rear, either to 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. . 195 
 
 sustaia another battery of the same construction or for an infantry parapet. At Fort Loyasse 
 it was formed with a slope surmounted by an infantry parapet or artillery barbette battery, at 
 pleasure, as a' a" a'" ; which construction I considered to allow the free escape of smoke and 
 security under the casemate from shells falling on the slope a" a'", which, rolling in the ditch, 
 can by bursting produce no material injury. The arch of the casemate, it will be observed, is 
 covered with earth to make it bomb-proof. 
 
 The advantages of this construction are in the mass of earth covering the front wall 
 remedying one of the greatest inconveniences of the ordinary casemate, namely, protecting the 
 men at the guns from fragments of masonry. The flanks of a bastion being arranged in this 
 manner, the guns are protected from reverse, ricochet, and curved fires, and will be preserved 
 intact to oppose the construction of the enemy's counter-batteries on the opposite salient. 
 
 Colonel Clavijo then states his objections as being : Because a battery of two or three large 
 howitzers established on the crowning of the opposite place of arms would be sufficient to demolish 
 the thin mass of earth forming the embrasure in the parapet, leaving the front of the arch uncov- 
 ered ; and second, the terreplein of the flanks being occupied by these constructions, and the 
 besieger having gained the bastion, the high parts would be occupied, and the defense of a 
 temporary retrenchment in the gorge of the bastion would become impossible ; and third, the 
 flanks are entirely deprived of the fire of musketry ; and finally, that the mass of earth can be 
 destroyed before the battery is brought into action. Why not establish it as usual behind the 
 scarp of the flank, and leave the terrepleins clear for their final defense? Colonel Clavijo adds: 
 We cannot think that General Haxo's intention has been to generalize the use of his casemates, 
 as his commentators pretend ; nor does the aijplication of them by this engineer authorize the 
 belief. 
 
 I am quite sure these objections would not have been stated had Colonel Clavijo seen these 
 batteries in a finished state. From the drawing now presented — which corresponds with the 
 construction as I saw it at Lyons, in 1856 — a battery of Haxo's design occupies no additional 
 space whatever on the rampart ; while infantry fire combined with the ordinary barbette battery 
 can be obtained, (as in Fig. 1, Plate 29,) without occupying more space than would be called 
 for by a cJiemin-de-ronde, or the detached scarp ; and they certainly possess the merit of pre- 
 serving the artillery intact against every other than an embrasure shot, ready to counteract the 
 construction of batteries intended to destroy them. 
 
 Batonne. (Plate 21, Fig. 5.) The hornwork constructed latterly upon the front of attack 
 of the citadel of the fortifications' of Bayonne, presents us another remarkable bastioned front. 
 
 Difi'ering from the generality of these works, its ditches do not communicate with those of 
 the citadel, but become extinct or lose themselves in the glacis, afl'ording at these points two 
 reenterings, which remove all apprehensions of the work being attacked by its gorge. The 
 front of this hornwork, constructed on a side of from 360 to 400 meters, is bastioned, and the 
 only novelty it ofi'ers, is, that the earth of the parajDet is not thrown forward and supported by 
 the crest of the scarp, but leaves a chemin-de-ronde or communication between the exterior slojje 
 of the parapet, and a part of a loop-holed detached scarp. The latter is strengthened by arches 
 resting on abutments, and at difi"erent intervals there are traversed walls which divide the branches 
 in equal parts — or a Carnot wall from the terreplein of the chemin-de-ronde to its crest ; a profile in 
 common use in the detached forts at Lyons, as in section E F, Plate 7, of Fort Colombier, E, F, 
 G, H, of Fort La Motte, (same Plate ;) C D, of Fort Broteaux ; and, indeed, in some part or other 
 of nearly every work at Lyons ; as, also, in the German system as at Ehrenbreitstein outworks, 
 and numerous others already described. 
 
 The postern of the hornwork front at Bayonne, is covered by an ordinary tenaille with a 
 similar profile. 
 
196 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 The exterior works are those which offer most novelty of construction, and distinguish this 
 front from the usual bastioned front. The demi-lune traced, as in Cormontaigne's system, has 
 two small flanks, and ends at a certain distance from the counterscarp of the main ditch. Its gorge 
 is closed by a loop-holed wall on the bastioned trace. The center of the latter is occupied by a 
 small semicircular masonry redoubt, with two floors for musketry fire, and admits, at most, of 
 three small pieces of artillery. The covered way has no redoubts, either in the salient or reen- 
 tering places of arms. 
 
 The demi-lune ditches are closed by traverses "en glacis," which prevent breaching the face 
 of the bastion from the glacis of the salient of the demi-lune. These glacis traverses are con- 
 nected with the interior of the reentering places of arms, and on the opposite side descend along 
 the gorge of the demi-lune, terminating near the central caponnier. Throughout this extension 
 of glacis communication, the counterscarp of the main ditch is revetted only to the planes of these 
 ramps, presenting a gentle glacis as far as the reentering places of arms, that columns of all 
 arms may reach the covered way in the best formation. The space over which these troops 
 advance and retire is under the fire of the flanks, and the loop-holed wall of the demi-lune gorge 
 prevents the work being surprised on that side. 
 
 This disi^osition of itself gives a new character to the bastioned system, facilitating an 
 active defense so incompatible with the staircases of Cormontaigne, and to a certain extent they 
 are the application of Noizet's conception, simplified by the suppression of the redoubts of the 
 places of arms and of the demi-lune. It will be observed, that the gorge of the demi-lune is 
 traced as a bastioned front /actngr to the rear or towards the curtain ; all parts of which are retired 
 from view along the entire covered way, the flanks of which have a direct commanfl of the faces 
 of the bastions and any breach made in them. Some of my brother officers will recognize in 
 this front similar arrangements to a plan adopted by a majority of a Board of Engineers for 
 Sandy Hook, New York harbor. 
 
 Clavijo says, considering the " ensemble" of this hornwork, it is in his opinion a model of 
 this class of exterior works, infinitely suijerior to anything we find in the enceinte bastioned 
 system. In place of the small fronts that were generally given to these works, it has here the 
 advantageous proportions of a large front, and the ditches of the wings offer no means either of 
 approaching the work on which they rest. As an exterior work, it is in harmony with the sys- 
 tem of spacious free communications given to it, rendering it susceptible of the most active defense. 
 He objects, however, to the strength of the small work of masonry as a redoubt, the musketry 
 of which will not prevent a lodgment in the breach by the besieger, who can destroy the masonry 
 reduit with comparatively small pieces. With greater strength and capacity to admit a respect- 
 able battery, the resistance of the demi-lune could have been considerably increased. 
 
 Considering the front, under any point of view, we find in it the defects connected with the 
 bastioned system, as the indefensible state of its covered ways, the exposure to ricochet of all the 
 terrepleins, the absence and want of covered batteries to preserve their fires for the defense of the 
 ditches and for the defense of the interior retrenchments, whether the latter consist of military 
 edifices or any other work ; in short, to preserve the artillery of the work for the moment it is 
 most wanted, that of opposing the construction of the very batteries that are to destroy the 
 masonry of the work. 
 
 Paris axd Ltoxs. (Plates 3 and 4.) These two great modern places of arms of France, 
 so analogous under many stragetic points of view, present very essential differences in their 
 fortifications. A comparison instituted between their respective works becomes, therefore, of 
 the greatest interest to the professional engineer ; and we consider this the best means of 
 judging of the actual state of fortification in that country. 
 
 We consider them analogous, first, on account of the great extent of the works and popu- 
 lous cities they defend ; and next, on account of their object in the defensive system of the 
 country. Paris is to the north-northeastern frontier what Lyons is to the southeast; and just 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 197 
 
 as the first of these cities would be the main ohject of an invasion from the north of Germany, 
 so would Lyons become one from the Upper Khine or the north of Italy. These two cities, 
 secured against any attack, not accompanied by great trains of heavy artillery and great 
 numerical force, the defensive armies, without apprehension for the fate of these two important 
 points, find themselves in the most favorable position to oppose their adversary in the field, and 
 to check the progress of their invasion from the frontiers ; and when, after a series of reverses, 
 the active army can no longer keep the field, either of these two points ofiers a strong position 
 to resist or repel the enemy, and probably change the face of the campaign. The stragetic 
 influence of armies and fortifications in Europe, and especially in France, is materially blended 
 with the nature of government. The capture of Paris seems to be the conquest of the country, 
 even more disorganizing and disastrous to the continued energies and resistance of the nation 
 than the capture of the Emperor and his military council with an army corps in the field. 
 Hence it is that Paris must be secured, and hence also the impossibility of similar stragetic 
 strongholds ever being necessary in our country. The interest we have in the subject is that of 
 the science of fortification and the application hy the French school of its principles. 
 
 The two places now under consideration have efiected a change in the defensive system of 
 the territory ; and thus it is that all fortifications of modern construction in France are located 
 in a direct relation with this new conception. 
 
 Hhe general plan oi i\ie fortifications for both places had naturally to be, and has been, 
 made the same. This consists of a contintious enceinte, protecting the city from storm, and a 
 surrounding girdle of exterior forts, intended to fulfill two important objects: first, to j^revent 
 the bombardment of the city ; and, second, the establishment of a great retrenched camp under 
 the guns of the place, in which the numerous garrison it is supposed to contain may combat 
 with advantage, notwithstanding its numerical inferiority. But even admitting the first basis, 
 still the problem is not solved. It remains to determine the relative strength that should exist 
 between the two lines of defense. The first continuous enceinte might be one that would be 
 merely sufiicient to resist a '^^ coup de main," and not calculated to sustain a second defense, 
 which would be out of the question, considering the overpowering means at the disposition of 
 the besieger, already the conqueror of a stronger line, and actuated by the wealth and treasures 
 of such a city. 
 
 The line of forts is, then, the true line of defense of the place, and upon these lines must 
 be accumulated all the most efficacious defensive means, whilst the enceinte is like a large 
 redoubt, containing resources destined to reinforce the points of the advanced line that are most 
 threatened. On the other hand, the first enceinte might be regarded as the principal line of 
 defense, and the exterior forts as destined for a first and secondary resistance, or as occupying 
 points favorable for the attack. 
 
 The difi'erent hypotheses to be adopted as a basis, according to the circumstances in which 
 the armies in the field may be placed, and according to the numerical strength of the garrisons 
 of the places, must determine these relations ; and the different mode of appreciating these by 
 difi'erent engineers, has produced the difi'erent plans proposed for the fortifications of Paris. 
 
 We shall now compare the fortifications of these two places, and first — 
 
 Paris. (Plate 3.) The enceinte of this city takes the form of a large pentagon, upon the 
 unequal sides of which are traced ninety-four bastioned fronts, disposed as a consequence upon 
 right lines, with five general changes of direction. 
 
 These fronts 360 meters on the exterior side, and in accordance with Cormontaigne's trace, 
 are revetted with a scarp of 10 meters in height, oivery indifferent rubble masonry within, faced 
 by a soft stone in courses of eight to ten inches, supporting the solid earthen rampart and parapet. 
 The ditch has a width of 25 meters, the counterscarp a height of 6 meters, and not revetted, and 
 with a slope of 45°. On the outside of the ditch there is no exterior work, simply a glacis. 
 
198 ART OF WAK IN EUROPE. 
 
 separated by a slight berrn from the counterscarp, which time is rapidly reducing to the common 
 slope of the counterscarp. The glacis covers the masonry of the scarps but partially. 
 
 Behind this enceinte, the perimeter of which exceeds eight French leagues, runs a wide 
 military road, from which ramps ascend to the bastions and curtains. Between this road and 
 the last houses of the city large spaces have been retained for military edifices and rendezvous of 
 troops, now rapidly encroached upon by city improvements. 
 
 The interior of the bastions is entirely clear, with the exception of a few, in which it has 
 been found necessary to construct earthen cavaliers, either for the defilement of the adjacent 
 terrepleins, or of the military road, or to batter and command the hollows on the exterior. This 
 enceinte,' notwithstanding its simplicity, is said to have cost two thirds the total value of the city, 
 independent of the national edifices. The circumstance of presenting many fronts on a right 
 line, rendered necessary by its extension, increases considerably its strength, protecting most of 
 its faces and curtains from ricochet, and depriving the besieger of a principal advantage, that of 
 enveloping and concentrating all his efforts to a center. The absence, however, of demi-lunes 
 greatly impairs this advantageous disposition of fronts on a right line, depriving the fronts of all 
 cross fires, leaving them only direct fires, which are no stronger beyond the ditches than fronts 
 composed of right lines, or "en cremailUere," with the exception of good flanking defenses of 
 the ditches ; which, it must be observed, are all liable to ricochet fire, and to be overwhelmed by 
 vertical fire also. 
 
 Lyons. (Plate 4.) The enceinte of this place does not surround the city as completely as 
 that of Paris ; the hilly nature of the surrounding ground and the rivers somewhat modifying this 
 element. Nevertheless it may be considered as doing so, with respect to its principal and most 
 central position, and serves as a last retrenchment or strong central point of the great entrenched 
 camp formed by the detached forts. 
 
 This central part is closed on the north by an enceinte running from the Soane, from oppo- 
 site Fort Loyasse, in an easterly direction to the Khone ; on the southwest by a similar enceinte 
 closing the great hilly bend formed by the Soane, resting on Fort Loyasse and the river at one 
 extreme, and bastion No. 1 on the Soane at the other extreme ; and on the east its only interior 
 continuous defense is the Ehone. The first of these two lines, called the old enceinte or lines of 
 Croix Kousse, consists of a loop-holed wall (Plate 6) twenty-five feet in height, and from three 
 and a half to four feet in thickness, flanked by eight small bastions, having between them a 
 mean distance of 300 meters. These bastions or species of ancient towers, projecting very little 
 from the wall, have faces of thirty meters, and retired fianks of about twelve meters, and have 
 all been recently modified with a view to the following results : 
 
 First. To obtain casemated fires to flank the curtains, preserving those of the upper part, 
 which are partly covered by the orillons of the bastions. 
 
 Second. The prolongation of the flanks towards the inferior, and the construction of barracks 
 in their gorges, form so many strong points closed in by the gorge with bomb-proof shelters for 
 troops and munitions of war ; thus flanking the interior of the curtains in case the work be taken 
 through a breach thereon — the interior arrangement of these bastions varying in consequence of 
 their ancient form and size. 
 
 Should time and other duties permit, a more detailed description of all the works of this 
 place will be given. The Orleans bastion, or No. 7 (Plates 4 and 6) of this line, is worthy of 
 particular mention. This is a lunette, the gorge of which is closed by a barrack connected 
 with the curtains on the right and left. The faces consist of masonry scarps, backed by two and 
 three tiers of casemates for artillery and musketry, being a bomb-proof casern throughout. In 
 the salient the masonry of the scarp is broken towards the interior on the upper tiers to obtain 
 artillery fire on the capital. Thus we have in this new labor of the French school a work, in its 
 general construction and use, analogous to the masonry bomb-proof caserns in the center of the 
 fronts of the German system. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 199 
 
 The enceinte of Fauviers, (Plates 4 and 5,) constructed nearly new, is much more regular. 
 It consists of six bastions, united by curtains, none of the fronts having a regular symmetrical 
 trace ; the second one is a large casemated bomb-proof battery of two tiers of fire, the lower for 
 musketry, and the ujaper for artillery, surmounted by a barbette battery. The half bastion No. 
 1 (Plate 5) has its long branch disposed in a similar manner ; the remainder of the latter and 
 the curtain uniting it to bastion No. 2 have the usual profile with relieving arches ; and behind 
 the whole front runs a wall which closes the gorge and separates it from the city. Bastion No. 
 4 has the usual profile with relieving arches, and two earthen epaulements parallel with the 
 flanks to protect them from reverse fire. The gorge is closed by a loop-holed wall, and casern, 
 firing towards the city. In this enceinte the intention is manifest of constructing no works out- 
 side the ditches. 
 
 Upon comparing these constructions with those of the continuous enceinte of Paris, we cannot 
 avoid being struck with the different nature of each, and the Lasis of instruction at the Engineer 
 School at Metz. The Paris enceinte is a simple bastioned trace, whilst here we have batteries, 
 casemated or covered from the enemy by orillons, and intended to flank the curtains, consisting 
 frequently of a simple loop-holed wall; and again bomb-proof shelters, and other casemated 
 batteries placed in certain localities for the purpose of battering distant points — the prominent 
 features of the German system. Which of the two best fulfills the object, and what may be the 
 motives of these differences, emanating from the same corps of engineers, are points we shall not 
 touch upon at present. Let us pass on to the exterior forts of the two places, these being the 
 best evidences of the ideas we are endeavoring to investigate. 
 
 Exterior or detached forts of Paris. (Plate 3.) The second line of defense of thi. /"_ lace 
 consists of sixteen detached forts, to wit: 
 
 1. Three forts around St. Denis, forming of this point an independent defensive position, 
 next to which is the Fort d'Aubervilliers, between the roads leading to the north-northeastern 
 frontier. 
 
 2. On the right of the latter are four forts surrounding the heights of Montreuil, occupying 
 the summits of the plateau and resting upon the Marne. The ancient Castle of Vincennes is 
 the central point and the arsenal of this second position. Thus this eastern side of Paris is a 
 great battle field and camp ground, fortified by permanent works, between which are several 
 permanent redoubts, on sites commanding ravines or hollows not seen from the forts. The value 
 of this position would be greatly increased by field works constructed under their cooperating 
 influence during an impending siege, and this battle field occupied in proper force might be 
 victoriously disputed against a greatly superior numerical force. 
 
 3. The redoubts of Faisanderie and G-revelle, united by an earthern rampart with strong 
 profile, occupy a narrow neck of land formed by a great bend of the Marne, preserving the com- 
 munication between Fort de Nogent, on the heights of Montreuil, and Fort de Charenton, 
 between the Marne and the Seine, together with this avenue of approach, covering the rear of 
 the position of Montreuil and keeping up the communication with the next or 4 group. 
 
 4. The line of five forts covering the south of Paris, occupying the great highways that 
 radiate from the capital through this extended line. 
 
 The west side of the city, twice covered by the Seine, was judged sufficiently protected by 
 the Fort of Mont Valerian, occupying the center of all this line from Fort d'Isly around to St. 
 Denis. An enemy would not venture an advance into the bends of the river. This is also the 
 side opposite the line of probable invasion, a circumstance of much importance in connection 
 with a place of such immense development. Two more forts have been contemplated to occupy 
 points on this line between Mont Valerian and St. Denis, and opposite St. Cloud and Sevres. 
 
 On an average these forts are 2,000 meters from the continuous enceinte, and about the same 
 distance apart. They are all connected by a military road affording speedy communication 
 between each. An army surrounding Paris within cannon range of the detached forts, would 
 
o 
 
 200 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 not occupy less than ten leagues. It is not hazarding much to say that in the event of a truly 
 national loar, embodying all the resources and interest of the nation, these fortifications of Paris 
 would render it impregnable against any alliance that could be formed against her, and in that 
 light fulfill all the conditions the science of the engineer can ofler in defense of the capital and, 
 in this case, heart of the Empire. 
 
 We now advert to the nature of the forts, in like manner as we have done with the enceinte. 
 They have four or five fronts each, the size varying according to the capacity it was deemed 
 necessary to give the former. 
 
 As an example of the quadrangular works, we shall cite Fort I'Est, at St. Denis. It is 
 constructed upon a rectangle, with sides of 300 to 350 meters. The trace is the bastioned one, 
 as prescribed by Vauban for these polygons. The height of the scarp is ten meters, and the 
 counterscarp from six to seven, and the ditch twenty-five meters wide, nearly. The parapets 
 rest directly against and over the scarps throughout its perimeter, with the exception of part of 
 the front facing the city of St. Denis, and the opposite parallel front, which have their parapets 
 and ramparts thrown back, and the superior part of the scarp loop-holed for infantry fires from 
 a chemin-de-ronde , formed by thus throwing back the rampart on the faces and flanks, and on 
 the curtains as far as the casemates. On the curtain of the gateway front are five casemates, 
 where the parapet is again brought forward and over the scarp, through the center one of which 
 is the entrance, with a Poncelet draw-bridge, with solid earthen bridge or road across the ditch, 
 with slopes of 4.5°. On the terreplein of the work and on the right and left of the entrance is a 
 three-story casern for officers' quarters. On the covered way of the gateway front is a reentering 
 place for arms, in which is a masonry crennated tambour, through one face of which the road 
 passes. The counterscarps of the entire work are earthen slopes. The curtain opposite the 
 gateway has, in like manner, five casemates on the center, one of which is a communication with 
 the ditch. Its gate is covered by a tenaille, from whence there is a communication to the reen- 
 tering place of arms of the covert way, in which, as on the gateway front, is a masonry 
 tambour, with walls two feet six inches thick, crennated, of two faces, two short flanks, and a 
 closed gorge. The crest of the glacis is cut en cremailliere, to throw more infantry fire on the 
 salients in the direction of Fort d'Aubervilliers. The fronts on the right and left are similar, 
 with scarps surmounted by earthen parapets on full ramparts on the faces and flanks, the curtains 
 being casemated, with eleven caserns each, having a door and two windows on the jDarade in 
 each casemate, with loop holes firing into the ditch. There is a communication from the center 
 casern to the bottom of the ditch, and thence, under cover of an open caponnier, to the covert 
 way, with a reentering place of arms in the covert way. The crest of the glacis is cut en 
 cremailliere, as the other fronts, to throw the fire on the salients. Parallel to the curtain oppo- 
 site the entrance is a large three-story casern, not bomb proof. A magazine, within a yard 
 inclosed by a brick wall, is located in the gorge of the northeast and southeast bastions. The 
 covered way of this work is connected with the canal embankment by a covered communi- 
 cation. 
 
 Eight y-poimder guns are mounted in this work, as well as at Fort de la Breche, and others, 
 of same caliber, are in depot for mounting, together with guns of lighter caliber. 
 
 The inclosed forts on the east side of Paris are in general fortified rectangles from the bend 
 of the Seine near St. Denis up to the Marne, and similar in details and principles to the one 
 just described, with the exception of Fort d'Aubervilliers, which is an irregular pentagon, the 
 sides of which are 250, 280, and 350 meters, about. 
 
 The four forts on the crest of the heights of Montreuil have advanced works, extending 
 forward, to occupy the entire plateau of the small spurs on which these forts are located, to 
 command parts of the slopes not battered by the forts ; for which purpose the redoubts before 
 referred to had also to be constructed. 
 
 The problem of defense for this entire line of heights, covering Montreuil, is particularly 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 201 
 
 interesting to the engineers as a study, to aid which I am fortunately enabled to accompany this 
 report with an exceedingly accurate plan, (Plate 3,) giving the horizontal curves of the ground 
 from the surve3's and publications of the department of the Seine. 
 
 Among the detached forts surrounding the city on the south, are five jjcntagonal ones : 
 that of Charenton, situated on level ground, being nearly regular, with sides of about 300 
 meters. Powder magazines are constructed in the gorge of each bastion, and on the three least 
 assailable fronts are two barracks and two sets of quarters for officers, the details of which 
 conform with those represented in Plates 30, 31, and 32. In other respects the disposition of 
 the fort is the same as the one heretofore described. 
 
 The fort on Mont Valerian is also constructed upon a pentagon, but its sides are greater 
 than any of the others, being from 350 to 400 meters. This hill was so conical as not to give suffi- 
 cient space to occupy its summit with a defensive work, yet it was necessary to occupy as high 
 ground as practicable to command the adjacent and surrounding country ; hence the line of its 
 magistral, although horizontal, is some distance down the slope of the hill, leaving its summit 
 as a great traverse and parados for the whole interior of the work. The summit of the hill forms 
 a second terreplein, which is partially surrounded with an earthen parapet, and upon which is 
 located bomb-proof quarters, as given in Plate 30, 31, and 32, and storehouses for artillery, 
 munitions, and equipments. Like all the rest, it has no demi-luncs, and only small places of 
 arms opposite the center of its fronts, with masonry counterscarps, and covered ways on four 
 fronts. In the bastions are high cavaliers, in a great measure amounting to a second work within 
 the first trace, on the slope of the hill, that elevates the crest far above the usual height of bastion 
 cavaliers. The irregularity of the ground has caused a departure from parallelism in the faces 
 and flanks of these elevated parapets, compared with those of the main inclosure ; and the same 
 cause has introduced changes in the profile of the rampart, not only on the several fronts, but 
 difierent parts of the same front. For example^ on the gateway curtain there is no other 
 defense than musketry from behind the crest of the scarp, which forms a stone parapet of three feet 
 six inches thick, backed by an earthen banquette, which is continued on each flank and a short 
 distance on each face. The flank on the right of the gateway, looking from the work, is thrown 
 back from the scarp joining that of the face of the bastion, which extends in the usual manner 
 over the scarp. On the left, there is a similar retired flank connected with the faces of the 
 bastions also thrown to the rear, giving the cJiemin-de-ronde on the faces and flanks of this 
 bastion, witliin which is a high cavalier. Tlie scarps and counterscarps of this i'ront are of solid 
 masonry, with a tambour of masonry covering the head of the bridge connecting with the main 
 gate, and no covert way. Another front has the parapet of both its faces thrown to the front 
 over the scarp, with those of the flanks and curtain thrown back to give the chemin-deronde, 
 and the top of the scarp finished three feet six inches thick, serving as the infantry para23et. A 
 cavalier in the right bastion has its flank on this front, prolonged to the rear to intersect the 
 steep slope of the natural surface of the hill ; while in the left bastion the cavalier flanks are 
 prolonged greatly to the rear, and terminated by a ramp commencing in rear of the curtain and 
 ascending behind this cavalier to the upper plateau. Tliere is a bomb-proof communication 
 under tliis cavalier from one flank to the other in this bastion, connected with one on the line of 
 the capital leading to the gorge ; serving, I presume, as shelter to the troops only. The coun- 
 terscarp of this front is of masonry, with a narrow covert way and glacis coupe on the left ; the 
 prolongation of which gives a ditch through a spur of the hill. In the reentering place of arms 
 is an open masonry loop-holed reduit, with small retired flanks. The descent to the ditch on this 
 front, is by a covered masonry staircase, from the cliemin-de-ronde on the curtain, and the com- 
 munication from its postern across the ditch is covered b}^ a slight tenaille and caponnier to the 
 counterscarp. 
 
 On another front tlie profile again differs. Upon it there is a double earthen parapet along 
 the whole front, with a chemin-de-ronde on tlie curtain, and flanks in addition ; the sui^erior 
 26 D 
 
202 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 parapet along the curtain, being a junction of the bastion cavalier flanks. The counterscarp and 
 covert way, with the communications, are in this case similar to the preceding front. In the 
 salients of one of these bastions, and in the salient of the corresponding covert way, are mounted 
 
 9i-IXCH LOXG GUNS. 
 
 The trace of this front is peculiar, in this : that the faces of the bastions produced, fall upon 
 and intersect each other on the center of the face of the scarp of the curtain, and intersect the 
 earthen parapet of the flank about twenty feet in advance of the curtain angle. The prolonga- 
 tion of the face of the scarp of the curtain divides this flank in nearly equal parts. 
 
 Another front still differs, although arranged on precisely the same jirinciples. 
 
 The draw-bridge is that of Poncelet ; a correct drawing of the hand-rail of which may be 
 found in Volume 16, Plate 4, of the French Memwial du Genie, maneuvered with the bridge ; 
 a detail we have entirely neglected. 
 
 A good outline of three of the fronts of Fort Valerian, is given in the Memorial du Genie, 
 
 Volume IG, Plate 14, Fig. 11 ; which, although intended to illustrate another subject, is very 
 correct. 
 
 To judge of the strength of these forts satisfactorily, let us consider one of them isolated 
 and without any protection from troops in the field, and we will find : first, that in all the fronts, 
 not exceding 300 meters, the flanking is very imperfect, the scarp being ten meters high ; second, 
 for want of demi-lunes the capitals of the bastions are entirely deprived of fires, except indi- 
 rectly from contiguous posts and by expedients. The bastions are so small, especially in the four- 
 sided jjolygons, that retrenchments are impossible ; and the barracks, constructed without any 
 defensive object, cannot supply the place of retrenchments. An exception to this exists in the 
 redoubts of Faisanderie and Gravelle, where a defensive casern occupies the center of the gorge. 
 Maurice, in his Memoir, has calculated the theoretic duration of the siege of one of these pen- 
 tagonal forts at fifteen days, or four days less than an octagon of Vauban trace. 
 
 Let us now glance at the organization of the detached forts of Lyons, and examine in what 
 they difler from those just cited, bearing in mind they are all the conception and execution of the 
 officers of the present corps of French Engineers or their cotemporaries and immediate successors. 
 
 Forts of Lyons. — (Plates 4, 5, 6, and 7.) 
 
 In these we must distinguish three classes : First, forts on level and low ground with facili- 
 ties for filling their ditches with water. Such are the nine on the left bank of the Rhone, (see 
 Plate 4,) commencing with La Vitriolerie, down the river below the city, and ending with St. 
 Laurent, above the city. Secondly, those situated on high ground and having few irregularities, 
 as the Forts Montessuy and Caluire in advance of tlie enceinte of Croix Eousse; and thirdly, 
 those situated on high and qiiite irregular ground, as Fort Loyasse on the river (Soane) and 
 terminating the enceinte of Fourvi^rs, and those on the crest of the hill in advance of this 
 enceinte following the course of the Soane. 
 
 Forts on the left bank of the lihone. 
 
 The first thing that strikes the attention in tliese forts is the combination of wet and dry 
 ditches. Elsewhere we have alluded to the advantage the defense derives from this disposition. 
 
 Fort of Villeurhanne. — The exterior enceinte of this fort (Plate 7) is composed of four 
 bastioned fronts, connected with two branches forming an obtuse angle, (reentering,) covered by 
 a counterguard. Its scarp is principally an earthen slope, rising from the wet ditch, of seventy 
 feet wide, the level of the water being five feet below and the crest being thirty feet above the 
 level of the site, the flanks of the most exposed fronts being casemated and hence revetted. The 
 reentering angle of the two branches is also revetted and casemated for three guns each side of 
 the reentering. We invite attention to this disposition of batteries much used by Montalembert 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 203 
 
 and the German engineers, as well as in our own most recent casemated sea-coast forts, to wit: 
 that of iilacing a gun on the flank and the adjacent gun on the curtain in such close proximity 
 as that the blast from one endangers the explosion of the cartridge that may be in the hands of 
 the gunner loading the other — a dis23osition much ojjposed by European engineers, although 
 adopted in our service as of no consideration. It is not too late for us to reconsider this question 
 in many works remaining to be constructed. 
 
 The main entrance is in the west front through a large casern in the center of the curtain, 
 with draw-bridge communication to the exterior. The south front has a cut in its curtain 
 revetted with masonry, being more retired and with less elevation. The cut is defended from 
 the interior redoubt, as on the north front and in the Fort of La Motte. 
 
 In the bastions of the east front are two traverses, starting from the middle of the faces, 
 running parallel to the capital. The space between them has a raised terreplein serving as a 
 barbette cavalier, giving so much additional flank along the glacis of the opposite bastion and 
 capital. The terreplein of these bastions at the gorge is arranged as a glacis to the interior 
 redoubt. The north front is precisely similar to the south. The northwest front, as we have 
 said, is the only one not bastioned. The semi-bastions formed by the junction of the north and 
 northwest fronts are covered by the counterguard of earth without revetment and with a wet 
 ditch . 
 
 The interior face of the rampart of this second enceinte which forms the counterscarp of the 
 first or interior work is constructed with relieving vaults, affording a loop-holed gallery with a 
 tier of reverse fires over the dry ditch. This gallery communicates with the casemated batteries 
 of the flanks of the east front. 
 
 The redoubt or interior enceinte takes the form of a trapezium ; the side parallel to the front 
 of attack (or eastern side) is slightly broken and thrown to the rear from the center to obtain 
 room on the capital for a casemated caponnier to flank the scarps and ditch, having two guns in 
 each flank on the lower floor and loop holes on the upper floor, the faces loop-holed on both floors. 
 Other caponniers are constructed with one face on the line of the gorge front to flank the ditches 
 of the north and south branches of this interior work, with one gun and loop holes, and are 
 similar to those of the German system. 
 
 The gorge is flanked from a projecting part in the center of a large barrack on the middle 
 of the front. 
 
 The scarp on the north, south, and east faces of this interior work is in part detached from 
 the rampart, forming a chemin-de-ronde, the terreplein of which is about seven feet below the 
 crest, with loop holes through the masonry for infantry fire, and occasionally machicoulis to 
 defend the foot of the scarp in front of a postern, and arranged with masonry traverses. 
 
 The defensive caponni.ers of the west front are entirely covered with earth. The interior 
 redoubt has a command of about fifteen feet over the crest of the exterior enceinte. 
 
 The defensive barrack will accommodate about 500 men ; and the armament of the work 
 consists at present of four IG-jiounders, ten iron guns of various calibers, sixteen howitzers, and 
 seven mortars. 
 
 Such is the organization of nearly all the forts on the left of the Rhone, with slight differ- 
 ences, arising from locality. (See the plans of Forts Vitriolerie, Colombiere, Broteaux, Char- 
 pennes, La Motte, and Tete d'Or, on Plate 7.) 
 
 The forts of the second class are Montessuy and Caluire. The principal one is Montessuy, 
 situated on the highest part of the peninsula, near the steep bank of the Rhone, (Plate 4,) com- 
 manding the surrounding country, the manufacturing district of Croix-Rousse, and a part of the 
 city. The fort is constructed on an irregular quadrilateral, with sides of 190, 120, and 180 
 meters in length. The fronts are all bastioned, and with a solid earthen rampart, with loop- 
 holed detached scarps of twenty-five feet, and chcmin-de-ronde, with masonry traverses. It has 
 
204 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 a dry ditch, eighty feet wide, and eighteen feet of revetted counterscarp and covered way of slight 
 elevation, surrounding the entire work. 
 
 In the covered way of the south front, through which the work is entered, is a small place 
 of arms, with its reduit of masonry and guard-house. The ditch of the curtain of this front is 
 excavated in the j^rolongation of the planes of fire from the flanks, leaving a crest at the height 
 of the draw-hridge, as a communication from the place of arms intercepted hy the draw-hridge. 
 The very short curtain made this necessary, that the hottom of the ditch might he swept from 
 the flanks. 
 
 The other three fronts offer no peculiarities. The four hastions are empty, with barhettc 
 batteries at the salients. Ui)on the terrejilein, and parallel with the curtain of the south front, 
 are large caserns for artillery stores. 
 
 The loop-holed chemin-de-ronde, behind the scarp, is similar to those previously described, 
 with machicoulis at the center of the curtain over the postern of the south front ; and others at 
 the extremes of this curtain to command the dead angles arising from its limited length. 
 
 The barrack, which is a defensive one, like those in the other forts, occupies nearly the 
 center of the terreplein, and inclosed by a rampart of earth, one of whose sides is the curtain of 
 the east front. This rampart, surmounted by a jjarapet, has a command of thirty-six feet over 
 the natural level, producing a very long exterior slope on this curtain, the crest of the parapet 
 being in a plane with the second floor of the barrack. This high rampart is continued across 
 the work north of the barrack to the curtain of the west front, along which it is returned a short 
 distance, and to a line with the side of the barrack. A short return of the south line of this 
 rampart connects it witli the southwestern corner of the barrack ; the whole forming an interior 
 retrenchment and reduit. The magazine is under the terreplein of the north branch of this 
 retrenchment, the rampart of which is made very wide, admitting of these bomb-proofs. The 
 door is placed in the postern which communicates between the north and west and south fronts. 
 
 The communication between the north and south fronts on the east is secured bj^ the chemin- 
 de-ronde of the eastern front, access to it being had by small posterns, with stairways in the 
 angles of the flanks. 
 
 A large cistern is built under the barrack. The latter is three stories, loop-holed with a 
 masonry parapet on the roof, giving four tiers of musketry fire, and calculated for 500 men. 
 
 The armament of this fort was sixteen 24-pounders, five 12-pounders, six mortars, twenty- 
 three 9-pounder howitzers, and six pieces of diflerent calibers in the bastions. 
 
 At the foot of the glacis of the reentering angle of the covered way of the north front, is a 
 small irregular lunette of masonry, on the flanks of which are two casemates each for a single 
 gun, and in front of them (the flanks) a small revetted ditch. The faces of this lunette are also 
 covered with a ditch with masonry counterscarp. The scarp of the faces is loop-holed, with 
 relieving arches on the interior, and surmounted by a parapet. The gorge is closed by a loop- 
 holed wall and a small guard-house. 
 
 A large lunette of masonry, similar to one in Fort Charjiennes, exists about 170 yards in 
 advance of the small one on this same north front. The scarps are surrounded by a parapet for 
 musketry, with barbettes at the salients. There is a reverse fire of musketry from the counter- 
 scarp and posterns under the ditch. A system of mines and galleries is formed under the glacis. 
 The defensive barrack is placed in the gorge, and serves to flank it. An underground gallery 
 communicates from this lunette to the fort. 
 
 The forts on the right bank of the Soane will aflbrd us types deviating still further from the 
 bastioned system. 
 
 Fort St. Irene, for example, is a lunette, closed at its gorge with a defensive barrack (Plate 5) 
 in its center, the latter forming the curtain of the small bastion trace of this gorge. This barrack 
 is two stories in height, loop-holed and bomb-proof, with its roof arranged for musketry. The 
 profile of this fort is like that of Montessu3^ To flank the faces and flanks there are caponniers 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 205 
 
 on the slioulder angles of two tiers of fire, the lower one exclusively for infantry, and the upper 
 one with two pieces of artillery. The faces of these caponniers do not intersect on the capital, 
 the trace being at right angles to the capital, which part is covered by a machicoulis scarp served 
 from the second tier. 
 
 The counterscarp, which has a loop-holed gallery, also sweeps these ditches with reverse 
 fires, the whole fort being protected by a covered way, with a large place of arms on the capital 
 of the work. 
 
 The principal entrance to this fort is inclosed as a large place of arms by barracks, with 
 loop-holed walls and earthen ramparts, revetted with masoury, with a ditch. 
 
 The work itself is divided into two parts by a rampart and parapet crossing the terreplein 
 on a line with the west side of the barrack in the center of the gorge front. 
 
 The western portion of this lunette so divided is much lower than the other, and communi- 
 cates with it by a postern near the barrack. This dividing rampart is not revetted. The 
 revetment of the scarp of the lunette is of masonry, detached, with a loop-holed cliemin-de- 
 ronde and traverse walls, as in the other works. Machicoulis are formed through this detached 
 scarp, to command the dead spaces and postern openings. The counterscarp gallery is divided 
 into rooms of 11 feet by 8, with two loop holes in each. In the rear are openings for mining 
 shafts and galleries. 
 
 The great place of arms in the rear of this work calls for further notice. Its north front is 
 occupied throughout nearly its whole length by a loop-holed barrack, which has no other 
 flanking arrangement than that furnished by a central projection or balcony provided with 
 machicoulis to command the entrance to the postern. The east front is formed by a bastioned 
 and loop-holed wall, the curtain of which is occupied by the officers' quarters, &c. In the 
 interior is a storehouse for artillery munitions.* The armament of tliis fort consists of thirty-one 
 pieces of artillery. 
 
 Fort St. Foi, situated very near the town of the same name, is on the same line of river 
 hills as St. Irene. Its form is that of a parallelogram, one of the shorter sides being on the edge 
 of the plateau, and opposite Fort Vitriolerie. 
 
 The scarps of the south and west fronts are casemated for musketry on the lower tier, with 
 artillery on the flanks. The western front is broken to the rear in the center, where there is a 
 masonry caponnier of two stories, the upper one for artillery entirely, and analogous to the 
 polygonal trace of Montalembert. In the dead angles of the caponnier, and along the faces of 
 this front, machicoulis are constructed for commanding the ditch at the foot of the scarp. 
 
 Such, in general, is a description of the enceintes and detached forts of this remarkable 
 system of defense of the city of Lyons. 
 
 We have previously adverted to the diff'erence in the enceintes of these two great places of 
 war, Paris and Lyons. The differences therein are susceptible of explanation, without neces- 
 sarily supposing a decided difference of opinion in the principles of fortification between the 
 authors of the two designs. Special considerations of economy, or other reasons, may have 
 dictated and required in the one what could not be effected in the other. There is nothing to 
 show, from the study of these two great fortresses, what should be the relative strength between 
 the enceinte and the detached exterior line of defense, while there is strong reason to believe 
 that the engineers of the enceinte at Lyons were more imbued with the advantages of the German 
 school than the simple bastioned trace they practiced about Paris. 
 
 Upon comparing the detached exterior forts, it is impossible to deny that principles of 
 fortification have been admitted in some of them differing essentially from those admitted in 
 others, and we may even venture to state, of an opposite nature. 
 
 In the forts of Lyons, the scarps have either musketry fires from covered galleries, or from 
 chemin-de-ronde behind detached scarps ; Hhe artillery of the flanks in the bastioned fronts is 
 
 •The roiiicuiis of a Roman aciutcUict still exist near tliis latter building. 
 
206 ART OF WAR IX EUROPE. 
 
 alwaj's casemated if exposed to fire. If, on account of the diminished size of the fronts and 
 depth of ditcli, the flanking of the latter hj parapet fires becomes imperfect, the bastioned trace 
 is abandoned, and, as a substitute^ caponniers and counterscarp fires are introduced; finally, 
 the barracks always enter as a defensive element, and, protecting their masonry from distant 
 fires by the parapets of the covering works, they are reserved to oppose the storming of the 
 breach, and to make a last defense in the reduced space to which both parties are then limited. 
 
 These ideas are presented, not to make a comparison between the strength of the two places, 
 but to point out the essentially distinct nature of the principles of fortification which have pre- 
 vailed in their construction^ and particularly as there are some who contend the difi'erences are 
 due to locality only, and not any change of views from the teachings, at Metz, of the Isoizet 
 system. 
 
 We can but think that the fortifications of Lyons decidedly prove that the French corps 
 of engineers do not entirely agree in assigning to the bastioned system that degree of pre- 
 eminence, which imtil latterly appeared generally acknowledged in their country; and that 
 efibrts are being made by several individuals of the corps to adopt and introduce, although with 
 certain limitations, new principles, which, although approved by theoretical demonstration, 
 have not as yet received the sanction of experience in actual warfare. It maybe justly considered 
 that the fortifications of Lyons are an intermediate step between the French and German 
 systems, having many more points of similarity or resemblance to the latter. 
 
 In the sequel we shall have occasion to develop this view still further, and then be enabled 
 to appreciate better the defensive value of these isolated works, by a comparison between the 
 three types presented, at Paris, Lyons, and various places in Germany. 
 
 The importance of this investigation, connected with the instruction in fortification in our 
 own country, where as yet we have confined our study almost entirely to the French school, 
 justifies me in presenting the opinion of a talented Dutch engineer and author of the present 
 date, (Merks,) who says : " We have shown that Cormontaigne's trace, with the slight improve- 
 ments subsequently introduced by the school at Mezieres, is no longer used in France, except as 
 a guide in the teaching of permanent fortification in the military schools, and for the reason that 
 it contains certain improvements by means of which, or rather by carrying out their spirit, the 
 existing places constructed by Vauban more than a century ago, might be improved. Those 
 who previous to the Belgian insurrection had an opportunity of examining the French plans 
 for the fortification of Rocroi, and the improvements of the strong places on the northern and 
 eastern frontiers, as well as the works previously constructed by engineers of the same nation, at 
 Alexandria and other points, must have come to the conclusion that in France they are far from 
 following to the letter the precepts of the school of Mezieres." 
 
 It will now be seen with what reason we deemed it difficult to define in a precise manner 
 what must be understood by the French system of fortification ; but since we must adopt a fixed 
 and determinate basis in order to institute a comparison with the German system, we must con- 
 clude that the former maybe represented by Noizet's trace, denominating it the " modern system 
 corrected," applying to it such modifications of Choumara and Haxo as do not constitute a 
 departure from the characteristic spirit of the bastioned system. 
 
 Modern German System of FoRTiFicATio>f. 
 
 Under this head, we designate the series of principles, that have served as a basis for the 
 different traces adopted in the construction of fortresses in the several German States, and 
 according to which several of the ancient works have been repaired or enlarged. 
 
 Up to this day but few military writers have taken this subject into consideration, and the 
 views of these are too restricted to be of service a^references in describing determinate places. 
 The work of Colonel Humfrey is specially devoted to a description of the works at Coblentz on 
 
AKT OF WAU IN EUROPE. 207 
 
 the Rhine, (published in London, in 1838,) coniining liis lubors principally to one side of the 
 river ; although accompanying his Memoir with accurate and detailed plans, his observations 
 and opinions concerning the defensive value of tliis place cannot be considered sufficient to form 
 an accurate judgment of the system. The trace presented by Colonel Humfrey refers to a 
 large detached work — Fort Alexander — and his remarks upon its defense are not sufficiently 
 developed with reference to general principles, nor are they applicable when treating of a large 
 continuous enceinte. His princijial aim seems to have been to make known what the Prussian 
 engineers had adopted for the site of the hill in rear of the city of Coblentz, or Fort Alexander, 
 and some adjacent redoubts. 
 
 Captain Madelaine, of the French service, has made an analysis of the same place, and 
 making Fort Alexander a special subject, arrives at a result diametically opposite to that of the 
 British author. He considers its defensive value as for below that of the bastioned system 
 applied to the same ground. His Memoir is of little or no assistance in reference to our exposi- 
 tion of the system. 
 
 The various Memoirs recently published by Maurice de Sellon are far from furthering an 
 exposition of the system, since, without detei'raining the principles or the spirit of the new forti- 
 fications, he seems rather to aim at estimating the defensive strengtli of some of their traces, by a 
 comparison with the bastioned trace ; thus, even supposing the results he arrives at accurate, 
 which it will be seen hereafter we are far from admitting, they neither suffice to determine the 
 question, nor to prove whether the German innovations contribute or not a real improvement in 
 fortification. 
 
 The German engineers, whose works might guide us safely in this matter, observe the 
 strictest silence, indiflferent alike to exaggerated praise on the one liand, or severe strictures 
 on the other. 
 
 So for as we know, the Prussian Engineer General Bresse alone has written " on the orirjhi 
 and nature of the new fortifications in Germany ;" but this work, containing lengthy general 
 considerations on the subject, does not impart a complete knowledge of the system. The system, 
 springing in a great measure from that of Montalembert, (as stated by Zastrow, who confines 
 himself to this mere indication,) gives rise, as well as Montalembert' s, to a great variety of 
 combinations, and it is not sufficient to present and analyze its leading principles, but we must 
 inquire in what manner they have been combined in each particular case ; which of them pre- 
 dominates, and how far each should be admitted. 
 
 Thus it is that, on examining in detail the new fortresses of Germany, it might be supposed 
 that tlie same maxims have not been adhered to in all, or that tlieir engineers have not agreed 
 in the choice of a type or front representing the best possible combination ; nor is the diversified 
 topography of the points fortified sufficient to account for these diflerences ; for not only does 
 the general plan of a fortress diff'er according to its special strategic object in the system of the 
 country, but the works likewise of the same place are of a diiferent nature, according to their 
 object, with respect to the place. Thus the places of Coblentz and Posen, both the conceptions 
 of Prussian engineers, differ materially; and we moreover see iu the latter two very distinct 
 traces in the fronts of the enceinte and tliose of the citadel. (See Plate 26, Fig. 30, and Plate 
 27, Fig. 31.) 
 
 Greater difi'erences are even observed when comparing the fortresses of the different kingdoms 
 of the Germanic Confederation, and a very cursoryexamiuationof the fortifications of Posen, Eas- 
 tadt, Ulm, Ingolstadt, and others, is sufficient to establish this fact. The difficulty in accounting 
 for this variety in traces, has induced certain French authors to accuse the partisans of this sj'stem 
 of a want of unity, if not confidence, in their own principles ; alleging that, among so many 
 combinations, one surely should obtain the preference, and be constantly adliered to. 
 
