LP 339 .N6 P5 1921 Copy 1 IE NIAGARA FALLS HOOL SYSTEM REPORT OF A SURVEY BY THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK PRESS 1921 DllSr-N21-2000(404; \q^\ ^E 2 § ^"H H-^ A REPORT OF THE SURVEY OF THE NIAGARA FALLS /3 SCHOOL SYSTEM ^^^'^ BY THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK PRESS 1921 CWARY OF CON>-v.v -:r .7iHcewen JAN 261923 I REPORT OF THE SURVEY OF THE NIAGARA > FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM INTRODUCTION The study of the Niagara Falls school system was undertaken by the State Department of Education on the request of the Niagara Falls board of education, and with the cordial cooperation of the various civic organizations of the community. In April 1919 a special report was presented to the board of education by their building and grounds committee calling attention to " the pressing need of additional housing facilities for the con- tinually increasing school population." The report emphasized the fact that this need had been recognized for some time ; that the presi- dent of the board had stated a year previously that " for 10 years up to that time the average increase in our population of school age had been approximately 400 pupils." The committee not only made an analysis of the attendance during the years immediately preceding, but endeavored to interpret the figures in terms of the school problem. As an illustration of the careful thought given to the problem by the committee of the board of education we note their discussion of the school registration in relation to the situation in the higher grades : "Theoretically these (total elementary registration) could be divided into eight parts or 862 pupils in each of eight grades. But we have only a little over half that number in the seventh and only a small fraction over a third in the eighth grade, a dropping off of 32 per cent between the seventh and eighth grades. Of course there will be a gradual lessening of numbers in the more advanced grades but seemingly the proportion is too great." The spirit shown by the board of education and their constructive approach to the whole problem not only in their own preliminary study but also in their cooperation with local and state authorities have been most commendable. [5] O THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK On account of their special interest in the building problem a tenta- tive report was made by the State Department of Education to the local board of education early in the fall of 1919 covering the con- dition of the school plant, the probable direction in which expansion should be made, and comparative school costs in cities the size of Niagara Falls. This tentative report with some slight modifications forms chapters 11 and 12 of this more complete study. The larger part of the work covered by the survey was done during the school year 1919-20, with the exception that the measurement of the in- struction and the giving of the standard tests was completed during the fall of 1920. There was unusual cooperation on the part of the superintendents, principals and teaching stafT in every phase of the work. By way of summary statement a few features of the report may be noted. Niagara Falls is a typically cosmopolitan city. Although it has a high percentage of foreign-born whites, this element is largely homogeneous and does not present the social problem found in many communities. The board of education consists of nine members who are appointed by the mayor of the city. The financial control of the school budget rests largely with the board of education. The annual budget is prepared by the board of education and presented to the city commissioners for approAal. Expenditures for school purposes are made under the direct control and supervision of the board of education. The business procedure and office routine in connection witii financial matters is unusually well organized. The details are efficiently demonstrated. Apparently the board of education and the superintendent of schools appreciate that efficient business procedure is essential to sound school administration. The teaching stafl: shows a high percentage of professionally trained teachers. The local school authorities require the completion of an approved two-year professional course for those entering the service in the elementary schools and graduation from an approved four-year college course for those entering service in the high school. The local school authorities have emphasized the importance of a professionally trained teaching staff through the marked increments that have recently been made in the salary schedules for both the elementary and secondary teachers. The elementary course of instruction includes not only so-called common branches but also some special subjects such as music, drawing, industrial arts and physical training. The special subjects are under the direction of the special teachers. The work through- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM / out the grades varied somewhat from recognized standards on account of the reorganization in the course of study and in the super- visory program which had been only partially developed. The apparent outstanding need relates to the reorganization of the work in the higher grades which is already under way through the inaugu- ration of the new intermediate school program. There are six general courses of instruction in the high school, including college entrance, scientific, normal or teacher training, household arts, industrial and manual arts, and commercial. The courses in household arts and manual arts enrolled a relatively small proportion of the student body. The work in these activities has been handicapped, however, by the lack of needed space and equip- ment. In several departments the work would be strengthened by a more definite organization. The congestion due to the large high school enrolment and the limited space without adequate oppor- tunities for special activities or for adequate work in physical educa- tion, undoubtedly accounts in large part for the loose organization found in the high school at the time this study was made. The percentage of retardation in Niagara Falls schools is neither unusually high nor unusually low. A marked feature of the situa- tion, however, is to be noted in that an unusually large percentage of boys and girls leave school as soon as they are beyond the provisions of the compulsory attendance law. This situation is appreciated by the local school authorities. This condition will best be met by the provisions that are already under way for the inauguration of the intermediate school program. The study of the school plant indicates that the school population has rapidly outgrown the present school facilities. This is the out- standing feature of the problem. The rapid growth of the city and the corresponding increase in the school registration from year to year gives ample evidence as to the wisdom of the school authorities and civic organizations in making a thorough study of the present situation. The elementary school buildings as a group are reasonably modern. The board of education has shown a wise policy in giving very con- siderable attention to the need of adequate playground space. Their vision is also evidenced in the large provision which is being made to meet this need in the new plans now under way. Two of the buildings, however, — the Cleveland Street School and Fifth Street School — have probably outlived their period of greatest usefulness. These two buildings, while the oldest in the city, have been used to accommodate the large proportion of the children of the 8 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK seventh and eighth grades. This lack of adequate school facilities for the children of the early adolescent period was an outstanding weakness of the present local school organization. The probable annual increase in the school registration is from 400 to 480. If merely desk space were provided and if the present school buildings were sufficient, this means a new 24-room school building every two years. This wovild leave out of consideration, however, the present serious handicap under which the seventh and eighth grade pupils are working in the two oldest buildings of the city. It would also fail to consider the conditions in the high school where there is already need for additional space and more modern equipment to meet the demands for technical and industrial work. As a result of the preliminary report and the recommendations regarding the intermediate school program, the board of education presented a plan providing for the building of two intermediate or junior high schools extending the present elementary school plant and providing also for a large addition to the present high school for technical and industrial work along the lines of the cosmopolitan or comprehensive high school unit. The city of Niagara Falls, through the active interest of civic groups and public-spirited citizens, carried by a large majority five separate proposals representing a total bond issue of $3,500,000 for the purpose of putting the new school program into effect. Seldom has a city of the State adopted such a constructive and far-reaching educational program. The community is to be commended for its appreciation of the present need and its vision of the great possibility of the future. The State Department of Education is pleased to have had any small part in assisting the community in carrying forward the plans which have resulted in such progressive educational steps. Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education 5 o> $cn> >g REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM THE COMMUNITY Niagara Falls is a city of 50,760 population in the western part of New York on the Niagar river and about 25 miles north of Buffalo. It is known throughout the world on account of the falls, and is visited by thousands of tourists each year. The city is also an important and rapidly developing commercial and industrial center. It has increased approximately 150 per cent in population since 1900. Its population in 1900 was 19,457; in 1905, 26,560; in 1910, 30,445; in 1915, 42,257; and in 1920, 50,760. It is an important railroad center, being located on the New York Central, the Michigan Cen- tral, the Wabash, the Lehigh Valley, and the Grand Trunk railroads. The city was incorporated in 1892, when the two separate villages, Niagara Falls and Suspension Bridge, were consolidated to form the new city. Since the development of power was begun by means of the river, the industrial and commercial growth has been very rapid. Electricity, generated in huge plants, is transmitted over a wide area in western New York, being used east as far as Syracuse. The electro-chemical industries are doubtless the outstanding features of the manufacturing interests. Calcium carbide and carborundum are manufactured in large quantities. Among the other products are chemicals, machinery, foundry products, paper, flour, shredded wheat biscuit, and wood products. The need of adequate educational opportunities in the school sys- tem of such a rapidly growing and industrially important community is self-evident. There must be a vital relationship between the school program and the fundamental arts and activities of a community, if the school is to function as it should in the lives of those in training. The school authorities and the civic organizations of Niagara Falls are not unmindful of this relationship and interdependence. This study of the city school system has been made on the request, and with the full cooperation, of the local authorities. The population of Niagara Falls, according to the census of 1910, was typically cosmopolitan. The native whites of native parentage were 25.4 per cent of the total population. The native whites of foreign or mixed parentage constituted 34.1 per cent of the popula- tion. The foreign-born whites were 39.6 per cent and the negroes .9 per cent. It is apparent that the percentage of native whites of 10 THE UNIVF;RS1TY of the state of new YORK native parentage is unusually low, this percentage for the entire State being 35.4. It is much less than in Utica, Schenectady, Amsterdam, Elmira or Binghamton where similar studies as to school conditions have been made. At the same time the percentage of foreign-born whites is unusually large, this percentage for the State being 29.9 VvOiile for Niagara Falls it is 39.6. Table 1 Niagara Am- Schcnec- Bing- New York Falls sterdam Utica tody hamton Elmira State Native white, native parentage 25.4 33.7 34. S 43.3 62.9 58.4 35.4 Native white, foreign or mixed parentage. 34.1 31.9 36.1 30.7 20.5 26. 33. Foreign-born white .. 39.6 34. 28.6 25.6 15.3 14.1 29.9 Negro .9 .4 .5 .4 1.3 1.4 1.5 Although Niagara Falls has the largest percentage of foreign- born whites of any city of the group, an analysis of this shows that approximately one-half of this group is composed of Canadians, English, Irish or Scotch. The Canadians alone represent one-third of the foreign-born whites in Niagara Falls. In a sense therefore the group is homogeneous and does not present a serious foreign problem such as is found for instance in Amsterdam or in Utica. Ir is ver}' true that there are large groups of non-English-speaking foreigners. There are groups of Russians, Poles and Italians that present large problems in the educational program and in the civic life of the community. At the moment the analysis of the census figures for 1920 are not available. We have therefore presented the analysis of the popula- tion groups in Niagara Falls and in several other cities for purposes of comparison, using the census tables of 1910. It is quite probable that the percentage composition of the population of the various com- munities has not been changed in any wide degree during the past decade. The diverse character of the population and the unique industrial and commercial activities present large but interesting problems to tl'iose responsible for the educational program of the city school sys- tem. At the same time the casual observer may note and the financial reports of the government show that Niagara Falls is a prosperous community with a per capita valuation of real property considerably above the average for cities of the same size. The interest of all groups of citizens in the continued development of better educational c>pportunities insures not only a better citizenship but also continued industrial and commercial growth. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 11 ORGANIZATION The board of education of Niagara Falls consists of nine members, three of whom are appointed annually by the mayor of the city. The term of service which was formerly three, is now five years, since the new cities law became effective in 1917. The functions of the board of education are defined by chapter 786 of the Laws of 1917, which became article 33- A of the Education Law and states that " the board of education is a corporate body and a majority of the board is a quorum for doing business." It has the power to perform the usual duties imposed on boards of education which are enumerated in the statute referred to as follows : " the power to create or abolish such positions as may be necessary; to appoint a superintendent of schools, principals, teachers or other employees ; to have the care and control of all school property ; to purchase apparatus, equipment or other necessary supplies ; to estab- lish and maintain schools, libraries, playgrounds, social centers or reading rooms ; to authorize courses of study ; to determine the text- books to be used ; and to prescribe necessary regulations and by-laws." The organization of the board recognizes the principles laid down in the statute. Although chapter 300 of the Laws of 1904, which related to the " union district of the city of Niagara Falls " was repealed by the uniform cities act of 1917, certain provisions were continued, those having to do (1) with the appointment of members of the board of education, and (2) with the raising and expenditure of funds for the support of the public schools. Reference has already been made to the manner in which appointments are made to the board of education. On or before the first day of April of each year the board of edu- cation is required to prepare a statement of the funds necessary for the school year beginning August 1st following. This budget is pre- sented to the city council consisting of five commissioners, and if approved by a majority, is filed with the city clerk and becomes the school budget for the ensuing year. The city council may hold the budget as submitted by the board of education for 20 days. If the city council disapproves any item in the budget, it is returned to the board of education, which may revise the budget or pass it over 12 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the council's objection by the approval of three- fourths of the mem- bership. If at the end of this period it has been neither approved nor rejected, it is considered approved and filed with the city clerk. The city council is required under the statute to include the estimates in the city tax and assessment roll. These amounts are collected by the city treasurer as one of the divisions of the city budget. They are credited to the board of education and paid out only on orders signed by the clerk and the president of the board, and charged to the funds designated in the budget estimates as prepared by the board of education. The expenditure of funds during the fiscal year for purposes con- nected with the public school organization is entirely within the dis- cretion of the board of education. If it is found necessary to purchase a school site or an addition to a school site, to erect a new school building, the board of education is required to call a special election of qualified voters of the district for this purpose. If such an election for raising funds for the erec- tion of school buildings or purchasing school sites is not held in con- nection with the tax election called by the city council, the board of education may designate the polling places for the election for this purpose in the same manner as other tax elections are held. If the proposal for the erection of a school building is approved by a major- ity of the electors, the board of education has the authority to au- thorize the issuance of bonds or certificates of indebtedness in the form and payable at such time as it may be prescribed for the sum authorized. It may be observed that the manner of raising and distributing school funds was not changed for the city of Niagara Falls by chap- ter 786 of the Laws of 1917, which amended the general education law in its relation to the cities of the State. Under the statutory provisions, the board of education of Niagara Falls is in large part free from the control of other city departments in financial matters. The city council, as has already been noted, passes upon the budget estimates of the board of education. To a large degree, however, the school authorities are free in the financial management of the schools, as expenditures are made under their direct control and supervision. This policy agrees with the best thought governing sound administrative procedure in school matters. It is occasionally found that the control of school budgets by local municipal authori- ties has prevented the carrying forward of a progressive educational program. In order that the schools may be conducted in a manner to meet the educational needs of the community, control in financial REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 13 as well as educational matters must be in the hands of school authori- ties. It is impossible to diverse financial and educational control. Without financial control there can be no educational control. In educational as well as in other activities the control of the funds car- ries with it the control of policy. The best school organizations in the country are governed by a board of education having full re- sponsibility not only in educational but also in financial matters. While in Niagara Falls there is a review of estimates by the city council, the control of financial matters is in large measure in the hands of the school authorities. The conditions in this respect are far more satisfactory than in many municipalities. This doubtless explains in part the progress which has been made in Niagara Falls in insuring a progressive educational program for the city. Board of Education The membership of the board of education has been reasonably continuous. During the past nine years, as the records show, there have been only 22 different members on the board. The average term of service of these 22 members has been 33<4 years. With a membership of nine and a term of service of 3 years, this indicates a permanency of tenure that is commendable. Of the members of the board in office in December 1919, two had served during the entire 9-year period or longer, one had served 6 years, one 5 years, two 4 years, one 3 years ; and two, 2 years. The average term of service of these members has been 5 years. Such continued service is helpful and even essential in working out a constructive program, and at the same time there has been the advantage of new interests and points of view through the contact of new members. At no time during this period has the organization of the board been sud- denly changed through any large number of resignations resulting in new appointments. The regular meetings of the board are held on the first Friday of each month. It is to be expected that adjourned and special meet- ings will increase the number of sessions necessary during the year. During the years from 1911 to 1919 inclusive the number of board meetings during each year varied from 16 to 26, the average num- ber of meetings being 19. The number of sessions each year were as follows : 1910— 18 meetings • 1915 — 16 meetings 1911 — 18 meetings 1916 — 21 m.eetings 1912 — 21 meetings 1917 — 22 meetings 1913 — 19 meetings 1918 — 26 meetings 1914—17 meetings 1919— 9 meetings to May 23d 14 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The official proceedings of the lioard of education for the past 10 years have been read with care. It is apparent that the time and attention of the board have been directed constantly to the larger matter of school policy and the development of the school plant. As an illustration of this point of view on the part of education may be noted the action taken in April 1910 in appointing a committee to investigate the need of additional grounds around the school build- ings, and what should be done in regard to rebuilding the Fifth Street, Cleveland Avenue, and Whitney Avenue schools, or any of. the schools. This item early in the first year's minutes read is char- acteristic of the vision which the board has maintained during the past decade with regard to the necessity of ample school grounds and an adequate school plant. Many illustrations could be given of this attention to ]:)layground space. On the offer of property owners, space back of the Twenty-second Street school was rented for two years and then purchased as a permanent playground. The board investigated the purchase of property adjacent to the Thirteenth Street school, which was later acquired. Again the board consid- ered the advisability of playgrounds at the Third Street school, which were opened shortly after. The city authorities cooperated with the school board in endeavoring to secure a public school athletic field but the plan did not work out successfully. The frequent repetition of items of this character with reference to the various buildings indicates the large interest which the board has given to adequate school sites and playground space. During this decade not only were former sites enlarged, but new sites were purchased and sev- eral buildings erected. There has apparently been an educational consciousness on the part of the people of the community, as fre- quently i^etitions have been presented relative to progressive school policies, and the j)ublic has consistently supported the board of edu- cation when tax levies are voted for school sites or new buildings. The progressive attitude of the board of education and of various civic organizations has been evidenced through the steps that were taken to acquire the land adjacent to the high school. In this way a larger center has been established which gives a rather unusual setting to the high school grounds. The action of the board in re- (juesting the city authorities to purchase this property indicates the foresight that has been used in endeavoring to secure ample play- grounds or to enlarge the free space which was of limited areas. The board of education gives official recognition to the school ath- letic association. Many boards of education might do well to follow a similar policy. An athletic council under the direction of the board TWENTY-SECOND STREET SCHOOL Kindergarten and first seven grades TWENTY-FOURTH STREET SCHOOL A new elementary school, with modern equipment and with ample playground REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 15 has been established. This is treated at length under the discussion of the school activities. The following summary of various activities on the part of the board of education during the past few years as noted from the minutes of the board, indicates the progressive spirit that has marked the development of the school organization. Early consideration was given to the departmentalizing of the work in the higher grammar grades ; to the extension of the manual train- ing course in the high school to include forge work; to evening schools ; to the curriculum and compensation of teachers. Millinery classes were established in connection with domestic science course ; " special help " rooms were organized in certain grade schools ; den- tal inspection was introduced into city schools in December 1912; vacation schools were discussed in 1913 and later established; a medical inspector of schools was appointed in 1913 ; room was granted to Italians for night school; a high school librarian was appointed in 1915; in 1917 the positions of city health officer and medical in- spector of schools were consolidated. The board has also consid- ered possible methods of relieving congestion, such as the Gary plan, lengthening the term for school ; offering courses for foreign-born ; petition from Italians for help; discontinuance of school fraternities. The real estate board appeared before the board of education to approve an extensive building plan to increase the number of schools. A preliminary study of the situation was made and the board asked for a survey by the State Department of Education. The city is most fortunate in the high type of representative that has been found on the board of education, including in its member- ship the leading men in the professional, commercial and industrial activities of the community. The board of education is not only a representative body but works in close cooperation with the various civic organizations of the city. It is essential in any community activity that the representative boards keep closely in touch with the public. In this way the board more correctl}' interprets the thought of the community, and the com- munity in turn is constantly being educated as to the needs of the situation. This seems to be the kind of cooperation between the board of education and the public that is observed in Niagara Falls. The board of education is actively endeavoring to acquaint the people with the needs of the schools and with the larger educational demands of the day. In turn, the chamber of commerce and other civic organizations are giving the best cooperation. The results of this work are in evidence through the larger school program now under way. 16 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The Superintendent of Schools The superintendent of schools is the executive head of the school system under the direction of the board of education. The provi- sions of the statute^ relative to the function of the superintendent of schools state that " the superintendent of schools is the chief execu- tive officer of the board and the educational system." It is his duty to prepare the content of each course of study; to recommend text- books to be used; to supervise all supervisors, principals, teachers, attendance officers, janitors and other persons employed in the man- agement of the schools ; and to exercise general supervision over all educational activities and interests under the direction and control of the board of education. Under this act teachers and other mem- bers of the teaching staff are appointed by the board of education upon the recommendation of the superintendent of schools. The superintendent of schools is very properly given full authority by the board of education for the executive and administrative func- tions of the position. He is the executive representative of the board of education. This is true in fact as well as in name. Business matters as well as instructional matters come under his supervision. There is no differentiation between the educational *nd financial dele- gation of authority. Both of these function through the superin- tendent of schools. The two can not be divorced. Sound adminis- tration requires that the financial policy be based on the educational needs. Niagara Falls is fortunate in that this fundamental theory is thoroughly recognized. In business matters the detail is handled by the clerk, but no steps are taken without the approval of the superintendent. In all matters of administration, educational as well as financial, the superintendent is the executive representative of the board and these functions are exercised with tireless energy. As the city and the educational system grow, more of the detail must be delegated to competent assistants. The Clerk of the Board The clerk of the board of education acts in a double capacity. He is the secretary of the board of education and also the executive clerk under the direction of the superintendent in charge of the financial and business affairs of the board. The by-laws of the board state that it is the duty of the clerk to notify the members of all meetings through personal notice or by mail. The clerk calls special meetings on the written request of any three members. The clerk is required 1 Chapter 786, Laws of 1917. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 17 to attend all meetings of the board and to keep a record of the pro- ceedings. He is required to file in the office of the board " all reports, resolutions, bids of contractors, contracts, accounts, vouchers and other papers and documents." The clerk functions in a somewhat larger sense than is indicated by the statement of duties in the by-laws. He assists the superin- tendent in looking after the condition of buildings and grounds. In a school system of this size, the clerk may very properly carry some of these duties and assist the superintendent in the details of admin- istration. It would be wise to modify slightly the rules of the board to indicate more clearly the functions of the clerk as an assistant to the superintendent in connection with business matters. Committees of the Board There are eight standing committees of the board of education. The committees, each consisting of three members, are: finance, teachers, buildings, grounds and janitors, supplies, course of study and manual training, libraries, rules, regulations and printing, and high school. Of the committees mentioned, the finance committee is in some respects the most important. It has supervision of the financial ac- counts. The finance committee is also responsible for the estimates of the amounts to be appropriated which are submitted to the board in preparation of the annual budget which is adopted by the board and forwarded to the city board of estimate and apportionment. This committee has a distinct function for the larger matters of audit, budget estimates and general oversight of matters of finance. The details of purchasing, however, and the responsibility for the handling of the routine of matters of finance should be delegated to the administrative representatives of the board. In fact, the board of education recognizes this principle in its procedure and has prop- erly placed such responsibility on its executive representatives. The formal rules of the board state that " it shall be the duty of the finance committee to examine all accounts and demands against the board, particularly as to the authority for and the correctness of the same and report thereon at each regular meeting and at such other times as the board may direct 4 to have supervision of the finan- cial accounts of the board and to require the same to be properly kept in good business form so as to enable each member to ascertain at once the condition of each fund ; to determine the fund from which any account or demand shall be paid and report at each regu- lar meeting all accounts and demands audited by it since the last 18 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK report, with a brief statement of the purposes for which expenditure is made." This indicates the wise check which is made on the handhng of all school funds. It very properly gives the finance committee wide authority and discretion as to the use of the school moneys. At the same time, it might be expected from the literal observance of such a rule that the meetings of the board would be largely taken up with specific authorization for expenditures and with the approvals of petty accounts. This is not the case, however. Books or general supplies provided for in the general budget, the ])urchase of which is authorized in the general list of books and sup- plies for the year, are ordered from time to time by the clerk of the board on the approval of the superintendent of schools without fur- ther action on the part of the board of education. This is one illus- tration showing the tendency on the part of the board to delegate authority to its executive representatives. It is further noted that the separate accounts to be paid at a regular meeting are audited by the clerk of the board, approved by the superintendent of schools, and submitted to the board in itemized form followed by the affidavit of .the superintendent and clerk. Such a plan not only places respon- sibility directly on the administrative representative, but insures greater efficiency than where a committee of three board members act in a routine manner on matters with which they can not be closely in touch. There is the constant check of the board's action on the clerk and the superintendent. Moreover, any item involving an ex- penditure of over $50 is ordered only after bids are received and the board has approved. It is observed, therefore, that the routine mat- ters relating to the purchase of petty supplies have been properly delegated to the administrative officers of the board. This illustrates in general the manner in which the committees function. A teachers committee is required, under the rules, to pass upon the qualifications of applicants for positions and to recommend to the board teachers for employment. The rules provide properly that no teacher shall be appointed or promoted whose qualifications are not approved by the superintendent. The committee is also required on or before the first regular meeting of the board in May of each year to prepare and recommend a list of teachers with the salary of each for the ensuing year. This committee might very properly be dis- continued. The responsibility for recommending teachers falls upon the superintendent of schools. This has been recognized for many years as sound educational administration. It is now recognized in this State by law. Salary schedules are also fixed in part by statute REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 19 and in part by the rules and regulations of the board. There is no reason, therefore, why a special committee of the board needs to con- sider these matters. The recommendations of the superintendent should go directly to the board and the board should act in the matter as a committee of the whole. The building committee is responsible for the general supervision of temporary improvements and repairs to the school buildings which may be authorized by the board. This committee is required to report at each regular meeting, and at such other times as may be necessary, relative to its proceedings, the contracts entered into and the progress of work since the last meeting. The committee is also required to direct the preparation of plans and specifications and to have super- vision over the construction of new buildings, additions or improve- ments. It is believed to be unwise to hold the members of the board of education in a rapidly growing city — who are representative men with large personal or professional interests — responsible for the details of repairs or other improvements to the school buildings. These are very properly duties which should be delegated to the representatives of the board. A superintendent of buildings, under the direction of the superintendent of schools, may well be given administrative responsibility in such matters. We are advised that a superintendent of buildings has recently been appointed who will attend to many of the details of this work under the direction of the superintendent of schools. With an efficient superintendent of build- ings, questions of minor repairs to the school buildings should be delegated by the board to the superintendent of buildings who will act under the general direction of the superintendent of schools. Such a change in the administrative responsibility will relieve the board of the necessity of having a special committee for the purpose of attending to these matters. The superintendent of schools may report to the board from month to month the more important items of repair which have been given attention since the last meeting, and will ask at each meeting for the necessary authorization — which should be given by the board — to cover larger matters which need its consideration. A special committee on grounds and janitors has had charge of the care and improvement of the school grounds. This is, in a sense, illustrative of the tendency to increase the number of subcommittees. Ir should not be inferred that this committee has not done a very definite piece of constructive work. The school grounds in Niagara P'alls have had attention, and as will be noted in another chapter, the board has been active in enlarging the school grounds for play- 20 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK f;rounds and recreational purposes. At the same time, it is very unusual, even when a board of education has several subcommittees, to find such a further subdivision as is found here, that is, one com- mittee on school buildings and the other on grounds and janitors. It would almost appear as though the janitors belong more definitely under the building committee than under the committee having to do with the grounds. This should not be interpreted as any criticism on the activities of the committees, as they undoubtedly performed tlieir functions well. At the same time, the important problem of providing" adequate playground facilities and of seeing that the grounds about the school buildings have proper attention for land- scape as well as for playground purposes may well be considered in general meeting except as the details in connection with the various problems are handled by the administrative officers of the board. The superintendent should be relieved somewhat of the detailed attention which he has given to the janitorial staff. In this matter the superintendent has recognized the great importance of clean, well-kept buildings and the necessity of checking these conditions closely. In no other way can efficiency be insured. Janitors are required to report every week on the conditions of their building, and these reports come directly to the superintendent of schools. The effect of this supervision is apparent. Other superintendents might profit by this plan. As the school plant increases, however, which will doubtless be rapid on account of the growth in population, the superintendent will be unable to supervise personally all these phases of the work. The board has recognized this need and the new superintendent of buildings gives his entire time to the upkeep, repair and general conditions of the school plant. The new buildings now under way or in prospect will make such a position even more essential. The purchasing of supplies is in the hands of the supply committee. The rules provide that the supply committee shall purchase and sup- ply the schools with textbooks, fuel, furniture and various other articles required for use in the schools when authorized by the board. As has already been stated, the purchasing of routine supplies other than those covered by the general estimates for the year and ordered at the beginning of the year are handled by the clerk under the gen- eral direction of the superintendent of schools. Items which repre- sent an expenditure of less than $50 are ordered by the clerk of the board on the direction of the superintendent. Bids are received on items in excess of $50 and authorization for the purchase is made by the board. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 21 The administrative procedure by which suppHes are ordered is organized so efficiently that it is deserving of more than mere men- tion. Under the general direction of the superintendent of schools the following form is used by the clerk of the board of education in ordering supplies or other materials as they may be needed, whether the order has been authorized by the board of education or is of a routine character. ORIGINAL DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NIAGARA FALLS, N. Y. Order No. 4234 Niagara Falls, N. Y.,. M. Address Please enter our order for the following: Ship Via Ship When. Quantity DESCRIPTION Price . ! 1 1 BOARD OF EDUCATION Clerk CONDITIONS INVOICE must be rendered on inclosed form and properly executed. Accounts are settled on the first Friday of each month. Bills must be presented by the last business day of the month. This order is issued in triplicate. The duplicate and triplicate are in the same form except that at the top of the duplicate are the words " duplicate — this copy must accompany invoice," and at the top of 22 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the triplicate are the words " tripHcate — this copy must be retained b}' shipper." The original is white, the duplicate yellow and the triplicate pink. There is, of course, a decided advantage in having the duplicate and the triplicate in different color from the original. Each copy is signed by the clerk of the board. With the order is inclosed a voucher form on which all bills to the board of education must be rendered. The voucher is in the usual form in which bills are prepared and at the bottom is space on which the shipper must make affidavit to the account as rendered. On the back of the voucher must be entered by the clerk the name, order number, amount, fund and date audited. There is also space for the signature of the clerk, certifying that the account has been examined and audited, and also space for the signature of the super- intendent indicating his approval of the bill. This illustrates the point already made that many of the details of purchasing supplies and auditing accounts have been properly delegated by the board of education "and even by the finance committee to their executive rep- resentatives. Formerly the auditing of each bill was done by the committee. It was then necessary for the committee to examine and approve each bill as rendered. The detail of this procedure has been very properly placed upon the clerk, and the approval of the super- intendent required. The clerk of the board, after having examined the list of bills to be presented at a given meeting (and these bills having received the approval of the superintendent), prepares a statement of the accounts payable. The procedure which has been established by the board of educa- tion in order to provide the necessary machinery for properly check- ing the details of all business matters has many excellent features and in many respects might well be copied by boards of education where no such definite administrative procedure has been inaugurated. The supply room is in the high school building in connection with the administrative ofiice of the board of education. It is in gener-al charge of the clerk of the board. There are two requisition forms used by the principals which differentiate between general supplies and books. It will be observed that this form must be signed by the principal and approved by the superintendent before the requisition can be filled. There is the further check of receipt of the articles as one form of the blank must be detached and signed by the principal cer- tifying to the effect that the articles had been received in good con- dition. The supply requisition is on a blue form ; the book requisi- tion on a yellow form. The use of such a requisition form necessi- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 23 DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NIAGARA FALLS BOOK REQUISITION 191... Please send to School Fill in Both Parts of Blank Am't Wanted Do not use this column NO. SENT Approved. Principal Sup't DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NIAGARA FALLS SUPPLY REQUISITION 191.. Department of Education Niagara Falls Book Requisition Date of Requisition 191... School Do not use this column NO. SENT Please send to School Am't Wanted Am't on Do Not Hand Fill This Principal Approved- Sup't Fill in Both Parts of Blank, Separating School Supplies from Janitor's Supplies Received the Above Articles in Good Condition Prin. 191.... Department of Education Niagara Falls Supply Requisition Date of Requisition 191.... School Do Not Fill This Received the Above Articles in Good Condition Principal .191.... 24 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK tates a knowledge on the part of the principal as to the amount needed, based upon the needs of the school. It further gives the clerk a very definite check on the amount of any particular material that is being used in any given school. Too often there is no sys- tematic procedure in handling the general supplies used in the schools. This can not be said of Niagara Falls. The forms in use provide an excellent blank for keeping a constant check on the general school supplies and furnish a permanent and continuing record of the needs of the various schools. The only suggestion offered in this connec- tion is that probably as the school population increases and the respon- sibilities of the superintendent of schools become even greater than at present, several details of administration, such as the approval of the requisition forms mentioned above, will have to be delegated still further to the clerk, who may well be made responsible in such matters. It is apparent from an examination of the printed rules and regu- lations of the board, which outline in detail the duties of the various standing committees, that in the administration of the school organi- zation many of the duties nominally assigned to one or another com- mittee have been in large part delegated to their executive represen- tatives, the superintendent of schools and the clerk of the board. In other words, the board recognizes the modern tendency in educa- tional administration, which has in large part eliminated the detail work of committee assignments through the placing of larger re- sponsibility on the executive officers of the board. As the board functions in large part as a whole rather than through committees, serious consideration might well be given to the wisdom of doing away entirely with all committees. There is large responsibility on the board as a deliberative body, which must determine as the repre- sentatives of the city school district the educational policies to be carried out. These large matters are for the consideration, not of the members as individuals, not of committees, but of the board as a unit. This larger conception of the board of education as a legis- lative body has made more important their responsibility for general policies and the development of the school program over a period of years. Notwithstanding the number of committees provided for in the by-laws, the board of education of Niagara Falls is not bound by committee procedure as is true in many cities. Their important and proper functions are recognized and performed as a unit. This is well illustrated through the recent study which the board made looking toward the development of the school plant and the enlarge- ment of the educational opportunities for the children of the city, in REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 25 connection with which chapters 11 and 12 of this report were prepared and submitted to the board in advance. The committee organization, which is largely nominal, could be eliminated without embarrassment. Summary The board of education of Niagara Falls consists of nine members who are appointed by the mayor of the city. The term of service is 5 years. The annual budget is prepared by the board of education on or before the first day of April each, year and presented to the city commissioners for approval. The board of education may pass any item over the objection of the city commissioners by the approval of three- fourths of its membership. To a large degree the school authorities are free from municipal control in the financial management of the schools, as expenditures are made under their direct control and supervision. This policy agrees with the best thought governing sound administrative pro- cedure in school matters. This doubtless explains in part the pro- gress which has been made in Niagara Falls in insuring a progressive educational program -for the city. The city is fortunate in the high type of representative that has l)een found on the board of education, including in its membership the leading men in the professional, commercial and industrial activi- ties of the community. The term of service of the members has been reasonably continuous. In all matters of administration, educational as well as financial, the superintendent is the executive representa- tive of the board. Sound administration requires that the financial policy be based on the educational needs. Niagara Falls is fortunate in that this important theory is recognized. The clerk functions in a somewhat larger sense than the term would indicate. He is an assistant to the superintendent in connection with buildings and finan- cial matters. His work is definitely organized and the rules of the board might well be modified slightly to indicate more clearly his functions. There are eight standing committees of the board of education : finance, teachers, buildings, grounds and janitors, supplies, course of study and manual training, libraries, rules, regulations and print- ing", and high school. In the administration of the school organization many of the duties nominally assigned to one committee or another have been in large part delegated to their executive representatives — the superintendent of schools .and the clerk of the board. The board in practice there- 26 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK fore recognizes the modern tendency in educational administration which has in large part eliminated the detail work of committee assignments through the placing of larger responsibilities on the executive officers of the board. As the board functions in large part as a whole rather than through committees, serious consideration might well be given to the wisdom of doing away entirely with all committees. Notwithstanding the number of committees provided for in the by-laws, the board of education of Niagara Falls is not bound by committee procedure as is true in many cities. The business procedure and office routine in connection with the purchasing of supplies and the ordering of materials is unusually well organized. These details are very efficiently administered and the procedure might well be followed in other school organizations. Effi- cient business procedure is as essential in school administration as in other activities. It is too often given little or no attention. This work is effectively administered in Niagara Falls. The board of edu- cation is actively endeavoring to acquaint the people with the needs of the schools and with the larger educational demands of the day. In turn, the chamber of commerce and other civic organizations are giving the best of cooperation. The results of this work are in evi- dence through the larger school program now under way. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 27 SUPERVISION The program for supervision is one of the most important features of a city school system. In a rural school the teacher is in a sense not only teacher, but also principal and supervisor. In a village school the principal is the supervisor. In the larger unit, hov^ever, where there are thousands of children and hundreds of teachers, there must be thorough and efficient supervision, vi^hich requires specially trained persons to assist in directing the educational work of the schools. The keynote of a successful school system lies in its supervision. The function of the supervisory staff in a system the size of Niagara Falls is to organize and to put into successful operation a clearly defined program of studies, closely articulating in every part from tlie lowest to the highest grades, with careful attention to the relative time balance in this program and with a carefully worked out scheme for the use of the material of instruction. With such a general policy established, the technic of instruction, including the organization of classwork, the procedure from grade to grade, the consideration of individual interests, the correlation and the motivation of work as illustrated phases of supervision, lie in the hands of this supervisory staff under the immediate direction of the head of the school system. It is gratifying to find in Niagara Falls the evidence of an intelli- gent and progressive scheme for the direction of the schools of the city. This supervision has concerned itself not only with the details of administration, the machinery for operating a school system, those elements of business administration which characterize a well-ordered office system, but in a notable degree there has been evidenced here a careful direction and guidance of actual instruction. The selection of teachers, the introduction into the curriculum of modern features, the proper time allotment for divisions of a subject, the study of the problem of program-making, the use of mimeographed outlines pre- pared by the superintendent and by his assistants for pupils both in study and in recitation, the personal consideration of pupils' pro- gress and of promotions, are among the many indications that the superintendent knows personally the characteristics and the work of his teachers both in the grades and in the high school more intimately. 28 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK and directs their efforts more minutely when needed and more intelH- gently than is the case in many places. It is probable that with the continued growth of the city it will be impossible for him, or any superintendent, in the future to give the close personal attention to the details of instruction that he has given in the past. It will be necessary for him to carry forward his supervisory functions with respect to instruction more and more through associate supervisors. This is now being done in part through the various supervisors of instruction. The present organization of the supervisory stafif is as follows: a director of primary grades, a director of extension work, six super- visors of special subjects and thirteen special teachers working under the direction of these supervisors. It is natural that in a city with so many diversified industries and with the opportunities indicated for training in vocational subjects, the school system should reflect these special activities. This is evidenced in the relatively large number of supervisors and special teachers which Niagara Falls now has. These supervisors, together with their assistants — who are more largely concerned with actual teaching than with super- vision — have developed in an admirable way this phase of the school work. The work of the six supervisors is threefold in character. It in- cludes (1) the organization of courses and of material of instruc- tion, (2) observation of actual teaching, and (3) personal classroom instruction (model lessons). The relative time distribution between these three phases of their work varies. One supervisor may find it necessary to give greater attention to the preparation of outlines or to group conferences, while another prefers to direct the teachers through the observation of model lessons. Grades There are in Niagara Falls thirteen'^ elementary school principals. Of the thirteen, two are college graduates (these two are also normal school graduates), three are normal school graduates, and the remain- ing eight are high school graduates. Three of the principals have taken from one to three summer courses each, and three others have taken from one to four summer courses each at Chautauqua. Six of the thirteen principals hold no higher certificate than a first grade, which is no longer issued but was granted on examination 1 One other elementary school has been opened since data were secured. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 29 without any professional requirement. Three of those holding these first grade certificates have had no professional training whatever. Two others have had no professional training except methods in training class. The teaching experience of these principals ranges from 7 years to 36 years. The average number of years' experience of the group is 26 years. Ten of the thirteen principals have taught from 24 to 36 years, an average teaching experience of 29 years. Table 2 Principal's experience Years in Total years present position Other experience teaching experience Principal A . B. C. D. E. F. G. H. J. K. L. M. N. Average .. . . 2 2 3 7 9 13 18 21 9 13 14 25 6 10 5 9 15 17 16 14 10 7 20 16 17 10 30 15 7 11 18 24 25 27 28 28 29 29 31 35 36 25 The long-continued service of the elementary school principals is indicative of a permanency of tenure which should be conducive to professional growth. Teaching is rapidly becoming a scientific profession. There is a science of teaching. To insure the use of this scientific material in the classroom there must be a leadership which is thoroughly familiar with the rapid development of professional thought during recent years. The leadership in each school is measured by the principal. Occasionally these positions are looked upon as the soft berths in the elementary school organization. Where this is true the entire school v.nll suffer from the lack of progressive leadership. There are few positions which require more constant effort in keeping in touch with the development of educational thought than the principalship of an elementary school. Here and there in any organization will be found teachers thoroughly alive and keen to sense present needs and 30 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK to make use of modern methods. To make possible united effort of this character and to arouse the professional enthusiasm of every teacher there must be the inspiring leadership of the principal. Many of the principals are doing excellent supervisory work, and a commendable spirit throughout the school system is marked. This is due we believe largely to the progressive spirit and active interest in every phase of the school work that is constantly shown by the superintendent of schools. More of this responsibility should be car- ried by the school principals. Principals should be doing original work in studying their peculiar school problems. Too often elemen- tary school principals become narrow in their work and permit themselves to fall into a daily routine of duties, important it is true, but mechanical in character, which adds little to the life and growth of the school. Few school positions offer a wider field for constant study of live educational problems than the elementary school prin- cipalship. To make the most of such a position one must keep in close touch with the developments in modern educational thought. The principals are responsible for the supervision of school units ranging from an enrolment of 138 pupils in the Maple Avenue school to 895 pupils in the Cleveland Avenue School. The enrolment and the average daily attendance in the elementary schools are given in the table for the purpose of noting the amount of detail work which must be done by the principal in these schools. Table 3 Enrolment in elementary schools Average daily Number School Enrolment attendance of teachers Cleveland Avenue 895 855 28 Fifth Street 816 760 24 Twenty-fourth Street 625 568 15 Thirteenth Street 580 532 14 Whitney Avenue 534 486 13 - Twenty-second Street 523 446 13 Tenth Street 492 .... 13 Ferry Avenue 472 431 12 Sugar Street 383 368 10 Ashland Avenue 362 331 11 Center Avenue 362 342 10 Third Street 220 203 6 Maple Avenue 138 125 4 Enrolment per teacher varies from 2)2 to 41 Average attendance per teacher varies from 30 to 38 High school 960 .... 40 Enrolment per teacher in high school is 24 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 31 A large elementary school is one of the most important institutions in any community. The product which it is constantly turning out is beyond value. Scientific methods should govern its organization and administration. This is quite as important as a superior teaching staff in the classroom. In answer to an inquiry as to the number of hours a day given to classroom supervision and to ofifice duties, it was found that the time given to supervision varies widely. If the statements given are cor- rect, the principal of the smallest school gives the greatest number of hours daily to supervision. This may be quite true as the clerical and routine office tasks must necessarily be much lighter in the smaller school. The average number of hours a day given by the principals to supervision is 3, and an average of 2 hours daily is given to office duties. Undoubtedly additional time is given to school work which does not appear in this distribution. The amount of clerical work which must be done by the elemen- tary school principal is a serious problem. Some of this work may be useless and not worth doing. There are also additional special tasks and compilations which would be of great value and impor- tance in measuring the progress of pupils which oftentimes are not done because of lack of time or of definite objectives. The clerical work to be done should be carefully evaluated and some plan worked out whereby some clerical assistance could be provided. In two large schools the kindergarten teacher gives some assistance. In all the other schools there is no clerical help. The high school principal has the full time of one clerk, and an assistant for a portion of the time. If a principal is qualified professionally for his work his time is too valuable to be given to routine clerical work. A clerk at a clerk's salary should be assigned to the clerical duties. If the principal is qualified only for a clerical job, he should be given a clerk's salary, and one trained for educational work appointed as principal. A pos- sible solution might be to adjust the clerical work in the principal's office in the different elementary schools so that two or three clerks, trained in the special duties, might be able to do the general clerical work for all the elementary school principals. This suggestion may not be the best. It would appear, however, that some clerical assist- ance is essential. This is especially true in the large schools. A prin- cipal of a large elementary school should be able to give the greater part of his time to the vital educational problems of his school and community. 32 • THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Meetings and Conferences An indication of the type of leadership in the principals is shown by the character and frequency of teachers' meetings. There is no standard procedure in this matter. One principal states that he has a teachers' meeting every Monday afternoon. The practice in the other schools varies. One principal states that he has sometimes three a month and again only one a month. Another states " about one in two months," etc. There may be no relation between the lack of definite meetings of the teachers of the different buildings, under the direction of the principal, and the lack of professional growth on the part of the principals through summer session work. One is compelled, how- ever, to note the two facts side by side. The conditions observed do not indicate a strong professional spirit on the part of the principals. During the year a series of conferences has been held in which the reorganization of the elementary course of study and general methods of class procedure have been under consideration. These conferences have consisted of committees of teachers appointed by the superin- tendent for this special study. It is apparent that the work has been undertaken with enthusiasm and the various groups are accomplish- ing a very important work for the schools of the city. Further refer- ence to the work of these groups and some features of their recom- mendation are given in the chapter on the course of study and instruction in the elementary grades. The impression was gained that the teachers' meetings held by the principals are called for the most part for the purpose of inform- ing teachers with regard to general instructions, such as those given out by the superintendent of schools, and for the discussion of other matters of a general character. A few principals state that in the teachers' meetings they discussed special matters pertaining to the structural work of the schools, that this follows and is based on the observation of the work in the schoolroom. It is to be noted, how- ever, that only one principal states that a professional book or topics of a professional character were at times taken up for discussion at the teachers' conferences. It is significant to note here in brief that the teaching staff through conferences and group meetings takes an active part in organizing and planning, with the cooperation of the superintendent of schools, the instructional work of the schools. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 33 Supervisor of Primary Grades The work of the first, second and third grades is under the general direction of the primary supervisor, who endeavors to visit each teacher once each month, but more frequently when a teacher is new or in need of special assistance. The supervisor of primary grades is directly responsible for the work in reading, language, spelling and numbers. The other subjects are looked after by the supervisors of special subjects. Group meetings of the primary teachers are held once each month, at which outlines are discussed and explained, type lessons are pre- sented by the supervisor, modern methods are discussed, and indi- vidual teachers are invited to present methods and devices they have found helpful. Conferences with individual teachers are held in their buildings or in the office by appointment. Type lessons are also pre- sented occasionally by the supervisor in the classroom. At least once during the year a type lesson is observed in each subject. One of the plans now under way is the organization of committees in the different grade groups to plan problems to be worked out dur- ing the year. From time to time the teachers contribute games for drill which they have found helpful. These are typewritten and dis- tributed among the teachers. During the past two years stress has been laid on the subjects of reading and language, and the necessity of closely correlating the work in these two subjects. Excellent use is made of rhymes, stories and songs. Emphasis is placed on good articulation and pronuncia- tion, as necessary to good reading, and careful attention is given to phonics. Every effort is made toward motivation of the work. The habit of observation is trained from the first in such a way that the con- nection between the school and the home is felt. Silent reading is emphasized. As the work advances more time is spent on actual reading, the phonetic work being given in separate periods. Greater emphasis is placed on thought-getting and thought-giving. Supple- mentary books are used freely. Many school library books have recently been added to the equipment of the grade rooms so that the schools are now well equipped with supplementary reading material. Beginning with the third grade some books are sent from the public library. The work in these primary grades is efficiently directed. Here is every evidence of thorough supervision. As an indication of the correlation of subjects it was observed that occasionally simple arith- metic problems are used to intensif}' the interest and test the accuracy 34 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK in reading. Reproduction and dramatization are in common use, and pictures gathered by the pupils are used for original stories and writ- ten work in these grades. Collections of pictures are also made for use in connection with the geography and history material used in the third grade. It is worth while to emphasize the advantages of a close direction of the fundamental subjects in the elementary course of study through the work of the primary supervisor. It was observed by the specialists that the reading was less satisfactory in the intermediate grades than in the primary grades of the schools of Niagara Falls. The condition was not ascribed to a less satisfactory quality of teach- ing ability than that found in the primary grades, but it seems to be quite directly traceable to the lack of unified and competent leader- ship in the gramnicir grades which shall clearly define the aims of the teachers' work in these grades. This might be organized through tiie selection of a supervisor of grammar grades, who shall do for the grades under her control what has already been done by the director of primary grades. Supervisor of Drawing Through the first six grades drawing is taught by the grade teacher under the direct supervision of the drawing supervisor, who endeav- ors to observe the work in each of these classrooms at least once in two weeks. Some personal instruction is given to the grade teacher at each of these visits. Grade meetings are held by the drawing supervisor at irregular periods. Typed outlines of work are given to each teacher every two months. These take the place of a printed course of study, and make it possible to revise the material from time to time as the needs demand. This is far superior to the policy that is often followed of putting into printed form a course of study with fixed requirements from month to month and of holding rigidly to this fixed outline from year to year. In addition to the typed out- lines given out by the supervisor, each teacher has desk copTes of several of the best art textbooks available. In the seventh and eighth grades the work is organized depart- mentally and taught by special drawing teachers under the direction of the supervisor of drawing. There are also special drawing rooms where this work is done. The work is organized as a unit from the first grade through the eighth. The courses are well defined and cover the following sub- jects :^ ^ As given by tfie drawing supervisor. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 35 a Color. Teaching color theories and harmonies and the methods of applying such knowledge to problems of daily life. b Art appreciation. Acquainting the children with beautiful pic- tures and art objects and each year giving them some definite knowl- edge of a few of such pictures and objects. c Commercial design. Including some knowledge of lettering, picture mounting, design proportions as related to book titles, signs, posters etc. d Interior decoration. Endeavoring to give the child some idea of the use of color and form as related to the furnishing of a modest home. e Costume design. Teaching the use of color, line and spacing as related to the costume. / Constructive design. Teaching the use of the ruler in planning simple constructed objects of some practical use. g Nature drawing. Teaching the child to see form and in some slight degree to reproduce it. for the purpose of application in design motifs or otherwise. h Object drawing (for practically the same purposes). To teach the children to see form, to reproduce it in some slight degree and to use that ability and knowledge in the formation of original ideas in design and commercial advertising. This knowledge of object drawing is also used in correlation with other subjects, with story telling and language work in the lower grades, with geography and history in the upper grades. An effort is made to correlate the work of the drawing department with all other phases of the school work, doing some project work in the intermediate grades which closely correlates the drawing, Eng- lish and geography, and in the seventh and eighth grades and high school, correlating the design with the work of the domestic science and manual training departments. Supervisor of Domestic Science The courses in domestic science and art are sewing, which begins in the fourth grade, extending through the second year of high school, and cooking, which is offered in the seventh and eighth grades and in the first two years of high school. The supervisor is a teacher in the high school ; unfortunately, how- ever, she has only one-half of a day each week for actual supervision. That half day is spent observing the work of the four other teachers in the department. The supervisor outlines the work to be done and holds a monthly meeting for discussion and outlining plans. 36 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK It is frequently a most excellent plan to organize the elementary and secondary work as a unit by putting the supervision of the entire field covering a given sul^ject in charge of one person. We believe that the plan for the supervision of the homemaking courses is wise. It should result in a unity of effort which might not otherwise be secured. Unfortunately, however, the time allotted for the actual work of supervision is so limited that it would be unfair to hold the supervisor responsible for the detail of the program to be carried forward. Under such conditions the results must be measured in large part by the initiative of the regular teacher. This is not a rea- sonable organization for the supervision of such an important part of the educational program. As the work becomes reorganized in the higher grades in accordance with the intermediate school program this field will become of much larger importance and undoubtedly provision will be made for more complete supervision. Under the present program the supervisor has some teaching periods, but the new plan provides for full time for supervisory duties. Supervisor of Penmanship . The supervisor of penmanship is responsible for the direction of the work in penmanship in all grades of the elementary schools of the city. The schedule of the supervisor provides for a two-week pro- gram during which time all schools are visited. During the past year two series of meetings have been held. There have been meetings in each building for the teachers of that particu- lar school. There has also been a series of grade meetings for the purpose of outlining the work and of giving special help to the teachers of each grade. At the time of the biweekly visit, the lesson is sometimes con- ducted by the teacher and at other times by the supervisor. The supervisor aims at all times to give constructive criticism. Written lessons in other subjects are often inspected for- the supervisor believes that the writing lesson is of little value except as it, is a preparation for all written work. The supervisor also en- deavors to inspect the writing in other lessons at the time of prepara- tion, but because of her crowded schedule it is not often possible. Supervisor of Music The supervision of music is limited to the elementary grades, the same as penmanship. The supervisor of music is responsible for the work in the elementary schools. An effort is made on the part of the supervisor to visit each grade teacher at least once in two REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 37 weeks. Where teachers are unusually strong she visits the class once in four weeks. In connection with the class visit the supervisor frequently gives model lessons, and at other times observes the instruction as given by the teacher. Grade meetings are held occasionally. Special groups are called together, as for instance new teachers who may need special instruction. Individual conferences are also held frequently. The following brief outline submitted by the supervisor indicates the general scope of the work. First grade. The work is largely by imitation, ear training, match- ing tones and rote songs, simple songs and art songs. Second grade. Ear training, rote songs, visualization, vise of books in the last part of year. Third grade. Study of signs of key and time, interval studies, rhythm studies, scale studies, songs. Fourtli grade. Third grade work continued, with more compli- cated forms and more definite drill. Fiflh grade. Additional problems of time and tone with study of chromatics added. Part singing introduced. Sixth grade. Part singing in two and three parts with sight read- ing continued. Minor keys studied. Sez'ciiih and eighth grades. A general review of key and time problems as found in the part music written for these grades. Chorus singing. There are grade orchestras in the larger schools. These are under the general direction of the sujjervisor. Some excellent work of this character is done. Supervisor of Physical Training The physical training work is in charge of one supervisor and two assistants, two men and one woman, the assistants locally called di- rectors. The work of the department is organized as follows : The supervisor outlines and plans the policy and work of the whole department, personally supervising all the setting-up work in the eleven grade schools and high school and all the playground and athletic work in the grade schools. The two assistants, or directors, teach all the gymnasium classwork in the high school, conduct the high school athletics, and supervise the "work in one grade school one half of a day each week under the supervision of the supervisor. All outlines of work in physical training and athletics are prepared by the supervisor and furnished to the directors and teachers. The setting-up work is taught in the classroom by teachers who follow an outline furnished by the supervisor, who visits each teacher 38 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK once a month to observe the work and give instruction. The high school teachers are met in a general meeting once every two months where new outlines and instruction are given by the supervisor. In the grade schools 40 minutes of setting-up exercises and 60 minutes of supervised play are required of all pupils. Outlines for setting-up exercises and games are furnished and taught by the super- visor who visits every grade once in two weeks, at which time he observes the old lesson and teaches the new. A new lesson, con- taining exercises, games and athletics, is furnished every month. All setting-up exercises are taught in four two-minute periods. The games are given in the classroom when the weather is too severe, and on the playground when the outdoor conditions permit. There are at present eight playgrounds surfaced and partly equipped where all boys and girls are given supervised play and athletics. In the high school all pupils are required to take one hour of gym- nasium and 40 minutes of setting-up work in the classroom each week. The gymnasium work is taught in two classes a week of 40 minutes each by physical training directors in the gymnasiums. The grade school athletics include a cross-country (paced) run of 2 miles for boys in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades that are physically fit. Representative school baseball teams are organized for sixth, seventh and eighth grade boys. A field day is held each year for grade school boys and girls from the sixth, seventh and eighth grades. Industrial Arts The work in industrial arts begins in the fourth year of the ele- mentary course and continues through the high school. The director of industrial arts is also in charge of the vocational school and of the vocational work in the evening school. This department has grown rapidly during the last 3 years. Three years ago there were three special teachers ; there are now seven teachers on full time and two on part time. It is expected that sev- eral teachers will be added at the beginning of the next school year. At that time the director of the work will prol)ably be given full time for supervision. The supervisor endeavors to visit each department of work that is being carried on by a special teacher at least once each week. At that time the work is carefully inspected and constructive sugges- tions are made. Outlines of the work for the year are given to the teachers by the supervisor after these have been approved by the superintendent, and frequently conferences are held by the super- HIGH SCHOOL GIRLS GYMNASIUM CLASS HIGH SCHOOL BOYS PHYSICAL EDUCATION CLASS ON PLAYGROUND REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 39 visor at which all industrial and mechanical drawing teachers are present for a general discussion of problems. These outlines are \ery properly flexible rather than fixed and suggest to the teachers types of work to be done. Considerable latitude is left to the indi- vidual teacher to develop the work as his initiative and resourceful- ness may suggest and as the needs of the individual pupil may require. The work of the industrial arts department is begun in the fourth grade and continued through the high school. The work in the fourth and fifth grades was begun during the present year and consists of coping saw work in thin wood, the pupils making toys and small novelties. The work is Ijoth practical and instructive. The time given to this work in the fourth and fifth grades is 45 minutes each week. In some schools the work is done in the manual training shop ; in other schools, rooms have been fitted up in the basement for this purpose. In the sixth grade the work is confined to the making of small household articles, bird houses and problems of this type. In the seventh grade larger projects are undertaken such as bookracks, taborets, plant stands or other projects of this type which the boys may wish to undertake. The aim of all the industrial work in the seventh grade tends more to the development of initiative and the ability to grasp an idea and embody it in some practical, useful pro- ject rather than merely skill or technic, although. these are not in any sense neglected. The shop work in the eighth grade consists of individual projects in cabinet work and applied decoration, as cane weaving, copper work or upholstery. This work is used in the grades as the basis for much related work. So far the work in the grades has been confined to woodwork but plans are under way to present simple problems in both the seventh and eighth grades in sheet metal, copper work, con- crete and electricity in so far as the shop facilities will permit. The periods for shop work in the sixth, seventh and eighth grades are all one hour. The work is carried on in the shops or centers in the elementary schools. The shop work in the high school has thus far been handicapped on account of the small amount of space available for the work. The work in the first year is planned to cover the fundamentals of car- pentry and cabinet-making. The first half of the second year of high school is devoted to wood turning. Every efifort is being made to tie up the various projects with some trade interest. The second half of the second year is given to elementary sheet metal work. This work functions well and is correlated with second year drawing. 40 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The third year is devoted to larger work in sheet metal in which pails, pans, ash cans and similar work is undertaken. Many projects are worked out for the school department. Few boys register for shop work in their senior year. This is undoubtedly due in part to the lack of adequate equipment for the technical work of this type. Those who do elect the work usually have some special project which they wish to carry forward for themselves. The vocational school is treated at greater length elsewhere. The vocational machine shop course was begun only during the present 3'ear. It is planned to instal additional courses in the vocational school another year, including advanced machine shop work and also a prac- tical electrical course. At the present time elementary machine shop work is given and applied mathematics that functions with the daily shop work. Practical problems in algebra, geometry and trigonome- try are given. The drawing work given is correlated and all the problems made in the shop are worked out in advance in the drawing room. The English work that is given articulates also with the sub- ject matter of the other vocational courses. Extension Work The extension work as carried on in the city of Niagara Falls is somewhat unique in its development. In this work various related types of activities have been brought together and are being admin- istered efficiently. The field of supervision, under the director of extension work, in- cludes Americanization in school, home and factory, evening schools, extension lectures, and other work of this general character. It is to be noted that these activities are a part of the educational program of the board of education under the supervision of the superintendent of schools, for which regular provision is made in the annual budget. The peculiar character of the work and the duties that fall to the director of this work prevent any fixed weekly or other schedule of supervision. Extension work in the city is conducted in homes, schools, fac- tories and in other centers as conditions arise. The evening schools opened September 29, 1919, and closed March 30, 1920, being in session 68 days during this period. The Americanization classes began September 4, 1919, and closed April 27, 1920. Two classes continued later, one because of late organization and the other, the citizenship class, on account of June court. The school classes are held Monday, Tuesday and Thursday from 7.30 to 9.30 in the even- ing. The factory classes have been conducted as unit courses ac- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 41 cording to factory conditions. The hours vary, some running 2^ hours, others 3^ hours, some 4 hours a week in accordance with fac- tory demands. The teachers in general are paid by the board of education. The home classes so far have been held for one hour a week, conducted by volunteer teachers. In this brief review of the supervision of work, mention can only be made of the general char- acter of the work. The courses so far as possible are in accordance with community needs. The evening high school is the main center for the evening and extension work. Here were conducted, in addi- tion to the citizenship class and the English classes, the work of special interest to women, including sewing, millinery, cookery, die- tetics, Red Cross home nursing, and china painting. The dietetics class included all the pupil nurses of St Mary's Hospital. The home nursing was financed by the Red Cross. Classes in Italian, Spanish and French were conducted. The busi- ness classes included stenography, typewriting and bookkeeping. On account of the unusual interest these were continued after the close of the general session. Business English, business arithmetic, and business writing were included. Algebra, geometry and trigonome- try were in demand. There was a class in electrical theory and prac- tice, a beginning and advanced class in mechanical drawing, one class in cabinet-making and three classes in chemistry. The total registration in the extension work for the year exceeded 1800. There were 792 in the Americanization and citizenship classes, with 24 nationalities represented. One secret of the success of the extension work in Niagara Falls has undoubtedly been the recogni- tion of the importance of keeping the work in close touch with com- munity needs. The Americanization work included 32 classes in English, of which 12 were in the evening schools, 8 in factories, and 12 in home classes. The home classes have been conducted largely by volunteer teachers. Although they were started late and interrupted by health conditions in the city, the beginnings have been most encouraging. A council of women, composed of representatives from the women's organiza- tions of the city, as widely cosmopolitan as possible and including representatives of the so-called foreign societies, has been organized to consider the proljlems connected with the women's classes. Invi- tations for volunteer teachers to teach in the homes have been secured by the teachers of the public schools whose splendid work in Ameri- canization can never be overestimated. Classes were conducted in seven factories (three more than the preceding year) with an enrol- ment of 154. The success was due in part to the splendid coopera- 42 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK tion of the factory authorities. In two instances, that of the National Electro-Chemical Company, as one class, and that of the National Carbon Company, as two classes, so successful did the management deem the work that when the school budget was exhausted the two factories placed the teachers on the factory payrolls in order to finish the courses. Such action indicates the splendid community spirit that has supported the evening schools and Americanization work. In the high school there has been community singing and social evenings for the Americanization classes with an unusual spirit of cooperation and enjoyment. High School / The Niagara Falls High School occupies a plant l^eautifully located, reasonably modern, but inadequate for the large needs of secondary education in the rapidly growing industrial community which it serves. In this chapter it is not our purpose to enter into any dis- cussion of the type of work or courses of study ofifered but merely to outline the organization and supervision through which the work of the school is administered. Under the direction of the superintendent of schools the high school principal is responsible for the supervision and administration of the high school and activities, There is a vice principal, a woman, who also acts as a supervisor over all scholarship and attendance records, and as a supervisor of girls. There is also a clerk in the office who gives general assistance to the principal and vice principal. There are no heads of departments as are usually found in a high school of this size. An advantage of the departmental organiza- tion, with a head in charge of each major line of work, is so generally conceded that a discussion of its merits seems unnecessary. The principal needs the assistance of department heads in following the classroom instruction and in directing the work of the classroom teachers toward definite and proper objectives. Such an organization is important and essential from the instructional point of view. It is equally vital as a factor in general school administration. The spirit and morale in any organization have much to do with the char- acter of work done or with the product. The aims and ideals of the high school principal as to the function of the school best reach the high school Ijody when reinforced by strong sympathetic department heads. Moreover the needs of the individual pupils, which are too often given little or no attention by the teaching stafl^, can be followed up and helpful advice insured only through department heads who are given this responsibility. In the Niagara Falls high school there is too great a gap between the school administration and the individual REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 43 members of the student body. A departmental organization, or some- thing similar, would oftentimes simplify administrative problems from the standpoint of the school executive ; it would also enable the school to meet far better the needs of the individual pupils in the classroom. The principal states that in some cases he recognizes seniority or ability in considering some one as chairman of a depart- ment. This can not meet the situation. It is believed that the high school administration would be greatly strengthened through formal designation of departmental headships. The high school committee of the board of education may grant the use of the assembly room and lecture room for such purposes as seem beneficial to the educational and moral interests of the community, to which admission may be charged. All sums received from such use of these rooms and from the tuition of nonresident pupils are placed in the school decoration fund and used in the purchase of pic- tures, statues, busts, physical and other ai)paratus as authorized by the board. The high school literary and athletic activities seem to be subject to the special supervision of the high school committee of the board. The rules of the board place the general control of such associations under the general supervisory control of this committee. There would seem to be no reason why the board should assume any respon- sibility for such administrative direction. A committee has not the time to give to such matters, neither would any individual member attempt to perform such duties that belong without Cjuestion to the principal of the high school, subject to the general control of the superintendent of schools. The board may well make regulations governing these as well as other school activities ; supervision and administration, however, should be left with their executive repre- sentatives. With the reorganization of the educational program for the higher grades now under way and the introduction of the intermediate or junior high school plan there will Ije brought about a much closer articulation between the upper grades and the high school than now obtains. The present high school courses do not reflect as one would expect the industrial interests of the city. These larger technical needs are appreciated, however, by the members of the board and superintendent. With this larger program for the secondary work- clearly in mind, the development of a broader plan for administrative and supervisory control in the high school becomes imperative. 44 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Summary The supervisory staff under the direction of the superintendent includes a director of primary grades, a director of extension work, six supervisors of special subjects and thirteen special teachers work- ing under the direction of the supervisors. There is one high school principal and thirteen elementary school principals. There is strong supervisory control through the office of the super- intendent of schools. There is at the same time a cooperation of effort on the part of the teaching staff which is evident in all prob- lems that arise in connection with the details of classroom work. The supervisory leadership is more marked on the part of the directors and special supervisors than on the part of the elementary school principals. In so far as professional growth is indicated by special work during summer sessions and in graduate schools, the elementary school principals have not carried on professional work to the extent that this has been done by the teaching staff. The cooperation between the teaching staff and the supervisory force is observed in the work of several committees now under way having to do with the reorganization of the elementary course of instruction. Much of this work is being done by groups of teachers selected from the various schools and indicates a very helpful atmos- phere throughout the school organization. It is significant to note that the teaching staff' through conferences and group meetings takes an active part in organizing and planning, with the cooperation of the superintendent of schools, the instructional work of the classroom. As is frequently observed in other cities, many of the elementary principals spend altogether too much time in routine clerical work. It may be due partially to failure to appreciate the large function of the school principal. It may l)e due again to lack of professional ability. Every effort should be made, however, to see that clerical work is reduced to the minimum and that work essentially clerical in character should be performed by clerks employed for the purpose. There is evidence of unified direction of the fundamental subjects in the primary grades where the work is under the general direction of the primary supervisor. It is quite possible that a similar type of helpful and constructive supervision in the higher grades in addition to the general direction now given by the superintendent of schools would be a wise administrative procedure. It is to be noted further that the general problems in these grades will be closely articulated with the development of the intermediate school which is already under way and may be largely solved by tliis reorganization. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 45 The flexible character of the treatment of the course of study by the supervisory staff is illustrated in the drawing work. Group meet- ings are held frequently by the drawing supervisor and typed out- lines are given to the teachers at least every two months. This method makes it possible to revise the material from time to time and to modify the work as occasion demands. Every effort is also made to articulate the drawing work with related subjects in the course of study. The supervisor of domestic science, as is true of several other supervisors, unfortunately, is compelled to spend a considerable por- tion of time in classroom teaching. The supervisor of domestic science spends one-half of a day of each week in actual supervision ; the remainder of the time is spent in teaching in the high school. The work to be followed is outlined by the supervisor in cooperation with the special teachers. Monthly meetings are held for discussion and the outlining of plans. It is noted that the work in domestic science is organized as a unit throughout the grades and high school. As the work develops it will be necessary to release the supervisor from much of the teaching that is now done in order that more time may be given for supervision throughout the school system. The supervisor of music and the supervisor of penmanship are responsible for the work in the elementary field. There is not in these subjects the articulation between the elementary and high school work that is observed in several other phases of the work. The supervisor of industrial arts, like the supervisors of drawing and domestic science, has given considerable time to actual teaching in the high school and in the grades. This work, however, is develop- ing rapidly. Every effort is being made to articulate the industrial work in the schools with the community activities. A large program is under way in connection with the development of the school plant which will provide for the industrial work through proper facilities in the elementary, intermediate and secondary fields. The limita- tions that have been placed on this work in the high school, because of limited space, will be relieved when larger provision has been made for the shop work and courses have been broadened to meet the demands which are already under consideration by the local school authorities. The extension work in Niagara Falls is unique. It is broad in its organization, including the evening schools, Americanization in school, home and factory, extension lectures, and other work of this general character. The city has wisely planned the organization of the extension work as a part of the educational program carried out 46 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK by the board of education under the supervision of the superintendent of schools, for which regular provision is made in the annual budget. This work is far-reaching in its influence and has reached in evening schools and in adult classes over 1800 people. Those in charge of this work have kept constantly in mind the importance of keeping the work in close touch with community needs. Other cities might well note the progress that Niagara Falls has made in this special field. The supervision of the high school is under the immediate direction of the high school principal who is assisted by a vice principal, a woman who acts as a supervisor of scholarship and attendance records and also as a supervisor of girls. Although the high school has a registration of approximately 1000 pupils and a teaching staff of 40, there are no heads of departments. The school suffers because of this lack. The principal would be greatly assisted by department heads in following the classroom instruction and in directing the M^ork of the classroom teachers toward definite and proper objectives. In other words, in the Niagara Falls High School there is too great a gap between the school administration and the individual members of the student body. A departmental organization, or something similar, as may best be worked out, would possibly simplify admin- istrative problems and would also enable the school to meet far better the needs of the individual pupils in the classroom. The larger tech- nical needs which the high school should meet are appreciated by the local school authorities. When this larger program for the secondary work is clearly in mind, the development of a broader plan for administrative and supervisory control in the high school will become imperative. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 47 TEACHING STAFF The present teaching staff in the city of Niagara Falls consists of 270 teachers, supervisors and principals. Of this number, 214 are in the elementary schools and 43 are in the high school, in addition to which are the vocational teachers, special teachers and supervisors. Elementary School Teachers There has been shown unusual care in the selection of teachers. Compared with many cities, the staff shows a high percentage of pro- fessionally trained teachers. It is true that there are many teachers who hold local certificates and who have had no professional train- ing. But this is not true of those teachers more recently taken into the school organization. The rules of the board of education which have l)een in effect several years provide as follows : " No teacher shall be employed in this city who is not a graduate of a college or state normal school, and who does not hold a valid teachers certificate. Temj^orary substitutes are excepted when teach- ers with above-described qualifications are not available. " No new high school teacher shall be employed unless such teacher shall have had at least one year's successful experience in teaching in a secondary school, or an institution of equal or higher rank, and is a graduate of an apj^roved course in a regularly established college or an institution of equal or higher rank. " For the year beginning September 1915, and thereafter, no new teacher shall be employed in the grades unless such teacher shall have had at least one year's successful experience in teaching. This re- quirement may be waived in case of graduates of Niagara Falls High School having necessary qualifications." Of the 176 elementary school teachers who filled out questionnaires relative to their training and experience, 153 or 87 per cent have had at least one year of professional training beyond the high school. There are 124 who have had normal school training, and 7 with college training, or 74 per cent who have had at least two years of professional training. In addition to those who have had training class, normal school, or college training, many have taken advantage of the opportunity for professional training at summer sessions. Of the teachers of this group, 108 have taken work at one or more sum- 48 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK mer schools. This is indicative of a good professional spirit on the part of the teaching staff. This interest in professional improvement is more apparent among the younger teachers than among those who have heen longer in the service. NUMBER OF TEACHERS c \ I V € > g ; 1 1 ^ 14 — — Z!