 If this may be said with special reference to the fortresses of the Germanic Confederation, 
 tlic plans and projections of which are supposed to have been revised and approved by a board of 
 
208 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 military meu, must we not suppose a mucli greater variety in conception when turning to the 
 modern fortresses of other countries that have adopted the system followed in Germany ; the 
 latter not being tlie only country that, abandoning the bastioned system^ has sought, by the 
 adoption of new principles, to restore to fortified places their lost value. With the exception of 
 France, nearly all the poioers of Europe, that have been able to devote large sums to the construction 
 of neio fortresses and the repairs of old ones, have folloived in the footsteps of the German engi- 
 neers ; the result being a new school of fortification, supported by the assent of manj' engineers 
 who have had occular demonstration of the insufiiciency of the old places during the last conti- 
 nental wars, yet at the same time opposed by much of the talent of the French engineer corps, 
 and still lacking the test of experience in actual warfare, so indispensable for a safe analysis in 
 such matters. 
 
 Before entering upon an examination of this system, these considerations will justify our 
 touching upon certain details that may appear foreign to the purpose. While doing this we will 
 endeavor to point out those principles which appear of a general nature, from which will result 
 those that are distinguishing and characteristic. 
 
 The numerous circumstantial details in the possession of the Spanish Engineer Bureau of 
 the greater part if not all the fortresses of Germany, have put it in their power to give us most 
 accurate descriptive detailed plans of these works. How they may have succeeded in obtaining 
 them it is not for us to know; yet, so far as I liad an opportunity of examining the same works, 
 there is no room to doubt the perfect correctness of what Colonel Valijo has given us. 
 
 The greatest difiiculty lies in combining this information in such a manner as to render it 
 practicable to deduce fundamental rules and principles, at the same time that we duly qualify 
 those dictated by special reasons and peculiar circumstances. 
 
 The exposition of this system will embrace — 
 
 1. A description of the elementary works of a front, as caponniers, batteries of every descrip- 
 tion, defensive barracks, &c., &c. 
 
 2. The organization of an independent work, and its capacity for self-defen.se. 
 
 3. Description of the traces most generally used, and their application to marshy ground. 
 
 A . The composition of the plan of a fortress, and an idea of the general plan of some of the 
 most remarkable fortresses. 
 
 5. The attack of the system and its analysis. 
 
 Elementary Works of a Front . 
 
 Scarp and Counterscarp Walls. — Scarp walls are of three kinds ; first, supporting directly 
 the earth of the rampart; second, the same with the intervention of relieving arches, containing 
 one or more galleries or tiers for artillery or infixntry fire ; and third, detached from the ram- 
 part, loop-holed, and leaving between them and the exterior slope of the parapet a chemin-de- 
 ronde, the terreplein of which may be at different heights. 
 
 The second and third are those generally used in Germany. The first is only applied in 
 lines of little importance, and when circumstances require the economizing of interior space. 
 
 Sustaining >S'carps. — Yauban's proportions are followed for the thickness of these scarps. 
 The height judged suflicient to protect them from escalade, is thirty feet ; their batter one twelfth — 
 the mean between one fifth, given by Vauban, and one twentieth adopted in Franco. 
 
 Scarps ifith Relieving Arches. — These are used in works of great importance, and when 
 they are exposed to curved fires. They give a secure tier of musketry fire, and are breached 
 with great difSculty, since the falling of the scarp wall does not bring with it the earth of the 
 parapet or rampart. This construction is also apjjlied to the counterscarps giving reverse fires 
 in the ditches, and facilitating the disposition of defensive mines. If these walls have formerly 
 found opponents among the partisans of the bastioned system, their advantages are now 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 209 
 
 acknowledged by all, and used in preference to any other. Their greater cost is the only objec- 
 tion to their general use, although there is much contrariety of opinion on this point. According 
 to Gay de Vernon (French) the cost of a scarp, with relieving arches of the same stability as a 
 solid one, is one quarter less than the cost of the latter. Laisne, (more recent French authority,) 
 on the contrary, estimates them at one third less. In the recent German constructions, made of 
 brick, the cost is estimated as being greater by one half; and some suppose the cost to be double. 
 The locality, the kind of material, and its cost, are such variable elements, that the question can 
 only be decided for each particular work. 
 
 Plate 22, Fig. 6, represents the plan and profiles of one of these scarps with relieving arches, 
 and their usual dimensions, the vent holes for the escape of smoke, chimneys at intervals, and 
 the arrangement for drainage of the backs of the arches, by which the interior is kept perfectly 
 dry. The roof surfaces of the arches receive a coat of hydraulic cement ; upon this is a layer of 
 brick, which is covered by a layer of asphaltic mastic, and over this a layer of clay carefully 
 plastered on. 
 
 Detached Scarps. — These are either simple or with arches resting upon shallow buttress 
 piers, and give a banquette for a second tier of infantry fire. Altliough analogous to those of 
 Carnot, they ofi'er less resistance, but their construction is less complex. The chemin-de-ronde, 
 usually from six to eight feet in width, occasionally reaches twenty feet. It is then divided by piers, 
 which may be casemated, and admit of artillery. The advantage of these walls is, that their fall 
 does not bring with it the earth of the rampart, thereby rendering the breaches of very difficult 
 ascent. With less height they protect and guard against escalade, by the two-fold difficulty of 
 ascent on the one side and necessary descent on the other. The chemin-de-ronde allows troops 
 ascending the breach to be attacked in flank ; but, on the other hand, it is much exposed to 
 ricochet, and diminishes the interior space by requiring increased depth of rampart. These 
 qualities, and their costing less, is the reason of their frequent introduction in the fortresses of 
 Germany. 
 
 Tlie English engineers were among the first to experiment upon the utility and advantages 
 of the Carnot wall or detached scarp. In 1823, they constructed a section of such a scarp 
 covered by a glacis, as an experimental target, to ascertain whether they could or not be destroyed 
 with guns of heavy caliber, with long ranges and small elevation. The covering ma.ss of earth 
 in these experiments was sixty feet from the tuall, and was of the same height. The batteries 
 used in this experiment in August, 1824, and the attendant circumstances, were not such as 
 could be practiced against inland fortresses^ although they might along coasts admitting the 
 transportation of such an armament. Yet the wall was soon destroyed, and has more or less 
 discredited such scarps, although the German engineers continue to place full faith in them, and^ 
 I may say, the continental engineers as a body. A full description of these experiments may be 
 found in the published Papers of the Royal Engineers, vol. 2, page 45, &c. 
 
 This result, although the experiments were not repeated, and notwithstanding the favorable 
 circumstances under which they were made, together with the masonry being still fresh, proved 
 that these curved fires were a powerful means of attack against masonry scarps of all hinds ; and 
 that just as the isolated wall at Woolwich was destroyed, so would the front wall of a scarp of 
 relieving arches or other description sustain the same injury ; and many affirm that scarps 
 backed with earth will sooner yield in consequence of the pressure from behind. In the sequel 
 we shall have occasion to refer to what experience offers on this controverted subject, and then 
 add some remarks to which this important question gives rise. 
 
 Casemated Batteries and Redoubts — Defensive Barracks. — We shall first describe these works 
 before entering into an explanation of the system of which they constitute a part. The examples 
 given in Plates 22, 23, and 24, may be regarded as general tyjjes, in which certain dimensions 
 and angles only can vary in cases of special application. They are analogous to those proposed 
 by Montalembert ; and it may be said they have only been modified, at one time making them 
 27 B 
 
210 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 more simple, and at another giving them necessary solidity. Thus the German caponniers are 
 more judiciously disposed than those of Montalemhert, and the defensive barracks, of much greater 
 solidity and more suitably disposed, replace with greater advantage the imperfect towers of the 
 above-named author. As a general jirinciple, arches perpendicular to the scarj) alone are admis- 
 sible, and on no account parallel to it. 
 
 Mortar Batteries. — These are placed either in the interior of a work on the terreplein, or in 
 the salient angles under the terreplein of the rampart. In some instances, as at Coblentz, they 
 are under bomb-proof arches on the terreplein of the corps-de-place. The object of these bat- 
 teries is to throw hollow projectiles into the works of the besiegers on the glacis, and within 
 sectors on the capitals destitute of direct fire. Armed with mortars and stone mortars, they fire 
 charges of shells of the caliber of twenty-four, in place of baskets of stones, and the small grenade 
 generally used. 
 
 Plate 22, Fig. 7, represents one of the first kind. The space for each mortar is fifteen feet, 
 with a depth of twenty-four. The arch terminates on the exterior at each end of the casemate, 
 inclining upwards to prevent the blast damaging the masonry. The object of the narrow ditch 
 before it, is to receive the enemy's projectiles, coming within the opening of the battery or rolling 
 from the earthen slopes above, rendering their explosion harmless. 
 
 Plate 22, Figs. 8 and 9, represent two batteries under the rampart of a salient, for three and 
 five mortars. In the first the space for each mortar is reduced to a rectangle of ten by twelve 
 feet. In the salients formed by the scarps, is constructed a large solid bomb-proof or casemated 
 traverse, covering the battery in front, leaving between it and the face of the battery a court 
 of such width only as is necessary for the shells to pass at the required elevation from the 
 gun-rooms. The communication to these batteries is by a postern under the rampart along the 
 capital, and also by the cliemin<le-ronde, or galleries of relieving vaulted scarps. These mortar 
 batteries I noticed in the new Kussian fortresses g.s well as German. 
 
 Caponniers. — The most general form of these works is that represented in Plate 22, Figs. 
 11 and 12. They consist of the two flank casemated batteries, with an open interior court. 
 The salient is arranged for musketry in general, depending upon the size and necessity, whether 
 any artillery fire is introduced in that part. The flank batteries have the lower floor arranged 
 for musketry, and the upper one for artillery ; occasionally over the latter, is another uncovered 
 one for musketry. As these works are to be jjlaced between the fires of the counter-batteries, 
 they are so arranged that the openings through the embrasures and the interior walls of the 
 flanks shall not correspond, that the cannoniers may not be injured by embrasure shot from the 
 opposite flank. Sometimes a mortar battery is constructed between the shoulder angles of the 
 caponnier. The fortress of Kastadt (Plate 16, section on A B) ofiers examples of this arrange- 
 ment. It is in some instances constructed on the second tier, notwithstanding some engineers 
 deny the practicability of making an arch to resist the concussion of mortars, and even of howitzers. 
 Clavijo aflirms that these second tier mortar batteries at Eastadt have been subjected to actual 
 experiment without injury to the arches ; and I learn, that our own sea-coast casemated batteries 
 have been subjected to a severe test, without injury. 
 
 The figures on this Plate 22 express the dimensions most in use, and also the thickness of 
 the walls and bomb-proof shelters. 
 
 Flank Batteries. — The flanks of the caponniers might represent these batteries. When 
 speaking of their position in the fronts, we shall point out the communications with them. In 
 isolated works they are frequently placed in the counterscarp, in imitation of those proposed by 
 the school of Mezieres. 
 
 Defensive Barracks. — The general form of these structures is the most simjjle jiossible, and 
 the most suitable to fulfill their object. They consist of a series of rooms, separated by piers, 
 perpendicular to the exterior walls upon which rest the arches covering the difi'erent floors. 
 Parallel to the exterior wall, runs another separating the gun-room from the quarters, and forming 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 211 
 
 a continuous corridor for the artillery. The width of this corridor, or distance from the interior 
 of the scarp to the wall of the quarters, is from sixteen to twenty-four feet, according to the 
 imjiortance of the harrack. The tirst-meutioned size requires special gun carriages. The exterior 
 wall, without any other opening than the embrasure, has a thickness of between seven and eight 
 feet, and that of the piers less. The thickness of the bomb-proof arches, whose width is fifteen 
 feet, is between three and three and a half feet, and when serving only as floors, one and a half 
 feet is considered sufficient to bear the weight of artillery, (always small pieces.) They have 
 generally three floors, the lower one a half basement; on top is a terreplein surrounded 
 by a barbette battery covered by an earthen parapet. The height of each floor is from ten to 
 eleven feet, and the height of the barrack is regulated by the condition that its masonry must 
 be completely covered by the parapets of the work to which it serves as a redoubt. These 
 barracks have occasionally as many as four or five floors, as in the citadel of Posen, (Plate 28.) 
 Notwithstanding their height, they are covered by their location on the gorge, and along the 
 slope of the hill. These barracks are spacious and well ventilated, and were occupied by troops 
 at the time of my visit.' The length of the rooms was in the instance I measured forty-five feet, 
 and the gun-room sixteen, making about sixty-two feet in the clear between the scarps. The 
 windows overlooking the interior court, are sufficient to admit all necessary light, and these with 
 the openings on the corridor or gun-rooms, and the embrasures through the exterior scarp, are 
 all sufficient for good ventilation . Whether or not the barracks should constitute a part of the 
 defensive works, is a point to be noticed hereafter. 
 
 The barrack represented in Plate 22, Fig. 10, is one of the most simple, having but one 
 floor and a superior barbette battery or earthen parapet for musketry. The quarters may be 
 separated or not from the gun-room by a wall, as shown in Plate 23, Fig. 13, which represents a 
 portion of a barrack with three floors and a superior terreplein and parapet. These quarters are 
 thirty-five by twenty feet, with a height of eleven feet. 
 
 Interior Redoubts. — The barracks we have just described assume this name when situated, 
 for example, in the gorge of a lunette. Let us now see what relation exists between the barrack 
 and the work. A narrow ditch of nearly triangular section (Plate 23, Fig. 15) isolates it from 
 the interior of the fort, and in such manner that an entrance to the barrack by a bridge over the 
 ditch of the gorge is independent of the entrance to the fort, the entrance to the latter being also 
 on the gorge. This triangular ditch is defended either by musketry from the basement or by 
 small caponniers entered by a subterranean communication from the basement. From the lower 
 floor or from the caponniers run mining galleries which, crossing under the triangular ditch, 
 communicate with small chambers under the ramparts of the work, so that the interior system of 
 mines is entered from the central redoubt. Of the two tiers of casemated fires the lower one is 
 for howitzers to fire over the work upon the siege works ; the upper one batters directly the 
 terrepleins and parapets, and efficaciously opposes an assault of the breach and the first lodgments 
 on the glacis by the besieger. The upper battery, uncovered, serves as a cavalier for battering 
 the first siege works in concert with the artillery of the main work. 
 
 Plate 23, Fig. 15, represents an interior redoubt with one floor for artillery, covered, and 
 an upper terreplein, uncovered. It has no defensive corridor, the casemates with a length of 
 twenty-five feet serving as quarters. The subterranean gallery extending along the scarp, pro- 
 vided with loop holes, defends the ditch and counterscarp. It is furnished with shafts with 
 small staircases opening into the difierent mining galleries whicli issue from the barrack. 
 
 Figs. 1*7 and 18 of Plate 23 represent another redoubt with two covered floors for artillery 
 and an upper open terreplein. The basement for musketry might be reduced in width as a con- 
 tinuous gallery only, indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 18. The two upper floors are arched, 
 and have a thickness of one and a half and two feet. 
 
 Plate 24, Fig. 19, is an example of an interior redoubt in the gorge of a lunette. The floor 
 of the howitzer battery is a little above that of the interior court. The terreplein of tlie upper 
 
212 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 uncovered battery is very contracted, and the guns can only fire alternately. The mining 
 galleries run from the revetted counterscarp of the ditch of the barrack. This lunette is supposed 
 to communicate with another work in the rear by a subterranean gallery. 
 
 Plate 24, Fig. 20, is an interior redoubt applicable to a work in the form of a half bastion. 
 The fortress of Kastadt offers examples of this disposition, as at n and 20, Plate 15. 
 
 Defensive ba7-racl-s are frequently constructed for the special purpose of being used as quarters 
 in time of jDeace. They differ from the preceding in having no continuous gun-room corridor, 
 as in Plate 24, Figs. 21 and 22, wherein the drainage of the rampart, barricades, and other 
 details are given. 
 
 Vejifs for escape of smohe. — This precaution the German engineers consider unnecessary in 
 casemates open at the gorge, whether those openings consist of icindoivs or embrasures, as in the 
 caponniers of Plate 22. Openings are also made in the highest point of the crown of the case- 
 mate arch, giving the latter a slight inclination, as in Plate 23, Fig. 13. The flues are of an 
 elliptical form, and twelve by six inches diameter at the mouth. They may be carried up to the 
 terreplein^ as in the upper floor of tlie above mentioned figure, or be carried out through the 
 scarp as from the lower floors of the same barrack, and as also shown in Plate 23, Figs. 15 
 and 18. The objection is that it weakens the scarp, some instances of which exist in our own 
 works materially injuring the strength of the wall and lessening its resistance to ships' batteries. 
 
 Chimneys. — These are necessary to render the quarters habitable, and also to afford the men, 
 on special occasions during a siege, facilities for cooking. Their flues are almost always made 
 available for the escape of smoke from the guns, the use of which is most apt to be at times when 
 they would not be required for cooking. (See Plate 23, Figs. 13, 17, and 18, and Plate 24, 
 Figs. 21 and 22; also, Plate 22, Fig. 6, where they are introduced in the relieving arches.) 
 
 Drainage. — One of the principal studies in these works is to collect the rain water from the 
 terrepleins and roofs of the barrack and conduct it into the main ditches or other places to which 
 no injury can arise, otherwise the triangular ditch surrounding them would become filled to the 
 injury of the scarps and foundations. We have already stated that the extrados of the arches 
 are finished with roof surfaces made impermeable by hydraulic cement, a brick pavement, a coat 
 of asphaltic concrete, and a plastering of clay. The forms of these roof surfaces will vary with 
 the form of the arches, and every attention is paid in making the gutters over the piers, in order 
 that the pipes in the latter may lead the water to underground reservoirs. Notwithstanding the 
 great difficulty that has always existed in freeing the arches covered with earth from dampness, 
 it has been found that wherever these arrangements have been faithfully attended to the result 
 has been completely attained, as proved by the experience of the German engineers in all their 
 public edifices constructed for many years past. Figs. 6 of Plate 22 and 13 of Plate 23 show 
 the leaders for the reception of water along the chimneys, and Figs. 21 and 22 of Plate 24 show 
 in detail the means of collecting the water and conducting it to the ditches. This barrack offers 
 an example of the method of giving vent to the smoke without other openings than those from 
 the ceiling. 
 
 Barricade Grooves. — These same figures show the grooves for closing up any embrasure 
 opening, or from one casemate to another, by inserting timbers in the grooves, and filling the 
 intermediate space with sandbags or other convenient matter on the spur of the moment. We 
 have entirely neglected such precautions. 
 
 Powder Magazines. — We confine our remarks to the small permanent magazines constructed 
 in the ramparts. The only objection to them was the difficulty of keeping them dry ; and it may 
 now be asserted that this difficulty is overcome. The one represented in Plate 23, Fig. 14, is 
 supposed to be at the extremity of the fiank of a lunette, so that the arch leading to it rests on 
 the wall of the gorge of the magazine. It will be observed that there is an arched corridor 
 surrounding the magazine, into which the ventilator-flues open, and also openings which afford a 
 communication between the corridor and the postern gallery, by which means a continuous 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 213 
 
 current of air is attained. Observe, also, that there is a kind of antichamher in front of the 
 powder room. The exterior faces of the wall of the corridor are as carefully jirepared and 
 protected against rain-water as the backs of the arches, and freqiiently a thin wall of dry, stone 
 masonry is placed between them and the earth to facilitate the percolation of water. The plan 
 and three sections of this figure (14) clearly indicate all the details. 
 
 Fig. 23, Plate 24, represents two magazines similar in construction as to details to the one 
 just described, placed on the right and left of a postern or gateway. The floors are raised oif 
 the ground, leaving air space between the timbers and flooring boards. Thus arranged, these 
 magazines are considered good preservers of powder throughout the German States, without a 
 lining on the interior of any kind whatsoever — a practice, with us, attended with constant expense 
 for renewal. 
 
 Posterns and Bo'mb-2Jroof Communications. — The dimensions of the posterns or galleries 
 leading to the batteries vary according to the kind of guns with which they are armed. When 
 for mortars their width is five feet, and when for guns of heavy caliber nine feet. The one 
 represented in Plate 23, Fig. 16, is supposed to lead to a small three-gun battery or caponnier, with 
 musketry fires. Plate 24, Fig. 24, shows the usual proportions for counterscarp galleries and 
 the different kinds of mining galleries, in which it will be observed that particular attention is 
 given to barricade grooves. 
 
 Independeiit Defensible Works. 
 
 By this denomination is designated a work uniting in itself every necessary means for its 
 own defense, and capable of opposing the attack during any of its periods, without the necessity 
 of collateral or rear works. These works enter into the defensive system of a fortress in very 
 distinct ways, sometimes occupying the most salient and important points of the position ; 
 these points being connected by curtains wliich they protect, constitide an enceinte in which the 
 above works become the only and necessary points of attack, as is the case in the fortress of 
 Ulm.* 
 
 By increasing the capacity, and consequently the defensive force of these works, a small number 
 of these points sufiices to form the defensive basis of the position, and the great intervals between 
 them are closed by long curtains of less strength, since their retired position, or some other local 
 circumstance, protects them from attack. Nor would the taking of these curtains secure any 
 material advantages to the beseiger. 
 
 The place of Eastadt (Plate 15) is an exemplification of this principle. At Coblentzf these 
 independent works form a line Mith intervals, the fortifications of the city being to this line a 
 great redoubt. 
 
 They, also, very generally occupy around a fortress or city certain points of importance to 
 the defense ; or distributed around it, as at Cologne, they form a retrenched camp for large armies. 
 Even in those enceintes, consisting of many polygonal fronts, and which may be regarded as 
 continuous, there is always in each of them a key-point^ — an independent work upon which such 
 defense essentially devolves, as we shall see in the sequel. These works, which may be regarded 
 in the system under consideration as an elementary part of a fortified position, are those we are 
 about to describe as constituting the basis of the German system. Whatever position they occupy 
 their organization is generally the same, with the excej)tion of those dispositions regarding the 
 mutual protection that must frequently exist between them. This organization maybe summed 
 up, as follows : 
 
 First. The principal element in this "independent defensible work," (Plate 25, Fig. 25,) is a 
 
 *For a plan of Ulm, see " Eludes swr les Places ile Muyence et Ulm," par Lp Baron Maurice — Paris, 1852. 
 tFor a plan of Cobientz, see " Essai sur la Forlification Modern," par Le Baron P. Emile Maurice ; and, also, Colonel 
 Humfrey's work. 
 
214 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE, 
 
 bomb-proof defensive barrack, similar to those already described, closed at tbe gorge. It bas 
 generally two or three tiers of covered fire, and another tier upon the terreplein, covered by an 
 earthen parapet. Its ground plan, either circular or polygonal, is determined by the work of 
 which it is the redoubt. 
 
 Secondly. The barrack is surrounded by a work, whose front of attack has the profile of a 
 permanent fortification, and its gorge consists of a simple isolated wall. In the case of small 
 detached forts, but near the place, the form of this work is generally that of a lunette, the 
 barrack being in the gorge. The extremes or ends of the barrack project beyond and overlook 
 the gorge to flank its ditches. 
 
 When several of these works form a line, their mutual protection is essentially derived 
 from the artillery of these flanking fires from the barracks, to which end their trace is made 
 subordinate to the position of the work. This is a very essential circumstance, since without it 
 there would be no fires for reciprocal defense or flanking, except those of the uncovered artillery 
 of the terrepleins of the faces and flanks, which would be at variance with the spirit of this 
 system. 
 
 By the means now indicated this mutual protection exists, even after the works have been 
 assaulted. 
 
 Thirdly. For the terrepleins of the work there is a space proportionate to the strength of 
 the garrison. In this terreplein a ditch is cut at the foot of the scarp of the barrack on its 
 Avhole contour. This ditch is to cover small caponniers constructed in it for flanking the foot 
 of the scarp. They are protected by a second or independent ditch of their own, bringing the 
 loop holes to a suitable level to sweep the ditch of the barrack. These small caponniers commu- 
 nicate directly with the basement floor or gallery of the barrack. 
 
 A gateway, with draw and bridge, communicates from the court of the barrack, and thus, 
 with its whole interior, through the gorge to the country. A second draw and bridge commu- 
 nicate from the terreplein of the corps de 2^^'(ice direct with the country, so that the retreat of 
 the force defending the terrepleins and the reinforcements to be ordered up during the siege are 
 completely independent of the special garrison of the barrack. This arrangement must be 
 considered as a special and indispensible principle concerning the communications between a 
 front and the redoubts j)rotecting them, (the communications.) (See Plate 25, Fig. 25, bridges, 
 &c., a and b.) 
 
 The profile of the exterior work and of the barrack must be determined in such a manner that 
 the masonry of the latter shall be perfectly covered by tlie ramparts and parapets of the former, 
 which is attained by selecting for the barrack the lowest part of the point to be fortified, (as in 
 the case of the barrack of the citadel or Fort Viniari at Posen, Plate 28, where the redoubt in 
 the center of the gorge is on the slope of the ravine.) From twenty-five to thirty-five feet, the 
 ordinary height of a barrack of three floors, is a measurement not exceeding the relief usually 
 given to a work. The following are the objects of the different tiers of fire of a barrack: 
 
 First. The lower tier is intended to sweep with musketry the interior of the works and 
 prevent an approach to the counterscarp of its ditch. 
 
 Second. The second and third floors, armed with artillery, sweep the terreplein of the 
 rampart to oppose an assault of the breach, a lodgment on it by the besieger, and the construc- 
 tion of batteries against the barrack. 
 
 The second floor is armed with howitzers to overwhelm the nearest works of the attack with 
 hollow projectiles ; and I may here remark upon the great importance of this species of fire in 
 the defense of a work, and its weakness witliout, as most strikingly exemplified in the defense 
 by the Eussians of their lines about Sebastopol. As long as horizontal firing was kept up by 
 the Allies, little or no injury was done to the garrison of the works — the dismounting of the arma- 
 ment, and embrasure shot were the causes of material annoyance from this fire ; but after the 
 howitzer and mortar batteries opened upon the Kussian works it was no longer possible for the 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 215 
 
 garrison to maintain their posts behind the parapets. Hardly a foot of ground within the Rus- 
 sian lines, near the parapets, remained exemjit from the action of curved fire from the allied 
 howitzer and mortar batteries. The Russians had little other artillery than such as came from 
 their fleet, of which howitzers and mortars constituted no part. If now they could have concen- 
 trated a fire of fifty howitzers and mortars on the contracted fields of approach between the 
 ravines separating the diff'erent lines of the allied attacks or concentrated such a curved fire on the 
 heads of saps, or batteries under construction, it cannot be doubted that the besiegers would have 
 encountered greater difficulties, and made probably some of the lines of attack as difficult to 
 maintain as the precisely similar localities of their Russian opponents. If, now, these barracks 
 are provided with numerous howitzers, under bomb-proof casemates, not liable to the fire of an 
 enemy's artillery, until they shall have gained a lodgment on the work itself, we may with great 
 confidence believe in the wisdom of these arrangements of the German engineers. 
 
 In the third place, the uncovered fires of the upper terreplein command the exterior ground, 
 and acting as a cavalier, in connection with the fire of the exterior work, batters the first siege 
 works. 
 
 Fourth. In the most salient angle, under the ramparts or behind them, are established 
 mortar batteries, as described in Plate 22, Figs. 8 and 9, intended to bombard the works on the 
 glacis. In the same angle, and upon the terreplein, is placed a casemated traverse, to protect 
 the adjacent faces from ricochet. This traverse, the walls of which are covered by the earth of 
 the parapets, has a battery of howitzers to fire upon the heads of the enemy's approaches, or 
 upon the salients of the collateral works. 
 
 Fifth. The ditches of the work are flanked by caponniers in the salient or shoulder angles 
 of the scarps, which are entered by posterns from the corps-de-2)lace. These same caponniers 
 give entrance to the scarp galleries or to the chemins-des-ronde of the detached scarps. These 
 flanking defenses are sometimes placed in the counterscarps. 
 
 Sixth. The covered way is secured against attack by storm by block-houses or casemated 
 redoubts of masonry, covered by the crest of the glacis. These redoubts are reached either from 
 the counterscarp gallery, if there be one, or by a subterranean communication under the ditch. 
 
 Seventh. One of the great elements of these works consists in their two systems of mines, 
 the one interior and the other exterior. The exterior system is entered from the counterscarp 
 gallery, and sometimes from the scarp itself. Its simple disposition is reduced to galleries nor- 
 mal, or approximately so, to the perimeter of the work, which are carried more or less forward 
 under the glacis. The interior system issues from the caponniers of the ditch of the barrack, and 
 sometimes from its counterscarp by means of several galleries, which are divided to reach the 
 mine chambers, situated under the terrepleius ; chambers which tlie besieged may blow up the 
 moment the besieger establishes himself over them, or in case it should be necessary to dismantle 
 some of the lines of the work. 
 
 Eighth. For all the casemated works, such as caponniers, scarp, and counterscarp galleries, 
 block-houses, &c., there are subterranean communications which, whenever practicable, are made 
 to issue from the defensive barrack. This principle, although recommended for certain works, 
 is not without objection when carried to a great extent, as in some of the German works. The 
 morale of the garrison might be seriously affected by it. 
 
 Under the terrepleins and at those points where the scarps are least exposed to be battered, 
 powder magazines, as represented in Plates 23 and 24, are placed. When the work is an important 
 one, another one similar, but of greater dimensions, is usually constructed, under the rampart 
 near its termination, the communication being along the gorge wall as at c, of Plate 25, Fig. 25 ; 
 and finally on the right and left of the posterns, are constructed bomb-proofs, for guard-houses, 
 stores, tools, &c., &c. 
 
 Works of this description, or "independent defensive works," are not always as simple and 
 small as those we have just described. When the front to be covered has great extension, as the 
 
216 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 square of Fort Alexander, at Coblentz, one of the approved traces is applied on each side of the 
 square, strengthened by counterguards, denii-lunes, &c., but the " ensemhle" always corresponds 
 with the principles of this independent defensive work; and even composed of a series of them, 
 the combination produces a whole possessing the same principle as in the case of Rastadt, (Plate 
 15,) where there are three independent forts, united by lines constituting the enceinte about a city. 
 This example may be cited as a remarkable instance of the application of this system to marshy 
 and at times inundated groimd, with wet and dry ditches, and is undoubtedly one of the best 
 combinations of the German school. 
 
 A fortress of the nature of such as we have endeavored to describe, would appear to have 
 attained the highest defensive qualities. Independent of its system of mines, it is impossible to 
 take the covered way by storm, nor even by gradual approaches without previously destroying 
 its casemated redoubts ; and the besieger will have to make repeated efforts to do this, by resort- 
 ing to subterranean warfare. It will be necessary to construct the counter-batteries opposite the 
 batteries of the caponniers, (intact to this moment, as we suppose,) armed with their entire com- 
 plement of guns. The passage of the ditch effected and the breach assaulted, the besieger will 
 then have to make his first lodgments opposite and under the collective fire of the guns of the 
 barrack reduit ; and to subdue the latter he will again have to engage in subterranean warfare, 
 in a confined, contracted space, previously prepared with great care by the besieged. 
 
 This succession of attacks must afford an efficient garrison certain means of prolonging the 
 defense ; more especially so, as it has great facilities for relief and reinforcement. 
 
 We may say that the besieger has been necessitated to destroy successively all the defenses, 
 and of passing over or through each of them, in order to attack the defenses in the rear, that each 
 of the elements has fulfilled the intended object; thus exemplifying a great principle in forti- 
 fication, to wit : making every line of the work fulfill its object completely, enter into action at the 
 proper time, without having been previously silenced or neutralized by the enemy, and compelling 
 the latter to destroy them. 
 
 We have supposed the besieger to possess the same means of attack, and no more, than we 
 have assumed for the attack on the bastioned system ; that the masonry cannot be destroyed by 
 the enemy's artillery, vi\\Qn properly covered, from the exterior, as are the casemated redoubts of 
 the covered way, and the caponniers of the ditches ; and we also assume the defensive barrack 
 to be intact until the breach has been made in the surrounding enceinte, and the besieger has 
 effected his lodgment on it ; and have not taken into account the uncovered artillery of the 
 terrepleins, which the besieger can use his ricochet fires to destroy from a distance. 
 
 The Woolwich exiDeriments, it is true, do not warrant this assumption. For a complete 
 analysis it would be necessary to demonstrate the durability of this covered masonry by actual 
 experience, at that particular moment when the besieger takes up his position before them. 
 
 If the defensive barrack can be destroyed without being seen, if this is true likewise with 
 respect to the bomb-proof caponniers of the ditches, and the block-house redoubts of the covered 
 way, we ask what would remain of a bastioned square, the terrepleins of which are cut up and 
 destroyed by ricochet, as well as the blindages intended to cover the artillery? And, moreover, 
 what would be the condition of the barracks and the masonry of the magazines in the gorges of 
 the bastions? Why should we not in like manner suppose breaches opened from a distance in 
 the flanks of the bastion, as well as on their faces, both over the crest of the glacis, and through 
 the demi-luue ditch? The question to be decided is, which of the two systems is the best, and 
 which compels an enemy to bestow most time and treasure in its demolition. 
 
 It must be observed, as regards these Woolwich experiments, that they were made upon a 
 target, the crest of which was in the same plane as the covering mass — a state of things never 
 admitted in the German system. They are never less than tnree feet lower, oftentimes seven 
 feet, and in many instances much greater, the superior height always being earth, as in the 
 section a b, Fig. 25, Plate 25. It is now an admitted fact that wherever masonry can be seen 
 
ART OF AVAR IN EUROPE. 217 
 
 (within suitable range) from a land batter)/, it can be destroyed by guns of necessary caliber. 
 Counterscarps then are, in this view of the case, of more certain durability than scarps ; they can 
 only be destroyed after having reached the covert way. Our inquiry is, then, as to the best of 
 the two systems of scarps, that of the French bastioned trace, or that of the German school ; in 
 the decision of which the Woolwich experiments lead us to no other conclusion than those of 
 Bapaume, published in 1852, which go to prove conclusively the certain destruction of brick 
 scarps by artillery, whether battered perpendicular to the face or obliquely. The inference 
 deduced from the study of the German engineers to substitute as much possible the detached 
 scarp, covering it from view by placing the crest far below that of the earthen mask, is a wise 
 departure from the French school. 
 
 Another important point of view under which these works should be considered, when 
 comparing them with the bastioned systems, is the cost of so many works and their intricate 
 construction. Without making any strict analysis, we cannot but conclude that the result of 
 such a comparison of the two systems, inclosing an extended surface, will be in favor of the 
 German system. 
 
 The following examples of independent defensive works, that have actually been constructed, 
 will serve to illustrate our previous statements of the elementary and fundamental principles 
 upon which the system is founded. 
 
 Plate 25, Fig. 26, represents a detached lunette. The counterscarp, revetted with relieving 
 arches, has a defensive gallery, from which mining galleries issue jjerpendicularly, and prolonged 
 under the glacis. At the salient it is enlarged, to form what the Germans call an '^ante- 
 chamber." It has no covered way, as sorties can be effected from the defensive barrack on the 
 right and left of the work. The ditches are flanked by counterscarp batteries, which are reached 
 by subterranean galleries from the lower floor of the barrack. 
 
 The scarp is backed by the earth of the rampart up to a certain height, a great portion of it 
 remaining detached; which part has arched recesses, behind wliicli is the chemin-de-ronde, 
 divided in its length by occasional masonry traverses. At the salient the junction of this 
 arched scarp is formed in a casemated tower, covered with earth, constituting a traverse for the 
 branches of the cliemin-de-ronde, as well as a secure bomb-proof, from which that part of the 
 ditch is defended from its loop-holes. 
 
 Behind this bomb-proof tower traverse, on the same salient, is a battery of four mortars, 
 similar to the arrangement in Plate 22, Fig. 8. The interior system of mines issues from the 
 lower floor of the barrack. Three other galleries under the terreplein, one along the capital, 
 and another along the gorge wall, lead to the court of the salient and cJiemins-des^-onde. On the 
 left of this last gallery is the j^owder magazine, as given in Plate 23, Fig. 14. The barrack 
 has two casemated floors for artillery, and a basement for musketry. Fixing the height of the 
 scarp at 28 feet, and that of the counterscarp at 24, the crest of the glacis will be in the reference 
 4-15, the bottom of the ditch in — 17, and crest of the scarp 4-11, covering the scarp by the 
 crest of the glacis 4 feet. The terreplein of the chemin-de-ronde is in — 9, or 8 feet above 
 the bottom of the ditch. The two floors of the barrack, each of 11-feet ceiling, allowing 8 feet 
 for tlie thickness of the arches, gives a relief of about 30 feet — the line or plane of fire of the 
 work. 
 
 The lunette (Plate 25, Fig. 27) has a covered way, and a block-house in the salient place of 
 arms. The mining galleries of the exterior system, limited to the three salients, are pushed 
 forward from the block-house and antechamber of the counterscarp. The ditches are flanked 
 by two caponniers on the shoulder angles. These are entered by posterns under the terrepleins, 
 which are prolonged under the ditch to reach the counterscarp galleries. The scarp with 
 relieving arches has a height of 28 feet, and its crest, with that of the counterscarp, is in the 
 reference 4-10, the bottom of the ditch being — 18. The crest of the glacis is in 4-19, and the 
 28 D 
 
218 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 crest of the parapet ot the main work is in -1-29. With this relief the two stories of the 
 barracks are completely covered. 
 
 The difference of the lunette (Plate 26, Fig. 28) is in the mortar battery under the 
 terreplein of the salient angle, which is similar to that represented in Plate 22. In this lunette 
 the caponniers for flanking the ditches have a different position, seldom practiced. 
 
 In the redoubt represented in Plate 26, Fig. 29, the scarps and counterscarps are not revetted. 
 A large block-house, with masonry walls and roof of heavy beams covered with earth, is here 
 substituted for the arched barrack. 
 
 Having described what we term the elements of this German system, it would appear 
 natural to proceed to the description of the trace of the front, and show how these elementary 
 works are made to enter into it. But the front, or rather the manner of combining these 
 elements, although founded on the same general maxims, is very far from offering unity or 
 exact similarity. In effect, a change in the trace of a front results from merely changing the 
 relations, by virtue of which these elements enter into the composition of the system for a 
 locality, and cause one to preponderate at the expense, as it were, of the rest. 
 
 This is a natural consequence, the traces differing as well as the special object to be fulfilled 
 by the fortresses. For instance, if in the trace adopted for the enceinte of works of great magni- 
 tude, defended by large garrisons, the principle of spacious and easy communication should 
 predominate, the same cannot apply to a citadel, the defense of which must necessarily be of a 
 more passive character. For like reasons there must necessarily exist a difference in the trace of 
 a fortress intended to guard a defile. Thus, in the new German fortresses we have distinct traces 
 varying in accordance with the general plan of the place, or its special topography. 
 
 A most extensive application of covered or casemated fires may be considered as one of the 
 essential principles of this system, whether in reference to artillery flanking the ditches and 
 opposing the counter-batteries of the besieger, or artillery in the redoubts — such as those of the 
 covered ways of the demi-lune, or those in the last retrenchments of the bastions. 
 
 It is claimed that two objects are attained by this means : first, preserving the artillery 
 intact for the precise moment when each battery is to enter into action; second, by placing 
 it on different floors or levels, the difficulty of limited space is overcome, thereby gaining a 
 number of guns greater than the enemy can mount to oppose them. The use of such casemated 
 artillery does not exclude the use of uncovered artillery on the terrepleins, which the besieged 
 brings into operation during the different stages or periods of the siege. 
 
 The first and immediate consequence of the above principle is the adoption of Montalambert's 
 polygonal fronts. In effect, the flanks in the bastioned system are divested of their principal 
 object the moment a central caponnier is substituted ; and, by suppressing them and substituting 
 the polygonal trace, the besieger can no longer establish himself on their prolongation, and on 
 those of the faces, to dismount their artillery by ricochet fire from a distance. This German 
 trace even allows doubling the length of the front, confining the limit of the line of defense still 
 to musket range. This increase of front, when practicable, is important, since, it the besieger 
 intends really to envelop the attacked and collateral fronts, the extension he must give to his 
 trenches increases in proportion with the exterior side. 
 
 The bastioned system, with large demi-lunes, offers great reenterings ; the effect of which is 
 to arrest the besieger, and occasion great losses. In order to overcome these difiiculties, the 
 latter is compelled in the first place to destroy the artillery of the place ; and as the interior 
 flanking of the ditches, and opposing the construction of counter-batteries protecting the passage 
 of the ditch, are also the objects of the defense, it results that we must suppose, that either the 
 besieger has no means of destroying the artillery of the place, and is in fact arrested half way on 
 the o-lacis, or admit that when he has reached the counterscarp the besieged is reduced to musketry 
 fire and the bayonet. In the polygonal system, on the contrary, the distant defense is inferior, 
 and to arrest the enemy it has only direct fires, and no advantage from cross fires, the former 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 219 
 
 being undoubtedly inferior, although better protected from ricochet. But, on the other hand, 
 when the counterscarps of the place are reached, the covered artillery is brought to bear, and 
 then it is that the defense really commences to assume the decided superiority over the bastioned 
 or French system, which at that moment is loitlwut artillery. Another principle, then, of the 
 system under consideration, is that of arranging the elements with a special view to the defense 
 when the glacis is reached, making the distant attack secondary rather than sacrifice the former, 
 since the very nature of the attack renders the eftbrts of the garrison least j-eliable. 
 
 As yet it may be said that we have only brought forward the principles of Montalambert, 
 modified to avoid some of the grave errors he has fallen into while elaborating his great concep- 
 tions, and likewise modifications, in tlie details of the elementary works of each front. But there 
 is another idea or general principle in the modern German system, which may be said to consti- 
 tute a complete change in fortification, and the tendency of which is to give places of war a 
 different character and value from that they have hitherto had, making them harmonize better 
 with the strength of modern armies, and the improvements in the science of war. 
 
 An extensive continuous enceinte, whatever may be the composition of the system of its fronts, 
 presents in all parts an equal resistance, or rather the same weakness that the garrison is under 
 the necessity of protecting on every point of the fronts of attack and collateral fronts with a deter- 
 minate force. These fronts cannot be reinforced without doing so on the whole extent at the 
 same time, to make the reinforcement of any value ; and the line overcome at one point, the 
 position is taken without the other parts having contributed to increase the resistance of the point 
 attacked. 
 
 These enceintes may be compared to extended lines of battle with slight depth, abandoned 
 in modern tactics, and replaced by great masses, or lines held in hand by the commander, to be 
 tlirown suddenly into masses, supporting lesser ones in front of battalions ; or, in place of the 
 latter, by bodies of tirailleurs. It appears consistent that fortification should also be made to 
 accord, as far as practicable, with this principle. 
 
 Thus the main idea is to "inclose the iMly<jon," or to compose the line to be fortified of STRONG 
 POINTS, which, while bearing to each other a reciprocal relation of defense, may each jiossess 
 the independent means which their immediate defense calls for; each one becoming one of the 
 works we have given the denomination of " independent defensive." The spaces between the 
 works are closed by curtains or simple lines, which may be denominated unattackable, either on 
 account of their reentering position, and the immediate protection they receive from the collateral 
 independent work, or for the more important reason, that when one of these lines is taken, the 
 enemy has gained little or nothing, since the strong points still remain intact, their fires from the 
 gorge making it impossible for the besieger to hold the position. This is a merit claimed for the 
 German system that will receive further elucidation. 
 
 The immediate inference from this principle is, that the enceinte of a place may be one of 
 great extension, without increasing in a corresponding proportion the garrison strictly necessary 
 for its defense. The place may be considered secure against any sudden or unexpected attack, if 
 it be garrisoned by a force suihcient to defend the points which we have already stated to consti- 
 tute the real strength of the position; while at the same time the place admits of a strong division 
 of troops to serve as a support for the army in the field, or to enter into the defense to contest 
 the enemy's main object, by the most vigorous efforts, combined with powerful sorties. 
 
 The natural consequence of this mode of fortifying places, is to make the fronts susceptible 
 of the most active defense at the proper time; and by placing the communications near and under 
 the strong points, they offer all desirable width and facilities, without the defects attributed 
 to other systems. Such is what is claimed for this system, and that by this means the field of 
 fortification is enlarged, the object of fortresses is completely changed, and instead of being 
 restricted to the protection of a point, is enabled to extend the sphere of its operations to a 
 great distance, and have an important influence in the progress of a campaign, rather than at 
 
220 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the time of its investment, offering a prolonged i-esistance against the powerful means that may he 
 at the disposal of the attack. These considerations have induced intelligent engineers and military 
 men to look iipon fortresses rather as impediments in the way of actual operations of armies in 
 the field^ ahsorhing so much of their movable strength, and given rise to doubts concerning their 
 necessity or utility. Let them once more be given the relation they should bear with the strength 
 of armies, and auxiliary thereto, occupying strategic points, (and not merely encircling cities to 
 fence in their wealth,) either as great entrenched camps, depots for resources, or closing, as 
 barriers, defiles leading into a country, they will again fulfill the great objects for which they 
 were intended ; and the equilibrium so long sought for between the attack and the defense will 
 again be restored. To such results do the German engineers contend their peculiar application 
 of the principles of fortification will lead. 
 
 Their princij^les, however, have been much opposed. A place composed of strong points 
 or independent works is objected to, for the reason it would require as many officers possessing 
 all the qualities indispensable for the direction of its defense as there were separate works ; and 
 to the difficulty of finding such is added the objection that the general defense of the place cannot 
 be carried on with the unity which should be vested in one superior head, who, with many 
 points under his command, would be unable to judge at a glance of the state of the defense ; and 
 that the garrison at each point will act independently of each other, without the vigor resulting 
 from imited and simultaneous action. 
 
 We can but think these objections are equally applicable to any place ; the garrison of which 
 exceeds the number a commander can have within sound of his voice, and that they increase with 
 the strength of the garrison, and all easily overcome by discipline, without which neither army 
 or fortress is a reliable security to a nation. 
 
 Having touched ui^on these general considerations, and proposing to return to them in the 
 sequel, we proceed to a detailed composition of the system. 
 
 Different Traces of the German Si/ste7n. 
 
 The German engineers base the foundation of all good fortification upon the following series 
 of maxims ; some relating directly to the particular traces of a front, and others to the general 
 composition of the plan of the fortress. 
 
 This general expose will serve on the one hand as a summary of our previous considerations, 
 and on the other as a basis for the analysis of the fronts we propose to describe : 
 
 1. Simplicity to be an essential point, so that the defensive value of a fortress shall bear a 
 just proportion to its cost. This maxim, we contend, leads to the adoption of the nearest approx- 
 imation to a right line, or the polygonal fronts with central caponniers. 
 
 2. Every line of a front must be adequate to the purpose it is intended to fulfill. Thus the 
 form of the front, and that of any fortress, must be based upon the particular nature of the site. 
 
 3. The adoption of extended fronts with central flanking caponniers, in order to obtain a 
 great development of lines of fire, without detracting from the desired simplicity of the enceinte. 
 
 4. All lines to be protected, as far as practicable, from enfilading and ricochet fires. 
 
 5. To favor in every possible way an active defense ; and, to this end, to strengthen and 
 support a covered way by casemated redoubts or block-houses. 
 
 6. To protect from distant fires the works specially designed to flank the main line or to 
 serve as interior redoubts, so that their artillery be preserved intact for the proper moment. 
 
 7. The artillery of the place must be superior to the attack, not during the first period of 
 the siege, which is impossible, but during the last ; to be obtained by placing the artillery in 
 two or more tiers or casemated batteries. 
 
 8. As far as practicable every separate work must possess the necessary means of defense, 
 independent of others, while it may at the same time cooperate. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 221 
 
 9. The system must compel an attcick of the ground occupied step by step, leaving no point 
 that the enemy shall not be forced to dispute. 
 
 10. It follows from the preceding, as a consequence, that a place will consist of various 
 independent works, having all the means requisite for their separate defense, yet so disposed and 
 arranged^ that they shall all tend to the same object — ;hat of securing any given site. 
 