~ "^^" — 57 56 55 53 52 51 50 48 47 46 45 44 43 42 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 Chart 1 — Showing the teacher distribution according to age REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 49 Age The range in the ages of the teachers in the elementary grades is from 20 years to 57 years. Of the 176 teachers, one-half are between 20 and 31 years of age. The first quartile is 25 years, the median 31 years, and the third quartile 37 years. Chart 1 shows the age distri- bution of all elementary teachers. The teaching staff in the elementary schools is apparently youthful or in the best years of life. Practically none are in advanced years. Experience Complete data were not given for all teachers of the group cover- ing their teaching experience. Of the 176 teachers, 15 failed to give this item. The information is available therefore for only 161 ele- mentary school teachers. Of this number, 85 or more than one-half have had a total teaching experience of not to exceed 8 years. The first quartile is at five years. As a matter of fact, 61 teachers, or over 33 ys per cent, have had not to exceed 5 years' experience in teaching. The median is 8 years and the third quartile is 14 years. How apparent it is that few teachers reach maturity in the service. Salaries In June 1919 the salaries of 175 elementary teachers and princi- pals ranged from $550 to $2000. The median salary for the group was $825. Forty-seven teachers, or over 25 per cent, received $700 or less. Fifteen teachers were receiving $650; eleven teachers $600, and four teachers $550. Notwithstanding the fact that the groups at $950, 25 teachers, and $1000, 24 teachers, were reasonably large, only 13 teachers were receiving in excess of $1000; eight of these w^ere receiving $1300. Those at this end of the scale are principals. It should be observed in this connection that the schedule was in pro- cess of readjustment and the steps under consideration should be noted. The salaries received by the teachers reflect the 1916 schedule which was as follows for kindergarten, primary and grade teachers: Hlniinifary Schedule. 1916 First year $500 Second year 550 Third year 600 Fourth year • 650 Fifth year 700 Sixth year 700 Seventh year 725 Eighth year 750 Ninth year 775 Tenth year 800 50 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK This schedule, with an initial salary of $500 and 10 years' service 'necessary to reach a maximum only $300 above the minimum, ex- plains the median salary of $825 in June 1919. E-XPERIENCF NUMBER OF TEACHKRS 35 , 7 \r i ? 1 3 1 ) 2 t 4 1 6 3 32 33 Hi 29 ■■■■ as ^ n ^ 26 25 _^^__ i. 24 Z3 22 — ■■^ ^ ^^■■■1 HP 20 BHHH HH 19 18 ^^^ ^ 17 16 15 14 13 1Z - - ■MM "" 11 10 ■^H """" % 7 I^HH ^^^ 1^ 6 5 ^^^ ^^ A 3 2 1 — Chart 2 — Showing the distribution of teachers according to years teaching experience the number of REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 51 In March 1919 the board of education after giving the question careful study adopted the following schedule for elementary teachers for the school year 1919-20: First year Second year 900 Third year 1000 Fourth year 1 100 This schedule, however, was not put into eflfect on account of pend- ing statewide legislation and the action was rescinded until the pro- visions of the statute were determined. As a result of the legislative action the board of education in 1919 adopted the following schedule for the year 1919-20: Salary Schedule, 1919-20 First year $800 Second year 900 Third year 1000 Fourth year 1 100 Fifth year 1200 Sixth year 1300 Seventh year 1400 Eighth year 1500 Ninth year 1600 Additional increment for superior work. Following the passage of the Lockwood-Donohue bill by the Legis- lature of 1920 the board of education in Niagara Falls did not imme- diately adopt the new schedule but modified the schedule for the elementary teachers given immediately above by adding $300 to the salary of each teacher. This resulted in the following new schedule for the year 1920-21 : Salary Schedule, 1920-21 First year $1100 Second year 1200 Third year 1300 Fourth year 1400 Fifth year 1500 Sixth, year 1600 Seventh year 1700 Eighth year '. 1800 Ninth year 1900 It is of interest to note that on the adoption of this schedule for the year 1920-21 it was further provided that all teachers of 10 years' experience, 3 of which had been in Niagara Falls, were to receive 52 TPIE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Special^ Figure 1 — Professional training of high school teachers Colleoe^ Graduates Figure 2 — Professional training of elementary school teachers REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 53 the maximum. Teachers not meeting the maximum requirement were given fewer increments according to experience. On account of this provision, 76 elementary teachers were advanced to the salary of $1900 for the school year 1920-21. It may be observed that in June 1919, the salaries of all elementary school teachers, including principals, varied from $550 to $2000, the median salary for the group being $825. In October 1920, the salaries paid elementary school teachers and principals varied from $1100 to $3100, the median for the group being $1700. In case of the elementary school teachers, as is noted later in regard to the high school teachers, the median salary had more than doubled within a period of 16 months. This is indicative of the splendid spirit that has been shown by the local school authorities in providing more adequate salary schedules for all classes of the teaching service. A comparison of the successive salary schedules which have been adopted by the board of education in Niagara Falls during the past few years indicates very clearly the splendid effort that has been made by the local school authorities in providing very properly for increased compensation on the part of the teaching staff in the ele- mentary schools. The minimum salary paid a teacher in the elemen- tary schools during the school year 1920-21 is $300 above the maxi- mum salary of $800, and $600 above the minimum salary of the schedule in effect in 1916. It may further be noted that the maximum salary of the schedule of 1916 became the minimum salary of the schedule for the school year 1919-20, that the maximum salary of the schedule adopted in March 1919, although this was modified later during the same year, is the minimum salary for the school year 1920-21. Another advance step taken by the board of education in Niagara Falls in connection with the salary schedule of the elementary school teachers provided for granting of full credit for previous experience so that during the school year 1920-21 many teachers went immedi- ately to the maximum amount available on the schedule. These salary schedules for Niagara Falls are of interest not only because of their local application but also on account of the illustration which they provide of the very definite results of recent statewide salary legis- lation. A city with a salary schedule such as that of Niagara Falls is in a position to command in its teaching service those who meet the very best professional requirements. 54 TIIK UNIVI'.KSITY Ol' TllIC SrATIC Ol" NIOVV YORK High School Teachers ( )l tlir .^S lii^h sclinol tcaclicis wlio siihmiltcd records of trainiiij^' and experience, 18 are collei^e j^raduates, 18 are normal school j^radu- atcs or liave completed some s])ecial professional course covering at least two years. Of the remaining two, one received her training in \arious institutions in l'"rance e(|uivalent to collei'e training and the t)ther has had no training of a professional character. 'I'here is' apparently an appreciation on the part of the secondary school teachers of the need of contiiuied professional training. Of the high school teaching staff, 23 have taken one or more smnmers' work in colleges or other teacher-training institutions. 'Twelve of ihc normal school graduates and 1 1 of the college-trained teachers have had either graduate work or courses at summer sessions. The following work is noted: one has the master's degree; two have one year of college work in adchtion to the two-year professional cour.se; one has taken a full college course following normal school, and has also done work toward a master's degree ; nine have taken one sum- mer's work; four, two summers' work; (hree, three summers' work; four, four summers' work ; .and one has continued professional study for eight summers. Proji'ssinini! TniliiiiKj It is apparent that the teachers in the high school show the same tendency to contiiiue professional training as was noted in the ele- nieiUary school teaching stall". Niagara Falls was one of the first cities to make a special provision in the salary schedule for increase in compensation to those who comjjlete cour.ses of study at approved summer schools. What elTect this may have had on the [)resent stall is not known, hut there is reason to heliexe that the inlluence has been marked. The salaries paid the high school teachers in June l^U*) varied from $850 to $1600. The median of the salary schedule paid the sccondarv school teachers was $1100. T.\1!LK 4 Salaries paid to high school teachers 1918-1919 A''o. teachers Saliiry rccciviiu] $850 2 WO 2 ^50 1 975 1 1000 7 1025 1 1050 4 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 55 Salary M $1100 Table 4 {concluded) No. teachers receiving 2 1150 2 1200 6 1300 6 1400 1 1500 2 1600 1 That the salary schedule for high school teachers in Niagara Falls has been improved greatly during the past few years may be noted from the changes made by the board of education. In 1916 the salaries for high school positions were fixed at a minimum of $800 and a maximum for the ninth year and thereafter of $1000. Salary Schedule, 1916 First year $800 Second year 825 Third year 850 Fourth year 875 Fifth year 900 Sixth year 925 Seventh year 950 Eighth year 975 Ninth year and thereafter 1000 An annual increment of $25 seems almost incredible. And yet hundreds of cities even more recently than 1916 have adopted sched- ules less satisfactory than the above. The amount was not sufficient to command the necessary service, and in March 1919 the schedule was revised. Salary Schedule, 1919 Women Men First year $1000 $1400 Second year 1 100 1500 Third year 1200 1600 Fourth year 1300 Fifth year 1400 The maximum of the old schedule became the minimum of the new. The annual increment, which had been $25, became under the new schedule $100. Further revision in the salary schedule for the high school teachers was made following the salary legislation of 1920. The minimum salary for women teachers in the high school was made $1300 with 56 THK UNIVKRSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK an annual increment of $100, the maximum being $2100. 'ilie mini- mum salary for men became $1500 with a maximum of $2300. Salary Schrdulr. l<)I9-20 IVniiirn Mm First year $1.W0 $1500 Second year 1400 1600 Tliird year 1500 1700 I^oiirth year 1600 1800 I'iftii year 1700 1900 Sixth year 1800 2000 Seventh year 1900 2100 ]<:iglith year 2000 2200 Ninth year 2100 2300 The same provision was made relative to the allowance for exjieri- ence as was done in the case of the elementary school teachers. Teachers who had at least 10 years' ex])eriencc, 3 years of which were in Niagara I'alls, would receive the maxiiuum salary. As a result, 17 high school teachers during the year 1920-21 were advanced to a salary of $2100. An analysis of the successive salary schedules in the high school tluring the past few years shows the rapid increase that has been made in the salaries paid to the secondary school teachers. In June 1910, the salaries paid the high school teachers varied from $850 to $1600 with a median salary of $1100. In October 1920. under the schedule adopted for the year 1920-21, the salaries paid high school teachers other than the principal and vice principal varied from $1300 to $2300, the median salary being $2100. In other words, the median salary paid high school teachers in Niagara b\alls had more than doubled within the ])eriod of 16 months. Tenure of Teaching Service Mention has already been made of the teaching experience of those employed in both elementary and secondary schools in Niagara Falls. It may be of further interest to note the facts with regard to the tenure of the teachers in the city school system as of October 1920. This information covers 263 teachers employed at that time. Of this number, 55 teachers were serving their first year in Niagara Falls, ^0 were serving their .second year, 25 their third year, and 21 their fourth year in the local city school system. In other words, 141 teachers out of 263, or more than one-half of the teachers in service, had been teaching less than four years in the local school system. One teacher has been employed since 1888, three teachers since 1889, five teachers since 1891 and from that date to the present the REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 57 teachers have entered the service every year with the exception of two. It is to be observed, however, that more than one-half of the teachers have entered upon their service in Niagara Falls since 1917. The excellent salary schedules that have been recently adopted should prove an effective factor in lengthening the teaching tenure and the average experience of the entire teaching staff in both elementary and secondary schools in Niagara Falls. Summary The teaching staff in Niagara Falls has been selected with unusual care. Compared with many cities, the staff shows a high percentage of professionally trained teachers. Approximately less than 25 per cent of the teaching staff' are local teachers. Teachers now entering the service in the elementary schools must show the completion of a state normal school course or two years of professional training beyond graduation from a four-year high school course. High school teachers must be graduates of an approved four- year college course and have had at least one year's successful ex- perience in teaching. Approximately 75 per cent of the present teaching staff have had at least two years of professional training beyond high school. The median age of the elementary teachers is 31 years. More than one-half of the teachers have had a teaching experience not exceeding 8 years. The salary schedule for both elementary and secondary school teachers has been very considerably increased during the past two years. The median salary of the elementary teachers in 1919 was $825. In 1920 the median salary for the group was $1700. The median salary in the high school in June 1919 was $1100. The median salary for the high school group in October 1920 was $2100. This indicates the spirit that has been shown by the local school authorities in providing more adequate salaries for all classes of the teaching service. A large percentage of both elementary and secondary school teach- ers have taken every advantage of opportunities for continuing pro- fessional training at summer sessions in colleges and universities. The recognition which Niagara Falls has given for many years to those who complete professional courses of study at summer sessions has undoubtedly had a marked influence on the teaching service. More than half of the teachers in service in June 1919 in the Niagara Falls schools have been teaching less than four years in the local system. The recent increases in the salary schedules should prove effective in lengthening the tenure of the teaching staff. THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY AND INSTRUCTION The course of study that is offered in the elementary grades in the schools of Niagara Falls includes all the so-called common branches — reading, writing, spelling, language, arithmetic, geography and history. Special subjects including drawing, music and physical training are given throughout all grades under the direction of special supervisors. Beginning with the fourth grades, courses in industrial arts are given to the boys and sewing and domestic science courses are given to the girls. This is one of the features of the work in the elementary grades. In the earlier discussion of the program of supervision somewhat general outlines have been presented covering the plans followed in the elementary school work. In the present chapter there is pre- sented a series of summary reports made after careful classroom observations of the elementary school work. Table 5 The different subjects in the elementary school course of study in Niagara Falls, and the grades in which each subject is taught Subject Grades 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Reading X X X X X X X X Writing X X X X X X X X Spelling X X X X X X X X Language X X X X X X X X Arithmetic X X X X X X X X Geography X X X X X History X X X X Drawing X X X X X X X X Music X X X X X X X X Nature study In drawing and oral and written composition Hygiene X X X X X X X X Physical training X X X X X X X X Industrial arts X X X X X Sewing X X X X X Domestic science XX Reading The information on which this report of the work in reading in the public schools of Niagara Falls is based was obtained through observations made in the various grades of several schools, through interviews with the principals and through a conference with the ELECTRICAL SHOP SHOWING HOW PRACTICAL PROJECTS ARE CARRIED OUT WOODWORKING AND PRINTING IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 59 supervisor of primary grades. Except in a few instances in schools in which there were dupHcate grades, observations were made in essentially all classes. The schools in which such observations were made were Fifth Street School, Cleveland Avenue School, Tenth Street School, Twenty-fourth Street School, Thirteenth Street School, Twenty-second Street School, Third Street School. W^hile there was no effort to make a complete study in all schools throughout the system, it is thought that the schools selected were fairly typical and that conclusions that might be reached by observa- tions in all the schools would not differ materially from those re- corded in this report. The facts and impressions herein presented will be recorded under the following topics : Reading in grades 1 to 3, Reading in grades 4 to 6, Re^.ding in grades 7 and 8. Through the activities of a supervisor of primary grades much progress has been made in the discussion and formulation of the motives and methods regarded by recent authorities as most promis- ing" in the achievement of desired results. The supervisor has made a detailed study of the manner in which the teaching of reading is motivated and worked out in classroom practice in the public schools of the city of Rochester. In the detailed outlines that she has devel- oped for the guidance of teachers in the primary grades, she freely acknowledges her indebtedness to the plans represented in the Roches- ter system. It may be remarked in this connection that the city superintendent, the principals and the teachers of Rochester have gone afield in a study of the theory and art of teaching reading, seek- ing to present the aims most desirable for this work in the various grades, the best m.aterials and the procedures that have their founda- tion in correct child psychology and in the principles of sound peda- gogy. For the purposes of this survey the extent to which the reader would give assent to details in the methods and procedure advocated in recent essays and reports on reading prepared by the Rochester school people is not of moment. The point to be noted is that the supervisor and the primary teachers of Niagara Falls are working on these proljlems intelligently and earnestly, and are taking advantage of the best methods and devices that have been worked out in other school systems. From a weekly schedule of time allotments to various fields of study in the grade schools of Niagara Falls it appears that a reason- able time allotment is given to reading. This schedule indicates that 475 minutes weekly are devoted to reading in the first grade. 450 minutes in the second grade and 400 minutes in the third grade. 60 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Otherwise stated, tliis means that there is an allotment of 95 minutes daily to reading in the first grade, 90 minutes in the second grade, and 80 minutes in the third grade. The periods allotted to phonics and word drill and to direct exercises in reading, are kept distinct. By this procedure the teacher is able to focus the attention of the children on acquiring proper knowledge of sounds and blends and to the mastery of the new words which they will meet later in the reading lesson of the day. The children's minds are free to act with- out interruption in the direction of thought-getting and thought- giving during the period in which sentences and brief paragraphs are read. There is no exact uniformity in the relative amount of time utilized in the various grades of the primary schools in the two classes of activities mentioned. In general the distribution is approxi- mately on a fifty-fifty basis. In a few schedules that were exam- ined, three distinct periods for reading were noted, namely, one for phonics, one for word drill and one for reading from blackboard or book. The difference indicated is one of detail. Emphasis is placed on the fact that mechanics in accjuiring the reading art is a thing distinct from reading itself. In the outworking of the new and formative methods in reading that are now finding expression in the primary schools of Niagara Falls, the distinct impression was obtained that the teachers are re- sponding intelligently and heartily to the new plans. While the out- lines presented by the supervisor are stimulating in variety and in suggestiveness, it was noted with satisfaction that teachers are devel- oping new and interesting devices to vary their vv^ork. A commend- able feature of instruction, particularly in grades 1 and 2, was noted in the emphasis placed on the development of skill in visualizing word groups, brief phrases consisting of closely related words and short sentences. Such groups were often indicated on the blackboard by a sweeping stroke of the crayon indicating the words inclusively, _or by holding before the class perception cards on which were printed the phrases or sentences whose quick visualization was required. From the observations made it was not apparent that dramatization has as yet found its best expression in the classroom practice of these schools. Something in this direction has been undertaken by a num- ber of teachers, but it may be described as only a beginning. Thus far in the procedures of the primary classroom this instrument for obtaining the material and wide-awake expression of thought among little people does not appear to have commanded the skill and atten- tion that its value deserves. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 61 The standard time schedule which has been worked out by super- intendent and teacher shows an allotment of 40 minutes daily to read- ing in the fourth grade, 35 minutes daily in the fifth grade and 30 minutes daily in the sixth grade. On the assumption that pupils have gained during the first three years of their school life a good mastery of the mechanics of reading and that they have made satisfactory progress in the ability to interpret thought correctly and readily from the printed i^age, the teachers of the intermediate grades will be free to give their attention to the larger development of the subject. New aims, new points of departure, different methods are now requisite. Pupils at this point in their training are entering on new enterprises in study. The curriculum expands, taking on new sub- jects. Fundamental to success in these grades will be thought-getting and thought-giving in their broader features. If satisfactory progress in study is to be made from this time on the pupils must possess or accjuire as quickly as possible the ability to get connected thought with facility from the printed page and to tell it or write it in connected paragraphs with fair fidelity to the story. Apart from the knowledge that the pupil must acquire from the textbooks that he will now study, there is presented to him the added problem of acquiring col- lateral information from various sources and of utilizing this infor- mation orally and in writing for the larger educative purposes of the classroom. Obviously then he must be brought in contact with a ■variety of literature. Under ideal conditions the grade schools would be equii)ped with a wealth of material for reading, well adapted to the age and experiences of the pupils, of interesting and informing type, and having an appeal to youth that will win pupils to its spirited pursuit. In these grades there should be much silent reading for rapid throught-getting, and some oral reading for the purpose of securing correct pronunciation and pleasing expression. Work with the dic- tionary, in order to assure the correct understanding of words, will be necessary. Above all else the reading must be vitalized by inspira- tional teaching. There must be leadership which points the way to reading afield in the stories of lands and peoples. In the literature taken up in the classes in reading and 'in English opportunity wnll be afforded on every hand for the teacher to utilize every resource aris- ing from her wider experience and from her larger insight. Daily preparation, plans thoughtfully worked out in advance, having in mind not only the day's lesson but the goals of final achievement for the year, will be recjuisite to the highest success. 62 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK It would appear that there is not a clear definition of the aims that should characterize the teacher's work in these grades, and there is insufficient store of materials on which teachers and pupils may draw in the advancing demands of their work. In the absence of definitely formulated standards of procedure and of supervising leadership, the reading in each grade room is largely what the individual teacher makes it. Naturally there is considerable work of the routine type that may be described as " hearing the lesson." In a few instances skilful attention to silent reading, followed by oral work in connected paragraphs, was observed. In essentially all grades of this group there is much attention to the pronunciation and the meaning of new words. On the whole, judged by common standards, the pupils in the various grades read aloud in a manner creditable to their degree of advancement in school. Relatively speaking, the slow pupils in the reading classes — those who show distinct weakness in ability to get the thought in a sentence or a paragraph, and to express it with reasonable fluency from the printed page — are few in number. Any criticism expressed or implied in this discussion points in the direc- tion of a better understanding of ideals of instruction in these grades and a more purposeful and well-directed procedure in the outworking of these ideals. The amount of time allotted to reading in the seventh and eighth grades is 100 minutes weekly. This allotment does not include a considerable amount of time that is devoted to reading in connection with the study of English in these grades. In the reading classes proper the selections used are of a high type such as are found in the more advanced literary readers. Among the selections taken up when the classes were visited were Hawthorne's " Great Stone Face,' " The Siege of the Castle," from Ivanhoe, and some passages from Irving's " Knickerbocker History of Nev/ York." A few poems were also used, such as Longfellow's " Chambered Nautilus," Toaquim Miller's " Columbia " and the war poem, " On Flanders Field." It will be noted that variety and standard literary quality characterized the various selections. In conducting recitations teachers often asked pupils to step to the front, reading aloud a page or more each. Exercises in retelling the story or the incidents read were common. There was also some discussion of personages and incidents but comparatively little that was suggestive of " problem work." In one or two instances pupils had been expected to read silently the selection before coming to class, and in such cases the day's lesson was begun by a detailed oral REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 63 recall of the story by different pupils. There was also considerable attention given to the pronunciation and meaning of new words. In most classes the attention given to the pupil's position in standing to read and to matters of expression, were commendable. The study of the pedagogics of reading in the seventh and eighth grades has not had the attention from teachers and principals that it has received in the lower grades. This is to be expected as pupils are supposed to become fair masters of the mechanics and of the art of reading in grades below the seventh. Whatever they do with reading thereafter is often supposed to be for the purpose of getting and giving information or for the purpose of interpreting orally the thought of a given selection. A considerable fault may lie in the fact that definite goals of achievement have seldom been marked out for the teacher's guidance. The general use of oral and silent read- ing tests would be very helpful in fixing reasonable standards ; in fact this work is already under way, following up the preliminary tests given in connection with the survey. If pupils are to be expected to read poems in a natural and pleasing way, all tendencies to " sing-song," to exaggerated cadence, must be checked up rigorously in the earlier grades. No stronger single factor in the direction of such objectionable habits in reading poetry can be found than the procedure whereby pupils are drilled on " memory gems " in concert recitation. The habit of reading poems in this manner is all too common. The boy's reprehensible manner of reading Joaquim Miller's " Columbia " or the poem " On Flanders Field " in the eighth grade class, is simply the sequence of a habit in monotones that he acquired in his earlier years in school. From the observations on reading in the elementary grades it is noted that the work points in the direction of a better understanding of desirable goals of achievement. The plans and methods under way promise the best results in working toward such goals. Elementary English It is evident that the elementary teachers in Niagara Falls are rapidly catching the spirit that should permeate the teaching of English today. This conclusion is' based upon observations made in the classrooms and upon conferences held with all the elementary school teachers in the city. The work of 72 different teachers was observed. Each teacher's class was visited once; many were visited twice. It is apparent that the attitude of many of the teachers toward the work in English is broad and of the right sort. 64 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Tune Schedule In the accompanying table is presented the per cent of time given daily to recitations in English, and the number of pupils in each grade in seven elementary schools. Table 6 Per cent of daily recitation schedule given to English in the elementary schools _2 O j; J2 3_^ _2 oj: ^ GRADE S'^ p. c — 'p. c — c c;S '5, t^JS 'E c — o. c — o. V bo 3 V M 3 V bo 3 pTc C be d 1- W 6 fc^ d d feW d d ^ IS Pi PZ ^ ^ Oh ^ P-, 2; ^ Z; Ph a 1 11.8 11.1 10.0 13.3 13.3 13.3 9.6 42 43 44 40 42 43 27 8.0 7.8 10.0 13.3 13.3 19.3 9.6 46 42 42 43 34 11.7 11.1 10.0 13.3 13.3 13.3 40 37 39 39 37 34 11.7 11.1 10.0 13.3 13.3 13.3 48 39 36 39 28 27 11.7 11.1 10.1 13.5 13.5 13.5 13.5 44 36 38 40 40 41 31 11.7 7.4 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.6 41 47 40 36 42 39 35 11.7 11.1 10.0 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.3 40 2 47 3 40 4 45 5 44 6 38 7 .A. 35 B. 9.6 27 5.8 33 C. 9.6 26 14. S 27 D. 9.6 27 6.4 34 E. 9.6 28 12.2 34 F. 9.6 27 8 .A. B. C. D. E. F. 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 9.6 29 28 31 28 29 24 25.0 19.3 20.9 20.9 20.9 19.3 29 30 34 33 36 31 The fact that the seventh and eighth grade work is largely centered in schools A and B appears to offer a natural differentiation between the work of the first six grades and that of the seventh and eighth. This distinction had a marked effect upon the character of the Eng- lish work being done by each group of teachers. There was an evi- dent advance in the nature of the work in the seventh and eighth grades over that in the first six grades. In each school the work in the first six grades is in the hands of the grade teacher. In school B it is also so arranged in the seventh and eighth grades. In school A", h-owever, English is taught on a departmental basis in the seventh and eighth grades. The per cent of time given to elementary English in ten American cities tabulated in 1905 by B. R. Payne in his study of elementary education in the United States, France, England and Germany varied from 10.3 to 30.9 per cent. The average time was 14.4 per cent. The average number of minutes a week given to elementary English in each grade in these cities was as follows : Grade No. of minutes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 130 146 144 158 176 224 254 256 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 65 School A gives 10.4 per cent of each school day to instruction in English while school B gives 14.5 per cent to such instruction. Some factors to be taken into consideration in determining the time daily to be devoted to English are the size of the class, the grade, the speech ability of the pupils, their mentality, and their nationality. These or other important factors in time assignments are often not con- sidered in determining grade schedules. The time schedule in school A provides for an English recitation in grades 7 and 8 of 30 minutes, but another 30 minutes is to be devoted to study in preparation of the work for the following reci- tation. This period of study is not supervised by the teacher of English. It is not clear therefore that it should be considered as part of the time given to English in these grades. Where a period of 60 minutes is divided into two parts, it should be provided that the period of preparation be spent in a room where the pupils are under the immediate direction of the subject teacher. Where that is done, much good may be looked for. Where that is not done, the results are apt to be indifferent. An excellent plan is to lengthen the recitation period to 45 or even to 60 minutes and provide that a part of the time be given to directed study under the guidance of the class teacher. In some instances the narrowness of the instruction was marked. Much of the time was given to the use of words, to analysis, or to some other phase of instruction equally restricted. There was little use of variety to arouse interest. Interest was often lacking with the result that the recitation was lifeless. It was noted that when definitions were called for, frequently an application was made, often it was not. Drill in such matters proves effective. The force of a definition is invariably lost when children are not allowed to apply the definition in a practical way. When this was done the diagrams were for the most part neatly made and accurate. The use of the diagram, however, as a method of analysis is not to be encouraged. At best it is but a crutch upon which pupils are inclined to lean to the detriment of their ability to make a mental analysis. As an illustration its use is not to be condemned ; as a system its use is to be avoided. In general most pupils in Niagara Falls seem to have gained the ability to write letters suited to their grade and age. In the upper years of one school, pupils were found to be carrying on an actual correspondence with other pupils in distant parts of the country. Here was real motivation with an added element of interest and results commensurate with both. It is to be reoretted that more work 66 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK of a similar nature was not being done in other schools. There is an inclination on the part of some teachers to give their pupils very little time to think. This inclination is so marked at times as to be very noticeable. It would be worth while for teachers to encourage pupils to cultivate the habit of thinking in English recitations even in the elementary schools. Considerable time seemed to be given to picture study. Some of the recitations in this type of work seemed to have been prepared beforehand and to have the character of review work. Little oppor- tunitv was thus given to observe how the study of pictures was undertaken and what aim the teacher put before her pupils. The monotonous manner, in measured rhythm, in which the majority of the pupils recited was evidence that the practical value for the pupils was limited. Stories of " Jack and Jill " and " The Three Bears " were sometimes told without the childish spirit of story-telling being present. There were, on the other hand, several excellent illustra- tions of just how the work ought to be done. Notable among these was the story of " Cinderella," told in language much the child's own, with good expression. Of great value to a class, composed mostly of foreigners, was a recitation in which these pupils applied to the picture descriptive words arranged in short sentences. Here was one of the best bits of training in distinct, correct speech met with anywhere in the city. It is very possible that right motivation was largely responsible for the interest shown by the pupils in what they were telling as well as for the excellent training they were getting in clear envniciation and accurate expression. Closely akin in aim to story-telling based on pictures from which pupils talk is the reproduction of stories read in books or told to the class by the teacher. Several reproductions were made in good order with the thought logically expressed in a delightful manner, valuable to children. Some of these exercises were, however, reproduced in the language of the book, sleepily and perfunctorily. This gave one the idea that the work was done as a duty, not as a pleasure. Occa- sionally the reproduction was made in concert by the whole class with little benefit to the individual child. Reproduction of stories told to the child, or read by him, is one of the most readily available means of developing a child's power of expression. But unless the aim of developing power of expression be continually present the reproduction is of doubtful value. Valuable results in reproducing can come only from suitable stories. " The story with well-defined beginning, middle and end is obviously the best to begin with. If the parts are logically connected, one part will call for and suggest REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 67 the next." " Cinderella," for instance, is helpful in that particular. Here the opportunity of " filling in " encourages the child, as his ability grows, to add descriptive touches, the products of his imag- ination. Thus there may result from reproduction, skilfully guided, not only spontaneous self-expression in correct English 1)ut also an exercising of the imagination productive of power to shape the grow- ing idea. But the aim, the method, and the practice must be right. The work in the upper grades involving the conversational powers of the pupils was oftentimes effective. Many indications appeared that teachers were giving considerable drill in the use of words. In the lower grades such words as cat, ate, sit, sat. did, done, sec and saw were noted in this connection. In one instance a game was resorted to and in others various devices aided the drill. In an upper grade an effective bit of teaching was wit- nessed when a class discussed the distinctions in the use of the words to. too. txi'o. Here the pupils were given time to think and the con- structive work was reenforced by plenty of actual practice at the blackboard. In another grade the distinctions in the use of the word only were dwelt upon. The lesson was so presented tliat the pupils were keen in their grasp of the distinctions drawn. Such drill in the accurate use of words and in correcting errors made in written and spoken English should he l^oth " incidental and systematic." In the systematic drill the attention of the pupils must first be fixed on the correct forms in order to make them matters of habit. Dramatizations were too infrequently attempted ; in several schools none was seen. In many instances observed the dramatization had been worked out beforehand under the direction of the teacher, so that the actual performance lacked the spontaneity and the simplicity to be expected in children. Too much planning was resorted to by the teacher to allow for the development of the creative imagination or the inventiveness of the children. Dramatization should aid in making clearer to children the pictures of a story and by giving relaxation enable them to get a surer understanding and appreciation of the characters. Hence there " should be no formal work, particu- larly in the lower grades, unless for a special occasion. As many children as is practicable should be asked to help in playing the story." Oral expression in the elementary schools is receiving attention. The mechanics of oral expression, however, such as breathing, voice training, posture and enunciation are being neglected. At the most critical period in the child's vocal development practically no training is being given. 68 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Very little attention, likewise, is being given to correcting such matters as speech defects of foreign children, blending words, clip- ping final syllables, and mispronunciations. No well-defined plan for improving and strengthening the organs of speech was anywhere observed. It was not evident that correct posture was being seriously considered in the school program. There should be a definite program of oral English which should provide for a large amount of time in the lower grades — seven- eighths of the time devoted to composition in grade one is sometimes suggested- — and a smaller amount in the upper grades — one-half of the time devoted to composition in the eighth grade. There might well be greater uniformity in the time devoted in the various grades throughout the city. The relation between oral and written expression is likewise im- portant. Oral composition is of service primarily in written compo- sition. Little indication was given anywhere that consciousness of such a relationship existed, and no specific attempts to cultivate it appeared. Writing and speaking are " two forms of one mental act." In the elementary school oral language work is the " natural prelim- inary to written work from the necessity of learning to speak before learning to write." Occasions that require pupils to use their natural powers of expression are the key to success in oral work. When such occasions are lacking the success is mediocre. It is the duty of teachers in the elementary schools to create these opportunities where the}- arc not present read}- made. Attempts to motivate work in English or to make use of interest as a means or as an end were seldom ol)served. Interest must be depended upon to furnish " motives for the acquisition of knowledge and for the formation of right habits of thought and action." In story-telling, in dramatization, in matters of technic, in oral and written composition, in the reading of literature, too little efifort was made by the teacher to show the cbildren the need they have, personal or social, of the thing being taught. There is a utilitarian as well as a cultiu-al \alue to English. Both must be recognized by teachers in the elementar}- schools and i)Ut before the pupils gradually as motives for the accomplishment of certain results. Written and oral com- positions should arouse the pupils' interests ; they should be used for specific purposes, with definite audiences in mind. One instance in letter writing has alread}' been noted. Rules of grammar, learned ai)art from composition, have very little eftect on the use of English as a means of exjjressing ideas. Put an adequate motive before the child and the most commonplace subject assumes a different aspect. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 69 The teaching of English, even in the elementary school, should be socialized and vitalized to the extent that pupils are trained to recog- nize at their true value motives and methods having human interest always present. Some efforts to correlate written composition with the life of the pupils in the community were observed, however, in certain schools. These are worthy of recognition. Practically no attempts were noted, on the other hand, to correlate the work within the school. One instance stood out unique in which hygiene and English in a fourth grade were ])eing correlated. A valuable opportunity is lost unless the English in a school is closely bound up with the geography, the history, and many other subjects. All elementary schools lacked libraries. '^ In one school there are about 200 books in the office, most of which are not available for the use of pupils. In another school there were a few volumes scattered throughout the different rooms. In each building there should be a library in a room by itself, under the charge of a librarian. This should be for all the pupils, but particularly for use of the seventh and eighth grades. If we expect to build up in our pupils a love for literature, we must make literature accessible under skilful guidance in the school. The library in the school does not need to take the place of the city library, but it does need to supplement it in its work. If it is impossible for the board of education to establish a library in each school, a branch of the city library might be installed to which pupils should have free access. Much would be gained by having the subject of English carefully supervised from the first grade through the twelfth. There would be less effort wasted by individual teachers, more unity in the work within (lift'erent schools, and closer articulation possible between the different grades and between the grades and the high school. To meet the new trend in the teaching of English today it is neces- sary to get a wide acquaintance with literature, both for itself and for its effect upon the oral and written expression of the pupils. To help accomplish that end it may be necessary to devote more time to the study of English in the grades. Enough time should ])e devoted in each grade to secure results commensurate with at least the minimum requirements suggested in the syllabus in elementary English. When the time allotment has been made sufficient, it will be possible to broaden the reading of literature in the grades to meet more com- pletely the suggestions set down year by year. ^ Large purchases have since I)een made. 70 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Arithmetic The report on arithmetic is based on the observation of classroom instruction conchicted by the teachers. In most cases the instruction was under normal conditions, that is, on the assigned lesson of the day and at the regular recitation period. Ninety-nine classes were inspected. Most classes were inspected by two men. Each man made his inspection independent of his associate. The inspections were made on different days. This is a composite report made from their notes. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 71 U o .ss.s .E en CO 00 t^ CO *-^T-l,-HU-l^•^r-^^Hr-l^^I-lO^O^O^O^o\0^00000 ^^T-Hi-HOO^OMD^CO^OVOfMCgCMCMCNlCvlOOOOOOOOOO ■!-> -i: 3 o ^ -H , P3 S ^>.1-tOo\o^o■v0^o^oo^ovo'^^■^'^Tl-TJ-r^rtT^Tt'i- ^^lTff-(,-^mu^C^l.-lf^](^^^^T^-ooa^O^OoCC^a^OoClOC^ f -i" -^ ■^ -^ "^ *t* ~r ■^ -^ "^ *<*■ Ol 0.1 f^l Ol CS] Ol ri f^. r^o » r>. f-H T-H On C^ On •ON ■ ON • .-I r-1 t-H ^H \0 NO vo •NO o5^-- c "5 C M 00 00 CO NO NO 00 o • o ■ l-H . -^ T fO fO fO "^ -^ • -d- .Tj- . ^ '^ n! ^°': ^^^^„^r^ ro (^ TOro 1— ' i-H r^ r^ ctj f^v in ^ ■^ Tt- ,-1 -«^ Tt cv) r'; ' ^ rsd r-1,-.— 1,-1,-t— ^r-..--.-l -T-li-t ,^ .tf;OOvOr>*OOOiOTt- -voce ^H^(MCSlrorc^Tj-ioi-f^NONO r^ 72 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table 7 gives the registration grade by grade and the per cent of the recitation time given to arithmetic daily. The last column is the average per cent of recitation time given in ten American cities. These per cents were obtained by Dr Bruce R. Payne in his studies of the elementary curriculums of those cities in 1904. He has for- mulated a proposed recitation time table, in which he allots 12.5 per cent of the total daily recitation time to arithmetic. The factors that should determine the time allotments of arith- metic, or of any subject, and its position in the daily program are the grade, the nvunber in the grade, the mental condition of the pupils and the character and interests of the community. Some programs in the Niagara Falls schools show that a few primary grades recite in arithmetic in 30-minute and 45-minute periods and that a few intermediate and grammar grades recite in 40-minute, 50-minute and 55-minute periods. In only a few cases do the programs show sep- arate study and recitation periods. No definite time is assigned to supervised study. Part of the regular period is often used in this manner. " The needs of society within the probable environment of the child should be taken as a safe criterion of measurement of any subject in the elementary school curriculum." Reliable authority asserts that formal subjects are more fatiguing than content subjects. If this be true, formal subjects should be given the best periods of the day, especially in the lower grades. In some of the Niagara Falls schools, arithmetic is taught at the close of the forenoon and the aften\oon sessions. There seems to be no uniform method of procedure in teaching the fundamentals of arithmetic. Some pupils add columns of figures upward ; others add them downward. In oral arithmetic some pupils repeat each number in the column before they add it to the sum up to that number. But no pupil was observed to add by counting; by his previous drill he knew or he did not know the sum. In subtrac- tion, multiplication and division pupils in the same grade sometimes used different methods of procedure ; this difference in method was usually attended by the pupils' inaccuracies, inattention and lack of speed. Some teachers are making commendable efforts to improve the speed and the accuracy of their pupils in fundamentals. They are meeting with varying degrees of success. Those who fail to attain the requisite speed and accuracy fail in a way to inculcate in their ])upils mechanical and mental habits that lead to the desired end. Time limits in formal work concentrate the attention of pupils. Con- centrated attention leads to accuracy and speed. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 7?) Ex-president Eliot says, " The system of education which mini- mizes the importance of accuracy of thought and of expression is relegating to a subordinate position one of the essentials of true scholarship and culture." Accurate thoughts can not be obtained with faulty or half -formed concepts. Errors in statements by pupils working in denominate numbers were largely due to the fact that they had faulty concepts of them. They had learned the tables without the use of appropriate apparatus. No teacher above the primary grades (which have a supervisor) was seen to use any apparatus or diagram in teaching arithmetic. All concepts of mensuration at least should be taught by diagrams or appropriate apparatus. Memor- izing tables used in the solution of problems is the end, not the be- ginning, of the instruction in their use. Roark says, " It would seem unnecessary to make so trite a suggestion, but it is a fact that in thousands of schools the barren grind of arithmetic is still gone through without the use of illustrative material." Inaccurate written expressions at the board too often passed without correction, as 1/7 X 21 yds. =: $3. A pupil will never do any better work than his teacher accepts. It is a pleasure to note that many teachers require of their pupils in arithmetic accurate oral and written statements. Here are some comments on their work : " Errors corrected in the right spirit. Pupils kept busy." " Language corrected." " The written work was denominate numbers. The work was written neatly and accur- ately on the board. No important principle involved in the written solution was neglected. Good work." The good work done by those teachers will be reflected in their pupils' work in the upper grades. In the lower grades, oral expression and written expression are about equally divided. From the third grade to the eighth grade too much of each class period is devoted to written expression. All new written processes in grade arithmetic should be introduced by induc- tive oral expression. Success in written arithmetic is largely depend- ent upon this method of procedure. The written solution of prob- lems determines the effectiveness of instruction in oral arithmetic. As a result of an investigation conducted by Jessup and Coffman a few years ago, they proposed for each grade in cities of the size of Niagara Falls, the following median- per cent of arithmetic recitation time for oral work : Grade Per cent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 42 46 40 28 25 21 13 12 " The explanations were merely the reading of the operations per- formed " ; " no analysis " ; " mental problem of practical value — 74 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK analytically cxi)Iainecl — good attention and intelligent etfort by the pupils " are some of the comments on classwork. The analysis should not be stereotyi)ed and lead to memorizing a mess of " logical ver- biage." Clear logical analysis of problems is important, if adapted to the capacity and advancement of the pupils. When the i)rocess of a type i)roblem is understood, all verbal analysis should cease. Successful develoi)ment lessons were conducted by a few teachers; none was attempted by others. I'he few who did development work used the projjer ajiperceptive basis upon which they built new con- cepts. Their success can be attributed in large measure to the fact that they are applying sound pedagogical i)rincii)les in their teaching. Teaching involves development and training as well as instruction. No checking of problems was observed. Pupils should be taught to prove their solutions. The check should become a part of the problem and thus be a very valuable part of the pupils' instruction. The check, when properly taught, is a most valual)le way of improv- ing the pu])ils" accuracy in computation and in increasing confidence in their ability. IMcMurry in his " Elementary School Standards " says, " In order that instruction may affect the ho])es and purposes of pupils, the subject matter must be intimately related to human interests and to the interests of children in particular." The instruction in arithmetic was too infrecjuently motivated, that is, related to human interests. The pupils should be led more frecjuently to solve prol)lems because the answers meet some ]:)ersonal neei\ of theirs. The teachers differ much in the amount and nature of drill exer- cises used in class. In one grade, "the drill lacked snap"; in an- other, "the drill lacked system"; in another, "work showed inade- quate drill on the tables " ; in another, " pupils not drilled to correct errors " ; in another, " excellent drill in writing and reading deci- mals — all well taught"; in another, "aliquot parts of a dollar drilled on — accurate statements required at all times." Drill to Ue effective must be regular and systematic. Jessup and Coffman in 1917 found the median per cent of recitation time favored for strictly drill work by 564 superintendents distributed throughout the differ- ent sections of the United States as follows: Grade 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Percent 43 50 52 45 39 31 22 17 I'hese sui)erintendents, by re([uiring drill work as a part of each arithmetic recitation, acknowledge the value of such work. The authors say, " We are certain that short drill periods produce the best results " in arithmetic instruction. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 75 Assignments of work for study hours should be improved upon in many grade rooms. Poor assignments lead to groping in the dark and .to discouraging failures. The assignment should lead to inde- pendence and initiative in thought on the part of the pupils. Poor assignments lead to the teacher's doing too much of the work in the class hour. Good assignments put pupils in the mood to work and stimulate them to an active participation in the preparation of their lesson. The pupils might be profitably drilled in estimating answers. The question, " If 5 men can do a piece of work in 10 days, how long will it take one of them to do it, if each does the same amount of work? ■' puzzled nearly all in a seventh grade class. Absurd answers were given, such as, 15 days, etc. A drill in estimating results would tend to avoid such answers. Estimating results is a check on mis- placed decimal points and on absurd answers of different kinds. It is also a training in approximating results in practical life. In only one arithmetic class was any portion of the recitation hour devoted to the supervision of pupils' study. Notes on this teacher's work are, " Errors corrected helpfully and in the right spirit ; pupils kept busy; instruction correctly given." IMore teaching like that by other teachers would improve their instruction, whatever is its present standard. Hall-Quest says, " Precisely measured, experi- mental investigations show that supervised study improves the work of poor students." Wastes of the ordinary study hour and of home work indicate that the pupils' study periods should be supervised. The study hour should be one of the teacher's busy hours — not one of monotorial service of preserving discipline, keeping pupils at work or writing up records. She should find her pupils needing help and render the assistance unasked. She should attempt to develop their initiative. This can be done by knowing the pupils' needs and char- acteristics and by applying in the help rendered her knowledge of psychological laws. In the teaching of arithmetic in the grades, much is to be com- mended. The teachers average well in ability as instructors and as disciplinarians. No teacher was observed who was not definitely prepared for the work of the class hour — not only for the lesson to be taught but also for the material to be used during the class hour. Most teachers command the respect and attention of their pupils. Instruction is given daily in mental and written arithmetic. The pupils' written work is usually neat and well placed on paper and on the board. Not many answers in mental arithmetic were in concert. The language of the pupils receives attention by many 7(i THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OK NEW YORK teachers. The fundamentals of nunihers are usually well taught. Most teachers get intelligent efTorts from their pupils. There is greater uniformity of teaching in the lower grades than in the upper grades. The lower grades have the help of the primary supervisor. The Elementary Syllabus is used by the city. Long division, how- ever, is taught in the fourth and not in the third grade. The following suggestions may be helpful by way of summary: 1 Teachers should require of all pupils neat and legible written work. 2 Arithmetic should minister to the child's needs and should be kept within his exi^cricncc, if the suliject is to be motivated through interest. 3 Rationalization should receive more attention as an aid to the intelligent solution of prol)lems. 4 Checking should be a feature of nearly every arithmetic class period. 5 Time limits should be set for written drill work in arithmetic as a training in concentration. 6 More devices for teaching numbers in the lower grades might be profitably used. 7 Estimating answers would be hcl])ftil in developing the judg- ment of the pupils. 8 \w teaching u])per grade arithmetic, time might be profitably spent in the interpretation and comprehension of problems that arise in the world's activities. 9 The supervision of the study period should be more common with all teachers. History Readjustment in the amount of time allotted to the various subjects of study was in progress at the time of making the survey. In previous years such allotments had been determined largely by ])rincii)als or by teachers along lines of customary usage in the local school or of individual judgments as to the most desirable distribu- tion of teaching-time. Under this procedure differences in relative time allotments were most noticeable in grades 5 and 6. Naturally the iini)ortance attached to a field of study as reflected in the daily schedule influenced largely opinion in the schools as to the relative value of studies. Without explanatory details, the statement appears warranted tiiat heretofore in grades 5 and 6 history has occupied a distinctly minor i)lace. The new weekly time allotments ujjon which a committee has been working in cooperation with the city superin- tendent of schools will become fully operative at the opening of the REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 77 second semester of the current year. In this schedule 60 minutes weekly are assigned to history in grades 5 and 6, and this allotment will doubtless become standard for these grades throughout the sys- tem. The new-time standard indicated should operate favorably in securing better recognition for history in the intermediate grades, leading to a larger interest among pupils and to more fruitful results in teaching. Theoretically, an hour a week for history in these grades is a fair allotment. Skilfully and resourcefully used, that amount of time should prove adequate and the resultant achievement satisfac- tory. Considerable will depend on the manner in which the time is distributed. In some schools it has been customary to have a 12- minute period daily ; in others, three 20-minute periods weekly ; in one or two, two half -hour periods weekly. The question as to which of the three procedures is the best need not be discussed at this time. This is a question, however, that may fairly engage the attention of the supervising authorities with a view of establishing a standard that will yield maximum results in class instruction. The variable size of groups in the different schools might render exact uniformity undesirable. In any event the question is one for thoughtful con- sideration. Next to the determination of period-standards that will bring the intermediate grades in substantial accord, some method of outlining from month to month the subject matter and the general methods of presentation is clearly desirable. In the seventh and eighth grades where pupils have daily lessons and where in general the teachers have an adequate preparation in history, freedom, personal initiative, the choice of methods and to some extent the choice of materials on the teacher's part are indispensable to the best results. Such freedom in history teaching now exists in the grammar grades of Niagara Falls. Observations in various classrooms justify the impression that the teachers are responding appreciatively and successfully to the opportunities that are thus accorded them. In no case that came under the visitor's observation in these grades did teachers show a lack of thoughtful preparation for the day's lesson or a lack of re- sourcefulness in its presentation. In some classrooms, maps and other materials were freely used, and no tendency was noted to fol- low strictly or narrowly the letter of the lesson as printed in the textbook. Resulting from such freedom the pupils were c[uite gen- erally alive and responsible — sometimes enthusiastically so. The work in history appears in less satisfactory condition in grades 5 and 6 of most schools than in the grammar grades. Ten- dencies to narrowness of view on the part of teachers were here and 78 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK there noted. There was a manifest disposition in some instances to follow the lines of least resistance. A common procedure is to have the pupils read two or three pages from the elementary texthook, the exercise sometimes ending in that way, but oftener followed by a few perfunctory questions that are perfunctorily answered by the pupils. The teaching rarely struck fire ; interest was at low ebb. Pupils frequently recited in a memoriter way. Interesting sidelights on historical incidents and personages presented by the teacher were quite infrequent. Lack of range in reading and a consequent lack of ability to illuminate history was often apparent. Opportunities to stimulate interest and eltort on the part of pupils were thereby lost. Plans already under way will probably result in a more definite organization of the work in history in the fifth and sixth grades. Provision for supervision that will prove effective in indicating to teachers desirable lines of reading, that will suggest stimulating pro- cedures in conducting classes, and that will result more surely in imparting to pupils in the history classes the kind of information that will supply the motive for going afield in their reading, will make for betterment in the history classes of these grades. In this con- nection it may be remarked that a skilled and inspiring supervisor of work in the intermediate and grammar grades would be helpful in accomplishing larger results. Elementary Drawing and Industrial Arts The drawing teacher prepares outlines for the elementary grade room teachers every two months. These are specific and helpful and contribute much to the effectiveness of the work. The outlines include considerable subject matter as well as directions for carrying to completion certain typicr' projects. The supervisor of manual training prepares mimeographed pat- terns for the toys made by the pupils in grades 4 and 5. Subject matter in this work is almost totally lacking. Partial dififerentiation takes place in grade 4. where the boys are taught cardboard and thin wood construction; complete dififerentia- tion in grade 6, when the boys are sent to the shop for bench work in wood. Equipment is suflicient to do the work as it is at .present planned. It will need to be increased from time to time as the work develops. The equipment and supplies were well taken care of. ANNUAL SCHOOL EXHIBIT IN STATE ARMORY A partial view. Household arts, drawing and manual training ANNUAL SCHOOL EXHIBIT IN STATE ARMORY A partial view. Woodworking and manual arts REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 79 Grades 1 to 6 Three supervisors cooperating are responsible for the drawing and handwork carried on in the first six grades, that is, the supervisors of manual training, drawing and home economics, as follows: the drawing supervisor for art and construction work, the manual train- ing supervisor for the cardljoard and thin woodwork in grades 4 and 5 and for the benchwork in grade 6, and the home economics supervisor for sewing in grades 4, 5 and 6. The effectiveness of this organization is dependent largely upon the voluntary cooperation of the three departments which apparently are endeavoring to cor- relate their eflforts. The time devoted to the combined work in the grades is as follows : drawing and handwork in grades 1 to 3 inclusive, four 20-minute periods a week; drawing in grades 4 to 6 inclusive, three 30-minute periods a week ; construction in grades 4 to 6 inclusive, one 45-min- ute period a week ; sewing in grades 4 to 6 inclusive, one 45-minute period a week. It has been the aim of the art work to acquaint the child with the relation between art and the industries and art and the home. The course includes nature drawing, color study, illustration, con- stru ■ ' e design, drawing from toys, costume design, picture study, lettering and industry study. Beginning with grade 4 special em- phasis is placed on commercial design, interior decoration and indus- trial subject matter. There is a strong tendency in this toward industry — art — construction work. Picture study is taken care of largely in the language classes. It is stated that the aim of this work is to acquaint the pupils in grades 4, 5 and 6 with an elementary appreciation of the industrial opportunities of the community rather than to develop in them any specific tool technic. In grade 4 the work is. however, limited to card- board and thin wood (coping saw) and in grade 5 to thin wood, in grade 6 to thicker wood (bench work). Sixth grade work is planned to teach the fundamental processes of the common woodworking tools. A course based on this idea is followed rather closely. After the pupil has attained a certain pro- ficiency he is allowed greater freedom' in the choice of projects. All the work up to the seventh grade is in two dimensions only, that is, there are no projects involving the fastening of pieces of stock to- gether to form sides and ends as in box construction. Box con- struction is left for grade 7 to develop. 80 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The Intcnnedlale Cradcs The time given to drawing, manual training and sewing in grades 7 and 8 is one hour for shop and one hour for drawing each week. The boys receive no instruction in freehand drawing. Their drawing is all mechanical, including the making of working drawings for shop projects. Some of these are made from perspective sketches. The text used em])loys first angle projection which is no longer used extensively in commercial i)ractice. A new text is to he substituted. In the seventh grade the boys are required to work to three dimen- sions and larger projects are undertaken such as bookracks, taborets, plant stands, the choice being left largely to the pui)il. There are certain processes which the boys are required to embody in their projects, and related work which is taken up. Sketches are made by the pupils of all the projects which they make both in the sixth and in the seventh grades. In grades 7 and 8 instruction in drawing, for the girls, is centered about the costume and the home. The home planning work includes an elementary study of materials, costs, architectural plans and color schemes as api)lied to the building of a bungalow. An attempt is made to correlate this work with civic interests and with the various departments in the school. The course in manual training has two objectives, the limited de- velopment of tool technic and the acquisition of as wide a range of industrial information as possible. It is not intended to confine the handwork strictly to wood. It is a fact, however, that woodworking has been employed almost exclusively up to the present time. Some upholstering and a little cane work is carried on in connection with furniture making. The weakness in the courses is their apparent lack of educative subject matter. The finished product would seem in some instances to have been considered as an end in itself. This was most noticeable at the Cleveland Avenue School shop where the " finished model " is still held up before the pupils as the most im- portant consideration in the instruction. This criticism applies with equal force to the work in thin wood in the lower grades. It is impossible to vitalize this work with industrial subject matter. Not being of sufficient worth to demand so much time in the school pro- gram there might well be some modifications in the work in manual arts. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 81 Summary In the elementary grades of the Niagara Falls schools, the subjects of instruction include the common branches and also several special subjects such as drawing and industrial arts, music and physical training, which are under the direction of special teachers and super- visors. The supervisor of primary grades has given special study to the best methods in connection with the work in reading and has worked out the classroom procedure along excellent lines. This work has been modeled somewhat after the work in the primary grades in the city of Rochester. It is of interest to note that advantage has been taken of the best methods and devices that have been worked out in other localities. In the teaching of English throughout the grades the teachers are rapidly catching the spirit that should permeate such teaching. In general, it was noted that the pupils in the various grades seemed to have gained the ability to write letters suited to their grade and age. In the upper grades of one school, pupils were found to be carry- ing on an actual correspondence with other pupils in distant parts of the country. While the work was not uniformly strong, the fre- quent conferences should result in the gradual development of the best methods throughout the school organization. Pupils should be given every opportunity to develop their own individuality. It would be well worth while for teachers to encourage pupils to cultivate the habit of clear thinking in all recitations in the elementary school. Oral expression throughout the elementary grades is receiving the attention which it justly deserves. There was an unfortunate lack of li])rary facilities at the time of the first visits. This has. however, been corrected through large recent purchases. The work in arithmetic varied widely. There was much difference in the amount and nature of drill exercises used in the various classes and grades. In some instances inaccurate expressions written at the board passed without correction. Accuracy should be insisted upon. Pupils will not do any better work than the teacher accepts. It was observed that the instruction in arithmetic was too often unrelated to human interests. The pupils might well be given problems which meet some personal need or are closely related to some social interest. There was little attention given to the supervision of pupils' study. The work in history is in process of readjustment. In the fifth and sixth grades, history is taught in the form of biography but has a distinctly minor place in the school curriculum. The work is 82 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Stronger in the seventh and eighth grades and is based on the state syllabus outlined for this work. Plans already under way will prob- ably result in more definite organization of the work in history in the fifth and sixth grades. One feature of the work in the elementary grades is noted in the beginning of manual work for both boys and girls in the fourth grade, In this grade the girls are given sewing and the boys are taught cardboard and thin wood construction. Complete difTeren- tiation takes place in the sixth grade where the boys are sent to the shop for woodwork. As this work develops, other equipment will be necessary. One aim of the work in the grades is to acquaint the pupils with an elementary appreciation of the industrial opportunities of the community. In the higher grades the course in manual training has as its objective some development of tool technic and the acqui- sition of a wider range of industrial information. There is an unusual spirit on the part of the entire elementary teaching staff in the schools of the city. The work could not be carried forward as is being done without every cooperation between teachers, principals and superintendent. As is noted elsewhere, the classroom work in many respects could be made more effective with more definite supervisory plans on the part of the elementary school principals. Helpful supervision and frequent meetings of the indi- vidual teachers in the various buildings for the discussion of class- room and instructional problems would make more eiTective the course of instruction. The outstanding need at the present moment is the reorganization of the work of the higher grades, which can be properly done only with adequate school buildings and equipment for the type of work that should be offered in a progressive intermediate school program. The plans that are already under way, with the full approval of the board of education, will meet this situation and give Niagara Falls one of the best elementary and intermediate school organizations of .any city of its class. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 83 THE SCHOOL GROUP During the past decade the average daily attendance in the elemen- tary grades in Niagara Falls has increased over 82 per cent. This fact in itself presents a large problem not only in the matter of school accommodations but brings an equally heavy burden on the adminis- trative officers and local school authorities in providing the necessary teaching and supervisory staff to insure the best service that can be rendered. Table 8 Showing average daily attendance in Niagara Falls schools, 1910-20 y'car Eleincutary Schools High School 1909-10 3161 512 1910-11 3334 532 1911-12 3552 551 1912-13 3716 566 1913-14 3821 546 1914-15 4328 685 1915-16 4523 712 1916-17 4958 663 1917-18 5914 1918-19 5534 697 1919-20 5774 804 Percentage increase 1910-20. . . . 82% 57% During the past school year there was a registration in the entire school system in Niagara Falls of 7250. Of this number, 6391 or 88 per cent v^ere registered in the elementary grades. In the city of Amsterdam during the same year 92 per cent of the pupils were enrolled in the elementary grades. In the city of Elmira, 78 per cent of the school enrolment during the past school year was found in the elementary grades. In the four cities mentioned, the percentage of pupils in the ele- mentary grades varies from 78 in Elmira to 92 in Amsterdam. In Utica and Niagara Falls the percentage of registration in the ele- mentary grades was 87 and 88 respectively. 84 the university of the state of new york Table 9 Showing percentage of pupils in each school year of public school system in Amsterdam, Elmira, Niagara Falls and Utica Per cent of pupils in Amsterdam Elmira A^iagara Falls Utica Elementary 92 78 88 87 Kindergarten 9 5 11 5 Grade 1 15 12 14 12 Grade 2 14 8 12 14 Grade 3 14 10 11 12 Grade 4 11 9 11 11 Grade 5 11 9 9 10 Grade 6 5 9 9 9 Grade 7 8 8 6 8 Grade 8 5 8 5 6 Secondary 8 22 12 13 First year 4 8 6 7 Second year 2 6 3 3 Third year 1 4 2 2 Fourth year 1 4 1 1 In the Niagara Falls school system, the number of boys is 3636 and the number of girls 3614. In the Elmira school system, the number of boys is 3294 and the number of girls 3269. In the public school system of the city of Utica the number of boys is 6196 and the number of girls 6259. One may judge from the table given above, showing the percentage of pupils found in each grade, that the holding power of the school system on the boys and girls above the compulsory school age is greater in Elmira than in Niagara P'alls and in Utica, and that in the city of Amsterdam the percentage of pupils leaving school above the compulsory school age is greater than in any of the three other cities mentioned in the table. In the school system of Niagara Falls 334 pupils out of a registra- tion of 7250 are 16 years of age or over. In the school system of Elmira, with a school population of 6563, 864 boys and girls are 16 years of age or older. In Elmira 13 per cent of the school regis- tration is 16 years of age or over while in Niagara Falls only 4 per cent of the school population is 16 years of age or older. report of the niagara falls school system 85 Table 10 Number of pupils enrolled by ages in Niagara Falls and in Elmira Age Niagara Falls Elmira 4 years Ill 23 5 years 604 333 6 years 765 518 7 years 735 529 8 years 658 504 9 years 651 527 10 years 583 552 11 years 620 545 12 years 625 575 13 years 573 557 14 years 569 516 15 years 420 507 16 years 179 388 17 years 100 272 18 years 41 136 19 years 13 58 20 years 1 10 Total enrolment 7250 6563 Census 14 139 8923 It is of interest to note in the two cities mentioned that there is a much more rapid eHmination of 16 and 17-year old pupils in the schools in Niagara Falls than in the schools in Elmira. In Niagara Falls the number of 14-year old pupils in the schools was 569; in Elmira the number was 516. The number of 15-year old pupils in Niagara Falls was 420 while the number in Elmira was 507. The difference is especially marked in the 16-year old and 17-year old groups. These two groups, respectively, in Niagara Falls number- ing 179 and 100, while in Elmira the two groups number respectively 388 and 272. In other words, with a somewhat larger registration of 13-year old and 14-year old groups in Niagara Falls the city shows a very greatly reduced registration of the 16-year old and 1 7-year old groups as compared with the registration of these groups in the Elmira schools. S6 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table 11 Enrolment by age and grade in the Niagara Falls schools, 1919-20 ACE CIAOES SKX ' 5 <> ' » 1 ,o •■ 12 n ■4 15 ■ 6 >7 l8 "9 « 21 and TOTALS Kinder- M F 57 54 256 250 56 75 3 1 383 garten. 6 385 . tr M F 46 50 2 265 267 44 45 167 121 184 157 56 45 120 127 4 8 66 34 2 3 19 19 7 3 2 3 4 1 54Z 495 2 44^ ' 391 JM 40 112 ^ 63 43 19 12 5 393 .» If M F 3 57 137 \ZA III 128 46 114 82 19 71 67 13 40 47 5 29 29 2 1 407 26 18 9 4(8 < * 3\ 16 4 404 s M 1 37 92 91 60 26 29 7 343 a ' F . A 36 1 ,3 85 30 23 2 75 51 36 17 II 2 315 81 90 37 75 97 73 59 51 52 37 43 46 31 15 18 2 314 6 F M F 322 230 7 3 29 75 77 44 12 240 M 4 26 62 63 28 3 186 s F J3 35 73 50 l£ / 178 M F fM Z 21 29 2 78 80 II 71 30 41 21 6 5 16 1 3 3 r 3 217 9 z j 232 87 s ■» F M F M F M F M F f M 4 23 35 15 26 5 8 17 15 29 5 II 15 II 22 2 17 ( 5 8 8 2 7 2 1 3 2 i 1 99 'A s 1 2 55 57 ...... — : 2 ....5 94 17 12 45 i • '-5 304 iTTS 394 316 r 4 1 2 2 6 1 5 * 14 31^ 322 334 3or 264 28d 227 ^J6 ^ ~I6 1 8 ^^. ^ 1 3636 Toul.-. F 54 300 390 341 342 333 261 286 324 309 2S0 199 101 63 25 5 1... 3614 The distribution of pupils in the Niagara Falls schools by age and grade shows that 63 per cent of the pupils in the elementary grades are of normal age for the grade in which they are found ; 1 1 per cent of the pupils are accelerated and 26 per cent are retarded. The largest per cent of pupils of normal age for their grade is found in the first grade, where 79 per cent of the pupils are of normal age. This i)crcentage decreases in the second, third, fourth and fifth grades where it reaches 52 per cent. In the sixth grade there is a slight increase in the percentage of pupils of normal age and a still further increase in this percentage in the seventh grade and in the eighth, the percentages in these three grades being 54, 59 and 68. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 87 The percentage of pupils retarded varies from 12 per cent in the first grade to 50 per cent in the fourth. The increase in this per- centage is rapid from the first grade to the fourth, increasing from 12 per cent in the first to 19 in the second, 28 in the third, and 40 in the fourth. There is a slight decrease in the fifth and sixth grades, where the percentages are 36 and ?)7 respectively. The percentage of retarded pupils in the eighth grade is 13. It may further be observed that the percentage of accelerated pupils varies from 7 to 19 in the dififerent grades. The lowest percentage of accelerated pupils is found in the fourth grade where this percentage is 7. This is also the grade, as already noted, in which the percentage of retarded pupils is the highest. In the eighth grade 19 per cent of the pupils are accelerated. This is the highest percentage found in any grade. The fact that 68 per cent of the pupils are of normal age in the eighth grade and that only 13 per cent in the eighth grade are retarded must be due not so much to the school organization as to the fact that the mortality in this grade is unusually heavy, the per- centage of pupils retained above the compulsory school age being quite small. Table 12 Percentage of pupils accelerated, normal, and retarded in each grade in Niagara Falls and Elmira Niagara Falls Accelerated Normal Retarded 9 79 12 11 70 19 12 60 28 7 S3 40 12 52 36 9 54 37 15 59 26 19 68 13 Grade First Accelerated 16 Elmira Normal 71 63 60 56 54 56 53 58 Retarded 13 Second Third 16 11 21 29 11 33 Fifth Sixth 13 12 33 32 13 34 Eighth 17 25 Average 14 59 11 63 26 In the elementary schools of Elmira 14 per cent of the pupils are accelerated, 59 per cent normal, and 27 per cent retarded in the age-grade distribution. As has already been noted, in the elementary schools of Niagara Falls 11 per cent are accelerated, 63 per cent normal and 26 retarded in the age-grade distribution of the ele- mentary school pupils. The percentages given in the distribution of the pupils in the eighth grade, which would seem to indicate a much smaller percentage of retarded pupils in Niagara Falls than in Elmira, with a larger per cent of normal age, in the Niagara Falls schools, must be inter- preted in connection with the table showing the number of pupils of each age (table 10) and the percentage distrijjution of pupils as shown in table 9. Apparently, therefore, the large number of pupils 88 Till-: UNIVICKSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK of normal a.^c in the cij^luh j^radc in Niagara Falls and the small percentage ol" retarded pupils as comjjared with similar conditions in Elmira must he due in part to the greater mortality of pupils above the conii)ulsory school age in Niagara Falls. The greater flexibility which will be brought about in the Niagara Falls school system through the development of the intermediate schools, plans for which are already under way, with the soiuewhat greater diversity in courses of instruction to be offered, will in part meet the problem of the proper school work which should be devel- oped for the pupils of the higher grades. At the present time the congestion in the two old grammar schools, in which the work in these grades is now being carried forward, notwithstanding every effort that is being made by the teachers, principals and school au- thorities, c;in not be of such a character as to appeal strongly to pupils of these grades, especially to those who are attracted in any wiiy by the industrial o])portunities of the community. These con- ditions will be greatly changed through the development of the new program which the board of education already has under way. Summary rhe attendance in the elementary grades has increased in Niagara I'^alls over 82 per cent in the last 10 years. This fact indicates a large problem not only in providing adequate school accommodations but also in suiting the school work to the ]nipils' needs, especially to those of the adolescent age. The industrial opportunities of the city present fniancial attrac- tions which result in a vcr}' considerable elimination of the pupils in the higher grades. As compared with Elmira, which was studied at the same time, Niagara Falls shows a greatly reduced registration of the 16 and 17-year old groups. The greater flexibility which will be brought about in the Niagara I'alls system through the development of the intenuediate schools, with somewhat greater diversity in the courses of instruction, will not only relieve the congestion in the higher grades of the gramiuar schools but will make a stronger appeal to the special interests of the ]nipils of these grades. The new junior high school program will be the very best plan which the city can offer to meet this need for further educational opportunities for the pupils of the higher grades. REPORT OF TIIK NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 89 HIGH SCHOOL The high school is in some respects the most distinctive feature of the American pubHc school system. No phase of our educational develo]:)ment during the past generation has been more marked than that of the secondary school. At times in the city and in the village community this has been at the expense of the elementary grades. The local pride in the high school may be o])served oftentimes in the building vi^hich is erected for high school purposes. Niagara Falls has endeavored to make provision for the increasing demands in both elementary and secondary work. It is not apparent that the needs of one field have overbalanced the other. The Niagara Falls High School occupies a large and attractive site near the geographical center of the city. The present high school plant was erected in 1903 and at that time was one of the model high school buildings of the State. The building is still in excel- lent condition, its inadequacy being due to the rapid increase in high school ])opulation, and to the greatly increased demands on the secondary field. 'Ilie total school registration in Niagara Falls has increased from 6288 in 1916 to 8313 in 1920. During this same period the total high school registration has increased from 915 to 965. The per- centage of high school registration to the total school enrolment in 1916 was 14.5 while in 1920 it was only 11.5. It is not the purpose at this point to enter into an analysis of the decline in the percentage of high school registration to the total school enrolment during this five-year period. It may be remarked, however, that during the period of the World War there was a noted decrease in high school registration in our commercial and industrial centers, due to general war conditions with which every one is familiar. There was the ap|)eal from industrial establishments due to the unusual wages offered for services of various kinds. It is reasonable to hold that with the return of normal conditions the increase in the high school registration will be marked. Not only does the elementary school attendance show a much greater increase during the past decade than is shown in the high school attendance, but it may further be observed that while the high school attendance in 1910 was 16 per cent of the attendance 90 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ill the elementary grades, in 1920 the high school attendance was only 14 per cent of the average daily attendance in the elementary grades. The program of supervision and the courses of study that have been mapped out for the schools serve admirably the needs through the sixth year. Not until a reorganized program has been developed for the higher grades and articulated more closely with the high school will the school authorities be able to meet the needs of the community for the boys and girls of adolesc^ t age. This plan has been outlined elseweher and need not be erh^ftasized at this point beyond calling attention to the difiference in the point of view of the intermediate school program from the strictly formal grade schedules heretofore followed for the pupils in the seventh and eighth grades of the public school system. The system of forms and records in use in a school organization should serve a single purpose, that of keeping the teachers, princi- pals and parents fully advised as to the progress that is being made by the pupils in the school work, and also give complete information through the same means as to manner in which the administrative organization is functioning. On entering high school the pupil fills out what is called the " regis- tration card." REGISTRATION CARD Full name (surname first) Grade Room Day Month Year Age Years Months Days. Date of birth Parent or guardian Address of parent or guardian [f resident student, no. and st Address -, [ If nonresident, town District no Parent's occupation No. of telephone If " Regents preliminary "' completed, where and when ? I wish to prepare for HIGH SCHOOL, NIAGARA FALLS, N. Y., 192.... There is no sjiecial plan for guiding or directing the activities of the new pupils who enter high school for the first time. It is true that high school registration and courses of study are discussed with the eighth grade pupils hy principals and class teachers in the ele- ONE OF THE COMMERCIAL ROOMS IN THE HIGH SCHOOL THE BIOLOGY CLASSROOM AND LABORATORY IN THE HIGH SCHOOL RKl'OKT ()1<- TIIe NJAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 91 menlary schools. This docs not, however, satisfactorily hridge the gap between the elementary grades and the high school, as is fully appreciated by the local school authorities. It may very properly be held that with some plan of grouj:) organization whereby the first year high school pupils might be divided into sections of fifteen to twenty pupils each with a faculty adviser responsible for each group, the large mortality in tlie high school might be greatly decreased and the pupils given wise and helpful assistance in determining the objec- tives of their work. The only record of the pui)ils' work in the elementary grades that carries over into high school is the report of the " preliminary " examinations. With the reorganization of the work in the higher grades and the early development of the intermediate school plan the " break " at the end of the eighth year will be entirely eliminated, and the new course of study made more flexiljle in terms of funda- mental community activities. The report of the pupils' progress is made to the [>arent three times during each term, at the end of the fifth, tenth and twcntietli weeks. The report must be signed by the parent and returned to the principal. 92 TIIK UNIVERSITY OF THK STATE OV NEW YORK Pupil's Report Card NIAGARA FALLS HIGH SCHOOL NIAGARA FALLS, N. Y. FALL SPRING TERM REPORT OF GRADE COURSE .19.. COUNTS Class St^dings Subjects 5th 10th Week Week 20th Week Ex English .. . . Latin ' Greek German . . . . French . . . . Mathematics History Science Commercial .subjects Drawing Domestic arts . . Manual arts . . . Elocution Music Phj'sical training Days absent . . . Times tardy . . . 31 .•5 ^^ Principal REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 93 The average pupil registration per teacher in the Niagara Falls High School has remained nearly static during the past 5 years. The number of teachers in the high school has increased during the period from 1916-1920 from 33 to 39. The average number of pupils to a teacher has decreased during this period from 27 to 24. These figures show that the school is not overorganized and that the number of pupils per teacher is somewhat larger than is found in many high schools. The instruction in the high school may be grouped under the six courses which are somewhat interrelated. The content of these courses may be generally outlined as follows : 1 The college course gives preparation for college entrance in the usual courses leading to the K. A. degree. To complete this course, the pupils must take, among other subjects, either three years of Latin and three years of a second foreign language or four years of Latin and two years of a second foreign language. Additional lan- guages may be elected. 2 The scientific course prepares for entrance to the scientific courses in colleges or to scientific and technical schools. To com- plete this course, the pupil must have, among other subjects, at least three years of one foreign language. He may elect two years of a second foreign language, beginning this in either the second or third year of his course. By a proper grouping of subjects in mathematics, in science and in shopwork, he may earn through this course the col- lege entrance diploma in science or in engineering. 3 The normal (teacher-training) course prepares for entrance to the normal schools of this State. 4 The household arts course, including homemaking subjects, pro- vides a general course for girls, with a wide range of choice in elec- tives. 5 The business course provides training in business subjects with some opportunity for choice in languages and in other subjects. 6 The manual arts course is a practical shop course for boys, in- cluding work in wood and in sheet metal with an opportunity for a choice in languages, sciences and commercial subjects. In the normal and manual arts or vocational courses, the comple- tion of one four-year sequence, one three-year sequence and one two-year sequence of studies is necessary for graduation. Table 13 indicates for a five-year period the registration in each of these courses and is interesting in that it shows in part the direc- tion toward which the school is moving. For the school year 1920, ii may be noted that the college entrance course and the scientific 94 THK UNIVERSITY 01' TIIR STATE OK NEW YORK course has enrolled nearly one-half of the high school population. The husiness course has the largest registration hut there has not heen any appreciahle growth in this course, whereas there has heen a normal increase of pupils each year registered in the college course. Table 13 High school registration by courses 1916 1917 191S 1919 1920 College course 160 180 190 180 206 Scientific course 170 176 180 197 195 Normal course 85 75 42 32 56 Household arts course id 35 30 37 56 Husiness course 330 272 265 298 322 Manual arts course 50 69 60 75 78 Total 825 807 767 819 913 The normal, the household arts and the manual arts courses have attracted relatively a small proportion of the high school student hody. It may he said in connection with this that possihly one reason for the small numher of pupils electing these courses has heen the lack of suitahle e((uipment together with inadequate space in the high school needed in these courses. The normal or teacher-training course has continued to attract a small numher of pupils. This is due undouhtedly in part to the general economic condition and the salaries paid in the teaching service. It is to he hoped that this con- dition will improve. The general im])ressi()ns gained from a study of the reports of the specialists who were engaged in the survey of the Niagara Falls High School indicate that in their judgment the instruction in indi- vidual suhjects is generally good and in some instances is superior. Certain limitations upon the effectiveness of teaching, caused hy crowded conditions or hy a lack of material ef[uipment, exist and these may he eliminated only when these conditions are removed or this needed equipment is provided. The Instruction as Observed In endeavoring to judge the (juality of instruction in the high school, ohservations in the various departments were made hy spe- cialists who visited the classrooms and who have j^repared the follow- ing summaries of the work: EngH.sli The org.'uiization of the English work in the high school is in many resi)ects admirahle. The spirit in the school is strong, and the attitude of the pui)ils toward the suhject of English is commendahle. There are approximately 900 pupils in the school. Five teachers (four women and one man) give their entire time to teaching English, REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 95 each teacher having five classes and at least one free period. Three 01 these teachers have charge of study halls one period in the day, and the other two teachers have each an extra free period. For this additional free period one teacher has charge of the school paper, and the other acts as counselor to the pupils who have just entered the school. Three teachers of other subjects have, each, one class in first year English, and a fourth teacher has two such classes. Here is enough work for one additional English teacher. The average number of pupils per teacher-period is 26.5, which is a reasonable number. The classes range in size from 16 to 34. The average total enrolment of the five regular teachers is 132, and the range is from 118 to 147. Some improvement might be made if each teacher's actual enrolment were more nearly equal to the average. This would probably involve difficulties of administration. Of the five regular English teachers, two are college graduates and three are normal school graduates. Four have had summer school work at various times, and a fifth holds a master's degree. One normal school graduate is about to complete her study for a degree at Columbia University. Their years of experience in high school work range from 5 to 28. The average number of years these teachers have taught in Niagara Falls is nearly 9. This record shows that they have a serious interest in the professional side of their work, that they have had sufficient practical experience in the class- room, and that their salaries are attractive enough to insure reason- able permanency of tenure. The problem of articulating the work of the first year in the high school and the eighth grade does not seem to have been touched very much as yet. A beginning could well be made by having the teachers in the high school and the grades exchange visits for the purpose of comparing problems. Special teachers of reading and elocution, as well as all teachers of oral expression in the elementary schools and the high school, should have frequent conferences whose aim is to eliminate the gap between these interactional parts of the school system. Each group of teachers should be conversant with the aims and methods of the other. With the development of the junior high school program real and effective articulation will be secured. An effective bit of work is being done within the high school in the matter of correlating the English and civics. A junior chamber of commerce has been organized to which all pupils entering from the elementary schools belong. A practical application of the theory learned in the civics class is made in the junior chamber of com- merce. Much of the information so gathered is used in the oral and 96 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK especially in the written composition of the first year. Definite at- tempts are made also to correlate the oral and written work in Eng- lish in the upper years with other school studies and with life. This correlation is shown chiefly in oral and written compositions — his- tory, science, and the industries of the community furnishing suh- jects. Correlation is again secured in the choice of hooks for home leading. Here, likewise, hooks .selected hy the pupils" are very often those concerned with ancient and contemporaneous history, science, travel and hiography. These things indicate a healthy interest on tlie i)rirt of holh pu])ils and teacher in the affairs of life. The library contains alxnit 2000 volumes of varied types. Api)roxi- mately 7S per cent of these are of general interest from the stand- point of luiglish and comprise (iction, history of a ])opuL'ir character, biograph)', essays and poetry. This library is in charge of a prac- tical librarian, trained in the school of ex])erience. The library itself is much too small for a school of ^)00 pu])ils, and the room in which it is placed is entirely inadequate from the point of size and etiuij)- ment. A library room in a school of from 800 to 1000 i)upils should seat from 50 to 80 pupils at a time and should be capal)le of shelving from 5000 to 8000 volumes, it sboidd be the most attractive room in the building, well lighted, and e([uipped with low shelving. There should be tables seating from six to eight inipils, pictures, a bulletin board for ])()sting illustrative materials and reading lists, and exhibit cases. It should have a " vertical file " for holding clippings and pamphlets arranged in alphabetic order, and a set of drawers for keeping lantern slides, post cards, maps, victrola records and all other accessories necessary for the most effective cooperation be- tween the library and the departments of Latin, English, history and biology, and all other high school activities. It should be the deposi- tory of all the illustrative material belonging to the school. In order to secure the cooperation mentioned above, the librarian should be in close touch with the teachers of all subjects; she should know what matters are to be taken up in various departments next week or next month so that she may select and gather in one place for the use of the teacher and pupils such books, pamphlets, pictures and objects as will aid constructively in the instruction. Each teacher and pupil should have such a deep interest in the library that he will feel it a i)rivilege to furnish for the use of the pupils any clippings, pamphlets, post cards or odier materials which he may have. The library should be the most cherished si)ot in all the school. Despite adverse conditions in Niagara l<\'ills, howcxer. the library is doing some service in the school, as is manifested bv the interest REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 97 with which pupils borrow books. During September 1919, 2900 volumes and in November 1919, 2447 volumes were circulated. This is an indication of a healthy condition and every effort should be made to capitalize it for the best interests of the work not only in English but in every other subject. Niagara Falls High School is approved for certification of work ill literature. This means that the work the pupils do in literature is not subject to examination but is accepted by the State Depart- ment of Education on the certificate of the principal. Such a privi- lege is accorded only to schools having satisfactory teaching condi- tions. The amount of supplementary reading done is an important factor. In Niagara Falls the pupils are inclined to read more than the minimum number of eight books a year, and the school wisely recognizes this extra reading by granting additional credit in litera- ture. The teachers seem to be building up a love for literature that is worthy of recognition. There are several other features in the high school that are worth noting. The teacher of elocution handles one class in first year English. The rest of her time is devoted to preparing pupils to take part in school assemblies and dramatic performances. Enrolment in these classes is voluntary. Some very helpful assistance could be obtained from this teacher if she were given time to work with pupils who have speech defects or who otherwise need special attention. Little time seems to be given to debating. This part of the work should be more seriously considered from the standpoint of its value to oral expression. The school paper, " The Chronicle," is published l)iweekly. It takes the form of a newspaper devoted to the interests of the school community. One of the teachers in the English group acts as faculty adviser, and the paper serves as an outlet for composition work done in connection with the regular classes. Each issue is subsidized by the board of education to the amount of $45 so that it is possible to have the advertising reduced to a minimum and to sell the paper for 2 cents a copy. Pupils in the commercial course take fourth year English in a class by themselves conducted by the commercial teacher. The ap- proach is largely from the point of business practice, little time being given to the study of literature. There is thus a tendency to narrow the work done by these pupils. If they do not have any other English instruction at this time, their work should be as varied as that of the other pupils, with the express idea of fitting the sul)ject matter to their particular needs. Oral expression, business correspondence. 98 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK spclliiiij; and the ac(|iiii"ing of a business vocal)ulary should each he a part of the instruction. The reachny of hterature. however, should not he neglected. l)Ooks and articles reflecting the sjiirit of the present, those that have a bearing upon business, and those that treat of the problems and activities of life ought to he made a part of this year's reading. Intermingled with these should be some standard books, well chosen and sanely taught, designed to be of assistance in building character. It is a question whether this work can not be handled better l)y a teacher of I'jiglish than by a teacher of business practice. The outlook of such a teacher, at least, is apt to be broader. h'or the past few years a class has entered the high school from ihc grades in b'uiuary made u]^ largely of pupils who have failed the preceding June or of pui)ils who are overage. Occasionally a bright ])upil has found himself in this group. Into this class of i)Upils in the high school have gravitated some boys and girls who failed in their work there and some who h;ive covered two terms' work in one or who have entered the school at an unfortunate period. These classes go through the school much like the trough of a wave, the crest of which is high and 1)roa(l. It is to l)e noted, however, that the class graduating from the Cleveland Avenue School in January 1920 con- tains only 50 per cent, out of a class of 24 pupils, of pu])ils who are re])cating ihe eighth grade or who are overage. Thus twelve spe- cially bright pupils, selected by examination, will enter at this time. Ilereafter it is expected that there will not be a b'uiuary class in that school, 'i'he effect of these classes seems to be nn)st marked in I'^ng- lish, as the ])niiils are kejU together for the most ])art in a se]>arate section. There are certain e\idences of a good recitation, most of which should appear in any one i)eriod. A class in which a good recitation is going on should be orderly and interested and should give one the impression tliat its members have made a careful, intelligent preparation of the day's work. The pupils should show that thev are getting a clear conception of the subject under sympathetic, help- ful, inspiring guidance. The teacher must show that she is convers- ant with the lesson, that she has the ability to correlate the work of the period with the affairs of life, and that her aim. suited to the needs and ability of her pupils, bears a proper relation to those that have ])receded. The topics and questions based on them ought to be presented in right sequence. The recitation must be adapted to the age and state of development of the pupils. Evidences of mutual confidence and helpfulness between teacher and pupils should appear. The assignment of work for the succeeding" period ought to be definite REI'OKT OK THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 99 and such helps as are required should l)e definitely given. The iiiotivalion here and at the other points in the lesson must be clear and sure. Above all. the lesson should close with the interest of the pui)ils keen. In most of the recitations observed the classes were orderly and interested and gave assurance that a painstaking preparation of the day's work had been made. In several instances pupils showed they were not getting a clear understanding of the subject being discussed. This was very noticeable in one class where the diagram was being used as a means of teaching points in grammar. Helpful, sympa- thetic guidance was lacking with the inevitable result that the pupils failed to profit by the recitation. Other indications of the same fault appeared in other classes where pupils gave no jjroof that they had a grasp of the principles of grammar under discussion. In all cases regular teachers of luiglish showed that they had made thorough, personal preparation of the lessons and that they had the ability, even if they did not make the most of their o])portunities at all times, to relate their teaching to life. Several recitations were observed in which there was some skilful questioning based upon a well-defined aim and u])on topics carefully chosen. Teachers ought to take account of stock frequently to assure them- selves that they are not teaching beyond the comprehension of their pupils. No instances of this type of teaching were seen in Niagara Falls. Unfortunately, however, the teaching frequently lacked the incentive and the inspiration that makes for efficiency. There were classes, nevertheless, where such inspiration and incentive were pres- ent, as for instance in one period when the i)upils were studying some modern essays. There the pupils and not the teacher were doing the work with consequent success. Needless to say, interest prevailed. In too many cases, however, the teacher did practically all the work with the result that the pupils gained little except an indifferent amount of information. Reading and study of literature demands a maximum amount of activity from the members of a class. Al- though a liking for literature seemed to i)revail in the school, it was quite clear that for the most part this came about as a result of the supplementary reading rather than the class work. In too many cases the broader, underlying ]^rinciples, the ideals, were not empha- sized ; on the contrary, the discussions were too analytical. In one period, nevertheless, an excellent treatment of Gray's Elegy was observed where the teacher had grasped the spirit and was trans- mitting it to her class by eft'ective teaching. 100 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Little attention appeared to be given to making definite assign- ments for the next day's recitation or to motivating the work in com- position. Only one case was noted where the assignment was definite and sufficiently well formulated to be of dynamic value. More often tlie assignment was made almost as an afterthought, and in one period only the last two minutes were given to it. It is beginning to be realized that an assignment of work with effective incentives or one lacking such stimuli means a recitation the next day with conse- quent profit or loss to the class. Composition, oral and written, offers the best chance for proper motives. Presence of an adequate motive makes school work full of purpose. Motives apparently simple to teachers are of immense value to pupils. They help the pupil to function properly in the school community. There are vari- ous types of such motives. Today the most compelling is the social. In a community of the character of that in Niagara Falls there are abundant opportunities for the utilization of the social motives in composition. Very little evidence appeared that these motives were being used in the oral and v/ritten work. Better results must follow where pupils are taught to recognize problems and to respond to the incentives demanded in their solution. In conclusion it should be reiterated that the organization of the work in many respects, as far as individual teachers are concerned, IS to be commended. Better results might logically be expected if all the classes were taught by teachers especially trained in English. The teaching of the subject in general may suffer, likewise, because these teachers have no leader who is responsible to the principal of the school for their work as a group. The library exists under adverse conditions. Better things may be looked for, undoubtedly, when it is placed in a suitable room, and made adequate for the important service it should render the school. The instruction in English as observed was somewhat uneven. This is not unexpected where part of the instruction is given by teachers whose major in- terest is in other subjects. Where the instruction was given by teachers who have specialized in English, the results were more effective although not all to be desired. On the whole, the teaching was directed toward securing power to meet situations independently rather than toward accumulating a fund of information. Latin The information presented in the following paragraphs was ob- tained through visitation of various classes and through conferences with the teachers. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 101 Observations were made in ten classes as follows : In Latin 1-B 4 classes In Latin 1-A , 1 class In Latin 2-B 2 classes In Latin 2-A 1 class In Latin 3 1 class In Latin 4 1 class There are four teachers in the staff engaged in giving instruction in Latin. Two of these devote their entire time to such work, in- structing five classes each daily. The other two have two classes each in first year Latin, devoting the remainder of their time to classes in other subjects. Of the four teachers included in the list, one had the B. A. degree (Latin major) obtained at Cornell University, one had the degree of Pd.B. from the New York State Teachers College, and two are graduates of the Buffalo State Normal School. One had had four summer school courses at Cornell, and the other three have had one such course each, two at Columbia and one at Cornell. The maxi- mum number of years' experience in teaching represented in the list is 29, the minimum number 20. the average experience for the four is 24 years. One of the group had 3 years' experience before com- ing to Niagara Falls ; the entire experience of all the others has been in this system. One of the four had taught Latin here for 27 years, the others respectively 20, 10 and 5 years each. The present relative status of Latin in the group of foreign lan- guages represented in the high school curriculum is shovvm in table 14. Table 14 Relative status of the various foreign languages Year 1 2 3 4 Total.. 846 322 191 83 17 From table 14 it will be noted that Latin is the preferred foreign language among a majority of the pupils. Considerably more than half of the total enrolment in the various foreign languages is in Latin. Of the total high school enrolment Latin shows a percentage of 38 + ; French, 20 + ; Spanish, 10; German, 2 +. In view of the large commercial and industrial interests in Niagara Falls and High school Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment Enrolment enrolment in Latin in French in Spanish in German 449 143 92 71 186 104 76 12 149 58 23 17 62 17 102 THE UNIVKKSITY OF TIIK STAll'-. OK NKW YORK the extent to which such interests are represented in the technical courses pursued l)y pupils in the high school, this showing is con- sidered a favorable index of the place that Latin holds in i>nl)lic esteem. The status of Latin as a preferred subject of study affords a pre- sumption of good teaching. In the more advance •'"'*' pliysii s. In iM'iieral, il appeared that the teacliiTS were well infoiined in snhjecl mallei and that they used ap|)r()ve(l iiicIIkkIs ol iiisl riicl ion. The lahoraloi ies are fairly lilted and fniiiished. tIioiij;h a somewhat more liheial use of funds in this direction wotiM render the elToits of teachers and pupils more ericclive. I'loiii the ohservalioiis made the impression remained that the work in physical j4('o;;rapliy was not so stroiij; as that in the oilier suhjects. I'h\sics is studied hy 'M pupils in four sections, chemistry hy 24 ill one si'clion, applied chemislry hy JJ in one section, physical «;eo';rapli\' l>\' 7() in three sections and jm'iieral science also hy 7() in three sections. The entire rei^islratioii oi the school was j^iven as K()(). 'The followiii'; t ihle. showiii.t; the per cent of hi.'di school ])Ui)ils in each science, prepared I rom these data and like data' for the en - t ire State, is ol interest : 'rAiii.i'; 15 Al.i.li.MJ r!,rnii:,l,y CrIK'l.ll riiv.i.-.i! I'luilic'.S ("llcMllislly rllrlllll.ll y ( lro|; I .1 |illy :.ci(llc<' I or.il Sliitf l.iHitl Sliilr Local Stale Local Slat,- Local Stale 10. ss d.i'' .;.'/"' .i..!.i j..''i.s ..if 11. HI ,;./'/' m.hi ..is I'loiii the aho\c it is ohsi'i \('d thai this school excei'ds tlie SlaU' in the per cent ol piijjils pmsiiint; each ol these snhjecis with the sin'_;le e.sci'plioii ol (heinistiN, hut il the (Iiemisti\' and the applied chem- istry are !;roiiped, we lind the local per cent to he 5..v| ;is contrasted with S.'/\ for the .S|;ile. Il is of interest fnilher to note that a total ol ,>,v<) per ( cnt ol the pupils ol this school .are pinsninj; these siih ji'Cts as conliasU'd with l.vOJ |)er ci'iit lor the Slali'. IhawliKi and hulitslLhtl .his Throut^hout the sihool system in connection with the work in drawing and industrial arts tliert' was found an excelU-nt si)irit of cooperation existing hetwei'ii teachers and their snpt'r\isiii<; ollicers and hi'twi'eu hoth the li'achers and supervisors and the su|iei iiilendent of schools. ' For yo.'tr iinIiiHV Innc M), I'MK. KICI'ORT ()|- TIIIC NI\(;AKA TALLS SCIlOOr. SYSriCM 109 111 sonic respects the art work seems to be largely cultural, for the sake of appreciation, the courses being planned for the student body as a whole. No opportunity is offered in high school for the talented pupil to continue his art training in advanced special courses. With the exception of the vocational work, even the industrial work is organized along cultural lines. ( )])p()rtnnity is offered, however, for the high school boys to elect advanced courses which should be of considerable value to them in broadening their industrial horizon .•nid in preparing thcni to enter engineering schools. Out of the 965 high school i)Ui)ils registered, but 100 are taking the art courses which include elementary representation, elementary design and inlcrmediate drawing only. There are 127 pupils registered in the mechanical drawing courses, which include elementary mechanical drawing as outlined in the secondary .syllabus, mechanical drawing 2 or intersections and de- veloi)ment of surfaces, a course which is intimately correlated with the sheet metal work, mechanical drawing 3 or machine drawing. The largest class in mechanical drawing contains 27 and the smallest class 1 pupil. The same irregular scheduling of pupils obtains in the mechanical as in the freehand drawing. To a les.ser degree it affects the shop work also. The shoj) courses offered in the high school are as follows : ( 1 ) car- pentry and joinery, wood turning, (2) elementary and advanced sheet metal, (3) cabinetmaking. The courses in elementary representation, elementary design and intermediate drawing follow very closely the recommendations in the syllabus. The following plates are made in elementary representa- tion : 1 ("ylinders 2-3 Cups with handles 4-5 Pitchers giving attention to handles and si)outs 6 Plant jars 7 Plant jars grouped in vertical and horizontal ])ositions 8 Funnel, can and bottle, grouped 9 Parallel and angular persjjective, boxes and books 10 (iron]) of books, angular and parallel perspective 1 1 lierry basUels separately .and in gnjups 12 I jerry ba.skets 13 I'uilding, in angular persi)ective 14 (jroujjs— box, bottle, small dish 15-16 Group of pottery forms 110 Till'; uNiVKUsriY ok tiik staii'; oi' ni:w york 17 I'lant and flower forms, in peiuil 18 Plant and (Iowcm- forms, in crayola I'lic intcnucdiak' drawinj^ ontlinc is similar to the outline j^iven above except that the projects si)ecilied are more (hHicnh. I-i^ht and shade is included in this course. Tlie design course inchides the niakinii; of portfohos, designing for tucks and emhroidery patterns, desij^nini; of a shirt waist, designing of an emhlem or a design for braid (in color), designing of a winter dress for school or business and an afternoon ) To continue the solving of problems in working drawings more advanced in character. (This involves drafting room practice recpiiring the making of original drawings, tracing and blue ])rinting.) (c) To enable the pupil, through prac- tice, to make use of mechanical drawing as a means of expression in the various industrial lines, 'i'ime devoted to subject: 40 weeks. 2 periods a week, 45 minutes a period. Third year mechanical drawing ainis to carry through to a still more advanced ]4.'uie of ap])reciati()n and skill the principles involved in the two ])receding courses. '\hv course aims to e(|nip young men t(> enter the local drafting rooms as beginners, l^mpbasis is iilaix'd e.specially on machine drawing. Time de\()ted to subjc-cl : 40 wi-eks, ?. ])eriods a week, 45 minutes a ])erio(l. b'irst year shop, carpenliv and joinery, (a half-year lonrse ) aims to teach the fundamental princi])les underlying joinery and house construction. Considerable elementary cabinet work is done, some being for the school svstem. The cl.-'.ss is at present making draw- ing tables for use in the gr.ammar schools. Details or small sections of house construction are built as well as some large work done to ANNUAL SCHOOL EXHIBIT IN STATE ARMOKY A partial view. Machine shop department ANNUAL SCHOOL EXHIBIT IN STATE ARMORY A partial view. Drawing and industrial arts REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 111 a reduced scale. A study is made of the industries involved. Time devoted to subject: 20 weeks, 4 periods a week, 45 minutes a period. First year shop, wood turning, (half-year course). The second half of the first year is given over to wood turning and such projects as chisel and file handles are made for the school shops. As a final project each pupil is allowed to turn for himself a lamp shaft or similar article. Second year shop, sheet metal, (half-year course). This course aims to teach the pupil the fundamentals of sheet metal working. Water pails and other useful articles are made for the schools. An attempt is made to include considerable subject matter in the course. This includes the theory governing the new operations. Second year shop, advanced sheet metal, (half-year course). Car- ries on the instruction offered in the more elementary course preced- ing. It places more emphasis on the drafting of patterns. Larger projects, such as ash cans and camp stoves, are constructed. Time devoted to subject: 20 weeks, 4 periods a week, 45 minutes a period. Third year shop, cabinetmaking, is planned to acquaint the pupils with a few of the best methods of furniture construction. Emphasis is placed upon design. Considerable work is done on the machines. The pupil is allowed to .spend one-third of his time on an individual piece of furniture which he is allowed to take home upon paying for the material used. The projects must be other than mission in design. A brief study of the period styles, Louis XIII, Chippendale, Sheraton, colonial etc., is carried on in connection with the making of pieces of furniture. Such projects as tables, chairs and phono- graph cases are constructed. Time devoted to subject: 40 weeks, 6 periods a week, 45 minutes a period. The unit trade school is organized on a high school basis, eighth grade graduation being required for entrance. Two men are em- ployed full time as instructors, a machine shop teacher and a teacher of related drawing, mathematics and English. Men engaged as fore- men and superintendents in local plants are invited to talk to the boys during the assembly period, which is held for 45 minutes every other week. The organization of this school is not complete enough to be examined at this time as a scJiool. What is being done is prac- tical and the work is being well organi:zed. Trade School Courses The vocational industrial work is well described by the director of this work, William J. Small, in the paragraphs which follow : " Last fall we opened a vocational machine shop course with 30 boys in attendance. This course promises to be the beginning of an 112 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK extensive vocational program for our city. Next year we are plan- ning to instal an advanced machine shop and an elementary electrical shop with approximately 90 boys in attendance. " We have established an entrance reciuirement of eighth grade graduation for all these classes and find by doing this we get a more uniform group. " The shop work is of a productive nature and no abstract exercise work is given. The elementary machine shop work consists of small tools and work done for the school department. Two grinders, vises, metal bench standards have been constructed this year. Several observation trips have been made to nearby industrial establishments to give the pupils an idea of production methods. " The English work corresponds to that of first year high school with the exception that instead of reading all the required classics, books relating to mechanical work are substituted. Our trips are made the basis of both oral and written composition. Technical subjects as ' The Open Hearth Process ' and ' The Bessemer Pro- cess ' are especially interesting as composition work for this group. " The mathematics is closely correlated and function with the daily work of the shop. A few practical problems in the applications of algebra, geometry and trigonometry are given. '* The drawing is tied up with the shop and about one period in five is devoted to shop sketching. All the problems made in the shop are worked out in the drawing room. " Next year related science for the elementary class and industrial history for the advanced class will be added. " A serious attempt is being made in the new trade school to carry out the recommendations of the report of the industrial education survey made by the Division of Agricultural and Industrial Educa- tion during the summer of 1919."^ Evening Schools The following courses were offered during the evening school period of 1919-20 being taught by instructors as described below :-' A round table course for chemists (a chemist in industry). Two cabinetmaking courses (men from the schools). Two mechanical drawing courses (men from the schools). Drawing and estimating for carpenters and builders (an architect in the city). 1 See chapter 13, Industrial Education Survey. 2 None of these classes was in session at the time this survey was made. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 113 Mathematics for tradesmen (m.an from the schools). Electrical work, wiring and theory (foreman in United States Light and Heat Company). Telegraphy (Western Union operator). General chemistry (a chemist from industry). Industrial chemistry (a chemist from industry). Two automobile repair courses (garage men). House framing (journeyman at trade). Machine shop (a machinist). Related drawing and mathematics for machinists (an engineer). Summary The Niagara Falls High School occupies a very attractive site near the center of the city. It is a comparatively modern building, its present inadequacy being due to the rapid increase in high school population and to the greatly increased demands on the secondary field. The average daily attendance in the high school during the past 10 years has increased 57 per cent. This is somewhat less than the percentage of increase in the elementary schools during the same period. The increase during the period of the World War was not marked. This situation in the Niagara Falls High School is much the same as that found in other high schools during the same period. The appeal from the industrial field due to the unusual wages for services aft'ected high school registration very generally in the indus- trial centers. The pupil registration per teacher shows that the school is not over- organized and that the number of pupils to a teacher is somewhat larger than is found in many high schools. There are six general courses of instruction in the high school: college entrance, scientific, normal or teacher training, household arts, industrial and manual arts, and commercial. The household arts and manual arts courses have attracted rela- tively a small proportion of th'e student body. This has been due in part possibly to the lack of needed space and equipment. The small number in the teacher-training course is due to a general situation, economic in character, and related also to the salaries paid for teach- ing service. The instruction in the various subjects in the high school is gen- erally good and in some instances superior. Certain limitations upon the effectiveness of the work are due to crov.-ded conditions. These will be eliminated when the new building program is under way. 114 TllK UN'IVKKSITY Ol' THE STATE OF NEW YORK The general summary of the conditions as observed in the class- rooms indicates the need for some more definite organization, the advantages of departmental heads heing emphasized by several of the specialists. It w^as observed that in some instances teachers were not specially trained for the work which they were called upon to do. The work in English was somewhat uneven where the instruction was given by teachers whose major interest was in other subjects. Three hundred twenty-two out of 846 pupils were enrolled in Latin. The work in this subject was reasonably strong except in the first year classes. The present program provides for tlie following classes in history : ancient history, modern history, American history, community civics, economics and commercial geography. The work is in a transition stage but much of the work observed was strong. The equipment in maps and charts was reasonably complete but might be strength- ened if special rooms with equipment as a dei)artment for this work were fitted up. 'J"he work in mathematics is so arranged that each teacher has generally one free period each day. Classes range from 15 to 20 enabling the teacher readily to keep in touch with the indi- vidual needs of the pupils. The work in science includes biology and general science, physics and chemistry, ai)plied chemistry, and physical geography. As this work develops it is being related more and more to the needs of the locality in connection with which there is an unusual opportunity at Niagara Falls. The work in drawing and industrial arts includes elementary rep- resentation, elementary design, intermediate drawing, mechanical drawing with advanced courses, carpentry and joinery, cabinetmak- iiig, wood turning, sheet metal, advanced sheet metal, in addition to the vocational and trade school courses. This work is rapidly meet- ing local needs and conditions. A serious attempt is being made -in the trade school to carry out the recommendations of the report of llie industrial education survey. In the plans that are under way for the development of the school program, wise provision is being made for additional high school facilities which will give Niagara Falls the best type of cosmopolitan high school which is generally recognized as offering the best type of high school training. The local school authorities and the city as a whole are to be commended for the larger opportunities that are to be provided in the plans that are under way for the development of the high school unit. REPORT OF THK NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 115 When the new school program now under way is adopted, Niagara Falls will have not only a very superior elementary and intermediate school plant but will have secondary high school opportunities and a reorganized secondary school program which is second to none in the cities of its class in the country. 116 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK THE MEASUREMENT OF PUPIL ACHIEVEMENT A school system exists in order that children may achieve infor- mation, skills and ideals that will be of value to them and to society. The school plant, equipment and supplies, the organization of the school, the training and qualifications of teachers, the methods of supervision, the courses of study — all of these are but means toward the chief end or aim of the school, that is, pupil achievement. The measurement, then, of the achievement of pupils becomes the central and most important part of any survey or judgment of a school sys- tem. This statement is particularly true when the results of the measurement are made available to the officers and teachers of the school system so that they may use the data in revising and improv- ing where needed their whole scheme of instructional activity. Educational Tests and Scales During the past 20 years, the most notable advance in education has been the ideal and practice of scientifically measuring the result of classroom teaching. The first educational scale was published about 1908; since that date, the development has been so rapid that there are now more than two hundred scales or tests available for measuring pupil ability and achievement. A number of these have been so carefully constructed and so widely used that their results are quite reliable for judging the success of a school system, a school, a class and in some respects even the individual child. How Educational Tests Differ from the Ordinary School Examination 1 The educational test is constructed from materials that are most generally conceded to be essential for instructional purposes. 2 The standards set up to be attained are, as a rule, based upon the actual achievement obtained by thousands of pupils in many dififerent school systems. 3 Rules for administering the tests are so carefully prepared that teachers and principals or examiners, working in widely separated localities, can be assured that, by following the directions, all pupils will have exactly the same opportunity so far as any instructions are concerned. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 117 4 Explicit rules are laid clown for scoring the tests, so that gross differences of opinion as to what answer should be accepted as correct are eliminated. The Value of Educational Tests for Measuring School Achievement By using tests that are constructed from material that is generally- accepted as essential in the courses of study of all school systems, by having directions for administering these tests worded very ex- pHcitly, so that all who use the test will give exactly the same instruc- tions, and by having very concise and definite rules for scoring the test, it is possible to compare the scores for grades and classes in any city with the scores obtained by the same grades in any other school system. The superintendent, principal and teacher can see: 1 How their own system compares with the school systems of other cities. 2 How the different schools within their city system compare one with another. 3 How each class compares with other classes in the same school or school system. 4 In addition to this, the classroom teacher will have a fairly definite score or rating of each individual pupil in her class. Phases of Pupil Achievement Measured in Niagara Falls Survey The time and clerical work at its disposal did not permit the survey committee to undertake a testing proj^ram that would evaluate phases of all subjects or achievement of pupils in all grades. It was deemed advisable to center on a few subjects that are generally considered to be the basic or most essential subjects in the public school. The subjects tested were spelling, composition, language, writing, arith- metic and silent reading. It should also be kept in mind that these educational tests measure only certain phases of the subjects tested. For example, the silent reading test used measures the rate or speed wnth which children read, and their ability to comprehend or under- stand the printed page ; but it does not measure their ability to read orally. Likewise, the arithmetic scale measures children's ability to add and subtract, multiply and divide through common and decimal fractions. United States money and denominate numbers but the scales used do not measure the pupils' ability to reason in arithmetic or their skill in solving problems in such important subject matter as interest or percentage. In the discussion of the results of the 118 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK various tests more attention will be given to the special phases of school work that these tests do measure. Statistical Terms ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• 2 4- 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 ZO Figure 3 — Illustration of the median or class score The data of figure 3 illustrate a few terms that will be used fre- quently in this report. The line represents an arithmetic subtraction scale. The scale contains 20 problems and may be thought of as a measuring rule 20 units in length. In this case it was used to measure the ability in subtraction of a class of 30 pupils. Seven pupils solved 15 problems correctly or measured 15 on the scale; 10 solved 14; eight, 13; three, 12; one, 11 ; and one, 9 problems. The class score is that point on the scale which divides the class group into two equal parts ; that is, the point above which one-half of the class scored, and below which the other half scored. This mid-point is called the median; and in this case is 14.2, which means that half the class scored more than 14.2 and the other half scored less than 14.2. The standard score, unless otherwise defined, is the score that a class should obtain. The median_ score achieved by thousands of pupils of a given grade from schools of many different cities and states is usually accepted as the standard score for a given grade. Where a different meaning is given to any of these terms, an explana- tion will be given in the text. Other statistical terms will be defined in footnotes. Administration of Tests There was a threefold purpose in administering the tests: (1) to" gain a reliable measure of the schools' ability in fundamental sub- jects; (2) to secure data that would be of use to teachers and super- visory officers in improving the work of the schools; (3) to give principals, supervisors and teachers such experience in the method and procedure of testing as would enal)le them to use educational tests later in their regular work. Following the directions of the survey committee, classroom teachers in grades 3-9 administered the tests in spelling and hand- writing and high school teachers administered the reading and lan- guage tests to ninth grade pupils. With the exception of the spelling REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 119 and handwriting, before tests were given the members of the survey committee met with the principals and supervisors to outline and consider the entire program. At this meeting it was agreed that the principal should observe the members of the committee in giving each of the several tests and where feasible the principal should test one or two classes under the direction of the committee members. Mem- bers of the committee gave the group intelligence tests to all pupils tested and the tests in composition, silent reading, language, addition and multiplication to all classes of the sixth, seventh and eighth grades, and to at least one section of each of the third, fourth and fifth grades in every building. Where there was more than one sec- tion of third, fourth and fifth grade pupils in a building to be tested, the principal gave tlie tests to a part of the classes. In addition, prin- cipals administered the subtraction and division tests to all classes tested. Scoring the Papers Following the directions submitted by the survey committee, teach- ers scored all the spelling papers and the rate of the handwriting. The quality of the handwriting and the quality of composition was scored by teachers and supervisors in a meeting with members of the committee. In the scoring of both of these tests, teachers were divided into teams of three. Eadi teacher scored the paper and recorded her score on the back. The median of these three scores obtained independently was taken as a final rating of the paper. Sub- traction and division tests were scored by teachers and principals. Later, the scoring of spelling and composition was checked carefully by members of the survey committee. All other papers were scored under the direction of the committee. The detailed method of scoring papers, checking results, and analyzing the data will be explained in the following pages under the discussion of the results obtained by the testing of each subject. Spelling Choice of Words for the Test The words chosen for the survey of spelling ability were selected from the Buckingham extension of the Ayres spelling scale. The original part of this scale consists of 1000 words most commonly used in English writing. The Buckingham extension of the scale consists of 500 words added to the upper or more difficult part of the scale. These latter words were selected primarily " according to agreements among spelling books." All the words used to test the 120 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK third to seventh grades, inckisive, were taken from the original Ayres hst. Eight of the eighth grade Hst and eighteen of the ninth grade hst are from the Buckingham extension of the scale. The words used to test grades 3-6 are the same as those used in the Cleveland and Gary surveys. The entire list is contained in table 16. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 121 5.e'5S5t;5c'22C5'5:E>c^;;j.-2 ;ut;t-t;'u1^i'rtE.Sn2iJ.2ucE(b._n kA +-» - r^ — 'C.ii 1^ ^m; h/) f 3 P fi n > o C ■ *N oj '^ _c VJ " •— "^ •— o *— 1-t rr ^ ow ^(c 1* (-< r! L* l-i O ^ ^ u C &o^ ° 3„-^ ^^t^ i; s-S-t^-'E-s s "s ^ E'S J s s s !5 s ;s^ d a*s c^ E^ S u and 4 and 68 per cent for each grade above the fourth. 1 For method of determining October scale values, see " Measuring the Woric of the Public Schools," Cleveland Survey Report, p. 243-44. report ok the niagara falls school system 123 Table 17 Spelling report by grades and schools Givin? the average score made in spellinp; by each grade in each of the fourteen ele- mentary schools, the vocational school and the first year of hiph school, and the average score for each grade of the city; also, showing how the Niagara Falls schools compared with the spelling standards from other city school systems. Scores by Grades School 3d Ith 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Ashland 56 49 61 75 Center 60 53 56 69 Cleveland 68 52 5,? 72 66 68 Ferry 45 34 58 69 Fifth 55 42 69 81 68 73 High .. .. .. . . . . .. 59 Maple 44 49 68 81 Niagara 52 41 60 79 77 65 Su':;ar 60 43 64 72 Tenth 52 51 62 84 64 Third 61 47 76 77 Thirteenth 50 ^7 62 76 Twenty-fourth 58 44 53 81 62 56 Twent -second 51 SO 51 72 66 Whitney 48 50 60 68 Vocational . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Average 54 46 60 75 68 69 Approximate grade standards for October 65 65 68 68 68 68 68 A study of tabic 17 shows a considerable differelice in spelling ability between schools. This is illustrated by the following data : the third grade in Maple Street School scored 44 and in Cleveland Avenue School 68 ; the fourth grade of Ferry Street School scored 34 and of Center Street School 53; the fifth grade of Twenty-second Street School scored 51 and of the Third Street School scored 76; the sixth grade of Whitney Avenue School scored 68 and of Tenth Street School 84. The average ability of schools ranges from 50;^ to 64j^, or a differ- ence of 14 per cent. One naturally must ask the question as to why this wide difference in results between pupils of the same grade in different school buildings, and between buildings or schools in the same city. Similar results are found in practically all the tests that were given. This report endeavors to throw some light on the answer to this question but it remains for principals, teachers and supervisory officers to give the final answer. Another interesting fact from the table lies in the wide difference of achievement between grades. The achievement in each grade should be practically the same. Yet we find the average for the third grade 54 while the fourth grade averages only 46. The sixth grade scores considerably above the standard, reaching the high point of 75, while the seventh and eighth grades drop back to 68 and 69 respectively. The lowest sixth grade score is equal to the highest third grade score and is 13 points higher than the highest fourth grade score. This difference may be due in part to the fact that the 124 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK measurement is based upon a small number of words and that the words may not be included in the curriculums for the different grades. Principals and teachers will find it profitable to test these same grades with other lists of words selected from well-standardized scales and so determine whether or not the fifth and sixth grades have received more attention in the study of spelling than have the two lower grades. Table 18 Spelling scores Showing how the Niagara Falls schools compared in spelling ability with the schools of other cities City school Dale Average score attained in grade system tested 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 Average Niagara Falls Oct. 54 46 60 75 68 69 68 62.8 Elmira^ Oct. 50 50 61 70 67 76 58 61.7 Whitehall! Nov. 66 55 57 72 72, 81 .. 67.3 Saratoga- Nov. 64 65 68 79 71 83 .. 71.7 Cleveland- May 78 73 75 78 76 80 .. 76.7 Gary2 May 56 53 51 58 62 43 .. 55.5 Midyear standard^ 73 7i 73 73 73 73 73 73 Table 18 shows how Niagara Falls compares with three other New 'V^ork cities that were tested with the same list of words and with the Cleveland and Gary schools which were tested, in the main, with the same words. The table also shows in which months of the school year the respective schools were examined. If deductions were made from the Cleveland and Gary results to allow for the gain in achievement from October to May, the achievement of the Cleveland schools would still be above that of Niagara Falls. Since there was approximately a month's difference between the testing of Niagara Falls and the Whitehall and Saratoga testing, it is doubt- ful if any material allowance should be made for the higher rating of the two latter systems. The table then shows that Niagara Falls ranks fourth among these places in the spelling achievement of grades 3-8 inclusive. Summary Taking the school system as a whole, the spelling ability of pupils in Niagara Falls falls below the standard that should be expected. The chief deficiency is in the lower grades, which points to the fact that the spelling curriculum of these grades is either not wisely selected, that enough time is not given to spelling, or that the methods of teaching in these lower grades are insufficient. The records indi- ^ From unpublished reports made by State Education Department, New^ York. ^ From "The Gary Public Schools. Measurement of Classroom Products," p. 82. ^This midyear standard for grades 3-7 is the average score obtained by the school children of 84 cities as, given on the Ay res scale; for grades 8 and 9 it is the standard given on the Buckingham extension of the Ayres scale. MAPLE AVENUE SCHOOL A modern elementary school building under construction ASHLAND AVENUE SCHOOL Kindergarten and first six grades REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 125 cate, that beginning with the fifth grade, the Niagara Falls schools achieved as much in spelhng as the average of city schools through- out the country. Reading No attempt was made to test oral reading, because the greater part of reading that is done in life is silent reading. Children's success in practically all school subjects depends upon their ability to read rapidly and to comprehend the meaning of what they read. In order to secure a measure of the success with which the Niagara Falls schools are teaching children in these two important phases of read- ing, all pupils in grades 3 to 9 inclusive were tested with the Monroe standardized silent reading test, form 1. This test consists of three parts : test 1 for grades 3, 4 and 5 ; test 2 for grades 6, 7 and 8 ; test 3 for grades 9, 10, 11 and 12. The same directions, however, are given to all pupils; these direc- tions are printed on the first page of the test booklet and are read together by examiner and pupils. The following quotation from the test booklet indicates the nature of these instructions : Directions for Giving the Test After telling the children not to open the papers, ask the children on the front seats to distribute the papers, placing one upon the desk of each pupil in the class. Have each child fill in the blank space at the top of this page. Then make clear the following : Instructions to Be Read by Teacher and Pupils Together This brief test is given to see how quickly and accurately pupils can read silently. To show what sort of test it is, let us read this : I am a little dark-skinned girl. I wear a slip of brown buckskin and a pair of soft moccasins. I live in a wigwam. What kind of a girl do you think I am? Chinese French Indian African Eskimo The answer to this exercise is " Indian " and it is to be indicated by drawing a line under the word. The test consists of a number of exercises like this one. In some of the exercises you are told to draw a line under the word which is the right answer or to mark it in some other way, and in some you are to write out your answer. If an exercise is wrong it will not count, so it is wise to study each one carefully until you know exactly what you are asked to do. The number of exercises which you can finish thus in five minutes will make your score, so do them as fast as you can, being sure to do them right. Stop at once when time is called. Do not open the papers until told, so that all may begin at the same time. 126 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The nature of the test is further iUustrated by the following extracts, which are the second questions on the respective parts or tests : Test 1 for Grades 3, 4 and 5 No. 2 The little Pilgrim girls carried their workboxes to the dame-schools and learned to sew and knit as well as to read and write. Where did the girls go with their workboxes? To the ' Test 2 for Grades 6, 7 and 8 No. 2 At evening when 1 go to bed I see the stars shine overhead; They are the little daisies white That dot the meadow of the night. What are the little white daisies of the night? Test 3 for High School No. 2 The tighter a wire is stretched the higher the tone produced when the wire is struck. Two wires are stretched, one with a fourteen-pound weight pulling on it and another with a ten-pound weight pulling on it. Which wire will produce the higher tone, the former or the latter? Reasons for Using tlic Monroe Silent Reading Test a The test requires less than 10 minutes for giving instructions and for pupils' writing. h The directions are printed on each copy of the test and the pupils read them with the examiner ; this eliminates the variation that too often accomi)anies the giving of oral instrttctions by different people. c The correct answers are brief and the papers are easily scored. Any teacher who follows the printed directions carefully can score the papers. d There are three forms of the test: a school may test the ability of its pupils in silent reading, two or three times each year without using the same questions a second time. The three forms are ap- proximately of equal difficulty ; that is, a child should make about the same score on each of the three forms of the test. e The test gives a measure of two important phases of silent read- ing: (1) the speed with which children read silently, and (2) their ability to comprehend what they read. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 127 Scoring the Papers In scoring the papers, the directions and answers given on the class record sheets were used with the following interpretations : a If an answer was written out as a complete sentence, it was considered correct. & If qualifying words were added to the correct answer it was usually accepted. c Words to be underscored or indicated in some other way which were marked in the paragraph rather than in the list below were accepted. d li there seemed good reason to believe that a pupil had skipped several paragraphs without reading them, he was given a rate score equivalent only to the sum of the rate scores of the paragraphs which he had actually attempted to answer. Method of Finding Grade Scores To find class scores given in table 19, the directions given on the class record sheet were followed. The grade scores for each build- ing were obtained by combining all papers of the different classes of that grade for the building and finding the medians by the ordinary method. Grade scores for the city at large were obtained in a differ- ent way, namely, by finding the median of the class medians of all the classes of each grade in the school system. By the median score we mean the score above which there are as many scores as there are below it. Table 19 Grade scores, Monroe silent reading test Showing the score made by each grade of each building and the median of these class scores for each grade of the city system; also, showing the midyear standard scores School 3d R C Ashland 36 Center 40 Cleveland 48 Ferry 22 Fifth 54 Maple 22 Niagara Sugar 44 Tenth 44 Third 44 Thirteenth 39 Twenty-fourth . ii Twenty-second . 