 We shall now review the different traces applied in the modern German fortresses, and 
 show how far the above general principles have been adhered to in their construction. We have 
 already stated that these principles are variously applied, and we may even state that there are 
 no two places offering unity in this respect. The difference between traces becomes still more 
 marked, when comparing those used in the different States of the Germanic Confederation. 
 
 Bavaria and Wurtemberg. — Fronts of the Fortress or intrenched Strategic Camp of TJlm. — 
 (See a very correct plan of these defenses published in 1851-52, by Captain Maurice.) This 
 fortress is divided in two parts of very different character. The Wurtemberg portion on the 
 left bank of the Danube is situated on very imequal ground, and incloses a city. The Bavarian 
 portion occupies a site perfectly level, and may be considered a great tete-de-pont, covering the 
 suburbs of the city and the bridge. This difference of site required distinct modes of fortifica- 
 tion. For the present, we will confine ourselves to the Wurtemberg side of the river. 
 
 The whole of this enceinte should be considered as a series of inclosed works, occupying the 
 most commanding points of the site, with distances between each admitting of reciprocal defense. 
 Thus the organization of these works or bastions is the most remarkable feature of this enceinte, 
 partly on account of their occupying heights with a slope on the exterior approximating 45°. 
 Their scarps have two tiers of musketry fire, the lower one from the gallery formed by the 
 relieving arches, and the second from the chemin-de-ronde, the terreplein of which is two or three 
 feet above the crown of the arches of the former. The exterior slope of the parapet terminates 
 in this chemin-de-ronde, having several berms on account of its great height. On a level with 
 the chemin-de-ronde there is a battery of four mortars of the kind described for this system, the 
 mortars being under one arch, behind which and parallel to it is a second, with arches of 
 communication between them ;• thus giving more bomb-proof shelter than sufiices to cover the 
 mortars without carrying the masonry to an inconvenient height by arches of a larger span to 
 cover the same surface. The front of this mortar battery is covered by an earthen parapet 
 resting against the scarp wall. The communication to this battery is by a continuous arched 
 passage leading from the terreplein of the corps-de-pilace under the rampart. The lower gallery 
 of the scarp is entered by posterns in the shoulder angles, which also communicate with the 
 caponniers flanking the ditches 
 
 In the salient angle on the terreplein of the rampart is a battery for four or more heavy 
 long-range guns. These are covered with bomb-proof arches and earth and must be blinded 
 the moment the work is attacked. Tliis battery serves as a traverse for the two faces of the 
 bastion. 
 
 The gorge is closed by a loop-holed wall, against which is a semicircular defensive barrack 
 with a ditch and small flanking caponniers. The height of the crest of the parapets of the 
 bastion are such as to admit of three floors to this barrack, the first for musketry and the two 
 upper ones for artillery, besides which is the uncovered battery above with earthen parapet, 
 serving as a cavalier against the first attacks on the work. An exterior system of mines, similar 
 to that already explained, is pushed forward from the caponniers of the defensive barrack. Some 
 of these bastions have powder magazines in their flanks under the ramparts. 
 
 The curtains run from one shoulder angle to another, so that the flanks of the bastions 
 cannot sweep the foot of the scarp, but on the other hand sweep the whole of the terreplein of 
 the curtain, a result of much importance in this locality. The curtains are separated by a ditch 
 from the flanks of the bastions. This cut or ditch is closed by the prolongation of the scarp 
 wall of the curtain, through which there are posterns communicating with the main ditch. The 
 
222 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 bastion ditches have caponniers combined with them in such manner as to perfect the flanking 
 arrangement of the entire front. The covered way (under construction at the time of its exam- 
 ination) is to be provided with cascmated redoubts in the places of arms, and the system of mines 
 confined to the salients of the independent works. 
 
 Prussia. — Front of the Enceinte of Posen. — The fronts of the enceinte about the city, and 
 of that of Fort Viniari, or the Citadel, differ materially in their elements and outline. The 
 length of the exterior side of the fronts of the city enceinte are 142 roots or 584. 75 yards — 
 measured from salient to salient of the bastions, called in this case "cavaliers." To construct 
 it, set off on the perpendicular towards the exterior one fifteenth of the side, and unite this point 
 with the salients, which gives the direction of the faces, the length of which is one sixth of the 
 exterior side. On the same perpendicular set off also toward the exterior one third of the same 
 side for the salient of the demi-lune, which is called in this trace the " bastion." Describe from 
 the latter point with a radius of twenty yards, an arc, to which draw tangents to the shoulder 
 angles of the cavalier, which gives the counterscarp of this " bastion." The scari:)s are parallel, 
 and have a length of one quarter of the side. The direction and length of the flanks of this 
 "bastion" are determined by drawing them parallel to the faces of the great central redoubt, 
 and to their intersection with the gorge. (See Plate 28 and Plate 25, Fig. 25.) 
 
 The "bastion" being laid down, the position of the batteries or flanks of the "cavaliers" 
 is made perpendicular to the faces of the "bastion," with a length of thirty-five yards or the 
 necessary space for four or five guns ; uniting the extremity of the cavalier flanks with the 
 middle point on the perpendicular to the side, we obtain the curtain. The main ditch is 
 parallel to the faces of the " cavaliers," and the gorge of the central bastion, is on the prolonga- 
 tion of the counterscarji of tlie cavaliers. 
 
 In the middle of the curtain is the defensive barrack capable of containing one thousand 
 men, isolated from the curtain by lateral ditches ten yards in width. The sides of the bar- 
 rack are in length equal to the width of the ditch, plus the thickness of the rampart of the 
 curtain, and are joined by a semicircle traced into the parade of the "bastion." Thus this 
 barrack serves first as a special redoubt for the "bastion ;" second, as a caponnier for the main 
 ditch ; and third, as the general redoubt of the front. Tliis construction constitutes an essential 
 difierence between this trace and those used in other places in Germany. In this front the cen- 
 tral caponnier and defensive barrack of these systems are united in one and the same construction; 
 whereas, in the others, there is a special edifice for each of these objects. The covered way, of 
 the usual dimensions, has masonry block-houses in the salient and reentering places of arms. 
 In the latter are ramps to ascend to the covered way on the right and left of the block-houses 
 that protect them. The ascent to the covered way and the retreat of sorties are independent of 
 the small garrison of the redoubt, which, without taking part in the movement, protects them 
 and checks the pur.suit of the enemy ; a disposition in conformity with the principle generally 
 observed in this system, as heretofore noticed. 
 
 This main ditch is reached from the interior by a postern, in lateral ditches or cuts parallel 
 with the sides of the barrack, the level of which is a little lower than that of the interior of the 
 place. Their width admits of the passage of columns of all arms. The " cavaliers" and cur- 
 tains have chemin-de-ronde, the terrepleins of wliich are twelve feet above the bottom of the 
 ditch ; the rest of the isolated and loop-holed scarp has a height of sixteen feight ; the counter- 
 scarp has twenty-four feet. The relief of the curtain is forty feet, and that of the " cavalier" 
 forty-four. The chemin-de-ronde of the " cavalier" and of the curtain terminate at and commu- 
 nicate with the courts of the casernated batteries of the flanks. There is another communication 
 with these from the interior of the " cavaliers," by posterns under the flanks. 
 
 The chemin-de-ronde of the curtain is reached also from the ditch of the defensive barrack. 
 The gorge of the central "bastion" is closed by a wall up to the barrack. The circular part of 
 this barrack towards the interior of the " bastion" is surrounded by a narrow ditch flanked by 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 223 
 
 three small caponniers, as in Fig. 25, of Plate 25. The entrance to the "bastion" is through 
 the gorge wall^ and independent of the entrance to the barrack. 
 
 The barrack has three floors, divided off in gun rooms of sixteen feet deep, and quarters ot 
 forty-five deep, as in Fig. 13, Plate 23 ; the first for musketry only, with two for artillery ; above 
 which is an open battery with earthen parapet, serving as a cavalier, as from its height it 
 commands the country around. The defensive corridor or gun rooms of the barrack, has twenty 
 casemates on each tier, independent of those in the large towers of the gorge, which are intended 
 to sweep the terrepleins of the adjacent curtains. The terminations of this barrack towards the 
 interior or city ai'e semicircles of a greater diameter than the branches ; within them, are the 
 communications from the level of the terreplein of the corps-dc-place to the different tiers or 
 stories^ and to the superior battery and terreplein. In the center of these semi-circular towers 
 is a continuous stone staircase, with suitable landings, terminating on the superior terreplein. 
 On the outside of this staircase, and from it to the exterior wall or scarp of the barrack, is a 
 continuous circular ramp, formed on a spiral ascending arch, resting on the staircase wall on one 
 side, and the scarp or wall of the barrack on the other ; this ramp makes six complete turns 
 from bottom to top, forming a very easy ascent for artillery and troops to each tier and floor of 
 the building. 
 
 The ftices and flanks of the "bastion" have cliemin-de-ronde, with profile and other dimen- 
 sions, similar to those of the curtain, and as shown in the 
 annexed Fig. 163. 
 
 In the salient angle of the "bastion" is a battery for 
 five mortars, the terreplein of which is on the same level 
 as that of the cJiemin-de-ronde ; and in the salient of the 
 superior terreplein there is another for five howitzers, the 
 masonry of which is covered by the parapet. These five 
 
 pieces can only fire on one side at a time, the width of the traverse not sufficing for two guns. 
 This bomb-proof battery serves at tlie same time as a traverse for the faces of the work. The 
 communication with the mortar battery below is by a gallery under the rampart along the 
 capital, from the terreplein of the corps-de-place. 
 
 The chemins-des-ronde are also reached by galleries under the rampart of the flanks, and along 
 the gorge walls, where magazines are constructed as previously described. 
 
 The flanks of the "cavalier" bastions are casemated in two tiers, the lower one being for 
 loop-holed musketry fire only, and the upper one for artillery, which latter is closed by walls 
 with doors separating it from the cJiemin-de-ronde. 
 
 The counterscarp opposite the salient of the " cavalier" bastion has a crennated gallery for 
 a short distance, probably to communicate with mines. 
 
 A narrow ditch extends around the semicircular towers terminating the branches of the 
 redoubt and across its gorge, which is inclosed by a wall with postern and draw-bridge. This 
 ditch is flanked on the curve of the towers by three small caponniers, similar to those on the 
 semicircular part of the barrack, projecting into the terreplein of the "bastion ;" in addition, it 
 has a caponnier crossing this ditch, with a straight face alongside the posterns leading through 
 the rampart to the main ditch, another face of which is the prolongation of the scarp of the 
 curtain, through which the postern is opened, as at n n. The communication to the terreplein 
 of the "bastion," is by posterns on each side of the barrack, through the gorge wall, arranged 
 in the same manner. 
 
 Tlie bottom of the ditch of the main work, it will be observed, is not horizontal, being in 
 the reference, —6 alongside the redoubt, and —24 opposite the flank and face of the " cavalier." 
 The opening from the ditch of the " bastion" to that of the main ditch is closed on the line of the 
 counterscarp to the extreme height that will admit the firing of the upper tier of the " cavalier" 
 flanks, being somewhat lower towards the flank of the " bastion." 
 
224 ART OP WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 In this trace the central work called "bastion" (although in reality a demi-lnne) is the 
 independent work, and the "cavaliers" and intermediate collateral curtains form the true 
 curtains of this sj'stem, inclosing the space between its bastions. The position of the latter and 
 the polygonal trace protects them from ricochet, (the flank being casemated^) and their fires, 
 although direct, in conjunction with those of the superior terreplein of the barrack, are intended 
 to delay the progress of the first works of the beseigers. Thus the terrejileins of this enceinte 
 are exempt from ricochet fires ; leaving the faces of the independent work so exposed, which 
 is defended by a secure fire under the bomb-proof casemates of the barrack. 
 
 There is claimed for this system a great economy in the construction of the necessary 
 mining galleries to effect a corresponding means of defense over the "bastioned system." I 
 have not had the opportunity of arriving at such facts as to confirm this conclusion. 
 
 The draw-bridges of this front are constructed of five iron girders, planked on top with 
 2-inch flooring boards. The girders extend back of the center of motion, over a well-hole 
 behind the scarj:), and partly in its thickness. These prolongations of the girders (about five 
 feet beyond the center of motion) are loaded with iron, to counterbalance the table, (bridge,) and 
 were so accurately adjusted that two men, with a small hand chain passing over a roller 
 connected to the outer end of the bridge, raised the bridge with great facility. A man-hole 
 is made on the side of the bridge from the terreplein, to descend into the well or pit, into which 
 the counterjDoise works. The objection to this arrangement is the cutting away of the masonry 
 of the scarp under the bridge. 
 
 Fronts of the Citadel of Fosen or Fort Viniara. (Plate 28, Fig. 35.) To describe the 
 trace of this front, which has a side of the polygon of 485 yards, erect a perpendicular upon 
 the center, upon which lay ofl" towards the interior one thirtieth of the front, join this point 
 with the extremities of the front, and this will give the directions of the half curtains, the 
 length of each of which is one third the front, or two thirds for the entire length. The faces 
 of the bastion are in parallel lines to the curtain, and tlirown so much in advance as will give a 
 casemate on the shoulder angle, to flank the adjacent half curtains. This part of the flank is 
 perpendicular with the curtain. The remainder of the scarp of the flank is thrown to the rear, 
 and equal in length to the depth of the rampart of the curtain. A cut of eight yards in 
 widtli separates it from the curtain, closed in front by the scarp wall, and in rear by a wall and 
 postern. The earthen parapet of the flank of the bastion makes an angle of about 100°, with 
 the direction of tlie opjjosite bastion face. The casemate on the slioulder of the bastion, of two 
 tiers of one gun each, forms, with its masonry, a description of orillon; but the parapet of the 
 bastion is as usual, with two faces and two flanks, whose crests or parapets are in the same plane. 
 
 The main ditch has a width of twenty-five yards, and parallel to the faces of the bastions. 
 It counterscarp is revetted, to include the gorge of the demi-lune. The salient of the demi-lune 
 is 60°, and distant one third of the front beyond the intersection of the lines of the counter- 
 scarp of the bastion faces prolonged. So that, with the redoubts of the reentering places of 
 arms, it covers the whole curtain ; while the bastion preserves its independence from not being 
 exposed through the demi-lune ditch, even after the caponniers closing it may be destroyed. 
 
 The bastions are closed at the gorge with a wall of masonry and bomb-proof block-house or 
 reduit on the cajiital. The plan of this reduit is a square with two wings, which latter do not 
 rise as high as the body of the building. Thus, with loop holes, the faces of this reduit and 
 walls of the gorge are flanked with musketry. The faces of the bastions have a scarp, with 
 relieving vaults for musketry, which communicate with the two-gun casemated battery on the 
 shoulder. These flank casemates cannot be seen, to be destroyed, as long as the central caponnier 
 remains. 
 
 The flanks sweep the terrepleins of the adjacent curtains, but have no influence on the 
 ditch. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 225 
 
 The quadrangular caponnier in the center of the main ditch has two tiers of tire, the lower 
 for musketry and the upper for artillery, five guns on each side. Its interior is divided with two 
 walls, so arranged as to intercept embrasure shot from one side to the injury of the other. These 
 cajionniers are about thirty-five feet wide, and are connected with the- covert way by the prolonga- 
 tion of their scarps to the gorge wall of the former ; the lower story is not connected, being 
 arched to leave a communication from one side of the ditch to the other under this arch ; the 
 upper story terminates on and over the gorge wall of the demi-lunc. The masonry of this capon- 
 nier terminates in the same plane as the crest of the scarp of the curtain, above which the earth, 
 to make it bomb-proof and serve as a traverse, rises nearly as high as the crest of the parapet of 
 the curtain. This caponnier is connected with the elliptical reduit on the terreplein of the 
 ravelin, the branches of which come back to the counterscarp, or gorge wall, which unites 
 them. On the end nearest the curtain, it is terminated on the line of the scarp, which is for this 
 purpose broken to form a recess in the solid of the rampart, making a ditch to separate the capon- 
 nier from the curtain, over which is a draw-bridge from the posterns of the one to that of the 
 other. This recess in the rampart of the curtain intercepts the cliemin-de-ronde, along the latter ; 
 yet the scarp of this recess has a vaulted loop-hole gallery, surmounted by the parapet. 
 
 The other parts of the two branches of the curtain have a wide chemin-de-ronde, covered by 
 an earthen parapet, of which the crest of the scarp becomes the crest of the exterior slope of this 
 parapet. 
 
 Through the central caponnier is the only communication with tlie main ditch. This pecu- 
 liarity is only to be met with in this trace, which bears the name of its author, General Brese. 
 
 The demi-lune, which, from its configuration, is exposed to ricochet, is arranged in the fol- 
 lowing manner : the half of its branches towards the salient has relieving arches with the interior 
 space filled up solid; the other half is empty, and the scarps isolated witlicAejHi'Ks-cfes-rojifZe. In 
 the salient there is a mortar battery, and in the center of the gorge the elliptical casemated reduit, 
 which is separated from the demi-lune by a ditch. Its revetted counterscarp has a gallery con- 
 necting with tliose along the gorge. From this gallery commences the interior system of mines, 
 extending under the terreplein of the demi-lune and its faces. 
 
 The demi-lune ditch is closed hy a casemated caponnier for two guns, connected with the 
 redoubt of the reentering place of arms, which latter rises from the level of the ditch to the crest 
 of the covered way, making two stories ; the upper one for artillery, covered witli earth to make 
 it bomb-proof. A crennated wall on top of the caponniers on the side next the salient angle 
 of the demi-lune, and across its ditch, forms a continuous covered communication from the 
 redoubts of the reentering place of arms and that of the demi-lune at its gorge. There is a 
 ditch on the outside of the redoubts of the reentering place of arms, in which is a ramp to com- 
 municate with the covered way. 
 
 Thus the demi-lune redoubt, the two caponnier batteries closing the ditch of the demi-lune, 
 and redoubts of the reentering places of arms form one continuous whole, analogous to Noizet's 
 system, except that the latter has no casemates. 
 
 The communication with the demi-lune is from the second story of the caponnier, through 
 its redoubt, and across the ditch of the latter by a draw-bridge. 
 
 In this trace we must draw attention to the isolated and independent points, such as the 
 demi-lune and the bastions ; and on examining the enceinte of the citadel, (Plate 28,) composed 
 of two complete fronts and two half fronts, it appears to consist of a series of closed independent 
 works, connected by curtains. It must be admitted that, botli in spirit and character, this trace 
 is distinct from those we have hitherto examined of the German system. 
 
 Grand Dutchy of Baden.^ — Fronts of the Fortress of Rastadt. (Plate 15, Fig. 35, and 
 
 Plates 16 and 17, sections of the same.) This fortress, situated on the little river Murg, and 
 
 near the Rhine, inclosing the small town of Rastadt, containing about 6,000 inhabitants, has 
 
 lately been fortified on tlie plans of an Austrian engineer under the Germanic Confederation. 
 
 29 1. 
 
226 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 It was commenced in 1841, under Count de Latour, afterwards Minister of War of Austria, 
 who has the credit of the design, and has cost 8, 732, 400 florins, the original estimate, and 
 not yet entirely finished. 
 
 These defenses are iiarticularly interesting, hoth from the novelty of the design and trace, 
 as well as their recent construction, in illustrating with those of Posen, &c., the system of 
 fortification most approved by the Austrian engineers, and difiering so materially from that of 
 the French school, upon which we have commented at length. 
 
 The little river Murg runs through the town and fortress, giving, by means of sluices 
 entirely under command of the garrison, the means of filling parts of the ditches with water, 
 and flooding a great circuit of country in advance of part of the defenses. The Murg and a 
 small rivulet, the Oosbach, breaks through a narrow and slightly elevated ridge, on which two 
 out of three of the independent forts (A and B) are situated — B, or Fort Leopold, being on the 
 little rivulet of Oosbach, and the third fort (C) on the left bank of the Murg, down the river at 
 the lowest end of the town, within which are the sluices for backing up the waters, that at 
 pleasure can be made to overflow the " lower meadows." The "upper forest farm" and the 
 " Eeuts farm," lying in the low lands, bounded on the sideof Fort Leopold by a ridge extending 
 from it along the high road to Kchl. 
 
 These three " independent forts" are constructed upon the system illustrated by the trace in 
 Fig. 30 a, Plate 26, and are connected to each other upon the system illustrated by Fig. 30 b, 
 Plate 26, thus forming a continuous enceinte around the city. The gorges of two of the inde- 
 pendent forts are closed with extensive bomb-proof barrack reduits, the masonry of which is in 
 part covered by a glacis on the front towards the ramparts. (See A and B, Plate 15, and 
 section of tower and casemated redoubt, Nos. 9 and 27, Plate 16.) 
 
 The fronts connecting the three forts are denominated "connections." In their rear and 
 parallel with their curtains is a loop-holed wall, separating the ramparts from the town, with a 
 banquette against it on the town side to fire through the loop holes, on the esplanade along the 
 foot of the ramparts and slopes of the latter. 
 
 The Plan and Plates 15, 16, 17 are supposed to have been obtained while the place was in 
 the hands of the revolutionary party, and before the works were finished. Its general accuracy 
 is admitted by the German engineers, who take exception to parts altered during the construc- 
 tion, and after Maurice de Sellon published the plans accompanying his report. The outworks 
 were not then constructed, nor were they all in conformity with De Sellon's plan, at the time of 
 my visit in 1856, and at which date operations were still in progress, confined to buildings near 
 the "hospital" in rear of Fort A or Leopold. 
 
 The two redoubts (45 and 47) between which the railroad passes, and in a continuous cut 
 for some distance, sufficient to cover the tops of the railroad cars, were finished in 1856, and 
 differed in trace from that in Plate 15. Their profile had detached crennated scarj^s and chemin- 
 de-ronde, with masonry bomb-proof caponniers in the ditches of one tier of musketry loop-hole 
 fire, the entire masonry being covered by a glacis. The counterscarp is of earth, except in front 
 of the three caponniers, where it is masonry. Plate 26, Fig. 29, is a near approximation to the 
 plan of these two advanced redoubts, the caponniers, however, being on the capital of the work, 
 and on prolongation cf the gorge tvall, the reduit being circular. 
 
 To garrison this fortress with all the advanced works of the original design would require a 
 garrison to sustain a theoretic siege of 16,400 men and 734'pieces of artillery ; to attack which 
 would require, on the same basis of calculation, a besieging army of 98,424 men and 392 guns. 
 
 On the value and efficiency of this system, I must refer my readers to the discussion for one 
 side of this subject to the writings of Baron de Sellon, and comments upon it by German engi- 
 neers. 
 
 I cannot but remark upon the immense labor bestowed upon this fortress, covering a 
 comparatively small surface, composed of independent works, together forming a continuous 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 227 
 
 enceinte as the great reliance in holding the position, when compared with the unimportant 
 capacity and strength of the surrounding detached works. If instead of an army of 98,000 men 
 and 392 guns, one of 30,000 should, with 100 hundred mortars and as many howitzers of 
 modern construction, advance upon and bomhard this enceinte from the side of the railroad, there 
 would he little of its masonry left in a serviceable condition, and of any resources for an army 
 on the frontier still less would probably remain exempt from injury after twenty days. All the 
 arguments used for making the detached forts of Paris the main strength, as well as placing the 
 defenses of any site or depot from four to five thousand yards in advance of it, would apply to 
 making the enceinte of this expensive fortress of less strength, and the surrounding detached 
 forts of more importance. 
 
 I proceed now to give such information as could be obtained for delineating the two traces 
 found in the construction of these works, as the most important facts for us to become acquainted 
 with. (Fig. 30b, Plate 26.) On the middle of an exterior side of 400 meters erect a perpendicular, 
 setting off on it towards the exterior from one twelfth to one twentieth of the front, (whether one 
 twelfth or one twentieth depends upon the direction of the adjacent sides of the polygon, the 
 study being to mask the faces of the bastions, and preserve obtuse flanked angles,) join the point 
 so found with the extremities of the side, and we have the direction of the faces of the bastions, 
 whicli lay off equal to one quarter of the side. Cut off the intersection of these lines by a parallel 
 with the front, such as to give a length of thirty yards, which is the base of the caponnier, and 
 draw its flanks parallel to the perpendicular, giving them a length sufficient for four casemates to 
 flank the ditches, which establishes the shoulders of this caponnier. Joining them as a base, and 
 constructing an equilateral triangle, gives the caponnier salient and its faces. Prolong these 
 faces to the rear, and from the shoulder of the bastion draw a perpendicular thereto, and we 
 have the flank of the bastion as well as the sides of the central cavalier, or substitute for the 
 curtain. 
 
 The counterscarp is parallel to the faces of the bastions and caponnier. The ditch of the 
 latter is eighteen yards in width, and of the former twenty-three yards. 
 
 In the reentering formed by the flank of the bastion and face of the cavalier, there is an 
 inclosed court ; the terreplein of which is sometimes higher than that of the ditch. Its figure is 
 determined by the intersection of the prolongation of the face of the bastion with that of the 
 counterscarp of the caponnier, and from this point a parallel to the flank of the bastion, giving a 
 front for a small low casemated battery of three guns to flank the faces and ditch of the caponniers, 
 as originally designed, but since finished in some cases with casemates of only six feet in deptli 
 to serve as a banquette for a second tier of musketry fire ; and in other cases is suppressed alto- 
 gether, and the face of the bastion is prolonged to the shoulder of the cavalier^ with a crennated 
 wall inclosing the whole triangular space formed by the flanks of the bastion and cavalier as a 
 musketry loop-holed defense for the ditches. This latter is the construction on the front of Fort 
 B, as I noticed in walking along the crest of the glacis in 1856, and as delineated in Fig. 30 b, 
 Plate 26. 
 
 Thus the front is composed of two half bastions, the cavalier, (which is several feet higher 
 than the bastions,) the caponnier, and the flank batteries, or itsmodiflcation, the continued scarp 
 of the bastion, and cavalier faces. 
 
 The counterscarp has casemated redoubts in the reentering places of arms of two tiers rising 
 from the ditch of a semicircular form, such that their gorge serves to give a reverse fire of 
 musketry in the ditch, and particularly in the dead angle of the caponnier and face of the cavalier. 
 These redoubts have a ditch on the side of the covered way, over which is a draw-bridge from 
 the redoubt. The counterscarp of the caponnier, and of these redoubts, extending a short 
 distance along the main ditch, has a crennated gallery for musketry. Thesalient places of arms 
 of the bastions have similar masonry redoubts of two tiers that also give a reverse fire in the 
 
228 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 ditches from their interior faces. Their counterscarps have also crennated galleries returned a 
 short distance along the bastion ditch. 
 
 The covered way has no other peculiarity than a prolonged slope equivalent to and as a ramp 
 instead of the ordinary hreast-height, extending some twenty yards or more along the crest of 
 the glaces, and ojiposite the faces of the hastions to facilitate sorties. The communication from 
 the interior to the covered way is through posterns in the wall, inclosing the courts each side of 
 the cavalier. 
 
 The crest of the scarp of the capounier is in the same plane with that of the bastions and 
 cavalier^ and the earth forming its bomb-proof unites with and about two thirds up the exterior 
 sloi)e of the cavalier. 
 
 On the directrix of the front and terreplein of the cavalier is a casemated traverse for one 
 embrasure gun, from which is a communication descending to the caponnier. 
 
 The ramps to communicate with the covert way from the bottom of the ditch are along the 
 faces of the counterscarps from the ditch of the reentering places of arms. 
 
 Bastivns. — The height of their scarps are twenty-eight feet above the bottom of the ditch, 
 and are constructed with two tiers of relieving arches. lu the bastions the lower one is loop-holed, 
 above is a cliemin-de-rondc, divided in its length by masonry traverses, of which there is one also 
 (that on the capital of the bastion) made for one piece of artillery. A postern along the capital 
 under the rampart communicates with the scarp gallery and chemin-de-7-onde, and then passes 
 under the ditch to the redoubt of the place of arms of the covered way. Two other posterns in 
 the flanks communicate with the open courts. 
 
 The flanks of the bastions have no chemin-de-ronde, the upper gallery of their scarp being 
 loop-holed to defend the interior of the courts. 
 
 Cavalier. — This commanding part of the front has a relief of five feet greater than the 
 bastions. It has no chemin-de-^onde, its scarji being loop-holed as the flanks of the bastions. 
 
 Cajjonnier. — This caponnier differs from those previously described, in having a mortar 
 battery occupying the space between the faces, tJie terreplein of which is on a level with that of 
 the second tier of guns on its flanks. Besides the two tiers of guns in the flanks, there is in some 
 instances a tier of loop holes for musketry fire above, which is continued around behind and 
 above the mortar battery to defend its terreplein in case its scarp be breached and assaulted. 
 Under the mortar battery are bomb-proof vaults for magazines, &c. This work, as in all the 
 other fronts we have described, has no communication with the ditch, in conformity with the 
 principle that no flanking or protecting work shall give passage to troops operating in its 
 vicinity, either advancing or retreating. 
 
 Lunettes. — The original design calls for lunettes on the capitals of the bastions in several 
 localities, of which the two on the line of the railroad were the only ones I had an opportunity 
 of seeing. They were designed to be located on the prolongation of the capital of the cajionnier, 
 as in Plate 15, of Fort Leopold (A) fronts. It is closed at the gorge wall with a tower in its 
 center serving as a reduit, and has counterscarp galleries to flank the ditches. For the third 
 front of Fort Leopold, in place of these advanced lunettes, a ravelin or caponnier counterguard 
 is designed. 
 
 Fronts connecting the three " Independent Forts." — These connecting fronts differ materially 
 from those inclosing the forts. They all have wet ditches, retired flanks of two tiers, redoubts 
 on the bastions^ small tenailles covering the posterns on the curtains, and a continuous crennated 
 wall parallel with and along the curtain connecting with reduits in the gorges of the bastions. 
 They differ in other particulars on the different connections. 
 
 Fig. 30 a, Plate 26, rejiresents one of these fronts, having a wet ditch of sixty feet it width, 
 with earthen counterscarps, a covered way, and salient and reentering place of arms. In the 
 latter is a masonry redoubt. The trace of the bastion faces and flanks are of the Yauban outline ; 
 the curtain is slightly broken forward, under the center of which is a postern, and theuce a 
 
 I 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 229 
 
 bridge crossing the wet ditch to the reentering place of arms. In front of the curtain is a 
 tenaille, all the ditches are filled with water, and all the scarp slopes of earth rise from the 
 water, including tlioso of the tenaille, which is hut little more than a mass of surplus earth 
 remaining in the ditch. 
 
 The flanks alone of this front oiier any peculiarity ; about one half their length is broken to 
 form a low and high flank, while at the same time it forms a cut separating the bastion in two 
 parts. Each side of this cut is revetted and loop-holed. The revetment wall of the side nearest 
 the curtain is prolonged inward to its intersection with a casemated redoubt of two tiers, occu- 
 pying most of the terreplein of the bastion. The jjart of this redoubt facing the orillon flanks 
 has six guns in its two tiers, thus forming a triple flank to defend tlie ditch and face of the 
 bastion. The curtain thus becomes separated from the terreplein of the bastion, and is swept by 
 four guns in the upper tier of the casemated redoubt. A crennated wall extends along and 
 parallel with the general direction of the curtain, connecting the flanks of the casemated redoubts, 
 through which wall is a postern, near the redoubts, the opening of which is covered by a short 
 branch of a similar wall prolonged from the end of the redoubt. The gorge of the latter is closed 
 by a corresponding wall, with postern in its center. 
 
 A modification of this front exists on the line of the "middle and upper connections," Nos. 
 12 and 30, Plate 15, where the bastion terreplein is in different places separated by a crennated 
 wall forming the side of the orillon flanks, prolonged inwards to the redoubt in the center of 
 the bastion, the exterior radius of which is forty meters, and fifteen meters in width. Masonry 
 casemated quarters on the prolongation of the exterior of the redoubt occupy the gorge, connected 
 to each other by crennated walls, as is the case along the entire curtain, inclosing the latter and 
 bringing it under the fire of musketry from the town side through its loop holes. An examina- 
 tion of the two sheets (16 and 17) of plates with the preceding, will, I trust, make this system 
 so far understood as that any of its principles and details may become available at pleasure. 
 
 Front of Fort Alexander, at Cohlentz. (Plate 27, Fig. 32.) Tlie trace of this front is taken 
 from Colonel Humfrey's Essay, who seems to have obtained accurate information — certainly 
 very reliable for all useful purposes, even if not exact as to distances. On a front of G57 yards, 
 A B, erect a perpendicular on its center, H C, equal to one twelfth of A B, make the demi-gorges 
 C D and C E each one seventh of A B, and the capital C F equal to one sixth of A B, or the 
 faces D F and E F each one fifth, which will make the diminished angles, D A H, E B H, each 
 10°, and throw the faces of the counterguards beyond the reach of ricochet from any ground an 
 enemy can occupy on the plateau across which this front is constructed. 
 
 Draw the interior front a h parallel to A B, and 82 yards within it; divide it in three equal 
 parts, ad,de, eh, and from the center li set oft' A H = /t d or h e; from H, as a center which will 
 nearly coincide with tlie center of A B, and may bo taken as tlie same point, describe an arc, 
 di, k e, and make the flanks d i, Tc e each 33 yards, to contain six casemates behind the revetment, 
 and connect i k for the curtain; draw cZ H e H parallel to D F and E F, and directed to the 
 shoulders d e for the counterscarp ; make the circular part with a radius of 20^ yards, which 
 will give the point m and draw i m, k m for the direction of the faces of the caponnier C. The 
 flanks of this latter work are 33 yards, being 16| yards distant on each side of the capital 
 parallel to it, and meeting the intersections n o. The ditch in front of the bastion is 29 yards 
 wide, and parallel to the faces. 
 
 The caponnier is a casemated work of two tiers, of five guns each, covered by the counter- 
 guard or ravelin in front of it, which has the same command within two feet as the body of the 
 place. It has no superior battery, being covered with earth simply to make it bomb-proof and 
 a traverse. It is swept by the cross-fire from the whole front, or at least from tlie flanks and 
 curtain. The casemates in its faces are pierced with looji holes only. Each of these capounicrs 
 will accommodate about 150 men to 200 men. 
 
 The flanks d i aud /.; e are casemated to flank the ditch of the caponnier, which may be 
 
230 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 done from tlie rampart, thus sweeping the terrepleins of the ravelin. The ditches of the 
 faces of the counterguards and of the ravelin are flanked by casemated batteries, behind their 
 detached scarjis in the reentering angle, closing the demi-lune ditch. Passages ten feet wide 
 are made into the ditches, around the end of the counterguard separating it from the casemated 
 battery. This passage is covered by the direction given to it, being on two lines overlapping 
 each other, as at P and G. 
 
 A counterscarp gallery extends round the work, from which raining galleries are pushed 
 forward under the counterguard, &c. The faces of the counterguards and ravelins on the right 
 and left fronts of the work are made with relieving arches, with loop holes for musketry fire. 
 Communications also exist under the bottom of the ditch, either with the casemates behind the 
 revetment or with a gallery, the direction of which is not known. The main work is a parallelo- 
 gram five degrees from a square. 
 
 The length of the gorge is the same as the front of attack, the other two being 432 yards- 
 The revetment of the whole of the interior work is detached and loop-holed, excepting the 
 fianks, which are, as before described, casemated for artillery. 
 
 There are no covered ways, the counterguards having only a small command of about 
 twelve or fourteen feet. The salient angles of the counterguard and ravelin ditches have block- 
 houses, with masonry walls and timber bomb-proofs, communicating with the galleries under 
 the ditches. They afibrd a reverse fire from three guns along the counterguard ditches and 
 those of the ravelin. These block-houses are covered by small places of arms, with breast- 
 heights and glacis, in some measure protecting the branches of the counterguards, &c., as 
 traverses. 
 
 In the center of the gorge front is a large semicircular tower, casemated for two tiers of 
 artillery and a barbette battery, convex to the corps-de-place and entirely within and u2)on it. 
 It connects with a smaller semicircular casemated reduit projecting beyond the counterscarp of 
 the gorge, convex to the country. The wall connecting it with the interior redoubt, is simply a 
 crennated one crossing and flanking the gorge ditch. Both these casemated works have stone 
 l^arapets, with embrasures cut in them, and two tiers of casemates below. Thi.s stone parapet is 
 being replaced with earth. From this casemated work is pushed forward the interior system ol 
 mining galleries. This barrack greatly increases the defensive strength of the front, compelling 
 an enemy to destroy the very last defenses before commencing an attack upon it in the limited 
 interior of the corps-de-place, except so far as it may be injured by numerous mortar and long 
 howitzer fire. The ditch of the counterguards and ravelin has for its counterscarp a very flat 
 earthen slope, greatly exposing the masonry of the scarp to distant fire, but slightly curved 
 even to strike the foot of the scarp. It cannot be that this defect will be permitted to remain 
 unaltered. No advantage of sortie or obstruction to descent of ditch can justify such exjDOSure 
 to the detached crennated scarps. Mortar batteries similar to that of Fig. 7, Plate 22, are 
 established on the capital of the bastions, immediately behind tlie ramjmrt, on the terreplein of 
 the corps-de-place, as in section a^ lA, Plate 27. 
 
 The two fronts we have just considered of Coblentz and Rastadt differ essentially from the 
 two firsts XJlm and Posen ; nor do we discover that the general principles we have detailed have 
 been carried out in their construction. In effect they are fronts of a continuous system, more or 
 less resembling those of Montalembert, without offering the independent points we have pre- 
 sented as forming the essential basis of this system. But it must be observed that they are 
 intended and applied to inclose the separate forts, which are the true and independent loorks of 
 these places. Considered under this point of view it is easy to perceive that they accord with 
 the maxims presented for independent works. It follows that these enceintes should differ from 
 those intended to inclose a large space, and that rather than presenting a contradiction of prin- 
 ciples they may more justly be considered as exemjflifying the spirit and general import of the 
 maxims of this system, certainly as the German engineers have 2:>rogi'essivily applied them. 
 
 I 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 231 
 
 Bavaria. — Fronts of the Fortress of Germersheim . — In this polygonal trace the side has been 
 slightly "tenailled," to give flanking fires to the -wings and flanks of the central caponnier. 
 The latter is united to the scarji by two walls, and has a direct communication with the interior 
 by a postern, which also gives entrance to tlie loop-holed scarp galleries. From the two angles 
 of the polygon laj' ofi' 120 yards for the faces of small bastions, separated from the curtain by 
 cuts, across the whole width of the rampart. The immediate defense of these cuts is by traverses, 
 analogous to those specially used by Montalembert in his circular system. This bastion has a 
 defensive interior barrack extending from the cut of one front across the gorge to the cut of the 
 collateral front, thus rendering this bastion an "independent defensive work," and therefor 
 provided with a system of mines pushed forward from the barrack, with exterior system extending 
 under the salient of the bastion and its ramparts. In the flanked angle blinded batteries are 
 constructed, serving as traverses. 
 
 The central caponnier is covered by a ravelin, the ditch of which is flanked by casemated 
 batteries closing it, leaving a curved passage, and uniting with and forming a single work with 
 the casemated redoubts of the reentering places of arms. These batteries and redoubts have 
 special entrances from the ditch distinct from those of the places of arms and covered way. The 
 ravelin and places of arms with their redoubts form a first defensive line, which must be 
 demolished and occupied in order to appix)ach the body of the place. 
 
 Front of the Tete-de-Pont on the Rhine, opposite Germersheim. — This is an example with wet 
 ditches, showing how simply and naturally the sy.stem under consideration favors such a con- 
 struction, securing all the advantages without the objections heretofore urged against them of 
 hampering the active defense. (See Plate 27, Fig. 33.) 
 
 The front is a right line, slightly broken to the rear. The scarp is of earth, with the 
 exceptions of those of the small bastions, closed at the gorge by a crennated wall, with a block- 
 house of masonry in the center. The flanks of these bastions fire only along the terrepleins and 
 slopes of the curtains. The interior face of the rampart along the curtain is revetted (section 
 h m) and connected with the gorge walls of the bastion, making a continuous interior face of 
 the rampart along the whole line of the work. The center of the front is occupied by a large 
 edifice of three distinct parts. The most retired is a special barrack and last redoubt of the 
 front, (section g h,) battering the terrepleins and foot of the interior face of the rampart. The 
 central part serves as a caponnier for the whole front. It is flanked by two wings projecting 
 from the sides. Under this central part is an arched passage for the flow of the waters of the 
 ditch, which latter is crossed by lateral bridges along side of the caponnier. (Section g h.) 
 
 The last part serves as a redoubt of the demi-lune. The interior is arranged to preserve 
 the defensive character of these three parts to make a successive defense, while the sides 
 cannot be enfiladed. Around the entire work is a dri/ ditch, the bottom of which is above the 
 water level. It aftbrds a dry, covered communication to the terreplein of the demi-lune, the 
 descent to it from the interior being by gentle ramps, while the wings flank and defend it against 
 an enemy following a retiring sortie ; which sorties can thus be made without the interruption 
 or hindrance of rafts and other arrangements in the wet ditches. 
 
 The demi-lune ditches are flanked by batteries which close them, and are connected with the 
 redoubts of the reentering places of arms, forming a single work. Two loop-holed walls connect 
 these redoubts with the demi-lune redoubt, the .three forming a continuous line of defensive 
 redoubts, with easy communications with each other and with the interior of the front. An 
 examination of Fig. 33, and the four accompanying sections, (Plate 27,) will make this remarkable 
 front sufficiently understood. The communication by ramps, &c., from the reentering places of 
 arms and covered way, without passing through the respective defending redoubts, is fully 
 delineated in Fig. 33. 
 
 The great dimensions of the reentering place of arms admit of the establishment of two 
 block-houses, especially intended to command the covered ways. 
 
232 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fronts of Ingolstadt. — The system adopted for this place is the same as that for the fortress 
 of Germersheim, with some slight diiFerences. The same, system has been adhered to for the 
 tete-de-pont ou the Bavarian part of Ulm, a work executed hy a superior officer of the Bavarian 
 corps of engineers, while the Wurtemberg side, previously described, was executed under the 
 direction of the Prussian Colonel Pritwitz, who also had the direction of the fortress of Posen. 
 It may be said that the Bavarian system is a type of the German system generally, in which the 
 princijiles of the latter have been somewhat circumscribed. 
 
 Fronts ivith wet ditches at Konigsherg, Prussia. — The Prussian engineers are still actively 
 engaged in the construction of tliis fortress. Its trace differs from any of the preceding, having 
 masonry scarped bastions on the angles of the polygon, and a retired bastion in the center of the 
 curtain, with chemin-de-ronde with a cunette of half the width of the ditch along its center and 
 a depth of not less than six feet water. Plate 26, Figs. 30 c, 30 d, will give the construction. 
 The general princijile steadily kept in view, as stated to me by the Prussian engineers, is, "that 
 the fortress shall be composed of detached parts, eaclr having its separate commander and garri- 
 son, with separate and independent detached works. Thus: the bastions are detached from the 
 curtains; the reduits are in like manner detached; the scarp is detached on all parts excepting 
 the faces and part of the flanks of the bastions." On some of the fronts the ditch is filled witli 
 water from scarp to counterscarp), when there is a masonry casemated caponnier in the center of 
 the curtain (instead of the flat earthen bastion) flanking the faces of the bastions with five guns. 
 Fig. 30 e gives the general dimensions and arrangement of the modification. 
 
 It will be observed that each of the flanks of this caponnier has five casemates for artillery, 
 closed in the rear with large doors opening on an esplanade that communicates with the curtain 
 by three draw-bridges over the wet ditcli separating it from the scarp, the center one being for 
 artillery and those on the line of the interior face of the rampart being foot bridges covered on 
 the side towards the bastions with a loop-holed wall. Five other casemates form a curve connect- 
 ing tlie flanks. The whole are made bomb-proof, its masonry rising to the height of the scarp, 
 and with the earth above, sliown in the section, serves as a traverse in tlie ditch. Its scarps are 
 about six feet thick ; the casemates eleven to twelve feet wide and sixteen feet deep, separated by 
 piers of from five to six feet. 
 
 I may here notice a detail that was observed throughout the Prussian works and which is 
 much wanted in our casemates. To erect a purchase under low casemates for mounting and 
 dismounting the guns is exceedingly difficult for want of sufficient height, and even when done 
 the terrepleins are often injured by the ends of the "gin." In these casemates, as well as in those 
 examined on the coast, tlie general practice is to ivork a ring-holt in the masonry of the arch over 
 the point best suited for slingiiig the gun to which tlie tackle purchase is attached. 
 
 The draw-bridges of these works are in some cases counterpoised by weights on the floor 
 timbers running back and sinking in a well behind the scarjj in the parade, as stated in some 
 previous descriptions ; and in others, by a counterpoise of weights which, as the bridge rises, rest 
 successively on the bottom of a pit or well into which they fall. These weights constitute a 
 continuous chain of balls united with a link and staple, the united weight being a counterpoise 
 for the bridge when horizontal, a.s in Fig. 30 f, Plate 26. A lever to which the maneuvering 
 chain is attached for starting the motion of the bridge and to give an increase of power to break 
 it from its seat, which rust or dirt may have rendered fixed, is a novel idea that may be advanta- 
 geously introduced in some of our works. It is also represented by Fig. 30 f, Plate 26. Tlie chain 
 is attached to the end of the lever at a. When the power of a man is applied to the weights 
 (by a chain over a pulley at d) he puts in application the lever, drawing it in the position of the 
 chain h c, in doing which the end e of the lever is forced down upon the timber below, thus 
 breaking the bridge from its seat, when the lever draws in a line with the chain as attached at 
 the end of the bridge. 
 
 In tlie rear of several of these fronts, and on the center of their united fronts, there is a 
 large defensive barrack for two thousand men or more, standing out independent on the terre- 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 233 
 
 plein of the corps-de-place, serving as a citadel and last redoubt for the whole line. The place 
 of arms on the center of this trace in the reentering of the covered way has a casemated redoubt, 
 the covered way being broken along its faces en cremalliere, with an earthen, sloped counterscarp. 
 Enceintes formed of isolated or "independent forts" of continuous bastioned fronts with 
 ravelins, or of a combination of the enceinte and detached forts, constitute one of the difficult 
 questions upon which European engineers cannot agree, even of the same school and nation. To 
 it may be added the relative proportion in the strength of continuous enceintes, covered by a 
 girdle of detached advanced forts. For the city of Paris no less than six distinguished engineers 
 offered plans materially differing in this important particular. I omit the study and investiga- 
 tion of it, and for which I have much material on hand, for the reason it is not so important in 
 its application to our country, where no large fortresses are to be constructed, but simply depots 
 of naval supplies to be covered, and channels to be defended, or roadsteads to be protected ; 
 repeating the important fact, that nothing within a fortified place, as dock-yards, ships, timber, 
 &c., that is within four thousand yards of a position an enemy may occupy, is protected or safe 
 against bombardment, and that it is of little importance to keep him out by walls and ramparts, 
 if his object is simply to destroy, and we allow him to come within the distance, he can effect his 
 object with long range heavy artillery. The rear of our water batteries are those requiring the 
 greatest consideration of this part of the subject, and in this the many systems I have presented 
 of the present practice of European engineers of all nations, will suffice to enable the officers of 
 our service to apply any of the plans now presented that they may consider expedient for the 
 localities demanding their talents and skill. In the excellent work from which I have drawn so 
 much of this subject relating to the systems now in use by European engineers, by Colonel 
 Clavijo, he proceeds to give descriptions of several of the recent works, and then enters into an 
 analysis of the attack and defense of the two, French and German. To it I must refer my 
 reader, remarking that his investigation leads him to prefer the application of the German jjrin- 
 ciples to the fortifying of a site rather than those of the Noizet school, as now taught in France. 
 
 General defects attached to the German System. 
 
 The partisans of the bastioned system have enumerated under the following heads the 
 general defects of the German system : 
 
 First. The construction of German fortresses must be expensive on account of the numerous 
 works of masonry requiring nice workmanship, and the excess in cost, if expended upon some 
 other systems would produce fronts of greater defensive value. 
 
 Second. Troops and material of war are distributed throughout the independent works of 
 the place. Thus, the defense loses the strength which union and concerted action imparts to all 
 operations of war, and which can only exist under the immediate direction of one single commander. 
 
 Third. There will be difficulty in finding for each independent work an officer capable of 
 directing the defense in perfect unison with the plan, more or less active, which the commander 
 of the place may have adopted. 
 
 Fourth. The numerous works of masonry in this system are liable to be destroyed by curved 
 fires at slight elevations and by heavy projectiles. 
 
 Fifth. The inconveniences of various kinds attributed to casemates are also inherent in this 
 system. 
 
 Sixth, and finally, that it is imprudent to abandon the existing systems of fortification 
 before the sanction of experience has placed beyond doubt the advantage of the modern systems. 
 
 With resi^ect to the first point, "the greater cost of their fortresses," the answer of the 
 German engineers is, that experience has proved the contrary. The meager data we possess on 
 this point and which we present, if insufficient to decide the question, will nevertheless have 
 some explanatory bearing. 
 30 D 
 
234 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Murks states the cost of an octagon fortified, according to the following systems, to be — 
 
 First system of Vauhan 35,000,000 or 4,700,000 reals.* 
 
 Third system of Vauhan 50,000,000 or 6,200,000 " 
 
 System of Cormontaigne 51,000,000 or 6,700,000 " 
 
 System of Coehorn 32,000,000 or 4,000,000 " 
 
 System of Bousmard 52,000,000 or 6,500,000 " 
 
 Tenailled system of Montalembert 32,000,000 or 4,000,000 " 
 
 If this data conld be relied upon the question would be resolved in favor of the German 
 system, but not knowing the basis of the author's valuation we cannot come to a conclusion. 
 
 The Citadel of Posen cost 35,625,500 reals, 11,687,500 of which was expended upon the 
 large barrack, magazine, and large gorge towers, consequently the three fronts and the two wings 
 cost 24,937,500, and each may be said to have cost 6,000,000, which is less than the cost of 
 Cormontaigne's, with a much greater extent of front, which must be born in mind. The total 
 cost of the works of Posen is 114,000,000, deducting the cost of the citadel, there remains for 
 the two enceintes on the right and left of the Wartha and the two forts of the " tete-de-pont" 
 78,368,000. If this same space had been closed by forts, according to Cormontaigne's system, 
 twelve fronts would have been required, and consequently 80,400,000, without considering the 
 cost of the two interior forts ; we should still have to add the cost of the barrack and the maga- 
 zine. 
 
 The fortress of Rastadt, without the entrenched camp, cost 7,000,000 florins. That of Ulm, 
 from nine to ten millions. 
 
 The fronts of the enceintes of Paris, without any exterior work, and witli an earthen 
 counterscarp, cost, each, 800,000 francs, or 3,200,000 reals. 
 
 The cost of the exterior forts, exclusive of the purchase of the site, was — 
 
 Fort Mont Valerian 4,828,000 
 
 Fort Charenton, a pentagon 3,949,000 
 
 The quadrangular forts, mean cost 3,500,000 
 
 Each of the fronts on the right bank of the river at Posen cost 674,000 thalers. 
 
 AVe must here remark that the extent of scarps in a quadrangular fort of Paris is not less 
 than 1,200 meters; whilst the development of the Posen forts, not including the gorge wall, is, 
 at most, 400 meters, which sufficiently explains this difierence in cost, and presents difficulties 
 in judging this subject correctly. 
 
 The four detached works on the left bank of the Moselle, including the subterranean 
 communications, cost approximately 22,000,000. If the same space had been closed by bastioned 
 fronts, the cost would have been considerably more. 
 
 Finally, we may state that the system of interior and exterior mines is included in the 
 German fronts and works ; and to strengthen bastioned fronts with the same, the cost will be 
 much increased. The German system cannot justly be objected to, then, on the ground of 
 increased cost. 
 
 The second and third objections to the German system have undoubtedly more foundation. 
 In effect, the commander of the fortress cannot, as in continuous systems, direct alone the 
 operations of the defense, nor can he at a single glance take in the progress of the siege. Each 
 work has allotted to it a determinate garrison, requiring the officer in command to act inde- 
 pendently at a given time, in accordance with the true spirit of the orders of iiis commander : 
 nor can the latter reinforce him opportunely, either for the purpose of repelling an attack or 
 making sorties, as occasion may call for. 
 
 While we admit the existence of these inconveniences to be of a serious nature in a general 
 sense, yet in special cases we find their importance much diminished, and consider they are 
 
 * These fi"-ures must be received as relative, the vaUie of the different currencies not being stated in tlie source from 
 whence this information is obtained. 
 
 I 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 235 
 
 more than counterbalanced by the advantages otherwise accruing from this very objectionable 
 system, as shown from the disposition of these isolated commands. Much of the objection may 
 hereafter be overcome by the use of a telegraph wire, a most simple and effectual means of 
 communicating with the general headquarters. 
 
 Let us suppose the fortress of Posen to be invested: it is undeniable that against any 
 irregular attack it will be easier to defend it than a continuous system. Each isolated point is 
 provided with secure means of defense. Nor are these points of so complicated a nature as to 
 prevent an of35cer in command from directing the defense against any such attack, while the 
 commander would direct his attention to the curtains, which the enemy might attempt to 
 escalade. The critical situation of the one would give greater freedom of action to the other. We 
 cannot, either, believe that this difficulty of commanding the whole defense exists in the case of a 
 regular investment of three fronts, the other being secure. The artillery of the redoubts and 
 casemated batteries is alone out of sight of the commander ; but the offensive movements of the 
 garrison, their retreat, and every material circumstance connected with the siege, passes under the 
 commander's eyes. If we turn to the defense of Eastadt, the numerous artillery that would be 
 required to operate against Fort Leopold, the probable field of attack, renders it almost certain 
 that two of those "independent forts" could not be attacked simultaneously. The most to be 
 attempted would be to make a false attack ; and the true point being once ascertained, the 
 commander of the place may then give his personal attention to the main attack. 
 
 In some fortresses repaired according to the German system these principles have been 
 exaggerated, and a pernicious use made of subterranean communications, which, while compli- 
 cating the interior of the works, conceal the movements of the troops from the commanding 
 officer, and has an influence on the morale of the soldier, who becomes reluctant to leave the 
 cover and protection they afibrd. This abuse, springing from the very latitude of the system, 
 and of which many remarkable examples could be cited, has contributed to give more weight to 
 the defects under consideration than they really possess. The objections can only be truly 
 established after some vigorous siege and resolute defense of one of these new fortresses. 
 
 With respect to the fourth objection, we will bring together the considerations previously 
 stated; and first, as a general principle, the masonry in this system is covered by earthen works, 
 as well as in the bastioned system, and they cannot be systematically battered by direct fire. 
 
 Second. The position of the caponniers, casemated redoubts, &c., guards against, as a 
 general rule, destruction by curved fires, as experimented with at Woolwich, in a normal 
 direction, or approximating thereto, the only case in which we may say their effect would be 
 certain. Their arches, covered with earth, are calculated to resist the usual shell. Twenty- 
 four-inch mortars, if such could be brought against them, would produce very destructive effects 
 on this system, nevertheless the practice with such mortars at the siege of Antwerp, would seem 
 to remove all fear in this respect. 
 
 The defensive barracks, by their position and the great mark they present, are the works 
 most liable to be injured from slightly curved fires ; still we think we have shown that, as 
 redoubts, they are far superior to the uncovered redoubts of the bastioned system, and this, in 
 reality, is the material question, ivhich is the best; and to which, in devising a plan for a locality, 
 should we give the preference ? In a matter as yet undetermined by the experience of actual 
 sieges, we may cite in favor of these casemated barracks, the opinion of officers of distinction of 
 the French school, as Bousmard, Choumara, and Fleury; the latter the director of the works at 
 Lyons. 
 
 Sixtli. Casemates. — This subject alone would require much time, if examined upon Vauban's 
 limited application in confined tower bastions, closed on all sides ; and the restricted and special 
 applications of Chasseloup, together with the more extensive ones of Montalembert; presenting 
 at the same time their various and most remarkable applications, and also analyzing their 
 advantages and inconveniences ; neither does time permit, nor does the occasion call for such a 
 
236 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 discussion. Two points affecting tlie German system are, however, important to notice in rela- 
 tion to these casemates. 
 
 The difficulty of giving vent to the smoke has always been set forth as one of the greatest 
 objections against casemates. It has been completely set at rest, and repeated experiments have 
 proved, that their fire can be as rapid as may be obtained from artillery elsewhere. Neither 
 does the thickness, six feet and upwards, of scarp, through which howitzers or other short 
 guns are fired, which scarcely enter the embrasui'cs, interfere materially with the firing. 
 It is sufficient, to guard against any inconvenience, that the arches be normal to the scarp 
 and open at the gorge. In addition to this, a reference to our plates will indicate numerous 
 instances of ventilators near the crown of the arches to facilitate the escape of any smoke that 
 may be formed inside the casemate, of which the vent supplies a portion, and all the rest must 
 be forced back after having been thrown forward with the blast of the gun. 
 
 But this objection overcome, it is argued that the exterior smoke hanging over the ditches 
 contiguous to the embrasures, becomes so dense as to prevent aiming, and renders the fire ineffi- 
 cient from the darkness created in the casemate. This is an objection of recent date by some 
 modern author who attaches much importance to it ; but has not, so far as we can learn, been 
 confirmed by experience, and if it were the case with a low casemate near the bottom of the 
 ditch, it is very certain that the aim is so determinate from the immovable position of the 
 enemy's batteries or other works^ that it is scarcely necessary to see the object to be fired at. But 
 admitting the objection in all its force, an open battery would in like manner be so enveloped in 
 its own smoke as to labor under precisely the same inconvenience. The state of the atmosphere 
 at the time creates the greatest obstacle to the efficiency of casemated batteries from smoke 
 precisely as on ship-board, with low decks, and the men's heads near the ceiling where most 
 smoke accumulates, and from whence it is of most difficult escape, yet no serious inconvenience 
 arises from this cause, even in bombardments when at anchor; although at Sebastopol, on more 
 than one occasion during the bombardment, the commander of an English line-of-battle ship 
 ordered the firing to cease in consequence of not being enabled to see the Russian forts through 
 the smoke enveloping his ship. 
 
 The influence on the morale of the men, is another defect alluded to. An injudicious appli- 
 cation might undoubtedly be productive of much evil, just as the -best founded principle in forti- 
 fication, if carried to excess, would lead to grave inconveniences. On the other hand it may 
 inspire the gunner with increased energy and confidence in serving his gun, from the certainty 
 of security, in every possible direction than through the embrasure, which when compared with 
 the risks of serving an open battery should commend these casemates as having a beneficial 
 influence on the minds of the soldiers. Certain it is no soldiers ever performed more faithful 
 service than the Eussian gunners in the extensive two and tliree tier casemated batteries of 
 Sebastopol during the attacks upon them by the allied fleets, nor was there any cessation of firing 
 from smoke inside or outside these batteries. The barbette batteries were alone silent for a time, 
 and certainly not on account of smoke, but the want of ammunition, which could not be served 
 at that elevation above the magazines as fast as wanted. 
 
 In the German system, the great object of the casemate is to cover the flanking artillery, 
 and it can under no circumstances be assigned to any other service, as is the case with the light 
 artillery and other arms of the garrison. 
 
 It may well be asked, why not shelter the garrisons of the redoubts of the covered ways, if 
 to them alone is assigned the maintaining of these points, and protecting the sorties in their 
 vicinity? With respect to the men at the guns, why not suppose tlieir discouragement greater 
 in an uncovered battery with their pieces dismounted about them by distant fires to which they 
 cannot advantageously reply, than when they await under shelter the moment of meeting their 
 enemy face to face, and competing at the proper time with the other arms of the garrison in the 
 fulfillment of their arduous duty. For the want of such flank casemates the Eussians at Sebastopol 
 were constantly losing their artillery, having to remount the batteries with pieces from the 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 237 
 
 fleet, (as already stated in one battery no less than four sets of guns were counted that had been 
 disabled,) and little or no artilleiy was left serviceable at the end of the siege. I cannot doubt 
 there was not a Russian officer present at that memorable siege who would not advocate case- 
 mated flank artillery fire. So far as practicable they resorted to it, by constructing a few cajaon- 
 niers in the ditches. In concluding this branch of the subject, we cannot admit the force ot the 
 objections raised against the German system, and feel assured that the ofiicers of our service will 
 find much in it to approve, and many details they can advantageously introduce in our system 
 of sea-coast defense. 
 
 A23plication of the German S'jstem to the strengthening and modifying existing Fortresses. 
 
 A remaining point worthy of examination, is the fitness and applicability of this system to 
 the repair and modification of existing works, or to ingraft upon them the independent defensive 
 works in advance, to give additional strength or occupy new localities that circumstances have 
 made necessary since the conception of the original design. This branch of the subject I consider 
 particularly applicable to the engineer service of our country, where the rapid growth of the 
 wealth and prosperity of a place renders additional defenses necessary, and which in most cases, 
 can best be effected by detached works in accordance with the principles of the German engi- 
 neers. 
 
 Few systems are as susceptible of being generally adapted to these purposes as the one under 
 consideration. For example, in the case of Cologne, the ancient system consisted of a -wall 
 flanked by large towers, constructed as early as llfiS. It consists at this time (and to all appear- 
 ance the original profile) of a ditch with a masonry counterscarp, the earth from the ditch 
 having formed an elevation on which a crenuated wall is constructed, flanked by round or semi- 
 circular towers ; the crennated wall having two tiers of loop holes, the terreplein of the upper 
 one being supported by small arches resting on piers abutting against the scarj), as in the annexed 
 Fig. 164. Recently the Prussian engineers have covered the old enceinte by a continuous bastioned- 
 
 
 Ancient line inclosing the city of Cologne. Riimpart recently constructed on a bastion trace. 
 
 Fig. 164. 
 
 trace earthen rampart as shown in Fig. 164, following very nearly the line of the old counter- 
 scarp, with very flat cavalier bastions, about three feet above the curtain. In advance of this 
 enceinte they have more recently added a line of detached masonry redoubts upon their peculiar 
 system, the plan and details of which are very correctly given by Mangin, in his " Memoir on the 
 Fortresses built in Germany since 1815," published in Paris, in 1851. 
 
 These forts or redoubts are about 800 yards from each other, extending from the river on 
 the right to the river on the left, and about the same distance in front of the enceinte. 
 
 Between this line of detached redoubts and the continuous bastioned enceinte, is a second 
 line of lunettes, placed in the openings between the detached forts. They have a simple earthen 
 parapet and ditcli, with a masonry block-house in the gorge, covered in rear by an isolated 
 parados. These lunettes have two faces, making an obtuse angle with two short flanks. The 
 berm of the rampart is planted with a hedge. Tlio gorge is entirely open, other than the parados 
 between the magazine or block-bouse and the city. 
 
 The masonry of these advanced redoubts is mostly of brick, and very excellent, being the 
 
238 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 only truly good brick masonry, on an extended scale, I saw in any of tlie fortresses. The mortar 
 is very superior, made apparently with the tuffa or volcanic stone, found on the Rhine, near 
 Cologne. Where stone is used it is basaltic rock, and most excellent and durable. 3Iuch of 
 the masonry in the ancient walls, now in excellent order and condition, is of brick, with columnar 
 basaltic blocks introduced frequently as headers. I notice this masonry from the fact of most of 
 the masonry of the fortresses in Europe being of a very indifferent character, both as to material 
 and style of the workmanship, although faithfully executed. 
 
 The system in general of the defenses of this city is, then, an earthen bastioned enceinte, 
 with detached redoubts, with a line of intermediate earthen lunettes, constituting the additions 
 made by the Prussian engineers to strengthen a continuous musketry defense from the old walls 
 and towers commanding all the terrepleins of the bastioned enceinte. 
 
 Hedges are planted at the foot of the exterior slojje of the bastioned enceinte, and on the 
 glacis of the new work, as shown in Fig, 164, an auxiliary in the defense quite common in 
 Germany and Eussia. 
 
 The draw-hridges are all maneuvered by a counterpoise of a series of balls forming a chain 
 falling into a pit one after another, resting on the bottom as the bridge rises. The chain from the 
 end of the bridge is braced out from the center of motion to the circle described by the end of the 
 bridge in its ascent. This arrangement equalizes the weights and motion, while it serves at the 
 same time as a guard rail on the side of the bridge, and substitute for the arrangement, hereto- 
 fore referred to, of the French engineers given in the sixteenth volume of their '■'Memorial du 
 Genie." 
 
 The walls of the ancient crennated scar^j and its counterscarji are mostly, if not entirely, 
 built of the basaltic rock. In the new works the masonry generally commences with about three 
 feet in height, of basaltic rubble stone masonry, with brick above. All the embrasures and 
 loop-holes are formed of and faced with brick. 
 
 The bastioned enceinte is strengthened with caponniers in the middle of the curtains. Thus 
 this i^lace has become as defensible as most of the modern fortresses of original design. 
 
 The Tete-de-ponf , on the o^jposite side of the Ehine, was a bastioned hexagon, with small 
 demi-lunes and covered way, without redoubts in the jdaces of arms. To adapt these fronts to 
 the new system, the flanks and the curtains of the front have been demolished, the faces of the 
 bastions have been prolonged to form a tenailled front, and the flanks of the ravelin have been 
 prolonged to the rear across the ditch, and tlirough the new ramjDart, from which it is separated 
 by cuts, forming an independent caponnier. The reentering jjlaces of arms of the covert way 
 have been strengthened with casemated redoubts ; the whole forming a favorable specimen of the 
 facility of modifying the old to conform with the new system of German military science. 
 
 When greater enlargement has been required, and now constantly called for by the growth 
 of the cities extending to the utmost limit within the old defenses, as in the case of the fortress 
 of Stettin, the union of the new fronts with tlie old is equally manageable by the use of the 
 German system. 
 
 At Dantzig the portion of the enceinte on the west of the Mottlan is commanded by a series 
 of heights at a short distance. Upon these heights was a line of works of the bastioned trace, 
 partly revetted and partly with earthen slopes. These were the point of attack during the sieges 
 of 1807 and 1814. 
 
 General Eapp, who commanded the fortress during the latter siege, enlarged the defenses. 
 Subsequently the Prussian engineers have strengtliened them by isolating the two extreme 
 bastions of this line, flanking the ditches with caponniers, and closing the gorges with a defensive 
 barrack in one and a battery in the other, thus securing the flanks of this position. 
 
 The exterior star forts of Stettin have undergone analogous modifications, by demolishing 
 the fronts towards the place, and substituting walls with defensive barracks. 
 
 When it is requisite to strengthen an enceinte or a given front by advanced works only, the 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 239 
 
 German " independent defensive works" .are equally applicable. They are in effect independent 
 of the main work with respect to position, having their own batteries for flanking the ditches ; 
 hence their taces and flanks need not have, as in the bastioued system, directions dependent upon 
 the enceinte for the necessary flanking fire from either bastion ordemi-lune. Their faces may be 
 directed as best to command the ground in front, without being restricted in their direction by 
 the works in the rear. The greater portion of the places in Germany that have undergone 
 modifications have been enlarged by works of this character. Thus Mayence has been strength- 
 ened by the construction of the extensive Blucher lunette, organized after this system. 
 
 Other instances could be cited of the application of these principles to the alteration and 
 modification of ancient works, of which Verona, by the Austrian engineers, is a favorable example ; 
 and where they have adopted them harmoniously, with the most ancient bastioned fronts of which 
 we have any authentic record (the ori(jinally invented bastioned fronts of San Michelli ;) but the 
 repetition of additional instances would unnecessarily prolong this report. I may with great 
 confidence commend the system to my brother officers, as well worthy their study for its appli- 
 cation to the modification of our old works, or for any new projects they may be called upon to 
 devise. 
 
 Russian System of Fortification. 
 
 Eussia, like all the other continental powers, no longer follows the French system of the 
 bastioned front, as taught at Metz and practiced in France; and, unlike the other nations, has 
 wisely succeeded in finding suitable points to fortify, possessing all requisite strategic conditions 
 without surrounding her cities by barriers, that necessarily restrict their growth, annoy the 
 population by the unavoidable interferences of the military with the civil authorities, and in 
 case of a siege — or in other words, the use of the fortress for which it was intended — bringing 
 upon the population all the evils attendant upon a protracted and resolute defense. Her engi- 
 neers have selected suitable sites, and fortified them without regard to the commerce or wealth 
 of a city or town, but looked to the defense of the nation against invasion as a first condition. 
 
 Polish Russia penetrates far between the Austrian dominions on one side, and the Prussian 
 on the other. Against these two powers, Russia had to fortify her frontier to resist either of 
 them, or their respective alliances, at the same time adapting her line of defense to offensive, as 
 well as defensive warfare. 
 
 The line of the Vistula presented many advantages. Its banks, like our Mississippi, were 
 subject to overflow from periodic rains and annual freshets, when the crossing is confined to a 
 few localities. Of these, Warsaw, and Modlin, at the junction of the Narefl' with the Vistula, 
 presented two bluffs, always above water and accessible by roads. These two' points have both 
 been occupied and fortified after their own peculiar manner within the last few years, while at 
 the same time Bresk, Letawski, Dubna, Zwarnia, and Kief, interior positions, have in like 
 manner been selected, and progress made in fortifying them to support the works and army on 
 the frontier, or add to the resistance against an invading force. The fact of the Russian fortresses 
 being isolated works of defense only, and not surrounding cities, has preveuted such general 
 knowledge of their system as has been obtained by travelers visiting the cities of France and 
 Germany. 
 
 I am only justified in communicating so much as has been previously published, which, 
 indeed, is far more than it was in my power to procure in a day spent in the defenses, at both 
 Modlin and Warsaw. 
 
 During the campaigns of Napoleou I, the site of Modlin, now called Fort Novo Georgwisk, 
 or new St. George, was selected as one possessing great advantages for a tete-dc-pont and 
 entrenched camp. General Chasseloup, of the French engineers, at that time fortified it, and 
 his trace formed the basis in part of the immense fortress since constructed by the Russians on 
 
240 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 ihe same site a^ter the conquest or subjugation of Poland. The works were commenced in 1831, 
 and furnished in 184 \ 
 
 It i.s situated at the confluence of the Nareff and Vistula, on the high bluff bordering these 
 streams just at tliis point. 
 
 The tongue of land between the two rivers is called the "Swedish island." The fortress is 
 situated upon a plateau about one hundred feet above the river. The bluff continues along the 
 Vistula and ujj the Xareff as far as the fortress extends, when it falls with a gentle, though 
 irregular, slope to the shores of this stream. Back from the river the ground on which the 
 works are located, and beyond, is comparatively a level plain. Hence, in these works we have 
 the Russian system unembarrassed with special applications for irregularity of site^ or difficulties 
 of defilement. The central and last resort for the garrison of this fortress (see Fig. 165,) is an 
 immense casemated defensive barrack of a long irregular shape. It extends along the crest of 
 the high grounds bordering the Nareff in two lines, making a very obtuse angle for a distance 
 of 3,070 feet, then turns at right angles, extending to the rear 870 feet, and thence (with a 
 rounding off at the angle) nearly in a straight line to the Vistula for the distance of 2,950 feet, 
 so that the buildings appear as though faced on a triangle, although it is really an irregular 
 hexagon, the entire perimeter of which is 6,800 feet. 
 
 This immense barrack is of two and three stories in height, depending on slight differences 
 of level in the ground, besides the basement or cellar for storerooms, &c. The upper room is in 
 every case vaulted with a bomb-proof arch, to be covered with earth to make it secure on the 
 declaration of war, an operation in progress at the time of my visit, in anticipation of any 
 hostile efforts that Austria might be induced to make in the great contest of the time. The 
 middle stories have a wooden floor in the soldiers' quarters, and tiled in parts occupied by 
 officers. The casemates and other rooms are 580 in number, the usual dimensions of which are 
 60' by 20' and 50' by 26'. The floors are strong enough for artillery, for which the exterior 
 walls are prepared with two embrasures on the exterior front of each room, and two windows in 
 the interior, and are about six feet thick. The part fitted up for quarters for the men shows the 
 brick walls and rough wooden floors. The part fitted up for ofiicers is plastered on the brick, 
 and neatly painted. Several of the casemates are elegantly fitted up for the accommodation of 
 the Emperor, which are plastered on the solid brick work, frescoed, and richly guilt. Although 
 this work has been executed some years, it stands well, indicating no mildew or discoloration 
 from dampness. Nor did I discover any effiorescent salt on the surface of the masonry. The 
 entire building is covered with a sheet-zinc roof, over which the earth was being placed to make 
 it bomb-proof. 
 
 The magazines were constructed, as all the rest of the masonry throughout this extensive 
 work, of brick. There was no interior wooden lining to this brick, vaulted room, but the walls 
 were built with an air chamber all round, about one foot from the interior face, of six inches wide — 
 making, in fact, a brick room or house within and under the bomb-proof; the entire wall, 
 including air chamber and interior partition forming the cavity, was eight feet thick. The air 
 chambers communicate by openings with the exterior and interior of the magazine. Zinc is 
 not onlv used for covering the roof, but also as coping on all the brick masonry of the fortress. 
 The same effects from contraction and expansion of this metal were here noticed, as exists in our 
 own climate and works, showing that it cannot be relied upon if confined. 
 
 In all the ton"-ue holes for artillery in these casemates, the centers of motion for the chassis 
 is about two feet from the interior face, and generally gives a horizontal rotation of thirty 
 
 degrees only. 
 
 It was in this extensive barrack that I first noticed the excellent arrangement of the 
 kitchens, having the boilers against the wall of the room, behind which, in an adjoining 
 apartment, were the furnaces and fuel, thus confining all the smoke, ashes, &c., to this separate 
 room, and keeping the kitchen clean and cool. The escape steam from the boiler rises through 
 
 i 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. ' 241 
 
 a standing part of the cover, in a I'our-incli pipe, whicli passes tlirough the back wall into the 
 furnace room, there it enters a metal box of 6" by 18", fastened to the partition wall, in which 
 the steam is condensed, the water flowing off below and out of the building. The atmosphere 
 of the furnace room is suflicieut to condense the steam iu this metallic box. 
 
 Water is supplied to this barrack, as well as other parts of the fortress, by a steam-engine of 
 thirty-horse power, throwing or forcing it from the Vistula into reservoirs, in quantities sufficient 
 for 24,000 men per day, all of luhom can be accommodated in this barrack. 
 
 This building is flanked by three caponniers on the hillside along the river, which have 
 four tiers of fire, iu consequence of extending some distance down the slope of the hill. This 
 slope is inclined from 35° to 40° along the whole shore, making an attack from this side almost 
 impracticable. The water-engine is in one of these flanking caponniers. 
 
 Citadel. — On the land side the defensive barrack is covered and surrounded at the distance 
 of 200 and 300 yards with a first or interior line of fortified fronts, consisting of five full and 
 one half fronts, like those of the citadel at Warsaw, with casemated redoubts in the reentering 
 places of arms. An exception to this rule exists in the middle front, which has a demi-lunej 
 with a semicircular redoubt of masonry, and a masonry block-house in the salient angle of the 
 covered way. This demi-lune is probably intended to flank the esplanade, extending to the 
 exterior line or main defenses. With the same object, a casemated tower of two tiers has lately 
 been constructed in advance of the left front. The ditch of this tower is defended by musketry fire 
 from an additional or basement story. 
 
 The exterior slopes of the ramparts are 45°. The rampart of the main work is thirty to 
 thirty-five feet above the level of the country, with ditches about twenty feet below the same 
 level, making fifty to fifty-five feet from the bottom of the ditch to the crest of the parapet. 
 The parapets are twenty-five feet thick, (such parts as I saw and walked upon,) a great excess, 
 as now admitted by the Russian engineers, who said that their experience at Sebastopol proved 
 that none of the allied shot penetrated over nine feet. In the trace of the citadel fronts the 
 curtains are not all broken forward, as those of Warsaw, but are on a right line from flank to 
 flank, and the bomb-proof casemated batteries in the flanks behind the detached scarp are for 
 four to six guns only, instead of ten, as at AVarsaw. 
 
 The crennated wall in the ditch it la Carnof, or detached scarp, is eight bricks thick, with 
 recesses, arched over every three loop holes, the latter being through a four-brick wall only. 
 The bricks measure eleven and a half inches in length. 
 
 On the salient angles of the citadel fronts, as well as those of the main enceinte and demi- 
 lune, bomb-proof block-house traverses for three guns were being constructed. Numerous other 
 bomb-proof caserns and blindages were being constructed within these works, forming, however, 
 no part of this system, but which I may again notice as illustrating the absolute necessity for 
 such protection within a fort, and without which it is not defensible by a garrison that cannot 
 be relieved and have rest secured to it at least two nights out of three. 
 
 Enceinte. — At the distance of 1,500 to 1,C00 yards from the interior line of works, (the 
 citadel,) the second or main line of fortification begins, on the extreme left flank, on the crest 
 of the plateau slope, with the so-called Paris fronts, (or the remains of General Chasseloup's 
 labors,) which are connected with the inner line or citadel by a detached looi^-holed wall follow- 
 ing the crest of the hill en cremailliere, flanked by casemated redoubts. The Paris fronts, which 
 now constitute a single front on a side of the polygon of over 1,000 yards, formerly composed a 
 crown work. The main rampart of this front has, in the ditch, a detached scarp, with casemates 
 to flank the ditches of the demi-lune. The gorge of this demi-lune is closed by a slope of earth 
 so steep that it can be ascended only with extreme difliculty. The main ditch is flanked by a 
 caponnier on the extreme left, and on the right by a prolongation of the flank of the redoubt of 
 the bastion place of arms. 
 31 D 
 
242 ART OF WAR IN E0ROPE. 
 
 The left flank is also strengthened by a large semicircular casemated tower of two tiers, and 
 a lower range of loop holes to flank its ditch with musketry. 
 
 Next to the " Paris" front, comes that of the " Prince of Warsaw," the length of which 
 is about 1,350 y!irds. 
 
 This front is of quite a peculiar construction, the principal features resembling that of 
 Eastadt, (Plate 26, Fig. 30 b.) The main rampart is broken into tenailles on both extremities, 
 with casemates in the reentering angles to flank the main ditch. 
 
 On the middle it has three peculiar faces or branches, forming a high, commanding cavalier. 
 Immediately in front of this is an inclosed casemated caponnier on the capital for artillery. In 
 front of this is a ditch, which latter is flanked by casemates in the main wall on both sides of the 
 cavaliers. In advance of this front is a work of great strength, with a masonry redoubt in the 
 gorge, and block house in the salient place of arms, and caponniers on both sides to flank the 
 ditch and covered way. The gorge redoubt has a projecting casemated building to flank the 
 gorge of this work, which is connected to the covered way by two earthen parapets. A reference 
 to Figs. 30 and 30 b, of Plate 26, will show a remarkable coincidence between this " Prince of 
 Warsaw" front and a combination of those of Eastadt and the city of Posen, or the adoption of 
 the German school. 
 
 The Borodino fronts form together a crown work in appearance, uniting the two adjacent 
 ones, and forming a part of the continuous enceinte. These two fronts are similar, and peculiar 
 in their construction. (See Fig. 166.) The demilunes are cut by a ditch parallel with the line of 
 the polygon, dividing this work in two distinct independent parts, and similar to the tete-de-pont 
 at Warsaw, with the difference that here the ditches separating the demilune into two parts are 
 flanked by the casemated redoubts in the contiguous places of arms on the salient of the bastions. 
 A reference to the accompanying figures will show a caponnier flanking the gorge of this demi- 
 lune, and another across the ditch, dividing it in two parts, that serve to flank it, in coopera- 
 tion with the casemated redoubts of the bastion salients. A casemated redoubt is also constructed 
 on the salient place of arms of the covert way of this demi-lune, whose ditches are closed by 
 caponniers at the shoulders, and flanking them. The casemated redoubts of the covered way 
 are made to serve also as traverses. The gorge of the demi-lune is revetted and connected 
 with the caponnier on its capital, with loop-holed gallery. 
 
 As a general principle, throughout these works there are two separate systems of flanking ; 
 the one from behind the crest of the elevated ramparts, commanding the distant fields of opera- 
 tions, as well as the ditches, and the other from the masonry detached scarps and caponniers, all 
 of which are loiv, entirely covered from the enemy's fire, serving as an independent flanking 
 system for the defense of all collateral parts, and independent of the rampart defenses, whicli 
 may or not cooperate as occasion demands. 
 
 The communications on these Borodino fronts, as on all the others, are advantageously 
 arranged, dispensing as a principle with all bridges, being through the caponniers, &c., and 
 bottom of the ditches ; no draw-bridges were therefore observed. 
 
 Next comes the " St. George front," which is exactly like that of the " Prince of Warsaw." 
 The advanced works of these two fronts are flanked by the more retired batteries of the Borodino 
 
 fronts. 
 
 Next in order are the Pultoica fronts, exactly like the Borodino fronts, and assimilated by 
 the Ev,ropean icriters ivho give us the information in relation to these ivorl-s of the Eussians, to 
 crown works as they call them, though constituting a part of the continuous enceinte. 
 
 The " Ostralenka front," and last, resting on the crest of the hill above the Nareff, is the 
 most simple of all. It consists of a rampart, broken forward as a tenaille, with casemates in 
 the reentering, formed by the branch, connecting it with the Pultowa fronts ; the long face on 
 tbe extreme right rests upon a casemated building, through which the Pultusk road passes, 
 enfilading it with four pieces of artillery. Near this casemated building is a postern on the 
 
ART OK WAR IN EUROPE. 243 , 
 
 long face, with a bridge over the ditch to another casemated building, which serves to flank the 
 ditch and covered wa^^ 
 
 From the first-mentioned casemated building, (through which the Pultusk road passes,) the 
 road leading into the fortress passes along a revetted communication from one line of works to 
 the other ; or from the flank of the enceinte to the flank of the citadel, which is also flanked by a 
 casemated building. 
 
 To strengthen the Ostralenka front, there is placed in front of it a detached work called the 
 " Ostralenka redoubt. ' ' It is on uneven ground, and on the slope of a hill ; consisting of a higher 
 part, with a masonry redoubt in its gorge and a caponnier to defend the ditch, which rises 
 gradually towards the left flank to the natural level of the plateau, so that it can be better 
 flanked by the demi-lune of the Pultowa front. The lower part is to protect the low grounds 
 which extend along the Pultusk road. This lower part has also a caponnier to flank it. 
 
 Both the interior and exterior lines of fortification have revetted counterscarps, and mining 
 galleries under many parts of the glacis and covered way. 
 
 The whole extent of the exterior line from the banks of the Nareff to those of the Vistula 
 are one half of a Swedish mile, as stated by Swedish writers, or two G-erman miles. Or the 
 circuit of the main work, including the gorge along the river is nearly three German miles of 
 four and two thirds English miles each, as stated by the German writers. 
 
 To cover the communication with the opposite bank of the Vistula and protect a ponton 
 bridge, which can be established at pleasure, a crown work called the " Warsaw front" has been 
 built on the left bank of the river. It consists of an unrevetted rampart, with wet ditches, and 
 a large masonry redoubt of two tiers of casemates of thirty-two gun rooms in each tier. At the 
 gorge, the work is flanked by a caponnier, which also batters the river slopes. Two masonry 
 block-houses on the flanks protect the ditches. A dyke exlends along the whole of the rear of 
 the work to protect it against the annual inundations. It is said to be in contemplation to con- 
 struct two earthen lunettes on the bank of the river ; one above and the other below this work 
 to sweep the whole plain in its front. See the accompanying figures. 
 
 On the "Swedish Island" there is an earthen work called ISeuhoff, having a low or sunken 
 interior parade to give greater shelter to the garrison than is obtained by its slight profile. 
 Outside of this work is a large masonry casemated tower, surrounded by a glacis, called Fort 
 Michael, which flanks the low ground of the Ostralenka front and redoubt. Between these two 
 works passes the road over the Nareff communicating with Warsaw. 
 
 On the extreme point of this tongue of land is a casemated building, called the " Polish 
 Bank," serving as a granary and flour mill, although presenting nothing extraordinary on the 
 outside ; it is bomb-proof and defensible, and in case of necessity may mount thirty or forty 
 guns. 
 
 The estimated cost of these works was one hundred millions of florins. 
 
 A reference to the accompanying figures, 165 and 166, from Swedish authority will sufli- 
 ciently explain, in connection with the text, this Piussian system ; from an examination of it, we 
 can but conclude, that the Eussian engineers apply the principles of fortification after the Ger- 
 man school, and have abandoned the French modified bastioned system of Noizet, as taught at 
 Metz. The wrought-iron gun carriage (Fig. 35) was in use at Modlin, Warsaw^ and Narva. 
 
244 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE RUSSIAN FORTRESS OF ST. GEORGE, AT MODLIN, ON THE VISTULA. 
 
 Conslnicted since IS-IJ. 
 
 Fig. 165. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE BORODINO FRONT, AT MODLIN, ON THE VISTULA. 
 
 Fig. 166. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 245 
 
 Ancient System of Fortieication — Perfect Example at Constantinople. 
 
 I cannot conclude this description of modern fortification, as practiced by the continental 
 nations, with a subject of greater interest to the professional engineer, than the following notes 
 descriptive of the enceinte at this day existing in a very perfect state and condition, forming the 
 nortliern line of the ancient fortifications of Constantinojile. This part is in the most perfect state 
 of preservation on most of its extent, although several of its massive towers have been rent asunder 
 from top to bottom, and others entirely overthrown by earthquakes, yet continuous lines of 
 curtains and towers remain perfect to this day, serving to show what constituted the strongest 
 system of ibrtification in the time of Constautine the Great, (the fourth century.) Such, however, 
 is the perfect similarity of trace throughout this extended line of miles in length, that it must be 
 considered as a system designed and executed according to the plans of one mind — the whole 
 extent being about thirteen English miles ; four miles of which extend from the Seven Towers, 
 at the southwest angle, to the northeast corner, on the Golden Horn, on which part I made the 
 measurements of the accompanying plan and sections. (Figs. 167, 168, and 169.) The north 
 and south portions of the ancient defenses of the city are difficult to trace, having been built 
 upon and around by the miserable tenements of the present population of the city. History tells 
 us this place has been besieged no less than twenty-four times, and only been taken six, to wit: 
 by Alcibiades, Serverus, Constantine, Dandolo, Michael Palajologus, arid Mohamcd II. The 
 existing works have sustained all these attacks since their construction in the fourth century. 
 
 My readers Avill, I cannot doubt, be greatly interested in finding in this ancient system the 
 flank defenses by bastions of semicircular, square, and octagonal traces ; the casemated covered 
 way, with loop-hole defenses, the wet and dry ditches, and the perfect defilement of the double 
 enceinte of bastions, towers, and curtains. 
 
 This example of the ancient system of defense is probably the most extensive, and, at this 
 date, in the best state of preservation, as well as combining more of the elements and principles 
 of fortification than any other to be found in existence. 
 
 Commencing on the exterior, and advancing towards the work, we first meet a counter- 
 scarp of stone masonry about twelve feet high, strengthened by buttresses built against the 
 face of the wall, just the reverse of our practice, which is to build them against the back 
 of the wall. This counterscarp is the boundary of a wet ditch of fifty feet in width ; crossing 
 tliis v/e come to a scarp of twelve feet in height, surmounted by a loop-holed wall of two 
 feet four inches thick, and eight feet high ; passing over this we are on a terreplein of fifty- 
 six feet wide, bounded in the rear by a continuous crennated gallery supporting a stone loop- 
 holed wall. This crennated scarp is flanked by towers, distant one hundred and ninety-five feet 
 six inches from each other, projecting fifteen feet from the face of the scarp on to the terreplein. 
 These towers all join the scarp with right angles, but their terminations are either square, 
 hexagonal, or circular, and in either case are fifteen feet wide from out to out. They flank the 
 terreplein, as well as the wet ditch, and are of such a height as to see into the bottom and middle 
 of the ditch. The towers of this enceinte pass through and behind the scarp to the back of the 
 scarp gallery, thus intercepting the communication along its terreplein, which is eight feet wide. 
 The towers of this enceinte have two tiers of loop holes, with a battlement above. This crennated 
 scarp gallery is walled up and closed by earth in the rear ; the arches or casemates arc five feet 
 four inches wide, by five feet in depth, resting on two-foot piers, with one loop hole in each of 
 these casemates, cut through a wall of two iieet thick. The piers of the small casemates do not 
 abut against the scarp, but leave a space barely sufficient for a man to pass between them and 
 the scarp from one to another. What the communication may have been from other parts of 
 the work to this scarp gallery, I could not discover ; whether it was subterranean from the interior 
 enceinte, oi- from the towers, the obstructions prevented njy discovering. Continuing towards 
 
246 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the interior we now come uiDon a second terrepleiu seventeen feet above the first, behind which 
 is another stone scarp parallel to and sixty feet distant from the face of the previous one of 
 twenty-four feet in height up to its narrow terrejjlein of one foot in width ; above which is a 
 battlement four feet six inches higher, of two feet four inches thick — making the thickness of this 
 scarp three feet four inches, plus a slight batter on the exterior face. This solid scarp, like the 
 preceding one, is flanked by towers distant one hundred and seventy-eight feet ten inches from 
 each other, projecting thirty-four feet six inches from the face of the scarp, thirty-one feet eight 
 inches wide from out to out, and, like the previous one, in plan, have either square, hexagonal, or 
 semicircular terminations. I could discover no uniformity in the order of this arrangement, nor 
 any reason for making the different shapes. The circular ones certainly fulfilled the flanking 
 requisites best, and the square ones least. These large towers, like those in the advanced enceinte, 
 had two stories of loop holes surmounted by a battlement wall, the height of which was such as 
 to command the counterscarp of the wet ditch over the small towers. 
 
 From each tower there was a side postern to communicate with the terrepleins. A terre- 
 pleiu along the battlement of the main scarp, beyond that in masonry of one foot, was formed 
 with wooden floors, and braced from the interior face of the wall. The openings and other 
 arrangements in the masonry plainly indicated this as the original design. The height of the 
 main towers I could not ascertain. Their second tier of loop holes was above the top of the 
 connecting scarji, and must have been at least fifty feet in height. The communication to their 
 interior was by stone staircases against the interior face of the scarp to the terreplein of the 
 curtains, above which it was by steps within the body of the tower ; and these latter in the tower 
 that I examined happened to be in such condition that I could not ascend to the top, and hence 
 failed to measure their height. 
 
 The towers of the two enceintes, it will be observed, are so arranged that the small ones are 
 exactly central and between the larger ones. The different stories are separated from each other, 
 or formed by brick arches. 
 
 The line of these works between the points we are considering is on ascending and descend- 
 ing ground, the general direction being on two right lines, the longest one of which crosses a 
 ravine. The wet ditch is, in consequence, separated by masonry batardeaux from scarp to coun- 
 terscarp to retain the water at the proper level ; earthen pipes passed through these division 
 walls, allowing the water to escape from one level to the other. From the lowest level it passed 
 into and through the city. The ruins of a massive ancient aqueduct exists within many parts 
 of the city, but whether or not and how connected with these wet ditches or other sources of 
 supply, my time and other more important labors would not permit me to examine. 
 
 In these defenses it will be observed that neither the battering ram or other means of 
 attack practiced by the ancients were available, not only the wet ditch, but the separation of the 
 scarps from each other, was such as to preclude the use of such means as we are informed were 
 in use in those days. The study of these lines of defense is interesting, in connection with the 
 history of fortification ; and this example may well be cited as a more perfect solution of the art 
 of defense, with the then existing means of attack, than any of the systems of fortification of the 
 present day to resist the power of modern artillery. 
 
 The masonry of all these defenses is rough rubble work, with flat, though very small stone, 
 laid with very thick mortar joints, some as great as iico inches ; occasionally a few courses of 
 brick are introduced, without regard to level or system of any kind, either in vertical blocks or 
 horizontal courses. The only inference to be drawn from this irregularity, with j^artial and 
 exceedingly irregular application of brick, is, that they were used for want of stone, and dis- 
 pensed with at any level or at any part of a course, so soon as stone came to hand. 
 
 Such is modern and ancient fortification. 
 
ART OF WAK IN EUROPE. 
 
 247 
 
 PLAN OF AN ANCIENT DOUBLE KNCEINTE, TOWEIIS, LOOP-HOLED >=CARP GALLERY, AND WET DITCH, AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 From nieiisuremeiits made in October IS-w. 
 
 Fig. 167. 
 
 Section on n b of the pUiii. 
 
 SO. 
 
 WET DITCH 
 
 Section and eluvation on a 6 of tlie plan. 
 
 Ttitcrhr 
 
 0/ City. 
 
 Fig. 169. 
 Tliese measurements were made with a three-lboi pocket tape-line, and poles cut on tlie spot, measured by it. They must be considered only aa 
 near approximations. 
 
248 ART OF WAR IN EUROPK. 
 
 Stables and Barracks for Cavalry. 
 
 For cavalry service, the study is to make as suitable arrangements for the horses as for the 
 troops, that both may be convenient for discipline, cleanliness, combining health and efficiency. 
 While for infantry we have to provide quarters, kitchens, and hospitals, for the cavalry 
 arm ; we have to combine all that the infantry requires, with stables, granaries, shoeing shops, 
 equipment rooms, manage, and hospitals for horses with infectious diseases, apart from those 
 for more curable complaints. To accomplish this on a confined and limited piece of ground 
 presents many difficulties, that have given rise to the different systems adopted by the conti- 
 nental powers. 
 
 Prussia, at the city of Berlin, and within the fortress of Posen, has constructed recently 
 extensive buildings for this purpose, upon the plan of having the troops in barracks disconnected 
 and independent of the stables. These two being the most extensive and perfect of this system, 
 I give such drawings and details as may suffice to make them understood. (Plates 33, 34, 35, 
 and 36.) 
 
 Plate 33 gives the general plan of the caserne and stable for the Lancers of the Guard, 
 recently constructed at Berlin, from designs made expressly for the purpose, and built at such 
 exi:)ense, as to leave nothing to be desired by those who projected them. 
 
 It is calculated for four squadrons or about six hundred horses and men, with their officers. 
 The barrack occupies most of the front of a rectangle. All the rooms front on the street court, 
 with windows in each, and a door communicating with a corridor, extending the whole length 
 of the main building, lighted and ventilated by windows opening on the yard ; an arrangement 
 that prevails in most of the recent military buildings for troops, whether barrack or hospital, 
 and certainly well calculated to secure perfect ventilation for every apartment independent of any 
 other. The two wings are arranged for officer's quarters, and the rear center for a mess room, 
 large enough for half the command only at a time. It is three stories above the ground floor, 
 (see Plate 35,) or basement, the latter being used for kitchens, store-rooms, and furnace rooms 
 for warming all the halls and apartments above. Of the furnaces, tivo were in operation for 
 each floor of the main building, and two others in reserve for the same set of rooms, in very cold 
 weather or when repairing otliers. The wings are carried up a fourth story, the three principal 
 stories and basement being for the officers. Their attics, with those of all the rest of the build- 
 ing, are used for clothing rooms, store rooms in general, and tailor's shops for making up all 
 the regimental clothing, from material furnished by the government. The soldier's rooms are 
 all arranged for twelve men each, and for that number are very crowded, not exceeding twdve 
 feet in ividth. This has led to the expedient of arranging the iron bedsteads, such that during 
 the day one is placed on top of another, the top of the corner posts being formed as cups, or 
 recesses, to receive the feet of another. At night they are taken down and jilaced about the 
 floor. In no instance is the bedding rolled or folded, nor is such a thing known as two men 
 being made to sleep together in the same bunk, as is generally the case in our service, and an 
 evil that never should be permitted, and least of all required of soldiers. This arrangement of 
 the iron bedstead is applicable and advantageous in any quarters. 
 
 The laundries, kitchen, and furnace rooms, are in the basement room, as shown in Plate 34. 
 
 The stables are one story and a half, (Plate 35,) the half or attic being used for a limited 
 supply of forage. The hospital for horses on the right of the barrack is provided (Plate 33) with 
 eight stalls, in two separate apartments, (each,) one set is for contageous diseases, and the other 
 for non-infectious disorders, the two being separated by walls of masonry. 
 
 The shoeing shop is on the opposite corner of the front line. It has a chimney stack and 
 hearth for two fires. The lohole hearth is covered with a hood, conducting the smoke to the 
 chimnev. Under the same roof, are coal bins, a store-room for iron, files, rasps, horseshoes, &c., 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 249 
 
 and a fire-engine room. There are pumps in the stables and in the kitchens of the soldiers' 
 quarters. 
 
 Plate 35 gives the jilan of the attic rooms, a general elevation of the front of the barrack, 
 and an elevation of the stables, showing the riding hall, the Hues of stables on each side, and 
 the ends of the wings extending into the court yard, together with a section of the stables. In 
 details these stables corresiiond with those at Posen. All the stalls are paved with brick, and 
 the entire pile of buildings is built of the same material, including the ornament, and may be 
 cited as the successful use of this material in producing a building in great good taste, with 
 simplicity and economy. To illustrate this application of brick for which the German architects 
 are distinguished, I give an elevation and section of the cornice of the main building in sufficient 
 detail to enable a builder to construct it, in the same Plate, (35.) 
 
 At Posen, within the fortified enceinte, is another Prussian cavalry stable and barrack on 
 the same principle as the one at Berlin just completed. Through the kindness of a gentleman I 
 met at that fortress, I am enable to give (in Plate 36) most minute details of this stable, including 
 the dimensions of the interior arrangements, which may be considered as a type of the Prussian 
 system, and the same as those introduced in the stables at Berlin for the Lancers of the Guard. 
 
 In sections C D and E F the dimensions are given of the stalls, racks, and mangers. These 
 latter are of iron. The pavement of the stalls and urine gutters is of brick, that of the passage 
 way is of pebble stone. All the walls are of brick. The building can be well ventilated by the 
 large Aviudow over every third stall, and flues from near the ceiliug over everj' stall, often inches 
 square, opened or closed at pleasure by an iron rod coming down against the wall low enough to 
 be reached by hand, yet beyond interference by the horse. The iron feed-box is braced from the 
 center of its face by two iron rods secured into the masonry, one half w^ay between the box and 
 the pavement, and the other on a level with the pavement. The iron chain halter is fastened to 
 a ring on the latter brace, and is free to rise and fall with the motion of the horse's head. Three 
 halter rings are worked in the masonry of each stall, one about a foot above the feed-box, and one 
 on each side on a level with tlie top of the box. These serve for securing the horse in the day 
 time, according to his disposition. All these stalls are separated by posts, to which swing bars 
 are attached. Every third post rises to the ceiling, supporting a girder on which the floor 
 timbers of the attic rest. A continuous slielf is secured on top of the other stall posts, at such 
 height as to allow the horse to pass under it to his stall without risk of striking his head. On 
 this shelf the equipment is arranged. 
 
 The drainage in both these Prussian stables is by flat brick gutters along the surface ; sewers 
 and underground drains being objectionable. To form a better knowledge of the capacity of 
 these two stables — one for the accommodation of a regiment and the other for two squadrons — I 
 may state that a regiment of Lancers of the Guard consists of four squadrons, with twenty-five 
 officers — two field officers, six captains, four first and thirteen second lieutenants. And a squadron 
 consists of five officers, fifteen non-commissioned officers, three trumpeters, and one hundred and 
 thirty-two privates — making a total of one hundred and fifty men, exclusive of officers, and one 
 hundred and fifty horses. These barracks are designed accordingly. The medical veterinary 
 and non-commissioned staff add a few more to the numerical strength to be provided with stables 
 and quarters, but not essential to particularize ibr my purpose. 
 32 D 
 
 */^X 
 
250 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 French Cavalry Depot — Barracks and Stables. 
 
 The French liave adopted a different system, combining the barrack for the men and stables 
 for the horses under the sameroof. The horses arc on tlio ground floor, which has a fifteen-foot 
 ceiling ; above which, in the second story, are the quarters for the men ; the floor being deafened 
 and made air-tight by liollow bricks laid in mortar. Through the courtesy of the Minister of 
 War, Marshal Valliant, who presented a complete set of jolans of the military buildings, I am 
 enabled to give the minute details and dimensions of their system. According to their plan, 
 (Fig. ITO,) a rectangle of 254 by 208 meters is necessary for the quarters and stables of a regiment 
 of cavalry composed of five squadrons, numbering an effective force of nine hundred and sixty 
 men and eight hundred and fourteen horses — the squadron being one hundred and eighty men 
 and one hundred and fifty-two horses. To this end they construct against the exterior wall of 
 the rectangle (Fig. 170) on three sides, and across the inclosure on the fourth side a line of 
 stables for a single rank of horses. Within this line and parallel to it, with an interval of twelve 
 meters, is another line of stables on the four sides of the rectangle for a double rank of horses 
 standing head to head along the middle of the building. On the center of one of the long fronts 
 an opening is left for the principal entrance about seven meters wide ; on each side of which is a 
 building for the guard, the porter, and quarters for the adjutants and adjutant major. Directly 
 opposite on the other long side is the riding hall or manage of twenty-four meters in width by 
 sixty-five in length. Numerous small buildings are arranged on the corners and parts of the 
 sides of the square for the jjurposes noted in the figure, (170.) 
 
 Figs. 171, 172, 173, and 174 give the general arrangement of one of these buildings for two 
 ranks o^liorses on the ground floor and the men above. The plan of each story, with the longi- 
 tudinal and transverse section, will clearly explain this system. On first consideration it would 
 seem that quarters above stables would be uninhabitable for permanent residences for large 
 bodies of men. 
 
 With the exception of Prussia, the practice of the great military powers of the continent 
 corresponds with the French. Eussia has but recently constructed large cavalry depots on this 
 general principle ; France and Eussia confine the buildings to two and three stories, while 
 Austria has found it most convenient, in some structures of this kind now building in Vienna, 
 to put a third and fourth story above the stable floor. The excellence and utility of the system 
 depends greatly on the details of construction. It is indispensable to have the floors air-tight, 
 that none of the fumes of the stable can rise through them. For this purpose a deafening is laid 
 between the floor timbers in some cases. In others, the floors are supported by wrought-iron 
 beams, the spaces between being filled with small brick arches, the brick being made like a honey- 
 comb or cellular, to reduce the weight, and guard against moisture, as well as being better non- 
 conductors of sound and heat. This description of flooring, covered with board or tile, is very 
 satisfactory, and in very general use in the new buildings of Paris, as well as other continental 
 cities. Another method, and the one practiced by the Austrians, is to arch the entire ceiling 
 with brick, resting the arches on piers and the side walls ; an example of wliich is given in 
 Plate 40^ of an infantry barrack in Vienna, and so constructed in a cavalry depot in the city now 
 being finished, as well as others hereafter noticed. 
 
 In Plate 37 I have given the dimensions of all the details of the French stables. Two 
 arrangements are given for separating the stalls — one by a wide board, attached by a hook and 
 staple to the manger at I, and the other end suspended by chains g g from the ceiling. These 
 .chains of suspension rise vertically only as high as to clear a horse's head ; above that they are 
 attached to two diagonal chains, in order that the center of motion may be kept as low as two 
 meters from the floor. From the swingboard C to the diagonal chains g g the suspender is of 
 rope. At the lower end / is a roller to guard the horse from chafing. At tlie upper end of 
 this roller is a hook that can be disengaged at pleasure with a slight Idow in case a horse should 
 straddle fl^ board. 
 
JURT OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 251 
 
 GENERAL PLAN UV aUAKTERS FOU A KEGIMENT OF CAVALUY, COMPOSED OF FIVE SQUADRONS, OF A TOTAL EFFECTIVE 
 
 STRENGTH OF 960 MEN AND 8H HORSES. 
 
 ■in 
 
 /P^. 
 
 I' 
 
 r. 
 
 I 
 I 
 
 VIA 
 
 
 
 JfL 
 
 ^l/'^^lh^H If 
 
 n 
 
 12^' 
 
 9' 
 
 \}l 
 
 ^ ^ i ^ i ^ i i nri ^ nnTT'T'rTTrrrTT"! 
 
 954 meters pont . 
 <A squadron is composed of 180 men tind 15^ horses. 
 
 a Principal entrance. 
 
 a' a' a' Small gates for carrying out tlie manure. 
 
 6 Basement as guard-Iiouse; first slory, atljutant's quar- 
 ters 
 
 b' Basement for porter; first story, adjutant major's quar- 
 ters. 
 
 c Building with story above for 180 men, and 10-1 liorsca 
 below First squadron.. 
 
 c' Shed-stable for 48 iiorses and forage — " 
 
 d Same as c Second squadron.. 
 
 d' Same as c' " 
 
 c Same as c Tliird squadron.. 
 
 c' Same as c' " 
 
 / Same as c rourtli squadron . . 
 
 /' Same as c' " 
 
 g Same as c Fifth squa<hnn. . 
 
 ^' Same as c' '• 
 
 A A building of the same yize as c; the t)asenient fronting 
 
 the parade for horses of the staff and remount 
 
 And fronting the rear, workshops and canteens 
 
 Above, for the camp followers and regimental srbonl. . . 
 
 h' Camp followers, fencing' and dancing rooms. 
 
 *.'arricd up 
 
 Men. 
 
 180 
 
 180 
 
 4 
 49 
 
 Horses, 
 
 104 
 
 48 
 104 
 
 48 
 104 
 
 48 
 104 
 
 48 
 104 
 
 48 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 i Kitchens; one for three squadrons, the other for two 
 squadrons and the camp followers. 
 
 k Latrines; k' for workmen, and separate parts for 
 officers and women ; k" for the troops, and sepa- 
 rate part for offrcers. 
 
 1 1 Washroom for the men, and fountains. 
 
 mm Storehouse for subsistence. 
 
 n Riding hall. 
 
 Hospital for sick and wounded horses. 
 
 p Apothecarj' store for veterinary surgeon. 
 
 q q' Sheds for operations on sick and j'oung horses, Stc. 
 
 r Forge. 
 
 s Infirmary for contagious, diseased horses. 
 
 s' Disinfecting rooms 
 
 itttt Laundry, one per squadron ; above, quarters for 
 wagon-masters and chief musician. 
 
 u Regimental hospital. 
 
 I' I' Veterinary surgeon's quarters 
 
 X Powder magazine. 
 
 y Engineer storehouse. 
 
 z IIo:jpii;il [inlicf guard. 
 
 Tcnal 
 
 Men. 
 953 
 
 Horses. 
 814 
 
252 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 CAVALRY BAEEACKS— FRENCH SVSTEM. 
 
 Fig. m. 
 
 Fig. na. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 ^Ot 
 
 The second arrangement is by a round bar attached to the manger as the other, with the 
 lower end suspended by a short cord or rope attached to a post. This method of suspension 
 renders a post necessary between each stall, while, in the previous arrangement, no more posts 
 are used than suffice to support the floors above. 
 
 The same jjlate gives. the shape and dimensions of stone and cast-iron mangers. The 
 grooming bar and stone block pavement, which is used wherever stone can conveniently be 
 procured, and in preference to brick. The continuous wooden rack is used by the French, while 
 an iron basket rack is used by the Austrians and Prussians. 
 
 In constructing barracks for soldiers, in which many have to be quartered in the same room, 
 great discomfort is the necessary consequence to all, unless each man is provided with a suitable 
 place for every article of equipment issued to him. Great attention is paid to arranging the 
 barrack furniture, the arms, and clothing of the men. In Plate 38 I have given these details as 
 practiced in the French service. The bedstead is in this service composed of an iron foot trestle, 
 and a similar one connected with a frame rising above the top of the bed for a head piece ; on 
 these two boards are laid to receive the palliasse. The merit of this is its strength, facility of 
 transportation, and of moving about for cleaning, at the same time men rest better on a palliasse 
 on boards than on a grating of hoop iron. 
 
 Plate 39 gives the dimensions of fixtures for company quarters — such as boot-racks, arm, 
 pistol, and bridle racks, &c., and similar details for other corps, as well as for the cavalry. 
 
 In the Austrian service, there is a material difference in these arrangements of the quarters, 
 arising from their practice of placing all the arms, and horse equipments in the halls or corridors 
 connected with the quarters, the soldier having in his room, nothing but his clothing and me?s 
 equipment. In the plan of the French quarters, it will be observed that there is no separate 
 entrances to the different rooms, and that to reach the end of the building it is necessary to ^yaas 
 through the occupied parts of all the rest from the staircases. This arrangement is common to 
 their bomb-proof caserns of the fortresses, as shown in Plates 30 and 31, and in their infantry bar- 
 racks in the cities^ of which the casern Napoleon, in the city of Paris, is considered a model by 
 themselves ; yet, as I think, not to be compared in any sense with either the Austrian or Prussian 
 systems, whicli powers construct at the present time all their quarters with halls or corridors, on 
 which every apartment opens without passing through any other. The arms and equipments in 
 the Austrian service are deposited along these communications. 
 
254 
 
 ART OF WAK IN EUROPE. 
 
 The cavalry barrack at Vienna is calculated for twelve hundred men and horses. Its details 
 and arrangement may suffice as a tyj^e of the Austrian system ; one adopted many years since, 
 ■ found to answer their purjjoses, and only altered in details to perfect the original conception. In 
 this establishment we see both the old and the new buildings. In the original part of the 
 building the stalls for the horses are eleven feet long and fifty-four inches wide, ranged on each 
 side of the stable with heads to the wall. (See Fig. 175.) The center passage is paved with 
 stone, the floors of the stalls are of wood, except under the fore feet, where it is clay. A semi- 
 circular window is made between every two stalls, high above the horse's head near the ceiling. 
 The stalls are separated by swing bars. The racks are of the wrought-iron basket form, similar 
 to those shown in Plate 36, sections on E F and C D. The mangers are of stone. The ceilings 
 are fifteen feet high, and arched with brick over every window, and close under the ceiling is a 
 six-inch opening for ventilation. Fig. 175 represents the interior subdivision, with the arching 
 of the ceiling, composed of three cylindrical parallel arches, extending from end to end of the 
 building, of equal span, resting on the side walls with buttresses and two rows of columns, 
 intersected by other cylinders at right angles to the former, and of such span as to give two 
 fetalis under them. Two rows of buildings, parallel to each other, with a street of thirty feet 
 between them, form the inclosure of this extensive establishment. Those fronting on the parade 
 are two stories in height, the upper one being appropriated as quarters for the troops. 
 
 FKENCII AND AUSTRIAN C.WALRY BUILDINGS. 
 (DimensionB in meters.) 
 
 <5e??^ 
 
 BHHM^Iini ■ " mil 
 
 BiiiB 
 
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ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 255 
 
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 Fig. 1Y6 gives a section from front to rear, through the two lines of buildings, showing the 
 arching of the stables. The ceilings of the quarters, it will be noticed, are not arched. 
 
 These quarters are warmed by a stove in each room, the furnace doors of which open on the 
 corridors, from whence only can the fire be attended to ; a very excellent arrangement, as it 
 admits of the advantage of wooden floors in the rooms without danger from fire ; and stone, 
 brick, or asphalte in the halls, where it does not endanger the health of the occupants of the 
 rooms, while it secures the building from fire ; another advantage of this Austrian and Prussian 
 subdivision of quarters. 
 
 To carry out the general system of depositing all the arms and horse equipments in the 
 corridors of these, quarters three rows of pins (« of Fig. 176) are secured to the partition walls 
 between the windows, for pistols, lances, and sabers. Along the outside wall, between the windows, 
 are racks with a row of pins on top for the bridles, with three rows of saddles below, (h and c.) 
 The floors of these corridors are of asphaltic concrete. The rooms have two windows through 
 the outside wall and two on the corridors. The door is on the side opening into a hall commu- 
 nicating with the corridor, as in Fig. 177', behind which is a room for a non-commissioned 
 ofiicer. The buildings in the rear, it will be observed, afi'ord no other accommodation than for 
 one rank of horses on the ground floor. Their is no half story above for a limited supply of 
 forage, (a defect that seems to have been discovered and corrected in the nev/ buildings.) Such 
 is the description and arrangement in the old part of this establishment. 
 
 In the new part the arrangement of the quarters differs in the subdivision, and is as shown 
 in Fig. 178. By this modification greater width is given to the corridor for the equipments, 
 and at the same time, while the rooms are enlarged, giving better ventilation, it economizes 
 much masonry ; two out of every four partition walls being suppressed. In these new corridors 
 fixtures were worked perpaanently into the exterior wall for the saddles and bridles ; for the 
 former long triangular-shaped pins (o) are built in the masonry in three rows, one above the 
 other, between which are short round pins, (h,) the former being for the saddles, and tlie latter 
 for the bridles. 
 
 In the parade or court-yard of this barrack is a bathing establishment or washing pool for 
 the horses. There are certain localities in our country where it may be advantageously adopted, 
 I therefore cive the following details of its construction : 
 
256 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 Fig. 179 gives the plan, longitudinal, and a transverse section of it. Tlie part with a 
 uniform maximum depth of six feet of water is of twenty-nine feet long by seventeen feet six 
 inches in width ; a ramp (a) descends to this from each end of sixteen feet base, covered with 
 boards on which elects are nailed or otherwise secured to prevent horses slipjjing. The side 
 walls rise two and a half feet above the level of the parade. The water is admitted by a pipe on 
 the side, which, with a waste pipe admits of regulating the depth, and drawing off the whole 
 supply of water at jileasure. The whole structure is of brick masonry up to the level of the 
 parade, above which the side walls and coping are of stone. 
 
 AUSTRIAN CAVALRY BATHING AND WASHING TROUGH. 
 
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 Fig. 179. 
 
 Austrian Cavalry Equitation School for Officers, at Vienna. 
 
 For this school of practice there are two riding halls, an old one of 175 feet long by 56 feet 
 wide, which is considered as adapted to the use of five or six officers at a time. It lias thirteen 
 windows on each side, with a visitor's room and gallery at one end. The second or new one is 
 238 feet long by 72 feet wide. At one end over the entrance are apartments handsomely fitted 
 up, with large plate glass inclosing them, looking down and into the riding hall. One ofiicer 
 from each regiment, or forty oificers, compose this school of practice, twenty of whom return to 
 their regiments with their horses annually, and are replaced by twenty others — the course of 
 instruction lasting two years. A private from the regiment accompanies the ofiicer, acting as 
 his groom. He becomes well acquainted with stable duty, in the best, neatest, and most perfect 
 manner, who, returning with his horse and his ofiicer, secure to the regiment all the most recent 
 improvements in that arm of service, with two horses equally well instructed. 
 
 The 7ieiv cavalry equitation stable has a barrack over it for the men forming part of the 
 school. It difi'ers in its arrangement from any of the other Austrian cavalry stables. It is 250 
 paces in length by 35 paces in width, as stated from memory by one of the ofiicers present, 
 calculated for 150 horses. It is arranged with two ranks of horses head to head through the 
 middle, and a single rank on each side, heads to the wall, with wide passage ways between the 
 side and center ranks. All the passages are paved with wooden blocks, and the stalls have planh 
 floors laid on a brick pavement, with a wide drain along the foot of the stalls. The ceiling, which 
 is not less than twenty feet high, is arched, sujiported on five rows of masonry columns ; one 
 through the center, and the others on each side of the passage ways. Above this stable are the 
 quarters for the forty soldiers who come from the regiments with their officers. The general 
 jilanof the quarters is wide halls, with rooms on each side, the former lighted from the roof. 
 All the arms are deposited in racks in the halls. The cooking is done in kitchens on the same 
 floor or story as the quarters, on tables in tin vessels as heretofore described. The latrines are 
 made (as shown in Plate 40) as good, perhaps, as the nature of the case will ijermit, yet the 
 system cannot be recommended. The arching of the ceiling of the stable forming the barrack 
 floor is peculiar. A cylindrical arch is first constructed from column to column, equal in width 
 to the diameter of the column, or about two feet. Upon these four walls, so formed, is constructed 
 a flat spherical arch or dome within the rectangle of the four columns. The efiect is good, while 
 it forms a fiatter ceiling, with fewer indentations to obstruct the free ventilation, than other 
 systems of arching. 
 
AET OF WAR IN EUROPE, 257 
 
 We have at present five mounted regiments, and as yet have made no suitable permanent 
 provision for this arm. That there is a necessity for buildings peculiarly adapted to such troops 
 will not, I think, be doubted ; and the information now communicated will, I trust, assist in 
 maturing what may prove the best system for our sei'vice and climate. My impression is, that 
 we should lose no time in establishing, in the West, depots for these regiments, where their 
 campaigns in the summer will enable them to retire in winter to recruit from the breaking- 
 down hardships of our western prairie and Eocky Mountain service. The selection of sites 
 within the settlements, open to supplies and those comforts needed by months of privation in the 
 wilderness, should be made; and then a system for a regiment should be devised, from which 
 no change or departure should be permitted, although the first wants of the service may not 
 call for more accommodation than for one or two squadrons. Let us hope our cavalry officers 
 will devise such plans, and that these notes may lighten their labors in so doing. 
 
 Aetillert Stables at Lyons, and Austrian Artillery Stables and Barracks at Vienna. 
 
 The most perfect barrack and stables for artillery on the French system, that I had an 
 opportunity of seeing, is now under construction at Lyons. It is inclosed within a rectangle of 
 492.90 meters by 320 meters. The extent and capacity is based upon an allowance of 18 to 20 
 cubic meters of space for a horse in a stable, and from 8 to 10 cubic meters for a man in quarters. 
 There are six buildings fronting on three sides of a square, each building of 141.68 meters in 
 length by 13 meters in width. The basement is arranged with stalls for two ranks of horsesj 
 head to head through the center, divided as in Fig. 170, d g. Above the stable the troops are 
 quartered in two stories, making in this case three stories above ground, each with ceilings of 
 four meters in the clear. The subdivisions of the two upper stories is as shown in Figs. 1T2 and 
 173, corresponding also with those for infantry, as shown in Plates 30 and 31. Behind each of 
 these six buildings, at a distance of 20 meters, is a row of stables for one rank of horses, heads 
 to the wall, standing out, however, on the terreplein, with a wide street between them and the 
 exterior limits of the depot. These latter buildings have only a half story above the stables for 
 a few days supply of forage. Such, indeed, is the system throughout Europe, never accumu- 
 lating large quantities of hay and straw within the depot, but having the rations supplied every 
 few days from elsewhere. It saves great space in these otherwise extensive establishments, 
 besides guarding against the danger from fire. 
 
 The riding hall is on the center of the front opposite the main entrance of 60 meters in 
 length by 22 in width and 12 in height. A length of 31 meters by 12 in width sufiices for forty 
 stalls of fifty-seven inches wide by seventy-nine inches from head to foot. The stalls arc all 
 paved with pebbles, (a temporary expedient I can but think,) for want of a better material at 
 hand. The racks, mangers, and dividing swing planks, conform to the dimensions given in 
 Plate 37, " cast-iron mangers." The stair-cases are six feet wide, of stone, and the hall floors of 
 ashphaltic concrete. The quarters are divided in rooms, or by partitions extending half way up 
 to the ceilings, for twenty men each. There is a hanging shelf in the center of each room over 
 a table, and two shelves against the side walls over the heads of the bedsteads. Each room or 
 ajiartment for the twenty men has two windows in front and two in the rear. The floors are of 
 wood, with brick deafening. The shelves on the sides of the rooms rest on iron brackets built 
 in the masonry. Four hooks are screwed under the shelf, of the pattern in Plate 38, two larger 
 ones in the wall under the shelf, and two others between the beds, on a level with the head, for 
 each man. The bedsteads conform with the pattern in Plate 38. 
 
 The roofs of all these buildings are of tile. The main walls are twenty-four inches thick, 
 and partition walls eighteen inclies. 
 
 It is well to notice that riding halls are considered quite as necessary for the artUlery service 
 as for the cavalry. In each arm both horse and rider have to be instructed ; and in the artillery 
 33 D 
 
258 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 service for the traces as well as the saddle — requiring infinitely more time and attention, 
 as the maneuver of the gun carriage and caisson must be performed with a full team of six 
 horses, managed by three men^ or two horses under the control of one man, subject to all 
 the irregularities incident to service in the field, such as the loss of one or more horses, either 
 from the lead, the swing, or the wheel teams, as well as loss of drivers, and injury to 
 harness. 
 
 For the drill and maneuver of two guns and two caissons, with six horses each, the drill 
 hall or " equitation hall" for the officers of artillery, at Vienna, is 244 feet long, by 64 feet 6 
 inches wide. These dimensions are found sufiicient to answer very well for instruction with four 
 carriages with six horses each, at the same time ; to turn in half the width of the building, and 
 performing maneuvers with two carriages abreast. At the time I visited this establishment the 
 horses were occasionally detached, leaving two wheel, with one lead liorse, two swing, and one 
 lead without the driver for the swing team, and, in other cases, the driver was mounted on the 
 off horse ; yet, in all varieties of movements, this building was found to be large enough. 
 Officers of artillery only took part in these exercises, it being a school of practice for the officers 
 of that arm especially. 
 
 Before commencing the artillery maneuvers with the four carriages, they practiced horse- 
 manship, on saddle with and without stirnips and girths, and finally bare-back, as contingencies 
 likely to arise in the field. In noticing this branch of the service, as taught in Europe, in 
 connection with siege, sea-coast, howitzer, and mortar practice, and the construction of the 
 varied description of batteries devolving upon the artillery, and aware of the want of opportunity 
 for our officers gaining any such practice of their arm of service, I cannot too strongly bring to 
 the notice of the War Department this lingering and neglected branch of our army, requiring 
 some powerful effort to be made to preserve the little knowledge of the kind given to the cadet, 
 and enable the zealous and active members of this arm to bring it to that state of the art and 
 science known in other armies. In no European army is the artillery without a head to control 
 and govern it, and bring into notice improvements called for by modern applications of science. 
 My belief is that the want of a chief of artillery is one, and the great cause of our arm of this 
 name seldom or never attaining equal efficiency with other corps in their speciality. It cannot 
 be doubted that a chief of artillery is quite as essential and necessary as a chief of engineers, 
 chief of ordnance, or chief of staff. We have seen the advantages of giving to the constructing 
 branch of artillery a chief, the result of which has been to establish a high degree of method, 
 system, and order, the fruits of which have already been experienced. I entertain the hope that 
 some energetic scientific artillery officer will ere long be called to Washington to control and 
 bring into activity the talent and skill now dormant in this long-neglected branch of our service. 
 No man over forty-five should be selected for this station. 
 
 To return from this digression to the artillery depot and stables of the Austrian artillery 
 school of practice. Their stables difier from those of the cavalry, being made for this special 
 service, and for horses belonging to the officers. They are brick buildings of one story only, 
 with a brick arch covering a stall of ten feet long, and a passage behind it of eight feet eight 
 inches, or an arch of eighteen feet eight inches, resting on the outer walls on one side, pierced 
 with windows near the ceiling, and on a close partition wall on the other, against which the rack 
 and manger are secured. This partition wall sejiarates the stable from a seven-foot corridor, 
 extending the whole length of the stable under a separate arch. 
 
 Infantry Barracks. 
 
 No barracks for infantry afforded much field for instruction, that I witnessed, to compare 
 with those of Austria. As in the case of the cavalry casernes, those for infantry appeared to be 
 
 II 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 259 
 
 a system of ancient date, and still adhered to, with slight modifications of detail to adapt them 
 to the present improvements in the equipment of the troops. 
 
 Plate 40 is a plan and two sections of a barrack for infantry, near the hay market, in Vienna, 
 constructed more than one hundred years ago. With all the advantages of their general arrange- 
 ment of rooms opening on continuous corridors, this one differs mostly in the corridor not being 
 entirely closed, offering an example of a permanent structure for infantry well adapted to our 
 southern latitudes. 
 
 This barrack incloses a rectangle, surrounding an interior court, crossed by one line of 
 the buildings somewhat obliquely, apparently once the exterior side of a building of about 
 half the accommodation of the existing one. It is calculated for 4,000 men and 130 officers. 
 The dimension of all parts of this building are given on the plan and sections of Plate 40, 
 for which information I am indebted to the courtesy of a distinguished gentleman, whose 
 acquaintance I made in that city. Each room is calculated for twenty-eight men. They are 
 warmed by iron stoves within the apartments. Every man is provided with an iron bedstead 
 and bedding arranged on each side of the room^ head to the wall, with an interval of eighteen 
 inches between every two. The cooking is all done in apartments on the respective stories of 
 the companies, and in vessels heretofore described. The iron bedstead of the Austrian differs 
 from that of any other nation. It is composed of a head and foot frame of iron connected 
 together by three boards to receive the bedding. These frames consist of two corner posts of 
 seven eighths by five eighths of an inch square iron of 29^ inches in height, put together by two 
 cross bars ; one of angle iron of seven eighths side and quarter inch thickness of metal ; the top 
 of this is fifteen inches above the floor, riveted to the corner posts ; upon the rabbet of this angle 
 iron the ends of the three boards are supported that form the bottom of the bedstead ; a second 
 cross bar unites these corner posts, of seven eighths by quarter inch iron within three and one 
 eighth inches of the top of the post. These two cross rails are united in the center of their 
 length by a piece of iron of seven eighths by quarter inch, that stiffens the frame, at the same 
 time that it prevents the pillow from Mling out at the end. The foot frame is made precisely 
 the same. Three boards of a width together of two feet seven and-a-half inches and six feet 
 four inches long are laid with their ends on the angle iron of the head and foot frames ; this 
 constitutes the outline of the bedstead. To prevent the head and foot frames from receding from 
 each other, a flat iron hook is fastened on the end of each board on top ; when this board is in 
 place, the hook passes down on the outside of the angle iron at both head and foot, thus securing 
 the head and foot frames from receding by three sets of these hooks. Still one other condition 
 has to be attained, that of bracing or retaining the head and foot frames in a vertical position. 
 For this purpose a piece of flat iron of seven eighths of an inch wide and a quarter inch thick for 
 a brace is riveted on the sides of each corner post eight and a quarter inches above the bottom of 
 the boards when in position. This rivet allows this piece of iron to turn upon it as a center. 
 The other end of this iron brace has a notch cut in its edge, serving as a hook. On the outer 
 edge of the two outer boards, and at the distance of eight and a quarter inches from each end, is 
 fastened a piece of flat iron projecting about half an inch beyond the edge of the board with 
 its end slightly upset or thickened ; the notch in the brace hooks on to this piece, thus uniting 
 the whole into the most simple iron bedstead of which I gained information. It is to be recom- 
 mended for its exceeding simplicity, and when taken apart, folding flat, requiring little room, 
 either for storage or transportation. A second and lower brace under the boards, would render 
 it perfect, durable, and efficient. The top and bottom of the corner posts of the different bedsteads 
 are made to set, one on top of another during the day, to be taken down and placed on the floor 
 at night. 
 
 After a study of the plan and sections of this barrack, in Plate 40, I need add nothing more 
 than to draw attention to the whole structure being built of brick, with arched ceilings, paved 
 corridors, stone staircases^ and wooden floor to the rooms. 
 
260 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 GROUND PLAN OF THE NEW AKSENAL AT VIENNA. 
 
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 HOUSE. 
 
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 38 tnisea 
 
 ■ 36 toises. 
 
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 250 toises front. 
 
 Fig. 180. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 261 
 
 New Arsenal at Vienna. 
 
 The most recent and I may say the best barracks in every respect to bo found in Europe, 
 constitute a part of the new arsenal at Vienna, an establishment for the manufacture of every 
 description of small arms, every caliber of artillery in iron and bronze, and equipment for the 
 different arms, as well as carriages for sea-coast defenses, fortresses, and field service. No arsenal 
 in Europe will compare with it in extent ; none in which thei'e is more unity of design. It is 
 doubtless perfect in all resj^ects according to the conceptions of the Austrian military authorities, 
 who must be considered as capable as those of any other nation on the continent. Although my 
 purpose is to give the system of quartering troops by the Austrians as practiced in these latest 
 constructions, the whole establishment, as an example of military architecture is worthy of 
 notice, leaving its uses as an ordnance depot for explanation by those who from a special study 
 of this branch of the profession are more competent to the task. 
 
 The buildings occupy a rectangle of 360 by 250 toises. (See Fig. 180 for plan, and Plate 
 42 for a perspective.) At the four angles are quadrangular defensive barracks, of thirty eight 
 toises square, (inclosing a court,) of three stories over a high basement. The corners are carried 
 up one story higher, projecting, in plan, beyond the connecting depots to secure flank defenses. 
 On the center of the two long sides is a barrack of two stories above a high basement, inclosing a 
 court on three sides, that facing the interior being open, yet secured from uninterrupted ingress 
 and egress by a solid wall. These center barracks project so far in advance of the corner ones, 
 as to give a flank fire on the faces of the latter ; they are thirty-two toises square. 
 
 In the center of the front is a squai'e building of thirty-six toises side for the commandant's 
 quarters, main entrance, guard and porter's lodges, ofiices, &c. It projects beyond the corner 
 barracks to flank their front faces. 
 
 On the center of the rear line is a barrack, in general character, resembling those on the 
 center of the sides, of 38 by 30 toises square, projecting as the other center buildings. Within 
 the court of this last building is a chapel for the officers and families quartered within the 
 establishment of 10 by 15 toises, with arrangements for the chaiilain to preach to the troops from 
 its front ; all sacramental services being performed within. 
 
 All these barracks are connected by storehouses ; those on the long sides being 110 by 10 
 toises, and on the short sides 55 by 10 toises. They are two stories in height, with a spacious 
 cellar entirely below the level of the terreplein. The attic shows as a third story building on 
 each front. 
 
 Within the extensive inclosure, formed by these barracks and storehouses, are workshops, 
 &c. , &c. Nearest to and parallel with the front is a richly ornamented two-story building of 
 130 by 30 toises, with projecting wings and center for a museum of ancient armor, arms, 
 trophies, &c., &c., illustrative of the history of this branch of the art of war, with extensive 
 arm racks as a storehouse for the small arms liow being manufactured. These arms are closely 
 laid together, mostly horizontally^ on wrought-iron racks, so arranged that any one musket or 
 rifle can be taken from its place without moving or disturbing any others. They rest on two 
 points of their length upon iron notched bearing bars, and as close together as may be without 
 touching. 
 
 Next behind and parallel to the museum of arms, is a quadrangular building of 150 by 35 
 toises, inclosing four courts, mostly of two stories, particularly defined in Plate 42. It is for the 
 manufacture of small arms. Back of this is a machine shop of 100 by 10 toises, of two-story 
 wings and center, with a story and a half on the connecting lines. On the right and perpen- 
 dicular to the machine shop, extending to the rear is the carpenter shop, of 115 by 10 toises. 
 Its elevation is of one and two stories, as shown in Plate 42. 
 
 On the left is a similar building of 115 by 10 toises for a finishing and fitting shop. Within 
 
2G2 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the inclosure formed by these three last buildings, and in the center of the space, is the foundery 
 for heavy castings, having three large furnaces. Perpendicular to it on the right, and extending 
 back from its rear line, is a building for small castings of 50 by 15 toises, of one story, with 
 wings and center projections ; and on the left a similarly situated and designed building of 50 by 
 15 toises for a boring mill. 
 
 Outside of the whole of these buildings on the left is a piece of ground arranged for target 
 firing, fitted with cross walls, sustaining banks of earth, at various distances, and safety obser- 
 vation houses convenient to and behind the respective targets. At the end of this target ground, 
 nearest the front of the arsenal, is a building of 16 by 20 toises for sighting small arms ; the sigU 
 of every musket being adjusted by trial from this building by firing at the targets at suitable 
 distances, from 50 to 600 yards ; at which ranges and intermediate ones the movable sight is 
 adjusted. An expert marksman seldom has occasion to fire more than three times, although 
 occasionally five times has occurred before obtaining an accurate adjustment of the sight. 
 
 On the right, and in like manner outside of the whole, is a building of 8 by 15 toises for 
 proving the gun barrels after being bored, but before being fitted and mounted. 
 
 This establishment was manufacturing about 2,400 stand of arms per week, besides artillery, 
 &c. , at the time of my visit. 
 
 The furnace room is arranged with three furnaces around a semicircle, to melt 10,000 pounds 
 of metal each. The casting pits were in front of each furnace ; over the whole a crane traversed, 
 by which to maneuver the melting pots and guns after being cast. This crane was arranged in 
 a peculiar manner, securing great strength and facility of action. In the center of the circle of the 
 furnaces and casting pits is a cast-iron post, on the top of which is centered a horizontal iron frame, 
 the other end of which rests on an ofi"set on the face of masonry of the furnace, moving horizon- 
 tally on a rail track resting on that offset. This iron frame is the jib of the crane ; upon it is 
 a traveller carrying the purchase blocks, the fall of which, passing over a roller in the head of the 
 center post, is continued down the latter to a cog-wheel geering purchase. The whole arrange- 
 ment is simple, occupies but little space_, and sufiices for maneuvering any weight that can be 
 cast in the three furnaces combined, within any part of the surface of the semicircle. 
 
 The workshops and other apartments are each warmed throughout by two wrought-iron 
 six-inch pipes conducting steam along the sides and one end of the rooms. In one of the shops a 
 glue-pot boiler, and a warm or drying table are connected with the same steam pipe, the whole 
 receiving its supply of steam from one of the steam-engine boilers. This gluepot and drying 
 table are wrought-iron cases or boxes of convenient shape, through which the steam circulates to 
 warm the drying table, and to boil the water in which the gluepot is set. Water can be drawn 
 from a large faucet — say one and a half inch diameter — in most of the apartments for constant 
 use, or accidental fire. 
 
 The general arrangement of the barracks conforms with those previously described of the 
 Austrian service, namely : continuous corridors, surrounding a court with doors opening from 
 them into each room. In this case the rooms are 41 feet long by 20 feet 9 inches wide, arched 
 or vaulted ceilings springing 9 feet 9^ inches from the floor, with a versed sine or rise of arch of 
 thee feet. These are for twenty men. In each of these rooms the bedsteads are placed in pairs side 
 by side, heads to the wall, every two being from sixteen to thirty inches apart. Against the 
 wall is a shelf over every two bedsteads, with cloakpins under. The floors of the rooms are of 
 boards, the corridors are paved with stone blocks, of course on top of arches. Each room has 
 two windows opening on the exterior or outside, with a door and two windows on the cirridor. 
 
 The staircases are in the angles or the corners of the building, and none less than 6 feet 
 wide, of stone steps, rectangular, with frequent landings; no circular staircases are admissible 
 for troops in barracks. Each room is provided with a long center table and two small ones in the 
 corners of the room, as also a blackboard, chalk, &c., for the instruction of the private soldier 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 263 
 
 in arithmetic, geography, &c., by the non-commissioned officers. All the plastering of these 
 buildings is on the solid masonry, no lath being used. 
 
 The store-rooms or depots for carriages, harness, timber, &c., &c., are all fire-proof, and 
 peculiar in the details of their construction. The cellar is lighted from an area along the parade, 
 there being no openings through the exterior wall on this level. Part of the cellar ceiling is 
 arched and part is tloored with timber and plank, as will be seen in the annexed figures of 
 reference. Above this cellar are two full stories with wooden floors, and an attic. The 
 communication from cellar to attic is by wooden ramps at each end of the building, sufficiently 
 strong to sustain the weight of the heaviest gun carriage. At each end of these depot buildings 
 there are large doors on rollers, oj^ening the entire width between the masonry part of the 
 building. On the side facing the parade are other large doors, but on hinges. 
 
 The annexed figure (181) gives a general plan and section, with the principal dimensions, 
 consisting of the interior and exterior walls, against which, at distances of sixteen feet, piers are 
 
 General plan ant) section of the depots. 
 
 Enlarged plan of the depot or storehouses. 
 
 caeh, and two end ones of 12' 
 caeli, making a length, from 
 wall to wall, of 280'. 
 
 Fig. 181. 
 
 r these 
 ' thick. 
 
 Ei[.'Ilt beams t 
 on tills girder. 
 
 built on each side, and through these piers an arch of communication is made of 30f inches wide, 
 with a pier of six inches on the wall side and of 4 feet 6^ inches on the inside. In the cellar an 
 arch is thrown from one pier to the other, of IG feet span, supjiorting so much of the main floor 
 over the same part; the upper floors arc supported on timbers. The center part of the three 
 floors, for a width of 2G feet 5 inches, is sujjported by a girder of two pieces of timber resting on 
 the ends of the piers, and by floor timbers from girder to girder. 
 
 Between the piers the second and third floors are supported on beams resting on the piers. 
 The roof is the most remarkable part ; it is arched with brick throughout. First an arch is formed 
 from the end of one pier to the end of the opposite one, as a, a, a, of the same thickness as the 
 piers, two feet one inch. These arches, with the piers, then become supports for arches of sixteen 
 
264 AET OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 feet span^ extending from the front to the rear wall, the crown of which is a curve, as at n, n, n. 
 This closes in the building, when a roof surface is formed on top of this arching. All the arch 
 brick I believe to be hollow or cellular, to reduce the weight, the whole object being a durable 
 fire-proof roof. 
 
 The openings in the exterior wall, shown in the previous figure, consist of a window of four 
 feet four inches interior width, with a loop hole on each side of two feet interior opening, between 
 every two piers or on the distance of sixteen feet. This peculiar and novel construction for a 
 fire-proof building is worthy of study, for api^lication in principle to some of our own struc- 
 tures. In the attic there are three windows, through both the front and rear wall, and differing 
 from the other two stories, as may be seen in Plate 42. 
 
 The whole of this extensive establishment of highly ornamental, yet simple architecture, is 
 built of brick, with some cut-stone tracery and trimming. 
 
 In the barracks the muskets and other arms are arranged in the corridors, as described in 
 other Austrian quarters. 
 
 This arsenal commenced in 1851, was occupied and in full use in 1856, when I visited it. 
 The cost is said to have been T, 900, 000 florins, including 180,000 florins, the cost of the ground, 
 containing lOt yokes of 1,600 square toises each. The sale of the old arsenal in the city, it is 
 sujjposed will fully cover the cost of this new one. The museum is calciilated to hold in its 
 wrought-iron racks 211,968 muskets. 
 
 MruTAET HosriTAi^. 
 
 The permanent military hosjiitals of all the European armies that I had the opportunity of 
 visiting are as a general rule admirably well arranged and in most excellent order and condition, 
 the best being such as have the greatest advantages of the recent experience in architectural 
 arrangements ; and as a consequence, the newest building erected for the purpose seems to com- 
 bine the most perfect system for ventilation, securing a healthy atmosphere, in each particular 
 ward, as well as throughout the entire building. 
 
 Of all that I examined the new one at St. Petersburg I consider decidedly the best, and 
 present minute drawings in plan and sections illustrating the whole design. Considering this 
 establishment so admirably well contrived to fulfill all the requisites of a military hospital, I 
 made the request to be allowed to copy the plans. These were put in my possession, and in 
 addition the Adjutant General, Baron Lieven, by order of the Emperor, caused a perfect set of 
 the working plans to be presented to "the Commission," which will be filed in the library of the 
 War Deijartment. In Plate 41, I have given the information embraced in these plans, together 
 with that from my notes, in sufiicient detail to make the whole understood. 
 
 The buildings are all of brick. The main structure is three stories in height, on three sides 
 of a square, every ward opening on corridors extending the whole length of the three interior 
 faces, with windows opening on the court yard. Every ward has three windows opening on the 
 exterior, and two windows and a door on the corridor, with a door of communication from ward 
 to ward in most cases. The corridors are so arranged that they may be subdivided by closing 
 large doors, confining the communication to separate staircases. This arrangement admits of 
 any one ward having all its windows and doors open for ventilation without incommoding the 
 sick in an adjoining one, while the corridors may be thrown open in j^art or in whole to like 
 ventilation without subjecting any of the wards to its influence. The plan, either as a hospital 
 or barrack for troops ap^jears to be the best yet devised, and for more than a century practiced by 
 the Austrians, and now adopted by Kussia, Prussia, and Turkey. Notwithstanding all the 
 apartments are arched, and the plastering on the solid walls, I could discover no signs of damp- 
 ness or condensation on the surflices, nor from inquiry could I learn that any difiiculty was 
 experienced from this mode of building. Fires are occasionally made in the "Kussian stoves" 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 265 
 
 in the corridors for ventilating tliera, and in one of the wards containing very sick patients, a 
 small fire was lighted in the stove, witli the windows and doors open, the day heing bright sun- 
 shine and warm, the 30th of June, 1855. So perfect is the ventilation and discipline, that in my 
 walk through the many corridors, wards, kitchens, laundries, bathing rooms, latrines, and other 
 parts, not the least offensive smell was perceptible, everything and place heing as neat, clean, 
 and systematically arranged, as could possibly be desired, and far more so than a stranger could 
 believe practicable, occupied as it was on the day referred to by no less than 1,2*73 patients, 
 besides the numerous attendants. Although the system of discipline, combined with medical 
 and surgical science, was of the highest order, yet, that could not have ensured such excellence 
 without a building fully adapted in all its details to the varied wants of the sick and well occu- 
 pying it. I can present nothing to the medical staff of our army superior to this, as an example 
 of the European military hospitals. 
 
 The corridors are twelve feet wide, covered with painted floor cloth, apparently laid on a 
 brick pavement ; two wood-boxes of two feet square, and a long box for brooms, &c., are placed 
 in these halls, convenient for each room. The floors of the wards are of hard wood, inlaid in 
 geometrical figures over the brick arches, and kept polished, a system of flooring well calculated 
 for hospitals, and one in use in most houses in St. Petersburg, and in the cities of the continent. 
 All the rooms are provided with the Russian or masonry stove, as is the case with every hall, 
 water-closet, or other apartment throughout the building. From eighteen to twenty patients are 
 in a ward, each of whom is provided with a straw palliasse, mattress, sheets, blankets, and two 
 PILLOWS, on an iron-framed bedstead, with j^iainted bottom hoards laid on a flange of the iron frame. 
 There is much economy in this construction, the same cleanliness as though of iron, equal 
 durability, and greater facility in moving, and even in cleaning them. The head frame, above 
 the bottom boards, is filled in with sheet iron, making it close, and preventing the pillows from 
 being disi3laced. The rectangular frarne, or sides and ends is of angle iron, and other parts of 
 square iron. An iron rod rises from the head of the bedstead, on which is a tablet giving the 
 name of the patient, his regiment, company, and regimental number ; also, the number of the 
 ward, and of the bed of that particular ward, his age, period of service, district and department 
 of country where born, whether married or single, the number of days sick before coming to the 
 general hospital, and the special number under which he is received in the hospital. All these 
 details are found indispensable in a hospital receiving patients from army corps ; exceeding a 
 thousand when brought together. This information is written on a printed form, attached to a 
 small slate or black board; beneath it the attending physician writes daily the symptoms of the 
 disease, the external or internal remedy prescribed, and diet for the day ; an extract from this 
 paper is taken to the apothecary who compounds or puts up the prescription, marks and numbers 
 it to agree with the extract ; all for a ward are put in a tray, and by one of the attendants taken 
 to the ward, placed on tables between the beds, and administered by one of the attendants. A 
 physician is always in attendance, having under his charge a set of wards, appropriated to some 
 particular disease. He has two assistant physicians and many hospital attendants. All the 
 hospital ward attendants are instructed in their duties at schools before coming on duty in this 
 establishment, thus insuring a corps of competent hospital attendants. A corps of superannuated 
 soldiers is maintained here for external police. 
 
 A patient, on coming to this hospital from the camp or casern where his company may be 
 stationed, is first received in a large room on the ground floor, where two physicians are in 
 attendance. They examine him, make the necessary records in their books, send him in an 
 adjoining apartment, where he is cleansed with hot or cold bathing, as may be ordered, and then 
 sent to an appropriate part of the hospital, where the attending physician assigns him to some 
 ward proper for his disease. Hospital clothing is issued to the patient on coming out of the 
 bathing room, and none that he brings with him goes into the hospital beyond this room. It is 
 34 D 
 
266 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 taken to a laundry, purified, marked in conformity with the records, and placed in depots in 
 numerical order, to be issued according to the termination of the disease. 
 
 In addition to this bathing room for receiving patients, another is provided for each and 
 every set of wards, warmed by a Kussian stove, containing three metal bathing tubs, and a fourth 
 one on wheels to convey to a ward if necessary ; two of the wheels are on a fixed axle, and a 
 third one, on a movable vertical axis, turned by the handle for drawing it, to and from the 
 ward. 
 
 Another apartment for each set of wards (and a very large one) is arranged with water- 
 closets, with about ten pans ; which, with a slop sink and urinating pans, are of glazed earthen- 
 ware or porcelain, precisely on the plan of those in our city houses, with hot and cold water in 
 appropriate places. 
 
 The kitchens are on the ground floor, in which large boilers of five and a half feet diameter 
 are set in masonry, with tinned iron covers ; half of the top is movable on hinges, the other 
 half is fixed ; a six-inch pipe rising through it, conveying the steam into a steam chest in the ■ 
 masonry, from whence it escapes, either condensed or as steam ; which, I could not discover. 
 The fireplace or furnace door for these large kettles is behind the wall, against which they are set, 
 as is now becoming the practice for all cooking ranges in western Europe. Two rooms are thus 
 arranged, with several boilers in each ; and in one of them a small range for the of&cers of the 
 institution who dine together. The oven is in an adjoining apartment. It is heated by wood 
 thrown on its hearth. Two valves regulate the heat, and a third regulates the draft of the smoke 
 flue. Each side of the oven is provided with similar valves to equalize the heat over the entire 
 surface of hearth and arch. 
 
 The provisions here cooked are sent to each story for a set of wards, in large copper vessels, 
 tinned inside, (two for each story,) by a dumb waiter, holding six of them at a time. It is 
 worked by manual power from below ; and, on reaching the story for which it is destined, are 
 taken into an apartment, and there served out according to the daily prescription. The conva- 
 lescents dine together in large dining rooms, appropriated exclusively therefor. 
 
 The apothecary's department is in a separate building (see Plate 41) on the ground floor. 
 The medicines, drugs, &c., are in five small contiguous rooms, on shelves and in drawers 
 arranged in classes alphabetically, in glass and earthenware jars, bottles, and phials, in wooden 
 drawers and closets, in none of which was any peculiarity observed, other than in the construction 
 of the drawers ; each of which, on being drawn out, was still a closed box, so made by a sliding 
 cover that, on being pushed back, opens half the length of the drawer — a good arrangement to 
 preserve cleanliness and air-tightness, requisites for many kinds of drugs, to which, in part, may 
 be ascribed the perfect and entire absence of all smell of drugs or chemicals throughout the 
 apartments. 
 
 Two adjoining rooms, back of this dispensary, are fitted up for decoctions, solutions, and 
 preparations requiring distillation, heat^ warm or boiling water, or steam ; and most admirably 
 arranged is the apparatus for these varied purposes. For the construction and details of this 
 part of the dispensary, see the two annexed drawings, (Fig. 182 and 183,) in perspective, 
 presented to me by the chief of this department. 
 
 In one of these two apartments (Fig. 182) is a mill, a mortar and pestle, the working of 
 which is greatly facilitated by attaching the latter to a spring above it ; a hot chamber or box, 
 stewholes, sand bath, oven, and a steam boiler set in masonry, from which a pipe conveys the 
 steam to the adjacent room, (Fig. 183,) around which are arranged a variety of vessels, all supplied 
 with steam at a high temperature from the boiler by the faucets (a a a) for each, admitting the 
 steam at pleasure, and obtaining a boiling temperature in a feto minutes ; 6 is a double passage 
 faucet, admitting steam into the large vessel below, or into a hand vessel through the pipe c. 
 At g is an arrangement for boiling in six small vessels at the same time. A hood covers all 
 these boilers tocarrv off" any vapors arising from them. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 267 
 
 The dead-house, as every other part of this establishment, is well organized, and preserved 
 in proper condition, morally as well as otherwise. At present it is in a small frame building, 
 (H, plan of building and grounds, Plate 41,) as a temporary expedient, until a proper one can 
 be built. A small chapel, neatly fitted up in conformity with the rites of the prevailing religion 
 of the country, receives the dead, where religious ceremonies are performed, when tlie bodies are 
 conveyed to an adjoining apartment, and there laid out on a continuous table around the room, 
 each body separately covered with either a sheet or a blanket. From this apartment the inter- 
 ments are made twice a day ; and I am not certain whether the religious ceremonies are performed 
 at this last moment, or when the body is first taken to the chapel and dead-house. At the time I 
 visited this set of apartments there were fifteen dead bodies, 1,253 jjatients in the hospital, of 
 which fifty-six men and three women had the Asiatic cholera that prevailed in the city of St. 
 Petersburg, as well as in the neighboring camps, and at Cronstadt. 
 
 The total number of sick that can be provided for in this establishment, including the summer 
 hospital, is 30 officers and 1,770 soldiers and women, making a total of 1,800 beds. 
 
 Every year this building is whitewashed^ cleansed, and purified, at which time the patients 
 are put in contiguous wooden buildings, appropriated at other jieriods to contagious and other 
 diseases incident to hospitals, as ophthalmia, &c. The plan of the buildings and grounds (Plate 
 41) indicates the position of this summer hosjjital, in connection with the permanent buildings. 
 This summer hospital appears to be a part of the Eussian military system. I noticed the same 
 arrangement in the fortress at Modlin, on the Vistula, and in the hospitals in Moscow, which, 
 like the one described, are equally perfect, except in the buildings. 
 
 Operating rooms, and a library of 1,600 medical works also constitute a part of this military 
 hospital ; an honor to the country that supports it, to the head and heart that organized it, and 
 liiglily creditable to its present chief and his associates for the perfect manner in which they 
 administer and preserve its admirable efiiciency. I should not omit to notice a large chapel for 
 the convalescents, situated at the end of the wing of the third story. 
 
 It may be of interest to our army surgeons to know the character of the diseases as well as 
 the proportions out of a total of 1,273 of the several kinds incident to the military profession, 
 and in the climate of St. Petersburg. The information is given from the morning report of the 
 18th of June, 1855, presented to " the Commission" on visiting the institution that day. 
 
 Acute Diseases — 
 
 Catarrhal fever 
 
 Rheumatic fever 
 
 Gastric fever 
 
 Intermittent fever.... 
 Fever-s not classed.. 
 
 Small-pox 
 
 Measles 
 
 27 
 29 
 77 
 55 
 54 
 o 
 
 6 
 
 St. Anthony's Fire 29 
 
 Inflammation of the lungs 
 
 Inflammation of the organs of respiration 
 
 Inflammation of the liver 
 
 Inflammation of the spleen 
 
 Inflammation of the bowels 
 
 Cholera, Asiatic 
 
 40 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 59 
 
 Outward Diseases, Exterior and Apparent- 
 
 Diseases of the eyes 
 
 Outward inflammation 
 
 Abcess 
 
 Sprains 
 
 Difl'erent swellings 
 
 Ruptures 
 
 Watery ruptures 
 
 Contusions and bruises 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 Wounds 
 
 Ulcers 
 
 Broken bones 
 
 Caries bones 
 
 Diseases of the joints.. 
 
 43 
 
 42 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Chronic Diseases — 
 
 Disease of the brain and nerves 10 
 
 Consumption 108 
 
 Disease of the organs of respiration.. 
 
 Affections of the heart 
 
 Affections of the stomach 
 
 Affections of the bladder 
 
 Diarrhea 
 
 79 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 Dropsy 28 
 
 King's evil 22 
 
 Rheumatism 26 
 
 Venereal 139 
 
 Scurvy 70 
 
 Itch 27 
 
 Piles 5 
 
 Bowel complaints 29 
 
 Total. 
 
 1,273 
 
268 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 At Moscow, although the military hospital was on even a larger scale than that at St. Peters- 
 burg, I found nothing specially interesting after having seen the newest and probably the best 
 in the Empire, if not in Europe, at St. Petersburg. 
 
 As an old building there is nothing to remark, other than as an evidence in the change of 
 design, from a long continuous line of connected rooms, with windows on one side only, and 
 entrance at the extreme ends, to the system of corridors, and wards communicating therewith. 
 This hospital at Moscow, for officers as well as men, contained on the 24th July, 1855, 1,538 
 patients, 12 of whom were officers of the army. These latter were provided for in wards with 
 six beds each, large and airy, communicating one with another. Everything within this extensive 
 establishment was in the very best order and condition, and in detail precisely similar to that at 
 St. Petersburg, the buildings excepted, which, like most others were arched with brick. The 
 classification of the diseases of these 1^538 patients, from the morning report, is as follows : 
 
 Fevers and different internal inflammations 416 
 
 Diseases of the chest 195 
 
 Diseases of the eye 88 
 
 Chronic internal diseases 162 
 
 Kheumatism ST 
 
 King's evil 37 
 
 Venerea] 188 
 
 External diseases 176 
 
 Itch 212 
 
 Cholera, Asiatic 27 
 
 Making a total of. 1,538 
 
 The employes attached to this hospital were — 
 
 On medical service, 18 officers and superior employes. 
 " 218 soldiers and inferior " 
 
 On police duty 6 officers and superior " 
 
 " 396 soldiers and inferior " 
 
 A camp of 25,000 militia, near the Palace of Petrofskoi, furnished many of the patients of 
 this hospital. 
 
 The military hospital now in course of construction by the Austrians, at Verona, may be 
 considered as next to that at St. Petersburg, in the superiority of its arrangements to all the 
 older buildings for the same purpose in Europe. Its general plan of -wards and corridors is the 
 same as that of St. Petersburg, and in conformity with their long established practice about 
 Vienna. It is calculated for 1,400 beds, and was in part finished and occupied on 21st January, 
 1856, when the sick numbered 482 of all diseases, of whom six were officers. Some of the details 
 of this building I considered of sufficient novelty to be noted. The building is on four sides of 
 a rectangle, in which particular it is not as good as that of St. Petersburg, where one side of the 
 square is open and free for the unobstructed passage of the wind. The wards are calculated for 
 twenty patients each, with one large window in the center opening on the exterior, and a door 
 directly opposite on the corridor ; over this door, is a large window extending nearly to the ceiling, 
 thus the windows and doors being open, the direct draft is through the middle of the ward, and 
 not over the patients, who are in beds arranged on each side, heads towards the wall. At night a 
 gas light in the corridor and close to the window over the door, suffices to light the ward, as well 
 as the corridor ; and no other light is admitted in the room, except by special order. The rooms 
 are all arched with brick, plastered on the solid wall, and warmed by an iron stove on the center 
 of one side of the ward. The floors of the wards, and corridors, are of boards, except on the 
 ground floor, where the latter are paved with stone, on parts that do not communicate with wards ; 
 
 J 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 269 
 
 in the latter case being invariably of wood. In the corner of each ward is a water closet or room 
 for the close stool, (when a supply of water is not at command.) It occupied a space of four 
 feet square in the clear. Tlie stool or water pan, as the case may be, is placed in a recess in the 
 thickness of the masonry of the covx'iAov partiiion. A low and small door in the corridor commu- 
 nicates from this recess, that when the patient has left the closet, and closed the door into the 
 ward, a servant from without can at once remove the stool, thus avoiding offensive effluvia in the 
 room, and the exposure, and at times pain, of the patient leaving his apartment for one of different 
 temperature some distance from his bed. This appears a better arrangement than the Kussian, 
 if water is available, or a combination of the two plans would be most advantageous. 
 
 In addition to the means of ventilation by the window over the door, and sashes of the 
 windows opening on the exterior, there is under this latter, a smaller one of two feet square 
 near the floor to admit fresh air at the lowest part of the room, and a similar opening of twelve 
 inches square, next to the ceiling over the door, for the escape of warm or such foul air as ascends. 
 This latter one is closed by a valve movable at pleasure ; the one under the window is closed by 
 a solid shutter. 
 
 The bathing establishment is on a most extensive scale, and for the use of water and steam 
 in a variety of ways conducive to health. For steam bathing a room is fitted with several 
 bedsteads, one rising above the other in steps, (or amphitheater arrangement,) with sloping head 
 board for the comfort of the piatient, who is laid in his blanket on one of these wooden platforms 
 or bedsteads, and steamed by the admission of any degree and quantity of steam from the boiler 
 in an adjacent apartment. 
 
 An adjoining room is fitted up with small apartments or stalls of sizes suited for men stand- 
 ing, sitting, or reclining, each having pipes and faucets, admitting a shoiver bath from above, 
 from the side of the apartment throwing the water horizontally, and a third throwing the water 
 upwards from the floor to fall gently on the patient, thus giving the means of bathing any 
 particular part of the body. 
 
 In two other and adjoining apartments are no less than thirty-six marble bathing tubs, with 
 tubes and valves for hot and cold water. These tubs are sunk several inches in the floor, the 
 top remaining not more than one foot above, making it easy of entrance by an invalid, and at 
 the same time convenient to put a patient in the bath, requiring assistance. 
 
 Still another apartment is appropriated in this part of the establishment, for a large boiler 
 set in masonry for steam and hot water for the bathing rooms ; connected with this is an apart- 
 ment containing a large masonry cistern or reservoir, rising nearly to the ceiling, supplying a 
 head of cold water for the bathing rooms, &c., and for the steam boilers. This reservoir is filled 
 with the water of the Adige_, pumped up by manual labor. All the bathing establishment, 
 store-rooms, apothecary's department, and kitchens on the basement floor are about three feet 
 above the level of the terreplein of the court yard. 
 
 A major of artillery is the commander and responsible person for the entire establishment, 
 having a captain to assist him. 
 
 The surgeons have only to take care of the sick and wounded, and have no authority to 
 order, except in diet, medicine, and what concerns the application and administering of their 
 professional prescriptions. They prescribe daily the food and diet either in half, whole, or 
 special rations, which is written on the board at the head of the i^atient's bed. For each ward 
 a return is made and sent to the kitchen, from whence it is issued at a particular hour, and 
 carried to the ward, on wooden traj^s in bowls, by the orderlies of the respective rooms, placed on 
 a table in the center for such as can come to it, others having it served to them at the bedside by 
 the attendants. To make this convenient, every bed is provided with a board about fourteen 
 inches wide and twenty inches long, with edges rising about a quarter of an inch above the 
 surface, answering as a table or waiter on which to place his food, tumbler, fork, spoon, &c., &c. 
 Although these minutia may seem unimportant to those who have the comforts of a home, they 
 
270 
 
 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 contribute, nevertheless, greatly to the comfort of a sick or wounded soldier thrown suddenly 
 into a large hospital with nothing to aid, comfort, or sustain him, hut what may he given to the 
 many. The conveniences provided in this new Austrian hospital are not only of novel con- 
 struction, hut are well worthy tlie consideration of our medical officers. 
 
 Patients with cutaneous, infectious, or contagious diseases, are placed in wards under the 
 lock and key, the corridor communicating with them being guarded by a sentinel, the corridor 
 itself being locked as well as the wards. 
 
 Insane patients are also under a guard, the additional precaution being taken of inclosing 
 the stove within an iron grated portion or corner of the room. A single patient of this class 
 was in this hospital at the time of my visit to it. 
 
 The amputation table struck me as another novelty, a description of which might be accept- 
 able to our medical staff. I saw it in no other hospital. It seemed admirably well adapted to 
 its purpose, consisting of an iron frame as a bedstead, in three equal parts, admitting of the 
 head or foot part being raised or lowered at pleasure to any inclination from sitting to laying 
 out horizontally. This is accomplished by making the bedstead in three parts on hinges, as in 
 
 Fig. 184. The center part (a) is fixed to an 
 iron elevating screw, similar to that for sight- 
 ing a piece of artillery. By turning the han- 
 dles b, the bedstead may be raised or lowered 
 at pleasure and clamped at any required height 
 by the thumbscrew c. The whole is made 
 to turn on its center by a movement on the 
 vertical pin e, the standing and movable part 
 being separated by the horizontal plane at n. 
 Another adjustment exists for fixing the head 
 and foot frame pieces at any angle at the will 
 of the operator. It is effected by the double 
 irons fastened to the center frame, through 
 which the segments o o pass, that are riveted to the head and foot frames respectively, the thumb- 
 screws t t securing them at the required inclination. Fig. 185 indicates the adjustment and 
 
 security for elevating and depressing the whole. For this purpose 
 /',-' the arc ^3 V P P is attached to the center frame, passing alongside 
 ,. -"yy the pedestal, having a thumbscrew at / in a plate (a) attached on 
 the outside of the arc j). When the screw h is used to raise or 
 lower the apparatus the thumbscrew / must be free that the arc 
 p J) may raise or fall as required, accomplished by the screw 
 handle h while the patient is upon the couch, if necessary. When 
 at the proper height the inclination is fixed by placing the 
 thumbscrew / in the proper hole of the plate a a and clamp- 
 ing the arc jo p. It must be specially born in mind that these 
 adjustments must be so far under the bedstead as not to incom- 
 mode the operator or his assistants. The original in the Verona 
 arsenal resembles the arrangement here described so far as it was 
 in my power to gain the information by sketching from memory 
 "at night what had been seen in the day. It is sufficiently correct to give any skillful mechanic 
 the requisites for constructing it. 
 
 The dead-house is here a new building, and seems to embrace every necessary desideratum. 
 It is built of stone, arched with brick, and tile roof. On the right of the entrance is a guard- 
 room, where some one is in attendance night and day. On the left is an apartment of the same 
 size for j?os< jnorfem examinations. Behind these two, and extending the whole length of the 
 
 •■ ' 't/ /:iw//</,w,// /,/v//////////'////////'////.w//^'//y/////y' 
 Fig. 184. 
 
ART OF WAE IN EUROPE. 271 
 
 building, is tlie apartment for the clead^ with a window in each end. The bodies are laid on 
 inclined planes, side by side ; to the hand or foot of each and every one is attached a bell-pull 
 communicating with a bell in the guardroom, occupied by the guard of four soldiers. If by any 
 accident life should remain after the body is laid out, the motion of the bell wire gives notice to 
 the guard, and with it, immediate attention and assistance — a considerate and humane precaution, 
 although seldom needed. 
 
 The iwst mortem examination room has in its center a marble table slightly countersunk, 
 and on the side of the room a large marble tub. The floor is paved with marble. 
 
 Behind the dead-hall, extending the whole length of the building, are two apartments, the 
 one for a stable, and the other for a hearse. 
 
 The Military Hospital at Vienna was built in 1788. The wards open on corridors of eight 
 feet wide, with four windows and a door in the partition wall, and five windows (opposite the 
 last openings) in the exterior wall fi'onting the court yard. The wards are sixty feet six 
 inches by twenty-one feet four inches, for twenty-five beds, and have five windows opening on 
 the exterior. All the windowsills of the wards are seven feet above the floors, that beds under 
 them may not be subject to the draft. The general regulations and attendance conforms with 
 the system pursued at Verona. Four officers of the army are on duty at this establishment, 
 having the entire command of the guard, attendants, and patients. The duty of the physician 
 or surgeon is simply to prescribe and operate, in which matters their written notes and requisi- 
 tions are carried into efiect under the orders of the military. 
 
 Hospital attendants are, from a distinct corps, organized for the purpose. The corps sanitaire 
 is a distinct corps for field service, and are sent to the hospitals to learn to dress wounds, &c. 
 
 For purifying offensive vessels they make great use in this establishment of hyper oxyd of 
 manganese and sulphuret of iron. 
 
 I have omitted to state that all the wards have wooden floors, and that the corridors and 
 staircases are of stone. The whole building is to this day an excellent study for military 
 hospitals, and remarkable for having been constructed in the last century on the plan most 
 approved in Europe at the present date. 
 
 At Berlin a new military hospital is under construction calculated for eight hundred beds as 
 a maximum. The wards are small, mostly designed for eleven patients, and some for three and 
 four. Two hundred and ninety-one patients were in this establishment the day I examined it, 
 mostly from the seven regiments stationed in the city. The sick were all attended by the 
 surgeons of their respective regiments, who come to prescribe for them daily, and oftener if 
 occasion requires. The general plan and arrangement of the wards of this building is like that 
 of the casern of the Lancers of the Guard, excepting that it occupies only three sides of a square, 
 the main entrance being from the center^ and from the court yard. 
 
 A good arrangement has been introduced in this building for cooking. For this purpose 
 two steam boilers, of eight feet six inches long by three feet diameter, are set in masonry in an 
 out-of-the-way apartment. Steam of one and a half atmospheres is here generated, which, by 
 pipes, is conducted to a range of copper kettles standing on tripod frames in tlie kitchen. Each 
 of these kettles is encased within a steam-tight metal jacket, about one and a half inch from 
 the kettle, into which space the steam is admitted by a stop-cock for regulating the supply. An 
 escape pipe carries off the waste and any condensed steam through a pipe in the bottom of the 
 jacket. By this simple arrangement all the food for this establishment is cooked. Of course 
 soups and stews only can be cooked in these boilers Altogether there are nine boilers, the 
 largest holding five hundred quarts, and the smallest about ten quarts. One of the largest wag 
 in operation when I saw them, and was informed that, in sixteen minutes, water could be boiled 
 by this process. They had been in use two years without needing repairs. 
 
 The steam boilers supply power for a steam engine of six-inch cylinder and twelve-inch 
 stroke, used to pump water for bathing purposes to the upper part of the building. It al.so 
 
272 ART OP WAR IN KUROPE. 
 
 supplied steam for a Russian bath in a room arranged for four persons at a time. Although this 
 
 establishment is very good, it is not equal to the one either at Verona or St. Petersburg. It has * 
 
 no windows between the wards and corridors, and all the ceilings are very low. The simplicity 
 
 and cleanliness of the cooking apparatus commend it to favor wherever such an arrangement is 
 
 admissible. 
 
 English Military Depot Hospital at Scutaki. 
 
 The hospital established for the sick and wounded of the English army operating against 
 Sebastopol, was in a building at Scutari, opposite Constantinople, constructed about eight years 
 previous to my visit by the Turkish government for their troops. Its architect was an Armenian; 
 who has succeeded in constructing one of the hest buildings for a lios^ntal or barracks to be found 
 in Europe. The exterior and partition walls are all of brick^ with stone sills and lintles, stone 
 paved floors in the basement and first story halls and wards. The second story halls and wards 
 have plank floors. The English army took jDOssession of it as most suitable for their depot 
 hospital, which Dr. Eobert Lawson organized, in conjunction with nine other medical officers, 
 to equal most of the permanent hos^Ditals of the continent, or even the large cities of England, 
 which latter I can only speak of from information. Certainly no soldiers from the field of battle 
 were ever better cared for or provided for, than the sick and wounded of the English army at the 
 time I visited it in the fall of 1855. 
 
 The dimensions of the wards admit of 900 cubic feet of space to each patient. The wards 
 are of two sizes — twenty-four feet six inches to twenty-four feet nine inches wide by fifty-two feet 
 three inches to fifty-two feet nine inches long, for the small ones, and seventy feet six inches to 
 seventy feet nine inches long, by the same width for the larger ones — all the ceilings being 
 fourteen feet three inches high. The corridors or halls are eleven feet three inches wide in 
 general, some being eleven feet nine inches wide. The architectural arrangement is particularly 
 advantageous. Every ward is entered by a door from a hall or corridor of the above width, 
 lighted and ventilated by windows on an interior court yard. The smaller wards accommodate 
 twenty patients, and the larger ones twenty-eight. They have windows opening on the halls and 
 on the opposite side looking to the exterior. The long wards have nine and the small ones six 
 windows on the outside, with six and four and a door in the corridor. In addition to the window 
 openings there are two ventilator openings of two feet square each, the sill on level of the floor in 
 each ward. These are closed with solid shutters. 
 
 The building can accommodate eight hundred and ninety patients ; one thousand have been 
 taken care of at urgent times during the campaign in the Crimea. At the time of my visit there 
 were three hundred and sixty-seven sick of all diseases, and twenty-four wounded patients under 
 treatment. There are four large wards and a corner room on two sides of the square, and five 
 wards in the connecting building forming the rectangle. 
 
 The kitchen is arranged with boilers along one wall of the building, the furnaces for which 
 are on the outside. Bread is supplied from a bakery established elsewhere ; it was of very good 
 quality, as was the case with the hospital supplies of all kinds, and apparently in great abundance 
 for the depot and field hospitals. 
 
 The laundry is fitted with tubs around the wall with some three feet of flat surface between 
 each. The only peculiarity is in the manner of "wringing" the clothing to expel the water. 
 When done solely by the hands much of the water in which a blanket, for example, is washed 
 remains, and must be evaporated. The Turkish arrangement is a round wooden bar about three 
 inches diameter, secured over the wash-tub in a horizontal position, by iron brackets. Tlie end 
 of a blanket is thrown over this b ir, and brought imder and laid with the other part, when 
 both hands are free for and applied to twisting the garment to expel the water. Tlie advantage 
 is in giving more power and convenience in use of both hands to twist one way, instead of having 
 to do so with one hand to the right and the other to the left. But even with all the strength a 
 
 \ 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. . 273 
 
 man can exert in this way, much water^ and of course impure to some degree, remains to be 
 evaporated by heat, leaving the impurities in the garment. When it is considered that at times 
 one thousand sick and wounded men had to rely upon the laundry of the establishment for clean 
 bedding and otlier clothing, the matter assumes importance, on the score of health, as well as 
 economy of time and labor. A better machine was introduced by the English, that, in a simple 
 way, expels most of the water and nearly to dryness. It is the same principle as that used in 
 expelling molasses from sugar, the rotary seive. The one here in use was worked by two men. 
 The clothing was put inside a vertical cylindrical seive of about two feet diameter, to which a great 
 rotary velocity is given, which throws the garment, &c., compactly against its side, the water 
 at the same time being expelled through the openings in the seive. One minute sufficed to expel 
 from a blanket, first reduced to dryness in the ordinary way as far as practicable, more than a 
 pint of water by this machine. 
 
 It was in this well-arranged hospital that most estimable lady. Miss Nightingale, exercised 
 her powerful influence in ameliorating the condition of the sick and wounded from the battle 
 field. Women as nurses were employed to attend upon the men in the wards, under the kind 
 and benevolent guardianship of this good lady. With the many advantages that would naturally 
 follow the more gentle, painstaking, and cleanly attendance of women as nurses, it was found 
 that with the class of men to be dealt with, in all the diflerent stages of helplessness and debility, 
 females in sufficient numbers of the proper physical power, and other requisites were not to be 
 obtained, and that reliance had to be placed upon men. The change was made by degrees after a 
 fair trial with female nurses, taking the invalids when convalescent, and retaining such as proved 
 capable. The English army had no trained sanitary corps, as described in the Austrian service, 
 which in the commencement of the campaign was the cause of great embarrassment to the medical 
 staff. 
 
 The water-closets constructed in this building were after the peculiar system of the Turks, 
 recently adopted by the French in their permanent works. They are so objectionable as not to 
 be worth the time to describe them. The experience of the English surgeons was, that a sick 
 man cannot use them, and the well should not; in consequence they had to resort to expedients, 
 with a free use of chloride of lime and zinc. 
 
 The piece of board as a table for each man confined to his bed, described heretofore, was 
 adopted in this hospital with great comfort to the invalid ; it was sixteen inches by twelve inches 
 square. 
 
 The bedding consisted of a hcdr mattress, blankets, sheets, and pillows, an iron bedstead 
 two feet three inches wide and fourteen inches high, witli hoop-iron slats for the bottom. These 
 were found very objectionable for sick men, and boards were preferred, the sacking bottom, on 
 trial, being found insufficient to sustain the weight. The hospital regulation bedstead is three 
 feet two inches wide ; a greater height, or palliasses, would be advantageous in dressing wounds. 
 
 Games, such as checkers and backgammon, and a library were provided for such as desired 
 and could so amuse themselves. 
 
 The diet was prescribed by the medical officer, when making his morning visit, ordering 
 full diet, half diet, &c., in conformity with an established and prescribed ration. 
 
 The clothing worn by the patients when in hospital belongs to the establishment. On a 
 sick soldier coming to the hospital he is first registered, goes then to the bath room, where he 
 changes all his clothing for such as may be necessary, from the hospital wardrobe. His own 
 clothing, including his entire kit, is enumerated, and duplicate receipts made in his presence 
 and, on being washed and cleansed, are numbered to conform with his receipt; on his leaving 
 the hospital they are returned him, article by article as called for by tlie receijjt. 
 
 A very large store is necessary and is provided for the preservation of the soldier's clothii>g, 
 where it is kept on racks in numerical order. The register gives every man's disease, date of 
 admission, regiment, company, and articles of clothing and equipment brought with him; and 
 35 D 
 
274 ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 
 
 the Lospital number assigned him is affixed to his clothing, his ward, and his Led number. 
 Besides hospital clothing every man is provided with a comb and brush. 
 
 Woolen and cotton clothing is issued and used, as may be directed by the surgeon. Woolen 
 cholera belts were issued to all soldiers in the army, and worn by the patients in the hospitals. 
 The men, however, disliked them much when in the field, and in consequence they were not in 
 general use except in the hospitals. 
 
 This general hospital did not suffice for the sick and wounded of the English army. The 
 Turkish barrack at Scutari was in consequence appropriated to the wants of their army^ and 
 known as the barrack hospital. The two constituted the depot hospital of the army operating 
 against Russia on the shores of the Black sea. It was under the military command and discipline 
 of Brigadier General Stokes, with an aid-de-camp and a detachment of troops that mounted 
 guard daily. 
 
 The entire medical and surgical department was under Dr. Cummings, as Inspector Greneral, 
 having the relative rank of a Brigadier General, whose control extended over the division 
 previously described. At the time of my visit, this building contained between 700 and 800 
 patients under treatment. Each hospital was under the charge of a deputy inspector. The one 
 now under consideration was divided into foiir " divisions," each under charge of a staff surgeon, 
 and each set of wards or jDarticular set and number of patients under surgeons or assistant 
 surgeons. 
 
 The " Apothecary' s Department" supplies all medicines and surgical instruments. 
 
 ThQ "■ Purveyor' s Department" s\\^\iYies iooA and hospital stores. These two dej^artments 
 are under the senior medical officer. They may purchase, in case of necessity, on the authority 
 of the senior medical officer, receiving funds from the army commissariat therefor. 
 
 A medical officer can never exercise military command or authority; that can only be 
 exercised by a military functionary, the duty of the medical corps being confined to healing the 
 wounded and curing the sick, the discipline belonging to army officers only. 
 
 This particular hospital (the barrack hospital) has a "dispensary" for each of its four 
 divisions, as also a " clean linen store." The dispensary compounds and prepares the prescrip- 
 tions from the surgeon's book, which gives the name, ward, prescription, and diet for the day, 
 which is sent to the ward by one of its orderlies who_, or a nurse, administers each dose as 
 directed. 
 
 The "clean linen store" is in charge of a matron, who issues sheets, blankets, towels, and 
 all other purveyor's supplies, on the order of the surgeon. The soiled linen is all delivered to 
 her, who has it cleansed and placed in order on the shelves of her store-room. She makes her 
 requisitions on the "Purveyor's Department" in conformity with the surgeon's requirements. 
 Her receipt is sufficient at any moment of exigency during the day for supplies from the 
 purveyor's stores, to be checked and examined weekly with the surgeon'.s requisitions, which are 
 sent in duplicate to the purveyor's storekeeper as his voucher, the medical officers making their 
 requisitions on the matron. 
 
 The "Chief Medical Store of the General Hospital" is in this huilding, (barrack hospital.) 
 It furnishes the hospitals at Scutari, and fills requisitions from the inspector general in the 
 Crimea and other points on the Black sea. It receives its supplies in bulk from the "Army 
 Medical Ordnance Department" through a "Director General," in London, the requisitions being 
 made on him, who forwards the supplies to the "Chief Medical Storelceeper ." The latter 
 receives them, breaks bulk, and issues on the requisition of inspectors general, or if for the 
 Crimea, on the requisition of the senior medical officer in the field. This department only issues 
 in mass and perfect packages. The dispensaries receive their supplies from the chief medical 
 store. All the supplies in this establishment, the depot of the whole English army, appeared 
 to be in great abundance and of very good quality, so far as could be judged of by one not of the 
 medical profession. 
 
ART OF WAR IN EUROPE. 275 
 
 Such was the general hospital system of the English army, organized hastily and tempo- 
 rarily for most sudden and unexpected demands upon the talent and skill of its chiefs, who could 
 by no possibility have foreseen the necessity for such immense resources as were called for during 
 this contest against Kussia, greatly surpassing all former precedent, by cholera, exposure in 
 camp and trenches during inclement winter weather, and a courageous and resolute enemy. 
 Some time was necessary to create and render efficient such an organization. When done, how- 
 ever, it was efficient and admirably well conducted, both in relation to the stores and the main 
 object, the cure of the sick and wounded. It will be seen that the general outline of hospital 
 attendance, police and discipline, conforms with the continental practice, and that the buildings 
 used for the purpose correspond with the newest and best of the Russian, Prussian, and Austrian 
 sanitary establishments. 
 
 The building used for the lieadcjuarters of the medical department and depot hospital is so 
 well adapted to the purpose and so creditable to the Turkish government as to be worthy some 
 further mention. It is capable of holding beds for the accommodation of two thousand patients. 
 It is built in the form of a closed quadrangle, designed for a barrack for tlie Turkish troops. 
 The rooms extend lengthwise along a corridor of sixteen feet luide, extending all around the 
 building facing the court yard. Each room has a door and a window on each side opening on 
 the corridor, and the latter has three corresponding window openings on the court yard. It is 
 three stories high above a high basement, the height of the basement being much greater on the 
 river front, towards which the ground descends rapidly. This basement is loop-holed only on 
 the exterior. There is a rectangular tower of about thirty feet side on each corner, projecting 
 bej'ond the line of the building about six feet and rising many feet above the roof of the main 
 building, terminated with battlements, within which rises a smaller tower surmounted by a 
 hemispherical dome from which rises the flag staff. The floors of the lower corridor are of stone; 
 all the others and of the rooms are of wood. Some of the rooms have galleries covering half the 
 length of the room against the corridor wall, used as dormitories when occupied by troops, 
 leaving all the main floor free and open, an idea not seen anywhere else. The latrines are so 
 objectionable as not to need description, although arranged with great care and freedom of space. 
 The English surgeons made a free use of the chlorides of lime and zinc, preserving the entire 
 building free from all noxious effluvia. 
 
 The kitchens are arranged in this building much better than in the one built for a hospital. 
 It occupies two large apartments with eight brass-covered boilers in each, of thirty-six inches 
 diameter, twenty-five inches deep, gauged for seventy gallons, and holding two hundred rations, 
 (English,) making sixteen in all, and capable of cooking for 3,200 soldiers. They have separate 
 fires, the furnace doors and ash pits being outside the building. All the smoke flues run to the 
 center of the line, rising in one smoke stack. Three hours are necessary to cook the food thor- 
 oughly in these kettles. Each kettle is provided with a four-inch brass pipe rising from the 
 standing part of the cover joining a horizontal branch receiving the rising pipe of the adjoining 
 boiler. From this horizontal pipe one of the same size conveys the steam to the outside of the 
 building into the open air. The floor of the kitchen is paved with stone. 
 
 The bath room is fitted with movable tin bathing tubs. What may have been the arrange- 
 ment for the Turkish troops I did not discover ; the apartment, however, indicated its use by the 
 troops quartered in barracks, a practice not known to our service. 
 
 This building is so well designed for its purpose, so creditable to the Turkish government, 
 whose military institutions have within a few years undergone great and radical changes, and 
 the details of which we are so little acquainted, that I am induced to annex a very perfect 
 perspective, illustrating the whole exterior design, serving at the same time to render these notes 
 more intelligible. (See Fig. 186.) 
 
270 art ok war in europe. 
 
 French Depot Hospital at Constantinople. 
 
 The French army appropriated to their use, as a general hospital for the reception of their 
 sick and wounded from the regimental hospitals in Crimea, a new building erected by the Turkish 
 government for a military school. Its plan and general arrangement is as creditable to this 
 nation as the barrack at Scutari, which it closely resembles. It is a rectangular stone structure 
 of about 375 feet long by 277 wide, of two stories in height, with an interior rectangular 
 court yard, situated on a hill overlooking Pera, and fronting the Bosphorus. At the time I 
 examined it 1,600 patients were under treatment, many of whom were wounded Russian 
 prisoners. The latter occupied the corridors, had every comfort, convenience, care, and attention 
 that was bestowed on the French soldiers. The invalids or convalescents capable of leaving 
 their beds, of the two nations, associated and amused themselves together in the court yard, 
 indicating kind and good feelings in their mutual misfortune, although the one had wounds 
 and captivity, while the other had only wounds to pain him. 
 
 The establishment is under a "director," a branch of the military intendence of the army, 
 having under his control a guard detailed from the regiments, and suiBcient number of other 
 privates, to give an hospital attendant for every ten or twelve patients, and non-commissioned 
 officer (sergeant) for every division, of which there are eight in tliis building. Their authority 
 extends to about 200 patients and their attendants. In general, and at tlie hospitals in France, 
 the sergeants of division and hospital attendants belong to a regularly organized body called the 
 " Infirmerie Imperiale." The necessities of the service, even in the well organized French army, 
 were beyond all their preconceived ideas of an hospital organization — calling for this additional 
 assistance from the line of the army, and found to answer a very satisfactory purpose. 
 
 For an organization of the sanitary department of the French army, I must refer to a 
 comprehensive work by Vauchelle, in three volumes, published in Paris in 1854, giving the most 
 minute details relating to a " cou7-s d' administration militaire." 
 
 The wards of this building are very large, having in general four rows of beds of ten each, 
 or forty beds in a room of seventy-five feet in length by forty-eight in width, of twenty feet 
 ceilings. Each of these apartments has five large windows opening on the country, and four 
 windows and a door opening on a corridor of eighteen feet wide, extending all around the four 
 sides of the building, with windows opening on the court yard. Through the middle of each 
 room, and longitudinally, is a wall of masonry pierced with large ojienings corresponding with 
 the windows, dividing it iu two apartments at the ceiling. Water-closets are provided on the 
 four corners and middle of the sides of the square on every story, arranged in the Turkish 
 manner. There are eleven windows on tlie short side of 133 feet G inches nearly, and nineteen 
 on the long side of 230 feet of the corridor inclosing the court yard. Tlie windows are twelve 
 feet one and a half inch from center to center. 
 
 The kitchen is in a basement of an outbuilding. It has nine large kettles set in masonry, 
 with furnaces beneath, with fire doors and ash pits in the kitchen, causing smoke and dirt, and 
 unlike their more recent structures. Each Ivcttle has a steam escape pipe, as at Scutari. A small 
 adjoining apartment is arranged as a kitchen for the officers, witli a portable French cooking- 
 range. 
 
 In an adjoining small kitchen attached to the dispensary was a large boiler constantly in 
 use and with fire, making barley water, the barley being in a bag. In this same apartment are 
 four stewholes, in one of which is kept ahvays ready for use flax-seed poultice. 
 
 In the anti-room of the dispensary is a set of stewholes for compounding medicines. The 
 clean-linen store, spare beds, bedding, cups, cans, stoves, and other hospital furniture, are in 
 apartments at the ojiiJosite end of the building. 
 
 Iron bedsteads were in use throughout this liospital of a similar pattern, in general, to that 
 
 i 
 
ART OF WAR IN ELTROriC. 277 
 
 in Plate 38, with the addition of a shelf secured over the lieadposts, which are carried up straight, 
 on which is placed a tin plate of seven inches diameter, a dish of six inches diameter, and three 
 inches deep, a one-pint and a two-pint cuji. The hedding consists of a straw palliasse twelve 
 inches thick, on top of which is a wool-stuffed mattress of six inches thick, six feet four inches 
 long, and three feet wide, supplied with linen sheets, changed frequently, (and as ordered,) pillow, 
 and blankets. The bottom of the bedstead is of boards. 
 
 On entering the hospital the "soldier's hook," and all his unnecessary clothing and equip- 
 ment, are received from him, for which a tin label, with a number thereon, is given him as a 
 receipt. From his "book" is extracted his description, and entered on a printed form, which 
 is always found at the head of his bedstead. His hospital and ward number is always seen on a 
 board near the head of his bed. They use none other than army military clothing in this depot. 
 
 In the English, Sardinian, Prussian, and Russian hospitals the clothing is of a diiferent 
 pattern, belonging to the hospital, as is the case in the permanent hospitals in France, but not in 
 use with the army of the East. Every patient had his portable wooden table. 
 
 The military hospitals at Lyons, Strasbourg, and in the city of Paris^ all of which were 
 examined, are conducted on the same general principles, differing mainly in the facilities afforded 
 by the character of the buildings, and in projiortion to the date of construction. Although an 
 old building, the establishment at Strasbourg is an example of neatness, cleanliness, and good 
 order. The influence of sisters of charity was manifest in that institution. 
 
 In concluding this lengthy report, the fruits of a year's observation only, I cannot forbear 
 remarking on our custom of looking to France alone for military information, considering, too 
 often, that the subject is exhausted in a study of what may have been done by her military 
 authorities. That every branch of the military profession is well studied, taught, and practiced 
 by the French officers, does not admit of a doubt. At the same time officers of equal science, 
 tact, and genius are to be found in the other European armies, whose writings and labors may 
 prove quite as useful in their application to our wants as those of France ; and in some things I 
 can but believe that England, Eussia^ Austria, Sardinia, Saxony, and Prussia have afforded me 
 the opportunity of laying before my military friends information quite as valuable as that 
 derived from France. 
 
 Finally, I must ask the indulgence of my readers for seeking only information of details 
 unaccompanied with new principles, now presented in the language mostly of hasty notes, 
 compiled while in the daily execution of the arduous duties of the command of one of our largest 
 military posts, permitting no time for revision. 
 
 RICH'D DELAFIELD, 
 
 Major of Engineers. 
 
 West Point, New York, May 7, 1858. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Alexander — Fort, 207; Description of, 229. 
 
 Alexandria — Fortilicadons of, 206. 
 
 Allies — Embark at Varna, 39; Land at Eupatoria, 40. 
 
 Alma — Battle of, 40. 
 
 Ambulance — English, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 80; Cot and Stretcher, 68; Sardinian, 70; Maltese Cart, 72; Litter, 72, 73; India- 
 rubber Spring, 72. 
 
 Ammunition — Consumption of, at Sebastopol, 54, 55. 
 
 Amputating Table, 270. 
 
 Ancient Fortifications — At Constantinople, 243. 
 
 Antwerp, 19. 
 
 Apothecary's — English, Department at Scutari, 274; St. Petersburg, 274; French, at Constantinople, 276. 
 
 Approaches — Description of, 57. 
 
 Armament — Of Sea-coast Batteries and Fortresses, 5; Prussian, 6; Austrian, 6; French, 6; Belgian, 6; Sardinian, 6; Cham- 
 bered Gun, 12; Forts at Cronstadt, 27, 33, 34; Batteries at Sebastopol, 37, 38; French and English, at 
 Sebastopol, 54, 55, 56, 57; Cherbourg, 127; Fort Victoria, Portsmouth, 140; Defenses of Genoa, 148; 
 Fort de la Ereche, 200; Valerian, 202; Villeurbaune, 203; Montessuy, 204; St. Irene, 205; Rastadt, 226; 
 Of Flanks at Modlin, 241; Of Flanks at Warsaw, 241. 
 
 Arches — Groins of, 163; Only Perpendicular to Scarp, 210. 
 
 Armt — French, Strength of, 39, 58; Loss of, 58. 
 
 Arsenal — At Vienna, description of, 260, 261, 262; Cost of, 264. 
 
 Artillery — In United States, Necessity of encouraging tliis Arm, 258; Stables at Lyons and Vienna, 257; Barracks at 
 Lyons, Riding Hall, 257, 258. 
 
 Assault — On Sebastopol, inexpedient, 41; On MalakolT, Little Redan, Mast and Central Bastions, Great Redan, 52. 
 
 Asphalt — Used by Russians, 36. 
 
 Attack — On Sea-Coast Batteries, Abandoned, 41; Noizet's System, 188; Cormontaigne's, 191; Choumara, 191; Of Rastadt, 
 226, 235; Of Pcsen, 235. 
 
 Aubervilliers — Fort, 199, 200. 
 
 Austrian— Napoleon Field Piece by, 5; Use of Haxo Casemates by, 188, 194, 195; Hospitals at Verona, 268. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bakery — Steam, 58, 59. 
 
 Balaklava — English Depot at, 38. 
 
 Balls — Rifle, 6, 7, 10, 11; Cannon, French and Belgian, 10; Prussian, 11; Turkish Stone, 11. 
 
 Bandages — Perforated, 81, 82. 
 
 Barracks— Infantry, DefensiYe, 209, 210; At Posen, 210, 212, 223, 249; At Modlin, 240; Cavalry, 248; At Berlin, of Lancers 
 
 of the Guard, 249; French, 251; At Vienna, 254; Description of, 254; Infantry, at Vienna. 253, 259, 261, 
 
 262; Artillery, at Vienna, 257; At Lyons, 257; Napoleon, at Paris, 253; Turkish, 272, 273; Warming 
 
 and Ventilating, 249, 254; Furniture, 253, 262. 
 Barricade — Grooves, 212. 
 
 Bastion — Orleans and Lyons, 198; Of Rastadt, 228; In Ancicjit Fortifications at Constantinople, 246. 
 Bastioned — System of Fortification, 186. 
 
 Bath Rooms— At Hospital, St. Petersburg, 266; At Verona, 269; At Berlin, 272. 
 Bathing — Pool for Horses, 254, 256. 
 Batteries — Sea-coast, 5; Haxo, 20; Casemated Russian, Prussian, Austrian, French, English, 26; Plan of Besieging, at 
 
 Sebastopol, 48, 57; Floating, Sheathed with Wrought iron, 168 to 172; Casemated, 209; Mortar, 210, 
 
 217, 218; At Posen, 223; Flank, 210. 
 Bayonne— Defenses of, 193, 195, 196; Trace, 196. 
 
280 INDEX. 
 
 Bedsteabs — Hospital, Freiioh, 80, 82; Iron, at Berlin, 248; French, 253; Austrian, 259; Russian, 265; English, at Scutari, 
 
 273; At Constantinople, 276. 
 Beef — Concentrated Essence of, 91. 
 Belfort — Fortifications of, 191. 
 
 Berlin, 19; Cavalry Stables at, 248; Lancers of the Guard, 249; Hospital, 271, 272. 
 BisETRE— Fort, 190. 
 
 BOMARSUND, 25. 
 
 Bombardment of Sebastopol — First, by land and water, 48, 49; Second, 51; Third, 52; Fourth, 52. 
 
 Bomb-ketch or Mortar Vessel, 173 to 176. 
 
 Bomb-proof Shelters — Russian, 89. 
 
 Bocsmard — System of Fortification, 186; Defensive Buildings, 192. 
 
 Bread, 58, 59. 
 
 Breakwater — Cherbourg, 130, 131; Ancient, at Venice, 159. 
 
 Breech-loading Small Arms — French, Russian, Norwegian, 8. 
 
 Brick — Size of, 161. 
 
 Bridges— Poncelet's Draw, 130; Draw, 200, 202; At Poeen, 224; At Cologne, 238. 
 
 Broteau.\ — Fort, Defensive Buildings, 192; Carnot Wall, 195. 
 
 c. 
 
 Cadets — Russian, of 1855, 35. 
 
 Calibers, 5. 
 
 Camp Equipage, 89, 90. 
 
 Cannon — Rifled, 9, 10, 11; Lancaster, 9; Turkish Stone, Shot for, 11. 
 
 Canrobert — Resigns Command, 52. 
 
 Canteen — Sardinian, 92; English, 93; French, 94; Russian, 94; Prussian, 95; Austrian, 96. 
 
 Caponniers, 20; German, 210, 215; At Rastadt, 227; Of Fort Alexander, 229; Of Germersheim, 231; At Sebastopol, 237. 
 
 Carbines, 8. 
 
 Carnot Wall— Detached Scarp, 195, 209; At Biiyonne, 195; Experiments on, 209, 216. 
 
 Carriages— Gun, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 28, 33, 34. 
 
 Cart — Maltese, used as Ambulance, 72. 
 
 Casemates, 12; Height of Embrasure, 15; AtSebastopol, 24; Cronstadt, 24; Bomarsund, 25; English, 31; De Q,uerqueville, 
 124; Breakwater, 125, 126; Du Hornet, 128; Flamands, 129; Fort Napoleon, 131; Fort Victoria, 140; 
 Cliff Battery, 142; Prussian, 161, 162; Haxo's, 188, 194, 195; Adopted in French System, 188; Case- 
 mate Fires, essential principle of German System, 218; Advantages and Objections to, 235; Smoke in, 
 236; Use of, at Sebastopol, 236. 
 
 Cavalry- Barrack, French, 251, 252; Prussian, 248, 249; Russian, 252; Austrian, 252; United States, 257; Transport of, 63 
 to C7. 
 
 Cavaliers — At Cronstadt, 227. 
 
 Cement — English, Portland, used by Russians, 34; Used at Cherbourg, 132. 
 
 Chapennes — Fort, Defensive Builditigs, 192, 204. 
 
 Chassis, 13, 14. 
 
 Chasseloup — System of Fortification, 166. 
 
 Cherbocrg, 18, 24, 26, 122, 123, 124; General Descciption of, 125, 126; Casemates on Breakwater and Embrasures, 127 to 
 136; Dock-yards, 133. 
 
 Chimneys — In Casemaled and Bomb-proof, 212. 
 
 Choumara — System of Fortifications, 186; Trace, 189; Independent Scarps, 190; Length of Front, determined by Artillery, 
 190; Duration of Attack, 192; Interior Glacis, 191; Proposed Improvements, 192. 
 
 CHORENTAN-Fort, 199,201. 
 
 Citadel— At Modlin, 241. 
 
 Clavigo— Memoirs of, 188. 
 
 Coal — Kiln-dried Wood Substituted for, 35. 
 
 Coblentz, 207; Independent Works, 213; Fort Alexander, at, 229. 
 
 CoEHORN — Wet Ditches, 194. 
 
 Cologne — Independent Works, 213; German System applied to, 237; Mangin's Plans of, 237; Description of, 237,238; 
 Masonry of, 238; Hedges at, 238. 
 
 Colombier — Fort, Defensive Buildings, 192; Detached Scarps, 195. 
 
 CoLuiRE— Fort, 202, 203. 
 
 Communications in Fortifications — Independent, 185, 186; Subterranean, in German System, 215. 
 
 Compress — Perforated, 81, 82. 
 
 Compressed Food, 90, 91. 
 
 Concrete — Masses of, in Breakwater at Cherbourg, 132; At Marseilles, 133. 
 
 Constantinople — Ancient Fortifications, 245; French Hospital at, 276. 
 
 4 
 
INDEX. 281 
 
 Cooking — For Field Hospital, 75; Furniture for Mess, 90; Utensils for, English, French, Sardinian, Prussian, Russian, Aus- 
 trian, 92 to 96; Austrian System, 259; System at Hospitals at St. Petersburg, 266; At Hospital in Berlin, 
 271; English Hospital at Scutari, 272; Turkish System, 275, 276. 
 
 Copenhagen, 19. 
 
 CoRMONTAiGNE — Tracc, 188; Duration of Attack, 191; Not used in France, 206. 
 
 Cot— Ambulance, 68, 82. 
 
 ConNTERscAEP — Masoury and Earth, 20. 
 
 Cracow, 160. 
 
 Crane — Iron, at Vienna Arsenal, 262. 
 
 Croix RotjssE— Lines of, 198, 202. 
 
 Cronstadt— Defenses of, 26, 27, 28, 29; Fort Paul, 27, 32, 33; Fort Alexander, 27, 32, 33; Fort Peter, 27, 34; Fort Menchi- 
 coff, 27, 30, 31, 32. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dantzig, 160; Forti6cations of, 238. 
 
 Dead-house — At St. Petersburg, 267; at Verona, 270, 271. 
 
 Defenses of Harbors — Cherbourg, 125 to 136; Toulon, 137; Portsmouth, 139; Casemates at Portsmouth, 142 to 145; Liver- 
 pool, 146; Genoa, 147; Austrian, 149; Pola, 151; Venice 151 to 160; Prussian, 160 to 168; Mouth of 
 Oder, 164 to 167. 
 
 Defensible Work— Independent, 213, 215; At Rastadt, 216, 230; Coblentz, 216, 230; Cologne Lunette, 217; At Konigsberg, 
 233; At Mayence, 239; Application to United States, 237. 
 
 Defensive Buildings — Choumara's, 192; Bousmard's, 192; Fortifications at Lyons, 192; Paris, 192, Konigsberg, 233. 
 
 Detached Scarps, 209. 
 
 Desiccated Food, 90, 91; For Hospitals, 91; Bulk of, 91. 
 
 Diseases— In Hospitals, 267, 268, 270. 
 
 Ditches— Wet and Dry, 193, 194; At Lyons, 202; Wet, at Rastadt, 229; Wet, atGennersheim, 231; Wet, at Konigsberg, 232; 
 Wet, at Constantinople, 246. 
 
 Dock-yards — Cherbourg, 18, 133; Fortifications of, 133; Masonry, 133; Portsmouth, 18; Toulon, 18; Cronstadt, 18; Venice, 
 18, 149; Pola, 18, 149; Genoa, 147 
 
 Drainage, 212; Of Cavalry Stables, 249. 
 
 Draw Bridge— Poncelet's, 130; At Toulon, 139; Fort Victoria, 141; Tre-Porti, 157, 158, 200, 202; At Posen, 224; In Prussian 
 Works, 232; At Cologne, 238. 
 
 DuFouR — System of Fortification, 181 to 185. 
 
 E. 
 
 Earthen Parapets, 26, 27. 
 
 Electric Telegraph, 110; Fuse for, 112. 
 
 Electricity — Exploding Mines by, 112 to 122. 
 
 Embrasures, 31, 124 to 130, 144, 145; At Tre-Porti, 158; At Fort Newfahr, 162; Prussian, 165, 167. 
 
 Enceinte— Of Fauviers, 199, 202; Of Lyons, 198, 199, 205; Of Paris, 197, 199, 205; Of Ulm, 221; Of Posen, 222; German, 
 
 superior advantage, 219. 
 England — Napoleon Field Piece, 5. 
 Equitation — Austrian School of, 256; Stable, 256. 
 Est. L'— Fort, 200; Trace, 200. 
 EuPATORIA, 39, 40. 
 European Engineers — Follow German system, 908. 
 
 P. 
 
 Factory — Steamships, 60, 61. 
 
 Fautiers— Enceinte of, 198, 202. 
 
 Field Guns — Napoleon, England, Austria, Saxony, Prussia, 5. 
 
 Field Hospitals — English, 75. 
 
 Firing Mines— By Electricity, 112 to 122. 
 
 Floating Batteries — English and French, 1C8 to 172. 
 
 Faisanderie— Fort, 199, 202. 
 
 Food — Russian, 89; European Armies, 89; Desiccated, 90, 91. 
 
 36 D 
 
282 INMlKi 
 
 Pai#i«eiEito&-7^efPoi^tBlUiOntli, 18; Jinvre; 18; Chefbpiu-g-, W; Tfiuloii, 18Ji9; Paris,a8,'19i 20; VeniceJ 18-,iPola7.18vEaMai,( 
 , : 1 ;:: .i. •.. IS, 21", Kiinigs&rg^, 16; Oronstadt, 19; Modfio, Jft; Ajitwcrp, 19; Copenhagen, 19; Lyons, 19, 20; 
 
 Coblentz, 21; Verona, 21; Russian, 21; Systems of, 19, 176 to 185, aSO; Fronta of, 20; Trace, German, 
 French, Russian, 21; Earthen Parapets, 26; Noizct's system, 185; Trace, 186; Dufout's, 185; hidepeh'- 
 dent Communication, 185: Russian, 185; Talittkoffsky's Manual; 18a; Austrian, 166; Of Venice, 186? 
 Mouth of the Oder, 186; Vistula, 186; Bastioned, 186 ; Modern System corrected, 166; Bousmard'e, 18G? 
 Chasseloup's, 186; Haxo's, 186; Trace, 189; Choumara's, 186; Length of front j. ISO; As Determined by 
 Artillery, 190; Of Alexandria, 186; Basis of Metz System, 186; Basis of System at the United Stftt^i 
 Military Academy, 186; Of Rocroi, 206; Of Alexandria, 206; Of Eelfort, 19is OrLyons, 191, 199; 
 Toulon, 191; Havre, 191; Of Paris Defensive Buildings, 192, 197; Of Detached Forts, 200; Of Cobtenia, 
 -iftansM Jio'^ :K ,re?07; Posen^ 207;. Rastadt, 210, 226; Co^ognq, S13; U:h», *13; 221 •, Qeimetthiim, 231; iBgolsUrft, 233; 
 
 Konigsberg, 232; Warsaw, 239; Modlin, 240; Constantinople, 245., ! : ,or. .7:; .,:■.;• 
 FoRTiFicATioKs — Temporary, use and value of, at Sebastopol, 53; By United States Engineers, similar to Russian, at Sebas- 
 
 topol, 53, 54. 
 
 Forts— At Cronstadt, Fort Peter, 27; Description of, 34; ll"6rt Paul, 27, 32, 33; Kronslot Battery, 27, 33; Fort Alexander, 
 
 27, 32, 33; Fort Menchicoff, 27, 30 to 32. 
 
 At Sebastopol, Fort Conslantine, Armament and Trace of, 37; Fort Catherine; Ai'niwrtcnl.llnelP^ace-oCj^jl; 
 
 Fort Michael, Armament and Trace of, 37; FpT* Atex^ideir, Arraamcpl and Tr^c^ of/,37: Q-UflraBtinp 
 
 -■ir,j-i .r.f-i ci ;:;; ,::;,.BaUeries and Trace of, 38; Fort Nicholas jcmj Trace/^f, 38; Foi-t Paul , and Tuace oft 38; lEjiislijig I^Mll 
 
 "TCI (iitioM ;83I o) ua fDeftises at Gommejicjement of Sie»e,. 41, 4^; Malakoff Tower, 43; Defensp.'? Erected During Siege, 44, 
 
 45, 46; Korniloff Bastion, 44, 45, 46; Little Redan, 44, 45, 46, 50;, Gervaise. Battery, 44, 45, 46; Great 
 
 ,sior)8->»ino2[ jA ;"IS ,RedanjT45, 46; Mast;Bastioi»,45, 46; Barradc Baueris?, 45>;46; Ojist^'uctiona on Glacis, 47. , .Km-.- >, .'.^Q 
 
 At Cherbourg, Fort de QuerqueTille, Casemate? and Caserns, of, 124; Foit St. Aniii 127; Fort du Hornet, 
 
 .£KG ,if- - ,,ATmaraeBt of, 12J, 128; Fort^les f'iataaiidsi Descripli^fii^.iid Casemates ofj 1^,^130; Foftll^apoi^oBi i3Q, 
 
 131; Fort, du Roule, 134. . (,,;.: .,,,;,. .> .,,.: ./tjlI 
 
 At Toulov, Fort L'Aiguelette, 137; Fort Balaguier, MJ;-;F^t;pinB;^oHPrJ3T;iFp??!S,«ieI^9»»?* li!?Jj>J'^J^ 
 
 Malgue, at Cape le Brun, 137. r.^i: _-[i2 ..-t;' .•..r,!!;,,^ ,1? ;;! ».-.;^/.u:(T 
 
 ;SSt: ,iiJi:B-; 4s PoRT5T«iocT«, Fort Victc^ria, Pl^ip, gaje|i)a)esfia|?|d;.^?piBnsnt.PAJ0PAot^ta©^ff{fe'Wi jQ»^ 
 142 to 145. .jlj.o ,Mi.;o[iiWi«)enoa .In ,JyV7" 
 
 ,-r .;i .At LaVEREOOi,, North -Fort, 14e.,,.,,-.j -;■: .•,...,,,[.': JXl -I'l ei;.-: i .'l.'l^.." .-CiU :-] .-.^tuh : ii:j— fiaj.v-Hoon 
 Near Venice, Plan and Details of, 152, 153;' Fort St. :^jifolfl(„|Ifl}Bnd.!of.}jidp,'il54^Ll5Si; Fort Tre-Porti, near 
 Venice, Plan of, 156, 157; Fort Hainan, 159; Fort Erasmo, 155; Port Newfehr, at mouth of Vistula,, 16|, 
 ri£iKarn1riI;tGe,nwr*62! Fort Valerian, 190, 199, 201; Cost of,234vIi'ortBisetre, 190; Foj-t Kogeat, 190, m; Fort Rasjky, 
 190; Fort Noisy, 190; At Lyons, 191; Fort Loya5se,,19L 1?5, 202; Fort St. Irwe, 191, 204; Fort Vitri- 
 olerie, 191,202; Fort Colombicr, 192, 195; Fort Le Motte, J92„ 195, .203; ,P?in VdUeurbanm. .192, 203; 
 Fort Broteaux, 192, 195; Fort Charpennes, 192, 204; Fort Faisanderie, 192, 199; Fort Grevelle, 192, 199; 
 Fort St. Denis, 199; Fort Aubervilliers, 199; Fort Charenton, 199, 201; Cost of, 234; Fort Isly, 191; Fort 
 I'Est, 200; Fort St. Laurent, 202; Fort Montessuy, 202; Fort Coluire, 202; Fort St. Foi, 205; Fort Alex- 
 ander, 207; Fort Viniari, 214; Fort Leopold, 226; Fort Alexander, 229. 
 Forts, Detached— Lyons, 197, 202; Paris, 197, 199, 200, 201. -5, gg .axaqiail y.^iiratS. 
 
 FouNDATioNS-Forts at Cherbourg, 132. i-l , ^ .j^ ,^,,'i .grj ,;,;,^^„3j:,T 3,.iTu3a3 
 
 Frexch School— Like German, 198. ik:i „j or| ,v.| 'vuKl -.jibo.'nz'I— ■/TisijiT'jajJr 
 
 Fronts— -Length of FrenoU, 190; CJioumai»"sv 190; Al G;/euoble, 494; At Ba5rpjine,,),95; Of .P»ri«, J97;;GJerman, 216; ?Q^, 
 .,, ., , ,;-, c ;,. „,, .- 222; Fort Viniap, 222, 224; QonQec.tipg,Fr(iM^te at Rasf^d't,,287.5jFp(t'.Ailexi^i)(^r,,2^q;'.Qf'lj>goi.pt^dt,!,332^ 
 
 "■■ At Modlin, 241, 242. -■"• ' U£E",S3«no,b^ior.-.qu. '" 
 
 Furnaces— Shot, at Cronstadt, 33. ^ •.?ii1 f),''.!"? f.ff.'nrvf/i—Tj'/.-.nv.S 
 
 Furniture— Field Hospitals, 75; Mess, Sardinian, 92; English, 93; French, 94; Russianj 94^; pfi(^r^olfS> ^3^*363. '^^^^'^^ 
 
 Hospitals, at St. Petersburg, 265; At Scutari, 273; At Constantinople, 27(6, , a "in-' is- 1 'J l'SL 
 
 FusE-Electric, 111, 112. ' "" ' "" " ' '^^ Jes',A.«o"^A^'j3 
 
 .SllS .imiava iiBrr.nD wnllo'H — en.-j.iziazC'f WA3teao3 
 
 G. 
 
 Genoa — Defenses and Dock-yard of, 147. ' 
 
 German, — System of Fortification, 188, 206; Similar to Haxo's, 188, 198; Imitated at Lyons, 206; Humfrcy's Account of, 
 206; Described by Zarstrow, 207; Followed by European Engineers, 208; Principles df, 208; 8carp«iid 
 Counterscarp, 208; Composed of Independent Works, 213; (See Cologne, Pozen, Ulm, CcrbtentE;Kate- 
 stadt;) General Organization of, 213, 214, *1S; MinSs, SIS-, Casemate Fire Essential, 218; P<i)tj'g<>nbl 
 Fronts a consequence of, 218; Trace increases the Front, 218; Another general principle, 819;- 'Hs 
 strong points, 218; Natural consequences of, 219; Enlarges field of operations,'.919; ReWlor^'the 
 advantages of Fortresses, 219; Maxims on which it is fOTinded, 220; lilustraled at RaslaSt^ 26fe; 
 Trace of Rastadt described, 227; Defects attributed to, 233; Cost of, 234;Ap{)li«atioh'«J",-23T;A*'-8t^ttiih, 
 838; At Dantzig, 238; At Mayence, 239; at Verona,- 239." 'U ;'- -s' I'^i A .:.:.■■,■ -.uZ -A.. ,:::: v:::'.i a-j'T 
 
 Germersheim, 231; Caponnier, 231; Trace, 231; Wet Ditches at, 231. ,[ J)g 
 
 Glacis — Interior, 191. 
 
moEX. 283 
 
 Grenoble — Defenses of, 193. .ODE .nol — ujusnaj 
 
 Grevelle— Fort, 199, 202. ,ICI /Jo biiBUI— oai J 
 
 Groins— Of Brick Arches, 163. .08 .rfjii-Ji'l ,-cT ,i7 ,6" ,uluM— 8;J3tt!J 
 
 Gdn Boats— Russian, 35; English, 175; French, 175. ' -■:!^r; r.i "^ . rH :[-'■'■ ICr .no"? — ShiticJ. 
 
 Gcn Carriages — Russian, Wrought Iron, 13 to 16; Austrian, 18; At Ci-Biwladtj 28v Wrought Iran, M3. ;:>I)iiI — arrav jJ 
 
 GtJJ Co^TlTOK.irii:! ,'r. ri:!!):);;:!!:-- j^^I .:<-.i:i ,--:Ue-/i j-mcj ,8!-:n4 li-. :-'j:::r)lirJ L'/j :!• O")! 1 ,Uil« , ll.'i ,)c ^fif--j bo/iosisQ — ny.utd 
 
 .BOS ,iij;rtiTjO orl; oJ ■ir.litvriK ,'Jo enoiJ/Mjlinol ;Bei ,;>tiiiii.-);i3 
 
 H. 
 
 .K 
 
 Harbor — Defenses of, Cronstadt, 24, 26; Sweaborg, 24; Sebastopol, 24; Revel, 24; Odessa, 24; Portsmouth, 26; Lirerpool, 146; 
 Venice, 149; English System, 139 to 146; Sardinian, 147, 148, 149; Austrian, 149 to 16Qi Prupjia,B, 160 tip 
 IE .viinsV Jn ,Blu)e'V16T; Carlscrona, 167._. r-i:/;, ..ill ,-'::•■:' iiiji'.ii!; ::'i ■■> ,ifu::z;v::\i t,: .■•:.in;T,: ■ 
 
 Havre — Fortifications of,. 191. _'.: ,f i'.- .:;| I ,'.:; I , =. : :ni :;• ^i^K-i.iH ; i i;.i/:-- !■::,.•;.: i. y., 
 
 Haxo's System of Fortification, 186; Casemate, 188, 194, 195; Similar to German, 188j7Al .Grenoble; 193; By Austria, 
 Russia, and Prussia, 194; Description of, 194. .f.8I ,K-(5!?'J|o;!i;ib'f — KOiTAnniTiioH tn jsji-i.tl 
 
 Hedges— In Fortificatione, 238. : ■ M li'I .1^ .:.: '. ' ;.' li;i ,.;: .-^-•i:.:;iv.ir") :nE .■..an-;:::.',.?; u^: Anr '■:■:.!,< :] -/. .-v -i .•(.-, "/. 
 HoRSEs-^Slingiiig, 66i G7; Feed, 67; Yonlilating Transports Ibr, 67j Nose Bags, 67; Transport of, 107. 
 
 Hospital— English and Sardinian, .75, T6, 77; Furniture for, 75; Desiccated Food, 91; At St, Petarsburg, Description of, 264; 
 Best in Europe, 265; Discipline of, 265; Model for Barracks adopted b.y Russia, Prussia, Turkey; 
 Cooking Arrangemcjits, 286; Apothecary's Department a<j 26G; Deadiouse at, 267; Russian Summer, 
 267; Operating room at, 267; Library, 267; Diseases at, 26T;;:Pisaas.es at , Moscow", 268; at Modlini 
 Moscow, and St. Petersburg, Cutajienns and; Infectious diseases, 270; Amputating tabic, 270; Dead- 
 house, 270, 271; At Verona, 268; Plan and Description of, 266; Discipline, 269; Bathing, 2G9f Warming 
 and Ventilating, 269, 271; At Vienna, 271; Plan and Description, 27 1.; At Berlin, Plan, Description, 
 and Cooking Arrangements at, 271; English at Scutari, 272, 274; Plan and Description, 272; Laundry at, 
 272; Police and Discipline, 273; Women as Nurses, 273;i Miss Nightingale,, 273; Turkish Design, 275^ 
 French at ConstaJitinople, 276;; Botita anlt J>iscJJilii)9;of,-a7.Bj. Wotec Ctosat«w873t,^6^,WatiBiiig,ia7fi; 
 -li.') '.lafiimail ,:!!:: ,. iFumiturei 277 ; French at StrRsboufg'.,'to i-:.l:.;iiO jOii: .'^a nojiqhusftb :BcS ,1o fwnU-.-.iii'isus'l. ;8I ,/.iJu;jl/i 
 Hospital Store Wagon, 77 to 85; Russiaii,;83, 84, 86in';0 .rn'O pi.ni-3ily^iioi''ff jEl-fi .1o JsoJ ;i:{i£ ,jioa 
 Hospital Wagox — ^^English, 70, 71. _ l'!.-'>'l ,c-OC: ,io'^ .;8 J!o'''£ "B rn»)i!-{« eiH jSiJI (SiainnoqiiD — TflaaMf..i*TKoI4 
 
 Hospital Steamship, 61, 62. .f.OS ,20S .J-ii!"? — t'jss.mt-.'oM 
 
 Howitzer Fire — Importance of, 214. .OOS ,GCI ,'lo aLi'sioH — jT:ijjrrz'!lA 
 
 Hcmfret's German system, 206. .£t:£ ,n9ao1 )« jSiS JIS ,0!£ ,>.ii-i.itt/.3 sat.i;:!.' 
 
 Huts — Sardinian, 86, 87; French and English, 88. .cTi .t'l ,g?l .flC ,iTi.c.ii althji''. 
 
 .8DS ,iB I;;;i(;RC>H .-GI ;woo8nl/. 
 i-T ,Er .fifiirirbiJiS brin ,il-'..'vi''l , ■-•ilgfi;'! ,i?j,';J — asjuXi 
 
 .3 ,itr3X3xii.t. 
 
 Infantry Barracks — At Vienna, 259, 261, 262. 
 
 Iron Bomb-Ketch, 173 to 176. , M 
 
 Iron Sheathed Batteries, 168 to 172. 
 
 Isle of Wight, 139. .CfrS ,!js B^-^nmnO nuD ;■ - ; '- '. .■ — ^. . ..^. .1 
 
 IsLT— Fort, 199. .ETE ,f.T ,8a ,10 ,fl^ii9inrL ohith.iiVI 
 
 .ftt'i , ' I ,:,: ■i—T-/.3iu-.'n 
 
 .081 ,iio1— vatoVl 
 .ijtiS ,Ls:.>o-no'i m'iJ£-{3 u-iaboM a/IT ;9dl ,1o 93BiT*;8Si ,3i3filifl Ic. no'uiinuQ. ;ogt tnoJiBaJliJiol 'lo <i!3Jav_g — i.txioVI 
 
 Jacobi Mines, 109. 
 
 .0 
 
 jr 
 
 ■Ail ,■)() tiioiJnnilrno'? ;\dl o( KH ,to riiuoiii 1c ?^mii'Ji'jQ — a.tuO 
 
 Kamiesh — French depot, 38. 
 
 Kazach — French depot, 38. .'i 
 
 Kettle— Sardinian camp, 92; English, 93. 
 
 Kitchen — English, 141; Russian, 141, 240; Turkish, 141; at Scutari, 275; Constantinople, 276. .['.'J .;:•. riirnH — ix-jiDu.'l 
 
 Knapsack— Sardinian, 92. ,'1 > ;'':;! ,!•■ an-iT h;,i,ji'-:a mC! ,':•.■ rh;; p. j;: I :.•.;,, i;,, ill" i ,"to <..;o:u-:'\:nol. ;BI ,?.i'ij!,'I 
 
 Konigsberg — Fortress of, 232; wet ditches, 232. .t£S: ,q-iB'ia 'to .tii.i;»r'I ;t£S 
 
 L. 
 
 , -, „ ,^ ... , ^ ..rr 1. ,nr , ll> ,0* .loCOJa/ill-jS JKuiB'-R K.ioij.i: iO— MA.ll 
 
 La Motte — Fort, Delensive buildings, 192; Carnot Walls, 19.). .,., ,,, n.r . ., ». ^ 
 
 J r, r, r,„ -''"l 'l"i -CH ,■-- i;;.;r/-;Jj(.U :»I ,ajo1 
 
 Lancaster Gdn, 9, 26. r,,, ,-^r^ , ■ , n n 
 
 Lavatort FOR Soldiers, 141. „, _ 
 
284 INDEX. 
 
 Leopold— Fort, 296. 
 Lido — Island of, 151. 
 Litters— Mule, 73, 74, 75; French, 80. 
 LoTASSE — Fort, 191, 209; Haxo Casemates, at 
 Lunette — Independent detached, 217; at Rastadt, 227. 
 
 Lyons— Detached Forls at, 191, 202; Defensive buildings in Forts, Carnot Walls, 195; Fortifications of, 19C, 197, 198; The 
 Enceinte, 195; Fortifications of, similar to the German, 206. 
 
 M. 
 
 Machicoulis, 205. 
 
 Magazines — No interior linings, at Cronstadt, on the Mediterranean, the Atlantic, on the Rhine, the Vistula, at Venice, at 
 Fort Victoria, 34; Service in English casemates, 142, 143, 212, 213; Russian, 214. 
 
 Mangin— Plans of Cologne, 337. 
 
 Manuel of Fortification — Teliakoffskys, 185. 
 
 Masonry— At Bomarsund, 25; Sebastopol, 25; Cherbourg, 25, 131; Malakoft', 25; Fort Paul, 33; Menchicoff, 33; Fort Alex- 
 ander, 34; North Fort, at Liverpool, 146; Defenses of Genoa, 148; Size of Brick, 161; Groins of Arches, 
 Russian, Prussian, and Austrian, 163; of European Fortresses, 238; Ancient Fortifications at Constanti- 
 nople, 246. 
 
 Maurice de Sellon — Defense of Noizet's system, 188; Defense of Forts at Paris, 202. 
 
 Mayence — German system applied to, 239. , 
 
 Medical Supplies — English, transport of, 76, 77; French, 77 to 81. 
 
 Mezieres— System of fortification, 181 to 184; Not adhered to in France, 206. 
 
 Mess Furniture, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96. 
 
 Milk — Concentrated, 91. 
 
 Mill— Steam flour, 58, 59, 60; Steam saw, 60. 
 
 Mines— Torpedo, 109, 110; Exploded by electricity, 112 to 122; of German system, 215. 
 
 Modlin, 19; Fortifications of, 239; description of, 240; Citadel of, 241; Enceinte of, 241; Peculiar system, 242; Immense cir- 
 cuit, 243; Cost of, 243; Wrought-iron Gun Carriages at, 243. 
 
 Montalambert — Caponniers, 188; His system at Fort St. Foi, 205, Polygonal Front, like the German, 218. 
 
 Montessuy— Fort, 202, 203. 
 
 Montreuil— Heights of, 199, 200. 
 
 Mortar Batteries, 210, 217, 218; at Posen, 223. 
 
 Mortar Boats, 35, 173, 174, 175. 
 
 Moscow; 19; Hospital at, 268. 
 
 Mules — Litter, English, French, and Sardinian, 73, 74. 
 
 Muskets, 8. 
 
 N. 
 
 Narva — "Wrought-iron Gun Carriages at, 243. 
 
 Nightingale— Miss Florence, 61, 68, 75, 273. 
 
 NoGENT— Fort, 190, 199. 
 
 Noisy— Fort, 190. 
 
 NoiZET— System of Fortification, 185; Duration of attack, 188; Trace of, 186; The Modern System corrected, 206. 
 
 0. 
 
 Oder — Defenses at mouth of, 164 to 167; Fortifications of, 186. 
 
 P. 
 
 Parapets — Earthen, 26. 
 
 Paris, 18; Fortifications of, 196, 197, 198; Enceinte of, 197; Detached Forts of, 197; Cost of, 234; Cost of aadrangular Forts, 
 
 234; Ejctent of scarp, 234. 
 
 Pellissier — Invested with command, 52. • [ 
 
 Peschiera, 18, 160. 
 Pistols — Austrian, 9. 
 
 Plan — Of Allied operations against Sebastopol, 40, 41, 47; Change of, 46; Of Napoleon III, 51. 
 PoLA, 18; Dock-yard at, 149, 151, 160. 
 Poncelet— Drawbridge, 200, 202. 
 Portsmouth, 139 to 146. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 285 
 
 PosEN, 18; Trace of Enceinte, 222; Cost of, 234; Trace of Citadel, 222; Cost of, 234; Defensive IjaiTack, 210, 212, 220, 223; 
 
 Trace of Bastion, 224; Drawbridges, '224; Stables at, 248, 249. 
 Posterns, 213. 
 Powder — Gun Cotton, 11. 
 Prezl, 160. 
 Prussia — Napoleon Field Piece, 5; Haxo's Casemates, by, 194; Cavaliy Stables, 248. 
 
 R. 
 
 Raglan — Lord, death of, 52. 
 
 Railroad — At Sebastopol, 58. 
 
 Range of Cannon — Long ranges at Venice and Sebastopol, 159. 
 
 Rastadt— Caponniers, 210; Interior redoubts, 212; Description of Front, 225, 226, 227; German system on marshy ground, 
 
 216; Attack and defense of, 226; Bastions of, 228; Cavaliers of, 227; Caponnier at, 227; Lunettes, 227; 
 
 Connecting Fronts at, 227; Cost of, 234; Attack of, 235, 
 Rations, 89, 97, 103. 
 
 Reconnoitering — Coast of Black Sea, 39. 
 Redoubts — Interior, 211, 212; Independent, 218. 
 Riding Hall— At Vienna, 256, 258; At Lyons, for artillery, 257. 
 Rifle, 5, 6, 7; All armies, 6; Cannon, 5, 9, 10, 11, 26; Pits, 50. 
 RosNT— Fort, 190. 
 Russia — Napoleon Field Piece, 5. 
 Russian Ststem of Fortification, 185, 239; Independent communications, 186; Use of Haxo's Casemates, 194; At Warsaw, 
 
 239; At Modlin, 239, 240; Magazines, 240; High and low defense, 249; Hospitals, 264. 
 
 s. 
 
 Sandy Hook — Trace of, 190. 
 
 Saxony — Napoleon Field Piece, 5. 
 
 Scarps— Independent, 190; Choumara's, 190; Carnot's, 195; German, 208, 217; Sustaining, 208; With relieving arches, 208, 
 209; Cost of, 209; French, 217; Detached, 203; Carnot's, tested, 209; Extent of, at Paris Forts, 234. 
 
 Sea-Coast Batteries — Armament of, 5; Value of, 53. 
 
 Sea-Coast Defenses, 24; Comparison with United States, 36; Armament of Sebastopol, 37. 
 
 Sebastopol, 19, 24, 25, 26; Harbor defenses, like Cronstadt and Cherbourg, 36. 37, 38; Forts Constantine, Catharine, 
 Michael, and Alexander, 37; (Quarantine Batteries, Forts Nicholas and Paul, 38; Besieging Army, em- 
 barked, 39; Admirals and Engineers, reconnoitered, 39; English siege train, 40; French siege train, 55; 
 Landed at Eupatoria, 40; Battle of Alma, 40; March on Balaklava and Kamiesch Bays, 40; New plan of 
 operations, 40, 47; Great object in view, 41; Siege determined upon, 41; Idea of assault abandoned, 41; 
 Existing defenses of Sebastopol, 42, 42, 43; Commencement of siege, 44; Change in plan of operations, 
 46; Ruins of the city, 47; Obstructions on Glacis, 47; Plan of besieging batteries, 48; Bombardment, 17; 
 October 1, 48; Malakolf silenced, 48; Sea attack by Allied fleet, 48, 49; Failure of attack, 49, 50; Idea 
 v'of raising siege, 50; Russian advance on Mamelon Vert and Mount Sapoun, 50; Sufferings from inclem- 
 ency of weather, 50; Second advance of Russians, 50; Rifle pits, 50; Second bombardment and failure of, 
 51; Dissatisfaction of Napoleon III, his plan of operations discussed and rejected, 51; Failures for want 
 of great commander, 51; French considered a general assault as terrible and doubtful, 52; Result of 
 divided councils, 52; Canrobert resigns, 52; Pellissier invested with command, 52; English success, 52; 
 ■ Third bombardment and failure of, 52; Death of Lord Raglan, 52; Fourth bombardment, 52; Success of 
 the French on the Malakoff, 52; Their failure on the Little Redan, Mast, and Central Bastions, and of 
 the English on the Great Redan, 52; Retreat of Russians from South shore, 52, 53; Sortie by Russians 
 under Liprandi, 53; Attack at Inkerman, 53; Value of temporary fortifications and sea-coast batteries, 
 53; Similar temporary defenses in United States, 53, 54; French explanation of difficulties, 54; Arma- 
 ment of French and English, during, and at close of .siege, 54, 55, 56, 57; Consumption of ammunition 
 by English, 54, 55; Consumption of siege material, 57; Construction of batteries and approaches, 57 
 Total French force, 58; Loss of French and English, 58; Use of steam engine, 58; For railroad, 58 
 Bakery, 58, 59; Flour-mill, 58, 59, 60, Condensing steam, 60; Steam saw-mill, 60; Factory ship, 60, 61 
 Steam hospital ship, 61, 62; Miss Nightingale, 61; Use of casemates, 237; Caponniers at, 237. 
 
 Sevres, 199. 
 
 Shells — Fired horizontally, 5. 
 
 Ships— Troop, 97 to 108. 
 
 Shoeing— Cavalry, 248. 
 
 Sick and Wounded — Transport of, 68 to 70. 
 
 Siege Material — Consumption of, at Sebastopol, 56, 57. 
 
 Smokk — Escape for, 212; In Casemates, 236. 
 
28& IJSDKX.i 
 
 SoATiE— By RusBiauB, SSj: I -./i!t;ioi3a ;i.CS ; . •3:.j.-iT ;8I .zaiol 
 
 Spring — India-rubber, 72. ,Ci'. 
 
 St. Petersburg, 19; Hospital at, 264, 265, 266. .Elii ,8ZHaT*o"l 
 
 St. Irene— Fort, 191, 204. .JX ,riai)oO noO— aa«#ro^ 
 
 St. Foi— Fort, 205. .00£ .jsajiq: 
 
 St. L-iuRENT, 202. , ■ '-i vH ^Julimiwo-'J isVxbM ;5 ,):3i'X libil ooDloqoVi— jn«!irH=l 
 
 St. Denis— Fort, 199. 
 St. Cloud, 199. 
 
 St.ibles — At Posen, 248; At Berlin, Lancers of the Guard, 248; Shoeing Shop, 248; French System of, 250, 251; Russian, 
 252; Austrian, at Vienna, 252, 254, 257; Floors and Ceilings of, 253; Dimensions of French, 253; United 
 States, 257. '■^' •'" ;:"••'■ y'"J -.•:A.t.->/}l 
 
 Steam— Applied to the Art of War, 65; Condensed, for Fresh Water, 65. -' •• ■;''■■"•'■■■'-■• "> — .t...cs;,ii'.;I 
 
 Steamship— As Bakery, 59; Flour-mill, 60; Condensing Water, 60, 65; Sa\v-niiIl,-60'; Mfechine^h'op, 60; 6i;'''Ho'Sp'itaP, «4,-^j 
 ■''■'"■■''"' 63; Cavalry Transport, 65. ■ ' ■! ,v)IU ,.'.-:-)iiino(jJi5-T(ZAT5A!I 
 
 ST«-rm-^PoiAifications of, 160, 164, 238'. ■ • ''-'■- '■*^- 
 
 Store-rooms and Houses— Austrian, 262, 264. '■'■"■•■ •'"•' ■■^''"''■'- <"'•- t''" ^■^■^-^ i'^^ ." aJ-Wi''! gniJcofinoO 
 
 Stretcher— Ambulance, 68. ■'■^" ''^ -^ .bzuitaH 
 
 SwiNEMUNDE— Defenses of, 164 to 167. ■^•'' ■■■''-■ '•'■''•'' ''■' '-'--'J— cv::;LnrG-/:y.o :•. 11 
 
 Systems or Fortification, 19; Austrian, 160, 186; Swedish, 167, 168; Noizety^j !85'rTi'te'clf,-i66;-bnra't?oh Wa^5ai!,'f9#j 
 Dufour's, 185; Russian, 186, 239; Bousmard's, 186; Chasseloiip's, 186; Haxo's, 186; Trace' of, 189? 
 Choumara's 186; Metz, 186; United States Military Aoademy, 186; Modern System C6n-ectcd; aCf^i 
 German, followed by European Engineers, 208; German, Casemate Fires essential, 2l'9. Gostof, 234j 
 Applications of German, 237, 239; Ancient, at Constantinople, 245. •'- .vi: .'i liisr i --n.-.:rii 
 
 ' ^' ' -' ■ ' ■]■■'■ ,i .■;.. ,:r i - ' v.-i :.'.: ,~ ' ,-,A>iriLO\XlVao'i .-.k'-iZlH 
 
 J D'J. ,ali;.iiijioli ;C!.: ,:i::i;;i3ij -irol hnu iJaril ;Ul'ii; ,sj.::sj;:.,^1.1 ;l.;i-S.- ,feX^ .iiilbuXfi lA jfiEe 
 
 T. 
 
 Telegraph — Electric, and Semiphoric, 110. .'.".'1 
 
 Tent— Sardinian, 86; Tent-abri, Sardinian and French, 86; Turkish, 86; English 87; Russian, 88. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Modern Systems of Fortification, 176 to 182; Mczires, 181 to 184; Dnfour'3, 196"; Sloiact'sv 
 
 18C; Haxo's, 189; Choumara's, 186. -iy.oxaS 
 
 Torpedo— At Cronstadt, 36; At Scbastopol, 109, 110. ; ) ;OCt .s'j.i , --,:;.:iP. 
 
 Totleben, 20> . '.■ -■ .iJ'i ifii: .::'ii ,1 ;;■;;- ;i,. i-.'j ;1jOl: 
 
 Toulon, 18; Naval Depot of, 136; Nelson's attempt upon, corapared-iwith' *«*'-6f •Da«dast»w4iEyo«» at" Cronstadt'anti 
 
 Sebastopol, 137; Fortifications of, 191.' -'V-^ ,-->i.::c; liii,r::j ■':r/r i;..,;::!:i;.t''j .t-E ,;'.i.:v:.t-J'51[ ri.'.o'.>-/..i!B 
 
 Trace— Pbit Paul, 33; Fort Peter, 34; Cliff Battery, 143; Noizet-'sj'lSG', CbrmontaigWe's, 188; Hsxo^, 189^' Bayonnej ISfii 
 
 (■!.• .viiiiA -iii;; i -oFor Sandiy: Hook, 196; Fortifications of Paris, 197, 198; Grenobk, 193; Lyons, 198; Fort L'Est, 200; 
 
 ■,M ,ii;.;jj j^iia .!■>.. iSort-Vnlerian, 202; Of Sr-. Foi, like Monlalambert's, 205; German, 206; Differs, at Posen and Coblentz, 
 
 'V' iwili.| v/'jVI ;0t ,5v-9o7; Gorman,' increases the Front, 218; Maxims attained by German, 220; Eiitisnchcd Camp at Ulm, 
 
 221; Front of Posen, 222, 223, 224; Of Fort Vivian, 222, 224, 225; Of Fortress of Rastadt, 225, 226; Of 
 
 Fort Leopold., 226; Of two German Fronts at, Rastadt, 227; Of Fort Alexander, 229; Fortress of Ger- 
 
 ' nicrsheim, 231; Ingolstadt, 232; of Kdnigeborg, 232; Ancient Fortifications lal'Gdhstantinople, 245. 
 
 THStiit^EJtiglishand French Siege, 40, 55. .■■.,■: 
 
 T-«iw4?dHT^P«r CavSlry, 63 to 67, 107; Of Sick and Wouiided, WtoliB; Of Medlical Supplies, 75, 83, 84, 85; Of Troops, 
 
 " ■■ • I : . ' English system, of^ 97 to 108. :'■■. ,'■- ■ •• •* ■ : -•jur.ib^i b : .l- :; : j; uj 
 
 Thiestb, 149.- '■'■f -l'"- ■'uv.'< >'■ -i hfir. !,-vj.=i;r :-,:;; r-aoi.'.Tjjqo Vt imUi .".id ,lf! lio^luqo'/I 'ii; ssiQ ;ie 
 
 TuR***l^i-^S^ddfyvJ27aJW3;'Bar^afck-'atilSMl^a:iVS1'2v'<Ate^Jl«^ ,v... . .,.i... , MV15 In 
 
 ;':.', .-it- ><■)■: ,'-,:\\:y.:i :!;:^. .hnr^fiifc.rMlliv/ ivvsivei •t'ii;esil!-i<l ,if^ ,n:;5;:= n :!;.Jo-iii.ijO ;£S ,ali»riu»-> bafaivib 
 
 "in ti". .'KiUt: ;'.iifi.-.ii liniiit'i. :'M jfini^jcjl IhOlI to ;liiv/iT ; , "undfrtod JjiiilT 
 
 "in inic.aiK i .) i)fi« ,"aRM ..'Uilijit otiJiJ i-jl; /to 'virirri;' ; in ;|->fi n' I 5di 
 
 i^u.].-^:-')[ -1 '. :. ■ :':.'. SSi'x tiiiOii-j; jir '^ I'ALn- ■■'..■.t^-iZit'A lo iartv^^ ;S0 ,.^:.;, ;jl J„^jij u.J ini ilsiiyna Dfll 
 Ulm— Ervtvenched Camp of, S21i. Trace of Fronts, 232. v, „, .1, • .. 1, ., • 't ■ 
 
 ;:N;iiitr ir 
 
 ■■■ '' ■ .. ,' ■ ■ 1 ' i' ■ - . ■: : -ii, ,E-5 ,ji.'i 
 
 ViiEEiAN^Fort, 190, 199,201,202; Its Traces 3Q3t;,<?.osi! of, 234., ■■.■'-.\ ■. 
 
 ViuBAH^On Wet and Dry Ditches, 194. i ,im-,j;s. si , :| 
 
 Vegetablbs.— Desiccated, M^mtfapture and Bulk-, «}5 91'.: . ..;-..;, ,.i . , . .:, • -. "; 
 
 Venice — Defenses of, 149; Dock-yard, 150 to 160. P.;[ .j.-j;iyx3 
 
 Ventilating — Steam Vessels, 66; Barracks, at Vienna, 262; Hospital, at St. Petersburg, 264, 355; Hospital,, ■^ty^jQljiai 
 
 268,269. ;:i : y, .;■,; :j: _-,.„; : 
 
 Verona, 160; German System of Fortification applied to, 239; Hospital at, 268, 269, 270. '/■/l/r/.TiD— ovuaunri 
 
 Vienna, 149; Hospital at, 271; Arsenal at, 261 to 264. - .a.xvcjo'V/" oha 23i3 
 
 ViLLEURBANNE — Fort, Defensive buildings, 192, 202, 203. .\i. .'■•. • — •.i.iasxAXAsoinZ 
 
 ViNCENNES — Castle of, 199. . i .'t .i.-)Rri?3 — aHowg 
 
INDEX. 287 
 
 ViNiARi — Fort, 214, Description of Front, 224, 225; Analogy to Noizet's system, 225; Differs from other German Fronts, 925. 
 Vistula— Defenses of Mouth of, 161; Fortifications of, 18G, 239; At Modlin, 240. 
 ViTBioLERiE — Fort, Defensive buildings, 192. 
 Voltaic Batteries, 111. 
 
 w. 
 
 Wagoj— Hospital, 70, 71; Russian, 83, 84, 85. 
 
 Warming and Ventilating — Barracks at Vienna Arsenal, 262; Hospital at St. Petersburg, 264, 265; Hospital at Verona, 
 
 268, 269. 
 Warsaw, 19; Fortificatiotjs of, 239; Wrought-iron Gun Carriage, 243. 
 Water Closets— English, 141; At Constantinople, 246, 266, 269; Turkish, 273, 276. 
 Wet Ditches — At Rastadt, 229; At Germersheim, 231; At Konigsberg, 232. 
 Wind Sail— Substitute for, 65, 66. 
 
 Woolwich — Experiment on Carnot Walls, 216; Answer to, 235. 
 Wounded — Transport of, 67 to 76. 
 
£k 
 
Fort Queiqueville 
 
 
 "in 
 
 ester. 
 
 ^' 
 
Plate 1. 
 
 eT Doc No. &». 3U '-'o"g- ^*' ^'*'' 
 
1 
 
BoweiL 8c Co. Mi PbiUda 
 
StT..IxII»f-l?«591'*.Sess. 36 Con^ ])elafields Rep\ 
 
 Plate 
 
 owen- 8l Co. li&i lUiii 
 
 Ey iE[Ri©y [^0. h 
 
 FI^O M 
 
 BM [PLATE Q 
 
s^ 
 
^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
^// 
 
 Sen. Ex. Dd 
 
Pl.ltl- 1. 
 
 
 Puin^iej 
 
 f 
 
 K - "' ^"• 
 
 r 
 
 X 
 
 c 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 ~N- 
 
 ~» a*. 
 
 lull 
 
 
 
 SA- 
 
 , \^ 
 
 ill l\ 13 
 
 FORTIFICATIONS 
 
 oi- Tin; 
 
 CITY or LYONS 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 '■■m/.H,,! fimii i» ■/i./v./m/'''""' •""/''/'*' ''''•'' 
 
 ""'rniwi,,., ,,)■ IH.'if., /._./ ({ihlolii, itnil t> «m/MI>"'lll- 
 
 I',. ,./<»» .;(■ /.'.i.ri./, ./.( VilUii III../ tV.«.> 
 
 ^/....mA ( W/M . f A.i../liirri\» /o rtWr Miii-l-r 
 
 ■' ll..r .» IMI. m.iVi .....A. lA» .ftifr/l'.iM </ Mi'J"'' 
 
 . //.■... ./rA"» /^lli'«,.N,T,..li;/." ll... 
 
 A* 
 
 w 1 i.jjjVt; 
 
 \/ 
 
 -^. 
 
 y 
 
 I ..rl ("i.Killilu.i./ / \ / 
 
 ^m*. 
 
 Jill ^/ , 
 
 ,"j^.i,- 
 
 ij-j, 
 
 -^^- 
 
 c 
 
 w 
 
 l..rl l.i.M. 
 
 i> W-l.^ 1.1 v- 
 
 l^'ort Yill<*url*auU' 
 
 w 
 
 r 
 
 '4-, 
 
 ^>^ 
 ^ 
 
 ■'•'V.. 
 
 
 A 
 
 \ 
 
Detached Forts about the City of Lyons. 
 
Detached Forts about ther of Lyons. 
 
Detached Forts about the City of Lyons. 
 
 Plate 7. 
 
 n'n.UuiuiMn r. 
 
 ^'^- Ex. Due. So. 59, :io C.«n[r. 1^1 Sa». 
 
i 
 
Plate 9. 
 
 ■•^^i^^. l),.i-. No. ft\>. •M\ t,\n,«. \«( S, 
 
WaXe J^ 
 
 Fr 
 
St. Petersburg" and Oonstadt. 
 
 *^^-. 1 \, I abandoned 1 *»■#< 
 
 Jtodt, M^y^ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Fort <-'unstan(in. 
 
 (3) 
 
 . Pcl« 
 
 (u; Tnri f.lmi (ir liritlli: Kliiips 
 nlliwtiil. llio cliiiiiiK'l. 
 
 ,..•("■ 
 
 
 orll'iiiil 
 
 
 ,0" 
 
 IJsi Noas 
 
 i^t^r^w^A?^"^' ".V. 
 
 ('l-ftll ("HMtllt >, 
 
 ^ ■ ■ac^»*'•*!J^»«i^T1^«»l^- 
 
 '"<)«( 
 
 -' nj/7, 
 
 '^'« /o 
 
 1 Jji)rnlii I't. 
 \__jL__1" Oranioiibaum Pt, 
 
 /^Bnsiii 
 
 ''^'o...„,„ 
 
 I'nim Wind Mill Hill (-(niWI l)i> k>oii all tlio 
 ilftiMU'OH of tliu ('liiiniu'ls mill Ihiltiuil, qh ^voII 
 an tliu nlMoil lli>i<l, niiclmrcd iinilli of tho 
 hUi' nf tlii> "(invi'i'iinr'H InniHC," iiml wostof 
 
 Siiiumor Talnco of Iho Kmpcror 
 null constntitly urciipiod by kiiii unJ 
 hU fjiiiily iliiriuj; tlu" pro^pnccitrihe 
 alKed Uvet- 
 
 Plato 10. 
 
 PKTKKSIU'IU; 
 
 -0^ 
 
 (I \'i liiiii Iliitlnry. 
 
 I> 
 
 1 • 
 
 •i.>. 
 
 ,1 
 
 1 
 
 .1... 
 
 r 
 
 1 ' 
 
 •1... 
 
 s 
 
 I.' 
 
 ill). 
 
 •J- 
 
 ir .• 
 
 .. .1.1. 
 
 A.. 
 
 .11 ." 
 
 .III. 
 
 < . 
 
 .fi ■ 
 
 . do. 
 
 ''"-^M.,;.or; 
 
 1st So: 
 
 Ko^ra**.! .■(..I l-ritil-.M.. ». M JftcM A r.. ll.ilT.il.. .S V 
 
SenlxDoc.K°r)y.-36 ^'" (V„L- 1 ='Spf>s.Ttn);,rip!rie', R,.pr,rl, 
 
 HatelJ 
 
 '''°"iaSketcUy¥ajorOelafield 
 
 STARB 
 
 BEFIgHraS (D)F §lBAgT(D)F(n)L. 
 
 from t}!? rear of tie Dry ' 
 
I, 
 
 
/'/ 
 
 //-' r'./'/. /■' .!>.r. .K'''r,.,„, />A-//'/./j 
 
 / 
 
 
 v^- 
 
 -ft- 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 IM* ^K» 
 
 \'' 
 
 \ 
 
 "W^ 
 
1 
 
lias 
 
ria!.- i:; 
 
 APPARATUS FOR EXPLODING ;M] ^^^S ETC., BY ELECTRICITY. 
 
Pl 
 
 Ex. r 
 
Apparatus for Proving Cannon Hollow Shot, etc., by Electricity. 
 
 Plate 14. 
 
 31 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 Section on 2^2l. 
 
 Fio-. 2 
 
 69, 30 Cong. 1st Sesa. 
 
 Eiij-rair-.l ;ni<l fv:iU-4 lj> K. 1{, .J,/n.tC .V C,.., liiilfair), S. Y. 
 
i 
 
Plate l^ 
 
 ^n.Kx.Doc-.^".^"-^'"''""'^- '*• '^^■"- 
 
Eastadt.— SectionSo 
 
 Plate IG. 
 
 Section of Fort A along the line AB. 
 
 ^^^tp tS— tttHI -"'■■"■" ■--■■-■ ■-■=■- -j^ilTT 
 
 Tower and Cflseinatcd Redoubt No. tX. 
 
 Terre-plein. 
 
 Capoi micro. 
 
 ^S^gfS 
 
 
 
 Bastion^o. III. 
 
 Aavanced Liinotto A^'o. A'XIY// -' - 
 
 Section of Fort B along the broken line CD. 
 
 C;ieL'iiiatc<l Redoubt No. XXVII. 
 
 Terro-iJlein. 
 
 Bastion No. XXIV 
 
 Low Flank. 
 
 ~ ^?^ ' q^^ y^^-u^^S,^j<j^ !: 
 
 Il^ 
 
 ^^^1®!SSS 
 
 "'«9Si;'^5^iil^' 
 
 Redoubt of the Place ot Arras 
 
 Uoml l() Ciiilsriilio. 
 
 Section of Front " Upper Connection" along the line UN. 
 
 S«ii. Es, Uoc. No. fiO, ao CoiiK. l«t S0S8. 
 
 Enifrovcd oiiil WnU:.! Iiy li, IL Jowolt fli Co., Buffiilo, N. Y, 
 
I'i.-itf ] 7. 
 
jendtp El Doc N' 51 fa^ss " 
 
Ex. Doc. Nc 
 
S..KIV. yMn-s.-ss .Hi'^Co,,. ivi;,t».i,isK™> 
 
 iMiSfmiS 
 
 IDS^FJil^filSS ol T^^7M^ IOIEjP^T and i^^L^'iT of ©M|f;|])^ 
 
 ]o)iEiFjiif(Ei or nKwa. wmWiDT an.i ^uTir ^r wm:^Mii^u 
 
Plate 90. 
 
 Fie.. I 
 
 Tit 3 
 
 
 w 
 
 Scnlf lur Pig. I. 
 
 '..H 9 " P 1 1 3 I " 5 fi I 3 l OPcgt 
 
 Pi'ii.ssiaii Enil)rasnr(! Slmtter. 
 
 Tig. .1 
 
 "" "' ^ 
 
 p, 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 p 
 
 %l 
 
 
 O! 
 
 Fig. 5 
 
 A Mim "illi n Milrkol rctinires iiioro Siiilee on llie k-ft of 
 
 lln' o]iL'iiiii(t llinii im Uio fijilit, lioucf 7M" ou 
 
 utiL' wiiU' mill 4" (HI llio oUiPr. 
 
 r.iKip-IIdk's ill Uie Forts at 
 
 Fig. 8 
 , Profile on AS C D K F. 
 
 =^ 
 
 ■Q 
 
 .\rSTKI.\X 
 
 Emlii'asiire Shutter. 
 Fig. 2 iiiiJ 0. 
 
 irr"'7®^ 
 
 v^MW v^!S^S^ , 
 
 
 Scalp of Fi'c'l lor Fis'."- 2 aiwl X 
 1' -i- a- *' 5' C T' S' 
 
 ^N 1 . 
 
 ,^a^,,,ii.^i,>..«..,..,,..i»>»..i»>X»l 
 
 Fig. G 
 Profile on G II. 
 
 I ot_s: 
 
 Fig. 7 
 Piofile <.n L M of Pig. 5. 
 
 Scale of Fr.nl for Fig's 1. 0, 1, 8, anS 9. 
 
 I I 
 
 I I I I I 
 
 Fig. 9 
 
 LiiiN.-;. I'luxriv 
 
 PLAN' OF A 
 
 ; POWDER MAGAZINE 
 
 ih;m.i>i.\ij at 
 
 sTurriN, IN' IS.')-). 
 
 Figures D, C, 7, 8, ami 9. 
 
 ^^'ll. \'.^. Iliii'. Nil. .-ill, aii VMKi. Ist Si-". 
 
 Ktiirrau'd uml rririti'U l>y K. It Ji'imll k C. , lltliliil'p, 
 
I\ 
 
^ 
 
Theory and Practice of the French Engineers. 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Engmeers. 
 
 Oil llu- IVrre-Pleiu in tlio iiik-iior i.fji Wink iis iit 
 CODLEXZ ill r..ils ALEXANDKB. 
 
 Pl!»t( 
 
 lia rnu'k, 
 
 V 
 
 Baii'icado 
 
 '. ', Bofdi't' II Cilsfiiiiiilo l^iiilnasiitt, 
 
 Goiieral I'onu of the Caponniei-s. 
 
 J K. ri. Ju.«vtt (c L-u . num.ii.s.V- 
 
 SvMK K>- i^oc. Ni>. 51). ;tC Cuiii>. Isi S^*i>. 
 
•uajj 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Enginers. 
 
 tEOfoK'l ■wl I'rintoil 1-7 K R Jvuvll A to,, UttSllN, V. 
 
J 
 
 ( 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Engineers, 
 
 PIntc! 24. 
 
 Inter 
 
 llc'doubt 
 
 of a Lunette. 
 
 Magazines on tl.e rigllt' and left oTirPSitern^-^^- 
 
 Eg. 10 
 
 riL'. 53 
 
 Sections of 
 
 Counterscarp Gallery. 
 
 10 a 
 
 UM 
 
 F'S^^iP'^^i^^HP^w^ 
 
 flfl 
 
 Bfli 
 
 F "--^-"^ 
 
 Elevation and Section on a h 
 
 .JV--h^ "J, 
 
 Section on a.l. of Plan. 
 
 Bg 
 
 w\ 
 
 Sections of tlie 
 
 Mining Galleries. 
 
 Interior Redoubt 
 
 In half liiistiou nt Eastadt. 
 
 1 .. L 
 
 L. 
 
 L 
 
 ! I 
 
 -- '^' 
 
 Ww . 
 
 r.» j [ ^ .,„, 
 
 c 
 
 n a r 
 
 W. 
 
 tiuutiuii oil </. /(. 
 
 Section on c. r/. of lij,'. 21. 
 
 Defensive Barracks 
 
 For occupation of Troops in time of \\ L 
 
 12,1 ■: .ii n f 
 
 Peace, iia well as AVar. — Sbowing 
 
 tlie drainage of tho rampart 
 
 and smoke vents. 
 
 rr 
 
 n 
 
 ■-J=piaj7rU- 
 
 ■ /" 
 
 ■\ 
 
 r 
 
 
 w 
 
 — r 
 
 ^ . r 
 
 -1 r~ 
 
 V 
 
 
 ! 
 
 Esrricadt; griiovcs 
 
 j Enrricide *r 
 
 .._ 1 
 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 P LJA. N 
 
 ' [^ 
 
 
 
 o— 
 
 _J,^ 
 
 
 ^j-J. i 
 
 
 £J- 
 
 — 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 a----| 
 
 
 \^.-J 
 
 
 
 
 A^^ 
 
 
 '\ ' ^ 
 
 c 
 
 .V' 
 
 Fig. 30 
 
 /■ 
 
 [V 
 
 Si'Ction of Alining Giillery. 
 
 '• =»• 36 t-'out'. 1.1 t 
 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Engmee^fl 
 
 PliKe 2.5. 
 
 Tig. an 
 
 ■.\. Hoc. N». 50. 3» l'>'"S- >'' *^ 
 
 ..I .1.11 >'r.al".l W E.R Jo««llitC,.. lliinalo. N. > 
 
y^jii. Ex. Doc. No. 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Engineers. 
 
 Plate 26. 
 
__% 
 
Theory and Practice of the German Engineers. 
 
 Plats !T. 
 
Fortifications of Posen. 1855. 
 
 Plate -^S. 
 
 •■Nil. K\. iKv. N.v. 5'.", ;<ii <.'.'i«- 1 -■ •'^- 
 
Plate 29. 
 
 -.•»'' 
 
 Section and Elevation on R S 
 Tie. 
 
 Calli'it 
 
 * - fa » 
 
 - .1 ■ r 
 
 i 
 
 F'liin, Si-tii.n nml H«i 'i»'»"'>'» "• n 
 
 llaxu iJaltdv at Lj ons. Fiaiuc, 
 
 
 1 
 
 Elevation on A* F 
 
 Ki« 
 
 iX ^"^ \^ 
 
 
 '^" ^» K, N.v.M.. ,,.i i..„^. |., .N 
 
 l^^t^ ml tinm* If ^ HM—m n». t^mim. M t 
 
Practice of the French Engineers. 
 
 Plate 30. 
 
 OOAlflBi FOE IMFM'TBf. 
 
 l>la,ii uf a Boinb-iiniol' IJiuldiiiH' liir lodiiiiiu' 500 iiicn; with Cisterns for c(ill('ctiiio- 
 
 the waters Iroiii the Roof. 
 
 Elevation on KL. 
 
 Difft-reut dispositions of Arched 
 
 Buildings according to tlie 
 
 number of spans. 
 
 Vr»Ur«lu(U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Filler cuiiipiiwtl of line rand upon itmvp 
 
 TbP foiuntu 
 
 i™Un« HI. 
 
 
 
 lb iiiu'lnlli 
 
 lilalei I'liifcud »llh h.»\it. 
 
 
 
 Aixrluro IliiougU wbleli all ILb •mlcr 
 
 >""' pa*, r>«i 
 
 nilLT Inl 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 lV- 
 
 Plan of the Cellars and Cistei 
 
 . 1 — 
 
 ■ns 
 
 on^i?. 
 
 
 
 
 (^ 
 
 — 
 
 X 
 
 i 
 
 X 
 
 1 .'/ 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 j 
 
 -.:n i r .;i 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 111 
 
 
 1.11- 
 
 
 J.W 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 iUf' 
 
 J-OI" 
 
 
 j:riii.T.!_„_ 
 
 1— J 
 
 r~ ' ! ..— 1 
 
 -^! . h'd 1 
 
 5 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^ i" " "1 ^ - f "1 
 
 ''i : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i -■ J 
 
 
 
 ■''loni'lla^n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 is 
 
 i 1 
 
 i ■'! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 I„ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 : 
 
 ""~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 ~— — ^^^ 
 
 
 T "^ 
 
 Descont-])]))*' for Rain ^fater. 
 
 B^^A 
 
 .0 ri^o 
 
 . 3i^JgS^^^a ^i.!' ^^^*j;■jl,^ys^6«s.^^» .' ^^^ 
 
 nidimpii 
 IU.|nn 
 
 Skctrh of the Arches and Stairs ieadina- to Roof. 
 
 n' 
 
 /■-. 
 
 -^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 ; 
 
 / 
 
 !,v 
 
 \. 
 
 J- 
 
 t*By-f»«"' '"C 5 
 
 ■^ 
 
 Plans of tlie Stainuiv Section 
 
 on rr. onxi: tbrc 
 
 iiiiiiiiyjj /« 
 
 Scale of oToorc for 1 uiulru " | 
 
 of an Air-hole 
 
 stem on ST. 
 
 Detail of the Cornic^. 
 
 ?v-ri. Ex. Doc No. 50, 30 C<jiig. lit Sc*.. 
 
 i-l l^iliU-J hy 1-1 Jt 
 
I 
 
 o 
 
 - ■ 
 
 
 
 TC 
 
 -. ?-■■■ 
 
 to 
 
 = E 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 5 E 
 
 •r. 
 
 
 ^f' 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Comiiiled 
 Major Del 
 bis report ( 
 War, by L 
 
 Doc. Iso 
 
Practice of the French Engineers. 
 
 QUARTERS FOR INFAN'J^'*^- 
 
 .|.,,„ „r;i |5„iiil.-|)n...r i'.nildiiiu li.r lndiiiiiL^ •") CniiiiKiiiii's: pn'»^'"- '"-*"^""' 
 ;ill rircclivc liinr iirilliolll jHH llliil. 
 
 =^.,... Uvcre una s,ua\l •.nv\u->. 
 
 tho Uugo •■"" 
 
 I'lU'cl-CllI, (liHpOMilioilM of 
 
 Aich l!iiil<lir]^H ■Acc< ivdiii'^ lo lln^ 
 
 llllllllx!!' ol' MpilllM, 
 
 E'WTTTTK'M 
 
 Dch/il ..(■ Ilr. (,'i.nii<'( 
 
 J-lliJ^iili 
 IVrrT-TTTTTT-Trn 
 
 miiiij.j.iii tj 
 
 rTTTTTrr-TTTTT-TTJ 
 aiLLlililliixa 
 
 ErTTrrrrrrTrr-rTT.i 
 . iii.uiijj.iuj.ij3 
 
 J . II III j- 
 
 . III.. ..f I* IM f.^ I („.(lr 
 
 '■•'II "I' III,. /;,„, 
 
 |l"'W l)l',(, |,u_,u 
 
 I 
 III ' 
 
 •I „ 
 
 J... 
 
 ''•'Ill "I' lllc Crlhll-, Mil I /; 
 
 J 
 
 ' W Jl4» 
 
 iM tt I II 
 
 OoHH Scct'mii on AJ/. 
 
 Cross Section ou I'Q- 
 
Practice of the French Engineers. 
 
 i^lut,' 
 
 PLAIN- OF A DOUBLE CISTERN, 
 
 Arranged in a Bomb-Proof Barrack to receive the water from the Roof and that from the Yards, 
 
 The ivnter tVoiii t!ie i-oof, always potable, ouijlit to ho constantly .sppainteO frtim fliat 1"riih the yards. 
 
 Longitudinal Section on 7JF. 
 
 Cistern for the Water from the Roof 
 
 LEGEND. 
 
 WntiT (lucla from Hio roof. 
 J''JWi(-rcsi>n'olr rccelvJng tlic roof-walcr, 
 
 Filter coiopowl of a (Jcd of fine pjintl |ilncc-a upou n bed of gravDl. Tho 
 njiMli.r<-HCommuniciitifig Willi Iho rrBnt-resi-rcoir oro llirmelicd on iho 
 ■.■xk-rior ^vi^ll inclalHo plnfcs, jilcrcod ivitli Ijok-a. 
 AptTt.ir« Ihroiigli whifL all Iho ivolor rau8l piua from Iho filler into tbo 
 
 clMlcrn f. 
 AiwHmv lliro-tgh wliieli llii' wnler pnsscs from Uio (lllerc, Inlo ll.o cislcrn e' 
 wlK-n, (ooinplyllioci).l(.Tn r nnti repair il, cIoeo tlio apcrUtrcd wlileb is 
 lower by 0. J&, 
 CislernH fur llio llllwcd ivoler. 
 CouiiTi.inrciilliig pijio provided n-illi a cook, lliut is closed wLen il ia necessary 
 
 lo I'Niplj iinil repair Ilic cisleni r. 
 Air-lir.le liclivfeii Hio cislernB c and e. 
 
 WnsW'.m-h- 111 refoi-Knce 2071)3, for tlic aiirplus wnler of IIjo front Ijasln b. 
 WflMk-ivelnj at rerurenco 26720 for llie surplus wiilur of Uio eisferiis r aDj e' 
 I'limp. 
 
 Waler oliesl for Ilio linlly disfriLiulIdji, 
 iMiiti-liolea, 
 
 Cross Scetioii on 6' // 
 
 '■p 
 
 Plan of tiie Ground Floor on CD. 
 
 Cistei'n for tho AVater from the Yards. 
 
 LEliEND. 
 
 A', Walci^diict from iho yards. 
 
 /. Front liftsin reeeiving ihc ivnier froiti lie ynrdf. 
 
 •». Horizontal iHter of grave! held beHveea two uii-lalUc plates pierced willi hole?. 
 
 ". Yerlical lUlorof ■! com par line ills lllleileach neeonliiiB lo Iho localilv wiUi a 
 bed of flae iatui placed npon a l^^d of friivel. or when lliewaU'r'is more 
 fiwt, of nlleniale layer* of lino ami coar-e sunil, and of piilvcW/ed 
 tlinrcoal, tlio hitler alioat 0. m or uioro in thickness. 
 
 0. Apert.ire tlirongh wlilcli tlic- water parses n-om Iho llller into llio dsleru ,,. 
 p. Cisti'in for tbo liltorcil water. 
 
 .;. Wnslo-weir al ll.o ivferi-nee 2tlJ);i r«r the sin-pl.w of the fronl-ba^Mn /. 
 5. Waalo-weir al the referonee ati.l'O fur Ihe Eiiriihis of Ihe cistern u. 
 r. Pump. 
 
 1. Wnlerclicsl fui-tlio daily di^tiHititiun, 
 '■ Maiilioles, 
 
 Cross Section on IK 
 
 Jl nrlinnlnl at lefiTfiifp 18.1.0 
 
 P 
 
 L 
 
 ■J! I (.-..SP*-. 
 
 PlaiK(rf tlic Cellars on A B. 
 
 vvta, ll,,„l.„™ I, Ml I, „,„ ,„ „„,,„„, ^ „,„„, „, ,^^, 
 ftHUllWo liH>treB yf mtorcil wollT, vir; 
 
 1 .1 Thi. t«i,.rUji .,ni,i. 1,0 ,|,|,.„„ , „i„i ; Mow i|,„ 
 
 wtmiuo!e.30gru«.lr«iuile-KMnj jSiTow 
 
 I'r.a. Tho c«r«oUy of U.o Ihint b«.|i, |, uXwom Ho 
 "■romra !6.Jo «t Ho WMio-woln ,; „„,i fc, 
 retiKiioo KUO otlh, opt,i„„ J J, J,,, 
 
 Total 
 
 oTO.(iui) 
 
 « 11.0 «.«.».««. J«."m U.0 IKol tain ,„„ „„,, k^ j|^„ I 
 
 loKUii* or n luovoMo viunix Inlrwl.ic.Hl ihiMURli ito hole j. ' '^ ' ' "' 
 
 
 ■ 'J' ■ , 
 
 
 : s ?■ . 
 
 ia 
 
 8 1 
 
 - 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 , . 
 
 
 
 f~:i 
 
 When Ihe elalern ia full it can Ih; emptiud Ity t 
 500 eubiu metres of flitored wnter, vIk: 
 
 I'pf llii' pniiip rof xilioMl 
 
 IsL The capacity of the cwlern /» ln-Iow Ihe referenc.. 
 
 20.°20 of i(8 wnalo-woir </.' . 
 
 2nd. Tho capacity of llic front btuin /. nnd of the 111(1.^' 
 
 !•. iK-lweoQ (lie n.fervnce 2jl.'i'l) of Iho wa«l,^ 
 ir (;. and Iho reference 2f'iil> of tin- uj erlur.- 
 
 cnlfoiit,. 
 
 Below Ihf n-ferenco 2»"oO Uio front liofln can only U> rnipil,,,. Uv ,r,.n, 
 n movable piitup ni(ruduee.l Ibmugh Iho hok' I. ' ■ "/ mt ai 
 
 Sonle of u!,b0H75 f.-r 1 metiv. 
 
 Ki-iHark.—Tlw capniiv of the Ciatcnis can be iuo«««* ««»rilmg lo tl 
 
 -^mg ,o tho waau of vad. lo.-ality by cilhc-r e^alvating a gr^aU-r nun.lKr of Cvlk.r. 
 
 
y 
 
 
 %!sAa^ 
 
 •ui[.ia<j \v. s.ii 
 
Barracks and Stables of the Lancers of the Guard, at Berlin. 
 
 Plate :^.:X 
 
 Plan oi' tiie Barracks and Stables of the Secoud Regiment of the Lancers of the Guard, at Berlin. 
 
 Troiu the Designs presented I>y tlie 3Iini=fi;r of War ft" FniSiia. 
 
 I'omiilli'U iKiiii llip .>il):l>inU<iiul.>i' lli.> dlivHIou ol 
 MvJUii llKi.AfiiLi,ii, C.ivi« iif lliigltuffii, la «fcoiii|mii)- 
 
 Wiir, by I, lU'liNiK AilllliTV IK-Utlmu'iil. 
 
 t:n4[iii<."Juu.ll'iluU'lbj K U Jc^utl&l'u.l]ulUik.V. Y. 
 
Barrack of the Lancers of the Guard at Berlin. 
 
 l'l;>to ;-.4. 
 
 First Storv. 
 
 Barnick of Ihc Second RegiiiienI of llic Liukhts of the (iiiard, at llciliii. 
 
 From tin' Do^i^ns [n-t'-^oiiU'd liy tin- iMhiistiT of Wur of I*i-iissi]i. 
 Sec plato ^5. 
 
 ~J \ ' -.- ' I 
 
 ~rr- 
 
 rpn? H^jzy t:;-?^ 
 
 
 :'i51 
 
 v" '"'^ 
 
 ■ Fa -"i i — ti' --'- 
 
 TTPT' 
 
 
 4^ I 
 
 
 H3 tf- 
 
 ' I r 
 
 
 Hasoinent. 
 
 Sv'u. K\. Ovv. N^i' ^H«. It"' r.'»i; »*> Jvw- 
 
 ).i^'«>..| .n't l'riotr<t r,, J It ;, ._( 
 
Barrack the Lancers of the Guard at Berlin. 
 
 Pliitc M 
 
 Barrack of the^^'cond Regiment of the Lancers of the Giuircl. at BerHu. 
 
 fFruiii tiie designs i)ieseiitcd livthe Minister of War of Prussia. . 
 See plate 34. 
 
 TiFW^ 
 
 I I 
 
 iiii 
 
 :-; I 
 
 
 '■■^'--"--■^--■^- ■•y^'"---^j ^'^-"''S:^.^: 
 
 ra...J..r.ra-.— --.lag 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 ry' ?"' — ?^ 
 
 
 ...f...... I, ..,....,y,,;re>.y.^;,-.„,TO^HH . ,r 
 
 fEg;^^?if.C>Wtetg^^:% 
 
 '■■'SiiiE" '•■Tiiaaja-'i'vi'-ia 
 
 Eieviitiou of the Front of tlie Eanncl 
 
 l|;IHHHHHHH^ 
 
 
 
 .-J...--. >A ? .^1 H N^ 
 
 
 a! as'Sga^;g» aas»W^fiM;s»« 
 
 .___.: J-S>«Sa8>^>- 
 
 Garret. 
 
 I'mlileof llie ,S|„l,leH, 
 
 JM SCE fot ffig BOB If we m til 
 
 jLliJLJLJI 
 
 »^ .i-'i^ 
 
 M_J|_liLJt_M 
 
 If 
 
 Jlfv tt ., M. , CfLJfL.S.B: J£ 
 
 of tlic Lancers ;it Berlin. 
 
 Wj'J-^tf-fJWifj'iiVjjjj'ju'jvirir/jJU'jinjy'Lriijir 
 
 II M '\B lil VA MS 'm 'M III 'Hi tif iti 
 
 . pli^- 
 
 .fflJJ___JB_JOiJ^ 
 
 r t .. ex: __fC_ -ffi^P.L. £i:-^£C-.£L-M.-tt^-£[:- 1^. 
 
 to JO 30 
 
 RU I<J M DO 
 
 \, 
 
 Klevaliori „|„| Seeli.iii of llje Coniicc^ of IliC liarnieli jrliulc' of liltlUv. 
 
 Elevation of the Kear of the Sfahle [of the Laneors at Berlin. 
 
 
 \r 
 
 
 l'.\. Hoe. No. 01'. -Ili t'"ii.s. W S»!». 
 
 ~..ar,i,.w>..K«>-"'"'""''"°' ••'■ '■■ 
 
Design of the Cavalry Stables and Riding HaU, at Posen, for two Squadrons. 
 
 Plato :^.tv 
 
 Plan. 
 
 Ki'iiiin; of tlie niof. 
 
 VvnfWr on AJJ. 
 
 IMiin. 
 
 ^— -»'-- 
 
 -/ 
 
 ti "^n- 
 
 I, ij L'J..i' ; 
 
 Stables 
 
 RIDING HALL li 
 
 I'lol'iU' on /:"/■'. 
 
 „; ~'\A- I ] ■" Stables 
 
 :=! I liTiTiTnTnTT irn 
 
 Elevation of the Fmn i 
 
 cfilTn> 
 
 Profile, 
 
 N 
 
 
 on C. 
 
 
 
 1^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^^^^p 1, 
 
 K 
 
 A 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 
 jix:. 
 
 Frmno of tho roof of tlu' liiilinj; Hall, 
 
 
 T 1 
 
 1 i 
 
 4 
 
 J L 
 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^' 
 
 n 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 K 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 Scale for the Plan. 
 
 Scale fur tlie Prollks. 
 
 IK) Xm' \n i5 n5 IB \S~\\t 
 
 .S<.ii. Kx. l>in-. Ko. S«. :'« C'o'iiT- 1st Si'ss. 
 
 K.nitnTfHj aifj PHntvl l>/ K. a. Jrarll * L->.„ MuOtio .V Y 
 
Iron Railing for Grooiniiio- -^yitji cast iron w,,,<. 4. 
 
 1 ortion of tliC clovation .,r „ Sfal.l,. „„ y| // 
 
 French Barracks for Cavalry.— Details relative to the Stables. 
 
 Plate 87 
 
 Fl—f of wpptr Wwy 
 
 Swinging Imrs tor sci)ai-ating the Hoi-sos in Stable, 
 ^sponsion of the s^vinging bars by moans of iion t'hains. 
 
 Portion of the longitudinal section of Ih^Klo on frff. 
 
 
 ''^"^ 
 
 i 
 
 UC 
 
 i^ifmpj 
 
 Im.. 
 
 oooocoaLXXJUOuDuu 
 
 Sralo «f 0. :17a r«r I iiM'trv. 
 
 i 
 
 nchiiis of tlic Railing for Grooming. 
 
 Siil<' i!i'\;ilii'll III' 11 nii|i|><'l'l III' cast iniii 
 Mfiil |>i'..lil<' of llii' ntiliiii.' Ill' iruii 
 
 111! JiF. HU'VllticMl oil -I II. 
 
 M,in^( rs with Stone Basins, 
 
 ■ Wft llil l l l ll l l 111! J Vi V. 
 
 Mangers with Oust Uiou j l ,.;„.. 
 
 Section nil y?."?. ^^%iitf«taOtt«n».f^i 
 
 ■ 
 
 Poc N"'. 5". ^f *^'""K' '■' ''*'^**' 
 
\ Cavalry Barracks.— Furniture of the Company (Quarters. 
 
 riato 30. 
 
Infantry-Barrack near th« rr , 
 
 ^ K near the Ha y-Market, at Vienna. 
 
 Plato 40. 
 
 Fuss. 0'5 1 3 2 1 I 
 
 NOTB. 
 
 12 ZoUs 1 h'usn, 
 
 f U33 1 Klofter. 
 
 1 Fuss 11445 English Inehe!. 
 
 Scale of 9*,oae Klafter being equal to 6 feet. 
 
 Fuss. C'543210 l" 2* 3' i* ft" *>' T 3' 
 
 Klafters. 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 Eognotrd mi-l rrintt-U b> K. H. Jwwett k Co^ Itullalo, N. V. 
 
/ 
 
 ■ ^- ■■^■^ »» ■■ i ^^ » -^^ ^»»— » » -^ - Y ^i^ ' 
 
 "'^S 
 
MILITARY HOSPITAL AT ST. PETERSBURGH. 
 
 Wiug for the Bntlis ;ir]<l l.uuiuliy. 
 
 ri-inciiJiil Building. — Frout ou the Saiul Street. 
 
 [r3rr:llHsjagajS^feta-gM":„_,-- 
 
 anniiD nnnic n n n r c nlEEr r r r r r 
 
 |r r r r r r r r'r r r r r f fir r r r r r r r 
 
 rzrrftiTLfn'!riificaSAluJLu^^ — - — 
 
 CHQ DDD nna ddd dqo nnn"Gna|DOD nao ooa doo oqd 
 
 Wiim- r,)i- llic Jii'(li(:il ;iiirl Suhsisd^iuT OHiccrs iiiiii Apolliwarics. 
 
 DaQ ana arm nnn nan ddd ddd 
 
 I If Iff' 1 1 r-TT( ri r ■ 
 
 njn,nL-CCnT.rr rrr rrr rrr r 
 
 I n r. r, n r p r r, ■ i >■ i i. l i": P: 
 Irnrnrrrr' i" f V T Y r' r 
 
 p n i: u li L c c 
 n n n n nan n 
 
 (Ini; S3Jcn=7 EnplWi Fi 
 
 (Jti tlio (icTicniT I'Jiiti, LcUor (T'. 
 
 Plan of tlio fir.4 oi- GrouiKl Floor of the Military Hospital of St. Pctersljurg, 
 
 Ou tlio Gencml Plnii, I.i'tter A. 
 
 On tin- (..■ii.-n.l I'liui, UUci- K. 
 
 Section of the Principal Iliiildiiii; 
 
 On tilt' liiiv ./. h 
 
 Baseiiuint or Cellar Floor of the Main Building, with the Garden. 
 
 Oil tlio Keiicr.il rian T-etter A. 
 
Cavalry Barracks.— Furniture for the Quarters. 
 
 Pbto 3S. 
 
 fcr.i.lIilUalu, N. V. 
 
' 
 
 I 
 
Plate iZ. 
 
 E.i^Jcvvell & f"oJjt}i.Bul faio . NY 
 
Sen. Ex. Doc. N" 5S. Se'i-Conl. I«Sess . DeWield's Rep' 
 
 Plale 42 
 
 ARSENAL AT ¥ 
 
 A. 
 
FREXCH CAST IRON GUN CARRIAGE. 
 
 
 5' 
 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 p 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 p 
 
 a 
 
 Sen. li\. Due. ^u. 6'J, .'iO Coil"-. Ist Sc 
 
 EugraveJ aud Printed liv K K Jfivi-tt Ai Co., BulTiJo, N. Y. 
 
FRENCH CAST IRON GUN CARRIAGE^^. 
 
 Fig's 28 and 2d. 
 
 Freiicli Cast Iron Garrison and Siege Gun Carriages — proposed system — in part adopted. 
 
 Tig. 28 
 
 Model common to 5 patterns of Bronze Guns, and 3 Field and Siege Howitzers. 
 
 Carriage Mounted with a Howitzer of IC Centimet;es. 
 
 TVe have dotted the directrix for Siege and Garrison pieces 
 as we'l as for 24 pouuiiers. 
 
 ■^^^^^^s^^^l 
 
 • 1 1— F 
 
 r„ ,= „. 8 p... .»„ H,,..,^,, ,0.^15""''-^'^'"-"'^^^^^^^^ 
 
 Ff ^'- 
 
 The 
 
 CtlB! 
 
 dJrectiBG; or iTajrersine 
 
 Scale of -^ 
 
 This system, lilce that of Wood for Garrison.as well as Sea Coast Carri.agss of the French, admits of several 
 
 caliljcrs being mounted on the same Carriage. 
 
 Tig. 29 
 
 Model common to Iron Guns of 24. 30 and 36 pdrs, 
 and Howitzers of Iron of 22 Centimetres. 
 
 Howitzer of 22 Cenlimetres. 
 
 m^^if^'f-- ''•^ 
 
 Scale of .^ 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 30 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 Kngravcd and I'rinled by E. R. Jewett & Co., Bullalo, N Y 
 
PRUSSIAN WROUGHT IRON GUN CARRIAGES. Fig's 30 and 32. 
 
 Tig. SO 
 
 GARRISON CARRIAGE, 
 
 Put toi^cthcr for use as a Barbette Carriage fur a 
 
 seven foot Parapet. 
 
 j^p^aM- 
 
 Scale i 
 
 Fig. 30 is the arrangement for a Barbette Battery. 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 Tig. 32 
 
 
 ~B ■■■ . — ■■■ -■■■ .— II — t p" , ^ 
 
 to 
 
 GARRISON CARRIAGE, 
 
 Put together for use .as a low Barbette Carriage. 
 
 For particulars see plates of Prussian Artillery presented by the Minister of War of Prussia, 
 and filed in the War Office at Washington. 
 
 Sen. E.\. Doc. No. 59, 36 Contr. 1st Sess. 
 
 Engraved aail I'liDtcU by E. K. Jewett k Co., Buiralo, N. Y. 
 
PRUSSIAN WROUGHT IRON GUN CARRIAGE. 
 
 c8 
 
 s 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 o 
 
 Co 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 Engraved anU Printea by K. K J«w«tt A: Co., BuIIalOj N Y 
 
PRUSSIAN' WRorcJHT IRON GUN CARRIAGES. 
 
 Fig. 3a. 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Cong. 1st Sess, 
 
 Eugnived and Printed Ijy E R Jewett & Co., BulTalo, N. Y. 
 
RUSSIAN WROUGHT IRON BARBETTE GUX CARRIAGES. ri^'s34&35. 
 
 Sen. Ex. Uoc. No. 59, 30 Conir. 1st Sess. 
 
 EDgra\ecl auU I'rmled by K K. Jewett & Co., Buffalo, X. Y 
 
TRAXSPORTING AND MOUNTIXa GUNS. 
 
 Fis:. 34 and 35 a 
 
 yen. Ex. iJoc. No. 59, 3G Coutr. 1st Sess. 
 
 Engravt-a ana Piiuted by K. R. Je-.vett .t C... Lldll;,!,!, N. Y. 
 
PLAiV OF AN IRON CAliRIAGE. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 o 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 -5 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 O 
 CO 
 
 Son. Ex. Doc. No. 50, 00 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 Enjravc'l anJ PrinteJ by E. R. Jewett & Co., BulTaln, M. Y. 
 
RUSSIAN WROUGHT IROX GUN CARRIAGE. 
 
 
 fe;..?. ^a?^..,;^..wg.:gg..,^'^^^^^ 
 
 X 
 
 ^F 
 
 (H> 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 Kngraved and Priutetl by E. R. Jewett k Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 
 
Sen-Ex/Doc. N° 59. 1*^5638. 36 Con^ Delafield's Report 
 
 ?w 3ft. 
 
 mwm m rui i 
 
 Showing Ike Rope Manlelel used hy iKe Russians lo pjftlecl their Gnnners from the Mlnet RifU. 
 
 See PlaU 6. 
 
Austrian Gtin Carriages. 
 
I 
 
Austrian Gun Carriages. 
 
 Barl.erte Carriage w[th fixed ur jwrnianent i-iiitk' center, 
 
 iyi" woodeii wheel, aud hoUti-r <t. a, fi.r 
 
 IMirapets of 5*4" to 6' 3"'. 
 
Austrian Gun Carriages 
 
 Fig's. 3S e. 
 
 Kii.TJi."liiJjai"fiiiUJIiv r;. it. J<.-\sl-H kV.tt.UulUU-.^.Y. 
 
 Sen. Es. Doc. No. oO, 30 Ci>liir. l«l ^>es.«. 
 
1 
 
 I 
 
3> 
 
Austrian Casemate Carriages 
 
 Fia's. 38 ,1 
 
 Sen. Kx. Dix-. No. 69, 30 Con;;. 1st So.«. 
 
 Engraved irnd I'riutca by E. R. Jewtlt v"; Co., Buffalo, Ji.Y, 
 
SECTION OF PART OF A NEW WORK AT VENICE. 
 
 Fig. (3S h.c.) 
 
 nT^^^^S, 
 
 K 
 ^ 
 
 "^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^■^^^^^^^^^^'^■^'^^^ 
 
 Section of the Casemate of part of a new Work constructing for tlie Channel Defences 
 at Venice, showing the Kail_Ti-ack for gun Pintle.Centcrs, and Traverse Circles. Also 
 the Drainage, Ventilation and Earthen Parapet. 10th. Jan., 1856. 
 
 8e!i. Ex. Doc. JSu. 59, yu Cong. l!.t besM. 
 
 Kntravud uud 1 nuH;a bj K. K. Jevvelt ii Co., liulliilu, X V. 
 
ScnFx.Doc. N°59._!''Se3s 36*Con|. Delafields Rep' 
 
 Bowm Ot to Lilli fli\Mi 
 
 , „ , fr uAici., looking Towards the Allied Lamp 
 Immedialelj after ils surrender, irom the Itornilolt CM^^ for Telegraphic purposes See Plate 8, and Fife. 54 
 Note: The small frame l,uildffig, lent and scaffolding, were erected ly the Yf 
 
r 
 
 3nn.l:L\.0oc N°5fl. l^lSesa 30 Clong. Dela.fields Bepl. 
 
 Foil Oa-thgnne 
 
 Fori Paul 
 
 l''MKliiiol 
 
 Flg■^')Ota) 
 
 
 Sho^v-^ng■^he Casemated harbor defences part icnlarly Fori Pa-ul. just before it VTas tlownup. And tlie faces of 7ort CaUiai eironling-lhe Mouth orihehdrhor.a;^ also ruins of pari ol'1iieKarabaliuaFaubour^_. See Plate i 
 
SenExDoc N"59. I'.'Keas.'itJ C0115. Belafields Rept. 
 
 Hg'.Wlb) 
 
 SowntCoLitfaFhiladA 
 
 Showing ihe Casemaled harbor defences, and ruins of tkaLarabalnaia Faubourgf — See rlate 
 
I 
 
Sen Ex. Doc tj" 59.1'^Sess. 36. Coii§.IIela£ems Bept 
 
 h* Ml 
 
 I'lHl lulinTllir 
 
 w D KmUCFotV 
 PaulUirulni. 
 
 Uio (liitkyardbdy 
 
 K U J.»frrU & ('oUQt.aurraio,sr 
 
 Showing ihe casemaled harbor defences, and rums of ihe ifrth Eastern s.d. of the City See PUte 8 
 
Sen.ExIloc.N?59.1«Sess. 36"'Coiti. lelafields Rep- 
 
 V'.i. 50. A 
 
 Alexandei 
 
 Tort (£3=° 
 
 T^icholas 
 
 Arsensl C^ 
 aidSliciia 
 
 Dry-Docks^ 
 
 
 View of iKe Diy-Docks, Arsenal Point, aai 
 
 Taken from lh£ rear of ihe Dock Yard El Qo 
 
 harbor Casemated Forls, 
 
 sure fSee Plate 8j 
 
i 
 
Fori Cfilhan 
 
 in nt 
 
Sen.ikDoc S?59 W^Se3S.3f5 Gong- Delalield's Rept 
 
 r\f W (e) 
 
 FortCfll}ianiie[J'I^ 
 
 PoEirau! fv^ 
 
 fc^liiR^;!^ 
 
 --^JSFortfl on heighla 
 oT Noi-lh SKore 
 
 
 Slorc huusee on 
 ^'-Dlho^Miarf leading 
 loFoplPaiJ- 
 
 Lflh.otBowen&Co Philada.' 
 
 g [E |] Z^i 1 T ® ^1® L, 
 
 View of Arsenal Point Store houses, on Wharf -eael Side of DockYaii Boy, ruins oi' ForJ Paul, &c See Plate 
 
1 
 
FOK'T MALAKOIT. 
 
 :)4 ;i. 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Conff. 1st Sess. 
 
 Kugraveil mill Priuted by K K Jcwett & Co., Buffalo, N. Y, 
 
SECTIONS OF FORT IMALAKOFF OR THE KORNILOFF BASTION. Fig. 54 a (his.) 
 
 Hoi-iz. 105.0 
 
 Section on EF. 
 
 ITom. 105,0 
 
 Section on GH. 
 
 98.0 
 
 
 Section on I^S. Section on TU-UV. 
 
 -Bom. 105.0 Horiz. 105 
 
 100.6 
 
 IToru. 100.0 
 
 Section on KL. 
 
 Horiz. 105.0 
 
 Section on PQ. 
 
 92.6 
 
 Horiz, 95.0 
 
 Section on MN^-NO. 
 
 Boriz. 95.0 
 
 Section on ef. 
 
 8S.1 
 
 89.0 
 
 _92.3 
 
 
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 -.'.r^^^i^ 
 
 Iloriz . 64.0 
 
 Section on mn. 
 
 Section on 
 
 Uoriz. ':6.0 
 
 2Jq. 
 
 60.2 
 
 ^^iBBri'=»=^. 
 
 't^^-BO'" -'..- 
 
 10 
 
 Scale of 0.002 for 1 mctie. 
 
 10 20 30 
 
 &p Ketres 
 
 Sen. E.\. Doc. No. 59, 36 Cong. 1st Sess. 
 
 iiugr.-nert iinj Printeil by E. R. Jewett 4: Co., BulTalo, N. Y. 
 
[■-./. IJoo t.!"" 
 
 ^Uififtl.ls Rppl 
 
 ^' !,!alatlio:: 
 
 Fi§. S^.b. 
 
 ^l..nvii.e 111. ....i.llerrnce and unconcern of llie Smlor . the progress o( \h work utuier fire.wlhoul Cif^rs oi othev piol«ri,on , and ttu- reklm hei;^ht« of Ihr MaJaWioff an.i MamWcn »ni mk-rYaiin^ ground 
 
 .See Plata 
 
r 
 
GREAT REDAN. 
 
 Fis. 
 
 0.) a. 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No. 59, 36 Coug. 1st Sess. 
 
 Eugravcd and rrinted by E. K. Jcivelt & Co., Buffalo, N Y. 
 
-^^^^^^^-5.^^-l:^9_36j^Con4,l" Ses.. DeUh, 
 
 i 
 
 Fi§. 57, a 
 
 IT(E^ 
 
 See Plale 8. 
 
SRn.Ex.Doc,No.59.r*-Sess. 36 Con,.^, Delafields Rep 
 
 Ftf 57 V 
 
 showing Swivel ^uns mounted on posts behind the parapet, and Mortai-3 behind the traveraeintherear, flankins the ^ound on the right and in frontof the Redan. 
 
 i 
 
 E R J<iw.uS,Co Lith Bnff«Jo NT 
 (SmPUUS.) 
 
Sen F.x Hoc N°59. 36'^ConA.l"Se3S. DeMeld^ Kept 
 
 •li ^? 
 
 I. i; I. w.ii f, I .. l.illi-liiin"l",N'V 
 
 N°l_see Plate 8. and Fig 56. 
 
I 
 
 i 
 
Doc No. 59 l^'-Sess. 36 Cong- Delafield's Rept 
 
 Fi<^.5Q.lai 
 
 E.KJewett&Co. Lith. Buffalo, N.Y 
 
 after Ihe final a-ssault. 
 
 (See Plate 8 and Fi^.bb. 
 
Ml 
 
 t 
 
uEx Doc^o.b9^J^^Coalj::^Ses^e\aIields Rep^ 
 
 Fig. 60 {a} 
 
 aStev the Final assault 
 
 Sr f S° I S(?e Plate 8 and FiJ' 56.) 
 
Frer 
 in th 
 
French Batlerjf 
 ii"i [he Mamelon 
 
 Sen. Ex. Doc. No.59. \'^ Sess. 36 Con^. Delofield's Repi. 
 
 The Malakhoff atndS Kormloff Bastion 
 
 ¥i§' 61. 
 
 ►. t*^S'"*^?%, 
 
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 ^Sfee^&iaKPSMS^;*..'^*^^ 3*«P?^(^!Sf^Sfe;iaiiS*.* 
 
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 I 
 
 from a French howitzer balterv across the ^or^e of the Meanelon looking over the trenches in the intervening valley or depression — 
 
 See Plate 8. 
 
 E.R.Jewett 8c Co Ijtli Buffalo NT 
 
 f 
 
Ser..Ex.I)oc.N-59.1'--Se3s.36 Cong. H^Sess. Ddafields Repl 
 
 Fig 52 a 
 
 MamelonVttt 
 
 "^iu^^ Top of 
 mm ins 
 
 bciwcn * Cfj.hlh Pliiladi 
 
 Dll^TEI^IlOl^ ©F TyiE IK©»11[L(0)!F1F iASTIKQlJ, 
 
 Afler ihe Assault by Ihe Trench, on ihe 8 * Sipi. 1854 See Plate 8, and Fi^. 54/. 
 
HUH iai 
 lili hj the 
 
Sen Ez uoc iio. i)9. 1=^ Sess. 36 Cong. Dekfield's Pe-.-. 
 
 Fi^-: 63. 
 
 E R.J«w»u4Cc.Lith,Bufr«Jo NY 
 
 { See Plate 8 aud ¥\f b4 ) 
 
 after the assaull by the French o| ihp 8* SeptT 185.S. 
 
i 
 
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 Ri 
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Sen. Ex.Boc. N°59. 1? Sess 36*!^ Con^. Delafields Bep* 
 
 H Fort MicKiel 
 
 ti« 64. 
 
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 See Plab 8 
 
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Sen t'.y Doc ^" 5y.l"'Se-.s 36 Con^ Belaiield's Rep^ 
 
 FiA 79 
 
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