22 Whitney 37 Median of class scores, or grade - scores for Niagara Falls Midyear standards 4th R 45 80 59 54 59 54 54 82 67 67 70 60 59 68 c 5 9 8 5 7 9 5 11 8 10 7 7 8.5 9 5th R C 84 87 84 67 79 67 82 106 68 98 76 70 67 87 14 13 12 10 13.5 13 11 18 11 '16 12 11 11 13 6th R C 83 83 90 69 87 81 81 54 18 16 17 13 17 14.5 13 13 7th 84 17.5 84 i9" 64 14 8th R C 86 20 84 26' 44 3.8 69 8.6 12.9 90 15.5 83 16.5 89 18.9 52 6.8 70 12.7 87 17.8 90 18.5 100 22.8 106 26.0 128 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Niagara Falls Silent Reading Scores The midyear standard scores of table 19 are based on the achieve- ment of 130,000 pupils. In studying the comparison of Niagara Falls scores with these standards two things should be kept in mind : (1) Niagara Falls pupils were tested about the middle of October rather than at midyear; (2) the results obtained in grades 3, 4 and 5 can not be compared with those obtained from different test material in grades 6, 7 and 8 nor the latter results with those obtained from use of the high school test. Two scores are given in table 19 for each grade of each school: the first, in the R column is the measure of the rate or speed of silent reading ; the second, or C, column is the measure of the ability of the pupils of the respective grades to comprehend the meaning of the printed paragraphs in the test booklets. The rate or speed scores of Niagara Falls grades 5 and 6 are ap- proximately equal to the standard midyear scores; but the rate scores for grades 4, 3, 7 and 8 range from 3 points to 17 points below the midyear standards. The comprehension scores of Niagara Falls range from 3 points in the third grade to 7.1 points in the eighth grade below the midyear standards. (Due to an apparent error in administering the test, the scores from the first year high school pupils are omitted from this report.) Another point of comparison is given in table 20, which shows how .certain grades of Niagara Falls compared with the standard scores that the same pupils would have been expected to attain had they been tested in May or June of the previous year. Table 20 Comparison of Niagara Falls silent reading scores with standard scores the same pupils should have achieved had they been tested near the end of the previous school year Grades 4 5 7 „ ^ ^ R C R C R C R C Previous " End of the year " standards 60 9.3 79 15.3 56 21.0 104 24.5 Niagara Falls October scores. 69 8.6 86 12.9 S3 16.5 89 18.9 Points scored above given standard -|-9 .... -\-7 .... ■• ■••• •• ' !■' ^ Points below given standard.. .. — .7 .. — 2.4 — 13 — 4.5 ■ — 15 — 5.6 Table 20 shows that grades 4 and 5 read more rapidly, and grades 7 and 8 more slowly than the standard that should be expected of these same pupils had they been tested the previous May or June. Their ability to comprehend the thought of the printed page is below standard in each grade and increasingly lower as pupils progress through the grades ; that is, the fourth grade scores .7 below the REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 129 Standard ; the fifth grade 2.4 below, the seventh grade 4.5 below ; and the eighth grade 5.6 points below the standard. Table 21 shows how Niagara Falls and Elmira compare in the ability of the children of grades 3 to 8 inclusive to read silently. The two school systems were tested during consecutive weeks and by the same examiners. Table 21 Comparison of silent reading ability of Elmira and Niagara Falls schools School system 3 4 5 6 7 8 R C R C R C R C R C R C Elmira 44 3.9 76 11.3 98 16.5 SI 18.3 90 21.5 98 22.5 Niagara Falls. 44 3.8 69 8.6 86 12.9 90 15.5 83 16.5 89 18.9 The table shows that Niagara Falls pupils score lower than Elmira pupils in their ability to understand the meaning of the printed page. Summary The results of the silent reading test indicate: (a) That pupils of grades 3, 4, 5 and 6 of Niagara Falls read on the average as lapidly as pupils in other schools ; but that the seventh and eighth grades read much more slowly; (b) that the elementary school pupils do not comprehend the meaning of what they read nearly so well as do the average of pupils in other schools ; (c) that while each suc- ceeding grade makes progress in learning to comprehend the mean- ing of the printed page, this progress is decreasingly less as pupils advance through the elementary school. Recommendations The survey committee believes that the teachers and supervisory officers of the Niagara Falls schools will find it profitable to give in an organized way a great deal of attention to the teaching of silent reading. Such an organized effort might properly include among other things the following: a Making a careful distinction between oral and silent reading and the objectives to be gained through each type. b Consideration of the best types of subject matter to be taught in silent reading courses. c Special emphasis on the method of silent reading in such kindred subjects as geography and history. d Teaching pupils to use books ; that is, how to use the index, table of contents, topical headings; and how to find quickly the chief thought of a paragraph. e A study of methods and types of assignments. M riiio DNivi'.Ksnv (»!■ I'lii.; staii': ok Niav vdkr / An c'\;iIii;ilioii ol the (liUcrcnt Injics of (|U('slioiis to l)c usi'd in the ;issi;;iinicnl .nid iccilal ion. (/ I is<- ol inlDinial silt ill ii'iidiiij; U'sts; tli.il is, tests devised l)y |)rinc-i]ials and Icatlitis lo test tin- ahilily ol impils lo jdcaii tliouf^lil (|uit'kl\ 1 1 oiii llic piinU-d liat;f. /; I lie list' t)l at least one stantlaitli/i'tl silent reatliii}^ lest eaeli year, as a iiieans id ineasinin^ progress ol aeliiexi'inent. Language ( )ne ol the niosl iinpoilanl iaelois tlelei iniinn^ llie siU'eess of school ehiltlren is their ian^uat^e ahihty. As a nieasine ol this ahiUty, the Trahue eoniplelion ti'st lanj;ua}^e scale (", was used in {grades .> to *'. A ct)p)' of the sc.-ile fttllnvvs: Writf (inly mic word on catii !>l;iiiii. riiiic liniil : Si\('ii iiiiiiiile's NaiiK- (iradtj A^e' (oil last jjirllitlay) 'rrahiii' l.aiiKuaKf Scale C 1 Tlif sUy liluf. 2 Mill tiltlfi tliaii lioys. .^ ( iiiotl iiiiys Uiiiil llifif sisliTS. 4 'riif (-'.ill ffll and lui litatl. 5 Tlif rises liir iiuuiiiii}-'. ami al iii^-l't () 'riic li(i\ w 111! Iiarti il«> will, 7 Men iiunL- Ill tlti lua\ \ wdiU womt'ii. S riic Mill is SI) that oiif I ail iml iliiirlly causing ^i;l^L'ni ilismuiliii l lo llif c-yis. 9 The kiidw K'llj-',!' of iiM' iiif is ol iiuporlaiil lliiii^^s Liiowu by Iml niiktiowii animals. 10 ( )iic otij-'Jil lo gifat laif lo llif I in'il "' . . . .>i . lor oiH' will* had haliits it In gel away from them. Tins lanL;na^e scale nie;isures, priinaiils, the j^eneial ahilily ol a class, ^ratle or school to ilu wiuk thai iii\t)l\'es lan^iiaj^c (liriiculties. A full dcscri[)tion of the scale, its tleiixatioii, the ke\' for scoriiij;, the directions for usiii^ it, and the inethod of interpretint; the results is ^i\i-n in the monograph eiilitled "Ke\ loi (. niniilet ion 'l\'st 1-an- iiua''e .Seales "' h\' i\\ . 1\. I'lahne. The i-eiieral schcine for ratinij 1 Puhlislifd liy I'.ini'aii ol I 'iihlii .ilioiis, 'riailiirs Collfj'i', ( oliiiuhia Uiiivcr- silv. Now N'oik I'itv. ui'-.i'oirr OF TiiK nja(;aka I'Ai.i.s school systicm ]M the test papers is given l)elow as a <|uolatioii from ]y,\^c 11 of the monograph. Score 2 A score of 2 points is to l)e j'iveii each seiitiiici' c(im])K(i(| |nrfeclly. Krrors ill spelling:, capitalization, and punctuati< n slxmld not he allowed U) aifeet the score. Score 1 A .score of 1 is to be given each sentence completed with ordy a slight im- perfection. A poorly chosen word or a common grammatical error, which makes the sentence less than perfect and yet leaves it with reasonably good sense should serve to reduce the score from 2 to 1. Score A score of is to be given if the scntcnci' as completed has its sense or construction badly distorted. A sentence must have reasonably good meaning and express a sentiment wliich might honestly \iv licld by an intelligent person in order to receive a higher credit than zero. it will he noted that the perfect score on this scale vvonld he 20. Slaiidard Scores Mr Trahne, on page 58 of his monograph, gives the median score that .sliould he ohtained hy each grade at midyear and the median scores for the lower and U])])er half of each grade. As an example, the lower third grade should score 7.4, the tipper half of the third grade should sccjre 8.6 while the standard midyear sccjre for the class would he 8.0. Trahue's low, or standard score for the first half of each grade is approximately the score that children entering a grade in Se])temher should make if tested ahout the middle of Novem- her. It is this score that is used as a standard for Niagara h\Uls. TAinjc 21 Niagara Falls language scores Giving tlip score made by eadi grade in eacli scliool and llic slanil.irds fi,r the- I'lrsl Ii.ilt i)f each grade (jr November standards; also, showing llu- iMiiulnr of pi. lots each grade fell below the " low " or Novendier standards School 3 4 i () 7 H 9 .\shlanJ 6.4 JO.l 11.5 \.\.2 Center 6.3 8.8 10.4 11.1 Cleveland .S . .S 9.4 10 11.6 12.4 1.5.1 Kerry 4 . .3 6 . .S '> . .S 10.8 .... I*"ifth 7.7 9.1 11.2 12.4 11.7 1,!.4 Maple 6.2 8..S 12 1 ,i Niagara 5.. 3 7 .i S.S v.x 12 12.6 .... Sugar 6.8 9 11.1 11,2 Tenth 6.1 8 JO.l 11.'* 11. (> Third 7.1 9.6 11 12.1 Thirteenth 6..'? 7 . .S X,') 10.4 .... .... .... Twenty-fourth 7 8.7 11 11.6 11.9 1 .i . i .... Twenty-second 6.8 9.4 1 . .'i 12.2 1.5 .... .... Whitney 6.3 8.6 10.3 10.9 Itigh school .... .... .... .... .... .... 14 5 Vocational .... .... ... .... .... .... 14.5 Medians by grades 6.4 8.7 10. 45 11.65 ii.O i.i.05 ui.S Oct. and Nov. standards 7.4 9.6 I 1.1 12.2 13.1 14.1 15.0 No. points below Oct. standard 1.0 .9 .6 .5 1,1 1.0 .5 N. B. — Note the difference between grade scores fur !•'< i ry Sirtit ami .A^hl.iiid .-X venue .Schools. 132 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Table 22 shows that each grade tested in Niagara Falls scored from .5 to 1.1 points below the standard for the first half of each grade. Interpreted in another way, this means that grades 3, 4 and 5 aver- aged about one-third of a grade below the standard ; and grades 6, 7, 8 and 9 averaged a little more than one-half of a grade below .standard. The data of table 23 show how the children of Niagara Falls compare in language ability with children of the same grades in other cities. Table 23 Comparative study of language ability Showing how the children of Niagara Falls compare with children of the same grades in other American cities, as tested with the Trabue completion test-language scale C Date Scores by grades School system tested 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Elmira Oct. 7.4 0.8 11.1 12.3 1.1.4 13.8 14.2 Niagara Falls Oct. 6.4 8.7 10.4 11.6 12.0 13.0 14.5 Nassau co.i 8.2 10.2 .... 12.4 14.0 Whitehall Nov 10.5 11.6 12.9 13.5 Chatham, N. J.^ Dec 10.8 11.7 12.2 14.8 15.8 St Paul, Minn." Feb. 7.8 9.4 11.1 12.2 13.1 14.0 Midyear standards. . 8.0 10.0 11.4 12.4 13.4 14.4 15.2 An examination of the data of table 23 shows that Niagara Falls not only scores considerably below the midyear standard, but in each grade tested it has the lowest score of any of the six school systems considered in the table. The results indicate that the children of Niagara Falls may not have the native ability for language work that is to be expected of school children of the same grades in Ameri- can schools. This conclusion, of course, is only tentative, and should be judged in the light of other tests ; but it should lead to a closer analysis of the language abilities of individual pupils and the diffi- culties that confront the teachers of Niagara Falls, (^ne of the chief difficulties confronting teachers is the wide range of language ability in any one class or grade of a school. This fact is shown forcibly by the data of table 24 showing the distrilnition of language ability for grades 3 and 5 of the fourteen elementary schools. ^ From " Report of a Survey of Public Education in Nassau County, N. Y." 1918. ^ From "The Supervisor's Use of Standard Tests," Elementary School .Tournnl, Jan. 1917. ^ From the Survey of the School System of St Paul, 1917, p. 459. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 133 ■3 r^i f^iJ^(^r>.W<^OOi-«t-iro OO^C "^ SO ^o m ■^ t^ 'O "^ ^ 'O r>. 'sO r>. vo ^ i : o o •-t "CM I " ■ Ol • ro '-"-' ■ lO ; T^ 'Ti On c ^ . . . ... w 9- '~' P5 O Ov — "J-; l^ -t 00 • "-- Ol ^^] f. ^1 r-, ^ W - [^ T-. ,-. irv o ""- On 1^1 '^ ^O NO O ;> o^ ^ ON * _2 u~- «+ O in cv] u-i ^ ^ o\ ir> ro ■g T-HOoa.-ioicc.-'cr^oO'-HOo '^ -t ri .-H -1- lO O «-^- t^ ^ U-l Tf O r-l C\J 3 ^ T ^'-, X ^. ^C (^I 00 '■'■- -2 "-, \C ^C sC r^ ^ fNl o '-^ oo *^ w »*H NOr-H ^.... '-^ »*s • .... . . •> 1^, ■ (>i • - i(~, "-. • »-« OI i-< ■ .-^ ^ r 1 ^i '-C Ol O^ rf-, O '•^■; ^^ ir, r.-, -1- . X -t t ^ f^j OC C^l O -t t-" »o rf ri- vo O C^l rx On 00 "-1 X (-- u-. CI « ir. 0-, i^ O.J ". X "■, X c^ '^^ .-I ^ t^ X -f NO -^v . c^, r'v Tt .-^ X 1^1 -i- (^1 o, ""' -t " "f C-. >o (^1 oj o -t f^n =0 C^l C] r J ^ 1-H . -^ <^ r^ " ^o i^ t^ O] t^ ^. ><-, -r c^i NO . •■', U-. in .— o "v "-, -t NO --^ ■ ir. -T " . O i^. Tj- ,-^ U-, CN) rH NO ^ „ ^ „ o •-I •- 00 • X ON -I- ^. --i CA oi X — I "-. -i- f^ ■-! I o ■. X (^1 'n U-) r^i -t NO ^ NO 3 r^ t^ r^ I • C^l CNj ._, . ._, ^ r^ . Ol ■ . .-. I f^ ■'. iM t^ r^ in " r • -;t- ~5 -i- -sf f\, r^. Ol in 3 (^1 -NO 1^1 l^ '-^ -i- NO oi m ■O CM C-. NO •-< On I X _ 3 u • _ 1> >. >. CJ < u u '-^ fe i-^. 2; x ^ H H H H :S .^ o ^ 4J >. >^ (b ■.o ■" ijJi ll^t: J2-- 3 iij=:j= > 5^ 134 'I'lll', IINIVI'-.KSI IN' Ol' 'I'lll'-. SI'Al'P. ()!•• Ni:W Y(JUK Obviously, the pupils 'M tested fell below the stand.ard that should be t'xpi'tted of childicn in the sanu- j^rades when tested durinj;' the brst h.ill ol the school ^rade. <■ Compared with the results obtained from live other school sys- teius, Niagara balls children reicived the lowest .score in each j.irade 3 lo X inilusivc. I\'i-i(iiinii('ii(l(ili(iiis The lirst piobleiu is to discover whether tlie lacls indicated in the abovi' summary hold true with other tests. II llu\se lads prove to be true, then it will be neces.s.ary to deter- mine the cause of the laii'_;nai;e deliciencv. .\ reclassilicatioii ol childien according t(» laiiL;naL;e abilitv should give teachers a nuuh better op|ioitniiitv to meet the Lin^na^e nei'ds of indi\idu;il childien. Coniposilion ( )ne ti'st ol laiii^ua^e at hu'vement is that ol abilitv to write compo- sition, 'ihe subject, "What I Should Like to I )o Ne.\t Saturday" was assij^ned to all pupils of tirades I to •' inclusive. .Xfler ])upils had writtt'ii the necess.iiv data at the (op ol their paper, the test was e\plaine(| ;is lollows: REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 135 I want to find out today how interesting a story you can write when you try your very best. You may write on both sides of the paper if you wish. I want you to tell me in this composition what you would like to do next Satur- daj'. The topic on which you are to write is written on the board. (The examiner pointed to the subject) "Are there any questions?" When questions were answered, children were told to " Begin." They were allowed exactly 20 minutes. Scoring the Papers When the papers were collected, they were arranged alphabetically and numbered. Only the odd-numbered papers were scored. All teachers met one afternoon and rated the papers. The rating was done by use of the Nassau county supplement to the Hillegas scale. Teachers were divided into teams of three : the three teachers read each paper and recorded the score separately. Later the median of these three scores was taken as the final rating of the paper. Where two teachers agreed, the rating given twice was taken as the final score. Later these papers were read again by a special examiner who has had much practice in using the composition scale. It was found that the ratings given by many teams were quite accurate; but a few teams or groups of teachers had failed to understand or observe the technic of using the scale. The data of table 25 show the difference between the ratings of one set of papers as given by teachers and by the survey committee. Table 25 Giving the teachers' rating, the survey committee's rating and the differ- ence between the two ratings for each pupil's paper Su rvey Pupil's Teachers' committee's Difference ■number scores scores in scores 1 6.0 5.0 1.0 2 6.0 5.0 1.0 3 7.2 6.0 1.2 4 6.0 5.0 1.0 5 S.O 3.8 1.2 6 3.8 2.8 1.0 7 S.O 5.0 8 S.O 5.0 9 5.0 S.O 10 7.2 6.0 1.2 11 S.O 3.8 1.2 12 7.2 7.2 13 7.2 6.0 1.2 14 6.0 -6.0 15 6.0 5.0 1.0 16 S.O 5.0 17 6.0 " 5.0 1.0 IM) THE LIMVKRSITY Ol'' TllK STA'J'E OF NKW YORK 'riu- (lata ol" table 2() arc taken from the corrected scores or ratings given hy the survey coniniillee. TablI': 26 Grade scores in composition for each school and for the entire school system; also the approximate standard scores School 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ashland 2.7 4.7 4.6 Center 2.4 3.6 S.2 Cleveland 2.9 3.7 4.3 4.8 5.5 .... Ferry 2.4 2.9 5.2 Fifth 2.0 3.5 5.0 5.2 5.4 Maple 2.9 3.9 4.8 • Niagara 2.4 2.7 4.6 3.8 5.6 Sugar 2.4 3.5 3.7 Tenth 2.8 3.7 4.0 5.2 Third 2.6 3.2 5.0 'Ihirteenlh 2.5 3.0 4.0 Twenty-fourth 2.3 3.4 4.8 4.1 5.5 'rwenty-second 2.3 4.0 4.6 5.0 .... Whitney 2.7 3.0 4.1 .... High School 5.9 Median .scores 2.6 3.4 4.4 4.8 5.S 5.9 .Standard score.s 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 The standards gi\en in table 2() were derived as a result of a num- ber of surveys of city, village and county school systems. Doctor Trabue points out that these standards are higher than the average or median derived from these several surveys but are scores that were reached or e.Kceeded by a few schools for each grade, lie sug- gests that they are standards to be attained rather than medians of ])ast achievement.' it will be seen that although the standard scores are ideal rather than the average of actual achievement, grades 6, 7, S and 9 of Niagara Falls scored very near to the standard. The tlata of table 27 show how Niagara Falls children comi)are in composition ability with other New York school systems. Table 27 Comparison of composition ability Sliowinn how the median scores obtained by Niagara Falls children in English com- position (cinipare with the median scores obtained by other New York school .systems Median score dttuiiird ui (jriulc School system Niagara Falls 3 Elmira 1 lUnghamton 2 lUica 3 Amsterdam 4 Nassau co 4 Ethical Culture School, New York City.. 4.01 4.72 5.39 5.74 Ttiilative standard scores 3.5 4.0 4.S 5.0 5.5 6.0 4 .1 6 7 S P 2.6 3.4 4.4 4.8 5.5 5.9 3.4 4.3 4.4 5.4 5.6 5.9 2.7 3.28 4.41 4.83 5 . 62 2.41 3.13 3.73 4.64 5.23 2.07 2.52 3.37 3.97 4.65 6.21 2.76 3.42 3.82 4.18 4.56 5.00 * " Supi)lementing the llillegas Scale." Teachers College Record. Jan. 1917, p. 79. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 137 It will be seen from table 27 that Niagara Falls children in grades 5 to 9 inclusive compared favorably with children of the same grades of other New York schools in ability to write English composition. Summary a Whereas the standards were higher than most schools had achieved up to 1917, Niagara Falls practically reached the standard in all grades above the fifth. b li Niagara Falls children have less native ability for language work than the average of American school children possess, as was indicated by the Trabue language scale, then Niagara Falls teachers deserve all the more credit for teaching composition. c It was the judgment of the survey committee that the good record made by Niagara Falls children in composition writing was due in the main to special emphasis that teachers had placed on this subject. Recofmnetidations a Children, generally throughout the school system should be en- couraged to use their imagination more in composition writing. b Since a fairly good record has been attained in written compo- sition, particularly in the upper elementary grades, more attention should be given to " oral composition." Arithmetic The Woody arithmetic scales, series B, were used to measure pupil achievement in arithmetic. These scales consist of four different tests, one each for addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Each scale contains aljout 20 problems, and tests children's ability in the fundamental process through common and decimal fractions, United States money and denominate numbers. The problems are so arranged on each scale that the first represents the very simplest operation, and each succeeding problem is approximately one num- erical unit more difficult than the problem preceding it. These facts are shown by the addition scale given on the following page. 138 THE UNIVI'-RSITY 01' THK STATE OF NKW YORK Woody Addition scale B City County School Date Name When is your next hiiihday ? . . . . How old will you I)e ? Arc you a hoy or a j^irl ? . . . In what grade arc you ? Teacher's name (1) (2) 2 2 ,3 2 — 3 (K^) (14) 23 25 25 + 42 : 16 (3) (5) (7) (10) 17 72 3+1= 21 2 26 7,3, — — 35 (16) (19) (20) 9 $ .75 $12.50 24 1.25 16.75 12 .49 15.75 15 19 (21) (22) (23) (24) (30) $8.00 547 4.0125 2^ 5.75 197 ^ + j^= 1.5907 63/^ 2.33 685 4.10 ?>y^ 4.16 678 8.673 .94 456 6.32 393 525 240 152 im (.36) (38) .49 2 yr. 5 mo. .28 3 yr. 6 mo. .6i 4 yr. 9 mo. 25.091 + 100.4 + 25 + 98.28 -|- 19.3614 = .95 5 yr. 2 mo. 1 .69 6 yr. 7 mo. .22 ..33 ..36 1.01 . Su .88 .75 .56 1.10 .18 .56 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 139 Giving the Tests The survey committee requested the principals to administer the subtraction and division tests, and w^ith the assistance of their teach- ers to score those papers. This request v^as made principally because the Woody scale is one of the easiest of the educational tests to ad- minister and to score, and one of the most valuable so far as using the results is concerned. The survey committee believed that if principals and teachers helped in this original survey of arithmetic that they would be interested and glad to cooperate v^^ith the super- intendent in making a more comprehensive study of pupil achieve- ment in arithmetic at some later date. Judging by the results from the grades of the dififerent schools, the committee believes that the results for subtraction and division are as reliable as for addition and multiplication. Standard Scores Mr Woody 's original publication set up certain standards for each of the scales. These standards were based on the results obtained by from 20,000 to 30,000 children. The tests have been so widely used, however, that lately new standards have been published which are perhaps more valuable than the original and so are used in this report. The midyear standard as used in this report is the average of the scores obtained from the use of the B scale in fourteen differ- ent cities of the United States as given on pages 22 and 23 of the Teachers College Bulletin, entitled " The Woody Arithmetic Scales." The October standards used in this re])ort are the average of scores obtained in five cities whose pupils were tested in October and No- vember. While the October standards are not entirely reliable they are approximately what we would expect for the latter part of October. All scores are in terms of the number of problems solved •correctly. 140 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Niagara Falls Scores Table 28 shows how the schools of Niagara Falls compare with one another and with the standards of achievement described above. Table 28 Grade scores in addition for each school in Niagara Falls School Ashland Center Cleveland Ferry Fifth Maple Niagara Sugar Tenth Third Thirteenth Twenty-fourth Twenty-second Whitney Niagara Falls grade scores Approximate October standards School Ashland Center Cleveland Ferry Fifth Maple Niagara Sugar Tenth Third Thirteenth Twenty-fourth Twenty-second Whitney Niagara Falls grade scores Approximate October standards 0.9 7.7 7.7 7.i 7.1 8. 7.5 7.8 7.6 8.2 7.4 6.8 7.5 7.7 4 11.9 12.1 10.5 10.9 10.4 10.3 11.5 10.2 11.2 11.6 11.6 10.2 10.4 11.3 Grades 5 13.7 14.2 13.2 13.4 13.5 14.1 12.9 13.1 13.8 14.5 13.1 12.9 12.6 13.6 6 15.6 14.8 15.1 16.0 15.2 15.3 14.8 14.4 15.8 16 14.4 16.0 15.2 15.3 16 is. 9 ie i6.4 15.4 15.6 7.6 10.9 13.5 15.4 15.9 16.5 8.2 11.6 Table 29 13.2 15.1 15.7 6.8 trad tion for each school in Niagara Falls Grades 5 4 5 6 7 8 6.S 9.6 11.5 13.0- 6.4 8.9 11.8 12.9 6.6 8.7 10.9 12.2 12 9 4.2 7.5 8.2 10.8 11.7 7.4 8.7 11.6 11.9 13 6 4.4 7 9.2 11.3 12.3 8.8 11 12.3 13.8 14 3 6.1 8.5 11.4 9.2 12.1 11.7 7.2 9.4 12.1 13.1 7.7 9.4 11.1 11.7 7.4 9.3 11.2 12.3 7.3 8.5 10.2 13.2 13 4 5.8 9.1 10.9 12.2 7.1 9.1 11.15 12.3 13.4 14.3 6.8 9.0 10.6 12.2 13.3 School Ashland Center Cleveland Ferry Fifth Maple Niagara Sugar Tenth Third Thirteenth Twenty-fourth Twenty-second ... Whitney Niagara Falls grade scores Approximate October standards. Table 30 tion for each school in N Gra dcs 4 .^ 6 10.1 12.3 16.0 10.6 14.2 16.1 9.4 12.8 15.5 9.6 10.9 15.2 10.4 12.1 16.1 9.8 13.8 17 9.2 10.6 14.4 9 12.2 14.7 11.5 11.0 15.8 10 11.4 16.5 10.4 11.9 14.3 10.5 11.4 14.9 9.6 11.5 14.8 10.2 - 12.4 - 15.4 10.05 12.1 15.4 9.5 11.2 14.2 17.0 15.9 16.6 16.7 15.2 17 4' 16 s' 16 4' 17 4' 17 25 16 7 report of the niagara falls school system 141 Table 31 Grade scores in division for each school in Niagara Falls School Grades 4 5 6 7 8 Ashland ; 5.4 7.1 11.1 Center 7.5 10.2 11.3 Cleveland 4.9 7.9 10.6 12.0 1- Ferry 5.6 6.4 9.6 Fifth 5.7 9.4 12.9 12.6 13 Maple ^ 7.2 9.5 11.8 Niagara 5.1 8.3 10 Sugar 6.4 8.1 10.3 Tenth 5.6 8.3 Third 7 9.2 11.5 Thirteenth 4.9 7.5 10.4 Twenty-fourth 5.1 8.7 10.9 12.2 12 Twenty-second 5.3 7.8 10.6 12.4 Whitney 6.4 9.3 11.7 Niagara Falls grade scores 5.5 8.65 10.9 12.3 12 Approximate October standards 5.7 8.0 10.3 11.6 12 Between the schools a wide difference of abiHty is noticeable in certain grades : third grade addition scores ranged from 6.8 in the Twenty-fourth Street School to 10.9 in the Ashland Avenue School ; fifth grade subtraction scores ranged from 9.2 in Tenth Street School to 12.3 in Third Street School; sixth grade multiplication scores ranged from 14.3 in Thirteenth Street School to 17.0 in the Maple Avenue School; fourth grade division scores ranged from 4.9 in two schools to 7.5 in Center Street School. An even greater difference existed between class scores with'in the same grade. Compared with the standard scores, Niagara Falls made a very good record as is shown in the following summary : Addition : Grades 6 and 7 exceeded midyear standard. Grades 5, 6 and 7 exceeded October standard. Grades 3, 4 and 8 were lower than Octoljer standard. Subtraction: Grades 5 and 8 -exceeded midyear standard. All grades exceeded October standard. Multiplication : All grades were above midyear and October Standard. Division : Grades 5, 6 and 7 exceeded midyear standard. Grades 5, 6, 7 and 8 exceeded October standard. Grade 4, only, fell below October standard. Summary a Niagara Falls is more successful than the average of schools in teaching the fundamentals of arithmetic. h Grades 3, 4 and 8 scored lower than the October standard in addition and grade 4 fell below in division ; however, these scores are so near the standard that they do not disclose any particular -weakness in the teaching of those grades. 142 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK c Multiplication is ])etter taught in Niagara Falls schools than addition, sul)traction or division. d The school as a whole did hetter in subtraction than in either addition or division. e Niagara Falls teachers have laid such a good foundation in arithmetic that with concentrated, organized effort they can easily make Niagara Falls one of the foremost cities of the State in the arithmetic achievement of pupils. A Suggested Method of Analyaing Test Results (See table 32, the class record sheet of a sixth grade group at Tenth Street School) In order to use the results of the Woody scale successfully it is necessary not only to know how many problems each child solves correctly, but which problems caused the most difficulty and what particular elements or processes of these problems caused the trouble. A teacher who has prepared such a class record as is contained in table 32 can see at a glance which problems were solved correctly by all her class and which problems caused the most difficulty. For instance, she can see that problem : 37 — 2-2" X 4^^ X 1"2 — was omitted or missed by 84 per cent of class. 38— .0963^ .084 " 81 per cent 35 — 9871 25 33-2ix3i 26 — 9742 59 29- -iX2 27- -6.25 3.2 24 234 54 per cent " 51 per cent " 46 per cent " 35 per cent " 21 per cent " 21 per cent " After finding which problems have caused failures the next ques- tion to determine is what process or elements of each problem caused the trouble. Table 32 shows that 15 of the 37 pupils tried REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 143 l)rol)lem 26 and failed to solve it correctly. An analysis of the mis- takes shows that 2 pupils failed in addition, 2 made mistakes in multiplying by 9 and the remaining 11 failed to multiply by 5. With these facts before her, the teacher can quickly find out why these 1 1 pupils did not multii)ly by 5 but left the problem to go on trying others. Problem 33 (2\ X 3-|- =) was missed by 16 pupils of the 37. An analysis of the results shows that 2 pupils in multiplying the de- nominators, 2 X 2, secured 2 as a product ; 2 pupils considered the numerators as 21 and 31 respectively; 2 pupils multiplied the whole numbers and the fractions together separately and added the pro- ducts ; 4 secured 7 as the answer ; 3 secured 1^ as the answer ; 2 mul- tiplied 2X3 securing 6 as the product but ignored the fraction ; 1 secured 3/7 as the answer ; 1 pupil did not reduce to simplest terms. One wonders by what peculiar mental process so many pupils secured 7 or 1^ as an answer. One pupil gave a clue to the latter part of the question. His solution showed that he had multiplied 2 by 3 taking the product as the numerator and then multiplied 2 by 2 to secure 4 as the denominator. His resulting fraction, 6/4, when reduced gave H. When the teacher has secured such information as this it becomes an easy matter to correct the queer mental pro- cess that caused children to make such errors. 144 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Pupil's Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9. . 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. Table 32 Woody arithmetic — multiplication scale B Sixth grade of Tenth Street School 1 3 5 8 Sea, 9 1 e nnmhcr of problems 12 13 16 IS 20 24 26 27 29 33 35 37 38 Number rights 37 37 37 37 37 34 3 Number wrongs Not tried Total per cent misse« J3 OC\ . . . .r-, . . °.B ... 1 O On O-l • 1-H • '-' ^f-H CM Oa\ lO - CM O O^, CO 1— I ^i; Ol r^, r^j -^ . (s^ ^ ^ u-j ^ fvj [ —J bo ■•r .n tr .2 O 0\ 001 5 «i-i ) '.o t u^ u-j Ti- so CM o in ■^ I CM CO K M < '-' .is -^ OCTN 00 O VOiO OS fO CM m O SO CM ^ CM r^ I CO ■^ 'rOO'-Hi-i r-l.-i r-H ■-<• • CM .ron.-« X ^J3 . 2 "C "^urt"' S • V >.>. V o ^ 12 12^4 13 13J4 14 14;< IS 15j^ 16 16-^ 17 No. of pupils^ S 17 5 72 63 47 80 33 36 24 28 27 6 2 Median score 98 106 108 107 107 106 91 99 91 85 92 92 75 80 Table 35 throws further light on the problem raised by table 34, namely, the difficulty of teaching in the same class, pupils who diflfer widely in their ability to learn. The eight pupils only 10 years old who had reached the sixth grade in October 1920 made a median score of 98; the 255 pupils from 10 years 3 months to 12 years 9 months inclusive had median scores of 106 to 108; the 228 from 12 years 9 months to 15 years 9 months had median scores of re- spectively 91, 99, 91, 85, 92, 92; the 16 and 16^ year old children had median scores of 75 and 80. These children in the sixth grade who were 13 or more years old, present a twofold difficulty for teachers and supervisory officers to solve : ( 1 ) the test records show that they do not have al^ility to do the same work that the 11 and 12 year old children can do; (2) on account of their age, they will soon be leaving school, so that whatever is done for them b}- the school must be done quickly. These children 13 years old or more, will soon be leaving school. What does Niagara Falls intend Jo do for them in the short time they will remain in school ? ^ Due to apparent errors in recording ages and birthdays, the papers from sixth grade classes of Sugar Street and Maple Avenue Schools, and 16 papers from other scliools were omitted from the age distribution; the above table includes 496 of the 555 sixth grade pupils tested. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 151 The difficulties and problems presented in the discussion of the sixth grade pupils, applies to other grades also, as is shown in table 36. Table 36 Distribution of scores, national intelligence scale Showing the distribution of scores made by pupils of grades 4-7 of the Tenth Street and the Twenty-second Street Schools; the total number of pupils tested; and the median score of each grade group S 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 Grade School 4 9 14 19 24 29 34 39 44 49 54 59 4 Tenth 1 1 2 3 5 3 3 5 Twenty-second 1 1 2 3 3 .. 4 2 5 Tenth 1 .. .. 1 3 2 1 2 Twenty-second 1 1 .. 2 2 6 Tenth 1 . . Twenty-second Tenth Twenty-second 7 9 6 3 3 4 2 8 8 5 7 4 2 1 3 4 8 4 8 9 7 2 2 1 2 7 9 5 11 4 5 1 1 2 3 3 1 4 6 4 4 3 i 6 4 2 3 6 8 6 4 2 2 1 3 1 2 3 4 2 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 Grade School 64 69 74 79 84 89 94 99 104 109 114 119 4 Tenth 10 Twenty-second 5 5 Tenth 3 Twenty-second 8 6 Tenth Twenty-second 7 Tenth Twenty-second 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 Grade School 124 129 134 139 144 149 154 159 164 Total Median 4 Tenth 67 65.5 Twenty-second 56 69 . 5 123 5 Tenth 2 2 65 Twenty-second .... 1 1 61 126 6 Tenth 3 ... 2 2 1 1 ... 37 Twenty-second .... 2 3 50 7 Tenth 2 3 2 3 2 1 31 Twenty-second 2 6 2 4... 2 1 1... 31 62 120 A comparison of the scores made by Niagara Falls children of Tenth Street and Twenty-second Street Schools with scores made by pupils of other school systems is given in table 37. Table 37 Comparison of grade scores from national intelligence scale School system Niagara Falls Four New York school systems A-division of Washington schools^ 67. ,5 85. 79 ,5 81. ,5 104 103, .5 103. ,5 117 125. ,5 4 5 6 7 8 68 82 104 120 65 88 105 120 128 63 67 104 118 138 The data of the above table indicate that the four grades of the two schools tested in Niagara Falls have about the same native ability to do school work as do the same grades of other schools. ^ The data from Washington schools are expressed in averages and do not admit of strict comparison with the New York data expressed in terms of medians. 152 THE UNIVKRSITV OK THE STATE OF NEW YORK Another ([ueslion to he determined hefore judj^ing the pupil achievement of a school system is whether the children of each age- group comi)are favoral)ly in al)ility to learn with children of the same age-group from otiier school systems. Tahle 38 answers this ques- tion for Niagara Falls. T.M$LE 38 Comparison of age norms, national intelligence scale Showing how the children of Niagara Falls, grades 4-7 in two typical schools conip.iii- in aljility to learn, with children of other school systems, when compared by age norms Median scores attained by pupils of aqc^ School system 9 9^ 10 lO'i 11 11'/^ 12 12;^ 13 li'/$ 14 14^ 15 Niagara Falls 36 67 73 73 88 84 96 100 88 lOll 105 78 88 Four New York cities 60 69 76 78 90 90 94 lOS 107 102 106 110 102 Provisional age standards.. 78 ... 91 ... 103 ... 113 ... 123 ... 131 ... 137 The data of tahle ?i8 show that the pupils of grades 4 to 7 in the two schools tested did not score quite so high on this intelligence scale as did pupils of the same age groups of four New York school .systems. These data are given as an illustration of a type of study that school ofiicials need to make of their schools in order to judge accuratel}- the needs and achievement of their ])upils. Sttiinnary a A so-called intelligence scale should he thought of as a test used to measure the ahility of children to learn or to achieve. In some sense it may he a measure of ahility to achieve success hoth in school work and outside of school. b The median scores of the sixth grade groups show a great dif- ference in the ahility of children of different schools to achieve. c The overage or retarded pujjils have much less ahility than the pupils of normal age to achieve success in school work; and, on ac- count of their overage, have a very short time left to remain in school. d There is great need of classifying pupils for instructional pur- poses according to their i)hysical and mental development, and of adapting instructional method and sul)ject matter to their special needs. c Since ail i)U])ils of the si.xth grade, class of 1920-21, were tested with the national intelligence test, the individual records would fur- nish a valual)le l)asis for classifying pupils in the seventh grade ac- cording to their al)ility to do the work of the seventh grade. ^ In the above tabic, data for all ages below 9 and above l.S arc omitted because cbiUhcii entering the first grade at 6 years of age would not normally reach the fourth grade earlier than the ninth year of age; likewise children older than 14 years in the seventh grade would be one or more years retarded. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 153 / The age factor should be considered, also, in classifying pupils for instructional purposes ; that is, two boys, one 12 years old and the other 15 years old, scoring 100 on the national intelligence test should be placed in different sections because the younger boy is capable of progressing through school so very much more rapidly than the older one. Correspondence between Results of Group Intelligence and Standardized Educational Tests The relation or correspondence between the results of these two types of tests are of interest and of very great value to those re- sponsible for the teaching of children. Table 34 gave the median score and rank of each of the fourteen elementary schools according to the ability of sixth grade pupils tested by the national intelligence scale, form A. Table 39 shows how the sixth grade of each school ranks on each of the tests given as compared with all the other schools. Table 39 Comparison of school ranks Rank gained by sixth grade on National in- School Ashland Maple Fifth Tenth Third Twenty-fourth Twenty-second Center Cleveland Sugar Whitney Ferry Niagara Thirteenth The closest correspondence between test results, as indicated by the ranking of schools in table 39, is for the Trabue language and the national intelligence scale. Four .schools hold the same rank in both tests ; five change rank by one place or less ; four change by two places or less, while only one school changes rank position by as much as three places. Ranks as to achievement in the writing of composition differ more widely from the group intelligence ranks than the ranks from any other of the educational tests. In order of closeness of correspondence with the ranks obtained from the group intelligence tests, the educational tests are as follows : ( 1 ) Trabue National in- Compre- tellipcnce Trabue hension Compo- Arith- scale language reading sition Spelling metic 1 1 1 8 8 4 ') 2 9 5 3 2 3 3 5 3. 5 3 3 4.5 6 3 13 1 14 4.S 5 5 3. 5 6 1 6 7.5 7.5 6 3 7 7 4 10 8 10 8 8.S 10 7.5 1 12.5 5 8.5 7.5 5 10 10 9 10.5 9 12 14 10 12 10.5 11 2 11 14 6 12 12 12 2 12.5 11 13 14 12 8 5 10 14 13 14 12 7 13 154 TIIK UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK language scale, (2) comprehension, Monroe silent reading test, (3) Woody arithmetic, (4) spelling, (5) composition. Assuming that all the test records entering into table 39 are accurate measures of the speciiic abilities each is supposed to measure, then the difference in quality of teaching would be the prime factor caus- ing a school or class on any achievement test to rank higher or lower than it did in general or group intelligence. To illustrate, specifically, Ashland School ranks 1 on the group intelligence test and 8 in spell- ing. This would indicate that Ashland Avenue School pupils have not achieved so much in spelling, compared with the achievement of other schools, as the general ability of the pupils would warrant. On the other hand, Niagara Street School ranked 13 in general intelli- gence and 5 in spelling, which would indicate that the spelling achieve- ment of pupils in this school is much greater than their general ability would lead one to expect. A study of the ranks of the different schools shows that Fifth Street School had nearly the same rank in each test ; this indicates a careful supervision that does not .allow too much or too little em- phasis on any important subject. Diagnosis of hidlvidual Pupils Principals and teachers find it valuable to record the scores made by a class on one sheet ; such a record shows that a few pupils who score high on the intelligence test score high on each of the educa- tional tests, and that others who score low on the one test score low on all the others. In classifying jnipils for instructional purposes, those i)upils who maintain a relatively high position on all tests should be required to do more work than the average of the class, while those who maintain a relatively low rank should not be ex- pected to do all the work assigned for the average. The pupils who attain high scores in ])art of the tests and low scores in other tests, present a more difficult problem. Teachers will need to give much attention to their .specific needs. report of the niagara falls school system 155 Table 40 Class record sheet — all tests Giving the scores made on each of five tests, by each pupil of a sixth grade class in the Twenty-fourth Street School Pupils' Arithmetic Reading Intelligence Lan- compre- Spell- No. Name test A S M D guage hension ing 1 C. C 64 15 14 .. 11 6 10 60 2 CD 105 12 12 .. 10 12 13 90 3 J. G 86 17 16 iO 5 7 9 65 4 W. G 109 17 18 .. 11 11 ?,i 30 5 B. G 99 15 15 . . 8 11 18 80 6 F. G 102 .. 12 13 11 9 18 95 7 K. K 92 16 14 13 12 12 12 90 8 D. M 142 15 16 12 11 15 22 95 9 W. S 10) 17 13 .. 13 12 19 9v 10 J. S 80 .. . . 12 10 9 9 75 11 \V. T 114 16 13 13 13 14 20 100 12 R. VV 105 16 17 12 12 14 16 60 13 H. W 115 11 11 9 11 15 45 14 J. W 108 15 16 10 12 14 75 15 A. A "^i 13 17 11 13 S 13 95 16 L. B 76 18 14 .. 5 9 17 60 17 L B 109 13 13 11 7 11 20 100 18 T. B 7^ 15 15 11 6 11 16 85 19 M. ]) 71 17 16 . . 13 7 17 75 20 D. D n8 16 14 11 11 13 21 90 21 R. D 114 16 13 10 S 11 22 100 22 M. D 95 18 14 .. 9 12 15 90 23 C. H 89 15 16 .. 12 11 15 60 24 L. K 79 16 14 12 10 11 16 95 25 A. M 94 17 12 11 13 14 18 80 26 D. M 114 12 15 .. 10 10 16 95 27 E. P 106 14 12 13 9 11 19 80 28 A. R 113 16 18 .. 11 11 8 100 29 L. P 127 18 16 13 10 10 39 95 30 C. W 107 16 16 13 11 12 21 90 Summary a Pupils of grades 3 to 9 inclusive were tested in spelling, silent reading, composition, arithmetic, language and writing. All sixth grade pupils of the city, and all pupils above the third grade in two typical schools, were tested with the national intelligence scale. b The median grade scores for the city as a whole, indicated that the children of the grades tested were below the standard or average of achievement in other school systems, in general language ability and in rate and comprehension of silent reading; but that they were somewhat above the average in the fundamentals of arithmetic and in writing of composition. The spelling grade scores for upper grades were near the standard but were very much lower than should be expected in grades 3 and 4. c The group intelligence tests showed a wide difference in median or average al)ility of the sixth grade groups of dififerent schools to do school work, and showed that in some schools there was such a wide difference in the al^ility of individual pupils of a class as to make satisfactory teaching almost impossible. The study of the two typical schools showed that this wide range in ability between classes and indivickials aiJjjlies to other grades than the sixth. 156 TiiK UNivi'.usri'N' ()!■• Till': srAii': oi' n'I'.vv vokk h'ccoiiiiih'iuliilions 1 The rc'sulls ohlaincd Iroiii educational and ^roup intcllif^cncc tests shoiikl l)c used as a basis of supervision. a Teachers should receive the records of their classes and the scores of individual pupils. h Teachers and su])ervisory officers should check the results of each lest of the individual child against his school achievement, in order to learn as nuuh as possible of his needs. (■ Supervisory oHicers should discover the methods of teaching that have i)ro/;Q.rk is recognized by the local school authorities and the wcvv >u' ij ;^".i)rogram includes plans for a high school annex, which will contam a new gymnasium for boys or perhaps two gymnasiums, one for boys and one for girls, in case it is found to be unwise in the further development of the build- ing plans to retain the present gymnasium for girls. It is expected that these plans will provide for dressing rooms and shower baths, offices for the physical directors, and the necessary equipment so that the jthysical education department may l)e well provided to carry on its work. No swimming facilities are i)larined for the high school at the present time l)Ut it is expected that the pool in the new junior 164 iiii'; uNivi'.usi'iY oi' thic static oi' new york high sdiool to I)c loc'itcd near llic present lii^li school ina\' he ulilizcd by the lii,i;li school pupils. The classroom teachers in Niaj^ara halls show an excellent si)irit in connection with the worl< which the)' are doinj,^ in ])hysical educa- tion and in many res])ects are doini,^ \-ery coniiiiendahle work. In common with classroom teachers ,L',enerall\ thronmhout the State, they need .systematic rmd progressive training and help in this work hy the well-(|tKdiried physical education specialist. yXlthough the program for the rt'lief drills varies considerably through the grades, classroom teailu'rs give this work regidarly and are making commendable efforts to secure the c()ntem])lated value of these drills. The relief and hygienic values of this work were noted. The corrective, educational and disciplinai\' values ha\e not yet receivetl full emphasis. I'osture tests of the children have not been made, though the medical inspectors doubtless noted the more serious cases of poor posture. It does not seem probable, however, that the cursor}- nota- tions of posture usuall}- made hy the medical inspectors once a year should be considered sul'ficient. The matter of good posture is an important and often a lomplex problem. All fonual plusical exer- cises should be selected and taught partl\' with the gof)d-])Osture idea in mind; the physical director and room teacher are therefore likel\- to becomi' careful obserxcrs in this respect. This training for good ])osture may be closely linked with i)eriodical posture tests in stand- ing, luarching and exercising and it is suggested that the i)hysical director gix'c C(»nsideration to this problem and gra throngh proper exercise alone, some ma\- im])ro\c through the ii'peati'd .admonitions ol the rootu teacln'r, others iua\' be due to finiction.il or org.anii' delects and wcvt] the advice ol the physician, and so on. In some cases all these agencies ma\' be necessary. The time planned lor relief di'ills in the high school consists of li\e foiu" minute periods daily. This is a liberal allotment of time for this work and it given ellicientb' should si'cure the desired re- sults. A continued ;ni(l increased emphasis on the corrective aims of these drills is needed in the high school as well as in the eleiuentarv grades and sliould bring about a well-b.alanced result. I'Aerv pos- sible hel]) and attention is needed from the phvsical instructors in KKl'OKT OI'" TIIK NI.\(;AUA iAI.I.S SCIIOOI, SYSTI'-IVT 165 Drder to make it most elTective. (iames, athletics, folk dances, j^ym- i;astic exercises and supervised ])lay lay, ^ames and other recreatixe activities will he only fractional until adequate indoor sjjace for this work is ])r(n'ided. This situation, however, suj^^j^ests the possihilitv of (n-j,fecially in the girls' classes. The hoys show a commendahle s])irit in connectic^n with this work in spite of inccjuveniences and i)oor facilities. The girls wear a regulation gymnastic costume for their work; the hoys have no dressing rooms hut wear ruhher-soled shoes. The oi)tion of acce])ting (nitside e(|uivalents in the form of home or community activities of the pu])ils for a ])art of the refjuired su])er- vised recreation, as ])rovided for in the state svllal)us on ])hvsical training, has not as yet heen systematicall)- administered. The value of utilizing this o])tion is found in ])art in the opportunity thus offered the department of physical education for inlhicncing the lives of the pui)ils after they leave the school grounds, of thus extending its influence, and of establishing a closer correlation among the home, the comiunnity and the st-hool. This phase of the work constitutes a definite opjKjrtunity and problem and will demand careful thought in order to get the realization of its i)tn"poses. It is ho])ed that when the new gymnasium is ready the high school luay be able to meet in full the minimum time-re(|uirements of the .State under this division of the [jrograru. 166 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The physical directors should be cautioned against " letting down " in their enthusiasm and purposef ulness and should be guarded against falling into perfunctory routine performance. Every procedure and every lesson should constitute a part of a larger intelligent progressive plan, that is concerned fundamentally with the welfare of the pupils rather than with the procedures themselves. Extension Activiiics Extension, or extra-curriculum, activities in the majority of the schools are confined almost entirely to the spring season. During this season interschool l)aseball and track athletics are conducted lor the sixth, seventh and eighth grades and the statewide physical ability tests are made in the seventh and eighth grades. No after- school recreation clubs or leagues for comi)etitive activities have been organized during the current school year. No recreation centers are available except at the Y. M. C. A. and the Y. W. C. A., which serve some of the older pupils after school. The three schools that have swimming pools, however, provide for optional instruction and practice in swimming. This work is under the supervision of swimming instructors and provides one 25-minute period a week for children from the fourth to the eighth grades. The pools are used four days a week, two hours a day, from 3 to 5 p. m. The water is changed once a week. The girls use the pools the first two days and the boys the second two days. Temperature of the water is kept at 72 to 76 degrees and the temperature of the room at 76 to 84 degrees. A large percentage of the children in these schools, especially the boys, enjoy the swimming privileges. The possibility of extending the use of these pools to the children of schools where no swimming facilities are available is suggested. It is also suggested that the matter of effective sanitation of the pools be carefully ad- ministered in order that no doubt may arise as to their sanitary condition. The girls' swimming classes are under the expert supervision of a woman and the ])oys' classes under the expert supervision of two men who teach other special subjects in the schools. At the time of the visits by the inspector the pools were closed on account of epi- demics of scarlet fever and diphtheria, hence no opportunity was available for observation of this commendable work. In the high school local and interschool athletic contests are con- ducted during the fall, winter and spring seasons. These activities include basketball, baseball, and track athletics. The extensive or- ganization of local recreation leagues has not been emphasized as SWIMMING POOL IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOL This is a regular feature of the physical education program in the elementary schools TENTH STREET SCHOOL AND PLAYGROUND Indicates the emphasis being given by the local school authorities to adequate play space REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 167 \et, due perhaps in part to the lack of adequate facihties. Prehm- inary contests are held for the selection of representative school teams. The annual physical ability tests for all classes and both sexes are conducted in the spring. Commendable interest was mani- fested in these tests last year. It is suggested that indoor efficiency tests and outdoor and indoor recreation clubs be considered in con- nection with the program of extracurricula activities. The objective in this work should be service to every pupil, if possible. Correlation of Activities There is every opportunity for a better correlation of the work of physical director, physician and school nurse. The interests of the school physician and school nurse are largely interests in corrective and medical phases of the problem, while the interests of the physical director are largely with the further advancement of those who are apparently physically normal. The former retains an interest in the defective and discards the apparently normal with perhaps too little concern with the possibility that some of those so" discarded may soon appear before them as defectives ; the latter devotes his attention mainly to the apparently normal children and throws out the defectives, often not realizing that through the lack of proper knowledge of the possibilities and limitations of his pupils his efiforts may be unwisely applied. The former, so to speak, are playing defensive and the latter offensive, in the game of health. It would seem that the work of these two units should be brought into a more positive and effective correlation. The physical directors must be concerned with all the pupils — the weak, the under- nourished, the malformed, the otherwise defective, as well as with the physically normal — and they need the help that the physicians and nurses can give in fitting their work to the needs of the pupils. Likewise the physicians and nurses must be concerned in the forward- looking, educational aspect of their service — the adaptation of health and other school procedures to the processes of growth, the main- tenance of normal vigor, the prevention of defects and of interfer- ences with normal development, the overcoming of certain hereditary tendencies, the health engineering of the normal child, as well as with the correction of wrong health habits and physical defects — and they need the help that the physical directors can give on this side of the problem. There are perhaps a few children who need immediately the exclusive attention of the one or the other, but the far greater majority occupy the middle ground and need the services 168 THE UNIV]:RSITY ok the state of new YORK of hotli. This fact and the further fact that tlic results of the work of these two classes of experts are closely interrelated sut^'^est the need for a very close correlation, coordination and sympathetic team work among the ])hysicians, the physical directors and the school iiurses. vSuch organized cooperation would dotihtless result in a fuller and more effective luiderstanding oi their respective roles in the whole program and of the purposes, the i)ossil)ilities, the proh- lems. the limitations, and the general and special correlations of the work in this held of educational service. It would seem wise for these experts to get together often, to dis- cuss their work with one another, to exchange viewpoints and to formulate a systematic method of general and special cooperation so that their comhined talent might reach and heneht the individual pu])il. The records kei)t hy the physical education department cover the classroom visitations hy the sui)ervisor, the annual physical ahility tests of the seventh and eighth grade pupils, and of the interschool athletics of the sixth, seventh and eighth grades during the spring season. These records ustially include the results of competitions in baseball and track athletics. Records of posture and malnutrition are ke])t by the medical inspector, as also are the records of de- fectives and the work of the school nurses. It would seem that some of these records should be available to the physical education depart- ment, such, for example, as the ])osture records, the records of mal- nutrition cases, and data regarding the height and weight of pupils. This offers a further opportunity for correlation of the work of these two departments. This complete correlation may not be possible until a delhiite plan oi organization has been worked out whereby school medical in- sjiectors will cease to be a function of the municipal authorities and l)ecome a definite function of the board of education. The present arrangement is illogical and can not result in the best conditions for health supervision in the public schools. Summary Not one feature in connection with the health education work in the Niagara Falls school system is more important than a modified organization which will place the administration and supervision of the work of medical inspector under the direction of the local school authorities. The present dual control is unsatisfactory and in- efficient. The care of the health in the schools is not a function of ihe municipal authorities; it is in every sense an important part of the educational service. REPORT OF THK NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 169 The extension of the work that is l^eing done through the oi)en-air schools and through special lunches to undernourished children is most imi)ortant and should be gradually developed as the facilities of the school plant may make this extension possible. Additional assistants in the field of physical education are im- portant. More effective help should be given to classroom teachers with their part of the physical education program. Further as- sistance is essential in order that the plans and purposes of this work may be fully realized and that needed assistance may be given to the teachers, not only through conference, but also to the pupils in con- nection with the indoor and outdoor phases of the physical training program. The importance of providing adecjuate indoor space for physical education in the elementary schools will doubtless be recognized in connection with the new building program that is now under way. More adequate use of the splendid playground facilities which have been provided in connection with the elementary schools will be pos- sible only through the securing of some additional service in this field. The elementary schools may properly claim need of additicjnal personal assistance in connection with this work. It is to the credit of the local school authorities that provision has been made in three of the elementary schools for swimming pools, showers and dressing rooms. This is a commendable recognition of the rights of the children for this beneficial exercise. The use of the swimming pools might well be extended, if possible, to serve the children of other nearby schools and also to serve other community groui)S when the regular work of the school is not in progress. With the development of the new building program and with some slight addition to the personal staff, there may be careful selection and organization of materials with some needed elasticity in the program which will possibly better meet the needs of individual pupils. In many respects most excellent work is now being done in the field of health education. The suggested modifications may make possible clearer correlation of effort' and even better service as the larger school program for the city is realized. 170 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 11 THE SCHOOL PLANT The city of Niagara Falls has had such a rapid growth in popula- tion during the past few years that a study of the needs of the school plant in terms of the prohable growth during the next decade or score of years, becomes a difficult problem. According to the federal census in 1910 Niagara Falls had a popu- lation of 30,445. The state census of 1915 gave the city a popula- tion of 42,259, an increase of 11,814, or 38.8 per cent, during this five-year period. The population in 1920, according to the federal census, had in- creased to 50,760, an increase of 20 per cent over 1915, and 66 per cent over the population of 1910. The school population of Niagara Falls, as indicated by the reports of puljlic school attendance for the past two decades, has been grow- ing rapidly. Table 41, giving the registration and attendance for each year of this 21 -year period, shows the large increase during the latter part of this period. Table 41 Annual registration and average daily attendance in public schools, 1900-20 Year 1899-1900 1900- 1 1901- 2 1902- 3 1903- 4 1904- 5 1905- 6 1906- 7 1907- 8 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20 Average daily Rcgixtration attendance 3 128 2 263 3 255 2 509 4 071 2 772 4 242 2 818 4 696 3 232 4 602 3 170 4 464 3 608 4 507 3 442 4 496 3 395 4 650 3 688 4 751 3 673 4 877 3 866 5 141 4 103 5 509 4 282 5 790 4 367 6 004 5 013 6 288 5 235 6 847 5 621 7 133 5 914 7 686 6 232 8 051 6 578 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 171 During the school year 1899-1900 the total registration in the pubHc schools of the city was 3128, and the average daily attendance 2263; for the year 1909-10 the total registration was 4751, and the average daily attendance 3673 ; during the year 1919-20, the total registration was 8051. and the average daily attendance 6578. The increase in registration from 1900 to 1910 was 52 per cent, and in average daily attendance 62 per cent. From 1910 to 1920 the in- crease in registration was 69 per cent, and in average daily attend- ance 79 per cent. The actual increase in the registration in the public schools each year during the past 10 years and the percentage of increase from vear to vear, is shown in table 42. Table 42 gistration during the bicrcasc rcgistrat 126 past ' in ion decade Percentage of increase .026 264 .054 368 .071 281 .051 214 .037 284 .047 559 .088 286 .042 553 .077 365 .047 Y'cars compared 1911 over 1910 1912 over 1911 1913 over 1912 1914 over 1913 1915 over 1914 1916 over 1915 1917 over 1916 1918 over 1917 1919 over 1918 1920 over 1919 For the 10-year period 1910-1920: Average annual increase in registration 330 Average percentage of annual increase 5.4 For the 5-year period 1915-1920: Average annual increase in registration 409 Average percentage of annual increase ' 6.0 The annual increase in the registration has been somewhat greater during the past five years than for the 10-year period. While the annual increase for the 10-year period has been slightly above 5 per cent, during the last five years the average annual increase has been 6 per cent. For the past year the increase was 4.7 per cent. It would therefore seem to be a conservative statement to estimate the annual increase in the school population for the next decade at 5 per cent each year. The probability is that this will be exceeded. \72 TllK UNIVI:KS1TY ok TIII', STATK 01'' NKW YORK With a i)resent total registration of 8051, an annual increase of 5 ])er cent would mean a registration of 10,275 in 1925. This is shown in talilc 4.^. TaijM': 43 Estimated registration based on a 5 per cent annual increment I iinu'iih'iil ]'i\ir rsliiiutlcd 5% Ri'ijistratiuii 1920 .... 8 051 (actual) . 1921 402 8 453 1922 423 8 876 1923 444 9 320 1924 466 9 786 1925 48') 10 275 This cstiniak'd increase in registration of 5 ])er cent each year shows a total increase of 27.5 i)er cent for ihe 5-\ear period. This would ai)pear to he a low estimate, as the total increase for the past 5 years has heen 34 per cent. On this hasis the registration will he over 10,000 hy l'»25 and l)y I'MO in excess of 13,000. The wisdom of the school authorities and the civic organizations in making a ihorougli study of the ])resent situation in order to adopt a hroad policy covering the school huiiding program, is at once apparent. The rapid growth ni the school population during the past decade has placed a hea\v res])onsihilitv on the local .school authorities. That the situation is ajiitreciated hy them is evident from the thought and study now heing given to the ])rohlem. The present school plant consists of thirteen elementary school huildings and one high school huiiding. The laymrui is impressed immediately with the excellent general ai)pearance of the huildings .'ind grounds. The huildings, however, as a group do not i)rovide for the educational opportunities which should he offered hoys and girls in a progressive industrial community of today. In the details of the huiiding i)l.'nis there are many serious faults which thrust them.selves upon the attention of the expert in school affairs though they might readily escape the notice of others. It may he of interest first of .all to review^ the situation hriefl)' historically, noting the years in which school huildings have heen erected. Following this historical summary will he given a detailed evaluation of the jiresent school ])lant in terms of the comnnmitv needs. Of the thirteen elementary school huildings, the oldest is the h'ifth Street huiiding, erected in 1855. The ('lc\ eland Avenue School was erected in 1872, in the udrthern part of the city, then known as Kl'.l'Oin ()|- Till-, NIACAKA I'AI.I.S SCIIOOI, SYSTI'.M 173 Siis|)ciisi()ii r.iidj^c. r.olli liiiil(iiiit;s have; lutcii somcwlial remodeled siiuc llie dales j^iveii Iml deliiiile iiifonnatioii as lo exact lime wlieii ehaiij^es were made is iiol availaMe. 'I'liese two buildings, one in Niaj^ara l^'alls proper and tlie other in Suspension I'.ridj^c, apparently met the c-o CO CM Oq O O O O O O o o o o o o ON 0\ 0-\ 0\ o ■^■^ o -^ ^^ w w <+-c •J o c "2 H 6 o ^^ ■ Q ^ ^ *^ S O n3 O O O lO 1-* rt rt rt -^ o o Z.Z'^ ~2 CO VO CO 00 o -t OV rl O O O O O OS o o ^ W 1- (N 'J- 00 •^ M O iM r^) r-i cifc •^ I^ 1^ 00 r^ C\ On O ON O CO CO TO OO CN 00 00 00 ^ 00 u .,. u u 3 5 > < t/2 1 OJ c/} •a (U 11 V4 iJ c > 3 > < u V 3 c > < 4) 3 C ID > J3 o 3 c« Crt I*. < >> Cfl >> 1-. -o a >. 1) ^ JS iH la C J3 v^ a. IH C IS K (^ U < (^ ^ t-< iri i-i ir^ 176 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The school buildings were judged on the basis of the Strayer " Score Card for City School Ikiildings." This card, which repre- sents the consensus of judgment of a large numl)er of school people in all parts of the country, as worked out with every care under Doctor Strayer's direction, assigns 1000 points as the maximum score of an ideal city school building and grounds and divides these points in general as follows: site, 125; building, 165; classrooms, 290; special rooms, 140; service systems, 280. Each of these general topics is further subdivided as illustrated below : I Site 125 o Location 55 ( 1 ) Accessibility 25 (2) Environment 30 b Drainage 30 ( 1 ) Elevation 20 (2) Nature of soil 10 c Size and form 40 Detailed statements of standards upon which scores are based, are provided. Each school building in Niagara Falls was scored independently l)y three meml)ers of the survey staff and the sum of the median scores assigned l)y the sei)arate scorers was taken as the final score for each building. The detailed score for each building as given in table 45 shows the relative weight assigned to each heading and subheading. The maximum or highest possible score is given in the first and second columns, the first column giving the assignment for the five main headings and the second column giving the distribution of these ])oints among the sul)hea(lings. Following this is the score for each of the school l)uildini>s of the citv. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 177 OCI^OI-M •-^''^lOGs fl ^(Mt>,t^i 133JJS o^|'a■|^^c^^ --^ir^i-'^ oo|*ro'-i •—:< ;33-i}S H1II3.-51.XI11X . i;»;5_no '^i \ o\ 't •:> O i •-i o on i-^ i o c^ r^ o^'-^ i^ 'o i ♦ ^^•* + 3 O I -^ O) CVl -^1 ' r^l ir; -t r^ 1 ro oo .-I t-1 CNl r~l \ i^ CJs*- 3nU3AV o 1 -^^r X.T.I3J -< 00 O 'I- I^KM O ro 1^ 1^ C^l c-j -+ •-1 Ol s •^ n r-i CM O f^ rx ^c oi CO ;t s (vi •o a^ 1- f-^ CO r^^ t^ l^ O.] •i- O -+ CO O ""• .■:! f Xaiu!q^\ CM rt fj r^ puoaas-Xma.ujL '-'I " j bO c • fl 73 •3 A ,_, O O Xi w o ij w m CO H "rt (z< rt u CQ bO rt aautao ^ aHlEi\[ 2 paE[9A3[3 ^; ■o r^ t^ d r^ ir-j }33J}S IflJIJ ir^'-i'-'M cotco-foli-i 1 in ><-. r-< f. -1- .-H o4 I 00 qSiH- 3 lo I »0 O O m I 'O O ~ O I O 1-1 O O 'O o c- o o CNI I Ln ro rf >o ( CN] NO CO 00 f r^ NO CNJ CN) r-i r^^ Lo t-h ^ ummixEj^ -.1 ,-< cN) I CN, o i inio o ! O Tf ; NO ro -* ' o 11 >.ii P be ' o ? C .2^1 o 0] IJ O l-.N :23 ^ o u • b g-c O o~— O" .^ C — . h-IOKUW i-l;:2:0 7 at the left and rear. Of the other rooms, 10 have windows at the right and rear, 2 at the right only, 2 at the rear only, 2 at the left, right and rear, 1 at the front and left, 1 at the left and right, and 1 at the left, right and front. Water is supplied to all buildings by the city mains. The lava- tories and sinks in ten of the thirteen elementary buildings are sup- plied with both hot and cold water. There is also hot and cold water for the shower baths which are found in two of the buildings. In one building, hot water is supplied only to the sinks. In another building, hot water is provided only at cleaning time. The Maple Avenue School has no provision whatever for hot water. In some buildings the wash bowls have not been located to the best advantage, • and in nine of the buildings they are somewhat insufficient in number. Paper towels are in general use. The absence of towels in some schools was due possibly to lack of attention to the matter on the part of the janitor. It is vitally important that the washing facilities, including hot water, soap and towels receive the constant attention of the school principal. The fundamental principle of any health education program is cleanliness. To the little people of the primary grades, this must mean first of all clean hands, clean faces and clean bodies. Effective teaching and training demand properly equipped lavatory facilities conveniently at hand. Two of the elementary buildings have swimming pools. This is indicative of a progressive public spirit, and should be continued in the development of the school system as new buildings are planned. 182 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The sanitary conditions of the toilets vary widely. In some buildings in which the toilet arrangements have recently been re- modeled, the conditions are of the l)est. There are eight buildings in which the sanitary condition of the toilets is good. In three buildings, however, these conditions are poor, and in two the condi- tions can only be characterized as intolerably bad. In several buildings the toilet facilities are not adequate for the number of pupils registered. Two of the thirteen buildings have a sufficient number of seats for girls. The others have respectively 95, 92, 81, 75, 69, 67, 65, 64, 54, 50 and 32 per cent of the required number. Six buildings have a sufficient number of seats for boys. The others have respectively 91, 89, 88, 69, 69, 59 and 50 per cent of the required number. Two buildings meet the minimum require- ment as to urinals. The others have respectively 95, 86, 75, 75, Th, 64, 50, 43, 36, Zl> and 28 per cent of the number needed to meet the standard requirement. The above statements are based on the proportion of one seat for every 15 girls, one seat for every 25 boys, and one urinal for every 15 boys. The minimum state requirement is that there shall be one seat for every 25 girls, and one seat and one urinal for every 40 boys. In the table of comparisons the more exacting standard is used for convenience in making comparisons with conditions in schools in other states where the same scale of measurement has been used. Table 47 Toilet accommodations found in Niagara Falls elementary school buildings 90-99 per cent Below Meeting of standard 80-89 70-79 60-69 50-59 50 requirement requirement per cent per cent per cent per cent per cent Seats for girls 2 2 1 1 4 2 1 Scats for bovs 6 12 2 2 Urinals ....: 2 1 1 3 1 1 4 Even though the table were prepared on the basis of the less exacting, many of the buildings would fall below the required standard for toilet accommodations for both boys and girls. The importance of providing suitable and adequate toilet facilities need only be mentioned. A half century ago there was quite an utter lack of intelligent a])preciation on the part of public school officials as to the vital importance of this phase of the school prol)lem. There has been great progress, however, in 50 years. While the standard is not where it should be. the public is interested dee])ly in this ques- tion and citizens are insisting that the modern school Iniilding make the best ])Ossible provision for these needs. Clean, white, sanitary conveniences are most wholesome in their reaction on the moral de- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 183 \elopment of the child. In future planning, it would be well to have in mind the importance of providing special toilet accommodations for the kindergarten children. This can often be done with no addi- tional cost if included on the original plans. It has doubtless already been observed not only that the Fifth Street and the Cleveland Avenue schools (the two oldest buildings in the city) provide space for a large per cent of the elementary school population, having over 26 per cent of the registration as given by the principals in September 1918, but that these two build- ings provide in large part the accommodations which the city ofifers for the educational program for the pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. Of the 311 eighth grade pupils registered in the schools in September 1918, 89.4 per cent were in the Fifth Street and Cleveland Avenue schools. All the eighth grade pupils of the city were in these two schools with the exception of one class of 33 eighth grade boys and girls, which is located in the Twenty-fourth Street School. Of the 420 seventh grade pupils registered in September 1918, 73.9 per cent were in the Fifth Street and Cleveland Avenue schools. Of the 420 pupils of the seventh grade, all except 110 were in these two buildings. One seventh grade class was being cared for in each of the following schools : Twenty-second Street, Tenth Street, Twenty- fourth Street. Table 48 Distribution of grades by buildings Grades Schools Kindergarten to eighth grade, inc Fifth Street Cleveland Avenue Twenty-fourth Street Kindergarten to seventh grade, inc Twenty-second Street Tenth Street Kindergarten to sixth grade, inc Ferry Avenue Ashland Avenue Sugar Street Thirteenth Street Center Street First grade to sixth grade, inc • Third Street Maple Avenue Kindergarten to fifth grade, inc Whitney Avenue It appears, therefore, that a large per cent of the eighth and seventh grade pupils, approximately 90 per cent of the eighth grade pupils and 75 per cent of the seventh grade pupils, are given their educational training in this critical period of their life in the two oldest buildings of the city, both of which were built long before a 184 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK niodern ediKational program or an intermediate school was ever dreamed of. While the pupils of the higher grades should have no 1 tetter educational advantages than the little people in the primary grades and kindergarten, the proper educational program for the pupils of adolescent age reqviires a much more extensive equipment and opportunities for diversified activities which can not he met in the old building of 50 or 75 years ago. There seems to be every reason, therefore, why some immediate and more adequate provision should be made for the seventh and eighth grade pupils in these two buildings. Eventually the two build- ings should probably be al)andoned. In the meantime, however, something should be done to meet the responsibility to these pupils of the higher grades. The general survey of the building plant becomes especially acute because of certain outstanding features. 1 The school population is growing far more rapidly than the school plant. School accommodations are not keeping pace with the rapidly increasing registration. 2 The pupils in the higher grades, particularly those in the seventh and eighth years, are mostly crowded into the two oldest buildings in the city, the Fifth Street and Cleveland Avenue schools. 3 The need of differentiated courses of instruction in the higher grades requires proper space and equipment, which can not be met in the buildings of the type mentioned. The development of a program for two or three intermediate schools would provide space also for the ninth year or first year high school pupils and in part relieve the pressure in the high school building. These points have been lirought out in the detailed discussion earlier in the chapter. It remains to make some more specific recom- mendation as to the program which should be inaugurated immedi- ately to meet the situation and to give the city the educational oppor- tunities which should be ofl:'ered. The new twelve-room elementary school building which has been authorized for the southern part of the city, will relieve the con- gestion somewhat in that locality, and provide school accommoda- tions for the rapidly increasing population of that section. It may be added, however, that the increased space provided by this new building will little more than meet the normal increase in the school population in one year, while at the present time many classes are on half time. It would appear, therefore, quite imperative that as a part of the immediate program provision should be made also for a large ele- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 185 mentary school for the northern section of the city to be made ready for use at the earliest possible moment. It is very probable that before such a building could be ready, the increase in the school, population would fill many of the rooms. A twelve-room building or larger in the northern part of the city, together with the new twelve-room building already under way in the vicinity of 24th street and Niagara street, would only meet the normal conditions in the growth of the school population to be expected in one year. The larger problem in any school building program has to do with the increase in the school registration covering 5-year or 10-year periods, and the improved school opportunities which every citizen will wish to insure for the boys and girls. The estimates given on page 172 indicate a probable annual increase from 400 to 480 in the school registration during the next few years. If merely desk space were provided for pupils and if the present school buildings were sufficient, this would require during these years at least ten to twelve new schoolrooms each year. This means a new 24-room school building every two years. This leaves entirely out of consideration, however, the present serious handicap under which the seventh and eighth grade pupils are working in the two oldest buildings of the city, congested as they are, poorly lighted, poorly ventilated, and with very limited equipment. It also fails to consider the condi- tions in the high school where there is already a need for additional space and more modern equipment to meet the demands for technical and industrial work. The broader socialized program which the better schools are following in the intermediate school as a founda- tion for the work in the senior high school or as a more definite preparation for going out into the activities of the community, re- quire equipment and facilities somewhat more extensive than is required in the lower elementary grades. It is not the purpose to enter here into a discussion of the aims of a course of study for the intermediate school covering the work of the seventh, eighth and ninth years. This will be treated in full in the chapter dealing with the course of study. However, as the char- acter of the building must be determined in large measure by the work to be done and the activities to be carried on, it may well be noted here that the intermediate school should provide for depart- mental teaching, rather than for class teaching as in the first six grades ; there should be adequate library facilities under proper super- vision and direction ; the plans should provide suitable laboratories for the science work, general science or biology, as may be offered. There should be an auditorium for school and community purposes. 186 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK and also a gymnasium and swimming pool. Moreover, there should be rooms and equipment for manual, household and industrial arts, such as mechanical drawing, woodworking, sheet metal work, print- ing and general homemaking courses, including cooking and sewing. These or other activities might he added as the industrial life of the community might demand. The intermediate school is not a vocational school. Its pur])osc is to offer in these years of school life such a differentiated course that the boy or girl may begin to learn something of the arts which play such a large part in the daily life. These slightly differentiated courses in the intermediate school helj) the pupil to find himself, and thus fit him better to attack more definitely the work in the high school or to take his place more intelligently in the community life about him. In developing the school building program to meet the educational needs of the city for the next decade, it will be necessary for the local authorities to consider not only the necessity of a series of ele- mentary Iniildings so located as to meet the demands of the rapidly growing population and to provide during the next few years for two intermediate schools, one in the southern i)art of the city and another in the northern part of the city (which will provide accom- modations for approximately 800 to 1000 pupils each, with sufficient space for the necessary school and community activities, which should be included in a progressive educational program) but also to provide for the larger activities of the high school which the growing indus- trial importance of the community and the needs of the individual pupils demand. It is our judgment that the type of high school for a city the size of Niagara Falls is a large, well-equipped cosmopolitan high school providing under one organization for the academic, commercial, technical and industrial activities, rather than the plan which is some- times advanced to build and operate separately a so-called technical high school. The development of the intermediate schools with pro- vision for the ninth year or first year high school pupils, will relieve somewhat the congestion in the present high school building. There is. however, not the necessary space for the shops for the various courses with the e(iuii)ment which must be added to provide these courses as they should be carried on. It is believed that the additional high school facilities which must be provided at no distant date, should be planned along the line of a cosmopolitan high school which will offer not only all the advantages of the technical high school, but will have the unusual advantage of 'i:Oi:-H!0H- V THE PROPOSED CLEVELAND AVENUE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL The first step in the new educational program for the city CENTER AVENUE SCHOOL Kindergarten and first six grades REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 187 articulation between courses and modification of the work of the in- dividual pupil from time to time which is impossible in the small technical high school. Moreover, the various general school activities which are all important in themselves and are a vital part of a liberal education, such as auditorium and assembly exercises, physical train- ing", and general cultural courses, such as history, and are a definite part of the school program in a cosmopolitan high school, oftentimes can not be provided in a small technical high school except in large centers of population where the technical high school in its diversi- fied courses, can ofifer every special opportimity of this character which is a part of the cosmopolitan high school program. It is of special interest in this connection to note a statement from the recent report of the Commission on the Reorganization of Sec- ondary Education, entitled " Cardinal Principles of Secondary Edu- cation." The report states that " The comprehensive (sometimes called composite, or cosmopolitan) high school, embracing all curri- culums in one unified organization, should remain the standard type of secondary school in the United States. . . . The well-organized, com- prehensive school can make difl^erentiated education of greater value than can the special-type school, because it aids in a wise choice of curriculum, assists in readjustments when such are desirable, and provides for wider contacts essential to true success in every voca- tion. . . . The comprehensive school is the prototype of a democracy in which various groups must have a degree of self-consciousness as groups and yet be federated into a larger whole through the recog- nition of common interests and ideals. Life in such a school is a natural and valuable preparation for life in a democracy. ... A comprehensive high school can provide much more efifectively for health education, education for the worthy use of leisure, and home- making education than a number of smaller special type schools can." A high school in a city the size of Niagara Falls can not do better than to plan the high school work on the basis of this type of school organization. Summary The school plant should make adequate provision for the school ])opulation. During the past decade the city population has increased 66 per cent. The school registration during this period has increased 69 per cent, and the average daily attendance 79 per cent. 188 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK During the past decade tlie numl)er of schoolrooms in the ele- mentary school plant was increased from 111 to 145, or an approxi- mate increase of 30 per cent.^ The present annual increase in the school registration will require the construction of a new 24-room "building every two years. The present school plant consists of thirteen elementary school buildings and one high school building. The Fifth Street School was erected in 1855, and the Cleveland Avenue School in 1872. Four small buildings were erected between 1895 and 1898, two build- ings in 1903, three in 1908, one in 1914 and one in 1918. The general appearance of the buildings and grounds is excellent. As a whole, the elementary school plant scores only 8647 points out of a possible 13,000. The percentage of possible points scored was 66.5. On the basis of 1000 points for a perfect school plant, three of the buildings were rated below 600. Two of these, the Fifth Street School and the Cleveland Avenue School, should be abandoned as the development of the new program makes provision for the children of these centers. With the exception of the two old buildings, the school plant is reasonably modern. The importance of providing proper recreational space is appre- ciated by the board of education. Although some schools have lim- ited playground area, additional adjacent land has been purchased recently for playground purposes. The more recent plans make ample provision for play space. Some modifications are necessary in the older buildings to insure the best possible conditions for school use. Many of these are already under way. In several of the older buildings the light is quite un- satisfactory. Only 26 of the 155 rooms in the elementary school buildings meet the minimum requirement in respect to the three factors, floor area, air space and window area. The window arrangement is in the main quite satisfactory as 99 rooms have windows at the left only and "SI at the left and rear. Hot and cold water is supplied to all the buildings except one. The hot water supply, however, is not adequate in several buildings. Hot water, soap and towels are essential in any health education program. These matters should have the careful attention of every elementary school principal. The sanitary conditions of the toilets vary widely. This matter is having the consideration of the school authorities. Modern sanitary ^ Another new building is now under construction. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 189 equipment is found in all new buildings. From the older buildings all unsanitary equipment is being removed as rapidly as possible and replaced with modern equipment. The school population is growing more rapidly than the school plant. The pupils in the higher grades are crowded into two of the oldest buildings in the city. The development of the building pro- gram must insure adequate provision for the pupils of the higher grades. The plans which the board of education have under way provide for this essential feature of a modern school organization. A very considerable enlargement of the high school building is necessary, notwithstanding the relief that intermediate schools may offer. The enlargement of the high school building should make ample provision for shops and technical courses for which the space is now very seriously restricted. A large addition for this purpose, including also a gymnasium and swimming pool, will give Niagara Falls an opportunity for the development of a cosmopolitan high school which is without question distinctive of present development in secondary education. 190 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 12 COMPARATIVE SCHOOL COSTS For purposes of comparison regarding school costs there is given in the following table a list of the cities of the north and west having a population nearest to that of Niagara Falls. The cities have been taken in order from the Financial Statistics of Cities for 1919, issued in 1920 by the United States Census Bureau. In this group there are nineteen cities, some with a larger population than Niagara Falls and others having a population somewhat less. Of the nineteen cities in the group, two are New York State cities, four in Massa- chusetts, three in Michigan, three in Pennsylvania, two are in New Jersey, one in Iowa, one in Indiana, one in Wisconsin, one in Kansas, and one .in Nebraska. In other words, of the nineteen cities, eleven are eastern cities and eight are cities of the middle west. Table 49 Population of nineteen cities throughout the United States nearest to Niagara Falls in populationi Racine, Wis 58 593 Lincoln, Neb 54 948 Lancaster, Pa 53 150 Haverhill,' Mass 53 884 Atlantic City, N.J 50 707 Gary, Ind 55 378 Topeka, Kan 50 022 Maiden, Mass 49 103 East Orange, N.J 50 710 Niagara Falls, N. Y 50 760 Kalamazoo, Mich 48 487 Bay City, Alich 47 554 York, Pa 47 512 Jackson, Mich 48 374 McKeesport, Pa 46 731 Quincy, Mass 47 876 Newton, Mass 46 054 Elmira, N. Y 45 393 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 45 566 In studying the school costs of any community, it is of interest at the outset to note the value of property per capita as a means of 1 Federal Census, 1920. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCFIOOL SYSTEM 191 indicating the ability of the city to meet its financial responsibilities. Table 50 has been prepared showing the estimated true value of property per capita in the nineteen cities of this group. Table 50 Estimated true value of property per capita, 1919 1 Atlantic City, N. J $2 015 54 2 Niagara Falls, N. Y 1 824 3 Nev.ton, Mass 1 666 10 4 Topeka, Kan 1 602 50 5 Gary, Ind 1 541 42 6 Lincoln, Neb 1 324 65 7 Racine, Wis 1 308 46 8 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 1 250 80 9 East Orange, N. J 1 227 30 M 10 Kalamazoo, Mich 1 093 52 1 1 Quincy, Mass 1 070 34 12 McKeesport, Pa 984 95 13 Jackson, Mich 958 44 14 Haverhill, Mass 900 46 15 Elmira, N. Y 891 62 16 Lancaster, Pa 866 60 17 York, Pa 859 31 18 Maiden, Mass 836 93 19 Bay City, Mich 631 15 It is observed from table 50 that Niagara Falls is a prosperous community, the estimated true value of property per capita in the city being $1824. In this respect Niagara Falls occupies the highest rank of the cities of the group with the exception of Atlantic City. It may be observed that the estimated true value of property per capita in the cities of the group varies from $631 in Bay City, Mich., to $2015 in Atlantic City. The median of the group is Kalamazoo, Mich., with an estimated true value of property per capita of $1093. It is apparent therefore that Niagara Falls is well able financially to meet the responsibilities of government. In table 51 the cities of the group are arranged in the order of the total governmental maintenance cost- per capita for the year 1919. This includes the general maintenance expenses for all departments of city government but does not include any payments made for capital outlay or for permanent betterments of any kind. 192 the university of the state of new york Table 51 Per capita payments for general city departmental maintenance expenses, 19191 1 Newton, Mass $32 58 2 Atlantic City, N. J 31 89 3 Quincy, Mass 22 67 4 Maiden, Mass 20 76 5 Haverhill, Mass 19 91 6 East Orange, N.J 19 36 7 Niagara Falls, N. Y 19 19 8 Gary, Ind 17 90 9 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 16 04 M 10 Jackson, Mich 15 92 11 Elmira, N. Y 15 80 12 Lincoln, Neb 15 58 13 Racine, Wis 14 63 14 Topeka, Kan 14 60 15 McKtesnort, Pa 14 50 16 Bay City, Mich 14 36 17 Kalamazoo, Mich 13 15 18 Lancaster, Pa 9 61 19 York, Pa 9 47 In the per capita payments for general city departmental mainte- nance expenses, the nineteen cities in the list show a range from $32.58 per capita in Newton, Mass., to $9.47 in York, Pa. The median for the group is Jackson, Mich., where the per capita ex- penditures for the maintenance of city government were $15.92. In Niagara Falls the per capita payments for the maintenance of general city government were $19.19. It is apparent that the ex- penditures of Niagara Falls for general governmental maintenance purposes are somewhat above the median for the group. It is of interest to turn from the previous table to a consideration of the per capita cost payments for school maintenance. The table showing the per capita cost payments for the maintenance of schools in these cities for the year shows a variation in the cities of the group in this respect from $11.26, the per capita cost for school maintenance in Newton, Mass., to $4.30, the per capita cost in Lancaster, Pa. ^ Financial Statistics of Cities, 1919. report of the niagara falls school system 193 Table 52 Per capita payments for school maintenance, 19 19^ 1 Newton, Mass $11 26 2 Atlantic City, x\. J 10 18 3 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 9 27 4 Lincoln, Neb 8.74 5 East Orange, N. J 8 43 6 Gary, Ind 7 74 7 Quincy, Mass 7 43 8 Topeka, Kan 7 41 9 Bay City, Mich 6 95 M 10 McKeesport, Pa 6 62 1 1 Maiden, Mass 6 58 12 Kalamazoo, Mich 6 55 13 Racine, Wis 6 45 14 Elmira, N. Y 6 21 15 Haverhill, Mass 6 11 16 Niagara Falls, N. Y 5 56 17 Jackson, Mich 5 17 18 York, Pa 4 55 19 Lancaster, Pa 4 30 It may be observed that according to table 52 the per capita ex- penditure for school maintenance in Niagara Falls in 1919 was $5.56. In this respect Niagara Falls was one of the lowest cities of the group, only three cities having a lower rank in this respect. The median for the group is McKeesport, Pa., with a per capita expendi- ture for school maintenance of $6.62. It is of interest therefore to note in connection with this compara- tive table that while Niagara Falls is somewhat high in rank in respect to the per capita costs of city government, it is one of the lowest of the group in the per capita expenditures for schools. While Niagara Falls is number 7 in the group in the per capita payments for gov- ernmental maintenance purposes, the city is number 16 in the group in the per capita payments for the maintenance of schools. While only six cities of the group are higher than Niagara Falls in the per capita cost of city government, only .three cities of the group are lower than Niagara Falls in the per capita expenditures for schools. It is apparent therefore from the facts already presented that in Niagara Falls a relatively small percentage of the total govern- mental maintenance expenditures is used for school purposes. Table 53 gives the percentage of general departmental expenditures devoted 1 Financial Statistics of Cities, 1919, United States Census Bureau, Wash- ington, D. C. VH Till' UNIVKRSITY OF TIIF, STATR Ol' NEW YORK to scliool maintcMiancc in the nineteen cities of the group for the year 1*)1<): Tahi.f, 53 Per cent of general city departmental expenses used for schools, 1919' 1 Ccdai" I^.'ipids, Iowa 57.8 2 Lincohi, Nch 55.2 3 Topoka. Kan 50.8 4 Kalamazoo. Mich 49.8 5 Bay City, Midi 48.4 6 York. Pa 48. 7 McKccsport. Pa 45.7 8 Lancaster, Pa 44.8 9 Racine, Wis 44. 1 M 10 Past OranRc, N. J 43.5 11 (iary. Ind 43.4 12 EIniira, N. Y 39.3 13 Newton, Mass 34.6 14 Quincy, Mass 32.8 15 Jackson. Mich 32.5 16 Atlantic City, N. J 31.9 17 Maiden, Mass 31.7 18 Haverhill, Mass 30.7 19 Niagara Falls, N. Y 29. In Cedar RapitLs, Iowa, 57.8 per cent of the general city main- tenance expenchtures were n.sed for school ])urposes. Tt is observed OFi the other hand that Xiagara h'alls is the lowest city of the group in respect to the per cent of general city dei)artniental expenditures used for school purposes, where the ])ercentage used for this pur- ])Ose is 2*). The median for the group is Ivist ( )range, N. J., where -!.v5 per cent of the general city maintenance exi)en(litin'es were used for school pur])oses. The position of Niagara I'alls in this matter is not to its credit. It is ai)parent that while Xiagara h'alls spends a relatively large amount per capita for governmental piu'poses. the community uses the luinimum percentage for the public schools. The peojjle of Niagara l"\alls. however, are not satisfied with this small allotment of 29 per cent of the departmental maintenance fluids for school ])urposes. This is ap])arent from the wide pulilic interest wliich has been taken recentU in the educational program of the coiumunity on the part of all public organizations. The edu- cational program as carried on b)- the jjublic school s\'stem, the most im])ortant of ihc coniiiiunit\' activities, can not be properh- su])ported without a reason;il)le allotment of ])ul)lic funds. 1 Financial Statistics of Cities, !'M9. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 195 In (letennining the relative ex])enditures for schools in any group of cities, several factors should be taken into consideration, as the number of chikh-en of school age in the city and the number in attendance in the pul)lic schools. Comparative data, however, on this point are not available for the year which is covered l)y this report. These statistics for the cities of the group are not avail- able for recent years. Commercial and economic costs of all kinds have changed so rapidly during the war period that it would be of little interest to make use of data covering conditions several years back. For that reason a discussion on this point is omitted here but is presented later in the chapter on the comparative data covering cities of New York State. Having considered the estimated true value of property per capita, the governmental maintenance costs and the amount and i)ercentage of funds used for school purposes, especially as they relate to Niagara Falls in comparison with the other cities of the group, it is of further interest to note the wealth back of each dollar used for school maintenance. Table 54 Showing real wealth back of each dollar expended for schools Bay City, Mich $91 Maiden, Mass 127 Cedar Rapids, Iowa 134 Ehnira, N. Y 143 Quincy, Mass 144 East Orange, N. J 145 Haverhill, Mass 147 McKeesport, Pa 148 Newton, Mass 148 M Lincoln, Neb 151 Kalamazoo, Mich 167 Jackson, Mich . 185 York, Pa 188 Atlantic City, N. J 198 Gary, Ind 200 Lancaster, Pa 201 Racine, Wis 203 Topcka, Kan '. 216 Niagara Falls, N. Y 328 In Bay City one dollar was expended for schools in 1919 for every $91 of real wealth. In other words, in Bay City more than one dollar was expended for schools during the year mentioned for every $100 of real wealth in the community. It is observed from the table in which the cities are ranked in this respect that Niagara 196 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Falls is number 19 in the grou]), where one dollar was used for school maintenance for every $328 of real wealth. In other words, in proportion to the real weahh of the community, Niagara Falls is expending the least for school maintenance of any city in the group. This merely gives further confirmation relative to the ability of Niagara Falls to support a progressive school program far beyond the funds that were used for school purposes in 1919. In general therefore it may be said that the comparative tables of the nineteen cities of the group, including cities of the north and west for the year 1919, indicate a relatively high governmental main- tenance cost for the city of Niagara Falls but that the percentage of funds used for school maintenance is relatively very low. With the exception of one city, Niagara Falls shows the highest real value of jiroperty per capita of any city of the group. In the percentage of local governmental expenditures that is used for schools, Niagara Falls is the lowest of the group. Moreover, on the basis of the real wealth back of each dollar expended for school maintenance the com- parative tal)le shows that Niagara Falls is the lowest of the group. Comparisons of School Costs in Niagara Falls vv^ith Cities in Nev/ York The first part of this chapter has considered for purposes of com- parison nineteen cities in the northern states nearest to Niagara Falls in population. For the purpose of determining the relative rank of Niagara Falls in comparison with cities of New York, the following discussion is presented covering the fifteen cities of this State having a population between 30,000 and 100,000. Although these cities vary widely in their i)opulation. they furnish the opportunity for an interesting study as they are operating under the same general conditions in the same state. Each city has, of course, its own social and economic problems. Some of these cities are part of a large metropolitan population, others are at a distance from the larger municipalities and are the centers of their own com- mercial and industrial activities. With these dififerences clearly in mind, the comparisons may be helpful. The fifteen cities in this group, their population in 1920, and the per capita payments for general city departmental expenses are given in table 55. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 197 Table 55 Population and per capita payments for general city departmental expenses, 1920 M City 1 Yonkers 2 Utica 3 Schenectadjr . . 4 Troy 5 Binghamton . . 6 Niagara Falls . 7 Elmira 8 Mount \"ernon 9 Jamestown .. . . 10 New Rochelie 11 Auburn 12 Poughkeepsie . 13 Amsterdam . . . 14 Watertown . . . 15 Newburgh . . . . Population^ 100 176 94 156 88 723 72 013 66 800 50 760 45 393 42 726 38 917 36 213 36 192 35 000 33 524 31 285 30 366 City Yonkers New Rochcllc Watertown . . . Mount Vernon Niagara Falls . Schenectady . . Troy Jamestown . . . Elmira Poughkeepsie . Binghamton . . Utica iKmsterdam . . . Newburgh . . . . .\uburn Per capita payments- ^37 22 34 21 28 99 27 97 27 11 26 78 23 71 23 66 22 86 22 09 21 56 20 69 20 57 19 51 19 23 Of the fifteen cities in this group. Niagara Falls is number 6 in population and number 5 in the per capita payments for general cit}' departmental expenses. The median per capita city cost for the group for the year was $23.66. The per capita payments for all departmental maintenance expenses in Niagara Falls for the year were $27.11. or $3.45 above the median of the group. This table does not take into consideration interest charges or expenditures for outlays. It is therefore a fair comparison of the governmental main- tenance costs of the cities of the group for the year. It should be observed in this connection that the per capita main- tenance costs for the various cities were computed by taking the total expenditures for governmental maintenance cost as reported by the State Comptroller for the calendar year 1919 and dividing this total l)y the poi)ulation as given by the federal census for January 1920. It is observed that Niagara Falls holds relatively a high rank in the group in respect to the per capita "maintenance cost of the city government for the year. Table 56 shows the per capita payments during the school year ending July 1920 for the maintenance of schools in the fifteen cities of the grouj). The table has been pre- pared by taking the total expenditures for school maintenance during 1 Federal Census, 1920. ^Amount given in report to State Comptroller Municipal Accovnits, 1919, divideil by federal population, January 1920. 198 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK the year and dividing this by the city population as given by the federal census. Table 56 Per capita payments for maintenance of schools, 1920 City A)iioii!if 1 Schenectady $13 92 2 New Rochclle 13 71 3 Yonkers 13 09 4 Amount Vernon 10 45 5 Jamestown 9 02 6 Auburn 8 69 7 Niagara Falls 8 59 M 8 Watertown 8 07 9 Elmira 7 73 10 Binghaniton 7 68 1 1 Newburgh 7 53 12 Utica 6 95 13 Amsterdam 6 67 14 Poughkeepsie 6 32 15 Troy 5 54 On the basis of the per capita payments for school maintenance, it is observed that the highest per capita cost for school maintenance is Schenectady with $13.92. The lowest is Troy with a per capita cost of $5.54. The median is Watertown with $8.07. The per capita payments for school maintenance in Niagara Falls for 1920 were $8.59, which is 52 cents above the median of the group. It will be noted further from the table that all cities in the group from number 6 to number 11 are within a per capita expenditure of approximately one dollar. All these cities therefore, including Niagara Falls, may be said in a sense to occupy a median rank. A further comparison of tables 55 and 56 determines the percentage of general city departmental expenses that are used for school purposes. keport of the niagara falls school system 199 Table 57 Per cent of general city departmental expenses used for schools, 1920 City Per cent 1 Schenectady 52 2 Auburn 45 3 New Rochelle 40 4 Newburgh 38 . 2 5 Jamestown 38 . 1 6 Mount Vernon 2>7 7 Binghaniton 35 . 6 M 8 Yonkers 35.1 9 Elmira 33.8 10 Utica 33.6 1 1 Amsterdam 32 12 Niagara Falls 31 13 Poughkeepsie 28 14 Watertown 27 15 Troy 22 It is observed that in this group of cities the percentage of city departmental maintenance expenditures used for school purposes in the year 1920 varies from 22 per cent in Troy, w^hich is the lowest, to 52 per cent in Schenectady, which has the highest rank of the cities in the group. The median is 35 . 1 per cent. Niagara Falls, it is observed, ranks twelfth in the group of fifteen cities with a per- centage of 31. This low rank would seem to indicate that the public schools in Niagara Falls do not receive a reasonable allotment of city funds. In comparing this table with the corresponding table given in the early part of the chapter, which included the nineteen cities from different states, it may be noted that the fifteen cities of this group in New York do not compare favorably with the larger group in respect to the percentage of general departmental payments used for school maintenance. The median for the group of nineteen cities in different states was 43.5 per cent; the median for the fifteen cities of New York State was 35 . 1 per cent. The statistics for the group of New York cities are for the year 1920 while the statistics for the larger group including cities from other states are for the year 1919. The actual difference in 1920 is therefore even greater than is shown by these comparative tables. Similar comparative statistics for the larger group for the year 1920 would undoubtedly show a larger percentage of city departmental expenses used for schools as the trend in all communities is in this direction. Noting further the comparison between the two groups, it is observed that with the exception of Schenectady and Auburn all the 200 THE UN1\ERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK New York cities rank below the median of the larger group. It would appear therefore that the cities in the New York group show a relatively low percentage of general city departmental expenses used for school maintenance. In the first group Niagara Falls was the lowest in rank ; in the second group covering the New York cities. Niagara Falls has the lowest rank with the exception of three cities. As has already l)een stated, a very satisfactory basis of comparison in determining school costs is the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance. The per capita maintenance cost, which is based on the total population, does not take into consideration the varying percentages of children of school age or make allowances for the children who may l)e in private or parochial schools. The main- tenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance giving a compari- son on the basis of the numl)er of pupils under instruction is there- lore of special interest. Table 58 gives the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the fifteen cities of this group for the school years 1915-16 and 1919-20. Table 58 Maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance in fifteen New York cities 1915-16 1919-20 1 Mount Vernon $59 63 • Yonkers $85 01 2 Ne^v Rochelle 59 16 New Rochelle 84 73 3 Troy 56 94 Mount Vernon 76 77 4 Yonkers 55 78 Auburn 76 06 5 Binghamton .....'. .. 50 79 Troy 75 04 6 Auburn 50 34 Utica est. 71 58 7 Schenectady 47 36 Elmira 67 55 M 8 Elmira 43 45 M Schenectady 65 20 9 Niagara Falls 43 22 Niagara Falls 64 43 10 [Jtica 42 13 Binghamton 63 25 11 Jamestown 41 96 Jamestown 61 32 12 Amsterdam 38 55 Newburgh 54 1 1 13 Poughkeepsie 38 17 Amsterdam 50 83 14 Newburgh 36 43 Watcrtown 50 92 15 Watertown 33 19 Poughkeepsie 47 78 Table 58 is of interest in that it gives comparative data on the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance covering two years at the beginning and at the close of the war period. The table shows that the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance in these cities for the year 1915-16 varied from $33.19 in Watertown to $59.63 in Mount Vernon. The median for the group for the school year 1915-16 was Elmira, where the main- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 201 tenance cost per pupil was $43.45. In Niagara Falls the main- tenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance during the year 1915-16 was $43.22. During that year Niagara Falls was slightly below the median for the group in this respect. During the school year 1919-20 the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the fifteen cities of the group varied from $47.78 in Poughkeepsie to $85.01 in Yonkers. The median for the group was Schenectady with a maintenance cost per pupil of $65.20. During the school year 1919-20 the maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attendance in Niagara Falls was $64.43, which was slightly below the median for the group, Niagara Falls occupying the same relative position among the fifteen cities that was held during the school year 1915-16. In comparison therefore with the other cities of the group, Niagara Falls occupies a position considerably below the median in the main- tenance cost of the city schools as determined by the number of pupils in average daily attendance. This comparison would still further confirm what has already been observed that the public schools in Niagara Falls do not receive a reasonable allotment of public funds. Moreover in comparison with other cities, the ex- penditures for public schools are somewhat below the median rank. Tt may be observed further that during the four-year period from 1916 to 1920 the median cost of school maintenance based on the average daily attendance in the fifteen cities of New York State increased approximately 50 per cent. The increase in Niagara Falls was approximately the same percentage although in each case Niagara Falls is slightly below the median of the group. During this period when school costs in the cities of the group were increasing approxi- mately 50 per cent, economic and commercial costs of all kinds were increasing from 100 to 150 per cent. This indicates the economy with which the school programs were carried forward. 202 the university of the state of new york Table 59 Instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in fifteen New York cities 1915-16 1919-20 1 New Rochelle $45 17 lYonkers $67 59 2 Mount Vernon 45 10 2 New Rochelle 63 88 3 Yonkers 44 54 3 Mount Vernon 57 82 4 Troy 43 99 4 Troy 57 09 5 Binghamton 38 20 5 Auburn 56 83 6 Auburn 37 29 6 Elmira 54 31 7 Schenectady 35 22 7 Utica 52 50 M 8 Elmira 33 42 M 8 Schenectady 48 72 9 Niagara Falls 32 37 9 BinRhamton 47 74 10 Utica 32 07 10 Niagara Falls 47 16 1 1 Jamestown 30 94 11 Jamestown 45 09 12 Amsterdam 27 23 12 Nev.burgh 42 21 13 Newburgh 26 87 13 Amsterdam 36 19 14 Poughkeepsie 26 80 14 Poughkcepsie 34 39 15 Watertown 20 95 15 Watertown 31 61 The instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the fifteen New York cities of the group shows an increase during the four-year period from 1916 to 1920 which approximates an increase in the maintenance cost per pupil during the same period. The median instructional cost per pupil in the fifteen cities of the State during the school year 1915-16 was $33.42. The median instruc- tional cost per pupil in this group of cities during the school year 1919-20 was $48.72, an increase of 46 per cent. In the city of Niagara Falls the instructional cost per pupil in average daily attend- ance in 1919-20 was $47.16, an increase of 45 per cent in the in- structional cost per pupil in Niagara Falls during the four-year period. It may be observed that the instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance in Niagara Falls during the year 1919-20 was some- what below the median of the group of fifteen cities. The instruc- tional cost per pupil in the cities of the group this year varied from $31.61 in Watertown to $67.59 in Yonkers. It may be repeated that the increase in instructional cost in these cities during the four-year period does not represent a reasonable increase when considered in connection with the increase in economic costs during this period. As a further factor in determining the ability of Niagara Falls to provide adequately for a progressive educational program the real value of property as given in the Report of the State Tax Commis- sion for 1919 is of interest. report of the niagara falls school system 203 Table 60 Real value of property per capita, 1919 1 New Rochelle $2 051 2 Niagara Falls 1 855 ' 3 Yonkers 1 622 4 Mount Vernon 1 560 5 Schenectady 1 159 6 Jamestown 997 7 Poughkeepsie 996 M 8 Utica 924 9 Watertown 922 10 Newbtirgh 906 1 1 Amsterdam 892 12 Troy 885 13 Binghainton 853 14 Elmira 822 15 Auburn 803 The relative rank of Niagara Falls in respect to the real value of property per capita is approximately the same in respect to the New York cities as was shown in the comparative tables earlier in the chapter covering nineteen cities throughout the north and middle west. With one exception, Niagara Falls has the largest real value of property per capita of any of the fifteen cities of the New York group. The real value of property per capita in Niagara Falls is $1855. The median for the group is Utica, where the real value of property is $924. Niagara Falls is therefore abundantly able to support a progressive school program for the community. If the real value of property per capita is divided by the per capita payment for school maintenance we may determine the real wealth back of each dollar expended for schools. 204 the university of the state of new york Table 61 Real wealth back of each dollar used for school maintenance 1 Schenectad.v $83 2 Auburn 92 3 Ehiiira 106 4 Jamestown 1 10 5 Binghaniton Ill 6 Watertov;n 114 7 Newburgh 120 M 8 Yonkers 123 9 Utica 133 05 10 Amsterdam 133 88 1 1 Mount Vernon 149 29 12 New Rochelle 149 63 13 Poughkeepsie 157 14 Troy 159 15 Niagara Falls , 216 Table 62 Amount expended for school maintenance in 1920 for every $100 of real wealth in fifteen New York State cities i Schenectady $1 20 2 Auburn 1 08 3 Ehnira 94 4 Jamestown 91 5 Binghaniton 90 6 Watertown 87 7 Newburgh 83 M 8 Yonkers 81 9 Utica 75 10 Amsterdam 75 1 1 Alount Vernon 67 12 New Rochelle 67 13 Poughkeepsie 63 14 Troy 62 15 Niagara Falls 46 The real wealth hack of each dollar used for school purposes dur- ing the year 1919-20 varied from $83 in Schenectady to $216 in Niagara Falls. The median is Yonkers where the real wealth hack of each dollar used for school purposes is $123. In other words, for every $100 of real wealth, Schenectady expended $1.20 for school maintenance. Yonkers $.81, while Niagara Falls expended only $.46 for school current expenses. The tahles therefore indicate that while in Schenectady one dollar is used for school jjurposes for every $83 of real wealth, in the city of Niagara Falls one dollar is used for school maintenance purposes REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 205 for every $216 of real wealth. This gives further confirming evi- dence of the ability of Niagara Falls to provide for its school pro- gram. There is no purpose in the tables that have been presented to maintain that Niagara Falls is not doing excellent things in con- nection with its educational work. The tables give every evidence, however, that the city is abundantly able to provide much more generously than has thus far been done for its school program. Table 63 Percentage distribution of expenditures for school maintenance purposes in fifteen New York cities for the school year 1919-20 School plant General Instruc- Opera- Main- Auxiliary Fixed Total Control tion tion tenance ayencies charges per cent Amsterdam 4.7 72.0 12.9 4.5 4.4 1.5 100 Auburn 3.4 75.0 13.6 3.6 2.0 2.4 100 Binghamton 3.5 75.7 15.5 2.1 2.4 .8 100 Elmira 3.0 80.8 9.8 3.2 2.0 1.2 100 Jamestown 3.3 74.8 13.2 4.7 2.4 2.6 100 Mount Vernon .. 4.2 75.5 10.0 3.2 5.8 1.3 100 New Rochelle .. 2.9 75.6 12.4 i.3 5.0 .8 100 Newburgh 3.4 78.2 10.7 2.5 4.3 .9 100 Niagara Falls .. . i.?> 73.9 11.7 7.7. 2.4 1.4 100 Poughkeepsie ... 4.7 72. i 14.5 3.8 2.6 2.1 100 Schenectady 2.5 75.8 12.9 4.0 3.9 .9 100 Troy 3.4 76.4 14.5 1.4 3.1 1.2 100 Utica 3.5 73.5 15.0 5.0 2.0 1.0 100 Watertown 2.0 63.4 19.8 6.3 6.2 2.3 100 Yonkers 2.2 79.9 12.4 3.3 2.1 .1 100 Niagara Falls rank 10 11 12 1 11 6 • Table 63 indicates clearly that the large part of the expenditures for current school expenses is for instructional purposes. The table giving an analysis of the distribution of school maintenance funds divides the expenditures on a percentage basis into general control, expenses of instruction, operation of school plant, maintenance of school plant, auxiliary agencies and fixed charges. The cities have been arranged alphabetically in the list. It may be ol:)served in general that in the percentage distribution of school maintenance funds Niagara Falls does not diflfer widely from the general policy followed in the other cities of the group. The table might also be read in this manner. Of every dollar used for current school expenses Niagara Falls spends 3.3 cents for pur- poses of general control, 72) . 9 cents for instructional costs, 11.7 cents for the operation of the school plant, 7 .3 cents for the mainte- nance of the school plant, 2 . 4 cents for auxiliary agencies, and 1 . 4 cents for fixed charges. In comparison with the other cities of the group, Niagara Falls occupies a relatively low rank in percentage of expenditures used for general control instructional purposes, operation of the school 206 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK plant and auxiliary agencies. The position of Niagara Falls is the highest in respect to the maintenance cost of the school plant. The position is nearly median in the percentage amount expended for fixed charges. The low rank of Niagara Falls in the percentage of funds used for the operation of the school plant would indicate that this is eco- nomically administered. It is also true that the Niagara Falls school authorities are more jealous than many cities of the condition of the school plant and therefore undouhtedly put more funds into the maintenance of the equipment than is done in many cities. This is highly to the credit of the local school authorities. The table gives some interesting facts with regard to the per- centage of maintenance funds used for instructional purposes. It is observed that in all the cities of the group there is a striking ratio which this part of the budget bears to the total school costs. The expenses of instruction in these cities are between 63.4 and 80.8 per cent of the total expenditures for school maintenance. With the exception of one city in the group the percentage used for this purpose is between 72 and 80.8. One city of the group is so far below the others in this respect that it indicates a rather unusual situation. Table 64 gives this percentage for each city of the group arranged in the order of rank. Table 64 Percentage of maintenance expenses used for instructional purposes 1 Elmira 80 . 8 2 Yonkers 79 . 9 3 Newburgh 78.2 4 Troy 76.4 5 Schenectady 75.8 6 Binghamton 75.7 7 New Rochelle 75.6 M 8 Mount Vernon 75.5 9 Auburn 75 . 10 Jamestown 74 . 8 1 1 Niagara Falls 73 . 9 12 Utica 73.5 13 Poughkcepsie 12. 2> 14 Amsterdam 72 . 15 Watertown 63.4 Niagara Falls, as may be observed, is l)elow the median in rank in percentage of school maintenance expenditures used for instructional purposes. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 207 The total bonded indebtedness of the city on January 1, 1919 was $3,561,219. Of this amount the school bonds amounted to $529,919. In other words, the school bonds represent only 14.8 per cent of the total bonded indebtedness of the city. It may be of interest to note that for several years the percentage has been approximately the same. The figures for the years 1912 to 1918, except 1916, are given in table 65. 208 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK C o Xi iJfi c '3 c s O z ^ (d EC rt Wi in nl vO i3/9 S « <-t-i < o H >. iS I REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 209 On the basis of an estimated population of 55,000, the present total bonded indebtedness of $3,561,219 is $64.75 per capita, and the out- standing school bonds represent an indebtedness of $9.63 per capita, llie percentage of total outstanding bonds during the period of years from 1912 to 1918, represented by school bonds, has Ijeen quite constant, this percentage varying from 12.4 per cent in 1913 to 14.8 per cent in 1918. Summary Niagara Falls is a prosperous community. The real wealth per capita is far above the average for the cities of its class in New York or in other states. Niagara Falls has nearly double the per capita wealth of the average of the cities of either comparative group. The ability of Niagara Falls to support a progressive school pro- gram is clearly established. In comparison with cities in its class, in New York and in other states, Niagara Falls ranks much higher in the per capita expendi- tures for the maintenance of government than for the maintenance of schools. In 1919 only three cities of nineteen cities in the north and west showed a lower per capita expenditure for school maintenance. In 1920 Niagara held approximately a median position among the New York cities in the per capita expenditures for schools. Niagara Falls occupies relatively a low rank among the cities of these groups in the percentage of funds used for school purposes. A community that uses only from 29 (1919) to 31 (1920) per cent of its general departmental expenditures for school purposes is not meeting its full educational responsibility. In both groups of cities Niagara F'alls shows the lowest expendi- tures for schools on the basis of the real wealth per capita. In 1919 Niagara Falls used one dollar for school maintenance for every $328 of real w^ealth. In contrast with this it is noted that Elmira used one dollar for school maintenance for every $143 of real wealth. In Bay City, Mich., one dollar was used for school purposes for every $91 of real w^ealth. In 1920 the maintenance cost per pupil in aver- age daily attendance in Niagara Falls was $64.43. This is some- what below the average of the fifteen New York cities used in the comparative tables. The ability of Niagara Falls to support an educational program has greatly increased during the past few years. This is not yet reflected in the school costs for the city although a most commendable program for developing the school opportunities is already under way. 210 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK On the basis of the instructional cost per pupil in average daily attendance, Niagara Falls is also below the average of the fifteen cities of New York used in the comparative tables. On the basis of instructional cost per pupil, Niagara Falls occupies a somewhat lower rank than in 1915-16. The percentage of increase in school maintenance costs and in instructional costs per pupil in the cities of New York during the past four years does not represent a reasonable increment when con- sidered in connection with the marked increase in commercial and economic costs during this period. The percentage distribution of school maintenance funds in Niagara Falls does not differ widely from the general policy followed in other New York cities. What effect the continuing salary increases during the current school year, for which statistics are not yet available, would have upon the relative standing of Niagara Falls in comparison with the other cities can not l)e determined. We are of the opinion, however, that the relative rank of Niagara Falls will not be changed in any great degree as a result of comparative data that will be available later covering the present year because of similar conditions that have been effective in the other cities. The outstanding feature in Niagara Falls relative to school costs at the present time is the unusual and l)road program that is already under way for the development of the school plant and the reorgani- zation of the higher grades for improving the opportunities that are to be offered to the pupils of the early adolescent period. The carry- ing forward of this program should put Niagara Falls educationally into the very front rank of the cities of her class in this State or in other states. In general therefore it may be stated that with a tax levy that is apparently not excessive, with a large amount of wealth back of each dollar used for schools, with a relative rank somewhat below the average for school costs whether on the per pupil or the per capita basis, with a minimum percentage of general city maintenance funds now being used for school purposes it seems reasonable to l:)elieve that the people of the community will approve a reasonable increase in the educational budget not only for the routine work of the schools but also that the broader and more progressive program now under way may be fully developed to meet the needs of this rapidly growing industrial and commercial center. ADVANCED MACHINE SHOP CLASS IN THE VOCATIONAL SCHOOL HIGH SCHOOL COOKING CLASS REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 211 13 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SURVEY^ Outside of the building trades and some few lines of manufactur- ing, the findings show a number of large establishments turning out specialized products produced by highly technical processes which utilize some form of electric furnace depending upon large supplies of electric current, employ considerable numbers of unskilled or low- grade skilled workers, many of whom are foreign born. This last and typical group constitutes naturally the main problem of this survey and will be dealt with first. The Electro-chemical Industries Almost all reports state that the knowledge and skill needed for the large mass of production workers can be obtained in routine practice and even that the preparation for the advanced jobs can be so ob- tained. For the bulk of these workers the only educational pro- visions discernible are those that will bring opportunities for ele- mentary scientific information before the whole group and that place opportunities for instruction before the specialh' able and ambitious so that the small number that will take advantage of the latter pro- visions may fit themselves for upgrading and advancement. First of these provisions would seem to be popular evening lec- tures on the elementary conceptions of chemistry and electricity with special reference to their a])plications in the local industries. Such lectures, if presented in the simplest possible way making large use of illustrative material, graphic methods and illuminated by practical applications, could proba1)]y l)e made sufficiently interesting to attract many plant workers in whom they would serve to develop a more intelligent attitude toward their work and to enlarge their mental horizon. Such a i)roposition may be held to be more of a provision for general rather than for industrial education. Perhaps it is. Such lectures, however, if made interesting enough to appeal to the workers could hardly fail to increase their industrial intelli- gence and in many cases to stimulate the interest to further study. In considering the second suggestion, it is evident that with organ- izations of such character as those represented in the electro-chemical 1 Prepared by C. R. Richards, Director of Cooper Union, New York City. 212 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK industries, one of the acute problems is that of training foremen. The findings show that the shift foremen often come from the gang. Beyond these are the foremen of departments, sometimes coming from the laboratories and sometimes from the shift foremen. These latter present the need for special technical and scientific training. The qualities needed for effective work as foremen are so much a matter of personal make-up that the bringing of outside training to bear on this problem can hardly he done except through offering opportunity for evening courses, which by a process of natural selection will be availed of by the more able and ambitious workers. The courses of most value in this connection would seem to be those in physics, electricity and chemistry noted in a later portion of the report. Courses in foremanship. bringing out the duties of fore- men, the qualities needed for successful handling of men and prac- tical suggestions for dealing with difficult situations, have been de- veloped in the last few years, notably at the Submarine Boat Corpo- ration at Newark Bay. Some of the results are shortly to be pub- lished by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. When such instruction is more thoroughly developed and standardized it is possi- ble that such a course might be given with advantage at Niagara Falls. The practice of all the establishments in the electro-chemical group is to employ no men in the production departments younger than 18 because of the state law prohiljiting the employment of minors in dangerous occupations. From the nature of the case these young men are not high school material. They have almost inevitably left the grammar school at 14 or 15 years of age to go to work. They consequently have little general education and must necessarily have passed the time before employment in these plants in other jobs not generally educative or disciplinary. The preemployment training in day schools in chemistry, elec- tricity and otlier sul)jects, specified as desirable for these workers by some of the superintendents, is because of these conditions, and consequently not practicable except in the most elementary form. These conditions of employment of young workers in the electro- chemical industry represent a typical case of the educational waste of the years between 14 and 18 prevalent throughout the country in the case of industrial workers. The compulsory continuation school law recently enacted by the State of New York aims to ameliorate to some extent this wastage and it seems peculiarly unfortunate that the conditions in the electro-chemical industries at Niagara Falls prevent taking advantage of the provisions of this law. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 213 Workers in Chemical Laboratories The workers in the chemical and alHed laboratories present a special element from the educational standpoint. It is stated that a number of boys who have had only a grammar school training are employed as laboratory assistants or routine analysts. If this prac- tice is to be followed, little can be done in supplementary training for such workers except through evening or preferably day part-time classes. These possibilities will be referred to later on. The organic relation, however, that would seem to open up between the school system and the chemical laboratories and engineering de- partments is through specially adapted high school courses organized with a special aim to prepare for this field of work. The practica- bility and value of such a provision depends on whether the industries are willing to pay the price of high school graduates so trained. If they are willing, it is thoroughly feasible to organize courses in the high school giving special emphasis to chemistry, electricity, drafting and mechanics that would equip graduates for advantageous entrance into the laboratories and into the engineering side of the plants as well as bringing more young men of good general education into the industries. If the high school is to be maintained on the four-year basis, such courses might well be based upon general work in physics and chemistry and drawing in the first two years of the high school and then provide opportunities for further study as electives in either of these three fields in the last two years. If, however, the high school work is to be reorganized on the basis of a three-year junior high school and a three-year senior high school, such courses would naturally be given in the senior school. This work should be de- veloped largely through a series of laboratories and drafting rooms equipped for the further study of chemistry, electricity, heat and mechanics, and organized on a basis sufficiently intensive to produce practical vocational results. Three full hours a day should be de- voted to technical instruction whether of laboratory, drawing room or classroom. On this basis two-thirds of the salaries of teachers engaged in such instruction would be met by payments from the State Department of Education and the Federal Board of Education. The efficiency of such work would be much increased if summer work could be arranged upon a cooperative plan by which part of the pupil's time could be spent in the establishments and part in school. A feature of such courses should be talks from high-grade men in the industries upon special phases of the local industries. 214 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK For the laboratory workers already in employment, evening or part-time day courses might well be provided in. the public schools. The survey of the evening school chemistry problem made l)y the committee of the chamber of commerce, giving the opinions of em- ployers in the form of a questionnaire, contributes very helpful data in this direction. For those workers with little or no previous train- ing in chemistry, a two-year course with instruction three evenings a week, dealing with elementary inorganic chemistry, is recom- mended. It might be possible to take up the beginning of qualitative analysis in the latter part of the first year. The second year of such a course should be devoted to qualitative analysis. An experience of 22 years in supervising evening classes in chemistry leads the writer to feel that the l)ackground of appreciation and the accuracy in manipulation necessary to deal intelligently and profitably with the subject of quantitative analysis can not be secured in less than two years of preliminary evening work. A third year of advanced work might well be devoted to quantitative work. In such a course covering the elements of gravimetric and volumetric analysis, the principles and some experiments in electro-chemistry might be in- cluded. These courses should be administered so as not only to allow younger workers to progress steadily throughout the course, but so that laboratory workers c[ualified b\' their experience could be admitted in the second and third years. All these courses might be maintained on the basis of three nights a week, although four nights dcNoted to the second and third year courses would accomplish more. One evening should be devoted to a lecture and recitation and the remaining evenings to laboratory work. It is ])articular]\- rcrommended tliat no lecture courses be given without an accompanying recitation or quiz, as the assimila- tion of material i)resented in lectures can not be assured in the case of immature ])upils without such provision. Beginning with the second year, instruction in the laboratory should be differentiated when practical and desirable to reach the needs of the groups coming from dififerent establishments. The proposition for a round-table course for experienced men in the laboratories is one that conceivably might be of much advantage but it is not one that lends itself readily to methods of instruction available in a city school .system. The most natural way in which such a course could be developed and conducted would seem to be through the initiative of the workers and employers themselves. In such a case a room for meetings might well be ])rovided l)y the school authorities. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 215 Workers in Skilled Trades The maintenance and repair workers in the plants, such as car- penters, millwrights, machinists, electricians and draftsmen, repre- sent much the same situation as these workers in outside trades and will be dealt with in the following portion of the report. All the other plants studied culminate in small groups of skilled workers in various mechanical trades, usually with relatively large numl)ers of semiskilled operators. 1"he building trades represent a number of skilled trades. In all, the following trades are repre- sented : draftsmen, machinists, carpenters, millwrights, sheet metal workers, blacksmiths, i)lumbers, l)ricklayers and masons, structural ironworkers, pipe fitters, electricians, pattern makers, painters and decorators. For educational purposes these workers, whether in the electro- chemical plants, manufacturing establishments or the building trades, can be dealt with together. Vocational Schools There are two educational approaches to the problem presented by such workers. One is the preemployment courses for boys from 14 to 16 years of age in special vocational schools which devote a large amount of time to mechanical work and to supplementary drawing, mathematics and principles of physics. The question of the organization of a school of this type in a community of the size of Niagara Falls is one not easily answered. Such .schools are un- questionably expensive to maintain, although aided materially by state and federal agents, and it should l)e understood that they suc- ceed in holding but a fraction of the boys who reach the age of 14 and who will later go into mechanical trades. Buffalo, with a population of 500,000, maintains four such schools with a registry last year of over 600 pupils with very satisfactory results. Elmira. a city of about the same size as Niagara Falls, has maintained a school of this type for 6 or 7 years. Last year it had liO pupils and some ten instructors and offers courses in machine work, electrical work, plumbing and steam fitting, carpentry and cal>inetmaking. "Ihe salaries paid last year amounted to $15,900, of which $9450 was met by state and federal aid, leaving a net salary expense of $6450. In Niagara Falls, such a school might be started on a moderate basis and allowed to develop as the city increases in population. Courses in machine work and in carpentry and millwrighting would 216 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK seem to be the two courses most needed and most calculated to bring results. If an adequate machine shop is to be available in the high school building, a course in machine work could be organized without large outlay for equipment. Cordial support for such courses would seem to be assured on the part of employers and officials of organized labor, judging from interviews held during the survey. If such a school or classes are started the courses should include shop training, directly related technical instruction, instruction desirable for citizen- ship and the elements of general education. It is recommended that the organization of the courses of instruc- tion be made on a basis that will require two years for completion. The courses for the two years, however, should be organized, just as far as possible, as units complete in themselves, so that boys may pass out at the end of the first year with a definite gain in vocational equipment. The length of the school day in such classes should be as near as possible to that of the usual industrial day and it is recom- mended that this be made seven hours and that the school training be continued for practically the entire calendar year. It is recommended that the number of pupils assigned to one in- structor of shop work shall not exceed 16. Teachers of shop work in these classes should have a background of considerable practical experience in the trades to be taught. It should be noted that in regard to this type of vocational educa- tion that state and federal aid is available for two-thirds the salary of teachers giving instruction in industrial and related technical classes. Evening Classes The main educational provisions for workers in the above groups, however, must be found in evening classes and it is to be hoped later on, for those below 18 years of age, in part-time classes. Experience has indicated that the following courses are serviceable and practicable for this purpose : Draftsmen. Mechanical drawing covering the making of work- ing drawings, projection, intersections and developments, free-hand sketching for machine parts, detail and assembly drawings for the first two years, and mechanism and simple structural drawing for the third year. Strength of materials. The plan of instruction should be very simple and deal mainly with the stresses and strains produced under tension, comi)ression and shearing. Columns and Ijeams must neces- REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 217 sarily be dealt with from the empirical standpoint without the theo- retical mathematical analysis. Machinists. Mechanical drawing, much the same as for drafts- men, concentrated in the second year upon drawings illustrating machine construction. Shop mathematics, fractions and decimal parts, metric system cal- culations relating to mensuration, pulleys, belting, gearing, screw threads and taper turning. Machine shop practice. If a school machine shop is available with an equipment of typical up-to-date machine tools, a course in practical shop work can be given with much profit that will serve to broaden the experience of the machine tenders, helpers and hands by aflfording practice on the various tools. Such a course can be dififerentiated according to the needs of the individuals, some men wanting special work on particular tools such as the lathe, planer, shaper or milling machine. Sheet Metal Workers. Mechanical drawing, same as for drafts- men for first year, running into intersections and developments and pattern work in the second year. Pattern Makers. Mechanical drawing, same as for draftsmen first two years ; shop mathematics, same as for machinists. Structural Iron Workers. Courses in blue print reading. Course in strength of materials might attract a number of these workers. Carpenters. Elements of architectural drawing. First year: course to include working drawings dealing with full-size and scale details of frame, brick and stone work construction; elevations and sections of windows, doors etc., from blackboard instruction ; second year : mechanics details. Sections and developments as prepared for the shop. Details of platform and stairway construction. Plan reading and cost estimating. Course to cover the methods of estimating of materials with reference to the provisions of the build- ing code of the city. Milkvrights. Architectural drawing, same as for carpenters. Shop mathematics, same as for machinists, with special reference to millwright calculations. Bricklayers and Masons. Architectural drawing, same as for carpenters. Plumbers. Free-hand sketching and blue print reading, dealing with pipe lines and fixtures, giving figures, dimensions and notes as related to installation and calculations needed for material. If apprenticeship rules do not allow of the apprentice handling tools, a course in practical work will be in demand. Accompanying this 218 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK course should be instruction in the physical principles underlying the use of fixtures, traps and hot water boilers illustrated by the rules of the board of health bearing upon the same. Pipe Fitters. Free-hand sketching. Blue print reading, same as for plumbers. Electricians. Course in elementary and applied electricity. The practical units of current, voltage and resistance ; Ohm's law ; meas- urement of current and voltage by means of ammeter and voltmeter ; the measurement of resistance by means of ammeter and voltmeter, and by means of Wheatstone's bridge; the equivalent resistance of conductors in series and parallel circuits, and how the current and voltage divides in such circuits ; the meaning and use of circular mil and mil foot. Computations of resistance of wires from their dimensions and specific resistances ; the practical units of power ; measurements of power by means of ammeter and voltmeter and by wattmeter; the use of watt-hour meter; the calculation of total power in a circuit, the power lost in line, and the relation of power loss to diameter of conductor. The current carrying capacities of conductors for difi:'erent sizes and conditions ; the theory and operation of the three wire system ; the operation of switching apparatus, including fuses, circuit break- ers, and remote control switching; methods of using wire tables and handbooks ; the Electrical Code requirements. For All IVorkers. Courses in physics, dealing with mechanics, heat and hydraulics. Courses in algebra and geometry are advised if sufficient numbers to justify classes can be enrolled. No evening courses are recommended for l)lacksmiths or painters and decorators, in the first case because of the small number involved and the difficulty experienced in securing attendance of men from this trade. In the case of painters and decorators the difficulties and expense involved in developing practical courses and the small num- ber that are attracted to such courses make such classes unsatisfactory to maintain. The importance of selecting the best possible material for teachers in these classes can not be overemphasized. Only men with practical experience in the trade or subject taught should be employed. When the course involves instruction in science, the teacher should either have had practical experience in industry or have made a special study of the industries from which pupils are likely to come. REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 219 It should be noted in this connection that the State will pay two- thirds of the salary of the first teacher and one-half of the salary of other teachers in approved evening vocational classes. It is recommended that these courses be given on three nights a week and that as far as practicable the classes be arranged on the trade unit basis noted above ; also that the maximum number in practical shop classes be placed at 20 and in classes in drawing, shop mathematics and science at 24; also, that a nominal deposit be re- quired in each course by all pupils registered and that this deposit shall be returned to those pupils who complete at least 75 per cent of all sessions of the classes of which they are members. All evening courses should be thoroughly advertised by posters in the plants and in places where they will reach the eyes of the workers a considerable time before beginning. The courses in the day high school should be presented before the graduating classes of the grammar schools of the city and should be set forth by the principal of the high school to the pupils. Supervision Consideration should be given to the fact that vocational classes like those recommended can be efficiently maintained only when under adequate expert direction. If these classes are to be organized in the public schools provision should be made for a supervisor with salary sufficient to secure a capable man experienced in such work and if possible one who has also had some industrial experience. Such a supervisor should have the direction of all industrial work in day vocational classes, of the technical work in the high school and the evening vocational classes and any part-time classes that may be established. Finally, it should be emphasized that vocational instruction in the public schools can be made successful and maintained at a high standard of efficiency only through the earnest and intimate coopera- tion of those engaged in practical work in the industries. The schoolmen need this cooperation in order that their instruction may make a real connection with the vocational needs of the workers and keep pace with the changing conditions of industry. Advisory Committees The most effective method to achieve this result so far developed is 'through the appointment by the board of education of advisory committees in each trade or vocation represented. In the trades where the workers employed are to a large extent organized, such 220 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK ■ committees may well consist of two or three persons selected from employers associations, two or three from labor organizations and an additional member nominated by this group of four or six. In cases where the workers are not organized, a committee selected from persons nominated by the employers associations might serve the purpose. Such committees should have direct relations with the supervisor of vocational education, who should be instructed before action is taken upon such matters to invite the recommendations of the com- mittees as to the establishment of new industrial classes, the selection of equipment, the content and length of courses of study, the require- ments for graduation and certification, the number of pupils admitted to classes. When important questions of policy relating to work in industrial education are concerned it is highly desirable that the board of educa- tion obtain the advice of these committees directly. The value of all such courses as above indicated, indeed, of all the propositions recommended in this report, come back largely to the question of dollars and cents expended in relation to the results ob- tained. In a community of the size of Niagara Falls the worth of such provisions can be fully determined only after two or three years of serious trial. INDEX Accelerated pupils, percentage of, 87 Advisory committees, 219 Age and grade, enrolment by, 85, 86 Air space, 180 Arithmetic, 70-76; tests, 137-45 Ashland Avenue School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Atten.dance in public schools, ele- mentary grades, 83; average daily, 170 Biologic science, instruction in, 10^7 Board of education, 6; appoint- ments, 11; members, 11; term, 11; functions, 11; school budget, 11; expenditure of funds under control of, 12; full responsibility in educational and financial mat- ters, 13; membership continuous, 13; meetings, 13; official proceed- ings, 14; progressive attitude, 14; official recognition to school ath- letic association, 14 ; summary of various activities, 15; clerk, 16; committees, 17; summary, 25 Bond issue for school purposes, 8 Budget, 11 Building committee of board of edu- cation, 19 Buildings, 6; elementary school, 7, 172; new, plan for, 8; new, special election to consider, 12; recom- mendations, 184; summary, 187-88 Center Avenue School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Chemical laboratories, workers in, 213-14 Clerk of the board, 16 Cleveland Avenue School, 172, 175, 177, 178. 179, 183, 184; playground space, 179. 180 Committee assignments, elimina- tion, suggested, 24 Committees of the board, 17-25 Composition, 134-37 Costs, comparative school costs, 190-210; comparison of school costs in Niagara Falls with cities in New York, 196-207 Domestic science, supervisor of, 35 Drawing, elementary, 78-80; high school, 108-11 Drawing, supervisor of, 34 Educational tests. 116; how they differ from the ordinary school examination, 116; value of for measuring school achievement, 117; phases of pupil achievement measured, 117; administration of, 118 Electro-chemical industries, 211-12 Elementary course of instruction, 6, 58-82 Elementary grades, supervision, 28- 31; enrolment, 30; attendance, 83; percentage of pupils in, 83; dis- tribution of by buildings, 183. Si'c also Buildings Elementary teachers, 47-53; sala- ries, 49-53 English, elementary, 63-69; in the high school, 94-100 Evening schools, 112, 216 Expenditures sec Finances Extension work, 40-42. 166 Ferry Avenue School, 173. 175, 177. 178. 183; playground space, 179. 180 Fifth Street School. 172. 175, 177, 178, 179. 183, 184; playground space, 179, 180 Finance committee of I)oard of edu- cation, 17 Finances, raising and distributing funds, 12; comparative school costs, 190-210 Floor area, 180 Foreign languages, relative status of, 101 222 THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK Grades see Elementary grades Grounds and janitors, special com- mittee of board of education, 19 Group intelligence and standardized educational tests, correspondence between, 153-56 Handwriting, 145-46 Health education, 157-69 High school, 42-43, 89-115, 175, 177; -courses of instruction, 7; average daily attendance, 83; courses, 93; registration by courses, 94; summary, 113-15; playground space, 179 High school teachers, 54-56; pro- fessional training, 52; salaries, 54-56 History, 76-78; in the high school, 103 Industrial arts, work in, 38-40; ele- mentary, 78-80; high school, 108- 11 Industrial education survey, 211-20 Language, Trabue completion test, 130-34 Latin, instruction in, 100-3 Maple Avenue School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180; no hot water, 181 Mathematics, in the high school, 104-6 Measurement of pupil achievement, 116-56 Medical inspection, 157-59 Meetings and conferences of teach- ers, 32 Music, supervisor of, 36 Niagara Falls, the community, 9-10; cosmopolitan population, 6, 9 National intelligence tests, 146-53 Normal pupils, percentage of, 87 Nurses, 158 Open-air room, 159 Penmanship, supervisor of, 36 Physical and earth science in the high school, 107-8 Physical education, 161-68 Physical training, supervisor of, 37 Playground area of elementary schools, 14, 179 Primary grades, supervisor of, 33 Principals, elementary school, 28; teaching experience, 29; super- visory work, 30; responsible for supervision of school units, 30; clerical work, 31; meetings, 32; professional spirit, 32; spend too much time in routine clerical work, 44 Reading, 58-63; no test in oral read- ing, 125; Monroe standardized silent reading test, 125; grade scores, Monroe silent reading test, 127; summary of results of silent reading test, 129; recom- mendations, 129 Registration, 83; annual, 170; an- nual increase in, 171; estimated, based on a 5 per cent annual in- crement, 172 Registration card, 90 Report card, 92 Report of pupils' progress, 91 Retarded pupils, percentage of, 7, 87 Richards, C. R., Industrial educa- tion survey, 211-20 Salaries, of elementary teachers, 49- 53; high school teachers, 54-56 Sanitary and hygienic conditions of buildings, 180 School group, 83-88 School paper, 97 School plant, 170-89 School population has outgrown the present school facilities, 7 Spelling, choice of words for the test, 119; list of words, 121; scor- ing and checking of, 122; grade standards, 122; report, 123; scores, 124; summary, 124 Strayer " Score card for city school buildings," 176 Sugar Street School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; no playground space, 179, 180 REPORT OF THE NIAGARA FALLS SCHOOL SYSTEM 223 Superintendent of schools, 16 Supervision, 27-46 Supervisory staff, organization, 28; summary, 44-46 Supply committee of board of edu- cation, 20 Swimming pools, 181 Teachers, 6; meetings, 2)2; elemen- tary, 47-53; high school, 54-56; tenure of service, 56 Teachers committee of board of education, 18 Teaching staff, 47-57; summary, 57 Tenth Street School, 174, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179 Third Street School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Thirteenth Street School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Toilet facilities, 182 Trade school courses, HI Trades, workers in, 215 Twenty-fourth Street School, 174, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Twenty-second Street School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Undernourished children, 159 Vocational schools, 215 Water supph-, 181 Whitney Avenue School, 173, 175, 177, 178, 183; playground space, 179, 180 Window area, 181 Writing, 145-46 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS