iiM/Uil mm mm mmmni mm. m0 EMW- %.,«- <.^ ./^ o ' ■^'S <* * ■^ % c « ^ ^' -. <->. .*"* < . ' » J^ ■* '\ ^, ^' ^^^^:^ %, ^-.N^' /_^^--^>,^; >*~^ ■''*. ,0 o^ o>- " ' \ > ^ ,0- * •<-' ^ ^0 ,t -^"^ ^A ^^^ *» 1 \ "^ c ^. ^^^' .s^ ^^ -^->' %<• ^^> ^ .^ # ^'* 0' s .,^,? ,- .0^ -CM »^ * ^ I. « 'P. ■v -'..^> ,,';/%, ,^v >'■ ^^ 'O cS^- ^, ^ -^^ v^o;\:^-^^\>^.--.^^-^\o":^ -^^-s^" : .x^^^'"^^. '>, ^7^£>^N* .>^ (>" ^ ,._^yO'7^^ V y'"^ ■>^_,:^^r, -' O ^ \ 1 ft ^ -<. -0' s"^ -. -. -^^ ,0 o^ x^--'. '' '!^^^^'""^^ <^' ^0, -/;-. ' «'^ ^. ^ .A o .> -^> V - #1!,,.. - - . . '^y \? vO o ' . <» ^ ' <^^ -' % ® \ •*- ~ ■\ ■^ -c^ ; ■'.; ' x^°.. H X^^^. .0^ ^^ ' tf /- C' A-^" _'..^«1'i.V ^<<. 1^ ^^ ^. ^t^ ^^ - — >V6^ -■a.'! PLOETZ' MANUAL OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY FROM THE DAWN OF CIVILIZATION TO THE OUTBREAK OF THE GREAT WAR OF 1914 TRANSLATED AND ENLARGED BY WILLIAM H. TILLINGHAST WTTJ! ADDITIONS COVERING RECENT EVENTS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY COPYRIGHT, 1883, 1905, AND IQII, BY WILLIAM HOFKINS TILLINGHAST COPYRIGHT, I914 AND I915, BY HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 3 M 3 c 3 PREFACE TO THE NEW REVISED EDITION The present edition of Ploetz's Epitome brings the record of events down to the outbreak and early days of the European war of 1914. The revision owes its completeness in great measure to several his- torical workers, notably Mr. David M. Matteson, who supplied most of the material for the years 1883-1903. The recent death of the trans- lator, Mr. William H. Tillinghast, has thrown the responsibility of the latest revision entirely into the hands of the Publishers, who, besides having the record brought down to August 15, 1914, in text and in- dex, have added a Supplement covering in detail the events of the great war from its beginning to the time of going to press. Boston, January, 1915. TABLE OF CONTENTS. ,*# Sections marked with an * have been added by the translator ; those marked witk a t have been considerably enlarged or changed by the translator. PA6B Introduction. ix. t Divisions of universal history 1 I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. Hamitic. 1. Egyptians ...a Semitic. 2. Jews (Hebrews, Israelites) .... , . 7 3. Babylonians and Assyrians ....... 12 4. Phcenicians and Carthaginians 16 5. Lydians. * Phrygians 20 Aryan. t 6. Indians 22 7. Bactrians, Medes, Persians 24 Turanian. * 8. Parthians 29 * 9. Chinese 30 * 10. Japanese 32 B. WESTERN PEOPLES. Aryans. * 1. Celts 34 a. Continental Celts. Gauls 34, b. Celts of the British Isles . , 36 Britain 36 Ireland 38 3. Grecian history 39 Geographical survey of ancient Greece 39 * Religion of the Greeks 41 First Period (x— 1104). Mythical Period .... 43 Second Period (1104-500). To the beginning of the Persian Wars 47 Third Period (500-338). To the battle of Chaeronea . ' . 56 Fourth Period (338-146). Graeco - Macedonian or Hellenistic Period 73 IV Table of Contents, PAGS 3. Bom&n history 81 Geographical survey of ancient Italy 81 * Religion of the ancient Romans 84 Ethnographical sketch of Ital}' 85 First Period (x— 510). Mythical epoch of the kings . . 87 Second Period (510-264). To the beginning of the Punic Wars . 93 Third Period (264-146). Epoch of the Punic Wars . . 109 Fourth Period (146-31). Epoch of the Civil Wars . . .123 Fifth Period (31 b. C.-476 A. d.). The Roman emperors to the fall of the Western Empire 147 * 4. Teutons 162 * 5. Blavs and Lithuanians 168 II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (375-843.) 1. Migrations of the Northern Tribes 170 » 2. Teutonic kingdoms in Britain (449-828) .... 176 3. The Franks under the Merovingians ... . . . 181 4. Mohammed and the Caliphate 182 5. The Franks under the Carolingians 183 * 6. New Persian empire of the Sassanidae 187 SECOND PERIOD. (843-1096.) 1. Italy and Germany (Carolingian, Saxon, Franconian or Salian em- perors) 193 t 2. Prance (Carolingians and early Capetians) 201 t 3. England (West Saxon kings) 20? * 4. The North. Denmark 207 Sweden, Norway 208 5. Spanish Peninsula 209 6. The East. Eastern Empire 210 * India 210 * China 211 * Japan 212 THIRD PERIOD. (1096-1270.) 1. Crusades 213 2. Germany and Italy 218 t 3. France 226 t 4. England 229 * 5. The North. Denmark 235 Sweden 237 Norway 238 6. Spanish Peninsula 240 7. The East. Eastern Empire. The Mongols ..... 240 * India. * China 241 * Jaoan . » » o » 242 Table of Contents. v PAQl FOURTH PERIOD. (1270-1492.) 1. Germany to Maximilian 1 244 Origin of the Swiss Confederacy 245 Leagues of the cities 249 t 2. France to Charles VIH 254 3. Italy 262 t 4. England to Henry VH 263 5. Spanish Peninsula 275 6. The North and East. Scandinavia. Russia .... 276 Poland, Prussia, Hungary . . . 277 Turks, Mongols, Eastern Empire ) n„j. * China. * Japan 5 in. MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. (1492-1648.) 1. Inventions, discoveries, and colonies 279 » 2. America. Discovery 280 a. English colonies : South Virginia 291 Plymouth Company .... 293 b. Dutch colonies 298 c. Swedish colonies 298 d. New France and the Arctic region 299 3. Germany to the Thirty Years' War. Keformation , . 300 4. Thirty Years' "War 308 1. Bohemian Period, 1618-1623 308 2. Danish " 1625-1629 310 3. Swedish " 1630-1635 311 4. French " 1635-1648 314 t 5. France 318 6. Italy 326 7. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands .... 328 t The Netherlands 328 * 8. England and Scotland 333 9. The North and East 351 Sweden, Denmark and Norway, Poland, Russia . , . 352 Turks. * India 353 * China 354 * Japan 355 SECOND PERIOD. (1648-1789.) A. THE SECOND HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. * 1. America. British, Dutch, and Swedish colonies . . . 357 French settlements and discoveries .... 363 t 2. France under Louis XIV 365 3. Germany under Leopold 1 371 4. The North and East. Sweden 373 Denmark, Poland, Russia .... 374 Table of Contents, PAGl « 5. England 375 * 6. India 389 * 7. China • . 390 B. THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. The "War of the Spanish Succession 390 2. The Northern War . 394 3. Germany to the Revolution of 1789 397 4. The North. Denmark (Norway), Sweden 409 Russia, Poland 410 5. Spain and Portugal 414 6. Italy. Savoy, Genoa, Venice 415 (Tuscany, Papal States) Two Sicilies .... 416 * 7. America. British colonies 417 War of Independence 426 * 8. Great Britain 433 * 9. The East. India 442 The British in India 443 China 444 Japan 445 t 10. Prance to the Bevolution of 1789 . . . . . 445 THIRD PERIOD. (1789-1815.) First French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars . . • 447 Causes of the Revolution 448 Constituent assembly 449 Legislative assembly 451 War of the First Coalition. National Convention . . . 452 Directory 457 War of the Second Coalition 460 The Consulate 461 First French Empire 465 War of the Third Coalition 467 (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia 468 Peninsula War 471 (Fifth) War with Austria 471 (Sixth) War with Russia 474 The War of Liberation 475 Congress of Vienna 482 The Hundred Days (War of 1815) 433 FOURTH PERIOD. (1815— x.) 1. Inventiono. Steam Engines. Steam Navigation. Railroads. Tele- graph 435 2. Continental Europe 487 War of Grecian Independence ....... 488 Revolution in Belgium 489 Revolution in Poland 490 Revolt of Mehemet All . 491 Table of Contents, vil PAOB Civil war in Switzerland 492 Confusion in German}'; attempts at union .... 492 Revolt of the Hungarians 494 Crimean War 499 Kingdom of Itah' 503 War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark .... 505 Austro-Prussian War 507 Austro-Italian War 510 North German Confederation 511 Franco-German War 513 German Empire 519 Turco-Russian War 522 Congress of Berlin 524 t 3. France (1815-1882) 526 July Revolution of 1830 529 February Revolution of 1848. Second Republic . . . 530 Second Empire 531 Third Republic 532 « 4. Great Britain i (1783-1882) 535 The British in India (1785-1836) 541 Great Britain (1837-1882) 542 The British in India (1836-1882) 546 * 5. The United States of America! (1789-1883) . . . .547 War of 1812 551 War with Mexico 554 The Civil War 557 * 6. China (1796-1882) 560 * 7. Japan (1787-1882) 562 Restoration of the Mikado , 563 APPENDIX. (1883— X.) * 8. Great Britain 2 (1883-1903) 565 South African War 57O * 9. Continental Europe 2 (1883-1903) 573 Armenian Massacres 579 Cretan Revolt and Turco-Greek War 581 Dreyfus Affair 582 * 10. United States "^ (1883-1903) 586 Spanish War 590 Philippine Insurrection 592 * 11 Asia 2 (1883-1903) 594 Chinese-Japanese War 595 Boxer Rising 597 Russo-Japanese Crisis 599 Leading Events (1904-1914) . 599 Supplement 615 * Index • 1 1 Contributed by Edward Channing, Ph. D. « Contributed in part by D. M. Matteson. INTKODUCTION. Prof. Dr. Carl Ploetz, well known in Germany as a veteran teacher, is the author of a number of educational works having a high reputation, among which none has better approved its usefulness than the " Epitome of Universal History." ^ The admitted excellence of the book renders an apology for its translation unnecessary, but an extract from the author's preface respecting the nature and purpose of the work may not be out of place. "The present 'Epitome,' which now appears in a seventh edition, enlarged and improved, is intended, in the first place, for use by the upper classes in higher educational institutions, as a guide or handbook in the historical class- room. The handy arrangement of the book and the elaborate index are in- tended to adapt it for private use, and to facilitate rapid acquisition of informa- tion concerning historical matters which have, for the moment, escaped the memory. " I have endeavored to give everywhere the assured results of recent histor- ical inrestigation, adding, as far as possible, references to my authorities. " The exposition of ancient history is based upon the works of Duncker, Curtius, Mommsen, and Peter. "Medieval history, which was treated somewhat too briefly in the earlier editions, has been made proportionately full since the fourth, and has been, moreover, enlarged, as has modern history, by the addition of a number of genealogical tables. " In modern history the treaties of peace have been brought into especial prominence, and the principal conditions of the great treaties, through which alone one can get an insight into the historical formation of the present system of European states, have been stated with all possible accuracy. "Recent history has been brought down to the present day. The purpose and the compass of the book alike permitted nothing more than a compressed narrative of facts, as far as possible, free from the expression of personal opin- ion. This limitation of itself excludes the possibility of offending, whether in a religious or a political sense. " All are probably now agreed that it is unadvisable for scholars to write out the lecture of the instructor in full, which, however, should not prevent them from taking notes here and there. No one denies the necessity of a guide as a basis for instruction ; but widely differing ideas prevail concerning the arrange- ment and extent of such a work. " The author of this 'Epitome,' who was for a number of years historical in- structor of the first and second classes in the French Gymnasium at Berlin, holds the opinion that even the best handbook can in no way take the place of an animated lecture, and that any guide which gives a connected narrative in 1 Auszug aus der alten, mittleren und neueren Geschichte von Karl Ploetz. Siebente verbesserte und stark vermehrte Auflage, Berlin. A. G. Ploetz, 1880. The preparation of this edition was confided to Prof. Dr. O. Meltzer, author o£ Geschichte der Karihager, i. 1880. T Introduction. some detail necessarily detracts from the value of the teacher's lecture, if in the hands of the pupils in the class-room. " I am persuaded that such a work should place before the pupil facts only, in the wider sense of the word, and these grouped in the most comprehensive man- ner. The task of animating these facts by oral exposition ought to be left to the instructor." The translator has enlarged the book in no small degree, with the hope of increasing its general usefulness, and of giving it especial value in this country. Under ancient history an attempt has been made to bring the ethnographical relations of the early peoples into prominence ; but believing that the uncertainty of our knowledge in this respect can hardly be dwelt upon too strongly, the translator has tried to speak guardedly. Even the Indo-European family is far from being satis- factorily understood; the details of the relationship of its constituent groups are not clear ; the theory of a primitive Asiatic home and a wave-like series of westward migrations is but one, though perhaps the best, among many speculations. Recent text-books have delighted us with minutely ramified tables of Indo-European relationships, show- ing, with close approximation, when each group left the parent stock, each tribe the common group ; this, though harmless as speculation, is dangerous if taken for knowledge.^ The speculations in regard to the early inhabitants of the British Isles should be received with like caution. Their provisional accept- ance, however, is so useful as to justify their insertion. The mythical liistory of England, Ireland, and Scandinavia has been deemed worthy to stand beside that of Greece and Rome. The undoubted historical value of many of these traditions and the part which they play in general literature will explain the presence of even the distinctly fabulous tales. The distinction between myth, a theoretical explanation of myths, and tolerably trustworthy liistory has been kept constantly in view. The history of certain countries, as China, Japan, Parthia and Per- sia under the Sassanidse, which the stricter limits of the German work had caused the author to omit, has been added ; in the cases of India, the Scandinavian monarchies before 1387, and France, the meagre account in the original has undergone considerable amplifica- tion. The greatest changes, however, will be found in the history of Eng- 1 "We must content ourselves, for the present, with the recognition of a fundamental primitive community of Indo-European languages, and refrain from dividing these languages into groups (except in the case of the Indo-Ira- nian tongues). Especially is this true of the unity of the Greeks and Italians, so often taken for granted. It cannot be said that this unity did not once exist, but neither can it be asserted that its existence is demonstrable. Whether or not the future will succeed in reaching more certain results remains to be seen; until such results are reached historians will do well to refrain from making use of such groups of languages and of tribes as the Gr.TCO-Italian and the Slavo-Ger- man." (B. Delbriick, Einleitung in dns Sprachstudium^ Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1880.) Not all philologists will agree upon this point, — upon what point do all philologists agree ? — and the archaeologists have something to say upon the matter; the words just quoted are, nevertheless, worthy of coneia- Introduction. jo. land and in that of America, which have been rewritten from the beginning with a fulhiess of detail proportional to that observed by the original in the history of Germany. In the additions nothing more than a compilation from reliable, but easily accessible, sources has been attempted. A few notes have been inserted and a few dates and facts interpolated in the text of th original, but these changes have been duly attributed to the transla tor, either directly or by the use of brackets, where they seemed oi sufficient importance. Absolute accuracy cannot be looked for in a work dealing with so vast a number of dates and covering so wide a range in time ; the translator, however, in the sections for which he is responsible, has endeavored to verify each date by reference to independent authori- ties. He will be grateful to all who will take the trouble to inform him of errors that have escaped his notice. That the proportion ob- served in the space allotted to different countries and epochs is open to criticism, the translator is well aware ; the fault is due in part to the plan adopted by him of sending the earlier portions of the book to press before the later were finished, in the vain hope of hastening its completion. Except in the case of the Austro-Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, where much of the minute descriptive detail has been omitted, no attempt has been made to condense the original. Various circumstances have delayed the appearance of the book much beyond the time for which it was announced ; that it is at last ready is due to the kindness of Dr. Edward C banning, of Harvard College, who took upon himself the preparation of those sections which contain the history of Great Britain and her colonies from 1784 to 1883, and that of the United States from 1789 to 1883. The thanks of the translator are also due to Professor H. W. Torrey, of Harvard College, for the loan of material of which free use has been made for English history in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and for French history in the nineteenth century ; and to Mr. Justin Winsor, Librarian of the University, for the free use of books. To Dr. R. H. Labberton and to Messrs. E. Claxton & Co. of Phila- delphia, the translator is indebted for courteous permission to use certain genealogical tables in Dr. Labberton's exceedingly useful " Outlines of History." ^ The distinguishing feature of the " Epitome " is the arrangement whereby a brief connected narrative is accompanied by a clear, well- graduated chronology which emphasizes the sequence of events with- out breaking up the story or fatiguing the mind. An attempt has been made, by the use of italics and two sizes of black type, to mark and distinguish events according to their relative importance, and also to relieve the page ; while, with the latter object in view, the use of capitals has been as far as possible dispensed with, although the manner of printing the book has prevented consistency in this 1 Labberton, R. H., Outlines of History^ with original tables, chronological, genealogical, and literarv. Thirteenth edition. Philadelphia, E. Claxton & Co., 1883. Text and Historical Atlas. The tables used are II., III., XVI., which appear on pages 265, 256, 332, of the present work. xi* Introduction. respect. Especial care has been devoted to the index, which has been made very full, in order that the book might serve as a historical dictionary, as well as a chronology. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. A GENERAL VIEW OF ITS PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS. X B. c. — 375 A. D. I. Ancient history, from the begin ning of historical information to the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes. 375 — 1492. II- Mediaeval history, from the commence- ment of the migrations of the Teutonic tribes to the discovery of America. 1492 — X. III. Modern history, from the discovery of America to the present time. Ancient history, treated ethnographically, falls into two great divi- sions : A. Eastern peoples : Egyptians (Hamitic) ; Jews, Babylonians, As- syrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic) ; Hindus, Bac- trians, Medes, Persians (Aryan); Parthians, Chinese, Japanese (Turanian?). B. Western Peoples: Celts, Britons, Greeks, Romans, Teutons (Aryan). Mediaeval history can be divided into four chronological periods: 375-843. 1. From the commencement of the migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Treaty of Verdun. 843-1096. 2. From the Treaty of Verdun to the begimimg of the Crusades. 1096-1270. 3. The epoch of the Crusades. 1270-1492. 4. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America. Modern history can also be divided into four periods: 1492-1648. 1. From the discovery of America to the Peace of Westphalia. 1648-1789. 2. From the Peace of Westphalia to the outbreak of the first French Revolution. 1789-1815. 3. From the outbreak of the first French Revolution to ihe Congress of Vienna. 1815-x. 4. From the Congress of Vienna to the present time. Ancient History. b. C. I. ANCIENT HISTORY. A. EASTERN PEOPLES. § 1. EGYPTIANS. Hamites. Geography : Egypt ^ (Kem, i. e. " black earth " in old Egyptian) is the valley of the Nile, which extends between two chains of low hills for 550 miles, with a breadth, above the Delta, of but a few miles. It is divided into Upper Egypt (Philce, Elephantine, Thebes or Dios- polis, called by Homer eKaT6ixTrv\os, the " hundred gated," a designa- tion which must refer to the entrances of temples and palaces, since the city had neither walls nor gates) and Lower Egypt (Memphis; in the Delta, Tanis, Buhastis, Naucratis, Sals; west of the Delta, Canopus, now Abouldr; on the east, Pelusium; the latter cities stand- ing on what were, in ancient times, the largest mouths of the Nile). These divisions were originally, in all probability, independent coun- tries. They are not to be confounded with the separate principali- ties which became numerous at a later time. This division was com- memorated in the royal title of the kings of the united countries, " lords of the upper and lower country," " lords of the two crow^ns." Religion : Worship of personified forces of Nature and symbolical animal worship. In Memphis especial reverence paid to Ptah, the highest of the gods, the first creator ; in his temple stood the sacred bull Apis (Egypt. Api), also closely connected with Osiris. Ra,^ wor- shipped particularly in On or Heliopolis, represented the transmitting and preserving power of the godhead embodied in the sun. Khem, was the god of generation and growth. Reverence was also paid to the goddess Neith, whose worship at Sais was considered by the Greeks to be identical with that of Athena, to the goddess Bast or Pacht (at Bubastis), and to the goddess of Buto, on one of the mouths of the Nile. At Thebes, cult of Ammon (Amun), the god of heaven, later united with Ra to form a single divinity. In Upper Egypt worship was paid to Mentu, the rising sun; Turn or Atmu, the setting sun; Chnum or Kneph, god of the overflow, always represented with a ram's head and double horns, and later becoming united with Ammon to form one divinity; and to the goddess Mut (i. e. "mother"). The educated classes recognized the various gods as personified attributes of the one Divinity. 1 See Kiepert, Atlas Aniiquus, Tab. III. 2 According to Rosellini and Lopsius the title of Pharaoh is derived from this name, and means Son of the Sun. "Ebers and BruRSch derive it from Ft-ra{o), the " great house." (Compare "Sublime Porte.") B. C. Egyptians. 3 Myth of Osiris, the creative force in Nature, who was killed and thrown into the sea by Set (Tr/phon), the destructive force in Nature (especially drought) ; sought after by his sorrowing consort Isis (the earth), he was avenged by tlieir son Horos, who slew Set; restored to life, Osiris thenceforward ruled in the lower world (decay and resur- rection of the creative force in nature; immortality of the soul). Con- joined with Horos, the goddess Haihor, considered by the Greeks to be the same as Aphrodite. Highly developed moral code. Civilization : Fertility of the valley of the Nile maintained by the regular overflow of the Nile, beginning at the end of July and last- ing four months. Hieroglyphics, very early in conjunction with the hieratic, and after- wards the demotic, characters (syllabic and phonetic signs), which represented the language of daily life, the dialect of the common people. Embalming of the dead. (Mummies.) Avoidance of intercourse with foreign peoples and adoption of foreign customs. Strict regulation of the entire life by religious prescriptions. Castes : Priests, warriors, agricultural laborers, artisans, shepherds. These castes, however, were in no wise absolutely separated from one another. Form of Government: Despotic monarchy, with divine attributes, also in possession of the highest spiritual power. Strong influence of the priests, especially after the fourteenth century, but they never controlled the supreme power.^ The Pyramids are gigantic sepulchres of the kings. Over thirty still exist.2 The largest, at Gizeh, was originally 480 feet high, and still measures 450 feet. The Obelisks — of which one is now at Paris, several in Rome, one in London, and one in New York — are cut from smgle blocks of stone (monoliths), and were offerings to the sun-god Ra; the Sphinxes were symbols of the sun-god. Chronology: The Egyptians filled the space before Mena, the first of the liistoric line of kings, by the assumption of three dynas- ties of gods, demi-gods, and "the mysterious manes." The list of kings after Mena was given at length by the priest Manetho (about 250 B. c), in his history of Egypt. He arranged them in tliirty dy- nasties, a division which is still used. To reconcile the names and dates given by Manetho with the records upon the monuments is a difficult matter, owing in part to the fact that several of the dynasties of Manetho probably reigned contemporaneously in different parts of Egypt, that it was the custom for a king to associate liis son with himself during the latter part of liis reign, and that the son after- wards reckoned his reign from the date of such association. Hence the systems of chronology, drawn up by Egyptologists, vary greatly. There are, in general, two schools: (1.) The long chronology, advo- cated on the continent, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary from 1 See Duncker, History of Antiquity, I. 180. 2 Lepsius saw traces and remains of sixty-seven pyramids; Brugsch of more than seventy. 4 Ancient History. b. c. 5702 (Boeekh) to 3623 (Bunsen). (2.) The short chronology, advo- cated in England, wherein the dates assigned to Mena vary between 2700 and 2440. In the following pages the clironology of Lepsius is followed, with the exception of the date assigned to Mena, which Lepsius gives as 3892 b. c. These dates should be compared with the lists given by Brugsch ^ and by Rawlinson.'^ Before 3000. The old empire of the Egyptians, in the lower val- ley of the Nile, founded according to Egyptian tradition by Mena^ (Menes). Capital : Memphis. 2800-2700 (?). The kings Khufu, Khafra, Menkaura (according to Herodotus, Cheops, Chephren, Mykerinos), the builders of the largest pyramids. IVth dynasty (Memphis) called the " Pyramid dynasty." About 2400. Removal of the centre of government of the empire to Thebes. Of the princes of this line the following deserve mention: Amenem- hat I. (2380-2371), who seems to have extended the power of Egypt up the Nile and over a part of Nubia ; Usurtasen I. (2371-2325) who continued the conquests of his predecessor, and erected obelisks; Ame- nemhat II.; Usurtasen 11. ; Usurtasen III.; Amenemhat III. (2221- 2179) constructed lake Meri- (i. e. "lake of inundations "), a large reservoir for regulating the water supply of the Nile, and built S. of this lake the so-called Labyrmth, a large palace for ceremonial acts and sacrifices. These six monarchs belong to the Xllth dynasty (of Thebes). About 2100. Egypt conquered by the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. The Hyksos (derived from Hyk, king, and Schasu, shepherds, contracted into Sos) were wandering tribes of Semitic descent. About 1800. Thebes revolted against the rule of the Hyksos. Native rulers maintained themselves in Upper Egypt. After a long contest the Shepherd kings were driven out of Egypt com- pletely under King Aahraes (Amosis), of Thebes (1684-1659).^ Theii' epoch covers the Xlllth to XVIIth dynasties. 1670 — 525. The new empire (capital at first Thebes), under Thutmes III. {Thutmosis, 1591-1565 ; XVIIIth dynasty) increased rapidly in power and extent. 1524-1488. Under Thutmes and his successors, especially Amen- hotep III. (^Amenophis), successful expeditions against the Syrians {Ruthen) and against the Ethiopians in the south. 1 History of Egypt. Appendix, See also I. 37, and xxxii. note 1. 2 History of Egypt, or Manual of History, p. 61, and foil. 3 The royal nomenclature of the Egyptians is as picturesquely varied as their chronology. I have given first some form of the true Egyptian name, as found on the monuments, generally that adopted by Brugsch, and have followed it by the more common name, as given by Manetho, Herodotus, or the Jewish Scrip- tures, in parentheses. [Trans.] 4 Called by the Greeks Mc&ris (MoZpos, Herod. I. 101), and erroneously inte^ preted as a royal name. * X>uncker, Histoi^y of Antiquity, I. 130, and foil. B. c. Egyptians. 5 Erection of magnificent palaces and temples at Thebes. (Ruins near the present villages of Carnac, Luxor, and Medi- net' Abu; near the latter two sitting colossi, statues of Amen- hotep, one of which the Greeks called the musical Statue of Memnon.) 1438-1388. Similar success in war fell to the lot of Seti I. (Setkos), Expeditions to Ethiopia, Arabia, and to the Euphrates. Tem- ple of Ammon on the left bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes. His son, 1388-1322. Ramessu II., the Great (Sestu-Ra, Ramses), was victorious in the early part of his reign, but could not long maintain his supremacy over Syria (XlXth dy- nasty). In spite of this a peculiar tradition transformed him into that mili- tary hero whom the Greeks knew as Sesostris (Herodotus, II. 102- 110), or Sesoosis (Diod. Sic. I. 53-58), and to whom they ascribed fabulous expeditions to Thrace and India. This tradition seems to have had its origin m the bombastic expressions common to the royal inscriptions of the Egyptians, and in poetic exaltations of his earlier victories. In the Greek account we have besides a confusion of recol- lections of the glorious deeds of Thutmes and Amenhotep, of Seti and Ramessu III. During his long reign he covered Egypt with magnificent buildmgs. Splendid palace known as "the House of Ramses," south of Carnac; temple of Ammon, 400 miles above Syene. Commencement of a canal between the Red Sea and the Nile. Ramessu II. was probably the oppressor of the Hebrews. Under his successor, 1322-1302. Mineptah, i. e. " beloved of Ptah," occurred the exo- dus of the Hebrews from Egypt (see page 8).^ 1269-1244. Ramessu III. (Ehampsinitus, XXtli dynasty). Successful resistance offered to the Libyan and Semitic tribes; expeditions as far as Phoenicia and Syria. (Story of the theft from the treasury, Herodotus, II. 121.) 1244-1091. Decay of the empire under the later kings of the name of Ramses. 1091. A new dynasty (XXL) came to the throne with King Hirhor (Smendes). The seat of their power was Tanis, in the Delta, whence they are called Tanites. Loss of supremacy over Ethiopia, where the kingdom of Na- pata or Meroe was founded. 961-940. Shashang I. (Sesonchis, Shisak), from Bubastis, founded a new dynasty (XXII.).^ He undertook (949) a successful ex- pedition against Judoea. Jerusalem conquered and plundered. 1 It may have occurred under his successor of the same name; rhe date of whose reign, as well as the reigns of the kings immediately preceding, would have to be placed several decades earher, in agreement with Duncker and Masoero. '^ The opinion of Brugsch, History of Egypt, TI. 198, that an Assyrian con- quest of Egypt occurred at this time, and that Shashany I. was the son of the c'»!iqueror, Nimrod, king of Assyria, has not found favor among Egyptologists, LTkans.] 6 Ancietit History. B. a 730. The Ethiopians, under Shahak (Sabako), conquered Egypt, which they governed for fifty-eight years mider three succes- sive kings. (XXVth dynasty.) 672. An expedition of the Assyrians, under Esarhaddon (p. 15) against Egypt. The king of the Assyrians and his son, Asshur- hanipal (Sardanapalus), put an end to the rule of the Ethi- opians (under Taharak or Tirhakah, the second successor of Shabak), and entrusted the government of Egypt to twenty governors, most of whom were natives. 653. One of these governors, Psamethik, in alliance with Gi/ges, king of Lydia, with the help of Carians, Phoeni- cians, and lonians, made himself independent of Assyria, and sole ruler of Egypt (XXVIth dynasty, of Sa'is). The tale of the twelve native princes (the Dodecarchy of Herod- otus and Diodorus), according to which Psammeticus defeated his eleven co-regents at Momemphis, is not historical. The number, 12, is derived from the twelve courts of columns in the Labyrinth, which, according to Herodotus and Diodorus, was built by the twelve princes, whereas this gigantic builduig had already been standhig 1500 years (p. 4). 653-610. Psamethik I., king of Egypt, from the mouths of the Nile to Elephantine, above which place the Ethio- pians held the supremacy. (XXVIth dynasty.) New capital, Sais, in the Delta, where Psamethik built a magnifi- cent palace. Egypt opened to foreigners, who were favored m the army and settled at various points. Caste of Interpreters. Greek factory at Naucrdtis. Dissatisfaction among the military caste ; emi- grations upward along the Nile to Ethiopia. Psamethik carried on wars in Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine; they were probably undertaken in the first instance to strengthen his frontier against a new attack by the Assyrians, which he dreaded. These wars led to no lasting conquests. The son of Psamethik, 610-595. Neku {Necho), revived the plan of Ramses to unite the Nile and the Red Sea by a canal, but did not succeed in carrying it out. By his orders Africa was circumnavigated by Phoenician seamen. He undertook expeditions to Syria where he was at first successful, and defeated the king of Judali in the battle of Megiddo (609), but was afterwards defeated by the Babylonians in the 605. Battle of Carchemish. Loss of all his conquests in Asia. Neku's son, 596-589. Psamethik II. Expedition against Ethiopia without suc- cess. His son, 589-570. Hophra (Apries), fought without lastmg success against Nebuchadnezzar, and sent help to the tribes of Libya against Cyrene. His defeated army revolted, and he was defeated at the head of Ionian and Carian mercenaries, captured and strangled. B. c. Jews. 7 570-526. Aahmes (Amasis'), an Egyptian of low origin, ascended the throne. Encouragement of foreigners, especially of the Greeks, carried still farther; numerous Grecian temples erected in Naucrdtis. Friendship with Cyrene and Polycrates of Samos. Magnificent buildings, especially m Sals. The son of Amasis, 525. Psamethik III., defeated in the battle of Pelusium by Cambyses. Egypt a Persian province. § 2. JEWS (HEBREWS, ISRAELITES). Seniitic. Geography. The land of the Jews is bounded N. by Coelo-Syria^ W. by Phoenicia, the Mediterranean, and the laud of the Philistines^ S. by Arabia Petrcea; E. by the Arabian Desert. The name Canaan,^ i. e. " low laud," was originally applied to the region along the coast, but was at an early date extended to the inland country. The names Canaanite and Phoenician have properly the same mean- ing; the first was the Semitic, the second the Grecian name for the inhabitants of the whole land before the Jewish conquest. Palestine was originally the name of the southern coast-land, which was so called after the Semitic tribe of the Philistines (Pelishtim) which had possession of it, but was transferred by Egyptians and Greeks to the land occupied by the Jews. In the Bible the country is called " the promised land," i. e. the land promised by Jehovah to the children of Israel. The river Jordan, which rises in the mountain range of Antilebanon and empties into the Dead Sea (Sodom, Gomorrah), runs through the middle of the coimtry. After the Jewish conquest the country was divided into the twelve provinces of the twelve tribes ; after the death of Solomon mto the kingdoms of Judah and Israel; at the time of Christ into /oar districts: 1. Judsea {Jerusalem, Hebr. Jerushala'im; Greek 'UpoaSAvfia, wdth the fortress of Zion and the Temple on Mt. Moriah; Bethlehem,, Jericho, Joppa, now Jaffa, on the coast) ; 2. Sama- ria \^Samaria, Sichem); 3. Galilaea (Nazareth, Capernaum on the sea of Tiberias or Genezareth, Cana) ; east from Jordan 4. Peraea. In the country of the Philistines, the coast region between Pales- tine and Egypt: Ashdod, Ascalon, Gaza, Ekron, Gath. Chronology.^ As is the case with the earliest history of all na- tions, the chronology of Jewish history is uncertain. There is a long and a short system, but here the short system found favor on the con- tinent, whQe the long system prevails in England. 2000 (?)• Abraham {Ahram), Patriarch of the Hebrews (i. e. "those from the other side," because they immi- grated from Ur in Babylonia) , Israelites, or Jews. According to the traditions of the Hebrews, Abraham had two sons: Ishmael by Hagar, the ancestor of the Ishmaelites (Arabians); and IsacLCf by his lawful wife Sarah. The son of Isaac by Rebekah, Jacob 1 Cf. Kiepert, Atlns ontiquus, Tab. III. 2 Cf . Duacker, History of Antiquity, II. 112, note. 8 Ancient History. b. a or Israel, the tnie tribal ancestor of the Hebrews. Jacob's twelve sons : by Leah — Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, Zehulon: by Eachel — Joseph, Benjamin^ by Bilhah — Dan, Naphtali; by Zilpah — Gad, Asher. 1550 (?)• Joseph. The tribe of the Hebrews migrated to Egypt. They settled in the land of Goshen, on the right bank of the Pelusian mouth of the Nile. It is claimed that the master of Joseph was Apepi, the last of the Shepherd kmgs of Egypt (see p. 4, where the chronology does not agree with the theory, which, however, is no objection, as it could be easily made to conform.) 1320 (?)-^ Moses conducted the Hebrews out of Egypt. Ten commandinents at Mt. Sinai. The laws of Moses. About 1250. The Israelites (Joshua) after a long nomadic life in the peninsula of Sinai and on the east of Jordan conquered the Promised Land, but without entirely subjugating the former inhabitants. Theocracy, i. e. the nation was under the immediate guidance of Jehovah. The office of the high priest was hereditary in the family of Aaron, the brother of Moses. The Tabernacle, a portable temple or holy tent. The Ark of the Covenant. To the family of Levi (son of Jacob-Israel) was given the exclusive care and service of the taber- nacle and all things used in the religious ceremonial. The other twelve tribes (named from ten sons of Jacob (see above) and two sons of Joseph, Ephraim and Manasseh) settled in separate districts, wliich were more or less cut off from one another by remnants of the former mhabitants, and formed an exceedingly loose union of twelve small states under tribal chiefs, which was at times hard pressed by neighboring tribes. Judges (Shofetim) : men raised up by Jehovah in times of need, especially military leaders in the wars against the Canaanite tribes: Amorites (of whom the Jebusites were a part), Amalekites, IlittiteSy Hivites, and against the Philistines, Midianites, Ammonites, Moabites. Judges : Ehud ; the heroine Deborah ; Gideon, conqueror of the Mid- ianites; Jephthah, conqueror of the Ammonites; Samson, the terror of the Philistines. 1070. The Philistines subjugated the whole country tliis side Jor- dan. At the demand of the people, Samuel, the last "Judge in Israel,** anointed a brave man of the tribe of Benjamin, 1055 (?). Saul, as king of the Jews. Victory of Saul over the Moabites, Philistines, Edomites, and Amaleh' ites. Samuel, being at variance with Saul, anointed David, from the tribe of Judah, as king, at the command of Jehovah. David fled to the Philistmes from the persecution of Saul. Saul defeated by the Philistines, put an end to his life (1033 ?). For seven years David 1 English scholars place the Exodus at 1652 or 1491. B. C. was reco^ized as king by the tribe of Jiidah only, the other cribes under the intiuenee of the captain, Abner, adhering to JSaul's son, hh' tosheth. After the murder of Abner and Ish-bosheth, all the tribes acknowledged David as king in the assembly at Hebron. 1025 (?)• David. Kingdom of the Jews at the highest point of its power. David wrested Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and made it his residence. He restramed the Philistines within their own borders. His sway extended from the N.E. end of the Red Sea to Damascus. Erection of a royal palace at Zioji. Ark of the Covenant placed in Jerusalem. Organization of the army. Religious poetry of the Hebrews at the height of its development. The Psalms. Revolt and death of Absalom (Ahithophel). David passed over his son Adonijah, by Hag- gith, and other sons, and appomted his son by Bathsheba his successor. 993 (?)• Solomon. Erection of the Temple of Jehovah and a new palace in Jerusalem, with the aid of workmen from Tyre. Magnificent court. Standing army. Extensive com- merce. Defection of Damascus. Foundation of Tadmor in an oasis of the Syrian desert. At the close of Solomon's reign, toleration of foreign idolatry in Jerusalem. After the death of Solomon, 953 (?)j Division of the kingdom of the Jews.^ The tribe of Judah, the tribe of Simeon, which had become imited with Judah, and a part of Benjamin with the Levites, remained true to Rehoboam the son of Solomon, and formed the Kingdom cf Judah (capital, Jerusalem); the other tribes, under Jeroboam, formed the Kingdom of Israel farther north (capital at first Sichem, still later Samaria and Jezreel). These two kingdoms were frequently at war with one another. Kingdom of Israel. After the death of the energetic Jeroboam (953-927), liis son Na- dab was murdered by the captam Baasha, who ascended the throne (925). His son and successor Elah was slain by Zimri; Tibni and Omri disputed the throne, but Omri prevailed m the end (899). The son of Omri, Ahab, married Jezebel, prmcess of Tyre, whereby the practice of Phcenician idolatry (Baal and Astarte) was extended in Israel. Contest of the Prophets (Elijah, Elisha, etc.) -with the idola- trous monarchy. Israel and Judah united for a short time. Ahab's Bon Ahaziah (853-851). The captain Jehu, anointed king by Elisha, slew the brother of Ahaziah, Joram (851-843), and put to death Jezebel and seventy sons and grandsons of Ahab. Jehu (843-815) destroyed the temple of Baal and put to death the priests of that god. Decline of Israel's power, which was oidy temporarily revived by the 1 About the chronology, cf. Duncker, II. 234, not«. The long system gives 975 b. c. 10 Ancient History, B. 0« fourth king of the line of Jehu, Jeroboam II. (790-749). After the fall of the house of Jehu, the kingdom of Israel became tributary to the Assyrians. Tiglath-Pileser conquered the northeastern part of the kingdom. Hoshea, the last king of Israel (734), tried to free his country from the Assyrian yoke, but was defeated and captured by Shalmaneser IV. After a three years' siege, 722.^ Samaria was captured by Sargon, king of the Assyr- ians, the Kingdom of Israel was destroyed, and a part of the people carried away and settled in Assyria and Media. Kingdom of Judah. In the reign of Rehohoam the country was overrun by the Egyptians under the Pharaoh Shashang (Shishak). Sack of Jerusalem (949). Rehohoam' s grandson Asa (929-873) abolished idolatry, which was prohibited by the law. He was compelled to buy assistance from the king of Damascus against Baasha of Israel. Energetic reign of his son Jehoshaphat (873-848). In the hope of put- ting an end to the war with the Kingdom of Israel, Jehoshaphat mar- ried his son Jehoram (848-844) to Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab of Israel and Jezebel. After the son of Athaliah, Ahaziah, was murdered wliile on a visit to the king of Israel, together with the whole royal family of the Kmgdom of Israel as above described (p. 9), Athaliah (843-837) seized the supreme power in Jerusalem, put to death her own grandchildren in order to destroy the tribe of David, Joash alone being miraculously rescued and brought up m the Temple of Jehovah, and introduced the worship of Baal in Jerusalem. Athaliah was over- thrown and put to death by the high priest Jehoiada, and the young Joash raised to the throne. The worship of Baal was abolished. Joash (837-797) was obliged to purchase the retreat of the army from Damascus which was besieging Jerusalem. Murder of Joash, Under his son Amaziah (797-792) Jerusalem was captured by the Israelites; the Temple and palace plundered. Amaziah was murdered; but his son Uzziah (Azariah, 792-740) successfully resisted the mur- derers and raised the kingdom again to a position of power and au- thority. The Prophet Isaiah. Under the successors of Amaziah, the Kingdom of Judah, hard pressed by the Kingdom of Israel and by Damascus, became tributary to the Assyrians. King Hezekiah (728-697) again abolished idolatry, refused to pay tribute to the Assyrians, and allied himself with the Egyptians. The Assyrians under Sennacherib besieged Jerusalem in vain, but carried off many of the inhabitants of the open country into captivity. Hezekiah^s son Manasseh (697-642) transformed the Tem- ple of Jehovah into a temple of Astarte, and sacrificed to Baal and Moloch in spite of the opposition of the prophets ; he submitted again to the Assyrians, was carried captive to Babylon, but in the end re- 1 In the date 722, the Hebrew chronology agrees with that of the Assyriaa monuments. Cf. Schrader, Die Keilinschriften u. das alte Testament, 1872; 1882, and M^nant, Annates des Rois d'Assyrie. 1874. R. C.-A. D. Jeivs, 11 stored to his throne. Under his grandson Josiah (640-609), the coun- try was ravaged by Scytliians. Religious reaction against idolatry (Jeremiah). Reformation of the worship of Jehovah, according to the book of the law of Moses which was rediscovered in the Temple (622). King Josiah fell in the battle of Megiddo (609) against the Egyptian kmg Necho (Neku). The Kingdom of Judah subject to the Egyptians, and, after the de- feat of Necho at Carchemish (605), to the Babylonians. Jehoiakim en^ deavored to revolt, but was put to death. His son, Jehoiachiriy was carried mto captivity with many of his subjects by the Babylonians (597). An attempt on the part of the last king, Zedekiah, to regain independence was unsuccessful in spite of Egyptian assistance. Jeru- salem was besieged (588-586) ; an Egyptian army advancmg to its relief was defeated and compelled to retreat. 586. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, captured Jerusa- lem. Destruction of the city and burning of the Temple. Many of the Jews were slain ; those who were left were carried into the Babylonian captivity. (The prophet Ezekiel.) 637. The Jews sent back to Palestine by Cyrus. Rebuilding of the Temple (Zerubbabel), which was not completed, however, un- til the time of Darius I. (516). The Jews subject at first to the Persians (538-332), then to Alexander the Great (332-323), afterwards to the Ptolemies (323-198), finally to the Seleu- cid kings of Syria (198-167). 167-130. Emancipation of the Jews by the Maccabees, or Asmoneeans, after a struggle lasting nearly fourteen years. Leaders : the priest Mattathias, and his five sons, especially Judas Maccabseus. A great-grandson of Mattathias, Aristohulus, assumed the title of king (105). Under his successors, strife between the Pharisees and Sadducees. 63. Pompeius, called in to help the Pharisees, made the Jews tribu- tary to the Romans. 40. Herod (the Great), son of the Idnmsean Antipater, recognized by the Roman Senate as dependent king ofJudcea. Birth of Christ (four years before the beginning of our era?). 6 A. D. After a short reign of the three sons of Herod, Judsea be- came a part of the Roman Province of Syria. (Two Te- trarchies, however, remained independent: Galilcea, until 32 A. D. ; Percea, until 33 A. d.) 41-44. Judsea again a dependent kingdom under Herod Agrippa /., a grandson of Herod the Great; then a Roman province again. Agrippa II. was made kmg over a small portion in dependence on Rome. 66. Revolt of the Jews against the Romae supremacy, ending in the 12 Ancient History. B. a 70. Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus. A large part of the Jews assembled in Jerusalem for the observance of the passover perished by starvation and the Roman sword ; many thousands were taken captive to Rome. (The historian Josephus.) 132-135. Another uprisal of the Jews, under Hadrian, on account of the foundation of the colony, jElia Capitolina, on the site of Jerusalem, wherem more than half a million perished. Dis- persal of a great part of the survivors ; nevertheless a consid- erable number remained in Palestine. §3. BABYLONIANS AND ASSYRIANS. Semitic. Geography : Babylonia,^ called by the Hebrews Shinar, is the country lying between the Euphrates and Tigris, and stretchmg from the point where these rivers approach one another, about 350 miles from their mouth, to where they empty mto the Persian Gulf by sev- eral arms, as Pasitigris (now Shatt-el-Arab). In the neighborhood of the present vUlage of Hillah stood Babylon (in the Babylonian form, Bahilu, called by the Hebrews Babel, i. e. gates or dwellmg of the god Bel), a huge rectangular city, situated, since the time of Nebu- chadnezzar, on both banks of the Euphrates, about thirty-four miles in circumference (Clitarchus; Herodotus gives about forty-five miles), and surrounded by two brick walls of unusual thickness and height. The city was large enough to afford a refuge to a great number of the inhabitants of the country durmg incursions of nomadic tribes, and contained fields of considerable extent, woods, and gardens. In Baby- lon: (a.) The temple of Bel (Tower of Babel), a huge square build- ing of brick, consisting of eight diminishmg stories rising iti pyramidal form. It is said to have been originally 600 feet high.^ (p.) Two Palaces, the one on the east side of the Euphrates having the Hanging Gardens, the construction of which is wrongly ascribed to Semiramisy and wliich were terraced pleasure grounds. Assyria (Asshur) is bounded on the N. by the highlands of Arme- nia, on the E. by the plateau of Iran, on the S. by the Didla, a branch of the Tigris, and on the W. by the Tigris itself. The smaller region called Assyria by the Greeks lay within this territory, between the Tigris and its branch, the Great Zab, which flows into the Tigris below the present Mosul. On the Tigris stood Nineveh (Ninua, "the Palace," t) Nti/oj) surrounded with huge walls. The ruins lie opposite the present Mosul. Oldest residence of the kings, Asshur; afterwards founded, Calah; founded by Sargon, Dur-Sarrukin (Khorsabad). Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians. The religion of the Semitic peoples, with the exception of the Hebrews, was a worship of nature, wherein divinity was conceived as the personified force of na- 1 See Kiepert, Atlns Antiquus, Tab. II. 2 Accordinuf to Oppert {Expcd. Sclent, en Mesopotamie) the temple of Bel is to be soufrht in the ruins of Burs-Nimrud (on the site of old Borslppa). Raw- linson ( Tlie Five Great Monarchies of the East) disputes this, because Borsippa was a separate village lying outside the walls of the capital until the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, and linds the Tower of Babel in a great quadrangular ruin called Babil, by the Arabs, on the east bank of the Euphrates in Babylon. B. c. Babylonians and Assyrians. 18 ture in human form, male and female. Among the gods of the Baby- lonians the oldest was El, among those of the Assyrians, ^ss^t/r. The third, Bel (Baal), the " Lord of all," appeared as the creative, but also the destructive force in Nature. The goddess Belit or Baaltis (in Herodotus Mylitta), the queen and mother of the gods, is the fruitful and reproductive principle, the goddess of love, fertility, and birth. Her opposite is Istar, the goddess of war and destruction. Confused with Belit is the goddess who brings alternately life and blessing, death and destruction (like the Ashera-Astarte of the Phoe- nicians and Carthaginians). In Babylon there was a complicated sys- tem of star-worship. The Chaldeans, or caste of priests, in Babylon, possessed some astronomical and astrological skill. This name was properly that of the Semitic population of Babylonia, but western writers applied it chiefly to the priests. Civilization. An exact system of weights and measures, which was used far outside the borders of Babylonia. Cuneiform writing, a system of characters formed by the gradual abbreviation of hiero- glyphics. Magnificent structures of brick. System of canals for the irrigation of the country, and for the regulation of the yearly overflow of the Tigris and Euphrates. Important manufacturing industries and extensive commerce. Chronology. An astronomical system and a mythical history closely resembling the Biblical account of the creation and deluge (epic of Izdhuber). The inscriptions give manj^ names ; but few dates are satisfactorily established before 900 b. c. 4000-731. Old Babylonian (so-called Chaldcean) Em- pire. 4000-3000. Civilization, originating, perhaps, in a non-Semitic people (Sumir and Accadf), was adopted, with the cuneiform loriting, by a Semitic people, who came, probably, from the S. Independent, hostile cities: Ur, Erech, Larsam ; Agade (Accad ?), Babylon. Sar- gon, 3800, reached the Mediterranean, Hammurabi united Babylonia.^ 2300-2076. Supremacy of Elam (Elymais, Susiana), a non-Semitic kingdom E. of Babylonia (the second dynasty of Berosus^). Kudurnanchundi ; Chedorlaomer (Gen. xiv.). About 2000. Babylonia, after 300 years, again independent. About 1900. Assyria settled by emigrants from Babylonia (Nimr- rod?). 1525-1257. Cassiie kings of Babylonia (the Arabians of Berosus). 1500-710. Constant wars with Assyria. Final subjugation of Babylonia after the revolts of Merodach-Baladan. 1 Hammurabi's code of laws (about 2200 B. c.) was latel.v discovered. 2 Berosus, at the time of Alexander, compiled from Babylonian records a history in Avliich he mentioned the followin^^ dynasties (dates from Delitzsch). Ante-diluman, ten kin^s, 432,000 vears. Post-diluvian: I. Eighty-six kinp-s, S'S,(m years. II. F.i<,rht Median tyrants, 224 years (2300-2076). III. Eleyen kings. IV. Forty-nine Chnldvean kings, 458 vears (1983-1525). V. Nine Aror Wan kings, 245 years (1525-1257). VI. Forty-tive kings, 526 years (1257^731). 14 Ancient History. b. c. 1900-608 (605). Assyrian Empire (p. 12). Colonized, probably, from Babylonia (Gen. x.), Assyria grad- ually o-rew into a powerful rival of the mother-state. The chronol- ogy falls into five periods.^ I. 1900-1500. II. 1500-1300. Wars with Babylonia, ending in Babylonian overlordship. III. 1220-930. Assyria again independent. IV. S30-626 (?). Brilliant epoch. V. 626 (?)-608 (005). Fall of the empire. 1900-930. Of the first three periods little is known. Tiglath-Adar L, about 1310, conquered Babylonia, but Assyria was soon subju- gated. Tiglath-Pileser I., 1115-1105, conquered from Bagdad and Babylon to the Mediterranean. 930-626 (?). Brilliant epoch of Assyrian history. The inscrip- tions become frequent, full, and exact. It v/as a time of ex- pansion, conquest, and great activity in architecture, sculpture, and literature. Among the kings may be mentioned : 886-858. Asshur-natzir-pal.2 (Sardanapalus) . Military expedi- tions to Zagros, Armenia^ Babylonia, Syria. Erection of a palace at Calah. His son, 858-823. Shalmaneser II., fought with Ahab in Syria and subju- gated Jehu. 810-781. Ramannirari captured Damascus and made Samaria and Philistia tributary. His wife Sammuramit (^S emir amis). A tradition of later growth reported by the Greeks {Diodorm on the authority of Ctesias) coimects the establishment of the Assyrian supremacy over almost the whole of western Asia, the buildui^j' of Nineveh and Babylon, with the names of the king Ninus and his con- sort Semiramis. Both Ninus (son of the god Bel) and Semiramis (daughter of the goddess Mylitta) are mythical creations, into whose reigns tradition has condensed the deeds of a long series of warlike rulers, so that no achievements were left for their successors, and these from Ninyas down appear as effeminate weaklings. Ninus is unknown to the Assyrian monuments, and Semiramis first appears in the ninth century. On the other hand we know that a goddess answering to Istar-Belit was worshipped in Syria under the name of Semiramis. Medo-Persian bards seem to have changed the divinities Bel and Istar-Belit mto heroes, and have formed the names Ninus and Ninyas from the name of the city Ninua (Nineveh).^ 745-727. Tiglath-Pileser II. (identical with the king Pul men- tioned in the Bible) (see p. 13) made Babylonia, wliich was at that time divided into several states, western Iran, Armenia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judah and Israel, subject to Assyria. 727-722. Shalmaneser IV. suppressed the revolt of the Phoenician cities and the Kingdom of Israel. 722-705. S argon (Sarrukin) conquered Samaria and destroyed the Kingdom of Israel (see p. 10). He received tribute from Arabia, Egypt, and Cyprus, suppressed revolts in Armenia, Media, and Babylonia, and imited the latter with Assyria (710) ^ Delitzsoh. 2 Formerlv called Asshur-idanni-pal. Rawlinson, Five Great Monarchies, II. 246, note' 10. ^ Duncker, II. 17. Schrader, Die Keilinschri/ten, etc. Me-n&nt, AnnaleSf •tc Lenormant, Lettres Assyriologiques. Smitli, Assyrian Biscoverie*. B. C. Babylonians and Assyrians. 15 Residence : Dur-Sarrukirij now Khorsahad, not far from Nine- veh. His son, 705-681. Sennacherib (Sin-akhi-irib) retained his hold upon Baby. Ionia in spite of repeated insurrections, but was unsuccessful in his wars with Egypt and Judah, and lost the supremacy over Syria. Fleet in the Persian Gulf. Foundation of Tarsus. His son, 681-668. Esarhaddon (Asshur-akh-iddin) suppressed a new revolt of the Babylonians, reconquered Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Ju- dah, and a part of Arabia, and in 672 conquered Egypt from the Ethiopians, entrusting the government to 20 governors, most of whom were natives (see p. 6). Assyria at the height of her power. One of his sons was made viceroy of Babylonia, the other, 668-626. Asshur-bani-pal {Sardanapalus'), defended Egypt, at first with success, against the kings of Ethiopia and native in- surrections, but lost it in 653 by the revolt of Psammeticua (see p. 6). On the other hand he strengthened the Assyrian power in Syria, Arabia, Cilicia, as well as in Babylonia, where his brother had revolted, conquered the Kingdom of Elam, and received tribute from Lydia. Erection of magnificent palaces. Foundation of a library at Nineveh. Highest development of Assyrian art. About 640 (650). Revolt of the Medes. Of the Medes little is known until they were attacked by the Assyrians about 830 b. c. About 710 their resistance was broken and their country was soon subjected tc Assyria, and so continued until about 640. Phraortes (Fravartis), son of Defaces (Dahydvka), a petty chief among the Medes, revolted but fell m battle. 633. His son Cyaxares (JJvakhshatara) continued the struggle, which was, however, soon interrupted by the 632. Irruption of Scythian tribes which had wandered about western Asia, plundering as they went, as far as the bor- ders of Egypt, for 28 years it is said, though 8 is the more prob- able number. After Cyaxares had rid the country of them, he made another attack on Assyria, which had been much weakened by the Scythians. For the purpose of destroying the Assyr- ian kingdom, Cyaxares allied himself with the Chaldean Nabo- polassar (Nabu-habal-usur), Assyrian governor of Babylon since 625, who had made himself independent. Desperate struggle with the Assyrian king Sarakos (Asshur-ebil-ili)^ 626-608 (625 ?), son of Sardanapalus V. After a long siege, 608 (605 ?i) Nineveh was taken and destroyed; as the enemy broke into the city, Sarakos set fire to the royal palace and perished in the flames with his wives and treasurer. End of the Kingdom of Assyria. Nahopolassar united with Baby- 1 The date is doubtful. Herodotus implies a date as late as 608-605. Be- rosus (as reported by Ahydenus and Polyhistor) gives 625. The former date is advocated by Clinton and Duncker (History of Antiq., III. 206-292), the latter by G. Rawlinson (Five Great Monarchies, II. 391, note 5), and lienormant {Lettres Assyriologioues, I § 12, esp. pp. 84, 85). Delitiaoh 608 IS Ancient History. B, c. lonia the whole of northern Mesopotamia on the right bank o£ the Tigris, the rest falling to the share of Cyaxdres} who had already subjugated Armenia and the Iranian portions of the kingdom of Assyria. The Grecian story of the effeminate Sardanapalus (Ctesias in Dio- dorus, II.) is the counterpart of their tales about the masculine Semi^ ramis. According to this story, Sardanapalus, on the fall of the city, burns himself upon a magnificent bier, 400 feet high, which burns for 15 days. This story seems to be an application of the myth of the god who burned himself and rose from the flames, whom the Semitic peoples associated with Istar (Astarte), and whose nature they con- founded with hers.^ 608 (605)-538. (New) Empire of Babylon. After the Assyrian conquest of Babylonia, about 710 (see p. 14), the latter country continued subject to Assyria, with intervals of rebellion, until the successful combination of NahopolaS' sar and Cyaxdres destroyed the power of Assyria. Babylon then took the lead among the nations of the East, rivalled by Media alone. 604-561. Nebuchadnezzar {Nahu-kudur-ussur), son of Na- bopolassar, during the reign of his father defeated Necho, kmg of Egypt, at Carckemisch on the Euplirates (605), conquered Syria, destroyed Jerusalem (586), and subdued Tyre (585). Enlargement and adornment of Babylon (on the east bank of the Euphrates). Construction of a bridge over the Euphrates, and of a new palace, with the " hanging gardens " which tradi- tion assigns to Semiramis. Erection of the Median wall from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Magnificent water works. The reservoir at Sippara (Sepharvaim). After Nebuchadnezzar, rapid decline of the dynasty, which became extinct ia 555. 538. Babylon (last king Nahonetus, or Nahunahid, reigning in conjunction with his son Bel-shar-ussur, the Biblical Belshazzar) taken by Cyrus. Babylon a Persian prov- ince. § 4. PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS. Semitic. (Down to the war of the latter with the Romans.) Geography.3 Phoenicia (^oi.piK7), Phoenice) is the Grecian name of Canaan (see p. 7), and was derived from the tribal name f^olvi^. In the narrower sense the name denotes the strip of coast, 5-14 miles wide and 150 miles long, which lies N. of the country of the Philistmes and the Hebrews and W. of Mt. Leb- anon. This strip was inhabited by three tribes : 1. Sidonians, i. e. " fishers " (cities: Sidon, Zor, called by the Greeks Tyros) ^ 2. Arvadites (city : Arvad, in Greek Arados); 3. Giblitea (cities : Byblus or Gehal, and Berytos). Religion of the Phoenicians. The god Baal (Bel, of the Babylo- 1 For the Median Empire, see p. 25. 2 Duncker, II. chapter i. ; also HI. 265. 8 Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. III. B. c. Phcenicians and Carthaginians. 17 iiians) and tlie goddess Ashera (Baaltis, Belit of the Babylo- nians), the divinities of life, birth, and the genial forces of na^- ture, were opposed to the god Moloch (i. e. "king," the Babylonian ^c?a?'), the devouring and destroying, and yet cleans- mg fire, also god of war, and the maiden goddess Astarte. Human sacrifices: to Moloch^ boys and youths ; to Astarte, youths and maidens. Afterwards Baal and Moloch were con- fused into one divinity, who, under the name of Melkart (i. e. " king of the city " ), became the guardian divmity of Tyre. In the same way ^sAera and Astarte were united into one divinity, who when represented as a grim wandering goddess vanishing with the changing light of the moon bears the name Dido, but when represented as a kind and gentle divinity newly restored to the knowledge of mankind that of Anna (i. e. " pleasant "). The Political Constitution of the Phcenician cities was an he- reditary monarchy, but the royal power was checked by the existence of two senates. 1300. Period of Sidon's greatest po"wer. Favored by the sit- uation of their country, and urged by an energetic industry which led to the invention or development of many arts and manufactures, such as purple dye, weaving, glass-making, min- ing, work in metals, and architecture, the Phcenicians estab- lished at an early period, certainly not later than 1500, a car- rying trade by land (to Babylonia, Arabia, Assyria, Armenia) as well as by sea, which time only made more extensive. In close connection with the commerce by sea was the foundation of numerous colonies. Thus in Cyprus were founded Citium, Ama- thus, Paphos, the centre of the worship of Ashera, whence originated the Grecian worship of Aphrodite, that goddess " born of the foam of the sea " (i. e. whose cidt came to Greece by sea). Other colonies were founded in Cicilia, Rhodes, Crete, Cythera, as well as on many of the islands of the -^gaean sea, and at points along the coast of Greece; further west, again, colonies were planted in Melite or Malta, in Sicily (on the southern coast Minoa, Gr. Heraklea, on the northern coast Soloeis (sela = " cliff "), Panormus (Machanath ?), at the western end of the island Motye), on Sardinia (^Cardlis), on the north coast of Af- rica (two cities of Leptis, Hadrumetum, Utica, the two towns of Hip*^ •do), in the country called Tarsls or Tarshish, i. e. southern Spainj beyond the columns of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar), Gadir or Gades, i. e. " walls," " fortress," now Cadiz, founded about 1100. From this point the Phcenicians extended their commercial deal- mgs still further to the western coasts of Africa, and to the Islands of Tin (the Cassiterides), Britain,^ and the coasts of the German Ocean, where they bought amber which the native tribes obtained by barter from the Baltic. Mythical representations of these voyages and settlements of the Phcenicians are contained in a series of well-known Grecian tales. 1 English antiquarians of the present day consider it probable that the Phoe- nicians never set foot e'ther in the Scilly Isles or in Britain, but received what British tin they did obtain, at second or third hand, from the Celts of Gaul O^eueti?). Tin was found in the river beds of western Gaul. [Trans.J 18 Ancient History, B. C. Story of the rape of Europa (i. e. " the grim "), daughter of PhoB-: nix (i. e. " the Phoenician ") from Sidon by Zeus in the form of a bull (whereby is denoted the moon-goddess Dido-Astarte, who flees to- wards the west). Story of Minos, the son of Zeus and Europa, the powerful ruler of Crete; his wife is Pasiphae (i. e. " she who shines upon all "). Story of the Minotaur (i. e. Bull of Minos, another con- ception of Baal-Moloch), shut up in the Labyrinth, to whom Athens had to send human offerings. Dcedalus, builder of the Labyrinth in Crete, is the personification of that technical dexterity which the Hel- lenes acquired from the Phoenicians. Cadmus, too, who in search of his sister Europa landed in Thera and Thasos, built the Cadmea in Boeotia, and invented the alphabet, is the mythical representative of Phoenician settlements from which the written alphabet and other elemelits of eastern civilization were carried to the Greeks. ^^ 1100. Tyre, though younger than Sidon, attained the first rank among the Phoenician sea-board towns. 1001-967. Tyre, at the height of its prosperity, under king Hiram, the contemporary of David and Solomon, and the lat- ter's friend. Exploring expedition of the Tyrians, accompanied by the servants of Solomon, through the Red Sea to the coast of India (Ophir). Hiram filled in the space between the island upon which stood the temple of Melkart, and New Tyre (which was also situated on an island), and erected buildings on the new land. He also narrowed the strait between New Tyre and Old Tyre on the main land. 917 (?). Ethhaal (Ithabalus), high priest of Astarte, murdered Phales, the last descendant of Hiram, and made himself king. About seventy (?) years later, according to a Grecian authority, a grandson of this Ethhaal decreed in his will that his minor son Pyg- malion and his daughter Elissa should govern Tyre in common under the guardianship of their uncle, the high priest Sicharbaal, who was to marry Elissa. The democratic party deprived Elissa of her share in the government, and Pygmalion, coming of age, murdered Sichar- baal. In consequence of this internal strife, and influenced probably by the unfavorable state of the foreign relations (advance of the Assyrian power towards the Mediterranean, see p. 15), a large part of the older families left Tyre with Elissa. On an excellent site, on the north coast of Africa, they founded about 850.^ Carthage ^ (in Punic, Kathada, i. e. " the new city "), between Utica in the W. and the present cape Bon m the E., not far from the present Tunis. Double harbor. Citadel Byrsa. Later the foundress, Elissa, became confused with the goddess, Dido-Astarte, the protectress of the colony.^ 1 According to Timseus, 814. Concerning the chronologv, see Duncker, II. 270. 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VIII. * The credibility of this narrative and the interpretations put upon it, both aa regards the chronology and the facts, are contested by O. Meltzer, Gesch. d. B. C. Phoenicians and Carthaginians. 19 Carthage, so far as it comes within the reabn of history, appears to have been an aristocratic republic, with two Sufetes, or judges, fre- quently called "kings," and compared with the Spartan kings, and two senates, a large and small. Only upon occasion of a disagree- ment between these branches of the government were the people called upon to give their opinion. The government tended constantly toward the oligarcliical form. 850. Decline of the power of the Phoenician cities, especially of Tyre, which was distracted by civil dissension. The Phcenicians fell repeatedly under the rule of the Assyrians, and, for a time, under that of the Egyptians. After the fall of the Assyr- ian empire (625, 606), they became dependent upon the Babylonians, Tyre alone maintauiing its freedom until 573. Favored by the political situation, the Greeks, who had already (about 1000) driven the Phoenicians out of the ^gean Sea, began to extend their influence in the eastern Mediterranean, and, especially after the second half of the eighth century, along the coasts and islands of the western Mediterranean, and in Lower Italy and Sicily (p. 51). Foundation of Cyrene (p. 49) and Massalia (about 600), attempted settlements upon Corsica, Sardinia, and the shores of Spain. In short, the Phoenician power was threatened with destruction throughout the entire West. Brought face to face with this danger, Carthage, wliich had mean* tmie gro\vn considerably stronger, began about 600 to gather the other Phoenician cities under its control, to subjugate the country around its own commercial stations, and to secure its possession by the establishment of new colonies. The Carthaginians annexed to their territory the African coast from Hippo in the W. to beyond Leptis in the E., and opposed armed resistance to the advancing power of Cyrene. In the peace wliich was concluded, the altars of the Phi^ Iceni, E. of Leptis, were made the boundary. The Carthaginians subjugated Southern Spain and Sardinia, and, with Etruscan aid, drove the Phocceans from Corsica (537 ?). 586-573. Tyre successfully endured a thirteen years' siege, from the land side, by Nebuchadnezzar, but was finally forced to acknowledge the supremacy of the king of Babylon. 638. After the destruction of the Babylonian monarchy, by Cyrus, Phoenicia became subject to Persia. The Phoenician cities, however, retained their independence and their native kings. The Phoenicians henceforth furnished the principal part of the Persian fleet. An expedition for the conquest of Carthage, proposed by Cambyses, king of Persia, after the con- quest of Egypt, was rendered impossible of execution by the refusal of the Phoenicians to fight against their colony. During the Persian supremacy, Sidon was again the first city of Phoenicia. The Carthaginians, favored by the civil dissensions of the Karthager, Bd. I., 1879, who admits the truth of these statements only: that Carthage was a Tynan colony, and was certainly founded before the eightli century. 20 Ancient History, B. c. Greeks in Sicily, and by the Persian war with Greece, attacked the I Greek colonies in Sicily (being secretly in alliance with Xerxes ?) 480. War of the Carthaginians, in alliance with Selinus, against the other Greek cities in Sicily. The Carthaginian army under Hamilcar was utterly defeated and scattered at Himera by the tyrants Gelon of Syracuse (^vpaKovaai) and J'heron of Agrigentum ('AKpoiyas)- The Carthaginians purcliased peace for 2000 talents, thereby sav-» ing their Sicilian cities, Panormus, Soloeis, Motye. 409-339. Repeated wars between the Carthaginians and Greeks in Sicily. The Carthaginians, called in to assist Segesta ("Eyeffra) against Seli- nus, after conquering Selinus, Himera, Agrigentum, and Gela, secured the supremacy over the western half of Sicily, a position which they maintained against all attempts of the tyrant Dionysius I. and Timo- leon, who restored republican liberty to the Grecian cities, to dislodge them. 332. Capture of the island city, New Tyre, by Alexander the Great after a seven months' siege. Phoenicia became a part of the great Graeco-Macedonian monarchy, and later a part of the kingdom of the Seleucidse, and for a time of that of the Ptolemies. 317-275. New wars between the Carthaginians and Greekg in Sicily. Agathdcles, tyrant of Syracuse, sought to bring all Sicily under his rule. The Carthaginians despoiled him of his conquests and besieged Syracuse. Agathdcles effected a landing in Africa (310), and overran a large part of the Carthaginian territory, while the Syracusans re- pulsed and annihilated the Carthaginian army under the walls of Syra- cuse. Agathocles returned to Sicily; his army, which he left before Carthage, was destroyed. In the peace with Syracuse the Cartha- ginians regained their former possessions in Sicily (306). After the death of Agathocles, party broils in Syracuse favored the advance of the Carthaginian power. Pyrrhus of Epirus, then in Tarentum, was called to the aid of the Syracusans (278). He was at first successful, but offending most of the Grecian cities by his sever- ity, they took sides with the Carthaginians, and Pyrrhus was forced to leave Sicily. On the voyage back to Italy he was defeated by a Carthaginian fleet (276). § 5. LYDIANS AND PHRYGIANS. Lydians. Semitic, Greography : Lydia, in the strict sense, or Mpeonia, was the middle one of the tliree divisions of Asia Minor \jing on the ^Egsean Sea, th( northern bemg Mysia, the southern Caria. Rivers: Hermus, Caystrus^ B. c. Lydians and Phrygians. 21 PacWlus (golden-sand) in Lydia; Mceander in Caria. Capital of Lydia: Sardes at the base of the I'molus range. The Lydians belonged to the Semitie raee, like the C'dicians, and probably the Carians, whereas the other peoples of Asia Minor were in all likelihood Aryans. The kingdom of Lydia at the period of its greatest extent re.aehed to the Halys river (now the Kisil Irmak), and ineluded, beside the countries mentioned above, Bithynia and Paphlagonia on the Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea), and the inland country of Phrygia. Religion : Worship of the sun-god Sandon, and the goddesses Bla (Mylitta-Ashera) and Ma (Astarte). The last two became united in one goddess, mider the name "the great mother" (Cyhele), who was worshipped in Ephesus as Artemis (Diana). Chronology : Lydia was ruled by two successive mythical dynas- ties, the Attyadce from Attys, son of the god Manes (prior to 1229), and the Sandonidce, who traced their origin to the god Sandon (1229- 724). The Greeks saw in this latter divinity their Heracles, and called this dynasty, therefore, the Heradidce. The last king of this line, Candaules, was murdered (689 ^ ) by his favorite Gyges in collu- sion with the king's consort. With Gyges the 689 2-549 (?). Dynasty of the Mermnadae came to the throne. Under these sovereigns the Lydian kingdom, after suffermg severely from the Cimmerians, and being at times subject to Assyria, grew in power and extent. Gyges himself extended his sway over Mysia and to the Hellespont. His two succes- sors conquered Phrygia, and carried on an unsuccessful war with the Grecian cities on the sea coast. Alyattes, the fourth of the Mermnadce, warred with Cyaxares, king of Media, with success. 610(?). Indecisive battle between Alyattes and Cyaxdres. Eclipse of the sun predicted by Thales of Miletus. In the treaty of peace the Halys was made the boundary between the Lydian and Median kingdoms. The daughter of Alyattes was given in marriage to Astyages, son of Cyaxdres. Alyattes sub- dued Bithynia and Paphlagonia in the north, Caria in the south, took Smyrna and Colophon, but failed to subdue the re- maining coast towns. A vast treasure collected in the royal palace at Sardes. Magnificent buildings. Ruins of royal tombs north of Sardes. I 563-549 (?). CrcBSUs, Son of Alyattes, captured Ephesus, and afterwards subdued all the Grecian cities 1 of the coast, Ionian, iEolian, and Dorian, with the exception of I Miletus, with which he formed a league. Active intercourse with I European Greece. Solon, of Athens, visited Sardes. After the 1 deposition of his brother-in-law Astyages, of Media, by Cyrus the Persian, Croesus attacked the Persian empire. Following the am- biguous advice of the Delphic oracle he crossed the Halys. Inde- ai cisive battle between Croesus and Cyrus at Pteria. Croesus returned 1 Eusebius, (599 ; Plerodotus, 719. a Duncker, Hist, oj Antiq., III. 414, note 2. 22 Ancient History. B. O, irresolutely to Sardes, whither he was followed by Cyrus, who de- feated him in a second battle, captured Sardes, and took Croesus prisoner (see p. 26). 549 (?). Fall of the kingdom of Lydia, which was united with the Persian empire. Phrygians. 750, or earlier, an independent monarchy was formed in N. Wl Phrygia, having its capital at Gordiceum. Its monarchs, thi dates of whose reigns are uncertain, bore the names of Gordicu and Midas alternately. A Midas contemporary with Alyat* tes (about 600-570), and a Gordias with Crcesus (570-560). Phrygia conquered by Lydia about 560. (Rawlinson.) § 6. INDIANS. Aryan. Geography : India, the central peninsula of the three which pro- ject from the southern coast of Asia into the Indian Ocean, is a vast triangle, having a base and a height of about 1900 miles, bounded on the N. by the Himalaya Mountains, on the E. by the Bay of Bengal, on the W. by the Gulf of Arabia. It falls into three geo- graphical divisions : I. The region of the Himalayas. The central range forms an almost impassable barrier between India and the Mongol tribes of central Asia (Mt. Everest, 29,000 ft.). On the E. this region is separated from Burmah by the lower ranges of the Ndgd, Patkoi, and Yomas (^Aeng Pass), which are pierced by the Brahmaputra. On the W. the Siifed Koh, Suldimdn, and the Hdlas separate India from Afghanistan and Baluchistan, but are pierced by the Indus River, the Khaihar Pass (3373 ft.), and the Boldn Pass (5800 ft.). This region includes Nepal and Kashmir. II. The fertile valley of the great rivers, which receives the drainage of the northern as well as of the southern slopes of the Hima- layas. River systems: Indus, Sutlej (provinces of Punjab, i. e. the five streams,^ Sind); Ganges (provinces of Bengal, Oudh, Rdjpu' tana ; cities : Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Allahabad) ; Bramaputra (province of Assam). Deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra. III. The Deooan, or southern plateau, separated from the Ganges valley by the Vindhyd mountains (5000 ft.), and bordered by the East Ghats (1500 ft.) and West Ghats (3000 ft.). Rivers: Goddvari, Krishna, Kdveri, all flowing through the East Ghats into the Bay of Bengal. Provinces : Madras, Bombay, Mysore, etc. Religion : The religion of the early Indians, as portrayed in the Vedio hymns, was a worship of Nature : Dyaush-pitar, Father of Heaven; Varuna, the sky; Indra,t\\e rain- vapor; Agni, fire; Maruts, gods of the storm. After the settlement in the Ganges vaUey, this primitive faith underwent a change. History : The Indians {Hindus) migrating from the northwest, came at first to the valley of the Indus and the Punjab, and thence slowly pushed their settlements down the valley of the Ganges, 1 Indus, Jkelum, Chenaub, Eavi, Sutlej (modern names). B. C. Indians. 2^ where they were probably established as early as 1500 b. c. Tlie native tribes whom they found in the country they either enslaved or pushed into the Himalayas on the N., and on to the Deccan in the S. (Dravidians). At a later date the Hindus spread along the coasts of the Deccan and reached Ceylon. Foundation of numerous despotic kingdoms. In the conquered district strict separation of the Aryan conquerors from the subjugated aborigines. Development of the royal power and of the priestly in- fluence. Four principal castes: Brahmans, priests; Kshattriyas, warriors; Vaisyas, agricultural settlers. These three were of pure Aryan descent. The Stidras, or servile caste, were of aboriginal descent, the Dasas, "slaves." Transformation of the ancient faith into the religion of Brahma: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the pre- server; Siva, the destroyer and restorer. Spiritual tyranny of the Brahmans, accompanied by a high development of philosophy, gram- mar, etc., by the Brahmans, in connection with the explanation of the Vedas (" revelations "), or services for the various religious cere- monials : Rig- Veda, the simplest form ; Sama- Veda ; Yayur- Veda (black and white), Atharva-Veda. To these were in time attached prose treatises composed by the priests and called the Brahmanas, one being attached to each Veda. A second series of additions were the Sutras ("sacred traditions"). Poetry, the epics: Maha-hhdrata, Ramdyana. Regulation of the entire thought and life in accord- ance with strict prescriptions, which were afterwards (about 600 ?) gathered together into the book of the laws of Manu, being, as it was claimed, a divine revelation to him, the tribal ancestor of the whole race. Complicated system of rites and ceremonies. Pre- scriptions concerning cleanliness. Terrors of the doctrine of the second birth. Magnificent monuments of Indian architecture, especially the Cliff Temples, which were excavated in the rock, both upon and be- low the surface of the earth. Later, Pagodas. In the sixth century, appearance of the reformer Buddha, i. e. "the enlightened" (623 to 543), properly Gautama, afterwards Sid- dhartha (i. e. " he who has fulfilled his end "), son of prince Sud- dhodana. Buddhism, called after its founder, was originally a pliilosophical system, without creed or rites, having for its object the attaiimaent of moral perfection. Through its doctrme of the essen- tial equality of all men, it was directly opposed to Brahmanism. The progress of Buddhism produced, along with certain changes i the old system, a strong Brahmanistic reaction. The war of the r( ligions ended with the expulsion of Buddhism from India. It main- tained itself in Kashmir and Ceylon only, but the loss was offset by great gains in central and eastern Asia, where it has to-day over 300,000,000 devotees in Thibet, China, Japan, etc. 327. Invasion of the Punjab by Alexander the Great (p. 75). 317-291. Formation of great empires of short duration (empire of Magadha, under Chandra-gupta (Greek, Sandra-kottos), and his grandson, 263-226 (?). Acoka, the friend of Buddhism. After the reign of A90. ka the Punjab fell under the supremacy of the Grjeco-Bactrian 24 Ancient History. B. C. | empire in central Asia, and thus some tincture of Greek civ- ilization was imparted to this part of India. The Bactrian rulers were finally expelled by Scythian invaders, several dy- nasties of whom appear to have reigned in the Punjab and along the Ganges. Wars of the native prince Vikramaditya against the Scythians (57 B.C. ?). Kanishka, Gr. Kanerke, was the founder of the last dynasty of Scythian kmgs, who were succeeded by an unknown people, the Guptas. Another branch of the Indo-Scythians making their way down the Indus came into conflict with the Guptas^ and with a general league of the j Hindus of the south. In the 78 A. D, (?) Battle of Kahror the invaders were utterly defeated and are henceforward not mentioned. The Guptas reigned in Oudh and northern India until they were overthrown by foreign invaders (Tatars ?) in the latter half of the fifth century A. d. § 7. BACTRIANS, MEDES, PERSIANS. Aryan. Geography: The Bactrians, Medes, and Persians inhabited the plateau of Iran,^ between the Suldimdn range on the E. and the val- ley of the Euphrates and Tigris on the W., between the Caspian Sea on the N., and the Erythrcean Sea (Indian Ocean) on the S. On the western border of this highland: Media {Ecbatana, Med. Hangma- tana, i. e. " place of assemblies ") ; on the southern border along the Persian Gulf, Persis (Pasargddce, PersepoUs), Carmania; on the Ery- thrsean sea, Gedrosia; on the eastern border, Arachosia, the land of the Paropanisddce, at the foot of the Paropanisus (Hindu KoosJi) ; ^ on the northern border, Baotria or Baotriana (Baktra), Parthia and Hyr- cania on the Caspian Sea; in the centre, ^n'a and Drangianaj between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, Sogdiana (Maracanda). East of the lower course of the Tigris, in the lowlands: Susiana (the ancient Elam) with Susa, the principal residence of the Persian kings. Within this broad plateau, a widely accepted theorj^ locates the primeval home of the Aryan or Indo-European or Japhetic race, from which in prehistoric times successive colonies wandered away to the south and west. About 1000 (?). Zoroaster (Zarathustra) whose doc- trine, a spiritual reform of the old Iranic superstitions, was contained in the 21 (?) books of the Avesta, of which one only has come down to us: the Vendidad, i. e. "delivered against the Daeva" the bad spirits. The pith of the doctrine as set forth in the Avesta^ is the conception of a continuous war- fare of the good spirits, whose leader was the good god Ahura- mazda or Auramazda (in modern Persian Ormuzd), and the evil spirits, or Daeva, whose leader was Angromainyu, in mod- ern Persian Ahriman), over the life and death, welfare or in- 1 Kiepert, Atlas Anti(^uus, Tab. II. 2 Kiepert, Manual of Ancient Geography, p. 39. 8 Avesta is the law itself, Zend the later commentary on the law; hence Zend' tneata, and the expressions Zend-language, Zend-people. B. C. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 25 jury, of man and his soul after death. In this new doctrine Mithra the sun-god, originally the highest of the Iranian gods, appeared as a creature of the creator Ahuramazda, but never- theless the equal of the latter in dignity and divinity. Worship of fire, whose blaze scared away the evil spirits of the night ; reverence paid to water, and the fertile earth, the daughter of Ahuramazda. The priests, called Athrava (from athao, fire), by the Bactrians, and Magians (Maghush) by the Medes, formed a distinct hereditary class ; an institution which was copied by the ancient priestly families of Persia, after the general acceptance in that country of the reformed faith, which came to them from Bactria, through Media. About 1100. Formation of a powerful Empire in Bao- tria, mythical reminiscences of the deeds of whose kings are perhaps contained in the Shahnameh of the poet Firdusi (about lOGO A. d.). As early as the ninth century, the Assyrians undertook expedi- tions against the plateau of Iran, and in the middle of the eighth century, the western portion of this plateau, Media, and Persia, be- came permanently subject to Assyria. 640. Revolt of the Medes from the Assyrians. 640-558. Median Empire. The first prince of a Median dynasty mentioned was 708-655. Dejoces (ATjioKTTjs, old Pers. Dahyauka), to whom is as- cribed the foundation of the capital Ecbatdna. He does not appear, however, to have reigned over the whole of Media, or to have been independent, but rather to have continued to pay tribute to the Assyrians. His son, 655-633. Phraortes {^paoprt]^, Pers. Fravartis) , was the first who united the whole country under one ruler and established the independence of Media. He made the Persians tributary, although their native ruler Achcemenes (Hakhamanis), who was raised to the throne after the revolt of the Persians from As- syria, retained his crown under Median supremacy, and be- queathed it to his descendants. After Phraortes had fallen fighting against the Assyrians (p. 15) his son, 633-593. Cyaxares (Kva^dpris, Pers. Uvahksathra') succeeded him and continued the war with Assyria successfully. Inroad of the Scythians. After their departure (about 626 ? see p. 15), Cyaxdres subjugated Armenia. War with Alyattes king of Lydia (p. 21). 606 (625 ?) . Cyaxdres, in alliance with Ndbopolassar of Babylonia, captured Nineveh and destroyed the Empire of Assyria (p. 15), whose territory on the left shore of the Tigris fell to the Medians. He also conquered eastern Iran. Media at the death of Cyaxares was the most powerfid monarchy of Asia. His son, 693-558. Astyagea ('Ao-tucIti^s), last king of the Medes. CyruSf of 26 Ancient History, b. o. the family of the Achcemenidce in the Persian tribe of the Pa- sargadcB, which reigned in Persia under Median supremacy, deposed Astydges. The supremacy passed (558) from the Medes to the Persians. Herodotus (I. 107, etc.) reports a tradition of the Median descent of Cyrus through his mother Manddne, daughter of Astydges, which is adorned after the Oriental manner, with the dream of Astydges, the interpretation of the Magi, the exposure, miraculous rescue and rec- ognition of the boy Cyrus, the cruel punishment of Harpdgus, his treachery, etc. This story is evidently an invention of the Medes, who would not admit that they were conquered by a stranger. According to Ctesias, the daughter of Astydges was named Amy- tis, and was the wife of a Mede, Spitamas. After the deposition of Astydges and execution of Spitamas, Cyrus made her his consort. 558-330. Persian Empire founded by 558-529. Cyrus (KOpos, Pars. Kurus). Cyrus strengthened the Persian power over those peoples of Iran which were formerly subject to the Medes, and over the Armenians and Cappadocians. War against Croesus of Lydia (p. 21). After the indecisive battle of Pteria (554 ?), Cyrus advanced on Sardes, defeated Croesus in a second battle on the Hermus, stormed Sardes, captured Croesus, and deprived him of his kingdom, but otherwise treated him as a friend and ad- viser (554). 1 The Grecian story told by Herodotus (I. 86) of Cyrus' intention to burn Crcesus, who, on the pyre, calls to mind his interview with Solon, of his consequent pardon by Cyrus, and the miraculous quenching of the flames by the Delphic Apollo, who had formerly re- ceived vakiable presents from Crcesus, betrays a purpose of bringing Grecian wisdom into strong relief (proverb of Solon, that no mortal is to be called fortunate before death), and of vindicating the Grecian god. It is inconsistent with the command of the Persian faith, not to contaminate the sacred fire. Probably Crcesus wished to appease the anger of the gods against his people and country, accordmg to Semitic usage, by burning himself; according to the Lydian story, the sun-god Sandon does not accept the offering, but puts out the flames with rain. Cyrus returned to Ecbatana. A revolt of the Lydians was quickly repressed. Mazdres and Harpdgus made the Grecian coast cities tributary to the Persians. A portion of the Phocoeans migrated to Corsica; driven thence (see p. 19) they went to Elea (Velia) in southern Italy. Harpagus conquered Caria and Lycia. 539-538. War of Cyrus against the Babylonians. After a siege of nearly two years (diversion of tlie Euphrates) Babylon was captured. The Babylonian Empire was in- corporated with the Persian; the Phoenicians and Cilicians 1 The date of the fall of Sardes is disputed. Duncker (Book viii,, chap. 6), gives 549. B. c. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 27 retained their native rulers under Persian supremacy ; the Jews were sent from Babylon back to Palestine (p. 11). 529. Cyrus, who was occupied during the last nine years of his reign with wars against the eastern peoples, fell in one of these expeditions. The story of his death, like that of his birth, has been poetically adorned and variously related. According to one tradition, probably of Median origin {Herodotus, L 202-214), Cyrus fell in battle against Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetce, whose son he had overcome by deceit. She thrust the dissevered head of the Persian monarch into a skin- bag of blood that he might " drink his fill of blood." Ac- cording to Ctesias, Cyrus died, on the fourth day, of a wound which he received in a victory over the Derhices. The son and successor of Cyrus, 529-522. Cambyses (Ka^^vor>7?, Pers. Kamhujiya), con- quered Egypt by his victory at Pelusium (p. 7). 625.^ Capture of Memphis. Expedition up the Nile toward Ethiopia; failure of provisions in the desert compelled him to turn back. The tyrant ot Cyrene acknowledged the supremacy of Cam- byses, but a projected attack upon Carthage by sea was pre- vented by the refusal of the Phoenicians to lend their ships (p. 19). Destruction of the army corps dispatched against the temple of Jupiter Ammon (Oasis Sivah). Cambyses slaughtered the bull Apis in Memphis ^ (?), and mani- fested in all ways a choleric and bloodthirsty disposition. On the way back from Egypt, he died in Syria, either from an accidental wound, or by his own hand. A Magus seized the sceptre and pro- claimed himself the brother of Cambyses, 622. Bardija (Gr. S^cepSts), who had been murdered at Cambyses* command. After a short reign the usurper was put to death by the princes of the seven Persian tribes, the most influential of whom, 521-485. Darius (Aapcto?, Pers. Darayavus), son of Hys- taspes (Vistagpa), was made king. The father of Darius, Hystaspes, was the head of the younger line of the Achcemenidce (the elder became extinct with Cambyses and Bardija) and the rightful heir to the Persian throne. The son, Darius, however, was recognized by the other princes as king. Later his accession was ratified by the production of auguries. (Anecdote of the neighing horse in Herodotus, III. 85.) Revolt of the Babylonians. The city of Babylon recaptured only after a siege of more than 20 months. (Self-mutilation of Zopyrus^ in order to deceive the Babylonians.) 518 (?). Afterwards Darius suppressed revolts which had broken out in other parts of the empire (in Media, Persia, Parthia^ etc.), and conquered the right bank of the Indus, 1 According to Brugsch, 527. 2 See on this point BruRSCh, Hist, of Egypt, II. 289 £f., who, by the genealogy of the Api, showed the improbability of the story. 23 Ancient History. B. c. 513 (?). Unsnccessful expedition of Darius against the Scythians with a land force of 700,000 men. The fleet of the Greeks of Asia Minor was conducted by the tjTauts of the Ionian cities. Bridge of boats across the Bosphorus. Bridge over the Ister (Danube). After an aimless advance, lack of pro\'isions in- duced a retreat (Herodotus, IV. 130 seq.). Darius rescued by the faithfulness of Histiceus of Miletus (agauist the ad-sdce of Miltiades of Athens, tyrant in the Chersonese). Thracia made subject to Persia. Cyrene conquered by a force sent from Egypt. Susa, in Susiana, since the time of Darius the principal residence of the " Great King " (^ocriAeus tuu ^a(n\4oou, jxeyas ^aaiXevs, Pers. Khshayathiya-Khskayathiyandm, whence the modern Persian STiahin- shah). Ecbatdna in Media was the summer residence. Erection of a new royal palace at Persepolis in Persis, where ruins with inscrip- tions and sculptures have been discovered, as weU as at Susa« At Persepolis, too, the tombs of the kings. Di\-ine worship paid to the king, the satisfaction of whose wants was the final purpose of the state. Maiutenance of a costly court, with an elaborate ceremonial. Construction of great military roads. Completion of the canal from the Nile to the Red Sea, which Ramessu II. had begim and Neku had continued (p. 5). Establishment of postal stations, of course only for the carriage of royal messages. Division of the empire into 20 (?) satrapies, each under a satrap (Persian Khshatra-pati, i. e. "lord of the province"), with regal aecommodation in palaces surroimded by extensive gardens (Para- disicE). Subject cities or tribes, and indeed whole nations, enjoyed their own laws and separate administration, under native though de- pendent princes. 600-494, Revolt of the Ionian Greeks, incited by His- ticem of Miletus, who had been accused to Darius and sum- moned to Susa, and his son-in-law Aristagoras. With the assistance of Athens and Eretria, Sardes was captured and burned. The lonians, defeated by the Persian army, were abandoned by their allies from Athens and Eretria; their fleet was defeated at Lade, opposite Miletus. The lonians were again reduced to subjection, and the Milesians, by command of Darius, were settled about the mouth of the Tigris. '> 493-490. War of Darim against the European Greeks (p. 56). Great preparations for a new expedition agauist Greece. Re- volt among the Egyptians. 485. Death of Darius. He was succeeded by his son, 485-465. Xerxes I. ('S.ep^vs, Pers. Khshayarsha). 480. War against Greece (p. 58). Xerxes and his eldest son mur- dered by Artabdnus, captain of the body-guard. The second son of Xerxes, 465-424. Arta:serxes I. (Pers. Artachshatrd), called MaKp6xeip, Lon- gimdnus, succeeded to the throne. 462-455. Second revolt of the Egyptians under IndrdSi assisted by B. C. Bactrians, Medes, Persians. 29 the Athenians, suppressed by the satrap Megahyzus {Amyr- tCBus alone maintained himself about the mouths of the Nile). Wars with the Greeks (p. 63). Beginning of the internal de- cay of the Persian empire. Revolts of the satraps. Merce- nary troops. The son of Artaxerxes, 424. Xerxes II., after ruling one month and a half, was murdered, by his brother, Sogdianus, who after six and a half months, was murdered by his brother Ochus, who reigned under the name 424-405. Darius n., Nothus. He was under the influence of his wife Parysdtis. Third revolt of the Egyptians, who maintained their independence for sixty years (414—3-54). 405-362. Artaxerxes II., Mnemon. Revolt of his brother, the younger Cyrus, who, assisted by Grecian mercenaries, attacked the king m the neighborhood of Babylon. 401. Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa in personal combat with his brother. 400. Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks, Xenophon (Anabasis). 362-338. Artaxerxes III. Revolt of the Phcenicians and Egyptians suppressed. Artaxerxes poisoned by his favorite, the Eg}-p- tian Bagoas, who placed on the throne the king's youngest son, 338-336. Arses, whom he like-^^ise murdered, in order to put a great- grandson of Darius Nothus in his place. 336-330. Darius HI., Codomannus. Bagoas executed by poison. War with Alexander of Macedonia ; Darius murdered by the satrap Bessus while fleeing, after the battle of Gaugamela (331). 330. Destruction of the Persian Empire. See Grecian history, 4th period, p. 74, § 8. PARTHIANS.i Turanian?^ Geography: The Parthian empire extended from the Euphrates to the Indus, from the Caspian Sea and the Araxes to the Indian Ocean, covering nearly the same ground, and having in the main the same divisions, as the Persian empire, of which it was, indeed, in many ways an avowed imitation. Parthia proper, the region between the Jaxartes, and the desert of Iran, the Caspian Sea and the province of Aria, was a satrapy of the Persian empire. About 250. The Parthians revolted imder the lead of Arsaces, the chief of a tribe of the Dakce (Scythians). The revolt succeeding, 250(?)-247. Arsaces I. was raised to the throne. He was suc- ceeded by his brother Tiridates as 247-214. Arsaces II., who firmly established the independence of Parthia. His son, 234-196. Arsaces III., successfully resisted Antiochus the Great. Arsaces IV. (Priapatius) and Arsaces V. (Phraates 7.) accom- plished but little of importance. The son of the latter, 1 Rawlinson. 2 The u*e of this name mu«t not be understood as implyins: belief in the racial tinity of all the peoples to whom it is applied. It denotes merely the mass of Asiatics who belonged neither to the Semitic nor to the Ar^^an fanuly. 30 Ancient History. B. c.-A. D. 174-136. Mithridates I., founded the Empire of the Par- thians, extending his sway over Media, Susiana, Per- sia, Babylonia, Bactria. Subject nations were permitted to retain their native kings in subjection to Parthia. The Partliian civilization was rude and of a low order. 136-127. Phraates U. {Arsaces VII.) repressed a revolt of Baby' Ionia, but fell fighting against the Turanians. The incursions of these nomadic tribes became more frequent under Artabanus (^Arsaces VIII.), 127-124, who likewise fell in battle against them. They were, however, effectually checked by Mith- ridates II. (Arsaces IX.), 124-^7, who also extended the power of Parthia in other directions, until towards the close of his reign he was defeated by Tigranes of Armenia. Under Phraates III. {Arsaces XII.), 69-60, the Parthians first be- came embroiled with Rome, war with this power breaking out in 54. Under Orodes I. {Arsaces XIV.), 54-37, Expedition of Crassus (p. 140). Expedition of Antonius, 36, against Phraates IV. (Arsaces XV.). From 37 b. c. to 107 a. d. Parthia was ruled by a series of ten monarchs, whose reigns were mostly occupied with struggles for the succession. Volo^ geses I., 50-90 ; Armenia lost. An attempt made by 107-121 A. D. Chosroes {Arsaces XXV.) to recover Armenia brought about the successful Parthian expedition of Trajan, whose conquests were, however, abandoned as soon as made. Vologeses III. (Arsaces XXVII. ), 149-192 a. d., became in- volvTbd in a war with M. Aurelius, which terminated in the complete submission of the Parthian. His successor, Vologsses IV., 192-213 A. D., lost northern Assyria to Rome. ei5-226 A. D. Artabanus III. {Arsaces XXX.), last king of Par- thia. In his reign Parthia suffered severely at the hands of Caracalla, but, after his death and the defeat of Macrinus, had regained its former power, when the empire v/as brought to an end by the success of an insurrection of the Persians under Artaxerxes, son of Sassan, who defeated and slew the Parthian monarch. The Tatar empire was replaced by the Aryan king- dom of the Sassanidae, or the New Persian Empire (226- 652 A. D. (p. 187). § 9. CHINESE. Turanian. Geography: China in the broad sense, or the Chinese Empire, embracing Manchuria, Mongolia, and Tibet, as well as China proper, is bounded N. by Asiatic Russia, E. by the Sea of Japan, the Yellow Sea, and the Sea of China, S. and S. W. by the Sea of China, Cochin China, Burmah, W. by Kashmir and East Turkestan. China (land of the Seres among the ancients, Cathay in the Middle Age), comprises less than half of the Chinese empire, being about 1474 miles long by 1355 wide. Vast alluvial plain and delta in the N. E. Mountainous and hilly in south. Rivers: Hwang-ho {Yellow River)-, Yang-tsze- Keang; Se-keang. Provinces: 1, Chih-li (or Pe-chih-li), with Peking, B. c. Chinese, 31 the capital of the empire; 2, Keang-soo, the most populous and best watered of the provinces, with the cities, Nan-king, Shang-hai; 3, Gan- hwia/; 4, Keang-se; 5, Che-keang, with the city Ning-po; (J, Fuh-kcen^ comprising the island of Formosa ( Taiwan) ; 7, Hoo-pih; 8, Hoo-nau) 9, Ho-nan; 10, Shan-tung with the Tai-shan mountain; 11, Shan-se; 12, Shen-se; 13, Kan-suh; 14, Sze-chuen; 15, Kivang-tung, with the cities. Canton, Macao, Hong-Kong (properly Hiang-kiang) ; 16, Kwang- se; 17, Yun-nan; 18, Kwei-choivj 19, Shing-king. Keligion: Uncertainty concerning the oldest religion of the Chi- nese. By some writers it is considered little higher than fetichism, while others see a monotheistic belief in the worship di Ti. Their religion embraced a worship of ancestors, of deified rulers, and of spirits generally, classed in antitheses of opposing qualities (yang and yin), heaven and earth, male and female, from whose interaction all created beings sprang. Ideas of future life indistinct, no system of rewards and punishments. System of offerings; never human sac- rifices. In the fifth century B. c. appeared the philosopher Con- fucius (ICung-foo-tsze, 551-478), who taught no new theology, and did not remodel the old religion, but whose ethical code and personal influence secured for him an enthusiastic following. It was a revi- val, rather than a reformation, of the ancient faith. Enunciation of the Golden Rule.^ Contemporary with Confucius was Lao-tsze, the author of a system of ethical philosophy, Taoism, the " way or method of living which men should cultivate as the highest and purest devel- opment of their nature" (Legge). At a later time there grew up a system of gross and mystical superstition, which took the name of Taoism, deified Ldo-tsze, and became one of the recognized religions of the empire. Buddhism introduced into China about A. D. 65, where it has degenerated into a low superstition, but still numbers many dev- otees and has deeply affected the older religions. Begging priests. Mohammedanism has also its adherents. The common religion of the lower classes is the old ancestor and spirit worship, complicated by the introduction of elements from all the sects above mentioned. No state religion; toleration of all faiths. Chronology. The Cliinese regard themselves as aborigines. For- eign scholars derive them from wandering bands of Tatars, or from the peoples of Tibet and Farther India. It is probable that the first settlements were made in the valley of the Hwang-ho. The Chinese possess an intricate system of chronology which ear- lier writers trusted almost implicitly, but wliich modern scholars have severely criticised. The dates assigned before 800 b. c. are probably wholly untrustworthy. Chinese annalists place the creation between two and three millions of years before Confucius, and divide the mter- vening space into ten epochs. In the eighth of these are placed the fa- mous emperors Yew-chaou She (" nest builder "), Suy-jin She, the dis- coverer of fire, Fuhi, Chin-nung, inventor of the plough, and Yaou, who first drained the valley of Hioang-ho. These sovereigns are to be regarded as largely mvthical, as are the dynasties of Hia (2205-1766) juid Shang (1766-1123). 1 Legge, Religions of China, 137-139. 82 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. 1123-255. Chow Dynasty. During the time of this dynasty we reach historic ground. Development of a feudal system. The imperial domain lay in the middle of the empire, whence the name applied to the empire, " Middle Kingdom." Un- der Sing-wang, birth of Confucius, 551 b. c. 255-206. Dynasty of Tsin, famous for the energetic monarch Che-toang-te (246-210), who extended the empire to the sea, defeated the Mongols, built the Chinese "Wall (1400 miles long, 15-30 feet high, 15-25 feet broad); 213, CU- ivang-te ordered the destruction of many thousand historical and philosophical books. 206 B. C.-221 A. D. Dynasties of Bast and West Han. Brilliant period of Chinese history. The power of the feudal lords limited, the empire consolidated and strength- ened, and extended westward to Russian Turkestan. Conquest of northern Corea (109 A. d.). Annexation of Hainan. This period was succeeded by one of great confusion. 221-265 A. D. Epoch of the Three Kingdoms: Wei, in the north; Wu, in the east; and Shuh, in the west. Wuti, 265 A. d., re- united a large part of the empire and founded the dynasty of Tsin, but the country soon relapsed into a divided state, which continued until 590 A. D. Yang-Kian, prince of Suy, in the northern king- dom of Wei, extending his conquests southward, united the whole empire under his sceptre and founded the dynasty of Suy. § 10. JAPANESE. Turanian. Geography: The Japanese^ empire, Dai Nippon, is a chain of isl- ands which skirts the eastern coast of Asia opposite Corea, Man- churia, a-nd Amur. It comprises four large islands: Kiushiu; Shiko- hu; Sondo,2 or Honshiu, the principal island; Yezo; and some tliree thousand small islands.^ Nature of the country, rocky, mountainous, volcanic. Highest mountain, Fusiyama (12,000 ft.), in the centre of the east coast of Hondo. Rivers numerous but small; among the largest: Tone-gawa, Shinano-gaiva, Kiud-gavm, Ti-gawa. Lake Biwa in Hondo. Principal cities: Kioto, Yedo, or Tokio, Yokohama, Osaka. Religion: The most ancient religion of Japan bears the native name of Kami-no-micJii, " the way of the gods," but is better kno%vn abroad by the Chinese term Shinto. It consisted of a theology which comprised the gods of heaven, the mikados, many deified mortals, ani- 1 Japan {Zipangu in the Middle Age) is a name given to the empire by foreigners. It is probably of Chinese origin. 2 Tliis is the name recently applied to the main island by the Japanese gov- ernment; previously the Japanese had no name for this island. Nippon, the name frequently given it by foreigners, is the name of the whole empire. 8 Saghalin was given to Russia in 1875 in exchange for the Kurile islands. B. C.-A. D. Japanese. 33 mals, plants, and natural objects, and of a ritual for the worship of these deities. The chief command of the religion was implicit obedi- ence to the gods, especially to the mikado. It had no moral code. It was emphatically a state religion, and was often used as a political engine. In 552 A. d. Buddhism was introduced into Japan, where it spread rapidly. Development of a score or more of sects. (Among others Shin-shu, which teaches salvation by faith in Buddha.) Bud- dhism for a time overshadowed the older religion, but the present government has fully reinstated the Shinto faith. Chronology: The origin of the Japanese is uncertain. They in- vaded the islands from Asia, and conquered them from the savage AinoSy whom they found there. The present Japanese are certainly a mixed race, containing Turanian and Malay elements. While the mythical history of Japan comprises a dynasty of gods, followed by a dynasty of rulers descended from the sun-goddess, and who are sometimes assigned reigns of hundreds of thousands of years each, the earliest date of what is believed in Japan to be authentic history is 660 B. c; the dates are probably untrustworthy until much later. 660-585 B. c. Jimmu Tenno,^ the first Mikado,^ being the 5th in descent from the sun-goddess. He was leader of the invasion, and conquered Kiushiu, Shihoku, and a part of the main island. Jimmu is regarded by many foreign scholars as a mythical character. He was the founder of an unbroken dynasty, of which the reigning mikado, Mutsu-Hito, is the 122d (123d counting Jingu) sovereign. The 10th mikado, Sujin (97-30 B. c.) introduced reforms, reorganized the administra- tion of the empire and generally advanced the civilization of the people. Intercourse opened with Corea. Succeeding em- perors continued the war with the native Ainos, who were pushed further and further to the north. Especially famous is the reign of the 12th mikado, 71-130 A. D. Keiko, whose more famous son, Yamato-Dake, " the warlike," conquered the great eastern plain, the Koanto. The 14th mikado, Chinai, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his wife the renowned 201-269 A. D. Jingu-Kogo, sometimes called the 15th mikado, al- though never formally crowned. She suppressed a rebellion in Kiushiu, and herself led an army to Corea, wliich she re- duced to submission. Diplomatic relations with China. Her son and successor, 270-310 A. D. Ojin, was a great warrior, and is still worshipped as ^ 1 His true name was Kan-yamato-iware-hiko-no-miTcoto. After the introduc- tion of Chinese characters, the long native names of gods and emperors were transcribed into the shorter Chinese equivalents. It also became customary for the mikados to receive after death a different name from that which they had borne while living. The first mikado received the name Jivimu, " spirit of war," to which was joined one of the official titles of the mikado, Tenno, " lord of heaven." 2 Mikado, the most general title of the emperors, is derived either from Mi, "honorable," and Kado, " gate " (compare " Sublime Porte," and "Pharaoh" p. 1, note 3), or from Mika, "great," and fo, " place." 6 34 Ancient History. b. o. the god of war. Introduction of Chinese literature and civil- ization, which at this date was far in advance of the Japanese. From this time to the sixth century the annals of Japan are marked by no great events. B. WESTERN PEOPLES. § 1. CELTS. Aryan. Celts, or Kelts, is the name given to that race which, at the dawn of authentic history, occupied the extreme west of Europe. They be- longed to the Indo-European family, and, if the Asiatic origin of that family be accepted,^ were the first branch to enter upon the westward migration. a. Continental Celts. Gauls. Geography: At the time of the Roman conquest (59-51), Gaul, or that part of Europe occupied by the Celts (KsAtoQ op Gauls (rdWoi), was divided among three great groups of tribes: Belgians, dwelling between the lower Rhine, the forest of Ardennes f the Marne, and Seine. This people have been claimed as Teutons, but the weight of evidence assigns them to the Celts.^ Tribes : Remi, Suessiones, Nervii,^ Menapii. Gauls, ^ dwelling between the Seine, Marne, middle Rhine, Rhone, and Garonne. Tribes : In the valley of the Seine (Sequana): Parisii (with the city Lutetia Parisi- orum, now Paris), S endues ; in the valley of the Loire (Liger) : Namnetes, Turones, Carnutes, Boii, ^dui, Averni; W. of the Seine : Treviri ; in the valley of the Saone 2i\\di Rhone : Sequani, Allohroges. The Aquitanians, between the Garonne and the Pyrenees, were not Celts, but Iberians. In Switzerland: Helvetii, Vindelici. Religion : Soon after the conquest the theology of the Gauls was largely superseded and corrupted by the introduction of the Roman gods. Little is therefore known of the pure Celtic religion, whose nature has consequently become a favorite subject for dispute. It was a pantheism, which had its cycle of great gods, its local divin- ities, its deifications of forests, rivers, and fountains. Among the great gods are the following, with their Roman equivalents : Bormo, Grannus (Apollo), with his companion the goddess Damona ; Segomo, Cannulus (Mars), with the goddess Nemetonia; Belisama (Minerva ?); Taramicus (Jupiter). Complicated and imposing ceremonial, con- ducted by the Druids, or priests, who were accorded at least equal honors with the nobles. They did not form an hereditary class, but were recruited from the people. Exemption from military service 1 See Introduction. 2 The Belgians are also claimed as 'non-Aryans, of the same race as the Aquitanians. 3 Dahn, Urgesch. d. Germ. III. 26, note 9. 4 In spite of Caesar's statement that the Gauls were called Celts in their own language, the two names are not considered synonymous. It is probable that the Gallic tribes formed a division distinct from' the (Celtic tribes (using Celt in the narrow sense of inhabitant of Gaul ). The attempt has even been made to draw tiie geographical boundary between them. B. c. Celts. 35 and taxes. Use of writing, with Greek alphabet. Exercise of juris- diction. Human sacrifices. Civilization : That the Celts of Gaul had reached quite an ad- vanced stage of civilization ^ is clear from the readiness with which they accepted the higher civilization of Rome, and from the fact that their social state as depicted by Csesar exliibits a degeneracy which was not seen again in northern Europe until the decay of the Neus- trian state under the Merowingians, in the fifth and sixth centuries a. d. Chronology: Before the conquest the history of the Celts of Gaul is the history of their collisions with the southern nations. The Celtic migration was slow, and large bodies were left behind at various points, as in Bohemia and throughout Germany, where many traces of Celtic occupation survived the Teutonic conquest. According to some writers the Celts immigrated in two bands, the Goidelic or Gadhelic Celts being the more northerly, and the Bry- thonic or Cymric Celts the more southerly ; this is but a surmise. Not earlier than 2000. The Celts reached the western shores of Europe. Their principal settlements were made m central France. They here attained their highest culture, and from this point detachments went forth to conquer new lands. There were four principal emigrations. 1. To the British Isles. Date unknovm. See p. 36. 2. To Spain, where they mingled with the Iberian inhabitants and formed the Celtiherians. Celts in Spain were known to Herodo- tus in the fifth century B. c. 3. To Northern Italy. Tlie legendary history of Rome places this event in the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, or about 600 B. c. Tribe followed tribe mitil the whole of northern Italy was occupied (^Gallia Cisalpind). Tribes : Bituriges (Milan), Cenortiani (Brescia and Verona), Boii (Bologna), 5'enones (coast between Rimini and Ancona). 390. Conquest of Rome by the Senones under their Brennus, i. e. military leader. 283. Extermination of the Senones by the Romans ; defeat of the Boii on the Vadimonian lake. 238. General league of Cisalpine Gauls against Rome. Defeat of the league at Telamon, 225. Capture of Milan by Scipio. Formation of Roman colonies at Placentia, Cremona, Mutina, In the second Punic War, Hannibal mduced the Gauls to take up arms, but in the 193. Battle of Mutina, the last resistance of the Boii was broken and northern Italy was rapidly Romanized. 4. To Greece and Asia Minor. In 278 a band of Gauls under a Brennus ravaged Macedonia and Greece. After a futile attack upon Delphi, the survivors made their way by land to Asia Minor, where they settled in the interior, and gave their name to Galatia. - The stage of development in civilization attained by ancient peoples must be largely determined by the degree of complexity found in their social and political systems. In our day, when material comforts and conveniences form a so much larger part of the popular idea of civilization than they ever did before, it ig well to remember this in judging the civilizations that are gone. 36 Ancient History. b. c. Of the Celts of Gaul little is known until the Roman conquest. Some time before this, it is probable, the pressure of the Teutonic migration had made itself felt in the west, but the details of the conflicts are unknown. Celts and Teutons became here and there interspersed, but in general the Rhine was the boundary. About 125-121, the Romans conquered Southern Gaul and made it a province (^Gallia Narhonensis). While the Celtic origin of the Cimbri may not be admitted without question, it is certain that Gallic tribes played a considerable part in that great invasion of Italy (11^101). 58-51. Conquest of Gaul by Caesar (p. 138), after which the history of Gaul belongs to that of Rome. b. Celts of the British Isles. BRITAIN. Geography : The island of Britain forms an irregular triangle, and is bounded E. by the German Ocean, S. by the Straits of Dover and the English Channel, W. by St. George^s Channel, the Irish Sea, North Channel, and the Atlantic Ocean. It falls into three geographical divisions, corresponding somewhat to the later political divisions. I. The extreme north, beyond the deep indentations of the Frith oj Clyde and the Frith of Forth, is mountainous and barren, with numer- ous small lakes {Loch Ness, Loch Tay, Loch Lomond), and sharply cut coasts on the west. II. The southern and eastern portion : hilly in the N. and W. ; on the E. a broad plain, well watered and fertile. Eastern rivers : Humber (Ouse, Trent), Witham, Welland, Nen, Ouse, running through a broad fen-land into the Wash, Thames. Western rivers : Severn, Mersey. Island of Wight. In early times the greater part of this plain, the modern England, was covered with forests, ©f which scanty traces remain. The Andredsiueald covered a large part of the counties of Surrey and Sussex ; north of the Thames a huge forest extended nearly to the Wash, of which Epping and Hahi-- ault forests formed a part. The fens about the Wash were much more extensive than now. III. The broad western promontory of Wales, mountainous with small rivers. Island of Anglesea. Religion and Civilization : The Celts of Britain were ruder than their brethren of Gaul, and never reached the same stage of civiliza- tion, but they seem to have resembled the continental Celts in cus- toms and religion. Druids. Bards. History, a. Mythical: Inordinate pride of ancestry, a fertile im- agination, and an acquaintance with Biblical and classical history en- abled the British bards and priestly historians to compose for their race a mythical past, unique in its extent, its detail, and its disregard of time and space. Gaul was colonized by Meschish, son of Japhet, son of Noah, about 1799 (Anno Mundi) under the name of Samothes. Meschish ruled Gaul 109 years, when he conquered Britain in 1908 (a, m.) and reigned over both countries 47 years. He was followed by six sovereigns of his race, but on the accession of the seventh, Lucius, 2211 A. M., Britain was wrested from his rule by Albion, a descendant of Ham. He and his successors reigned over Britain B. c.-A. D. Celts. 87 until 289G a. m. or 1108 b. c, when the line of Japhet recovered the island in the person of Brute, great-grandson of jEneas of Troy. Brute built Troynouant, afterwards Lud's Toivn, London. He was followed by his desceudunts, among whom we may mention Bladud, founder of Bath, Leir (841-791), Ferrex and Porrex (49(3^91), with whom his line expired. Britaui for a time divided into five king- doms, was finally reunited under Malmucius Dunvmll, the son of Cloten king of Cornwall (441-401), whose son Brennus left liis island home to sack Rome, assault Delplii, and found the kingdom of Galatia.^ Among the successors of Malmucius were Coill (lGO-140). Pyrrhus (66-64), and Lud (who in some mysterious manner began to reign in 69) Cassivelaunus (expedition of Caesar), Cymbeline (19 B. C.-16 A. D.), Caractacus, Vortigern (445-455 (485) A. d.). Arthur (508^42). Finally the list merges in the historical line of the kings and princes of Wales. h. Probable. The Britons of historic times were Celts who came to the island from Gaul at two periods. The first invasion was very early, and the invaders were Celts of the Goidelic (Gadhelic) or northern branch. From the testimony of sepulchral monuments it is conjectured that the Celts found two races in Britain : a small, dark-haired race, perhaps of Iberian stock, and a large light-haired race of Scandinavian origin. The Goidelic Celts conquered without exterminating the previous inhabitants, and held the land many cen- turies, until a new invasion of continental Celts occurred. This time it was the Brythonic or Cymric Celts of the southern stock, who crossed the channel, probably not very long before the expedition of Caesar, and dispossessed their kinsmen of the southern and eastern portion of the island. Tribes : Cantii, the most civilized, Attrebatii, Belgce, Daninonii, Silures, Trinobantes, Iceni, Brigantes, etc. The ancients received their first direct knowledge of Britain from Pytheas of Massilia, who landed on the island in the third century B. c. That the Phoenicians ever visited Britain is doubted by English scholars, who contend that they obtained their tin either from the rivers of Gaul, or from the Gallic tribes who imported it from Britain. With 55-54 B. c. The two expeditions of Csesar, the actual liistory of Britain begins. The effect of the invasions was transitory. 43 A. D. Claudius began the conquest of Britain in earnest, and hi generals reduced the country south of the Avon and Severn. 58. Revolt of Boadicea, leader of the Iceni ; her defeat. 78-85. Agricola, under Vespasian and Domitian, carried the Roman arms far into Scotland and built a wall from the Frith of Forth to the Frith of Clyde as a defense against the wild tribes of the north. Henceforward Britannia formed a tolerably quiet part of the Roman empire. Roman fortresses, towns and villas covered its soil in profusion. 121. Hadrian built a wall from the Tyne to the Solway. In 1 Brennus killed himself after the repulse from Delphi ; his army settled in Galatia. 38 Ancient History. B. C. 139. Antoninus stren^hened the wall of Agricola. In 210 Severus added new defenses to that of Hadrian. 180. Legendary conversion of Lucius, king of the Trinobantes, to Christianity, after which the new religion spread through- out the country, a church was organized and bishoprics founded at Canterbury and York {?). With the decay of the empire its power in Britain declined. Troops were withdrawn to assist in defending the continental borders, or in supporting the claims of rival aspirants for the crown. During the third century the attacks of the Picts and Scots in the north grew more and more severe, while the southern and eastern coasts suffered from the ravages of the Frank and Saxon pirates. Count of the Saxon Shore,'^ the officer in charge of the coast between the Wash and Southampton water, which was most exposed to these ravages. From 286-294 Britain was independent under Cerausius, who proclaimed himself emperor of Britain. 360. Scots from Ireland ravaged the western shores. 410. Honorius renounced the sovereignty of Britain. The with- drawal of the legions left Britain to her own resources. A period of civil dissension and exposure to foreign mroads fol- lowed, broken by the 411. " Alleluia Victory " of the Britons accompanied by St. Ger- manus, over the Picts. Finally the king of the Damnonii, Vortigern (Guorthigen^, either by usurpation or election, ob- tained the sovereignty over a large part of the island, and, as the story goes, invited the invasion of the Teutonic conquer- ors (p. 176). IRELAND. Geography : Lying W. of Britain, Ireland is bounded on the E. by the North Channel, the Irish Sea, and St. George's Channel ; on all other sides by the Atlantic Ocean. It is a low plain, fringed with hilly tracks upon the coast ; abounding in lakes (Lough Corrih, L. Mask, L. Erne, L. Neagh, Lakes of Killarney, L. Dearg, L. Ree), and rivers {Boyne, Liffey, Barrow, Blackwater, Shannon^. Religion and Civilization: In Ireland as in Britain we find Celtic inhabitants, Celtic religion, and Celtic cvdture, but both in a still more primitive form than in England ; so much so, indeed, that it may be, the Celts of Ireland were the best representatives of primitive Aryan civilization. Druids. Bards. History: Again the historian is confronted with a vast mass of very valuable tradition mingled with a great amount of priestly in- vention. The Irish historical books speak of five invasions of Ire- land. I. Partholan led a force from central Greece, which ruled 1 Comes Litoris Saxonici per Britanniam. An attempt has been made (Lap- penberg, Kemble) to show that this name indicates the settlement of Saxons upon this shore long before the Teutonic conquest. What people, it has been asked, would name a portion of their country after its worst enemies ? A ref- erence to our "Indian Frontier," by which is meant land held by the whites but molested by Indians, might dispel this objection. The argument from coinage is stronger, but on the whole the assumption does not seem to be proved. B. C. Greeks. 39 Ireland 300 years, and ^,hen died of the plague, and were succeeded by II. Named, from Scythia, who also died of the plague. III. Fir- bolgs, who came under live chiefs and settled in various parts of the island. IV. The Tuatha De Danann, of the race of Nemed, who defeated and nearly exterminated the Firbolgs. V. Milesians or Scots, who under Galam, son of Breogan, came from Spain, and conquering the Tuatha De Danann^ divided Ireland among the sons and other relatives of Galam. The ancestry of Galam goes back to Noah. The historical interpretation of these legends seems at present to be that Ireland at the commencement of the Christian era was occupied in the north by Goidelic Celts (Cruithni, Picts) • in the east and centre by British and Belgic tribes {Cymric), and in the southwest {Alunster) by a people of southern extraction (Ibe- rians ?). Between the numerous petty kingdoms thus established incessant war prevailed, with the details of which the legendary his- tory is filled. Tuathal (died 160 A. d.), a powerful king who reigned over Leinster and Meath, and warred with the rival kingdom or kingdoms in Munster, is probably historic. Irish Invasions of Brit- ain : Settlements in Wales, Devon, and Cornwall, and especially in the north. Ireland was never conquered, or even invaded, by the Romans, though Agricola had planned an Irish expedition. The Irish were converted to Christianity in the fifth century. PalladiuSy sent to Ireland, 431 a. d., died soon after. St. Patrick {Succath or Maun), took up the work and brought it to a successful conclusion. Establishment of numerous monasteries, which in the next cen- tury attained wide renown for the learning of their members. §2. GRECIAN HISTORY. Aryan. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT GREECE. See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. V and VI. The peninsula of Greece (Hellas, ^ 'EWds) bounded N. by Mace- donia and Illyria, and on all other sides by the sea (E. mare ^Egceum, S. mare Myrtoum and mare Creticum, W. mare Ionium), is divided into four principal regions : Peloponnesus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Epirus. A. Peloponnesus (^ UeXoirSuvncros, Island of Pelops), connected with the mainland by the narrow Isthmus of Corinth, washed on the N. by the waters of the Corinthian Gulf, is divided into nine dis- tricts : 1. Achaia, formerly inhabited by lonians, in twelve com- munities, or cantons. jEgium, capital of the confederacy, PatrcB. 2. Elis or Eleia, in ^Eolic dialect, Valis, drained by the Alpheus and Pencils. It is subdivided into Elis Proper, or Hollow Elis : Elis and its harbor Cyllene, Pisatis : Olympia, not a city but a temple of Zeus, in a walled grove ("AXtls), with places for games, altars, and va- rious buikUngs, and Triphylia. 3. Messenia : Pylos, the home of Nestor, opposite the island of Sphacteria, Messene, built in 369 B. c, the hill fortresses of Ithome and Ira. 4. Laconia (haKwuiK-i]), with the mountain range of Taygetus, ending in the promontory Tienarus ; Sparta (27rapT7j), on the right bank of the Eurotas ; north of Sparta, Sellasia : on the coast Helos, and Gythium the harbor of Sparta, 40 Ancient History. B. c. 5. Argolis (t^ "Kpyos, rj 'Apyeia) comprised many cantons, politically independent of one another : Argos, with its harbor Nauplia, on the gulf of Argolis, near by Tiryns, with Cyciopean walls, Hermione, Trcezen, Epidaurus, on the Saronicus sinus; inland, Mycence with Cyclopean structures. The Lion Gate, the so-called Treasure House of Atreus. 6. Phliasia : Phlius. 7. Corinthia : Corinth, formerly Ephyra with its citiid.G\ A crocorinthus. 8. Sicyonia: Sicyon (^iKvwy). 9. Arcadia, the mountainous region in the interior, with the ranges Cyllene and Erymanthus on the borders of Achaia; Mantinea, Tegea^ Megalopolis, the latter founded in 370. B. Central Greece,^ also divided into nine districts: 1. Megaris, since the Dorian conquest, belonging etlmographically and politi- cally to Peloponnesus: Megara, and its harbor Nisoea. 2. Attica QATTiK-fi) with the mountains Parnes, Brilissus (Pentelicus), Hymettus, and the promontory of Sumum, the rivulets Cephissus and Ilissus. Athens ('A07jmi) with the Acropolis (Propylcea, Parthenon, Erech- theion), the fortified harbor of Pirceus (UeipaLevs), connected with the city by the Long Walls (to. /xaKpa relxv ; ^a (TKiK-q), the two ununportant harbors Munychia and Zea and the open bay of Phaleron, which served as a roadstead. Attic demes : Eleusis, Marathon, Decelea, Phyle, etc. 3. Boeotia, with Mts. Helicon, and Cithceron, Lake Copals, traversed by the Cephissus ; Thebes (JkitTdivvkos), with its citadel the Cadrnea ; Thespice ; Leuctra ; PlatcecE, which separated itself very early from the Boeotian league and allied itself with Athens ; Haliartus, Coronea, Orchomenos. On the coast; Aulis, Delium, and, not far distant, Tan- agra. 4. Phocis: At the base of Mt. Parnassus, Delphi (AeA<^oO, with the oracle of the Pythian Apollo, Crissa, with its harbor, Cirrha; Elatea. 5. Eastern Locris : (AoKpol 7)^01), for a time di- vided by a part of Phocis into the southern region of the Opuntian Locrians with the town Opus^ and the northern of the Epicne- midian Locrians (i. e. they who dwell on the mountain of Cnemis) with the town Thronium. 6. Western Locris (AoKpol eo-Tre'ptot, called by the other Grecians AoKpol 6C6\ai, "the stinking"). Amphissa, Naupactus. 7. Doris {Awpis), between the mountains CEta and Par- nassus, the country of a small body of Dorians, who at the time of the Dorian invasion remamed in the north, called from its four unim- portant villages, the Tetrapolis. 8. iEtolia, Calydon, Pleuron, and Thermum (afterwards the place where the assembly met at the time of the iEtolian league). 9. Acarnania, with the promontory Actium; Stratus, near the river Achelous, ('AxeA^os) which separates Acarna- nia from jEtolia. C. Thessaly, watered by the Peneus (valley of Tempe), with the mountain range of Pindus in the W. on the border of Epirus ; in the S. Othrys; in the E. Pelion, Ossa; in the N. Olympus and the Cambu- nian mountains.2 Five divisions from S. to N. : 1. Phthiotis, in the most southern part, Malis, on the Sinus Maliacus was the Pass of Thermopylae, i. e. "gate of the warm springs;*' Lamia. 2. Thessa- liotis, Pharsdlus. 3. Pelasgiotis, Pherce, Crannun, Larissa on the 1 The expression Hellas propria first appears in the Roman period ; tlie flreeks never used Hellas for the name of this particular part of the country * But see Kiepert, Lehrb. d. a. Geoyr., § 210, note 1. B. C. Greeks, 41 Peneus. 4. Hestiaeotis. 5. The eastern coast land, Magnesia, Jolcos, on the Sinus Pagasceus, Demetrias. D. Epirus. In historic times inhabited by Illyrian tribes not of pure Grecian blood. Principal tribes: Molossians, in whose terri- tory was AmbracXa, not far from the Ambracian gulf, and Doduna (oracle of Zeus); Thesprotians, Pandosia on the Acheron^ Chao- nians. In Macedonia, which lay north from Thessaly, the following places are to be noted: Pydna, Pella^ the royal residence since the reign of Archelaus (formerly ^gae or Edessa enjoyed this distmc- tion). On the peninsula Chalcidice: Ohjnthus, Potidcea, Stagirus. In Thrace: Amphipdus near the mouth of the Strymon, Philippce, Ahderay Perinthus (Heracled), Byzantium. In the Thracian Chersonese: Sestos, opposite Ahydos in Asia Minor. Most important islands : In the ^gean sea : 1, Crete (KprjT-n, 6^aT<^/^7^oAls): Cnosus (Gnossus), and Gortyn(a); 2, Thera, a colony o^ Sparta, itself mother city of Cyrene m Africa (p. 49), Melos; o, the 12 Cyclades: Paros, Naxos, to the north the small De- los (Mt. Cynthus, sanctuary of Apollo), Cythnos, Ceos, AndroSy Tenosy etc. In the Saronic gulf: 4, JEgma (Alfy lua); 5, Salamis. In the sea of Euboea; 6, lEubcea with the promontory of Artemisium in the north, Chalcis, Eretria. In the Thracian sea: 7, Lemnos; 8, Samo- ihrace; 9, Thasos. On the coast of Asia Minor from N. to S. : 10> Tenedos, not far from Ilium or Troy, in the district of Troas; 11, Lesbos: Mitylene, Methymna; 12, Chios; 13, >S'a7?ws opposite the prom- ontory of My cole; 14, Cos; 15, Rhodes. In the eastern part of the Mediterranean the island of Cyprus, (KjJtt/jos), cities (originally Phcenician, afterwards Greek): Salamis (Schalem), Paphos and Amathus, centre of the worship of Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia). In the Ionian sea from S. to N. : 1, Cythera, south of Laconia, with temple of Aphrodite; 2, Zacynthos; 3, Cephallenia, called by Homer Samos; 4, Ithaca; 5, Leucas; 6, Corcyra (Kep/cupa), perhaps the Scheria of Homer. RELIGION OF THE GREEKS.^ The religion of the early Greeks was a pantheistic nature-worship, distinguished among others by the multiplicity of its deities, and their intricate gradation, as well as by the wealth of biographical detail which the imagination of the poets provided for them. The great gods, Olympic deities, were 12 in number. Male divinities: Zeus "the God," lord of the sky, and ruler of all other gods as well as of men; Poseidon, god of the sea; Apollo, probably originally the highest god of some local district, the divinity of wisdom, of healing, of music and poetry, but not until later the sun-god; Ares, god of war; Hephcestus, god of fire, and of work accomplished by the application of tire, set apart from the other gods by his lameness; Hermes, god of invention, commercial skill, cunning, bravery. Female divinities: Hera, con- 1 Rawlinson. Religions of the Ancient World. Also Qrote, Hist, of Greece^ ■io\. I.; Curtlus, Griech. Gesch. I. 543-60; 456-549 passim. 42 Ancient History, B. o sort of Zeus; AtJiena, ihe maiden goddess sprung from the head of Zeus, the embodiment of wisdom and of housewifery; Artemis, god- dess of hunting, afterwards connected with the moon, as her brother Phoebus Apollo, with the sun ; Aphrodite^ goddess of sensual love, prob- ably introduced from the East; Hestia, goddess of fire, especially of the hearth-fire ; Demeter, " earth-mother," presiding over agriculture. In the lower rank of gods may be mentioned: Dionysius, god of wine and drunkenness; Hades, god of the lower world, the Graces^ the Muses, the Fates, the Furies, etc. The fields and forests, the ocean and the rivers were crowded with Nymphs and Hamadryads^ Naiads and Nereids, while creatures of a lower order, Satyrs (among whom Pan rose to the level of a god of the second rank) and monsters (^Cyclopes, Gorgons, Centaurs, etc.) abounded. Reverence was also paid to the heroes, ideal representations of fa- mous men, real or imaginary. Such were Cadmus (Thebes), Theseus (Athens), and Heracles, the mostly widely known of all (see p. 45). The gods were worshipped by invocation, and by sacrifices offered in accordance with a rigid ritual at altars which could be im- provised anywhere. There were, however, permanent altars for all divinities, in temples where the statue of the divinity was also en- shrined. These temples were frequently erected on lofty and com- manding sites, and upon their construction and decoration was lav- ished the highest skill in architecture and sculpture. Brilliant , coloring was also employed upon the temples. Each family, tribe i and race, each city, district and country had its recurring fes- tivals of special honor to the gods (Panathencea at Athens). Re- ligious festivals of all Greece: Olympian (Zeus) every fifth year, in July or August, at Olympia in Elis; Pythian (Apollo), every fifth (9fch) year, at Delphi; Isthmian (Neptune), every five years on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean, every third year, at Nemea in Argolis. These festivals were the centre of Grecian national life. Amphyctio- nic Council, the most important of the Amphyctionies (p. 51), a reli- gious conference which met at Delphi, and represented the political side of the Pan-Hellenic religion. Consultation of oracles, for obtain- ing the counsel of the gods, especially at Delphi. Mysteries, or rites of secret religious societies, the most renowned at Eleusis. No hierarchy of priests; yet those who had charge of the sacrifices, and more espe- cially of the oracles, often attained great influence. Ideas of future life vague and unsatisfactory. The more advanced minds among the Greeks undoubtedly attained to the idea of the es- sential oneness of divinity. GRECIAN HISTORY CAN BE DIVIDED INTO FOUR EPOCHS. a:-1104 (?). I. Mythical period down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration. ' 1104 (?)-500. II. Formation of the Hellenic states. Period of con- stitutional struggles down to the Persian wars. 500-338. III. Persian wars and internecine strife for the hegemony down to the loss of independence at the battle of Charonea. 338-146. IV. Grseco-Macedonian or Hellenistic period down to the subjugation of Greece by the Romans. Destruction qf Corinth. B. G. Greeks. 43 FIRST PERIOD. Mythical time, down to the Thessalian and Dorian migration (x-1104?).i The Greeks, 2 or as they called themselves the Hellenes ("EAAtjvcs), belong to the Indo-European or Aryan family. The Greeks state that the original inhabitants of their country were the Pelasgians. The meaning of this name is much disputed. According to some scholars it denotes the band which afterwards divided into the Italians and Hellenes. Another view regards the Pelasgians and Plellenes as the same people, but holds that the latter name is applied to those tribes which, " endowed with peculiar abil- ities and inspired with peculiar energy, distinguished themselves above the mass of a great people, while they extended their power witliin the same by force of arms," ^ so that their name became in historic times the one generally accepted. Others, again, regard the name Pelasgian as Semitic, and so applied originally to the Phoenician in- habitants of the coast, especially to the Minyce of Orchomenos, and afterwards erroneously transferred to the Illyrian aborigines of Epirus, Acadia, etc. Dodona, in Epirus, with the oracle of Zeus, the god of the sky, was the oldest centre of the Pelasgian life and religion. Remains of Pelasgian buildings, called by the Greeks Cyclopean, are found in Tiryns in Argolis, and in Orchomenos in Boeotia. Our earliest historical information shows the Hellenes divided into various tribes. Of these the Acheeans were most prominent during the heroic times, and their name was therefore used by Homer to denote the entire race. In historic times, on the contrary, the Dorians and lonians occupy the foreground; the other tribes are then classed together under the name ^olian, and the dialects which were neither Dorian nor Ionian are known as jEolian. The following mythical genealogy seems to have been invented at a very late period, and to have originated at Delphi. Hellen (son of Deucalion) .ZEolus (i. e. the many-colored) Dorus Xuthus (i. e. the exile) Ion Achaeus. We have no authentic information about the manner of the HeU lenic migration into Greece. According to one well-founded theory, a part of the immigrants, and among them the ancestors of the Do- rians, forced their way over the Hellespont into the mountainous region of northern Greece, where they established themselves as shepherds and tillers of the land. Other bands, among whom were the ancestors of the lonians, having descended from the highlands of Phry- 1 Accordinf? to Duncker, Hist. ofAntiq., TOO years later. 2 Griiken (Gra?ci, l'pat«coi) was the name pveii to the Greeks by the people of Italy; it was the name of a tribe in Epirus, or the Illyrian name for the Hellenes n general. 8 CurtiuB, Griechische Geschichte, I. 29; Eist. qf Greece, N. Y. 1876, 1. 41 44 Ancient History. B. a gia, by way of the valleys, to the coast of Asia Minor, were there transformed, into a race of seamen^ and gradually spread themselves over the islands of the Archipelago to the mainland of Greece.^ (The former formed the western, the latter, the eastern Greeks). Remembrance of the fact that western Greece received its civiliza- tion from the East gave rise, at a later period, to stories about un- authentic immigrations. 2 Cecrops (Kewpo;//), according to the original story autochthonus king of Attica, and builder of the Cecropia (Acropolis of Athens), was afterwards, in consequence of that identification of Grecian and Egyj>tian mythology wliich is illustrated by the conception of Neith, goddess of Sais, as Pallas Athena (p. 2), falsely represented as an Egyptian immigrant from Sais. The truth seems to be that the cliffs by the Ilissus, which were called the Cecropia, formed the first fortress of the inhabitants of the region, upon which their altars and sanctuaries found protec- tion, and around which the first beginnings of political life in Attica grouped themselves. Afterwards the Cecropia was per- sonified under the name Cecrops. According to the legend Cecrops was succeeded, by Erichthonios, the latter by Erechtheus, the two becoming soon united into one person, in whom the Erechtheioti, the temple of Poseidon Erechtheus, on the Acropolis, is personified. The legend makes Erechtheus the founder of the festival of Pan- athencea and conqueror of Eumolpus (i. e. sweet singer) of Eleusis, the centre of the worship of Demeter (story of her daughter Core, in the lower world Proserpina; the Eleusinian mysteries) . Eleusis was united with Athens into one community. Erechtheus, according to the legend, was succeeded by (Eneus, the latter by JEgeus, the father of Theseus, the national hero of the lonians (p. 45). A later legend tells how Danaus, brother of ^gyptus, came from Upper Egypt to Argos. He, too, with his fifty daughters, the Dan- eides, who, with the exception of Hypermnestra, murdered their hus- bands, the sons of jEgyptus, and were for this crime condemned to fill the bottomless tub, belongs to the native mythology. The Dan- aides are the springs of Argos, which, in the summer time, exert themselves in vain to satisfy the soil ; the water which gushes from them being dried up in the chalky earth. According to the legend the descendants of Lynceus and Hypermnestra ruled in Argos. On the other hand the legend of the migration of the Pelopidae from Lydia to Greece seems to have a historical foundation. Pelops, son of king Tantalus, who ruled the country about the Sipylus, came to Elis in Peloponnesus. His sons Atreus and Thyestes, with the help of Achceans from Phthiotis, made themselves masters of Tiryns and MycencE, which had been foimded by Perseus. Of the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon reigned over the whole of Argolis, while Menelaus became king of Sparta and Messina. The buildings and sculptures in Mycense, which are ascribed to the Atridce, resemble Assyrian art, and Assyrian art could have come to Greece earliest by way of Lydia. 1 Curtius, I., Griech. Gesch., I. 29 pqq. ; Hist, of Greece, I. 41. 2 Cf. Duncker, Gesch. des Alth., III. (2 Auflage), 1 Kap. 4-6. Curtius, Oriech. Gesch., I. 58; Mist, of Greece, I. 73. B. C. Greeks. 45 Cadmus, the mythical founder of the Theban state, is the per- Boiiifieation of Phoenician colonization, or at least of that civilization wliich Hellas had received from Phoenicia (p. 18). The national heroes of Grecian legend. The myth of Heracles ('Hpa/cATjs, Hercules), son of Zeus and Alc- mena, grew up out of the union of various religious, historical, and ethical elements. Heracles was in the beginning an actual divinity whom tradition, in the course of time, degraded to a demi-god. In him are united the Phoenician Melkart (p. 17) and Sandon, the sun- god of Asia Minor, and his heroic deeds are for the most part adapta- tions of the deeds ascribed to these two divinities. Heracles is at the same time the popular symbol brought by the Phoenicians to the eastern Greeks, and from them to the western Greeks, of the pioneer activity of the ancient settlements. A portion of the mass of legends connected with Heracles after his transformation into a Greek is ex- plained by later historical relations. The Dorians adopted him as their tribal hero. Their kings called themselves his descendants, Heraclidae ; from him they derived their rights to the Peloponnesus. Hence his rights, in the legends, not only over Mycence, in opposition to Eurystheus, but also over other parts of the peninsula (Auglas in Elis, Tyndareos in Sparta). The poetry of a later time, regarding Heracles as an ethical conception, presented him as the model of heroism, moral force, and renunciation, especially of willing obedi- ence (the 12 labors at the behest of Eurystheus; the choice of Her- cules). Theseus (©tjo-cus), son of ^geus, the descendant of Cecrops, is the family hero of the lonians, and of the Athenians in particular. He cleared the road from Troezen, where, according to the legend, he was born, to Athens (especially the isthnms), of robbers (Periphetes, Sinnis, Sciron, Damastes or Procrustes), so that the lonians of the Peloponnesus and of Attica thenceforward could assemble on the isthmus at the sacrifices to Poseidon. Theseus put to death the Minotaur in Crete, and rescued the Athenian youths and maidens Bent as a sacrifice to him. He conquered at Marathon the wild bull which is said to have likewise come from Crete. He repulsed the Amazons who made an attack upon Athens for the purpose of avenging the rape of Antiope. These three myths express the historical fact of the liberation of Attica from the tribute which it owed to the Phoenicians of Crete and the smaller islands, who offered human sacrifices to their god Moloch. The origin of the story of the Amazons is to be found in the virgin servants of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, who, at the religious ceremonies, executed dances in armor. The legend, moreover, ascribes to Theseus the union of the inhabitants of Attica into one state, and the separation of the people into the three orders: Eupatridce (nobles), Geomori (peasants), and Demiurgi (artizans), whereas the arrangement of the four ancient classes (Phylce) : Geleontes (nobles), Hoplltes (warriors), Argadeis (artizans), JEgicoreis (shepherds) was referred by the Athenians to the mythical tribal ancestor of the Ionian tribe, Ion Xp. 43). 46 Ancient History, B. G The Grecian legends adopted Minos (M/vcos), also originally of Phoenician origin, and transformed him into a Hero of the Dorians who dwelt in Crete since 1000, and a wise legislator and suppressor of piracy. Advanced civilization existed in Crete before loOO. Concerted enterprises of the heroic time. Expedition of the Argonauts. The golden fleece. Phrixos, son of the king of the Minyse, Aihamas of lolcos, in Thessaly^ whom his father was about to sacrifice to Zeus in order to obtain rain, fled with his sister HeUe, on the ram with the golden fleece, who waa given them by their mother Nephele. Helle during the journey fell into the sea, which is now called Hellespont (" sea of Helle "), near Abydos. Plirixos reached Colchis^ on the Pontus Euxlnus, and king /Eetes. The ram was sacrificed, the golden fleece preserved in a grove of the god Ares, guarded by a dragon. Jason, from lolcos, in- cited by his uncle Pelias, sailed in the ship Argo to Colchis at the head of a band of heroes consisting, according to the original myth, of Minyse alone, but according to the later legends accompanied by Heracles, Theseus, Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, etc. They gained pos- session of the fleece by the aid of the enchantress Medea, daughter of JEetes. Return to lolcos. Pelias murdered at the instigation of Medea. According to a later continuation of the legend, flight of Jason and Medea to Corinth, where Jason fell in love with Glaucay the daughter of the king. Medea poisoned Glauca, and killed her own children. Medea went to Athens and became the consort of ^geus. This mjrth seems to have been originally purely symbolical. The golden ram, which Nephele, that is, the " cloud," sends, is a repre- sentation of the fertilizing power of rain-clouds. The cloud-'ram de- parts to his home, the land of the sun-god. His fleece, a pledge of blessing, is brought back by Jaso7i (the " healer," the " bringer of blessings "), with the help of the daughter of the son of the sun, iEetes, who is learned in magic. This myth was afterwards expanded and localized in a manner which hints at the early voyages of the Pelasgic (p. 43) Minyae. The principal site of the wealth and power of the Minyse was Orchomenos in Boeotia; but the gulf of Pagdsce, on which lolcos is situated, is the scene of their early inter* course by sea. War of the Seven against Thebes. The story of (Edipus appears in its simplest form in Homer, and was expanded by the Attic tragic poets. OBdipus (olUirovs), son of Jocasta, and Ldios king of Thebes, a great-grandson of Cadmus, is exposed, in infancy, in consequence of an oracle which prophesied injury to his parents. He was rescued and brought up by Polybos in Corinth. At Delphi he kills his father, without recognizing him, solves the riddle of the Sphinx (What creature is there which goes on 4, 2, and 3 feet ? Man, in childhood, in manhood, in old age), becomes king of Thebes, and marries his own mother. When his crime is made known to him, he puts out his eyes. His daughters Antigone and Ismene. Quarrels of his sons Eteocles ('EtcokX^s) and B. c. Greeks, 47 Polynlces (jloXwdK-qs). Polynices attacks Thebes with his allies : Adrastus, Tydeus, Amphiardus, Capaneus, Hippomedon, Parthenopceus. The hostile brothers fall in personal contest; of the other princes all perish but Creon, the uncle of the brothers, who becomes king of Thebes. War of the Epigoni. Ten years later, expedition of the Epigoni (sons of the Seren). Tliebes captured and plundered. Thersandery son of Polynices, made king of Thebes. 1193-1184. Trojan War. Priam was king of Troy, or Ilium, in Asia Minor; his consort was Hecuba (Hecabe). Of his fifty sons the following appear in the legend : Hector ("E/cTap), whose wife is Andromache, and Paris (Alexandras). The latter abducts Helena ('EAeVT?), wife of Meneldus, of Sparta. The noblest princes of Greece unite to bring her back. Agamemnon of Mycenae, brother of Menelaus, and leader of the Greeks; Sthenelus of TiTjns ; Nestor of Pylos ; Achilles ('AxtAAet^s), king of the Myrmidons from Phthia in Thessaly, son of Peleus and the Nereid Thetis; Patroclus; Ajax (At'as), and Teucer, sons of Tela- mon of Salamis; the younger Ajax, son of Oileus, leader of the Locriaus; Diomedes of Argos, son of Tydeus; Odysseus of Ithaca, son of Laertes; Idomeneus, of Crete, grandson of Minos, etc. Among the allies of the Trojans from Asia Minor are : Sarpedon and Glaucus, leaders of the Lycians, troops from Mysia, Mceonia (in Lydia), Paphlagonia, and Phrygia, also Thracians and Pceones from the other side of the strait. The historical kernel of this great Grecian legend is, perhaps, the fact of a military expedition of Grecian tribes against the Trojans and the conquest of Troy; everything else in the story is mythical. Perchance the iEolian colonization of historic times (p. 49) and the ensuing contests with the native population gave rise to the romance of the Trojan war, which tradition then removed to the time before the Dorian migration. The prehistoric existence of a powerful city in the neighborhood of Troy, and its name 'Tpolif\ and "iKiov, is certain. Connected with the tale of the Trojan war, are the stories of the return of the Grecian princes. The murder of Agamemnon by his wife Clytemnestra and her paramour, and the vengeance of his children Orestes and Electra. The ten years wandering of Odysseus and his many adventures (Polyphemus, Lastrygones, Circe, Calypso, the Phseacians, etc.). SECOND PERIOD. From the Thessalian and Dorian Migration to the beginning of the Persian Wars, (1104 (?)-500.) Migration of the Thessalians from Epirus to the valley of the Peneus, thenceforward called Thessaly. Of the former inhabitants, kalians, part became serfs (weyeWcu), part fled the country. A por* 48 Ancient History . B. Q tion of the latter conquered Bceotia. The previous inhabitants of BcEotia, probably Pelasgians, as for instance the Minyse in Orchoni6 nos, and the Cadmeans in Thebes, were partly subdued, partly scat- tered in various settlements. Their name is henceforward un- known to history. The Dorians were likewise driven away by the Thessalians. They had inhabited the country about the Othrys and CEta, and the small mountamous region where they maintained themselves after the in- vasion, and which was known as Doris. That portion of them which emigrated also took the southern way. Strengthened by ^tolian bands, they crossed to the Peloponnesus between Naupactus, where they constructed vessels, and the promontory of Rhion. This is the so-called 1104 (?).^ Dorian migration, or the conquest of Pelo- ponnesus by the Dorians and ^tolians, according to the story, under the leadership of the Heraclidae {Teme- nus, Cresphontes, Aristodemus, descendants of Heracles. The conquerors crossed the northern portion of the Peloponnesus without making a settlement, and turned towards the countries on the western coast. The inhabitants of these regions, the Epei, being subdued, the JEtolians established themselves here, and founded a new commonwealth, called Elis. Out of the mixture of the -^tolians and Epei, sprang the new tribe of the Elei. The Dorians passed through southern Arcadia, probably up the valley of the Alpheus, and estab- lished themselves in the south and east of Peloponnesus. The native population, consisting of Achseans and ^olians, were in part expelled, in part placed in subjection; while in some regions they gave up certain territories to the new-comers by treaty. The last was the case in Laconia, where the native chiefs made treaties with the invaders and thereby received for a time recognition of their princely rights and support in their supremacy. So arose in Peloponnesus, one after another, but slowly and after much fighting and many revolutions, the following Dorian communi- ties: 1. Messenia (Cresphontes) ; 2. Sparta (Procles and Eurysthenes^ sons of Aristodemus); 3. Argos (Temenus),sit first the most powerfu' state, at the head of a league, to which Epidaurus and Troezen, unde. their own rulers, belonged ; 4. Phlius ; 5. Sicy on ; 6. Corinth, these three containing many of the old inhabitants, who lived among the new inhabitants under the same laws. Outside of Peloponnesus: 7. Megara; and 8. the island iEgina (Kiyiva). The remains of the old population, the Achaeans, who were driven from their homes, expelled or subjugated the ^gialian lonians, who inhabited the northern coast of Peloponnesus. The whole region was henceforward called Achaia. 1068 (?). Codrus (K%os), the last king of Athens, fell a vol- untary sacrifice in battle against the Dorians. According to the legend, Codrus was the son of th« Nestorian Melanthus, who had fled from Pylos to Athens. 1 See p. 48, note 1. B. C. Greeks* 49 The immediate consequence of these migrations and conquests was the practice of colonization, on a great scale, which at first was car- ried on by the tribes which had been expelled from their homes, but in which the conquering Dorians soon took active part. The Pelasgic population, driven from Thessaly, settled partly on the peninsula Chalcidice, partly in Crete, and partly on the coast of Mysia; the Minyce from lolcos, and Orchomenos occupied Lemnos, Imbros, Samothrace. More important were the 1000-900 (?) -^olian, Ionian, Dorian colonies which settled along the coast of Asia Minor and its islandso ^olian and Achaean colonies: Mitylene and Methymna on the island of Lesbos; Cyme and Smyrna on the mainland of Asia Minor (Smyrna afterwards became Ionian). The lonians, who were driven away by the Achseans, fled first to Attica, but finally founded along the coast of Lydia 12 cities with a common sanctuary at Panionium on Mycale, the most important of which were: Miletus, mother-city of more than 80 colonies, Ephesus, Phoccea (p. 26), Colophon, and occupied the islands of Samos and Chios. Dorian colonies, along the coast of Caria: Halicarnassus and Cni- dus. Dorians and Achceans founded settlements in Crete, Rhodes, where they gradually drove out the Phoenicians, in Melos and in Thyra, whence in 631 the colony of Cyrene was sent out to the north coast of Africa. 1000 (?).^ Homer and his successors (Homeridse). Ihad and Odyssey. Constitution of society and government. During the heroic period, and at the beginning of historic times, we find everywhere a patriarchal monarchy, the hereditary property of families who derived their descent from the gods. In the historic times gradual formation in all states of a republican constitution, partly tlirough the extinction, partly through the expulsion, of the old dynasties. This republican constitution was at first aristocratic; later, in most states, democratic, frequently reaching the latter state through the intervening suprem- acy of a Tyrant (Tvpauuos), a name applied to every one who attained supreme power in an illegal manner, and originally not conveying the idea of an arbitrary or cruel government. The democracy of antiquity was not, however, a form of govern- ment in which the majority of the inhabitants, but in which the major- ity of the citizens, took part in the conduct of the commonwealth. In most of the Greek states, the majority of the population consisted, not of citizens, but of slaves.^ Democracies in the modem sense were almost unknown in ancient times. In Doric Sparta the population consisted of three classes, strictly distinct from one another: 1. Spartiatce (^irapriaTai, comprising o/j.oioi, 1 The Grecian statements concerning the epoch of Homer differ almost five hundred years from one another. 2 Cf. Becker, Charicles (trans.), 361; and Schoemanu, Antiquities oj Greece, L 100 foil. i 50 Ancient History, B. 0% L e. those having full rights, and viro/xdovis i- e- those of less means, who could not furnish the required contribution to the Syssites) di- vided into three Phylse, each composed of 10 Obae (d>;8a/) ; these were the Dorian conquerors, who occupied the fertile portions of the La/- conian territory, the valley of the Eurotas, and the lowlands extending to the sea; 2. Lacedcemoyiians or Perioeci (tt^pIoikoi, i. e. they who dwell round about), descendants of those Achfeans who had submitted to the conquerors by treaties. They were free, but payed dues, as trib- \ utary property-holders and small land-owners, and were without political rights, but were, however, bound to military service; 3. Helots (from etAwres, "prisoners"?), serfs of the state. They were divided among the Spartiatse by lot, and tilled their lands, paying to their lords a fixed portion of the harvest. The number of the Permd was almost four times that of the Spartiatce, while the number of the Helots was, perhaps, from 2 to 3 times as great as that of the Pe- riceci. 820 (?). Constitution and Laws of Lycurgus. Lycurgus {h^vKovpyos), according to tradition of royal descent, and guardian of the young king Charilaus, arranged the relation of the three classes, as described above, according to settled principles. His code of laws was for the Spartiatse alone. The form of government was an aristocratic republic, in spite of the two hereditary kings (generals, high priests, judges). Both kings must be of the Heraclid race, one a member of the Agidce (from Agis, son of Eurystheus), the other of the Eurijpontidce (from Eurypon, grandson of Procles; see p. 48). The Council of Elders (yepovaia, 28 Gerontes, at least 60 years of age, elected for life) under the two kings as presiding officers had : 1. the previous discussion of everything that was to be laid before the popular assembly; 2. jurisdiction over capital crimes. The popular assembly (axia), consisting of all Spartiatse over thirty years of age, who had not lost their political rights, had no right of initiation, and decided without debate. At a later period the five Ephors, i. e. in- spectors (for the 5 wards) who had probably existed before Lycurgus, acquired great power (p. 56). Assignment of an hereditary landed estate to every Spartan family, which had lost its possessions since the conquest; equal division of the Helots, or slaves of the state, for the purpose of tilling these lands. No new division of all landed property.^ (Tradition makes Lycurgus divide the land into 9000 (4500 ?) lots for the Spartiatse, and 30,000 for the Periceci.) Establishment of social unions or com- pulsory clubs ((TKr]val), whose members ate together, even in time of peace : Phiditia or Syssitia. Children were brought up in common, and the young men of the Spartan warrior-nobles dwelt together. The Crypteia (Kpuirreia), an organized guard over the Helots by young Spartans. No actual hunting of the Helots.^ 776. First Olympiad, that is, the first year in whick 1 Grote, Fist, of Greece (Boston, 1851), II, 393 foil. 2 Sohoemamn/ArUici. of Greece, I. 195. B. c. Greeks, 51 the name of the Olympian victor was recordedo (The first was Coroibus.) Olympian games (raised to greater importance since 820, by the par- ticipation of Sparta ?) ; Nemean games since 573, in honor of Zeus, Isthmean games (Poseidon, since 582), and Pythian games (Apollo, en- larged after 590). Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, founded, according to tradition, at the command of the god, by Cretans (i. e. Dorians^ from Cnosus. Amphictyonies, societies for common worship (per- j formance of sacrifices), the most important of wliichwasthe Delphic. I 734. Foundation of Syracuse ^ by the Corinthian Archias. I 743-724. (?) First Messenian war. Aristodemus king of the Mes- senians. Defence of Ithome. Those Messeniaus that did not emigrate became tributary. A part of the land was confis- cated as conquered territory. 708. Foundation of Tarentum by the Spartan Phalanthus. 645-628. 2 Second Messenian war. Aristomenes. Defence of Ira (Eipa)y for nine years. The Athenian bard Tyrtseus accom- panied the Spartans. After the fall of Ira the greater part of the Messenians fled to Sicily ; Zancle, also, was occupied by them, but does not appear to have received the name Messana before the fifth century.^ The remaining Messenians became Helots. In Athens government of the nobles (Eupatridce) since the death of Codrus (1068 ?). The chief officers of state were the Archons, at first (1067-753) chosen for life, from the family of Codrus ex- clusively, afterwards (752-683) elected for ten years, the first four only being of the family of Codrus, the rest taken from the Eupa- tridce in general. From 682 on there were nine archons chosen every year, and servuig only one year, taken from the Eupatridce alone, and chosen by them alone. These were: 1. Archon Eponymus (i. e. he from whom the year is named), the presiding officer. 2. Basileus, i. e. king of the sacrifices, high priest. 3. Polemarchus, at first leader of the army, afterwards, when the military command was entrusted to Strateges by turn, only superintendent of military affairs; the other six were Thesmothetce, judges, heads of the department of justice. Cir. 621. Laws of the Archon Draco. No alteration of the consti- tution, only reform of the criminal law, and the law relating to debts, introducing great severity, frequent use of the death penalty, and heavy fines. Hence later known as the " Law of Draco, written with blood." 524? Insurrection of Cylon, who, with the assistance of his father-in-law Theagenes, tyrant of Megara, seized the Acropo- lis. Cylon was driven into banishment by the Archon Megades, of the family of the Alcmceonidce, and his followers were put to 1 Concerning the date of the foundation, see Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I, $81 eqq. 2 According to Duncker, Gesch. des Altherth., and Curtius, I. 240. Ao sording to the oldei- but veiy doubtful assumption, 685-668. * Holm, Gesch. Siciliens, I. 200. 52 Ancient History, B. c« death while clinging for protection to the altars. On account of this sacrilege the Archons for the year were banished. Ke- ligious purification of Athens by Epimemdes of Cuossus. Solon, of the family of the Nelidse, gained great influence by the recapture of Salamis, which had been taken by the Megarseans, and through his share in the 600-590. 1 First sacred war against Crisa and Cirrha, whose in- habitants had robbed the temple of Apollo in Delphi. The Amphyctyonies destroyed both cities after a long contest ; the; inhabitants were enslaved and their land consecrated to the Pythian Apollo. Growing dissatisfaction in Athens with the government of the^ nobility, and internal disorders. The citizens were divided into three parties: 1. The great land-owners of the plain (^ol ix rov treSiov), the Eupatridce. 2. The peasants of the mountainous districts (Sto/cptot). 3. The inhabitants of the coast (7ro/)a\ot), a well-to-do middle class. 594. Solon, while Archon Eponymus, being authorized by a special enactment to negotiate between the aristoc- racy and the people, proposed and carried out at first the Seisachtheia (i. e. the removal of burdens), whereby debts secured by mortgage were reduced about 27% by the intro- duction of a new standard of coinage; the Attic or Euhcean talent ($1078.87) instead of the Aginetan talent ($1630.50) ; personal security for debts was abolished, and all money fines as yet unpaid were remitted. Amnesty for all who had been deprived of their political rights (Jirifjioi). Return of the Alcmseonidfe. The Constitution and Laws of Solon were established for the citizens (TroAirai) only. Excluded from all political rights were: 1. The metceci (fxeroiKoi, foreigners not citizens, but living in Athens under protection of the government), who were regarded in law as minors, and required to be represented by a patron (Trpoo-TttTTjs) who was a citizen, in all legal transactions. 2. The slaves (SouAot). The two latter classes formed the great majority of the inhabitants. In her most prosperous days the citizens of Athens may be estimated at 90,000, the metceci at 45,000, the slaves at 360,000. So that in the period of most extreme democracy the sovereign people formed a small minority of the population. ^ Division of all citizens, for purposes o^ military service and the exercise of political rights, into classes, according to income received from property in land, no regard being paid to movable property of any kind. The unit of measure was the medimnus (52.53 liter), for grain and vegetables; the metretes (39.39 liter), for wine and olive oil. The following four classes were formed : — 1. Pentakosiomedimni, men whose estates brought in a minimum of 500 medimni and metretes. 1 According to Curtius, Hist, of Greece, I. 281. The date formerly ac* eected was 596-586. 2 Cf . Sohoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 348, 353. B. c. Greeks, 63 2. Knights (lirweTs), yield of estates 300-500 medimni. 3. Zeugitce (i. e. they who work their laud with one span of mules), yield of estates at least 150 niediuuii. 4. Tketes, comprising all who owned land yielding less than 150 medimni, or possessed no land, but were either day laborers in the country, or artisans, sailors, tradesmen in the city. Taxation consisted in the duty of the citizens, as arranged in these four classes, to systematically supply ships, horses, and arms for mili- tary service. The members of the Jirst three classes served as hoplites (^TrArrat), heavy armed foot-soldiers; members of the Jirst two classes served also in case of need as cavalry, furnisliing their own horseS; while members of the^rs^ class furnished ships for the fleet at their own expense, for which purpose they were enrolled in 48 naucrarise; the thetes were to be called upon to serve as light-armed foot, or upon the fleet, only to defend the coimtry from invasion. There was no other regular taxation of citizens; state officials served without pay, and the other expenses of the commonwealth were covered by the yield of the mines, which were state property, by fines, by a poll- tax laid on the metoeci, and by the harbor dues. When extraordinary taxes were necessary, they were adjusted on the basis of the classes described above, the fourth class, however, being exempt. After the time of Solon, the nine archons were taken from the first class ; every citizen had a vote in their election. The council (/SowAt)) of 400, formerly chosen from the Eupatridce alone, was henceforward open to all citizens of the^rs^ three classes over thirty years old. The popular assembly (jKKXrtaia) consisted of all citizens over twenty years old. The Areopagus (from "Apetos 7ra7os,^ Hill of Ares, or Mars), the an- cient court which had jurisdiction over murder and arson, and a general supervision over the entire administration of the state, was, after this time, composed of archons who had retired from office. Legal mat- ters were adjusted by the heliasts (■^Amo-Tat, so called from the halls, r]\iata, where they sat), bodies having sometliing of the nature of both judge and jury, and consisting of citizens over thirty years old, chosen by the thesmothetse, out of a list of 6000 citizens which was formed by lot. Tliis timocratic constitution of Solon paved the way from aristocracy to democracy. In itself it was essentially conservative, since the larger landed estates were nearly all in the hands of the nobles. Solon also established a code of laws for regulating the entire civil life, which was not completed until later. Solon left Athens for ten years. Travels in eastern Asia, Crete, and Egypt. New party divisions in Athens. The nobles were led by Lycurgus; the middle class by the Alcmseonid Megacles; the poorer classes by Pisistrdtus, who, in spite of the opposition of Solon, who had returned to Athens and was now an old man, constantly gained oew supporters, and finally made himself master of the Acropolis. 1 The hill only was so called by the ancients. The court was known as q ^^ 'Apciai Trdyu (iovK'q, 54 Ancient History. b. d 660-527* Pisistratus (ncto-to-Tparos), tyrant of Athens. Emigration of Athenian nobles, under Miltiades the elder, to the Thraciau Chersonese. Solon left Athens again and went to Asia ; Minor. Conversation with Croesus in Sardes (see p. 26). He died (559)_ at Soli, in Cyprus (?). ^ ^ . Pisistratus ruled in Athens under the forms of the Solonian consti- I tution, which he did not revoke. He managed that the people should k always choose archons who suited liim. Driven out by a coalition I of the nobles and the moderates, 569, he returned five years later (564). A second time exiled in 552, he agam regained his power after eleven years absence, and ruled without further interrup- tion from 541 to 527. New emigration of noble families, particu- larly that of the AlcmcEonidce. Pisistratus conducted his government until his death, with mildness and wisdom, and bequeathed it to his ^ son, I 627-510. Hippias ('Iinr^as), under whom If 619. Platceos seceded from the BcEotian League and entered into alliance with Athens. The Bceotians were defeated by the Athenians. Hippias conducted the goveriunent after the man- ner of his father, until his brother, Hipparchus, was murdered by Harmodius ('Ap^uiiSios) and Aristogiton (^ApiaToyelrajv^ in 614. (See Thucydides, VI. 54-59, where he criticises the traditional tale of Harmodius and Aristogiton.) Hippias took a cruel revenge, was driven out of the city by the exiled nobles (Clis- thenes at the head of the AlcmceonidcE) in connection with a Spartan army under Cleomenes. He took refuge with Darius, king of Persia. 509. Reforms of Clisthenes (KXcto-^eViys), son of Mega- cles, grandson of Clisthenes, of Sicyon. This was not only a change in the constitution, but a social reform as well. The constitution of Solon was not, however, repealed, but only further developed in a democratic manner, without as yet intro- ducing equal political rights of all citizens. The Solonian arrange- ment of classes for purposes of taxation remained; the archonship was as before restricted to the first class, and membership of the council to the first three classes. With the consent of the Delphic oracle, now indebted to the Alc- mseonidae, for the erection of a new temple, the four old Athenian tribes (^uAat), Geleontes, Hoplites, Argddeis, ^gicoreis(^. 4:5), which Solon had left in existence, were set aside, and there were substituted for them ten new tribes, which were political and religious unions. These new tribes did not form connected territorial divisions.^ Each tribe consisted of ten demes, or local communities, which, how- ever, were not contiguous, but were scattered about the country and interspersed with demes belonging to other tribes. In all there were 100 demes, later 174. This arrangement was designed to break up the local influence of the aristocracy, and put an end to the old patri- archal condition of things, whereby only nobles and large land-owners 1 Duncker, IV. 454; Schoemann, Antiq. of Greece, I. 369. B. c. Greeks, 55 could hold the position of demarch (S-fifiapxos), the presiding officer of a community. Henceforward every two demes formed a naucrary, which was ex- pected to fit out and man a trireme (a vessel with three banks of oars) ; whereas the old division of Attica, made in 682, into 48 nau- craries, had been based on the old politico-religious division into tribes and phratries. These phratries {(pparpiai, 12), the subdivisions of the old tribes ((pvAal), were untouched by the reform of -Clisthenes, but they were reduced to the condition of religious corporations for keeping lists of births, marriages, and deaths, but without political impor- tance. The council (BovX-f}) was increased from 400 to 500 members, fifty for each tribe ; and each of these sets of fifty presided in the council for the tenth part of a year {prytany, irpuravela) ; the members of these presiding committees of fifty were called prytanies. Instead of four popular assemblies in a year, as formerly, ten were held hence- forward. 508. The Athenian nobility, headed by Isagoras, with the help of a Spartan army under Cleomenes, brought about a short re- action. Clisthenes fled; the Acropolis was delivered to the Spartans by a treacherous archon. A revolt of the Athenian populace compelled Cleomenes to make a disgraceful capit- ulation : withdrawal of the Spartans without arms, and sur- render of the leaders of the aristocracy. The latter were put to death, and Clisthenes was recalled. 506. An expedition of the Spartans against Athens under their kings, Cleomenes and Demeratus, at the head of their Peloponnesian allies, was broken up by tlae sudden withdrawal of the Corin- thians and the lack of harmony between the Spartan kings. The allies of the Spartans, the Boeotians and the Chalcidians from Euhoea, were defeated by the Athenians. The latter con- quered a part of Euhoea, and apportioned 400C peasant holdings among Attic farmers, who retamed their Athenian citizenship. The Athenian democracy derived an accession of strength from a reduction in the powers of the archons. The place of holding the popular assembly was changed from the market-place {ayopa), where, according to a custom sanctified by its antiquity, the first archon presided, to the rocky hill of the Pnyx ; and the duty of presiding in the popular assembly and in the council was fixed upon an offi- cer (^TTio-TciTrjy), who was chosen hy lot from the prytany, for the time being, and who was changed every day. This officer also held the keys of the Acropolis and of the archives. It is uncertain how far Clisthenes had introduced the use of the lot, in selecting state offi- cials (of course, only from the numbers of qualified candidates). Election of ten Strategi, one from each tribe, each of whom had by turns the chief command of the army, which formerly belonged to the archon polemarchus. The right of appeal from the decision of the thesmothetse to the heliasts, which had been mtroduced before Solon for certain cases, was now extended to all cases. Establishment of the ostracism (baTpaKi(r/j.6s, used mitil 417^, i. e. the power of the Sovereign popular assembly to decree, by means of a secret balloli 66 Ancient History. b. c. with bits of pottery (pcrrpaKo), the banishment of any citizen who eni' dangered the public liberty, without process of law.^ In Peloponnesus, during this period of internal development at Athens, Sparta had become the first power. Soon after the first Messenian war, an essential increase in the powers of the Ephors had taken place (under king Theopompus). About 560, another re- form had been accomplished by the Geront Chilon, with the aid and religious consecration of Epimenides of Cnossus, which completed the arit^tocratic form of government at Sparta, and gave increased strength to the commonwealth. The Ephors received an extraordinary dis- ciplinary power over every individual, not excepting even the kmgSo The power of the latter gradually dwindled to a shadow. After the victory at Thyrea (549), the power of Ai-gos, which in the seventh century had again attained, under King Phidon, a transient increase, was broken, and the Argive league was dissolved. The Spartan state, which was everywhere the opponent of tyranny and the pro- tector of republican-aristocratic governments, became the leader of a league of the Peloponnesian states, and claimed the Hegemony over all the Hellenic cantons. THIRD PERIOD. From the beginning of the Persian wars to the loss of inde- pendence by the Battle of Chaeronea. 500-338. 500-449. Persian wars. 500-494. Revolt of the Ionian Greeks against the Persians (p. 28). The assistance rendered them by Athens and Eretria was the { immediate cause of the attempt of the Persians to subjugate European Greece. 493-479. Attack of the Persians upon the Greeks. 493 (492 ?). First expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Mardonius. The land force subdued the coast of Thrace ; the fleet conquered the island of Thasos. Alexander, king of Macedonia, submitted volun- tarily. The Persian army, surprised by a Thracian tribe, suffered great loss; the fleet was for the most part destroyed by a storm off the promontory of Athos. Mardonius thereupon decided to return. Construction of citadels on the Thracian coast to serve as points of support in future campaigns : Byzantium, Sestos, Ahdera, received Persian garrisons. 491. The Persian heralds, who required signs of submission (water and earth), were sacrilegiously murdered at Sparta and Athens The Cyclades and jEgina promised submission to Persia. The Athenians received from the Spartans ^ginetan hostages. 490. Second expedition of the Persians against Greece, un- I 1 The ostracism was in no sense a sentence or a juridical decision, but a purely political act of the highest power in the state. B. C. Greeks. 67 der Artaphernes (the young nephew of Darius) and an older general, the Mede Datis. A fleet of 600 triremes and the same number of transports, with 100,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry on board, crossed the ^gean sea. After destroying the city of Naxos, the Persians landed in Euboea. The city of Eretria was stormed, and taken by treachery ; those of the inhabitants who were not put to death were sent as prisoners to the great king at Susa. By the advice of Hippias (p. 54) the Per- sians landed on the east coast of Attica, and encamped in the vicinity of Marathon. At Athens the entire military power of the city (9-10,000 Hop- lites)^ was called to arms under the ten Strategi of the ten tribes, among whom were Aristldes^ Themistdcles, and Miltiades (the younger), who had been recalled from the Chersonese. The Athenians crossed the Brilessus and advanced to meet the Persians; they en- camped m face of the enemy for nine days in a position strengthened by entrenchments, and whence they covered the road to Athens. Re- inforced by 1000 Platseans, they attacked the Persians without wait- ing for the arrival of the assistance which had been sought from Sparta. It is probable that the Persians had at this time embarked a portion of their army, especially the cavalry, in order to attempt a second landmg in the immediate neighborhood of Athens. After hard fighting the Athenians defeated the enemy in the 490. 12 September. Battle of Marathon, under the leadership of Miltiades. The plan of the Persians to surprise Athens from the sea was prevented by a forced march of the army back to the city. The Per- sian fleet returned to Asia Minor. Hippias died in Lemnos. 489. Ill-considered and unsuccessful attack of Miltiades, who had been clotb*id with unrestricted power as military commander, upon Paros Miltiades, on his return to Athens wounded, was brought to trial at the complaint of Xanthippus, and con- denmed to pay the costs of the expedition, amountmg to fifty talents, which sum was paid by his son Cimon, after the death of his father. Aristides and Themistocles were now the leading statesmen at Athens. The latter devoted special attention to increase and im- provement of the fleet, the necessity of which was proved to the Athenians by an unsuccessful war with ^gina, which occurred at this time, and for wliich they were obliged to hire ships from the Corinthians.2 On the motion of Themistocles, the income from the silver works at Laurium were spent upon the fleet, and 20 triremes were built every year. 183. As the growing rivalry between Aristides and Themistocles endangered the commonweal, at the suggestion of the council the assembly decided between the two men by the ostracism (p. 55). Aristides was condemned to ten years' exile from Athens by more than 6000 votes. 1 Duncker, Gesch. d.AUerthum, IV. 673. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 246 * Curtius, Hist, of Greece. II. 262. 58 Ancient History. B. 0. | Themistocles urging the fortification of Pirseus, a strong wall was built, the foundations of which are yet visible, which also enclosed the small harbors of Munychia and Zea on the southeast of Piraeus. I Radical reform of the naval department. The naucraries (p. 55), f which had not been able to furnish all the ships needed by the state, since the year 500 B. c, were dissolved, and their place supplied by a new arrangement known as the trierarchies. The building of ships and the supply of the more essential portions of their equipment were undertaken by the state ; the completion of the equipment, the repairs, and the supplies of the crew, during service, of one sliip was assigned as a service due the state (^Xeirovpyta) to one well-to-do citizen, who in return was appomted trierarch, or commander-in-cliief of the ship. Whereas m the naucraries the expenses of the ships had fallen exclusively upon the Pentakosiomedimni (i. e. the large land- owners, p. 52), all citizens, whether land-owners or not, whose property exceeded a certain standard could be called upon for this purpose, and were entitled to the honor of the trierarchy^ 481-480. Third expedition of the Persians against Greece, under Xerxes. This expedition, planned by Darius, was carried out by his son Xerxes, after extensive preparations. Pisistratus, son of Hippias, and Demaratus, the deposed king of Sparta, accompanied Xerxes on the expedition. Construction of a canal at Acanthus by the force on the fleet and the subject Thracians, to avoid the storms about Mt. Athos. Bridge over the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, built by Phoenician and Egyptian laborers. Erection of large magazines in Asia Minor and on the coast of Thracia. 481. The troops from the eastern and southern parts of the empire assembled at Critalla in Cappadocia, whence they were con- ducted to Sardes by the king in person. 480. In the spring departure from Sardes (about 900,000 men). March through Mysia. Passage of the Hellespont, lasting seven days. March through Thrace and Macedonia. Passage of the fleet (more than 1300 triremes, among which were over 400 Grecian ships from Asia Minor) through the canal at Acanthus. After the Greeks had given up the plan of defending the pass of Tempe, the Persian army traversed Thessaly without opposition. Not only the Thessalians, but also the Boeotian cities, with the exception of Platcece and Thespice, sent the king symbols of submission. J 480. J^ily. Battle of the Greeks under Leonidas, at Ther° mopylse (i. e. warm gates, a pass at the foot of Calli- dromus, near hot springs) against the army of Xerxes. The Spartan king Leonidas, defended the pass of Thermopylae, with about 6000 Hoplites, among whom were 300 SpartiatcE, and 1000 Lacedsemonian Periceci, against the overwhelming force of the 1 Boeckh, Public Economy of the, Athenians (Lamb's trans.), 359, 695-745. I B. C. Greeks. 59 Persians, while 1000 Phocians guarded the footpath over (Eta. The Persians, guided over this path by the traitor Ephialtes, drove back the Phocians and attacked the Grecian army in the rear. Leonidas ordered the Perioeci and the troops of the allies to retire, and died a heroic death with his 300 Spartiatae and 700 Thespians, who re- fused to leave him. The Thebans, who had fought under Leonidas against their will, laid down their arms; part of them were cut down: part branded, at the kuig's command, and sent back to Thebes. At the same time 480* Indecisive sea-fight at Artemisium, a promontory and temple at the northern point of Eubcea. During the first day about 280 Grecian ships, under conduct of the Spartan Eurybiddes, fought against the Persian fleet, under Achce- menesy which was weakened through losses by storms, and the dis- patch of 200 ships around the southern end of Eubcea. Night put an end to the indecisive battle. Loss of the 200 Persian ships which were sent around Eubcea. On the second day the Grecian fleet, reinforced by 53 triremes, had a victorious contest with Cilician ships. On the third day, also, the battle remained undecided, although the Persians attacked with their whole fleet. On receipt of the news of the capture of the pass of Thermopylae, the Grecian fleet hastened to the Gulf of Saldmis. The Pelopon- nesian army, having established itself on the isthmus, began the con- struction of a wall across the isthmus, instead of coming to the as- sistance of the Atlienians. Xerxes traversed central Greece, without meeting with resistance. Locrians and Dorians submitted. He ravaged the land of the Pho- cians, the detachment sent to Delphi was, however, driven back, with the help of a thunderstorm. Bceotia was treated as a friendly coun- try. Thespice and Platceoe alone were destroyed. The Athenians abandoned their city, leaving only a garrison in the Acropolis. The fortifications of the Piraeus being incomplete, the fleet conveyed the old men, women, and children, with all personal effects, to Saldmis, JEgina, and Argolis, in which latter place the Athenian children were provided with schooling at the expense of the inhabitants. Return of the exiles permitted. Xerxes entered the city, the Acropolis was taken by storm, the temples thereupon and the city burned to the ground. 480. 20 Sept. Naval battle of Salamis. The Grecian fleet, now united and strongly reinforced (378 tri- remes, 7 fifty-oared vessels), was under the command of the Spartan Eurybiades. The Grecians, being through the contrivance of the strategus Themistocles, surrounded by the enemy and forced to fight, won a brilliant victory over the Persian fleet, wliich still numbered 750 (?) vessels. The island of Psyttalea, which the Persians had oc- jupied, was recaptured by Aristldes, who had hastened from iEgina to iake part in the combat. The Greeks lost 40, the Persians 200, ships, he Persian fleet anchored in the bay of Phaleron. Retreat^ not 60 Ancient History. b. c* flight, of Xerxes. Mardonius was left in Thessaly witL the best part of the army (260,000 men). 480. Nov. Xerxes, after suffering great loss through drought and lack of provisions, reached the Hellespont, where he found the fleet, which transported the army, the bridge having been carried away by storms. The Grecian fleet, instead of pursuing the Persians, as Themis- tocles wished, laid unsuccessful siege to the city of Andros. The Athenians returned to their city, and at once began its reconstruction. 479. Fourth expedition of the Persians against Greece. After Mardonius had in vain offered the Athenians, through I Alexander of Macedonia, a separate peace with recognition of their \ independence, he entered Attica and advanced on Athens, strength- | ened by a reinforcement under Artahdzus, and by contingents from his allies in northern Greece, Thessalians, Boeotians, a part of the Phocians, and the Ar gives. The Athenians, being a second time faith- lessly left in the lurch by the Spartans, retired again to Salamis. Whatever had been rebuilt in the city, the Persians destroyed. Finally the whole Peloponnesian force of 30,000 hoplites and twice as many light-armed troops having crossed the isthmus, Mardonius retired, and took up a favorable position in Bceotia on the Asopus. More than 10,000 Athenians, Platceans, and Thespians joined the Hel- lenic army. Pausanias was the leader of the Spartans and of the whole force. He commanded the most imposing army that Hellas had ever seen. The Hellenes, however, had no cavalry. 479. Sept. Battle of Plataeae. After long delay and much marching back and forth, Pausanias, who had twice entrusted the most dangerous positions to the Athe- nians under the conamand of Aristides, decided to retreat without offering battle; being, however, attacked by Mardonius and com- pelled to defend himself, he fought bravely at the head of the Pelo- ponnesians, and, being well supported by the Athenians, gained a decisive victory. Mardonius fell. Rout of the Persians; their camp captured by the Greeks. The Grecian army advanced before Thebes; the leaders of the Per- sian party were given up, and executed on the isthmus. At the beginning of the campaign against Mardonius a Grecian fleet under the Spartan king, Leotychidas, — Xafithippus commanding the Athenians under him, — had been dispatched to patrol the ^gean Sea. At the call of the Samians the fleet sailed for Asia Minor, and took the offensive against the Persians. 479-449. Offensive war of the Grecians against the Persians. The Persian admiral, Mardontes, distrusting the Greeks of Asia Minor, who were in his fleet, did not venture to accept the naval battle offered him near Sanios. He beached his fleet at the promontory of Mycdle, opposite Samos, and en- trenched himself. The Grecian marines landed, and utterly defeated the Persians in the { B, C. Greeks, 61 479. Battle of Mycale (on the day of the battle of PlatsesB ?), captured the camp and burned the Persian ships. Several of the island cities, par- ticularly Samos, Lesbos, and ChioSf and afterwards the Grecian coast towns of Asia Minor, joined the Hellenic league. The Peloponnesians returned home; the Athe7iians and lonians con- quered Sestos in the Thracian Chersonese. Rebuilding and enlargement of Athens, which, in spite of the ob- jection of the Pelopomiesians, was surrounded with strong walls. (Stratagem of Themistocles.) Completion of the fortification of Pirseus, where a large city grew up. 478 (?). Reform of Aristldes, from wliich dates the real supremacy of the democracy in Athens. The state offices "were opened to all four classes alike (p. 53). Under the command of Pausanias, the united fleet of Peloponne- sians, Athenians, and Ionic Greeks of Asia Minor conquered Byzan- tium, and acquired a rich booty. The overbearing demeanor of Pausanias toward the other members of the league, and the wimiing manner of the Athenian leaders, A ristldes and Cimon, brought it about that after the recall of Pausanias by the Ephors 477 (?). The Hegemony (chief conduct of the war) was transferred from Sparta to Athens, and a Hellenic con- federacy (symmachy) was formed, the political head of which was Athens, and whose religious centre was the temple of Apollo in Delos, where the treasury of the league was also established. The smaller states contrib- ute money oiily, instead of furnishing contingents of ships. Rivalry between Themistocles and Cimon. The supporters of the latter procured the ostracism of Themistocles. He retired to Argos. While there suspicion attached to him of being implicated in the treasonable intrigues of Pausanias. The latter, threatened with un- prisonment by the Ephors, took refuge in the temple of Athena at Sparta, and there died of starvation (467?). Themistocles, driven from Argos, went to Corcyra, thence to Epirus, and finally to Susa, where he offered the Persian monarch his services against his native land. Artaxerxes I. (p. 28) gave him a princely domam in Asia Minor, where he died (460). After the retirement of Aristides from political life, and his death, which occurred soon after (467 ?), Cimon became the leader of the Athenian commonwealth. He began the construction of the two long walls (ja (TKfAT]), one of which connected the city with Piraeus, and the other with Phaleron.^ Cimon, the victorious leader ci the fleet of the league, captured those places on the Thracian coast which were still occupied by the Persians (Eion, 469) ; chastised the pirates of Scyra, and carried the bones of Theseus to Athens; captured Naxos, wliich had revolted 1 Oncken {Athen u. Bellas, I. 72) holds that the walls were begun during the banishment of Cimon; so also Ad. Schmidt, JDas perikleische Zeitalten I. 57, who, however, places the banishment of Cimon in 461. 62 Ancient History, * B. OL from the league, and now lost its independence, as punishment (467)| defeated the fleet and army of the Persians in the 465. Battle of the Eurymedon, in Pamphylia. Cimon conquered the Chersonese and punished the island of Thasos, which had seceded from the confederacy. 464. Earthquakes in Sparta; insurrection of the Laconian helots, a portion of whom joined the Messenian helots and occupied Ithome. 464-456. Third Messenian war, in which the Spartans were forced to implore the help of Athens, which was furnished at the instance of Cimon, but was afterwards sent back by the suspicious Spartans (461). The Athenians, offended, allied themselves with the Ar gives, the principal enemies of the Spartans in the Pelopoimesus. In Athens, rivalry between Cimon, head of the aristocratic party, and Pencles, the son of Xanthippus, leader of the democracy. The latter party succeeded in establishing the payment of citizens serving in the army, or as judges, and the bestowal of alms of the state upon the poor at festivals out of the public treasury. The begiiming of the decline of the Athenian democracy. The Athenians sent aid to the Egyptian rebel Inaros (p. 28) against the Persians. The expedition came to an unfortunate end, the Athe- nian army being surrounded on one of the islands of the Nile, and compelled to surrender. 460. The law of Ephialtes took from the court of Areopagus the cen- sorship over the state, which had been intrusted to it by Solon (p. 53), and limited its sphere of action to its judicial powers. 459. After this democratic victory Cimon was banished from Athens by ostracism. About this time (between 460 and 454), the treasury of the con- federacy was transferred from Delos to the Acropolis of Athens. The contributions of the members of the league thereby acquired the character of a tribute paid to the Athenians. The confederates be- came for the most part subjects of Athens, which became the capital of a great coast and island empire.^ 459. Megara, threatened by Corinth, Mgina and Epidaurus, was placed under the protection of the Athenians, who connected Megara with its port, Ni>t(Ea, by long walls. 458. The Athenians, after suffering a defeat in Argolis, gained two battles at sea over the allied Corinthians, Epidaurians, and ^ginetans ; blockaded ^gina, and energetically defended Meg- ara. This great development of power, on the part of Athens, caused a 457-445. War of the Spartans and Boeotians against Athens. A Spartan army under Nicomedes, the guardian of the young king, Plistoanax, had been sent to Central Greece to protect the Doriau 1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 378. I B. C. GreeU, 63 tetrapolis against the attacks of the Phocians, who were compelled to give up their conquests. The Spartan army, cut off from a return over the istluuus by the Athenians, retired to Bceotia, where it assisted the Boeotians against Athens. 457. Battle of Tanagra, a Spartan victory, which they neglected to utilize. They concluded an armistice with Athens and re- turned to Sparta. Very soon tlie Athenians again invaded Bceotia, defeated the Thebans at (Enophyta (45G), and replaced the aristocratic govern- ments in most cities by democratic, which were friendly towards Athens. The Phocians and Opuntian Locrians joined Athens. iEgiua was forced to surrender to the Athenians after a long siege, gave up its ships of war, and became tributary (456). The Athenians laid waste the coasts of Laconia, and conveyed the Messeuians, whom the Spartans had granted a free departure from Ithome, to Naupactus (p. ition of the Athenians, and the discontent of those of their allies who had been reduced to subjects. Immediate causes: 1. The interference of Athens in the war between Corcyra and Corinth (435-432), which had broken out con- cerning Epidamnus (afterwards Dyrrhachiuni) in lUyria, a colony of Corcyra. The democrats of Epidamnus, hard pressed by the exiled nobles in alliance with lUyrian barbarians, implored aid from their 1 Cf. Curtius, Hist, of Greece, II. 456 (after Dahlmann and KriiprerX Other writers consider that a treaty was conchided. Cf. Hiecke, De Pace Cimnnica, 1803. E. Miiller, Tiber den cimon Frieden, 1866-1869. Ad Schmidt, Dae perikkische Zeitalt^r. B. c. Greeks. 65 mother city Corcyra in vain, but obtained help from Corijith, the mother city of Corcyra. Enraged at this, the Corcyrajans took sides with the aristocracy of Epidamnus, defeated the Corinthians at Actium (434), and captured Epidamnus. Corinth and Corcyra vied with one another for help from Athens. The Athenians decided in favor of Corcyra, and took part at first with 10, afterwards with 30, ships in the battle of Syhota (432), between the Corinthians and Cor- cyrseans, wherein the Corinthians, at first victorious, afterwards retired before the Athenians. 2. The inhabitants of Potidcea, a Corinthian colony on the peninsula of Chalcidice, revolted from the Athenian league (432), and received support from Corinth. The Corinthians were, however, defeated by the Athenians at Olynthus, and Potidsea was surrounded and besieged. The Corintliians, supported by the Megareans, who (since 432 ?) had been excluded from all Attic harbors and markets, and by the jEginetans, entered a complaint against the Athenians at Sparta. The popular assembly at Sparta having voted that the Athenians had broken the treaty, the Peloponnesian Congress resolved on preparation for war. Military power of both parties: Achaia and ^r^o.s remained neutral at first. The Peloponnesicins were joined by the Megareans^ Boeotians, Opuntian Locrians, Phocians. Independent allies of the Athenians : PlatCBce, Corcyra, Zacyn^hus, Chios, Lesbos, Thessalians, Acarnanians. The Athenian league, including almost all the islands and coasts of the archipelago and the regions beyond, had been transformed, by naval stations and garrisons, into an extensive em- pire. 431. The war ^ began with the surprise of Plataese by the Thebans. The gates were opened by treachery; but the Thebans were driven out of the city ; many were captured or cruelly slaugh- tered. 431-425, Five invasions of Attica by the Peloponnesians, 4 un- der the Spartan king Archidamus, the 5th under Agis. While the Athenian fleet laid waste the coasts of Peloponnesus, the inhabitants of Attica took refuge in Athens, Piraeus, or en- camped between the long walls. The jEginetans were en- tirely driven away from their island by the Athenians, and their land divided among Athenian citizens. The country around Megdra was harried by an Athenian army. 430. A pestilence resemblmg the plague broke out at Athens, of which 429. Pericles died. In the spring of this year capture of PotidcEa. Cleon ^ came for- ward as the leader of the democratic party; the head of the aris- tocratic party was Nicias. 1 This first period of the Peloponnesian war, down to the peace of Nidns (421), commonly known as the Archidamian war, is called by Thucydides (V. 25) 6 SeAcaerij? TroAejao?. 2 Not a tanner, but an owner of manufactories, who carried on his business by means of slaves. Curtius, Ihsi. of Greece, III. 61. 5 66 Ancient History, B. c. 428. Revolt of Mytilene in Lesbos (Methymna remained faitlif ul to tlie Atlienians). Before the arrival of the help promised by 427. the Peloponnesians, Mytilene was compelled to surrender by the Athenians under Paches. The Athenian assembly decreed \ that all citizens of Mytilene should be put to death, a sentence which on the following day was restricted to the aristocrats. More than a thousand were slain, the city was razed, and the land on the island, with the exception of the territory of Meth- ymna, divided among Athenian citizens. 427. Platceoe forced to surrender. The survivors of its brave defenders, 225 in number, were executed by the Spartans. Bloody party contests in Corcyra, where victory at last remained with the 1 democrats. Successful expedition of the Athenians under De- mosthenes to assist the Acarnanians against the AmhraciotSf who received help from the Peloponnesians. 425. Demosthenes landed in Messenia and fortified the rumed fortress of Pylos. The Spartans under Brasidas occupied the island of Sphactena, opposite Pylos. The Athenian fleet under Nicias cut off their retreat. Spartan envoys in Athens offered peace, but their proposals were rejected at the instigation of Cleon, who, being appointed by the people strategus in place of Nicias, took Sphacteria by storm, and brought 292 of the enemy, among whom were 120 Spartiatce, with him to Athens. The Athenians threatened to put the prisoners to death whenever the Pelo- pomiesians should invade Attica again. 424. The island of Cythera occupied by the Athenians. From Cythera and from Pylos, to which latter place the Athenians conveyed Messenians from ISTaupactus, the Laconian territory was harassed incessantly. The Athenians invaded Bceotia, but were defeated by the Boeotians at Delium (Socrates, Alcibiades). Expedition of the Spartans under Brasidas by land to Mace- donia and Thrace, with the design of putting an end to the su- premacy of the Athenians there. Revolt of several towns from Athens; Brasidas ca^^tured Amphipdlis, on account of which the Athenian general Thucydides (the historian), who lay with a squadron at Thasos, was banished. The Athenians sent Cleon to Thrace. Cleon was defeated in the 422. Battle of Amphipolis by Brasidas, and fell during the flight. Brasidas died of his wounds. 421. Peace of Nicias, concluded for fifty years. Both sides restored conquests and pris- oners, a condition which was, however, but imperfectly executed. Al- though Sparta even entered into alliance with Athens to force this peace upon their confederates, the war broke out again in three years, when Alcibiades persuaded the Athenians to join the league which Argos had formed with several Peloponnesian states, in order to op- pose the oppressive ascendancy of Sparta. The united Ar gives and Athenians were defeated in the B. c. Greeks. 67 418. Battle of Mantinea. By this victory the Spartans regamed their supremacy in Pelo- ponnesus. 416. The Athenians captured Melos and put all the citizens to death. 415-413. Expedition of the Athenians against Syracuse, Suggested by the request of Egesta for help against Seiinus and Syracuse (Hermocrates), which was granted by the advice of Alci- biddes. A fleet of 134 triremes, carrying 36,000 men inclusive of sailors, among which number were 5100 hoplites,^ sailed for Sicily under Alcibiddes, Nicias, and Lamdchus. After the occupation of Naxos and Catana, Alcibiades was recalled to answer to a charge of participation m a sacrilege (mutilation of the Hermce, ridiculing the Eleusinian mysteries). He went to Argos, was condemned to death in his absence, and his property was conhscated. Seeking revenge on his enemies, he forthwith went over to the side of Sparta. 414. Nicias gained a victory before Syracuse and besieged the city with some success. Death of Lamdchus. At the advice of Alcibiades, the Spartans sent a small fleet under Gylippus to the assistance of Syracuse. The Athenians attacked the city 413. by storm, and were repulsed. They suffered from sickness and want. Remforced by 73 triremes and 5000 hoplites under Demosthenes, the J were nevertheless defeated in two naval bat- tles m the harbor of Syracuse; their fleet was surrounded; the 413. remnants of their army on the retreat by land (on the Asslna- Sept. rus) were in part cut to pieces, in part captured. Nicias and Demostheiles were executed in Syracuse ; 7000 prisoners were sent to the quarries (xarofxlai). 413. By the advice of Alcibiades the Spartans occupied and forti- March. fied the village of Decelta in Attica. The last nine years of the Peloponnesian war are therefore known as the 413-404. Decelean war. The Spartans made forays from Decelea mto all parts of Attica. Distress of the Athenians, flight of slaves, financial difficulties of the government. The influence of the aristocratic party revived. Establishment of a new board of ten councillors {-npoiiovKoi).^ Regu- lation of the finances. Renewed preparations for war. Alcibiades induced Chios, Erythrce, Clazomence, and Miletus to revolt. He was in- strumental in forming an alliance between the Spartans, who declared their willingness to abandon to the Persian king all Greek cities for- merly subject to him, and the Persian satrap, Tissaphemes, who paid a subsidy to the Spartans. A new Athenian fleet appeared off the coast of Asia Minor and defeated 412. the Peloponnesian fleet near Miletus, but was prevented from taking the city by a squadron from Syracuse. The Athenian fleet, increased to 104 ships, anchored off Samos. Alcibiades, 1 Curtius, Hist, of Greece, III. 357. 2 Their functions are a matter of dispute. Cf. Grote, History of Greecet VII. 3G2. 68 Ancient History. B. c being snspected and maligned by the Spartans, went to Tissa- pliernes, over whom he soon exercised great iuilueuce. At the same time he intrigued -vs-ith tlie oligarchs in the Athenian army, whom, however, he only kept in suspense and finally deceived. In the mean time 411, the oligarchs overthrew the democratic constitution at March. Athens by a coup d'etat. A new oligarchical council of 400 .citizens was established ; the popular assembly was limited to 5000 members; the payment of all state salaries, with the ex- ception of the pay of citizens serving in the army, was abol- ished. The oligarchy entered upon negotiations for peace with Sparta, and endeavored to break up the new order of things by executions and banishments. Their rule, however, was of short duration. The army before Samos refused to rec- ognize the alteration of the constitution; elected new leaders (^Thrasyhvlus) and recalled Alcibiades, who assumed com- mand, but refused to lead the fleet against the oligarchs in Athens, and insisted that it should remain in the face of the enemy. At Athens the oligarchical rule of the new council of 400 was broken after it had lasted four months without direct interference on the part of the army; the old council of 500 was reestablished; the popular assembly remained limited to \ 5000 members (imtil 410?). The abolition of salaries was not repealed. The Spartans broke off all connection with Tissaphernes, and en- tered into alliance with Pharnabdzus, satrap of Bithynia. The Athenians under Thrasyhulus defeated the Peloponnesian fleet under Mindarus and Pharnabdzus in the 411, Sea-fight at the promontory of Cynossema, near Abydoa. July. Three months later Alcibiades defeated the Peloponnesians in a 411. Second sea-fight at Abydos. Alcibiades, taken prisoner by Tissaphernes, soon escaped, as- sumed command of the Athenian fleet again, and annihilated the Peloponnesian fleet in the 410. Battle of Cyzicus, Feb. where he also gained a brilliant victory over the enemy after he had escaped to the land. Having subdued the coasts of the 409. Hellespont and Propontis, and captured Byzantium, 408. Alcibiades returned to Athens in triumph. June. The sentence of Alcibiades was repealed, and he was ap- pointed commander by land and sea, vrith. unlimited power. He guarded with the army the festal procession to Eleusis, which had been for a long time discontinued. Alcibiades con- ducted the Athenian fleet to Asia IMinor. The Spartan, Ly- sander, liad in the mean time assumed the command here, and the brother of the futures king of Persia, Artaxerxes II., the younger Cyrus (son of Darius 11.) , a friend of the Spartans, had become satrap of Asia Minor. While Alcibiades was engaged on a foraging expedition in the country around PAoccea, the B. c. Greeks. 69 Athenian fleet was involved by the junior commanders in an engagement, and defeated by Lysander in the 407. Battle of Notium, in the gulf of Ephesus. On account of this misfortune, Alcibiades was deposed from his coumiand. He retired to tlie Hellespont, and died in 404. The new Spartan admiral Callieratides, surrounded the Athenian fleet under Conon at Mytilene. The Athenians with the greatest ex- ertions fitted out a new fleet, wliich hastened to the aid of Conon. The united Athenian fleet completely defeated the Pelopomiesiaus in the great 406. Battle of Arginusae, Sept. {al 'Apyiuovaai, small islands off the coast of Asia Minor, east of Lesbos). Six of the victorious generals were sentenced to death in Athens for having abandoned shipwrecked troops in a storm and not buried the bodies, and were actually executed. Lysander, again appointed admiral by the Spartans, defeated and annihilated the Athenian fleet in the 405. Battle of .ffigospotami (Alyhs Trorajioi, goat river), opposite Aug. ? Lampsacus. Conon escaped \Wth eight ships. Slaughter of 3000 Athenian prisoners. Lysander, having flrst completely destroyed the Athenian power on the coasts and islands, and everywhere established oligarchical constitutions, appeared with the Peloponnesian fleet before Piraeus, while the Peloponnesian army enclosed Athens on the land side. Starvation caused the 404. Surrender of Athens and end of the war. April. The walls of Piraeus, and the long walls between the city and the harbors, were torn dowTi. All ships of war but twelve were delivered to the enemy. The democracy was overtlu-own, and the government entrusted to thirty men of the oligarchical party. 404-371. Second Hegemony of the Spartans. 404-403. Government of the so-called Thirty Tyrants, of whom the best known is Critias, at Athens. The Thirty, instead of forming a new constitution, endeavored to secure the permanent control of the state, and to strengthen their power by receiving a Spartan garrison in the Acropolis, and by numer- ous executions. At last, one of the Thirty, Theramenes, was put lo death at the instance of Critias. Thrasybulus assembled the demo- cratic fugitives in Phyle, defeated the troops of the Thii'ty, and seized Piraeus ; Critias was slain. Ten more moderate oligarchs took the place of the Thirty. Through the mediation of Pausanias, king of Sparta, an understanding was reached between Thrasybiilus and the oligarchs in Athens. The remainder of the Tliirty were put to death. General amnesty. Reestablishment of a moderate democracy. The government was rearranged by the revision of the laws made by Euclides (403). 401-400. Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon (p. 29). 399. Socrates (469-399) executed in Athens by poison. His schohu-, Plato (427-348). fO Ancient History. B. c.l 399-394. War between the Spartans and Persians. The i Persian satrap, Tissaphernes, attempted to punisli the Greek I cities of Asia Minor for their share in the expedition of the )i younger Cyrus. The Spartans came to the aid of the cities, i at first under Thibron, then under Dercyllldas, finally under j Ayesildus. The latter forced his way into Asia and defeated Tissaphernes, who was executed by command of his successor, Tithraustes. Persian gold produced the 395-387. Corinthian war against Sparta, whose hamiosts (apfioarat, governors) had made themselves universally hated. Coalition of Thebes, Corinth, and Argos, joined by Athens. The Spartan 395. Lysander fell at Haliartus in Bceotia, in battle with the allies. The Lacedaemonian fleet was defeated in the 394. Battle of Cnidus by the Athenian Conon and the Persian | satrap Pharnabazus. The Spartan harmosts were driven from | the Grecian cities of Asia Minor. Agesilaus was recalled, \ traversed Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, and defeated the i allies in the 394. Battle of Coronea in western Bceotia. Conon and the Per- \ sian satrap Pharnabazus plundered the coasts of Laconia. Conon i rebuilt the (2) long walls with Persian money. After some : years of fighting, in which Iphicrdtes and Chabrias were the j Athenian leaders, the ■ 387. Peace of Antaloidas was concluded between the Grecian states ) and the Persians. It took its name from the Spartan admiral who was sent as envoy to Susa. The Grecian cities of Asia j Minor and the islands of Clazomence and Cyprus were abandoned j to the Persians. The Athenians retained control of Lemnos, \ Imbros, and Scyros only ; all other states and islands were to be | independent under Spartan and Persian guaranty. 379-362. War between Thebes and Sparta, caused by the occupation of the Cadmea in Thebes (383) by the Spartan Phoebidas, who was urged to take this step by the aristocratic party in Thebes, as he was conducting an army through Bceotia against Olynthus. The Theban democrats had taken refuge in Athens, whence under Pelopidas they liberated Thebes in 379 and compelled the Spartans to withdraw from the Cadmea. Cleombrotus and Agesilaus were dis- patched to Bceotia, but met with little success. The Spartans at- tempted to surprise Piraeus. This induced the Athenians to enter into open alliance with Thebes. They founded a new confederacy (symmachy), embracing seventy communities, under more just con- ditions than those of the first league (378). The Spartans were re- peatedly defeated at sea by the Athenians Chabrias, Phocion, and Timotheus. Peace between Sparta and Athens. Cleombrotus invaded Bceotia anew, but in the 371. Battle of Leuctra, he was defeated by Epaminondas, and fell on the field. 371-362. Hegemony of the Thebans. B. c. Greeks, 71 370. First invasion of Peloponnesus by the Thebans, under Epani- inondas and Pelopulas in order to protect the Arcadians, who had revolted from Sparta. Megalopolis founded. An attack by the Thebans on Sparta proved unsuccessful, but they ravai^ed Laconia and proclaimed the independence of the JMessenians. Foundation of Messene. The Athenians camo to the aid of the Spartans. Ketreat of the Thebans. 369. Second Theban invasion of Peloponnesus. 367. Third invasion. Sicyon revolted from Sparta. The third in- vasion produced a momentary alliance of Achaia and Thebes. The Corinthians and Phliasians concluded peace with Thebes. In the north the Thebans sent several expeditions against the tyrant Alexander of Pherce for the liberation of the Thessalians. On the second expedition Pelopidas was captured, but soon set free by Epaminondas ; on a new expedition he fell as victor at 364. CynocephdlcE (Kwhs Ke Macedonians entered Sparta, restored the oligarchy and forced upon the Spartans an alliance with the Ach?ean League, now under Mace- donian Supremacy. The latter was immediately afterwards in- volved in a war with the .^tolian League, during which the Spartans took sides against the Achaeans, and Peloponnesus was horribly rav- aged (220-217). About this time the jEiolian League formed an alliance with the Romans against Philip V. {III.), of Macedonia, who was allied with Hannibal. {First Macedonian war, see Roman history, third Period, p. 116). Philopcemen, who has been called " the last of the Greeks," be- came Strategus of the Achsean League in 207, and defeated the Spartans under their tyrant, Machanidas, in the 206. Battle of Mantinea, and slew the tyrant. In the second Macedonian war (see Roman history, p. 118). the Achcean League likewise joined the Romans against Philip V. (III.), who, after the battle of Cynoscephalce (197), was forced to abandon the hegemony of Greece. The Romans proclaimed the freedom of all the Grecian cantons, but they gave support everywhere to that party which devoted itself to the advance- ment of Roman interests, and caused themselves to be fre- quently appealed to as arbitrators. After the death of a second Tyrant of Sparta, the cruel Nahis, Philopoemen humbled the Spartans again, and forced them to reenter the Achsean League, but was soon after taken prisoner and put to death in a war against the Messinians, who had revolted at the in- stance of Deinocrdtes (183). After the death of Philopoemen, decline of the power of the Achcean League, which made a final exertion in the so-called Acheean war against the Romans, which ended with the Defeat of the Greeks at Leucopetra, on the isthmus, and the 146. Capture and destruction of Corinth. The Corinthians were sold as slaves ; a part of their land was given to Sicyon ; the rest became the property of the Roman state. The remaining Greek cantons were treated with kind- ness, and for the most part retained their own administration and jurisdiction, but were subject to the Roman governor of Macodonia. It was not until later (27) that Peloponnesus and Central Greece seem to have become a Roman province under the name of Achaia. I B. C. Roman History, 81 §3. ROMAN HISTORY. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY. (See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.) Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to the Macra and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the lohole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Poiyhius (about 150) ) it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Au- gustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and Lcw^er Italy. I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the Athesis or Atdgis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Ver- bonus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Lanus (L. di Como), and Lacus Bend- cus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercellce (Yercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was kno^vll as Gallia bra- cata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Co- mum (Como) ; Mediolanum (Milano, Milan) ; Ticlnum (Pa via), on the Tidnus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verona, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispa- dana: Placentia TPiacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Modena), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia. II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Sildrus and Frento in the S., was usvially divided into six districts: Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhe- num, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Ad- riaticum or Superum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. The name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a sepa- rate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marruclni and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts of the Sabines, Pceligni, and Marsi. 1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a con- federacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisce, Volaterrce, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortona, Perusia (Perugia, west of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi), VoUinii, Tarquinii, Faleriif Caere, Veii. 82 Ancient History, B. c. 2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini : Roma, on the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Ccelius, EsquiUnus; coUes : Viminalis, Quirinalis). ^ On the southern summit of the Mous Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitol- inus, and the Tarpeian Rock; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Moneta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum (the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, with the speakers' platform {Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martins, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Caesar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urhs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, par- tially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and tne church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angela now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome in various directions : Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to the W., etc. Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings ; under the emperors a second harbor. Partus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitrce not far distant. Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania., Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia. In the land of the jEqui, Prceneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hernicoe, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, Fregellce, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptme marshes. In the land of the Aruncii : Formioe, Minturnce, on the Liris (Gari- gliano) ; Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager Falernus (famous wines). 1 The expression " seven-liilled city " applies nroperlv to old Rome, the pala- tine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican kome is the result of a later misunderstanding. The description of the city of the time of Con- stantine, leaves out the two coUvs, QuirinnUs and Viminalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. See Mommseu, Hist, of Rome, I. 116, note. fi. c. Roman History, 83 3. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Sinus Pcestanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: Liternum; Cwnce (Kvfxrjy founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea in 1050 ?) ; Mistnum near the promontory of similar name ; Puteoli (Puzzuoli) ; Baice near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place ; Parthenope or Palceopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (NfdiroKis, Napoli, Naples); Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Psestanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore)^ with an immense amphitheatre; Nola. 4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentlnum, Iguvium, Spoletium. 6. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum. 6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sabini : Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust ; Cures, Reate. In the land bf the Pceligni : Corjinium • Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; JEsernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Mal- :;entum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass {FurculcB Caudinoe). III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna jrfeca ('EAAos t] fieyaKri), was divided into four districts : Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium ^ in the west. 1. Apulia : Luceria, A(u)sculum Apulum, CanncB, Venusiat birth- place of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria : Brundisium ^Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tdpas, see ). 51). 3. Lucania: Pcestum (Posidonia, Uoareidavia), with notable •uinsof temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('HpafcAeta). 4. Bruttium: l^l/bdris CXv^apis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians ; Thurii jifterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (Kpc^rwi/), lot far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (AoKpol iEin(f(pvpioi) ; Rhegium {'Friyiov, i. e. rent, from ^■hyw/ju^ the present jleggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento). Italian Islands, Sicilia ("ZiKeXia), separated from Italy by the Fretum SidUum Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with ts three capes, or promontories: Pelorum in the north, Pachynum in he south, and Lilybceum in the west. On the eastern coast from orth to south : Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium Taormina), Catdna (Catania) at the base of -Sltna, Syracusae ^vpaKovaai, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent omprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also ailed Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of irethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipolce, at first a suburb. 1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bi'uttius Ager) has, however, no ancient uthority. Tlie Byzantines after the tenth century, A. D., gave Bruttium le name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria roper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that tim« aa Apulia. 84 Ancient History, B. < On the south coast: Camarlna, Gela, Agrigentum ('AKpdyas, no Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomc not far from the mouth of tlie (southern) river Himera ; Selim] (^iXivovs). On the west coast: Lihybceum, Drepdnum, Eryx. On tl north coast: Panormus (Udvopfxos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himer Mylce. In the interior of the island: Henna. Sardinia (5apSc6): Caralis (Cagliari). Corsica (Kvpvos): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. ( the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, no Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insul JEgates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybseur 3. The Insulce Police (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipdr north of Sicily. 4. Caprece, now Capri, and jEnaria, now Isclua, ! the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Poyiti Pandataria. 6. llva, now Elba. RELIGION OF THE Al^CIENT ROMANS.^ The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct froi that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italian though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian ele'ment In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece wj imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state r< ligion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all form of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital. The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deifici! tion of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human j was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspec the practical side of religion was more natural to them than tl poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wo-v; few fancies about them. The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of got and men; " Juno, his wife, goddees of maternity; Minerva, godde; of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the mO' representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of wa:i Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national heart; where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and gci of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; He:: cules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Me: curius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea. Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinitie She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identific with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods thei were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the stat' and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellu Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and ew\ represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturr f open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penatu presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc. 1 Rawlinson, Reliyions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommse)) Eist. oj Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, lli^t. of Rome, chap. IV. j I B. c. Roman History. 85 Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, — prayers, sacrifices, games, — of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the pater familias; in matters att'ectmg the whole people, the state, wliich was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrijiculus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king. The state maintained at public cost : 1. " Colleges of sacred lore " having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifices, fom* in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the [hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the ac- [tion made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex imaximus, who appointed the rex sacrijiculus, the Jiamines and vestales, iCoUege of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who con- sulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation \fti the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College pf Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations be- tween the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclu- sion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of de- •laration of war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile erritory.i Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline )ooks. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of he gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution. 2. Colleges of officiating priests: Flamines, who presided in va- ious temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing •riests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred hields of Mars (ancillce). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred re of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virguiity. Lu- kerci, Fratres Arvales, etc. Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the riests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercaliay Feb. 15th), Ferice, Latinoe, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others. ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.^ . At the extreme south the lapygians. Their descent is not certainly 5tablished, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European imily and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the rem- Eints of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true ialici, in process of rapid Hellenization. 1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made tliis a matter of diffi- Ity, a plot of "ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and to this the spear was hurled. 2 Mominsen, Hist, of Rome, I. chap. 2. 86 Ancient History. B. c To the Indo-European family belonged likewise the inhabitant of central Italy, the Italic! proper, who were divided into the Latii and the Umbro-Sabellian (Oskan), tribes. They were the next o kin of the Hellenes. The Italici entered Italy by land. The Latir. occupied the western lowlands (Latiu?7i, connected with Idtus),^ th Umbro-Sabellian tribes spread themselves over the eastern part o Central Italy {Umbrians, Picentes, Sabines, Marsi, Hernici, Volscii] A main division of this group, the Sarnnites, occupied the mountai region which was named after them, and drove back the lapygiam From the Samnites several tribes branched off; so the Campaniam called after the plain {Campus) which they settled along the Tyi rhine sea. Peculiarly distinct from the Za^m and SabelUan Italici, in language religion and customs were the Etruscans (in their own language Rasenna). Up to the present time all attempts to establish thei ethnographical position, have failed to reach settled conclusions The attempt recently made, to prove them members of the Indc European family and the Etruscan language closely related to thi Latin, must, it would seem, be regarded as a failure.^ Perhaps the Etruscan people were formed by the union of two dif ferent tribes, one of which came to Italy over the Raetian Alps, whil the other came by sea. Before the invasion of the Celts, Etruscans dwelt north of th Apennines, on both sides of the Po, between the territory of th Veneti (as far as the Adige), and the Ligurians. The whole of Upper Italy was occupied by Celtic tribes (abou 500 B. c.?), which gradually forced the Etruscans and Umbrians souti: ward. Besides all these migrations into Italy from the north by lane colonization of no mean extent began very early on the part of th Hellenes, in Sicily and Loioer Italy, by sea. (The Dorians, Chalcia ians (i. e. lonians), and jEolians were principally engaged therem). Roman History can be divided into five periods. 753(?)-510(?) I. Mythical time of the kings. 510-264. II. Development of the constitution by struggles betwee i Patricians and Plebeians. Subjugation of Italy proper (CcE; tral and Lower Italy), down to the beginning of the Punic wan^ 264-146. III. Epoch of the Punic wars, and beginning of the univeii sal rule of Rome, down to the destruction of Carthage arn, Corinth. 146-31. IV. Firm establislmient of the universal supremacy o, Rome, by the conquest of the East, Spain, and Gaul. Epoc> of the civil wars, down to the beginning of the absolute rul| of Octavian, in consequence of the battle of Actium. 1 The Ausonii (Aurunci, in Campania) probably belonged to the Latin racej as well; also, perhaps the Italici in the narrower sense, who dwelt originally ii; the western part of lower Italy, and the Siculi. 2 "W. Corssen, Ueher die Sprache der Etrusker, 1874. "W. Deecke Etruskische Forschunqen, is of the contrary opinion, as is K. O. M tiller, J)i Etrusker, ed. by W. Deecke, 2 vols., 1877. , B. c. Roman History. 87 31 B. C.-476 A. D. V. Sway of the Roman Ccesars^ down to the fall of the Roman Empire of the west. The last period extends into Media? val History. FIRST PERIOD. Mythical Epoch of the Kings (753 1-510). Foundation of Rome according to the Roman legends. King Numitor of Alba Longa, the descendant of ^neas, who had settled in Latium with some Trojan refugees, was deprived of his throne hy liis brother Amulius, who put his son to death, and caused his daughter Rea Silvia to become a vestal virgin, in order that the line of Numitor should perish. The twins, Romulus and Remus, the sons of Rea Silvia and Alars, the god of war, were, by command of the king, thrown into the Tiber, then overflowing its banks. Their cradle being caught by the roots of a fig-tree, the cliildren were L rescued from drowning, were suckled by a she- wolf, and brought up by the royal shepherd Faustulus. As they grew up, Romulus ^and Remus led other shepherds on the hunt and in forays for booty. At the festival of the Lupercalia, they were surprised by robbers ; Romulus was taken prisoner, brought before Numitor, and accused .of having phmdered his fields. Numitor recognized his grandsons. iTlie latter thereupon attacked the usurper Amulius at the head of their band, slew him, and placed the rightful king, their grandfather „Nu7nitor, again on the throne of Alba Longa. With the king's per- " mission, the twins founded a city on that place on the bank of the ! Tiber where they had been exposed. (Festival of Palilia or Pariliaf ,iApril 21, celebrated as the anniversary of the foundation.) In ,a quarrel as to who should give his name to the city, Remus was 'killed. Romulus, being now the only king, called the city after ' aimself, Roma.^ Surmises about the real origin of Rome. The results of mod- ern scientific investigations leave not the least doubt that the Ro- nan story of the foundation of the city is not historical, but an nvention, having not the slightest basis of fact. It is perfectly ' kar that in reality Rome and the Romans did not derive their lame from the founder of the city, but that, on the contrary, the laine Romulus was formed by the inventors of the legend from the lanie of the city and the people.^ All tribal heroes are of divine 'linin ; that those of the Romans should be sons of Mars, the god of giiculture and of war, needs no explanation. The legend of the xposure of the twins and of their miraculous preservation and recog- ition bears a striking resemblance to the story of the youth of '.)/rus (p. 26). The fabulous descent from the Trojan ^neas as- ribed to the family of the founder of Rome was an invention of 1 According to Varro's era 753, according to Cato's 751 ; but to change ears of the city into years before Christ, 754 or 752 must be used as the minu- 111. Both dates belong to the conventional chronology. See pp. 83 and 89. - Livius, I. 1-7. ^ (Compare besides Mommsen, Sohweglerf Rdm. Gesch., and Peter, Edm, esch., I. 56. 88 Ancient History. \ Grecian writers (Stesicharm in the sixth centnry, Timcms in the third century, B. c). The tale of the bnikling of Rome by emigrants from. Alba, under guidance of two princes of divine birth, was a naivei attempt to explain the growth of a city in the barren and unhealthy Roman Campagna by comiecting it with the common metropolis of Latium. Notliing can be considered historical except that Rome was, as regards the greater part of its population, a Latin settlement. The city was founded, or rather gradually arose, at a wholly unknown time and under wholly unknown circumstances. The settlement was formed very near the border of Latium, and just at the head of navigation (for small vessels) of the Tiber, the natural highway of commerce for Latium, without regard to the sterile char- acter of the immediate neighborhood. This gives probability to the supposition that Rome in its earliest days " was a border trading-post of the Latins." ^ Not that Rome was ever a mercantile city, after the manner of Corinth and Carthage ; it was merely a trading village, Vv'here the imports and exports of Latium, which was essentially an agricultural district, were exchanged. The opinion that the Roman people was a mixed race cannot be maintained, when it is considered that the development of the Roman language, political institutions, and religion, was free and individual to a degree seldom equalled. Of the three tribes or townships (Gauen) which seem to have united to form Rome (the Ramnes (identical with Romani), the Titi(ens)es, and the Luceres), the first was certainly, the third in all probability, Latin ; the second was, it ia true, Sabine, but it was soon completely blended with the Latin ele-; ments, as the Roman language shows. The Royal Epoch, according to the Roman Legend.^ 753-716. Romulus, warrior king. Establishment of a retreat on the Capitolinns. Ap-t pointment of 100 Senator es or Patres (fathers), whose descendants are called Patricians. The three centuries of knights : Randies, Titi(ens)e.y and Luceres. Rape of the Sabine women; war with the Sabines folJ lowing, their king, Titus Tatius, seized the fortress on the Capitol through the treachery of Tarpeia. Battle between the Romans and Sabines interrupted by the Sabine women, who had been carried off. Union of the Romans and Sabines in one double state under the| common rule of Romulus and Tatius, until the latter's death. War PI of Romulus with Fidence and Veii. Romulus is translated during ar thunder-storm, and henceforward worshipped as the god Quirinus. 715-673. Numa Pompilius i of Cures, elected, after a year's interregnum, by the Romans from i among the Sabines. Peaceful king; arranges the religious services of ' the Romans according to the advice of the Camcenas (prophetess)! Egeria, his consort. Temple of Janus. Appointment of the five'! FontiJiceSf the first of whom is the Pontifex Maximus, the Flamines, 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. Chaps. 2 and 4. 2 Livius, I. 8 foil. B. c. Roman History. 89 Fetiales^ihe four Augzires, the four vestal virgins ^ afterwards increased to six. 673-G41. Tullus Hostilius, warlike king. War with Alba Longa; contest of the /forafiV and Curatii decides in favor of Rome, to which Alba is obliged to submit. War with Veii and Fidence; treachery of the dictator of Alba, Mettius Fujfetius, who is torn in pieces. Destruction of Alba Longa; the in- habitants are transferred to Rome. 641-61G. Ancus Marcius, grandson of Nunia, at the same time peaceful and warlike (" et Nunisfi et Romuli memor"). Development of the institution of the Fetiales. Successful war with four Latin towns, the inhabitants of which are settled on the Aventine. For this reason Ancus Marcius is represented in the traditional story of the kings of Rome, as the founder of the class of the plebeians.^ Fortification of Janiculumf con- struction of a bridge of piles (pons sublicius) over the Tiber. Foundation of the harbor of Ostta. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus, who with his wife Tanaquil emigrated from the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, and for whom Chrecian descent from the Bacchiadce of Cor- inth was afterwards invented. He became guardian of Ancus' son, and was elected to the tlirone. Commencement of the construction of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline hill. Construction of the cloacce. The Senate increased to 300 members ; the number of equites doubled. Circus Maximus. Successful wars with the Sabines, Latins, and EtruS" cans. After the murder of Tarquinius by the sons of Ancus, 678-534. Servius Tullius becomes king through the cunning of Tanaquil. He was the son I of the slave woman Ocrisia and a god, was educated like a prince by j Tanaquil in consequence of the utterance of an oracle, and became I the son-in-law of Tarquinius. Wars with Veii. Rome joins the \Latin league. Construction of the wall of Rome. Establishment of [the census and the division of the centuries (p 92). Servius Tullius murdered by his son-in-law, 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus, represented by tradition as a cruel despot. Tarquinius Superbus (i. e. the haughty) subjugates the Latin league, conquers Suessa Po- metia, completes the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and gains posses- sion of the city of Gabii by the deceit and treachery of his son Sextus. Tradition ascribes to him the acquisition of the Sibylline books. Embassy of Titus and Aruns Tarquinius, the king's sons, to the oracle at Delphi. They are accompanied by their cousin, L. Junius Brutus, w^ho represents himself as feeble-minded, in order to protect his life igainst the cruelty of the king; a story which was invented to explain the name of Brutus. Siege of Ardea. The rape of Lucretia, wife of L. Tarquinius Collatinus (i. e. from Collatia}, by the king's son, Sextus, ileads to the expulsion of the Tarquins and the abolition of monarchy. iThe insurrection is headed by L. Junius Brutus, whom the legend piakes Tribunus Celerum, although he was commonly considered an imbecile. Over the body of Lucretia, who died by her own hand, he 1 Peter, Eot,.. Gesch., 1.3 3i Compare, on the other hand, p. 90. 90 Ancient History. b. c.' called the people to arms, and incited the a,rmj against the king, who found the city gates closed upon him, and went into exile (Livius, I., 67-60). Historical Facts of the Epoch of the Kings.^ There is no doubt that the constitution of the oldest Roman state was a patriarchal monarchy ; and that, after the new settlement had become an independent community, the highest power in Romei^ was exercised by a line of sovereigns elected for life (rex, from the ' same stem as regere, to govern). But neither the number nor all the names of the traditional kings, nor yet the deeds ascribed to the reign of each, still less the chro- nology of their reigns, can be considered historically authentic. The artificiality of the first four reigns, which are alternately warlike and '\ peaceable, is self-evident. Doubtless the extension of the Roman ter- ' ritory and Rome's hegemony over the Latin league wa.s not acquired! without severe contests and brilliant deeds of arms ; but the story has come down to us in a fabulous form and has been arbitrarily revised. ,' The destruction of Alba, the ancient metropolis of Latium, is an his- torical fact ; the contest of three Roman against three Alban broth- ers, their cousins, is probably only a personified designation of ai war between two closely related towns, with similar political divis- • ions. As regards the last three reigns, it can be considered historical that : the royal family of the Tarquins was of Etruscan origin ; that under its rule Rome made an important advance in power and civilization ; that the division of the people into classes, the erection of the so-called Servian wall, portions of which are still in existence, and the construc- tion of the first cloacae date from their reigns. At the commencement of the actual history of Rome there is found to exist a sharp division of the population into Patricians, or citizens ■with full political rights, and Plebeians, or free inhabitants without political rights (like the Lacedaemonian Periceci and the Athenian Metceci; see pp. 50 and 52). The traditional legend gives no explanation of this important fact, but only two hints at one, and those contradictory.^ The citizens having full rights are evidently the de- i scendants of the original settlers, the victors and later conquerors. | Since, according to Roman usage, marriages of equals in rank con- ) ferred the rights of citizenship on the children, those having such j rights called themselves Patricii, i. e. "Children of the fathers." The people who were not included in these families, but stood under their protection, who were compelled to have a protector (Patronus), were distinguished by the name Clientes (from cluere). Their de- scendants, increased by the former citizens of Latin towns conquered in war, formed gradually a second Roman community, whose mem- bers were not citizens. These were called the Plebeians, the Plebs (or 1 See Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book I. chap. 4. Peter, Edm. Gcsch. P 54-56) likewise ascribes but a limited historical value to the traditional history of the kings. 2 See page 88 tlie reign of Romulns, and p. 89, that of Ancus Marcius. Comiv JktojDombeu, Hist. o/Eume, Book I. chap. 5. B. C. Roman History. 91 plebes, connected with pleo, plenus) ; i. e. the masses, the great moh. As the majority of the population of conquered cities were compelled to enter the plebeian class, whether tliey were settled in or near Rome or remained in their old homes, it is incorrect to imagine the plebs composed of poor people entirely; there were from the beginning many wealthy and respected families among them. Under the oldest constitution of Rome, which is commonly called, from the legend, the Constitution of Romulus, the Patricians alone formed the municipality and the military force, the populus (con- nected with populari, to ravage), since they alone performed military service. They were divided into curiae, districts, at first 10 in num- ber, after the union of the Tities and Luceres with the Ramnes 30 (p. 88), each curia being divided into ten families or gentes. The assembly (populus) of the citizens or patricians, called by the king when he had an announcement or an inquiry to make, formed the comitia curiata. To this body citizens under sentence had the right of appeal for pardon (provocatio) ; only, however, with the consent of the king. The comitia elected the king, who, after elec- tion, exercised absolute power, having to consult the community only when changes of the existing law or the commencement of an offen- sive war were in question. The Senate (council of the elders, seniores, senatores) was an advisatory body, named by the king, but representing the gentes after a manner. This oldest form of the community was essentially altered by a reform conducted during the reign of the last dynasty, and which tradition has coupled with the name of Servius TuUius. Military service and payment of the tributum was thereby made obligatory on all land-owners, whether they were citizens or merely inhabitants of the class of metceci. Every freeholder between seventeen and sixty years of age was now liable to service. The cavalry, composed of citizens, continued as before, but there was added to it a force of double its strength, which consisted wholly, or in great part, of ple- beians. The wealthiest land-owners were drawn upon to furnish the cavalry. No regard at all was paid to political or class differences in making up the infantry, but the kind of armor to be furnished by the warriors was regulated in accordance with a property classifica- tion. This is the Servian classification,^ for military service and taxation, of Patricians and Plebeians according to their property (Cen- sus). A. Cavalry (Equltes). 6 pure (?) patrician, 12 plebeian (and patrician) centuries ; in all 1800 horse, all of the first class. 1 The census was not expressed in money until the time of Appius Claudlits (b. c. 312). Leighton, Hist, of Rome, p. 22, n. 5. [Trans.] 92 Ancient History. B. B. Foot-Soldiers (Pedites). Class. Number of Centuries. Property in Asses. i Armor. Weapons.;! 1. 2. •-9 SOC. with20 jugera 100,000 galea, clipeus, oc- reae, lorica 20 C. with 1 as much 75,000 galea, scutum, 3. 4. 5. ocreae 20 C. with i as much 50,000 galea, scutum 20 C. with 1 as much 25,000 scutum 28 C. with i (1-10) as 12,000 much 3 ■ fundaa It appears from the number of centuries (i. e. companies) in the different classes, that the division of the land at that time was such that more than half the farms contained 20 jugera or more, and a farm of that size was considered the standard. In the five classes : 168 centuries of foot-soldiers, each of 100 men = 16,800 men ; i. e. 4 legions of 4200 men each, 2 legions Juniores (first levy, 17-^i6 years old, for service in the field) and 2 legions seniores' (second levy, 47-60 years old, for garrison service). To be added are 3 centuries of fahri (pioneers), tubicines and cornucines (musicians), 2 centuries accensi velati (unarmed substitutes), 2 centuries prole- tarii and capite censi, making, with the cavalry, 193 centuries. As the population mcreased the number of centuries was not enlarged, but the separate divisions were strengthened by the addition of new recruits, without doing away entirely with the standard number. This new military body, arranged in classes and centuries, was henceforward consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars as the army had been when divided into curise. This was at first the onlj/ privilege which the new citizens shared ; all other rights were reserved to the comitia curiata, wliich consisted exclusively of patricians. It was not until later (at the beginning of the Republic) that the new arrangement of the community acquired political importance, and that a new popular assembly^ the comitia centuriata, de- veloped out of the neio military organization. The reform ascribed to 8ervius had originally a purely military character. It gave the Plebeians at first scarcely any rights, but only burdens ; it opened the way, however, whereby they became true citizens. The inhabitants who were not land-owners, be they clientes or foreign metoeci, were henceforward distinct from the land-owning plebs. The inhabitants who owned no land were called, after the money which they had to I pay for protection, aerarii.^ For purposes of conscription the city and township were divided into four wards (Tribus), so that each legion contained the same number of recruits from each ward. Every 4, later every 5 years a new census was taken, which closed with a sacrifice for purification (lustrum), whence in later times lustrum denoted a space of fivfi] years. 1 Mommsen, JTist. of Rome, Rook I. chap. 6. Iiivius, I., 42 and foil. 3 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome^ Book I. chap. 6. B. c. Roman History. 98 SECOND PERIOD. Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians, Subjugation of Italy Proper, to the Beginning of the Punic Wars (510-204). 510 (?). Expulsion of the Tarquins, Rome a Republics. According to Roman tradition, the consuls for the first year of the republic were 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and L. Tarquinius Collatinus. The latter, it is said, being related to the exiled royal family, soon fell under suspicion, and was replaced by L. Valerius Popli- cola, the first Consul suffectus, to whom tradition ascribes the lex Valeria de provocatione (Ne quis magistratus civem Romanum ad versus provocationem (p. 91) neceret neve verberaret). On the same authority, the first dictator (p. 94) was Titus Lartius (501, against the Sabines). The Grecian historian Poly bias calls the consuls of the first year 509 (?). Lucius Junius Brutus and Marcus Horatius.^ We know absolutely nothing which is historically authenticated about the details of tliis revolution. This alone is certain, that the arbitrary rule of the last king brought about his expulsion and the banishment of the whole gens Tarquinia. (The family sepulchre has been discovered in Coere, in Etruria). The fear lest the common- wealth should be transformed into a tyranny seems to have united the patricians and plebeians for a short time. We are better informed about the nature of the constitutional ; change, since on this point inferences can be drawn from the institu- jtions wliich we find in existence in liistoric times. The change in the constitution was, as far as this is possible in a revolution, conservative in character. The sovereign reignmg during life was replaced by two rulers holding office for a year, taken from the patricians. They were called at first Praetores, Judices, or Consules; later, the lattei name only was applied to them.^ They exercised, generally, regal power: Imperium (i. e. sovereignty in war and jseace); auspicia publica (i. e. supplication of the gods in behalf of the state); convening the popular assembly and the senate; taking the census; appointment of senators and the two patrician qucestors. The latter, whose office was established during the time of the kings, exercised the functions of criminal police, and soon acquired the administration of the state treasury under the supervision of the consuls. The consuls were assigned 12 Uctores as a public indication of their official power. 1 Polybius, III. 22. The statement of Polybius, that the first treaty be- :-ween Rome and Carthage fell in the first year of the Republic, ie disputed by Mommsen ( Mm. Chronologie bis nuf Ccesnr, 2 Ed. p. 320), but is strongly iefended by JSissen {Jnhrbiicher fiir Philologie, 1867), and others. 2 The derivation of consul and prcetor is doubtful. Consul denotes either ■' administrator of the state " {quiconsuUt reipublicce), or merely colleague. Pi-ce*' 'or denotes "general" {qui prceit exercitui, like the German He?-zn(/), or ono vho presides over the state (qui pi-aeit, praeest reipublicae). See MarquardD- MLommsen, Rom. Alterthiitner, II. p. 71 f. 94 Ancient History, b. c. According to the lex Valeria de provocatione'^ (509), all citizens had right of appeal from sentences of death pronounced by the con- suls, which were not delivered according to military law, to the peo- ple, even against the will of the consuls; and this appeal was not to the old " populus," composed of patricians, but to the comitig centuriata, the assembly of the new military and political com-' munity founded by the Servian constitution (p. 92). The comitia centuriata acquired, moreover, in consequence of the violent alteration of the constitution, the right to elect the consuls, or rather, according to old Tloman interpretation, the right of design, nating them to the consul who presided over the election, who there- upon appointed them (creare^. The comitia centuriata acquired also the right of accepting or rejecting bills laid before it, but the six patrician centuries of equites retained the important right of; voting first on any proposed measures. ^ The Senate, formerly consisting of patricians exclusively, was now enlarged, or rather brought up to its legal number, by the ad- mission of plebeians from the equites^ i. e. the wealthy. Hence the formula: Patres [et] conscripti. The nature of the changes which the comitia curiata (p. 91) underwent in consequence of the revolution is much disputed; it is certain only that it soon sank into complete insignificance. According to the view wliich is most commonly received, it retained at first the right of approving the elections or resolves of the comitia centuriata^ a privilege expressed by the formula patres (i. e. patricii) auc- tores fiunt.2 Others understand the expression patres to apply to the senatores, and claim the right of approval mentioned above for : the Senate. 3 At a tune of special danger the consuls were replaced by an ex- traordinary official, the dictator, or magister populi, who was not elected, but appointed by one of the consuls (dictatorem dicere) without the participation of the citizens. (Practically, however, the Senate commonly played an important part in the selection.) As soon as danger was over the dictator resigned his office (dictatura se abdicare)y wliich he could not hold longer than six months in any event. The dictator appointed his magister equitum (master of the horse) ; the sign of his power, which was thoroughly royal, was 24 (?) lictors. Appeal from his decisions was allowed only in cases where it liad been permitted against the king (p. 91). 1 "The habeas corpus act of the Romans." Xielghton, Hist, of Rome, p. 53. [Tkans.] 2 Becker, Rom. Alth. II. 3, p. 183, u. Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. II. 160. 3 According to Mommsen {Hist, of Rome, I. 264), all new citizens, that is, all land-owning plebeians were in consequence of the revolution (510) admitted to the comitia curiata, and the old body of citizens, or the pati^icians, thereby lost the ri^ht of debating and deciding- iov political purposes, in an assembly apart from the rest of the citizens. This opinion is opposed by other s<;holars, who main- tain that plebeians were first admitted to the comitia curiata toward the end of tha Republic. Mommsen thinks that the right of approval belonged to the smaller^ purely patrician senate, while the lavfjer senate, increased by the addition of plebeian conscripti, was, during the first years of the Republic, an advisory eouncil for the consuls. i B. 0* Roman History. 95 509. According to the Roman legend a conspiracy of young pa« tricians was discovered in Rome, wliicli purposed the restora^ tion of the monarchy. Execution of Brutus' son. 608. Unsuccessful war of the Romans against the Etruscan king Porsena of Clusium. The Romans were defeated, and com- pelled to purchase peace by a surrender of territory and com- plete disarming. Roman story of Horatius Codes, the brave defender of the bridge over the Tiber, of the heroic courage of Mudus Sccevola (i. e. left-handed ; the well-known story is probably only an attempt to explain the name), and Clcelia, in Livius 11. 9-13. When the Etruscans advanced further into Latium they were defeated by the Latins and their allies from lower Italy before Aricia, and could not maintam themselves on the left bank of the Tiber. In consequence of this Etrus- can defeat, Rome seems to have freed itself from the dis- graceful peace imposed upon it, and to have gradually re- gained its former powerful position. 496 (?). Tradition of a great victory of the Romans over the Latins by the small lake Regillus, near Tusculum, won by the dictator, Aulus Postumius, with the aid of the Dioscuri (Livius II. 19). The inner history of the Roman community for tliis period deals with two contests, one political and one social. 1. Contest of the patricians, who gradually developed into an hereditary nobility, against the new citizens, or plebeians. The latter, who could, it is true, become senators (conscript i), but were excluded from the offices of state and from the priesthood, aimed at complete political equality. Since the offices of state in Rome, as amoirg the ancients generally, were administered without pay (hence, honores, officers of honor), it was essentially the wealthier plebeian families alone who were mter- ested in this contest. II. The social contest between the well- to-do property-o-wners and the ovirners or renters of small farms, who were growing poorer, or had been deprived of their pos- sessions. The use of the ager publicus, i. e. the public land, acquired by conquest (comprising both cultivated land and pasture), belonged legally to the patricians only. In fact the senate made exceptions in favor of the rich plebeian houses which had become members; the small plebeian land-owners and renters were strictly excluded from the privilege. Very seldom, on occasion of new conquests, a dis- tribution of land was made among the poor plebeians, but the greater part of the state domain was leased to the patrician land-owners for a moderate rent, wliich was, probably, hardly ever regularly collected^ and these estates were soon treated as private property. Gradually the tillage of the large farms was given over to slaves, and the ple- beian tenants were thereby driven from their holdings. The plebeian owners of small peasant holdings sank into a condition of the great- est misery, through frequent military service, taxation, excessive in-' terest on loans, and the cruel Roman law of debt, which placed the person and property of the debtor in the creditor's hands. In conse- quence of this there were repeated uprisings and refusals to perform military service, which, in 495, was overcome only by the appointment 96 Ancient History. b. c. of a dictator. Finally, when tlie patricians refused to grant the prom- ised alleviations, and continued their ill treatment of those who be- came their slaves through debt {nexi), the plebeian soldiers in the victorious army, as they were returning home, turned aside, under the leadersliip of plebeian military tribunes, to a small hill on the Anio (later called Mons Sacer), and threatened to found a plebeian city in that fertile region (three miles from Rome). This is the so-called 494 (?).^ Secession of the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount (secessio plebis in montem sacrum), which compelled the patricians (Menenius Agrippa, fable of the belly and the members) to make sincere concessions. After abrogation of the oppressive debts, 494 (?). Creation of the tribunate (tribuni plebis) andi the plebeian aediles. The tribunes of the people (at fu-st 2 (?), then 5, finally 10), . were always chosen from the plebs.^ They were inviolable {sacro-- sancti). They had the right of protection (jus auxilii) for every plebeian against injustice on the part of an official. This privilege developed into an extensive right of intercession {jus intercessionis) against every administrative or judicial act, with the exception of the imperium militare, — that is to say, against the dictator and against the consul when he was more than a mile from the city. From the first the tribunes of the people exercised judicial functions, convened the ' assemblies of the plebeians, and proposed criminal sentences for their ■ consideration. Later (448), the tribunes were admitted to the senate, . where, by their veto, they could deprive any resolution of the senate (senatus consultus) of its legislative force, and reduce it to a mere ex- pression of opinion (senatus auctoritas). The two aediles of the people (cediles plehis) assisted the tribunes, and superintended the business of the markets. Their name was probably derived from the temple {cedes) of Ceres, where they preserved the official docu- ment which decreed the establishment of the plebeian magistracy. During this time (according to some authorities, not until later) occurred the establishment of the important comitia tributa. In this assembly the citizens voted according to wards or tribus; not, however, the four wards of the Servian constitution (p. 92), but ac- cording to a later (perhaps 495) division into 20 tribus, to which was added the Crustuminian tribus (494), making 21, and the num- ber gradually rose to 35. It is probable that, down to the time of the legislation of the decemvirs, plebeians only, after that time, however, the whole body of land-owning inhabitants, both patri- cians and plebeians, voted in the comitia tributa.^ In this comitia 1 Cf. Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, T. 279. 2 It is commonly assumed as probable that up to ;he lex Publilia (472) the tribunes were elected in the comitia centuriota, and approved by the comitia curiata. According to the testimony of Dionysius (IX. 41) and Cicero (pro Corn.), they were chosen by the curiata; according to Mommsen's view (p. 94, note), this denotes that they were at first elected by the plebeians assembled by curice. 3 See the different opinions in Becker, Edm. Alther., II. 1, p. 175 and 399. J B. c. Roman History. 97 «ach trihus had one vote, which was decided by the majority of voters in the trihus. Compared with the comitia centuriata, therefore, the ascendency of the wealthy was done away with, as was also the privi- lege, enjoyed by the nobility, of throwing their votes first. 493. In the consulate of Spurius Cassius, renewal of the eternal alliance between Rome and the Latin league on a basis of equality. Only gradually did Rome acquire again the he- gemony over the Latins. Continual disputes with Etruscans, SabiJies, jEqui, Volscians. Continuation of the contests be- tween patricians and plebeians ; the institution of the tribu- nate proving to be the organization of civil strife and anarchy. An attempt was soon made to abolish the tribunate by the patrician 491. Cn. (C. ?) Marcius, called Coriolanus (from the storm of Corioli), who, during a famine, proposed to grant the plebeians grain at the expense of the state, only on condition that they gave up the tribunate. When summoned by the tribunes be- fore the comitia tributa, Coriolanus declined to appear; being banished in his absence, he went to the Volscians, and, accord- ing to the story, Ipd their troops against Rome, but, at the rebuke of his mother, Veturia, and the entreaties of his wife, Volumniaj gave ub tlie wi^r against his native city (Livius, II. 40). 487. The Hernici invaded the Roman territory. Being defeated by the consul Aquillius, 'and, iii' the next year, by the consul Spu- rius Cassius, the '' 486. Hernici joined the P'atin league. 486. Spurius Cassius Viscellinus ( Vecellinus ?), consul for the third time, brought forward the first agrarian law. He pro- posed to divide a part of the public lands among needy plebeians and Latins ; the rest to be actually leased for the profit of the public treasury. The patricians and wealthy plebeians joined forces against Spurius Cassius ; the lower classes were dissat- isfied that the Latins should also receive land and abandoned him. After the close of his term of office he was sentenced and executed. 47ft Withdrawal of the gens Fabia and their 477. destruction by the Etruscans at the brook Cremera. 473. Murder of the tribune of the people, Gnceus Genucius, who had ventured to call two consuls to account. 471. Law carried by the tribune of the people, Volero Publilius, to the effect that the plebeian magistrates should, in future, be elected by the comitia tributa (lex publilia: ut magistratus plebei comitiis trihutis creentur, p. 96). 463. Plague in Rome and throughout Italy. 462. Motion of the tribune of the people, C. Terentilius Arsa, for the appointment of a body of ten men to reduce the laws to a written code. Violent opposition of the patricians. 460. Surprise of the Capitol by Htrdonius at the head of some polit- ical refugees (Livius III. 15). Renewal of civil discord. In order to satisfy the plebeians, the num* 7 98 Ancient History, B. 0. ber of tribunes of the people was raised from 5 to 10 (457) ; in th« following year the Mons Aventinus was divided into building lots^ which were distributed among the poor citizens. Dictatorship of L. Quinctius CincinnatuSj who rescued an army which had been sur- rounded by the ^qui (Livius III. 26). A compromise was reached in regard to the codification of the laws, whereby three ambassadors were sent to Greece to bring back copies of the Solonian laws and others (454). After their return j^Sl. Decemvirs, a body of ten men, were chosen from the patricians (^Decemviri consulari imperio legibus scribundis), and the consulate, tribunate, and right of appeal were for the time suspended. The code of laws drawn up by the decemvirs was accepted by the people, engraved on copper tables, and set up i in the forum. As an appendix seemed necessary, 450. Decemvirs were appointed again, three being plebeians, who i added two more tables. Henceforward the law of the city and county of Rome, according to which the consuls were to ex- ercise their judicial functions, was known as the larvs of the t'welve tables (Leges duodecim tabularum). By their exposure the patrician adimnistration was henceforth sub- jected to the control of public judgment. Instead of giving place to the regular magist^vates ,aiter the completion of the two supplementary tables the det^emvirs remained in office during the succeeding year (449]. An attempt of the mod- erate aristocracy, headed by tl^e Valerii and Horatii, to compel the abdication of the d6r3emvirs, was unsuccessful. The latter, under Appius Claudius, the head of the extreme party of the nobles, acquired the preponderance in the state. At first the people submitted and acquiesced in a levy for the war against the Sabines and Volscians. The oppression of the decemvirs, especially of Appius Claudius: murder of the former tribune of the people, Siccius Dentatus, and the attack on the liberty and honor of the betrothed of the former tribune Z, Icilius, Virginia, whom her own father Virginius stabbed in the forum, brought about an uprising (Liv. III. 44 foil.). The plebeian soldiers occupied the Aventine and the Sacred Mount. Valerius and Horatius managed a compromise, ac- cording to which the decemvirs abdicated. Appius Claudius and Spurius Oppius disembowelled themselves in prison, the others were sent into exile. It is impossible to decide what part of this romantic story is historical. It seems certain that the consulate and tribunate were reestablished. The power of the nobility was further weakened by the 448. Laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius (leges Horatice): 1. The resolves (plebisclta) of the comitia tributa were given equal force with those of the comitia centuriata (ut quod tribu- tim plebs Jussisset populum teneret). 2. Every magistrate, in- cluding therefore, the dictator, was obliged, in future, to allow appeals from his decision (ne quis ullum magistratum sine provo- catione crearet,qui creassetfeum jus fasqueessetoccldi). 3. Recog- I B. C. Roman History. 99 nition of the inviolability of the tribunes of the people, and ex- tension of the same privilege to the jediles (ut qui tribunis plebis, cedilibus nocuisset, ejus caput Jovi sacrum esset). About the same time (447) two quaestors were appointed whose pe- culiar charge was the military treasury (making in all 4 quaest- ors, see p. 93) ; they were patricians, but were appointed by the comitia tributa, wherein both patricians and plebeians voted henceforward, if not before (p. 96). In 421 the qusestorship was opened to the plebeians. Moreover, the tribunes of the people acquired the right of taking auspices, and were admitted to the senate, though at first required to occupy a bench near the door. 445. Law of the tribune Canuleius legalizing marriage between patricians and plebeians (lex Canuleia de conuhio : ut conuhia ple- bei cum patribus essent). The children inherit the rank of the father. The motion brought forward by this tribune that the consuls might be chosen from the plebeians (ut papula patestas esset, seu de plebe seu de patribus vellet, cansules faciendi), was vio-> lently opposed by the nobility. A compromise was effected, and it was decreed that mstead of consuls 444. military tribunes (6) with consular power (tri- buni militurQ consulari potestate) should be appointed, and that to this office plebeians could be elected. At the same time creation of a new patrician office, that of censor. The two censors were elected in the comitia centuriata, at first for 5 (4 ?) years, after 434 for 18 months, but every fifth year only, so that the office was vacant 3^ years out of every five. Functions of the censors : 1. Taking the census every 5 (4 ?) years (after every lustrum), and compiling the lists of citizens and taxes; appointment of senators (lectio senatus) and the equites (recognitia equitum). 2. Preparation and publication of the budget, management of the state prop- erty, farming the indirect taxes (vectigalid), superintendence of the public buildings. 3. Supervision of the public morality (regimen morum). The duties and privileges included under the latter head gave the office great moral and political im- portance in the next century (Notatia censoria). 439. Spurius Modius, a rich plebeian, who, during a famine, distrib- uted grain at a low price, was accused of aiming at royal power, and was slain by C. Servilius Ahala, the master of the horse of the octogenarian dictator, L. Quinctius Cincinnatus. 405-396. Siege of Veii, the history of which, like that of the previous wars with the Etruscans, has been much ornamented by tradition. The long continuance and obstinacy of the war with Veii is proved by the fact that then for the first time the campaigns were not interrupted during the winter. The result was, that the citi- zens who served in the army now for the first time received pay from the public treasury (i. e. out of the taxes on the public lands). 1 Capture and destruction of Veii by the 1 Jjeighton, Mist, of Rome, p. 70, note 1. [Trans. 100 Ancient History. B. c. dictator, M. Purius Camillus. The fall of Veii marks the beginning of the decline of the Etruscan power, which was hard pressed at the same time by the Latins in the south, Celts ( Gauls) from beyond the Alps in the north, and from the sea by the Sicilian and Italian Greeks, especially the SyracusanSf whose attacks had endured upward of a century. 391. Camillus went into exile in consequence of a complaint of in- justice in the division of the booty from Veii. Latium invaded by the Gauls in consequence of Roman ambas- sadors having taken part, in the war of the Etruscans of Clusium, against the Gauls. The Gauls demanded that the ambassadors (the three Fabii) should be delivered to them, to which the senate agreed. The proposal was, however, rejected by the citizens. 390 (July 18). Battle of the Allia, a brook, which falls into the Tiber eleven mQes north of Rome. Utter defeat and rout of the Romans on the right bank of the Tiber, whereby the city was left defenceless. Abandoned by the citizens (the Mons Capitolinus alone contin- ued to be occupied), Rome was taken, plundered, and burnt by the Gauls under their Brennus, i. e. military ruler. Slaughter of the senators. Unsuccessful attempt to surprise the Capitol. The geese of Juno. M. Manlius Capitolinus. After a seven months' siege of the fortress, the withdrawal of the Gauls was purchased with gold. Legend (a later invention) of an expul- sion of the enemy by a victory of Camillus, who surprised the haughty Brennus ( Fee victis /) in the forum, while the gold was being weighed (!). Return of the inhabitants. The plan of emigrating to Veii broken up by Camillus. Hasty, but irregu- lar, reconstruction of the city, which soon regained its old power, after the j^qui, the Volscians^ and the Etruscans, who had taken up arms again, had been defeated by Camillus. Equalization of the old orders. Origin of the new nobility. Recommencement of the civil contests against the patricians : 1, by the plebeian aristocracy to get admission to the consulate j 2, by the poor, indebted plebeians to obtain a reform of the laws of debtor and creditor, and a share of the public lands. The exertions of those tribunes who were friendly to the poorer classes were often neutral- ized by the opposition of their colleagues who represented the inter- ests of the plebeian aristocracy. The patrician M. Manlius Capi- tolinus, who had released plebeian debtors at his own expense, was accused of aiming at royal power, declared guilty of high treason, and thrown from the Tarpeian rock (384). A compromise was finally agreed upon between the plebeian aristocracy and the plebeian com- mons, whose results were seen in the 376. Laws proposed by C. Licinius and Lucius Sextius, trib- unes of the people (rogationes Licinice). The first two were designed to secure the poorer classes a material alleviation; the third to give the plebeian aristocracy the long-wished-for equality with the patricians. B. c. Roman History. 101 I. Relief of the debtors by the deduction of interest already paid from the principal; the rest to be paid witliin three years in three installmeuts (ut, deducto eo de capite quod usuris pemumeratum esset, id quod superesset triennio cequis portionibus persolveretur). II. No one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public lands (ne quis plus quam quingenta jugera agri publici^ possideret). III. Abolition of the tribuni miLitum consulari potestate. One, at least, of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians (ne tribunorum militum comitia Jierent consulumque utique alter ex plebe crea- retur). After a long contest, and after the appointment of Camillus to the dictatorship had failed to accomplish anything, 367. The Licinian law^s were passed. 366. L. Sextius Lateranus, colleague of the tribune Licinius, first plebeian consul. At the same time one of the three great colleges of priests (decemviri [formerly c^woym] sacris faciundis) was opened to the plebeians. In order to retain at least the administration of the judicial de- partment in the hands of their order, the patricians procured the establishment of a new patrician magistracy, the preetorship. The praetor (since 243, one prsetor urbanus, and one praetor inter cives et peregrinos; since 227, four; since 197, six praetors) had the jurisdiction {dare sc. judicium, dicere, sc. sententiam, addicere, sc. rem), and was the vicegerent of the consuls during their absence. At the same time a new cedile was appointed, called, to distinguish him from the plebeian officer of that name, the curule aedile ; this office was, however, soon (probably since 364; certainly since 304) made accessible to the ple- beians, and patrician and plebeian curule aediles were elected for alternate years. The duties of the two aediles curules were: 1. to manage the ludi Romani ; 2. to supervise the markets and the street- police, and to preside in the police courts connected therewith. Although after the passage of the Licinian laws the patricians contin- ued their opposition to the political equalization of the orders, and even succeeded several times in electing two patrician consuls in open violation of the third Licinian law, all public offices were, neverthe- less, opened to all Roman citizens, in rapid succession : the dictatorship 356 (the office of magister equitum before the adoption of the Lici- nian laws 368), the censorship actually 351, legally 338, the preetorship 337, the colleges of pontifices and augures (the number of members in each being increased to nine) 300, by the lex Ogulnia. The patrician order thereupon ceased to exist as a legally privileged caste, and con- tinued only as a social order or rank. A new nobility (optimates, nobiles) was gradually developed in political life, composed of those patrician and plebeian families which had for the longest time retained possession of the chief public offices (summi honores). These families regarded every citizen who obtained office, but did not belong to their set, as an upstart (homo novus). The 1 The word publici is lacking in the text of Livius (VI. 35). But it is cleai that the law could have referred to public land f)nxy. Cf. Niebuhr, Hist of Borne III. 11; and Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, I. 304 fdl. 102 Ancient History. b. d I new nobility could not, however, separate itself so sharply from the common people as the patrician order had done, but increased its ranks constantly from the most promising portion of the lower classes. Through the equalization of the plebeian aristocracy with the pa- I tricians, the office of tribune, which was generally in the hands of ' the most distinguished plebeian families, lost, for a time at least, its revolutionary and anarchic character. The tribunes of the people soon obtained not only seats and votes in the senate, but also the right to convene it. Growing importance of the senate, which from this time on was the principal executive body governing the state. Since the establishment of the republic the senators had represented both orders (p. 94). They acquired their membership neither by the accident of birth, nor by the direct choice of the people. The censors (p. 99) filled vacancies in the senate principally from the numbers of those citizens which had occupied the office of quaestor (p. 99) or a higher officie. Their age was at least 30 years ; prob- ably a property qualification was soon required. Being appomted for life, but subjected every four (5) years to a new lectio of the censors, who could expel unworthy members, the Roman senators were independent of a fickle public opinion. To the wise and ener- getic conduct of the senate Rome chiefly owed the great growth of her power wliich took place in the near future. As formerly, the comitice exercised the rights of sovereignty proper, especially the comitia centuriata and the comitia tributa, in which all citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, were included (p. 96), while the right of approval vested in the patrician comitia curiata (or the narrower patrician senate, p. 94) became an empty form. Here belong t-wo of the three laws of the plebeian dictator. Pub- lilius Philo {leges Publilice), of the year 338 : 1. A vote of the comitia tributa shall have the force of law without having been ap- proved by the comitia curiata (ut plehiscita omnes Quirites tenerent). 2. Laws presented to the centuries shall be approved beforehand (ut legum, quce comitiis centuriatis ferrentur, patres ante initum suffragium auctores ferent). 3. One censor must be a plebeian (ut alter ubique ex plebe censor crearetur). The same Publilius Philo became the first plebeian praetor in 337. In the year 312 the censor Appius Claudius included the inhab- itants of Rome who were not freeholders in the tribes which they pre- ferred, and in the centuries according to their property. This far- reaching and actually revolutionary change in the comitia centuriata and tributa was altered in a conservative sense by the censor Q. Fa- bius Rullianus (Maximus) in the year 304, As regards the comitia tributa, those freemen who were not freeholders, and those freed- men (libertini) whose property in land was valued at less than 30,000 sestertes (about $1500^, were divided among the four city wards (tribus urbance), which now became the last in rank instead of the first. The country wards (tribus rusticce), the number of which had by the year 241 risen from 17 to 31 (making the whole number of the tribes 35, p. 96), were reserved for freemen who were freeholders, and for freedmen having larger landed properties. In the comitia B. C. Roman History, 103 centuriata, where the wealthy members had already acquired many privileges, equality of the freemen who were and those who were not freeholders was secured ; but the freedmen, with excep- tion of those of the first two classes, were entirely shut out from the centuries.^ The Licinian laws had naturally only ameliorated, not radically cured, the desperate condition of the poor and indebted plebeians. The law of the consul Poetelius (lex Poetelid), passed in 326 or 313, secured to every msolvent debtor who should transfer his prop- erty to the creditor his personal freedom (ne quis ceris alieni causa nectatur, utique bona tantummodo ohnoxia sint). By these and other ameliorations, and by the ever-increasing foundation of colonies of citizens and division of public lands among the poor, in consequence of successful wars, the social question was for a short time forced into the background. At this time occurred the alteration in the Servian constitution of the army.2 Division of the new legion into 30 maniples^ each con- taining 3 centuries. Arrangement in order of battle in three lines (hastati, principes, triarii). The assignment of arms according to property classification was abolished. Long lances (hasta) were re- served for the third line, the first and second line receiving in their stead the pilum, a short spear, adapted both for thrusting and hurl- ing. A short cut and thrust sword was used by all. 367-349. Four wars with the Gauls who had permanently settled in upper Italy (henceforward known as Gallia Cisalpina), and thence made frequent inroads into central Italy. In the Jirst war single combat between T. Manlius Torquatus and a gi- gantic Gaul ; in the second, the first triumph of a plebeian consul. The fourth war was ended by a great defeat uiflicted upon the Gauls in the Pomptine region by the consul M. Fu- rius Camillus, the younger. Single combat of M. Valerius Corvus with a Gaul. 362. Story of a chasm opened in the forum closed by the sacrifice of M. Curtius. 362-358. War with the Hernici and the revolted Latin cities (especially Tibur), ending in the renewal of the old league between Rome on the one part and the Latins and Hernici on the other; whereby both people were more strictly subjected to the Romans than before. 358-351. Wars with the Etruscan cities Tarquinii, Caere, and Falerii (victory of C. Marcius Rutilius, the first plebeian dicta- tor, 356), which led to the reduction of the whole of south- ern Etruria under Roman supremacy. 348. (First ?) treaty of commerce between Rome and Carthage,^ the text of which has been preserved by Polybius (III. 22). 350-345. War with the Volsoii, who were defeated in 346 at Satri- cum, and the Aurunci. The power of both peoples was com- pletely broken. The Roman legions forced their way south- 1 Mommsen, Hist, of Rome, Book II. chap. 3. 2 Mommsen, Hist, oj Jiome, Book II. chap. 8, and Peter, 1.3 222 foil. 3 See p. 93, note 1. 104 Ancient History. b. c. ward without stay. This great development of Rome's power | brought about the | 343-266. wars with the Samnites, the other Italians, and | : the Greek cities of Italy. j Result : Subjugation of all Italy to the Rubico7i and Macra, undei |s the supremacy of Rome. | 343-341. First war with the Samnites. j Cause : The Sidici in Teanum and the Campanians in Capua, both Samnite tribes who had emigrated from their home, asked aid of the Romans against their relatives, the Samnites of the mountains, who had formed a confederacy in Samnium proper, whence they con- tinually ravaged the plain (Campania), with new swarms. According to the Roman tradition,^ their armies gained three vic- tories in Campania over the Samnites : victory of M. Valerius Cor- vus on Mount Gaurus (near Cumse) ; victory of A. Cornelius CossuSy after his army had been rescued by P. Decius Mus, a military trib- ■ une ; finally, victory of both Roman armies at Suessula. The war was i ended by a treaty, whereby Rome received Capua, the Samnites \ Teanum, The Samnites were induced to conclude this treaty by a war with Tarentum, the Romans by the j 340-338. G-reat Latin ^War. The Latins rebelled against the hegemony of Rome and demanded complete equality with the Romans. One consul and half the senate ' were to be Latins. Capua (in spite of the opposition of the optimates) and the Volscii were allied with the Latins. Victory of the (^Roman and Samnite ?) armies over the Latins and Campanians in the neighborhood of Vesuvius under the consul T. Manlius Imperiosus. Execution of the young son of the consul, who against his father's command had fought with the Latin commander and defeated him. P. Decius Mus sacrificed his life for the safety of his army. Decisive battle at Trifanum (between Minturnce and Suessa) ; victory of the consul Manlius over the Latins and Campa- nians. Dissolution of the Latin League, which became a mere relig- ious association for the celebration of festivals. Isolation of the Latin cities from one another. Commercium and connuhium between them were prohibited. Most of the cities received Roman citizen- ship without suffrage, i. e. they became subjects. Several were obliged to cede land, which was divided among Roman citizens ; others were converted into Roman colonies (p. 109), e. g. Antium. The orator's stand in the forum Romanum was ornamented with the bows of the old ships of this city (hence rostra). The Roman power in the territories of the Volscii and in Campania was strengthened by the settlement of colonies of Roman citizens. Capua and other cities became dependent Roman communities (p. 109). 1 Livius, VII. 29 foil. See this tradition criticised by Mommsen, Hist, ot Rome, I. 365, note. B. c. Roman History. 105 326-804. Second war with the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause : Encroachments of the Romans on the Liris, especially the transformation of Fregellce into a Roman colony, and the capture of Palceopolis (twin city of Neopolis), by Q. PuUilius Philo, the first pro-consul. Alliance of the Romans with the Apulians and Lucanians and, in the course of the war, with the Sabellian cities south of the Volturnus {Nola, Nuceria, Herculaneum, Pompeii), who at first sided with the Samnites. The Romans had the advantage in the first years of the war, and crossed Samnium to Apulia, plundering as they went ; but in 321 the consuls Sp. Postumius and T. Veturius, hastening from Campania to the assistance of the Apulian city Luceria, were surrounded by the Samnites under Gavins Pontius in the Caudine Pass (furculce Caudince), near the present Arpaia, and compelled to capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give 600 Roman equites as hostages. The whole Roman army was sent under the yoke. The Roman senate refused to approve the treaty, and delivered the consuls to the Samnites, who refused to receive them. The Samnites conquered Luceria in Apulia and Fregellce on the Liris. By desperate exertions the Romans got the upper hand again. In 319 the Roman consul L. Papirius Cursor reconquered Luceria, released the Roman hostages, and sent the Samnite garrison under the yoke. The war went on during the succeeding years with chang- ing fortune ; nevertheless, the Romans subdued their revolted allies and subjects, and punished the leaders in the revolt with death. They defeated the Samnites at Capua, drove them out of Campania com- pletely, and reconquered Fregellce. Settlement of new colonies (p. 109). Construction of a great military road from Rome to Capua, through the Pomptine marshes, the Via Appia, part of which still remains. (Begun under the censor Appius Claudius, 312). After 312, when the 40 years' peace with the Etruscans expired, the Etruscan cities took part in the war against Rome. Soon the whole of Etruria, which was still independent, was in arms agamst the destroyer of Italian liberty. Siege of the Roman border fortress, Sutrium. The victorious advance of the consul Q. Fabius Rullianus through the Cinunian forest, and his victory at the Vadimonian lake (310) caused the powerful cities of Perusia, Cortona, Arretium, to withdraw from the coalition against Rome, and effected after 308 a provisional truce throughout Etruria. The Umbrians, Pi~ centini, Marsians, Frentanians, Pcelignians, who had joined the Ital- ian coalition, continued the war, and were ultimately joined by the Hernicans. The fortime of war for a short time favored the Sam- nites and their allies, but the Romans soon acquired a decided ascen- dency. L. Papirius Cursor defeated the Samnites in a great battle (309). Nuceria, the last Campanian town in alliance with the Sam- nites, was attacked by the Romans by land and sea, and forced to surrender. First appearance of a Roman war fleet. The con- sul L. Postumius invaded Samnium from the Adriatic Sea : another 106 Ancient History. b. c. Koman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of tho Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and equality with Rome. Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; the Hernican league was dissolved ; the Volscians and jEquians were obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction of two great military roads from Rome : the northern (later called Via Flaminia) extended to Narnia (Nequiimm) ; the southern (later Via Valeria) extended by way of Carsioli to Alha Fucentia (i. e. on lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Mar si. 298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other Italians. Cause: The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians m order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New rising among the Etruscans. The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old Latin inscription,^ discovered in 1780, is still to be seen in the Vati- can Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Sam- nium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Decius Mus at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites en- abled them to place three armies in the field : one to defend their own country, one for Campania, while the third was conducted by its commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umhrian lands to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace which they had negotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coali- tion of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prep- parations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the deci- sive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. De- cius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the Romans, Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scat- tered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Sam- nites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger. Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M\ Curius DentatuSf as it seems, without cedmg territory ; but the Romans 1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was en graved some time after the death of Scipio, was : — Cornelius Lucitis Scipio Barhdtus Gnnivod pntre progndtusfortis vir sapiensgue quoins forma virtutei pairisuma ( parissima) jTmf consol censor aidilis queifuit apud vos Taurdsid Cisaiina Sdmnio cepit subigit omne Loucdnam qpsidesque abdouciU B. C. Homan History. 107 thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of Italy. This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturnce and Sin- uessa in the territory of the Auruncans, Hatria in Picenum, Venusia in Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite wars, the 286 (?). Hortensian law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the Janiculus (last secessio plehis). Aljout this tinie questions of peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia trV' huta. By the lex Maenia the second Publilian law (that the curiae, or the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public assemblies was declining ; they became more and more instruments in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce m Italy, in consequence of the peace with the Sanmites, there broke out a 285-282. -war between Rome and a new Italian coalition. Cause : The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians and BruttianSy sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucan- ians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of north- ern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 282-272. War with Tarentum. Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman ships of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on its way to the Umbrian coast anchored in the harbor of Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, at- tacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded rep- aration in Tarentum was insulted. A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Taren- tines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the 108 Ancient History. b. a west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum (281) ; he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army of 25,000 men {Epirotes^ Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty ele- phants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome ; even the proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In the 280. Battle of Heraclea, near the 5i'm, the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Ap- vius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia in Campania, but there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an ex- change of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 279. Battle of A(u)sculum, in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was victor, but again suffered enormous loss. The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), "had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Car- thage (279) ; a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the 275. Battle of Beneventum. 1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus re- turned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at Argos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Taren- tines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal admin- istration. After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Sam- •aites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their ter- ritories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe' B. c. Roman History. 109 gium, which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian muti- neers, who were now punished with death. In 2G8 the Picentini were defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of the conquered towns to Rome we must distinguish: I. Municipal cities (municipia), i. e. communities having Roman citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at Rome (sine suffragio etjure honorum). They had the burdens but not the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of their own choosmg ; in others the municipal constitution was entirely abolished. II. Colonies (colonics), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the col- onies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be dis- tmguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establish- ment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or Roman citizens, who renounced their Jus suffragii et honorum,. In the municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of a prefect (prcefectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the praetor urbanus (p. 101). III. Allies (socii, civitates foederatce), whose relation to Rome was regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own admmistra- tion and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships. THIRD PERIOD. Punic "Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Em- pire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. (264-146). 264-241- First Punic War. Contest over Sicily. For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see p. 16, etc. Cause of the war : The ill-feeling which had long existed between Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the at- tack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had endeavored to form a fleet of -war. About this time establishment at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) of 4 qucBstors of the fleet (qucestores classici). Special cause : The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized the city of Messana and put the male popidation to death. They were ilO Ancient History . B» c. besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The Koman senate hesitated ; the assemblies resolved to grant the assist- ance asked (265), A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived in Rhegium. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthagin- ian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Mes- sana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians declared war. 264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans m Messana. The consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful attempt to take Syracuse, The consul returned to Italy, leaving a garrison in Messana. 263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians and Syracusans. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted the Cartha- ginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south coast of Sicily. 262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans after defeat of a Carthaguiian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the first five-decker 1 (penteris) after the model of a stranded Carthaginian ship. 260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipara, with 17 ships, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthagin- ians. Immediately afterwards, however, 260. First naval victory of the Roman-s under C. Duilius at Mylae, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special hon- ors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum, The war was continued in the following years with changing fortune ; the Carthaginians under Hamilear maintained themselves in the western portion of the island. 257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris. The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Man- lius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 256. Ncval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily) it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthagin- ian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 1 Not the first ship of war ; the Romans had long had vessels of war and three-deckers, see pp, 105, 107, 109. B. C. Roman History. IH and acknowledgment of Rome's supremacy. Stung by these inso- lent demands, the Carthagmians resolved upon most energetic prepa- rations, and levied troops in Greece, whence numerous bands of mer- cenaries, and among them the Spartan Xanthippus, went to Africa. The Carthaginian army being thus greatly strengthened (the ele- phants numbered 100), 255. Regulus was defeated at Tunes and captured. A part of the Roman army escaped to Clupea. The senate at once sent a fleet to Africa, which, after gaining a naval victory over the Carthaginians at the promontory of Hermes, took on board the Roman army, which was surrounded at Clupea ; but on the return voyage three fourths of the ships were lost in a storm. The Carthaginians reopened the war in Sicily, landmg in Lilybseum under Hasd- ubal, son of Hanno. The Romans built a new fleet. 254. Capture of Panormus by the Romans, In the following year (253) the Roman fleet crossed to Africa and laid waste the coast. On the return voyage from Sicily to Italy it was almost annihilated by a storm. The Roman senate declined to continue the naval warfare. On land the Romans gained the 251. Victory of Panormus over Hasdrubal under the consul Ceecilius Metellus, who at his triumph iii Rome exhibited over 100 elephants. The story of the embassy of Regulus to Rome falls in the period subsequent to this victory. It is, like the story of the cruelties inflicted upon him by the Carthaguiians, probably an invention of a later time. The Romans renewed the naval war. They besieged Lilyhceum in vain. The consul P. Claudius Pulcher in the 249. Sea-fight at Drepanum defeated by the Carthaginians. Capture of a great number of Roman ships. After two more Roman fleets had been destroyed by storms on the south coast of Sicily, the Romans, for the second time, abandoned naval warfare. 248-242. Campaign by land on the south side of Sicily. The Car- thaginian general Hamilcar, called Barak or Barcas (i. e. lightning) not only defended himself for 6 years successfully against the Romans, first on Mt. Eircte (Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo), then on Eryx, but also annoyed the Italian coasts by privateers. Through the contributions of rich patriots at Rome, a new fleet was finally built entirely at private cost. With this fleet the consul C. Lutatius Catulus won the decisive 241. Victory at the ^gatian Islands (opposite Lilybseum), over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno. Peace: I. The Carthaginians gave up all claims to Sicily. II. They paid 3200 talents (5i>4,000,000) war indemnity in ten years. The larger western part of Sicily became the first Roman prov- ince ; the smaller eastern ^ part continued under the supremacy of Syracuse, which was allied with Rome. - The territory of Syracuse, Acrce, Leontini, Megara. Helorum, Netum, TaMvomtnium. Coinp. Marquardt-Momiusea, Rom. Alth., IV. 91. 112 Ancient History. b. c. 24] (?). In this period, probably, occurred the democratic reform of the constitution of the centuries, concerning the de- tails of which but little is known with certainty. Only this is clear : that the right of first vote was taken from the centuries of equites and that henceforward the century which should cast the first vote (centuria prcerogativa) was determined by lot. It is probable that the centuries from now on formed a subdivision of the wards (tribus). It is further probable that the number of centuries was increased; per- haps an equal number of centuries (i. e. voting bodies) was estab- lished for each class (p. 92), and in this mamier the preponderance of the first class was abolished.^ 238. The Romans made use of an insurrection of the mercenaries and Libyan subjects against Carthage to extort from the Car- thaginians the cession of Sardinia. This island was at a later time united with the island of Corsica (formerly Etruscan, afterwards conquered by the Romans) to form one province. For the present the Romans were satisfied with the occupation of the coasts. 229-228. War with the Illyrians of Scodra, brought about by the piracies and acts of violence committed by these tribes, and their refusal to make the reparation demanded by the senate. A Roman fleet of 200 ships soon brought the Illyrian pirates to terms, and compelled the queen Teuta, the guardian of her son, to accept the following conditions : release of all Grecian cities from her sway, abandonment of piracy, limitation of navigation, and payment of a tribute. The Greeks attested their gratitude to the senate by admit- ting all Romans to the Isthmian games and the Eleusinian mysteries (p. 44). The lasting result of the war was the firm establishment of Roman superiority in the Adriatic Sea and supremacy over Corcyraf Apollonia, Epidamnus, and some neighboring tribes. In 219 the re- newal of the war led to the subjugation of a part of Illyria by L. jEmilius Paullus. 225-222. Subjugation of Cisalpine Gaul brought about by a dangerous invasion of the Gallic tribes inhabiting the plains of the Po (except the Cenomani) joined by numerous bands of transalpine Gauls. The Celts entered Etruria 70,000 strong and advanced upon Rome. The Romans sent two consular armies against them, which were reinforced by a third. Surrounded by these forces the Gauls were defeated and annihilated in the 225. Battle of Telamon, south of the mouth of the Umbro. The consul C. Atilius Regulus fell, 10,000 Gauls and one of their military leaders were captured, nearly all the rest fell or killed themselves. The Romans entered Gallia Cispadana, and the inhabitants, the Boii, submitted. The Romans crossed the Po, with severe losses (223), and defeated the Insubres. After two more victories in the follo^ving year (222) the consul Cn. Scipio captured Mediolanum, the capital of the In- subres, and Comum. To strengthen their power the Romans founded the fortresses of Placentia, Cremona, and Mutina. The military 1 Becker, Rom, Alterth. II.3, p. 9, foil. B. c. Roman History. 113 road to Spoleiium was extended across the Apennines to the Adri- atic Sea, and along the coast to Ariminum (ViaFlaminia). Further measures for the firmer establisliment of their power in Cisalpine Gaul were interrupted by the 218-201. Second Punic War.^ Causes ; Envy of the Romans, excited by the new prosperity of Carthage, springmg from her recent acquisitions in Spain, and the efforts of the party of the Barcse to take revenge on Rome. Special causes : The conquests of Hamilcar Barcas in south- ern and western Spain (236-228) beuig successfully pursued after his death by his son-in-law Hasdrubal, the Romans concluded a treaty with the Grecian cities Zacynihus or Saguntum, north of Valenciaf and EmporicE, now Ampurias, at the foot of the Pyrenees, and com- pelled the Carthaginians to promise to neither attack these cities nor cross the Ebro with the purpose of makhig further conquests. After the murder of Hasdrubal (221) the army chose the son of Hamilcar Barcas, Hannibal, then 28 years old, for their general. In order to make war unavoidable even against the will of the Carthaginian government, Hannibal conquered and destroyed Sagun- tum (219) after a brave resistance of the inhabitants for eight months. A refusal to deliver up Hannibal as demanded by a Roman embassy in Carthage was followed by a declaration of war on the part of the Romans. The plan of the Romans to land their main army in Africa, while a second army should engage the Carthaginian troops in Spain, was thwarted by 218. Hannibal's daring expedition to Italy by land.2 Leaving a sufficient number of troops in Spain, Hannibal crossed the Pyrenees with 50,000 foot, 9000 horse, and 37 elephants, traversed Gaul not far from the coast by way of Narho (Narbonne) and Nemausus (Nimes). The Roman consul P. Cor- nelius Scipio, who had stopped at Massilia on the voyage to Spain, heard of Hannibal's march, but liis attempt to prevent the Cartha- ginians from crossing the Rhodanus (Rhone) with a division of his army came too late ; the Carthaginian army had already passed the river above ^yeni'o (Avignon). Cavalry skirmish. The Roman consul sent his brother Cn. Scipio with the main part of the army to Spain, wliile he himself returned with a small force to northern Italy (Pisce). Hannibal marched up the Rhone to Vienna, then turned eastward through the territory of the Allohroges and Centrones, where he forced a way with great loss, crossed the Alps, still fighting, by the pass of the Little St. Bernard, and after indescribable exertions and severe losses reached the valley of the Dora Baltea with about 26,000 men and a few elephants. In upper Italy a small Roman army was engaged with the revolted Gauls. Hannibal defeated the consul Scipio, who had gone on before with the cavalry and light- armed foot soldiers, in the 1 Also called the Hannihalic War {Bellum Hannibalicum). 2 See Kiepert, Atlas Ant. Tab. VII. and X. The topographical quea* lions have been settled bj the Englishmen Wickham and Cramer. 8 114 Ancient History, B. O. 218. Cavalry engagement on the Ticinus, a northern branch of Sept. the Po. The wounded consul was rescued by his seventeen- years-old son, the future "Africanus." Reinforced by the Gauls, Hannibal defeated in the 218. Battle of the Trebia, a southern branch of the Po, the other Dec. consul, Tih. Sempronius Longus, who had been hastily recalled from Sicily before the commencement of his African expedi- tion, and now commanded the united Roman armies ; the remnant of the Roman force threw itself into the fortresses Placentia and Cremona. In northern Italy Hannibal organized the national insurrection of the Cisalpine Gauls ; over 60,000 joined his army. In Rome two new consular armies were placed in the field for the next campaign. One under Cn. Servilius took the Via Flaminia to Ariminum in Um- bria, the other under C. Flaminius the Via Cassia to Arretium in Etruria, to meet a possible attack by the Carthaginians. After Han- nibal had released without ransom all prisoners belonging to the Roman allies, and by their influence had incited all Italy to desert Rome, he crossed the Apemiines, and marched, unexpectedly to the Romans, through the swampy regions about the Arno. Severe losses. Hannibal himself lost an eye. By this march he flanked the Roman defensive position. The consul Flaminius followed him in all haste, and allowed himself to be decoyed by Haimibal into a narrow pass. In the 217. Battle of Lake Trasimene, between Cortona and Perusia, the Roman army was partly slaughtered, partly made pris- oner (in all 30,000 men). Terror at Rome. Preparations for the defence of the city, destruction of the bridges over the Tiber. Ap- pointment of Q. Fabius Maximus as dictator. Hannibal, how- ever, did not march upon Rome, but passed the fortress of Spoletium after an unsuccessful attempt to surprise it, traversed Umbria across the Apennines to Picenum and the Adriatic Sea. There he rested his army, reorganized it after the Italian system, and established com- munication with Carthage by sea. Then he advanced southward. His hope that the Sabellian tribes would join him was not ful- filled ; most of the cities closed their gates upon him. After the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus had united his 2 new legions with the army of Ariminum, he followed, at a discreet distance, the Carthaginian army, which went through Samnium to Apulia, and passed by Luceria to Arpi. Fabius avoided a pitched battle (hence his nickname Cunotator, delayer), but tried successfully to weaken the Carthaginian army by numerous skirmishes. Hannibal crossed the Apennmes again, and went through Samnium to Capua, which he tried in vain to seduce from Rome. The dictator followed and obstructed the Carthaginian march on the Volturnus, where Hannibal gained the pass by a stratagem only (Livius, XXII. 16). After he had severely harried the Sabellian tribes, Hannibal returned to Apulia, Meantime the military conduct of Fabius Maximus had so dis- pleased the Roman populace that they entrusted one half the army to the independent command of M. Minucius, master of the horsey B. c. Roman History. 115 who had had a fortunate skirmish with the Carthaginians, as a second dictator^ The new dictator attacked Hannibal, but was defeated, and only saved from complete amiihilation by the first dictator, Fabius Maximus, The consuls for 216 were the veteran general L. ^milius Paul- lus, elected by the optimates, and the incompetent C. Terentiua Varro, elected by the popular party for the purpose of takmg the offensive against Hannibal with an army of 86,000 Romans and allies. On the day when he had the decisive vote m the comicil of war, Varro imprudently attacked the Carthaginians, who held an advantageous position. The Romans suffered in the 216. Battle of Cannae (in Apulia, on the Aujidus)^ the most terri- ble defeat they ever experienced ; 70,000 fell (among them more than eighty men of senatorial rank and the consul L. JEmilius Paullus) ; the rest were captured or dispersed. Varro, with a small Toop, escaped to Canusium. i In the same year the legion which had been sent to Cisalpine Gaul «ras almost entirely destroyed. The secession of Capua, the Sam- iiites, Lucanians, and many cities of lower Italy from the Roman jilliance was the immediate consequence of the battle of Cannae. \ Admirable conduct of the Roman senate. The time of mourning 'or the families of the fallen was limited to tliirty days. Hannibal's Embassadors, who offered to exchange prisoners, were refused entrance o the city. A new army was formed by a levy of the youngest men md all who could bear arms, even slaves; they were armed in part )ut of the ancient spoils from the temples. M. Claudius Marcel- us, who had approved himself in the Gallic war, was placed in com- naiid of the new army, which joined the remnants of the army of Jannfe. A second army was conducted by the dictator M. Junius. Che Romans successfully defended Naples, Cumce, and Nola. Carthage formed an alliance with Philip V. (III.) of Macedonia, ml Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, of Syracuse, lanuibal went into winter quarters at Capua. 15. The fortune of war turned in favor of the Romans. Q. Fabius Maximus, Tib. Sempronius Gracchus, the consuls, and M. Clavr- dius Marcellus, pro-consul, led three Roman armies. In the 15. Battle of Nola, Marcellus defeated Hannibal, who retired to Apulia. Hannibal 'as obliged to assume the defensive, since, with the exception of 4000 len, he received no support from Carthage. The dispatch of rein- )rcements from Spain was prevented by the successfid 18-211. War of the Romans against the Carthaginians in Spain. The Romans, under P. Scipio and Cn. Scipio, defeated Hasdrubal, [annibal's brother, on the Iberus (Ebro), crossed this river, and pene- •ated the Carthaginian territory as far as the Bcetis (Guadalquivir), here they defeated the Carthaginians in two encounters at Illiturgi 1 Established by an inscription found in 1862. See Mommsen, i2m. Geach^ 6, p. 599, note. 116 Ancient History, B. I Und Intibili, and maintained themselves in southern Spain, until 21 in spite of varying fortune. At the same time they were pressing t^ Carthaginians in Africa through their ally, Syphax, king of weste Numidia. The alliance with Philip of Macedou likewise brought ]i help to Hannibal. The I 214-205. First Macedonian -w^ar \ was successfully conducted by the Romans with scanty force; The irresolute Philip did not dare to fulfil his promise to Hannibal \ landing in Italy. In 211 the Romans brought about a league of Gi • cian states against PhiUp, under the lead of the ^tolians, which w | joined by Illyrian and Thracian chiefs, and even by King Attains Pergamus. The war was, on the whole, unfavorable to Philip. 206 peace was concluded between Phdip and the Romans, against t]i; wishes of the latter; but it was, nevertheless, accepted by the senate The alliance with Syracuse proved also of no use to Hannibal, , the 214-210. War in Sicily (Siege of Syracuse) was decided 1 Marcellus in favor of the Romans. After the destruction the Carthaginian army of relief under Hamilcar, by defeat an disease in the swampy lowlands of the Anapus, 212. Syracuse was captured and plundered, in spite of a bra^ resistance (Archimedes). In Italy Hannibal gained possession of Tarentum through treachei (212), and laid siege to the citadel of that city by land and sea. Dear of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus in Samnium. Hannibal advanced Campania and compelled the Romans to raise the siege of Capu after which he defeated two Roman armies in Lucania and Apulil but retired to Tarentum. The Romans agam laid siege to Capua. In Spain the war took an unfavorable turn for Rome in this sann year, 212. Both Scipios were defeated and killed by the Carth; ginians and their ally, Massinissa, son of the king of eastern Nijl midia (king himself in 208). The Romans were driven back over tl ' Ebro. 211. Hannibal attacked the Roman army before Capua. He wf i repulsed, and in order to force the Romans to raise the sieg i he marched through Samnium to the territory of the ^qui on tl i later Via Valeria, past Tibur, across the Anio, directly upon Rome, an I encamped a mile from the city (Hannibal ante portas !). Finding ti ! Romans prepared for defence, he retired, after ravaging the neigli, borhood, to lower Italy, without having gained his end. j 211. Capua surrendered to the Romans, ' who visited a terrible punishment upon the city. Fifty-three cifej zens were beheaded, many sold into slavery ; the community was d( prived of the right of self-government. Hannibal's attack on Rh gium and on the citadel of Tarentum having miscarried, his Italian alii abandoned him, and tried to make their peace with the Romans. 210. P. Cornelius Scipio, son and nephew of the brothers who fell Spain, and now 25 years old, was sent to Spain with proc •ular powers Cl^ivius, XXVI. 18). B. 0. Roman History. 117 In Italy Hannibal gained a victory over the proconsul Cn. Fulvius at Herdonea. In Sicily the Romans captured Agrigentum, slaugh- tering the Carthaginian garrison and selling the populace as slaves, and reduced the whole island under their power. In Spain Scipio crossed the Ehro (209) and conquered New Carthage. 209. M. Marcellus, having been defeated in an encounter with Han- nibal, gained a victory over him m a second battle on the fol- lowmg day. Q. Fabius Maximus captured Tarentum ; 30,000 Tarentines were sold as slaves. Hannibal retired to Meta- pontum. 208. Marcellus fell in a cavalry skirmish at Venusia. Great ex- I haustion of Rome and its allies in consequence of the war in ' its own country, now in its tenth year. In Spain Scipio (208) pressed victoriously southward, but fought a drawn battle at Bcecula with Hasdrubal, and was unable to prevent f him from crossing the Pyrenees on his way to his brother Hamiibal. Arrived in upper Italy (207), Hasdrubal was successful in melting t the Cisalpine Gauls to arms. Great preparations in Rome (23 legions) I to prevent his union with Hamiibal, who was advancing to meet him i through Lucania and Apulia. The consul M. Livius Salinator was ji sent against Hasdrubal, the consul C. Claudius Nero against Hamiibal. Drawn battle at Grumentum in Lucania, between Nero and Hannibal ; the latter broke through the enemy, marched to Apulia, and encamped by Canusium. Nero, who had followed him, left a part of the army to watch Haimibal, while with the rest he joined his colleague by means of forced marches. The two consuls defeated Hasdrubal in the bloody 207. Battle of Sena gallica, not far from the river Metaurus. Death of Hasdrubal. On receipt of the news of this defeat (the Romans threw the head of Hasdrubal among the Cartha- ginian pickets), Hamiibal retired to Bruttium. In Spain victory of Scipio at Bcecula over Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo. 206. After completmg the expulsion of the Carthaginians from Spain by the capture of Gades (Cadiz), and after concluding a secret alliance with Massinissa, P. Cornelius Scipio returned to Rome. For the following year 205. Scipio was elected consul, and made preparations in Sicily for an African expedition. Mago, the youngest brother of Hannibal, landed at Genoa with the remnants of the Si^anish army of the Carthaginians, and called the Ligurians to arms. At once, the Romans levied three armies against him. 204. Scipio landed in Africa. Massinissa, who had been driven from his throne by the Carthaginians, and by Syphax, husband of HasdrubaVs daughter Sophonisbe, now their ally, joined Scipio. 203. Scipio defeated Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, and Syphax by a night ! attack, and threatened Carthage. Unsuccessful negotiations for peace. The Carthaginians recalled Hannibal and Mago i from Italy. The latter died on the passage. Hannibal em- barked at Croton, having previously massacred the Italian sol- diers who refused to accompany him. After fruitless personal uegotiations between Scipio and Hamiibal the 118 Ancient History. B. 202. Decisive battle of Zama was fought, wherein the Carthaginian army was defeated and annihilated. Hannibal escaped to Hadrumetum. 201. Scipio granted the Carthaginians peace on the following con- ditions : 1. Surrender of their Spanish possessions and of all Mediterranean islands still under their control. 2. Transfer of the kingdom of Syphax to Massinissa. 3. Payment of a yearly tribute: of 200 talents (.$250,000) iov fifty years. 4. Surrender and destruc-' tion of all ships of war except ten. 5. No war to be undertaken! without the permission of Rome. P. Cornelius Scipio, who received j the cognomen of Africanus, celebrated his triumph in Rome with a| splendor never before witnessed (^Syphax). The Italian allies of Hannibal were in part sentenced to cede larger portions of their territory, in part reduced to subjects of Rome, de- prived of their independence and their right to bear arms (peregrini dediticii). Foundation of numerous Roman colonies in Lower Italy. In consequence of another general rising of the Cisalpine Gauls and the Ligurians, 200-191. Upper Italy was again subjugated after a severe strug- gle. Although the peoples of Transpadane Gaul retained their tribal constitutions they soon became, with few exceptions, com- pletely Latinized. This took place still more quickly among the Cis— padane Gauls after the leading tribe, the Boii, had been almost exter- minated in war. Numerous colonies were in part founded, in parti reorganized. Via Emilia from Ariminum to Placentia. Spain was regarded as a Roman province after 205. It divided into : 1. Hispania citerior, later Tarraconensis ; and 2. Hispa- nia ulterior, or Bcetica and Lusitania. The country was, however, dur- ing this period, and a part of the next, commonly in a state of war.', In 195 the consul, M. Porcius Cato, gained a great victory over thep Spaniards, and decreed a universal disarmament. The insurrections f soon began again. A victory of the praetor L. ^milius Paullus (189), ; and another, still more important, gained by the praetor, C. Calpur^- nius, over the Lusitanians (185), induced quiet for a time in Hispania! ulterior. The victories of Q. Fulvius Flaccus (181) and Tiberius Grac- ■ chus (179-178) partially subdued the Celtiberians of Hispania citerior. \ 200-197. Second Macedonian War. Cause : A Macedonian force of mercenaries sent, as the senate maintained, by king Philip, had fought at Zama against the Romans. King Attains of Pergamus, the inhabitants of Rhodes and Athens be- sought assistance from the Romans against King Philip V. (IIL) ! of Macedonia, who, in alliance with Antiochus III. was warring with Egypt and also grievously troubling the supplicants. In the autumn of 200 the Romans landed at Apollonia, in lUyria, under P. Sulpicius Galha. The Roman fleet guarded Piraeus and I threatened Euboea. Philip was repulsed before Athens, and driven from Central Greece. The Romans, who were joined in 199 by the JEtolians and afterwards by the Achceans, carried on the war witji i varying fortune, but without result, until (198) the consul, T. Quinc« B. C. Roman History. 119 tius Flamininus, took command of the army. He subdued Epirus, got into the rear of Philip's strong position, and defeated the king in the 197. Battle of Cynoscephalse (Kvi^os K€cf>aXaL, in Thessaly). Peace : Philip was obliged to give up the hegemony of Greece, and in general all possessions outside of Macedonia proper, and to pay 1000 talents ($1,250,000) in ten years. He was to maintain no more than 5000 soldiers and live ships of war, and not to carry on war beyond his own borders without the consent of Rome. During the Isthmian games, T. Quinc- tius Flamininus proclairiied, under general rejoicing, the de- cree of the Roman senate declaring the Greek states free and independent. The majority joined the Achjean league. The Romans limited, without destroying, the power of NabiSf tyrant of Sparta, hoping thus to counterbalance the Achaean league. 195. At Carthage a democratic reform of the constitution was car- ried out by the influence of Hamiibal. The oligarchs defamed Hannibal before the Roman senate, wliich demanded that he be delivered to the Romans. Hannibal fled to the East. 192-189. War with Antiochus III., of Syria. Cause: Interference of the king of Syria in Grecian affairs, and ! of the Romans in Asiatic politics ; reception of Hannibal at the court 1 of Antiochus. I Antiochus, deceived by the ^tolians who had fallen out mth Rome, and promised to join him with all the Greek cantons as allies, began the war, without listening to the advice of Hannibal, by landing in Thessaly on the Gulf of Pagasse, whence he went to Eubcea. Most of the Greeks, especially the Achaean league, remained true to the Ro- mans, who were also joined by Philip of Macedon, Eumenes of Perga' mus, and Rhodes. Antiochus occupied the pass of Thermopylae. Landing of the consul, Manius Acilius Glabrio, in Epirus (191) and march to Thessaly. The former consul, M. Porcius Cato, conqueror of the Spaniards, who served as military tribune in the Roman army, surprised the ^tolians on the mountain path of Ephialtes, while the consul captured the pass itself and scattered the army of Antiochus, who escaped to Chalcis with a few soldiers, and there took ship for Ephesus. The Romans besieged the ^tolians in Naupactus ; their fleet, under C. Livius, defeated that of Antiochus at Chios. In the following year (190) a fleet from Rhodes defeated a fleet of the king, under the command of Hannibal, at the mouth of the Eurymedon, and somewhat later the Roman fleet, with that of Rhodes, won a naval victory at Myonnesus. A Roman army, nominally under the command of the consul, L. Cornelius Scipio, but really under his brother, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, marched through Macedonia and Thrace, crossed the HeU lespont, and defeated Antiochus in the 190. Battle of Magnesia on the Sipylus, I not far from Smyrna, whereupon the king conclmded peace in 120 Ancient History. B. a the following year : 1. Surrender of all European possessions, and oi\y, his Asiatic possessions as far as the Taurus. 2. Payment of 15,000 i| Eubcean talents (iil9,125,000) within twelve years. 3. Surrender of yij Hannibal, who, however, escaped. This peace struck the kingdom of % the Seleucidse from the list of great powers. The Roman senate *.t having resolved, for the present, not to acquire any immediate pos- ^ sessions in Asia, divided the ceded territory among its allies, Eumenes ii, of Pergamus, and Rhodes, and proclaimed itself the protector of the ^- Greek cities of Asia against the Galatians (189, Expedition of Cn. Manlius Voho), and regulator of the political relations of Asia. In i Greece the -/Etolians were conquered and subjugated, the other can- i tons retained, for the present, their independence. Internecine quar- rels continued among the Greeks, and the Roman senate was in all ;, cases appealed to as arbitrator. Philip of Macedonia received but l\ scanty remmieration for his services in the war against Syria. 183 (?). Death of ^anm'&a^. He poisoned himself at the court of ( Prusias, king of Bithynia, by whom he saw himself betrayed. , i Death of his conqueror, P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus, at Linternumy ;i wliither he had retired after he and his brother, Lucius, had been ac- i cused by M. Porcius Cato of having been bribed by Antiochus. j 180. The lex annalis of the tribune, L. Villius, established, besides i a military service of ten years, a fixed age for all the curule ,] offices : sediles, 37 years ; prfetor, 40 ; consul, 43. Since the first i Punic war the expenses of the great games were no longer borne by ; the public treasury, but by the sediles, which at once closed the office i to all who were not men of property. The higher offices of state, I and the position of senator, became more and more decidedly privi- I leges of the nobility (p. 102). | 171-168. Third Macedonian war. Destruction of the I Macedonian monarchy. Cause : The plan of Philip V. (III.), to revenge himself on the ! Romans, and to regain the old borders of Macedonia, was carried , forward by his son and successor, Perseus, the murderer of his ,; brother Demetrius, who favored Rome. King Eumenes of Pergamus ] informed the senate of the preparations of Perseus. | During the first three campaigns, weak and unsuccessful conduct on i the part of the Roman generals, combined with injustice and cruelty j against the allied Achseans and Epirotes, who were thereby forced to ! actual desertion. At last L. ^milius Paullus, son of the consul who j fell at Cannae (p. 115), obtained the chief command. He restored dis- 1 cipline in the Roman army, drove back the Macedonians, and defeated ^ j Perseus in the tt] 168 Battle of Pydna. Ij Sept. 11,000 Macedonians were captured, 20,000 perished. Perseus I fell into the power of the Romans (in Samothrace). Splendid triumph il of ^milius Paullus. The spoils brought to Rome were so im^ i mense that henceforward the citizens were relieved from the tributum. v Dissolution of the kingdom of Macedonia, which was transformed into 4 confederacies dependent upon Rome, neither the right of end* i B. c. Roman History. 121 gration nor of intermarriage (commercium et connuhium) being allowed them. Genthius, king of Illyria, who had been an ally of Perseus, be- ing soon conquered (168), that country was divided into 3 tributary districts with federal constitutions. Epirus was cruelly punished, 70 towns being plundered and destroyed, 150,000 Epirotes sold as slaves. The Greek cantons, friend and foe alike, were reduced to the condi- tion of subject clients. 1000 Achseans of high standing, among whom was the historian Polybius, were carried to Rome for examination (167), and detained without trial 16 years in Italian cities under sur- veillance. The old allies of the Romans, Eumenes of Pergamus and Rhodes, who had attempted to hold the position of mediators during the war, were chastised and all the possessions of the latter on the mainland taken away. In a war which broke out between Syria and Egypt the senate interfered as guardian of both powers. The Ro- man ambassador, C. PopilUus Lcenas, arrogantly and insultingly or- dered Antlochus IV., king of Syria, to retire from before Alexandria. He drew a line around the king with his staff, and bade him decide before he stepped from the circle. (Polybius, xxix. 27.) 149-146. Third Punic War. Cause : The Carthaginians, whose commerce and maritime power bad begun to increase, having been unable to procure from Rome my reparation for several losses of territory wliich they had sustained il the hands of Massinissa, finally took up arms themselves. The Roman senate, on the instigation of M. Porcius Cato (" Ceterum lenseo Carthaginem esse delendam ") declared this a breach of the leace. Two Roman armies landed at Utica. Humble submission of the Ilarthaginians, who at the command of the consul delivered up their ivar-ships and weapons. But when ordered to abandon their city and Tiake a new settlement ten miles from the sea, the Carthaginians re- solved on a desperate resistance. With the greatest sacrifices on the Dart of all the inhabitants of Carthage, without regard to rank, age )r sex, new equipments were provided. Weapons were manufac- ;ured day and night. A new fleet was built in the inner harbor. An ittack of the Romans was repulsed. Siege of Carthage. 147. P. Cornelius Scipio ^milianus (son of ^milius PauUus, adopted son of P. Cornelius Scipio Africanus (Major), assumed I the command. He shut off the city completely on both the land and sea side. L46. Capture and destruction of Carthage. Street fight lasting six days, and a conflagration which lasted seventeen days. The remaining inliabitants were sold into slavery. The coast land rom the river Tusca, opposite the island of Galatha (Galita), to Thence, on the Syrtis minor, was made a Roman province under the iiame Africa, with the capital at Utica. The rest of the country fell or the present to the allied kingdom of Numidia. Splendid tri*- imph of Scipio, who received the name of Africanus (Minor). .48-146. Fourth Macedonian War, I 122 Ancient History, B. Ci against A ndriscus, who gave himself out as Philippus, brother of Per Beus (Pseudo-Philippus), and incited the Macedonians to rise agains the Roman rule. He was defeated in two battles and captured b; Q. Ccecilius Metellus. Macedonia became a Roman provincj (146). 146. Achaean War. Cause : Return of 300 Achseans from Italy, after an imprisonmeni of 16 years (p. 121). The anti-Roman party was thereby strengthenec in all cities. Incited by Critolaus and Diceus, the Achaean league be- gan war with Sparta, with whom the Romans took sides. The senate pronounced the dissolution of the League. Victory of Metellvs over Critolaus at ScarpJiea in Locris. Dicem summoned all who could bear arms together on the Isthmus, anc armed 12,000 slaves. He was defeated by the consul L. Mummiufii in the 146. Battle of Leucopetra. Corinth, the chief city of the Achaean league, was occupied by Mummius without a blow. The art treasures were sent to Rome^ and the inhabitants were sold as slaves. The territory of the city was in part given to Sicyon, in part transformed into Roman public land. Corinth destroyed at the command of the senate. The other Greek cities were, for the most part, mildly treated, and allowed to retain their autonomy (their own administration and juris diction), but in such a way that they were subordinated to the governor^ of Macedonia and had to pay tribute to Rome. Not until later (p. 80), it seems, did Greece become a Roman province with the name Achaia. At the close of this epoch Rome possessed eight provinces 1. Sidlia (241). 2. Sardinia (238), with Corsica. 3. Hispania cite- rior (205). 4. Hispania ulterior (205). 5. Gallia Cisalpina (191?), 6. Illyricum (168). 7. Africa (140). 8. Macedonia (146), and Greece {Achaia). \ The first four provinces were at first governed by praetors, so , that, counting the prodor urhanus and the prcetor inter cives et peregri- I nos (p. 101) who always stayed in Rome, there were six praetors i elected every year. Later, however, it was decreed that all six (after I Sulla, 8) praetors should remain in Rome during their year of office, .i 4 (6) to preside over the standing courts {qucestiones perpetuce). Of ;| these the first, for cases of extortion (de repetundis), was established ift jl 149 by the lex Calpurnia ; to this were added down to the time of j Sulla (p. 132) courts having jurisdiction over fraud in obtaining I office (de ambitu), over high treason (^de maiestate), over embezzle- j meut (de peculatu). Sulla created courts for the trial of cases of | murder and poisoning (de sicariis et venefciis) of forgery of wills and of counterfeiting (de falso). For the year succeeding their year of office the praetors went as pro-praetors to the provinces which had fallen to them by lot The propraetors received, as a rule, however, only those provinces B. c. Roman History. 123 wliich were considered qtiiet, and which could be administered with- out any considerable military force. Those which were still the scene of warfare were assigned to one of the consuls in office, or to a proconsul, the consul of the preceding year having his term of command prolonged for the prosecution of the war (imperium proro- gare) or an ex-consul (vir consularis) or an ex-prsetor (yir prcetorius) being appointed proconsul. Thus the provinces were at a later period distinguished into proconsular and proprcetorial. The organization of a province was commonly entrusted to the gen- eral who had conquered it, and a commission of ten senators. Many cities in the provinces retained their own jurisdiction and municipal govermnent (civitates liberce), in consequence of a treaty concluded with the Roman people (foedus, hence civitates fcederatce), or of a law (lex) or decree of the senate (senatus consultum). The taxes of the provinces were generally let to tax-farmers (publicani), mostly Ro- man citizens of the equestrian order (ordo equester) many of whom also did business in the provinces as bankers (negotiatores).^ In 153 the term of service for the consulate began in January for the first time, and this soon became the rule. Especially noteworthy in this epoch is the practical disappearance of the dictatorship. The last dictator with military power was appointed after the battle of Camise (216), and the last nominated for municipal business was in 202. After this, in times of peculiar danger, the senate conferred dictatorial power on the consuls, by the formula : " The consuls shall take measures for the public good according to their discretion." {Videant consules ne quid detrimenti respuhlica capiat) ^ which some- what resembles a modern proclamation of martial law or state of siege. FOURTH PERIOD. Firm Establishment of the Universal Power of Rome. Pe- riod of the Civil Wars (146-31). 143-133. Numantine ^War. Continuance of hostilities in Spain. "War in Lusitania against ViriathuSf 147-139, ended only by the latter's murder. The war in northern Spain centred around the fortified city of Numantia,' which was vainly besieged by Metellus, and then by several incapable generals, who utterly neglected the discipline of the army. Finally P. Cornelius Scipio ^milianus Africanus (Minor) received the com- mand. He restored discipline, and, after an investment of fifteen mouths' duration, starved the city into submission. Desperate de- fence. 133. Surrender and destruction of Numantia. Scipio -iEmilianus received the surname of Numanticus. After the fall of Numantia all Spain, excepting the mountain tribes of the north, wras reduced under Roman govermnent. L35-132. First servile war. Insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who were terribly iU- ;.reated, under the Syrian Eunus, who called himself king AntiochuSp 1 Marquardt-Mommsen, Eom. Alt. IV. 338 foil, and 377 foil. 2 The present Garray, an hour's walk north of Soria on the Duero* 124 Ancient History. ■J and fought a long time successfully against the Roman armies, main taining himself in Henna and Tauromenium, but was finally capturec and executed, together with a great number of the insurgents. | 133-121. Civil disturbances under the Gracchi, | excited by the political and social reforms urged through revok lutionary means by the brothers Tiberius Gracchus and Caitfcl , Gracchus. \ Constant increase in the number of great estates worked by slaves ' (Latifundia). The number of slaves in Italy was immensely increasec by the successful wars, and by a most extensive slave trade, especiallj with eastern Asia. The order of free peasants and renters was thereby greatly reduced, while there was formed in the capital a numerous rabble without property or occupation, who lived on bribes and gifts of grain. Bad government of the optimates (p. 101). Fam-i ily cliques which took exclusive possession of all public offices and; places in the senate. Tib. Sempronius Gracchus (163-133), son of the plebeian con-ctavianus sole ruler, after the manner of Caesar (p. 143). 9. Octavianus celebrated three triumphs in Rome, and the temple of Janus was closed for the third time in Roman history.^ FIFTH PERIOD. leigns of the Roman Emperors down to the Fall of the "Western Empire. ^ 31 (30) B. C.-476 A. D. . C. A. D. 1-68. The five Julii, or the descendants of Caesar's adopted son, tl-14. Csesar Octavianus Augustus. The surname Augustus (the Illustrious, the Sublime), which was iven Octavianus by the senate in 27 B. c, is the name by which, as )\e ruler of the Roman world, he is most commonly known ; it also ecame, like Princeps,^ Ccesar, Imperator (p. 143), the title of the -Oman sovereigns. In later times Ccesar became a peculiar designa- on of the appointed successor of a reigning Augustus. Augustus reduced the senate to 600 members and made a high nsus (one million sesterces) the necessary condition of admission, he consular office was retained in name, but was sometimes held r a series of years by the imperator ; sometimes granted, as a lecial distinction, to some one else for a short time (two months). he prcefectus urbi, having police and criminal jurisdiction, and the 'cefectus prcetorio, commander of the standing body-guard of nine fterwards ten) praetorian cohorts, became the most important of- ',ers. Division of Rome into 14, of Italy into 11, regiones. B. C. 27, new division of the provinces into senatorial, comprising ose quiet provinces which could be administered without an army [frica, Asia, Achaia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Sicilia, Creta, with Cy- mica, Bithynia, Sardinia, Hispania Boetica), and imperial, including 3Se where an army was maintained, and which were administered legates in the name of Augustus (Hispania Tarraconensis, Lusi- lia ; the four provinces of Gaul : Narhonensis, Lugdunensis, Aqui- lia, and Belgica ; Germania superior et inferior, Moesia, Syria, Cilicia, fprus, ^gyptus).^ A erarium a,nd Fiscus. reriod of the highest development of Roman literature. Mcece- j (t B. c. 8), friend of Augustus, patron and protector of the poets ; Vergilius Maro (70-19 b. c), Q. Horatius Flaccus (65-8 B. c.) ; Once under Numa, and once in 235. [Trans.] Peter, Rom. Gesch. III.3, 1871, and Bom. Gesch. in Jciirzerer Fauunq, Jd. 1878, p. 475 foil. ■j Princeps was, it is true, not an official title. About the meaning of this de- lation and its relation to the dignity of the Pinnceps senatus, see Mar- fcrdt-Mommsen, Rom. Alih. II. 2, 2, p. 750 foil. ■ Later many changes were made in this division. All provinces created Hr 27 B. c. were assigned to the Qpperor. 148 Ancient History. SJI the elegiac poets, C. Valerius Catullus (87-54 b. c), AlUus Tibu (54-19 B. c. ?), S. Propertius (49-15 b. c. ?) ; P. Ovidius Naso (b| 43 B. c, 9 A. D. banished to Tomi on the Pontus EuxinuSy f ij The historian T. Livius (59 b. C.-17 a. d.) Family of Augustus. C. Julius CsBsar Octavianus Augustus, b. 63 b. c, t 14 a. d. Married : 1. Claudia. 2. Scribonia. 3. Li via. Tiberius and Drusus, i Sons of Tiberius Claudius Nerc':j and Livia. Julia, t A. D. 14. Married : ' ' 1. Marcellus, 2. M. Vipsanius Agrlppa. 3. Tiberius. , son of Octavia. t »• c. 12. t B. c. 23. I j Gaius Caesar. Lucius Caesar. Agrippina. Julia. Agrippa Postua ) t A. D. 4. t A. D. 2. t A. D. 33. t A. D. 28. f A. D. 14. I Julia (the elder) was banished to the island of Pandataria beca | of her excesses. Gaius Ccesar and Lucius Coesar were adopted j Augustus B. c. 17, and designated as his successors. Agrippina (. j elder) married Germanicus, son of Drusus, and became the mothei I the younger Agrippina, the mother of Nero (p. 150). Agrif' Postumus, almost an idiot, was adopted, but afterward banished j the island of Planasia. Julia (the younger) was also banish; Tiberius, son of Livia by her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nd^ was adopted by Augustus, A. D. 4. j > 29. Mcesia subjugated (made a province in 16 b. c. ?). 'j 27-25. Expedition of Augustus against the Cantabri and Astures, i\ operations against whom he was obliged, on account of sifi ness, for the most part to leave to his legates. j 25. Expedition to Arabia, without results, conducted by C. jEli Gallus, prefect of Egypt. Subjugation of the Alpine tribe the Salassi. Foundation of Augusta Prcetoria (Aosta). 23. Augustus caused the senate to confer upon him for life the di nity of the tribunate, and the proconsular imperium in general 22 and 21. Successful war against the Ethiopians, conducted by J tronius, the successor of Gallus in Egypt. 20. Campaign of Augustus against the Parthians, whose king Pk ates, upon hearing of the arrival of Augustus in Syria restol the Roman standards which had been taken from Crasi^ Tigranes was reinstated in the kingdom of Armenia by TH rius. J 19. Subjugation of Spain completed by the conquest of the Cant(w and Astwes. \ 15. After the subjugation of the tribes from the northern boundill of Italy to the Danube, Raetia was made a Roman proving along with Vindelicia (Augusta Vindelicorum, now Augsbu]| and Noricum. /j . c.-A. D. Roman History. 149 J-9. Starting from the left bank of the Rhine (Germania superior and Germania inferior, wliich had been constituted provinces in 27), Drusus nndertook four campaigns in Germany proper, and led the Roman armies to the Weser and the Elbe. Drusus died upon the way back. -7. Tiberius, the brother of Drusus and his successor in the com- mand, after he had subjugated Pannonia (12-9), compelled a portion of the Germanic tribes on the right bank of the Rhine to recognize the supremacy of Rome. irth of Christ (four years before the commencement of our era?). 9. An attack made by Tiberius upon the Suevian kingdom of Mar- hod was interrupted by an insurrection of the lUyrian and Pan- nonian tribes, which were reduced to subjection only after a severe contest. ). Pannonia (the S. W. portion of Hungary) made a Roman prov- ince. ^?). Three Roman legions under Quintilius Varus annihilated in the Teutoburg forest, by Arminius (Hermann ?), a leader of the Cherusci, and husband of Thusnelda. Lex Papia Poppcea and Lex Julia directed against celibacy. 1 . Augustus died at Nola^ in the seventy-sixth year of his age. 1-37. Tiberius {Claudius Nero), step-son of Augustus, by whom he had been adopted, a sus- ious despot. The (formal) right of ratifying laws transferred from 5 comitice to the senate. The law against high treason (de maiestate) s extended to include the most trivial offences offered the sover- ;n. Rewards given to informers (delatores). Revolt of the legions on the Rhine, quelled by Germanicus, son of elder Drusus, and of the legions in Pannonia quelled by the mger Drusus, son of Tiberius (Tacitus, Annates. 1. 16-49). 16. Three expeditions under Germanicus against the Germans. On the third attempt, wliich was made by sea, Drusus landed at the mouth of the Ems, and crossed the Weser. Roman victory in the battle on the Campus Idistaviso (according to Grimm, Idisiaviso, " meadow of the elves ") over Arminius, between Minden and Hameln. In spite of the success of the Roman arms the right bank of the Rhine remained free (Tac. Ann. II. 5-26). Grermanicus recalled from Germany, through the envy of Tibe- rius, and sent to the East, installed a king in Armenia, made Cappadocia a Roman province, and died (19) in Syria (of poi- son, administered by Piso?). 31. Rule of the abandoned Sejanus, Tiberius' favorite. By uniting the prjetorian cohorts in one camp near Rome, Sejanus laid the foundation of the future power of i\\Q proetorians. Sejanus poisoned Drusus, son of Tiberius. Tiberius took up his residence in Caprece (Capri). Banishment of the elder Agrippina (f 33). — Livia^, 150 Ancient History, A), 31. Trial of Sejanus, who was executed in company with many otl 's (accomplices in the conspiracy ?). Macro succeeded Seja ^ in the favor of Tiberius. j 37-41. Caligula (properly, Gaius Ccesar Germanici ,\ youngest son of Germanicus, called by the soldiers Caiig i j (bootling), a cruel, half-crazy tyrant {oderint, dum metuant!). S I adoration. Bridge over the bay of Puteoli. Childish expediiv with an immense army to the coast of Gaul (39-^0), which enli with the collection of mussels (spolia oceani). After his murder e| prsBtorians proclaimed as imperator his uncle, , i 41-54. CisiyxdiVas {Tiberius Claiidius Nero), son of Drusus, younger brother of Germanicus, a we J minded, vacillating prince, ruled by miserable favorites (the fre j men Narcissus and Pallas) and his wives : 1, the shameless Messali and, after he had caused her to be killed, 2, the ambitious Agrippi daughter of Germanicus (Tacitus, Annales, XI, and XIL). 43. Commencement of the conquest of Britain under the comm? ] of A. Plautius and his legate, T. Flavins Vespasianus ; southern part of Britain became a Roman province (Taciti Agricola, 13, 14 ; Ann. XII. 31-^0). > During Claudius' reign the following provinces were incorporate! in Africa, Mauretania, Tingitana, and Mauretania Ccesariensis (4 in the east Lycia (43), Thracia (46), Judcea, which had been a pendent kingdom 41-44, became in 44 a province again. Agrippina persuaded Claudius to adopt L. Domitius, her son by < Domitius (he took the name of Nero at his adoption), and to appc him his successor in place of liis own son by Messalina, Britannii whose sister Octavia was the promised wife of Nero. As Claud: showed signs of repenting of the adoption of Nero, Agrippina poisoi him. 54-68. Nero {Nero Claudius Ccesar Augustus Germanicu proclaimed imperator by the prsetorians, was for the fi five years of his reign under the guidance of the prcefectus pra rio Burrus and his teacher L. Seneca, who prevented the influence his mother Agrippina from becoming predominant. Law agai informers. i With Nero's passion for the freedwoman Acte, and afterwards : Poppma Sabina, the opposition between himself and his mother gr ^ stronger and stronger, and the list of his crimes began. He poison (55) his step-brother Britannicus, whom his mother had threatened make imperator, had Agrippina put to death (59), drove from hi his wife Octavia, whom he afterwards executed (62), and marri. Poppcea Sabina. Excesses and mad cruelty of Nero. He appear . in public as chariot-driver in the races, actor, and singer. Crawli , Servility of the senate (Tac. Ann. XIII.-XVI.). ' 61. Revolt in Britain, suppressed by Suetonius PauUnus. 58-63. War with the Parthians and Armenians. After the captt and destruction of Artaxata, Domitius Corbulo forced Kij Tiridates of Armenia to acknowledge the supremacy of Ron j . D. Roman History. 151 l4. A fire of six days' duration, followed by another lasting three days, destroyed a large part of Rome (set by Nero's command, in order that he might rebuild the city more beau- tifully ?). Nero accused the Jews and the communities of Christians of setting fire to the city. l4. First persecution of the Christians.^ Re-building in Rome, on a large scale. The palace of Nero (domus aurea) occupied the entire Palatine and extended to the Esquiline. 5. Conspiracy of Piso discovered (Seneca f ). 5. Revolt in Gaul (C Julius Vindex) and in Hispania citerior, where the governor Sulpicius Galha, then 73 years of age, was proclaimed and acknowledged imperator. Nero fled and killed himself on the estate of one of his freedmen in the neighbor- hood of Rome. 8-69. Galba {Servius Sulpicius Galha), me-Jan. whose avarice soon gained him the hatred of his soldiers (Tac. Hist. I.), and who became the victim of the revolt of 0. Otho (Marcics Saluius Otho Titianus), ui.-Apr. once a favorite of Nero's (Tac. Hist. I. 11.) The legions on the Rhine had already proclaimed as imperator 9. Vitellius {Aldus Vitellius), pr.-Dec. who defeated Otho in the neighborhood of Cremonaf entered Rome and made the city the scene of his senseless gluttony and extravagance. (Tac. Hist. II., III.) 3-96. The three Flavian emperors. 3-79. Vespasianus (Titus Flavius Vespasianus) proclaimed imperator through the influence of Licinius Mud' us, governor of Syria, at first m Alexandria, afterwards by his own ^ons and those of Syria in Palestine, where he was conducting the ix against the Jews who had been in revolt since 66. Vespasianus tnsferred the military command to his son, Titu^, and went to Rome, er a long stay at Alexandria, to find that his adherents had already Vitellius to death. Restoration of discipline in the army and ier in the finances. Reorganization of the senate. 71. Revolt of the Batavians under Julius (Claudius?) Civilis (Tac. Hist. IV.), one of their leaders of royal descent. The insurgents at first jlared that they took up arms not against the Roman empire, against Vitellius, and for Vespasianus. Thus they gained assistance of a large part of the Roman soldiers in those parts. ■ludius Civilis repeatedly defeated the Romans, and, reinforced Germans from the other side of the Rhine, thirsting for booty, advanced far into Gaul. A great part of the Gallic tribes joined But see Orerbeck, Studien z. Gesch. d. aUen Kirche, Pt. 1, p. 93 foil. 152 Ancient History, A« k him, and for a moment he dreamed of founding an independit Gallic Empire. When once Vespasian's power in Rome was seet b, however, Cerealis, favored by the quarrels which had broken it between the allied Batavians, Gauls, and Germans, put an end|o the revolt, and agam reduced all Gaul under the Roman supreme y^j 70. Capture of Jerusalem by Titus (p. 12). Triumphal archii Titus in Rome. Erection of the Amphitheatrum Flavium ((l- osseum). 78. Agricola, father-in-law of the historian Tacitus, made preps |^ tions for the complete subjugation of Britain. Vespasia^s was succeeded by his son, 7^81. Titus {Titus Flavins Vespasianus), called, because of his admirable qualities, amor et delicice g^ eris humani. Punishment of informers. 79. Eruption of Vesuvius. Herculaneum buried by mud, Pompeii^ ashes and mud. Death of the elder Plinius, the leader of ,^ Roman fleet at Misenum. ' 80. Fire and plague in Rome. Titus was succeeded by his brottp, 81-96. Domitianus (Titus Flavius Domitia7ius) , ' a cowardly, cruel despot. He undertook a campaign again the Chatti (83), but returned without having seen a foe, notwithstai ing which he celebrated a triumph. During his reign the constr > tion of the Roman boundary wall between the Rhine and the Dam,* was commenced. It was guarded by soldiers, who were sett[{i upon public land along its course {agri decumates). ^ 81-84. Successful campaigns of Agricola in Britain, whereby ii Roman power was extended as far as Scotland. Agricj recalled by Domitian through envy. ^ 86-90. Unsuccessful wars against the Dacians. Domitian bouj peace of Decehalus by a yearly tribute. 93. Death of Agricola (poisoned by order of Domitian ?). Cr^ persecution of the Jews, Christians, and philosophers. \ 96. Domitianus murdered by the freedman Stephanus, the empre; who was in fear of her own life, and the prsefectus prfstoi Petronius Secundus, being cognizant of the crime. j 96-192. Nerva and his adopted family. 96-98. Nerva (Marcus Cocceius Nerva), a senator 64 years of age, was raised to the throne by the mr derers of Domitian. He repealed the law of treason, called the exiles, and reduced the taxes. He adopted aj appointed as his successor 98-117. Trajan (Marcus Ulpius Traiamis), governor of the province of Germania inferior, born in ti Roman colony of Italica in Spain, the first occupant of t throne of the Caesars who was not an Italian. Excelle ruler and general. Magnificent buildings in Rome (Fort Traianum) and throughout the empire. i i, D. Roman History. 153 .01-102. First war against the Dacians, in consequence of Trajan's refusal to pay the tribute promised by Domitian. Trajan crossed the Danube, captured the fortress of the king Deceba- lus and forced hiin to make peace and cede a portion of his territory. .05-107. In the second war against the Dacians Trajan built a stone bridge across the Danube (at Turnu Severinu), crossed the stream, defeated and subdued the Dacians. Decebaluf killed himself. Magnificent games at Rome, wherein 10,000 gladiators are said to have appeared. Dacia, that is Wallachia, Moldau, Eastern Hungary, and TransyU nly, the Roumanian or Daco -Romanic, which prevails in Wal- achia, Moldau and a part of Transylvania. The column of Trajan ,t Rome completed in 113. The governor of Syria took possession (105) of the region E. and i. of Damascus and of Judcea to the northern end of the Red Sea, s the Roman province of Arabia.^ 14r-116. Wars of Trajan with the Parthians. Chosroes, nephew of the Parthian king, driven from Armenia. Armenia, Meso- potamia, Assyria, including Babylonia, made Roman provinces. Trajan, favored, as it seems, by internal troubles in the Parthian lonarchy, conquered Seleucia and Ctesiphon on the Tigris, and sailed own the river to the Persian Gulf. Trajan, having appointed a king ver the Parthians, started upon his return, but died at Selinus Trajanopolis) in Cilicia. 17-138. Hadrian (Fublius JElius Hadrianus), adopted by Trajan (?). A lover of peace, an excellent ad- linistrator, learned and vain. Hadrian abandoned the new provinces ? Annenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, so that the Euphrates formed lie eastern boundary of the Roman empire. He restored quiet in '^oesia, and strengthened his power by the execution of those who ' inspired against him. 1. Hadrian began his progress through all the provinces of the em- pire, with a visit to Gaul. Magnificent buildings : in Rome the Moles Hadriani, on the site the present Castle of St. Angelo, and the double temple of Venus lAd the goddess Roma, and the Athenaeum ; in Athens, the city of ladrian (the Olympieum completed). Magnificent villa at Tibur jCivoli). In Britain a wall of defence was built against the Picts and Scots. )llection of the edicts of the praetors (edictum perpetuum) com- nced by the jurist Salvius Julianus. 2-135. Revolt of the Je"W8 on account of the foundation of the colony of JSlia Capitolina (p. 12). Hadrian had adopted, during a fit of sickness, L. JSlius Verus, and That is, Arabia Petrasa, so called from its capital, Fetra, not the whole linsula of Arabia. Kiepert, Atlas. Ant, Tab. XII. 1 i 154 Ancient History. A. appointed him Ccesar (p. 147) ; but as Verus died before him adopted T. Aurelius Antoninus under the condition that the latti should adopt in place of a son his nephew, the young M. Anni\ Verus, under the name of Marcus Aurelius, and L. Commodus Ven] the son of the deceased Csesar, jEUus Verus. r 138-161. Antoninus Pius (Titics Aurelius Antonim Fills). I Peaceable reign, during which the borders were, howeve vigorously defended against the attacks of the barbariaE Antoninus had his adopted son, M. Aurelius, educated by phi osophers of the Stoic school. lgl-180. Marcus Aurelius {Marcus Aurelius Antoninus\ a wise and active sovereign, highly educated (pupil of Com^ lius Fronto), a Stoic philosopher. Until 169 he reigned :^ common with his brother by adoption, the dissipated Luciii| Verus. 162-165. War against the Parthians under the command of L. Verw who, however, soon gave himself up to dissipation in Antiochi.; while his legatees carried on the war with success, conquere Artaxata, appointed a king in Armenia, and burned Seleuci, and Ctesiphon. A part of Mesopotamia was again made Roman province. 166. Plague and famine in Italy. 166-180. War with the Marcommani and Quadi. Marcus Aurelit fought with various fortune against the barbarians, who co» stantly made new attacks. During a short peace with the bai barians, conquest of the rebel Avidius Cassius in Syria, lll\ Triumph in Rome, 176. The senate erected an equestria' statue in his honor, which still adorns the Capitol. Befoi' he had succeeded in making the boundaries of the empii along the Danube secure, he died in Vindobona (Vienna). H^ was succeeded by his degenerate son 180-192. Commodus, who bought peace of the Germans at the price of a tribute^ entrusted the government for the most part to the prsef ectus prsetoric, abandoned himself to his inclination for dissipation and cruelty, ant was finally murdered by his intimates. 193-2S4. Imperators for the most part appointed by tliti soldiers. « 193. Pertinax, strict and economical, murdered after threil months by the praetorians, who placed on the throne in hi stead 193. Didius Julianus, who, among all competitors, promisee ! them the largest present. The lUyrian legions proclaimed i 193-211. Septimius Severus, ► who was recognized by the senate and maintained lmnsel|| I 1. D. Roman History. 155 igainst the other pretenders (Pescennius Niger in the East, Clodius ilbinus in Ga.u\). Successful campaigns in Mesopotamia. Improve- nents in the administration of justice through the jurist Papinianus. [n 203 expedition to Britain against the Scots. Restoration of the ioman wall, which had been partially destroyed. Septimius Sev- srus died in Eboracum (York). His son, }11-217. Caracalla {Antoninus Bassianus) murdered his half-brother and co-regent Geta along with thousands of his adherents, among whom was Papiniamxs. By he Constitudo Antoniana lloman citizenship was conferred upon all nhabitants of the provinces, for the sake of the higher taxation which lould then be imposed. Systematic plundering of the provinces, unsuccessful wars against the laths (wrongly called Getce) in Dacia, cruel treatment of the inhabit- ,nts of Alexandria. Plundering expedition against the Parthians. durder of Caracalla. His successor, ?17. Macrinus, I purchased peace from the Parthians. The soldiers proclaimed as imperator the fourteen-year-old ll8-222. Elagabalus (the form Heliogabalus is a corruption), priest I of the sun at Emesa in Syria, who was put forward as the son of Caracalla. He gave himself up to the most infamous de- bauchery ; the government was conducted by his mother and grandmother. He adopted his cousin, the young Bassianus AlexianuSj who succeeded to the throne after the murder of Elagabalus by the praetorians, under the name of 22-235. Severus Alexander. Excellent ruler, advised by the jurists Domitius Ulpianus and Julius Paullv^. His strictness with the soldiers led to several mutinies, in one of wliich Ulpianus was murdered. J6. In consequence of the dissolution of the Parthian monarchy of the Arsacidse and the foundation of the ne^w Persian em- re of the Sassanidae by Artakshatr (Artaxares, corrupted into rtaxerxes, new Persian, Ardeshir), a descendant of Sassan, a new ir broke out in the East, which Severus Alexander carried on, ac- rding to the Roman historian Lampridius, with success ; according to Grecian Herodian, unsuccessfully. At all events there seems to ve been an armistice in 233. After the murder of Severus Alex- der on the Rhine the soldiers raised to the throne 6-238. Maadminus Thrax, a Thracian of extraordinary size and strength. Expedition across the Rhine ; German townships laid waste. Meanwhile the legions in Africa proclaimed the senator, 17. Gordianus I., then eighty years old, imperator. He appointed his son, Gor- -nus XL, co-regent. They were both defeated by the prsefect of luretania: the son fell in the battle, the father put himself to death. 15(5 Ancient History. ^•1 The senate at Rome, which had abeady taken sides against Maxk^it nus Thrax, elected the senators Pupienus Maximus and Caelius Be binus, Augusti, to whom was added, at the people's demand, 1 1 thirteen-year-old grandson of Gordianus I. Maximinus Thrax wi killed by his own soldiers at the siege of Aquileia. The prsetoriaj at Rome murdered the two imperators appointed by the senate, JP|. pienus and Balbinus, so that the young 238-244. Gordianus III. was left sole imperator. A new war with the Persians (24li« The young imperator married the daughter of the veteran Mkithe- (^Ti7n€sitheus)y-whoin. he made prsefectus prsetorio, and whose guidan he followed. After the death of his father-in-law Gordianus w; murdered by the new praefectus prsetorio, 244-249. Philippus Arabs, whom he had been obliged to accept as co-regent in 243 at tl demand of the soldiers. Peace with Persia. Philippus returned Rome (became a Christian in secret ?). I 248. Celebration of the thousandth anniversary of the foundatit of Rome. Revolt of the Moesian and Pannonian legions, which proclaimed oi of their officers imperator. 249-251. Decius, whom Philippus sent to quell the mutiny, was compelled \\ the legions to assume the title of imperator. He defeated aii killed Philippus in the battle of Verona. 250. General persecution of the Christians. Martyrdom of Fabianus, bishop of Rome. Decius defeate the Goths, who were plundering Thrace, but fell in battle aftt he had followed them across the Danube. The legions electe 251-253. Gallus, who soon had his co-regent, Hostilianus, son of Decius, put I death. Destructive pestilence in almost all parts of the en'| pire. Gallus was deposed by the conqueror of the Goths, ' 253. -^milianus, who after four months was killed by the soldiers. He w£i succeeded by i 253-260. Valerianus, , the general of the legions in Gaul and Germania. He ai pointed his son, Gallienus, co-regent, and both carried on the war wil the German bands, who were constantly making new inroads, esjw cially the Franks in Gaul, the Alamanni, who invaded northern Ital but were driven back at Mediolanum, and the Goths on the Danubf Unsuccessful expedition of Valerianus against the Persians ; defeat< at Edessa, he was captured, and at the age of seventy carried aboi as the slave of King Artaxerxes. BLis reign and that of his son. L. D, Roman History. 157 J60-268. GalLienus, was disturbed by the appearance of a great number of pretend- rs to the throne, and by the invasions of the barbarians, particularly ■f the Goths, who came in ships from the Black Sea. Confusion hroughout the empire ; the so-called " time of the tliirty tyrants." i'wo pretenders only maintained themselves for any length of time, ?etricus in Gaul and Spain, and Odenathus (of Palmyra) in Syria, ^'he latter wrested Mesopotamia from Persia, and was recognized by rallienus as co-regent for the East. After the murder of Odenathits 267) his consort, Zenobia, ruled in Palmyra. Gallienus laid siege Mediolanum, which had been occupied by the pretender Aureolus, nd was there murdered by contrivance of the latter. Aureolus was ut to death by 168-270. Claudius II., j whom the soldiers raised to the throne. He defeated the Ala- maniii and the Goths, and was succeeded by ■70-275. Aurelianus. He concluded peace with the Goths by the sacrifice of the irovince of Dacia. The Danube was henceforward the boundary of le empire ; the greater part of the Roman colonists were transported ■iMoesia, a part of which was now called Dacia (Aureliana). Aure- an repulsed the Alamanni and Marcomanni, who had made an inroad -ito Italy (victory on the Metaurus), and began the erection of a new all around Rome, which included the enlarged imperial city (271, )mpleted in 276). He defeated Zenobia in two battles, at Antiochia ad at Edessa, subdued Syria, besieged and destroyed Palmyra, cap- LPed Zenobia, and reconquered Egypt (273). Having thus subdued le East, he turned against Tetricus in Gaul, whom he defeated id captured at Chalons (274). Aurelian, rightly called "Restorer : the universal Empire " (Restitutor Orbis), was murdered on an q)edition against the Persians. At the request of the army the nate elected the senator 75- Tacitus imperator. He defeated the Alani, who had invaded Asia \ Minor, but died after three months. His brother Florianus, who attempted to secure the succession, was defeated by 76-282. Probus, who drove back the Franks, Burgundians, Alamanni and Van- lis, entered Germany, and strengthened the wall between the Rhine id Danube (p. 152). He enrolled a large number of Germans as iSrcenaries in the Roman army, and employed the soldiers in drain- g swamps and building canals and roads, for which reason he was ordered by them. The prsefectus praetorio, 32-283. Cams, succeeded. He appointed his sons Carinus and Numerianus lesars, and afterwards Augusti, conquered the Sarmatians, and per- 158 Ancient History, i ished (struck by lightning ?) on an expedition against the Persiai after having captured Ctesiphon. S84:. Numerianus, who had accompanied his father to the East, was murdered l' his father-in-law. 284. Carinas, who had remained in the West, fought at first with succe against 284-305. Diocletianus, who had been proclaimed imperator by the soldiers. Carim was ultimately murdered by his own troops. Diocletian, wl created an oriental court at Nicomedia in Bithynia, and thenti ruled the East^ entrusted the administration of affairs in tl 285. West to the brave Maximianus, as his co-regent or Augustu who took up his residence for the most part in Mediolanw (Milan). 292. Diocletian appointed two more Ccesars : 1. Constantir Chlorus, who was obliged to divorce liis wife Helena and man the step-daughter of Maximianus, received the government < Gaul, Britain, and Spain, aud dwelt commonly in Augus\ Treviroruni (Trier), while Maximianus was appointed to tl government of Italy and Africa. 2. Galerius, who becair Diocletian's son-in-law, and received the government of Illyr cum, mcluding Macedonia and Greece. 296. Diocletian subdued the revolt of Egypt. Constantius suji pressed a revolt in Britain. Galerius fought against tt Persians, unsuccessfully in the first year, but in the second (297) h gained an important victory, and extended the frontiers to the TigrJ again. Maximianus suppressed an insurrection in Africa. Cor stantius defeated the Alamanni. 303. General persecution of the Christians, which Constantius discouraged in his province. i 305. Diocletian abdicated and retired to Salonce in Dalmatia, afte ii he had obliged Maximianus also to resign his dignity. Vi; Constantius and Galerius were raised to Augusti. At the desirl of Galerius, the claims of Constantinus, son of Constantius, and c| Maxentius, son of Maximianus, being passed over, Severus and Maximinus were appointed Ctesars, the first receivvi ing Italy and Africa, the second Syria and Egypt. i 306. After the death of Constantius in Britain, his son (by Helena^ Constantine, assumed the administration of his father's provi inces, Gaul, Spain, and Britain, with the title of Caesar. HJ fought successfully with the Franks and Bructeri. Meanwhil4 the prjfitorians at Rome chose Maxentius imperator, where i upon his father, Maximianus, reassumed the dignity he ha( unwillingly resigned. The empire had thus six rulers, threMi Augusti and three Caesars. \; 307. The Caesar Severus, having been created Augustus by Gale i rius, went to Italy to attack Maxentius, but was deserted bj I . his soldiers and put to death at Ravenna. Galerius appointed Liciik A. D. Roman History. 159 Ins co-regent and Augustus in his stead, and Constantine therefore assumed the same title, so that there were now six Augusti in the empire. 310. In the struggle that followed, the aged Mazimianus was cap- tured in Massilia and put to death by command of Constantine. Galerius died of disease (311). War between Maxentius and Constantine. The latter issued edicts in favor of the Christians. Maxentius was defeated at Turin J12. and at Saxa rubra, four miles from Rome, by Constantine {Hoc signo vinces /), and perished by drowning as he attempted to cross the Tiber. ' Constantine became the protector of the Christians, but re- ' mained up to his death a catechumen. ^513. Alliance between Constantine and Licinius, who married ' Constantine's sister. Constantine took the field against the Franks, Licinius against Maximinus, who was defeated, and ' killed himself in Tarsus ; so that now JJ13-323. Constantine and Licinius were the only rulers in the empire, the former in the West, the latter in the East. In 314, however, they were embroiled in conflict. Licinius, defeated in two encounters, was obliged to cede Illyricum, Macedonia, and Achaia to Constantine. i23. Second war between Constantine and Licinius. The latter, de- feated at Adrianople and Chalcedon, surrendered in Nicomedia, and was executed (324) by Constantine's command. J23-337' Constantine (the Great) sole ruler. Christianity recognized by the State and favored at the expense of paganism. ^25. First general (oecumenic) Council of the Church at Nicaea, in Bithynia. Arianism, i. e. the doctrine of Arius ("Apeios), ormerly a presbyter in Alexandria, according to which Christ was ot of the same nature, but of like nature only (oixoiovcrios), with God he Father, was rejected, and the doctrine of Athanasius of Alexandria, ccording to which Christ was of the same nature {6ij.oovred eggs in a " hare's nest," now an Easter custom, but originally an oif ering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc. II. Scandinavia : The faith of the northern Teutons was one of the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars hold, in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the com- mentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241). In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos {Ginungagap) he created two worlds, Niflheim, the ice-world, in the north, and Muspelhem, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frost- giants {Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Aud' humbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. After- wards the first man and woman were created from two trees. The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Girrde, the abode of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, Asgard, with its lofty halls, the fairest of wliich was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land sur- rounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on wliich account they were )erpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Be- ow the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, Nijiheim, with the fountain Hvergelmer. Bif roust, the bridge between Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-bridge between Helheim, Jotun- heim and the worlds above. These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and united by a mighty ash-tree, Yggdrasil, with three roots reaching to Godheim, Jotunheim, and Nijiheim. The great gods were Odin and his sons : Thar, Vali, Haimdall, Widar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hddur, besides Aller, Forsete, and NJord, 1 In Germany the tree is simply decorated^ the presents to be exchanged are piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The ex- ;hant,^e of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a sur- rivaX of a practice observed by the Eomans during the Saturnalia (p. 85). 166 Ancient History. b. c.-A. d. Freyr, sea gods, and Loke. Of the goddesses the chief were Friggaj wife of Odin, Freyja, goddess of love, Saga, goddess of history. Above all the gods were the Nornes, or fates. Below the gods were elves, trolls, witches, etc. Exploits of the gods. Especially famous were the dealings of Thor with the giants. After the creation fol- lowed a golden age when all was well in Godheim, but after a time evil crept in personified as Loke. Death of Baldur, killed through i the contrivance of Loke by his brother Hodur with a sprig of mistle- ■ toe, Frigga having bound all other created things not to hurt Baldur. . Loke's children were the Fenris-wolf, chained until the coming of Ragnarok, the Midgard-serpent, and Hel. Binding of Loke. Finally comes the end of the world, Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods. Battle of the Asa-gods with the Midgard-serpent, Loke, and the Fenris-wolf, who have broken their chains. The good and the bad alike perish in the combat. Surt consumes Yggdrasil and the whole world in flames. Vidar, Vale, Hodur, Baldur, and the sons of Thor survive. A new earth and a new heaven are created. According to the belief of the Northmen, all good men and all who died in battle crossed over the bridge Bifroust (the rainbow) to Valhal, where they spent their days feasting and fighting, until Ragnarok when they passed to Gimle. Cowards and evil-doers were punished in Helheim, and after Ragnarok in Naostrand.^ Civilization : It is probable that the Germans had not completed the transition from a pastoral to an agricultural people, when they arrived in central Europe. They were certainly in a low stage of civilization when they became known to the Romans, a stage not un- like that reached by the most advanced of the American Indians, the Iroquois. Cities were unknown to them ; they seem to have settled for the most part each individual apart, each tribe separated from the other by a broad strip of mark-land.^ Orders : 1. Nobles, who derived their descent from the gods, but were entitled to no political privileges because of their nobility. 2. Freemen, that is, land-owners, men born to arms, the work upon whose land was done by their bondmen; out of this class developed later the lower nobility. 3. Freedmen (liti, lassen), or half -freemen, renters bound to military service, but excluded from the ownership of land, from the popular assembly, and from the courts. 4. Servants or bondmen, in part serfs bound to the soil (glebce adscripti), in part actual slaves. The latter two classes formed the majority of the population. Custom of comradeship (gasindi leudes), out of which the feudal system developed after the occupation of the Roman provinces and the division of land among the faithful (Jideles'), and under the in- fluence of the Christian religion. Feudal superior (suzerain). Vas- sen, vassals, or men ; fief (feudum or benefcium), held on tenure of service, distinct from allodium, property in fee simple. 1 The relation of these myths to Christianity, the extent to which they have been influenced by acquaintance with the Scriptures, is a subject of active in- quiry, but nothing can as j^et be said to be definitely determined. See Bugge, Entstehung der Nordischen Gotter. 2 Whoever desires to become involved in that most hopeless of all historical questions, the social and political organization of the ancient Germans, is re. terred t« Waltz, Verfassunysgeschichte, where references will be found. i B. c.-A. D. Teutons. 167 History : I. The date of the first arrival of Teutons in Europe is wholly unknown. Pytheas of Massalia, who visited the amber coasts of the Baltic about 350 b. c, met with German tribes. From that time on only the bare introduction of the word Germani in the Koman annals for 225 b. c. hints at any knowledge of the Teutons until the close of the second century b. c, when the tribes of the Cimbri and Teutones left their homes at the base of the Danish peninsula (driven from them by a flood?) and, after humiliating the Roman arms in Gaul, found their death on the fields of Aquae Sextiae and Vercellse (102, 101, B. c, p. 127). The terrors of the invasion died away, but the Romans did not come agam into contact with the Germans until Caesar's invasion of Gaul brought on a contest with the Suevian prince Ariovistus which ended in the latter's defeat (58 b. c). Sub- jugation of the Germans on the left bank of the Rhine. Caesar's two expeditions across the Rhine (58, 55, p. 139). Under Augustus, systematic attempt to subjugate Germania magna. Conquest of Rcetia and Noricum by Drusus (15), of Pannonia and Vindelicia. Expeditions of Drusus from the Rhine : 1. With the fleet on the Ems (12) ; 2. Against the Cherusci on the Weser, foun- dation of the citadel Aliso (11) ; 3. Along the Main to the Werra and Elbe (9). Legend of the " white woman." Death of Drusus. His successor Tiberius, reduced all the tribes between the Rhine and the Elbe to submission and began the active construction of fortresses and colonies. The folly of Tiberius' successor. Varus, alienated the Germans and led to revolt. Under Arminius, one of the nobles of the Cherusci, three Roman legions were annihilated in the three days' battle in the Teutohurg Forest ^ (9 A. d. ?). Augustus gave up the hope of subjugating the Germans, and later emperors did not revive it. Expeditions of Germanicus in revenge for the Teutoburg massacre, 14, 15, 16. Thenceforward the Romans were contented with maintam- ing their borders against the free tribes, and with colonizing the land south of the Mam and the Danube. Line of fortifications from Aschaffenburg, on the Main, to Regensburg, on the Danube (Pfahl- graben, Teufelsmauer), Along this line Roman soldiers were settled on land for the rent of which they paid a tenth of the produce, hence agri decumates. Foundation of colonies : Curia Rcetorum (Chur) in Raetia ; Juvenum (Salsburg) in Noricum ; Vindobonum (Vienna) in Pannonia ; Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Castra regina (Re- gensburg) in Vindelicia. Active intercourse between Rome and Ger- many. Germans served both as privates and as officers in the Roman army (so Arminius). Traffic in amber. Of the internal affairs of the free Germans we are but scantily informed. In the first century b. c. a portion of the Hermunduri, the Marcomanni, had invaded Bohemia, driven out the Celtic Boii (who took refuge in Pannonia, where they were gradually exterminated by the Roman arms) and established a state which, under Marbod {Maroboduus), grew to formidable proportions. Intended expedi- tion of Tiberius against Marbod frustrated by the Pannonian revolt (8). Feuds between the German tribes fostered by the Romans. Arminius expelled Marbod from his kingdom, but was himself mui» 1 The locality has not been satisfactorily made out. 168 Ancient History. b. c.-a. d. dered under suspicion of aiming at supreme power. The Cherusciy Hermunduri and Bructeri were nearly exterminated in internecine strife. Revolt of the Batavians under Civilis (p. 151). War of Marcus Aurelius with the Marcomanni (p. 154). In process of time a change came over the political organization of the Germans. The multitude of small tribes disappeared and we find in their stead a smaller number of more extensive tribes. At the same time the Slavs began to press upon the eastern Germans and urge them westward. The Germans increased in power and popula- tion, and became better and better trained in the arts of war and political intrigue as they came more and more into intimate connec- tion with Rome. The provincial armies were largely German ; Ger- man officers rose to high distinction and great influence in Rome- So Rome grew weaker and her foes stronger until at last the im- pulse of the invading Huns in the east set all the tribes in motion. II. Scandinavia: Northern annalists present an historical Odin, probably no less mythical than Odin the god. According to these tales (which, like some other mythical history, may have greater his- torical value than the present credits them with), Odin was the leader of the Asas who dwelt in Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian. Attracted to the falling fortunes of Mithridates, he was driven from his kingdom by Pompeius. He conducted the Asas westward to Scandinavia where he subdued Denmark, Sweden and 1 Norway, and gave these countries to his sons ; Denmark to Skjold^ Sweden to Yngave, Norway to Seeming. Odin ended his days in Sweden. The history of Scandinavia as far as ascertained belongs to the next period, and will be found on page 207. i III. British Isles. For the history of the Teutonic invasion of | England see p. 176. ! § 5. SLAVS AND LITHUANIANS. Aryan. \ These closely related peoples belong to the northern branch of the European Aryans, and their westward migration followed that of the Teutons. The Slavs were known to the late Roman geographers under the name Venedce (hence Wends) as inliabiting the region beyond the Vistula, which bore the general name of Sarmatia, from the nomadic Sarmatians who inhabited it, interspersed with the Slavs, from whom they differed in language and descent. In the fifth century A. D. the Slavs occupied the country between . the Baltic and the Black Sea, between the Carpathians and the Don. They dwelt in the steppes of Russia as far north as Novgorod on the Volga, and their westernmost limit lay between the Vistula and the Oder. In the sixth century the Slavs began to extend them- selves south and west, a movement which resulted in the permanent occupation of Bohemia and of the Balkan peninsula, while their settlement extended east to Tyrol, In 623 a. d. temporary formation of a Slavic monarchy of great extent under Samo in Bohemia, which endured thirty-five years. The conquests of the Slavs came to an end with the seventh century, and the separate kingdoms of Poland, Bohemia, Russia, were gradually formed. i A. D. Slavs and Lithuanians, 169 Of the religion of the Slavs little is known with certainty, owing to the diversity of nomenclature among the various divisions of this wide-spread people, and to the lack of trustworthy authorities. Among the Slavs of the Baltic, who had a class of priests and built temples, occur the names Svatovit or Svantovit, god of light or of the air, with a temple at Arkona ; Triglath, the three-headed god, worshipped in Pomerania (Stettin) ; Radigost, Rugevit or Ranovit (in Kiigen), Jnrovit, all gods of war ; Zcerneboh, " the black god," an evil deity. The Russians worshipped Khors, Volos, or Veles, god of the herds (ISt. Blaise) ; Koupalo, god of the harvest ; Jarylo, god of generation ; Stribog, god of the winds ; Lada, goddess of love and passion. The gods were worshipped by offerings of fruit and animals, seldom by human sacrifices. The Slavs were a pastoral and agricultural people. All inhab- itants of the same district were kinsmen, bearing a common name, liv- ing under the rule of an elected elder, and holding property in com- mon. A union of such districts formed a tribe ; a union of tribes formed a people. The Lithuanians play no part in history before the thirteenth century. In the wider sense the name includes the Letts and the ancient Prussians, who were known to the Romans as ^stui. In the narrower sense it is limited to the inhabitants of the region between the Memel and the Finnish EsthonianjB. II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN j" TRIBES TO THE TREATY OF VERDUN ^ (375-843). §1. MIGRATIONS OF THE NORTHERN PEOPLES. Habitations of the Germanic tribes in the fourth century a. d. Alani, whose German descent is, however, not certain, on the lower Volga ; East Goths in southern Russia ; West Goths in Dacia (eastern Hungary, Roumania) ; Vandals in Pannonia (southwestern Hungary) ; Suevi in Moravia, Bohemia, and Bavaria; Burgundians on the Neckar and the Rhine, with Worms as their capital (compare p. 164); Ala^ manni (or Alemanni) on the Rhine, between the Main and the Alps, partly along the Roman boundary wall (agri decumates) ; Ripuarian Franks on both sides of the lower Rhine (capital at Colonia Agrip- pina) ; Salic Franks on the mouths of the Rhine (in Meergau, " dis- trict on the sea," the Meruwe, hence Merowingians ;) ^ Saxons from the Elbe almost to the Rhine ; Thuringians south of the Saxons ; Lan- gobards on the lower Elbe. The peoples which appear in the so-called migrations of the peoples were generally heterogeneous armed bands under the command of a leader or king chosen for his military prowess (Heerkonig). 375. Beginning of the migration of the Teutonic tribes. Period of migrations and invasions. The Huns, a Mongolian race, crossed the Volga. The Huns, joined by the Alani, whom they had defeated, fell upon the East Goths (king Ermanaric or Hermanric, of the family of the Amali), and, in union with these, upon the West Goths. That part of the West Gothic race which had remained heathen took refuge in the Carpathians ; the Christians,^ and those who 1 Assmann, Geschichte des Mittelalters, 2d edition, by E. Meyer. 2 According to other scholars the name was a patronymic. 8 A Gothic bishop (Theophilus) took part in the council of Nicaea (325> "Wulflla (Ulfilas), bishop of the West Goths (348-381), translator of the Bible,- ef. Dahn, Die Konige der Gcrmanen, VI. 41. \ D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 171 were just on the point of accepting Christianity (in the form of Arianism), were allotted habitations in Moesia by the em- peror Valens. Disputes with the lioman officials at the pas- sage of the Danube {Fridigem^ leader of the West Gotlis) led to war, and the Goths advanced, ravaging as th6y went. 8. Battle of Adrianople. Valens defeated and slain. His successor, Theodosius, made peace with the West Goths, who, for pay and the gift of a dwelling-place, were to protect the frontiers of the Roman Empire as foederati. ^laric, leader of the West Goths, belonging to the family of the Ithi (i. e. " bold ") enraged at not receiving pay from Arcadius, laid ste Macedonia, lUyria, and Greece (395), and advanced into Pelo- mesus. Stilicho, magister utriusque militice of the Western Empire 161), came to the assistance of the Eastern court. Landing with army at Corinth he surrounded the West Goths, but allowed them escape. Alaric went to lUyria, and compelled the court at Byzan- m to recognize him as dux in lUyricum orientale. L. Alaric's first invasion of Italy. After a victory at Aquileia he crossed the Po. Stilicho hastened from Rsetia to meet him. Drawn battle at Pollentia. Alaric made another attempt to advance southward, but was compelled to return to lUyria by disease, hunger, and desertion. t-406. German bands under Radagais invaded Italy, but were defeated by Stilicho at Foesulce, and aimihilated by continued fighting and by hunger. )-409, Bands of Vandals, Suevi, and Alani left the regions along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, sustained great loss in contests with the Franks, and finally (409) invaded Spain. foundation of Teutonic monarchies in Roman territory. The Sa'ian Franks gradually occvipied northern Gaul. The Burgundians settled (406-413) on the middle Rhine ( Worms^. \, Stiliel.o murdered by the command of the emperor Honorius (p. 161). Alaric's second invasion of Italy. He besieged Rome, but retired receipt of, < ransom. The court at Ravenna refusing to grant iric's reque .c that the Goths should be assigned lands for a per- nent settlement in northern Italy, Alaric again advanced upon me, and forced the senate to appoint Attains, prefect of the city, 4peror. Alaric besieged Honorius in Ravenna without success, iirrelled with Attains, whom he deposed, and advanced for the third le upon Rome. .0. Capture and sack of Rome by Alaric. Alaric went to Lower Italy with the intention of crossing to Sicily, and thence to Africa, but died at the close of 410, at Cosenza, and was buried beneath the Busento. IM:15. Athaulf, brother of Alaric's wife, led the West Goths to Gaul, though whether in fulfilment of a treaty with Honorius 172 Mediceval History, to resist the Romans, who had forced their way into the province, I of his own accord, is uncertain. He carried with him tne sister Honorius, who was detained as a hostage in the Gothic camp, and ms ried her in JSTarboime (414). The proposed treaty with the imper: court was not, however, concluded. Athaulf, hard pressed by the u perial general Constantius, went to Spain, conquered Barcelona, aii was murdered (415). After the murder of his successor, Sigric, 415-419. Walja became king of the West Goths. He concluded treaty with Honorius, and fought for Rome against Vandal Alani, and Suevi. He received a grant of southern Gaul und^ Roman supremacy. WalJa was the founder of the 415-507. West Gothic (Visigothio) kingdom of T( losa, with its capital at Tolosa (Toulouse), which soon becam independent.^ 429. King Gens eric (Geiseric) conducted the Vandals and a portio of the Alani to Africa, at the invitation, as the story goes,^ of tt Roman governor Bonifacius. The latter was slandered at com by Aetius, and accused of treason, but, making his peace wit Placidia, the mother and guardian of the Emperor Valer, tinian III., he fought unsuccessfully against Genserie, whd after a short peace with the Romans (435), conquered Cai thage (439). 429-534. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. Capital Carthage (S. Augustinus, bishop of Hippo Regius f 430) 440. The Vandals, having created a great naval power, plunderec the coasts of Sicily and lower Italy, by their fleets. 443. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhone and on th« Saone ; the Alamanni extended themselves over the Roman province of Germania superior (hence called Alsace), and also occupied a part of Switzerland, east of the Burgundian territory. 449. The Angles and Saxons, long known as pirates along the coasts of the German Ocean, and having settlements on the coast of Flanders (litus Saxonicum ^), were called in by the Brit*. onSf after the withdrawal of the Roman legions from Britaim to assist them in repelling the robber tribes of the north em mountains, the Picts and Scots. The Saxons and Anglei crossed to Britain (according to tradition, the first bands wer< led by Hengist and Horsa), and founded in the course of tim< 8 states : Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Mercia Deira, Bernicia. The last two were later united to foriBJ Northumhria (north of the Humber); hence the number states was then 7 (heptarchy). The Britons for the most part migrated to Wales, and to Af' TOonca in Gaul, which was hence called Breiagne (Brittamy). For the details of the settlements, see p. 176. 1 Cf. Dahn, Die Konige der Germanen, Pt. V. 2 This is denied by the more recent authorities. « See, however, p. 38. A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples. 1 73 451. Attila (Etzel, « Scourge of God "), king of the Huns (in his train armed bands of Germanic peoples, whom he had sub- jected, East Goths, Gepldcv., etc.), invaded and ravaged Gaul. He besieged Orleans in vain. Battle on the Catalaunian fields (near Chalons-sur-Marne: the battle-iield itself was at Troyes). Attila defeated by Aetius, the Roman governor of the small district around Lutetia, which alone remained in possession of the Romans, and the West' Goths (with the aid of auxiliaries from the Franks, BurgundianSj etc.). Theodoric /., king of the West Goths, fell in the battle. 452. Attila went to Italy, destroyed Aquileia. Venice founded by Italian fugitives. Rome saved by Bishop Leo (?). After the death of Attila (453) the monarchy of the Huns fell asimder. Not only the German tribes which had been subjugated by the Huns became free (the Gepidce were the first to shake otf the yoke) ; the Slavic peoples also regained their liberty. During the following centuries these latter tribes extended themselves throughout the east- ern parts of Germany. 455. Rome, after the murder of Valentinian III., by MaximuSj plundered for 14 days by the Vandals, who had been called in by Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian. The Vandals controlled the entire northern coast of Africa as far as Gyrene, and the islands of the western Mediterranean. 476. Odovakar (Odoacer), leader of Herulian and other German bands in the pay of Rome, became ruler in Italy, after the deposition of the last emperor of the West (p. 162). There was no conquest of the western empire by Odovakar, but the line of Emperors in the West came to an end in consequence lof domestic revolution, and thereby the last bond was broken which had united the provinces, long since occupied by the barbarians, who, however, had usually nominally recognized the supremacy of the Jmperator or Augustus in Ravenna. 486. Battle of Soissons. The Merowingian Chlodwig (Chlodowech, Clovis, 481-511), leader of the Salic 1 Franks, defeated the Roman governor Syagrius, the successor of Aetius. Kingdom of the Franks in northern Gaul. Chlodwig by cruelty and deceit made himself sole ruler of aU the Franks. 496. Victory of Chlodwig over the Alamanni (not at Tolbiacum or Ziilpieh).^ Conversion of Chlodwig and the Franks to Catholic Christianity. Chlodwig baptized by Eemigius, 1 Assmanu, I. 53. 174 Mediceval History. A. d. bishop of Rheims (Mitis depone colla Slgamber, adora quod incendistiy incende quod adorasti). 493. Theodoric the Great (493-526), after having de- feated Odovakar, with whom he had heen at war since ' 489, founded the 493-555. Kingdom of the East Goths (Ostrogoths) in Italy. Residence Ravenna^ at times Verona, hence in the hero romances : Dietrich von Bern. Cassiodorus, historian. Boethius (de con- solatione philosophice), and Symmachus, executed (525). 500. Chlodwig, king of the Franks, attacked the Burgimdians, to i revenge himself on Gundobad, the uncle of his wife Chlotilde, . for the murder of her father, defeated them at Dijon, and made them tributary to the Franks. j 507. Chlodwig defeated the West Goths at Vouille, or Voulon,^ \ on the Clain, a branch of the Vienne, in the vicinity of . Poitiers. | The West Goths, assisted by the East Goths, defeated the Franks j at Aries, and maintained their control of Septimania (the coast be- , tween the Rhdne and Pyrenees). ; Theodoric the Great united a part of southern Gaul to the king- dom of the East Goths, and undertook the government of that part ^ which the West Goths retained, as well as of the Spanish possessions | of that people, as the guardian of their king, his grandson Ama- i laric, a minor (son of Alaric II.), and retained it till his death (526), i which first severed the connection of the two Gothic kingdoms. ! 507 (526)-711. West Gothic (Visigothic) Kingdom in i Spain, with its capital at Toledo. 526. After the death of Theodoric, his daughter Amalasuntha be- : came regent in the East Gothic kingdom for her son Athalaric. \ The latter died young (534), and his mother associated with j herself as co-regent her cousin Theodahad (Theodat), who \ murdered her, thereby causing i 535-555. War between the East Goths and the Eastern Empire. i 533-534. Belisarius, general of Justinian, Emperor of the i East (527-565), destroyed the Vandal power in Africa. | Decay of the kingdom of the Vandals after the death of ' Genseric (477). Hilderic deposed by Gelimer, whom Beli- | sarins captured. Brilliant campaign of Belisarius against Vitiges, king of the ' 540. East Goths, whom he carried captive to Constantinople. i Belisarius, after he had declined the Italian crown, offered ] him by the East Goths, was dispatched by Justinian against I the Persians. \ During his absence the East Goths, under their new king j TotilQf reconquered the greater part of Italy. ; 1 Dahn, Die Konige d. Germ. V. 109. i A. D. Migrations of the Northern Peoples 175 544-549. Belisarius, sent again to Italy, fought with varying suc- cess, but with increasing fame, against Totila. He recaptured Rome. After Belisarius had been again recalled, Eome was a second time taken by Totila. 552. Narses, the successor of Belisarius, defeated Totila at Tagince or Busta Gallorum. Totila fell on the field. 553. The last king of the East Goths, Teja^ fell in the battle of Mans lactarius (near Vesuvius). 555. Narses destroyed the kingdom of the East Goths. Ex- archate. 568-774. Kingdom of the Langobards (Lombards) in Italy. Alboin. Alboin, with the help of the Avars (on the lower Danube), de- stroyed the kingdom of the Gepidce and married Rosamunda, the daughter of the king of the Gepidse. At the head of his Lango- bards, with the aid of Saxons and Slavs, he conquered Italy as far south as the Tiber. Capital of the kingdom of the Langobards, Pavia (Papia). The Langobards conquered almost the entire Ex- archate of the Byzantines, who retained only Venice, Ravenna, Naples^ and Calabria. Rome {ducatus Romce) became gradually indepen- dent under its bishops. (Patrimonium Petri.) After Alboin had been murdered by Rosamund, because, as the story goes, he attempted, during a carouse, to force her to drink from her father's skull, his successor Cleph pushed his conquests to lower Italy, where independent Langobardian duchies, like Bene- ventum, were established. After an interregnum of ten years his son Authari was recognized as king. Tlirough the influence of his wife, Theodelinde, a Bavarian princess, the conversion of the Lango- bards to Christianity was begun. Among the successors of Authari the following deserve mention : Rothari, in whose reign the famous code of laws of the Langobards appeared (644) ; Grimoald, duke of Beneventum, who violently usurped the throne and completed the conversion of the Langobards ; Liutprand (717-744), who made further additions to the code of the Langobards; and Aistulf (750-756), whose attempt to conquer Rome was frustrated by Pipin, king of the Franks (p. 184). 585. Kingdom of the Suevi in Spain united with that of the West Goths, who, like all the barbarians that had adopted Arianism, were converted to the Roman Catholic church (587). 690-604. Gregory I. (the Great), bishop of Rome. Beginning of the Papacy (Papa, TLdinras, i. e. father, formerly the title of every Christian bishop, soon applied exclusively to the succes- sor of St. Peter). 176 Mediceval History. A. d. § 2. TEUTONIC KINGDOMS IN BRITAIN. From the first invasions to the supremacy of Ecgberht 449 (?)-828. Roman Britain. Political divisions: 1. Britannia prima, S. of the Thames and the Severn (Cantii, Regni, Belgse, Atrebates, Durotriges, Dumnonii). 2. Britannia seewnc?a, Wales (Silures, Demetse, Ordovices). 3. Flavia CcBsariensis, between the Thames, Severn, and Humber (Trinobantes, Caytieuchlani, Iceni, Dobuni, Coritavi, Cornavii). 4. Maxima Ccesa- riensiSy between the Humber and the Tyne (Parisii, Brigantes). 5. Valentia, between the Tyne and the Forth (Otadeni, Gadeni, Selgovae, Novantse). Fortifications : In the N. wall of Agricola (81) or LoUius Urbi- cus, between the Friths of Forth and Clyde ; wall of Hadrian (122) between the Solway Frith and a point on the opposite coast near New^ castle-on-Tyne (replaced in the third century by the wall of Severus). In the S. the strongholds Burgh Castle, Reculver, Bichborough, Lym- ne, Pevensey, along the Saxon shore. (Compare the Cinque Ports.) Towns : Camulodunum (Colchester), Glevum (Gloucester), Lin- dum (Lincoln), Deva (Chester), Eburacum (York), Londinium (London). Roads : Wailing Street from Kent to the Forth, Hermin Street from Sussex coast to Humber, Foss Way from Cornwall to Lincoln, Ikenild Street from Caistor to .Dorchester.^ The Teutonic Invaders. After the withdrawal of the Roman legions (about 410) the Brit- ons suffered severely from the ravages of the Scots (Irish) on the W. and the Picts (Gaels) on the N., which they resisted unaided for several decades. About the middle of the fifth century the Britons were overwhelmed from another quarter. Bands of Low Germans from the coast of Europe, west of the Baltic, whose piratical expedi- tions had long been the terror of southeastern Britain, began to set- tle in the island and conquer themselves homes and kingdoms. That they came at first to aid the Britons against their other foes is not impossible ; but little faith, however, can be placed in the story of Vortigern and Rowena. The invaders came principally from three Teutonic tribes : Jutes, inhabiting the northern part of Denmark (Jutland) ; Angles or En- gle from modern Schleswig, south of the Jutes; Saxons, a more nu- merous people, living south of Schleswig along the Elbe and westward on the coast. Of the Jutes and Saxons only a portion emigrated; the Angles seem to have gone en masse. Religion : The new settlers were pagans, sharing the faith of the 1 Green. The more usual but incorrect routes assigned these roads are: Watlinq, Kent to Cardigan Bay; Hermin, St. Davids to Southampton; Foss, Cornwall to Lincoln; Ikenild, St. Davids to Tynemouth. See Scarth, Roman Britain, p. 116. A. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain. 177 continental Germans (p. 164). Each man was priest in his household, and political rulers exercised also priestly functions for the regions under their control. Civilization : The invaders were rude warriors, cultivators of the soil, but fond of the hunt and still more fond of war. They settled in villages, the dwellers in each village being kinsmen, who often gave their family name to the place of their abode. In each village all were united by a bond of mutual protection and responsibility. Around the house-lots and garden-plots, which were for the most part practi- cally private property, extended the common land, the " mark," com- prising tilled land, pasture and woodland, which also served to isolate one village from another. The people were divided into four orders: athel, nobles ; ceorl, free landowners ; laets, tenants owing service to their landlords ; slaves, generally captives taken in war. Whether either of the invading tribes were under kings at home is unknown ; their leaders during the invasion were war-chiefs, ealdormen, whose power was frequently prolonged and concentrated by the military ne- cessities of their new conditions, until it became royal and they took the title of king. Each village had its governor and its council, the latter composed of all freemen in the village ; each aggregate of vil- lages (the hundred) had its governor and council ; the aggregate of hundreds which made up the tribe had its king and its great council (idtan), which elected the king, generally out of some one noble fam- ily, and was consulted by him. The witan was in theory composed of all freemen in the tribe, but it soon became practically limited to the more wealthy and powerful among them. Each ealdorman, perhaps every man of note, had a personal following of companions {thegns)^ who had devoted themselves to his service and were supported by him. The development of monarchy caused a corresponding develop- ment of this institution. Powerful men were proud to be thegns of the king, and thus the number and power of the king's military house- I hold constantly increased. Jutes (Kent). 449 (?).^ Landing of the chiefs Hengist and Horsa in Thanet (then an island). Gradual conquest of the country between the Thames and the Andredsweald (p. 36). East and West Kent. South Saxons (Sussex). 477. ^Ue, a Saxon ealderman, with his sons Cymen, Wlendng, and Cissttf landed at Cissanceaster and conquered the region S. of the Andredsweald. 491. Storm of Anderida. Massacre of the inhabitants. 1 The date is variously given, but 449 is the year most commonly accepted. I hav« followed throughout the conservative scholars. The ultra-skepticism whiek would limit our knowledge of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain to what can be guessed from the condition of things there in the 7th, 8th, and 9th centuries seems to me to be based on hypercriticism. 12 178 Mediaeval History, J West Saxons (Wessex). A more important settlement was that begun by the Saxons,^ under the ealdormen 495. Cerdic and Cynric, on the southern coast, W. of the Andreds- weald. The formation of the country directed their line of extension W. and N., thus bringing them into contact with th© great body of western Cymry. 517. Cerdic and Cynric assumed the royal title. At the beginning of the second decade of the sixth century the Saxon advance was so sternly checked that fifty years elapsed before it was again resumed. Battle of Mons Badonicus (520). The Cym- ric traditions of Arthur,^ king of the Silures, to whom this repulse of the pagan invaders is attributed, are probably founded in truth. Cynric (534-556) conquered modern Berkshire. Ceawlin (556- 691 [3]) raised Wessex to such power that later years entitled him i the second Bretwalda of Britain (the first being ^lle). The meaning ; of this title is not clear. By the 577. Battle of Deorham Ceawlin extended his power to the Severn and separated the Cymry of Cornwall (^Devraint) from those i of West Wales. East Saxons (Essex). During the latter half of the fifth century Saxons settled north of the Thames. Sack of Camulodunum. Establishment of a small ! kingdom under the shadow of the great forest which then reached to the Wash (Ercenwin, 527 ?). Middle Saxons (Middlesex). A small division of the East Saxons, dwelling about London. East Angles (East Anglia). While the East Saxons were making their settlements, Angles were occupying the region to the N., between the sea, the great fens about the Wash (UfPa, 575 ?), and the forest. Norfolk, Suffolk. North Angles (Northumhria). Deira. Early in the sixth century settlements ot Angles north of the Humber. Conquest of central Yorkshire. Bernicia. At the same time other Angles were settling along the Frith of Forth, where they may have found a Jutish colony already 547. established. Under Ida, " the flame bearer," as the Cymry called him, the Angles pushed their conquests to the Esk.^ Bernicia thus comprised the Lowlands of Scotland, a region which still contains the purest type of the Teutonic con- querors of Britain. Saxon and Gael. 1 The northern Cymry seem also to have had traditions of an Arthur. Later fugitives to Bretagne carried the memory of Arthur with them; there his name was connected with the French legend of the Holy Grail, and woven into the romances which make up the Arthurian cycle. 2 The stubborn resistance of the Cymry here as well as in the south has beea attributed to Arthur. D. Teutonic Kingdoms in Britain* 179 Middle Angles (Mercid). Early in the sixth century scattered bands of Angles occupied the •esent counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Warwick, and orthampton. The small kingdoms and lordships thus founded Andesfaras, Gainas, Magescetas, Hwiccas) were at a later time lited in the great kingdom of Mercia (Cridda, 582 ?). Thus Britain south of the Firth at the close of the third quarter of e sixth century was divided between Cymry and Teutons by a line •awn nearly N. and S. midway of the breadth of the land. Teuton d Celt, pagan and Christian, faced one another throughout the agth of the island. As far as it went, the conquest was thorough, ot that the Cymry were exterminated ; many remained within the xon lines, and traces of Celtic, and of still older blood, are not in- 3quent in the most Teutonic parts of England to-day. Though e subjugated Cymry, however, might retain their Celtic blood, in . else they were soon assimilated with the conquerors. Temporary It in the work of conquest. Wars of the invaders among themselves. 3. Formation of the kingdom of Northumhria by the enforced union of Bernicia and Devra under .ffithelric, king of Bernicia. >-616. Supremacy of iEthelbert, king of Kent, afterwards called the third Bretwalda, over Essex, East Anglia, Middle Britain. His wife was the Catholic Christian princess Bertha, daughter of Charihert, king of the Franks. L Arrival of Augustine, legate of Pope Gregory the Great. Conversion of Kent. Quarrel between the British church and gustine (date of Easter, form of the tonsure). Conversion of East Saxons. Laws of iEthelbert. An attempt to convert the 5t Angles led to the revolt and out 610-617. Supremacy of Raedwald, of East Anglia, over Middle Britain. He was afterwards called the fourth Bret- da. In the ISr. ^thelfrith of Northumbria defeated the Cymry of Ithclyde in the great . Battle of Chester, and extended his realm to the sea, cutting off Strathclyde from Wales, as Wales had been severed from nwall by the battle of Deorham (p. 178). ^thelfrith defeated slain in the battle of the Idle by Roedwald, who had taken up the aoB of Eadwine, son of ^lla, formerly king of Deira. -633. Supremacy of Ead-wine of Northumbria, called the fifth Bretwalda. His overlordship was more comprehensive I that of any of his predecessors, since, after the conquest of »sex (526), it included all Teutonic Britam except Ke7it. Conver- i of Northumbria (627). Revolt of the Mercians under da (627-655), who, in alliance with Cadwallon of Wales, de- 3d Eadwine in the battle of Heathfield (633). Death of Ead- : -655. Supremacy of Penda of Mercia over Middle Britain, Essex, and East Anglia. 180 Mediceval History, A. j^ 635. Defeat of Cadwallon by Oswald of Bemicia, in the battle the Hevenfeld. Conquest of Deira. 635-642. Supremacy of Oswald of Northumbria, afterwarc called the sixth Bretwalda, over Wessex, Sussex, Essex, Ken Conversion of Northumbria (where many people had relapsed inl paganism) by Irish (not Roman) missionaries. Conversion of We. sex. In the contest over East Anglia Oswald was defeated by Pendc and slain in the 642. Battle of the Maserfeld. Penda's sovereignty extended ov«I Wessex, East Anglia, Deira. 655. Battle of the Winwaed. Penda defeated by Oswiu, brother ( Oswald, and his successor in Bemicia, and slain. 655-659. Supremacy of OsTviu of Northumbria, called the se^, enth Bretwalda, over all Teutonic Britain except Wesseij Kent, and Sussex. 659. Revolt of Mercia under Wulfhere. Henceforward the kings c Northumbria were sovereigns of merely local power. Rivalry between the Irish missionaries and Rome. A council cod vened by Oswiu, decided in favor of Rome. Theodore of Tarsut archbishop of Canterbury (609), undertook the organization of th! English church. 688-726. Ine, king of "Wessex. Conquest of Kent (694). Wat with the Cymry of Cornwall (710). Laws of Ine, the oldes West Saxon code. Abdication of Ine (726). Willibrod, missionary to the Frisians. Boniface (Winfrith) apostle of the Germans. Wilfrith, bishop of York. Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth. Caed' mon. Bseda (672-735) ; Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. 733-752. Supremacy of ^thelbald of Mercia over all Englanc S. of the Humber. 752. Battle of Burford (Oxfordshire). Defeat of ^thelbald ol Mercia by the West Saxon, Cuthred. Henceforward Teutonic Britain remained divided between the three great kingdoms, Northumbria, "Wessex, Mercia. 756. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria by Eadberht. 755^794. Offa, king of Mercia. Conquest of Oxfordshire from Wessex (777 ?). Conquest of the Welsh kingdom of Powys, W. of the Severn. Offa's Dyke from the mouth of the Wye to that of the Dee. Friendship between Offa and Charles the Great. Laws of Ofifa. 789. First recorded landing of Northmen in Britain on the coast of Devonshire. 802-837. Ecgberht, king of Wessex, being elected to suc- ceed Beorhtric after thirteen years' exile spent in the kingdom of the West Franks. Cornwall made tributary. Defeat of Beornwidfoi Mercia, at the battle of Ellandune (825). Sub- mission of all England S. of the Thames, and of Essex. Ecgherht overlord of Mercia and Northumbria (828). Submis- sion of Wales (828). V. D. Kingdom of the Franks under the Merowingians. 181 All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception >f Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht. 134. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated hy the j Danes. 36. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh and Danes. Death of -Ec^SerAi (837). {Seep. 203.) 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWIN- GIANS. {Seep. 173.) 11. After the death of Chlodwig the frst division of the kingdom of the Franks. According to this division, which was not strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I, (Thierry, 511-533). Chlodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), Chil- debert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511-561) ruled the kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz, OrUans^ Paris and Soisso7is. 30-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers sub- jugated the Burgundians. The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to le Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part ^o the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franco- i'a was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the dis- ict between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale con- med to be called Thuringia. Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and b,varia on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths. »8-561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlo- tar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561^67), Sigi- bert I. (561-575), and CUlperic I. (561-584), mto four, later (567) into three parts : Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, and a population cliiefly German ; Neustria, with the capital at Soissons ; Burgundy, with Orleans as capital ; in both of which later divisions the mass of the population was Romano- Celtic or Romance.^ Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde ^runichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, kmg of the sigoths, and Fredegunde {Fredegundis) of Neustria (f 597), slave, 1 afterwards wife, of Chilperic I. 3. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a wild horse. 3rigin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of Charibert received the territory around Paris, but after his early death this 1 equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was hence' 182 Mediceval History, A. d the palace), who were at first superintendents of the royal house^iold afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of th Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood, ^ ac quired an hereditary claim to the oftice of major domus, in Austrasii first, and afterwards in Neustria. 622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted however, by several temporary unions) into the t-wo parts int and remained weak and distracted, like Sweden and Denmark, until, I as in those countries, a process of consolidation set in in the ninth cen- tury. Halfdan the Black (841-863) reduced many of the petty kings to subjection, and his son, Harald Haarfager (863-930), completed the work of conquest and introduced the feudal system. Defeat of the Jarls at Hafurstfjord, 872. These changes, and the repression of free- booting which followed them, induced a great migration of the Jarls, * the most famous of the vikings. Establishment of Northmen under i Rolf Ganger (Rollo) in Normandy. Conquest of Dublin by Olauf in 852. Discovery wid settlement of Iceland, 860-875, etc. IJrik Blodoxe (930-934), Hakon (934r-961), Harald Graafell, Hakon Jarl (988-995). Olaf Try ggvasson (996-1000). He disappeared at the D. Spanish Peninsula. 209 I battle of Svoldf where he was defeated bj Olaf the Lap-king of Sweden, Svend Tveskceg of Denmark, and Erik and Svend, sous of Hakon Jarl, The victors divided Norway between them. Discovery and settlement of Greenland by Erik the Red (985). Vinland (America) seen by BJarne, and visited by Leif and others, 986-1011. See p. 281. Norway was again united under St. Olaf (II.) 1015-1030, in whose reign Christianity was introduced. Magnus the Good, son of Olaf (1035-1047), king of Denmark from 1042 to 1047. The Graagaas, or book of the law. Harald III., Hardrada, founded Opslo (Chris- tiania), and fell at Stamford Bridge 1066 (p. 206). Magnus II. (1066- 1069), Olaf (1069-1093), Magnus III. Barfod (1095-1103). Con- ^quest of the Orkneys and Hebrides ; of Dublin. Death of Magnus in .Ireland. (See p. SS5.) § 5. SPANISH PENINSULA. (See p. 183.) 755-1031. Caliphate of Cordova, j founded by the last Ommiad, Abd-er-Rahman (p. 183). Most brilliant period of the Moorish civilization, in the ninth and tenth centuries. Abd-er-Rahman III., Hakem II., Almanzor, his general. The populous city of Cordova, the seat of science and arts. 1031. Dissolution of the caliphate of Cordova into a number of small states. The Morabethes or Almoravides (Fussw/), sum- moned from Mauretania, successfully opposed the Christians (1086), but made themselves masters of Mohammedan Spain. Christian Kingdoms. Asturia (Oviedo), since the conquest of the country as far as the Duero by Alfonso III. in the tenth century, called the king- dom of Leon, after the new residence, Leon. Castile, so called from the castles erected against the Arabs, origi- nally a county of Asturia. Navarre, a border state in the Pyrenees : first a county under French supremacy, then independent. Sancho 1. assumed the title King of Navarre (905), and subjugated iragon, originally a Frankish county north of Navarre. 1000-1035. Sancho III. the Great, king of Navarre, and, by inheritance, king of Castile, divided at his death his king- dom among his three sons. As Leon and Castile were soon united, there existed henceforward three Christian kingdoms in Spain : 1, Castile-Leon ; 2, Navarre ; 3, Aragon. We must also reckon the county of Barcelona, which grew out of the Spanish mark of Charles the Great, and was independent after the time of Charles the Bald. Wars of Ruy Diaz, called by the Arabs Cid, i. e. Lord (died 1099). (See p. 2^0.) 14 JIO Mediceval History » A. d. § 6. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. 527-565. Justinian I., emperor of the East. Belisarius. Narses (p. 175). Codification of the law in the form known as the corpus si juris civilis {Trihonianus), comprising : 1. Institutiones. 2. Pandectce' or Digesta. 3. Codex. 4. Novellce, later additions. Parties of the circus : Greens, Blues, Reds, and Whites. Bloody- contests ("Nika," 532). The church of St. Sophia, built by Con- stantino (Hagia Sophia), burnt and rebuilt with great splendor. Decline of the empire under Justinian's successors (cruelty, mutila- tions). A part of the Asiatic and African provinces conquered by i the Persians and afterwards by the Arabs. 726-842. Contest over images. Image-breakers {clKovoKXdarai, icon- oclasts) and image worshippers (ei/covoSoGAoi). 717-741. Leo the Isaurian. Image worship prohibited. 780-802. Irene, who out of love of power had her own son blinded, , restored image worship. The accession of a woman to the sij imperial throne served as a pretext to legalize the transfer of the imperial crown from the East to the West. 842. Theodora fully restored image worship. 867-1057. Eastern emperors of the Macedonian line. The empire, hard pressed by Arabs, Bulgarians, and Magyars. . The emperors Nicephorus Phocas and John Zimisces, whom Theophano, , widow of Romanus II. (died 962), placed on the throne, partially reconquered the provinces which the Arabs and Bulgarians had torn from the empire. {See p. S^'O.) Caliphate of Bagdad under the Abbasides (750-1258). Immediately after the reigns of Haroun-al-Raschid and Mamun (p. 186), the power of the caliphs began to decline. 935. The Emir al Omra (i. e. prince of princes) received all the secular power; the caliph remained only spiritual head of the faithful. 969, Egypt independent under Fatimites. 1058. Seljuk Turks {Togrul Bey, Alp Arslan, Malek Shah) at- tained the dignity of Emir al Omra. Seljuk supremacy. 1092. The empire of the Seljuks separated into a number of small ' sultanates (Iran, Kerman, Aleppo, Damascus, Iconium or Roum). India. The early history is exceedingly uncertain, and the most impor- tant events are assigned dates differing from one another by over four centuries. The Gkiptas, who succeeded in power the Sahs of Surdshha (60 b. C.-235 A. D.), occupied Kanauj from 319 to about 470, when they were overthrown by Tatar invaders (Hmis ?), and the Valabhis, who dwelt in Cutch and the northern part of Bombay, were the principal power in India, 480-722. D. The East 211 Actual authentic history begins with the Arabic invasions. Slnd IS the first province to feel the Mohammedan attack. It was con- lered in 711, but in 750 a general uprising expelled the victors. t)out 1000-1186. Supremacy of the Sultans of Ghazni. The next great attack was made by a Turk, Sultan Mahmud Ghazni, (in Kabul), who invaded India seventeen times, and con- ered the country to the Ganges. The decisive struggle took place Peshawar, where Mahmud was victorious. In 1024 famous expe- tion to Guzerat. Destruction of the idol pillar filled with jewels. (?) ahmud was succeeded by fourteen rulers of his house, the last of iiom, Bahrain, was conquered by Allah-ud-din of Ghor. Bahram's ii, Khusru, founded at Lahore the first Mohammedan dynasty in Idia proper. 186-1206. Supremacy of the Afghans of Ghor. In 1186, Khusru's son was made captive by Muhammed Ghorif :er which the predominance exercised by the Turks of Ghazni ssed into the hands of the Afghans of Ghor. Muhammed Ghori kaied in 1206. (See p. Ul-) China. (See p. S2.) 0-618. Dynasty of Suy, under whose energetic sway China was partially rescued from the confusion of the Three Kingdoms (p. 32). ,8-907. Dynasty of Tang, founded by the usurper, Le Yuen, who, as emperor, took the ne of Kau-tsu. The first part of this period down to 718 was a Uiant time for China, and the Golden Age of literature. The lier rulers (Tai-tsung, 627-650 ; Kaou-tsung, 650-683; Woo How, J-705, the wife of Kaou-tsung, who usurped the throne on her hus- id's death) were valiant warriors and wise rulers, who held the tars in check, recovered much of the former possessions of China Central Asia, and raised the empire to a commanding position ong other nations ; 643, embassies from Persia and Constantinople ~hina. ^rom 718 the attacks of the Tatars increased in vehemence. From ► to 780 their inroads were incessant. Jnder Woo-tsung (841-847) temples were destroyed, monasteries I nunneries closed, and all foreign priests (Christian, Persian, Bud- st) banished. The reaction was, however, short-lived. Inven- ts a of printing. 9^-960, Five dynasties (Later Leang, Later Tang, Later Tsin, Later Han, Later Chow) occupied the throne within this juod, but the power of each was very limited. In Ho-nan, Sze-chuen^ M other provinces independent states arose. 9')-976. Chaou-kwang-yin, as emperor, Tai-tsoo, the founder of the dynasty of the Later Sung, fought with success against b Khitan Tatars, who had occupied the whole of Manchuria, estab- iJiug there the empire of Hia. Succeeding emperors were less for- luite, and paid tribute to the Tatars (976-1101). (Seep. 24I.) 212 Mediceval History, A. n. Japan. ^ From the reign of Ojin (270-310, p. 33) to the close of the sixtl century, the history of Japan is a record of quiet progress in civiliza- tion, under the influence of continental intercourse and of increasinjE wealth. Throughout this period, as before, the Mikados were actua sovereigns and personal commanders. The close of this epoch say the introduction of Buddhism into Japan and its rapid spread (p. 33). The seventh century is of surpassing interest in the history ox Japan, for then it was that causes long working in silence and uni seen resulted in changes subversive of the entire social and politica life of the Japanese, — changes which led to the withdrawal of thi Mikado from personal intercourse with his subjects behind a veil oi formal etiquette and heightened reverence, and to the predominancii" of the military over the civil power, until the actual government or the country passed from its legal sovereign, the Mikado, into thd hands of an usurping military chieftain, thus creating a long-enduring much misunderstood system of dual government, — changes whose final outcome was a feudal system corresponding to that known ti mediaeval Europe, which, with its legitimate offspring, oppression weakness, anarchy, lasted until 1868. These changes were the following : I. The growth of a numeroui court nobility of imperial, and hence of divine, descent. II. Th! creation of numerous offices of state which became the property o the court nobility. III. The division of the male population mto ai agricultural and a military class. IV. The separation of state office into two sections, the civil and the military, and the continuance o each in the hands of one group of noble families. I. The kuge, or court nobility, owed their numbers to the practic of polygamy, which the necessity of providing against the extinctio of a divine dynastic line imposed on the Mikados. They comprise ? present one hundred and fifty-five families, which form among themi selves larger groups, or clans. Such clans are : the Fujiwara, th most famous of all the kuge ; the Sugawara ; the Taira (Heike i Chinese characters) ; the Minamoto (Genji in Chinese chara( ters). II. In 603 the requirements of a more extensive empire cause the establishment of eight great administrative departments, and of host of smaller offices, which were filled by members of the kuge, an gradually became vested in certain families. III. The demand of the growing empire for increased militar efficiency led to the division of the whole male population into tw classes : 1. the class of agricultural laborers, comprising all wli were unfit for military service ; they were relegated to a life of ui broken toil, and were burdened with the annual payment of a quai tity of rice sufficient for the support of the 2. military class, i||i| Samurai, which included all the bravest and most intellectual menli| Japan. Relieved from the necessity of working by the tax receivf | from the first class, and not overburdened Avith military duties, thaf| > Griffis, The Mikado's Empire. Bead, Japan. Adams, History of Japan D. Orusades. 213 jn were free to devote themselves to the pursuit of literature and uniiig, forming the best element in the nation. IV. The Fujiivara, increasing in power, gradually absorbed all il offices, while the viilitary offices were filled from the two families \ Taira and Minamoto, better known as Hei and Gen. Thus did the Uiwara become enervated by the luxury of palace life ; thus did the '^kado, while his office gained in respect and reverence by its envi- ^mient of titled officials, lose all real power, and sink to a mere pup- [; in the hands of intriguing nobles, to be installed and deposed at 1 1 ; thus did both emperor and court constantly lose ground before \ growing influence of those energetic families to whom were given |i active duties of military command. The generals, or Shoguns, iL'ame the " Mayors of the Palace " of Japan. So originated the tal government, which was not, as foreigners long thought, a con- l.utional institution, whereby the civil and military functions of gov- unent were vested in the Shogun or temporal emperor (Tycoon), and [ religious fimctions in the Mikado or spiritual emperor, but an un- stitutional innovation, wherein a subordinate officer had usurped authority which belonged of right to the only emperor, the Mi- lo, and whose position that emperor had never recognized. Che natural result of this state of affairs was the evolution of mili- feudalism, whose rise is considered in the next period. The capital of the empire, the home of the Mikado and tho kuge, permanently fixed at Kioto, near Lake Biwa. (6. Outbreak of war between the families of Geii and Hei (MinU' moto and Taira), which had previously shared the military offices in peace. {See p. 2J^.) THIRD PERIOD. EPOCH OF THE CRUSADES (1096-1270). § 1. CRUSADES. ause : The pilgrimages of the Christians to the Holy Sepulchre, re St. Helena, mother of Constantino the Great, had built a vault the Sepulchre and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, were inter- Hid after the Fatimites, and yet more after the Seljuks came to er ; ill-treatment of the pilgrims. ' e hermit Peter of Amiens demanded of the Pope Urban II. 58-1099) assistance in freeing the holy places, and preached the Jade in Italy (?) and France.^ Councils of the church at Pia- a and Clermont in Auvergne (1095). Address by the Pope ; uni- al enthusiasm. (It is the tvill of God !) he undisciplined bands led by Peter, by the French knight Walter 'acy, and his nephew Walter Senzaveir (the Peimiless), and others, 3 for the most part, annihilated in Hungary and Bulgaria. IT. Sybel Gesch. des ersten Kreuzzngs, 1841, has shown on conrhisive nds that the idea of the Cnisades orifjinated principally with Pope Urban {t has recently been made doubtful whether Peter of Amiens had been i» oly Laud at all before, the first Crusade. 214 MedicBval History. A. ; 1096-1099. First Crusade. Kingdom of Jerusalem. Leaders of the first Crusade : Godfrey of Bouillon, duke lower Lotharingia ; his brothers, Baldwin and Eustach ; Robert, du] of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flander; Stephen of Blois ; Raymond IV., count of Toulouse ; Hugo of Ve mandois, brother of Philip I., king of France ; Bohemond of Tare tum, son of Robert Guiscard ; his nephew Tancred. They led 20(1 000 or 300,000 warriors to the East. Bishop Adhemar of Puy, wl was the first to take the Cross at Clermont, went with the expeditit as papal legate (died 1098). No king took part personally in tit Crusade. ■ The princes went to Constantinople, where all except Raymoi did feudal homage to the emperor, Alexius Comnenus. Attack up( the territory of Kilij Arslan, Sultan of Iconium (or Roum). 1097. Niccea surrendered to the Grecian emperor after a siege June, several weeks' duration. Victory of the Crusaders at Bota July 1. IcEum over the Sultan Kilij Arslan. Baldwin, separate , from the main army, crossed the Euphrates, and conqueK a principality for himself in Edessa. 1097-1098. The main army besieged Antiochia on the Orontes f nine months in vain, but finally the city was betrayed i| Bohemund of Tarentum by the Armenian renegade, Firij' 1098. (Pyrrhus). Kerboga, the powerful Emir of Mossul, besiege the Crusaders, exhausted through sickness and want, in M tioch, with an immense army. Victorious sally of the Chri' tians (the holy lance !) ; the Seljuk army defeated and sca^' tered. Long rest of the Crusaders in Antioch and quarrei' among them. ^ 1099. Expedition along the coast toward Jerusalem. Unsuccessfs, siege of the fortress of Areas. In May they advanced bi. yond Ccesarea. On the 7th of June the Crusaders, now numberii but 21,500 effective men, beheld the Holy City, which the Fatimit had reconquered from the Seljuks in 1098. After a five weeks' sieg! 1099. storm of Jerusalem. i July 15. Terrible massacre ; pilgrimage to the Church of Uit Resurrection. ', Establishment of a feudal kingdom of Jerusalem, chiefly Frenclj with vassal counties : Edessa, Antiochia, and afterwards Tripol (Assises du royamne de Jerusalem). Three chief officers : Senecha Connetable, Marshall. Two patriarchs, at Jerusalem and at Antiochu Godfrey of Bouillon, Protector of the Holy Sepulchre, defeated th Sultan of Egypt at Ascalon or Gaza. Godfrey died 1100. Hi brother, Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem. Acre, Trioplis, Beryti (Beirut), Sidon, conquered with the aid of Pisa and Genoa. Baldwi I. (died 1118) was succeeded by Baldwin II. (died 1131), Fulco c Anjou (died 1143), under whom the kingdom of Jerusalem reachei its greatest extent, Baldwin III. (died 1162), Amalric (died 1173] Baldwin IV. (died 1184), Baldwin V. (not of age, died 1186), F| (^Guy) of Lusighan. / D. Crusades. 215 3.47-1149. Second Crusade. Without result. Cause : Conquest of Edessa by Emadeddin ('Imad-ed-Deen) j ;/,(/, Emir of Mossul (1144). Second conquest and destruction of t' city by his son Noureddin (Noor-ed-Deen) (1146). Bernard, ab- l: of Clairvaux, preached the Crusade. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France started for ]U stine ; the former from Regenshurg (Ratisbon), the latter from X 'tz, somewhat later. Both armies passed tlirough Hungary to Asia [• y the German army, being far m advance, entered Phrygia, ere it was almost anniliilated by want and by the opposition of the Itan of Iconium, but few regaining Nicsea. With this scanty fol- ding Conrad joined the expedition of the French army along the ist, but returned from Ephesus to Constantinople, on account of health. Louis and the French nobility took ship from Pamphylia Antiochia. The common soldiery contmued by land to Cilicia, 1 were completely annihilated by hunger and the enemy. Conrad nt from Constantmople to the Holy Land by sea (1148), and iu junction with the French made an unsuccessful attack on Da- scus. 89-1192. Third Crusade. Conquest of Acre (St. Jean d'Acre), or Ptolemais. ause : Capture of Veit (Guy) of Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, Siberian on the sea of Genezareth. Conquest of Acre and Jerusa- ■, by Saladin (Salah-ed-Deen) (1187), the founder of the dynasty the Ayoubites in Egypt. He treated the Christians magnani- usly. Che emperor Frederic I., who in his youth had taken part in the ond Crusade, undertook in his old age an expedition from Regens- :g (Ratisbon) in the spring of 1189, passed through Hungary, nt the whiter in Adrianople, crossed (1190) to Asia Minor, con- jred Iconium, and went to Cilicia, where he was drowned in the lycadnus (Seleph). His son, Frederic of Swabia, led a part of pilgrims, many having turned back, by way of Tarsus, Antiochia, Tyrus to Accon (Ptolemais, St. Jean d'Acre). He died (1191) •ing the siege of this city, which was conducted by the king Guy Lusignan, who had gained his freedom. iichard the Lion-Hearted (Coeur-de-Lion), king of England, '. French in nationality and language, and Philip II., Augustus •ench Auguste, a title of respect wliich was given him later), king of nee, went by sea to the Holy Land (1190), — Richard from Mar- ies, Philip from Genoa ; participation of Genoa., Pisa, and Venice. ;er a long stay in Sicily and many quarrels the two kings reached •c, which Lusignan had already besieged for nearly two years. ^ city was now soon forced to surrender (July, 1191). 'hilip having quarrelled with Richard, returned to France (1191). Stoic deeds (and cruelty) of Richard, who, however, was twice I ged to turn back from before Jerusalem. Armistice with Saladin. E} strip of coast from Joppa to Acre given to the Christians ; pil- inages to the holy places permitted. Richard gave Cyprus^ which 216 MedicBval History. A. i he had conquered in 1191, as a fief to Veit {Guy) of Lusignan (ai tumn of 1192), who transferred his title of " King of Jerusalem " 1 Henry of Champagne. Richard on his return suffered a shipwreck at Aquileia, was recoj nized in Vienna, detained by Leopold, duke of Austria, at the cor mand of the emperor Henry VI., kept a prisoner by the empen thirteen months in Trifels (near Annweiler in the county Palatine i and in Worms, and released only upon payment of a ransom and ren dering homage.^ 1202-1204. Fourth Crusade. Latin empire (1204-1261 At the instance of Pope Innocent III. (preaching by Fulco <)\ Neuilly) a Crusade directed originally against Egypt was undertakjl^s by powerful French barons, assisted by Baldwin, count of Flanders, ai\« Boniface, marquis of Montferrat. The Crusaders undertook the sie/ej of Zara in Dalmatia, which the king of Hungary had seized, for tit; Venetians (Doge Henry Dandold), partly in payment for transpojc At the urgent request of Alexius, son of the Eastern emperor Ism\ Angelas, who had been dethroned by his brother, a request strongi} supported by Philip of Swabia, the Crusaders went to Constantinopi] with the Venetian fleet of 480 sail, captured the city, and replactc Alexius and his father on the throne (1203). The emperor was ui able to fulfill his compact with the Crusaders. (Union of the Greie Church with that of Rome ; large payments in money.) Contentici during which the city caught fire. Revolt of the Greek populaci (Isaac died.) After the murder of Alexius by the Greeks, secoic capture of the city, pillage, new conflagration, which consumed maia: works of ancient literature. Establishment of the Latin empire {Baldioin, emperor) ; ma coast districts and islands fell to the Venetians; the marquis of Moi ferrat became king of Thessalonica ; French dukes in Athens, Acha etc. Villehardouin, historian of the expedition. Establishment of a Greek empire at Niccea by Theodore Lascan and a second, the empire of Trehizond on the coast of the Pontus El xinus, by a descendant of the Comnenes. Michael Palmologus, of t Niesean empire, put an end to the Latin empire in 1261. 1212. The children's Crusade. Thousands of German and Freu boys started for the Holy Land. Many died on the way, ma were sold into slavery. 1217. Crusade of Andrew II., king of Hungary, without result. 1218-1221. Unsuccessful attack upon Egypt under John of Briem " king of Jerusalem." 1228-1229. Fifth Crusade. Jerusalem regained for short time. Frederic II., emperor of the West, who was under the papal b I It is probable that the story of the Austrian banner having been trodden the filth at Acre by Richard's command is not a fable (cf. Tceche, Kara Hemrich, VI. pp. 256, 558), but the imprisonment of Richard had doubtlt higher political motives, and is sufHciently explained by the alliance of BicUl: with the Welfic party in Germany, see p. '223. i: ji L D. Crusades. 217 iDr not having fulfilled his promise of undertaking a Crusade, went to icre by sea, and received Jerusalem (where he crowned himself), \fazareth, and a strip of land reaching to the coast, together with Jidon, from Sultan Kameel {El Kdmil), on condition of a ten years* Irmistice. Jerusalem was lost again, and finally, 1244. ^248-1254. Sixth Crusade. Without result. ' Louis IX., king of France (St. Louis), went to Cyprus and assed the winter there. In order to destroy the Saracen power in .:s stronghold of Egypt, he went in the spring of 1249 to DamieUa nd eaptiu'ed the city. On the expedition which he undertook in s^ovember against Cairo, Louis was defeated by the Ayoubite Sultan '^ourdn-shdh (Almoadan), cut off from Damietta, and captured with he entire French army (April, 1250). The execution of the treaty f peace, whereby the king was to be liberated on condition of evacu- 'ting Darmietta and paying a heavy ransom, was delayed by the over- tirow of the Ayoubites by the Mamelukes. Louis coasted along 'alestine, fortified Acre and other cities of the coast, in the course f a residence of almost four years, and returned to France in 1254. 2G8. Antiochia lost to the Mohammedans. ^270. Seventh Crusade. Without result. Louis IX. went to Tunis, where he and the greater part of the army were carried off by sickness. 291, Acre (Ptolemais) stormed by the Mamelukes ; the Christians abandoned their last possessions in Palestine (Tyre, BerytuSf Sidon). The Crusades were the greatest events of the Middle Age. In oite of the excesses and cruelties of many of the Crusaders they lend 3 the time to which they belong an ideal, a religious character. Results of the Crusades : 1. Increased power and authority of the liurch and the Papacy. 2. Increase of the personal power of princes, wing to the reversion of many feudal holdings which became vacant. ■. Rise of independent communities, who bought their freedom from leir overlords who needed funds for the pilgrimage. 4. Devel- pment of commerce. The Italian republics at the height of their ower. 5. Intellectual growth resulting from the new ideas brought aek from the East ; especial advance in the knowledge of geography ad natural history. 6. Perfection of the institution of knighthood 3hivalry) ; the three Religious Orders of Knighthood. . Kiiights of St. John, or Hospitalers ; i. e. knights of the hospital of St. John in Jerusalem, founded by merchants from Amalfi, 1070. The brotherhood was enlarged after the first Crusade (Gerhard), and converted into an order of knighthood after the manner of the Templars (Raimund Dupuis). Black mantle, white cross. The order was transferred to Cyprus (1291), to Rhodes (1310), whence they were called Knights of Rhodes. Rhodes lost, 1522 ; in 1526 the order received a gift of Malta \ from the emperor Charles V., thence called Knights of Malta. Knights of the Temple or Templars (from the temple of Solomon, 218 Mediceval History, a. d. on whose site stood the house of the order in Jerusalem), orig- inating in a union of nine French knights in 1118 (Hugo de Payens). White mantle, red cross. In 1291 the order was transferred to Cyprus; in 1312 dissolved by Pope Clement V. at the Council of Vienne. 8. The Order of Teutonic Knights, originally brotherhood of the German hospital founded in 1190, was in 1198 raised to an i order of knighthood by Frederic of Swahia before Acre, dur- • ing the third Crusade. White mantle, black cross. Seat of the e order at Acre. Under the grand laaiteT Hermann of Salza- a band of knights went to Prussia, then occupied by the heathen Wends, in 1226. Hermann of Balk, first Landmeister in Prus- sia, which was subjugated by bloody wars (1226-1283). In 1291 the seat of the grand master was tranferred to Venice, 1309 to Marienburg, 1457 to Kbnigsberg. The land of the order was secularized in 1525. Those knights who remained Catho-> lie maintained possession of the German estates. Residence! of the grand master at Mergentheim at Franconia. The or-r der was dissolved in 1809. In all three orders, knights , priests fS brothers in service. §2. GERMANY AND ITALY. (Seep.Wl)\ 1125-1137. Lothar of Saxony, supported by his son-in-law Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria,a of the house of Welf, whom he later appointed duke of Saxony asi well, and Berthold, duke of Zdhringen. Lothar fought (until 1135)t against the two powerful Hohenstaufens, Frederic, duke of Swabia,i and Conrad, nephew of the last emperor, Henry V. Their father waSi; Frederic of Biiren and Stauf en, son-in-law of the emperor Henry IV (p. 200). 1132-1133. On his first Koman expedition Lothar was crowned by; Pope Innocent IL, and accepted the allodial possessions of) Matilda of Tuscany as a fief from the Pope. 1136-1137. On his second Roman expedition Lothar attacked thci Norman Roger II., who had assumed the title of king of the< two Sicilies, and drove him for a short time to Sicily. On his return) Lothar died at Breitenwang in upper Bavaria (Dec. 3-4, 1137). ' Under Lothar's reign German influence made great advances in the North and East. The Danish king Magnus recognized anew the overlordship of the Emperor ; Bohemia did feudal homage. The Wends' were driven back, and in increasing numbers converted to Christianity."' Holstein given to Adolf, count of Schaumburg, the margravate of Meis- sen to Conrad of Wettin, the Nordmark or Altmark, at the mouth of the Havel and on the left bank of the Elbe, to Albert the Bear, of the house of Ballenstddt or Askania (1134), who had done Lothar im- portant service on the first Roman expedition. Albert crossed the Elbe and conquered almost the entire Mittelmark, which then received ' the name of Brandenburg, from its chief city. i. D. Germany and Italy, 219 1138-1254. House of Hohenstaiifen (Staufer),^ so called from the castle of Staufen in Swabia. L138-1152. Conrad III., elected by the party opposed to the Saxon house, without par- ticipation of the Saxons and Bavarians. War of the Ghibellines (Italian corruption of Waiblingen, the lame of a castle of the Hohenstauf ens) and the Welfs, or Guelfs [cf. the genealogical table). Conrad put Henry the Proud under the ban, and gave Saxony to Albert the Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold /P'., margrave of Austria. L139. During the changing fortunes of the war Henry the Proud died. The claims of his ten-year-old son Henry (afterwards called the Lion) to Saxony were maintained by the latter'a mother and grandmother and their connection. Bavaria was claimed by Welf VI., brother of Henry the Proud. Welf ad- vanced to the relief of the city of Weinsberg, which Conrad besieged. In the 1140. Battle ^ of Weinsberg Conrad conquered, and the city was com- pelled to surrender. (" The Faithful Wives of Weinsberg," poem by Burger.) . After the death of Leopold of Austria (Oct. 18, 1141), Bavaria ''ell to his brother, Henry Jasomirgott,^ who married Gertrude, Henry he Proud's widow (1142). Her son, Henry the Lion, received Saxony. ilbert the Bear gave up his claim to Saxony ; the mark of Bran- lenburg, which was a fief held directly from the emperor (reichsun- nittelbar), and his other possessions, which his enemies had occupied, vere restored to him. I Conrad's Crusade (p. 215). Conrad, whose eldest son, Henry, who Had already been elected king, died before him, appointed as his suc- essor not his second son, a nmior, but his nephew, Frederic of Swabia, rho was unanimously elected by the princes. Conrad died Feb. 11, lo'2, at Bamberg. .152-1190. Frederic I., Barbarossa, one of the most heroic figures of the Middle Age. Diet at Merseburg. Frederic settled the disputed succession to the )anish crown. Sven became king of Denmark as a vassal of the mpire (1152). Frederic's main object was to make good the imperial authority, nd in particular to restore the imperial rights in northern Italy, hieh had become narrowed by neglect. Hence war with the power- il republican cities of Lombardy. Six expeditions to Italy. (154-1155. First expedition. Frederic destroyed some small places which opposed him, and was crowned king of Italy in Pavia, ' 1 V. Baumer, Gesch. der HoTienstaufen u. ihrer Zeit ; JaS4, Gesch. des d. R, Uter Kimrad III. ; Prutz, Geschichte Friedrichs I. 2 Recent investigators deny that the cry of Hie Welf! Hie Waiblingen ! was jard here for the first time. ' * So called from his favorite oath. 220 Mediceval History. A. U i m I I lOi :5b -can!- o o .5 h» w^- OS I— (^ Pi . . 5 5r^"^ O ei — 2 =^ s ^ 1— I ^W . ° o ^ .9:1 « SI I o o >^«2 ffl-t- St- ^ II . D. Germany and Italy. 221 id emperor at Rome by Hadrian IV., who had appealed to him for d against the Romans. Arnold of Brescia, scholar of the schoolman belard, a popular preacher, who inveighed against the secular power ' the clergy and possession of estates by the church, was condemned id burnt. Lo3. Convention of Constance between Frederic and the Papal See. L56. Henry the Lion received Bavaria again. Austria was sep- arated from Bavaria, and raised to a duchy, hereditary in the female as well as the male line. L57. Diet at Wiirzburg. Nearly all the states of the West did homage to the imperial power (Holy Roman Empire). la Besau9on the Burgundian nobles submitted again to the em- pire. The Bohemian duke Vladislav received from Fred- eric the royal crown. L58-1162. Second expedition to Italy. The Lombard cities, including Milan itself, submitted. At the diet on the Ron- ilian Fields the rights of the emperor were defined as against the ties. Jurisdiction in the cities transferred from the consuls to an ficer of the empire, the Podesta. Prohibition of the right of pri- !.te war between the cities. The Milanese revolted. Quarrel be- reeii the Pope and the emperor. Tedious war with Milan, which irrendered after a two years' siege. At the emperor's command |62. Milan -was destroyed by the uihabitants of the neighboring cities. [59-1177. Schism in the Church. Alexander III. elected by \ the majority of the cardinals, Victor IV. by the minority I (who favored the emperor), and recognized by the comiciJ f which Frederic convened at Pavia. Alliance between Alex-" ander III. and the Lombard cities. 63. Third Expedition without an army. After the death of Victor IV. (April, 1164), a new anti-pope. Paschal III., was elected by the imperial party. New disturbances in Italy soon broke out. iS6-1168. Fourth Expedition. Paschal III. conducted to Rome by i^ Frederic. 57. Lombard League between the cities of Lombardy (Cremonaf Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, and Ferrara) and the cities of the Veronese March ( Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso), which had united in 1164. Union of Guelfs with Ghibellines. They rebuilt Milan, built Alessandria (so called after their ally, Pope Alexander III.), and occupied the passes of the Alps. The emperor, whose army was almost anniliilated by a plague which broke out in Rome, with difficulty escaped to Germany. Ji Germany a great feud had been raging since 1166 between nry the Lion and his enemies, the archbishops of Magdeburg and vmen, Albert the Bear, Otto of Meissen, etc. The emperor put end to the strife at the Diet of Bamberg (1168). Henry the Lion lertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem (1172). 4-1177. Fifth Expedition. The emperor entered Lombardy over Mont Cenis. He besieged Alessandria in vain. Henry f 222 Mediceval History, A. i tlie Lion deserted him and returned to Germany. The en peror attacked the Lombards, but in spite of his heroic cou] age, at the 1176. Battle of Legnano, was completely defeated. Negotiatioi and armistice with Alexander III. and the Lombard cities. 1177. Reconciliation between the emperor and the Pope at Venice. 1183. The definitive peace with the Lombard cities was conclude at Constance. The emperor renounced all regal privilege which he had hitherto claimed in the towns ; acknowledge the right of the confederated cities to levy armies, to fortii themselves, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdictio By the popular nomination the consuls acquired the rights < imperial vicars. The extension of the confederacy for tl purpose of maintaining these rights was authorized. Tl cities agreed to maintain all just rights of the emperor, recognition of the overlordsliip of the emperor, which, hov ever, they were allowed to redeem by an annual payment. Henry the Lion humbled in Germany. After his neglect to appeji at four diets, he was put under the ban of the empire and his fiei declared forfeited (1180). He defended himself bravely and d« feated the archbishop of Cologne. Upon the approach of the en peror Henry's vassals gradually deserted him. Henry threw himse at the emperor's feet in Erfurt (1181), but was allowed to retain h allodial estates only, Braunschweig {Brunswick) and Liinehurg. Div» ion of the old duchy of Saxony. Part of Westphalia was given i the archbishopric of Cologne. Luheck, Hamburg, and Bremen becaa in the course of time free cities, owing allegiance to the empire onli The archbishop of Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishops of HalhA stadt, Hildesheim, Liibeck, etc., the counts of Holstein and Oldenbim etc., became immediate vassals of the empire. Eastern Saxony and the ducal title were given to Bernard of Ai kania, son of Albert the Bear. Otto of Wittelsbach received Bavaru Henry the Lion was obliged to leave the country for tliree yeari He went to the court of Henry II. of England, his father-in-law. 1184. Brilliant court festival at Mainz. 1184-1186. Sixth expedition to Italy (peaceful). The empew gave his son Henry, who was now twenty-one, but had loij 1186. been king elect of Germany, in marriage to ConstanCj daughter of Roger II., aunt and heiress of William II., tl, last Norman king of Naples and Sicily. 1190. Frederic's crusade and death (p. 215). His son, Ejng Henn whom he left behind as vicegerent, was obliged to take tl field against Henry the Lion, who, upon the emperor's departure, h^^ been sent out of t\\e empire for another tliree years, but had since r, turned from England. The death of William II. of Sicily in No- ember, 1189, led Henry to come to an imderstanding with Henry tl Lion. In the mean time came the news of the emperor's death. 1190-1197. Henry VI., a highly educated statesman, bil stern and relentless. 1191. First expedition to Italy. Henry received the imperial crown i A. D. Germany and Italy, 223 Rome, after he had abandoned Tusculum, which had ever been cnie to his father, to the Romans. The city was destroyed ; Frascati ^rew up near its site. Henry went to Naples to rescue the inher- tance of his wife, Constance, from Tancred of Lecce, whom the native jarty in Palermo had elected king. Unsuccessful siege of Naples 'or three months. Sickness in the axmy compelled the emperor to :^turn to Germany. 1192-1194. New war with Henry the Lion, who had not kept the first treaty. The war ended in a compromise, the conclusion of vhich was assisted by the liberation of the brother-in-law of Henry he Lion, Richard Cceur-de-Lion of England (p. 216), and by a narriage between Agnes, daughter of the emperor's uncle, Conrad^ ;ount palatine of the Rhine, with Henry, son of Henry the Lion. .194. Second expedition to Italy, where Tancred had died. War with his widow and his son William. The emperor subju- gated the kingdom of the two Sicilies, and punished with severity the participants in a conspiracy against himself. ■194. Henry threatened with excommunication for withholding the estates of Matilda (p. 200) from the Pope. 196. Diet at Wiirzburg. Henry's plan of making Germany (united with the Sicilies) an hereditary monarchy, on condition that all fiefs should become hereditary, even in the female line, failed in consequence of the resistance of the princes and the lesser nobility. 197. Third expedition to Italy. Henry suppressed a second con- I spiracy with cruel severity. In the midst of his great plans (conquest of the Eastern Empire, Crusade), he died suddenly in Messina, thirty-two years old (28 Sept. 1197). Double election in Germany. 198-1208. Philip of Swabia, youngest son of Frederic Barbarossa. 198-1215 (1218). Otto IV. of Brunswick, son of Henry the Lion. -98-1215. War for the crown between the house of Hohenstaufen and of Welf. Otto IV., recognized by Pope Innocent III., IS defeated by Philip and his power reduced almost to the limits of fuusmck. In the midst of preparations for a last and decisive nibat Philip was assassinated at Bamberg by the count palatine 'to of Wittelsbach. Otto IV. was universally recognized and crowned : Rome by Innocent III. (1209), after having abandoned the estates < Matilda to the papal chair and made other concessions. He was ! an involved in a quarrel with the Pope, however, and the latter put ]rward his ward Frederic, son of Henry VI., as anti-emperor (1212). •;to IV., in alliance with England, was defeated at Bouvines (near llle) by Philip II. Augustus (1214), and returned to his own do- Uins, Died at the Harzburg (May 10, 1218). 3 12-1250. Frederic II. also king of the two Sicilies^ a prince of remarkable gifts, but passionate, more Italian tin German, having been born in Sicily and educated by his Italian i 224 MedicBval History, A. j| mother. He was an energetic opponent of the spiritual supremac;' having indeed but little liking for the church ; m his hereditary estate, he favored the Saracens. \ 1215. Frederic went to Germany, was crowned German king i' Aachen, where he promised to undertake a crusade, and ^ 1217. gave Swabia to his young son Henry, and \ 1220. had him elected king of Rome (the title given to the Geij man king elect). Frederic left Germany for fifteen years. Expf^ dition to Rome. After renewing the promises which he had fo] merly made to Pope Innocent III. (feudal supremacy of tt' papal chair over his hereditary domain, which should never be unite with Germany, crusade), he was crowned by Honorius III. at Rom< 1222. The emperor's son Henry, solenmly crowned king at Aachei His chief adviser and chancellor was Engelbert, archbishop c Cologne (murdered 1225). 1225. Frederic took as his second wife, lolanthe, daughter of Johl of Brienne, titulary king of Jerusalem. Promise of a crusadi renewed. 1226. Diet at Cremona ; quarrels with the Lombard cities. 1227. The Crusade which had been commenced was broken up by contagious disease. The successor of Pope Honorius III., thl octogenarian Gregory IX., placed the emperor under the bar 1227. Battle of Bornhovede. The Danes, who under Waldemcu II. had extended their power over the coasts of the Baltic were decisively defeated. 1228-1229. Crusade of Frederic II. (p. 216). 1229. Frederic drove from his dominions the papal (key) troops who had invaded them. 1230. Peace with the Pope at S. Germano. Removal of the ban. 1230-1240. Legislation of Frederic in his Sicilian kingdom. Regulation of feudal relations. Representation of the cities. 1234. Revolt of the young king Henry, in alliance with the lowei German nobility and the Lombard cities, against his father, sup^ pressed by Frederic with the aid of the princes of the empire and th( imperial cities. Henry submitted, was kept in strict confinement then sent to Italy, where he died, 1242. Reconciliation with thd Welfs. Erection of a new duchy, Brunsioick-Luneburg, for Otto tM Child. Third marriage of the emperor at Worms with Isabella? sister of Henry III. of England. Diet at Mainz. Enactment of a public peace {Jirst publication of a law in German as well as ir Latin). 1236. Victorious campaign against the Lombards. In German} Frederic the Warlike of Austria, a follower of the rebel Hem-y, deposed and put under the ban. 1237. Frederic II. in Vienna, which was proclaimed an imperial city. Afterwards Frederic the Warlike received Austria and Styria agam. 1237. Diet at Speier. Election and coronation of Conrad^ the sec- ond son of the emperor as German king. 1237. Brilliant victory of Frederic over the Lombards at Corte- Nov. nuova. Frederic's obstinacy in pressing his demands too iA.. D. Germany and Italy. 225 far, prevented ihe complete subjugation of Lombardy. Interference of the Pope, who had claims on Sardinia, and was offended at the assumption by Frederic's natural son Enzio (an Italian corruption of Heinz) y the husband of Adelisa, heiress of a part of the island, of the title of king of Sardinia. 1239-1250. War of Frederic II. with the Popes Gregory IX. and Innocent IV. 1239. Frederic accused of heresy by Gregory and excommunicated anew. Ancona conquered by Enzio. 1241. Naval victory of Enzio at Elba over the Genoese fleet which was conveying some ecclesiastics to the council at Rome. Death of Gregory. His successor. Innocent IV. (1243-1254), fled to Lyons. Germany threatened with a Mongol invasion (p. 240). Innocent IV. called a comicil at 1245. Lyons, renewed the ban against the emperor, formally de- posed him, summoned the German princes to a new election, and urged all subjects of the emperor to revolt. In Ger- many the spiritual prmces elected ,1246-1247. Heinrich Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, who, though at first victorious, was defeated by Conrad, Frederic's son, at Ulm, and died (1247) at the Wartburg. The house of the landgraves of Thuringia ending with Heinrich Raspe, the eastern part of that state was jomed to the margravate of Meissen, while the western part became the landgravate Hessen. 1247-1256. "William of Holland, second anti-king, attained no authority in Germany. 1248. Frederic, at first successful in Italy, was repulsed before Padua. His son Enzio was captured by the Bolognese in the : 1249. Battle of Fossalta (died after an imprisonment of twenty-two years in a dungeon). Treason (?) of Peter of Vinea (Vineis), Frederic's chancellor. 1250. Frederic died in Fiorentino in the arms of his son Manfred (Dec. 19). He was succeeded by his son. 1250-1254. Conrad IV. (anti-king: William of Holland) fought since 1252 for his hereditary realm only, in Italy. 1256. William of Holland fell in battle with the Frisians (twenty- seven years old). 1256-1273. Interregnum in Germany. Club-law, Faiis» ■r trecht, i Richard, Earl of Cornwall, younger son of King John (Lack- land) of England, elected by a part of the princes, and crowned at A.achen, was recognized along the Rhine only (died 1272). Alphonso X. of Castile, grandson of Philip of Hohenstauf en, son of Frederic Barbarossa, elected by the other princes, never came to Germany. In the kingdom of the two Sicilies the brave Manfred, son of Frederic II., was at first chancellor for the minor king Conradin, 5on of Conrad IV., afterwards (1258) king. Charles ofAnjou, brother 15 226 MedicBval History, A. d. of Louis IX. of France, to whom the Pope gave the crown, defeated Manfred, who was betrayed by his barons, at Beneventum (1266), and made himself king of Naples and Sicily. Manfred fell on the field. Conradin went to Italy with Frederic of Baden, also called Fred- eric of Austria (being the son of the Babenberg heiress of Austria). He was defeated between Scurcola and Tagliacozzo on Lago di Celano (1268), and executed at Naples. 1282. Sicilian vespers, so called because the conspiracy broke out on Easter Monday at vesper time. Slaughter of all the French in Sicily. John of Procida. Peter of Aragon, king of Sicily, Charles of Anioa limited to the kingdom of Naples. (^Seepp.SU,26S.) § 3. FRANCE.1 (^eei?. 203) The royal domain of the Capetians was at first limited to the duchy of France {Isle de France and Orleanais). The great vassals, who i were, in the beginning, almost independent, were gradually reduced 1 to submission in this and the following period. 1060-1108. Philip I. Quarrel with Gregory VII. First Crusade. A long reign, in which the king accomplished nothing. 1108-1137. Louis VI., the Fat, an able and good king, who had, moreover, the good sense to avail himself of the talents of " Suger, abbot of St. Denis, whom he made minister. Perceptible growth of the royal power. Marriage of the king's son, Louis ( VII. ^f with Eleanor, daughter of William of Aquitainey heiress of Poitou, Guyenne, and Gasc(Miy. 1137-1180. Louis VIL Second Crusade (p. 215). Louis was a weak king, a favorite with the clergy, whose reign was less disastrous than might have been expected, because of the influence of Suger, who administered the kingdom during Louis' absence in the East. After his return Louis obtained a divorce from Eleanor, who married Henry of Anjou, conveying to this prince, who soon became kmg of England, Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, for which Henry did homage to Louis. In this transfer lay one germ of the hundred years' war. 1180-1223. Philip IL, Augustus, one of the ablest of the kings of France ; unscrupulous, cold, but of great political sagacity. (Third) Crusade with Richard Cceur- de-Lion. After Philip's return in 1190 he attacked Normandy, but made little headway during the lifetime of Richard. (Erection of the Chateau Gaillard by Richard, on the Seine, above Rouen.) After Richard's death (1199) Philip took up the claims of Arthur f son of Richard's brother Geoffrey, who had been passed over in Nor- mandy in favor of Richard's younger brother John, but he was hin- dered from prosecuting them by his quarrel with Innocent III. ia relation to the divorce which Philip had secured from his wife, Ingeborg of Denmark, in order that he might marry Agnes of Meran, Submission of Philip (1200). After the death of Arthur (1203) Philip moved upon Normandy 1 Kitchin, History of France. A.^ D. France. 227 anew. Rejection of the Pope's claim to arbitrate between the kings. The fall of the Chateau Gaillard was followed by the submission oi Normandy (1204). John having- refused to obey the summons of Philip to appear for trial on account of the murder of Arthur, Philip declared his fiefs forfeited. Crusade against the AlbigenseSy Waldenses and Cathari, rationalist sects protected by Raymond, count of Toulouse, and the viscount of Beziers and Carcassonne (1207-1244). Storm of Beziers (1207. " Slay all, God will know his own."). Conquest of the county of Toulouse by Simon of Montfort (1211-1215). Death of Simon at the siege of revolted Toulouse (1218). War in Flanders with the feudal lords, supported by John of Eng- land and Otto of Germany. Philip, assisted by the citieSy victorious in the 1214. Battle of Bouvines : Aug. 29. Unsuccessful expedition of Philip's son Louis to England (1216). 1223-1226. Louis VIII. New crusade against the count of Tou- louse, whose lands had been declared forfeit. 1229. Establishment of the Inquisition as a regular tribunal by Pope Gregory IX., inquisitors having existed since 1203 under In- nocent III. 1226-1270. Louis IX., St. Louis. During the king's minority regency of his mother Blanche, who repressed a revolt of the barons. The war with the Albigenses ended by the extermination of the sect (1244). (Sixth) Crusade of St. Louis (p. 217). Blanche regent during his absence. After the king's re- turn, 1254, wise government. Surrender of Perigord, the Limousin and southern Saintonge to Henry of England, whereupon Henry re- nounced his claim to Normandy, Anj'ou, Maine, Touraine, Poitou, northern Saintonge. Prohibition of wager of battle. Limitation of feudal jurisdiction. Establishment of right of appeal to the king from the feudal courts in all cases. The Pragmatic Sanction attrib- jted to St. Louis is probably a forgery, but Louis' attitude toward Rome was one of assertion of all regal rights. During this reign the domain of the crown received the following additions : The part of the county of Toulouse between the Rhone, the sea and the Pyrenees (1229), Chartres, Blois, Sancerre, ceded by Theobald of Champagne and Navarre (1234) ; Macon, by purchase (1239) ; Perche (1257); Aries, Forcalquier, Foix and Cahors (1262). Second (seventh) Crusade and death of St. Louis (1270). (^Seep.254.) 228 Mediceval History. A. h. ENGLISH SOVEREIGNS FROM ECGBERHT TO HENRY IIL ANGLO-SAXON. Ecgberht. 802-837. Charles the Bald. Emperor. FIiANDEKa -ffiJtlielwulf=(l) Judith, who 837-858. I afterwards m. (2) ^thelbald. (3)- i^thelbald. ^thelberht. .ffithelred. jElfred. 858-860. 860-866. 866-871. 871-901. - Baldwin I 1 t879. Eadward 1 son, 2 dau. the Elder. 901-925. .ailfthryth = Baldwin II. t 918. NOBMANDY. Arnulf I. t 965. .fflthelstan. Eadmund. Eadred. 925-940. 940-946. 946-955. I Rollo. William Longsword. Baldwin (III.) t 962. Eadwig. 955-959. Eadward the Martyr. 975-978. 1 Eadgar. 959-975. I Richard the Fearless. I I I I .ffithelred II.=2 Emma. Richard 978-1016. the Good. I 2 Arnulf II. t 988. I Baldwin IV. t 1036. Godwine Earl of Mercia. I Eadmund | | Eadward Robert Baldwin V. Ironsides. Harold. Eadgyth = the Confessor, the Magnificent f 1067. 1016. 1066. 1042-1066. or the Devil. | Eadward "William the Conqueror = Matilda. J 1066-1087. Eadgar .^theling. Margaret = Malcolm king of Scots. Eadgar king of Scots. Ro Matilda bert. ■William Ruf us. Henry I. Adela 1087-1100. 1100-1135. m.Stephea . : c. of Blois I I Matilda = Geoffrey of Anjou, Stephen I Plantagenet. 1135-1154. Henry II. 1154-1189. ISL&axy. Richard Geoffrey. Coeur-de-Lion. | 1189-1199. Arthur, t 1203. John Lackland. 1199-1216 Henry III 1216-1272. , A.D. England. 229 §4. ENGLAND. {See p. 206.) 1066-1154. Norman kings.^ 1066-1087. William I., the Conqueror, completed the subjection of the Anglo-Saxons, who were robbed of their estates and terribly ill-treated. Two nationalities and two languages existed for a long time side by side in England, English, or Anglo-Saxon, and French. The king and the nobility were French Normans or Frenchmen. The submission of 1066 was partial, Mercia and Northumbria re- maining aloof. 1068. Revolt in the north, incited and aided by a Danish fleet under Swegen. Returning from Normandy William bought off the Danes, and crushed the insurgents by a masterly winter campaign. Northumberland ravaged with lire and sword. 1071. Revolt of the English under Eadwin and Morkere, which ended with the defeat and death of Eadwin, and the capture of Ely in the fens where Morkere had taken refuge with the outlaw Here- ward. 1075-76. Rebellion of the Norman barons in England easily crushed. Revolt of the conqueror's son Robert in Normandy (1077-1080). Imprisonment of William's brother, Odo, bishop of Bayeux, for trouble- some and intriguing conduct. A threatened invasion from Norway and Denmark averted, 1085. William met his death by accident while engaged in a struggle with Pliilip of France about the Vexin (Sept. 9, 1087). After the revolt of 1071. the four large earldoms were abolished, and the shire became the largest political division. Sheriffs appointed by the king in each shire. William introduced feudalism in its continental form, placuig Norman barons over the lands of the English nobility, who gradually sank to the position of a middle class. In 1086 the power of the barons was weakened by the exaction of an oath of fealty from all mider tenants to the king direct. The same year saw the completion of the great survey whose results were inscribed in the Domesday Book, an inventory of all lands " burthened with special dues to the crown." The lower local courts were pre- served, but their subordination to the king's court was strongly in- sisted on. William reformed and reorganized the English Church, assisted by Lanfrano, abbot of St. Stephen at Caen, whom he appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury. Homage to the Pope, however, William ex- pressly refused to render. He kept the appointment of bishops in his own hands. No papal letter could be received, no papal synod held in England, no English bishop appeal to Rome without the king's consent. 1 Augustin Thierry, Eistoire de la conqmtede V Angleterre. Qreen, Hi^' tory of the English People, 280 MeditBval History. A. D. 1087-1100. William II., the Red, second son of William I. obtained the English crown, while Robert, the eldest son, succeeded in Normandy. A revolt of the Nor- man barons in favor of Robert was suppressed by help of the English in 1090. Death of Lanfranc, 1089. Ascendency of Ranulf Flambard. Extortions of William. Formation of the New Forest. 1093. Anselm, abbot of Bee, appointed archbishop of Canterbury. He was soon involved in a quarrel with the king on the ques- tion of investitures and on other matters. In 1097 Anselm appealed to Rome and left England. 1097. Edgar, son of Margaret (sister of Eadgar Aetheling), ob- tamed the Scottish crown, thus closing the civil war in Scotland between the Celtic and English parties. William was found dead in the New Forest, Aug. 2, 1100 (murdered ?). 1100-1135. Henry I., Beaiiderc, on learning of the death of William II., hastened to England and secured the crown in spite of the opposition of those barons who pressed the claim of Robert of Normandy, then returning from the Crusade. Issue of a charter, wherein the exactions and abuses of William the Red were prohibited and the " Law of Edward the Con- fessor " restored. Henry married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm of Scotland, and Margaret, sister of Eadgar Aetheling. Recall of Anselm. 1101. Invasion of Robert of Normandy, with the connivance of many of the Norman barons on both sides of the Channel, ended by treaty without a battle. Punislmient of the rebel barons. Robert of Belesme, earl of Shrewsbury, driven from England. In 1104 Henry invaded Normandy. Robert was defeated at the 1106. Battle of Tinchebrai and kept in captivity until his death (1134). Henry took poss ssion of Normandy. Quarrel with Ansehn in regard to investitures, ending, after the exile and return of Anselm, in a compromise (1106). Introduction of the Cistercians in England. Suppression of the great feudatories and substitution of a class of lesser nobles. Death of Henry's son William by the sinking of the " White Ship " in the Channel (1120). Marriage of Henry's daughter Matilda to Geoffrey, son of Fulk the Black, count of Anjou (1128). Normandy and Maine definitely se- cured by Henry. Henry died 1135. 1135-1154. Stephen of Blois, son of Adela, daughter of William I., and the count of Blois, seized the crown in defiance of the rights of Matilda and her son Henry, and was elected at London principally by the citizens. Char- ter of Oxford (1136). (Second) invasion of the Scots repulsed in the 1138. Battle of the Standard, at Cowton Moor in Yorkshire. Arrest of Roger of Salisbury and the bishop of Lincoln (1139). In the same year Matilda landed A. D. England. 231 in England. Stephen defeated and captured at the hattle of Lincoln (1141). Matilda was elected Lady of England by the clergy. Her severe and impolitic government soon alienated her followers. Fin- ally Stephen, having been exchanged, took up the war again, which went on with varying success until 1147 when Robert of Gloucester died and Matilda left England. In 1153 Henry of Anjou landed in Eng- land to make good his claim. Without a battle an understanding was reached and Henry was recognized as the heir of the crown (Treaty of Wallingford 1153). The reign of Stephen was one of the darkest periods in English history. His weakness, and the confusion of civil war had given the feudal nobles full liberty. Castles were erected in great num- bers throughout England, and each was the home of oppression and cruelty. Stephen died 1154. 1154:-1399. House of Anjou (Plantagenet)^ in the di- rect line. 1154-1189. Henry II. Outside of England Henry possessed : 1. Normandy and the suzerainty over Brittany, as the heir of the Norman kings. 2. Anjou and Maine, inherited from his father. 3. Poitou, Guyenne and Gascony, acquired by marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine (1152) ; in all more than half of France. The reign of Henry is the period of full amalgamation of the Eng- lish and the Normans. The accession of Henry (at 21 years of age) was welcomed as the begmning of a better time. Banishment of the mercenaries main- tained by Stephen. Demolition of the castles. Resumption and res- toration of estates, which was attended with difficulty, some of the new nobles requiring to be dislodged by force. 1158. First Welsh war not successful. 1162. Thomas Becket, the chancellor, made archbishop of Canter- bury. Re establishment of the exchequer, a bureau for assessing and collecting the taxes. Introduction of scutage, a commutation in money for personal service in the army permitted to the lower ten- ants. 1163. Second Welsh war. As chancellor, Becket had been the kmg's servant and friend ; as archbishop, he became at once his opponent, resisting his wishes even in financial matters ; an opposition which seems to have led to the abolition of danegeld (p. 205). Becket bitterly opposed the king's reform of the ecclesiastical law relating to the punishment of eccle- siastics for criminal offenses. Henry demanded that after ecclesias- tical punishment had been administered the offender should be handed over to receive the punishment of the civil law. The wishes of the king in this respect and on other points involving church and state were formulated in the 1 So called from the bit of broom (genet) which Geoffrey of Anjou, son of king Fulk of Jerusalem (p. 230), was wont to wear in hie helm. 232 Mediceval History, A. d, 1164. Constitutions of Clarendon. The jurisdiction of secular courts over clerical offenders was affirmed, appeal to Rome in such cases was prohibited, the election of bishops in the presence of royal officers, and with the king's con- sent, was insisted on, as was the investiture of the bishop or abbot elect with his secular lands by the king. At first Becket accepted the constitutions ; but afterwards he withdrew his acceptance and appealed to Rome. Brought to trial and condemned on some mat- ters connected with his chancellorship, Becket fled to France. 1165. Third Welsh war. 1166. Assize of Clarendon, Reestablishment of Frank-pledge^ or mutual responsibility of the inhabitants of a village. In each shire criminals were to be presented by twelve men from the shire and four from each town (grand jury) ; abolition of compurgation (proof of innocence by oath of neighbors) for which the ordeal or judgment of God was substituted. 1170. Henry under threat of interdict was reconciled with Becket, who returned to England. He soon became embroiled with the king, and was murdered by four knights of Henry's court, in consequence of Henry's passionate outbreak against him (December 29, 1170). Establishment of itinerant or circuit judges. Court of appeal, afterwards the great and privy council. 1171. Expedition of Henry to Ireland. A bull of Adrian IV. in 1157 had given this country to Henry, but no use had been made of the authority until Dermod, king of Leinster, fled to Henry, did him homage, and sought aid in his wars. Aid was sent in 1169, and in 1171 Henry went in person. Richard of Clare (Strongbow), son-in-law of Dermod, made earl of Leinster. The southeastern part of Ireland submitted to Henry. 1172. Absolution of Henry. Penance at Becket's tomb, 1174. 1173. Rebellion of Henry's eldest son Henry, and general league of French and English lords, Louis VII. and William the Lion of Scotland against the king. Defeat of Louis. Capture of William who was released only after acknowledging Henry as his suzerain (1175). Death of Henry the younger, 1183. 1181. Assize of arms. Restoration of militia service. 1189. Conspiracy of Henry's sons, Richard and John, with Philip of France. Humiliation and death of Henry II. 1189-1199. Richard I., Cceur-de-Lion. His reign was passed almost entirely away from England. Crusade (p. 215). On his return Richard was captured by Leopold of Austria, delivered to the emperor, and detained thirteen months in captivity, being released at last for a heavy ransom. During his absence Eleanor, liis mother, was regent. Persecution of the Jews. The intrigues of Philip of France and the king's brother John resulted in war in England, which was quickly suppressed after the return of Richard (1194). For the rest of his reign Richard was in France at war with Philip. Erection of the Chateau Ca.illard on tho Seine. Death of Richard before the castle of Chalus-Chabrol (1199). A. D. England, 233 During his absence England was governed by Hubert Walter^ and after his resignation in consequence of a refusal of money by the great council, by Geoffrey Fitz Peter. 1199-1216. John Lackland. John was recognized in England without opposition and secured Normandy, but Anjou, Maine and Touraine acknowledged the claim of Arthur son of Geoffrey. 1203. Death of Arthur while in John's power. Philip at once secured the sentence of John and the forfeiture of his fiefs. Nor- mandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine and a part of Aquitaine were at once lost to John. Henceforward John was restricted to his English king- dom. The death of Hubert Walter, archbishop of Canterbury (1205) was followed by a disputed election. A reference to Rome resulted in the election of Stephen Langtoa by command of Innocent III. (1207). John refused to receive him and the kingdom was visited with an interdict (1208). Moved by fear of deposition, Jolm finally yielded, received Langton, and accepted his kingdom as a fief of the papacy (1213). John's exactions and misgovernment had embroiled him with the barons since 1199. Refusal of the barons to follow John to France (1213). 1214. Defeat of John at Bouvines in Flanders (p. 227). On John's return negotiations were opened with the barons, but failed, and the confederated lords occupied London. 121 5. Magna Charta granted by John at Runnymede. June The provisions of this charter applied to the commons 15-23. as well as to the nobles and clergy, and directed that its benefits should reach the lower tenants.^ Principal provisions : 1. Ratification of Henry's charter. 2. Security for personal freedom ; no freeman should '' be taken, imprisoned or damaged in person or estate, but by the judgment of his peers " or " by the law of the land " (Art. 39). "^ 3. Regulation of feudal dues and obligations. 4. Regulation of national taxation ; limitation of the aid (aux- ilium) which could be collected without the consent of the great council to the three ancient and well known cases (ransom of the lord ; knighting of his eldest son ; marriage of his eldest daughter). 5. Specification of members of the great council, and of the cases for which, and manner in which it should be convened. The charter declared null and void by the Pope. Suspension of Langton. War soon broke out ; the French party among the barons, declaring the crown forfeited, bestowed it upon Louis, son of Philip 1 Stubbs, Early Plantn genets, 149. 2 Nullus liber homo capiatur vel imprisonetur aut dissaisiatur aut utlap^hetur aut exuletur aut aliquo modo destruatur, nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum mittemms, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum vel per legem terras. 234 Mediceval History, A. d» of France, who in 1216 came to England. Death of John (Octobei| 19, 1216). 1216-1272. Henry III., of Winchester, son of John. The death of John was fatal to the hopes of Louis. The^ English party which secured the coronation of the nine-year old Henry, though small at first soon outnumbered the French. The de- feat of the French fleet off Thanet determined Louis to give up the contest and return to France. Regency of William Marshall (1216- 1219). The Magna Charta was twice reissued in a modified form. After the death of William Marshall, England was governed by Peter des Roches, Pandulf, the papal legate, Hubert de Burgh, the justiciary, and archbishop Langton, who had returned and soon super- seded Pandulf as legate (1221). Second coronation (1220). Third reissue of the charter (1223). Henry's personal government began in 1227, and soon involved the country in difficulties. Heavy taxa- tion necessitated by the demands of the Pope and by the foreign policy of the king. Fall of Hubert de Burgh (1232) ; of Peter des.. Roches (1234). Marriage of Henry to Eleanor of Provence (1236). ^ Struggle over the money grants in the great council, which hence- forward was called Parliament. Papal exactions of enormous sums of money. Of the French possessions of the Angevines Henry had retained J only Aquitaine and Gascony. 1253. Return of Simon of Montfort, earl of Leicester (son of Simon of Montfort, who had led the crusade against the Albi- ■ genses), to England from the government of Gascony. Simon soon ' took a prominent part in the parliamentary struggle which now as- ' sumed formidable proportions. I 1258. Parliament of Oxford. The barons presented a list of griev- •'| ances, the Provisions of Oxford, the reforms demanded in which were to be carried out under a commission of twenty-four barons. Permanent council of fifteen barons to meet three times a year. 1263. Outbreak of war between the king and the barons. Arbitra- tion of Louis IX. of France (1264). Provisions of Oxford i| annulled. This decision resulted in a renewal of the war. The king :. and his son Edward were defeated in the 1264. Battle of Lewes. May 14. Treaty (Mise of Lewes) between the parties. Native coun- selors presented and a new council arranged by a parlia- ment in which four knights from each shire were added to the clergy and nobility. Council of Nine. 1265. Parliament of Simon of Montfort, the first Parliament Jan. 20. to which representatives of the boroughs were called (ye»; this did not become a legal custom until in the next reign). Edward released. Arms were again taken up. In the 1265. Battle of Evesham, Aug. 4. Earl Simon was defeated and fell on the field. Death of Henry (Nov. 16, 1272). In this reign the begging friars came to England. Revival of jA. D. The North, 235 Scholasticism. Fame of Oxford. Roger Bacon, author of Opus Magnum, "the encyclopsedia of the thirteenth century." Mathew Paris. Revival of Welsh literature. Mabinogion. Geoffrey of Mon- mouth. Romances of ^r^Aur. {See p. 263.) § 5. THE NORTH. Denmark. {Seep, 208.) 1134r-1397. The extinction of the direct line of Estridsen (p. 208) was followed by a period of confusion and wars over the succession {Erik Emun, 1134-1137, Erik Lamb, 1137-1147) until, 1157-1182. "Waldemar I., the Great, was elected to the tlirone. Subjugation of the Wends, who aad long harassed Denmark. Capture of Ancona on the island of Riigen. Suppression of a revolt in Skaania, caused by the severity of bishop Absalon. Waldemar's son 1182-1202. KnutVI. was even more successful than his father, and refused to icknowledge the suzerainty of the emperor, Frederic Barbarossa, as VValdemar had done. Defeat of a naval expedition of the Wends, '(V^ho received aid from the emperor, by bishop Absalon (1184) ; Hither Pommerania submitted, as did a part of Mecklenburg. Knut, ' King of the Slavs." Expedition to Esthonia. War with the count ,;f Holstein and other German princes. Conquest of Liibeck and Ham- mrg. Capture of Adolf of Holstein. Quarrel with Philip Augustus )f France over his treatment of Ingebord (p. 226). Knut was suc- •eeded by his brother, l202-1241. Waldemar II., the Conqueror, the first portion of whose reign forms one of the most bril- iant epochs of Danish history. Adolf of Holstein released on condi- ion of ceding all Holstein to Waldemar, who granted it as a fief to lis nephew, Albert of Orlamund. Unsuccessful interference in Nor- vay and Sweden. Conquest of Oesel and of a large part of Prussia. .i\ return for his recognition of Frederic II. over his rivals as em- )eror, Waldemar obtained a cession of all conquests in Germany, lortli of the Elbe and the Elde {Holstein, Lauenburg, part of Meck- enhurg). Expedition to Esthonia. The Danneborg, or national tandard (1219). Waldemar's power fell more rapidly than it was cqiiired. In 1223 the king and his son were treacherously captured ly Henry, count of Schwerin, and imprisoned in the castle of Danne- org, in Hanover, for three years. Waldemar obtained his release by he payment of a heavy ransom, and the renunciation of all his con- [uests south of the Elbe, and in the Slavic countries. Holstein eded to Adolf the Young (1225). This renunciation was annulled by he Pope, and Waldemar tried to regain Holstein, but was defeated a. the battle of BornhcEved (1227). The rest of his reign was •asaed for the most part in peace. He died in 1241. Of all las con' 286 Mediceval History, a. d. quests only Riigen, some places in Mecklenburg, Prussia, Estho- nia, remained to Denmark. Waldemar's code of laws. Waldemar was twice married : 1. Margrete of Bohemia, a well-beloved princess (Dagmar). 2. Berengaria of Portugal, by whom he had three sons who mounted the throne in succession. Waldemar committed the political blunder of dividing the kingdom among his sons so that the nominal king possessed only a small part of the monarchy ; Schleswig was conferred on Abel. This led to disputes, so that the following period was one of civil strife, wars of succession, murder, and exile of kings. Erik (1241-1250). Abel (1250-1252). In this reign the towns began to send representatives to the council {Danehof). Christopher (1252-1259). War about Schleswig, the king claiming that it had been granted to Abel as a personal fief, while the descen- dants of Abel declared that it was an hereditary fief. Conflict with the archbishop Jacob Erlandsen. Erik Glipping (1259-1286), Oc- cupation of Schleswig. Erik Menved (1286-1319). Regency of the queen mother. Miserable condition of Denmark. The larger part of the kingdom granted out to Danish and German nobles. Chris- topher II. (1320^1334). The nobles and clergy extorted from the king certain capitulations, which materially weakened the power of the crown for 340 years. Confirmation of privileges of the clergy. No ecclesiastic could be tried in a secular court, neither could the tenants of ecclesiastical foundations. No bishop could be imprisoned without the consent of the Pope. The property and persons of the clergy were free from all taxation. The nobles could not be com- pelled to follow the king beyond the limits of the kingdom ; if they were captured in war the crown was obliged to ransom them within a year, or lose the right of holding them to military service. The king could declare war only with the consent of the nobles and clergy. No person could be imprisoned without having been tried and con- demned in a local court and in the king's court, whence an appeal lay to the national Diet. Laws could be made, repealed, and amended, only upon the motion of the nobles in the annual Diet, and with the consent of the whole nation. Peasants must not be unjustly treated by the king's agents, nor compelled to carry the king's baggage be- yond their own township. Commerce should be free and not bur- dened with extraordinary dues. War with Geert, count of Holstein, who invaded the kingdom, and with the aid of discontented nobles drove Christopher from the kingdom. Election of Waldemar, duke of Schleswig ; soon after, Christopher, by great concessions, acquired the crown again. Eight years of anarchy (1332-1340). Skaania, Hal- land, Bleking attached themselves to Sweden. After the death of Geert, the youngest son of Christopher, 1340-1375. Waldemar III., Attadag, was made king, and devoted himself to acquiring, by pur- chase or by force, the alienated crown lands, in which he met with success. In 1359 Waldemar regained Skaania, Halland, and Bleking from the Swedish king, Magnus Smek, and affianced his daughter Margaret to Hakon, son of the Swedish king. Denmark restored to her boundaries as they had been under Waldemar L A. D. The North. 237 This success was followed by a general war with Sweden, Mecklen- burg, the Uanseatic League, etc., which in spite of the sack of Copen- hagen ended disadvantageously for tlie Hanse towns, 1363. In 1368, however, the Hansa, in alliance with Holstein, Mecklenburg, and Sweden, began war again, and in 1370 obtained from the Danish es- tates a treaty which secured for them the most extensive commercial privileges. In 1372 Waldemar accepted tliis peace of Stralsund. In 1375 Waldemar died. Passing over the claim of Albert, duke of Mecklenburg, the son of Waldemar's eldest daughter, the estates elected the son of his youngest daughter Olafj (1376-1387), then six years of age. In 1380 Olaf succeeded his father Hakon as king of Norway, and both lands were well governed by his mother Margaret, the regent, who, after Olaf's death, 1387, was elected queen m both countries. In 1388, Sweden revolted against the king, Albert, and Margaret accepted an offer of the crown. In the battle of FalkcE- ping (1389), Albert was defeated and captured. In 1397, the three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar. (See p. 276.') Sweden. {See p. 208.) 1066-1397. After the death of Stenkil (p. 208), the country was distracted by wars between the Svea and the Gauta, which lasted, with slight inter- ruptions, for two hundred years ; whereby the people suffered greatly, the free peasants disappeared, and a nobility of warriors arose which was exempt from taxation and possessed its own juris- diction. These nobles acquired supremacy in the Diet, and re- duced the power of the king to a shadow. Under Erik IX., the Saint (1150-1162), Christianity was introduced throughout the king- dom. Establislmient of the archbishopric of Upsala (1163). The family of the Bonder, which began with Erik the Saint, became ex- tinct with Erik Eriksson Lcespe (1223-1250). Under this family the power of the clergy had so increased that in 1248 they were forbid- den to take the oath of allegiance to the king. At the same time celibacy was introduced. The Bonder dynasty was succeeded by that of the Folkunger, which came to the throne with Waldemar (1250- l'J75), son of Birger Jarl, who continued until his death (1266) the actual ruler of Sweden, as he had been under Erik Lcespe. Founda- tion of Stockholm (1255). Birger assigned his other sons large duchies in Sweden, thereby planting the seeds of future discord. In 1275, Waldemar was imprisoned by his brother Magnus, duke of Sodermanland, and remained a captive until his death (1302). Mag- nus (1279-1290) proved a good ruler and left a prosperous kingdom to his son Birger (1290-1319). The regent Torkel governed wisely until his fall in 1306, when war broke out between Birger and his brothers Erik and Waldemar. In 1317 Birger made his brothers pris - oners and starved them to death. This caused a popular revolt which expelled Birger and placed on the throne the son of Erik, Magnus Smek (1320-1363). During the regency Norivag fell to Magnus, through his maternal grandfather Hakon, and Skaania, 238 Mediaeval History. A. d. Halland, and Bleking, which belonged to Denmark, but had been pawned to Holstein, submitted to Magnus, who paid the mortgage. Magnus, after he became of age (1333) made a poor ruler. In 1360, he surrendered Skaania, Halland, Bleking to Waldemar Attadag of Denmark, and betrothed his son Hakon to Waldemar's daughter Margaret. In 1365 A Ihert of Mecklenburg was proclaimed king, and in the battle of Enkoeping (1365) captured Magnus who was released in 1371 upon making renunciation of the crown of Sweden. Albert (1365-1388) was king in name only, the power bemg in the hands of the nobles. In 1388 the nobles deposed the king and offered the crown to Margaret of Norway and Denmark, by whom it was ac- cepted. At the battle of Falkoeping Albert was made prisoner and, after an imprisonment of six years, renounced the crown. In 1397 Sweden jomed Norway and Denmark m the Union of Calmar. (Seep.!B76.) Norway. (Seep. 209.) 1103-1397. After the death of Magnus Barfod in Ireland (p. 209), his three sons Ejsten, Sigurd, and Olaf, reigned in conjunction until the death of Ejsten and Olaf left Sigurd sole ruler. Sigurd made a pilgrim- age to Jerusalem. He was followed by his son Magnus the Blind, who in 1134 was obliged to cede half the kingdom to Harald Gilley who came from Ireland and claimed to be a son of Magnus Barfod. There followed a wretched period of civil war ; strife between the Birkebenerne, or national party, and the Baglerne, or clerical party, in which the former finally got the upper hand. Magnus V. (1161— 1184), Sverre (1177-1202), Hakon III, (1202-1204), Guttorm the child (1204), Inge Baardsen (120^1217). 1217 (1223)-1262. Hakon IV. son of Hakon III., grandson of Sverre. He crushed his rivals, weakened the power of the clergy, restored quiet to the country, and raised Norway once more to an influential position among European nations. Conquest of Iceland (1260) and submission of Greenland. Hakon died in 1262, after suffering a defeat at the hands of the Scots in an expedition which he had undertaken against Scotland. He was followed by his son Magnus Lagaboeter (1262-1280) who ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides to Scotland. Collection and publication of a new code of laws (1264-1279). Erik Priest-hater (1280-1299). War with Denmark over the dowry of his mother, Ingeborg. War with the Hanse towns, wherein the king was worsted and obliged to grant the towns full privileges in Norway, and to join the league. Death of Margaret (" The Maid of Norway "), daughter of Erik, and granddaughter on her mother's side of Alexander III. of Scot- land, wliile on her way to claim that crown after the latter's death. Hakon V. (1299-1319). War with Sweden and Denmark. Dying without male issue, he left the crown to his daughter's son, Magnus, king of Sweden, who ascended the throne in 1320. In 1350 Magnus bestowed the crown of Norway on his son Hakon VI. (1350-1380), who in 1362 became co-regent for Sweden. In 1363 Hakon married A. D. The North. 239 03 ^■ ^^i oa 2 CO IT ^ 1« ^9 ■ SB ir CO • t* o OS a E?' 00^- co CO Co is S ^ f^a-S H- «. a M 8<^ • W2 a S'Cc I • ^ 'to 00 c''^ -'PS fl t I Q I OS g -*• ^1 IP ^ I- 240 Mediceval History, A. d Margaret the heiress of Denmark. Hakon was succeeded by his minor son Olaf (1380-1387), whose mother Margaret administered the kingdom of Norway as she had done that of Denmark, which Olaf had inherited in 1376. After Olaf 's death in 1387 Margaret (1387- 1412) was recognized as queen of both Norway and Denmark. The union of the two monarchies was completed by the Union of Calmar and endured until 1814. At the Union of Calmar (1397) Sweden was united with the two kingdoms. (^See p. 276.\ § 6. SPANISH PENINSULA. {See.p. £09.) Arabic Spain was conquered from the Morabethes or Almoravides (p. 209) by the Almohades about the middle of the twelfth century. Since the defeat at Tolosa (1212) steady decline of the power of the Arabians, who since the reign of Alfonso X. of Castile were con- fined to the kingdom of Granada. 1095. County of Portugal, between the Duero and Minho, granted as a Castilian fief to the Burgundian count Henry, whose son liberated himself from the overlordship of Castile, and called him- self King of Portugal (1140). Avagon and Catalonia (county of Barcelona) united (1137). Leon and Castile separated again (1157) ; finally definitely united (1230). About 1150. Origin of the three orders of knighthood which took their names from the cities guarded by them ; 1. San Jago di Compostella (Galieia), 2. Alcantara (on the Tajo), 3. Calatrava (on the Guadiana. {See p. 275.) § 7. THE EAST. Eastern Empire. {See p. 210.) 1057-1185. Eastern emperors of the houses of the Ducas and the Comnenes. 1185-1204. Dynasty of Angelus. 1204^1261. Latin empire (p. 216). (Seep. 278.) The Mongols. 1206. The Mongols elected on the Amur, Temuchin, their chief. He took the honorary title Jenghiz Khan, under which, rather than under his true name, he is known in history. The Mongols con- quered a part of China, destroyed the empire of the Chowaresmians, which reached from India to the Caspian Sea, and subjugated south- ern Russia, Temuchin's grandson Batu made plundering expeditions through Russia, defeated the Poles and fought the 1241. Battle of "Wahlstatt, against the Germans under Henry the Pious, duke of Liegnitz. The Mongols, although victorious, retired to the East, and ravaged Hungary. A Christian army under Wenzel, king of Bohemia, cut them off from Austria. A. D. The East. 241 The greater part of the Mongols went back to Asia, but Russia was under their sway till 1480. 1258. The Mongols conquered Bagdad and destroyed the Caliphate. Their immense empire separated into Khanates, {China, Kliau- ate of Kaptchak on the Volga, Jagatai in Turkestan, Iranf etc.) (Seep. 278.) India. {See p. 211.) 1206-1500. The Afghan empire broke up after the death of Muhammad Ghori (p. 211), and the vicegerency of the Punjab and Hindustan became an independent sultanate under Kutah-ud-din, sultan of Delhi (1206- 1210), who was originally a slave, and founded the slave dynasty (1206-1288). He extended the Mohammedan rule as far as the Brahma-putra. Under his successors the sultanate suffered from Mon- gol invasions. Allah-ud-din, viceroy of Oude, who had made darmg expeditions into the Deccan, murdered the sultan Jeldl-ud-din, his uncle, and made himself sultan. Conquest of Guzerat. Capture of Chitor in Rajputana (1300). Conquest of portions of the Deccan. After the death of Allah-ud-din (1316) revolts occurred which were suppressed by the Turkish governor of the Punjab, Tughlak, who mounted the throne of Delhi, and founded a new line of sultans, who transferred their residence to Tughlakahad. Tuglath was succeeded by liis son Muhammad Tughlak (1325-1351), who was obliged to pur- chase the retreat of the Mongols from the Punjab. A terrible famine induced him to remove the population of Delhi to Deoghur, and the misery of those who survived the journey of 700 miles induced him to send them back again. Large issue of copper coinage, followed by financial panic. Rebellions broke out everywhere, and the Mo- hammedan empire separated into numerous small states. Firuz-Shah (1350-1388). 1398. Invasion of Hindustan by Timiir Shah. Allah-ud-din had ex- tended his power over a large part of the south, but the Hindu revolt of 1316 had shattered it. The southern part of the peninsula was comprised in the Hindu empire of Vijayanagar (Narsinga), about 1300. In 1350, on the death of Muhammad Tughlak, the Moham- medan army in the Deccan had set up a sultan of its own, whose capital was at Kulbarga. These Bahmani sultans were soon in- volved in a series of horrible wars with the empire of Vijayanagar. The Bahmani empire endured imtil 1500, when it was broken up into five kingdoms. {Seep.SoS.) China. {Seep. 211.) 1101-1398. The Khitan Tatars having established themselves firmly in Leaou' tsung, Hwy-tsung (1101-1126) conceived the idea of inviting the Neu-che Tatars to take the field against them ; they did so and ex- pelled the Khitan, but occupied the province themselves, and tlience spread over Chili-li, Shen-se, Shun-se, and Ho-nan. Under Kaou' L 16 242 MedicBval History, A. d. tsung (1127-1163) the Neu-che Tatars, or as they now called them- selves, the Kins, reached to the Yang-tse-Keang. The new empire of the Kins invited attack from the Mongol Tatars, who experienced at this period a wonderful development of power. In 1213 Jenghiz Khan invaded the Kin province of Leaou-tsung; ninety cities were razed to the ground. After the death of Jenghiz (1227) his son Ogdai (1227-1241) continued the work of conquest. 1232. Fall of the EZin dynasty, brought about by an alliance of the Mongols with the independent kingdom of Sung, in the south. Mangu (1248-1259), son of the warrior Too-le, was succeeded by his brother, 1259-1294. Kublai Khan, Mongol emperor. The complete fall of Sung in 1280 left Kublai lord over all China, as well as ruler of almost all the rest of Asia, excepting Hindustan and Arabia. China was never more illus- trious or powerful. Visit of Marco Polo, the Venetian, to the court of Kublai. Unsuccessful attack upon Japan (1281, p. 243). The immediate successors of Kublai were men of little note : Yuen- ching (1294-1307), Woo-tung (1307-1311). Jin-tsung (1311-1320) endeavored to blend the two races, and admitted many Chinese to official positions. After his death matters went from bad to worse, until Shun-te (1333-1368) was driven from the empire by Choo- yuen-chang, the son of a Chinese laborer, who, in 1368, proclaimed himself emperor under the name of 1368-1398. Hung- woo, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Subjugation of Tatary. {See p. 278.) Japan. \See p. 213.) 1156-1392. 1156. The wars of Gen and Hei, which began in this year, are very famous in Japanese annals. In the first battle (1156) the Taira (Heishe) were victorious, under Kiyomori, and obtained control of the royal palace. Exiled from Kioto, the Minamoto (Genji), under the enterprising brothers, Yoritomo and Yoshitsune, founded a power in the plain of the Koanto, with Kamakura as their capital. The death of Kiyomori (1181) was the signal for the downfall of the house of Hei. Kioto was captured by the Minamoto. The final struggle occurred in the 1185. Naval battle of Dan no nra, near Shimonoseki. The Taira were utterly defeated, many perished in the fight, and the family v/as exterminated throughout the islands, save a few who, escaping to Kiushiu, transmitted their name to the present day. Secure in victory, Yoritomo left the Mikado and the kuge in Kioto undisturbed, while he strengthened his power at Kamakura. Five men of his family were appointed governors of provinces, an office previously filled only by civilians. A special tax was levied through- out the empire for the support of standing garrisons in all the prov- .D. The East 243 ices, and these troops were under military rulers of his own race, ho shared the government of the province with the civil governor, id were subordinate to Yoritomo himself. In 1192 Yoritomo was ;)pointed Sei-i Tai Shogun, or generalissimo He was henceforward uown as the Shogun. With the death of Yoritomo (1199) fell the 3wer of the Minamoto. 200-1333. Supremacy of the family of Hojo. The founder of the Hojo ascendency was Tokimasa, father-m-law of Yoritomo, ho exercised absolute control over the degenerate descendants of lat able Shogun. None of the Hojo ever held the office of Shogun, it, vassals of a vassal, they ruled the Shogun and the Mikado as oritomo had ruled the Mikado alone. The line of Yoritomo ended 1219, when the Shogunate was transferred to the Fujiivara, who 3ld it until 1251, when their vassal-masters handed it over to one of le sons of the reigning Mikado, in whose family it remained until 533. Since the conquest of China by the Mongol-Tatars, the victors had ipt the subjugation of Japan steadily in view. Embassy after em- issy had demanded submission and been repulsed ; the last, in 1279, as beheaded. J81. Invasion of Japan by the Mongol Tatars. Destruction of the armada by a typhoon; defeat and massacre of the survivors upon the island of Taka. By this repulse Hojo Tokimune won great praise ; he was, indeed, a an of great capacity and good sense. After him, however, the Hojo •ew more and more outrageous in their treatment of the Mikado itil a revolt broke out, headed by Kusunoki-Masashige and Nitta oshisada, which ended in the 33. Capture and destruction of Kamakura, and the exter- mination of the Hojo family. For a time (1333-1336) the Mikado Go-Daigo (1319-1338) was onarch in fact as in name, but his weakness cost him his newly and authority. Ashikaga Takauji, one of the leaders in the revolt against the Hojo, volted against his new master, seized Kioto, and set up a rival ikado who appointed him Sei-i Tai Shogun. 36-1392. War of the Chrysanthemums, between the false Mikado at Kioto and the true Mikado at 7sMno, each displaying the imperial emblem, the chrysanthemum. sace was concluded in 1392 under the condition that the imperial rone should be occupied by mikados taken alternately from the ral houses. The northern branch died out after a few generations. During this period (since the establishment of the Shogun at *'o(o) feudalism reached its full development. The country was (rided among the soldiers of the Shogun, who held their estates as Ifs from the Shogun, to whom tliey owed service. Gradually the nicultural and other classes became attached to certain of these llitary lords, daimios, a.m\ received their lands from them as fiefs. 'le taxes which supported the Mikado and tlie court were absorbed \ the daimios, and the kuge was left to abject poverty. (^See p. 278.) 244 Mediceval History, a. i FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONCLUSION OF THE CRUSADES TO THE DI5i COVERY OF AMERICA. 1270-1492. § 1. GERMANY. {See p. 22t 1273-1347. Kings and Emperors of various house 1273-1291. Rudolf I., count of Hapsburg and Ky burg, landgrave in Alsace, the most powerful prince in Helvetia, wi elected by the three archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier and tl count Palatine of the Rhine, through the influence of his cousin, tl burggrave Frederic of Hohenzollern. Strict enforcement of the public peace. War with Ottocar, kii of Bohemia, who had taken possession of Austria, after the extinctic of the Babenberg line (1246), had reconquered Styria from the Hui garians, and had inherited Carinthia and Carniola. Ottocar was p^ under the ban and his fiefs proclaimed forfeited. Rudolf toe Vienna, and was on the point of crossing the Danube when Ottoc« agreed to a treaty (Nov., 1276), whereby he abandoned Austriv iStyria, Carinthia and Carniola^ but received Bohemia and Moravi again as fiefs of the empire. Ottocar however soon renewed tli; war. 1278. Victory of Rudolf on the Marchfeld (net. Vienna). Death of Ottocar. Peace with the guardian of h son Wenzel who received Bohemia and, later, Moravia. Developmei of the family power of the Hapsburgs. Austria, Styria, Carinthu given as imperial fiefs to Rudolf's sons, Albert and Rudolf. Carii thia was given to Meinhard, count of Tyrol, Rudolf's brother-in-la\ Campaigns of Rudolf in Burgundy and Swabia, particularly again; Eherhard of Wiirtemberg. In Swabia since the fall of the Hohei staufens the most powerful princes were the counts of Wtirteii berg, and the margraves of Baden. The ducal title in Swabia d( scended to Rudolf's son Rudolf, and from him to his son Job (Parricida), but this title designated only authority over the Hap; burg estates in Swabia. Formation of a great number of fiefs liel immediately of the empire in Swabia. Through the exertions of th archbishop of Mainz, Rudolf's son Albert was not elected his succef sor, but the choice fell on a relative of the archbishop, 1292-1298. Adolf of Nassau, whose reign was devoted t the attempt to establish a dynastic power by the acquisition c Thuringia and Meissen (xn. opposition to the brothers Frederic and Diezmann). Adolf was deposed at the Diet of Mainz, b the influence of his former patron, the archbishop of Maini 1 The title "with the bitten cheek" appears to hav^e been a later invention his contemporaries called this Frederic, son of Margaret, daughter of Frederi II., by the surname " the Cheerful." See Wegele, Fried, der Freidige, 186^ i, D. Germany. 245 without the approval of the archbishops of Colore and Trier and the count Palatine. He fell at Gollheim in personal con- flict with .298-1308. Albert I., of Austria, son of Rudolf I. who had been elected king by the opposing party. Alliance with ^hilip the Fair, king of France, against the Pope. Albert tried in ,ain to recover Holland as a vacant fief of the empire. Alliance of he three ecclesiastical electors and the count Palatine against the ing, who was victorious (1301), and reduced the princes to obedience siege of the castle of Bingen). Unsuccessful wars with Bohemia, nd with Frederic and Diezmann of Meissen, who defeated the im- erial army under the burggrave of Nuremberg at Lucka, not far from atenburg"(1307). Albert was murdered by his nephew John (Parricida) between the lar and Reuss, near the Hapshurg. His widow Elizabeth and his aughter Agnes took terrible vengeance for tliis murder. Through lie influence of the archbishop of Trier the princes elected as king is brother 308-1313. Henry VII., count of Liitzelnburg or Lux- emburg, a half-Frenchman. 309. The Swiss Cantons received from Henry VII. doc- tme 3. umentary confirmation of their immediate feudal re- lation to the empire. Origin of the Swiss Confederacy. Of the inhabitants of the cantons, those dwelling in Schioyz seem to ,ve been, for the most part, free peasants ; while in Uri and Unter- {dden the majority were in a condition of servitude, as regarded ither their persons or their estates. The most extensive lando\vners 'ere monasteries (e. g. the Frauenmiinster in Ziirich), and nobles re- ding out of the country, like the counts of Lenzburg and those of hapshurg. After the extinction of the former (1172), at any rate nee the thirteenth century, the counts of Hapsburg exercised, under arious legal titles as landgraves or advocates, full jurisdiction and resided in the assemblies. Under the imperfectly developed admin- tration of that time, the holder of these privileges was considered \id actual ruler of the country. As early as the first half of the thirteenth century the cantons had isisted the efPorts of the Hapsburgers to develop their stewardship to an actual sovereignty over them ; indeed they had even attempted part to withdraw themselves from the stewardship of the Haps- iirgers. In 1231 Henry, regent for his father Frederic II. in Ger- any ("p. 224), granted the people of Uri a charter which removed em from under the protection of the Hapsburgers and replaced em under that of the empire. In 1240 Frederic II. gave the peo- e of Schwyz a charter which promised them an immediate tenure om the empire. After the middle of thr^ thirteenth century, e Hapsburgers were nevertheless still in possession of their office 246 Mediceval History, A. d. of steward or advocate (Vogt) for the cantons. Rudolf I. seems to have recognized the charter of Uri, but not that of Schwyz. Imme- diately upon his death, on Aug. 1, 1291, the cantons f/n, Schwyz, and Nidwalden (which was afterwards united with the towns of Obwalden under the name Unterwalden) concluded a perpetual league. Al- though intended only to insure the maintenance of existing condi- tions, this league is to be regarded as the begimiing of the Con- federacy. By making shrewd use of the confusion that followed in Germany, but not without many changes of fortune (after the battle of GoUheim (p. 245) the cantons were obliged to recognize the su- premacy of the Hapsburgers), the confederates in 1309 attained the' object for which their ancestors had striven. The Swiss narrative, to which the popular poetry has added many • ornaments, and which condenses the facts of the gradual acquirement of an immediate relation to the empire into a short space of timcj and exaggerates their effects, can no longer be regarded as historical i in view of the results of modern investigation.^ It is first found in chronicles which were written between two and three hundred years after the events, and is often contradicted by the documents.^ Neither the Oath on the Riltli (1307, Werner Stauffacher, Walther Fiirst, Ar-, nold Melchthal), nor the expulsion of the bailiffs on the 1st of January^ 1308, is historically authenticated. | The Swiss confederacy was not formed by the exertions of three or oi; thirty individuals, but was the result of many historical events which united in powerfully assisting the energetic and enduring efforts of the inhabitants of the cantons to free themselves from all foreign su-i premacy. As reo-ards the story of Tell, it is now established that neither ther shooting of the apple from the head of his son, nor the murder of the bailiff Gessler in the hollow way at Kiissnacht can be in any way re- garded as an historical event. It has been proved that among the Kiissnacht bailiffs of that time there was no Gessler. The legend of the shooting of the apple occurs five times outside of the cantons,, agreeing almost to the wording of the answer which the archer gives the tyrant : in Norway, in Iceland, in Denmark, in Holstein, and on the middle Rhine, and, with an altered motive, a sixth time in Eng- land. Hence it is tolerably certain that we have here to do with a common Germanic tradition. Moreover, the resemblance of the Swiss version to the elder narrative of Saxo Grammaticus (twelfth century) of the shot of Toko, the Dane, who is said to have lived in the tenth century, is so striking as to render it probable that the Swiss chroniclers had that historian before them. Whether a man of the name of Tell ever lived in Uri is a question which cannot be answered with certainty either in the affirmative or the negative.^ It is one, moreover, which has but little interest when 1 A. Huber: die Waldstdtte Uri, Schrvyz, Unterwalden, 1S61; and 'Roch- holz, Tell und Gessler in Sac/e und Geschic'hte, 1877. 2 The honor of having first used this fact after a true scientific fashion to dis- prove the tradition belongs to the Swiss historian Kopp ( Urhunden zur Ge- schichte der eidgenossischen Bunde, 1835 and 1857; Reichsgeschichte, 1845-1858). 8 According to the investigations of Kopp, who examined all the archives in Uri, and Kochholz (p. 257. note), the latter is almost certainly the case. L. D. Germany, 247 t is admitted that the main features of the legend are unhistorical. t is noteworthy that Tell, even in the legend, plays no part at all in lie I'ommon insurrection, after the murder of the bailiff. It was not iitil later, when the Swiss had actually worked out their freedom, hat his deed was invented, and surrounded by the halo of popular klief, his name made a symbol of Swiss energy and love of freedom .'he Tell chapels and the memorial festivals are no proof that Tell was a historical personage, since the erection of the former and the estab- ishnient of the latter can be shown to date from a time when the tradi- ion was already fully developed. The document concerning a public leeting of 1388, when more than a hundred people are said to have eclared that they knew Tell, is evidently a later interpolation. ,310. Henry's son, John, was placed on the throne of Bohemia by the national assembly, in spite of the claims of the Hapsburg- ers, whereby the Liitzelnburgers acquired a family power. 310-1313. Henry's Roman expedition. He was crowned king of Italy in Pa via, and emperor in Rome (1312). 314-1347. Ludwig of Upper Bavaria at war with 314-1330. Frederic of Austria, son of Albert. 315. Victory of the Swiss confederates in the pass between lake 'ov. 15. Ageri and the mountain Morgarten over Leopold of Aus- tria, Frederic's brother. The flower of the Austrian chivalry (1500 in number) slaughtered, "ec. 9. Renewal of the league between Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden at Brunnen. 516. Recognition of the immediate dependence of the cantons upon the empire, by king Ludwig. During the fourteenth id fifteenth centuries the people generally bought oft' the ever minishing rights of the landed monasteries. Rapid growth of the ague of the confederates, which was joined by one after another of e remaumig districts, who thus withdrew themselves from the control the territorial lords. At the close of the fifteenth century Austria ul been entirely driven out of the lands south of the Rhine. After {10 no imperial bailiff is mentioned in the cantons, which in conse- tence of the weakness of the imperial power soon became republics, that the proclamation of the independence of Switzerland in the 3ace of Westphalia (1648) was only the legal recognition of a state things which had long existed in fact. 122. Battle at Ampfing near Muhldorf Frederic of Austria de- feated and captured (Schweppermann ; the story is probably unhistoric). '24. Ludwig gave the mark Brandenburg, which had reverted by the extinction of the Askanian line, to his son Ludivig, whom he afterwards married with Margaret Maultasch, the heiress of Tyrol and Carinthia. '25. Frederic set at liberty upon renouncing his claim to the tlirone. He surrendered himself again as prisoner, was made co-regent by Ludwig, died 1330. 27-1330. Ludwig's Roman expedition. Crowned emperor m Roma (Anti-pope Nicholas V.) 248 MedicBval History. A. d, Th© lilectoral meeting at Rense (1338) declared every legally elected German king to be thereby constituted Roman emperor, even without papal coronation. The violent means adopted by Ludwig to increase his domestic power led, a year before his death, to the election of Charles, son of John, king of Bohemia (f 1346 in the battle of Crecy). Charles was not universally recognized until after Ludwig's death. 1347-1437. Emperors of the Luxemburg — Bohe- mian line. 1347-1378. Charles IV. A prince with nothing knightly in his character, but wise in statecraft, and shi'ewd in calculation ; a scholar (he studied at Paris and Bologna, spoke and wrote Bohemian, German, Latin, French, Italian). War with the Bavarian party. In opposition to Ludwig there appeared in Brandenburg ih.Q false Waldemar (1348-1350), who was assisted by Charles. The emperor's first care was his hereditary kingdom, Bohemia (whence he was styled by Maximilian L, "Bohemia's father, the Holy Roman Empire's arch-step-father"). The emperor in 1348 founded a university, after the pattern of that in Paris, at Prague, the first in Germany. The Bavarian party elected in opposition 1349. Gunther of Sch-warzburg, king of Germany, but he died in Jan. June of the same year (poisoned ?). Plague (Black Death) in Germany, and throughout nearly all Europe. Persecutions of the Jews. Flagellants. 1353. Berne joined the Swiss confederacy which now included Uri, Schioyz, Untencalden, Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and BernCf the so-called eight old cantons. X354-1355. Charles's first expedition to Rome. He was crowned I emperor at Rome with a humiliating ceremony. Silesia and Lower Lusatia (^Niederlausitz) united with Bohemia. 1356. Grolden BuU.^ Fundamental law of the empire. The election of the emperor was definitively intrusted to the seven electors, who had practically exercised this right for a long time ; ^ three ecclesiastics : 1. Archbishop of Mainz (arch-chancellor of Germany) ; 2. Archbishop of Trier (arch-chancellor of Burgundy) ; 3. Archbishop of Cologne (arch-chancellor of Italy) ; four secu- lar: 4. King of Bohemia (arch-seneschal); 5. Coxmt Palatine of the Rhine (arch-steward); 6. Duke of Saxon-"Wittenberg (arch-mar» shall); 7. Margrave of Brandenburg (arch-chamberlain). Estab- lishment of the indivisibility and inalienableness of the electoral states, which were made hereditary in the male line and received cer- tain regalia (privilegium de non appellando, etc.). The electoral vote went with the land. 1 So called from the gold case which contained the seal. 2 The electoral vote had been disputed h(>tween the two Saxon lines and the two lines ofWittelsbach. It was now assigned to Saxon-Wittenberg SiU^ Uie County Palatine, but refused to Saxon-Lauenburg and Bavaria. L. D. Germany. 249 363. Austria acquired Tyrol. The heiress of Tyrol, Margaret Maultasch, who outlived her husband, the Bavarian Ludwig, 1{ ctor of Brandenburg (p. 247), and her only son, Meinhard, gave ler county after the latter's death to duke Rudolf of Austria. 308. Second expedition of Charles to Italy in alliance with the Pope against the Visconti. .373. By the treaty of Furstenwalde, Otto the Finne (lazy), the last Bavarian margrave of Brandenburg, transferred the mark to Charles IV., m return for an annuity. Leagues of the Cities. The Hanseatic League. The union of several seaports and trad- Qg cities, between the Baltic and the Elbe, formed in the thirteenth icntury (between 1255 and 1262 ?), was the begimiing of this league.* Jeparate alliance between Luheck and Hamburg. In the fourteenth century the league attained wide extent and freat power. After this time the name Hansa (i. e. trade guild) was fommonly applied to the league. Since 1350 over ninety cities ex- fending from the mouth of the Schelde to Esthonia, besides many nland cities (e. g. Magdeburg^ Berlin^ Thorn), belonged to the Hansa. Object of the alliance : common defense, security of sea and land •outes, settlement of disputes between members by arbitration, ac- mirement and maintenance of trading privileges in foreign countries. Japital of the league : Liibeck. Division of the league into three, ^terwards four, quarters : 1. Prussian and Livonian; principal town, Oantzig ; 2. Wendic, including also the cities of Mecklenburg, PoTn- fierania, and the Marches ; chief town, Liibeck; 3. Saxon ; chief town, Brunswick ; 4. Westphclian ; chief town, Cologne. Principal trading jround, all northern Europe. Principal trading stations : Novgorod^ Stockholm, Wisby (in Gothland), Bergen, Bruges, London. Ships of var {Orlogschiffe). .361. War with Waldemar IV., king of Denmark, under the conduct of the burghermaster of Liibeck, John Wittenborg, who captured fud plundered Copenhagen, but was afterwards defeated before HeU ingborg, and, in consequence, beheaded at Liibeck. .367-1370. Second war with Waldemar IV. The king compelled to fly. Copenhagen, Helsingor, and other cities conquered. A ;lorious and advantageous peace for the Hansa, concluded at Strain und, ended the war. The League of Rhine cities, founded about the middle of the hirteenth century (league of Worms and Mainz), to insure stricter jnforcement of the public peace, comprised at various times more han seventy cities, not all upon the Rhine (e, g. Bremen, Regensburg, Nuremberg) ; both temporal and spiritual princes joined the league. The Svrabian city league concluded in 1376, particularly as a de- fense against the counts of Wiirtemberg. Eberhard the Greiner {i. e. Quarreler), also called Rauschebart. (Uhland's ballads.) 1 Unions of German merchants in foreign countries under this name had long Dcisted, the oldest being; in London. 250 Mediceval Histm-y, A. d. Associations of Nobles founded by members of the middle nobility, the imperial knights, particularly in Swabia, Franconia, and on the Rhine, to maintain their independence against the cities on the one hand and against the higher nobility, the princes of the empire, who were everywhere trying to acquire territorial sovereignty on the other. The princes of the empire were either spiritual {archbishops, three of whom were electors (p. 248), bishops, abbots), or secular {dukes, counts- palatine, margraves, hurg graves). The following associations of nobles deserve mention : the Martinsvogel (named after the day of their union), the Schlegler, the Lbwenbund. 1377. Beginning of the wars between the cities and the nobles. Battle of Reutlingen. Brilliant victory of the Swabian league (Ulm, the capital) over Ulrich, son of Eberhard. The Swabian league recognized by the emperot. 1378. Death of Charles IV., after he had so divided his lands among his three sons that Wenzel received Bohemia and Silesia {Lux- emburg fell to him afterwards also), Sigismund, the mark of Branden- burg, John, Lusatia. In Moravia two nephews of Charles, Prokop and Jobst, were margraves. The election to the German throne had already fallen upon 1378-1400. Wenzel, Charles IV.'s oldest son. 1381. The Swabian league united with that of the Rhine, and after- wards entered into alliance with a part of the Swiss confed- eracy. 1384. Wenzel proclaimed a new public peace, the so-called Heidel- herger Stallung {^idl\\n\g=^^ve^ev\e of game, etc.), for four years, which, however, was broken after the king had returned to Bohemia. Leopold of Austria, who, in the division of Hapsburg estates had re- ceived the western lands, attacked the Swiss confederacy in alliance with the south German nobility. In the 1386. Battle of Sempach {Arnold von Winkelried?),^ he was defeated and lost his life. His second son, Leopold^ renewed the war and was defeated in the 1388. Battle of Ndfels, by the men of Glarus and Schwyz, Tlie war with the cities broke out anew. Eberhard the Greiner defeated the Swabian cities at Dojfingen, where his son Ulrich fell. Rupert, count Palatme, defeated the Rhine towns at Worms. These victories restored the superiority of the princes over the cities. 1389. New public peace for eight years proclaimed by Wenzel at the council of the princes at Eger. Wenzel, who was hated in Bohemia for his cruelty and indolence, and had been several times made a prisoner in civil quarrels, was de- posed by a section of the princes of the empire (1400). He died 1419 as king of Bohemia. 1 See O. Kleissner, die Quellen zur Sempaclier Schlacht und die Winkelried- sage, 1873. I D. Germany. 251 1400-1410. Rupert, Count Palatine, who was barely able to make the royal authority respected within his own party. L401. Unsuccessful expedition to Italy. The German army was de- feated at Brescia by John Galeazzo Visconti, whom Wenzel had appointed hereditary duke of Milan (1395). 1409. In consequence of the Hussite troubles (p. 252) in Prague and a change in the university statutes, all Germans, profes- sors and students alilie (5000 in number), left the university of Prague and went to Leipzig, where Frederic the Warlike of Meissen founded a university. The coimcil of Pisa, convened to restore papal unity (Pope Gregory ^XII., against Pope Benedict XIII.), elected Alexander V. as a third Pope, not having been able to induce the former two to abdicate. 1410-1437. Sigismund, brother of Wenzel, in right of his wife, daughter of Ludwig the Great, king of Hungary, margrave of Brandenburg since the death of Charles IV. Bigismund was at first elected by the votes of Trier, the County Palatine, and Brandenburg, whose vote he himself cast through his plenipotentiary Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg. The other princes AectedJobst of Moravia (f 1411). By the skillful management of his plenipotentiary, and the recognition of the successor of Alexander V., Tohn XXIII., Sigismund gained the votes of the opposition at a second election, went to Italy, fought unsuccessfully with Venice and Milan, but induced Pope John XXIII., who was hard pressed by Sl^aples, to summon an oecumenical council in German territory. 1414-1418. Council of Constance (Kostnitz). At once a council of the empire and, in a certain way, a Euro- Dean congress, visited by Italian, German, French, English, and after- .vards by Spanish prelates (5 patriarchs, 33 cardinals, 200 arch- bishops and bishops), and by numerous princes with imposing trains, ;o that at times there were as many as 80,000 strangers in the city. The council had three objects : 1. Suppression of heresy (cau^a fidei). 2. Healing of the schism (causa unionis). 3. Reformation of ;he church (causa reformationis).^ The party of reform secured the adoption of the plan of voting )Y nations, Germans, French, English, Italian, having each one common ^ote. Pope John XXIII. , who appeared in person, was first induced o public abdication, but afterwards escaped to Schaffhausen with the lelp of Frederic, duke of Austria, who being put under the ban was "creed to submit. Upon the motion of Gerson, chancellor of the Jniversity of Paris, the council proclaimed its superiority over the °ope, but proceeded to take up the causa fidei next. Condemnation )f the doctrine of the Englishman Wiclif (1327-1384) (opposition o confession, transubstantiation, and absolution), and the chief mis- ionary and developer of this doctrine, John Hus (a Bohemian of !!Izechish descent, born at Hussinec, 1369 ; 1398, professor ; 1409, rec* I 1 Cf. Hiibler, die Konstanzer Reformation, 1867. 252 Mediceval History. a. d. tor of the University of Prague ; since 1412 under the ban), who, re- i lying upon a safe conduct from the emperor, had appeared in Con- stance. Hus burnt (July, 1415, his friend Hieronymus of Prague, 1416). After the execution of Hus, the causa unionis was again taken up. John XXIII. was deposed ; Gregory XII. abdicated voluntarily. Sigismund went to Spain to secure the abdication of Benedict XIII. During the long absence of the emperor, discussion of the causa ref- ormationis. After Sigismund's return (1417) Benedict XIII. was deposed by the council. It was now demanded by the party of reform that a thorough re- form of the church in all its parts should precede the election of a ^ new Pope ; the Ultramontanes (i. e. the Italians^, reinforced by the i Spaniards as ^ fifth nation, succeeded in bringing about an immediate » election, so that the reform fell through. Martin V. elected Pope, j Nov. 1417 (although with the condition : de fienda reformatione post \ electionem), dissolved the council 1418, as an agreement could not be \ reached. The three concordats which were concluded with the Ger- ^ mans, the English, and the Eomaus, brought about no real abolition ^ of abuses. At Constance in 1415 Sigismund invested Frederic burggrave of ' Nuremberg with the mark Brandenburg, the electoral vote, and the \ office of archchamberlain, as a reward for the important services he had done him (especially at his election), and the empire. The cere mony of investiture took place in 1417.^. 1423. After the extinction of the Askanian house, Sigismund in- • vested Frederic the Warlike, of the house of Wettin, margrave ! of Meissen, with the electoral duchy of Sascony ("Witten* \ berg). , 1419-1436. Hussite War. Terrible indignation of the Bohemians at the execution of ' Hus. His followers, the Hussites, also called Utraquists, because ! they demanded communion in both kinds, bread and wine (suh \ utraque specie), for the laity as well as for the clergy, attempted to ; spread their doctrine, which the council had rejected, by force. Re- volt in Prague. Ziska leader of the Hussites. After the death of king Wenzel (1419), Sigismund was heir to the Bohemian throne. He was crowned in Prague, but was soon obliged to leave the country. The imperial troops were driven back as they entered Bohemia (1421). Sigismund was disgracefully defeated (1422) at Deutsch-Brod. The Hussites ravaged the neighboring countries (skillful use of gun- powder and clumsy cannon ; ramparts of wagons). The coun- cil of Basel (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the moderate Hus- sites (Calixtinians), (compact of Prague 1433) ; the Tahorites, whose leaders (the two Prokops) fell in battle, were defeated and annihilated at Bohmisch-Brod (1434). 1420-1460. Epoch of the greatest power of the secret tribunals of Westphalia (Vehmgerichte). 1 The mortgaging the mark for a sum of money was onlv a form. There was no «a/e, only a "remunerative present." Cf. Biedel, iresch. des Preuss. ,Konig8hauae», IL 269. k. D. Germany. 253 L438-1740. Emperors of the House of Hapsburg. L438-1439. Albert II., son-in-law of Sigismund, whom he succeded in Bohemia and Hungary as well, died after returning from au expedition against the Turks. L440-1493. Frederic III. (IV.),^ cousin of Albert, the last emperor who was crowned in Rome (1452). He was )owerless both in Germany and in his own lands, and involved in war vith his brothers. JEneas Silvius Piccolomini (when Pope, Pius II.), his adviser. 3ivil war in Switzerland ; Zurich allied with Austria (1440-1446). rhe troops of Ziirich defeated by the confederates. Zurich besieged. \.t the request of Frederic, Charles VII. of France sent the Daupliin afterwards Louis XI.), with the unbridled bands of the Armagnacs, -gainst Basel, to raise the siege of Ziirich. Heroic death of 1600 Confederates at St. Jacob (1444). Peace with France. Since heir victory at Ragaz (1446) over the German troops, the Swiss con- ederacy was practically independent. Native kings elected in Him- ;ary and Bohemia (1457) whom Frederic was obliged to recognize. I The reforms resolved upon in the Council of Basel (1431-1449) Yere abandoned by the Concordat of Vienna concluded with Pope llugenius IV. (1446). Lbout 1450 John Gutenberg ^ practised (at Mainz) the art of printing. {Johanii Fust, Peter Schoffer). Frederic, obliged to give up parts of the duchy of Austria to his rother and his cousin, besieged by them in Vienna, and released by reorge Podiehrad, king of Bohemia (1462). The marriage of Frederic's son, archduke Maximilian, with Mary, aughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy (f 1477), aused several wars with France, and, after the death of Mary (1482), dth the revolted Netherlands. Maximilian, however, succeeded in eeping the Burgundian inheritance for his son by Mary, the arch- uke Philip. Only the duchy of Burgundy (la Bourgogne, capital HJon), fell to France. Frederic III., involved in a war with Matthias Corvinus, king of [ungary, was driven out of Austria and restored by Maximilian (only fter the death of Corvinus, 1490). Maximilian, after the extinction f a branch line, received Tyrol, which the house of Hapsburg had 3quired in 1363 (p. 249), and at Frederic's death was in possession t all the Austrian lands. (^See p. 300.) 1 If Frederic of Austria, opponent and co-regent of Ludwig of Bavaria, be i'unted, he was Frederic IV. 2 His family name was Gensfleisch ; the name Gutenberg was that of his other's patrician family. The 'claim brought forward in the Netherlands that ■orenz Jansson ( Coster) in Haarlem was the true inventor of printing (1423) has icn proved by Van der Linda to rest upon a forgery. His investigations sign Fust and especially Schoffer a much less important position than has «en commonly attributed to them. 254 Mediceval History. A. i^i § 2. FRANCE. {See p. 227.) 1270-1285. Philip III., le Hardi, the Rash. A quiet reign whose troubles were mostly from outside. Sicilian Vespers (p. 226). Pliilip married his son, 1285-1314. Philip IV., le Bel, the Fair, with Johanna, heiress of Navarre. ' Systematic introduction and development of the Civil (Roman) ^ Law. Increased importance of parliament, from which ecclesiastics were removed in 1287 ; ui 1302 it was fixed at Paris. (The French parliament was a court, not a legislature). Agreement between Philip and Edward I., of England, Edward renouncing his claims upon Normandy and receiving from Philip 10,000 livres and a guarantee of non-forfeiture for the rest of his French fiefs. 1292-1293. Conflicts between English and Norman sailors ; sack of La Rochelle. Edward I. of England, summoned before the< court of his suzerain, sent instead his brother, earl of Lancas- ter, who surrendered Guienne to Philip as security for a satis-i' factory arrangement. Pnilip, hereupon, declared Edward's') fiefs forfeited, by reason of his non-appearance. 1294-1297. War between France and England, carried on in Gas- cony and in Flanders, Philip being successful in both fields. 1299, June 19. Peace was concluded between France and England at Montreuil-sur-Mer, on the basis of present possession as re-' garded territory. Marriage of Edward I. and Margaret, sister of Philip IV. (see below). 1296-1304. Quarrel with Pope Boniface VIII. The strife originated in the king's need of money, owing to the growmg central- ization of government, which led him to tax ecclesiastical property. Bull, " Clericis laicos,^' forbidding the clergy to pay taxes to the secular 3 government without consent of the Pope (1296). Philip replied by j an ordinance prohibiting the exportation of money or valuables from i' the kingdom without the king's permission. From these extreme f positions the princes gradually retreated until a reconciliation was { patched up. As a private man the Pope became arbitrator between '^ Philip and Edward, and secured two thirds of Aquitaine to France, which was, however, again transferred to England by a marriage treaty, wherein Edward was betrothed to Philip's sister Margaret, and his son, Edward (XL) to Philip's daughter Isabelle. Flanders an- nexed to France. ^^ The quarrel between the king and the Pope broke out afresh iH 1301. The bull " ^wscwZto ^Zi," wherein the Pope asserted his su- premacy over all kings, was burned by Philip's order. Remonstrance of the estates of France with the Pope (1302). Revolt of Flanders. The French army of feudal barons was totally defeated by Flemish citizens in the 1302. July 1. Battle of Courtrai {Day of the Spurs). Four thousand gilt spurs were captured by the victors. many fiefs were vacated that Philip saw the royal power considera- bly strengthened. ,. D. France, 255 Publication of the decretal " Unam Sanctam " (Nov. 18, 1302) laiming the supremacy of the spiritual power over the temporal ; his was followed by a threat of excommunication. In France the ist bull was seized, and violent measures taken against the Pope. On ept. 7, 1303, Boniface VIII. was seized at Anagni by the king's dviser, Nogeret, and Sciarra Colon7ia, and treated with indignity. le was shortly released by a popular uprising, but finding Rome on is retiirn in French hands, fell ill and died. Philip recognized the independence of Flanders (1305, June 5). Benedict XI. dying, after nine months Philip secured the election of Frenchman as Clement V. Reconciliation of the church with the ing. 309. Removal of the papal residence to Avignon (1309-1376). 307. Arrest of all Knights Templars in France. Trial of the knights on various charges of immorality and heretical doctrines and ractices. By the free use of hearsay evidence and of torture, their 3ndemnation was secured, and fifty-four were burned. Abolition of -le order (1312) by the Pope. Execution of the grand master, ■acques de Alolai, confiscation of the lands of the templars. Annexa- on of Lyons, hitherto independent through the very number of her aimants, to France (1312). Death of Philip, Nov. 29, 1314. 314-1316. Louis X. le Hutin, the Quarrelsome, through his mother heir of Navarre. His uncle, Charles of Valois, was the *ue ruler. Execution of Philip's minister, De Marigni. Serfs per- mitted to purchase their freedom. (Comme selon le droit de nature \acun doit naistre franc). Louis died June 5, 1316. His brother k6-1322. Philip V. le Long, the Tall, was appointed regent for the queen, who was with child. On ■le death of the queen's son, soon after birth, Philip proclaimed him- df king, and to put aside the claims of Jeanne, daughter of Louis X., e decreed that on the basis of ancient Frankish law,^ no female coidd cicceed to the throne of France (the Salic law). Excesses of the Pastoureaux suppressed by force. Attacks upon .e lepers and the Jews. Acquisition of Douay, Orckies, Ryssel from Flanders. Philip died An. 3, 1322, and was succeeded by his brother, 322-1328. Charles IV., the Fair, Died January 31, 1328, without male issue. Jeanne, daughter Louis X.f received Navarre. In France, according to the Salic law, 1 Le» Salica, tit. 42, 6. De ten-a rero salica in mulierem nulla portio transit, f hoc virilis sexus acquirit. This applies strictly to allodial possessions, and t to fiefs or to the crown. 256 Mediceval History. •43 00 ^ a o ® 5 1i t55W ^ tej >- 0, I I 03 ■u Q '^ W b Q. o ^ m ^, a A. D. France. 257 1328-1498 (1589). House of Valois, a younger line of the Capets, succeeded. Louis VIII., 1223-1226. Louis IX., St. Louis, Charles, count of Anjou and Prorenc«, 1226-1270. ancestor of the kings of Naples. I Philip III., le Hardi, Robert (6th son), count of Clermont, 1270-1285. ancestor of the Bourbons. I Philip IV., le Bel, Charles, count of Valois, Louis, count of Ev* 1285-1314. ancestor of the house of reux. I Valois. I 1 \ \ ^1 I Louis X., Philip v., Charles IV., Isabelle | le Hutin. le Long. le Bel. m. Ed- Philip VI., 1314-1316. 1316-1322. 1322-1328. ward II. 1328-1350. I I of England. I daughters, daughter. ] | Edward III., John H., I ( of England. le Bon, Jeanne, John, 1350-1364. queen of 1316. Navarre. lived seven days. 1328-1350. Philip VI., nephew of Philip IV. Philip was the choice of the feudal barons, who had regained somewhat of their old power since the death of Philip the Fair, but his tyranny alienated his vassals, while his oppressive exactions ham- pered trade and deprived him of the hearty support of the cities. Quarrel with Edward III. of England, springing out of the claim of the Enghsh sovereign to the French crown through his mother, Isa- helle, daughter of Philip IV. (see the genealogy). Alliance with Scotland. Outbreak of the 1339-1453. Hundred years VTar between France and England. (Froissart 1337-1410 (?), chronicler of the war.) Naval victory of the English and their allies, the Flemish (Jacob van Artevelde), at Sluys (1340). Contested succession in Brittany ; John de Montfort, one claimant, obtained the aid of Edward, and recognized him as king of France. (Heroism of Marguerite^ countess of Montfort.) Landing of Edward in Normandy (1346). 1346. Battle of Crecy, in Picardy. August 26. Victory of the English. Use of cannon (?). Death of the blind king, John of Bohemia, the father of Charles IV.^ 1347. Capture of Calais (story of the intercession of Queen Philippa) 1 Recent investigators reject the story that the fifteen-j-ear-old Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), took from the helmet of the fallen king John, the devise . "Ichdien." E 17 258 Mediaeval History, A d. 1347-1349. Black Death in France. Acquisition of MontpelUer from James of Arragon, and of the Dauphine of Vienne from tlie last Dauphin, Humbert II. (who went into a monastery) by purchase. Vienne was given to Charles, son of John of Normandy, grandson of Philip. He took the title of Dauphin, and on his accession to the throne decreed that the Dauphine should never be united with the crown. Hence Dauphin became the title of the heir of the French crown. Origin of the practice of selling offices and titles. First imposition of the gahelle, a tax in the form of control of all salt works by the gov- ernment. Death of Philip, Aug. 22, 1350 ; he was followed by his son, 1350-1364. John II., le Bon. Feud with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre ; arrest and im- prisonment of Charles (1356). 1356. Battle of Poitiers (properly Maupertuis). Sept. 19. Victory of the Black Prince with 10,000 men, over John with 50,000. Capture of John (a prisoner for four years). Meanwhile confusion reigned in France where the young Dau- phm, as regent, was unable to suppress the terrible civil con- flicts. 1357-1358. Insurrection of the bourgeoisie of Paris, led by Btienne Marcel, the provost of the traders (prevot des marchands), who entered into treasonable connection with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. Meeting of the estates; abolition of abuses. Truce with England for two years. Murder of the marshalls of Champagne and Normandy in the regent's presence, by order of Marcel. The government in the hands of Marcel and a com- mittee of thirty-six. 1358. Peasant war, accompanied by horrible cruelties, known as the Jacquerie, under the lead of Guillaume Caillet, called Jacques Bonhomme, which afterwards became the nickname for the lower class in general, in France. Murder of Marcel in Paris. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (near Chartres). Edward received Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, in full sover- eignty, but renounced his claim to the French crown, and re- nounced also all other fiefs in France. Release of John, for a ransom. 1363. Burgundy occupied by John on the death of the queen and her son by her former marriage, Philip, duke of Burgundy, pass- ing over the claim of Charles of Navarre. The duchy was given to the king's son, Philip the Bold, founder of the Burgun- dian branch line of Valois. By his marriage with the heiress • of Flanders, the new duke laid the foundation of the power of the house of Burgundy in the Netherlands. Return of John to captivity. He died April 8, 1364, and was followed by his son, 1364-1380. Charles V., le Sage, the Wise. In the war between Peter the Cruel, of Castile, and his brother, Henry of Trastamara, Charles favored the latter, while the for- A. D. France. 269 mer was allied with the Black Prince. Expelled by Bertrand du Guesclin, Pedro was restored by the Black Prince (Battle of Najara, 1367). In 1369 Pedro was killed in personal com- bat with his brother. Reform of the coinage in France. 1369. Charles declared war on Edward. Du Guesclin (1313-1380), constable of France (1370). Most of the English possessions in France were again united with the crown of France. Death of the Black Prmce (1376). Death of Charles, Sept. 16, 1380. He was followed by his son, 1380-1422. Charles VI., then eleven years old. Quarrels of his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, of Burgundy, of Bourbon, and of Berry. 1386. Threatened invasion of England comes to naught. Revolt in Ghent under Philip van Artevelde. Crushed by Charles (De Clisson, constable) at the battle of Roosebec (1382) ; slaughter of the Flemings. Death of Van Artevelde. 1392. Charles being seized with madness, the regency was assumed by the dukes of Burgundy and Berry, setting aside the duke of Orleans, the brother of the king. Civil strife between the parties of Burgundy and Orleans (Armagnacs ^). 1407. The duke of Orleans murdered by order of John, duke of Bur- gundy. Cabochians (from one Caboche, a butcher) in Paris, overthrown by the Orleanists under the Dauphin. 1415. Henry V. of England, landing at Harfleiir, captured that city Oct. 15. (Sept. 22), and in the Battle of Azincourt (Agincourt), he totally defeated a vastly superior French army. Capture of the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. Death of the Dauphin, of the king's second son, John, and of the duke of Berry. The queen, Isa- beau, of Bavaria, took refuge with the duke of Burgundy. Massacre of the Armagnacs at Paris, 1418. Rouen captured by the English. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, murdered at the bridge of Montereau by the followers of the Dauphin (Tanneguy Duchdtel}. John's son, Philip, hereupon concluded, with the consent of the queen, the Treaty of Troyes mth the English (1420). Henry V. married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and became regent and heir of France. Under John the Fearless (1371-1419) and his son, Philip the Good (1396-1467), the house of Burgundy reached the summit of its power. Philip made himself master of the inheritance of Jacqueline, daughter of William, count of Holland, although the emperor, Sigismund, had declared her lands to be vacant fiefs of the empire. Death of Henry V. of England (at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422), and of Charles VI. of France (Oct. 21, 1422). The latter was succeeded by his son, 1422-1461. Charles VII., who, for the present, was recognized south of the Loire only ; in the north Henry VI., infant king of England, was acknowledged 1 From Bernard, count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the duke of Orleans, who became head of the Orleanists about 1410. 260 Mediceval History. a. d. lord. Duke of Bedford, regent in France, allied with the duke of Burgundy. Siege of Orleans (1428). 1429. Jeanne d'Arc (more properly, Dare), born in Domremy, on the left bank of the Meuse, convinced that she was chosen by Heaven to be the deliverer of France, succeeded in obtaining from the king permission to relieve Orleans, the accomplishment of which feat (April 29-May 8) earned for her the name Maid of Orleans (La Pucelle). The English driven back. Charles VII. crowned at Rheims. Intrigues against Jeanne at the French court. Captured by the Bur- gundians at Compiegne (1430), she was delivered to the English, and, after a mock trial, condemned for sorcery, and burnt in Rouen (1431). 1435. The duke of Burgundy recognized Charles VII., on condition of receiving Auxerre, Macon, Peronne, Montdidier, and the towns on the Somme, and being released from feudal homage. Death of the duke of Bedford. 1436-1449. Period of inaction, utilized by Charles VII., for the in-j troduction of reforms : establishment of a permanent tax ta be levied by the king without the cooperation of the estates ; aboli- tion of the " free companies," and institution of regular companies,' the beginning of standing armies (ordinance of Orleans, 1439). 1449-1461. Renewal of the war. After some fluctuations of fortune {Talbot in Guyenne ; his death, 1453) the English lost all their possessions in France except Calais. 1453. Fall of Constantinople. End of the Eastern Empire. Introduction of Grecian scholars and Grecian writers into Eu-i rope (p. 278). Death of Charles VII., July 22, 1461. He was succeeded by his son, 1461-1483. Louis XL, who by his shrewdness and perfidy annihilated the power ofj the great barons and laid the foundation of absolute monarchy. Revocation of the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VII. (issued in 1438 by the council of Bourges : declaration of the rights of the! Gallican church ; limitation of the power of the papacy in France appeals to Rome forbidden). 1462. Acquisition of Roussillon and Cerdagne by mortgage. Re-j demption of Amiens , Abbeville and St. Quentin from Bup-i gundy. 1464. League of the Public Weal (Ligue du bien publique), a conspiracy! of the dukes of Brittany, Bourbon, Lorraine, Alengon, Berry, and the count of Charolois. Battle of Monti' hery. Louis broke upji the league by the concessions of the treaty of Conflans (restoration! of the towns on the Somme, Normandy granted to the duke oi Berry), the execution of which he evaded. Death of Philip of Bur-i, gundy ; accession of his son Charles the Bold {le Temeraire). Con- , flict between the duke and the king. Meeting at Peronne (Oct. 1468). i| Storm of Liege. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward IV. of England in alliance! with Burgundy. Meeting at Pequigny (near Amiens) between J A. D. France, 261 m ^e-t- rr ? 5 fe* p. p 3j itr 9=5-- -t-; w-;^ e a. g^ p :p J^ li-m- |ip llr= S-Sl KlPi TO O 3 •- toP. If _■; 3ff ««■ 6? sis.'ff If ^ ^ r 63 I I r| 262 Mediceval History. A. Tk Louis and Edward. Betrothal of the Dauphin Charles to Edward's eldest daughter. Peace between France and Burgundy. War of Charles the Bold with the Swiss cantons. Defeat of the duke in the 1476. Battle of Granson, in the March 1. June 22. Battle of Murten, (Morat) and in the 1477. Battle of Nancy, where Charles was slain. Jan. 5. The duchy of Burgundy united with the crown of France, as was likewise Anj'ou, Provence, and Maine through the extinction of the house of Anjou (1480). Annexation of Alen<^on, Perche, Guyenne, during this reign. The king's servants : Olivier le Dain, Tristan VHermite. Death of Louis XL, Aug. 30, 1483. He was succeeded by his son, 1483-1498. Charles VIII. Death of the duke of Brittany (1488). The coalition of the emperor, Spain, and England to preserve the independence of the duchy bore no fruit. In 1491 Charles married Anne, daughter of the duke of Brittany. Peace of Senlis with the emperor (1493) ; peace of Etaples with England. Cession of Roussillon and Cerdagne to Spain. 1495. Rapid conquest of the kingdom of Naples wliich Charles claimed by inheritance through his father from Charles, count of Maine and Provence (see the genealogy), which, however, he was soon forced to abandon in consequence of a league between the Pope^ the emperoTi the duke of Milan, Venice, and Spain. (^See p. 318.) § 3. ITALY. (Seep. 226.) Milan : since the time of the emperor Henry VII. (1308-1313) under the Visconti as imperial viceroys; since 1395 as dukes. After the extinction of the line of the Visconti (1447) Milan became for a short time a republic. The condottieri Francesco Sforza, hus- band of a daughter of the last Visconti, who served in the pay of Milan, soon seized the power and became duke of Milan (1450). Venice : since 697 one state under a doge (dux) ; from about 1000 A. D., ruler of the Adriatic, increased in power and influence throughout the period of the crusades. Participation in the so-called fourth crusade (p. 216), under the doge Henry Dandolo, then ninety- four years of age. After the crusades and the war with Genoa, which lasted 125 years, Venice was mistress of the Mediterranean and the trade with the East, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Acquisition of Corfu 1387, of Cyprus by gift of Catharine Cornaro, 1489. The republic at the height of its power in the first half of the fifteenth century. Constitution strictly oligarchical. 1172. Establish- ment of the Great Cowicil, with 450-500 members, followed by that of the Small Council (Signoria), which limited the power of the doges still more. 1298. Closing of the Great Council. Golden book of the nobility (1315). Conspiracies — among others that of the doge Marino Faliero (executed in 1355) — led to the creation of the power- ful Council of Ten. Since 1439 the three terrible state inquisitors. A., o. England. 263 Genoa, since the reestablishment of the Greek empire in the East a powerful state, especially since the final victory over Pisa in Italy (Sardinia and Corsica) ; weakened by the war with Venice and by civil disturbances in the second half of the fifteenth century ; sub- jected now to Milan, now to France. In Florence, after long- civil contests, democracy and tyranny having ruled the city in turn since 1282, the family of Medici ac- quired princely rank, about 1400, and brought the city to its highest point of power. Giovanni d^ Medici, a rich banker, founder of the power of liis family. His son, Cosimo (Cosmus), the father of his country (died 1404). Under his grandson, Lorenzo (died 1492), de- velopment of the arts in Florence. Renovation of the sciences, advanced by Grecian scholars, who had fled from the Eastern Empire before the Turks. Dante Alighieri, author of the " Divine Comedy," born 1265, at Florence, where he played an important part in the political complications, banished 1302, died at Ravenna, September 14, 1321. Francesco Petrarca, the " father of the revival of learning " (1304-1374). Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), author of the " De- camerone." The Papal States, founded by the presents of Pipin and Charles the Great (p. 184) ; in the twelfth century increased by the bequest of the countess Matilda of Tuscany (p. 200) and other acquisitions ; since Innocent III. completely independent of the empii-e. Pope Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) at variance with Philip IV. of France (p. 254). His successor, Clement V. (a Frenchman), transferred the papal residence to Avignon. Residence of the Popes at 1309-1376. Avignon. (" Babylonish captivity.") At Rome the visionary tribune Cola di Rienzi (1347, papal senator 1354). Comtat Venaissin in the thirteenth century, Avignon in the fourteenth century, became the property of the papacy. From 1378 on there was one Pope at Rome, elected by the Italian cardinals, and one at Avignon, elected by the French cardinals, to which number the Council of Pisa (1409) added a third, until the Council of Constance restored the unity of the church (p. 251). (Great Schism, 1378-1417). At Naples, the house of Anjou : the elder line until 1382 (death of Queen Joan I.) ; the younger (Durazzo) until 1435 (death of Joan II.). (See the genealogy, p. 261.) Sicily, 1282-1295 united with Aragon; 1295-1409 under a branch of the house of Aragon ; after 1409 again united with Aragon, whose king, Alphonso V. (1416-1458), conquered Naples in 1435. After his death (1458), Naples, hut not Sicily, descended to his natural son (Ferdinand I.) and his successors ( — 1501). {Seep. 326.) § 4. ENGLAND. {Seep. S35.) 1272-1307. Edward I., Longshanks. The great events of this reign were the annexation of Wales to England and the introduction of financial, legal, and legislative reforms. 264 Mediceval History, A. d, Edward was returning from the (seventh) Crusade, when he heard of his accession at Capua. Devoting a year to Gascony, he reached England and was crowned in 1274. During the barons' wars "Wales had become practically independ- ent, and Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, refused even nominal submission to Edward until 1276-1284. Conquest of Wales. 1277. Edward led an army into Wales, and forced the prince to cede the coast district as far as Conway, and do homage for the rest. 1282. Insurrection of Llewelyn and his brother David. After hard fighting, the death of Llewelyn (Dec, 1282) and the cap- ture of David (hanged, drawn, and quartered, Sept. 1283) led to the complete submission of the country. (No " Massacre of the Bards.") 1284. Annexation of "Wales to England. After this the title " Prince of Wales " was generally given to the heir of the crown. 1289. Return of the king from a three years' absence in Gascony ; punishment of the oppressive judges. 1290. Expulsion of the Jews from England (over 16,000). 1291. Death of the queen, Eleanor (daughter of Ferdinand III. of : Castile). Erection of crosses along the route by which the body was carried from Lincolnshire to London ; those at Northamp- ton and Waltham stUl exist. 1292. Baliol, whom Edward had decided to be the rightful heir to i the Scottish throne, did homage for the fief and became king ; of Scotland. After the death of Alexander HI. of Scotland the crown passed to i his granddaughter Margaret, the Maid of Norway, to whom Edward I had betrothed his son ; but she died on the voyage from Norway (1290), and thirteen claimants for the crown appeared. The Scottish i estates being unable to decide between the two strongest claimants, , Baliol and Bruce, referred the case to Edward. (See the gene- alogy.) 1293. Hostilities between English sailors from the Cinque Porta i (Dover, Sandwich, Hastings, Hythe, Romney) ^ and French i mariners resulted in a naval battle. Philip IV. of France summoned I Edward to Paris to answer for the occurrence. As a step in the negotiations the fortresses of Guyenne were temporarily placed ivt \ Philip's hands, whereupon he declared Edward contumacious and his fiefs forfeited. 1294. Rebellion of Madoc in Wales suppressed. 1294. War with France followed by war with Scotland, which \ joined France. 1296. Capture of Berwick ; massacre of the inhabitants. Defeat 1 These towns, to which Winchelsea, Rye, and Senford were afterwards added, , possessed peculiar privileges. They were under the care of the Warden of the ■ Cinque Ports ; their representatives in Parliament were known as barons. The ' towns were fortified under William I. A. D- England. 265 1-1 o ai !Si2 C § a 3 - o o> >>o5 ► b to .Si cs ai a a" -12 '"I 8 ra < >;> — W a Q> M a O •-a H y O (U ^ a S ■a^ > s 5*^ 2 c_: m a < 05 o S5 o Go o8t-i P •3 I I — ^tss n to ^ tss§ aa O la 11 266 Mediceval History. A. d. of the Scots at Dunhar. Baliol resigned the crown and was imprisoned. Scotch coronation stone carried to London. Scot- land under an English regent 1297. Revolt of the Scots under Sir William "Wallace. Defeal of the regent. Edward's demands for money from the clergy being refused (buU Clericis laicos, 1296), the recalcitrant clergy were placed under the ban. In 1297 the king summoned the barons to follow him to Flanders, The resistance of the lords ended with the acquiescence of the king in the 1297. Re-issue of the Great Charter and the forest charter {Confirm matio chartarum) with additional articles, by which the righij of taxation without the consent of Parliament was renoimcedi (1301) 1298. Truce with France enabled Edward to invade Scotland. At the July 22. Battle of Falkirk, the Scots under Wallace were completely defeated. Appeal to the Pope, who laid claim to the suzerainty over Scotland a claim which was rejected by the English lords in 1301. 1303. Peace of Amiens with France. Edward had previously mar-| ried Margaret, sister of Philip IV., and betrothed his son Ed-I ward to Philip's daughter Isabella. Invasion of Scotland; Submission of Bruce and Comyn. 1305. Execution of Wallace, who had been betrayed to the EnglishJ 1306. Opposing claims of Bruce and Comyn ; murder of Comyrifi coronation of Robert Bruce (March 27). 1307. July 7. Death of Edward I., on his way to Scotland. Legal and Legislative reforms under Edward. 1275. First statute of Westminster : a codification of previous stat-; utes. Grant of a regular tax on exported wool, and of a fif- teenth of movable property. These forms of taxation, the in- direct customs duties, and the taxation of personal estate were intended to supplement the older land tax, which they grad- ually surpassed in importance. Separation of the old king's court into three tribunals : Court of Exchequer, for cases where the royal revenue was in-i volved ; Court of King's Bench, with jurisdiction in alll matters concerning the sovereign, and in crimmal cases espe-| cially reserved for his decision (" pleas of the crown ") ; Court of Common Pleas, for cases between private individuals. Development of the jurisdiction of: 1. the royal council (later thai " Star Cliamber ") ; 2. of the Chancellor, in cases where relief could not be obtained by the ordinary or " common " law. This higher jurisdiction emanating directly from the sovereigni was known as equity, I 1279. Statute of Mortmain (de religiosis), forbidding the aliena- tion of laud to religious bodies (whereby it became free from feudal dues) without the permission of the king. A. D. England, 267 1285. Statute of "Winchester, regulating tlie militia and the pre- servation of public order. Conservators of the Peace (later called Justices of the Peace) appointed in every shire to execute the provisions of the statute. Second Statute of Westminster, amending the Statute of Mortmain. 1290. Third Statute of Westminster (Quia emptores), providing that vv^hen land was alienated the sub-tenant should hold directly of the overlord, and not of the tenant. .1295. Summons of the first perfect Parliament ; clergy, barons summoned severally by special writ ; commons sum- moned by writ to the sheriffs directing the election of two knights from each shire, two citizens from each city, two burghers from each borough. 1297. De Tallagio non Concedendo, prohibiting the imposition of taxation without the consent of Parliament. 1307-1327. Edward II., fourth son of Edward I. Peace with Scotland ; Aymer de Valence, governor. Recall of the king's favorite. Piers Gaveston, a jrascon, who had been banished by Edward I. Marriage of Ed- ward 11. with Isabella of France. Gaveston soon incurred the hatred of the barons, and he was banished (1308), soon, however, to be re- called. 1310. Government entrusted to twenty-one ordainers. 1311. Ordinances of the Parliament of 1311 presented by the ordainers. Reform of abuses ; punishment of favorites ; ap- pointment of great officers by and with the consent and approval of the barons ; consent of the barons necessary for declaration of war ; parliaments to be called every year. Execution of Gaveston (1312). The successes of Bruce in Scotland (capture of Linlithgow, 1311; Perth, 1312 ; Edinburgh, 1313 ; siege of Stirling, 1314) produced a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons. Edward marched to Scotland with 100,000 men, and in the L314. Battle of Bannockburn, Tune 24. was totally defeated by 30,000 foot-soldiers under Robert Bruce. ; The king's new favorites, the two Despensers, father and son, were IS displeasing to the nobility as Gaveston had been ; in 1321 Parlia- ment decreed the exile of the favorites. Edward showed unexpected energy ; at the battle of Boroughhridge, the earl of Lancaster, the leader of the barons, was defeated and captured (executed March, 1322). Repeal of the ordinances of 1311. After an unsuccessful Invasion of Scotland, 1323. Edward concluded peace for thirteen years with Bruce, whose assumption of the royal title was passed over in silence. Isabella, sent to France in 1325 to treat with Charles IV., concern- ing the English fiefs in France, intrigued with Roger Mortimer and other hostile barons, and in 1326 landed in England. Capture of Bristol ; execution of the Despensers ; imprisonment of the king. 268 MedicBval History, A. D. 1327. Deposition of Edward II., in parliament; accession of his son, Edward. Edward, imprisoned in Berkeley Castle, was there murdered, Sept. 21, 1327. 1327-1377. Edward III. Council of regency (earl of Lancaster), Edward being but fifteen years of age. The queen and Mortimer the true rulers. 1328. Unsuccessful war with Scotland. James, earl of Douglas. Treaty of Northampton, Bruce recognized as king, and feu- dal superiority of the English crown renounced. 1330. Edward took the government into his own hands. Execution of Mortimer. Imprisonment of the queen-mother. The death of Robert Bruce (1329) was followed by civil war in Scotland, during which Edward Baliol seized the crown ; Bruce 's infant son, David, fled to France. Baliol did homage to Edward, which induced a revolt of the Scottish nobles : Baliol driven over the border. Edward hastened north; defeat of the Scots in the 1333. Battle of Halidon Hill, near Berwick (henceforward this town belonged to England). Baliol restored to the Scottish throne. Scotland south of the Forth ceded to England, and homage rendered for the remainder. Alliance between the patriotic party in Scotland and France. 1337. War with France (the Hundred Years' War). Edward claimed the French crown in right of his mother (see p. 257). 1341. Completion of the separation of parliament into an Upper House (Lords), composed of the nobility, and a Lower House (Commons), composed of the representatives of boroughs and the knights of shires. The process of separation had begun as far back as the reign of Edward I. The responsibility of ministers established by act of parliament (revoked by the king in the same year). 1342. David Bruce returned to Scotland and recovered the throne. Scotland henceforward independent. 1346. Battle of Neville's Cross, near Durham ; defeat of the Scots ; capture of David II., who was retained m captivity until 1357. Battle of Crecy, p. 257. 1348-49. Black Death in England; more than a half of the popula- tion perished. As the visitations of the plague were especially heavy among the lower classes, a scarcity of labor and rise of wages followed, which led to the passing of the Statute of Laborers, regulating wages. In the next year (1350) laborers were forbidden to leave their own parish. 1356. Edward invaded and ravaged Scotland, but won no lasting sue- cess. Battle of Poitiers, p. 258. In 1357 David II. was ransomed. 1360. Peace of Bretigny (p. 258). Renunciation of the French crown and of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, Touraine. CessioD in full sovereignty to England of Aquitaine ( Gascony, Guyenne Poitou, Saintonge, the Limousin, the Angoumois, Perigord, BU gorre, Rouergue), Ponthieu, Guisnes, Calais. 1361. Return of the Black Death. Popular discontent. Preaching of John Ball. William Longland, author of Piers Plow- A. D. England. 269 1369. Final visitation of the Black Death. 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince ; massacre of the in- habitants (death of the Black Prince, June 8, 1376). 1371. John of Gaunt, fourth son of Edward III., married the daughter of Pedro the Cruel of Castile, and assumed the title of king of Castile. Loss of all the English possessions in France, except Bordeaux, Calais, and Bayonne. Peace for three years (1374). 1376. The Good Parliament. Opposition of William of Wykeham and Peter de la Mare (Speaker of the Commons) to John of Gaunt. Punishment of favorites, reformation of the arbitrary royal council {Concilium Ordinarium). After the dissolution of the parliament John of Gaunt disregarded its enactments ; to William of Wykeham he opposed John Wiclif (1327-1384), who taught that the property of the clergy was at the disposal of the crown. 1377, June 20. Death of Edward III. Durmg this reign the crime of treason was defined by the Statute of Treason (1351) ; transfer of a suit to foreign courts was pro- hibited (1353, future Statute of Prcemunire) ; Parliament acquired the power of impeachment; trial by jury assumed a more modern form (separation of the old jury into a jury proper, and witnesses) ; a poll- tax was introduced (1377) ; English was directed to be used in courts of law (1361). In Ireland, the Statute of Kilkenny (1367) prohibited intermarriage of the English and Irish, and supplanted the native lan- guage and customs by English. 1377-1399. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, twelve years old. The king was in the hands of Parliament, and his uncles, the dukes of Lancaster (John of Gamit), York, and Gloucester, were excluded from the re- gency. The war with France and Scotland requiring money, a poll- tax was assessed in 1379, and again in 1380. 1381. Revolt of the peasants under John Ball and "Wat Tyler; capture of London ; burning of the duke of Lancaster's palace, the Savoy. Wat Tyler killed by Walworth, mayor of London. Suppression of the revolt. Disregard of the charter abolishing serfdom, which Richard had at first granted. Villanage was, however, doomed. Wyclif 's doctrines spread by his " poor preachers." Denial of Transubstantiation (1381). Wiclif 's adherents nicknamed Lollards by their opponents. Wiclif 's translation of the Bible. 1388. Battle of Chevy Chase (Otterburne), between Lord Henry Percy and the earl of Douglas ; defeat of the English. {Ballad of Chevy Chase). Quarrel between Richard and his favorites, {Robert de Vere, Michael de la Pole), and the parliament. In 1386, Continual Council under the duke of Gloucester, for one year. Defeat of the king ; impeach- ment of Vere and others, before the " Wonderful " Parliament (13883. In 1389 Richard took the government into his own hands. 270 MedicBval History, A. L* 1393. Statute of Praemunire, prohibiting the introduction of papal bulls. 1396. Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI. of France, and concluded peace for 26 years. 1397. Imprisonment (and death) of the duke of Gloucester. Im- peachment of the earls of Arundel, Warwick, Nottingham, Derby. Arundel was executed ; Warwick imprisoned for life ; Nottingham was made duke of Norfolk ; Derby (Henry Bo- lingbroke, son of Jolm of Gaunt), duke of Hereford. 1398. Quarrel between Hereford and Norfolk. The king forbade their combat, and banished Norfolk for life, Hereford for six years. Kichard made an expedition to Ireland, where the isolation of the English who were settled within the conquered district, the so-called English Pale (Drogheda, Dublin, Wexford, Water- ford, Cork) had rendered them almost independent of England. During his absence 1399. Henry Bolingbroke, since the death of his father, duke of Lancaster, landed in England. Richard returned from Ire- land, only to be captured, deposed, and imprisoned in the castle of Pontefract (murdered?). Geoffrey Chaucer (died 1400), Canterbury Tales. 1399-1461. House of Lancaster, a branch of the house of Plantagenet. 1399-1413. Henry IV., under which name the duke of Lancaster ascended the throne, the claims of Edmund Mortimer, earl of March, the true heir, being passed over. 1400. Conspiracy of the earls of Rutland, Huntingdon, Salisbury, Kent, and Spencer suppressed. Revolt of Wales under Owen Glendower ; defeat of Sir Edmund Mortimer (1402). 1402. A Scottish inroad under the earl of Douglas defeated at Hom^ ildon Hill. Capture of Douglas. As Henry refused to allow the ransom of Edmund Mortimer (he being the uncle of the young earl of March, the true heir to the crown), a conspiracy was formed against him by Harry Percy {Hot- spur), brother-in-law of Mortimer, to whose family the king was largely indebted for his throne, who induced his father, the earl of Northum- berland, and his uncle, the earl of Worcester, to join with himself, Glen- dower, and Douglas, and take up arms. In the 1403. Battle of Shrewsbury, July 21. the conspirators were defeated. Harry Percy was killed and Douglas taken. Conspiracy of Mowbray and Scroop, archbishop of York ; execution of the conspirators. 1405. Capture of James, heir of the Scottish tlirone, while on his way to the court of France (James was the second son of Robert III. of Scotland ; the eldest, duke of Rothsay, had been starved to death by the king's brother, duke of Albany), and detained in Eng- land until 1423. A. D. England. 271 1408. Defeat of the earl of Northumberland and Lord Bardolph at Bramham Moor; death of the former. 1413. March 20. Death of Henry IV. 1413-1422. Henry V., Monmouth. While prmce, companion of wild rakes ; as king, energetic and brave. Trial and condemnation for heresy of Sir John Oldcastle (Lord Cobham), a friend of the king. Oldcastle escaped from prison, and a rising of the Lollards assumed formidable proportions ; it was, how- ever, easily suppressed. (Oldcastle captured and burned, 1417). 1415. Conspiracy of the earl of Cambridge, Lord Scrope and Sir Thomas Grey detected. Execution of the conspirators. 1415-1420. War with France (p. 259). 1415. Oct. 25. Battle of Agincourt. 1417. Second invasion of France. In England, unsuccessfid Scottish inroad ("The Foul Raid"). 1420. May 21. Peace of Troyes. Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VII. of France, and was accepted as regent and heir of the crown. 1421. Third invasion of France. Death of Henry at Vincennes, August 31, 1422. Use of English in the House of Commons. Sir Richard Whitting- ton, thrice lord mayor of London. 1422-1461. Henry VI., Whidsor. Not quite nine months old at his father's death. Parliament refused to appoint a regency, and named the king's uncle, duke of Gloucester, protector, in the absence of his brother, the duke of Bed- ford, who was regent in France. 1423. Liberation of James I. of Scotland, after the conclusion of an agreement with the English not to assist one another's enemies. 1422-1453. War in France. Expulsion of the English. {Joan of Arc.) See p. 260. 1437. James I. of Scotland murdered by the earl of Athol and Robert Grahame. 1445. Marriage of Henry VI. with Margaret, daughter of Rene, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem. Henry promised to re- store to Rene his hereditary lands of Anjou and Maine. This mar- riage was the work of William de la Pole, earl of Suffolk (soon made a duke), whose influence at court surpassed that of the earlier adviser, Cardinal Beaufort (died 1447). Arrest and suspicious death of the duke of Gloucester. The loss of Normandy was followed by the im- peachment of Suffolk, who was banished by Henry, but seized at sea and put to death (1450). 1450. Rebellion of Jack Cade (" Mortimer "). The insurgents occupied London and murdered Lord Say, one of the ministers. The rebellion was soon suppressed, and Cade, while in hiding, was killed by Alexander Iden. The government now passed into the hands of Richard, duke of 3rork, grandson of the Jifth sou of Edward III., sou of Anna Morti* 272 Mediceval History, A. D, meTf heiress of tlie claims of the third line, who rettirned to England from Ireland ; his power, however, was not enough to oust his rival, the duke of Somerset, grandson of John of Gaunt, and in 1452 he was induced to dismiss his army, and then forced to swear allegiance, 1452. James II. of Scotland murdered William, earl of Douglas defection of the Douglases to England. 1453. Battle of Castillon in France. Death of Talbot, earl o^ Shrewsbury. Surrender of Bordeaux. Of all the Englisb possessions in France Calais alone Tvas left in theii hands. 1453. Birth of Prince Edward, son of Henry VI. Insanity ol Henry. The duke of York protector. Imprisonment oi Somerset. The recovery of the king in 1454 was followed by the restoration of Somerset to power. The duke of York, the earls of Salisbury and "Warwick, now took up arms against Henry and his advisers. 1455-1485. Wars of the Red Rose of Lancaster and the White Rose of York (see the genealogical table). 1455. Battle of St. Albans. York victorious. Death of Somer- May 22. set ; capture of Henry. A hollow reconciliation (1458) was followed by a new resort to arms. At the battle oi Bloreheath (Sept. 23, 1459), the Lancastrians were defeated. The victory was a barren one for York ; defection in his army caused him to abandon the contest and retire to Ireland. Flight of Yorkist leaders. York and his party attainted of treason by the Parhamenl of Coventry. 1460. Landing of the earls of Salisbury, March (afterwards Ed' ward IV.), and War-wick, in England. In the 1460. Battle of Northampton, July 10. the Lancastrians were defeated ; capture of Henry J flight of Margaret and her son to Scotland. The duke of York entered London and preferred his claim to the crown. Parliament decided that he should succeed Henry. 1460. Battle of Wakefield. Dec. 30. Defeat of York by the queen and Prince Edward. Yorh fell on the field, the earl of Salisbury and the earl of Rutland, son of York, were killed. 1461. Battle of Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford. Defeat of the Feb. 2. Lancastrians by the son of the duke of York, Edward, earl of March (now duke of York). Feb. 17. Second Battle of St. Albans. Defeat of the Yorkists under Warwick. Release of Henry. The earl of March, however, came to the rescue, joined the remnants of Warwick's army with his own, and entered London, where he was proclaimed king by acclamation, March 3, 1461. 1461-1485. House of York (branch line of the house of Plantagenet). 1461-1483. Edward IV. The early part of his reign was disturbed by constant attempts of the Lancastrians to overthrow the new dynasty. England, 273 -M W 274 Medtceval History. A. d. 1461, March 27. Battle of Ferry Bridge. Defeat of the Lancas- trians. March 29. Battle of Towton. After a most obstinate fight Ed- ward and Warwick prevailed, and the Lancastrians were totally defeated (said to have lost 28,000 men). Edward was crowned (June 28), and his brothers, George and Richard, were created dukes (Clarence and Gloucester). In 1462 Margaret obtained assistance from France, and made two" attempts to j retrieve the Lancastrian cause, but both were unsuccessful. Henry , retired to Wales ; Margaret to Lorraine. A final uprising of the | Lancastrians was crushed at ^Terf^eZei/ Moor and at Hexham (1464). 1464. Secret marriage of Edward with Elizabeth Grey, daughter of Richard Woodville, baron Rivers, and widow of Sir John ' Grey, a Lancastrian. This marriage and the advancement conferred on the family of the new queen much exasperated the earl of War- | wick and the other Yorkists. The dissatisfaction of Warwick was 1 increased by the marriage of Edward's sister Margaret with the duke of Burgundy, and he intrigued with the duke of Clarence, | giving him his daughter in marriage and promising him the crown, i Kevolt of William of Rydesdale in 1469. Execution of the \ queen's father. Earl Rivers. Edward became reconciled with War- wick, but a victory over the insurgents at Stamford (" Loose-coat i Field ") (1470) so strengthened the king that he proclaimed War- wick and Clarence traitors, and they fled to France. Reconciliation of Warwick and Margaret. 1470. War-wick landed in England, occupied London, and pro- claimed Henry (who had been imprisoned since 1465) king. Edward fled to Burgundy, but returning with assistance was well received, and joined by Clarence. Re-imprisonment of Henry. 1471, April 4. Battle of Barnet. The Lancastrians under Warwick (the king-maker) totally defeated. May 4. Battle of Tewksbury. Defeat of Margaret, who was captured ; murder of her son : Edward. Henry VI. died in the Tower May %2, the day when Edward IV. reentered London. 1475. Invasion of France by Edward, who, in connivance with the duke of Burgundy, claimed the French crown. Subscriptions sup- posed to be voluntary (benevolences), without consent of Parlia- i ment, now first introduced to raise money for tliis invasion. The war i was ended without a battle by the Peace of Pequigny (1475). Truce for seven years ; payment of a large annual sum to England ; ransom of Margaret ; betrothal of the dauphin to Edward's eldest daughter, Elizabeth. • 1478. Trial and condemnation of Clarence for treason. He was exe- cuted in the Tower. (Popular report that he was drowned in a butt of malmsey.) 1480. War with Scotland, which was ended by the Treaty of Father' ingay, wherein Berwick was surrendered to the English. As Louis XI. now refused to consent to the marriage of the dauphin D. Spanish Peninsula, 275 ith Edward's daughter, as arranged at the treaty of Pequigny, iward resolved on war, but died suddenly, April 9, 1483. 1:83. April-June. Edward V. Richard, duke of Gloucester, regent for the thirteen-year-old ng. The king and his brother, duke of York, confined in the )wer. Richard created protector. Execution of Lord Hastings, oucester advanced a claim to the crown, based on the asserted in- lidity of Edward III.'s marriage with Elizabeth WoodvUle. The lim being admitted by Parliament, Richard accepted the crown une 26). t83-1485. Richard III. The new king began his reign by a progress in the north, urder of the t-wo princes in the Tower (Tyrell and Dighton). le Duke of Buckingham (to whose services Richard largely owed e crown), headed an insurrection in favor of Henry, earl of ichmond (great-great-grandson of John of Gaunt). Execution of ickingham. Return of Riclmiond to France without landing. 84. Confirmation of Richard's title by Parliament. The following table shows the derivation of Buckingham from Ed- jrd ni. : — Edward HI. |4 |6 John of Gaunt, Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, by his 3d wife. | I Anne = Edmund, Earl of Stafford. John, Earl of Somerset. I I I Edmund, Duke of Somerset. Humphrey, Duke of Buckingham. f 1 I Tohn Margaret Humphrey, Lord Stafford. rgaret | [ Henrj', Duke of I Buckingham, nry VH. En 1485 Richmond made another attempt, landed at Milford Haven^ i completely defeated Richard in the 35. Battle of Bosworth Field, tg. 22. where Richard was slain. [n 1471 William Caxton, printer, established a press atWest- nster ; in 1474, he published " The Game and Playe of Chesse," 5 first book printed in England. (See p. S33.^ §5. SPANISH PENINSULA. {See p. 240.) Spain. fhe Moors in Spain were, since 1238, confined to the kingdom of anada, where agriculture, commerce, and industry flourished- 276 Mediceval History. A. l Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance witl Morocco. 1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom witii Castile. I The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were in volved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, witl the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars o succession and civil wars. Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth centur Sancho I V., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastard the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, b" England (victory of the Black Prince at Najara, 1367), the latte by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand d Guesclin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369. , Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicilj which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest sor Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, afte the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Fe^ dinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinani the Catholic (1479-1516), by the marriage which he had made be, fore his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laij the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms. , Portugal. t The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and waj succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Porti gal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tan giers ; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarhe on the northeij coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patrot age of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460 ; discovery c Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19 ; Cape Verde, 1445 ; Azores, 144T[ Cape Verde Islands, 1455). {Seep. Sm § 6. THE NORTH AND EAST. i Denmark, Norway, Sweden. (See p. 2J^} Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christiani ity about 1000, these three kingdoms were united by the Union 01 Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Waldei mar IV., married Hakon VI. of Norway, and after the death of Hakaij succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son (f 1387). Th] crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that kin^ dom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524. | (5ee p. 351.i Russia. From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimi the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were u theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically wen D. The North and East '111 ierably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Rus- , which endured 250 years, tliere grew up a new grand principal- ', that of Moscow, which after tlie devastation of Iviev by the ongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), came the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the ougol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan m^ e Great, the founder of the miited monarchy. Republic of Nov~ wd subjugated (1478). (See p. 852.) Poland. Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in J with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teu- lic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was hsimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great [370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hediuig, married the grand ike of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithu- lia were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. inversion of Lithuania. {See p. 352.) ? Prussia. Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. V), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The iler attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (1351— ^2) ; beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the les at Tannenberg (1410). The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the ad- tageous Jirst peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian >les in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led the second peace of Thorn (1466) : West Prussia and Ermeland ed to Poland ; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief. Hungary. Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by Finnish i tribe of Magyars (p. 193) ; until 1301 under the reign- house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke 'sa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned K)). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division he country into ten bishopries ; political division into seventy-two nties {Gespanschaften). Formation of a powerful aristocracy ^gnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (con iporary of the emperor Frederic 11.) , after his return from a cru pfe (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of tl^ Hungarian ttiility. ifter the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house oilnjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the Qjat (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland al. 'nder Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387-1437), be- Vambery, Ursprung d. Magyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin '>f lis people ; they were, at all eveuts, Turanian. — Tkans. 278 Medicevcd History, A. i ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (143^ 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king ; t] latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereup( Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancelL of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456 After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Co vinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungai was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagell and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Au tria. (-bee p. Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire. {Seep. 2j^C Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomax founded in Asia Minor by Osman /., about 1300. His successo; Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during t fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residen of the sovereigns in 1365). The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checke by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly calld Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and caj tured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed II destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of tfc Palceologi since 1261, by the 1458. Conquest of Constantinople. Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught ij the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecia literature. {See p. S5B^ China. {See p. In 1403 the rebellious prince, Yen, succeeded to the throne undi the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carr ing his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonqu\ to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolt©! Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1451 and remamed a prisoner until released by a Chinese victory in 145| The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465-1488) and Hung-che (148^1 1506) were unmarked by important events. {See p. 354 Japan. {See p. 24$^ Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573 whose founder, Ashikaga-Takar-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Jap^ was under two dynasties, — the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, t] northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were tl Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wa between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto. It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wa, Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charg«J with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to opt eonnminication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limi less as his wealth. {See p. S55 HL MODERN HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. flOM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WEST- PHALIA (1492-1648). § 1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES. Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but hieli came into more common use at the beginning of the modern ?riod, have played a very important part in the total change in )ciety which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early Lscovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the !st in the thirteenth century; in the west at the begiiming of the turteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This invention materially advanced le discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced to Europe from Asia (Cliina, India, Arabia). According to a tradi- 9u whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, ertJiold Schwarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first >ed in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new ass of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree iperfect, and of but little value ; but their improvement gradually 'ought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and lereijy led to the destruction of chivalry. Standmg armies took the ace of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the wer order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more idely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the sistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, ive very largely failed of its efiPect, but for the improvement made about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 492, Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon). For details and the further course of discovery see page 282, etc. 498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by I Vasco da Gama. After the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores ha.d been discov- •ed by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the t urteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portu- lese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be' 280 Modern History, A. ] gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order 1 find the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the pro< ress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomcer Diaz reached Caho tormentoso, called by John II., Caho da huen esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco da Garoa lande on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 363). (Martin Behaim of Ni remherg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that citj which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the dii covery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Porti gal.) The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and parti across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia an through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially tl capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of pro: itable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of gree importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe whi had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchai republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerfu The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbi found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment c a western route, at once (according to the data with which he recli! oned) shorter and simpler. The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the pros perity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred year/ after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English. The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in historj disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develo new political constitutions and new social conditions. The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the vic^ Toy Almeida (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-151S| see p. 353). 1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Fei dinand Magalhaes (Magellan), a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to tl? Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhaes was killed in 15^ on one of the Philippine Islands. §2. AMERICA. It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occt! pied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenlan, (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the cont nent of America (Vinland).^ 1 More fhan a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery <• America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a briff list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Macloviu {Malo) in the sixth century. 2. Seven Spanish bishops (714 or 734) ; Is) and of Seven Cities, also called Ant'ilUa, a name afterwards transferred to Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from Chiua (458), followed by Eoei-Shin (499,1 L. D. America. 281 86. Bjami Herjulfson saw the coast of Vinland, but did not land. 001. Le'if Erikson discovered Helluland, Markland, Vinlandy where he built some booths. 002. Thonvald Erikson coasted along Kjalarnes and died at Kros* sanness. 007-1009. Thorjinn Karlsefne, under whom a colony was established which remained several years in Vinland. Birth of the child Snorri. Oil. Helge and Finnborge with Freydis, wife of Thorwald. The tragical ending of this settlement seems to have discouraged colonization ; yet traces of intercourse are observable for a long time, (1121, Bishop Erik of Greenland ; 1266, voyage of clergymen of Greenland to the Arctic regions ; 1255, Adelhard and Thorwald Helgason ; 1347, voyage of seventeen men from Greenland). The identification of the places visited and named by the Northmen i attended with great, perhaps insurmountable difficulties. The etailed exposition of Rafn (Helluland = Newfoundland or Labra- dor ; Markland = Nova Scotia ; Vinland = Mt. Hope Bay ; Kjal- rness = Cape Cod ; Krossanness = Boston Harbor) is hardly to be ccepted ; some writers place the southern limit of discovery at the buthern point of Newfoundland.^ Wherever they were made, the settlements of the Northmen in bnerica were not lasting, and the remembrance of them had almost ■assed away by the fourteenth century. Although Columbus had ^scovered Fou-sang. (See Leland, Fou-sana, for arguments in favor of this iscovery.) 4. Basques; Juan de I'Estraicie (about 1000). 5. Northmen )86). 6. Ari Marson, from Limerick in Ireland (982) discovered Huitramann ind (White Man's Land) or Irland it Mikla (Great Ireland). South Carolina i lorida? He was succeeded by Bjami Asbrandson (999), and Gudltif Gud- ngson (1029). 7. Arabians; Almayhruins (in the eleventh century). 8. ladoc ap Gwynedd, a Welsh prince (1170). 9. Vadino and Guide Vi- alda (1281), Theodoro Doria and Ugolino Vivalda (1292), Venetians. 10. 7icolo and Antonio Zeno (1380-90). This ''discovery " involves an older ne made bv a fisherman of " Frislanda " about 1360. 'll. Cortereal, 1403. 2. Szkolny, a Polish pilot (1476). 13. Alonzo Sanchez de Helva (1484), le pilot who as some claim died in the house of Columbus, leaving his journal 1 tlie latter's hands. 14. Martin Behaim (1484). 15. Cousin and Pinzon •om Dieppe (1487). This discoverv of America has been assigned to still other races by disputants 'v'er the origin of the American Indians, among which may be mentioned : \/)iptians, Tyrians, Phoenicians, Canaanites, Norwegians, Chinese, Iberians, cytliians, Tatars, Jews (the Lost Tribes), Eomnns, Malays ; there is also the leoiy of settlement by the inhabitants of Atlantis, and of a new creation. It pleasant, fi'om a patriotic standpoint, to state that it has been recently asserted lat Europe was originally populated from America. 1 Three "relics" of the Northmen have been famous in their time. 1. The Vritinr Rock on the Taunton River near Dighton, Mass. It was claimed that le inscription was in runes, and it has been interpreted by northern scholars to )ntain an account of the voyage of Thorjinn, but it seems at present that Washington's opinion of the Indian origin of the picture writing is to be ac- apted as correct. 2. The Old Stone Mill at Newport, R. I. The northern rigin of this structure can hardly be maintained against the more probable leory of its construction by Gov. "Benedict Arnold in the latter half of the sev- nteenth century. 3. The"" Skeleton in Armor," discovered in the early part f the present century at Fall River, Mass., is now admitted to have been that of a Indian. 282 Modern History. i.. d< visited Iceland in 1477, it is not probable that he had heard of them ;| it is evident, from his own writings, that he had no suspicions of th€| existence of a continent southwest of Iceland.^ i Christoforo Colombo (he called himself and signed himself, after he became a Spaniard, regularly Cristobal Colon), boruj (1435 ?, 1446 ?) at Genoa^ of plebeian origin, a sailor from his earli- est youth, wished to try a western route by sea to India (by which name m his day, the whole East was meant), and especially to Zipangu^ (Japan) the magic island, which the Venetian Marco Polo (travels 1271-1295) had described in the book Mirabilia Mundi. Starting from the erroneous calculations of Ptolemy and Marmus concerning the size of the earth and the length of the habitable region (the Eas-I tern Continent), Columbus made the circumference of the earth toe short by a sixth, thus locating Zipangu in about the position of the Sandwich Islands. His plans having been rejected by Portugal (after the failure of an expedition secretly despatched westward tc discover land), Columbus in 1486 accepted the service of the erowi, of Castile (Isabella). Delayed in the execution of his project by th^ Arabian war and the lack of money at the court, he was about tfl ojffier his services at the court of France or England, when the cap^ ture of Grenada promised the necessary means for the expedition.'^ Contract with Columbus, who received nobility, the hereditary dignitj of admiral and viceroy, &ud one tenth of the income from the newlj discovered lands. 1492, Aug. 3-1493, March 15. First Voyage. Departure fromj Palos with three small vessels on the 3d of August, from the Canaries on Sept. 6. On Oct. 12, landing on Guanahanil one of the Bahama islands. Discovery of Cuba (called bj Columbus Juanna) and Hayti (Espanola, St. Dommgo). Shipj wreck off Hayti, foundation of the first colony (Navidad) on that island. 1493, May 3. Bull of Alexander VI. establishing the line of parti- tion, which divided that part of the world not possessed by anj Christian prince between Spain and Portugal by a meridian line one hundred leagues west of the Azores. All W. of thalj line to fall to Spain, all E. of it, to Portugal. This compromise between the claims of the Spaniards based on the discoverief of Columbus, and those of the Portuguese based on their dis-i coveries in the Atlantic, was afterwards revised so that the line, was extended 270 leagues further west (1494). 1493, Sept 25-1496, June 11. Second voyage of Columbus fromi Cadiz, with seventeen vessels and 1500 persons. Discovery of the Lesser Antilles (inhabited by Caribs, which Colun^ 1 See Peschel : Gesch. d. ZeitaUers d. Entdeckungen, 2d ed., p. 84. 2 That Columbus laid his plans before Genoa is unhistorical (Peschel, 9d ed. p. 120). ; 8 The chief claimants for the honor of having been the first landing place o\ Columbus are Cat Island, Turk^s Island, Watling''s Island, Samana. The lattei claim was first advanced, and ably advocated by Capt. G. V. Pox in hif " Attempt to solve the Problem of the First Landing Place of Columbus hi the New World." Wash. 1882. (U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.) \ 1. D. America, 283 3US misunderstood, Canibs, whence Cannibals) and the island of JatU' kica. Voyage along the southern coast of Cuba to within a short dis- ;aiice of the western end. Foundation of Isabella in Hayti (Dec. L493), of San Domingo on the same island by Bartholomew Columbus. 1497, May-Aug. Voyage of John and Sebastian Cabot from Bristol with two vessels. Discovery of land (Prima Vistay :^ape Breton Island (?), Newfoundland (?) June 24, 1497 (not .494). They explored the coast N. to 67^° N. and S. for an uncer- aiii distance, probably not so far as Florida^ as has been claimed. 497. First (alleged) voyage of Amerigo Vespucci. Discovery of the continent of South America. This voyage is doubtful, though many give it credence. .498, May-July (?). Voyage of Sebastian Cabot ; doubtful re- sults (68° N. to 35° N. ?). 498, May 30-1500, Nov. 25. Third voyage of Columbus. Dis- covery of Trinidad (July 31), the continent of South America Aug. 1) ; discovery of the mouth of the Orinoco. Exploration of the pearl) coast as far as Margarita Island. Return of Columbus to His- laniola. Dangerous revolt of Roldan, with whom the admiral was bliged to conclude a treaty. Columbus, who was disliked by the set- lers on account of his foreign birth, and his avarice, — a vice from *. hich he cannot be absolved,^ — was accused at court. Bobadilla, sent ut as judge with especial powers, sent Columbus and his brother in hains to Spain (loOO). Columbus was at once released upon his arri- al and treated with distinction ; he retained the dignity of admiral, 'ut as viceroy was superseded by Ovando. . 499, May-1500, June. Voyage of Alonzo de Hojeda and Ame- rigo Vespucci. Discovery of Surinam, Paria, Venezuela, and the coast of South America from 3° N. (Brazil?) to Cape Vela. This is oftea caUed the second voyage of Vespucci, but the first voyage, which he is said to have made in 1497, when he reached the continent of South America, is doubtful. Vespucci was a learned Florentine (1451-1512) who participated ti two Portuguese voyages to South America, entered the service of /astile in 1505, and filled the position of Royal Pilot from 1508 until is death, a post in which he rendered important services to science, articularly in the construction of maps. The new world was called fter him, not by him, America. The originator of this name was lartin Waltzemuller (Hylacomylus) from Freiburg in the Breisgau, rofessor at St. Die in Lorraine (1507). The name of America spread t first only in Germany and Switzerland, and did not come into gen- ral use until the close of the sixteenth century.^ 1 Peschel, 2d ed., p. 272. ;2 Humboldt, Examen critique de Vhistoire et de la geographie du nouveau mtinent ; Peschel, Gesch. d. Zeitalter d. Entdeckungen, cap. XIII., Abhand^ mgen zur Erd-und Volkerkunde, 1877. Two attempts have been recently ade to derive America from a native word : Jules Marcou, in the Atlantic funthly (1875, March), and T. H. Lambert, in the Bulletin of the American .eographical Soc. for 1883, p. 45. According to the former, America is a cor- iption of the Indian name of a range of mountains in Nicaragua; the latter M-ives it from a native name of the empire of the Incas in Peru. The first ited map to bear the name " America " was that in th« edition of Solintu of »20 by Apianus. 284 Modern History. A. d. 1499, Dec.-1500, Sept. Voyage of Vincent Yanez Pinzon from Palos. Discovery of CapeS. Augustin (Feb. 28), of the Amazon. Pas- sage of the equator. This voyage traced the South American coast to 8° 20' S. 1600, April. Pedro Alvarez Cabral, bound for the East Indies, was accidentally (?) carried westward until he reached the coast of Brazil, in about 10° S. He called the country Terra Sancton Crucis, and took possession of it for Portugal. 1600. Gaspar de Cortereal, a Portuguese, discovered Newfoundland (Conception Bay), the mouth of the St. Lawrence, and the coast of Labrador. 1501. Cortereal sailed again in the hope of finding the passage to the East Indies, a hope which inspired the continuous efforts of nearly all the early explorers. He was lost upon the voyage. 1501. Second voyage of Vespucci under a Portuguese commander. 1502, May 11-1504, Nov. 7. Fourth (and last) voyage of Co- lumbus. Discovery of the Bay of Honduras, Veragua, Porto Bella. Shipwreck at Jamaica. Columbus died in Valladolid (1506) without a suspicion that he had discovered a new continent, and in the firm belief that his discoveriesil were parts of Asia. His son, Don Diego Columbus, viceroy and admi-t| ral. A grandson and great grandson of the discoverer retained the hereditary title of admiral. De Bastidas traced in 1500-1502 the coast of Panama to Pt. ' Manzanilla. Hojeda (1502), Vespucci (3d voyage, 1503), Juan de la Cosa (1505), etc., examined more minutely the coasts already dis- covered, while in the Spanish possessions the work of settlement and conquest was being pushed forward. Cruelties inflicted on the Indi- ans of the West Indies, whose race disappeared with frightful rapid- ity. It is probable that more was learned of the coasts of both Amer- icas in this period than has been divulged ; the rivalry of Spain and Portugal leading to a careful secrecy regarding all discoveries. The exact historical value of the D^Este map, just made public by M. Har- risse, cannot be known as yet, but seems to have clearly established the fact that the coast of North America from Florida to beyond Cape Cod was well known to the Portuguese in 1502. 1504. French fishermen at the banks of Newfoundland. 1506. Jean Denys of Honfleur, and Camart of Rouen, examined (and sketched) the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 1606. Juan Diaz de Solis and Vincent Yanez Pinzon discovered Yuca- tan. In 1508 they coasted South America to 40° S. 1608. Circumnavigation of Cuba, by Ocampo. Aubert in the St. Law- rence. Importation of negroes from Africa to the Spanish possessions in the West Indies, where they were employed in the mines. 1511. Conquest of Cuba by Diego Velasquez. 1512. Discovery of Florida by Juan Ponce de Leon, governor (since 1510) of Porto Rico. 1513. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean by Vasco Nunez de Bal- boa, who crossed the isthmus from Antigua on the Gulf of Ura- i. D. America, 285 ba (Keats' sonnet). Balboa was put to death in 1514 by Davila, governor of Darien, Carthagena, and Uraba (Castila del Oro). 1515. Voyage of Juan Diaz de Soils in search of a passage to , the East Indies. Discovery of the Rio de la Plata, on the I banks of which river Solis was killed by the natives. 1517. Alleged voyage of Sebastian Cabot and Sir Thomas Pert. It is very doubtful if this voyage was made, or if made, what part of America was reached. Bartholome de Las Casas (1474-1566) went to the Indies in 1502 "with Columbus, bishop of Chiapa (in Mexico), advocate and pro- tector of the Indians. 1517. Francis Hernandez Corc^ova rediscovered Yucatan (Cape Ca- toche) ; advanced civilization of the inhabitants (Mayas), who were under the supremacy of the Aztec empire in Mexico. L518. Juan de Grijalva coasted from Yucatan to Panuco, and brought back tidings of the Mexican empire of Montezuma. Name of " New Spain " given to the region which he ex- plored. 1519. Alvarez Pineda, by order of the governor of Jamaica, Garay, I coasted from Cape Florida to the river of Panuco. 1519-1521. Conquest of Mexico by Hernando Cortez (1485-1547), whom Velasquez, the governor of Cuba, had appointed to the 3ommand of a small force of 600 foot, sixteen cavalry, thirteen 3ross-bowmen, fourteen cannon, but immediately removed. Cortez .;ailed against the will of the governor. Capture of Tabasco (March). Landing at St. Juan de Uloa (April 21). Negotiations with Monte- tuma, who ordered the invaders to leave the kingdom. Cortez, elected general by the troops, dispatched one ship to carry a report ;o king Charles of Spain, and beached (not burned) the rest. Foun- lation of Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz. In alliance with the Tlascalana Cortez marched upon Mexico, the capital of Montezuma (Montecuh- !uma), who admitted him to the city (Nov. 8). Daring seizure of the dug in his own house. Cortez was obliged to march against Narvaez vhom Velasquez had sent to chastise him. He defeated Narvaez, and trengthening his army with the soldiers of his opponent, returned o Mexico (1520, June). Revolt of the Mexicans, storm of the emple, death of Montezuma of wounds inflicted by his subjects, who yere indignant at his submission to the Spaniards. The Spaniards, eaving the city (July 1), were furiously attacked on one of the iauseways through the lake and suffered terrible loss (Noche triste). Reinforced, Cortez defeated the Mexicans in a pitched battle near Dtompan (July 8). Occupation of Tescuco (Dec. 31). Conquest »f Iztapalapan (1521). After having built a fleet of thirteen vessels diich were transported by land and launched in the lake of Mexico, vortez laid siege to the capital. After a long investment, accom- janied with an almost daily storm (May-Aug. 13, 1521) the city vas taken. Capture of the king Gtiatemozin, who was tortured and 286 Modern History. A. d. finally executed. Submission of the country. Cortez, at first gov-^ ernor of New Spain with unlimited power, was afterwards restricted to the chief command of the military forces. Prosecuting the search' for a western passage he discovered California (1526). Cortez re- turned to Spain in 1540, and died at Seville in 1547. 1520. Nov. 7-NoY. 28. Passage of the Straits of Magellan by Magalhaes, see p. 280. 1520. Voyage undertaken for slaves at the suggestion of LucoA Vasquez d' Ay lion, exploration of the east coast of North America to 32° or 34° N. Cabo de Sta Helena, ''Chicora." 1522. Discovery of the Bermudas. 1524. Alleged voyage of Giovanni de Verrazzano in the service, of the king of France. The letter of Verrazzano which givea* the only existing account of the voyage ascribes to the writer the discovery of the east coast of North America from 34*^ (39°) N. to 50° N. It has been thought that many placi mentioned can be identified. The truth of the whole story has been disputed, but present opinion seems to be in favor of its acceptance (?). 1524. Geographical congress of Badajos, to settle the boundary be- tween Spain and Portugal in the eastern hemisphere, which should correspond to the line of Alexander VI. in the western ; after a stormy session the council separated without reaching an agreement. 1525-1527. Exploration of the coast of Peru by Francisco Pizarro (1478 (?)-1541), as a preliminary to the conquest of that king- dom, of which he had heard on Balboa's expedition (p. 284) in accordance with an agreement made by Pizarro, Diego di Almagro, and Hernando de Luque. Repulse of Pizarro and Almagro. 1525. Voyage of Estevan Gomez, a Spaniard, along the east coast of North America, 34° N. to 44° N. 1526. Voyage of Sebastian Cabot in the service of Spain. Ex- ploration of the Rio de la Plata^ Parana, Paraguay, Uruguay, The English had taken but little part in the discoveries since the time of Cabot, although traces enough of intercourse re- main to sliow that the New World was not entirely neglected. 1527. Voyage of John Rut, who coasted north to 53° N. and returned by way of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and the coast of Maine (Norumbega). 1528. Unsuccessful expedition of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Florida,! under a grant of all the country between Cape Florida and the River of Palms. After visiting Apalache (June 5) Nar- vaez sailed westward and was lost in a storm (Nov.). Of the survivors, four, one of whom was Cabeca de Vaca, made their way by land to the Spanish possessions in Mexico (1536). * 1528. Settlement of Germans at Caro, between St. Martha and Maracapana ; presented to the family of Welser by Charles V. 1531-1532. Conquest of Peru by Pizarro. The undertaking was favored by a civil war which was raging A. D. America. 287 at the time in the empire of the Incas. Foundation of St. Michael on the Piuro in Peru. Capture of the Inca, Atahuallpa, before hia army (Nov. 16), who, after the extortion of an immense ransom, was put to death (1533). March of Alvarado from Puerto Viego to Quito, Occupation of Lima^ the capital of the Incas (1534). Feuds between the Spanish leaders. Almagro defeated (1538) and executed by Pizzaro. The latter was afterwards killed, with his brother. The ,Spanish crown assumed the administration of the country (1548). 1534. First voyage of Jacques Cartier, a French saUor, from St. I Malo. Discovery of the west coast of Newfoundland (May 10), Prince Edward's Island, Miramichi Bay, Anticosti, coast to 50° N. ||535. May-1536. July. Second voyage of Cartier; discovery of the Bay of St. Lawrence, River of St. Lawrence (Hochelaga), as far as the site of Montreal. Information received about I the great lakes. Foundation of the modern city of Lima. Unsuccessful invasion of Chili by Almagro. 1537. Discovery of Lower California by Cortez. ,1538. The west coast of South America explored to 40° S. by I Valdivia. 1539, May-1543, Sept. Expedition of Ferdinando de Soto, gover- nor of Cuba, for the conquest of Florida, with nine vessels and over 900 men. After toilsome marches in Florida, with no result but disappointment, De Soto led his men westward to the Mississippi, where he died (at the juncture of this stream and the Guacoya) and was buried in the stream. The remains of the expedition (311 men) reached Panuco Sept. 10, 1543. According to Dr. Kohl, De Soto jpeached 30° 40' N. in Georgia, and explored the Mississippi to the Ohio (38° N.) 1539-1540. Alonzo de Camargo coasted from the Straits of Magellan to Peru, completing the exploration of the coast of South America. 1540. Expedition of Alarcon in search of the passage to the Indies (Straits of Anian). Exploration of the coast of California to 36° N. Voyage up the Rio Colorado. Lower California, pre- viously held to be an island, was thus shown to be a peninsula. Early maps so represent it ; afterwards the conviction that it was an island spread anew and late into the next century the best maps of America contained this error. 1540-1542. Expedition of Francisco Vasquez Coronado, sent out by the Spanish viceroy, Mendoza, in search of the seven cities of Cibola, concerning whose wealth the Spaniards had derived extravagant ideas from the reports of the Indians. Coronado reached Zuni May 11. Discovery of the Moqui canon of the Colorado. Reports of a city, Quivira. Coronado wintered at Zuni among the Pueblo Indians. In 1541 he marched north- east to 40° N. and returned to Mexico (bisons). L540. Expedition of Cartier to the St. Lawrence, with five ships. Roberval (Jean Francois de la Roche, lord of Roberval), ap- pointed governor of Canada and Hochelaga and all countries 288 Modern History. A. d* north of 40° N. (New France), failed to take part in this voyage. Cartier founded the fortress of Charleshurg and explored the St. Lawrence. 1541. Gonzalo Pizarro, governor of Quito, crossed the Andes and ex- plored the river Napo for 200 leagues : his subordinate, Fran- cisco Orellana sailed down the Napo to the Amazon, and down that river to the sea (Aug. 6). Orellana returned in 1543 to conquer the country, but died in the search for the Napo. 1542. Roberval reached Newfoundland, where he met Cartier, who, against the will of the governor, returned to France. Rober- val built a fort not far above the island of Orleans, but the en- terprise was soon abandoned. Rodriguez de Cabrillo, sent in search of the passage to the In- dies, discovered Cape Mendocino in 42° N. on the west of North America, and explored as far as 44° N. 1545. Mines of Potosi claimed for Spain. 1547. Pedro de Gasca, president of Peru. Organization and pacificEi- tion of the country. 1547. Bishopric of Paraguay established. 1548. First act of the English Parliament relating to America (2 Edw. VI. : regulation of the fisheries at Newfoundland). 1555-1560. First attempt of the admiral de Coligny to found a r Protestant settlement in America. The chevalier Nicolaus ( Durand de Villegagnon led two ships to Brazil, and founded a colony at the Bay of Rio de Janeiro. Geneva sent fourteen | missionaries to the colony. Villegagnon now joined the Cath- olic church, and his defection ruined the colony ; many set- tlers returned to France (1557), some of the rest were mur-. dered by the Portuguese (1558), and in 1560 the colony was ( entirely broken up by the Portuguese government. Andre ' Thevet, who accompanied Villegagnon, on his return to France coasted along the east coast of North America to the Bacallaos (Newfoundland), and on his return described his voyage in a gossipy, untrustworthy book. 1558. Last Spanish expedition to Carolana ; no settlement made. 1560-1561. Expedition of Pedro de Urana in search of the empire of the Ormaguas, and of the scoundrel Lope de Aguirre in search of El Dorado in South America. 1562. Second attempt of admiral de Coligny to establish a Huguenot colony in America. Expedition of Jean Rihdult. Erection of Charles Fort near Port Royal in South Carolina. The settlement was soon abandoned. 1563. First slave voyage made by the English to America. John Hawkins with three ships brought 300 negroes to the West Indies. 1564. Third attempt of Coligny to establish a Huguenot Colony in America. Rene Laudonniere, sent to carry aid to Ribault's colony, finding the settlers gone built Fort Carolina on the St. John's river in Florida (June). Arrival of Ribault (1565, Aug. 28). . D. America. 289 5G5, Sept. 20. Storm of Fort Carolina by the Spaniards under Menendez de Aviles ; massacre of the garrison ("I do this not as to Frenchniou, but as to Lutherans"), liibault, having put to sea, was wrecked, captured, and slain with many of his company. Construction of three Spanish forts (Castle of St. Augustine). 568. Expedition of Dominique de Gourges to avenge the mas- .pril. sacre of the French at Fort Carolina. Capture and destruc- tion of the Spanish forts, massacre of the garrison (" I do this not as to Spaniards, nor as to marmers, but as to traitors, rob- bers and murderers"). 572. First voyage of Francis Drake to South America. Attack upon Nomhre de Dios, Carthagena, etc. 576, First voyage of Martin Frobisher in search of a northwest une-Aug. passage. Discovery of Frobisher^s Strait and Meta In- cognita on the north coast of North America (60°). Supposed discovery of gold. 577, May-Sept. Second voyage of Frobisher. 578, May-Sept. Third voyage of Frobisher. 577, Dec. 13-1580, Nov. 3. Voyage of Francis Drake around the world. Touching the west coast of North America he dis- jvered " Drake's Port," and claimed the country between 38° N. and 2° N. for England under the name of New Albion. 578. Unsuccessful voyage of discovery of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, un- der a patent from queen Ehzabeth. 583. Second voyage of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Landing at New- foundland he took formal possession of the island for England in right of the discovery of the Cabots. On the return voyage Sir Humphrey Gilbert was lost in a storm. 584. Sir Walter Raleigh having secured a transfer to himself of the patent granted to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, his half-brother, dis- patched Amidas and Barloio to explore the coast of North America north of the Spanish settlements. They landed on tily 13. the island of Wocokon and took possession of the country for the queen. Exploration of Roanoke. On their return the explorers gave glowing accounts of the country, which received the name of Virginia. 585. Colony of 180 persons under Sir Richard Grenville sent to Roanoke Island ; suffering from destitution they were re- loved in 1586 by Drake. Grenville arriving with supplies immedi- tely after their departure left fifteen sailors to hold possession ; they ad, however, all disappeared before the arrival (1587) of 117 new olonists. " Borough of Raleigh in Virginia," governor, John White, '^irginia Dare, first English child born in America. This colony let an unknown fate. White returned to Virginia in 1590, but could ot find the colony. In 1589 Raleigh sold his patent. 585. First voyage of John Davis to the north. Exploration of Davis Straits to 66° 40^ Discovery of Gilbert Sound and Cumberland Straits. 1» 290 Modern History. A. d. 1586. Naval expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies. Sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena. Rescue of the colony of Virginia. 1587. Third voyage of John Davis (the second was to Labrador in 1586). He reached 72° 12' N. and discovered the Cumber- land Islands, London Coast, Lumley^s Inlet (Frobisher's Strait i). 1592. Alleged discovery of the strait of Juan de la Fuca on the west coast of North America in 48° N. by Apostolos Valerianos, a Greek, who had been in the service of Spain imder the name of Juan de la Fuca. Peschel (Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 273) regards the story as apocryphal. 1595. Expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh to Guiana. Capture of the city of St. James. Search for El Dorado. Voyage up the Orinoco for 400 miles. 1595. Expedition of Drake and Hawkins to the West Indies. Death of Hawkins. Drake died 1596. 1598. The Marquis de la Roche obtained from Henry IV. of France a commission to conquer Canada. He left forty convicts on the Isle of Sable, made some explorations in Acadia, and re- turned to France. After his death his patent was granted to Chauvin, who made two successful voyages to Tadoussac, and left some people there (1600). 1602. Voyage of Bartholemew Gosnold from Falmouth. Taking due westerly course he first saw land in 42° N. Discovery of a cape which Gosnold named Cape Cod (May 15). Discovery of Buzzard'' s Bay (called Gosnold' s Hope). Erection of a fort and storehouse on Cuttyhunk (called by Gosnold Elizabeth Island, a name now applied to the whole chain of islands of which this is the most westerly). Return of the whole party to England. 1603. Voyage of Martin Pring from Bristol along the coast of Maine from the Penobscot River to the Bay of Massachusetts. 1603. Voyage of Samuel Champlain, a Frenchman, from Brouage, up the St. Lawrence. 1604. Foundation of Port Royal (the present Annapolis) in Nova Scotia by the French. In 1603 Pierre du Gast, Sieur de Monts, obtained from Henry IV. of France a grant of all lands in North America from 40° N. to 46° N. (from Pennsylvania to New Brunswick), under the name of Acadia. (This name was afterwards restricted to the present New Brunswick, and the French possessions in N. America were designated generally as New France.) In 1604 De Monts associated himself with M. Poutrincourt and sailed for America with two vessels Foundation of Port Royal by Poutrincourt. Discovery of thi St. John River by Champlain, De Monts' pilot. De Monts built a foi at St. Croix, but in the following year joined Poutrincourt at Pc Royal. I See Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde, I. 299, for a discussion of the errors th» early Arctic navigators. A. ». America. 291 1606. Voyage of George Weymouth (who had made a trip to Labrador in 1602) to the coast of Maine. Santa Fd in New Mexico founded. Over a hundred years had elapsed since the discovery of America, and thus far South America and Central America had alone been the scene of active and successful colonization. In North America, a few scattered Spanish settlements in the south and one French colony in the north were the only representatives of European civiliza- tion. The next few years witnessed a mighty change. England, which for all her voyages had not a foot of land in America, entered on a course of settlement and conquest which ultimately gave her the fairest portion of the New World. English, Dutch, and Swedish Colonies in North America (1606-1638). A. English Colonies. 1606. April 10. The patent of Sir Walter Raleigh becoming void by his attainder for treason, James I. issued a patent dividing Virginia into two parts : 1. The First Colony, embracing the coimtry from 34° N. to 38° N. with the right to settle as far as 41° N. if they were the first to found their colony : this southern colony was granted to a number of gentlemen, residing principall}^ in London {Richard Hakluyt), and known as the London Company. 2. The Second Colony, embracing the country between 41° N. and 45° N. with the right of settling as far as 38° N. if they were the first to establish their colony ; this northern colony was granted to gentle- men residing chiefly in Bristol, Plymouth, etc., and hence kno^vn as the Plymouth Company. Each company was to become owner of the land for fifty miles on each side of the first settlement, and one hun- dred miles inland. The nearest settlements of the two colonies should be one hundred miles apart. The government of each colony was vested in a council resident in England and nominated by the king ; the local government was intrusted to a council resident in America also nominated by the king, and to conform to his regulations. Imports from England free of duty for seven years ; freedom of trade with other nations, the duties for twenty-seven years to go to the colonies. Right of coinage and of self-defense. Establishment of a Council of Virginia in England for the superin- tendence of both colonies. Colony of South Virginia. 1607» May 13. Foundation of Jamestown in the southern colony by a band of one hundred colonists sent out under Christopher Newport. It included Bartholomew Gosnold and John Smith. Dissension in the council. Explorations by John Smith who was captured by the Indians, and presented to the chief, Powhatan, but in the end released (story of the rescue of Smith by Pocahontas, daughter of Powhatan^). In 1607 1 This story has been relegated to the realm of fable, on the insufficient ground that no mention of it appears in Smith's first account of his ca, tivity. 292 Modern History. a. d. Smith explored the Chesapeake. During the first years the colony suffered severely from extremes of heat and cold, as well as from dissensions and bad provision by the company. Laborers were scarce, the colonists being either gentlemen or criminals. 1609. Second charter of the company of South Virguiia, increase of privileges and of members. Lord Delaware {Thomas West) appointed governor for life. Smith returned to England. 1610. The distress in the colony was so great {The Starving Time) that it was on the point of abandonment when Lord Dela- ware arrived with supplies. 1611. Delaware returning to England, Sir Thomas Gates was sent out as deputy governor. 1612. Third charter of the company of South Virginia. Inclusion of the Bermudas within their possessions. 1613. The French having established the colony of St. Saviour at Mount Desert on the coast of Maine, the governor of South Virginia sent Samuel Argal to dispossess them. Argal de- stroyed St. Saviour and razed Port Royal. On his return he received the submission of the Dutch settlement at Hudson's River (?). 1614. Sir Thomas Dale deputy governor of South Virginia. 1615. Land, which had hitherto been held of the company by farmers as tenants-at-will, was now made private property ; fifty acres being now granted to every colonist and his heirs. 1617. Samuel Argal succeeded >S'iV George Yeardley as deputy gover- nor of South Virginia ; reduced state of the colony. In the 1618. following year Lord Delaware sailed with supplies and colonists for Virginia, but died on the voyage. Rigorous government of Argal. At this time there were 600 persons and 300 cattle in the colony ; the only exports were tobacco and sassa- fras, and the London company was indebted £5,000. 1619. First General Assembly in South Virginia convoked (June l9) by Sir George Yeardley, governor general, con- sisting of the burgesses of the colony, representing eleven " bo- roughs " or plantations. The burgesses sat with the council and governor. Introduction of negro slaves (20) into Virginia by a Dutch vessel. 1620 The colony, numbering 1000 persons, received an accession of 1200 new settlers. Introduction of women who were sold as wives to the colonists for from 100 to 150 pounds of tobacco. Free trade with the colony established. 1621. Sir Francis Wyatt, governor, brought over a new constitution for the colony, whereby its government was vested in a governor, a council of state, and a general assembly, to which two bur- gesses were to be chosen by every town, hundred, and planta- tion. The governor had the veto power, and every enact- ment of the colonial legislature required the ratification of the company in England to become binding. All ordinances of the company were without effect unless accepted by the assembly. 1. D. America, 293 L622. March 22. Massacre of 347 colonists by the Indians. L624. Commission of inquiry into the affairs of Virginia appointed by the crown. In spite of the answer of the general assembly wherein the rights of the people were defined, the court of king's bench in England, before which the cause was tried, de- cided against the company. The charter was annulled. The company had sent out more than 9000 persons to the colony, of whom not more than 2000 now remained. Sir Francis Wyatt was appointed governor, with a council of eleven mem- bers appointed by the king. This plan of government was continued by Charles I., who announced that the colony should immediately depend upon the crown, which should appoint the governor and council and issue patents and legal processes. Commercial restrictions. 1630. Grant of Carolana (the region south of the Virginia colony be- tween 31° N. and 3(i^ N.) to Sir Robert Heath, being the first instance of a proprietary grant by the crown. No settlement seems to have been made, on which account the grant was subsequently declared void, and a part of the territory granted out under the name of Carolina, a proceeding which resulted in much ill-feeling. 1632* Grant of Maryland (the region between the Fotomac and 41° N.) to Cecil Calvert, the second lord Baltimore, son of Sir George Calvert, to whom the grant was originally made, but who died before putting it to use. The grant was met by a protest from Virginia which was of no avail. In 1634, the first colony reached Maryland ; being about two hundred persons. Gift of fifty acres of land to each emigrant as pri- vate property. The Calverts being Roman Catholics, no men- tion of religious establishment appeared in the charter beyond the recognition of Christianity as established by English com- mon law. The proprietary, or grantee holding directly of the crown, was subject to no corporation or company, appointed the dep- uty governor and the executive officers, regulated the legisla- tion, and received the taxes. The general assembly of the colonists possessed an advisory power, and the right of express- ing non-approval. 1636. Grant of New Albion (including Neiu Jersey) from the vice- roy of Ireland to Sir Edward Plowden, This New Albion, which was not settled, must not be confounded with the tract of like name discovered by Drake on the western coast of America (p. 289). The Plymoutli Company. 1 the receipt of the charter th rs to the region of their grant 1607, George Popham and Raleigh Gilbert led 120 colonists to the Immediately upon the receipt of the charter the company had dis- patched two explorers to the region of their grant (Challons, Hanam), md in 294 Modern History. A. d northern colony. They built Fort St. George on Parker^s " IsU and^^ (peninsula), at the mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine (Aug. 11). The death of George Popham and of Sir John Popham in England (1608) so disheartened the colonists that they returned to England. No further attempts at settle- ment being made for some time, the French (who had also a | claim to these regions (see 1604) planted several colonies within j the territory of the Plymouth Company. 1614. Exploration of the coast of the northern colony by John Smith from Penobscot to Cape Cod. On his return he wrote an ac- count of his voyage and published a map of the district explored, to which the name of New England was given. Trouble with the Indians, springing from the action of Thomas Hunt, who carried ofi:' twenty-seven natives to the West Indies for slaves, discouraged settlement. After the frustration of an attempt at colonization by Smith in 1615 through adverse circumstances, the company itself made no more attempts at settlements, and the colonies that grew up in its territories ; were founded by companies or individuals under its charter but in- dependent of its action. One of the most important settlements, in- deed, was made without any authority from the company. In 1620 the company was reorganized as the Council at Plymouth for New England with territory from Philadelphia to Chaleur Bay (40° N. to 48° N. across tbe continent). 1620. Settlement of Plymouth in New England by English separatists from Holland. This religious sect, a sort of left wing of the larger body of Puritans, had left England in 1607-8 on account of the intolerance with which they were treated, and settled at Leyden in Holland {1609) to the number of 1000 or more, under their minister, John Rob- inson. After several attempts to secure a patent from the London company (South Virginia), and a promise of toleration from the king, they succeeded in the former endeavor in 1619, but not in the latter. Procuring two ships (Speedwell, Mayflower), a part of the con- gregation, and some others, set sail Aug. 5, from Southampton (hav- ing left Leyden in July) for the vicinity of Hudson's River. Twice driven back by^stress of weather the Pilgrims (a name applied much earlier to the whole body in Holland) finally left Plymouth in the May/lower, Sept. 6. On Nov. 9 they sighted Cape Cod, but instead of running southward they were induced by fear of shoal water, by the late season, and perhaps by the cunning of the shipmaster, to anchor at the Cape. On Nov. 11, the company signed a compact of govern- ment (they bemg beyond the limits of the London Company), and elected John Carver governor. For some weeks they explored the coast, landing at various places. (Birth of Peregrine White, the first European child born in New England). Toward the close of De-' eember they fixed on the site of Plymouth, and landing, began the erection of a house and portioned out land among the settlers (nine- teen families, 102 individuals).^ 1 The date is disputed ; that of the landing of the whole body can hardly be 1, D. America. 295 1621. Intercourse of the colonists (Capt. Miles StandisK) with the In- dians (Samoset, Massasoit, chief of the Indians in tliat vicin- ity). Upon the death of Carver, "William Bradford was elected governor. Arrival of a new patent from the Plymouth Company, also made out in the name of the London merchants, with whom the Pilgrims had formed a partnership hefore sail- ing. Over fifty of the original settlers died this year. Trouble with the Indians 1621-23. Meantime the territory of the Plymouth Company was being par- celed out among various adventurers by often conlhcting grants. In 1621 Sir William Alexander obtained a patent for the whole of Aca- dittf under the name of Nova Scotia, from the c^o^vn of Scotland (confirmed, 1625). The region from Salem River to the Merrimac was granted to John Mason and called Mariana. In 1622 Sir Fernando Gorges and John Mason obtained a grant of all lands between the Merrimac and the Kennebec, which region was called at first Laconiay afterwards, Maine. In 1622 settlements were made on the site of the present Dover (Cochecho) and Portsmouth. In 1624 a few Puri- tans from England settled at Cape Ann ; the colony afterwards re- moved to Naumkeag {Roger Conant, 1626). In 1625 Captain Wollas- ton settled at Mount Wollaston, near Boston. 1623. The Plymouth Company sent out Francis West as " Admiral of New England," Robert Gorges as " Governor-General," and William Morrell as " Superintendent of Churches " but nothing came of this assertion of authority. 1627. The colony at Plymouth succeeded in buying off the London merchants in whose name their charter had been issued. Growth of the colony ; friendly intercourse with the Dutch. 1628. The Plymouth Company issued a grant of the land between three miles south of the Charles River, and three miles north of the Merrimac, reaching from the Atlantic to the Pacific, to a company which sent John Endicott as governor and colonists who joined the others at Naumkeag. In 1629 the name of the colony was changed to Salem. The colony at Plymouth obtained a grant on the Kennebec. Suppression of the settlement at Wollaston (" Merry Mount ") by Endicott. Morton, who after Wollaston's departure had ruled the colony and sold firearms (?) to the Indians, was seized by Standish from Plymouth and sent to England. 1629. Establishment of the company of Massachu- setts Bay (" The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England ") by a charter issued directly by the crown to the company, enlarged by new associates, which had settled Salem, The company was permitted to elect a governor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants yearly, and to make laws not repugnant to those of England. The first governor of the company was Matthew Cradock. ascertained ; the landing of the first exploring partv seems to have taken place on Dec. 11, O.S., or Dec. 21 (22), N S. (confusion here also). See Gay, " When did the Pilgrim Fathers land at Plymouth?" — Atlantic Monthly, November, 1881, p. 612. 296 Modern History. A n. A number of influential men soon becoming interested in the enter- prise, the governing council or court of the company in England (that is to say, " The Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay in New England") consented that the charter and government should be transferred to the colony (Aug. 29), under which agree- ment John Winthrop was chosen governor, and in 1630 sailed | for New England with a large number of settlers, who landed at Charlestown, where an offshoot from the Salem colony was already established. Here a church was founded and two courts of assistants held. 1629. Mason and Gorges dissolving their connection, a new grant was made to each, Mason receiving the territory between the Merrimac and the Piscataqua, a region afterwards called New- Hampshire.^ Gorges received the region between the Pis- cataqua and the Kennebec, under the name of New Somerset- shire. 1630. Third and last patent of the Plymouth colony, whereby it was i assigned the district between the Cohasset River and the Nar- raganset, extending westward to the limits of Pokenakut or Sowamset. " The colonists were allowed to make orders, or- dinances, and constitutions, for the ordering, disposing, and governing their persons, and distributing the lands within the limits of the patent." 1630. Settlement of Boston, on the peninsula called Shawmut by the Indians, but Trimountain by the English, and then inhab- ited by an episcopal minister, William Blackstone. On Sept, 7, the court at Charlestown changed the name of Trimountain to Boston. First general court of Massachusetts held at Boston, Oct. 19. It was enacted that the freemen should elect the assistants, who were to choose out of their own num- ber the governor, but the next court decreed that the governor, deputy governor, and assistants should be elected directly by the freemen. Only church-members were freemen, so that the freemen formed a minority of the population. In 1631 a fortified town was begun on the Charles and called Newtovm (afterwards Cambridge). Colony of Connecticut. The Dutch {Adrian Block, 1614) were the first to explore the coast of Connecticut and the river of that name, when they built a fort near Hartford. In 1630 the council of Plymouth granted to the earl of Warwick the land 120 miles S. E. from the Narraganset River, and extending from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In 1631 Warwick transferred this grant to the viscount Say and Seal, lord Brook, and others. In 1633 the colonies of Plymouth and Boston conferred on the question of settling the Connecticut valley ; as the Massachu- setts colony declined the enterprise a company was sent out from 1 The "Deed from four Indian sagamores to John Wheelwright and others, 1629," long accepted as the foundation of the history of New Hampshire, is now generally accounted a forgery. Holmes, Annals^ I. 199, note 2. Win- throp, Journal, ed. by Savage. Fogg, Gaztteer of N. H. A* D. America, 297 Plymouth, which disregarded the prohibition of the Dutch and set up a house on the Connecticut. The rival claims of the Dutch and English were discussed without effect by the colonies. 1634. The growth of the colony of Massachusetts Bay preventing the attendance of all freemen at the general court, it was en- acted that whereas four courts should be held in a year, tho whole body of freemen should be present at that court only in which the elections were held ; at the other courts the freemen in the towns should send deputies. 1635. Surrender of the Charter of the Council of Plymouth to the crown in consequence of the hostility of the govern- ment and church. 1635. Foundation of the Connecticut colony by emigrants from Mas- sachusetts (Windsor, Wethersfield, Hartford), and by John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop of Massachusetts, who built a fort at Saybrook, under commission from the proprie- tors. In 1636 a large part of the inhabitants of Newtown (Cambridge) migrated to Connecticut and settled at Hart- ford. 1636. A code of laws (the General Fundamentals') established at Plymouth. 1636. Foundation of Providence by Roger Williams, who had been expelled from Salem in 1634 for holding heretical doc- trines subversive of church and state. 1637. War of Connecticut (first general court at Hartford) and Mas^ sachusetts against the unruly tribe of Pequots in Connecticut. Extermination of the Indians (Capt. John Mason). 1638. Foundation of the colony of Rhode Island by John Clark and others, who left Massachusetts on account of religious differences. Purchase of the island of Aquedneck (afterwards Isle of Rhodes) from the Indians. Foundation of the colony of New Haven in Connecticut under Davenport and Eaton. In this year another attempt was made by quo warranto pro- cess to rescind the charter of Massachusetts, but it failed of success. In consequence of a bequest of £779 17s. 2d. from John Har- vard, of Charlestown, the public school which the colony had enacted in the previous year should be established at Newtown received the name of Harvard College, while the name of the town was changed to Cambridge. 1639. Windsor, Hartford, Wethersfield, on the Connecticut, united to form a separate government. The constitution (Jan. 14) placed the executive, legislative, and judicial powers in the general assembly, composed of the deputies of the towns in the ratio of numbers of freemen, meeting twice a year. All could vote who had taken the oath of allegiance to the con- stitution. The grant of Sir Fernando Gorges was confirmed to him by the crown under the title of the Province of Maine. A general assembly of the deputies of the towns in Ply* mouth colony met for the first time (June 4}. 298 Modem History. a. d. 1641. The Body of Liberties, a code of 100 laws established by the general court of the colony of Massachusetts Bay. 1643. Creation of the United Colonies of New England by the alliance of Connecticut, New Haven, Plymouth and Mas- sachusetts Bay (May 19) for mutual defense. B. Dutch Settlements. 1609. Henry Hudson, an Englishman in Dutch service, coasted from Newfoundland to the Chesapeake, and entered Hudson's River. Trading voyages of the Dutch (1610-1613). 1613. Establishment of a Dutch trading post on the island of Man- hattan at the mouth of the Hudson, or North River (so called to distinguish it from the South River, or Delaware). Alleged submission of the Dutch to Argal (p. 292). 1614. Establishment of the United New Netherland Company in Holland with a grant in America of territory from 40° N. to 45° N. Fort built at Manhattan, another, Fort Orange, near the present Albany (1615). Voyage of Adrian Block through Long Island sound (Block Island). 1621. Creation of the Dutch West India Company to take the place of the Neio Netherland Company whose charter had expired. 1626. Peter Minuit, having purchased Manhattan Island for twenty-four dollars, founded the settlement of New Amsterdam. Settlements were made under the charter of the company in Con- necticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, as well as in New York. Many of these were founded under an enactment of the com- pany which gave the title of patroon to any person who should bring over a certain number of colonists under certain conditions ; the title represented a certain relation of suzerainty between the founder and the colonists. The council for New England had opposed what it regarded as the Dutch invasion in 1620-21, and the remonstrances of the English grew stronger after the foundation of New Amsterdam (1627, 1632). The settlement of Connecticut from New England (1632-1638) was opposed by the Dutch in vain, and the entire region was wrested from them. (Protest of Kief t, governor of New Netherlands against the foundation of New Haven.) The Dutch drove a flourishing trade with the Five Nations of the Iroquois in central New York, whom they supplied with firearms. C. Swedish Settlements. 1638. Foundation of Fort Christina on the Delaware by a colony of Swedes and Finns. The colony was called New Sw^eden, and was followed by other settlements. The Dutch considered this an invasion of their rights, but the disputes that followed led to no result untU 1655, when New Sweden was annexed ta New Netherlands. A. D. America, 299 ID. New France and the Arctic Region. It must be remembered that France claimed, by right of the dis- coveries of Verrazauo, the whole of North America north of Spanish Florida and Mexico, although settlements had been made only in Nova Scotia and on the St. Lawrence, nothing having come of the projected settlement between Spanish Florida and English Virginia. It was with the French in the north that the English settlers had to deal ; it was to Canada that they applied the name of New France, as that of Acadia was restricted to Nova Scotia. From the north the French afterwards made the great discoveries in the west which gave them new claims to the larger part of America. 1(306. An attempted settlement on Cape Cod repulsed by the Indians. 1608. Foundation of Quebec (July 3) by a colony sent out by De Monts, under Champlain. 1609. Champlain, joining a war party of the Algonquins against the Iroquois, discovered Lake Champlain. 1610. Discovery of Hudson's Bay by Henry Hudson, who was searching for the northwest passage, in the service of an English company. On the return the crew mutinied and Hudson was put to sea in a small boat, and not heard of again. 1610. English colony sent to Newfoundland 46° N. to 52° N. (Con- ception Bay). 1612. Voyage of Thomas Button in search of the Northwest Passage. Discovery of New South Wales and New North Wales, Button's Bay. 1613. Madame de Guercheville, having secured the surrender of De Monts' patent, and the issue of a new patent from the crown for all New France between Florida and the St. Latorence . (except Port Royal), sent Saussage mth two Jesuits, who took possession of Nova Scotia and founded a colony (^St. Saviour') on Mt. Desert, which was immediately broken up by ArgaVs expedition from Virginia. All the French settlements in Acadia were also destroyed. 1615. Expedition of Champlain to Lake Huron. 1616. Voyage of Bylot and Baffin in search of the Northwest Pas- sage. Discovery of Wolstenholme' s Sound, Lancaster Sounds Baffin's Bay (78° N.). 1621. Grant of Acadia under the name of Nova Scotia, to Sir William Alexander by the crown of Scotland. An attempt at settlement was unsuccessful and the French continued in pos- session. Grant of a part of Newfoundland to Sir George Cal- vert (Lord Baltimore) who resided there until 1631. 1627. Transfer of the colony of Quebec to the company of a hun- dred associates under Cardinal Richelieu. 1629. Conquest of Quebec by Louis and Thomas Kertk, under a commission from Charles I. for the conquest of New France. An attack of David Kertk in 1628 had been repulsed by Champlain, 800 Modern Histm'y. A. d. 1630. St. Estienne of La Tour, a Huguenot, bought from Sir William Alexander his patent for Nova Scotia, on condition that the colony should, remain subject to Scotland. 1631. Voyages of Fox and James in search of a Northwest Passage. Fox explored the west coast of Hudson Bay from 65° 30' to SS'^ 10' in vain, but discovered Fox^s Channel and reached Cape Peregrine. James discovered James Bay, where he passed a terrible winter. 1632. Treaty of St. Germain between France and England. Ces- sion of New France, Acadia, and Canada to France. 1635. Seizure of the trading post established at Penobscot by the Plymouth colonists by the French. Plymouth sent a vessel against the French, but failed to recover the place. Death of Champlain. 1641. Maisonneuve appointed governor of Montreal ; in 1642 he brought over several families and took possession of the island. {See p. 357.) § 3. GERMANY TO THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. THE REFORMA- TION. (See p. 2SS.) 1493-1519. Maximilian I., who first took the title of " Roman Emperor elect." 1495. Diet at Worms. Perpetual public peace. Imperial Cham- ber (Reichskammergericht), first at Frankfort, then at Speier, after 1689 at Wetzlar. At the diet of Cologne (1512), establishment of ten circles for the better maintenance of the public peace (Land- fried enskreise) : Circle of : 1. Austria ; 2. Bavaria ; 3. Swabia; 4. Fran- conia ; 5. the Upper Rhine (Lorraine, Hesse, etc.) ; 6. the Lower Rhine, or the Electorates (Mainz, Trier, Cologne) ; 7. Burgundy (1556, ceded to the Spanish line of Hapsburg) ; 8. Westphalia ; 9. Lower Saxony (Brunswick, Liineburg, Lauenburg, Holstein, Meck- lenburg, etc.) ; 10. Upper Saxony (Saxony, Brandenburg, Pomer- ania, etc.). In all comprising 240 estates of the empire, exclusive of the imperial knights. Bohemia and the neighboring states, Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia, with Prussia and Switzerland, which was already completely independent, in fact, were not included in the circles. Establishment of the Aulic Council, a court more under the control, of the emperor than the Imperial Chamber, and to which a large p£ of the work belonging to the latter was gradually diverted. Maximilian was obliged to invest Louis XII. of France with Milar 1508. League of Cambray between Maximilian, Louis XII., Pope] Julius II., and Ferdinand the Catholic, against Venice. Maxi-] milian took possession of a part of the territory of the republic, bu| besieged Padua in vain (1509). The Pope withdrew from tl league, and concluded with Venice and Ferdinand the Holy Leac, (1511) against France, in which they were finally (1513) joined bj Maximilian (p. 319). The following genealogical table shows the claim of the house Hapsburg to Spain, and its division into a Spanish and German line. A. D. Germany. — Reformation. 301 Maximilian /., r Mary, Ferdinand, Isabella, emperor, f 1519. of Burgundy, king of Aragon, queen of Castile t 1482. t 1516. i 1504. d. of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. Philip the Fair, rr^zrrr=z===: Joanna the Insane, archduke of Austria, t 1506. SPANISH. queen of Aragon and Castile, t 1555. GERMAN. Charles I. (V.), f 1558. Ferdinand I., f 1564. m. Isabella of Portugal. m. Anna of Hungary. Philip II., king of Spain, Maximilian II., t 1598. emperor, f 1576. Maximilian's son Philip married Joanna, daughter of Ferdinand (king of Aragon and Naples) and Isabella (queen of Castile), hence heiress of the three kingdoms and the American Colonies. Philip him- self inherited from his mother, Mary, the heiress of Burgundy, the Bur- gundian Lands ; from his father, Maximilian, all the possessions of the Hapsburgs {Western Austria on the upper Rhine, Austria, Carinthia, Carniola, Tyrol, etc.). All these lands descended to Charles, the eldest son of Philip and Joanna, the ancestor of the elder, Spanish, line of the Hapsburg house. His younger brother, Ferdinand, ancestor of the younger, German, line of the house of Hapsburg, married Anna, sister of Louis II., last king of Bohemia and Hungary (whose wife was Mary, Ferdinand's sister).^ 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther. Martin Luther was born 1483 at Eisleben, son of a miner, became master of arts and instructor 1505 ; monk in the Augustine monastery at Erfurt; 1507 priest; 1508 professor at Wittenberg; 1511 sent to Rome on business connected with his order; 1512 doctor of theology. On Oct. 31, 1517, he nailed upon the door of the court church at Wittenberg his ninety-five theses against the misuse of absolution or indulgences (especially by the Dominican monk Tetzel). 1518. Beginning of the reformation in Switzerland by Z-wingli at Ziirich. Zwingli fell in battle at Kappel 1531. Summoned to Augsburg by Cardinal de Vio of Gaeta (Caj'etanus), Luther could not be induced to abjure (1518), but appealed to the Pope.2 Mediation of the papal chamberlain v. Miltitz. After the discussion at Leipzig 1519 {Bodenstein, called Carlstadt, against Eck), the latter secured a papal bull against forty-one articles in Luther's writings. 1 ITiese fortunate marriages of the house of Austria were celebrated in the following couplet : Bella gerant alii, tufelix Austria, nube ! Quce dat Mars aiiis, dat tibi regna Venus. 3 De Papa male in/ormato ad Papam melius infoi'viandum. 302 Modern History. A. d. Luther burnt (1520) the papal bull and the canon law ; whereupon he was excommunicated. In the mean time the German electors, in spite of the claims of Francis I. of France, had chosen the grandson of Maximilian I. in Spain, Charles I., as emperor. 1519-1556. Charles V. He came to Germany for the first time in 1520, for the pur- pose of holding a grand diet at Worms (1521). There Luther defended his doctrines before the emperor, under a safe-conduct. The ban of the empire being pronounced against hiin, he was carried to the Wartburg by Frederic the Wise, of Saxony, and there protected. The edict of Worms prohibited all new doctrines. Luther's transla- tion of the Bible. Hearing of Carlstadt's misdoings he returned to Wittenberg, and introduced public worship, with the liturgy in Ger- man and communion in both kinds, in electoral Saxony and in Hesse (1522). The spread of the Reformation in Germany was favored by the fact that the emperor, after the diet of Worms, had left Germany and was occupied with the war with Francis I. Franz von Slckingen and Ulrich von Hutten advocated the Reforma- tion. Sickingen stood at the head of an association of nobles directed against the spiritual principalities. He laid siege to Trier (1522) in vain, was besieged in Landstuhl, and fell in battle. Hutten fled the comitryand died on the island of Ufnau in the Lake of Zurich (1523). 1524-1525. The Peasants' War, in Swabia and Franconia, ac- companied with terrible outrages. The Twelve Articles. The peasants defeated at Konigshof en on the Tauber and cruelly punished. Anabaptists in Thuringia. Thomas Miinzer captured at Franken- hausen and executed. Reformation in Prussia. Grandmaster Albert of Brandenburg duke of Prussia under Polish overlordship. Luther's marriage with Catharine of Bora, formerly a nun. Cate- chism. Ferdinand of Austria, the emperor's younger brother, edu- cated in Spain, to whom Charles had intrusted since 1522 the gov- ernment of the Hapsburg lands in Germany, formed an alliance in 1524, at the instigation of the papal legate Campeggio, with the two dukes of Bavaria and the bishop of Southern Germany, in order to oppose the religious changes. To counteract this move the league of Torgau was formed (1526) among the Protestants (John of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, Liineburg, Magdeburg, Prussia, etc.). They pro- cured an enactment at the diet of Speier, favorable to the new doctrine (1526). 1521-1526. First war of Charles V. with Francis I. Charles advanced claims to Milan and the duchy of Burgundy. Francis claimed Spanish Navarre and Naples. The French (under Lautrec) were driven from Milan, which was given to Francesco Sforza (1522). The French Connetable, Charles of Bourbon, transievTed his allegiance to Charles V. Unfortunate invasion of Italy by the French 1523-24, under Bonnivert. The chevalier Bayard (" sans peur et sans reproche ") fell during the retreat. Imperial forces invaded southern France. Francis I. crossed Mt. Cenis, and recaptured Milan. A. D. Germany Eeformation, 303 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis defeated and captured. 1526. Peace of Madrid. Francis renounced all claim to Milan, Genoa, and Naples, as well as the overlordship of Flanders and Artois, assented to the cession of the duchy of Burgundy, and gave his sons as hostages- 1527-1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I., who had declared that the conditions of the peace of Madrid were extorted by force, and hence void. Alliance at Cognac between Frau' cis, the Pope^ Venice and Francesco Sforza against the emperor. The imperial army, unpaid and mutinous, took Rome by storm under the constable of Bourbon, who fell in the assault (by the hand of Ben- venuto Cellini?) \ the Pope besieged in the Castle of St. Angelo (1527). The French general, Lautrec, invaded Naples, but the revolt of Genoa (Doria), whose independence Charles V. promised to recognize, and the plague, of which Lautrec himself died, compelled the French to raise the siege of the capital and to retire to France. 1529. Peace of Cambray (Paix des Dames). So called from the fact that it was negotiated by ikfar^m-e^ o/*^ ws^na, Charles's aunt, and Louise of Savoy, duchess of Angouleme, mother of Francis. Francis paid two million crowns and renounced his claims upon Italy, Flanders and Artois ; Charles promised not to press his claims upon Burgundy for the present, and released the French princes. 1529. Second diet at Speier, where, in consequence of the victorious position of the emperor, Ferdinand and the Catholic party took a more decided position. The strict execution of the decree of Worms (p. 302) was resolved upon. The evangelical estates protested against this resolution, whence they were called Protestants. 1526-1532. War with the Turks. Louis II., king of Hungary, having fallen in the battle of Mohacs (1526), one party chose Ferdinand, Charles's brother, the other John Zapolya. The latter was assisted by the Sultan Soliman {Suleiman), who besieged Vienna in vain (1529). 1530. Charles crowned emperor in Bologna by the Pope. This was the last coronation of a German emperor by the Pope. 1530. Brilliant Diet at Augsburg, the emperor presiding in per- son. Presentation of the Confession of Augsburg (Confes- sio Augustana) by Melanchthon (true name Schivarzerd, 1497-1560), the learned friend of Luther. The enactment of the diet commanded the abolition of all innovations. 1531. Schmalkaldic league, agreed upon in 1530, between the ma- Feb. 6. jority of Protestant princes and imperial cities. Charles caused his brother, Ferdinand, to be elected king of Rome, and crowned at Aachen. The elector of Saxony protested against this proceeding in the name of the Evangelicals. In consequence of the new danger which threatened from the Turks, 1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg. The Augsburg edict was revoked, and free exercise of their religion permitted the Protestants until the meeting of a new council to be called within a year. 304 Modem History. A. d. Soliman invaded and ravaged Hungary. Heroic defence of Giinz. A great imperial army was sent to the aid of Hungary, and Soliman retired. 1534-1535. Anabaptists in Miinster (Johann Bockelsohn, from Ley- den), j 1534. Philip, landgrave of Hessen, restored the Lutheran duke, Ulrich of Wurtemberg^ who had been driven out (1519) by ; the Swabian league of cities. The emperor had invested Fer- dinand with the duchy, but the latter was obliged to agree to a compact, whereby he was to renounce Wurtemberg, but should be recognized as king of Rome by the evangelical party. 1535. Charles's expedition against Tunis (Chaireddin Barbarossa, the pirate). Tunis conquered ; liberation of all Christian slaves. 1536-1538. Third war, between Charles V. and Francis I., about Mila7i ; Francis I. having renewed his claims upon that duchy after the death of Francesco Sforza II., without issue. Charles in- vaded Provence anew, but fruitlessly. Francis made an inroad mto Savoy and Piedmont, and accepted the alliance of Soliman, who pressed Hungary hard, and sent his fleet to ravage the coast of Italy. The war was ended by the 1538. Truce of Nice, which was concluded on the basis of posses- June 18. sion, at the time of its formation, for ten years. July. Meeting between Charles and Francis at Aigues Mortes. 1539-1540. Charles V. crossed France, for the purpose of suppress- ing a disturbance in Ghent, and was received by Francis with special distinction. Ghent punished by deprivation of its privi- leges. 1540. The Order of Jesuits, founded by Ignatius Loyola (1534), approved by Pope Paul III., successfully opposed the spread of the Reformation. 1541. Reformation introduced into Geneva by Calvin (Jean Cau- vin, from Noyon in Picardy; born 1509; Catholic pastor in his eighteenth year, resigned his office ; studied law at Orleans and Bourges ; came forward as a reformer at Paris in 1532, finding pro- tection from Margaret of Navarre, sister of Francis I. Exiled from France, Calvin went to Basel, published the Institutio christiance relig^ ionis 1535 ; 1536-1538 in Geneva ; 1538-1541 in Strasburg, after- wards head of the state in Geneva, f 1564). From Geneva the Reformation spread to France and Scotland (John Knox). 1541. Charles's unsuccessful expedition against Algiers. 1542. Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, driven from the country by the Schmalkaldic League. 1542-1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I., occa- sioned by the investiture of Charles's son, Philip, with Milan. The fact that two secret agents, whom Francis had sent to Soliman, were captured in Milan, and when they resisted, put to death, served as a pretext. a. D» Germany. — Reformation, 305 Francis in alliance with Soliman and the duke of Cleve. The allied Turkish and French fleets bombarded and plundered Nice. Charles, in alliance with Henry VIII. of England, conquered the duke of Cleve, and advanced as far as Soissons. Soliman invaded Hungary and Austria. 1544. Peace of Crespy ; Francis' second son, the duke of Orleans, Sept. 18. was to marry a princess of the imperial family and receive Milan. He died in 1545, however ; Milan continued in the possession of the emperor, who gave it, nominally, to his son Philip, as a fief. Francis gave up his claims to Naples, and the overlordship of Flanders and Artois; Charles renounced his claims to Burgundy. 1545-1563. Council of Trent, not attended by the Protestants. Reforms in the church. Establishment of a number of dog- mas of the Catholic church. 1546, Feb. 18. Death of Luther at Eisleben. Charles V., who, since the peace of Crespy, was unhindered by foreign complications, sought to crush the independence of the estates of the empire in Germany, and to restore the unity of the church, to which he was urged by the Pope, who concluded an alli- ance with him, and promised money and troops. 1546-1547. Schmalkaldio War, The leaders of the league of Schmalkalden, John Frederic, elector of Saxony, and Philip, landgrave of Hesse, placed under the ban. Duke Maurice of Saxony concluded a secret alliance with the emperor. Irresolute conduct of the war by the allies in upper Ger- many. The elector and the landgrave could not be induced by gen- eral Schdrtlin of Augsburg to make a decisive attack, and finally re- tired, each to his own land. John Frederic of Saxony reconquered bis electorate, which Maurice had occupied. Charles V. first reduced the members of the league in southern Germany (Augsburg, Nurem- berg, Ulm, duke of Wiirtemberg, etc.) to subjection, then went to Saxony, forced the passage of the Elbe, and defeated in the 1547. Battle of Miihlberg, on the Lochau Heath, near Targau the 24 April, elector of Saxony, captured him, and besieged his capital, Wittenberg. Treaty mediated by Joachim II. of Branden- burg. The electoral dignity and lands given to the Albertine line (duke Maurice^. The Ernestine line retained Weimar, Jena, Eisenach, Gotha, etc. The elector was kept in captivity. Philip of Hesse surrendered, and was detained in captivity, although Maurice ind Joachim II. of Brandenburg had pledged themselves for his liberation. Interim of Augsburg (1548), not generally accepted by ;he Protestants. The city of Magdeburg, the centre of the opposition, placed under the ban. Maurice of Saxony, intrusted with the exe- jution of the decree, armed himself in secret against Charles V., and L552. Surprised the emperor, after the conclusion of the treaty of Friedewalde (1551) with Henry II. of France, and forced hira to liberate his father-in-law, Philip of Hesse, and to conclude the 1662. Convention of Pasaau. Free exercise of religion for the 20 I 806 Modern History. A. D. \ Aug. 2. adherents of the confession of Augsburg until the next diet. Maurice defeated Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culmbach at Sievershausen (1553), but was mortally wounded. 1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg. Sept. 25. The territorial princes and the free cities, who, at this date, acknowledged the confession of Augsburg, received freedom of wor- ship, the right to introduce the reformation within their territories (jws reformandi), and equal rights with the Catholic estates. No agreement reached as regarded the Ecclesiastical Reservation that bishops and abbots who became Protestant should lose their offices and incomes ; but this provision was inserted by imperial decree. This peace secured no privileges for the reformed religion (Genevan). 1552-1556. War between Charles V. and Henry II., who, as the ally of Maurice, had seized Metz, Toul, and Verdtm. Charles besieged Metz, which was successfully defended by Francis of Guise. The truce of Vaucelles left France, provisionally, in possession of the cities which had been occupied. 1556. Abdication of Charles V. in Brussels (Oct. 25,, 1555, and Jan. 15, 1556). The crown of Spain with the colonies, Naples, Milan, Franche- Comte, and the Netherlands, went to his son Philip; the imperial office and the Hapsburg lands to his brother Ferdinand I. (p. 302, 303). Charles lived in the monastery of St. Just as a private individual, but not as a monk, and died there in 1558. 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., husband of Anna, sister of Louis II., king of Bohemia and Hungary, after whose death he was elected king of these countries by their estates. Constant warfare over the latter country, which he was obliged to abandon, in great part, to the Turks. His son, 1564-1576. Maximilian II., was of a mild disposition and favorably inclined to the Protes- tants, whom he left undisturbed in the free exercise of their religion. War with Zapolya, prince of Transylvania, and the Turks. Sultan Soliman II. died in camp before Sigeth, which was defended by the heroic Zriny. By the truce with Selim II. (1566) each party retained its possessions. The imperial knight, Grumhach, who had broken the public peace by a feud with the bishop of Wiirzburg, had plundered the city of Wiirzburg (1563), and had been protected by John Fred- eric, duke of Saxony, was placed under the ban, and after the cap- ture of Gotha, cruelly executed (1567). The duke was kept in strict confinement in Austria until his death. Reaction against Protestantism. Anti-Reformation. 1576-1612. Rudolf II., son of the Emperor Maximilian II., a learned man, an astrologer and astronomer {Kepler^ f 1630t Germany. 307 f-^ S.& w?«>> 2 CQ3 |f.r H B ^ o-ci BS • • ps ^^^ g- "^p^ ap§. SQ«i ibylla eorge, ony. •^ (3 w en BS S,o ^^ Bg=3 n ;i or-. W ^ ^■5*3 &f^2^S • o • »^ d 9 93 en 2. 2^ 2- 03 s § Pk -r- — t- t2j ? •-' i 3 V « i. o W o o w CO i Modern History. A. i was appointed imperial mathematician by him), but incapable of g(i erning. New quarrels over the ecclesiastical reservation (p.306). T imperial city of Donauworth, placed under the ban by the emper(; because a mob had disturbed a Catholic procession, was, in spite the prohibition of the emperor, retained by Maximilian of Bavar who had executed the ban (1607). These troubles led to the ioTu. tion of a i 1608. Protestant Union (leader, Frederic IV., elector Palatinti which was opposed by the i 1609. Catholic League (leader, Maximilian, duke of Bavarij Both princes were of the house of Wittelsbach. i Rudolf, from whom his brother, Matthias, had forced the cessi of Hungary, Moravia, and Austria, hoping to conciliate the Bob mians gave them the 1609. Royal Charter (Majestdtsbrief)j which permitted a free exe cise of religion to the three estates of lords, hiights, ai royal cities. 1609. Beginning of the quarrel about the succession of Julich-Cle on the death of John William, duke of Cleve. The elect of Brandenburg and the prince of Neuburg were the princip claimants. Rudolf, toward the close of his life, was forced by Matthias to a dicate the government of Bohemia. 1612-1619. Matthias, being childless, and having obtained the renunciation of li brothers, secured for his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria, Cari thia, and Carniola, who had been educated by the Jesuits in stri Catholicism, the succession in Bohemia and Hungary, in spite of tl objections of the Protestant estates. § 4. THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War is generally divided into four period which were properly as many different wars. The first two, the B liemian and the Danish, had a predominant religious character ; th( developed from the revolt in Bohemia to a general attack by Cathol Europe upon Protestant Europe. The latter two, the Sivedish ar Swedish-French, were political wars ; wars against the power of tl house of Hapsburg, and wars of conquest on the part of Stueden ai France upon German soil. 1. Period of war in Bohemia and the County Palatine. (1618-1623.) Occasion : Closing of a Utraquist ^ church in the territory of tl abbot of Braunaii, and destruction of another in a city of the arci hishop of Prague, that is, in the territory of ecclesiastical estates, whi( 1 Utraquist, that is, favoring communion in both kinds. i . D. Germany. — Thirty Tears* War, 309 jcording to the view of the Protestants ought to be regarded as >yal estates, in accordance with the Bohemian constitution.! The irri- ttion of the Bohemian Protestants (Utraquists) was increased by the •ansference of the administration of the country to ten governors, >ven of whom were Catholics. Meeting of the defensors, and revolt I Prague, headed by count Matthias of Thum. The governors, Mar- >iitz and Slawata, and the secretary, Fabricius, thrown from a win- 3w in the palace of Prague, seventy feet into the ditch, but escaped ith their lives (May 23, 1618). Thirty directors appointed by the sbels. The Protestant Union sent count Mans/eld to the aid of le Bohemians. From Silesia and Lusatia came troops under mar- rave John George of Jdgerndorf. The imperial forces were defeated |r Mansfeld and count Thurn. The emperor Matthias died 1619. Count Thurn marched upon Vienna. The Austrian estates, for the lost part Protestants, threatened to join the Bohemians, and made >ugh demands upon Ferdinand, who, by his courage and the arrival : a few troops, was rescued from a dangerous situation. Thurn, ho arrived before Vienna shortly afterwards, was soon obliged to itire by an unfavorable turn of the war in Bohemia.'^ Ferdinand ent to Frankfortf where he was elected emperor by the other six ectors. 619-1637. Ferdinand II. Meantime the Bohemians had deposed him from the throne of ohemia and elected the young Frederic V., elector palatine, the head • the Union and of the German Calvinists, son-in-law of James I., ^ng of England. (" The Winter King "). Count Thurn, for the second time before Vienna, allied with Beth' n Gabor, prince of Transylvania (Nov. 1619). Cold, want, and an .road of an imperial partisan in Hungary, caused a retreat. Ferdinand leagued himself with Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, head • the Catholic League, the friend of his youth, who helped him sub- le the Austrian estates, with Spain (Spinola invaded the county ilatine; treaty of Ulm, July 3, 1620; neutrality of the Union se- ired), and with the Lutheran elector of Saxony, who re-subjugated wsatia and Silesia. Maximilian of Bavaria, with the army of the league commanded by Tilly, marched to Bohemia and joined the aperial general Buquoy. They were victorious in the j320, Nov. 8. Battle on the White Hill I over the troops of Frederic V., under the command of Chris- jn, of Anhalt. Frederic was put under the ban, and his lands confis- .ted ; he himself fled to Holland. Christian of Anhalt and John eorge of Brandenburg-Jagerndorf, also put under the ban. Sub- gation of the Bohemians, destruction of the Royal Charter, ex- ution of the leading rebels, extirpation of Protestantism in Bohemia. fterwards, violent anti-reformation in Austria, and, with less vio- •nce, in Silesia. ' Dissolution of the Protestant Union and transfer of the seat of war 1 Cf. Qindely, Gesck. d. dreissigjiihr. Kriegs, vol. i. (1869), chap. ^ a Qindely, ii. (1878), chap. 2. 310 Modern History, A. D to the palatinate, which was conquered in execution of the ban b; Maximilian's general, Tilly {Jan Tzerklas, baron of Tilly, bom 1559 in the Walloon Brabant), with the help of Spanish troops unde; Spinola. Tilly, defeated at Wiesloch by Mans/eld (April, 1622), de feated the margrave of Baden- Durlach at Wimpfen (May), au( Christian of Brunswick, brother of the reigning duke and administra tor of the bishopric of Halberstadt, at Hochst (June, 1622), and agaiJ^ at Stadtlohn in Westphalia (1623). t 1623. Maximilian received the electoral vote belonging to Frederi V. and the Upper Palatinate ; Saxony obtained Lusatia for th( present in pledge. 2. Danish Period. Seat of War in Lower Saxony. 1625-1629. Christian IV., king of Denmark and duke of Holstein, was the hea( of the Lower Saxon Circle, and the leader of the Protestants. Albert of Wallenstein (Waldstein, born 1583, in Bohemia, of ai utraquist family, but educated in the Catholic faith, 1617 count, 162! prince of the empire, 1624 duke of Friedland) became the imperia commander of an army, recruited by himself, which was to be provi- sioned by a system of robbery. Wallenstein defeated Mansfeld at the Bridge of Dessau (1626) pursued him through Silesia to Hungary, where Mansfeld joinec' Bethlen Gahor. Mansfeld died in Dalmatia (Nov., 1626). Christiar of Brunswick had died in June of the same year. Tilly defeated Christian IV. at Luther am Barenberge, in Brun» wick (Aug., 1626). Tilly and Wallenstein conquered Holstein (1627) Wallenstein alone conquered Schleswig and Jutland, drove the dukes of Mecklenburg from the country, forced the duke of Pommerania tc submission, but besieged Stralsund (1628) in vain, the citizens de- fending themselves heroically for ten weeks. 1629. Peace of Ltibeck May 22. between the emperor and Christian IV. The latter re- ceived his lands back, but promised not to interfere in Germai affairs, and abandoned his allies. The dukes of Mecklenburg put un- der the ban. Wallenstein invested with their lands. 1629, March 29. Edict of Restitution : 1. Agreeably to the cccZesms- tical reservation (p. 306), all ecclesiastical estates which had been confiscated since the convention of Passau should be restored This affected two archbishoprics: Magdeburg and Bremen; twelve bis- hoprics: Minden, Verden, Halberstadt, Lubeck, Ratzeburg, Meissen. Merseburg, Naumburg (the latter three were, however, left in the pos- session of the elector of Saxony), Brandenburg, Havelberg, Lebus and Camin, besides very many (about 120) monasteries and foundations, 2. Only the adherents of the Augsburg confession were to have free exercise of religion ; all other " sects " were to be broken up. Be- ginning of a merciless execution of the edict by Wallenstein's troops and those of the League. . D. Germany. — Thirty Tears' War, 311 »30. Electoral Assembly at Regensburg (Ratisbon). ' The party of Bavaria and the League was hostile to Wallen- ein and took up a position of determined opposition to the too pow- •ful general. An excuse was found in the loud and well founded ^mplaints of all estates of the empire, particularly the Catholics, over '6 terrible extortion and cruelty practiced by Wallenstein's army, he emperor consented to decree the dismissal of the general and a rge part of the army. i27-1631. War of succession over Mantua by the houses of Nevers I and Guastalla. The former, supported by France (Richelieu mself took the field) obtained the duchy in the peace of Cherasco Ipril 6) although the imperial forces had been victorious and cap- red Mantua. 3. Swedish Period (1630-1635). 530. Gustavus II., Adolphus, king of Sweden, landed on ^ly. the coast of Pomerania. i Object and grounds of his interference : protection of the oppressed rotestants ; restoration of the dukes of Mecklenburg, his relatives ; le rejection of his mediation at the peace of Liibeck ; anxiety in gard to the maritime plans of the emperor. 1 Political position of Sweden : Finland, Ingermannland, Esthonia, ivonia, belonged to the kingdom of Gustavus ; Curland was under wedish influence. An ambitious monarch might easily dream of le acquisition of Prussia and Pomerania, which would have almost ade the Baltic a Swedish sea. Gustavus concluded a subsidy treaty vnth France (Richelieu). t Gustavus Adolphus drove the imperial forces from Pomerania |id marched up the Oder, where Tilly came against him (1631). The mg went to Mecklenburg. Tilly retired to the Elbe, and laid siege > Magdeburg. Gustavus Adolphus captured Frankfort on the Oder. egotiations with his brother-in-law, 'George William, elector of Bran- ?nburg (1619-1640), who was under the influence of Schwarzenberg. oandau was at last surrendered to him. Negotiations in regard to le surrender of Wittenberg, with Saxony, which endeavored to main- in the position of a third, mediatory, party in the empire, a sort of *med neutrality (diet of princes at Leipzig, 1631), and was with fficulty brought to form an alliance with an enemy of the empire. i.eanwhile ,)31. Capture of Magdeburg by Tilly. The storm was conducted ]ay 20. by Pappenheim. Terrible massacre and sack of the city by the unbridled soldiery of Tilly, who did what he coftld to check fe outrages. Fire broke out suddenly in many places far removed om one another, and the whole city with the exception of the cathe- :al was consumed (Not by Tilly's command).^ Tilly took possession of Halle, Eisleben, Merseburg, and other cities 1 Probably the fire was set by previous agreement of the more determined irtion of the defenders (Falkenberg). Cf. Wittioh, Magdeburg, Gtistav Adolf TiUy, vol. ii. 1874. 312 Modern History. A. D. i and burned them. Jolin George^ elector of Saxony, formed An alii- 9 ance with Gustavus Adolphus, who crossed the Elbe at Wittenberg, i? Leipzig occupied by Tilly. The imperial army and that of the Swedes and Saxons, each about 40,000 strong, were face to face. 1631. Battle of Leipzig or Breitenfeld. Sept. 17. The Saxons were at first put to rout by Tilly, but after a bloody fight Gustavus Adolphus won a brilliant victory. The Saxons entered Bohemia. Gustavus crossed Thuringia and Franconia to the Rhine by way of Erfurt^ Wurzburg, Hanau, Frank- fort, Darmstadt, crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim, and occupied Mainz. Winter quarters. ,- Meantime Prague was captured by the Saxons under Arnim (Boyt'l zenburg), a former subordinate of Wallenstein. The emperor heldj fruitless negotiations with the Saxons. i| At the urgent request of Ferdinand, Wallenstein collected an army, over which he received uncontrolled command. He recaptured Prague, and drove the Saxons from Bohemia. Their eagerness for the war^ and the Swedish alliance was already chilled. 1632. Gustavus advanced to the Danube by way of Nuremberg to meet Tilly. Conflict at Rain, near the confluence of the Lenz and the Danube. Tilly, mortally wounded, died at Ingolstadt. He was seventy-three years old. j Gustavus went to Augsburg, vainly besieged Maximilian in Ingol-i stadt, but forced Munich to surrender. Wallenstein summoned to the assistance of Maximilian. 1632. Fortified camp near Nuremberg. July-Sept. {Burgstall). Gustavus and Wallenstein face to face for eleven weeks. Wallenstein declined battle. Reinforced by| Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar, the Swedes attacked Wallenstein's in-i, trenchraents, but were repulsed with heavy loss. Gustavus advanced ' to the Danube. Wallenstein turned upon Saxony, now defenseless, Arnim having marched through Lusatia to Silesia with the Saxon and Brandenburg troops. Terrible ravages committed by the bands of Wallenstein. At the call of the elector of Saxony, Gustavus hastened back by way of Kitzingen and Schweinfurt, joined Bern- hard of Saxe-Weimar in Arnstadt, marched upon Naumburg, and hearing that Wallenstein had dispatched Pappenheim from Leipzig to the Rhine, attacked the imperial forces (18,000 against 20,000 Swedes). 1632. Battle of Liitzen. Death of Gustavus Adol- phus.^ Nov. 16. Pappenheim, recalled in haste, took part in the battle with his cavalry, after three o'clock ; he was mortally wounded. The victory of the Swedes was completed by Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. Bernhard, Gustavus Horn, and Baner took command of the Swedish forces. The conduct of foreign affairs was assumed by the Swedish 1 The suspicion that the king was murdered by Francis Albert, duke of Lau- enburg, is totally unfounded. Germany, — Thirty Tears' War, 313 lancellor, Azel Oxenstierna (born 1583, councillor since 1609). Aigue of Heilhronn between the circles of Swabia, Franconia, Upper j(l Lower Rliine, on the one part, and Sweden on the other. :33. Expedition of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar to Franconia. He took Bamberg and Hdchstadt, drove back the Bavarians under Jdringer, and joined fieldmarshal Horn. Bernhard received from le chancellor the investiture, with the bishoprics of Wiirzburg and Jill) berg, under the name of the Duchy of Franconia^ and occupied 1i3 upper Palatinate. .b. After Wallenstein had tried and punished with death many of his officers in Prague, and had filled their places with new jcruits, he marched to Silesia, fought with the Saxon, Brandenburg, J d Swedish troops, and negotiated frequently with Arnim. Nego- iitions with Oxenstierna. H. Capture of a Swedish corps at Steinau-on-the-Oder. Wallenstein invaded Brandenburg, sending raiders as far as Berlin, and [ then plundered Lusatia. . Conditions of the Peace.^ A. Indemnifications. 1. Sweden received as a fief of the empire the whole of JiitTief. Pomerania and Riigen with a part of farther Pomerania (Stettin, Garz, Damm, Golhiow, WoUin, and Usedom), the city of Wismar^ formerly belonging to Mecklenburg, and the bishoprics Bremen (not the city) and Verden as secular duchies, and five million rix dollars. Sweden became a member of the diet with three votes. 2. France received without reservation of the feudal overlordship of the empire, hence with absolute sovereignty : the bishoprics and cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which had been in French hands since 1552 ; Pignerol, the city of Breisach, the landgx'avate of: upper and lower Alsace, which belonged to a branch of the Austrian^ house, and the government of ten imperial cities in Alsace (prsefec-; tura provincialis decem civitatum imperialium), with express acknowH edgment of their previous freedom. The other imperial estates in; Alsace (particularly Strasburg) retained their immediate relation to. the empire and their freedom. France also received the right of gar-: risoning Philippsburg. 3. Hesse-Cassel : abbey of Hersfeld, Schaumburg, the fiefs ofi the foundation of Minden, and 600,000 rix dollars. 4. Brandenburg : as indenmification for Pomerania which he-s longed to Brandenburg by the law of inheritance, but of which it re-i ceived the larger part of farther Pomerania only, the bishoprics of i Halberstadt, Minden, and Camin as secular principalities, the arch- bishopric of Magdeburg as a duchy, with the reservation that it should^ remain in possession of the administrator August of Saxony, duringi his life (t 1680). 5. Mecklenburg : the bishoprics of Schwenn and Ratzehurg a9i principalities. 6. Brunsvcick : alternate presentation to the bishopric of Osno-ij briickf where a Catholic and evangelical bishop were to alternate. | B. Secular Affairs of the Empire. 1. General amnesty and return to the condition of things in 1618. 2. The electoral dignity and the upper Palatinate were left in the hands of the Wilhelmian line (Bavaria) of the house of Wittels- bach, while a new electorate (the eighth) was created for the Ru- dolfian Hue (Palatinate). 3. The territorial superiority (Landeshoheit) of the whole body of estates, as regarded their relation to the emperor, was recognized, which involved the right of concluding alliances with one another and with foreign powers, if they were not directed against empire or emperor. (Afterwards, since 1663, the standing diet at Regensburg developed the German constitution more in detail.) 4. The republics of the United Netherlands and of Switzerland were recognized as independent of the empire (p. 247). ^ K. F. Siohhom, Deutsche Staata- u. Rechtsgeschichte, iv. § 522 foil. A. D. Germany. — Thirty Years' War, 317 C. Ecclesiastical Affairs {Gravamina ecclesiastical. 1. The Convention of Passau and the Peace of Augsburg (p. 305) were approved and extended so as to include the Calvinists. 2. Catholic and Protestant estates were to be on an entire equality in all affairs of the empire. 3. January 1, 1624, was adopted as the norm (annus normalis) by which questions of ownership of ecclesiastical estates and exercise of religion should be settled. As things were upon that date, so they were to remain forever ; that is, the ecclesiastical reservation (p. 306) was acknowledged to be binding for the future. The subjugated Pro- testants in Austria and Bohemia obtained no rights by the peace, but those evangelical states which had been gained by the anti-reformation during the war (the Lower Palatinate, Wiirtemberg, Baden, etc.) were allowed to resume the exercise of that religion wliich had been theirs in 1618. The Jus reformandi, the privilege of deciding by fiat the re- ligion of those subjects to whom the year 1628 did not secure free ex- ercise of religion, was retained for the future by the territorial lords. The right of emigration was, however, reserved to the subjects in such cases. The imperial court (Reichskammergericht) was restored, and its members were to be equally divided between Protestants and Catholics. France and Sweden guaranteed the peace. (See p. 371.) 318 Modern History. A. D. § 5. FRANCE. (See p. 262,) 1498-1589. Houses of Orleans and Angoul^me. Branch line of the house of Yalois (since 1328, p. 257) whoso | relation to the main line is shown in the following genealogical table : | Charles V. (third king of the house of Valois). 1364-1380. 1 I Charles VX 1380-1422. Charles VII. 1422-1461. Louis XI. 1461-1483. Louis, duke of Orleans, f 1407. ' m. Valentine Visconti. I Charles, duke of Orleans, t 1467. Xiouis xn. 1498-1515. m. (2) Anna of Brittany, died without male issue. Charles VIII. jn. Anna of Brit- tany. 1483-1498. died without male issue. Claudia ■ Henry II. 1547-1559. m. Catharine of Medici. I John, count of Angouleme. t 1467. Charles, count of Angouleme. t 1496. m. Louise of Savoy- (2) Francis 1. 1 1515-1547. Francis II. Elizabeth 1559-1560 m. Mary Stuart. m. Philip II. king of Spain. Charles IX. 1560-1574. I Henry HI, 1574-1589. duke of Anjou ; king of Poland. Francis, Margaret I duke of m. Alen9on Henry IV.' and see p. Z' Anjou,' t 1584. 1498-1515. Louis XII. obtained a divorce from Joanna, daughter of Louis XI., and' married Anna of Brittany, widow of Charles VIII., in order to keep this duchy for the crown ; as grandson of Valentina Visconti he laid claim to Milan, drove out Ludovico Moro, who was imprisoned when he ventured to return to Milan (1500). 1501. Louis XII. in alliance with Ferdinand the Catholic, king of Ar- agon, conquered the kingdom of Naples. The Spaniards and French soon falling out, the latter were defeated by the Spanish general Gonzalvo de Cordova on the Garigliano (1504). Louis XII. gave up his claims to Naples. 1508. Louis a party in the League of Cambray, p. 300. In 1511 the Pope, Ferdinand the Catholic, and Venice, concluded the Holy League, with the object of driving the French out of Italy. The lat- , A. D. France, 319 ter, under the young Gaston de Foixy duke of Nemours, nephew of Louis XII., were at first successful in the war, taking Brescia (1512) hy storm (Bayard, "without reproach or fear"), and defeating the united Spanish and Papal armies at Ravenna, with the aid of 6000 German mercenaries, in the same year ; they were, however, compelled hy the Swiss to evacuate Milan. In 1513 the French formed a new alliance with Venice, but were defeated by the Swiss at Novara and withdrew from Italy. Henry VIII. of England, who had joined the Holy League in 1512, and the emperor Maximilian who had joined in 1513, invaded France, and defeated the French at 1513. Guinegate, called the " Battle of the Spurs " from the hasty Aug. 17. flight of the French. France concluded peace with the Pope, with Spain (1513), with the emperor, and with Henry VIII. (1514). Anna of Brittany having died, Louis took, as his third wife, Mary the sister of Henry VIII. He died soon after the marriage (Jan. 1, 1515). He was succeeded by his cousm, the Count of Angoulemef who had married Claudia, daughter of Louis XII. and Anna, hence heiress of Brittany, which, however, was not actually incorporated with France until 1598. As king the count of Angouleme is known as 1515-1547. Francis I. Courageous, fond of display, dis- solute. 1515. He reconquered Milan by the brilliant victory of Marignano Sept. 13-14. over the Swiss, who fought most bravely. Peace and alliance between France and Switzerland. Treaty of Geneva (Nov. 7, 1515) ; treaty of Fribourg (Nov. 29, 1516). The lat- ll ter (la paix perpetuelle) endured till the French Revolution. \ 1516. Increase of the royal power by a Concordat with the Pope Ij which rescinded the Pragmatic Sanction of 1438 and placed the I choice of bishops and abbots in the hands of the king ; the Pope on I the other hand received the annates, or the first year's revenue of I every ecclesiastical domain where the king's right of presentation was fr exercised. Francis also abandoned the principle of the Council of l Basle, that the Pope was subordinate to an oecumenical council. \ 1520. Meeting of Francis and Henry VIII. of England in the neigh- ■ borhood of Calais. " Field of the Cloth of Gold." The wars 'of Francis with Charles V. (p. 302, etc.) occupied the rest of Francis' reign. Restrictions upon the political rights of the Parliaments. Cultivation of literature and the arts, iia&e^ais (1483-1553). Perse- ' cutions of the Protestants. Francis died March 31, 1547. He was succeeded by his son 1547-1559. Henry II. Growing power of the house of Guise (Francis, duke of Cruise »nd Charles, " Cardinal of Lorraine "). Modern History, A. D. HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND GUISK Rend le Bon, d. of Anjou and titular king of Naples and Sicily, m. Isabella, d. of Lorraine, I Margaret, m Henry VI., k of England. John II., Yolande, d. of Lor- d. of Lorraine, raine and m. Ferri II., c. of Bar. Vaudemont, Guise, etc. Nicolas, Rend II., of Lorraine and Bar. d. of Lorraine and Bar, t 1473. c. of Vaudemont, Guise, etc. no male issue. t 1508. I I Antoine, d. of Lorraine and Bar. tl544. Claude I., c. of Aumale, d. of Guise (1527). Francis I.j d. of Lorraine and Bar. Francis, d. of Guise, mur- dered 1563. Charles, Claude, d. Louis, Mary, m. Card, of of Aumale. Card, of James V. Lorraine. Guise, of Scot- land. Mary, queen of Scots. Charles II., d. of Henry, d. Charles, d. of Lorraine and Bar. of Guise. Mayenne. t 1608. t 1588. Louis, Cardinal of Guise. t 1588. Henry's mistress, Diana of Poitiers, duchess of Valentinois, ruled him almost absolutely. Montmorency, constable. Persecution of the Protestants in France ; assistance to German Protestants. 1547. Final union of Brittany with the French crown. DESCENT OF BRITTANY. Francis II., d. of Brittany. t 1488. Charles Vrtl. = (i) Anne (2) = Louis XII., k. of France. k. of France. I Claude = Francis I. I Francis the dauphin. t 1536, without male Henry H., k. of Franca 1, D. ^ance. 821 1552. War with Charles V. (p. 306.) Seizure of the three bishop-- rics, Toulf Metz, Verdun. 1556-1559. War with Philip 11. of Spain. The French defeated by the Spaniards w .th the aid of the English at 1557. St. Quentin (on the Somme), and by count Egmont at Grave» lines (lo58). 1558. Calais and GuineSy the last English possessions in France, Jan. captured by Francis^ duke of Guise. L559. Peace of Cateau-Cambre'sis : the French restored all their con- A.pril. quests except Calais and the three bishoprics (Metz, Tout and Verdun). Henry II., who died of a wound received in a tourney, was succeeded by his three weak sons. 1559-1560. Francis II. (sixteen years old), tlie first husband of Mary Stuart of Scotland, a niece of the bi. Persecution of the Protestants (chambres ardentes). Cruel 3xe )?. The king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, struggled for power and influence against the Bourbon princes, Anton (king of Na- varre) and Louis of Conde, descended from Louis IX. The Guises, it first rivals of the queen and then in alliance with her, conducted all iff airs of state and surpassed in influence their opponents, the Catholic 3onstable Montmorency, and his nephews, the three brothers Chdtillon : Lraspard, admiral de Coligny (1517-1572), Francois d^Andelot, Cardi- lal Chdtillon, afterwards leaders of the Huguenots. De VHopitaly ihancellor. Conspiracy of Amboise (La Renaudie) against the Guises iefeated (1560). Death of Francis II. 1560-1574. Charles IX., ten years old, under the influence of his mother, Catha.- rine de' Medici. 1562-1598. Wars of the Huguenots.^ Cruel persecutions compelled the Huguenots to take up arms. ki the same time they became & political party opposed to the Catho- ic party. The wars of the Huguenots were therefore not simply •eligious wars, but also political civil wars, in which the leaders of wih parties were endeavoring to take advantage of the weakness of the dng and get control of the government. The first three wars form )roperly one war, interrupted by truces called peaces (Amboise, 1563, Longjumeau, 1568, St. Germain, 1570), which were without result. The conditional freedom of religious worship permitted the Hugue- lots was to be guaranteed by the surrender to them for two years, of ihe four strong towns La Rochelle, Cognac, Montauban, La Charite. L572. Night of St. Bartholomew. iug. 23-24. Murder of admiral Coligny and general massacre of Hu- guenots, under the conduct of Henry of Guise and Tavannes, m the occasion of the marriage of Henry of Bourbon, king of 1 Huguenots is said to be a nickname derived from King Hugo, a spectre vhieh, in the belief of the people, nightly haunted the streets of Paris; whence he Protestants, from their nocturnal gatherings, were called Huguenots. Others lerive the name from a corruption of Eidgenossen, confederates. 21 322 Modern History, A. D. Navarre (son of Anton, king of Navarre) with the sister of Charles IX., Margaret of Valois. Henry of Navarre saved his life by a pre- tended conversion to Catholicism. Over 3,000 Huguenots were slain in the capital, in the whole of France about 30,000. This bloody deed led to the 1572-1573. Fourth Civil "War. La Rochelle, besieged by Henry, duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., made a brave defense. The election of the duke of Anjou to the crown of Poland brought about a compromise. Edict of Boulogne (July 8, 1573) ended the war favorably to the Huguenots. Charles IX. died May 30, 1574. His brother, who fled from Po- land, became king. 1574-1589. Henry III., a debauched weakling. The fifth civil -wrar, during which Henry of Navarre re-as- sumed the Protestant faith, was concluded (1576) by conditions more favorable to the Huguenots than those of any previous peace. Peace of Chastenoy ( Paix de Monsieur, after the duke of Alen9on) May 6, 1576. Hence dissatisfaction among the Catholics. Origin of the Holy League (1576) which in alliance with Philip II. of Spain purposed the annihilation of the reformed party, and the elevation of the Guises to the throne. The king, out of fear of the League pro- claimed himself its head and forbade the exercise of the Protestant religion throughout France. The Protestants and moderate Catho- lics had joined forces in 1575 by the confederation of Milhaud (po- litique-Huguenot) . Sisth Civil War, wherein the Huguenots were defeated, but ob- • tained favorable terms at the peace of Bergerac (or Poitiers^ , Sept. 17, 1577), as the king was unwilling to let the League become i too powerful. In spite of the renewal of the treaty of peace, not one \ of its articles was executed. This caused the Seventh Civil "War {La guerre des amour eux) (1580), which was ended in the same year by the treaty of Fleix (near St. Foy), Nov. 26, in which the conditions granted the Huguenots in former treaties were confirmed. The death of Francis, duke of Alen^on (since the accession of Henry III., duke of Anjou), the younger brother of the king, in 1584 rendered the extinction of the house of Valois certain. As it was the intention of the League to exclude from the throne Henry of Navarre, who belonged to the reformed religion, and to give the crown to the latter's uncle, the Cardinal of Bourbon, and as the League meantime induced the king to revoke the concessions granted to the Huguenots, there broke out the 1585-1589. Eighth Civil War called the War of the Three Henrys {Henry III. of Valois, Henry of Navarre, Henry of Guise). The Catholic party triumphed in spite of the victory of Coutras (Oct. 20, 1587), gained by Henry of Navarre. Formation of the League of Sixteen at Paris, which purposed the deposition of the weak king. Guise entered Paris, was received with ac- clamation (" King of Paris ") ; the timid resistance of the king was broken by a popular insurrection (day of the Barricades, May 12, A. D. France* 323 ^li Io lil I R ^ M o 3 '^ O C) s gsF- • o-a. ^ ^2. ^ o' s % J^ t Trr St. rtO 5 c sa. 5- 1 I ^ p 5 5 la =-> &- 3 H-i S 2. '•5 >« g.S. 3" ^3 ?P5 «1« § 3 5-- ^9 §9 •og- §• t^ 5* s ° a- D. 5 - -*■ " a." ■ 2 Phrt pa o l^o |!S* 23 -2S- ^ ?S Si'Gw S.O ^0. p- ?J — — td - m- • Kl -^ 1 ::33S. ■^ li ^ ©gp- g"-?"— x». S >-.. , Italy, 327 Savoy. The dukes of Savoy, who also possessed Piedmont, were the most powerful of the native dynasties of northern Italy. Nevertheless, during this period, Bern deprived them of the Waadtland, and they jgot into straits during the war between France and the empire. After the peace of Cateau-Cambresis (1559), Emmanuel Philihert was reinstated in his duchy. , Florence. In the year in which Charles VIII. of France invaded Italy (1494), Teter de' Medici, son of Lorenzo, who had concluded a treaty with the ting, was driven from the city. The Dominican monk Savonarola (born 1452, prior of San Marco, 1490) was leader of the democratic 'party in Florence ; asceticism for a short time fashionable in Flor- ence. Savonarola excommunicated, and executed (May 23, 1498). In 1512 the Medici were restored in consequence of the victory of the Holy League (pp. 300 and 318). In 1527 the Medici were a second itime expelled, and the republic for a while restored. In 1530, how- ever, Charles V. appointed Alexander de^ Medici hereditary ruler in Florence, and he soon assumed the ducal title. After his murder by his cousin, Lorenzino, Cosimo (Cosmus)de'AIediciheca.nie duke (1537). He incorporated the republic of Sie7ia with his territory, and in 1569 was created grand duke of Tuscany by Pope Pius V. Under Cosi- mo II., Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) taught in Florence, who, in 1633, was forced to abjure the Copernican System by the Inquisition at Rome (" It does move though " i). The Papacy. • The following popes of this period deserve mention : the debauched and criminal Alexander VI. (1492-1503), of the family of Borgia. His daughter was Lucrezia Borgia; his second son Ccesar Borgia, iruler of the Romagna; the warlike Julius II. (1503-1513); the schol- arly Leo X. (1513-1521) of the family of Medici, a patron of art ; the fanatical Paul IV. {Caraffa, 1555-1559), upon whose advice Paul III. had established the Inquisition in 1542 ; Gregory XIII. I (1572-1585), who revised the calendar by striking out leap year at the close of each century, excepting every fourth century ; the wise and severe Sixtus V. (1585-1590), who suppressed the banditti in the Papal States and adorned Rome. (Reerection of obelisks, completion iof the dome of St. Peter's 2). Naples. Naples throughout this period was an appanage of Spain (since 1504, see p. 318). Insurrection of the fisherman, Tommaso AniellOf called Masaniello (1647), soon suppressed (f July 16). Most flourishing period of Italian art. Painters : Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) ; Raphael Santi (erroneously called Sanzio, 1483* 1 This savinc;, if is now claimed, is unauthenticated. — [Trans.] 2 Rajake, dU rdmUchen Pdpste, 6th ed., 1878. 828 Modem Bistort/. D, ' 1520); Antonio Allegri, called Correggio (14:94^1534:) ; Michael Angela Bumarotti (1475-1564), also sculptor and architect ; Titian (1477^ 1576); Paul Veronese (about 1535-1588). Po6ts : Ariosto (1474- 1533); Torquato Tasso (1544r-1595). Politician: Macchiavelli (1469- 1527). (See p. 415a i § 7. SPANISH PENINSULA AND THE NETHERLANDS {Seep. 276.) By the marriage of 1479-1516. Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon and Isabella 1474-1504. of Castile (p. 276), which was consummated before the accession of either to the throne, the way was prepared for the future union of the two kingdoms. 1492. Conquest of Grenada, capital of the last Moorish kingdom Jan. 2. in the peninsula. In the same year, discovery of America (p. 282), and consequent acquisitions on the other side of thai ocean for the crown of Castile. Conquest of Naples (1501-1504, see p. 327) for the crown of Aragon. Annexation of the graudmaster-i ships of the three military orders of Calatrava (1487), Alcantara (1494), and San J ago (1499), to the crown. Support given to the league of the cities {Hermandad) against the robber-nobles; (Spanish) Inquisition. Upon Isabella's death (1504) her daughter, Joanna, wife of Philipf) archduke of Austria (p. 301), was the legal heiress of Castile. Her father, Ferdinand the Catholic, however, who had long planned thei union of the two kingdoms in one kingdom of Spain, obtained from the Cortes authority to carry on the government in place of his absent daughter. In 1506, Philip and Joanna went to Castile to expel Fer- dinand by force. Meeting of the two princes and treaty of Villafa- Jila, whereby the regency was granted to Philip. Shortly after the treaty Philip died suddenly (of poison ?), and Ferdinand resumed the regency (f 1516). Joanna, who was insane, was kept in strict con- finement for 49 years (f 1555), first by her father, afterwards by her son Charles.^ Ferdinand was succeeded in both kingdoms (at first asi co-regent of his mother, in theory) by the son of Philip and Joanna. | Netherlands. Preliminary : These provinces, originally inhabited by Batavians and other German tribes, formed a part of the empire of Charles the Great, and after the treaty of Mersen (870) belonged in great part to Germany, forming a dependence of the duchy of Lotharingia. The decline of the ducal power favored the growth of powerful counties and duchies, such as Brabant, Flanders, Guelders, Holland, Zealand^ Hainault, and the bishopric of Utrecht. After 1384, and during the fifteenth century, the provinces were brought under control of the dukes of Burgundy. 1 The view advanced by Bergenroth (Karl V. und Johanna, in V. Sybel'S Hist. Zeits., 1868), that Joanna was only declared insane from political reasons, has been clearly shown by other scholars'(Qachaxd, Bcesler, Mauronbrecher) to rest on misunderstandings. ). Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 329 Philip n. the Pold, fourth son of John II., k. of France. In 1363 made duke of Burgundy (the duchy reverted to the crown, 1361, by the extinction of the first ducal line m the person of Philip I.). In 1369 m. Margaret^ dan. and heiress of Louis. 111.^ c. of Flanders and ArtoiSi f 1404. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, 1404-1419. Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, 1419-1467. Acquired Namur, by purchase, in 1425 ; in 1430, Brabant and Iiimburg, which had been bequeathed by Joanna, dau. of John III., d. of Brabant, to her great-nephew, Antoine, brother of John the Fearless ; in 1433, Holland, Hainault {Hennegau), Zealand, by cession from Jacqueline c. of Hol- land (of the Bavarian line) ; in 1443, Luxemburg, by ces- sion from Elizabeth of Luxemburg, and by purchase ; he also acquired Antwerp and Mechlin. Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, 1467-1477. Acquired Gelderland and Zutphen in 1472, by bequest from duke Arnold. Mary, f 1482 = Maximilian, arch- I duke of Austria. Joanna, dau. of Ferdi- - nand of Arragon, and Isabella of Castile. Philip the Handsome, archduke of Austria, duke of Burgundy. Charles I. (V.) k. of Spain; archduke of Austria, d. of Burgundy, k. of Naples and Sicily, lord of Spanish America, emperor. They descended to the Hapsburg heirs of Charles the Bold, united and having a common states-general. In 1548 Charles V. annexed the seventeen provinces (Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, Gelderland, Flan- ders, Artois, Hahmult, Holland, Zealand, Namur, Zutphen, East and West Friesland, Mechlin, Utrecht, Overyssely Groningen) to the Bur* gundian circle of the empire. 1516-1556. Charles I (as emperor, Charles F. p. 302). S30 Modern History. A. D. After suppressing a revolt in Castile he founded the absolute mon- archy, the Cortds henceforth having no importance. In America con- quest of Mexico, Peru, Chili, New Granada (p. 283, etc.). Upon his abdication the Spanish lands and the colonies, the Netherlands, Franche-Comte, Naples, and Milan, descended to his son 1556-1598. Philip II., who married four times : 1. Mary of Portugal, mother of Don Carlos ; 2. Mary the Catholic, of Eng-^ land (p. 336); 3. Elizabeth of Valois (p. 318); 4. Anne, daughter ofi Maximilian II. War with France (p. 381). Bloody persecution of the Moors and' the Protestants in Spain. Inquisition, autos da fe (i. e. acts of the. faith). Conflict between the king and his heir, Don Carlos ; the lat-l ter was arrested and died in prison (1568). Don John of Aicstria, A^ natural son of Charles I. (V.), gained over the Turks the 1671, Oct. 7. Naval battle of Lepanto (on the Gulf of Corinth). 1568-1648. War of Liberation in the Netherlands. Cause : The provinces of the Netherlands, which fell to Spain after the abdication of Charles I., rejoiced m the possession of ancient and important privileges. The estates (^Staaten, etats) granted taxes and troops. The Spanish garrison, the penal edicts against heretics, the dread of the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition, led, during the rule of the regent Margaret of Parma (1559-1567), the natural sister of king Philip II., and her adviser, bishop Granvella, to a league of the nobles (the Compromis de Breda), headed by Philip Marnix of St. Aldegonde. Presentation of a petition by 300 nobles {Gueux, Beggars, a party name, originating in the contemptuous exclamation of the ,3ount of Barlaimont : Ce n'est qu^un tas de gueux). Insurrection of ihe lower classes. Destruction of images, and sack of the churches. These disturbances were opposed by Lamoral, count of Egmont (b. 1522, fouglit under Charles V. in Algiers, G-ermany, France ; led the cavalry at St. Quentin, and Gravelines, 1558 ; appointed governor of Flanders and Artois by Charles V. ; executed June 5, 1568), and William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the leaders of the higher nobil- ity in the Netherlands, who were soon no longer masters of the move- ment. Separation into a Catholic and a Protestant party. Although quiet was finally restored Philip sent the 1567. Duke of Alva with 20,000 Spaniards by way of Genoa, Savoy, and Franche Comte to the Netherlands. William of Orange and many thousand Netherlanders left their native land. Margaret resigned her regency and left the country. Creation of the " Council of Blood." The counts of Egmont and of Hoorn and many others were executed (1568). The estates of those who did not appear be- fore the tribunal were confiscated, including those of William of Orange. The latter and his brother, Louis cf Orange, invaded the Netherlands, but were repulsed by Alva. The arbitrary taxes imposed by Alva (the tenth pfennig from the price of every article sold, the one hundredth part of every income), produced a new revolt. Capture of Brille, on the mouth of the Meuse by the Water Beggars (1572). Rapid spread of the insurrectioni particularly in the northern provinces. D. Spanish Peninsula and the Netherlands. 331 '573. Alva recalled at his own request. His successor, Luis de Re^ quesens y Zuniga, gained a victory 574. At Mookerheide, where two brothers of the prince of Orange fell, but could not suppress the revolt, and died (1576). The ack of the cities of Antwerp, Mastricht, Ghent, etc., by the royal Iroops brought about the 576. Pacification of Ghent, a treaty between all the provinces, whereby they united, without regard to national or religious [ifferences, to drive the Spanish soldiers from the country. ' The new governor, Don John of Austria (p. 330), was not recog- dzed by the majority of the provinces. In spite of the new disputes vhich had broken out among them he was unable to quiet the country, ■nd died, 1578. He was succeeded by Alexander Famese, duke of 'arma (1578-1592), a shrewd statesman and an excellent general. le reduced the southern Catholic provinces, which form modern Bel- •ium, to submission on condition of the restoration of their old politi- al freedom. The seven northern provinces, Holland, Zealand, Jtrecht, Gelderland, Groningen, Friesland, Overyssel, con- lluded '.579. The Union of Utrecht, proclaimed their complete independence of Spain (in 1581) !,nd settled the hereditary Statthaltership upon William of Orange jthe Silent, b. 1533, inherited the principality of Orange, 1544, ap- pointed commander-in-chief of the Netherlands and governor of Hol- md, Zealand and Utrecht, by Charles V., resigned his offices 1567, onverted to Protestantism, elected commander-in-chief by the rebels, 1 572, relieved Ley den, Oct., 1574, murdered by Balthazar Gerard, 0th July, 1584). After his murder at Delft, his son, the seventeen- ear-old Maurice of Nassau, became the head of the seven provinces. Successful campaign of Alexander of Parma ; capture of Antwerp. The help furnished the Hollanders by the English (Leicester) induced 'hilip to fit out the Great Armada, which was destroyed by terrible .torms and the bravery of the English (1588). After a long contest /ith changing fortunes, there was concluded under .598-1621. Philip III. 609. The twelve years' truce, on the basis of possession at the time. Under the weak king, who was controlled by his fa- orites, the dukes of Lerma and Uzeda, father and son, the power and he prosperity of Spain declined, exhausted by constant war, the emoralization consequent on the discovery of America and the intro- uction of American gold, and the expulsion of 800,000 Moors, the lost learned and industrious inhabitants of the peninsula. After the xpiration of the truce with Holland the war was resumed until under 621-1665. Philip IV. The Republic of the United Provinces obtained the .648- recognition of their independence from Spain and the empire at the Peace of Westphalia. 332 Modern Bistort/, A. D. Under Philip III. and IV. (minister Olivarez), decline of the Spanish power. Insurrection of the Catalonians, lasting twelve years. Revolt of Portugal. Portugal, under the illegitimate house of Burgundy (1385- 1580), descendants of John the Bastard (f 1433), son of Peter the Cruel, who was a descendant of Robert, duke of Burgundy, grandson of Hugh Capet. John, the Bastard, son of Pedro the Cruel. I Edward. I Ferdinand. Emanuel. I Isabella m. Charles V. Philip II. : k. of Spain. John III. Lewis. Henry. Edward. Maria. John. The Prior I of Crato. Don Carlos. Sebastian. Beatrice, m. Charles III. d. of Savoy. Emanuel Fhilibert, d. of Savoy. Maria m. Alexander of Parma. Ranucdo of Parma. Catharine Alfonso. Fernando. Fernando. James. Theodosiua, , John. Theodosius. John IV. Kings of Portugal In heavy type. Claimants (except Philip II.) in italics. 1495-1521. Emanuel the Great. Golden age. Acquisitions in the East Indies, South America (Brazil), and Northern Africa. Under his successors, decline of the Portuguese power. Sebastian fell in the unfortunate 1678. Battle of Alkassor in Morocco. After the death of his succes- sor, Henry ^ 1581-1640. Portugal became a Spanish province. Four (?) false Sebastians.'^ An almost bloodless revolution raised to the throne of Portugal the duke 1640. John of Braganza, as John IV. (descended through his mother from the legitimate, through his father from the illegitimate son of John the Bastard). (See pp. 390, 414.) 1 After the death of Henry (1580) there were five claimants for the crown (d Portugal ^ D. £higCand and Scotland. 388 § 8. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. {Seep. 275.) 1485-1603. House of Tudor (pp. 273, 275). 1485-1509. Henry VII. Henry's first act was to imprison the Earl of Warwick^ son of ;he duke of Clarence. The first parliament (1485) secured the •rown to Henry and his heirs. Five checks on the crown : 1. imposi- ,ion of new taxes and 2, the enactment of new laws without the jonsent of parliament prohibited ; 3. no man could be imprisoned without legal warrant ; 4. trial should be before twelve jurors in the !0unty where the offense was committed, and there should be no ap- )eal ; 5. officers of the crown were liable to trial for damages before I jury m case any person were injured by them, and no authority rom the king could be pleaded. Violation of these checks. Rees- ablishment of the king's court (Star Chamber ? 1488), which took ognizance of forgery, perjury, fraud, libel, conspiracy, etc., gave sen- ence without the use of a jury, and inflicted fines and mutilations. .487. The pretended earl of Warwick (Simnel) landed in England, but was defeated at Stoke (16 June, 1487), and became one of the king's scullions. 488-1499. Attempts of Perkin Warbeck, a Fleming who person- ated the duke of York, to overthrow Henry. Disavowed by 'harles VIII. in the peace of Estaples (Nov. 9, 1492) which ended be war in which Henry had engaged on account of the annexation f Brittany by Charles VIII. (1491), Perkin found a warm reception 1 Flanders from the duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV. iXpelled from Flanders by a provision of the commercial treaty with England (1496 Magnus intercursus), Perkin fled to Scotland, where is claim was recognized. Perkin and James IV. of Scotland in- aded England in 1496. In 1497 a formidable insurrection broke Lit in Cornwall on occasion of an imposition of a tax by parliament. was suppressed by the defeat at Blackheath (June 22, 1497), and le leaders executed (Flammock). Peace with Scotland (Sept. 1497). iTarbeck was soon taken and imprisoned in the Tower, where he jcaped, but was recaptured. Plotting another escape with the earl of Warwick, both Perkin and Warwick were executed (1499). Wo. Statute of Drogheda (Poyning^s law). 1. No Irish parliament I should be held without the consent of the king of England. 2. No bill could be brought forward in an Irish parliament without his consent. 3. All recent laws enacted in the Eng- lish parliament should hold in Ireland. 02. Marriage of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret^ with James IV., king of Scotland. Henry's distinguishing characteristic was his avarice ; by various d^rtions (Empson, Dudley, "Morton^s Fork") he accumulated a for- ne of nearly £2,000,000. During this reign occurred the discovery of the West Indies by >lumbus (1492) and that of North America by the Cabots. 334 Modern History. A. D. 1509-1547. Henry VIII., of a cruel disposition and variable temperament. He was six times married : 1. Catharine of Aragon, widow of liis brother Arthur^ mother of 31ary the Catholic (married June 3, 1509, divorced March 30, 1533). 2. Anne Boleyn, mother of Elizabeth (married Jan. 25, 1533, beheaded May 19, 1536). 3. Jane Seymour (married May 20, 1536, died after the birth of her sou Edward VI., Oct. 24, 1537). 4. Anne of Cleves (married Jan. 6, 1540, divorced June 24, 1540). 5. Catharine Hoioard (married Aug. 8, 1540, beheaded Feb. 12, 1542). 6. Catharine Parr, widow of lord Latimer (married July 10, 1543, outlived the king). Henry united in his person the claim of both Lancaster and York. Execution of Empson and Dudley. 1511. Henry a member of the Holy League (p. 300), received from the Pope the title of " Most Christian King." Henry having laid claim to the French crown sent troops to Spain, which were unsuccessful (1512). In 1513 the king went to France in person and with Maximilian, the emperor, won the bloodless victory of 1513, Aug. 17. Guinegate, the " Battle of the Spurs " (p. 319). 1513, Sept. 9. Battle of Flodden Field. Defeat and death of James IV. of Scotland who was allied with France. 1514, Aug. Peace with France {Tournay ceded to England, after- wards (1518) bought by France for 600,000 crowns) and with Scotland. 1515, Thomas Wolsey, the king's favorite, chancellor (b. 1471, ap- pointed almoner and dean of Lincoln by Henry VII., member of the council 1510, bishop of Tournay 1513, bishop of Lin- coln and archbishop of York 1514, cardinal and chancellor 1515, papal legate 1517, surrendered the great seal 1529, f Nov. 28, 1530). 1520, June 7. Meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France near Calais ("Field of the Cloth of Gold "). 1521. Execution of the duke of Buckingham on a charge of high treason. Buckingham was descended from Edward III. (p. 277). 1521. Henry wrote the " Assertion of the Seven Sacraments " in re- ply to Luther, and received the title of "Defender of the Faith " from Pope Leo X« After the battle of Pavia the relations between Henry and the emperor, which had been weakened by the double failure of the em- peror to secure the promised election of Wolsey as Pope, became so strained that war seemed inevitable, and a forced loan was assessed on the kingdom, which brought in but little. In 1523 an attempt to force a grant from parliament met with no success, but a rebellion was provoked which was suppressed only by abandoning the demand. 1527. Henry, desiring to divorce his wife in order to marry Anne Boleyn, alleged the invalidity of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, and appealed to Rome. The delays of the Pope and the scruples of Wolsey enraged the king, who deprived the latter of ^. D. ' Midland and Scotland. — Henri/ VIU. 335 the great seal and gave it to Sir Thomas More (1529). Sentence and pardon of Wolsey, who, however, died in disgrace (1530). At the suggestion of Cranmer the question was referred to the univer- sities of England and Europe, and a number deciding in the king's favor Henry married Anne IBoleyn. Henry also broke with the Church of Rome. Confiscation of the annates, followed by the res- ignation of Sir Thomas More (1532). The Pope excommunicated Henry and annulled his divorce from Catharine, which Cranmer, now archbishop of Canterbury, had pro- nounced. After the birth of I^lizabeth parliament confirmed the divorce, recognized Elizabeth as heir to the throne (1534), and se- cured the succession to other children of Anne in case of the death of the princess. 1534. Act of Supremacy, appointing the king and his succes- sors " Protector and only Supreme Head of the Church and Clergy of England" (1531). Refusal to take the oath of supremacy was made high treason, under which vote Sir Thomas More was condemned and beheaded (1535). Thomas Cromvrell, a former servant of Wolsey, and his suc- cessor in the favor of the king, now vicegerent in matters relating to the church in England, issued a commission for the inspection of monasteries which resulted in the suppression, first of the smaller (1536), and afterwards (1539) of the larger monasteries, and the confiscation of their property. Abbots now ceased to sit in parlia- ment. 1536. Execution of Anne Boleyn on a charge of adultery. Princess Elizabeth proclaimed illegitimate by parliament. The crown was secured to any subsequent issue of the king, or should that fail, was left to his disposal. 1536. Publication of Tyndale's translation of the Bible, by Coverdale, under authority from the king. 1536. Suppression of the Catholic rebellion of Robert Aske, aided by Reginald Pole, son of Margaret, countess of Salisbury, daughter of George, duke of Clarence. 1539. Statute of the Six Articles, defining heresy; denial of any of these positions constituted heresy : 1. Transubstantiation ; 2. Communion in one kind for laymen ; 3. Celibacy of the priesthood ; 4. Inviolability of vows of chastity ; 5. Necessity of private masses ; 6. Necessity of auricular confession. 1540. Execution of Crom-well, on a charge of treason. Cromwell had fallen under Henry's displeasure by his advocacy of the king's marriage with Anne of Cleves, with whom the king was ill pleased. 1542. Ireland made a kingdom. 1542. War with Scotland. James V. defeated at the Nov. 25. Battle of Solway Moss. James V. died shortly afterward. Henry proposed a marriage between his son, Edward, and James's infant daughter, Mary, 836 Modern History, a. d. but the Scottish court preferred an alliance with Prance, whereupon Henry concluded an alliance mth the emperor. 1544. Parliament recognized Mary and Elizabeth as heirs to the crown, in the event of the death of Edward without issue. 1545. Invasion of France. Coin debased ; property ot guilds con- fiscated. 1547. Execution of the Earl of Surrey, on charge of high treason. Henry VIII. died Jan. 28, 1547, leaving a will, wherein the croMnj was left to the heirs of his sister, Mary, duchess of Suffolk, iiii the event of failure of issue by all of his children. 1547-1553. Edward VI., ten years of age ; his uncle, earl of Hertford, was appointed" lord protector and duke of Somerset, and assumed the government. Repeal of the six articles (1547). Introduction of reformed doc- trines. 1549. Execution of lord Seymour, brother of the duke of Somerset, who wished to marry the princess Elizabeth. Establishment of uniformity of service by act of parliament ; introduction of Edward VI.'s first prayer-book (second, 1553). Fall of the protector, Somerset, who was superseded by lord War-wick, afterwards duke of Northumberland (1550). Exe- cution of Somerset (1552). 1551. Forty-two articles of religion published by Cranmer. 1553. Edward assigned the crown to Lady Jane Grey, daughter of his cousin, Frances Grey, eldest daughter of Mary, daughter of Henry VII., to the exclusion of Mary and Elizabeth, daughters of Henry VIII. Lady Jane was married to the son of the duke of Northumberland. Death of Edward VI , July 6, 1553. 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic. The proclamation of Lady Jane Grey as queen by Northumber- land meeting with no response, Northumberland, Lady Jane, and others were arrested. Execution of Northumberland (Aug. 22, 1553). Restoration of Catholic bishops. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, author of the Six Articles, lord chancellor. 1653. Marriage treaty between Mary and Philip of Spain, son of Charles V., afterwards Philip II. Philip was to have the title of king of England, but no hand in the government, and in case of Mary's death could not succeed her. This transaction (" The Spanish marriage ") being unpopular an insurrection broke out, headed by Sir Thomas Carew, the duke of Suffolk, and Sir Thomas Wyatt. The sup- pression of the rebellion was followed by the execution of Lady Jane Grey (Feb. 12, 1554), and her husband. Lady Jane was an aiJ- complished scholar {Roger Ascham) and had no desire for the crown. Imprisonment of Elizabeth who was soon released on the intercession of the emperor. 1554. July 25. Marriage of Mary and Philip. 1555. Cruel persecution of the Protestants {Bonner^ bishop of Lou* ml England and Scotland. 337 zl^ J"oa I Oi II- i agwo re o o-f re" "cpa C re IS a. 3«H.3- '53 2- IE WP re- 9 S.3 «3 S 3- st o a shr- ill *53 S.3 Ho €i » 3 re S! 5 ii QQ ^5 ^ C4 « ■M§*- CO ?o c» g«. O l»r* H If O o H M> —3. ^ S Q W o s"!- o 838 Modern History, A. d. ^ don). Oct. 16, Ridley and Latimer; March 21, 1556, Cranmer burnt at the stake. About 300 are said to have been burnt during tliis per- secution. Cardinal Pole, archbishop of Canterbury and papal legate (1556). 1557. England drawn into the Spanish war with France. Defeat of the French at the battle of St. Quentin (Aug. 10, 1557). 1558. Jan. 7. Loss of Calais, which was captured by the duke of ' Guise. Death of Mary, Nov. 17, 1558. 1558-1603. Elizabeth. Sir William Cecil (baron Burleigh, 1571), secretary of state. Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord privy seal. Repeal of the Catholic legisla- tion of Mary ; reenactment of the laws of Henry VIII. relating to the church ; act of supremacy, act of uniformity. Revision of the prayer- book. 1559. Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis with France. Calais to be April 2. ceded to England in eight years. On the accession of Francis II. king of France, Mary, his wife, as- sumed the title of Queen of England and Scotland. Conformity exacted in Scotland. Treaty of Berwick (Jan. 1560), between Eliza- beth and the Scottish reformers. 1560. Treaty of Edinburgh between England, France, and Scotland. July 6. French interference in Scotland withdrawn. Adoption of a Confession of Faith by the Scotch estates. 1561. Return of Mary to Scotland after the death of Francis II., where she was at once involved in conflict with the Calvinists. (John Knox, b. 1505, the friend of Calvin at Geneva, d. ,. 1572.) Jlj 1563. Adoption of the Thirty-Nine Articles, in place of the forty- ii two published by Cranmer. Completion of the establishment of the Anglican Church {Church of England, Episcopal Church) ; Protestant dogmas, with retention of the Catholic hierarchy and, par- tially, of the cult. Numerous dissenters or non-conformists (Presbyte- rians, Puritans, Brownists, Separatists, etc.). Parker, archbishop of i^' Canterbury (1559). 1^1 1564. Peace of Troyes with France. English claims to Calais re- nounced for 220,000 crowns. In Scotland Mary married her cousin Darnley, who caused her fa- ■•'J vorite Rizzio to be murdered (1566) and was himself murdered (Feb. i 10, 1567) by Bothwell (earl of Hepburn), apparently with the knowl- i edge of the queen.i Marriage of Mary and Bothwell May 15, 1567. The nobles under Murray, Mary's natural brother, revolted, defeated Mary at Carhury Hill near Edinburgh, and imprisoned her at Loch- leven Castle. Abdication of Mary in favor of her son, James VI., July 24, 1567. Murray, regent. In May, 1568, Mary escaped from captivity ; defeated at Langside, May 13, she took refuge in England, where, after some delay, she was placed in confinement (1568). 1 Gaedeke, MaHa Stuart, 1879. The cause of Marj and Bothwell has been recently defended by John Watts De Feyater. ID. England and Scotland. — Elizaheth, 839 175. Elizabeth declined the government of the Netherland prov- inces of Holland and Zealand, offered her by the confederates. If7. Alliance of Elizabeth and the Netherlands. h3-84. Plots against the queen. {Arden, Parry) ; Spanish plot of Throgmorton ; execution of the earl of Arundel for correspond- ing with Mary. Bond of Association. U5. Troops sent to the aid of the Dutch republic under the earl of Leicester. Victory of Zutphen (Sept. 22, 1586), death of Sir Philip Sidney. J6. Expedition of Sir Francis Drake to the West Indies, sack of St. Domingo and Carthagena • rescue of the Virginia colony (p. 290). 16. Conspiracy of Savage, Ballard, Babington, etc., discovered by the secretary of state, Walsingham ; execution of the conspirators. The government involved Mary, queen of Scots, in the plot. She was tried at Fotheringay Castle, Oct. 1586, and convicted on the presentation of letters which she alleged to be forged. She was convicted Oct. 25 and executed Feb. 8, 1587. 58. War with Spain. Construction of an English fleet of war. The Spanish fleet, called the invincible armada (132 vessels, 3,165 cannon), was defeated in the Channel by the English fleet (^Howard, Drake, Hawkhis), July 21-29, and destroyed by a storm off the Hebrides. Rebellion of the Irish under Hugh O'Neill, earl of Tyrone ; the failure of the earl of Essex to cope with the insurrection led to his recall, and his successor lord Mountjoy quickly subju- gated the country (1601). Capture of Tyrone, flight of the earl of Desmond. A rebellion of Essex in London was followed by his execution (1601). X). Charter of the East India Company. Death of Elizabeth, March 24, 1603. William Shakespeare, 1664-1616 ; Sir Philip Sidney, 1554-1586; jnund Spenser, 1553-1599 ; William Tyndale, 1485 ?-1536 ; Ben Qson, 1574-1637. 03-1649 (1714). The House of Stuart. Personal Union of England and Scotland. 1)3-1625. James I., as king of Scotland, James VI., son of Mary Stuart. The tch had brought him up in the Protestant faith. He was learned ; pedantic, weak, lazy, and incapable of governing a large king- n. Divine right of kingship, divine right of the bishops (" no aop, no king "). In this century the after-effects of the Reformation de themselves felt in England as on the continent, and in both J resulted in war. In England, however, owing to the peculiar jumstances of the Reformation these effects were peculiarly condi- led ; the religious questions were confused and overshadowed by itical and constitutional questions. 13. James I. was proclaimed king March 24 ; he entered London 340 Modern History, A. r on the 7tli of May, and was crowned July 25. Presentation of tl millenary petition immediately after James's arrival in Londoi signed by 1,000 (800) ministers, asking for the reform of abuses. The Main and the Bye. The " Main " was a plot to dethron James in favor of Arabella Stuart (see geneal. table, p. 337), coi cocted by lord Cohham, Grey and others. Sir Walter Raleigh was als implicated and imprisoned until 1616 ("History of the World" The " Bye " or the " Surprising treason " was a plot to imprison th king. Alliance with France, negotiated by Romy (Sully). 1604. Jan. Hampton Court Conference between the bishop and the Puritans, where James presided. The Puritans faile to obtain any relaxation of the rules and orders of the church. Th king issued a proclamation enforcing the act of uniformity (p. 338 and one banishing Jesuits and seminary priests (^Goodwin an Fortescue). 1604, March 19-1611, Feb. 9. First Parliament of James I. The king's scheme of a real union of England and Scotlan unfavorably received. Appointment of a commission to investigat the matter. 1604. Convocation (ecclesiastical court and legislature at firi established [Edward I.] as an instrument for ecclesiastical ta> ation ; afterwards convened by archbishops for the settlement c church questions ; since Henry VIII. convened only by writ from thi|li king, and sitting and enacting [canons] only by permission of tb king) adopted some new canons which bore so hardly upon the Pur tans that three hundred clergymen left their livings rather than coi form. Peace with Spain. James proclaimed " King of Great Britaii Prance and Ireland " (Oct. 24). Punishment of many recusant (under the recusancy laws of Elizabeth, whereby refusing to go t church, saying mass or assisting at mass was severely punished). 1605. Nov. 5. Gunpowder Plot, originating in 1604 with Robert Catesby, after the edict banisl ing the priests. Other conspirators : Winter, Wright, Percy. Prej arations for blowing up the houses of Parliament with thirty-six barre of gunpowder. Disclosure of the plot through an anonymous letter < 1 Lord Monteagle from one of the conspirators, his brother-in-la\ Tresham. Arrest of Guy (Guido) Fawkes, in the vaults on No^ 4, the day before the meeting of parliament. Trial and executicill of the conspirators. Parliament met Nov. 9. 1606. Penal laws against papists. Plague in London. Episcc pacy restored in Scotland. James urged the union ane ' but in vain. ^ Impositions. The grant of customs duties made at the begi| ning of every reign (tonnage and poundage, established I Edward III.) proving insufficient to meet James' expenditUB, he had recourse to impositions without parliamentary gran which Mary and Elizabeth had used to a small extent. Tri; of Bates for refusing to pay an imposition on currants. Tl court of exchequer decided in favor of the king. ;, D. England and Scotland. — James I. 341 307. Settlement of Jamestown (p. 291). 308. Establishment of new impositions. 310. The Great Contract ; in return for the surrender of some feudal privileges the king was to receive a yearly income of £200,000. The agreement was frustrated by a dispute over the impositions. Dissolution of parliament (Feb. 9, 1611). 311. Plantation of Ulster, which was forfeited to the crown by the rebellion of Tyrone. Creation of baronets, an hereditary knighthood ; sale of the patents. 111. Completion of the translation of the Bible, which was authorized by the king and had occupied forty-seven mini^ ters since 1604. Imprisomnent of Arabella Stuart. >13. Robert Carr, the king's favorite (viscount Rochester in 1611), created duke of Somerset, and lord treasurer, on the death of the earl of Salisbury (Robert Cecil). Death of Henry, prince of Wales (Nov. 1612). First English factory at Surat. 13. Marriage of the princess Elizabeth (" queen of Bohemia ") to the elector Palatine. Death of Sir Thomas Overbury, who was imprisoned in the Tower by the malice of Somerset. Mar- riage of Somerset and the countess of Essex. il4, Apr. 5-June 7. Second Parliament of James I. Three hundred new members, among whom were John Pym (Somer- setshire), Thomas Wentioorth (Yorkshire), John Eliot (St. Ger- mains). The whole session was spent in quarrelling with the king over the impositions, and parliament was dissolved without making an enactment, whence it is called the addled parliament. L6. Renewal of the negotiation for the marriage of James's son to a Spanish princess (opened in 1611). Imposition of a benevo- lence, which was resisted by Oliver St. John and condemned by the chief justice. Sir Edward Coke, who was afterwards dismissed from office. Death of Arabella Stuart. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to the Great Mogid. 16. Condemnation of the duke and duchess of Somerset for the poisoning of Overbury. Rise of George Villiers in the king's favor ; viscount Villiers, earl, marquis, duke of Buckingham. )L7. Sir Walter Raleigh, released from the Tower, allowed to sail for the Orinoco, where he hoped to discover a gold mine. Failing in this he attacked the Spanish towns on the Orinoco. L8. Proclamation allowing sports on Sunday after church in Scot- land {Articles of Perth). Francis Bacon, lord Verulam, vis- count of St. Albans, lord chancellor. In this year Sir Wal- ter Raleigh, returning from his expedition, was executed under the old sentence, as reparation to Spain. .9. Commercial treaty with the Dutch respecting the East Indies. JO. Settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, in New England (p. 294). 1, Jan. 30-1622, Feb. 8. Third Parliament of James I. The parliament granted a supply for tlie prosecution of the war ia 842 ' Modern History. A. Kbit the palatinate (p. 310), in which James was half-hearted, and then took up the subject of grievances. Impeachment of Mompesson and Mitchell, who had bought monopolies of inn-licensing and the manu- facture of gold and silver thread; they were degraded, fined, and ban- ished. Impeachment of Francis Bacon, the chancellor, for bribery. Bacon admitted that he had received presents from parties in suits, but denied that they had affected his judgment. He was fined £40,-. 000 (which was remitted) and declared incapable of holding officer in the future. Petition of the commons against popery and thel Spanish marriage. The angry rebuke of the king for meddling ir Affairs of state (" bring stools for these ambassadors ") drew froir the parliament 1621, Dec. 18. The Great Protestation : " That the liberties, fran- chises, privileges, and jurisdictions of parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright and inheritance of the subjects of England) and that the arduous and urgent affairs concerning the king, state, ano defense of the realm . . . are proper subjects and matter of council and debate in parliament." The king tore the page containing th( protestation from the journal of the commons. 1622, Feb. 8. Dissolution of parliament. Imprisonment of Southampton, Coke, Pyrrij Selden. Earl a Buckingham made duke of Buckingham. 1623, Charles, prince of Wales, and the duke of Buckingham went to Spain and negotiated a marriage treaty, the provis ions of which were so favorable to the Catholics as to excit great dissatisfaction in England ; finally, being unable to secur any help from Spain in regard to the palatinate, Charles an( Buckingham returned in anger. Massacre of English residents on the island of Amhoyna by th Dutch. 1624, Feb. 12-1625, Mar. 27. Fourth Parliament of James I. The Spanish marriage was broken off, but even the anger o Buckingham could not drive the parliament into a declaration of vm with Spain. Supplies voted for defense. Mansfeld raised 1,2^ men in England who reached Holland but nearly all perished theftl i from lack of proper provisions. Marriage treaty with France for til marriagfe of Prince Charles with Henrietta Maria, sister of Loui XIII. ^ I 1625, March 27, death of James I. at Theobalds. ,|i 1625-1649. Charles I. t. 1625, May 11. Marriage of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria. Ships sent to Louis XIII. secretly engaged not to fight againt the Huguenots. 1625. First Parliament of Charles I. (Assembled June 18 ; adjourned to Oxford July 11 ; dissolve'| Aug. 12.) Grant of tonnage and poundage for one year only, and of £140,0® for the war with Spain. Proceedings against Montague {^' appm\ CcEsarerriy^ 1624). Unsuccessful expedition of Wimbledon againi Cadiz, I D. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 343 26, Feb. 6-June 15. Second Parliament of Charles I. Charles had hoped for a more pliable parliament, as he had appointed several of the leaders of the first parliament sheriffs, and so kept them out of the second. But this parliament, under the lead of Sir John Eliot, was more intractable than the last. Lord Bristol, to whom no writ had been sent by order of the king, received one on the interference of the lords, but was requested not to appear. He took his seat and brought charges against Buckingham, on which that lord was im- peached (May). Imprisonment of Sir John Eliot and Sir Dud- ley Digges, who were set at liberty upon the refusal of parlia- ment to proceed to business without them. War declared against France (1626-1630). 27= Inglorious expedition of Buckingham to the relief of Rochelle {Isle ofRhe). Exaction of a forced loan to raise money for the French war, and for the subsidy which Charles had agreed to supply to Chris- tian IV. of Denmark. Five persons, who were imprisoned for refusing to contribute, sued out a writ of habeas corpus, but, having been committed by the king's order, though without I distinct charge, they were remanded to prison. 528, March 17-1629, March 10. Third ParUament of Charles I. [ay. Passage of the Petition of Right : 1. Prohibition of benevo- lences, and all forms of taxation without consent of parliament. 2. Soldiers should not be billeted in private houses. 3. No com- mission should be given to military officers to execute martial law in time of peace. 4. No one should be imprisoned unless upon a specified charge. Assent of the king (June 7). Grant of five subsidies. Suppression of the royalistic sermons of Main- waring. Charles having, after the first year of his reign, continued to levy tonnage and poundage, the commons drew up a remonstrance against that practice. line 26. Prorogation of parliament. Seizure of goods of merchants who refused to pay tonnage and poundage. ag. 23. Assassination of Buckingham by Felton. 129, Jan. New session of parliament. Oliver Cromwell spoke, for the first time, in this parliament. The commons at once took up the question of tonnage and poundage ; claim of privi- lege in the case of Rolfe, one of the merchants, whose goods had been seized, and who was a member of parliament. Adjournment of the house of commons. arch 2. Meeting of parliament. Turbulent scene in the house of commons ; the speaker held in the chair while the resolutions of Eliot were read : Whoever introduced innovations in relig- ion, or opinions disagreeing with those of the true church ; whoever advised the levy of tonnage and poundage without grant of parliament ; whoever voluntarily paid such dutiesi was an enemy of the kingdom. 844 Modem History. a. d, I March 5. Arrest of members ; imprisonment of Eliot (f Nov. 1632). March 10. Dissolution of parliament. For eleven years Charles governed without a parliament, raising money by illegal levies of taxes, sale of monopolies, and many other ways. Charles' advisers : William Laud (b. 1573, president of St. John's college, 1611-1621; dean of Gloucester, 1616; in Scotland as James I.'s chaplain, 1617; bishop of St. David's, 1621; chaplain to Buckingham, 1622 ; bishop of Bath and Wells, dean of the chapel royal, 1626 ; privy councillor, 1627; bishop of London, 1628 ; chancellor of Oxford, 1630 ; in Scotland with Charles I., 1633 ; archbishop of Canterbury, 1633 ; commissioner of the treasury, 1634 ; impeached, 1641 ; at- tainted (by bill) and executed, 1645), Thomas Wentworth (b. 1593; in parliament, 1614, 1621-1625 ; sheriff, 1625 ; imprisoned for refus- ing to comply with the forced loan ; in parliament, 1628 ; baron Went- worth, lord president of the council of the north, viscount Wentworth, 1628 ; privy councillor, 1629 ; lord deputy of Ireland, 1633 ; went to Ireland, 1633 ; earl of Strafford, and lord lieutenant of Ireland, 1639 ; impeached, 1640 ; attainted (by bill) and executed, May, 1641), Weston, lord treasurer. 1630, April. Peace with France. q,ir 1629. First charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony (p. 295). |l 1630, Nov. Peace with Spain. ' 1632. Predominant influence of Wentworth. 1633. June. Charles crowned at Edinburgh with ceremonies distaste- ful to the Scots. Government of Laud and Wentworth. Energetic enforcement of conformity. The declaration of sports (p. 341) reissued. Inrailment of the communion table. William Prynne, author of Histrio-Mastix, an attack on players, which was thought to reflect on the queen, pilloried and deprived of his ears. Wentworth, governor of Ireland. " Thor- ough." 1634. First writ for ship-money, a war tax levied only on seaboard towns, issued at the suggestion of Noy, attorney-general, and extended over the whole kingdom. 1635. Second writ for ship-money. 1637. Prynne, Bastwick, Burton, pilloried. June 23. An attempt to read the English liturgy in Edinburgh, in compliance with the order of Charles, produced a popular tumult at St. Giles. June. Trial of John Hampden, for refusing to pay his allotment of ship-money (twenty shillings). The court of exchequer de- cided against him, which created a strong popular excitement. Shortly after, Hampden, Pym, Cromivell, were prevented from sailing for America by a royal prohibition of emigration. 1638, Feb. 28. Signing of the Solemn League and Covenant (based on that of 1580), at Greyfriar's church in Edinburgh, for the defense of the reformed religion and resistance to inno- vations. 1638, Nov. 21. General assembly at Glasgoiu; abolition of episcopacy, the new liturgy, and the canons ; the kirk declared independent of the state. England and Scotland. — Charles I. 345 ^9. The first bishops* war. The Scots seized Edinburgh castle, and raised an army. larles marched to meet them near Berwick, but an agreement was iiched without a battle. 139, June 18. Pacification of Dunse (or Berwick). The armies were to be disbanded, and differences referred to a new gneral assembly and parliament. The general assembly at Edin^ Ifgh confirmed the acts of the assembly of Glasgow, and the parlia- lait proved intractable. The king's necessities were now so great fit he took the advice of Wentworth, now made earl of Strafford, «i smnmoned ItO, April 13 -May 5. The fourth Parliament of Charles I. (" The Short Parliament ") at Westminster. As no supplies could be obtained without a redress of grievances, t) parliament was soon dissolved. Popular tumults; attack on Laud's )lace ; assault upon the court of high commission (created 1559, by izabeth, to try offenses against the ecclesiastical supremacy of the own). 140. Second bishops' war. Defeat of the royal troops at Newburn on the Tyne (Aug. 28). The king summoned a council of peers at York (Sept.). Treaty of Ripon (Oct. 26). A permanent treaty was set in prospect; meanwhile the Scottish army was to be paid £850 a day by Charles. Actmg upon the advice of the peers, Charles now summoned 1)40, Nov. 3. The Fifth and last Parliament. The Long Parliament (Nov. 3, 1640-March 16, 1660). First Session. l3v. 3, 1640-Sept. 8, 1641. The fact that the Scotch army was not to be disbanded until paid, gave the commons an extraordinary power over the kmg, wliich they were not slow to use. Lenthall, speaker. ])v. 11. Impeachment of the earl of Strafford, followed by the im- peachment of Laud. Both were conmaitted to the Tower. J41, Feb. 15. The triennial act passed, enacting that parliament should assemble every three years even without being sum- moned by the king. urch 22. Commencement of the trial of Strafford. The result of the impeachment being uncertain, it was dropped and a bill of attainder introduced, which passed both houses (commons, Apr. 21, lords, Apr. 29). Bill to prevent clergymen from holding civil office introduced but thrown out by the lords (June). Introduction of a bill for the abolition of bishops ("root and branch bill "). ^y 10. Charles with great reluctance signed the bill of attainder against Strafford, and also the bill to prevent the dissolu- tion or proroguing of the present parliament without its own consent. (" Act for the perpetual Parliament") 846 Modem History, A. D, i 1641, May 12. Execution of Strafford. July. Abolition of the Star Chamber and the High Commis- sion. Aug. Treaty of pacification with Scotland. The Scotch and Eng- lish armies were paid with the proceeds of a poll-tax. Charles went to Scotland. First interview of Edward Hyde, lord Clar- endon (1609-1674 ; " History of the Rebellion and Civil Warsi in England)," with the king. Sept. 8. Parliament adjourned, but each house appointed a commit- tee to sit during the recess ; Pym chairman of the commons' committee. Attempt of the king to conciliate the "moderates " hi parUa-, ment by giving offices of state to their leaders (Lucius Gary, lord Falkland). Oct. In Scotland the marquis of Montrose formed a plot for the seizure of the duke of Argyle, the leader of the Presbyterians, in which the king was thought to have a share. The discovery of the plot ("the incident ") threw Charles into the hands of Argyle, and an agreement was concluded whereby Charles gave the state offices to Argyle and his party, and the latter agreed not to interfere in the religious affairs in England. Oct. 20. Parliament assembled. Early in Nov. came news of theij Irish massacre in Ulster ; the lowest estimate of the number of Protestants slain was 30,000. Great indignation in England.! Yet the parliament was unwilling to trust Charles with an^j army. 1641, Dec. 1. The grand remonstrance, which had passed the! house of commons in November, after a long and exciting de^ bate, by a majority of eleven, presented to the king. It was a summary of all the grievances of his reign. On Dec. 14 the remonstrance was ordered to be printed. j| Several of the bishops having declared their inability to attend! parliament on account of the conduct of the mob, and protested^] against the action of parliament in their absence, they were committed to the Tower for breach of privilege (Dec. 30). The petition of the commons for a guard under the earl of Essex rejected by the king. 1642, Jan. 3. Impeachment of lord Kimbolton, and of Pym, Hampden, Haselrig, Holies, Strode, members of the com- mons, for treasonable correspondence with the Scots in the recent |i, war. As the commons declined to order their arrest Charles resolved to take matters into his own hands. Jan. 4. Attempt to seize the five members. Charles visited the house of commons in person, with five^jj hundred troops, but finding that the five members were absent he withdrew quietly. The accused members, meanwliile, weret| in London. The commons immediately followed them, and formed themselves into a committee which sat at the GuUd- hall, under the protection of the citizens. Jan. 10. Charles left London. The five members returned to par- liament on the following day. Jan. 12, rising at Kingston. 11 . D. England and Scotland. 347 The freeholders of Buckinghamshire sent a remonstrance to the king. The commons made sure of several places and hastened to lay before the king a bill excluding the bishops from the house of Lords, which he signed, and a bill securing to the parliament the command of the militia, which he re- fused to sign. Charles at York (March), where he was joined in April by thirty-two peers and sixty-five members of the lower house. The king also obtained the great seal. At- tempt on Hull. Henceforward the parliament at Westminster passed ordinances which were not submitted to the king. By an ordinance passed in May they assumed control of the militia. ine 2. Submission of nineteen propositions by parliament to the king, demanding that the king should give his assent to the militia bill ; that all fortified places should be entrusted to officers appointed by parliament ; that the liturgy and church government should be reformed in accordance with the wishes of parliament ; that parliament should appoint and dismiss all royal ministers, appoint guardians for the king's children, and have the power of excluding from the upper house at will all peers created after that date. The propositions were indig- nantly rejected. Uy. Appointment of a committee of public safety by parliament. Essex appointed captain-general of an army of 20,000 foot and 4000 cavalry. Siege of Portsmouth. ng. 22. Charles raised the royal standard at Nottingham. 342-1646. The civil war ; the Great Rebellion. it. 23. Drawn battle of EdgehilL (Prince Rupert, son of the elector palatine and Elizabeth of England.) The king marched upon London, but being confronted at Brentford by Essex and >v. 12. the trained bands of London under Skippon, he retired without fighting. " Affair of Brentford." ^c. The associated counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire raised a force which was en- trusted to Oliver Cromwell (born April 25, 1599 in Hunting* don), who made them a model band, " the Ironsides." 43, Feb.-Apr. Fruitless negotiations at Oxford, followed by a re- newal of the war. In Feb. the queen landed in Yorkshire, bringing assistance from Holland. ')r. 27. Capture of Reading by Essex. iy. Royalist rising in Cornwall ; defeat of the parliament at Strat- ton Hill (May 16). Defeat of Waller at Lansdowne Hill, and at Roundway Dozen (July). ine 18. Hampden wounded in a skirmish with Rupert at ChaU grove f eld, f June 24. ly 1. Westminster assembly (continued until 1649), for the ' settlement of religious and theological matters. ly 25. Capture of Bristol (the second city in the kuigdom) by Rupert. Discouragement of the supporters of the parliament. pt. Essex relieved Gloucester, which was gallantly defended by Massey. 848 Modern History. A. D. 1643, Sept. 20. First battle of Newbury. Death of lord Falkland. Sept. 25. Signature of the Solemn League and Covenant by twenty-five peers and 288 members of the commons. Parha- ment thus agreed to make the religions of England, Ireland, and Scotland as nearly uniform as possible, and to reform re- ligion " according to the word of God, and the example of the best reformed churches." All civil and military officers and all beneficed clergymen were compelled to sign the covenant (nearly 2000 clergymen were thus deprived of their livings). Thus the assistance of the Scots was secured. Sept. Charles concluded peace with the Irish insurgents, and toolj the fatal step of enlisting a force from their numbers for the war in England. Dec. 8. Death of Pym. 1644. Jan. A Scotch army crossed the Tweed. Parliament con- vened at Oxford by the king. Jan. 25. Battle of Nantwich. Defeat of the Irish by Sir Thomoi Fairfax. Feb. 15. Joint committee of the two kingdoms. March. Trial of Laud. York besieged by Fairfax and the Scots. Siege of Oxford hj Essex and Waller. Siege of Latham House (countess of Derby] raised by Rupert (May). July 2. Battle of Marston Moor. Prince Rupert, who defeated the Scots, was in turn totally de feated by Cromwell at the head of his picked troops (Ironsides). Hitherto the king had held the west and north of England, whih the parliament was supreme in the east. This victory gave the; north to parliament. Surrender of York July 16, of Newcastle Oct 20. This success was partially offset in the south by the de feat of Waller at the June 29. Battle of Copredy Bridge, and by the Sept. Surrender of Essex's infantry in Cornwall to Charles. Es sex escaped to London by sea. 1644, Aug.-1645, Sept. Campaign of Montrose in Scotland. Montrose entered Scotland in disguise, Aug. 1644. Victor of Tippamuir Sept. 1 ; sack of A berdeen (Bridge of Dee) Sept. 13 capture of Perth; Montrose retired to A thole (Oct. 4) ; Fyrie castL (Oct. 14) ; Montrose retired to Bade7iach (Nov. 6) ; harrying o Argyleshire (Dec-Jan. 18) ; march from Loch Ness to Inverlochy a Ben Nevis (Jan. 31-Feb.l). Battle of Inverlochy, Feb. 2. Surren der of Elgin, Feb. 19. Montrose at Aberdeen (March 9) ; Stone haven (March 21). Victory of Auldearn (May 4) ; victory o Alford (July 2) ; of Kilsyth (Aug. 15) ; court at Bothwell (Sept 3) ; Kelso (Sept. 10) ; Leslie crossed the Tweed (Sept. 6). De feat of Montrose at Philiphaugh (Sept. 13). i 1644, Oct. 27. Second battle of Newbury fought between the kinj and Essex, Waller, and Manchester. » Dec. Promulgation of a directory instead of a liturgy. Christmai made a fast. 1645. Jan. Attainder and execution (Jan. 10) of Laud. A. D. England and Scotland. 349 1645, Jan.-Feb. Truce known as the treaty of Uxhridge ; the prcH posals of the parliament rejected by the king. Dissensions witliin the parliament. Rise of the sect of indepen- dents (advocates of religious liberty) who formed a growing opposi- tion to the Presbyterians. Crom-well fast becoming the leading man in England since the victory of Marston Moor. Quarrel with Man- chafer. April 3. The Self-denying Ordinance passed by both houses (the commons had passed a similar bill Dec. 1644) preventing mem- bers of either house from holding military command. Estab- I lishment of Presbyterianism, with some reservations in favor of the independents. Fairfax superseded Essex as captain-general. Cromwell, lieutenant-general (suspension of the self-denying ordinance in his case). Introduction of reform in the army after the plans of Crom- well ; the new model. June 14. Battle of Naseby. Complete defeat of the king, followed by the general ruin of his cause. Capture of his private letters. Surrender of Lei- cester (June 18), Bridgewater (July 23), Bristol (Sept. 11), Carlisle, Winchester , Basing House (Oct.), Latham House (Dec). March 26. Defeat and capture of lord Ashley at Stow-on-the-Wold ) last battle of the civil war. 1646, May 5. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots. July 24 Parliamentary propositions submitted to Charles at Newcastle, Parliament to have control of the militia for twenty years j Charles to take the covenant and support the Presbyterian establishment. Charles rejected the propositions, preferring to await the result of the impending breach between parlia- ment, representing Presbyterianism, and the army, comprising the independents. The independent opposition, the " tolera- tion " party in parliament, grew constantly in strength. L647, Jan. 30. The Scots surrendered Charles to the parliament on payment of the expenses of their army (£400,000). Charles was brought to Holmhy House in Northamptonshire. Contention between parliament and the army. The commons voted the disbandment of all soldiers not needed for garrison purposes or in Ireland. Fairfax appointed commander-in- chief. The self-denying ordinance re-enacted. The new model, however, refused to disband until its claims for arrears were satisfied. !Hay 12. Charles accepted a modified form of the parliamentary propositions. It was too late. fune 4. Charles seized at Holmby House by cornet Joyce and carried to the army. On the same day Cromwell, having heard of the intention of the Presbyterians to seize him in parliament, fled to the army at Triptow Heath. Here the army had taken an oath not to disband until liberty of conscience was secure, and 850 Modern History, A. Di» had adopted a new organization ; appointment to a council of adjudicators. 1647, June 10. The army at 6*^ ^Z&aws. " Humble representation ** addressed to parliament. June 16. The army demanded the exclusion from parliament of eleven members who were peculiarly obnoxious to it {Holies). July 26. The house of commons mobbed by London apprentices on account of a change in the commanders of the London militia which the army had requested. The two speakers, fourteen lords, and one hundred commons fled to the army. July 24. Proposals presented to the king by the army. Belief and worship should be free to all ; parliament to control the mili- tary and naval forces for ten years, and to appoint officers of state ; triennial parliament ; reformation of the house of commons, etc., rejected by the king, who was invited to Lon- don by that part of the parliament still sitting at Westmin^ ster. Aug. 6. The army entered London and restored the members which had taken refuge with it. Charles removed to Hampton Court. Sept. 7. Parliament again offered Charles a modified form of the nineteen propositions ; on its rejection a new draft was pre- pared, but before its presentation Nov. 11. Charles escaped to the Isle of Wight, where he was detained by the governor of Carishrooke Castle. Dec. 24. " The four bills " presented to the king by parliament : 1. Parliament to command the army for twenty years ; 2. All declarations and proclamations against the parliament to be recalled ; 3. All peers created since the great seal was sent to Charles to be incapable of sitting in the house ; 4. The two houses should adjourn at pleasure. Charles, who was only playing with the parliament in the hope of securing aid from Scotland, rejected the four bills (Dec. 28), after he had already signed Dec. 26. A secret treaty vj^ith the Scots (" The Engagement "). Charles agreed to abolish Episcopacy and restore Presbyte- rianism ; the Scots, who looked with horror on the rising tide of toleration in England, agreed to restore him by force of arms. 1648. Jan. 15. Parliament renounced allegiance to the king,' and voted to have no more communication with him. 1648. Second Civil War. At once a war between Scotland and England, a war between the Royalists and the Roundheads, and a war between the Presbyterians and the Independents. Committee of safety renewed, sitting at Derby House. March. A meeting of army officers at Windsor resolved that the king must be brought to trial. April 24. Call of the house. 306 members. The Presbyterians having returned to their seats, now regained control, and mani* I A.* I>. Tlie North and East. 351 fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Vlt' tual repeal of the non-communication resohition. 1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, aimed at the independents, especially at Cromvjell, Ireton, etc. July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. Aug. 14. Holies resumed his seat. Royalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in London. July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots in the Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans, and amiihilated their army. Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second civil war. Sept. 18-Nov. " Treaty of Newport " negotiated between the king and the parliament, without result. Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army. Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the last straw ; the army took matters into its own hands. Dec. 6-7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) from the parliament. The " Rump " Parliament (some 60 members). Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to Windsor (Dec. 23). 1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) to try the king ; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the commons resolved Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com- mons. Jan. 6. Passage of the ordmance without the concurrence of the lords. Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up by the army. Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members present, Bradshaw presiding) ; the king merely denied the jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death. Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London. {Seep. 375.) § 9. THE NORTH AND EAST. {Seep. 276.) The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened by the action of Sweden, since the election of 1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was com- pletely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian IL 852 Modern History. a. d. 1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians un- der the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Den- mark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under dis- guises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523). Sweden. (Seep. 276.) 1523-1654. House of Vasa. 1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and mur- dered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX. the youngest son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibrucken, son of a sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689. (See p. 373.) Denmark and Norvray. (See p. 2/6.) These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Refor- mation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish throne as 1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation. After his death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts (Jiirgen Wullenwever, burghermaster of Luheck). Frederic's son 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Refor- mation. For the participation of Christian iV. in the Thirty Years' War, see p. 310. After a 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender the islands of Gottland and Oesel at the Peace of Broinsehro (p. 315). (Seep. 373.) Poland. (See p. 277.) 1386-1572. Jagellons. The kingdom reached its greatest exteni (Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of de cay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the liberum veto. Elected kings : Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Ste- phen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house of Vasa : Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668). ^ ^ (Seep.37J^.) Russia. (See p. 276.) After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of succession lasting ten years (the false DemetriusJ I. D. The North and Bast. 353 .613. The house of Romanow succeeded to the throne. which it occupied until 1762. (^See p. 374") Turks. (Seep. 278.) The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development nder Solimau II. (1520-1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary f the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began he decline, caused especially by the influence of the Janizaries. India. {See p. 24I.) 497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal. 498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut by the way of the Cape of Good Hope. The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various ynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter alf of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitu- 'on was as follows : At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan yuasty with greatly reduced dominion ; in Bengal (1340-1576), Lfghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391-1573) a Muham- aedan dynasty had its capital at Ahmeddbdd ; in the Deccan the iluhammedan empire of the Bahmani (1347-1525) had separated ito five kingdoms : Bijdpur (1489-1686), Golconda (1512-1687), [hmednagar (1490-1636), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (1492- 609[57]. The southern pai-t of the peninsula was still in the hands f the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118-1565). Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cahral (on the voyage acciden- il discovery (?) of Brazil) ; in 1502 a papal bull created the king of 'ortugal " Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, Lrabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy f India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso d' Albuquerque was Up- ointed to this office ; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. \ .526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India. The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of ' 'amerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 con- ueior of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the *unjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the 526. Battle of Panipat.i Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527) . Under Bdbar's son Hu- idyun (1530-56) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shah, be Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under lumayun's son Akbar (Bairdm the real commander), defeated the ifghans at Panipat (1556). 556-1605. Akbar the Great whose reign is a long series of conquests. 1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on thaV ime plain ; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 234.) 23 854 Modern History. a. d, 1565. Battle of Talikot. Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deccan. Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chit- lor; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586-92 Kashmir ; 1592, Sind ; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar 's empire now comprised i all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not suc- cessful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was suc- ceeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was muchi troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without last- ing success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahar, several times lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally] lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. Shah Jahan won some successes iui the Deccan ; submission of Bijdpur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. The empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacockl throne). Shah Jahdn deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisonedf (died 1666). From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with India ; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutchl and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company ofi London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar com-i panics were established at diflterent times ; but all were ultimately incorporated with the original company. (" The Governor and Com-o pany of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600 Courten's Association [" Assador Merchants "] 1635-1650 ; " Com-i pany of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657 ; " General Society trad-1 ing to the East Indies " [" English Company "], 1698-1709, unitedi with the original company as " The United Company of Merchant^ of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyage^ were separate ventures ; after 1612 voyages were made for the com-3 pany. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat oi the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Sural, 1614.: Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on the island of Amhoyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the Eng-, lish from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantamj 1635. Foundation of Madras (Fort St. George), 1639. Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's). (Seep. 389.). China. (See p. 278.} 1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of Ning suppressed^ after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established themselves at Macao. 1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing^ Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet. 1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, tcl relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery. 1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbanceh the emperor gave Yenria lands in the province of Shen-se. A. D. China. — Japan, 355 1692. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and oompelled to sue for peace. 1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula. 1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court ; he preached Christian- ity m Chma (f 1610). 1604. Dutch in China ; also the Spanish. 1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the Chinese, and returning in 1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung. 1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, threw off the pretense of alle- giance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He established his capital at San-Koo. Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In 1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) dynasty ascended the tlirone. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing Pekin they raised to the throne of China a son of Teen-ning^ the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the 1644— X, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 1644. Shun-che. Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lin- gering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more and more common. (^See p. 390.) Japan. (See p. 278.) The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause of much fighting. 1658-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado. This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three of the most renowned men of Japan ; Nohunaga, Hideyoshi, Tokugawa lyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed that of the mikado. Ota Nohunaga was a feudal lord who acquired fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the un- happy country, while his aid was also sought by Yoskiaki, the rightful shogun, who had been dispossessed by Yoskikage. By the battle of Anagawa (1570), where Tokugawa lyeyasu fought under Nohunagay Yoskiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by Nc bunaga, whom he had plotted to murder. 356 Modern History. a. d. 1573-1582. Government of Nobunaga. Nobunaga appointed no successor but retained the power in his own hands. He was a determined opponent of the over- powerful Buddhist priests, and took Christianity (the Jesuit Xavier at Kioto) under his protection. Slaughter of the Bud- dhist priests and capture of their fortified temples. Death of Nobunaga in a revolt (1582). 1582-1698. Government of Hideyoshi. The rebel was suppressed by the general Hideyoshi, who after considerable fighting reduced the whole country to subjection (1592). War with China; invasion of Corea (p. 355), Hideyo- shi was unfavorable to Christianity. 1588, publication of a de- cree ordering the expulsion of the Jesuits ; this, however, was not obeyed. In 1593 nine missionaries were burned at Naga- saki. Hideyoshi, the Taiko. He was succeeded by an iiifant son, under the regency of Tokugawa lyeyasu, whose govern- ment was popular but who was involved in political troubles that led to war. 1600. Battle of Sekigahara. lyeyasu defeated his enemies, and in 1603 was made Sei-i-tai-shogun, being the first of the 1603-1868. Tokugawa Shoguns, some of whom subse- quently took the title of Tai-kun (Tycoon) " high prince." The rule of lyeyasu was distinguished by the revival of learning and the growth of foreign intercourse (Dutch, English). lyeyasu re- signed his office in 1605 to his son but retained his power until his death. lyeyasu died 1616, leaving the " Legacy of lyeyasu," a code of laws. Redistribution of land. Those vassals of the crown who re- ceived a revenue of 10,000 measures of rice were called daimios and numbered 245, eighteen of whom were governors of provinces (koku- shiu). Next to the daimios stood the samurai, to whom the daimios leased their farms in return for military service. The shogun (who was the first of the daimios) was surrounded by the hatamoto, " house-earls," from whom he selected his officials. They are said to have numbered 80,000. Below the hatamoto were the gokenin, also attached directly to the shogun as private soldiers, comprising the Tokugawa clan. lyeyasu removed the capital of the shogun from Kamakura to Yedo. The successor of lyeyasu. Hide- tada, sent a messenger to Europe to study Christianity, but his report not being considered favorable, the shogun forbade the introduction of that religion. 1630-1643. Too-Fuku-no-in, daughter of the mikado, Go-mino-o, and the daughter of the shogun, Hidetata, followed the former on the throne as Miosho-Tenno. lyemitsu, who succeeded to the shogunate in 1653, was an excel- lent ruler, but ordered the vigorous enforcement of laws against the Christians, and closed Japan to all foreigners except the Chinese and the Dutch, who were allowed to trade at Nagasaki. 1637. Revolt of the Christians at Shimabara finally suppressed; k. D. America. 357 massacre of the survivors. Persecution throughout the empire. Extirpation of Christianity. Death of lyemitsu, 1649. (^See p. 4V^') SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE BEGINNING OF ' THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1648-1789. A. The second half of the seventeenth century. § 1. AMERICA. (See p. 300.) British, Dutch, and Svvedish Colonies. .644. Union of Providence and the Rhode Island towns (New- port, Portsmouth) under one charter, obtained by Roger Williams. Union of Sayhrook and Connecticut under the latter name. The colony contained eight taxable towns ; that of New Haven numbered six. Separation of the general court of Massachusetts Bay into two houses. Lpril 18. Three hundred colonists massacred by the Indians in Vir- ginia. 645. Rebellion of Clayhorne and Ingle in Maryland ; they seized the government, but were put down in 1646. 6. In Massachusetts Johi Eliot commenced his missionary labors among the Indians at Nonantum. (Translation of the Bible into Massachusetts dialect, 1661-63). Act of parliament freeing merchandise for the American colonies from all duty for three years, on condition that colonial pro- ductions should be exported only in English vessels. In Nevr Netherlands Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesantj as governor, who immediately formulated a claim to all the region between Cape Henlopen and Cape Cod. 648. The petition of Rhode Island i to be admitted to the union rejected, as that colony would not submit itself to the jurisdic- tion of Pljnmouth. 649. Incorporation in England of the " Society for Propagating the Gospel in New England." Grant of the land between the Rappahannock and Potomac to lord Culpepper and other royalists. Massacre of the Hurons at St. Ignatius by the Iroquois. 650. Agreement between New Netherlands and the United Colonies establishing the boundary between the Dutch and English at Oyster Bay, on Long Island, and Greenwich Bay, Connecticut. 1 "Where Rhode Island is mentioned, before the charter of 1663, it is prob- ble that the Island only is meant." Holmes' Annals, I. 287, note 2. 358 Modern History. a. d 1661. Passage of the Navigation Act in England (p. 376). 1652. The province of Maine joined to Massachusetts. The parliament in England assumed control of Maryland, an( suspended the goveriunent of Rhode Island, but the latte order did not take effect. ii 1655. Stuyvesantj governor of New Netherlands, seized the Swed ish forts on the Delaware, and broke up the colony of Nevi Sweden. 1659. Virginia proclaimed Charles II. king of England, Scotland Ireland, and Virginia, and restored the royal governor, Si William Berkeley. Execution of two Quakers in Massachusetts. 1661. Penal laws against Quakers suspended by order of the king. 1662. Charter of Connecticut granted by the king. New Havei refused to accept it. The assembly was composed of the gov ernor, deputy-governor, twelve assistants, and two deputie from every town. 1662. Lord Baltimore confirmed in the government of Maryland. 1663. Grant of Carolina (all land between 31° N. and 36° N.) t the earl of Clarendon and associates. Charter of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. 1664. Grant of New Netherlands, from the Connecticut to th Delaware, to the king's brother, James, duke of York am Albany. The grant included the eastern part of Maine, am islands south and west of Cape Cod. The region between the Hudson and the Delaioare (Nova Ccesarec or New Jersey) was granted by the duke to lord Berkelei and Sir George Carteret. Aug. 27. Surrender of Nevr Amsterdam to the English ; name c the colony changed to New York. Sept. 24. Surrender of Fort Orange, whose name was changed t Albany. 1665. Maine restored to the heirs of Sir Fernando Gorges. Union of Connecticut and New Haven. The royal commissioners empowered to hear complaints in Ne' England, after conferring with the general court of Massachi) setts, left the provinces in anger, as the court would not a fend the colony in the suit of the heirs of Gorges were sent home with the demand that the Maine purchase be undone and new agents sent to nnswer the complaints against the colony. Edward Randolph was sent over as collector of customs for Boston, where, however, he was sturdily opposed. The new agents giving no satisfaction, a writ of quo warranto was issued against the colony in 1683 ; in 1684 a suit of scire facias was brought and the court of chancery declared the charter forfeited (1684). The king appointed colonel Kirke governor of Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Maine, and Plymouth, but before he received his commission Charles died, and James II. appointed Joseph Dudley president of New England. He took office in 1686. 1686. Issue of a quo warranto writ against Connecticut and Carolina, New York deprived of an assembly and other liberties. Appointment of Sir Edmund Andros as president of New- England. He arrived at Boston Dec. 20. Randolph was now deputy postmaster in New England. Andros assumed the government of Rhode Island. Establishment of an Epis- copal society in Boston, for the use of which Andros forcibly seized the Old South Church. 1687. Quo warranto against Maryland. Oct. Sir Edmund Andros assumed the government of Connecticut and attempted to secure the charter, but it was carried off from the hall of assemblv and hidden in the famous Charter Oak. 1688. Tyranny of Andros in Massachusetts. New York and New- Jersey placed under his government. Erection of King^s Chapel, as an Episcopal church, in Boston. 1689. On the receipt of news of the revolution in England, and the landing of William of Orange, Sir Edmund Andros was seized in Boston (April 18) and thrown into prison. Restora- tion of the old government. " Council of safety of the people and conservation of the peace." Assembly of representatives at Boston. Provisional resumption of the charter ; proclama- tion of William and Mary. Reestablishment of the former governments in Rhode Island and Connecticut. New- York, Virginia and Maryland proclaimed William and Mary. 1689-1697. " King William's War " with the French, a part of the universal war against Louis XIV. The French were assisted by the Canadian Indians and those of Maine, while the Iroquois took the war path against the French. 1690. Surprise and destruction of Schenectady (Feb. 8), of Salmon Falls (March 18), and of Casco (May 17), by three bands of French and Indians. April, Seizure of Port Royal by Sir William Phips, who afterwards made a futile attack upon Quebec, by vote of a congress of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New York. The failure imposed so large a debt on the colonies that Massa- chusetts was obliged to issue paper money for the first time; 1692. New charter for Massachusetts. Sir William Phips ap 862 Modern History. A- D* pointed governor. Under this charter were included the colony of Plymouth, the provinces of Maine, Nova Scotia and all land north to the St. Lawrence ; also the Elizabeth Islands, Nantasket, and Martha's Vineyard. The new charter gave the appoint- ment of the governor to the crown, and vested in him the right of calling, proroguing, and dissolving the general court, of appointing military officers and officers of justice (with the consent of the council), of vetoing acts of the legislature and appointments of civil officers made by the legislature. The electoral franchise was extended to all freeholders with a yearly income of forty shillings, and all inhabitants having personal property to the amount of £40. Religious liberty was secured to all except Papists. 1692, Feb. Commencement of the Salem •witchcraft frenzy. Be- fore October twenty persons were executed. Construction of Fort William Henry at Pemaquid in Maine by Sir William Phips. Rhode Island and Connecticut were allowed to retain their charters. Charter of the " College of "William and Mary " in Viis ginia. Sir Edmund Andros appointed governor of Virginia and Mary- land. 1693. Government of Pennsylvania taken from Penn by the crown. An English expedition against Canada was planned but failed of execution. 1694. Penn reinstated. Fletcher, governor of Nevsr York (and now of Pennsylvam'a), having been entrusted with the command of the militia of Connecticut, went to Hartford Oct. 26 to assert his authority, but was repulsed by the assembly, and by Wadsworth, senior captain of the militia. French expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois. 1696. Capture of the fort at Pemaquid by the French under Iberville. An expedition of count Frontenac against the Iroquois resulted in little more than the destruction of their harvests. 1697. The Peace of Ryswick (p. 371) prevented the exe- cution of a French attack upon Newfoundland. Restoration of conquests by both combatants. Third expedition of Frontenac against the Iroquois, with little effect. 1699. The French settled in Louisiana. The French claimed control of the fisheries on the north coast, and of the territory from the Kennebec eastward. Foundation of a Scotch settlement at Darien in the hope of acquiring great wealth by the command of commercial transit (Paterson). The first expedition (1,200 men, besides women and children) perished from starvation, or returned to Scot- land ; the second was broken up by the Spaniards who coa* sidered the settlement a breach of the treaty of Ryswick. 1700. Iberville took possession of the Mississippi for France. 1701. William Penn gave a new charter to Pennsylvania. k* D. America, 363 1701. Foundation of Yale College at New Haven in Connecticut. 1702. Joseph Dudley, governor of Massachusetts. Quarrel with the general court over the proposed salaries to be paid the governor, lieutenant-governor, etc. An expedition projected by governor Moore of Carolina against St. Augustine resulted in failure. The debt thus in- curred was discharged by an issue of paper money. 1702-1713. " Queen Anne's War" with the French. 1703. Pennsylvania province separated from the territories, or lower counties (Delaware) ; separate assemblies. 1704. Deerjield in Massachusetts destroyed by French and In- dians. This was avenged by an expedition under colonel Church which ravaged the French settlements on the east coast of New England. Establishment of the Church of England in Carolina. The complaints of dissenters against some details of ecclesiastical administration led to the issue of a quo ivarranto against the colony, but nothing came of the matter. 1706. Invasion of Carolina by the French and Spanish in assertion of the Spanish claims to that country as a part of Florida. They were repulsed and defeated on land and sea with great loss by Williain Rhett. 1707. New England sent an expedition against Port Royal, which returned without effecting its capture. 1708. Surprise of Haverhill by French and Indians. 1709. An expedition was planned against Canada and Acadia to which the colonies were to contribute 2,700 men. The project K was abandoned by the English government after the men had been raised, and Coimecticut, New York, and New Jersey were obliged to issue paper money to cancel their debts. 1710. Capture of Port Royal by a fleet from England. Change of the name of the city to Annapolis. 1711. An expedition against Canada numbering 68 sail and 6,463 sol- diers, largely raised by the colonies, met with disaster and was abandoned. 1712. A massacre of colonists in Carolina by the Tuscaroras and other tribes was followed by the dispatch of Barnwell against the Indians. After a difficult march he succeeded in almost anni- hilating the Tuscaroras, many of whom fled to the Iroquois. 1713. Treaty of Utrecht, between Great Britain and France (p. 393). Cession of Hudson Baij and Straits, of Nova Scotia, Neivfoundland, and St. Christopher (in the West Indies) to England. French settlements and discoveries. In the earlier part of the century the French had established a claim to Canada and Acadia, extending to the Kennebec in Maine, although the English claimed as far as the Penobscot, From this t 364 Modern History, A. ix vantage ground they extended their discoveries south and west. Jes- uit missionaries labored among the Hurons in the country between lakes Erie, Ontario, and Huron, planted the missions of St. Mary » (1668) and Michillimackinac, died with their flocks when the undying enmity of the Iroquois annihilated the Hurons (^Breboeuf^ Lallemont)^ , or sought torture and death at the hands of the Five Nations (Isaac ' Jogues, 1640-1654). 1656. Acadia and Nova Scotia granted to St. Etienne and others by ■< Cromwell.^ 1656-1658. French colony in western New York, soon broken up. 1659. Francois de Laval, bishop of New France. 1662. The hundred associates of Quebec reconsigned their rights to the king, who soon after granted New France to the French i West India Company. 1665. Courcelles, governor of New France. The colony was more than doubled by the transportation of many emigrants from France. 1666. Expedition of Tracy and Courcelles against the Mohawks. 1666. Allouez founded the mission of St. Esprit on the southern shore of lake Superior. 1668. The peace of Breda ended the war between England and I France which had broken out in 1666. England restored Aca- dia to France, and obtained from France Antigua, Montser- rat, and St. Christopher. This was followed by a peace between the French and the Five Nations. In this year Foundation of Sault Ste. Marie, at the entrance of lake Superior by Dahlon and Marquette. 1672. Tour of Allouez and Dahlon in Wisconsin and Illinois. 1673. Discovery of the Mississippi by Marquette and Joliet (June i 17) who descended the stream for an uncertain distance. Count Frontenac, governor of Canada, completed a fort at On- ■ tario called after himself. Construction of a fort at Michilli- machinac. 1678. Robert Cavalier de La Salle began his career of discovery in i the great west. Launching in the Niagara, the Griffin, a ves- • sel of forty-five tons, the first ever seen on the great lakes, he i sailed Aug. 7, 1679. He passed through lakes Erie, Huron, , and Michigan, and landed at the extreme southern end of the latter lake in October. He built a fort on the St. Joseph and 1 crossed the portage to the Illinois. Not hearing from the i Griffin he returned on foot to Canada. Obtaining fresh sup- ■ plies he retraced his route to the Illinois only to find the fort which he had there erected deserted. Again he returned to f Canada ; again he obtained aid, and again undertook his enter- prise. 1680. Discovery of the Mississippi by Hennepin, a priest in the com- ■ pany of La Salle. He ascended the river to 46° N., but the i claim which he later advanced that he had explored the Mis* sissippi to the sea is probably false. 1 Tbe southern boundary of Acadia in the ^rant of Henry IV., 1630, was » 40° N. ; the southwestern limit of Nova Scotia in the grant of James I.. 1621, , ■was the river St. Croix. Holmes, Annals, I. 307, note 4. i. D. America. 865 1682. La Salle, reaching the Mississippi hy way of the St. Joseph and the Illinois^ descended the great river to the sea and took possession of its valley for Louis XIV., April 9, under the name of Louisiana. 1684. Expedition of De la Barre against the Iroquois, which failed of success. La Salle having announced his discovery in France was sent out at the head of four vessels and a number of settlers to estab- lish a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. Contention be- tween La Salle and the commander of the vessels, who was jealous of the discoverer, resulted in disaster. The squadron missed the mouth of the Mississippi and landed at Matagorda Bay (St. Louis), four hundred miles to the west. Here La Salle built a fort, but privation and disease soon greatly re- ducing the numbers of the colony he undertook to go on foot to Canada for relief. On this expedition 1687. La Salle was shot by one of his own men. The settlement of Mar. 19. >S'^ Louis soon perished. 1687. Expedition of De Denonville against the Senecas. At this time there were about 11,000 persons in New France. 1689-1697. War of William and Mary, see p. 361. Expeditions of Frontenac against the L-oquois (1693, 1696, 1697). 1699. The French and the English both attempted to found a col- ony in Louisiana. The French colony was sent out by Louis XIV. under Lemoine d'Iberville, who entered the Mississippi March 2, and also founded a colony at Biloxi. The English attempt was made by Coxe, a claimant of the old grant of Carolana, who entered the Mississippi, but, finding himself an- ticipated, retired {Detour aux Anglais). 1700. An expedition from Biloxi ascended to the falls of St. An- thony, in search of gold. Iberville returning from France took possession of Louisiana anew for the crown. Erection of a fort. I'omidation of Kaskaskia in Illinois. Foimdation of Cahokia in Illinois. Fort at Detroit (1701). 1702-13. Queen Anne's -war, see p. 363. Iberville brought new settlers from France and transferred the colony of Biloxi to Mobile in Alabama. Iberville f 1706. 1705. Foundation of Vincennes in Indiana. 1712. Grant to Sieur Antoine Crozat of the whole commerce of fif- teen years of all the " king's lands in North America lying be- tween Neiv France on the north, Carolina on the east, and New Mexico on the west, down to the gulf of Florida, ; by the name oi Louisiana.'* (^See p. J^17.') §2. FRANCE. {Seep. 326.) 1643-1715. Louis XIV. (five years old), under the guardianship of his mother, Anne, daughter of Philip III., king of Spain, called by the French Anne of Austria^ i. er 866 Modern History. A. D. of Hapsburg. The government, even after Louis' axrival at ma- jority, was conducted by cardinal Mazarin. 1648-1653. Disturbances of the Fronde (cardinal Retz; prince of Conde ', resistance of the parliament of Paris), the last at- tempt of the French nobility to oppose the court by armed resist- ance. Conde, at first loyal, afterwards engaged against the court, fought a battle with the royal troopg under {Henri de la Tour d'Avr- vergne, vicomte de) Turenne, in the Faubourg Saint Antoine, and took refuge in Spain. The first conspiracy, the old Fronde, ended in 1649, with the second treaty of Ruel ; the second conspiracy, the new Fronde, which involved treasonable correspondence with Spain, failed in 1650. A union of the two was crushed in 1653. ( Gaston of Orleans, and his daughter, " Mademoiselle.") 1648. Acquisitions of France in the Peace of Westphalia, p. 316. The war with Spain, which sprang up during the Thirty Years* War (victory of Conde at Rocroy, May 18, 1643 ; alliance with Eng- land, 1657 ; Cromwell sent 8,000 men of his army to the assistance o£ Turenne) was contumed till the 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees: 1. France received a part of Roussillon, Conjians, Cerdagne, and several towns in Artois and Flanders, HainauU and Luxembourg. 2. The duke of Lorraine, the ally of Spain, was partially reinstated (France received Bar, Clermont, etc., and right of passage for troops) ; the prince of Conde entirely reinstated. 3. Marriage between Louis XIV. and the infant Maria Theresa, eldest daughter of Philip IV. of Spain, who, however, renounced her claims upon her inheritance for herself and her issue by Louis forever, both for herself before mar- riage and for herself and her husband after marriage, in considera- tion of the payment of a dowry of 500,000 crowns by Spain. 1661. Death of Mazarin. Personal government of Louis XIV. (1661-1715), absolute, arbitrary, without etats feneraux, without regard to the remonstrances of the parliament of 'aris {Vetat, c'est moi). Colbert, controller general of the finances, from 1662-1683. Reform of the finances ; mercantile system. Con- struction of a fleet of war. Louvois, minister of war, 1666-1691. Quarrel for precedence in rank with Spain. Negotiations with the Pope concerning the privileges of French ambassadors at Rome. The ambition of Louis for fame, and his desire for increase of terri- tory were the causes of the following wars, in which these generals took part : Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, Catinat, Villars, Vendome^ Vauban (inventor of the modern system of military defense). 1667-1668. First war of conquest (war of devolution) on account of the Spanish Netherlands. Cause : After the death of his father-in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, Louis laid claim to the Spanish possessions in the Belgian provinces i {Brabanty Flanders, etc.), on the ground that,' being the personal estates i A. D. France, 367 of the royal family of Spain, their descent ought to be regulated \rj the local " droit de devolution,'' a principle in private law, whereby in the event of a dissolution of a marriage by death, the survivor enjoyed the usufruct only of the property, the ownership being vested in the children, whence it followed that daughters of a first marriage inher- ited before sons of a second marriage.^ The renunciation of her heritage which his wife had made was, Louis claimed, invalid, since the stipulated dowry had never been paid. 1667. Turenne conquered a part of Flanders and Hainault. By the exertions of Jan de Witt, pensioner of Holland, and Sir 1668. William Temple, England, Holland, and Sweden, concluded the Jan. 23. Triple Alliance, which induced Louis, after Conde had, with great rapidity, occupied the defenseless free county of Burgundy {Franche Comte) to sign the 1668. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. May 2. Louis restored Franche-Comte (the fortresses having been dismantled) to Spam, in return for which he received twelve fortified towns on the border of the Spanish Netherlands, among others, Lille, Tournay, and Oudenarde. The question of the succession was not settled, but deferred. 1672-1678. Second war of conquest (against Holland). The course of Holland in these transactions had inflamed the hatred of Louis against her, a hatred made still stronger by the refuge given by the provinces to political writers who amioyed him with their abus- ive publications. To gain his purpose, the destruction or the humilia- tion of Holland, Louis secured the disruption of the Triple Alliance by a 1670. Private treaty with Charles II. of England (p. 380), and be- 1672. tween France and Sweden. Subsidy treaties with Cologne and Miinster ; 20,000 Germans fought for Louis in the following war. 1672. Passage of the Rhine. Rapid and easy conquest of southern Holland by Turenne, Conde, and the king, at the head of 100,000 men. The brothers De Witt, the leaders of the aristocratic republican party in Holland, were killed during a popular outbreak (Aug. 27), and William III. of Orange was placed at the head of the state. The opening of the sluices saved the province of Holland, and the city of Amsterdam. Alliance of Holland with Frederic William, elector of Brandenburg (1640-1688), afterwards joined by the emperor and by Spain. 1673. Frederic William concluded the separate peace of Vossem (not far from Louvaine), in which he retained his possessions in Cleves, except Wesel and Rees. 1674. Declaration of war by the empire. 1 "Secundam antiqnas Meklin. constitutiones et fere per universain Braban- tiam superstes altero conju.s:o mortuo usufructuarius redditur suorum bonarum, eorum proprietate statim ad liberos proximos vel qui hgeredes futiiri sunt devo* luta." Comm. to tht customs of Mechlin. lUmke^ Franz. Gesch. III., 226. 368 Modern History, A. D. Peace between England and Holland. Louis XIV. conquered Franche-Comte in person ; Conde fought against Orange (drawn battle at Senef) in the Netherlands. Brilliant campaign of Turenne on the upper Rhine (first ravaging of the palat- inate) against Montecuculi, the imperial general, and the elector of Brandeiibm-g. The latter, recalled by the inroad of the Swedish allies i of Louis XIV. into his lands, defeated the Swedes in the 1675. Battle of Fehrbellin. In the same year Turenne fell at^ June 18. Sasbachf in Baden (July 27). The French retreated across^ the Rhine. 1676. Naval successes in the Mediterranean against the Dutch and I Spanish. Death of De Ruyter. 1677. Marriage of William of Orange with Mary, eldest daughter of i the duke of York. 1678. Surprise and capture of Ghent and Ypres by the French.. Negotiations with each combatant, which had been for someE time in progress, resulted in the 1678-1679. Peace of Nimwegen. Holland and France (Aug. 10, 1678) ; Spain and France! (Sept. 17, 1678) ; the Emperor, with France and Sweden (Feb. 6,1 1679) ; Holland with Sweden (Oct. 12, 1679). At FontainehleaUy France and Denmark (Sept. 2, 1679). At Lund, Denmark and; Sweden (Sept. 26, 1679). 1. Holland received its whole territory back, upon condition of J preserving neutrality. 2. Spain ceded to France, Franche-Comte^' and on the northeast frontier, Valenciennes, Cambray, and the Cam^- hresis. Aire, Poperingen, St. Omer, Ypres, Conde, Bouchain, Maubeuget\ and other towns ; France ceded to Spam, Charleroi, Binche, OudC'- narde, Ath, Courtray, Limburg, Ghent, Waes, etc. ; and in Cata-J Ionia, Puycerda. 3. The Emperor ceded to France Freiburg in the t Breisgau^ France gave up the right of garrison in Philippsburg ; the 6 duke of Lorraine was to be restored to his duchy, but on such con- ditions that he refused to accept them. Louis XIV. forced the elector of Brandenburg to conclude the 1679. Peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, whereby he surrendered to Sweden nearly all of his conquests in Pommerania, in return for which he received only the reversion of the principality of East Friesland, which became Prussian in 1744, and a small indemnifica- tion (exclamation of the elector : Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossihus \ ultor, Virg. ^n. IV. 625). Louis " the Great " at the height of his power. His boundless am- • bition stimulated by the weakness of the empire led him to establish i the 1680-1683. Chambers of Reunion at Metz, Breisach, JBe- sangon, and Touriiay. These were French courts of claims with power to investigate and decide what dependencies had at any time belonged to the territories i and towns which had been ceded to France by the last four treaties i of peace. The king executed with his troops the decisions of his tri* A. D. France, 369 bunals, thus adding to violence in time of peace, the scoff of a legal formality. Saarbriick, Luxembourg, Deuxponts {Zweibrucken), and many other towns were thus annexed to Fiance. 1681, Oct. Capture of Strasburg by treachery. 1683. Invasion of the Spanish Netherlands, occupation of Luxembourg^ and seizure of Trier (1684). Lorraine permanently occupied by France. To the weakness of the empire, the wars with the Turks, and the general confusion of European relations since the peace of Nimwegen, it is to be attributed that these outrageous aggressions were met by nothing more than empty protests, and that 1684. A truce for twenty years was concluded at Regensburg between Louis and the emperor and the empire, whereby he retained everything he had obtained by reunion up to Aug. 1, 1681, including Strasburg. Louis' mistresses : Louise de la Valliere ; Madame de Montespan ; Madame de Maintenon (Francoi^e d^Aubigne), SbnaxTow bigot whose influence over the king was boundless. Maria Theresa died 1683. Louis privately married to Madame de Maintenon. War upon heresy. The dragonnades in Languedoc. Wholesale conversions. 1685. Oct. 18. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The exercise of the reformed religion in France was forbid- den, children were to be educated in the Catholic faith, emigration was prohibited. In spite of this more than 50,000 families, including military leaders (Schomberg), men of letters, and the best part of the artificers of France, made their way to foreign countries. Their loss was a blow to the industry of the country, which hastened the approach of the revolution. The exiles found welcome in Holland, England (Spitaljields), Brandenburg. The Protestants of Alsace re- tained the freedom of worship which had been secured to them. 1689-1697. Third War. (War concerning the succession of the palatinate.) Cause : After the extinction of the male line of the electors palatine in the person of the elector Charles (f 1685), whose sister 1 was the wife of Louis XIV.'s brother, the duke of Orleans, the king I laid claim to the allodial lands of the family, a claim which he soon extended to the greater portion of the country. Another ground for V Frederic V. (king of Bohemia). t 1632. \ i I Sophia m. Charles Louis, flmest Augustus, t 1680. of Hanover. George I. Charles, Charlotte Elizabeth, of England. t 1^85. m. Philip, duke of without Orleans, brother of male iasue. Louis XIV. 24 870 Moderii History. A. d* war was found in the quarrel over the election of the archbishop of Cologne, which Louis was resolved to secure for Von Furstenburg^ bishop of Strasburg, in place of prince Clement of Bavaria (1688). Meantime the unfavorable impression produced throughout Protes- tant Europe by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes had contributed to the success of the plans of William of Orange, and 1686. The League of Augsburg, directed against France, was signed July 9. by the Emperor^ the kings of Sweden and Spain, the electors of Bavaria, of Saxony, and the palatinate. In 1688 occurred the revolution in England which placed William of Orange on the throne of that country, and added a powerful kingdom to the new- foes of Louis. The exiled James 11. took refuge with the French i monarch (court at St. Germain, p. 385). 1688. Invasion and frightful devastation of the Palatinate, by Oct. order of Louvois, executed by Melac (Heidelberg, Mannheim^ Speier, Worms, and the whole country as far as the borders of : Alsace ravaged and burnt). The military successes of the French on i' the Rhine were unimportant, especially after 1693, when prince Louis of Bavaria assumed the chief command against them. 1689. The Grand Alliance, between the powers who had joined the League of Augsburg and England and Holland (Savoy had joined the league in 1687). The principal 3ene of war was in the Netherlands. 1690. June 30. Battle of Fleurus, defeat of the prince of Waldeck by Louis' general. Marshal Luxembourg. The French expedition to Ireland in aid of James had but a temporary success. 1690, July 1. Victory of William III. over the adherents of James II. at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland (p. 387). French successes in Piedmont ; Catinat reduced Savoy ; de- feat of Victor Amadeus at Staffarda. 1692, May. Defeat of the French fleet under Tourville by the Eng- lish and Dutch at Cape La Hogue. The mastery of the sea passed from the French to the English. Death of Louvois. 1692, July 24. Battle of Steinkirk (Steenkerken) in Hainault. Victory of Luxembourg over William III. Fall of Namur. (June). 1693, July 29. Battle of Neerwinden. Victory of Luxembourg over William III., who in spite of his many defeats still kept the field. In Italy Marshal Catinat defeated the duke of Savoy at Mar- saglia. Rise of prince Eugene (" Eugenia von Savoye," " the little abbe," son of Maurice of Savoy-Carignan, count of Soissons and Olympia Mancini, niece of Mazarin, b. 1663 at Paris ; refused a commission by Louis XIV., he entered the Austrian service in 1683 ; died April 21, 1736). On June 30, the English fleet was defeated at Lagos Bay by Tourville. Failure of the English attack upon Brest (1694), not by the treachery of Marlborough. Death of Luxem- bourg (Jan. 1696) ; he waf* succeeded by the incapable Villeroy. '.. D- France, 871 695, Sept. Recapture of Namur by William III. 696, May 30. Separate Peace with Savoy at Turin. All con- quests were restored to the duke (JPignerol and Casale), and his daughter married Louis' grandson, the duke of Burgundy. Savoy promised to remain neutral. .697, Peace of Ryswick, a village near the Hague. Treaty lept. 30. between France, England, Spain, and Holland. 1. Confirmation of the separate peace with Savoy. 2. Restoration f conquests between France and England and Holland ; William n. acknowledged as king of England, and Anne, as his successor, iouis promising not to help his enemies. 3. It was agreed that the hief fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands should be garrisoned dth Dutch troops as a barrier between France and Holland. 4. 'ranee restored to Spain all places which had been " reunited " since lie peace of Nimwegen, with the exception of eighty-two places, and 11 conquests. 5. Holland restored Pondicherri in India to the rench East India Company and received commercial privileges in eturn. 697, Oct. 30. Treaty between France and the emperor (and em- pire.) 1. France ceded all the "reunions " except Alsace, which hencefor- ward was lost to the empire. 2. Strasburg was ceded to France. . France ceded Freiburg and Breisach to the emperor, and Phillips' urg to the empire. 4. The duchy of Zweibrucken was restored to the ing of Sweden, as count palatine of the Rhine. 5. Lorraine was re- jored to duke Leopold (excepting Saarlouis). 6. The claims of car- inal Fiirstenhurg to the archbishopric of Cologne were disavowed. . The Rhine was made free. Brilliant period of French literature in the age of Louis XIV. 'omeille (1606-1684) ; Racine (1639-1699) ; Moli^re {Jean Baptiste 'oquelin, 1622-1673) ; La Fontaine (1621-1695) ; Boileau (1636- 711); Bos.met (1627-1704); Flechier (f 1710); Fmelon (Francois de olignac de Lamothe, 1651-1715). Louis' court at Versailles (after 1680) was the pattern for all the ther courts of Europe. Buildings, luxury, mistresses (La Valliere^ fontespan, Fontange). After the death of his wife, Maria Theresa of pain (1683), Louis made a secret marriage with Fran^oise d^AuhignSy ddow of the poet Scarron (1610-1660), whom he made Marquise de laintenon. (See pp. 390, 445.) § 3. GERMANY. (Seep. 317.) 658-1705. Leopold I., son of Ferdinand III. After 1663 permanent diet at Regensburg, consisting of the epresentatives of the eight electors, the sixty-nine ecclesiastical, the inety-six secular princes, and the imperial cities. [A miracle of te- ious legislation, often degenerating into a squabble for precedence. A bladeless knife without a handle."] Corpus Catholicorvm and Cor- lus Evangelicorum ; [the corporate organizations of the Catholic and he evangelical estates, the latter being the most important. This or* 372 Modern History, A ganization of the Protestant estates had existed, in fact, since the latti half of the sixteenth century, but it was legally recognized in t Peace of Westphalia, where it was decreed that in the diet matte' relating to religion and the church should not be decided by amajoriji but should be settled by conference and agreement between the Cat olic and Protestant estates, as organized corporations.] 1661-1664. First war with the Turks ; caused by a dispute cc cerning the election of a prince in Transylvania. The Turkish successes at last enabled the emperor to obtain he from the empire and from the French. Victory of the imperial ge' eral Montecuculi over the Turks at St. Gotthard on the Raab (1664 A truce for twenty years, favorable to the Turks, was, neverthelt concluded. War of the empire against Louis XIV. (see p. 367). 1666. Settlement of the contested succession of Cleve-Julici Cleve, Mark, Ravenstein, and half of Ravensherg given to Bra denburg ; afterwards, the whole of Ravensherg instead of H venstein. 1682-1699. Second war with the Turks. Conspiracy of Hii garian magnates detected and punished. Count Tokoly pealed to the Turks for aid. Invasion of Hungary by t Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha and 1683. Siege of Vienna. Heroic defense conducted by Riidiger von Stdhremherg. Si^ cessful relief by a united German and Polish army under Charles \ Lorraine and John Sobieski, king of Poland. Henceforward actit participation of the German princes m the war, assisted by Venic After the victory of Charles of Lorraine over the Turks at MoM (pron. Mohatch) Aug. 12, 1687, the diet at Pressburg conferred t hereditary succession to the throne of Hungary upon the male li of Austria. The war continued with varying fortune until Prim Eugene, by the 1697. Victory ofZenta, brought about the 1699, Jan. 26. Peace of Carlowitz : 1. The Porte received the Banat Temesvar ; Austria, the rest Hungary and Transylvania. 2. Venice received Morea (the Peloponnesus, p. 416). Toward the close of the seventeenth and beginning of the eighteeu' century, several German princes obtained an elevation in rank. 1692. 1. Hanover became the ninth electorate. 1697. 2. The elector of Saxony (Augustus II.), after the death John Sobieski, became king of Poland, and adopted the Cat olic faith. 3. Frederic III., elector of Brandenburg (1688-1713), son of t' Great Elector, assumed, with the consent of the emperor, tl 1701. title of king in Prussia (Frederic I.) and crowned himself J Jan. 18. Konigsberg. {^See p. 39% 1^. D. The North and East 373 § 4. THE NORTH AND EAST. Sweden. {See p. 352.) I Sweden, whose possessions almost surrounded the Baltic Sea, iyas the first power of the North after the Thirty-Years' War. L654-1718 (1751). Dynasty of the counts palatine of Zweibrucken (p. 352). L651-1660. Charles X., Gustavus, undertook a war with Poland, because John Casimir (of the house of Vasa) refused to ac- knowledge him. He invaded Livonia and Poland^ captured Warsaw md drove John Casimir into Silesia. Frederic William, elector of Bran- lenburg, who had come with an army to the defense of East Prussia, vas obliged, by the treaty of Konigsberg (1656) to receive his duchy in fee from Sweden, as he had heretofore held it from Poland. He •eceived also the bishopric of Ermeland. Uprising in Poland against ,he Swedes. Charles Gustavus and the elector Frederic William, who ,iad become a still closer ally by the treaty of Marienhurg, gained the i6o6. Tlrree days* battle of Warsaw over the Poles. In order to further secure for himself the aid of the elector of Brandenburg, "Charles Gustavus granted him, in the treaty of Labiau (1656) the soy- reignty over East Prussia and Ermeland. Nevertheless, Russia, Den- nark and the emperor, declared war upon Sweden, and they were soon oiiied by the elector of Brandenburg, who received from Poland ii; he treaty of Wehlau (1657) recognition of his sovereignty over East ^russia, but not over Ermeland, for which he received compensation 'Isewhere. The Swedes were soon driven out of Poland, retaining a lold on Polish Prussia only. Charles Gustavus attacked Denmark vhich he soon conquered (crossing of the frozen Belt, Jan. 1658), ^ind compelled to make important cessions in the peace of Roeskild ■■ '1658). In the same year Charles Gustavus invaded Denmark a scc- »nd time, purposing the annihilation of the monarchy. Courageous lefense of Copenhagen. The Danes received assistance from all - ides. Raise of the siege. Sudden death of Charles Gustavus (1660), Jnder his minor son .660-1697. Charles XI., the 1660. Peace of Oliva (monastery near Danzig) was con- cluded with Poland. John Casimir abandoned his claims upon the throne of Sweden, aJ srell as upon Livonia and Esthonia. Restoration of the duke of Cur- and. The sovereignty of Prussia ratified by Sweden and Poland. This was followed immediately by the Peace of Copenhagen with Denmark, which surrendered forever he southern part of the Scandinavian penmsula, which had been ' eded already by the peace of Roeskild, but retained Drontheim and 3ornholm. Peace between Sweden and Russia at Kardis (1661) ; reciprocal urrender of conquests. 374 Modern History, A. d War between Sweden, as the ally of France, and Brandenburg battle of Fehrbellin, p. 368; peace of St. Germain-en-Laye, p. 368. {See pp. 39 J/., ^09.) Denmark. {Seep. 352:\ Immediately after the peace (1660) the third estate (burghers), im patient of the rule of the nobility, and the clergy, conferred upon thj king, Frederic III. (1648-1670), an absolutely uncontrolled authority Lex Regia. In the same way the Swedish estates, weary of the over-great powe of the royal council, conferred almost unlimited power upon kinj Charles XI., who was now of age. (See p. ^09^ Poland. {Seep. 852 1 In Poland, on the contrary, the royal power had become a men shadow at this period, and the state was, in fact, a republic of noble* The diet, composed of the senate (bishops, woiwods, castellanes), an. the elected representatives from the country (representatives of tb nobility) exercised every function of government. The liberum vete that is, the right of each individual member of the diet to defeat resolution by his protest, and thus to break up the diet, led to briberj violence, and, in the end, to absolute anarchy. After the abdicatio* of John Casimir (1668), there followed a bloody contest for the thronei then John Sobieski (1674-1696), the liberator of Vienna (p. 372), an: finally Augustus II. of Saxony (1697-1733), under whom the war witi the Turks was ended by the Peace of Carlowitz (p. 372). {See pp. 397, 410^ Russia. iSee p. 3d3> I Under the house of Romanow Russia developed in strength an influence. The son of the founder of the dynasty, Alexis, reconquere Little (White) Russia from Poland, and began to introduce Europea civilization into Russia. After the death of his eldest son, Feod( (1682), his brothers, Ivan and Peter (son of the Czar's second wifi Natalia Narischkin), proclaimed Czars under the guardianship of thei elder sister, Sophia, by the Strelitzes, the noble body-guard of tK emperor. Peter in Preobaschensk, under the guidance of Lefort^ Swiss. Playing soldiers : origin of the later guard. His half-sistej Sophia, endeavored to exclude him from the throne, but was sent i a cloister by Peter (1689). 1689-1725. Peter I., the Great, reigned as sole monarch, his weak minded brother, Ivan, coi tinuing until his death (1696) without the least authority. Peter began his reforms with the assistance of Gordon, a Scot, au^ Lefort. Conquest of Azoff (1696). After cruelly punishing a revir of the Strelitzes, Peter undertook h\Q first journey (1697-1698), for h instruction, through Germany to Holland, where he worked as a ship carpenter in Saardam {Zaandam), and afterwards to England (ei gagement of foreign artisans, artists, and military officers). Pet<' intended to visit Italy, but was recalled by a new revolt of tl k. D. England. 375 rtrelitzes (1698). Bloody punishment ; dissolution of the Strelitzes, rho were replaced by an army after the European pattern (1699). II 699. Peace with the Turks at Carlowitz. Acquisition of Azoff. {See pp. b94, 410.) §5. ENGLAND. {Seep. 351.) 649-1660. England a republic; the Commonwealth. The government was actually in the hands of the army of inde- pendents under Oliver Cromwell (b. at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599, where he met prince Charles, 1603 ; admitted to Sidney-Sussex College, 1616 ; death of his father, 1617 ; mar- ried Elizabeth Bourchier, 1620 ; M. P. for Huntingdon, 1628 ; his first speech, Feb. 1629 ; removed to St. Ives, 1631 ; re- moved to Ely, 1636 ; afiPair of Bedford-Level, 1638 ; M, P. for Cambridge, 1640 ; removed to London ; resided at the Cock- pit [Westminster], 1650 ; at Whitehall, 1654 ; died Sept. 3, 1658. Children : Oliver, Richard, b. 1626 ; abdicated May 25, 1659 ; died, 1712 ; Henry, b. 1628 ; Bridget, married Ireton, 1646 [Fleetwood, 1651] ; Elizabeth, married Mr. Claypole ; died, 1658 ; Frances, married Richard Rich, grandson of War- wick, 1657; Mary, married lord i^awconfter^), but theoretically the legislative department was in the hands of the Rump par- liament, consisting of some fifty members of the commons (in- dependents), while the executive was entrusted to a council of state numbering forty-one members (three judges, three mili- tary commanders, five peers, thirty members of the commons). Abolition of the title and office of king, and of the house of lords. Charles II. proclaimed in Edinburgh (Feb. 5). New great seal. Using in Ireland in favor of Charles IL, under the marquis of )rmond. Expedition of Cromwell to Ireland (Aug. 15). 649, Sept. 12. Storm of Drogheda ; massacre of the garrison, followed by the storm and massacre of Wexford. Cromwell returned to London, May, 1650, leaving Ireton in Ireland. The "rebellion" was not thoroughly put down until 1652, when three out of four provinces were confiscated. i650. Montrose landed in Scotland, was defeated at Corbiesdale (April 27), betrayed, captured, and executed at Edinburgh May 21. 'une 24. Charles II. landed in Scotland, and after taking the cov- enant, was proclaimed king. Cromioell appointed captain-general in place of Fairfax. He led 16,000 men to Scotland, and totally defeated the Scots under Leslie at the lept. 3. Battle of Dunbar. Surrender of Edinburgh and Glasgow. 651, Jan. 1. Charles IL was crowned at Scone and marched into , England (July) at the head of the Scotch army while Crom- well took Perth (Aug. 2). The latter followed the king, and at the VSept. 3. Battle of Worcester totally defeated the royalists. Charles in disguise escaped to France. 376 Modern History. A. D. 1651, Oct. 9. First navigation act, forbidding the importation of goods into England except in English vessels (but goods might be conveyed to England in vessels belonging to the country producing the goods). This measure was aimed at the Dutch, and resulted in the 1652, July 8-1654, April 5. Dutch War. Naval actions in the Chamiel ; English commanders, BlaJcCf'. Monk ; Dutch, Van Tromp, De Ruyter. English victory in the i Downs before the declaration of war. May. Defeat of Van^ Tromp and De Ruyter, Sept. 28 ; defeat of Blake, Nov. ; de-l feat of Van Tromp off Portland, Feb. 18, 1653 ; off the North I Foreland, June 2, 3. Death of Ireton (Nov. 1651). Between the army and the Rump there had been growing contention ( since the death of Charles I. A new parliament was desirable, but the members of the Rump wished to retain their seats in any new parliament. The negotiations for ransom of confiscated royalist i estates led to bribery of members. 1652, Feb. Act of indemnity and oblivion. Aug. First act of settlement for Ireland. 1653, April 20. Cromwell turned out the Rump and dissolved thei council of state. Establishment of a new council and worn-, {nation of July 4. A nevr parliament (" Barebone's parliament," also calledt the " Little parliament "), consisting of about 140 members.? July 31. Victory of Monk off the Texel ; death of Van TrompJ Sept. Second act of settlement for Ireland. Dec. 12. The Cromwellians in parliament resigned their powers to,( Cromwell ; an act subsequently approved by the majority. 1653, Dec.-1659, May. Protectorate. 1653, Dec. 16-1658, Sept. 3. Cromwell Lord Protector of thoi commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland. " The instrument of government," a written constitution. The executive power was vested in the lord protector, who was pro-i| vided with a council of twenty-one, which filled its own vacancies^ A standing army of 30,000 men established ; parliament was to be triennial, and to consist of 460 members, and when once summoned could not be dissolved inside of five months. Between sessions the protector and council could issue ordinances with the force of laws, but parliament alone could grant supplies and levy taxes. 1654, April 5. Peace with the Dutch. Sept. 3. New parliament. As the course of the assembly did not suit the protector, he ordered an exclusion of members (Sept.| 12). After voting that the office of protector should be eleo-^ tive instead of hereditary the 1655, Jan. 22. Parliament was dissolved. April. Blake chastised the deys of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli. March-May. Rising of Penruddock at Salisbury suppressed. Execu- tion of Penruddock. England divided into twelve military districts, each under a .. D. England, STJ major-general, with a force supported by a tax of ten per cent, on royalist estates. lay. Penn and Venables, sent to make reprisals in the Spanish West Indies, captured Jamaica. 655, Oct. Pacijication of Pinerolo concluded with France. The duke of Savoy to stop the persecution of the Vaudois. Charles to be expelled from France. ^o\. Anglican clergymen forbidden to teach or preach. Priests ordered out of the kingdom. Censorship of the press. 656-1659. War with Spain. lept. 9. Capture of Spanish treasure ships off Cadiz. 6oG, Sept. 17-1658, Feb. 4. Cromwell's third parliament. I Another exclusion of members. :)ct. Reduction of the power of the major-generals. '657, Jan. Plot against the protector (" KilSng no Murder "). Pun- I ishment of Nayler. larch-May. Humble petition and advice altering the constitu- tion, adopted by parliament. Establishment of a second house ; the council of state reduced in power ; the protector deprived of the right of excluding members ; fixed supply for the army and navy ; toleration of all Christians except Episcopalians and Roman Catholics. The title of king was offered to Cromwell but rejected by him (May 8). Lpril 20. Victory of Blake off Santa Cruz. Death of Blake, Aug. 17. ,une 26. Second inauguration of Cromwell. 658, Jan. 20. New session of parliament, including "the other house." eb. 4. Dissolution of Cromwell's last parliament. lay. Siege of Dunkirk by the English and French. A Spanish force advancing to the relief of the town was defeated in the une 4. Battle of the Dunes, which was followed by the surrender of Dunkirk (June 17). In the peace of the Pyrenees (1659, p. 366), England received this town. Jept. 3. Death of Oliver Cromwell. 658, Sept. 3-1659, May 25. Richard Cromwell lord pro- tector. 659, Jan. 27. A new parliament met, and was soon involved in a dispute with the army, which induced Richard to Lpril 22. Dissolve the parliament ("Humble representation and advice of the officers"). lay 7. The Rump parliament reassembled under Lenthall as speaker. lay 25. Richard Cromwell resigned the protectorate. Lug. Insurrection of Booth crushed at Winnington Bridge (Lam- bert). i)ct. 13. Expulsion of the Rump by the army (Lambert). Appoint- ment of a military committee of safety. This assertion of authority did not meet with approval even within the army. )ec. 26. Restoration of the Rump. Monk, who was in Scotland, i led his army to London and assumed control of affairs (Feb- 3, 1660). Monk captain-general. 378 Modern History, A. d. 1660, Feb. 21. Restoration of members excluded in 1648. Re-estab- lishment of the Long Parliament. March 16. Final dissolution of the Long Parliament. ^ 1660, Apr. 14. Declaration of Breda. Charles proclaimed am- nesty to all not especially excepted by parliament, promised . liberty of religious belief, and the settlement of confiscated estates in the hands of the possessors. 1660, Apr. 25-Dec. 29. Convention Parliament ; chosen without restrictions and numbering 556 members. The parliament re- ' ceived the declaration of Breda favorably and returned a loyal answer to the king (May 1). May 8. Charles proclaimed king ; on May 29 he entered London. 1660-1685. Charles II., extravagant, dissipated, careless of the duties of his position, i Charles's restoration was hailed by an outburst of loyalty which en- 1 abled him to neglect many of the promises of the declaration of Breda. i The king's brother, James, duke of York, appointed lord high admiral, and warden of the Cinque ports ; Monk captain-general ; Sir Edward' Hyde (earl of Clarendon) chancellor and prime mmister. Abolition of the feudal rights of knight service, worship, and purvey^ ance in consideration of a yearly income for the king of £1,200,000.1 Restoration of the bishops to their sees and to parliament. Act ofin^: demnity for all political offenses committed between Jan. 1, 1637, audi June 24, 1660 ; the regicides were excepted from this act. All actsj of the long parliament to which Charles I. had assented were declared: in force. The army was disbanded (Oct.), excepting some 5,000( men. Declaration for the settlement of Ireland. 1660, Dec. 29. Dissolution of the Convention parliament. 1661, Jan. Rising of the fifth monarchy men in London (Venner). Bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw, disinterred and treatedi with indignity Royalist parliament in Scotland. Abolition of the Covenant.! Repeal of all enactments of preceding parliaments for the last twenty-eight years. Apr.-July. Savoy Conference of Episcopalians and Presbyterians. Apr. 23. Coronation of Charles II. 1661, May 8-1679, Jan. 24. New parliament. " Cavalier " or " pen-i sion " parliament. Solenm league and covenant burnt. 1661, May 27. Execution of Argyle in Scotland. 1 Recapitulation of the history of the Long Parliament : — 1640, Nov. 3. First assembled. 1648, Dec. 6, 7. Pride's Purge. The Rump. 1653, April 20. The Rump turned out by Cromwell. 1659, May 7. The Rump restored. 1659, Oct. 13. The Rump expelled by the army. 1659, Dec. 26. The Rump restored. 1660, Feb. 21. Members excluded by Pride's Purge, restored. 1660, March 16. The parliament dissolved. A. D. England. 379 Nov. 20. Corporation act : all magistrates and municipal officers obliged to take the sacrament according to the Church of Eng- land, to abjure the covenant, and to take an oath declarmg it illegal to bear arms against the king. James Sharpe, created archbishop of St. Andrews, attempted to introduce episcopacy in Scotland. 1662, May 20. Marriage of Charles II. with Catherine of Braganza, daughter of John IV. of Portugal. A-ug. 24. The act of uniformity (adopted May 19), went into oper- ation. All clergymen, fellows, and schoolmasters were required to assent to everything in the book of common prayer. Nearly 2,000 (?) non-conformists lost their livings (dissenters). Declaration of indulgence promised. 1662, June 14. Execution of Sir Henry Vane. Nov. Sale of Dunkirk to France for £400,000. Act of settlement for Ireland. 1663, An insurrection of fifth monarchy men in the north was fol- lowed by the passage of the 1664, May. Conventicle act, forbidding the meeting of more than five persons for religious worship, except in the household, or in accordance with the established church. Repeal of the triemiial act (1641). Aug. Capture of New Amsterdam in America. 1665, Feb. 22-1667, July 21. War with Holland. 1665, April. The plague in London. June 3. Naval victory of Lowestoft over the Dutch. Oct. The five mile act : all who had not subscribed to the act of uniformity were ordered to take the oath of non-resistance, to swear never to undertake any alteration in church or state ; and those who refused were prohibited from coming within five miles of any incorporated town, or of any place where they had been settled as ministers. 1666, Jan. 16-1667, July 21. War with France. June 1-4. Defeat of Albemarle (Monk) by the Dutch (De Ruyter^ De Witt) off the North Foreland. Defeat of the Dutch, July 25. 5ept. 2. Great Fire of London ; lasting over a week and burning a region of 450 acres. The Monument. St. Paul's rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. Nov. 28. Battle of Pentland Hills in Scotland. Defeat of the Cov- enanters, who had revolted under their persecutions, by Dalziel. 1667, June. The Dutch fleet burnt Sheerness, entered the Medway, and sailed to within twenty miles of London. Fuly 21. Treaties of Breda between England, Holland, France, Denmark. England received from France, Antigua, Mont- serrat, English St. Christopher^s ; France received Acadia. England and Holland adopted the status quo of May 20, 1667; England retaining New Amsterdam, and Holland, Surinam. It was agreed that goods brought down the Rhine might be trans- ported to England in Dutch vessels. iug. Fall of Clarendon, on whom the most unpopular acts of tho 380 Modern History, A. d. government were fathered ; he was deprived of the great seal, impeached, and banished for life (died at Rouen, 1674). The chief officers of state, whose councils determined the course of government, began in this reign to be looked upon as a distinct (uncon- stitutional) council, although they did not, for some time to come, stand and fall together. Accession of a new ministry called the " Cabal " ^ (Clifford^ Arling^ ton, Buckingham, Ashley, Lauderdale). 1668, Jan. 13. The triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden negotiated by Sir William Temple and John De Witt as a check upon the aggressions of Louis XIV. (p. 367). 1670, May 22. Secret treaty of Dover between Charles II. and Louis XIV. negotiated by Charles's sister, Henrietta, duchess of Orleans. Charles agreed that he and the duke of York would openly join the Church of Rome as soon as expedient, that he would support Louis in his wars with Spain and Holland. Louis promised Charles £200,000 a year while the war lasted, and the assistance of 6,000 men in case of an insurrection. Louise la Querouaille, Charles's mistress, created duchess of Portsmouth. The duke of York at once professed his be- lief in Rome. 1670. Second Conventicle act, more stringent than the first. 1672. Charles being in want of money closed the exchequer, thus seiz- ing £1,200,000 which had been advanced to the government by bankers. A general panic followed. 1672, March. Declaration of indulgence ; under the pretense of lightening the burden on non-conformists, the proclamation really aimed at securing toleration for papists. Parliament compelled the king to withdraw the indulgence in 1673. 1672, March 17-1674, Feb. 9. War with Holland. Invasion of Holland by Louis XIV. Revolution in the Nether- lands. Murder of John and Cornelius De Witt. "William of Orange stadtholder. May 28. English naval victory at Southwold Bay. Nov. Shaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), lord chancellor. 1673, March. Test act. All persons holding office under government were compelled to take the oaths of allegiance and of supremacy, to abjure tran- substantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the estab- lished church. The duke of York, Shaftesbury, lord Clifford, resigned office, being superseded by prince Rupert, Sir Thomas Osborne (earl of Danby, viscount Latimer, marquis of Carmarthen, duke of Leeds), and Sir Heneage Finch (earl of Nottmgham). BuckH ingham out of office. Nov. 21. Marriage of the duke of York with Mary d'Este, princess of Modena. 1674, Feb. 9. Treaty of "Westminster. End of the Dutch-Eng< lish war. 1 This word did not originate from the initials of the ministers, although thl coincidence of their happening to spell the word gave a zest to its applicatiou. A. D. England, 381 1677, Nov. 4. Marriage of Mary, daughter of the duke of York, with William of Orange (afterwards William III.). Treaty with Holland ; secret treaty with France. Abolition of the writ de hcErefico comburendo. Aug. 10. Peace of Nimeguen. 1678, Sept. The Popish Plot. This famous scare began with the information given by Titus Oates, concerning an alleged plot for the murder of Charles and the establishment of Roman Catholicism in England, devised by Don John of Austria, and the father confessor of Louis XIV., Pere la Chaise. Death of Sir Edmondhury Godfrey. Upon the meeting of parliament five Catholic lords (Powys, Bellasis, Stafford, Petre, Arundel) were sent to the Tower. Conviction and execution of Colemariy confessor of the duchess of York. Bedloe swore to the plot, moved by the favors showered on Oates. Passage of the " papists disabling act (repealed 1828) excluding Roman Catholics from parliament. Dec. Impeachment of Danby, on a charge of criminal correspond- ence with France. 1679, Jan. 24. Dissolution of the "Pensioned" Parliament. Danby dismissed from the office of lord high treasurer. The duke of York left the kingdom after procuring from Charles I a statement that he had never had any other than his present •\ wife (this to dispose of the claims of the duke of Momnouth, natural son of Charles and Lucy Walters). J1679, March 6-1679, May 27. Third Parliament of Charles II. I The impeachment of Danby was resumed ; and he was com- mitted to the Tower, where he lay until 1685. Adoption of the council of thirty, in accordance with the scheme of j government sketched by Sir William Temple. Being found cumber- isome in practice it was soon superseded by a new cabinet council, com- posed of Sir William Temple ; Savile, viscount Halifax ; Capel, earl of Essex ; Spencer, earl of Sunderland ; Shaftesbury, president, afterwards in opposition. Introduction of a bill to prevent the duke of York from succeeding to the crown, he being a Roman Catholic. (" Exclusion bill " passed to a second reading in the commons, 207 to 128.) 1679, May. The habeas corpus act signed by the king : judges were obliged, on application, to issue to any prisoner a writ of habeas corpus, directing the jailer to produce the body of the prisoner, and show cause for his imprisonment ; prisoners should be indicted in the first term of their commitment, and tried not later than the second ; no person once set free by order of the court could be again imprisoned for the same offense. May 27. Prorogation of parliament (dissolved in July). May-June. Covenanters in Scotland cruelly persecuted by Lauder- dale. Murder of archbishop Sharpe, May 3, 1679. Defeat of Claverhouse by the Covenanters, under Balfour, at Drumclog, June 1. June 22. Battle of Both-well-Brigg ; defeat of the Covenanters by the duke of Monmouth. Cruelties of the duke of York in Scotland. 382 Modern History. A. d. Oct. 7. The fourth parliament of Charles II., prorogued immediately upon its meeting without the advice of the council : Sir W. Temple, Essex, and Halifax resigned, and were succeeded by Sidney Godolphin, earl of Godolphin, and Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester (son of Clarendon). " Meal tub plot," an alleged papist conspiracy against the king, disclosed by Dangerfield. (Papers in a tub of meal.) Meeting of parliament demanded by the opposition (^Shaftesbury'). Petitions sent up, asking that parliament be called. The court party retorted by sending addresses expressive of their abhor- rence at this interference with the king. Hence Petitioners (the opposition) and Abhorrers (the government), afterwards Whigs and Tories. ( Whig, name of a Scotch, Tory, of an Irish faction.) 1680, Oct. 21-1681, Jan. 18. Fourth parliament of Charles II. The exclusion bill, passed by the commons, was thrown out in the lords by the influence of Halifax. 1681, March 21-28. Fifth parliament of Charles II., at Oxford. A new exclusion bill being mtroduced, parliament was dis- solved, March 28. July-Aug. Execution of Plunkett, archbishop of Armagh, for high treason (July 1); of College (Aug. 31). Nov. Shaftesbury, accused of high treason, committed to the Tower. The bill being ignored by the grand jury he escaped to Hol- land (died 1683). Continued persecution of the Covenanters, Conventiclers, and Came- ronians (so called after a popular preacher, f July 20, 1680), in Scot- land. Passage of a test act against the Presbyterians, which, however, also caused the resignation of some eighty Episcopal clergymen. Trial and condemnation of the earl of Argyle (Dec); his flight. 1682, William of Orange in England. The duke of York, accom- panied by John Churchill (b. 1650, served under Turenne in France ; general under James II. ; married Sarah Jennings ; baron Churchill, 1685 ; earl of Marlborough, 1689 ; duke of Marlborough, 1702 ; died, June 16, 1722), shipwrecked on the voyage to Scotland. Monmouth made a progress in the north- west counties, and was arrested and held to bail. Dec. Death of the earl of Nottingham (Finch) ; Sir Francis North made lord keeper. Sunderland, secretary of state (Jan. 1683). 1683, June. Judgment given against the city of London on a quo warranto; forfeiture of the charter, which was ransomed. This process was successfully repeated with other corporations. Confederacy of Monmouth, Essex, Russell, Gray, Howard, Sidney^ Hampden, for securing a change in the proceedings of the gov- ernment. This was supplemented by a plot of a different set of persons for the assassination of the king, known as the Rye House plot, from the place where the king was to be shot. Both plots were revealed. Suicide of Essex, execution of Russell and Sidney ; Monmouth was pardoned, and retired to Holland. Sept. Jeffreys^ lord chief justice of the king's bench. The duke of A.. D. England, 883 York was reinstated in office. Danhy liberated ; Oates fined (1684). 1685, Feb. 6. Death of Charles II., who accepted Roman Catholi- cism on his death-bed. 1685-1688. James II., a cruel, revengeful, deceitful despot. He was twice married : 1. Anne Hyde, daughter of lord Clarendon (daughters, Mary, mar- ried William of Orange ; Anne, married George of Denmark). 2. Mary d'Este (son, James Edward). Halifax, president of the council ; Sunderland, secretary of state ; Godolph'm, chamberlain of the queen, Clarendon, lord privy seal, Rochester, treasurer. 1685, May 19-1687, July 2. Parliament of James II. Trial and condemnation of Richard Baxter. Danhy and the popish lords discharged. May. Trial of Oates and Dangerfield, who were sentenced to be whipped. {Dangerfield died from the punishment.) 1685. Expedition of Monmouth and Argyle. May. Argyle landed in Scotland, where he was coldly received ; June 17 he was captured, and executed June 30. June 11. Landing of Monmouth in Dorsetshire. He proclaimed himself king, as James II. Gathering a force of some 60,000 men he was defeated in the July 6. Battle of Sedgemoor (the last battle in England). July 15. Execution of Monmouth on Tower Hill. " Kirke's Lambs" quartered on the people in the western counties. Jeffreys sent on a circuit in the west to try the rebels and those who had aided them. " The Bloody Assizes " (Lady Alice Lisle). Jeffreys made lord chancellor. Halifax dismissed from the presidency of the council and super- seded by the earl of Sunderland (who became a Roman Catholic). Parliament met Nov. 9, but as they would not repeal the last act they were prorogued Nov. 27. Arrival of many refugees from France after the revocation of tho Edict of Nantes. 1686, June. Sir Edward Hales, a papist, appointed to office by James under a dispensation. In a suit brought to test the legality of the act judgment was procured in the king's favor, by the appointment of judges favorable to the court. Catholic worship allowed. Protestant clergymen forbidden to preach doctrinal sermons. Compton, bishop of London, refused to remove the rector of St. Giles who had disobeyed this order. He was therefore tried before a 1686, July. New court of ecclesiastical commission and sus- pended. Camp of 13,000 men at Hounslow Heath. Rochester dis- missed from office. 1687. Clarendon superseded by Tyrconnel (Richard Talbot) as lord lieutenant of Ireland. The fellows of Magdalen College having refused to accept Farmer, a papist, whom the king had ap- 884 Modem History. A. D. pointed president, were expelled from their college. This was only a part of the attempt made by the king to secure the universities. April. First declaration of liberty of conscience published by the king in England and Scotland, granting liberty of con- science to all denominations. July. Parliament dissolved. Father Petre, the king's confessor and chief adviser, admitted to the privy council. 1688, April 25. Second declaration for liberty of conscience ordered to be read in all churches. Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, and bishops Ken, Lake, Lloyd, Turner, Trelawney, White, were committed to the Tower for having petitioned the king not to insist on their reading an illegal order. June 10. Birth of a prince. June 29, 30. Trial of the bishops for having published a false, malicious, and seditious libel. The bishops were acquitted, a verdict which was received with wild enthusiasm throughout the country. On the same day an invitation was dispatched to William of Orange to save England from a Catholic tyranny ; it was signed by the " Seven eminent persons " or " seven patriots," the earl of Dev- onshire, earl of Shrevjsbury, earl of Danhy, Compton (bishop of London), Henry Sidney, lord Lurrdey, admiral Russell. James declared his intention to call a parliament. Last meet- ing of the ecclesiastical commission. Sept. 30. Declaration of William to the people of England, ac- cepting the invitation for the purpose of securing the religious and civil rights of Englishmen. Doubts thrown on the birth of the prince. William's army was under Schomherg, his fleet was under admiral Herbert. James's land force was led by Feversham, while Dartmouth commanded the fleet. The declaration frightened James ; he endeavored to retrace his steps and dismissed Sunderland from the council. William sailed from Helvoetsluys Oct. 19, with 14,000 men, but was driven back by a gale. Starting again Nov. 1, 1688, Nov. 5. William landed at Torbay. Risings occurred in various parts of the kingdom, and William was joined by the duke of Grafton and lord Churchill (Nov. 22). Princess Anne fled from London in company with lady Churchill. James is- sued writs for a new parliament and sent commissioners to treat with William. Dec. 10. Queen and prince sent to France. Dec. 11. Flight of James, who tore up the unissued writs for par- liament and took with him the great seal, which he threw into the Thames. 1688, Dec. 11-1689, Feb. 13. Interregnum. Riots in London. Flight of Sunderland and Father Petre j cap- ture of Jeffreys (f in the Tower April 18, 1689). X. D. England, 385 Dec. 12. Provisional government under the presidency of Halifax, established by the peers in London. Dec. 17. James, who had been stopped at Sheemess, was brought back to London. Dec. 18. James retired to Rochester. Dec. 19. William entered London. Dec. 22. James escaped to France, where he received a pension from Louis XIV. 1689, Jan. 22-1690, Jan. 27. Convention parliament, summoned by the advice of the peers. On Jan. 28 the commons declared : " That king James XL having endeavored to subvert the constitution of the kingdom by breaking the original contract between king and people, and by the advice of Jesuits and other wicked persons having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn hunself out of the kingdom, has abdi- cated the government, and that the throne is vacant." Also : " That it hath been found by experience to be inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant kingdom to be governed by a popish prince." The lords objected to the use of the word " abdicated," and to the declaration of the " vacancy " of the throne, but an agreement being reached in a conference of the two houses, the crown was offered to Mary and the regency to William ; this being refused, 1689, Feb. 13. Parliament offered the crown to William and Mary jointly, accompanying the offer by the presentation of the Declaration of rights, asserting the " true, ancient, and indubitable rights of the people of this realm." 1. That the making or suspend- ing law without consent of parliament is illegal. 2. That the exercise of the dispensing power is illegal. 3. That the ecclesiastical commis- sion court and other such like courts are illegal. 4. That levying money without consent of parliament is illegal. 5. That it is lawful to petition the sovereign. 6. That the maintenance of a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal. 7. That it is law- ful to keep arms. 8. That elections of members of parliament must be free. 9. That there must be freedom of debate in parliament. 10. That excessive bail should never be demanded. 11. That juries should be impaneled and returned in every trial. 12. That grants of estates as forfeited before conviction of the offender are illegal. 13. That parliament should be held frequently. " William and Mary were declared king and queen of England for life, the chief adminis- tration resting with William ; the crown was next settled on William's children by Mary ; in default of such issue, on the princess Anne of Denmark and her children ; and in default of these, on the children of William by any other wife." The crown was accepted by William and Mary, who were on the same day proclaimed king and queen of Great Britain, Ireland, and France. 1689-1702. William III. and Mary (until 1694). Privy councillors : earl of Danhy (marquis of Carmarthen), presi- dent ; Nottingham^ Shrewsbury, secretaries of state ; marquis of Halifaxj privy seal ; Schomberg (duke of Schomberg) master-general 386 Modem History. a. d. of ordnance ; Bentinck (earl of Portland)^ privy purse and groom of the stole. Burnet, bishop of Salisbury, author of " History of my own Times." Feb. 22. Convention parliament transformed by act into a regular parliament. Settlement of the coronation oath. March 1. Oaths of allegiance and supremacy taken by the houses, the clergy, etc. A few peers, some members of the lower house refused them. Six bishops and about 400 clergy- men were finally (1691) deprived of their holdings for refus- ing to take the oaths, and became known as non-jurors. March 14. Landing of James at Kinsale in Ireland ; joined by Tyr- connel ; entered Dublin March 24. Irish parliament, May 7. Meeting of the estates of Scotland. Reversal of RusselVs attainders (later of Sidney^ s). First mutiny act to punish defection in the army ; this act, which was necessitated by the declaration of rights, was made for a year only, and was henceforward passed annually. April 11. Coronation of William and Mary. William and Mary were offered and accepted the crown of Scotland. April 20-July 30. Siege of Londonderry by James (Walker); raised by Kirke. 1689, May 7-1697, Sept. 20. War with France (p. 361). May 24. Toleration act exempting dissenters (who had taken the oaths of allegiance and supremacy) from penalties for non-at- tendance on the services of the established church. Titus Gates pardoned and pensioned. July. Episcopacy abolished in Scotland. Graham of Claverhouse, now viscount Dundee, enlisted High- landers and raised the standard for James. At the July 17. Battle of Killiecrankie he defeated general Mackay, but fell on the field. July 30. Battle of Newtown Butler in Ireland ; defeat of the Catho- lics. Schomberg in Ireland. In voting supplies parliament assumed as a right the practice which had grown up during the reign of Charles II. of requiring estimates and accounts of supplies needed and used, and intro- duced the system of passing appropriations for specified objects from which they could not be diverted. 1689. Dec. 16. Bill of Rights, a parliamentary enactment of the declaration of rights, repeat- ing the provisions of that paper, settling the succession as de- tailed (p. 385), and enacting that no papist could w^ear the crown. 1690, Feb. 6. Dissolution of parliament. 1690, March 20-1695, May 3. Second parliament of William III. Tories in the majority. Act of recognition, affirming the legality of the acts of the convention parliament. Settlement of the civil list. William was offended at not receiving so large an income as had been granted either to Charles U. or James II. , i. D. England. 387 < 1690, May 20. Act of Grace, giving indemnity to all supporters of James II., except those who were in treasonable corres- pondence with him. Resignation of Shrewsbury and Halifax. May 23. Prorogation of parliament. Appointment of a council of nine to advise Mary during the king's absence (four Whigs, five Tories). lime 14. William went to Ireland. With 36,000 men he met James at the head of 27,000, and at the fuly 1. Battle of the Boyne totally defeated him. Death of Schomherg. James fled to France. Capture of Dublin, Waterford, etc. Tune 30. Battle of Beachy Head ; defeat of the English fleet under lord Torrington by the French. Torrington was tried by court martial and acquitted, but dismissed the service. A.ug. First siege of Limerick by William repulsed (Sarsjield). Marlborough in Ireland. Capture of Cork and Kinsale. L691. William went to Holland. Congress at the Hague. Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury. July 12. Battle of Aughrim, in Ireland. (Defeat of the French general St. Ruth and the Irish Sarsjield, by Ginkell (death of St. Ruth). Death of Tyrconnel. , A.ug.-Oct. Second siege of Limerick ; the town surrendered Oct. 3, under the conditions known as the Oct. 3. Treaty, or pacification, of Limerick. Free transportation of all Irish officers and soldiers desiring it to France. ( The Irish Brigade.) All Irish Catholics to have that religious lib- erty which they had under Charles II. ; to carry arms, exer- cise their professions, and receive full amnesty. The English parliament confirmed the treaty, but the Irish par- liament which met 1695 (consisting entirely of Protestants) refused to ratify it. Enactment of severe laws against the Catholics. 1692, Jan. 10. Marlborough detected in correspondence with James, and disgraced. 1692, Feb. 13. Massacre of Glencoe. Indemnity and pardon having been offered to all Highland clans who took the oath of allegiance before Dec. 31, 1G91, that condition was fulfilled by all except the MacDonalds of Glencoe. The chief, Mac Ian, however, took the oath on Jan. 6. This fact was suppressed by the foe of the MacDonalds, Dalrymple, secretary of Scotland, and W^illiam III. signed an order for the extirpation of the clan. It was faithfully exe- cuted by captain Campbell ; Mac Ian, and some forty others were slain. May 19. English victory of La Hogue ; Russell and Tourville. July 24. Defeat of William at Steinkirk. The "Junto" ministry of Whigs ; Somers, lord keeper; Russell, Shrewsbury, Thomas Wharton, secretaries of state ; Montague, chan- cellor of the exchequer. Sunderland returned to parliament. 1693, Jan. Beginning of the national debt. £1,000,000 borrowed on annuities at 10 per cent. 888 Modern History. a. d. 1693, July 19. Defeat of William at Neerwinden (Landen). 1694, July 27. Charter of the Governor and company of the Bank of England, a company of merchants who in return for certain privileges loaned the government £1,200,000. Bill for preventing officers of the crown from sitting in the commons (Place Bill). Unsuccessful attack on Brest. (Treachery of Marlborough f) Dec. 22. The triennial bill signed by the king. Dec. 28. Death of queen Mary. Bribery in the parliament ; expulsion of the speaker of the commons. Sir John Trevor. Expiration of the licensing act, which was not renewed ; hence abolition of the censorship of the press. 1695, July 2-Sept. 2. William recaptured Namur. Oct. 11. Dissolution of parliament. 1695, Nov. 22-1698, July 5. Third parliament of William HI. (first triennial parliament). Whigs in majority. Recoinage act. Isaac Neioton master of the mint. 1696, Trials for treason act; two witnesses required to prove an overt act of treason. Plot for the assassination of William, execution of conspirators. One of these, Fenwick, was condemned by bill of attainder, being the last person so condemned. Formation of a loycd association. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. Sunderland, lord chamberlain ; Somers, lord chancellor. 1697, Sept. 20. Peace of Ryswick (p. 371). Dec. Sunderland retired. William acknowledged by Louis XIV. 1698, Jan. Peter the Great of Russia in England. 1698. Spanish succession, see p. 390. 1698, Dec. 6-1700, Apr. 11. Fourth parliament of William HI. 1699^ Feb. Disbanding act, reducing the army to 7,000 men, exclusion of the foreign (Dutch) troops ; annoyance of William. Act for the resumption of forfeited Irish estates, aimed at Wil- liam's Dutch favorites ; the bill was fastened to a bill of supply. Act for preventing the growth of papacy ; all persons refusing to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy forfeited their estates for life. Catholic school-teachers and priests were liable to imprisonment for life (repealed 1778). 1700, March. Miserable end of Darien settlement (founded 1698). 1700, April. Somers dismissed from office. Bombardment of Co- penhagen by Rooke. July, Death of the duke of Gloucester, the last of Anne's children. 1701, Feb. 6-June 24. Fifth parliament of William III. Tories in the majority. Robert Harley, speaker. Portland^ Somers, Oxford (Russell), Halifa'X, impeached (April-June). Earl of Marlborough commander-in-chief of the English forces.- June 12, 1701. Act of settlement. The crown was settled on Sophia, princess of Hanoveri grand* I daughter of James I., and her issue. ' t. D. India. 389 The sovereigns of Great Britain should be Protestant and not leave he kingdom without consent of parliament ; the country should ot be involved in war for the defence of the foreign possessions of he sovereigns ; no foreigner should receive a grant from the crown, r hold office, civil or military ; ministers should be responsible for he acts of their sovereigns ; judges should hold office for life imless •uilty of misconduct. 701," Sept. 7. The grand alliance, p. 391. .ept. 16. Death of James II. James Edward proclaimed king of Great Britain and Ireland by Louis XIV. 701, Dec. 30-1702, July 2. Sixth parliament of William III. Attainder of the pretended prince of Wales. Oath of abjura- tion. 702, March 8. Death of William III. Chief authors of this period : Sir Thomas Browne (1605-1682) j oA/i Bunyan (1628-1688); Daniel Defoe (1661-1731); John Dryden, 1631-1700) ; Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon (1608-1674) ; John \ocle (1632-1704); John Milton (1608-1674); Isaac Newton (1643- 727). (Seep. 433.) § 6. INDIA. {See p. S54.) 658-1707. Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. The first years of Aurangzeb's reign were occupied in subdu- ig and putting to death his brothers. When freed from their ri- alry he took up the conquest of the Deccan. Bidar, Ahmednagar^ Zllichpur, he had conquered while his father reigned. For twenty- ve years his generals warred unsuccessfully against Bijdpur and Gol- onda, but when Aurangzeb placed himself at the head of his troops lose kingdoms quickly fell. Bijdpur and Golconda were annexed to le Mughal empire in 1688. It was not with the Muhammedan owers alone that Aurangzeb had to contend ; a new power, the Hin- u kingdom of the Mahrattas, had arisen in the Deccan. It was junded by a union of Hindu tribes of the Deccan under Sivaji 1(327-1680), son of a Mahratta soldier of fortune who had fought nder the Deccan kingdoms against the Mughals. Sivaji, by alter- atily levying tribute on the Deccan kingdoms and assisting them gainst the Mughals, raised the Mahratta confederacy to be the iling power in the Deccan. In 1664 he assumed the title of Raja, le carried on a war with Aurangzeb, who captured and killed liis )n Samhhaji (1680-1689), and imprisoned his grandson Sahu, until is own death, 1707. Aurangzeb, however, was far from subduing le confederacy, which had driven him almost to despair at the time of is death ; the emperor was not more successful in Assam (1662), nor gainst the revolted Rajput states in the west (1677-1681) where he ivaged Jaipur^ Jodhpur, and Uddipur without subduing them. Aurangzeb's total revenue amounted to eighty million pounds. 361. Bombay ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine j of Braganza, but it was not delivered until 1665. In 1668 it I was granted to the East India Company. 570. Foundation of the Danish East India Company. 381 Bengal separated from Madras. 390 Modem History, A. d. 1686. Foundation of Calcutta. ' 1687. Seat of western presidency transferred to Bombay {Seep.U2.)\ §7. CHINA. {See p. ado,) 1661-1721. Kang-he conquered Thibet and Formosa and carried on war with Russia (1684-1689). His reign was renowned for wise administration andi for the cultivation of science and literature. French and English set- tled at Canton. (5ee p. 444.) B. The eighteenth century to the French Revolution. § 1. WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION.i 1701-1714. {See pp. S32, 372.) The family relations which led to the war will be made cleaKi by the following genealogical table. j Philip III., king of Spain, t 1621. Anna, m. Philip IV. Maria Anna. Louis XIII. I m. Ferdinand III. Louis XIV. = Maria Theresa. Charles II. Margaret Theresa = Ijeopold L; I t 1700. I Louis the dauphin. Maria Antoinette, nw 1 Max. Emmanuel of i I Bavaria. Philip of Anjou, I as king of Spain, Philip V. Joseph Ferdinand. electoral prince of Bavaria. Leopold I. had, besides his daughter Maria Antoinette, two sons: by his second marriage, Joseph I., emperor from 1705-1711; by his third marriage, Charles VI., emperor from 1711-1740. Charles II., king of Spain, was childless ; the extinction of the Spanish house of Hapsburg in the near future was certain ; hence the question of the Spanish succession formed the chief occupation of all the European cabinets since the Peace of Ryswick. The question had two aspects: a. The legal, according to which there were three claim- ants: 1. Louis XIV., at once as son of the elder daughter of Philip III. and husband of the elder daughter of Philip IV. The solemn renun- ciations of both princesses were declared null and void by the parlia- ment of Paris. 2. Leopold I., the representative of the German line of Hapsburg, as son of the younger daughter of Philip III., and husband of the younger daughter of Philip IV. Both princesses had expressly reserved their right of inheritance. 3. The electoral prince of Ba- 1 Schlosser: Geschichte des 18 Jahrhunderts ; V. Ifoorden: Europaischi Gesch. im 18 Jahrhundert, vols. I. and II. .. D. War of the Spanish Succession, 391 'aria, as great-grandson of Philip IV., and grandson of the younger ister of the present possessor, Charles II. b. The political aspect with ogard to the balance of power in Europe ; in consideration of which he naval powers, England and Holland, would not permit the crown •f the great Spanish monarchy to be united with the French, or to )e worn by the ruler of the Austrian lands. On this account Leopold '.. claimed the Spanish inheritance for his second son Charles only, vhile Louis XIV.'s claim was urged in the name of his second grand- 011, Philip ofAnjou. l(3*J8. First treaty of partition. Jet. 11. Spain, Indies, and the Netherlands to the electoral prince of Bavaria; Naples and Sicily, seaports in Tuscany, and the prov- ince of Ouipuzcoa, to the dauphin ; the duchy of Milan, to arch- duke Charles. The negotiations of the powers in regard to the succession, and the i5onclusion of a treaty of partition without the participation of Charles tl., provoked that monarch. In order to preserve the unity of the monarchy he made the prince elector of Bavaria, then seven years old, sole heir of the whole inheri- tance ; a settlement to which the naval powers agreed. 1699 (Feb. 6). Sudden death of the prince elector. New intrigues of France (Harcourt ambassador. Cardinal Portocarrero) and Austria at Madrid, while both parties were negotiating a new treaty of partition with the naval powers. '1700. Second treaty of partition. Mar. 13. Spain and the Indies to archduke Charles ; Naples and Sicily j and the duchy of Lorraine to the dauphin ; Milan to the duke of Lorraine in exchange. Finally Charles IL, although originally more inclined to the Aus- trian succession, signed a new will, making Louis' grandson, Philip of Anjou, heir. Immediately afterwards 1700. Charles IL died. Nov. 1. Louis XIV. soon decided to follow the will rather than the treaty with England. The duke of Anjou was proclaimed as Philip v., and started for his new kingdom. (" II n'y a plus de Pyrenees") Death of James IL, 1701 ; Louis recognized his son as king of England. ,1701. Grand Alliance of the naval powers with the emperor Sept. 7. Leopold L, for the purpose, at first, of securing the Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and in Italy for the Austrian (house, while France allied herself with the dukes of Savoy and Man- itua, the electors of Bavaria and Cologne. The other estates of the empire, especially Prussia, joined the emperor. Portugal afterwards i'oined the grand alliance, and in 1703 Savoy did likewise, deserting Trance. Three men were at the head of the grand alliance against France : Eugene, prince of Savoy, imperial general; Marlborough, English general, formerly John Churchill; A. Heinsius, after the death of WiUiam III., 1702, pensionary of Holland. Spain, the real object of the war, had but little importance in the 392 Modern History, A. d. campaigns, the chief seat of war being Italyf the Netherlands^ and Germany. Philip of Anjou was recognized in Spain as king Philip V. His strongest support was in Castile. 1701. Commencement of the war by Eugene's invasion of Italy. Victory over Catinat at Carpi, over Villeroi at Chiari ; the lat- ter was captured at Cremona (1702). Eugene and Vendome fought a drawn battle at Luzzara (1702), after which the French had tlie advantage in Italy until 1706. 1702. March 8. Death of William III. Anne, queen of England. 1703. The Bavarians invaded Tyrol, but were repulsed. Eugene went to Germany, along the Rhine. Marlborough invaded the Spanish Netherlands. The archduke Charles landed m Portugal, and invaded Catalonia. The English captured Gibraltar (1704). 1703. Victory of the French under Villars at Hochstddt over the Ba- varians. 1704. Battle of Hochstadt and Blindheim (Blenheim), Aug. 13. (between Ulm and Donauworth), Bavarians and French i {Tallard) defeated by Eugene and Marlborough. 1705. Leopold I. died. His son, Joseph I., emperor. 1706. Charles conquered Madrid but held it for a short time only. 1706, May 23. Victory of Marlborough at Ramillies over Villeroi. Submission of Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Ostend, etc. Sept. 7. Victory of Eugene at Turin, over Marsin and the duke of Orleans with help of the PruS' • sians under Leopold of Dessau. Submission of all Lombardy. \ Charles III. proclaimed at Milan. The French permanently; excluded from Italy. 1708, July 11. Victory of Marlborough and Eugene at' Oudenarde over Vendome and the duke of Burgundy. Siege and surrender of Lille. Severe winter in France. Negotiations for peace. Demands of the allies : surrender of the Spanish monarchy to Charles of Austria, and of the border fortresses of the Netherlands to the Hollanders ; restoration of all matters re- lating to the empire and the emperor to the state prescribed in the peace of Westphalia, i. e. the cession of Strasburg, Brisach, etc. Eng- land insisted on the recognition of Anne and the Protestant succes- sion (p. 388) and the banishment of the Pretender. These terms Louis was willing to accept, but when the demand was added that he should drive his grandson from Spain with French weapons, it was too much. The negotiations were broken off, Louis made a successful appeal to the people of France, and the war was continued. 1709. The French were again humbled by the victory of Sept. 11. Eugene and Marlborough at Malplaquet over Villars. The bloodiest battle of the war. The allies lost 20,000 men. New approaches on the part of Louis. Capture of Douaiy Mons, etc. (1710). In Spain Philip, by the aid of Vendome, had the advantage of Charles. The Spanish people favored L. D. War of the Spanish Succession. 393 Philip. Renewal of the negotiations at Gertruydenhurg. Louis offered to pay subsidized troops against his grandson. The al- lies demanded that he should send his armies against Philip. Renewal of the war. Victories of Vendome over the English (Brihuega, 1710) and the imperialists (Valla-viciosa, in Spain). L710, Aug. Fall of the Whig ministry in England, and accession of the enemies of Marlborough. 1.711. Death of the Emperor Joseph, whereby Charles became heir of all the Austrian possessions, so that the monarchy of Dharles V. would have been restored had the Spanish inheritance iJso devolved upon him. These events completely altered all the political relations, in favor of Louis XIV. Marlborough removed from command, the Grand Alliance dis- 'jolved, preliminaries of peace between England and France. Death of the dauphin, of Adelaide of Savoy, her husband and their son, the duke of Brittany. 1712. Victory of the French commander ViUars at Denain over lord \ Albermarle. Recapture of Douai, Le Quesnoy, and Bouchain. Opening of the congress at Utrecht. Each of the allies pre- sented his demands separately. Dissensions between the allies caused the conclusion of separate treaties of peace, which are compre-i hended under the name of the 1713. Peace of Utrecht. April 11. 1. England: Recognitionof the Protestant succession in England; confirmation of the permanent separation of the crowns of France and Spain. France ceded to England Newfoundland, Nova Scotia (Acadia), and Hudson Bay territory; Spain ceded to England Gibraltar, the island of Minorca, and the Asiento, or contract for sup- Iplying the Spanish colonies with African slaves. 2. Holland : Surrender of the Spanish Netherlands to the republic of Holland, in order that they should be delivered to the Austrians, after the conclusion of a Barrier Treaty, in regard to the fortresses along the French border from Fumes to Namur, which were to be garrisoned by the Dutch. Lille restored to France. Demolition of the fortifications of Dunkirk. 3. Savoy received the island of Sicily as a kingdom, and an ad- vantageous change of boundary in Upper Italy, renounced its claims upon Spain, reserving, however, its right of inheritance in case the house of Bourbon should become extinct (p. 397). 4. Prussia received recognition of the royal title, and possession of Neuchatel and the upper quarter of Gueldres. Prussia's claim upon the principality of Orange on the Rhone, was transferred to France. 5. Portugal obtained a correction of boundaries in South America. Philip V. (founder of the Spanish branch of the Bourbons) was recognized as king of Spain and the colonies. Reservations in the peace: 1. for the emperor, the possession of the appanages of the Spanish monarchy, the Netherlands, Milan, Naples, Sardinia, but not Sicily ; 2. for the empire the status quo of the peace < of Ryswick, only. i 394 Modern History. . ^^^ A. d. The emperor and the empire continucHl ■ war. Unsuccessful,, campaign of Eugene, who was wretchedly supported (1713). Zan- |l dau and Freiburg taken by Villars. After these losses the emperor " concluded peace with France, in his own name at Rastadt, in that of the empire at Baden (in Switzerland). 1714. Peace of Rastadt and Baden. March -Sept. Austria took possession of the Spanish Netherlands, after the Barriere for Holland had been agreed upon, and retained Naples^ Sardinia, and Milan, which she had already occupied. For the empire: ratification of the peace of Ryswick ; the electors of Bavaria and Cologne who had been placed under the ban of the empire, were rein- stated in their lands and dignities. Landau was left in the hands of i France. No peace between Spain and the emperor, who did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain. (See p. 4H') § 2. THE NORTHERN WAR. 1700-1721. 1689-1725. Peter I. the Great, Czar of Russia (p. 374). 1697-1718. Charles XII., king of Sweden. , In character the two monarchs formed a strong contrast: both were* of unusual ability and power, but Peter, though passionate and of \ irregular life, was, in his political actions, governed by reason and calm i reflection. Charles, in his private life passionless and of rigid mor-; ality, was under the control of passion and senseless obstinacy in all \ public relations. The steady purpose of Peter, who civilized his sub-< jects by force, made Russia one of the great powers of Europe, J Charles' blind obstinacy caused the decline of Sweden's power. The causes of the northern war were : 1, the firm determination i of Peter to make Russia a naval power, and to get possession of the ' harbors of the Baltic ; 2, the attempt of Augustus II., elector of Sax- ony and king of Poland, to unite Livonia with Poland (Patkul) ; 3, the quarrel between Frederic IV., king of Denmark, and the duke of Hol- stein-Gottorp, the early friend and brother-in-law of Charles XII. The youthfulness of Charles, who had assumed the care of gov- erimient at the age of fifteen, led all three monarchs to think it an easy task to regain possession of those lands which Sweden had taken from them. Secret alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Saxony against Sweden. The war opened with an invasion of Schleswig by the Danes, while the Saxons attacked Livonia. Unexpected landing of Charles XII. in Zealand ; he threatened Copenhagen and extorted from the Danes the 1700 (Aug.). Peace of Travendal. 1. Indemnification of the duke of Holstein. 2. Denmark promised to abstain from hostilities against Sweden for the future. Meantime the Saxons were besieging Riga (in Livonia) in vain, . D. The Northern War, 395 .'bile Peter was besieg. .visiVarya (in Ingermannland) with like result. ,harles at Punitz (1704 Schulenburg's masterly retreat) and of his 'general Rhenskjold at Fraustadt (1706). Charles invaded Saxony .nd compelled Augustus to sign the '706. Peace of Altranstadt (near Leipzig). 1. Augustus II. abdicated the Polish crown, recognized Stanislaus lesczinski as king of Poland, and sent him a written expression of ;ood will. 2. Augustus abjured his alliance with the Czar, and lelivered the plenipotentiary of the latter, Patkul, to Charles who ^lad him executed with cruelty. 3. Saxony furnished provisions and )ay for the Swedish army during the winter. In Sept., 1707, Charles took the field against Peter, who had well smployed the interval in making conquests and establishing his power »n the Baltic, and in forming a trained and veteran army. The ap- »roach to Moscow cut off by devastation of the country. Charles Ilowed himself to be misled by the Cossack hetman Mazeppa, who lad deserted Peter, crossed the Dnieper (1708) into the Ukraine. Tutile siege of Pultowa. Peter hastened to raise the siege and )y force of numbers completely defeated the Swedes, who were ixhausted by long marches and lack of food, in the .709, July 8. Battle of Pultowa, which established Peter's new creations on a firm basis, and lestroyed at one blow the ascendency of Sweden. The Swedish irmy was completely broken up, and a large part of it captured. !!Iharles took refuge with the Turks. .709-1714. Charles XII. in Turkey, endeavoring to induce the Porte to declare war against Peter. He was successful in 1711. Peter, allied with the princes of the Moldau, crossed the Dniester, was .lurrounded on the Pruth, and was obliged to buy the L711. Peace of the Pruth from the Turks by bribery, upon the advice of his wife Catherine. 396 Modern History. A. ej 1. Azojff^ given back to the Porte. 2. The king of Sweden allowe»( to return to his realm unmolested. Charles XII., indignant at this peace, refused to depart, and fo three years more misused the patience and hospitality of the Turk at Bender, Bessarabia, now belonging to Russia, and in Demotika Senseless defense of his camp against a whole army, when the atj tempt was made to force his departure (1713). Meantime his enemiet were making good use of the time. Augustus II. drove king Stanis laus from Poland ; the Danes tried to reconquer tlie southern prov inces of Sweden, but were repulsed. Peter the Great occupied all o Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, Carelia, Finland. The Conventioi of the Hague (1710), in order to keep the war away from tjie Germai boundaries, had established the neutrality of all the German province; of Sweden, as well as of Schleswig and Jutland. Charles XII., how( ever, having from his retreat in Turkey protested against this treaty^ the Danes took Schleswig away from the duke of Holstein-Gottorpi and conquered the Swedish duchies of Bremen and Verden (1712) which they afterwards (1715) sold to Hanover upon condition that that state should take part in the war against Sweden. The Swedisl general Stenbock defeated the Danes and burnt Altona, but was cap- tured by the Russians at Tonningen (1713). The Danes and Polefc invaded Pommerania, the Prussians occupied Stettin. \ 1714. Charles XII. at last returned to his kingdom. Adventurous journey through Hungary and Germany. The king reached Stralsund. Alliance between Prussia, Saxony, Denmark, Hanover^ Russia, against Sweden. Stralsund and with it all Pomerania lost (1715), Wismar soon captured also (1716). 1716. Peter I. made a journey to Denmark, Holland, France. Charles XII. negotiated with Peter I. through Baron von Gorz, who, in spite of the hatred borne him by the Swedish nobles^- was placed in control of the internal administration of Swedenj Three expeditions of the Swedes to Norway ; on the third, 1718. Charles XII. was shot in front of Friedrichshall, prob-i Dec. 11. ably by an assassin. After limits had been set on the royal power in the interests of the royal council, Charles's nephew was passed over, and his youngest sister, 1719. Ulrica Eleanora, raised to the throne. She soon placed the control of the government in the hands of her husband, 1720-1751. Frederic of Hesse-Cassel. Execution of the Baron von Gorz, Charles's intimate. The north- ern war was ended by a series of treaties concluded at Stockholm and Friedrichsburg. 1. With Hanover (1719), which retained Bremen and Verden, and paid Sweden one million thalers. 2. With Prussia (1720), which received Stettin, western Pomerania as far as the Peene, the islands of Wollin and Usedom, and paid two million thalers. 3. With Den- t . D. Germany. 397 edknark, which restored all its conquests. In return Sweden paid 600,000 rix dollars, gave up its freedom from custom duties in the orSound and abandoned the duke of Holstem-Gottorp, whom Deimiark hideprived of his share of Schleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of ji,JL719 was contmued. '4721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and f" Russia. t4 1. S-weden ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part o|of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, Dago. 2. ^Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars. J {See p. 400.) 2 § 3. GERMANY. {Seep. S72.) yJ.705-1711. Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded J by his brother 1711-1740. Charles VI., War of the Spanish Succession, p. 390. ,1713-1740. Frederic William I., son of Frederic I., king of Prus- sia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establish- ment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of Prussia. Maintenance of a standing army of 83,000 men, with a population of two and a half milUon inhabitants. Prince Leopold of A-nhalt-Dessau (" the old Dessauan"). 1714^1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Turks ; the Vene- I :ians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly con- riucted by prince Eugene. Victory of Peterwardein (1716). i V^ictory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717). 1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Posharewatz). 1. Austria received the Banat of Temesvar, a part of Servia, w^ith Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her con- pt'sts in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte. The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite ;he minister and cardinal Alheroni, were planning to re gam the Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the L718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of ^ug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, the emperor, and (since 1719) the Republic of Holland. After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to Rome 't 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renuncia- tion of the appanages forever, in return for which the em- peror recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of 5avoy called themselves kings of Sardinia. The emperor Charles VI. was without male offspring. His prin- cipal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various 398 Modern History. A. d. lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under the name of the Pragmatic Sanction, which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire should be indivisible ; 2. That in case male heirs should fail, they should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeni- ture ; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph 1. and their descendants were to inherit. To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanc- tion was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special alliance between Austria duw^ Spain (1725), in regard to this measure, produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew from the alliance and jomed Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the death of Augustus II. Cause : The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of France, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the father- in-law of Louis XV., king, a second time. Russia send Austria in- duced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. The seat of war was at first in Italy, where Milan, Naples, and Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan^ and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the future husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the imperial arms. Lorraine occvipied by the French. Kehl captured Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations, 1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna. 1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1766. 2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnifica- tion in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the ex- tinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 416). 3. Austria ceded Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction. 1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia (p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade Servia, and Little Wallachia were restored to the Turks. 1740, May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia. A. D. Germany, 399 !f- is 5 ^2 »»1 ,3 3 S'p'S"— 5" o. -li 3.« VI (J? 25" ^m§.e-i if 2 i tria restored all conquests to Bavaria. 2. The elector of' Bavaria surrendered his pretensions to Austria and promised Francis , Stephen, the husband of Maria Theresa, his vote at the imperial elec-i tion. The French under marshal Maurice of Saxony, son of Augustus II. J and the countess Aurora of Kbnigsmark, defeated the pragmatic* army in the 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (Irish Brigade), j and began the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands. | Frederic the Great defeated the Austrians and Saxons under] Charles of Lorraine in the i 1745, June 4. Battle of Hohenfriedberg, in Silesia, and the* Austrians alone In the j Sept. 30. Battle of Soor, in northeastern Bohemia. i By the election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, th&i 1745-1806. House of Lorraine-Tuscany (p. 399) ac-^ ceded to the imperial throne in the person of the emperor, 1745-1765. Francis I. After a victory of the Prussian general, Leopold of Dessau, over the Saxons at Kesseldorf, Dec. 15, the ' 1745. Dec. 25. Peace of Dresden was concluded between^ Prussia and Austria (Saxony). i 1. Ratification of the Peace of Breslau and Berlin in regard to the ' possession of Silesia. 2. Frederic II. recognized Francis I. as em- peror. 3. Saxony paid Prussia one million rix dollars. i After the flower of the English army had been recalled to England, H where they were needed in the contest with the pretenders (p. 438), )J Marshal Saxe obtained at Raucoux (1746) a second victory;! I :\ i D. Germany. 403 (ler the allies of Austria and completed the conquest of the Austrian ."itherlands. At the same time, the naval war between France and England, and <3 war in Italy between Spain, France, and Austria, were carried on Tth varying fortune. Sardinia had concluded peace with Austria ( early as 1743. At last the empress of Russia, Elizabeth (p. 411), ined the combatants as the ally of Austria and sent an aimy to the Jiine. Congress, and finally, :48, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1. Reciprocal restoration of all conquests. 2. Cession of Parma, lacenza, and Guastalla to the Spanish Infant, Don Philip, making r3 second secundogeniture of the Spanish Bourbons in Italy. The following guaranties were given : that Silesia should belong J Prussia ; that the pragmatic sanction should be sustained in Austria; ht the house of Hanover should retain the succession in its German Eites and in Great Britain. Change in the relations of European states induced by the rise of l"ussia to the rank of a great power. Envy between Prussia and ,'istria ; the latter seeing a disgrace in the loss of Silesia to a smaller I'wer, and intriguing for the recovery of the lost province. Thus rgan the ;r56-1763. Third Silesian, or Seven Years' War. Cause : Before the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Maria Theresa had [.icluded a defensive alliance with Frederic's personal enemy, lizabeth, empress of Russia (May, 1746). Secret articles of this Isaty provided for the reunion of Silesia with Austria under certain tecified conditions. In Sept. 1750, George II. of England, moved I anxiety for his principality of Hanover, signed the main treaty, b secret articles being excepted. Saxony (minister, count Briihl) ;ned the treaty unconditionally. Prince Kaimitz (until 1753 Aus- an ambassador in France, then chancellor of the empire in Vienna) Kceeded in promoting a reconciliation between the cabinets of Ver- lles and Vienna, and securing the Marquise de Pompadour in favor an Austrian alliance. Formation of a party inimical to the Prus- -n alliance at the French court. Maria Theresa and Kaunitz induced England to conclude a new ibsidy treaty with Russia in 1755. In June of the same year, bow- er, hostilities broke out between England and France in North nerica without any declaration of war. Conflict at Newfoundland. ?eading a French attack upon Hanover, George II. concluded, in nuary, 1756, a treaty of neutrality with Frederic at Westminster, iiich caused a rupture between England and Russia. Kaunitz made illful use of the indignation at Versailles over the treaty of West- inster. In May, 1756, conclusion of a defensive alliance between -ance and Austria. In June, 1756, war broke out between France id England, in Europe. Frederic, well informed concerning the alliances of the powers, and lowing that Russia and France were not in condition to take the of- 404 Modern History. A. fensive against him in 1756, decided to take his enemies by surprise 1756. Frederic invaded Saxony with 67,000 men. Capture > Dresden (Aug.). Oct. 1. Victory over the Austrians at Lohositz. Surrender of 18,000 Saxons, who were compelled to serve the Prussian army (Oct. 16). 1757. War declared upon Frederic in the name of the empire. E was threatened with the ban. Hanover^ Hesse, Brunswick, ar Goiha, however, continued in alliance with Prussia. Treaty bet wee Austria and Russia (Jan.) concerning the partition of the Prussif monarchy. Offensive treaty between Austria and France (May also looking to the division of Prussia. Sweden joined the alliaiK against Frederic upon receiving the province of Pommerania, but h( part in the war was unimportant. Alliance between Prussia ar England (Jan. 1757) extended into a subsidy treaty (April, 1758). 1757. The Prussians invaded Bohemia in four columns. May 6. Victory of Frederic at Prague over the Austrian Death of Schwerin. Frederic besieged Prague and attacke Daun, who was coming to the relief. June 18. Defeat of Frederic at Kollin. Evacuation of Bohemi The French reached the Weser. June 26. Victory of the French at Hastenbeck over Frederic ) allies (duke of Cumberland, second son of George II.). Aug. 30. Victory of the Russians (Apraxin) over the Prussia] (Lehwald), whom they outnumbered, in the battle of Grosi jagerndorf. The Russians withdrew from Prussia and did m utilize their victory. Sept. 8. Treaty of the Monastery of Zeven (duke of Cumherlar, - and Richelieu), according to which the French occupied Hai over. The treaty was, however, rejected by the English go- ernment. Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, brother of the ruling duke, r ceived the command against the French. A second French ari) under Soubise joined the imperial army with the purpose of liberatii; Saxony. 1 11 Nov. 5. Victory of Frederic at Rossbach over the French ac the imperial army (Seydlitz). Frederic led his victorious army to Silesia, where the Austriai had defeated and captured the duke of Brunswick-Bevern the ; :" Nov. 22. Battle of Breslau. "^ Dec. 5. Victory of Frederic at Leuthen over the Austrm^'W (^Charles of Lorraine and Daun). 1758. Frederic in Moravia ; unsuccessful siege of Olmiitz. Advan( of the Russians under Fermor, to join the Austrians. In tl( | west, Ferdinand of Brunswick drove the French back across til | Rhine, and defeated them in the 1 Cf. A. Schafer, Gesch. des Siebenjdhngen Krieges, 2 vols. 1867-187| ,. Duncker, in v. Sybels, Hist.-Zeits. 18(i8, aud Xi. v. Kanke, Der UrsprufA des siebenjdhrigtn Krieges, 1871. i. D. Germany, 405 ,758, June 23. Battle of Crefeld. After the conquest of Prus- sia as far as the Mark the Russians advanced. Bloody lug. 25. Victory of Frederic (Seydlitz) at Zorndorf (not far from Kiistrin) over the Russians. I Austrians advanced upon Lusatia. The king hastened to the aid I of his brother Henry and was defeated in the bet. 14. Battle of Hochkirch (near Bautzen) by Daun. Never- 1 theless he maintained himself in Saxony and Silesia. .759. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated by the French (duke of Broglie) ipril 13. In the skirmish of Bergen near Frankfort-on-the-Main. Broglie was joined by a second French army under ContadeSy but they were both defeated by Ferdinand in the lug. 1. Battle of Minden. The Russians advanced anew and defeated general Wedell uly 23. (appointed dictator by the king) at Kay. The king was unable to prevent their union with the Austrians under Laudon. Severe lug. 12. Defeat of Frederic at Kunersdorf (Frankfort- on-the-Oder) by the Austrians and Russians, who were at first defeated. Dresden captured by the imperial army. 7ov. 20. The Prussian general Fink surrounded by Daun at Masen and captured with 13,000 men. < .760. Fouque defeated and captured in the une 23. Battle of Landshut, by the Austrians. Futile siege of Dresden. Lug. 15. Victory of Frederic at Pfaffendorf (Liegnitz) over the Austrians under Laudon. The king prevented the union of the Austrians and Russians. )ct. Berlin surprised and burnt by the Russians {Tottleben), who retreated upon the approach of the king. Bloody [ov. 3. Victory of Frederic at Torgau (Ziethen) over the AuS' trians under Daun. 761. Frederic encamped at Bunzelwitz (near Schweidnitz), op- posite the united Austrians (Laudon) and Russians (Buturlin), who did not venture on a decisive battle. Separation of the united armies. Schweidnitz captured by the Aus- i?ians, Kolberg by the Russians. Frederic, who was deprived of the Inglish subsidies by the accession of George III. (1760), was in great istress. The 762, Jan. 5. Death of Elizabeth of Russia was the salvation of Prussia. Her successor Peter III., an admirer of Frederic, concluded [arch 16. The truce of Stargard with Prussia, and soon after the [ay 5. Peace of St. Petersburg : Russia restored her conquests ; both parties renounced all hostile alliances. This peace caused the [ay 22. Peace of Hamburg %vith Sweden : status quo ante helium. The alliance between Russia and Prussia was soon broken oS. 406 Modern History, a. d by the deposition of Peter III. (July 9). His successor, Catharine Ili recalleei her troops from Frederic's army ; nevertheless their inactiy. ity upon the field contributed to the ' 17G'2. Victory of Frederic at Burkersdorf (Reichenbach) ove: July 21. the Austrians (Daun). After Prince Henry in the Oct. 29. Battle of Freiberg had defeated the Austrians and thl imperial forces, and the preliminaries of the peace at Fontaine hleau (p. 439) between England and France had made it certain thai the French armies would be withdrawn from Germany, Austria ant Prussia concluded the 1763. Peace of Hubert (u)sburg. Feb. 15. 1. Ratification of the peace of Breslau and Berlin, and thai of Dresden, i. e. Prussia retained Silesia. 2. Prussia promisQi her vote for the archduke Joseph at the election of the king of Rome Saxony (restoration to the status quo) and the empire were includaj in the peace. Frederic's endeavors to heal the wounds inflicted by the war upo)l his kingdom. Distribution of the magazine stores. Remission qi taxes for several provinces. Establishment of district banks, of tit Bank (1765) and the Maritime Company (1772) at Berlin. Afterwards however, introduction of an oppressive financial administration; tobacos and coffee were made government monopolies. Drainage of the marshes along the Oder, Werthe, and Netzc^ Canal of Plauen, Finow, and Bromberg. Reform of the jurisdiction. Codification of the common law 1|»' grand chancellor von Carmer, a part of which was published in 1782J 1765-1790. Joseph II., emperor, for the Austrian lands co-regent only, with his mother ilfarW Theresa^ until 1780, and without much uifluence. 1778-1779- War of the Bavarian Succession.^ Cause: Extinction of the electoral house of Bavaria wit Maximilian Joseph (1777). Charles Theodore, elector palatine, th legal heir of the Bavarian lands, as head of the house of Wittelsbaci and in consequence of various treaties, was persuaded by Joseph L to recognize certain old claims of Austria to lower Bavaria, and a pai of the upper Palatinate. Treaty of Vienna (1778, Jan.). Occupatio of lower Bavaria by Austrian troops. Charles Theodore was cliildlesj his heir presumptive was Charles Augustus Christian, duke of the pal? tinate of Zweibriicken (Deux-ponts). Frederic II. opened secret n( gotiations with this wavering and irresolute prince through coui Eustachius von Gorz and encouraged him, under promise of assistanc( to make a formal declaration of his rights against the Austrian claim: Saxony and Mecklenburg, also incited by Frederic, protested as heii presumptive of a part of the Bavarian inheritance. As direct negc tiations between Austria and Prussia were without result, Joseph an Frederic joined their armies, which were already drawn up face t face on the boundary of Bohemia and Silesia. Saxony allied with Prussia. No battle in this short war. Frederi 1 Cf. Manso, Gesch. d. preuss. Staats seit dem Hubertsb. Fricden. .. D. Germany. 407 nd prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of ircing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Elbe, or of etting around it. The armies maintained their positions of obser- ation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn rince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant kirmishes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between laria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led in the Dllowing sprmg, with the help of Russian and French mediatiouj to a Vuce and a congress^ and soon after to the ,779, May. Peace of Teschen. 1. The treaty of Vieima with Charles Theodore was abro- jated. Austria retained only the district of the Injiy m Bavaria, i. e. le part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. Lustria agreed to the future union of the margravates of Anshach nd Baireuth, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony obtained some itherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars; ■/lecklenburg the privilegium de non appellando. '780-1790. Joseph II. Period of his reign alone and of his attempts at reform.^ The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa (f 1780), dth its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the 5sentially revolutionary reign of Joseph XL, whereby the ancient 3rms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant nd stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in ympathy with the enlightenment of the century. Joseph II. is the best epresentative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its liilauthropy and its devotion to right, and again of its severity and lek of consideration, where there was question of executing some ivorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, nd entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph ursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the rivileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial inde- endence, and of establishing unity in the administration (central- nation). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, with le exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance^ ot one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the aistrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality. Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries ere closed and 36,000 members of orders released. There still re- lained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns, or those which remamed a new organization was prescribed. The Dnnection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, ihools were established with the property of the churches, iimova- ons in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior pganization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope ^ius VI. to Viemia (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes, eform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to xed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal ;rvitude among the peasants. 1 Hausser , Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs d. Grossen. 408 Modern History. a. d. Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch ; the emperor arbitrarily annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that the Schelde, which had been closed by the Treaty of Westphalia to the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. Finally, after four years of quarreling, French mediation brought about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew his demands i' in consideration of ten million florins. \ Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. Hisi^ encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the i bishop of Passau (1783). | The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of Germani princes (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, i^ and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a " combination^ within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own min-i] isters and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into^ favor until news was received of 1785- Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory,' according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of •' Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands^^ (Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom ofi Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Russia j supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and threats to.|j induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Zioeibriicken (Deux-5 pouts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Fred-h eric the Great, who, a year before his death (f 1786, Aug. 17), suc-;i Deeded in forming the 1785, July. League of the German Princes between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which was afterward joined by Brunswick, Mainz, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Meck- lenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands. Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna pro-i duced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted- its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789). War with the Turks (p. 414). Death of Joseph II. (1790). 1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor. Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insur- rection, but restored the old constitution and the old privileges. A conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Russia (p. 414). ^^deepp. 447, 487.) D. Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 409 § 4. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND. {See pp. 875,397.) Denmark (and Norway). Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete posses- fin of Schleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., ,:ederic V., Christian VII. (count Bernstorff, minister), a long interval i peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revo- Jdonary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II. by the ^rman Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling mipanion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the « een, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown i 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliana Maria) and be- Jaded along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of J3lstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of Kdenhurg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, yich was in consequence entirely mcorporated with the Danish pnarchy. Sweden. Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel {'. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions r two parties of the nobility, Hiite, " hats ; " (French) and Mutzen ••3aps ; " (Russian). Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), ided by the disgraceful :'43. Peace of Abo. 1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, ■lereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure. 2. 'ie succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to Adolf 'ederic of Holstein-Gottorp. 751-1818. The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden. 'Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent i«h reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was ther an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in le Seven Years' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus III. (1771- 92), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a blood- 3S revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a i-regent to a simple council ; the estates, however, retained the right ' veto against an offensive war. f88-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of Hogland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where e officers of his army refused him further obedience. He found •pport among the people (Stockholm and Dalecarlia). The estates ■anted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even I offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus con- uded the war by a peace (at Werelce) which was without advantage Sweden. '92, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarstrom. (Seepp.Ur^W-^ tF 410 Modern History. A. ix RUSSIA AND POLAND. {See pp. 375, 397.) Alexis, t 1676. Feodor III. Ivan till 1689. Sophia. Peter the Great t 1682. I t 1725, m. Catharine I, I '. ^1 t 1727. Catharine, Anna, I duchess of f 1740. | Mecklenburg- i j ^| Schwerin. Alexis, Anna, Elizabeth, I t 1718. duchess of f 1762. I j Holstein- Anna, | Grottorp. duchess of Peter II., Brunswick. f 1730. I Peter III., Ivan IV. t 1762. till 1741, m. Catharine II., t 1764. t 1796. The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored the Russian reaction, was condemned to execution by his father, and died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) which allowed the reigning sovereign to appomt his own successor, by his wife 1725-1727. Catharine I., who was governed by prince MenschikofF, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from the lowest rank to be the first minister of state. After the sudden death of the empress there followed, under her will, 1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter He was for four months under the influence of Menschikqi who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of D( goruky and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon Peter II. 's early death, 1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was ruled by Munnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biron (properly Buhren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and took un- bridled vengeance on his enemies, particularly the Dolgoruky. Id 1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the em- press, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's in- fluence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession (p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Munnich (1736- . 1739), Azoffwsi.fi the only acquisition. The empress Aima was su6<| ceeded by her grand-nephc «•, the minor en . L. D. Denmark, Sweden^ Russia, Poland. 411 L740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Bruns- wick, conducted the government for a short time after Miin- nich had accompHshed the fall of Biron, who was sent to Siberia. A military revolution placed upon the throne L741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding government, including Munnich, were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. Capricious rule of women and favorites ; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, o whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was over- hrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War dth Sweden, see p. 410. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years* »Var, p. 404. According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded ')y the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp. L762 — X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. .762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he tegan with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the inergetic and immoral L762-1796. Catharine II. The two brothers Orlojf caused the emperor to be strangled, vhether Avith the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated, fhe fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells -gainst the empress. Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, ihe restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy mder Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son. After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance idth Frederic II., procured the election of her prot^g^ ,764-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski (f 1797), as king of Poland. At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents if the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catho- lics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of 3ar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king, n the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by y Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the onfederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war roused the envy of Prussia and Austria, which led to an attempt to seure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the 1772. First division of Poland. 1. Russia received the region between the Duna, Dnieper, and \utsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria : East rallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia : Polish Prussia ( West Prussia^ dth the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Ermeland), which the Teu- onic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze dis" ict. The assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was xtorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the 412 Modern History, A. d. division to preserve the Polish constitution, which was another name for anarchy. 1768-1774. Catharine's first war against the Turks was successfully conducted. The Turkish fleet was defeated and burned by the Russians off the island of Chios (Tschesme, 1770). During the war revolt of the Cossack Pugacheff, who gave himself out as Peter III. The success of Romanzoff, who surrounded the Grand Vizier at Shumla, brought about the 1774. July 12. Peace of Kutschouo Kainardji. 1. Russia received Kinhurn ; Yenikale, and Kertch in the Crimea, and their districts; and obtained the right of free navigation in all Turkish waters for trading vessels. 2. The Tatars in the Crimea, and along the Kuban, became " independent." 3. Restoration of con-- 1 quests in Moldavia and Wallachia to their princes, whose interests, asil opposed to the Porte, were henceforward represented at Constantinoplell by Russia. ["Permanently important provisions of the treaty of Kutschouc Kainardji : I. The Tatars were released from allegiance to Turkey and brought under Russian influence. II. Russia obtained a firm footing on the north coasts of the Black Sea ; pushing back the Turkish frontier to the river Boug. III. The frontier line between the two powers in Asia was left much as it was before the war. IV. Russia stipulated for an embassy at Constantinople and for certain privileges for Christians in Turkey. V. Russia exacted promises for the better government of the principalities, reserving a right of re- monstrance if these were not kept. VI. Russia obtained a declara- tion of her right of free commercial navigation in Turkish waterspiii All subsequent controversies between the Porte and Russia may \m\ referred to one of these six heads." — T. E. Holland : Treaty rela- tions of Russia and Turkey from 1774-1853.] Prince Potemkin, Catharine's favorite, soon became all-powerful and conducted all state affairs according to his humor and his arbi- trary will. 1780. Armed neutrality at sea, at first introduced for the protection of commerce during the North American war (p. 428). The subject was broached by Rus- sia, and the idea gradually found support from Denmark, Siveden (1780), Prussia, Austria (1782), Portugal (1783); Spain, and France recognized the principle. England prevented the addition of Holland to the league by a declaration of war. Demands of the Armed Neutrality. 1. Free passage of neutral ships from port to port and along the coasts of combatants. 2. Free- dom of an enemy's goods in neutral ships (le pavilion couvre la marchandise^, with the exception of such goods as were contraband of war. 3. Exact definition of a blockaded port ; a merely nominal (" paper ") blockade, that is, one not enforced by a sufficient number of ships of war in the vicinity of the specified harbor, was declared to be inadmissible. Plan of Catharine and Potemkin to drive the Turks out of Europe^ lA. D. Denmarh, Sweden, Russia, Poland. 413 and to restore the Greek empire, as a secondogeniture of the 1783. imperial house of Russia, under grand-duke Constantine. The 11787. Crimea (Tauria) incorporated with Russia. Catharine's jour- ney through southern Russia to Kherson. Shameless represen- tation of a flourishing condition of the country by Potemkin the Taurian ! Meeting with Joseph II. '1787-1792. Catharine's second war with the Turks (^Fotemkin and Suvaroff), in alliance with Austria (JLaudon and i\ie prince of Coburg). Potem- kin stormed Otchakojf (1188), victory, in union with the Austrians at tFokchany and on the Rimnik, Potemkin conquered Bender (1789), Su- varoff stormed Ismail (1790). Victory at Matchin. Peace between 'Austria and Turkey at Sistova (1791). Austria received Old- Orsova only. PotemJcin died 1791. Between Russia and the Porte fl792. Jan. 9. Peace of Jassy. 1, Russia received Otchakoff and the land between the lower [Dnieper, Bug, and Dniester, the latter river becoming the boundary. i'1793. Second division of Poland. The Poles had attempted to improve the war of Russia and Austria with the Turks, and the seemingly friendly aspect of Prussia, ,by putting an end to their dependence upon the neighboring states, and to the anarchical condition of affairs at home. Alliance with .Prussia (1790), which promised to help the Poles if foreign nations should attempt to interfere in their internal affairs. The new con- stitution of 1791, drawn up by Ignaz Potocki and his friends, 1. converted the elective monarchy into an hereditary monarchy, appoint- ing the elector of Saxony successor of the king Stanislaus Poniatoiuski and making the throne hereditary in the house of Saxony ; 2. con- ferred the executive power upon the king and a council of state, the legislative power upon a diet of the kingdom in two houses, with abolition of the liberum veto, and 3. made some concessions to the mid- dle classes and the peasants, permitting, for example, admission to the rank of the nobility, all of whose privileges, however, were con- firmed. In opposition to this constitution there was formed the Confederacy of Targowitz (Felix Potocki), under the protection of Russia, which had guaranteed the old constitution. A Russian army invaded Poland. Brave, but futile resistance under prince Poniatoiuski and Kosciiiszko, who were defeated at Dubienka. The king joined the confederacy of Targowitz ; the new constitution was repealed. Under pretense of suppressing Jacobinism, Prussian troops entered Poland. Annexa- tion of Danzig (1793). Russia and Prussia issued a common procla- mation which announced to the Poles that Rvissia and her former allies had already come to an understanding. At the diet of Grodno, the consent of the nation to the new cessions, was extorted. Russia took the larger part of Lithuania, being all that remained, and Volhynia and Podolia ; Prussia took Danzig and Thorn, and the ,> whole of Great Poland (now called South Prussia). Besides all this. 414 Modern History, A. d. Russia enforced a treaty of union, whereby she received : 1. free entrance for her troops into Poland ; 2. the conduct of all future wars ; 3. the right of confirming all treaties made by Poland with foreign powers. 1794. Revolution in Poland, under the lead of Kosciuszko. The Russians in Warsaw, under Igelstrom, were in part massacred, in part driven from the city. The Prussians entered Poland, defeated Kosciuszko at Szczekoziny (pr. Shtchekoziny), took Cracow, but be- sieged Warsaw in vain. The Russians were victorious at Brzesc and at Maciejowice (pr. Matchevitz). Kosciuszko captured.^ Storm of Prague by Suvaroff; massacre in the city. 1795. Third and last partition of Poland. At this partition, the three powers took possession of the fol- lowing parts of Poland : Prussia : Masovia with Warsaw, the region between the Vistula, Bug, and Niemen (New East Prussia), part of Cracow (New Silesia); 2. Austria: West Galicia as far as the Bug. 3. Russia : all that remained towards the east. The powers obtained, by the three parti- tions, about the following increase of territory : Russia, 181,000 square miles, with 6,000,000 inhabitants. Austria, 45,000 " " " 3,700,000 Prussia, 57,000 « " " 2,500,000 « 1795. The annihilation of the kingdom of Poland led to the incor- poration of Curland with Russia. Curland, legally under the overlordship of Poland, had been practically under Russian supremacy since 1737, when the empress Anna (411) had obtained the duchy for Biron against the claims of the Marshal Saxe. {See pp. 44'7f 4^7.) § 5. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. {See p. 394.) 1701-1808 (1814-x). The House of Bourbon in Spain, i Philip V. (1701-1746). Bloody punishment of the adherents of' the archduke Charles of Austria ; particularly in Aragon and Cata- lonia. Suppression of all old constitutions and rights (Fueros) which remained. The quadruple alliance against Spain, see p. 397, the par- ticipation of Spain in the war of the Polish Succession and the estab- lishment of a secundogeniture in Naples, see p. 398. Under Philip and his successor Ferdinand VI., 1746-1759, par- ticipation in the war of the Austrian succession, see p. 401. Ferdi- nand was succeeded by his half-brother Charles III., 1759-1788, previously king of the Two Sicilies, p. 417. Participation of Spain in the Seven Years^ War between Eng- land and France (Peace of Paris), see p. 441, and in the war of American Independence (Peace of Versailles), see p. 433. A popu- lar revolt against Italian favorites of the king, was made the pretext 1 Kosciuszko never made use of the well-known expression ** Finis Po- lonice," as he himself openly and with indignation declared. A. D. Portugal. — Italy. 415 for the banishment of the Jesuits from Spain (1767), which was exe' icuted by the minister Aranda. I Portugal. Since 1640 Portugal was again independent of Spain, had again reached a certain degree of power under the first kings of the house 'of Braganza, but was then impoverished by a miserable admiuistra- ,tion, and brought into complete dependence upon England by a com- mercial treaty with that power. In the reign of Joseph I. Emmanuel (1750-1777), his minister Carvalho, marquis of Pombal, endeav- ored to introduce revolutionary reforms, in the spirit of the century, in the same direction as the later attempts of Joseph II. (p. 408). After the terrible 1755. Nov. 1. Earthquake of Lisbon, in which 30,000 people lost their lives, Pomhal caused the iruined portion of the capital to be splendidly reljuilt. An unsuccess- 'ful attempt to assassinate the king (1758) formed a pretext for ban- ishing the Jesuits from Portugal (1759), and a welcome chance for the minister to rid himself of his enemies. The death of the king was followed by the fall of Pombal and the undoing of his reforms. The order of the Jesuits was dissolved in 1773, see p. 416. Pombal sen- tenced to death, but pardoned. (*i»'ee pp. 4^7, 487.) § 6. ITALY. {Seep. 328.) Savoy. The dukes of Savoy and Piedmont, kings since the peace of Utrecht, since 1718 kings of Sardinia (p. 397), understood how to increase their territory, in the eighteenth century as well as before, by skillful use of political relations. During the war of the Austrian succession they acquired a considerable extent of land from Milan (p. 400). Genoa. The republic of Genoa was constantly obliged to defend her free- dom and independence against powerful neighbors, who coveted her territory {Savoy, France, Austria). In 1730 the mhabitants of the island of Corsica, which had been under the supremacy of Genoa, revolted. After a long and fluctuating contest, during which a Ger- man adventurer, Baron Neuhof of Westphalia, appeared for a time as King Theodore I. of Corsica (1736), the Genoese called in the assistance of the French, who after great exertions and bloody bat- tles (particularly against Paoli), succeeded in subjugatmg the island, which the Genoese ceded to them in 1768. Venice. The republic of Venice, by consequence of its obstinate persis- tence in the old aristocratic forms, politically immired, sank into an irremediable decline. Its last laurels were gained in the seventeenth 416 Modern History, A. D. century in the glorioufe wars against the Turks. The latter surprised Candid and conquered a part of the island (1645-1647). The Vene- tian fleet under Grimani and Riva repeatedly defeated the much stronger Turkish fleet. Brilliant victory of the admiral MocenigOy 1651, and Morosini, 1655. Marcello annihilated the Turkish fleet by the Dardanelles (1656), Mocenigo defeated the Turks at Chios, but was himself defeated in a second combat. New naval victories over the Turks in 1661 and 1662. The Venetians received aid from Germany and France, but were obliged, after courageous fighting, to leave the island of Candia under Turkish supremacy. After an alli- ance between the republic of Venice, the emperor and John Sobieski of Poland (1684), renewal of the war against the Turks. The Vene- tians under Morosini, supported by German mercenaries, began the conquest of the Peloponnesus (Morea) in 1685. Count Konigsmark landed at Patras (1687) and completed the subjugation of the penin- sula. Morosini captured Athens ; a Venetian bomb blew up the Par- thenon on the Acropolis. Morosini, who had been elected doge, landed in Negroponte (Eubcea), but the plague in the army (Konigs- mark f ) frustrated the expedition. In the peace of Carlowitz, 1699 (see p. 372), Morea was given to the Venetians, who repopulated the peninsula with Greek colonists, but soon earned the hatred of their new subjects by the rigor of their administration. Tuscany. Tuscany declined in power after the seventeenth century, as the influence of the clergy steadily increased. In 1737 the family of the Medici became extinct ; the later members of this house, sunken in dissipation, were sadly unworthy of their great ancestors. After 1737, the rulers of Lorraine were dukes of Tuscany (see p. 398) ; Leopold II., upon his accession in Austria (1790) gave Tuscany to his second son Ferdinand Joseph. Tuscany was an Austrian secundogeniture from 1765-1859. Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla were secundogenitures for the Spanish Bourbons from 1731-1735, and again 1748-1859. Modena, since 1597, was ruled by an illegitimate branch of the house of Este. Papal States. In the Papal States, prosperity, industry, and intellectual life stead- ily declined. After the sixteenth century the papal chair was occu- pied by Italians only, who were for the most part members of the great families of the nobility. Among the Popes of the eighteenth century Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli) must be mentioned, who in 1773 yielded to the demands of the Catholic courts and dissolved the order of the Jesuits, whose general, Ricci, would not entertain the idea of reform (sint ut sunt, aut non sint), by the bull Dominus ac redemptor noster. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. After 1738 this kingdom was a secundogeniture of the Spanish Bour-. bons, and was given to Ferdinand, third son of Charles III., when the A. D. America: British Colonies. 417 latter ascended the Spanish throne in 1759. Naples and Sicili/ were governed by this branch of the Bourbon family solely in the interest of their house, and not in that of the people, for whose intellectual and material welfare little or nothing was done. (See pp. ^^7, ^7.) § 7. AMERICA: BRITISH COLONIES. (See p. 365.) 1713. Treaty with the eastern Indians at Portsmouth. Rectification of the boundary between Massachusetts and Connecticut by the cession of over 100,000 acres of land by the former to the latter. 1715. An Indian war in Carolina undertaken by the Yamassees and allied tribes. The Indians were defeated and driven across the Spanish border by governor Craven. 1718. Captain Woods Rogers^ appointed governor of New Providence, suppressed the buccaneers in the West Indies ; extirpation of the pirates on the coast of Carolina by the governor of that colony. 1719-1729. Overthrow of proprietary government in Carolina. In 1719 the people of Carolina, having for some time chafed under the arbitrary government of the proprietors, formed an association for the overthrow of the proprietary government. The assembly prov- ing unruly was dissolved by governor Johnson, but refused to obey the proclamation ; they elected a new governor and council, and op- posed the armed demonstration of governor Johnson with an armed defiance. A threatened attack by the Spaniards only served to show more clearly the determined spirit of the colonists. (The Spanish expedition never reached Carolina, being repulsed from New Provi- dence, and overwhelmed by a storm). The late events being reported by the agent for the colony in England, the royal comicil declared the charter of the proprietors forfeited, and forthwith established a pro- visional royal government ; governor Nicholson (1721). In 1729 an agreement with the proprietors was reached and confirmed by act of parliament. Seven of the proprietors sold their titles and interest in the colony ; the eighth retained his property but not his proprietary power. The crown assumed the right of nominating governors and councils. The province was divided into North and South Carolina. 1720. William Burnet, governor of New York. Prohibition of trade between the Indians and the French. 1722. In New York, governor Burnet continued his efforts to ob- struct the French in their policy of hemming in the English sea-coast colonies on the west. Erection of a trading-house at Oswego ; negotiations with the Six Nations at Albany. (The Tuscaroras had been admitted to the Iroquois confederacy as a sixth nation). 1724. Indian hostilities in New England. War with the AbinaHSf who were incensed by the rapid extension of the English settle- ments, and further provoked by the advice of Rasles, a French Jesuit at Norridgewoek. Futile attempt of the English to seize Rasles was answered by the destruction of Berwick, whereupon war was declaredj Norridgewoek burnt and Rasles killed. 418 Modern History » A. D 1725. The Yamassees, though living under the protection of the Span- iards in Florida, continued their assaults on the English colony in Carolina. Expedition of Palmer to St. Augustine, upon which he chastised the Indians. 1726. The general court of Massachusetts having become involved in a controversy with governor Shute, the latter obtained from the crown an explanatory charter which gave him power to i suppress debate, and limited the time for which the house of representatives might adjourn, to two days. Treaty of peace between Massachusetts and the eastern In- dians, which was long kept. In New York, a treaty with the Senecas, Cayugas, and Onon- dagas added their lands to those of the Mohawks and OneidaSy which were already under English protection. 1728. Burnet governor of Massachusetts. He was at once involved in a wrangle with the legislature over the question of a fixed i salary for the governor, wliich the court refused to grant, " be- • cause it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna t| Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public service, , of their own free accord, without compulsion." The boundary between Virginia and North Carolina was sur- • veyed and settled, running through the Dismal Swamp. 1729. Division of Carolina into North and South Carolina i (p. 417). 1731. Settlement of the disputed boundary between New York and I Connecticut. 1733. Settlement of Georgia, the last of the old thir- teen colonies (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode * Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- - nia, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South i Carolina, Georgia). It being thought desirable that the government should secure for ' England the western part of Carolina m order to prevent the French i or the Spaniards from Louisiana or Florida from laying hold of it, a charter for the lands between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers ex- tending to the Pacific, under the name of Georgia, was granted to James Oglethorpe and associates, not as proprietors but as trustees (twenty-one in number), for twenty-one years for the crown, at the expiration of which time the colony was to revert to the crown, wliich should then determine on the manner of its future goverment. Lib- erty of conscience and freedom of worship were secured to all inhab- itants of the colony except papists. James Oglethorpe, the moving spirit in this projected colony, desired to establish within its limits a chance for reformation for English prisoners, and a home for poor and oppressed Protestants of all nations. Oglethorpe brought the first colonists in 1733, and settled at Savannah ; conciliation of the Indians by just purchase of lands and by kindness. Oglethorpe re- fused to allow the importation either of rum or of slaves into Georgia. Many Scotch Presbyterians as well as Moravians from Austria came to the new colony. One of the first enactments of the trustees de- clared that male issue only could inherit land in the colony. A. D. America: British Colonies, 419 1734. In New York arrest of Zenger, printer of the Weekly Jour- naif for libel on the governor (Cosby). Trial and acquittal 1735. 1738. Foundation of a college at Princeton, in New Jersey. 1739-1748. Great Britain at war with Spain. 1740. Unsuccessful expedition of Oglethorpe to Florida at the head of 1,200 men from Georgia, Carolina, and Virginia. Siege of St. Augustine. Settlement of the boundary dispute between Massachusetts and New Hampshire in favor of the latter colony. Expedition of Vernon with 27,000 men against Carthagena, broken up by disease. 1741. The colonies participated in an attack on Cuba. 1742. Expedition of 3,000 Spaniards to Georgia repulsed by Ogle- thorpe by stratagem. In this year Oglethorpe went to England and never returned to America. 1744-1748. War between Great Britain and France, known in the American colonies as King George's War, in reality a part of the war of the Austrian Succession (p. 400). The strongest French fortification in America outside of Quebec was Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, a part, as the English claimed, of Acadia ; the French, however, had refused to surrender it with that province, asserting that only Nova Scotia was comprised under that name. 1745. Apr. 30-June 16. Siege and capture of Louisburg by 4,000 colonial troops under William Pepperell, aided by a few English vessels. 1746. Projected conquest of Canada, by a united effort of all the colonies prevented by the arrival of a large French fleet at Nova Scotia under D'Anville, which spread consternation tliroughout the English colonies, but which, by the death of D'Anville, the suffering of the troops through pestilence and the loss of vessels by storm, was prevented from accomplishing anything. 1747. Nov. 17. An attempt of the English commander, Knowles, to press men for his vessels in Boston, caused an uprising of the people; the governor withdrew to Castle William, and the dis- turbance was only quieted by the release of most of the men seized. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle between England, France, and Spain. In the reciprocal surrender of conquests, Cape Breton was restored to the French (p. 404). Formation of the Ohio Company under a charter from the English crown, which gave great offense to the French. 1750. In spite of the confirmation of the cession of Acadia to Eng- land by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, hostilities sprang up be- tween the French and English there, owing to disputes over the boundaries. 420 Modern History. A. d. 1751. Governor Clinton, of New York, in association with South Carolina, Massachusetts and Connecticut, concluded a peace with the Six Nations. 1752. The trustees of Georgia finding that the colony did not flourish under their care, gave up their charter, and the crown assumed control, and placed Georgia on the same footing with other royal colonies. The English parliament adopted the reformed or Gregorian calendar for England and the colonies (p. 438). 1753. The growth of the British colonies extending more and more westward caused the disputes between England and France to grow to a head. The French claimed the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence, and all the region between from the Appalachians to the Spanish settlements in the west, and were intent on securing this re- gion by a line of forts directly back of the English colonies. Accord- ing to the English all French settlements within the territory of the colony of Plymouth (p. 293) were illegal ; they also claimed the whole region occupied by the Iroquois. The settlement of Georgia and the foundation of the Ohio Company were attempts to counter- act the progress of the French, and these moves in their turn were a cause of uneasiness to the French, who seized traders within the limits of the Ohio Company. As the lands of the company were within the territory of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie, governor of that colony, dis- patched George Washington to the forts on the Alleghany and the Ohio to remonstrate with the French (Oct. 31-Dec. 12). The com- mander of the Ohio forts promised to lay the remonstrance before the governor of Canada. 1754. Virginia immediately sent a force to the Ohio, two companies of which were under Washington. In the advance upon Fort J)u Quesne, at the juncture of the Alleghany and Monongahela, he captured a small French party, but was besieged in Fort Necessity^ which he had erected, and forced to capitulate under condition of free ■ withdrawal (July 4). June 19. Conference of colonial delegates at Albany with the Six ; Nations. By the advice of Benjamin Franklin the conference ! also drew up a plan of a union of all the colonies under a president t appointed by the crown, with a grand council of delegates elected by the colonial assemblies, with a right of legislation subject to the veto of the president and the approval of the crown. Connecticut, object- ing to the veto power, refused to sign the proposal, which was after- wards rejected both by the colonies and the crown. 1755-1763. War between England and France, called in the American colonies " The Old French and In- dian War ; " being a part of the Seven Years' War, in Europe, which was fought in Asia and Africa as welL War was not declared until the following year, but it is reckoned from 1755 (p. 404 and 438). 1755. While a conference of the colonial governors with general Braddock, who was sent from England to take chief command, A.. D. America : British Colonies, 421 iecided on three expeditions: 1. against Fort Du Quesne; 2. against :he fort at Niagara ; 3. against tlie French fort at Crovrn Point in New York; a band of 3,000 Massachusetts troops under Winslow and Monckton captured forts Beausejour azid Gaspereaux in the disputed dis- ;rict in Nova Scotia (June 16-17), and dispersed among the British jolonies about 7,000 of the inhabitants who refused to take the oath of dlegiance to England (" Evangeline ''). Meantime general Braddock took the offensive at the head of the British regulars agauist Fort du Quesne^ and fell into an ambuscade, n consequence of neglectmg the advice of the provincial officers Washington), and suffered a complete defeat and great loss in the 1755, July 9. Battle of Fort du Quesne or " Braddock 's defeat.'* Death of Braddock. Attack on Crown Point : Construction of F&rt Edward on the fast of the Hudson (Aug.). >ept. 8. Battle of Lake George ; defeat of the French under Dies- kau (t), by the provincial troops under Johnson. Construction of Fort William Henri/ at the south end of Lake George by the English. Fortification of Ticonderoga, between Lake George and Lake Champlain, by the French. The expedition to Niagara was subjected to so many delays that t was for the time abandoned. .756. Great Britain declared war on France. Earl of Loudoun com- mander-in-chief of forces in America. I lug. Forts Oswego and George captured by the marquis of Mont- calm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada, and destroyed. This disaster occasioned the abandonment of the projected enter- trises against Niagara, Crown Point, Fort du Quesne and Eastern Canada. Fortifications of Georgia and Carolina (Fort Loudoun on the ["eimessee river). The French constructed a system of forts in the egion of the Illinois. 767, August 9. Capture of Fort William Henry by Montcalm, II massacre of the garrison, whose retreat to Fort Edward was [ guaranteed, by the Indians in Montcalm's army. In Massachusetts, controversy between the governor, Lord Lou- 'onn and the general court over the quartering of troops. In Pennsylvania, controversy between the governor and the as- embly over a scheme of taxation ; the governor refusing his assent to lie bill, the assembly demanded the assent as their right. 758, July 8. Repulse of Abercrombie before Ticonderoga. Expedition against Louisburg (May 28-July 26). Cap- ture of the fortress (Amherst and Wolfe, July 26). LUg. 27. Capture of Fort Frontenac by Bradstreet. lev. 25. Capture of Fort du Quesne by General Forbes. The fort was named Ft. Pitt (Pittsburg). 759, July 25. Capture of Fort Niagara by Sir William Johnson. uly 26. Capture of Ticonderoga by Major-General Amherst. \ Expedition of Major-General Wolfe from Louisburg against Que- ec. Repulsed at the Montmorency ; Wolfe conducted Ins force by 422 Modem History, A. d. night to the elevated plateau behind Quebec called the Plains of Abraham, where in the 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of the Plains of Abraham the French under Montcalm were completely defeated. Death of Wolfe and Montcalm. Surrender of Quebec (Sept. 18). 1760, Sept. 8. Montreal and all Canada surrendered to the Eng- lish. 1761, The writs of assistance in Massachusetts. The English government (Board of Trade reestablished 1695) having foi some time adliered to a course of commercial restrictions and duties upon the colonies (all molasses charged with duty except that imported from the British West Indies, 1733 ; erection of rolling mills prohib- ited, 1750 ; the slave trade favored in spite of the opposition of the colonial legislatures of Virginia and Carolina, etc.) had roused a spirit of resistance throughout tlie colonies based on the perception that such duties were a form of taxation without representation. Hence so much evasion was practised that finally the custom house offieiah in Boston applied to the superior court of judicature ( Thomas Hutch- inson, chief justice) for the issue of writs of assistance such as were granted by the exchequer in England. The case was argued for the colonists by Thacher, and especially by James Otis, (1725-1 783);j who urged the dangerous character of the writ as being servable bj any officer against any person for any length of time, and accused th€ acts of trade as infringements of the charter. The court deferred ifa^ decision ; it would seem that the writs were ultimately granted, bul^ that the officers did not venture to use them. 1762, Expedition against Martinique, by the royal and provincial troops ; surrender of this island, of Grenada, St. Lucia, St Vincent, and of all the other French West Indies. War between England and Spain (p. 439). July. Storm of Havana, which was surrendered to the English. 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris, between Great Britair France, Spain, Portugal. (Preliminary articles 176i Nov. 3, at Fontainebleau, p. 439). 1. France ceded to England, Nova Scotia, or Acadia, Canada Cape Breton, and all other islands in the gulf and river of St. Lai rence, reserving the right to fish and dry fish on a part of Newfound land, and of fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence three leagues froi the shore, and at a distance of fifteen leagues from Cape Breton ; ala the river and harbor of Mobile and everything on the left of the mic die of the Mississippi, the Iberville, and lakes Maurepas and Ponchar train, except New Orleans, the navigation of the Mississippi to b free for both England and France ; also Grenada, St. Vincent, Di minique, Tobago. In all ceded districts certain civil and religic rights were secured to the French inhabitants. England ceded t( France the islands of St. Peter and Miquelon in the Gulf of S< Lawrence for fishing stations, not to be fortified, and Guadalojm Marigalante, Desirade, Martinique, Belleisle, St. Lucia, in the Wefl Indies. i A.. D. America : British Colonies. 423 2. Spain ceded to England Florida, and all other possessions east of the Mississippi ; Spain also gave up her claims to the Newfound- land fisheries ; England restored Havana to Spain and destroyed all English fortresses in Spanish America ; right to cut and transport dye wood reserved. 3. France ceded to Spain the whole of Louisiana and New Or- leans hy a previous treaty of Nov. 3, 1762. j The English acquisitions were divided into the four governments of Quebec, East Florida, West Florida and Grenada. The number of inhabitants in the old tliirteen colonies at this time was about two millions. ' 1763. The conspiracy of Pontiac. Pontiac was the chief of the Ottawas, a firm friend of the French ; relying on the vain hope of assistance from whom, he resolved ' to wrest from the English the border fortresses. To this end he formed an alliance of almost all the tribes of the Algonquin race, with the Wyandots and Senecas. The other nations of the Iroquois were with great difficulty kept quiet by the influence of Sir William Johnson. Pontiac had planned to open the attack by the treacher- ous seizure of the fort at Detroit on May 7. Foiled in this by the coolness of Gladwyn, the English commander, who had been previ- ously informed of the plot, the enraged chief opened the siege of the fort (May 9) and war broke out along the whole line from the ' Mississippi to Canada. In a short time Fort Pitt, Niagara, and De- ' troit, of all the border fortresses, alone remained in the liands of the English. In July Boquet forced his way, under severe fighting, to Fort Pitt, which he relieved. Pontiac maintained before Detroit the longest siege which the Indians ever executed, but on September 3, the garrison was relieved by a schooner from Niagara, and with the approach of winter the Indians withdrew. The western tribes were not subdued before 1765, but the danger was over. Pontiac did not long outlive his failure. 1763. Paxton boys in Pennsylvania ; massacre of converted Indians. The peace gave to Great Britain time to enforce more vigorously that system of repression and taxation which the ministers thought . the fitting method of dealing with the too independent colonists, while it gave the colonists time to reflect upon and to resent such a pro- cedure. I 1763-1765. George Granville, prime minister. f 1764, March. Parliament voted that they had a rigJit to tax the American colonies, though the colonies were not represented. Passage of the sugar act (" it is just and necessary that a reve- nue be raised in America ") and of an act for increasing the effi- ciency of the revenue service. Publication at Boston of " The Rights of the British Colonies as- serted and proved," by James Otis. Adoption of a resolution not to use British manufactures. 1765, March. Passage of the Stamp Act; prescribing the use of stamped paper for legal documents, pamphlets, and news- papers throughout the colonies. (Speech of Colonel Barre.) 424 Modern History, A. d| The news was received in America with the greatest indigna tion. Resolutions of the house of burgesses in Virginia de 1765. May 30. nying the right of taxation, introduced by Patricb Henry (1736-1797). Oct. 7. Meeting of a congress of twenty eight delegates from Maal sachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, South Carolina (Virginia, Nortl] Carolina, Georgia were not represented, but were in sympathy with thd colonies) at New York in accordance with the proposition of Massa chusetts. The assembly drew up petitions and memorials to th* king and parliament, and adopted a "Declaration of rights and liberties " (Oct. 19). The arrival of stamp officers led to riots in various cities, as in Bos-i ton, where the officer (Andrew Oliver) was burnt in effigy, his house' and that of lieutenant-governor Hutchinson sacked, in New YorkI etc. Non-importation and non-consumption agreements. 1765-1766. Rockingham prime minister. 1766. March. Repeal of the Stamp Act, which had brought in nt revenue (JPitt, Burke) ; examination of Benjamin Franklir, (b. Jan. 17, 1706 ; d. Apr. 17, 1790) ; agent of Pennsylvania before the commons. The repeal was accompanied by a dei claratory act, asserting that ^^ parliament has power to bind thi colonies in all cases lohatsoever " (March, 1766). 1766-1770. Duke of Grafton prune minister (Earl of Chathan privy seal). 1767. Duty imposed on glass, paper, painters^ colors, and tea introduced into the colonies (this measure followed the defeat of the minH istry on the land tax in England, which cost the revenue i\ large sum). Out of the revenue thus collected fxed salariei\ were to be paid royal officials. New York having refused to make provision for troops quar: tered upon the colony, the legislative power of the assemblji was suspended by parliament until compliance. Creation of a custom house and board of commissioners foi America. 1768. Petition of Massachusetts to the king ; circular letter to the, other colonies. The British ministry demanded that the courj rescind the circular letter ; the court refused to do so (92 to 17), whereupon governor Bernard dissolved the assembly. Similai proceedings occurred in other colonies. June. The seizure of John Hancock's sloop Liberty, for a false em try by the custom house officials in Boston, caused a riot, and the officials fled to Castle William. Oct. Arrival of British troops at Boston. The selectmen refused to provide quarters for the men. First settlement made in Tennessee. 1769. Parliament adopted a resolution looking to the trial of acts ol treason committed in the colonies in England. Resolutions oi the house of burgesses in Virginia denouncing this positions The governor dissolved the assembly. Similar resolutions were adopted in other colonies. A. D. America : British Colonies. 425 The general court of Massachusetts, refusing to do business while a guard was stationed at the state-house, was adjourned to Cambridge. Refusal to provide for the troops. Submission of the assembly in New York. 1770-1782. Lord North prime minister. 1770. The Boston massacre. In a broil between the populace March 5. and the British soldiers in King (State) street, three men were killed and eight wounded. The officer in command (Preston) was brought to trial, but acquitted (defended by John Adams and Josiah Quincy). March. Act repealing the duty on paper, glass, and painters' colors, but retaining that on tea. 1771. Insurrection of the " regulators " in North Carolina sup- pressed by governor Tryon. Thomas Hutchinson (formerly lieutenant-governor) governor of Massachusetts (went to England, 1774). 1772. Destruction of the British revenue schooner Gaspee, which June 10. had made itself very obnoxious to the people of Rhode Island, and now ran aground in pursuit of a packet. In spite of a large reward offered, no information concerning the offenders ,, was ever given. Settlement of the boundary between North and South Caro- lina. 1773. The Virginia assembly appointed a committee of correspond- ence for intercourse with the other colonies. The resolution of the colonies having caused a diminution both in the revenue and in the sale of tea, the British government agreed to relieve the East India Company of exportation duty if the company would transport its teas to the American col- onies. Cargoes were therefore sent to New York, Philadel- phia, Charleston, Boston. Neiv York and Philadelphia sent back the ships ; at Charleston the tea was stored in damp cel- lars, where, as there was no demand for it, it soon spoiled. At Boston, as the return of the ships could not be obtained, 1773, Dec. 16. They were boarded by citizens disguised as Indians, and 342 chests of tea were emptied in the water (Boston Tea Party). Daniel Boon settled in Kentucky. English settlement near the Natchez. 1774, Mar. Passage of the Boston Port Bill, closing Boston to the importation and exportation of all goods except food or fuel ; and of " an act for the better regulating the government of Mas- sachusetts" which was a virtual revocation of the charter, givdng the governor great increase of power. Another act de- creed that persons accused of murder or any capital crime in aiding government should be tried in England, or in some other colony tlian that wherein the crime was committed. General Gage, commander-in-chief of the royal forces in North America, was appointed governor of Massachusetts. June 1. The port act went into operation in Boston. County conventions throughout Massachusetts protested against the acts (Aug.-Sept.). 426 Modern History, A. d. Sept. The Suffolk convention resolved : " That no obedience is duo from the province to either or any part of the said acts, but that they should be rejected as the attempts of a wicked ad- ministration to enslave America." The project of a congress of the colonies, moved in 1773 by Franklin, was taken up by Rhode Island, Virginia, Mas- sachusetts, and the other colonies (except Georgia). 1774, Sept. 6. Continental Congress at Philadelphia. Peyton Randolph, president. Among the members were : Samuel and John Adams (Massachusetts), John Jay (New York), George Washington, Patrick Henry (Virginia). An address was prepared to the king, memorials to the people of British America, and to the people of Great Britain, to Canada, Florida, Georgia, etc. A declaration of rights was drawn up. The congress also concluded Oct. 20. The American Association ; an agreement to prevent all importation and exportation from and to Great Britain until I the acts were repealed. On Oct. 26, the congress separated with a resolve to meet the next year if justice had not by that time been done. In the meantime more British troops had been concentrated at Boston, and the town had been fortified. The town was the recipient of much sympathy and many generous gifts from the other colonies. Oct. The house of representatives in Massachusetts having been i dissolved by the governor Sept. 28, met, and voting them- Oct. 26. selves a provincial congress, proceeded to organize the militia (minute-men) and collect stores and ammunition. 1775. Fruitless attempt of the opposition in parliament under lord { Chatham to procure the repeal of harsh measures toward the J colonies. Acts for restraining the trade of New England and the southern \ colonies. A " conciliatory " measure introduced by lord North i exempting from taxation any colony which would undertake : to raise the quota assessed upon it. The act met with no re- ■ spouse. Feb. 26. A British expedition to Salem, to seize some cannon stored I there, was opposed by a few militia under colonel Pickering, but finally withdrew without bloodshed. 1775-1783. "War of Independence. April 19. Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord. A body of 800 British soldiers, detailed to destroy stores at \ Concord, fired upon a number of provincials assembled on the green : at Lexington, killing eight men ; an ineffectual fire was returned. Proceeding to Concord, the British destroyed the stores, but were i obliged to retreat (fght at the bridge) ; the retreat became a rout before they reached "Lexington, where lord Percy with fresh troops; met them. The further retreat to Boston was much embarrassed by i the constantly increasing niunber of provincials. The British lost 273 men ; the Americans 103. ^. D. America : British Colonies. 427 In Massachusetts a large army was raised and encamped near Boston. May 10. Capture of Ticonderoga by the provincials under Ethan Allen. May 12. Capture of Croivn Point by Seth Warner. May 10. Meeting of the Continental Congress at Philadelphia. May 31. The county convention of Mecklenburg Co., North Carolina, declared the colonial charter suspended, and the government vested in the provincial and continental congresses. The troops before Boston were adopted as the American continental army ; and George "Washington (born Feb. 22, 1732 ; died Dec. 14, 1799) was appointed commander-in-chief of the provincial forces (June 15). June 17. Battle of Bunker's (more properly Breed's) Hill, opposite Boston, where the Americans had thrown up intrenchments. The provincials were finally driven from their intrenchment, after their ammunition gave out, but not before they had in- flicted a loss of 1054 men on the British, themselves losing about 450 men (Warren f). July 3. Washington took command of the American army at Cam- bridge. 1775, July-March 17, 1776. Siege of Boston. 1775, Aug. Georgia joined the other colonies. An expedition against Canada being resolved upon, general Montgomery took Montreal (Nov. 12), but was defeated and killed before Quebec (Dec. 31), where Benedict Arnold had joined him after an ar- duous march. Fruitless siege of Quebec by Arnold. 1776, March 4. Occupation of Dorchester Heights by Washington. March 17. Evacuation of Boston. 1776, April 23. North Carolina authorized its delegates to join in a declaration of independence. May 15. Congress voted " that the exercise of every kind of authority under the crown should be totally suppressed," and extended to all the colonies its advice that they should set up govern- ments for themselves. Virginia directed its delegates to introduce a resolution an- nouncing the independence of the colonies. June 7. In congress it was moved by Richard Henry Lee of Vir- ginia, and seconded by John Adams of Massachusetts, " That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and indepen- dent states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." The resolution was referred and a committee appointed to draft a declaration, which accepted one prepared by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. Reported June 28. Debate July 1. The resolution was adopted by all the colonies except New York, whose delegates were not instructed on so grave a matter, July 2. June 18. Evacuation of Canada by the Americans. June 28. Repulse of the British before fort Sullivan (Moultrie) ofE Charleston, S. C. 428 Modern History. A. d, , 1776, July 4. Adoption of the Declaration of Indepen- dence. (Signed Aug. 2 and later.) To have taken up a position of independence was a moral gain for the colonies, but the act was followed by a period of I military disaster. After the surrender of Boston, Washington went to New York, which was soon attacked by the two Howes with some 30,000 men. The British commanders brought offers of peace, but they were not acceptable. Aug. 27. Battle of Long Island ; defeat of general Putnam. Re- treat of the Americans to New York. Sept. 15. Occupation of Ne-w York by the British. Washingtoni retreated to the Harlem heights. Sept. 22. Captain Nathan Hale, sent to reconnoitre the Britishl force on Long Island, was captured and immediately executed: by order of Sir William Howe ; the attendance of a clergy man was denied him, and his last letters to his mother and: friends were destroyed. Disaster also overtook the colonists in the North. Oct. 11-13. Defeat of Arnold in two naval engagements on Lakei Champlain. Occupation of Crown Point by the British. Oct. 28. Battle of White Plains, near New York. Defeat of Washington. Nov. 16. Capture of Fort Washington by the British. Nov. 20. Evacuation of Fort Lee by the Americans. Nov. 28. Washington retreated across New Jersey, and into Pennsylvania. Dec. 26. Battle of Trenton ; Washington having crossed the Delan ware by night, surprised and captured about 1,000 Hessians ai Trenton ; two days afterward he occupied the town in forces and defeated the British in 1777, Jan. 3. The Battle of Princeton. The Americans overran New Jersey, and several skirmishes occurred with the enem;]^ during the spring. The army was in a very bad condition, owing largely to lack of money, which congress could supply only by the issue of paper money which soon depreciated largely. Even the aw rival of the marquis of Lafayette, who was appointed major-generaj (July 31, 1777) brought only temporary encouragement. Burgoyne's and St. Leger's campaign from Canada. The summer of 1777 saw a change of fortune. The British hac planned to cut the colonies in two by an expedition under general Burgoyne from Canada, which should be met by a northward move-f ment of the army in New York. (Capture of forts Clinton and Montgomery, Oct. 6.) Burgoyne took Ticonderoga July 6, and de< feated the Americans at Huhhardton July 7. As Burgoyne reached Fort Edward, Schuyler, who had but half hij force, retired to Saratoga. Meantime St. Leger, who was to cobpei ate with Burgoyne from Lake Ontario, besieged Fort Schuyler and d< feated Herkimer (Aug. 6), but returned to Montreal on the apprc of Arnold with reiuforcements. ^. D. America : British Colonies. 429 Hearing of provisions and stores at Bennington in Vermont (then called New Hampshire Grants) Burgoyne sent colonel Baum to seize them, who was defeated by general Stark in the 1777, Aug. 16. Battle of Bennington. Schuyler succeeded by Gates. Sept. 19. Burgoyne fought the battle of Stillwater (first battle of Bemis^s Heights, or battle of Freeman's Farm), retaining the field, although he suffered a heavier loss than the Americans. On Oct. 7, a second battle was fought at Stillw^ater (second battle of Bemis's Heights or Saratoga), in which the British were defeated. Being now surrounded and finding retreat impracticable, 1777, Oct. 17. Burgoyne surrendered his entire force (about 6,000 men) to Gates. Hov;re's Campaign. In the south events were less fortunate. On Aug. 25 general Howe disclosed his purpose of attacking Philadelphia. Washington immediately offered battle, but in the Sept. 11. Battle of the Brandywine the Americans were defeated, although they retired in good order (general Greene). Sept. 27. Howe occupied Philadelphia. Washington attempted to surprise the camp at Germantown, but was defeated in the Oct. 4. Battle of Germantown. Capture of Fort Mijjiin (Nov. 16) ; evacuation of Fort Mercer (Nov. 20) ; loss of the Delaware. Winter. Washington at Valley Forge. Sufferings of the army. Nov. 15. Articles of confederation and perpetual union agreed upon in congress between the states of New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. The confederacy was to be called "The United States of America." These articles were laid before the legislature of the separate states for ratification. This process proved a long one. June 14. Congress voted "that the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and wliite ; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. The people of New Hampshire Grants declared themselves an independent state under the name of Vermont (Jan.) 1778. Treaties with France ; recognition of the independence of Jan. 30-Feb. 6. the United States. These treaties v/ere negotiated by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin and Arthur Lee. Feb. Parliament renounced the right of taxing the colonies except for the regulation of trade, and appointed a commission to ne- gotiate for the submission of the colonies. The proposals of the commissioners were rejected by congress (June 17) and by the separate states. Jime 18. Evacuation of Philadelphia by Sir Henry Clinton. Washhigton intercepted Clinton's march, and in the 430 Modern History. A. D. 1778, June 28. Battle of Monmouth turned a retreat begun by general (^Charles) Lee into a victory. The British decamped by night. Arrival of Count d'Estaing with eighteen vessels and 4,000 troops off Virginia. An attack on Newport having been resolved on, the French fleet sailed to that port. Instead of cooperating in the attack D'Estaing sailed to Boston Aug. 22, to refit (in accordance with his strict orders), and in spite of a victory at Quaker Hill on Rhode Island (Aug. 29) the Americans under Sullivan were obliged to give up the siege and retire from the island before Sir Henry Clinton who brought reinforcements. July 4. Massacre at Wyoming in Pennsylvania by colonel Butler, a Tory, and Brandt. Sept. 14. Benjamin Franklin minister plenipotentiary to France. Nov. 11. Massacre of Cherry Valley. Dec. 29. Savannah captured by the British under colonel Camp- bell. 1779, March 3. Defeat of general Ashe at Briar Creek by the British. Loss of Georgia, where the provincial government was re- stored. General Lincoln, being placed in command of the southern army, marched upon Augusta, while the British leader. Provost, threatened Charleston but retired before determined resistance. UEstaing reaching Savannah with the French fleet, an assault was made on the town (Oct. 9), but repulsed; after which D'Estaing left the dangerous coast (death of Pulaski). May. Coasts of Virginia plundered by an expedition from New York. July 5. Plunder of New Haven in Comiecticut by Tryon ; foUowed by the sack of other towns. July 16. Storm of Stony Point on the Hudson by the Americans under Anthony Wayne ; destruction of the fortifications. July 19. The Americans fortified West Point. John Paul Jones, who had in 1778 surprised White Haven, sailed this year from a French port, and after a successful cruise in the English seas, fought a most desperate Sept. 23. Naval battle with the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough (Bonhomme Richard, Jones's vessel), in which he was victorious. 1780, May 12. Capture of Charleston by Sir Henry Clinton. Sub- jugation of South Carolina by Clinton and lord Corn-wallis. The brave resistance of Thomas Sumter and Francis Marion was seconded by the approach of the American army under De Kalh and Gates. But in the Aug. 16. Battle of Camden, Gates, though superior in numbers, was totally defeated by Cormvallis (DeKalb f ). Aug. 18. Sumterh force dispersed by colonel Tarleton. Marion re- treated to North Carolina. July. Arrival of Rochambeau at Newport with 6,000 men. Benedict Arnold having been placed in command of West Point, , negotiated with Sir Henry Clinton for its surrender ; his treacherj r i. D. America : British Colonies. 431 was exposed by the capture (Sept. 23) of the agent, major Andre, by three privates of the New York militia, John Paulding, David Williams, Isaac Wirt, wlio, refusing his bribes, detained liim and Beized his papers. Arnold escaped to the British lines. Andre was declared a spy by a board of 14 officers, on his confession, and hj order of Washington 1780, Oct. 2. Andr^ was hung as a spy. Oct. 7. Battle of King's Mountain in North Carolina. Defeat oi the British under major Fergusson. General Greene appointed commander of the southern army. Adoption of a constitution by Massachusetts, with a bill of rights, which was held by the supreme court to have abolished slavery. Abolition of slavery in Pennsylvania. 1781, Jan. 17. Battle of the Cowpens; defeat of the British cav- alry under Tarleton by Morgan. Cornwallis in pursuit of Greene, was twice prevented from over- taking him by the unexpected rising of the rivers (Catawhaj Yadkin) . March 15. Battle of Guilford ; bloody victory of the British. April 25. Battle of Hobkirk's Hill near Camden ; Greene defeated by lord Rawdon. June 5. Capture of Augusta by the Americans. June 19. Greene forced to raise the siege of fort Ninety-six in North Carolina. Sept. 8. Battle of Eutaw ; defeat of Greene followed by the re- treat of the British to Charleston. Meantime British forces under lord Cornwallis, were concentrated in Virginia, where they fortified themselves at Yorktovrn and Gloucester (Aug.). In Sept. Lafayette, Washington, and Rochambeau met at Williamsburg, while a French fleet under count de Grasse en- tered the Chesapeake, bept. 30-Oct. 19. Siege of Yorktown. Expedition of Arnold against Connecticut ; burning of New London. Oct. 19. Surrender of lord Cornwallis with 7,000 men at Yorktown in Virginia. 1782, Feb. 27. The commons resolved, on motion of general Conway^ that " the house would consider as enemies to his majesty and the country all those who should advise or attempt the further prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America." 1782, March 20. Resignation of lord North. Ministry of the mar- quis of Rockingham (f July 1 ; succeeded by lord Shel- burne, 1782-1783). July 11. Evacuation of Savannah. Nov. 30. Preliminary articles signed at Paris between Great Britain and the United States. Dec. 14. Evacuation of Charleston. 1783j Jan. 20. Cessation of hostilities between Great Britain and i^32 Modern History. A. the United States. Signature of preliminaries of peace be tween Great Britain, France, and Spain at Versailles ; betweej Great Britain and the United States at Paris. April 11. Cessation of arms proclaimed by congress. Independenct of the United States recognized by Holiand, April 19, 1782 Sweden, Feb. 5, 1783 ; Denmark, Feb. 25 ; Spain, March 241 Russia, in July. April 19. Peace proclaimed by the commander of the army. 1783, Sept. 3. Definitive Treaty of Peace between Greai Britain and the United States signed at Paris ; be tween Great Britain, France, and Spain signed sa Versailles, (p. 441.) 1. 1. Recognition of the independence of the United States, anc establishment of boundaries. (From the intersection of a line duti N. from the head of the St. Croix river in Nova Scotia, with tht highlands S. of the St. Lawrence ; along the highlands to the headoj the Connecticut ; along that river to 45° N., thence W. to the rivei Iroquois, thence through lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, Superior, Lona Lake, and Lake of the Woods ; thence W. to the Mississippi and alon^ that river to 31° N. ; from this point E. to the Apalachicola oi Catouche, along this river to the Flint ; thence direct to the head oi St. Mary^s river, and so to the Atlantic : east, from the mouth of thcj St. Croix river to its source, and due north to the highlands, include ing all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, except such as be< longed to Nova Scotia.) 2. Right of fishery secured to the United States on the Grand Bant and all other Newfoundland banks, and in the gulf of St. Lawrencei as well as on the coast of Newfoundland ; right to cure fish on al unsettled parts of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and Magdalen islands afs long as they should remain unsettled. 3. All good debts heretofore contracted should be considerec| binding. 4. Restitution of confiscated estates to be recommended by com gress to the states. 5. Navigation of the Mississippi to be open to both Great Britaiii and the United States. II. Great Britain ceded Tobago to France. III. Great Britain ceded Florida to Spain. Establishment of the Society of the Cincinnati by officers of the army. Nov. 2. Washington's farewell address to the army. Nov. 25. Evacuation of New York. Dec. 23. "Washington resigned his commission. 1784. Partial abolition of slavery in Connecticut. Erection of a temporary government for the western territory (April). Oi>: ganization of the state of Franklin or Fronkland by the westr ern counties of North Carolina (Dec.) ; it was given up '" 1788. 1786. Insurrection in Massachusetts and in New^ Hampshireft springing from financial complications. 1787, Jan.-Feb. The insurgents in Massachusetts, numberingi j A. D. America. — Great Britain. 433 about 1,100, under Daniel Shays, met the troops of the state under general Shepherd, but were dispersed by the mere sight of artillery. Three men were killed (Shays^ Rebellion). I The restricted powers of the congress approving themselves totally insufficient for the proper government of the country (failure to estab- lish a revenue by an impost tax ; infraction of treaties by the states), Virginia proposed a convention for forming a better Constitution (1786). The recommendation meeting with favor, after much delay 1 1787, May 25. Delegates from seven states met in convention at Phil- I adelphia, and elected Washuigton president. Delegates from JL, other states came in, until all were represented except Rhode ^P Island. The debates were long and warm, and more than one compromise (tacit recognition of slavery ; equal representation of all states in the senate ; in the house representation accord- ing to population) was necessary before the delegates Sept. 17. Signed the Constitution of the United States, which was forthwith laid before the separate states. 1787. Ordinance for the government of the territory north- : July 13. west of the Ohio, which was ceded, or to be ceded, to the United States by the states, and bought of the Indians. Slavery and involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, w^ere forbidden within this region. 1788, Sept. 13. All the states except Rhode Island and North Carolina having accepted the Constitution, congress appointed days for elections under the same. (^See p. 5Jf7.) I §8. GREAT BRITAIN. {See p. 389.) 1702-1714. Anne, second daughter of James II., wife of Prince George of Den- ! mark. In the iirst part of her reign the queen was under the influ- ence of the Whigs (John Churchill, duke of Marlborough and his wife). 1702, May 4. War declared upon France by the grand alliance, in- cluding England. For the war (of the Spanish Succession) see p. 390. Marlborough was captain-general of all the land forces ; Godolphin, lord high treasurer ; Nottingham, secre- tary of state. Halifax and Somers not in the privy council. July 2. Sixth Parliament of William III. dissolved. The campaign of this year resulted in the capture of Venloo and Liege and the loss of the lower Rhine to France. Sir George Rooke failed to take Cadiz, but seized a number of treasure ships at Vigo Bay (Oct.). 1702, Oct. 20-1705, March 14. First parliament of Anne.i Harley speaker of the house of commons. Marlborough made a duke. Dec. Bill to prevent occasional conformity passed by the com- mons but rejected by the lords (High church and Low church'). 1703. Severe laws in Ireland agamst Irish Catholics. 1 The dates are those of the actual meetinj^ and separation of the parliaments, not of the proclamations summoning and dissolving them. 28 434 Modern History . A. d. 1703, Methuen treaty between England and Portugal. England agreed to admit the heavy wines of Portugal at one third lower rate than the light French wines, while Portugal prom- ised to import all her woolens from England. Sept. Archduke Charles assumed the title of Charles III. of Spain. Nov. Establishment of Queen Anne's Bounty ; a grant of the first fruits and tithes which Henry VIII. had confiscated fop the crown, in trust for increasing the income of small benefices. In this campaign (1703) Marlborough took Bonn and Huy, Limburg and Guelders. 1704, Mar. Case of Ashhy and White (right of electors to vote). July 24. Gibraltar taken by Sir George Rooke and Sir Cloudesley Shovel. Aug. 13. Victory of Blenheim or Hochstddt (p. 392). Naval vio- tory oft' Malaga ovei the French. Attempt to pass the occasional conformity hill by tacking it to a money bill (tackers). The scheme was defeated in the com- mons. 1705, Oct. 4. Capture of Barcelona by Charles Mordaunt, lord Pe- terborough. 1705, Oct. 25-1708, Apr. 1. Second Parliament of Anne. Whigs m majority. 1706, May 23. Ramillies ; conquest of Brabant (p. 392) ; Turin, , Sept. 7; conquest of Italj' (p. 392). The allies in Madrid. 1707, Apr. 25. Battle of Almanza; defeat of the allies by the duke of Berwick. Spain lost to the allies. 1707> May 1. Union of England and Scotland under the name of Great Britain went into effect. This measure, which was made necessary by the omission of Scotland from the act of settlement, provided : 1. that Sophia^ , princess of Hanover and her Protestant heirs should succeed 1, to the crown of the united kingdom. 2. There should be one ) parliament, to which Scotland should send sixteen elective peers i and forty-five members of the commons. No more peers of f Scotland to be created. Scotch law and legal administration to i* be unchanged ; the Episcopal church m England and Presbyte- rian in Scotland to be unchanged. Adoption of the Union i" Jack (Crosses of St. George and St. Andrew) as the national flag of Great Britain. 1707, Oct. 23. First Parliament of Great Britain.^ The influence i of Marlborough and his wife had been gradually weakened! by Harley and by the influence of the queen's new favorite, Abigail \ Hill, now Mrs. Masham. Marlborough, however, was still so strong .' that a hint at resignation secured the dismissal of Harley and aS"^. John > from the cabinet, and the substitution of Boyle and Robert Walpole ? (secretary-at-war). Last Royal veto. 1 ISTot a new parliament, but the second parliament of Anne revived by pro»« clamation. Henceforward parliaments are numbered without regard to reigns, but here the distinction is retained. The number as a parliament of Great- Britain is indicated by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. t. D. Great Britain, 435 L708, March. James Edward {Chevalier de St. George, the Old Pretender) landed in Scotland. A French fleet sent to assist him was repulsed by Admiral Byng, and the Pretender soon returned to France. Fuly 11. Battle of Oudenarde (p. 392). L708, Nov. 16-1710, Apr. 5. Third Parliament of Anne (II.). Whig majority. Somers president of the council. Leaders of the whigs (Junto) : Somers, Halifax, Wharton, Oxford, Sunderland. L709, Sept. 11. Battle of Malplaquet (p. 393). 3ct. Townshend's barrier treaty. Copyright act. L710, Feb.-Mar. Trial of Dr. Sacheverell for preaching sermons of an ultra Tory cast. He was convicted and thereby secured great popularity in the kingdom. Harley chancellor of exchequer. St. John, secretary of state. 5ept. Charles III. in Madrid driven out by Vendome. L710, Nov. 25-1713, July 16. Fourth Parliament of Anne (III.). Tory majority. Dismissal of Godolphin ; resignation of aU the Whig ministers. South Sea Company established. .711. 3Irs. Masham superseded the duchess of Marlborough as keeper of the privy purse. The duke retained his office. At- tempted assassination of Harley by the marquis of Guiscard. Harley created earl of Oxford and Mortimer and lord high treasurer. Jept. 13. Marlborough captured the fortress of Bouchain. )ct. Charles III. left Spain ; elected emperor Charles VI. ^ov. Philip V. entered Madrid. Passage of the occasional conformity bill. Marlborough, who had returned to England, was accused of peculation (Nov.) and dismissed from all his offices. Duke of Ormond, commander-in-chief. )ec. 30. Qualification act (repealed 1866). 712. Creation of twelve Tory peers to secure a majority in the lords. uly. Henry St. John created viscount Bolingbroke. .713. Apr. 11. Peace of Utrecht (p. 393). Articles affecting Great Britain. Great Britain and France : Renunciation of the Pretender; ecognition of the Protestant succession in Great Britain ; crowns of 'ranee and Spain not to be united under one head ; fortifications of Dunkirk to be leveled and its harbor filled up ; cession of Hudson's hy and strait, Nova Scotia (Acadia), Newfoundland^ St. Christopher 3 England ; Great Britain and Spain, cession of Gibraltar and Mi- orca to England ; grant of the Assiento (el pacta de el asiento de igros), or contract for supplying slaves to Spanish America, to the abjects of Great Britian for thirty years (Royal African Company). 714, Feb. 16-1714, Aug. 25. Fifth Parliament of Anne (IV.). 714, May 28. Death of princess Sophia of Hanover. Schism act. uly 27. Earl of Oxford dismissed, and succeeded as Lord high treasurer by the earl of Shrewsbury (Talbot). 436 Modern History. A. r Aug. 1. Death of Anne. Alexander Pope, 1688-1744 ; Jonathan Swift, 1667-1745 Daniel Defoe, 1661?-1731; Joseph Addison, 1672-1719; Si Richard Steele, 1671-1729. Periodical literature ; Tatler, 170< Apr. 12-1711, Jan. 2; Spectator, 1711, Mar. 1-1714, Dec. 20. 1714 — X. House of Hanover or Brunswick. None of Anne^s seventeen children having survived her, thj crown, according to the act of succession, descended to tb jyrotestant house of Hanover, the catholic line of the Stuart being excluded. James I. (Stuart) t 1625. I 3. Elizabeth m. Frederic V., elector palatine. 12. Sophia, m. Ernest Augustus el. of Hanover. 5. Charles I. 1 1649, m. Henrietta Maria, d. of Henry IV. of France. Charles II. t 1685. m. Mary William II. of Orange. William IH. t 1702. I James II. deposed 1688, d. 1701. by Anne Hyde | by Mary of E st __ Mary t 1694. I Anne t 1714. Jamt Fran? Ed war theO Pretend((i t 1766. I Henry^ cardina York without issue t 1807) I George I. f 1727. m. Sophia Dorothea, ^ d. of duke of Brunswick and Zell. r" 1 George II. Sophia Dorothea, I t 1760, m. Frederic Charles Edward m. Caroline William, elector the young Pretender, of Anspach. of Brandenburg. without issue. I I tl788. Frederic Louis, Frederic II., t 1751, king of Prussia, m. Augusta, d. of duke of Saxe Coburg. and Gotha. George III. t 1820, m. Charlotte of Mecklenburg Strelitz. 1714-1727. George I. 1714, Sept. 18. The king landed in England. George I. favoT* the Whigs in the formation of the first government ; Lo Townshend sec. of state ; Shrewsbury resigned, and Halifax was ma, first lord of the treasury (^Shrewsbury was the last lord high treasurer' Sunderland lord lieutenant of Ireland ; lord Cowper chancello earl of Nottingham president of the council ; Marlborough comma der-in-chief. K liA. D. Great Britain. 437 1715, Mar. 17-1722, Mar. 7. First Parliament of George I. (V.). Impeachment of BoUnghroke, Ormond, Oxford. Flight of Bol- ingbroke and Ormond ; Oxford committed to the Tower. Jac- obite riots. Riot act. 1715-1716, Sept. Jacobite rising in Scotland under the earl of Mar. Battles of Sheriffmuir and Preston. Arrival of the Pretender in Scotland (Dec.) As his friends dispersed upon the approach of the duke of Argyle, the Pretender abandoned Scotland (Feb. 5, 1716) and returned to France. Barrier treaty (in 1781 Joseph II. dismantled the fortresses). Impeachment of the Jacobite leaders. Execution of Derwent^ water and Kenmure (Feb. 24). Act creating septennial instead of triennial parliaments. 1717, Jan. 4. Triple alliance between England, France, and Holland in consequence of the intrigues of the Pretender, Charles XII. of Sweden, and Spain (Alberoni). Feb. 20, 1722-Mar. 7. First Septennial Parliament. Convocation ceased to meet for business (revived under the present reign). 1718, Aug. 2. Quadruple alliance between England, France, the emperor, Holland (p. 397). 1718, Dec. 17-1720. War between England and Spain. 1718, Jan. Repeal of the occasional conformity act and the schism act. 1719, Abortive Spanish expedition to Scotland in favor of the Fire- tender. .^ov. 20. Treaty of Stockholm ; S-weden ceded Bremen and Ver- den (p. 397) to George I. for 1,000,000 rix dollars. 1720, Jan. Spain joined the quadruple alliance. Bursting of the south sea bubble, from a panic originating in the failure of Law's scheme in France. 721-1742. Administration of Walpole (1726-1742, administra- tion of Fleury in France). J22, Oct. 9-1727, July 17. Second parliament of George I. (VI.). 725, Sept. 3. Treaty of Hanover between England, France and Prussia (alliance of Herrenhausen). 727, June 11. Death of George I. .727-1760. George II. Walpole continued in office. The king governed by his wife> Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline, of Anspach. 728, Jan. 23-1734, Apr. 16. First Parliament of George II. (VII.). 729, Nov. 9. Treaty of Seville with Spain; restoration of con- quest ; confirmation of the assiento. Gibraltar ceded to Eng- land. 731, Mar. 16. Treaty of Vienna : dissolution of the Ostend East India Co. which had been formed as a rival to the English East India Co. by the emperor. 735, Jan. 14^1741, Apr. 25. Second Parliament of George XL CVIILJ. 438 Modern History. A. r 1736. Porteous riots in Edinburgh. 1739-1748. War with Spain. 1739, Nov. 22. Capture of Porto Bello in Darien by admiral Vemoi 1740. Futile attack upon Carthagena by Vernon and Wentworti Disease in the army. 1740, Sept.-1744, June. Voyage of commodore Anson to the coa* of Chili and Peru and around the world. 1741, Dec. 1-1747, June 17. Third Parliament of George I (IX.). Fall of Walpole (succeeded by the earl of Wilmingtoi Feb. 1742). 1743-1754. Administration of Henry Pelham, who succeeded tl earl of Wilmbigton (f), July 1743, as first lord of the treasur 1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession. England took part with Austria (pragmatic army); for hi share in the war see p. 400. Nov. Ministry of Pelham, Pitt, Newcastle, Harrington (Stanhope Bedford. (" Broad Bottom Ministry.") 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy (p. 402) ; Saxe defeated Cun berland. Louisburg taken from the French (p. 421). 1745. Second Jacobite rebellion. The young Pretender, Charles Edward, landed in Scotia^ (July 25), and proclaimed his father (f 1766) as James VII of Scotland and III. of England. Sept. 11. The Pretender entered Edinburgh with some 2,000 mem} Sept. 21. Jacobite victory at Prestonpans. Dec. 4. Pretender at Derby (about 6,000 men). Dec. 18. Jacobite victory at Penrith. 1746, Jan. 17. Jacobite victory at Falkirk Moor, over gensE Hawley. April 16. Battle of Culloden ; victory of the duke of Cumherlai over lord George Murray and the Pretender. Execution of Jacobite lords. Escape of the Pretender to Frani (Sept. 20). 1747, Nov. 10-1754, Apr. 6. Fourth Parliament of George 31 (X.). 1748, Oct. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (p. 403). I 1752. Adoption of the reformed (Gregorian) calendar in Eili land and the colonies. The year was to begin Jan. 1 instead of March 25 ; eleven dali were omitted between Sept. 2 and 14. 1754. The duke of Newcastle succeeded his brother, Mr. Pelham March), as prime minister. Fox secretary of state. 1754, May 31-1761, Mar. 19. Fifth ParUament of George (XI.). 1755-1763. Land and naval war between England a; France (Seven Years' War), originating in boundary dispui in North America, carried on by land in America (and G', many), by sea in all parts of the world. The English had i. advantage of the French almost everywhere. (War in Amnj ica, p. 420 ; in Europe, p. 403 ; in India, p. 443.) ^ D. Great Britain, 439 1753. Foundation of the British Museum. 1756. Black Hole at Calcutta, (p. 443.) L757-1761, Oct. 5. Coalition ministry of the duke of Newcastle, first lord of the treasury, and the elder Pitt (William Pitt, b. 1708; member of the commons 1735; vice-treasurer for Ireland 1746; privy councillor and paymaster-general, secretary of state 1756; retired 1761; in opposition 1761-1766 ; privy seal 1766- 1768; earl of Chatham July 29, 1766 ; died May 11, 1778), secretary of state. 1759, Sept. 13. Battle of Quebec, death of Wolfe. j.759, Nov. 20. Naval battle of Quiberon Bay ; defeat of the French by Sir Edward Hawke. 1760, Oct. 25. Death of George II. 1760-1820. George III., first part of his reign, to 1783. 11761, Aug. 15. Bourbon family compact, between France and Spain with the assumption of the accession Iof Naples and Parma, for reciprocal guarantee of all posses- sions and an offensive and defensive alliance. Pitt, insisting that war ought to be declared upon Spain, resigned (Oct. 5). , Lord Bute, the true adviser of the king; " the king's friends; " the " power behind the throne." i761, Oct. 5-1762, May 29. Ministry of the duke of Newcas- I tie. Egremont and Bute, secretaries of state ; George Grenville leader in the commons. 11761, Nov. 3-1768, Mar. 10. First Parliament of George IIL ; (XIL). (L762, Jan. War declared against Spain. 1762, May 29-1763, Apr. 1. Ministry of lord Bute ; GrenvUley \ secretary of state. 1763, Feb. 10. Peace of Paris between Great Britain, France, and Spain. L France ceded to England: in North America, Canada, and Cape Breton Island; the Mississippi was recognized as the boundary tetween Louisiana and the British colonies ; in the West Indies Granada; n Africa the French possessions on the Senegal. England restored to •Vance Goree in Africa, and all conquests in India. 2. Spain ceded CO England Florida, as indemnification for which France had already ;eded Louisiana to Spain ; Spain received from England all con- quests in Cuba including Havana. In consequence of this peace and her acquisitions in India (p. 443) Treat Britain reached the summit of her extent and power; the North American colonies had gradually developed into states under gover- lors, with liberal constitutions, modeled after that of Great Britain. 763, April 1-1765, July. Ministry of George Grenville; Halifax and Egremont, secretaries of states ; Fox created lord Holland. No. 45 of the North Briton containing insulting remarks concerning he king by John Wilkes, general warrants for the apprehension of he authors, printers, and publishers, were issued. Wilkes was ar- ested and expelled from the commons. General warrants declared llegal by the chief justice. Wilkes outlawed. 440 Modern History. A. d. 1765, Feb. Stamp act (p. 425). 1765, July-1766, July. Ministry of the marquis of Rockingham ; general Conicay secretary of state and leader of the commons. 1766, March. Repeal of stamp act (p. 423). 1766, April 22. General warrants declared illegal by resolution of the commons (a declaratory bill to tliis effect was thrown out by the lords). Aug. 1767, Dec. Ministry of Chatham; Grafton. 1767, Dec-1770, Jan. Ministry of the duke of Grafton ; Towns- hend chancellor of the exchequer ; general Conway, lord Shel- burne, secretaries of state. Pitt (earl of Chatham) lord privy seal. Lord Hillsborough first colonial secretary. 1768, May 10-1774, June 22. Second Parliament of George III. (XIII.). Wilkes member for Middlesex. 1769, Feb. "Wilkes expelled the house for an alleged libel on lord Weymouth. He was thrice elected and thrice rejected ; at the last election his opponent, colonel Luttrell, who received a small minority, was declared elected. 1769-1772. Letters of Junius, containing bitter attacks upon the duke of Grafton, lord Mansfield (Murray), and other mem- bers of the government, appeared in the " Daily Advertiser." The author is still unknown, though the letters are attributed by many with great confidence to Sir Philip Francis. 1770, Jan.-1782, March 20. Ministry of lord North (first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer). 1770, May. Remonstrance of the lord mayor and aldermen of London with the king. 1771. Abortive attempt of the commons to prevent the publication i of speeches. Complaint of colonel Onslow; arrest of thei printers ; commitment of Crosby, lord mayor, and Oliver, alder-'' man of London, for granting bail. 1774. Boston Port Bill (p. 425). 1774, Nov. 29-1780, July 8. Third Parliament of George nLI (XIV.). Wilkes, lord mayor, and member for Middlesex ; motion to expunge the resolution rejecting him. (On the sixth motion,! May 3, 1782, he was successful, and the resolutions were ex-< pmiged " as subversive of the rights of electors.") 1775-1783. 'War of independence of the British col-l onies in North America, see p. 426. 1778-1783. War between Great Britain and France. 1778. Repeal of penal laws against papists in England. 1779-1783. War between Great Britain and Spain. 1779-1782. Gibraltar besieged by the French and Spanish in vain J bravely defended by Elliott. 1780. No popery riots, caused by the intended relief of papists in Scotland. Protestant associations; lord George Gordoiv president. June 2. Presentation of a no popery petition ; riot in LondoiD lasting five days. Executions. i. D. Great Britain. 441 The armed neutrality (p. 412) formed to resist England^s assumption of the right of search. L780, Oct. 31-1784, Mar. 24. Fourth ParUament of George III. (XV.). 1780, Dec. 30-1783. War between Great Britain and Holland. 1781, Oct. 19. Surrender of Cornwallis (p. 431). In this year the English lost Pensacola, Tohago, St. Eustachius, Demerara, Essequibo^ St. Christopher, Nevis, Monserrat, Minorca (1782). 1782, Feb. Motion of general Conway " that the house will consider [ as enemies to the king and country all who shall advise, or by any means attempt, the further prosecution of offensive war, for the purpose of reducing the revolted colonies to obedience by force." Idareh 15. Motion of Sir J. Rous " that the house could no longer repose confidence in the present mmisters," lost by nine votes. On a threat of renewal of the motion lord North resigned. 'L782, March 20-July 1. Ministry of the marquis of Rocking- ham (t July 1, 1782) ; lord Shelburne, and Charles James Fox (b 1749, son of Henry Fox, lord Holland; entered the conmaons 1768 ; lord of the admiralty 1770, of the treasury 1773; 1774 in opposition ; 1782 in the cabinet ; 1784 in opposition to Pitt; died Sept. 13, 1806), secretaries of state ; lord Thurlow, lord chancellor; Edmund Burke (b. 1729 ? in Dublin, entered par- iliament 1765, paymaster of the forces 1782, in opposition with Fox 1784, until the French revolution; died July 9, 1797), paymaster of the forces ; Richard Brinsley Sheridan (b. 1751 at Dublin, entered parliament 1780, died July 7, 1816), under-secretary of state. Ipril 12. Battle of Martinique, naval victory of Rodney and Hood over De Grasse. Reduction of the pension list ; establishment of the legislative independence of Ireland ; exclusion of contractors and rev- enue officers from parliament. J.782, July 1-1783, Feb. 24. Ministry of lord Shelburne following the death of Rockingham. William Pitt (b. 1759, entered parliament 1781 ; chancellor of exchequer 1782 ; prime min- ister 1783 ; retired 1801 : returned to office 1804 ; died Jan. 23, 1806), twenty-tliree years old, chancellor of the exchequer ; Fox, Burke, Sheridan, resigned. N'ov. 30. Secret treaty of Paris with America (p. 431). 1783, Jan. 20-Sept. 3. Peace of Versailles and Paris j (p. 432). l 1. Recognition of the independence of the thirteen United States 'the Americans retained the Western territory ; the navigation of the iMississippi was in common). 2. England surrendered to France in i;he West Indies Tobago ; in Africa the region of Senegal. 3. Spain retained Minorca in Europe, and Florida in America. 1783, April 2-Dec. 13. Coalition ministry of the duke of Port- land ; Cavendvth, chancellor of exchequer ; lord North and Foz, secretaries of state ; Burke, paymaster. 442 Modern History, A, d. 1757-1784. "War of the English in India, see p. 443. In the epoch of the Seven Years' War, the EngUsh East India Company (at once sovereigns and merchants) began the foundation of an extensive empire in place of the existing factories. The vic- tories of lord Clive gave the English the upper hand of the French, and secured for them Bengal. War with the Mahrattds, who were allied with the sultan of My- sore, Hyder Ali (f 1782, his son, Tippu Saib), with the Nizam of Golkonda and the French. From the war this company came out vic- torious and with greatly increased strength. Under the ministry of the younger Pitt (1783-1801) the company was subordinated by the East India Bill (1784) in political and military affairs to a royal commission {board of control). 1768-1779. Voyages of James Cook (b. 1728; under Wolfe at Quebec, 1759; d. 1779). 1. Aug. 26, 1768, to June 11, 1771 : discovery of Cook^s strait and I of the strait between Australia and New Guinea. 2. July 13, 1772, , to July 30, 1775: touching at New Zealand, Cook discovered many; islands in the Pacific, penetrated to 71° S. latitude and rounded Cape ■ Horn. 3. July 12, 1776, investigation of Behring's strait ; on the re- ■ turn Cook was killed by the natives on Hawaii, one of the Sandwich ] islands, Feb. 14, 1779. (See p. 535.)] § 9. THE EAST. India. {Seep. 390.)] Decline of the Mughal empire of Delhi. Bahadur Shah (1707-1712), Jahandar Shah (1712-1713), son^ and grandson of Aurangzeb, both under the control of the general! Zul-fikar Khan. Successful revolt of Farrukhsiyyar (1713-1719) ; oppression, revolt, and punishment of the Sikhs in the Punjab. 1715. Rajputana practically independent of the empire. The Sayyid chiefs, Husdin -4^1" and Abdulld, placed two boy em-i perors on the throne, who were followed, after four months,- 1719-1748. Muhammad Shah. 1720-1748. Independence of the Deccan established under the Nizam ul Mulk, or governor. 1732-1743. Practical independence of Oudh. 1739. Invasion of India by Nadir Shah, of Persia ; sack of Delhi. 1748. Death of Muhammad Shah; from this time the emperors were but puppets, with a shadow only of power. 1748-1754. Ahmad Shah. 1748-1761. Five invasions of India by Ahmad Shah Durani,i Afghan ruler of Kandahar: 1748 ; 1751-1752 ; 1761 (sack of^ Delhi) ; 1759 ; 1761. 1754-1759. Alamgir II. ; capture of Delhi by the Mahrattdsi (1759). 1759-1806. Shah Alam II. 1761. Battle of Panipat ; defeat of the Mahrattds by the Afghana A. D, The East: India. 443 under Ahmad Shah Durani. The Mahratta power was following fast in the footsteps of the Mughal emperors. Under Sahu, grand son of Sivaji (p. 389), the real power fell into the hands of his chief minister, a Brahman with the title of Peshwa ; this man and his successors (Bdlaj'i, 1718-1720 ; Bdj'i Rao, 1721-1740; Bdlaji Bdj'i Rdo, 1740-1761 ; Madhu Rdo, 1761-1772) built up a confederacy at Poona while the true sovereigns sank into the petty princes of Sd- tdra and Kolhapur (the latter still exists). Under the first three Peshwds their armies prospered, they conquered the Deccan and ex- torted tribute from Bengal (1751). After the defeat of Panipat (1761), the power of the Peshwa of Poona rapidly declined, and the confederacy split up into five divisions : the Peshwds (Poona), Bhonslds (Nagpur), Sindhia (Gwalior), Holkar (Indore), Gdekwdrs (Baroda). I The British in India. I When the eighteenth century opened, the British were established at Bombay, Madras, and in Bengal (Calcutta). The French had a factory at Pondicherri, south of Madras. This eastern coast land, the Karnatic, was under the Nawdb (Nabob) of Arcot, a subordinate of the Nizam of Haidardbdd (Deccan). 1744-1748. War between France and England in Europe ; fol- lowed by war between these powers in India. Dupleix, gov- ernor of Pondicherri. 1746. Capture of Madras by the French ; it was restored in the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1751-1754. War between French and British in India. De- fense of Arcot by Clive (Robert Clive, b. 1725, clerk in Madras 1743, ensign 1744, paymaster 1748 ; in England 1753- 1755 ; governor of Bengal 1758 ; Irish peer, baron Clive of Plassey, 1760 ; governor of Bengal 1765-1767 ; committed suicide Nov. 22, 1774). 1756-1763. Seven Years' War in Europe (p. 403) and Amer- ica (p. 420). War between the British and French in India. 1756, June 29. "Black Hole of Calcutta." The young Nawdb (Nabob) of Bengal, Sirdj-ud-Dauld (Surajah Dowlah), hav- ing quarreled with the English, seized Calcutta and imprisoned 146 persons in the military prison of Fort William, a room some eighteen feet square. In the morning but 23 of the 146 were alive. Clive recaptured Calcutta, took the French fac- tory at Chandarnagar and defeated a much more numerous force under Surajah Dowlah in the 1757, June 23. Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar was placed on the (viceregal) throne of Bengal ; Suror 'ah Dowlah was soon put to death. 1758, Clive governor of Bengal ; defeat of the Dutch (Nov. 1759). Establishment of British influence as superior to that of the French in the south. 444 Modern History, a. d. 1760, Jan. 22. Battle of Wandewash ; defeat of the French under Lally by colonel (afterwards sir Eyre) Coote. Destruction of the French power in India. The British having deposed Mir J afar and set up Mir Kosim as Nawdb in 1761 were soon involved in a war with the latter (massacre (1 of Patnd, 1763). Sepoy mutiny, 1764. | 1764. Battle of Baxar won by major Munro over Shah Alam, the.i emperor. Conquest of Oudh. 1765. Settlement of Indian relations by Clive, again governor of » Bengal (1765-1767). Oudh restored to the Nawab ; Alla-t hdbad and Kora given to the emperor, Shah Alam, the British re- ceived the financial administration of Bengal, Behar, Orissa, and thei? sovereignty over the Northern Circars. 1771. Shah Alam submitted to the Mahrattds. Famine in Bengal ; bad condition of the company's affairs ; itst servants grew rich on extortions and perquisites, but the com-i pany was near bankruptcy. Failure of Clive's system of man-i' agement. 1772-1774. Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal (b. 1732; clerk! in Bengal 1749 ; member of government 1761 ; in Englandjl member of council in Madras 1765; governor of Bengal 1772,i of India 1774; recalled 1785, impeached 1788, acquitted 1795/ privy counselor 1814, died 1818). 1774-1785. Warren Hastings, governor-general of India. Coun-i cil of five instead of twelve, Hastings having the casting vote.* Introduction of reforms in administration ; acquirement by) the British of complete control of the finances of the empir&t Opposition of Philip Francis (Junius ?). Holding that the emperor had broken the agreement with Clive by joining the Mahrattas, Hastings sold Allahabad and Kora to the goV'^ ernor of Oudh. The resistance of Chait Sinh, the Raja of Benares?^ to the demands of Hastings was fanned into a rebellion ; HastingSE charged the mother of the governor of Oudh (Begam of Oudh) witM abetting the rebel, and extorted over £1,000,000 from her. Fok these acts Hastings was impeached in parliament on his return t. Stanislaus LesczinsJci, having broken ofP the projected marriage with the Infanta of Spain and sent back the princess to the great indigna- tion of Philip V. Louis was under the influence of his tutor, cardinal Fleury, who overthrew the duke of Bourbon and his favorite the mar- quise de Prie, and banished them from court. 1726-1743. Administration of Fleury. Participation of France in the war of the Polish succes- Bion, p. 398; in the war of the Austrian succession, p. 400; in i the Seven Years' "War, p. 403; war with England and the peace i of Paris, pp. 422, 441. Persecution of the Jansenists. Miracles at the cemetery of St. , Medard. Convulsionnaires. Closure of the cemetery, 1732. " De par le Roi, defense k Dieu, De faire miracles en ce lieu." After the death of Fleury (1743), government of mistresses and of I ministers whom they placed m office. Senseless expenditure and re- volting arbitrary rule. Marquise de Chateauroux. 1745-1764. Marquise de Pompadour {Lenormant d'Etioles), 1745, May 11. Battle of Fontenoy ; victory of Marshal Saxe i over the allies (p. 402 and 438). Struggle between the church, parliament, and crown. The due de Choiseul, a friend of Pompadour, minister. 1756. Hostilities with England in North America led to war (p. • 438). 1757, Jan. 5. Attempted assassination of Louis XV. by Damiens, • who was barbarously tortured and torn by four horses. 1768. Death of the queen. 1769. Annexation of Corsica. The immorality and extravagance of the court reached its height . when Louis XV., toward the close of his reign, came under the influ- . ence of the shameless prostitute Jeanne Vaubernier, by marriage with I a superannuated courtier, 1769-1774. Countess DuBarry. Contest with the parliament of Paris, which was abolished! in 1771 by the chancellor, Maupeou, and superseded by a Conseil du < Roi, without political privileges. The parliament was, however, re-i stored under the next reign. Pacte de famine ; a company in which the king was shareholder, which had a monopoly of the corn supply. 1774, May 10. Death of Louis XV. He was succeeded by his grand-l son, 1774-1792. Louis XVI., whose moral purity and sincere good- will, neutralized by a total lack of energy, were unable to quiet the approaching storm of the revolution by feeble attempts at reform. Restoration of thei parliament. Louis, while dauphin (1770) had married Marie An- toinette, daughter of Maria Theresa of Austria. The queen, at firstf extremely popular, soon incurred the dislike of the people, and became an object of the grossest slanders, particularly in connection witht the scandalous affair of the diamond necklace (1785 ; given to the [| A. D. France, 4^7 queen by cardinal Rohan; countess Lamothe). Her influence was an evil one, being exerted for the maintenance of the system of favorit- ism, and for the resistance of reforms. 1774-1781. Maurepas, the king's favorite minister. 1774-1776, May. Turgot minister of marine and finance. 1777-1781. Necker, nmiister of finance ; abolition of six hmidred superfluous offices. . 1778. Alliance between France and the United States of America 'i (P- 429). I For the participation of France in the war of American mdepend- ence, see p. 429, etc. 1781. Publication of the compte rendu by Necker. On the death of Maurepas the Comte de Vergennes succeeded to the favor of the king. 1783-1787. Calonne, a favorite of the queen, minister of finance. Great extravagance of the court ; contraction of an enormous debt. 1787, Feb. 22. Assembly of notables summoned at Versailles. Fall of Calomie. De Brienne, minister of finance. Dissolution of the assembly (May 25). Opposition of the parliament of Paris, which re- fused to register the reform. Edicts, alleging that such changes needed the approval of the , states-general. Banishment of the parliament to Troyes. An agree- ment was patched up, but on the recall of the parliament, a still more i aggravated quarrel broke out concerning new loans. 1788, Jan. Presentation of grievances. Arrest of the leaders of the parliament. Abolition of that body, the place of which was to be taken by a cour pleniere, nominated by the king. Revolts in the provinces. Summons of a states-general for May 5, 1789. 1788, Aug. De Brienne resigned office. Necker recalled. THIRD PERIOD. . FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1789-1815). I The revolution ran through three stages to the extreme of a demo- I cratic republic, three other periods brought it gradually through a reac- tion back to absolute monarchy, after which came a time of constitutional monarchy, then a republic, then the second empire, then a republic again. 1. States General and Constituent Assembly (Canstituante) ; , from May 5 (June 17), 1789, to Sept. 30, 1791 (2^ years). A limited (constitutional) monarchy. Influence of the higher middle classes. 2. The Legislative Assembly (Legislatif) ; from Oct. 1. 1791, to Sept. 21, 1792 (almost a year). Monarchy still further limited, then suspended. Increase of the power of the lower classes. 3. The National Convention (Convention Nationale) ; from Sept. ai, 1792, to Oct. 25, 1795 (more than three years); called to frame a 448 Modern History. A. D. new constitution, it first abolished the monarchy and condemned the king to death ; it supported the Reign of Terror, and then overthrew it. It led the resistance to foreign foes. N. B. The left of the constituent was the right of the legisla- tive, and the left of the legislative was (at first) the right of the convention. 4. The Directory (Directoire) : from Oct. 26, 1795, to Nov. 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire, An. VIII.) more than four years. The middle classes recovered their influence. Party divisions. The army. General Bonaparte's coup d'etat. 5. The Consulate (consulat), at first provisional then definitive, from Dec. 25, 1799, to May 20, 1804 (4^ years) ; civil and military rule, virtually of one man ; progress of French arms. 6. The (first) Empire; from May 20, 1804 to (April, 1814) June 22, 1815 (about eleven years). Napoleon I. made France the con- trolling power on the continent, but was finally overthrown.^ General Causes of the Revolution. 1. The spirit of the eighteenth century — a spirit devoted to the destruction or reformation of all existing institutions. Attacks of French writers upon church and state. Montesquieu (1689-1755) ; Voltaire (1694-1778) ; Rousseau (1670-1741) ; the Encyclopedia (1751-1780), the work of the Encyclopedists : Holbach (1723- 1789) ; Helvetius (1715-1771) ; Diderot (1713-1784) ; D'Alem- bert (1717-1783) ; Condillac (1715-1789). 2. The unequal division and miserable cultivation of the land (nearly two tliirds of wliich was in the hands of the clergy and the nobles), and the strict control exercised by the guilds, which checked the de- velopment of trade and industry. 3. The arbitrary government, the abuses in the administration, the un- equal apportionment of the burdens of taxation. Since 1614, the consti- tutional assembly of the kingdom, the etats-generaux had not been summoned (p. 325). Control of the liberty of the subject by arbitrary warrants of imprisonment (lettres de cachet, Bastille) of their property by arbitrary taxation. In opposition to the right assumed by the parliament of Paris, to refuse the registration of edicts of taxation, the court had recourse to beds of justice (lits de justice, a despotic enforcement of registra- tion), and the banishment of members of parliament. Commissions in the army, places in parliament, and most of the higher offices, were purchasable, but as a rule, only by the nobles. The privileged classes {nobility and clergy) were allowed many privileges in regard to the direct taxes, although by no means exempt by them.^ Continu- ation in the country of the oppressive feudal burdens (corvees, enforced labor on the estate of the lord and on public roads without pay), ex- actions of the feudal lords, who wasted their revenues in the capital and gave the peasants neither protection nor assistance in return. Taille, land and property tax; gabelle, tax on salt. 1 Assmann. 2 Von Sybel, Geschichte der Eevolutionszeit. fli. D. First French Revolution. 449 Special Cause. The immense public debt and the deficit. The yearly deficit owed Its origin to the wars of Louis XIV., to his costly, often senseless buildings ( Versailles with its basins and fountains lying in a district totally without water), and to his extravagant court ; it grew under the profligate expenditure of Louis XV. and the cost of the North American war under Louis XVI. till it amounted to nearly half of the yearly income. As TurgoCs (1774-1776) attempts at reforms (removal of internal duties on commerce ; abolition of the corvee, abo- lition of many guilds), Necker's (1776-1781) economical administra- tion, and the assembly of notables summoned upon the advice of Calonne (1787), brought no relief, the king took the advice of Necker, who had reassumed office (1788), and resolved upon the 1789, May 5. Summons of the Etats-Generaux to Ver- sailles, with a double representation of the middle classes, the third estate (tiers etat), nobles 300, clergy 300, commons 600. Dis- pute about the manner of debating and of voting (whether votes should be cast by the orders as such, or by each member individually) which broke out during the verification of the powers of the members. The nobles and the clergy demanded a separate verification, the com- mons wished that it should take place in common. The true question was whether the legislative body should consist of a lower house of commons, and an upper house of nobles and clergy which would check the lower, or of one house in which the commons equaled in number the nobles and clergy together. Upon the motion of the abbe Sieyes (author of the remarkable pamphlet asking. What is the third estate ?) the representatives of the third estate assumed the title of the 1789, June 17-1791. National Assembly (constituante) and invited the other orders to join them. 1789. Suspension of the meetings for three days ; the hall June 20. closed to the members, who at last resorted to a neighbor- ing tennis court (jeu de paume) and took an oath not to separate until they had given the realm a constitution. Pres- ident Bailly. Many of the clergy and some nobles joined the assembly. June 23. Fruitless royal sitting ; the king ordered the assembly to meet in three houses. Principal orator of the assembly : Mirabeau (Riquetti, count of Mirabeau, born 1749, of remarkable talent, but dissolute, in debt, at variance with his family, elected in Provence as representative of the third estate). The representatives of the clergy and the nobility join the third estate by re- quest of the king. Concentration of troops near Paris. PuKiors of a purpose to dissolve the national assembly, and the dis- missal of Necker (July 11) caused the 1789. Storm and destruction of the Bastille in Paris July 11. (murder of De Launay), Camille Desmoulins. Paris in the 29 450 Modern History. A. d. hands of the mob scarcely controlled by the electors who had chosen the deputies from Paris for the assembly and now sat at the Hotel de Ville as a provisional government. Necker recalled. Lafayette commander of the newly established National Guard. Bailly mayor of Paris. Adoption of the tricolor : blue, red (colors of Paris), white (color of France). Beginning of the emigration of the nobles, headed by the count of : Artois, second brother of the king, prince Conde\ Polignac. Rising of the peasants against the feudal lords in Danphine\ Pro- vence, and Burgundy. Riots, provisional governments, guards in the provincial cities. Aug. 4. Voluntary surrender by the representatives of the nobles (vicomte de Noailles) of all feudal rights and privileges ; abo- lition of the titles, prohibition of the sale of offices, dissolution i of the guilds, etc. Aug. 27. Declaration of the rights of man. Discussion of the veto i power. Oct. 6, 6. Outbreak of the mob of Paris, caused by hunger, the bribes i of the duke of Orleans, and rumors of an intended reaction. March of a band, consisting principally of women, to Versailles. The royal family, rescued by Lafayette, were obliged to go to Paris, whither the national assembly followed them. 200 members re- signed. Democratic monarchical constitution : one chamber with legisla- tive power and the sole right of initiation. The royal veto was sus- pensive only, delaying the adoption of a measure for two legislative ■ terms. The king could not declare war and conclude peace without ; the consent of the chamber, ratification by which was necessary for ' the validity of all foreign treaties. In order to relieve the financial distress the ecclesiastical estates were declared public property. Assignats, notes of the govern- ment, having for security the public lands, the value of which was i not to be exceeded by the issue of notes (a check which was inopera- tive). The state assumed the support of the clergy. 1790, July 14. National federation in Paris ; the Constitu- tion accepted by the king. Abolition of the old provinces and governments; France divided I into eighty-three departments, named after rivers and mountains ; these departments being subdivided into 374 districts and cantons. The communes were left unchanged (44,000) ; tax qualification for the exercise of active suffrage in the primary assemblies, which chose electors (dlecteurs) who then elected the representatives (745) for a legis- lature with a term of two years. The administrative officers of the departments and districts were selected from the electors; the muni' cipal officers and the judges were taken from the great body of voters, the active citizens. Each department and each district had a local assembly. Abolition of the parliaments and the old judicial constitu- tion. Juries. Abolition of hereditary nobility, titles, and coats-of-arms. Dissolution of all ecclesiastical orders, excepting those having educa- tion and the care of the sick for their objects. Civil organization of A. D. First French Revolution. 451 the clergy; the pastors to be chosen by the voters of the districts, the bishops by the voters of the departments. Only one third of the ecclesiastics submitted to the new constitution by taking the required oath, so that henceforward there was a distinction between priests who had taken the oath (pretres assermentes) and priests who had not (reyractaires) . Clubs had existed since 1789 ; the Jacobins, named after their place of assembly, wliicli was formerly occupied by Dominican monks from the Rue St. Jacques (Robespierre), soon the greatest power in the state ; the Cordeliers, who held their meetings in a monastery of Franciscans {Danton, Marat, Camille Desmoulins, Hehert); the Feuillants, moderate monarchists who had separated from the Jaco- bins {Lafayette, Bailly). Reorganization of the municipality (com- mune) of Paris, in forty-eight sections • 84,000 voters (pop. 800,000) ; general council, executive board (44). Each section had its primary assembly. 1790, Sept. Fall of Necker. Alliance between the court and Mirabeau, who endeavored to stem the revolution and prevent the destruction of the throne. 1791, April 2. Death of Mirabeau. June 20. Flight of the king. Stopped at Varennes, brought back to Paris (June 25). Unprovoked assault on a meeting in the Champs de Mars (July 17, " massacre of the Champs de Mars.") Suspended, reinstated by the moderate party (Sept.), Louis XVI. accepted the constitution as revised and com- pleted. Dissolution of the assembly (Sept. 30) after it had voted that none of its members should be eligible for reelec- tion to the next legislature. 1791, Oct. 1-1792, Sept. Legislative Assembly. 746 representatives, mostly from the middle class. Parties : the right, composed of constitutionalists, royalists, Feuillants, became weaker with every day. The left side, comprising the majority, was divided into : 1. Moderate republicans (the plain, la plaine), contain- ing the group of the Girondists (so called after its leading members from Bordeaux, the department of the Gironde), Guadet, Vergniaud, Brissot, etc., advocates of a federal republic. 2. The Mountain (la montagne, les montagnards), so called from their seats, which were the highest on the left side of the hall, radicals, adherents of a united, indivisible republic (une et indivisible). They were composed of the leaders of the clubs of the Jacobins and the Cordeliers. Pttion, mayor of Paris. 1791, Aug. Meeting at Pillnitz between 1786-1797. Frederic William II., king of Prussia ( Wollner, Bischofswerder), and 1790-1792. Leopold II., the emperor. Preliminary understanding in regard to Eastern matters, the political relations, and the French disturbances. 452 Modern History. A. D. 1791, Sept. Annexation of Avignon (massacres) and the Venaissin tc France. 1792, Feb. Alliance between Austria and Prussia. Leopold was suc- ceeded by 1792-1806. Francis II. (As emperor of Amtria, Fran- cis I. until 1835). 1792-1797. War between France and the First Coali- tion. A Girondist ministry (Roland, Dumouriez) took the place of the constitutionalist ministry, whose fall was caused by the declaration of Pillnitz. April 20. Declaration of war against Austria. Three armies in the field. Rochamheau (48,000), between Dunkirk and Philippe- ville; Lafayette (52,000), between Philippeville and Lauter- bourg ; Luckner (42,000), between Lauterbourg and Basle. The fortune of war was against the French, which increased the revolutionary excitement at Paris. Dismissal of the min- istry of Roland (June 13). June 20. Invasion of the Tuileries by the mob. Calm behavior of the king ; the bonnet rouge. July 11. The Legislative Assembly pronounced the country in dan- ger. Formation of a volunteer army of revolutionists through- out the country. Threatening manifesto of the duke of Bruns- wick. The municipal council of Paris broken up and its place usurped by commissioners from the sections ; the neio commune (288 members). Aug. 10. (Tenth of August). Storm of the Tuileries by the mob, in consequence of an order given by the king to the Swiss guards, who were advancing victoriously, to cease firing. Massacre of the Swiss guards. The king took refuge in the hall of the Aug. 13. Assembly, was suspended, and placed in the tower of the temple (the old house of the Knights Templars). Numerous arrests of suspected persons. The Jacobins in power. Call of a national convention, elected by manhood suffrage, to draw up a constitution for the state. Aug. 20. Lafayette, impeached and proscribed, fled, was captured by the Austrians and imprisoned in Olmiitz (till 1796). Verdun taken by the Prussians ; battles at Grandpre and Valmy. Bept. 2-7. Jail delivery at Paris : terrible massacre, lasting five days, of royalists and constitutionalists detained in the prisons, instigated by the city council and by Danton, the minister of justice. Like scenes took place at Versailles, Lyons, Rheims, Meaux and Or- leans. 20 Sept. French (Dumouriez, Kellermann) success at Valmy against the allies (duke of Brunswick). 1792, Sept. 21-1795, Oct. National Convention com- posed entirely of republicans (749 members, 486 new men). Parties, Girondists (right, Vergniaudy Brissot) A. D. First French Revolution. 453 and the Mountain (left ; members for Paris, Robespierre^ duke of Orleans (^Philip Egallte), Danton, Collot (V Herbois). 1792. Abolition of the monarchy. France declared a Sept. 21. Republic. Sept. 22 was the first day of the year one of the French repub- lic. Citoyen et citoyenne ; decree of perpetual banishment against emigrants; tu et toL Inglorious retreat of the Prussians through Champagne to Luxembourg and across the Rhine. The French general, Custine, took Speier, Mainz, and Frankfort on the Main. Occupation of Nice and Savoy (Sept.). 1792. Victory of the French general Dumouriez at Jemmapes. He Nov. 6. took Brussels and conquered the Austrian Netherlands. The Prussians retook Frankfort. Nov. 19. Proclamation of the convention offering French assistance to all peoples who wished to tlirow off their present govern- ment. Savoy and Nice annexed ; the Schelde opened to commerce (p. 408). 1792, Dec.-1793, Jan. Trial of Louis XVI. before the convention. Barrere prosecutor ; Malesherbes, Deseze, Trofichet, for the de- fense. Proposed appeal to the nation rejected. January 15, 683 votes out of 721 declared the king guilty. Jan. 16, 361 votes, exactly a major- ity (among them that of the duke of Orleans (Egalite"), were cast unconditionally for death, 360 being cast for imprisonment, banish- ment, or death with respite. 1793, Jan. 21. Execution of Louis XVI. Feb. 1. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, Spain. England, Holland, Spain and the Empire, joined the alliance against France, Sardinia having been at war with the latter power since July, 1792. Annexation of Belgium. The emigrants, under the prince of Conde, proclaimed Louis XVII., who was a prisoner in the temple. Royalistic revolt in the Vendee, upon occasion of a levy of recruits. {Charette, Stofflet, Cathelineau, La Rochej'aquelein). The Austrians under the duke of Coburg defeated Dumouriez at Neerwinden (March 18), and recaptured Brussels. Dumouriez went over to the Austrians with the duke of Chartres, Louis Philippe, son of Egalite. March 9. Establishment of the revolutionary tribunal. At Paris, in the convention, struggle for life and death, between the Girondists and the Mountain. After the failure of the plan of the Orleanists, belonging to the Mountain, to make the duke of Orleans (Egalite), protector, all power centred in the Committee of General Security and the 1793. Committee of Public Safety {Comite du Salut April 6. Public). Composed of nine (afterwards twelve) members, 454 Modem History, a. d. who exercised dictatorial power. Leaders : Danton (from the first); Robespierre, St. Just, Couthon (these three in July) ; afterwards, Carnot, who managed the military department only, and Collot d'Herbois (Sept.). The third, and in reality the greatest power in the state, was the commune of Paris, now reorganized on the basis of manhood suffrage, and acting through its committee, now numbering only twenty, at the Hotel de Ville, under the guidance of Chaumette, and especially of Hebert (editor of Le Pere Duchesne). Financial difficulties. New issues of assignats based on the lands of the emigrants, the sale of which was ordered. At- tempts to check the depreciation of assignats by severe penal- ties. June 2. An uprising of the mob, organized by the commune of Paris, commanded by Henriot, compelled the convention to ar- rest thirty-one Girondists (^Brissot, Vergniaud, Petiori). The second, fully democratic constitution, as passed by the conven- tion, was sent to the primary assemblies of voters for ratification, but never came to execution. 1793, July 13. Assassination of Marat by Charlotte Corday (executed July 15). 1793-1794. Reign of Terror in France. Robespierre at the head of the state. Revolutionary commit-^ tees throughout the country. Commissaries of the committee of public safety committed unheard-of atrocities in the large cities of the provinces. Tallien at Bordeaux, Lebon in Arras, Carrier in Nantes, Challier, Couthon, Fouche, Collot d^Herbois in Lyons. Mainz captured by the Prussians after a siege of three months (July). The allies took the fortresses of Conde and Valenciennes. For this reason Custine was executed at Paris. The English laid siege to Toulon. The troops of the Republic were driven back at almost all points. Revolts in the interior, partially conducted by Girondists who had escaped from Paris. Energetic measures of the committee of public safety (Carnot). 1793, Aug. 23. Levy of the whole male population capable of bear- ing arms. Fourteen armies were soon placed in the field. Caenj Bordeaux, Marseilles, conquered by the republicans. Lyons Oct. captured after a two months' siege and partially destroyed ; Massacre of the inhabitants (Collot, Fouche ; la commune affrar^ chie.) Sept. 17. Establishment of a maximum price for a vast number of commodities ; also for wages. The state exacted all its labor and goods at the maximum price and paid in assignats at the face value, the market value being one third of the face. Law authorizing the imprisonment of all persons suspected (lot des suspects) of being unfriendly to the republic. Defeat of the Vendeans at Chollet (Oct. 20) and at Le Mans (Dec. 12). Revolutionary tribunal at Nantes (15,000 persons put to death in the three months of October, November, Decem- ber by Carrier J noyades, fusillades, marlages republicains). A. D. First French Revolution, 455 Oct. 16. Execution of the queen, Marie Antoinette. Oct. 31. Execution of the Girondists (21). Reign of the revolu- tionary tribunal and the guillotine (Place de la Revolution, now Place de la Concorde^ ; Fouquier-Tinville, public prosecutor. Sixty executions a month ; neglect of legal forms. Execution of Bailly, Egalit^ (Nov.), Madame Roland. Abolition of the worship of God. Cult of reason (Hebert, Chaumeite, Cloots). Profanation of the royal sepulchre at St. Denis. Revolutionary calendar. Beginning of the year one, Sept. 22, 1792. The months : Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire; Nivose, Plu- viose, Ventose ; Germinal, Flore'al, Prairial ; Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor • each month had thirty days, five intercalary days (sans cu- lottides), every tenth day a holiday. Transportation of priests. Kov. 10. Festival of reason in Notre Dame. Abolition of the old army. Creation of a new army. Capture of Conde, Valen- ciennes, Le Quesnoi by the allies (Coburg). Jourdan commander of the French forces. Oct. 11-13. Storm of the French lines at Weissenburg on the Rhine by Austrians and Prussians {Pichegru, commander of the French on the Rhine, Hoche, of the army on the Moselle.) Nov. Defeat of Hoche by the duke of Brunswick at Kaiser slautern. Dec. Pichegru defeated the Austrians under Wurmser. Retreat of the allies across the Rhine. Worms and Speier recaptured. Toulon rescued from the English. First appearance of Napoleon Bonaparte (b. Aug. 15, 1769, at Ajaccio in Corsica ; 1779 at the military school in Brienne ; 1785 lieutenant in Valence, 1793 captain • at Toulon, colonel ; after the cap- ture, brigadier-general ; adherent of the revolutionary movement, in close connection with the Jacobins, particularly with the two Robes- pierres, although he afterward denied it ^). 1794. Robespierre (representing the committee of public safety) crushed both parties which were opposed to him, the ultra-rev- olutionary commune (Hebertists) and the moderate Dantonists (the Mountain), using one against the other. After an unsuccessful at- tempt at an insurrection March 24. Condemnation and execution of the Hebertists (Chaumette, Hebert, Cloots, etc.). March 29, condemnation of the Dan- tonists. April 6. Execution of Danton, Camille Desmoulins, Herault de Sechelles, etc. April 18. Defeat of the allies by Pichegru at Turcoing. April 19. Treaty of the Hague between England and Prussia ; sub- sidies for 60,000 men. Unhampered rule of the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre abolished the worship of reason and caused the convention to pass a resolution acknowledgmg the existence of a supreme bemg. June 8. Fetes de I'Etre supreme ; Robespierre high priest. June 10. Portentous increase of power bestowed on the revolution- ary tribunal. Juries to convict without hearing evidence or 1 P. lianfrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. 456 Modern History, A. d. argument. Enormous increase of executions, running up to 354 a month. June 25. Capture of Charleroi by the French. June 26. Battle of Fleurus, repulse of the allies under Coburg. Evacuation of Belgium. An attempt to exterminate the Vendeans {Turreau) caused a fresh outbreak of the war. Conspiracy of the Mountain and the moderates against Robespierre (Tallien, Freron, Fouche, Vadier, Collot d'Herbois, BiUaud-Varennes). 1794, July 27 (9th Thermidor). Fall of Robespierre, arrest of the two Robespierres, of Couthon and St. Just ; being released they were outlawed, surprised at the Hotel de Ville, and executed, with eighteen others. On the following days over eighty of his party were executed. The commune was nearly extinct. 1794-1795. The National Convention controlled by the mod- erates. Meanwhile the armies of the republic had been fortunate on the bor- ders. The Prussians, victors at Kaiserslautern in May, 1794, after a second battle at the same place in Sept., retired across the Rhine. The duke of Coburg, defeated June 26, 1794, by Jourdan at Fleurus, resigned his command. The Austrians retired across the Rhine (see above). In Paris the power of the commune, of the Jacobins, and of the mob was gradually broken by the Thermidorians, or the supporters of the moderate revolution, and by the violence of the young men of the upper classes (called later the jeunesse dore'e). The Jacobin club closed (Nov. 12). Those Girondists who had escaped with their lives were readmitted to their seats in the convention (Dec. 8, 1794, March 8, 1795). Execution of Carrier and Fauquier- Tinville. Public misery. Repeal of the maximum (Dec. 24, 1794). New issues, increased depreciation of assignats ; in May, 1795, they were worth 7 per cent. 1795, April 1 (Germinal 12). Bread riots in Paris ; attack on the convent suppressed ; transportation of Billaud, Collot, Barrere^ Vadier. Growing reaction in the capital and the provinces. Return of emigrants. Reactionary terror (The White Terror). May 20 (Prairial 1). Insurrection, or bread riot. Fierce attack upon the convention. Firmness of the president, Boissy d'Anglas. Suppression of the outbreak. May 20. Extermina- tion of the Mountain. Meantime the armies of France were everywhere successful. Pichegru had invaded Holland in the winter of 1794-1795. The hereditary stadthalter fled to England. 1795-1806. Batavian Republic founded, which surrendered Dutch Flanders to France. Tuscany withdrew from the coalition and concluded peace with France. Prussia, whose finances were exhausted and which had quarreled with Austria, concluded with the convention tht; A. D. First French Revolution, 457 1795, April 5. Peace of Basle (Hardenberg), which Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse-Cassel joined. Open condi- tions : 1. France continued in possession of the Prussian territory on the left bank of the Rhine, until peace should be concluded with the empire. 2. A line of demarkation fixed the neutrality of northern Germany. Secret articles : Prussia consented to the absolute cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France and received the assurance of a recompense tlirough secularization. After other notable successes of the French, Spain concluded the 1795, July. Peace of Basle. Spanish St. Domingo was ceded to France ; all other conquests were restored (Godoy, the Spanish minister, jormce of the peace). In the naval war the English were for the most part in the ascend- ency. 1795, June 8. Death of the ten-year-old dauphin (Louis XVII.) in the temple, where he had been most shamefully abused.^ June 27. English and emigrants land at Quiberon (Brittany) to assist the royalists of that region (Chouans), but were defeated by Hoche (July 16-21)j and over 700 emigrants executed. Retaliatory massacre of 1,000 republican prisoners by Charette. Conclusion of the •war of the Vendee, defeat of the insurgents by Hoche. Execution of Stofflet and Charette (latter March 29, 1796). At Paris adoption of a new (third) constitution. Constitution of the year III., or 1795. The executive power was given to a directory of five persons ; the legislative to the council of elders (250), and the council of five hundred, but it was decreed that for the first term, two thirds of the members of both councils should be taken from among the members of the National Convention. Opposition to this limitation of choice at Paris and in the provinces. The royalists in the capital instigated an outbreak of the sections (city districts or wards). On the motion of Barras, general Bona- parte was placed in command of the troops of the convention. Bona- parte crushed the revolt by the bloody victory of the 1795, Oct. 5. 13th Vendemiaire, called the Day of the Sections. Cannonade from the church of St. Roch. The convention dis- solved (Oct. 26) after having voted (Oct. 25, Brumaire 3) that relatives of emigrants could hold no office. 1795-1799. Government of the Directory in France. Substitution of mandats convertible into a specified amount of land for the assignats, of which 145 billion francs had been issued. In the Vendee, after a short truce, a new and bloody war, which spread to Brittany (Chouans). Hoche suppressed the revolt in the Vendee (ended March 5, 1796). By the advice of Carnot the directory undertook a triple attack upon Austria. 1. The army of the Sambre and Meuse under Jourdan 1 The death of the dauphin, officially established and evidenced by many- witnesses, is beyond doubt. The pretenders who assumed his name later were^ one and all, impostors. 458 Modern History, A. d. , advanced from the lower Rhine to Franconia ; 2. the army of the Rhine and Moselle under Moreau penetrated from the upper Rhine to Swabia and Bavaria ; 3. the army of Italy under Napoleon Bona- parte was to attack Austria in Italy, and unite with the two former by way of Tyrol. The German campaign opened successfully for the French. Jour- dan and Moreau invaded south Germany. Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Bavaria were compelled to conclude truces. Suddenly fortune changed. 1796. Archduke Charles of Austria (brother of the emperor Francis) took the offensive against Jourdan, defeated him at Amberg (Aug,^, and at "Wurzburg (Sept. 3). Jourdan retreated to the Sieg, and resigned his command. The archduke then turned upon Moreau, who retired to the upper Rhine (retreat through the Black Forest). 1796, Mar. 9. Marriage of Bonaparte with Josephine de Beauharnais. 1796. Brilliant campaign of Bonaparte in Italy. Starting from, i Nice he followed the coast, defeated the Austrians in the April. Battles at Millesimo, the Piedmontese at Mondovi, and compelled the king of Sardmia, Victor Amadeus, to conclude May. A separate peace. 1. Cession of Savoy and Nice t® the French republic. 2. The French garrisoned the Piedmontese fortresses. Offensive and defensive alliance between France and Spain, the latter declaring war on England. May 10. Pursuit of the Austrians. Storming of the bridge over the Adda at Lodi ; Napoleon entered Milan (May 15), conquered the whole of Lombardy as far as Mantua. The dukes of Parma and Modena, the Pope and Naples, purchased a truce i with money and art treasures. Definite peace with the Pope i at Tolentino in Feb. 1797 ; the Pope ceded the RomagnUf Bologna, and Ferrara. 1796-1797. Siege of Mantua. Four attempts on the part of July. Feb. the Austrians to relieve the fortress. The Austrians defeated at Castiglione, Roveredo, Bassano, at Nov. 15-19. Arcole, and at 1797, Jan. Rivoli. Mantua surrendered (Feb. 2). 1797? March- April. Bonaparte crossed the Alps to meet archduke Charles who was advancing from Germany. The inhabitants of the Venetian territory rose against the French ; in Tyrol and Bohemia the people were called to arms. Bonaparte, in danger of being cut off, opened negotiations, which led to the conclu- sion of the 1797. Preliminary peace of Leoben, under the following condi- April 18. tions, which, however, were materially changed in the definite peace of Campo Formio (see below). 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress should mediate for peace with the empire on the basis of the integ- rity of the empire. 3. Austria ceded the region beyond the O^lio, [A. D. First French Revolution, 459 receiving in return the Venetian territory between the Oglio, Poy and Adriatic (which she was to conquer for herself), Venetian Dal- matia and Istria, and the fortresses of Mantua, Peschiera, and Palma Nova. 4. Venice was to be indemnified with the Romagna, Bologna, and Ferrara. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic which was to be formed in northern Italy. 1797, May. The French declared war upon Venice, under pretext of an outbreak at Verona. Abolition of the aristocracy and establishment of popular government. Occupation of the republic by French troops ; also of the Venetian islands of Greece (Ionian). Proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic (Milan, Modena^ Ferrara, Bologna, Romdgna). Transformation of the republic of Genoa into the Ligurian Republic under French control. 1797, Sept. 4. 18th Fructidor. Coup d'Btat at Paris. Victory of the republican party over the party of reaction, which was represented in the council of five hundred, in the council of ancients, and in the directory. The three republican directors, Barras, Rewhel, and La Revelliere defeated their colleagues, Bar- the'lemy and Carnot. The latter escaped by flight ; Barthelemy and many of his adherents, including Pichegru, were transported to Cayenjie. After lengthy negotiations, France and Austria concluded the Oct. 17. Peace of Campo Formio. Open articles : 1. Austria ceded the Belgian provinces to France. 2. A congress was convened at Rastadt to discuss peace with the empire. 3. Austria received the territory of Venice as far as the Adige, with the city of Venice, I stria, and Dalmatia. 4. France retained the Ionian islands. 5. Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic and indemnified the duke of Modena with the Breisgau. Secret articles : 1. Austria agreed to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine from Basle to Andernach, including Mainz, to France ; the navigation of the Rhine was left open to France and Germany in common ; those princes who lost by the cession were to receive in- demnification in Germany. 2. France was to use her influence to secure to Austria, Salzburg, and that portion of Bavaria which lay between Salzburg, the Tyrol, the Inn, and the Salza. 3. Re- ciprocal guarantee that Prussia should not receive any new acquisi- tion of territory in return for her cessions on the left bank of the Rhine. 1796-1801. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, succeeded his mother Catharine II. (p. 411). 1797-1840. Frederic William III., King of Prussia. Wdllner dismissed. Edict of religion revoked. 1797, Dec.-1799, April. Congress of Rastadt. No agreement. 1798. The French occupied Rome. Proclamation of the Feb. Roman Republic. Captivity of the Pope, Pius VI, Disturbances in Switzerland. The French entered the country, The confederacy transformed into one 460 Modem History, A. d. 1798, April. Helvetian Republic. Geneva annexed to France. 1798-1799. Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition, prepared under the mask of an invasion of England, against whose East Indian Empire this expedition was in truth directed. Army of England at Boulogne. The opposition of the directory being overcome the fleet sailed from Toulon (May 19, 1798), with 35,000 men, accompanied by a large number of scientists. Bonaparte, Ber- thier, Kle'ber, later, Desaix. Capitulation and occupation of Malta (June 12), disembarkation in Egypt (July 1). Capture of Alexandria (July 2). Battle of the Pyramids won against the Mamelukes (July 21). Capture of Cairo (July 22). Desaix advances toward upper Egypt. The English fleet annihilated the French in the 1798. Battle of the Nile at Aboukir (Nelson), thus cut- Aug. 1. ting off the French army from France. A popidar uprising in Cairo suppressed. The Porte having de- clared war upon France, Bonaparte attacked the pasha of Syria, stormed Jaffa (massacre of 1200 prisoners) but was unable to capture St. Jean d'Acre (Akko), the defense of which was supported by the English. Bonaparte victorious over the Turks at Alt. Tabor (April 1 16). Pestilence in the French army. Retreat to Egypt. Arrival of the Turks at Aboukir, where they were completely defeated by Bonaparte (Murat), 1799, July 25. 1799-1801. War of the second coalition, composed of Russia, Austria, England, Portugal, Naples, the Ottoman Porte, and owing its origin chiefly to Paul I., emperor of Russia, whom the Knights of Malta had elected grand master. Plan of the allies : 1. An English-Russian army (duke of York) was i to drive the French from the Netherlands. 2. An Austrian army (arch- duke Charles) should drive them out of Germany and Switzerland, while 3. a Russian-Austrian army expelled them from Italy (Suvarqff and Melas). The war began in the latter part of 1798 by a Neapolitan invasion i of the Roman Republic, under the Austrian general Mack. The m- vasion was repulsed, the king of Naples fled to Palermo, the kingdom of Naples was occupied by the French and transformed into the 1799. Parthenopaean Republic. The grand duke of Tuscany was I Jan. driven from his domains. The king of Sardinia escaped from Turin and took up his residence in Cagliari in Sardinia; his for- tresses upon the mainland were placed under French control. After 1802 they were annexed to France. The directory opposed to the coalition six armies under as many com- manders. 1. Brune in Holland ; 2. Bernadotte on the middle Rhine; 3. Jourdan on the upper Rhine ; 4. Massena in Switzerland ; 5. Scherer, afterwards Moreau, in upper Italy; 6. Macdonald in Naples. 1799. Jourdan, defeated by archduke Charles at Ostrach and Stock- March., ach, retreated across the Rhine and laid down his command. His army and that of Bernadotte were placed under Massena. April. Scherer defeated by the Austrians at Magnano. His successor, Moreau, defeated by the Austrians (Melas) and Russians (5m- varoff) at Cassano. Abolition of the Cisalpine Republic. A.. D. First French Revolution. 461 1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Rastadt. Mysterious murder of the French ambassadors, Roherjot and Bonnier (De- hry escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from Transylvania (Apr. 28). June 4-7. Massena defeated by archduke Charles at Zurich. Mac- donald being called to uppe r Italy, the king of Naples returned and the Parthenopjean Republic was abolished. Terrible ven- geance, accompanied by massacres. Nelson, Lady Hamilton. Abolition of the Roman Republic. June 17-19. Macdonald defeated by Suvaroff on the Trehhia. Man- tua taken by the allies. The directory sent Jouhert to Italy with a new army. He was defeated in the bloody Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvaroff and Melas. Joubert.f Su- varoff crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Gothard in order to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the mid- dle Rhine, in Switzerland. His army however had already been defeated at Zurich by Mas- sena. Suvaroff left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and inarches, and returned to Russia. A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Isl- ands under Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which occupied the same until 1807. Jmie 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory under Sieyes ; a revolution which resulted in the return of Bonaparte. 1799, Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated at Alkmar. Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egypt, landed at Frejus, and in alliance with the directors, June. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte f president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the direc- tory by the Nov. 9, Coup d'Etat of the 18th Brumaire, and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following day. 1799-1804. The Government of the Consulate with Napoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of ^rst consul for ten years, and two consuls appomted by him, Cambaceres and Lehrun, who had consultative voices only. The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VIII.), ori- g^ally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (3,000,000 to 1,567), pre- served the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the depart- ments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials and the judges. Legislative power without the initiative: 1. tribunate 462 Modern History, A. R (100) discussed the proposals of the government without voting. 2. The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of the first consul, who was aided by a council of state. The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies. Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments) and sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent creation of that centralization which still prevails in France. New system of tax-collection ; receveur-general for each department (abol- ished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arron- dissement. Code Napolifon commenced. The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. Paul, emperor of Russia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flat- tery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive alliance between Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Re- newal of the previous (1780) armed neutrality at sea (p. 536). North- ern convention (1800). 1800. Double campaign of the French in Italy under Napo- leon Bonaparte, in Upper Germany under Moreau. April. A. In Italy. Massena defeated at Voltri ; Melas advanced to Nice. Obsti- nate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult) ; after a terri- June 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). June 2. Capture of Milan. Restoration of the Cisalpine Repubhc. General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 180 0> June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon. Desaix f . According to the truce concluded with Melas, all fortresses west of the Mincio and south of the Po were sur- rendered by the Austrians to the French. B. In Germany : Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stock- ach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau defeated the archduke John in the 1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden, captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mincio (Dec.) and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was conclU'« ded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the 1801, Feb. 9. Peace of Luneville, from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Empiia practically dates. A. D» First French Revolution. 463 Chief conditions : 1. Ratification of the cessions made by Austria and to her in the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459). 2. Cession of the grand duchy of Tuscany (Austrian secundogeniture) to Par- ma, to be indemnified in Germany. 3. The Emperor and Empire consented to the cession of the left bank of the Rhuie to France, the valley of the Rhine (i. e. the middle of the river), the boundary. The princes who lost by this operation received indemnification in Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. Germany lost by this peace, taking, the Belgic territory into account, 25,180 square miles with almost 3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received an increase of territory. The shameful negotiations over the indemnifications lasted more than two years (p. 465), during which time the ambassadors of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and their mistresses. Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Parma, a Spanish secundogeni- ture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it to the United States (1803). The peace of Lundville was succeeded, after conclusion of a truce, by the 1801, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of Elba. 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns. Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupa/- tion of Hanover. 1801, March 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was succeeded by his son, 1801-1825. Alexander I. Reconciliation between Russia and England (in 1801 England I had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to f withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern Convention was now dissolved. 1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal ma- chines. 130 " Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although the attempts had originated with the royalists. In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte had devolved upon Kle'ber, who defeated the Turks in the battle of Heliopolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kleber at Cairo (June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army transported to France by the English fleet. 1801. Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a 1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French archbishops and (50) bishops were to be appointed and sup- ported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VII., elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognized in the possession of the 464 Modern History, A. d, !Papal States, without Ferrara^ Bologna^ and the Romagna. The lib- erties of the Gallican church were strongly asserted. By the new organization of the " Universite," an incorporated body of teachers wiio had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher education was made dependent upon the government. The institute national was reorganized and divided mto four (later ^ye) academies :; 1. academie francaise (1635) ; 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettresl (1663, 1701) ; 3. a. des sciences (1666) ; 4. a. des beaux arts (1648) ;! 6. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832). i After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabi- net, and after long negotiations, the 1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens was concluded between England and Prance. 1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and hen allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. Malta must be restored to the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, peace was concluded between France and the Porte. Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). As- sumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused himself to be elected by a popular vote (plebiscite, 3^ millions), 1802, August 2. Consul for life, with the right of appointing his successor. Ne"w (fifth) constitution. The powers of the senate, which was ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legis- lative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced. Napoleon had already become president of the Italian Republic, as the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Pied- mont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by a landamman and a diet. As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lune- j ville was executed according to a plan of indemnification established I by France and Russia by the 1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. {Reichs* deputationshauptschluss) . ^ Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only : 1. the former: elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed I out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine, the bishopric of Regensburg, and the cities of Regensburg , and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the TeU' tonic order. 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities : Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and i Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremberg. All other ecclesiastical estates and I imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bish- oprics of Trier and Cologne were abolished. Four new electorates ; Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Wurtemberg, Salzburg. ,. 1 £iiclilioru, Deutsche Staals u. Rechtsgeschichte, IV. § 606. A- D. First French Revolution. 465 Principal Indemnifications : 1. The grand duchy of Tuscany : Salz- hurg, and Berchtesgaden. 2. Duke of Modena : Breisgau (in ex- change for which Austria received the ecclesiastical foundations of Trient and Brixen). 3. Bavaria : bishoprics of Wiirzhurg, Bamberg, Freising, Augsburg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 4. Baden received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right bank of the Rliine (Heidelberg, Mannheim) . Baden also received : the portion of the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasburg, Speyer, on the right bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial cities. 5. WUrtemberg : many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial cities, especially Reutlingen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prussia : the bishoprics of Paderborn, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had belonged to Mainz (Eichfeld and Erfurt), a part of Munster, many abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Muhlhau" sen, Nordhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg : bishopric of Liibeck. 8. Hanover : bishopric of Osnabriick. 9. Hesse (Darmstadt and Cas- sel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine. 10. Nassau-Orange : bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As a rule the indemnified princes gained considerably in territory and subjects. • 1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened England with an invasion. Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadou- dal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Conde, was taken by violence from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in accordance with the wishes and under the order of Napoleon,^ with- out the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes on the night of March 20-21. On the 18tli of May the tribunate and senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte, 1804-1814 (15) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of the French. The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bona- parte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Pius VI I. (Dec. 2), placing the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of 1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted by Thiers and others, throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon T. afterwards endeav- ored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditated murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Iianfrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. iii. 128, foil. 30 466 Modern History, A. IX> .^6 S 5R S fi <» - c-S^i- ooo .a ^ a O el O "5 ft on -2 53 <0 _ «^ o h --s d «■ ^■rJ o - P^^ 00 CO s^-iga§Ss O O . -I a ►•a d «« . -9* i^g .g ace "3 ■« o5 ^^ P4'[^,„ " > a OS g ^ w E 3 u go ^ o t« C c« m S^5 ■^*u ll^ ^•^ a -^:;^a|' I- aT o fe § . -iilil A. D< Napoleonic Wars, 467 Charles the Great, who, as Charlemagne, was transformed into a Frenchman and. prototype of Napoleon). Establishment of a bril- liant court. Grand dignitaries of the empire ; eighteen marshals. New nobility. An absolute monarchy of the purest type. (Aboli- tion of the tribunate, 1807.) 1805. Napoleon king of Italy. His stepson Eugene BeauharnaiSy son of Josephine^ viceroy of Naples. The Ligurian Republic incorporated with France. 1805. Third coalition against France, between England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden (Gustavus IV.), for the purpose of restoring the balance of power in Europe. Spain allied with France. The camp at Boulogne broken up. The French armies under Da- vout, Soult, Lannes, Ney, advanced toward the Rhine. The main force of the Austrians in Italy under archduke Charles opposed to Massena ; in Germany, under archduke Ferdinand and Alack. Napo- leon commanded in person in Germany ; relying on the support of most of the south German states, he advanced to meet the Austrians who had invaded Bavaria. On the upper Danube he concentrated bis forces (200,000 men), reinforced by Bernadotte, who on his way from Hanover had marched through the neutral territory of Ansbach in Prussia, and by troops from Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Baden, Besse, Nassau. After the Austrians (80,000 men) had been de- feated in several engagements, and the main army was surroimded by the French, 1805. Mack surrendered in Ulm with the whole Austrian army Oct. 17. (30,000 men), prisoners of war. On the sea England opened the war brilliantly with the 1805. Victory of Nelson at Trafalgar Oct. 21. over the French and Spanish fleet. Death of Nelson I ("England expects every man to do his duty"). This vic- pory broke the naval power of France. I The French marched upon Vienna, which was taken by Murat «rithout resistance. Archduke Charles, who had driven back Massena^ returned to Germany ; a Russian army under Kutusoff, a second un- ier the emperor Alexander, came to the assistance of Austria. In :he 1805. Battle of Austerlitz (the battle of the three em- Dec. 2. perors). Napoleon defeated the united forces of Austria and Russia. Truce with Austria. Retreat of the Russians. Dec. 15. Treaty concluded by Prussia, which was on the point of joining the coalition, with Napoleon at Schonbrunn (Haug- witz). Prussia ceded to France the remaining part of Cleve (Wesel) on the left bank of the Rhine, Ansbach, and Neuchdtel, and was promised Hanover in exchange. Dec, 26. Peace of Pressburg, between Prance and Austria. 1. France received Piedmont, Parma, and Piacenza. 2. Austria ceded to the kingdom of Italy all that she had received of Venetian 468 Modern History. A. D. territory at the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459) ; also Venetian Istria and Dalmatia, and recognized Napoleon as king of Italy. 3. Austria ceded to Bavaria : Tyrol, Vorarlberg, the bishoprics Brixen and Trient, Burgau, Eichstadt, Passau, Lindau, besides which Bavaria received the free city of Augsburg. 4. Austria ceded to "Wurteiu* berg and Baden what remained of the western Austrian lands. 5. Bavaria and Wiirteniberg were recognized as kingdoms. 61 Austria received as indemnification : Salshurg, Berchtesgaden, and! the estates of the Teutonic order which were secularized. The elec-i tor of Salzburg received Wurzburg from Bavaria as indemnificatiom Russia remained hostile. 1805. The Bourbons in Naples were dethroned by a proclamatiou; Dec. issued by Napoleon from Schonbrunn (La dynastie de NaplesL a cesse de regner). 1806. Joseph, Napoleon's elder brother, king of Naples. The court of Naples withdrew to Palermo. Sicily was beyond Napoleon's reach, as the English controlled thel sea. > Joachim Murat, brother-in-law of Napoleon, created grand duke! of Berg ; Marshal Berthier, prince of Neuchdtel ; Louis Bonaparte/ Napoleon's third brother, king of Holland (the former Batavian Rej public). ' 1806. Establishment of the Confederation of the Rhinej July 12. Napoleon, protector. Prince Primate, iormeAy electoral archJ chancellor ; the kings of Bavaria and Wiirteniberg ; the grand diikeil of Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Berg, duke of Nassau, etc. After-; wards all the German princes joined the confederation except Aus-\ tria, Prussia, Brunswick, and the electorate of Hesse. Many princes holding immediately of the empire mediatized. The free city of Nuremberg assigned to Bavaria, Frankfort to the prince primas {gi'and duke of Frankfort). Emperor Francis, who had already assumed the title of emperor of his hereditary Austrian estates (1804), 1806> Aug. 6. Abdicated the crown of the Holy Roman empire. End of the old German empire. i 1806-1835. Francis I., emperor of Austria. 1806-1807. (Fourth) War with Prussia and Russia. Grounds of the Prussian declaration of war : Erection of the con-l f ederacy of the Rhine, annexation of Wesel, seizure of Essen and Verden, garrisoning of half of Germany with French troops ; Napo-| Icon's offer to England to take away from Prussia the territory of Hanover which had just been forced upon her ; the Prussians were,' moreover, embittered against the French by the high-handed execu- tion of Palm, a bookseller of Nuremberg, who had published some^ strictures upon Napoleon. , Dangerous situation of Prussia at the outbreak of war. The com-! plete separation of the military and civil orders had brought it about' L. D. Napoleonic Wars, 469 ;hat the safety of the state rested on a half-trained array composed n part of foreigners, on a superannuated general, and on subordinate !oniinanders who, full of arrogant pride in tlie ancient military fame )f Prussia, regarded the French with contempt. No allies except 'Saxony and distant Russia. Dissension between Prussia and England. iVaut of decision in the cabinet and in the conduct of the war. L806. Concentration of the Prussian army in Thuringia under the old duke of Brunswick. Defeat of the Prussian advance at Saalfeld (Oct. 10), prince Louis Ferdinand f. In the L806, Oct. 14. Double battle of Jena and Auerst'adt m the main army was completely defeated. Dissolution of the * army. The reserve under the prince of Wurtemherg was de- feated and scattered at Halle (Oct. 17). Napoleon in Berlin (Oct. 27). The prince of Hohenlohe with .2,000 men was forced to surrender at Prenzlau (Oct. 28). Bliicher liter a brave defence in Lubeck was obliged to surrender his whole :orps at Ratkau as prisoners of war (Nov. 7). Incredibly hasty surrender of the fortresses : Erfurt, Spandau, Stettin, Kustrin, Magde- urg, Hameln ; only Kolberg (^Gneisenau, Schill, Nettelbeck) and Grau- lenz ( Courbiere) defended themselves resolutely. The duke of Bruns- idck (f Nov. 10, at Ottensen) and the neutral elector of Hesse were [iriven out of the country. Coarse behavior of Napoleon toward the loyal family (queen Louisa). Robbery of the nmseums and picture naileries. From his headquarters in Berlin Napoleon proclaimed (Nov. il) the senseless (paper) blockade of Great Britain and the closure 'f the continent to British trade, a policy summed up in the title, (■ Continental System " (" Berlin decree "). The troops of France, fJavaria, and Wiirtemberg invaded Silesia. The Poles summoned to revolt. Separate peace and alliance of Napoleon with the elector of ^axo7iy (Dec. 11), who joined the confederacy of the Rhine as king ff Saxony. Occupation of Hanover and the Hanseatic cities. ,807. Fall of Breslau, followed by that of the most of the Silesian fortresses. After several bloody engagements in the neigh- borhood of Pultusk, Prussians and Russians fought against the French, without decisive result, in the murderous 807, Feb. 7, 8. Battle of Eylau, where the Prussians repulsed the right wing of the French under Davout. Winter quarters. Frederic William III. went to Memel. lay 26. Danzig captured after a brave defense (KalckreutK). After several engagements Napoleon was victorious in the une 14. Battle of Friedland, over the Russians. Konigsberg and the country as far as the Uevien occupied by Napoleon. Truce with Russia (June 21), with 'russia (June 25). Meeting of Napoleon, Alexander, and Frederic Villiam on the Niemen. 807. Peace of Tilsit, uly 7. A. Between France and Russia. Illy 9. B. Between F^rance and Prussia, 470 Modern History. A. d. A. 1. Russia recognized the duchy of Warsaw, which was formed out of South Prussia, parts of West Prussia, and Neiv East Prussia, under the king of Saxony. 2. Danzig restored to the con- dition of a free city. 3. A part of New East Prussia (Bialystock) ceded to Russia. 4. Russia recognized Joseph Bonaparte as king of Naples, Louis Bonaparte as king of Holland, Jerome Bonaparte as king of Westphalia, a new kingdom yet to be created ; Russia, more- over, recognized the Confederation of the Rhine, and accepted the mediation of Napoleon in concluding peace with the Turks, while Napoleon accepted the like good offices from Alexander in regard to England. In a secret article, Alexander agreed to an alliance with' France against England, in case the latter refused to accept the prof-' fered peace. ! B. 1. Prussia ceded : (a) to Napoleon for free disposal, all lands- between the Rhine and Elbe ; (b) to Saxony, the circle of Cottbus ; (c] all lands taken from Poland since 1772 for the creation of a duchy oi Warsaw, also the city and territory of Danzig. 2. Prussia recognized' the sovereignty of the three brothers of Napoleon. 3. All Prussian, harbors and lands were closed to British ships and British trade until the conclusion of a peace with England. 4. Prussia was to maintain a standing army of not more than 42,000 men. In regard to the res- toration and evacuation of the Prussian provinces and fortresses, i< was settled by the treaty of Konigsberg (July 12), that Prussia should first pay all arrears of war indemnities. These indemnifications, fixed at nineteen million francs by the Prus- sian calculations, were set at 120 millions by the French, which sun was raised to 140 millions in 1808. After 120 millions had beei paid the fortresses were evacuated, excepting Stettin, Kustrin, anc Glogau. Until this occurred the Prussian state, reduced as it was from 89,120 to 46,032 square miles, was obliged to support 150,00t French troops. ! 1807, Aug. Foundation of the kingdom of "Westphalia (capital Cassel) by a decree of Napoleon, who reserved for himsel ' half of the domains. High-handed proceeding of the English against Denmark, whicl had been summoned to join the continental system. An English flee bombarded (1807, Sept.) Copenhagen, and carried off the Danisl fleet. Alliance of Denmark with France. Russia declared war upoi England. Stralsund and Riigen occupied by the French. Portugal, which refused to join the continental system, occupies by a French army under Junot (duke of Abrantes) Nov. 1807 The royal family fled to Brazil. Milan decree, Dec. 17, 1807. Spain invaded by 100,000 Frenchmen under the pretext of guard ing the coasts against the English. Charles IV. (1788-1808) abdi cated in favor of his son Ferdinand (March, 1808), in consequenci of an outbreak which had occurred against his favorite, the prince o the peace, Godoy. Father and son, with Godoy, were enticed by Na poleon to Bayonne and compelled to renounce the throne (May; Napoleon's brother Joseph became king of Spain, Murat taking th throne of Naples instead of Joseph. General uprising of th Spaniards. ■ A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 471 1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Brit- ain in Spain and Portugal. ('' Peninsular War.") The English landed in Portugal and forced Junot to surrender \Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country (Sir ; Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. iNapoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the em- iperor Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where four kings, thirty-four princes, and other German rulers who had done ^him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced jto Madrid, and with Soult drove the English from Spain (battle of Corunna Jan. 16, 1809. Death of Sir John Moore). After the de- parture of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla war- jfare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Sarar/ossa (Palafox), iwhich surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general. Sir Arthur \Wellesley (b. 1769; officer in East India 1797-1805 ; M. P. 1806; vis- (count Wellington, 1809 ; duke of Wellington, 1814 ; prime minister, (1827-1830 ; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Tala- fvera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made .commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. SouCt, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and (Portuguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again. 'l. In Prussia, meanwhile, the state was reorganized after the dis- ImissaJ. of Beymes and Zastrow, by Charles, baron of and in Stein ,i(b. 1757 at Nassau ; since 1780, in Prussian civil service ; 1796 over- ipresident of the chamber of Westphalia ; 1804 minister of finance, ^. 1831), and Hardenherg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of dustry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the adminis- ration of the public finances. Reorganization of the army on the basis f universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grobnan, Boyen, Clausewitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1755, in Hanover, son of a peasant, offi- cer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken prisoner at Ratkau with BlUcher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, Al- tenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, John. E. M. Arndt. Preparations Eor the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by mak- ing use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war. 1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walchere?i (p. 537). 1809. (Fifth) War with Austria. Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of 5o- ^mria, and archduke John, commander of the Austrian forces which wrere sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the Struggle against the French supremacy. 7''yrol alone heeded the summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Speckbacher). [ Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in Bavaria, with German A.pr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after five days' fighting at Abemberg, Landshut, Eckmuhl and jRe- Slay 13. gensburg, and captured Vienna for the second time. Na- poleon crossed the island of Lobau, to the left bank of the Dan' ube, where in the bloody 472 Modern History. A. d. 1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling (on the March/eld), he was, for the Jirst time, defeated byi archduke Charles, and (Lannes f) forced to recross the Dan- ube (Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary and defeated him at Raab. With 180,000 men Napoleont crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in thel murderous 1809, July 5-6. Battle of Wagram, and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim. Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schon- brunn. 1 . Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 3^ million inhabitants, viz. : a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Inn- viertel, and half of the Hausriickviertel to Bavaria ; b. West Galicia, to the duchy of Warsaw ; c. one district in East Galicia (Tarnopol) to Russia ; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had surrendered to him in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces un der Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the continental system, and broke off all connection with England. The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic cour-: age, but were in the end subdued, Hofer captured and shot by the French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol annexed to the king-; dom of Italy. Bold attempt of Schill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war ofi liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The newS' of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill fell fighting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and after a half year's imprisonment in the bagno, or prison for galley- slaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunswick across northern Ger- many. He succeeded in transporting himself and the " Black Legion " to England. Gustavus IV., of Sweden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had been since 1808 involved in war with Russia, which had conquered Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victun of his obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Both- nia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mu- tiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on March 13, 1809, by generals Klingspor and A dlerkreuz, obliged to abdicate, and dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The crown was given to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 473 son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Russia, Sept. 17, 1809, 'S"weden surrendered to Russia the principality of Finland as far as the river Tornea, together with the ishmds of Aland. By the media- -tion of Russia Sweden concluded the peace of Paris with France, (Jan. 6, 1810, whereby Sweden joined the continental system and iobtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden ideath of prince Christian August of Holstein-Augustenburg, whom Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the French marshal Bernadotte (prince of Pontecorvo) was elected crown 'prince of Sweden. Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius VII. steadfastly refusing to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance ^with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from \Schdnbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were incorporated with France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in I June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble iand thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's de- mands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontainebleau.) In Turkey, after the deposition of Seli7n HI., war broke out again ?with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuck, the I Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which I pursued them was captured (1811). fl812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest : the Pruth was made the '■ boundary between Russia and Turkey, [1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria i Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria. Abdication and ( flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who had refused ; to ruin his country by joining the continental system. Annexation of r Holland, as the " alluvial deposit of French rivers,^' to the French i empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallis, and soon after of f Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the grand \ duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French r empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east r as far as the Trave. In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon ; French, Italian, f and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from ; Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the j sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812). 1 In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and \ capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). Retreat [ of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). Winter f quarters. 1811, March ; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of [ Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena f from Portugal. Soult, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was de- feated in the bloody 1811, May 16. Battle of Albuera. The English returned to ' Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and Badajoz (April 6). 474 Modern History. A, ix 1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca; victory of Wellington. Cap. ture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pomp^ ous title of king of Rome. Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losses, Cayenne^ Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Gucu* \ deloupe. Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batavia) \ 1811. 1812-1814. War between England and the United States of North America in consequence of commercial dissensions concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551). 1812. (Sixth) War with Russia. Cause : Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd continental system, which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The ad- dition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated ; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, his near relative, offended him deeply. Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in main- taining neutrality during the war with Russia. Sweden {Berna' dotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon ' concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon ^ England (1810), seized the opportunity of ihe Russian war, to shake off her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect 1 of obtaining Norway, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of Swedish Pomerania and Riigen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty of St. Petersburg between S"weden and Russia, April : Russia promised S^weden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification for Denmark ; Sweden promised Russia to make a diversion in northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force. England concluded peace with Russia and Siveden at Orebro (June). The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the con- •' federacy of the Rhine , in fact, the smaller part only of the army was French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 553,000. The AuS" trians, under Schwarzenherg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being under the command of Macdonald. 1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army ; occupation of Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians under Barclay de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, while the Prussians besieged Riga, and the Austrians penetrated Fo^Ay- f A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 475 nia. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 18). The Russian l^eneral Kutusoff", obtaining the command in cliief, fought the bloody 1812, Sept. 7, Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk on the Moskowa, in wliich both parties suffered enormous losses ^ (French, 32,000 ; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already ohrunk to 95,000 men.^ Napoleon in the Kremlin. iSept. 15-19. Burning of Moscow {Rostopschin). 1;^ Sack of the city in the midst of ashes and ruins. Napoleon proffered a truce, wiiich the Russians rejected by an answer whose delivery was purposely delayed. After remaining five weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his r Oct. 19. Retreat from Moscow, at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards Smo^ lensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army under Kutusoff, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Des- perate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, Oct. 24, and VJazma, Nov. 3. Nov. 6. Commencement of the cold weather. Terrible sufPer- I ing from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, espe- cially at Krasnoy (Ney, "the bravest of the brave"), and Borissoff. Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina. Ney and Oudinot, with 8,500 men, forced a passage against 25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remain- ing fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat be- came a wild flight. Dec. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived Dec. 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Rus- sians until Dec. 13, when the remaining troops (100,000), crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners according to their reports. In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 able-bodied young men on the side of the French and their allies. Dec. 30. York concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian general Diebitch, in the mill of Po^cherun near Tauroggen. 1813 and 1814. The Great 'War of Liberation of the allies against Napoleon. 1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William III. issued i from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps, I whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish between Russia and Prussia : 1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the auxil- 1 Of. V Toll, Denkwurdigkeiten. 476 Modern History, A. d. iary armies to be furnished by either side. 2. Restoration ok the Prussian monarchy according to old political relations. 3. Invitation extended to Austria and England to join the alli- ance. 1813, March 3. Treaty between England and Sweden : England paid one million rix dollars in subsidies and promised not to op- pose the union of Norway with Sweden. Sweden furnished the allies an army of 30,000 men under command of the crown prince Bernadotte (the inactive and suspicious conduct of this general afterwards entirely disabled the northern army). March 17. Appeal of Frederic "William III. " To my people," and " to my army." Establishment of the Landwehr and the Landsturm. Iron Cross. March. Outbreak in Hamburg. Tettenborn occupied the city. The dukes of Mecklenburg withdrew from the confederacy of the Rhine. Great preparations on both sides. The Elbe was the boundary be- tween the combatants ; Danzig, Stettin, Kilstrin, Glogau, Modlin, and Zamosc, being, however, in the hands of the French. March 27. Occupation of Dresden by Russians and Prussians under Wittgenstein and Blucher, after the withdrawal of marshal Da- vout. Flight of the king of Saxony. The French army and the contingents of the confederacy of the Rhine concentrated in Franconia, Thuringia, and on the Elbe. Napoleon, after the end of April, was at the head of 180,000 men in Germany. He was unexpectedly attacked by the armies of the allies, numbering 85,000 men, and forced to fight the May 2. Battle of Gross-Gorschen or Liitzen. Victory remained with the French, in spite of their losses* i The allies withdrew through Dresden to Lusatia. Schamhorst,} severely wounded, died in Prague. Napoleon in Dresden, in close alliance with the king of Saxony, who had returned from Prague. 1813, May 18. Landing of the crown prince Bernadotte with Swedishi troops, in Pommerania. May 20 and 21. Battles of Bautzen and Wurschen. Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced them to retreati across the Spree, and completed the victory at Wurschen, with great loss to himself. Duroc f . The allies retreated to Si-i lesia. May 30. Hamburg occupied by Davout, after the withdrawal of thai Russians, and terribly maltreated. The combatants, exhausted, waited for reinforcements and strove to secure the alliance of Austria. June 4-July 26. Armistice of Poischwitz, afterwards prolonged until Aug. 10 (16). June 15. England concluded a subsidy treaty with Prussia an^ Russia at Reichenbach. July 5 (28)-Aug. 11. Congress at Prague. Austria played the part of mediator. After futile negotiations (Metternich, CaUf' I A. D. Napoleonic Wars. All laincourt, William von Humboldt), the congress was dissolved and 1813, Aug. 12. Austria declared war upon France. The allies, supported by English subsidies, placed three main armies in the field : 1. The great Bohemian army under Schwarzenberg (Kleist, JVlttgensteln)^ with which were the three mon- archs, Alexander, Francis, Frederic William. 2. The Silesian army under Bliicher {York, Saclzen, Langeron). 3. The Northern army under the crown prince of Swe- < den, Bernadotte (Billoiv, Tauenzien, Winzing erode). Napoleon opened hostilities with an attack upon Bliicher who re- tired behind the Katzbach. Meanwhile Schwarzenherg advanced against Dresden from Bohemia. Napoleon hastened thither, leaving Macdonald to oppose Bliicher. Before an action occurred at either of these points, Oudinot and Reynier, whose attack upon Berlui was to be supported by Davout from Hamburg, were defeated by Billow in the Aug. 23. Battle of Grosbeeren, while the crown prince of Saxony looked on inactive. This victory saved Berlin from capture and sack. Directly afterwards Macdonald^s army was defeated in the Aug. 26. Battle of the Katzbach near Wahlstatt by Bliicher, a part being captured. Bliicher created Prince of Wahlstatt. Meanwliile the attack of the Bohemian army upon Dresden failed. Napoleon won his last great victory on German soil in the Aug. 26 and 27, Battle of Dresden. Moreau, on the side of the allies, was severely wounded by a cannon-ball, f Sept. 2. Aug. 27. Victorious engagement at Hagelberg. (Landwehr of the electoral mark.) Vandamme, in the attempt to intercept the retreat of the Bohemian army, was defeated in the Aug. 30. Battle at Kulm and Nollendorf near Teplitz, by Ostermann and Kleist, and captured with 10,000 men. Ney, who was to occupy Berlin, was defeated in the Sept. 6. Battle of Dennewitz by Billow and Tauenzein. Austria having already arranged the preliminaries of an alliance with Russia and Prussia, dur- ing the armistice, a formal Sept. 9. Alliance was concluded at Teplitz : 1. Firm union and mutual guarantee for their respective terri- tories. 2. Each party to assist the others with at least 60,000 men. 3. No separate peace or armistice to be concluded. Secret 478 Modern History, A. i*. articles provided for the restoration of the Austrian and Prv^- sian monarchies to the condition of 1805. 1813, Sept. 17. Napoleon repulsed by Schwarzenherg at Nollendorf. York forced a passage across the Elbe for the army of Silesia by the Oct. 3. Battle of "Wartenburg, against Bertrand. The northern army also crossed the Elbe. Oct. 8. Treaty of Ried between Austria and Bavaria, which with- drew from the confederacy of the Rhine and joined the alli- ance against Napoleon. In return the king of Bavaria was secured in all the possessions which he held at the date of the treaty. As the three main armies of the allies were attempting to unite in Napoleon's rear, the latter left Dresden in order to escape being cut off from France, and concentrated his troops at Leipzig. 1813, Oct. 16, 18, 19. Battle of Leipzig. ("Battle of the Nations"). Oct. 16. On the first day : 1. Indecisive battle between Napoleon and the army of Bo- hemia under Schwarzenberg at Wachau (south of Leipzig). 2. Victory of Bliicher at Mookern, north of Leipzig, over Marmont. Oct. 17. On the next day the main armies desisted from fighting. Napoleon sent offers of peace to Francis I. which were rejected on account of the extravagance of his demands. Toward even- ing union of the four armies of the allies : the grand army, the northern army, with which the army of Silesia had already united by an extraordinary march of Bliicher, and finally the Russian reserve (100,000) under Bennigsen. The armies of the allies, forming a large half circle, largely outnumbered I the French. (300,000 men against 130,000). Oct. 18. On the third day general attack of the allies, ending, after nine hours' fighting, in a complete victory. (Struggle for Probstheide). In the evening the French army was driven back to the gates of Leipzig. The corps of Saxony and TFwr- temberg went over to the allies. Oct. 19. Storm of Leipzig and capture of the king of Saxony. After suffering a loss of more than 30,000 men, the defeated army of Napoleon commenced the retreat. The destruction of the bridge over the Elster before the whole army had crossed caused the drowtt ing of many troops in the Elster, among them prince PoniatowsJd, nephew of the last king of Poland. On the retreat engagement on the Unstrut between Napoleon and York^s advanced guard, and at Hanau (Oct. 30, 31) with an Aus- tro-Bavarian army under Wrede. The French were victorious. Immediate consequences of the battle of Leipzig : flight of king Jerome from Cassel ; end of the kingdom of Westphalia, and of the ^rand duchies of Frankfort and Berg. Restoration of the old rulers Cassel, Brunswick, Hanover, Oldenburg. The central administra- A. D. Napoleonic Wars. 479 tive bureau for Germany under baron von SteiUf which had been created at the beginning of the war for the government of those dis- tricts which should be occupied by the troops of the allies, found its sphere of action limited almost entirely to Saxony. 1813, Nov. Napoleon crossed the Rhine at Mainz. Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and the remaining members of the confederacy of the lihine joined the allies. The cities occupied by the French fell into the hands of the allies one after another. Dres- den (Nov. 11), Stettin (Nov. 21), Lixbeck (Dec. 5), Zamosc, Modlin, Torgau (Dec. 26), Danzig (Dec. 30), Wittenberg (Jan. 12, 1814, by Tauenzien), Kustrin (March 7). Glogau, Magdeburg, Hamburg (Da- vout), Erfurt, Wiirzburg, Wesel, Mainz, maintained themselves until the peace. Uprising in Holland (Nov. 15), expulsion of the French officials. A part of the northern army under Biiloiv entered Holland, while the crown prince of Sweden, with the main body of the northern army separated completely from the allies, invaded Holstein, in a short winter campaign forced Denmark to conclude the 1814, Jan. 14. Peace of Kiel : 1. Denmark renounced the posses- sion of Norway in favor of Sweden, which guaranteed to the Norwegians the possession of their liberties and rights. 2. Sweden ceded to Denmark western Pomerania and RUgen. At the same time peace between Denmark and England, the latter restoring all conquests except Heligoland ; afterwards peace with Russia and Prus- sia. Meantime the French, after they had already (in 1812) lost the southern part of the country, and Madrid itself for a time, were driven almost entirely out of Spain in 1813. After the French power had been weakened by the departure of Soult with a large number of troops for Germany (Feb. 1813), Well- ington repulsed Soult's successor, Jourdan, and king Joseph, and defeated them in the 1813, June 21. Battle of Vittoria. Joseph fled to France. Siege of Pampeluna by the Spaniards. Soult returning with reinforcements to the relief of Pampeluna was defeated in the Pyrenees (July 28, 29), and withdrew behind the Bidassoa. At the same time marshal Suchet was driven out of Val- encia into Barcelona. After the conquest of Pampeluna (Oct. 31) by the Spaniards, Wellington crossed the Bidassoa, defeated Soult on French soil, and compelled him. to retreat to Bayonne. Napoleon en- deavored to secure peace with Spain by a treaty with the imprisoned king, Ferdinand (whom he liberated from his confinement at Valen- cay), and thus to protect France against invasion from the side of the Pyrenees, but the attempt was a failure. The Cortes did not ratify the treaty, on the ground that the king had not been a free agent, and that they were unwilling to conclude a peace which did not in- clude the English. 1813. The allies on Nov. 8 laid before Napoleon a proposal which secured to France the Alps and Rhine for boundaries, but as Dec. 1. Napoleon did not earnestly entertain it, they adopted the resolution to prosecute the war vigorously and to pass the 480 Modern History, a. d. Rhme. Napoleon obtained from the senate a new levy of 300,000 men ; the corps legislatif, in which words of blame were at last heard, was prorogued sine die. Passage of the allies across the Rhine. 1813, Dec. 21-25. The main army under Schwarzenberg, Wrede, etc., crossed the upper Rhine and traversed Switzerland (Basle), whose treaty of neutrality with Napoleon was disregarded. 1814, Jan. 1. Blucher with the army of Silesia crossed the middle Rhine, at Mannheim, Cauh, and CoUentz. The total strength of the allies on their entrance into French terri- tory was not quite 200,000 men. The main army advanced through Burgundy; Blucher through Lorraine toward Champagne. To pre- vent their juncture, Napoleon attacked Blucher at Brienne, and drove Jan. 29. him back ; Blucher, however, united with a part of the main army (crown prince of Wiirtemherg) and defeated the em- peror in the Feb. 1. Battle of La Rothifere, and drove him across the Auhe. The impossibility of pro- visioning the united armies, led to their separation. The grand army was to advance upon Paris by way of the Seine, while the army of Silesia followed the Marne toward the same goal. No sooner did Napoleon hear of this separation than, with aston- ishing boldness, leaving a very small body of troops behind to engage the army under Schwarzenberg, he hurled himself suddenly upon the separate divisions of the army of Silesia, defeated them in four battles Feb. 10-15. at Champaubert (Sacken), Montmirail (York driven across the Marne), Chateau - Thierry, and Vauchamps, and forced Blucher back to ^toges. Then, turning like a flash upon the main army, he defeated it in the Feb. 17. Engagement at Nangis ("Wittgenstein and Wrede), and in the Feb. 18. Engagement at Montereau (crown prince of Wiirtem- berg). Napoleon thus obliged the main army to retreat to Troyes, after which the two armies were for a short time again united on the Aube. Meanwhile ambassadors of the allies had met the envoy of Na- poleon, Caulaincourt, in a Feb. 5-March 19. Congress at Chfttillon (on the Seine), where Napoleon was offered the possession of France with the bound- aries of 1792, but the negotiations came to naught by reason of his haughty and dubious conduct. March 1. Closer union between the allied powers at Chaumont. The deposition of Napoleon resolved upon. The two armies separated again. The main army under Schwarzenberg defeated Oudinoi and Macdonald in the Feb. 27. Battle of Bar-sur-Aube. Blucher reached Meaux, was forced to retire across the Marne and Oise, and joined the army of the north under Billow and Winzingerode. The united armies defeated Napoleon in the A. D. Napoleonic Wars, 481 1814, March 9, 10. Battle of Laon. Napoleon now turned against the main army, which defeated liim in the March 20, 21. Battle of Arcis-sur-Aube. Meanwhile, Wellington had been driving back Soult with equal success. Occupation of Bordeaux (March 12), where the royal ban- ner of the Bourbons was first raised. Napoleon formed the desperate plan of throwing himself in the rear of the allies in Lorraine, summoning the garrisons of the for- tresses to his aid, and calling the entire population to arms. The allies, however, with equal boldness, advanced upon Paris, and de- feated the marshals Marmont and Mortier in the March 25. Battle of La Ffere-Champenoise. Marmont and Mortier threw themselves into the capital. The regent, Maria Louisa, fled to Blois. After a brave defense and after the March 30. Storm of Montmartre they capitulated under condition of free departure, and left Paris to its fate. March 31. Entrance of the allies into Paris, where the senate, tlirough the influence of Talleyrand, de- clared that Napoleon and his family had forfeited the throne. Napoleon, hastening to the relief of his capital, came a few hours late. His marshals having refused to follow him in a foolhardy ault upon Paris, he abdicated the throne in favor of his son pril 6) at Fontainebleau, and, when this reservation was rejected, r unconditionally (April 11). Napoleon made a futile attempt to poi- son himself. 1 He received from the allies the island of Elba as a sovereign prin- cipality, and an annual mcome of two million francs to be paid by France. His wife received the duchies of Parma, Piacenza, and GuaS" tella with sovereign power ; both retained the imperial title. 1814. Wellington defeated Soult in the April 10. Battle of Toulouse. May 4. Arrival of Napoleon at Elba. Return of the Bourbons. Louis XVI.'s brother, the count of Provence, first appointed his younger brother, the count of Artois as viceregent (lieutenant du royaume), and then returned to France, as 1814-1824. Louis XVIII. where he promulgated a constitution which was an imitation of the English constitution, but with many limitations. {Charte octro^ yee t chamber of -peers and chamber of deputies without the initiative.) He concluded with the allies the May 30. (First) Peace of Paris. 1. France retained, in the main, the boundaries of 1792, which embraced 3,280 square miles more than those of 1790 : Avignon, the 1 According to Thiers, ffifitoire du Consulat et de V Empire, vol. xviii., the truth of this attemnted suicide is very doubtful. Cf. V. Helfert, Nap. I- Fahrt von Fontainebleau nach Elba, 1874. ai 482 Modern History, A. d. , Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. France recognized the independence of the States of the Netherlands, according to their future enlargement, as well as of all German and Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French colonies excepting Tobago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised Eng-^ land to abolish the slave trade. After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra- liberal constitu- tion proposed by the cortes of 1812, was followed by the immediate out- break of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. Visit of Alexander &nd Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 1814), accompanied by their victorious generals (Bliicher) ; enthusiastic reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the French empire, the 1814, Sept.-1815, June. Congress of Vienna was assembled. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg, and a great number of German princes were present in person. Chief negotiators : Austria, Metternich ; Prussia, Hardenherg and W. V. Humboldt ; Russia, Nesselrode smd Rasoumoffsky ; Great Brit- ain, Wellington and Castlereagh ; France, Talleyrand and Dalherg. (Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.") The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and which, to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the order ' of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande- Bretagne, PrussCy Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence after- wards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special cases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eight powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the Saxon and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to war (Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after Napoleon^ s return from Elba (p. 483), signed the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Principal articles : I. Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies : a. Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Campo Formio (these were now called the Lombardo-Venetian king- dam), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and Dal- matia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Galicia. b. Prus- sia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaio (Posen) with Danzig; Swedish hither Pomerania with Riigen in re- turn for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark ; its old possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as JVeu^ ¥ A* I>. Napoleonic Wars. 483 chdtel and the grand duchy of the lower Rhine, and the greater part of Saxony as an indemnification for the loss of some former possessions, as Ansbach and Baireuth ceded to Bavaria, East Friesland to Hanover, the Polish possessions to Russia. 2. Formation of a kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, mider the former hereditary statthalter as King William I. 3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old empire, comprising 39 (at its dissolution in 1866 only 34) sover- eign states, including the four free cities ; all other princes who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. Act of confederation signed June 8, 1815, supplemented by the final act of Vienna, May 15, 1820. 4. Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state un- der the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 5. England retained Alalia, Heligoland, a portion of the French and Dutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, which was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See p. 482. These islands were given to Greece by the treaties of Nov. 14, 1863-Nov. 29, 1864. See p. 505). 6. Sweden retained Norway, which had been ceded to her at the peace of ICiel (p. 479), with a constitution of its own ; Den- mark was indemnified with Lauenburg. 7. The nineteen cantons of Switzerland were increased to twenty- two by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchdtel (at once canton and ?i principality). 8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which re- ceived Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Mural had secured possession of that state for the present by his de- sertion of Napoleon. News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bour- bons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, a3 well as the invitations of his adherents, encouraged the deposed em- peror to return to France. 1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia^ France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. King Louis X VIII. fled to Ghent. March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred Days, March 20 to June 29, 1815. Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each power engaged to furnish an army of 180,000 men. All Eu* 484 Modern History, A. d. ropean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. The sura of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to over a million men. May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent con- cessions to the liberal party in France. Champ de Mai : Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under Bliiclier and an English-Geiman under Wellington, against Napo- leon. Murat, who had declared for Napoleon, defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to France. Reinstallation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. June 14, Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement at Charleroi ; the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Bliicher in the June 16. Battle of Ligny, after a brave resistance (Bliicher in personal danger), and drove him back. Bliicher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the prince of Orange in the June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the army of "Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and troops from Brunswick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled himself with superior numbers. 1815, June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jean. Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the juncture of the Prussians under Blucher with the Bnglish under Wellington, by directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Bliicher. Complete defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army.^ June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of liis son. July 1. Arrival of the allies before Paris. July 7. Second capture of Paris. Entrance of Blucher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to Eng- land. Thence, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October (f May 5, 1821). 1 Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de ? Empire, xx.; Hopes, Who Lost Wa* terloo ? — Atlantic Monthly, June, 1881. A. D. Napoleonic Wars. — Modem Inventions. 485 Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of Alexander, comprising at liist Russia, Austria, Prussia, theo- retically an intimate union on a basis of morality and religion, but practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of absolute monarchy. Ney made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne by landing in Calabria ; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot Oct. 13, 1815. Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 1. France surrendered the four fortresses Philippeville, Ma- nenhurg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis (and Saarhrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lau- ter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 2. Demolition of Hilningens, a fortress below Basle. 3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the alKes at the expense of France. 4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various cities, partly by treaties, and wliich had been left in Paris under the first peace, were now reclaimed. The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strashurg, should be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of at- tack against Germany, was not gratified. (JSeej). 526.) FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY- 1815-x. §1. INVENTIONS. The universal adoption and application of four in- ventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in comparison v«^ith w^hose influence upon the transformation of the world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, almost disappears, lends the modern world its peculiar character. [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovern- ment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth century, p. 279.) ] 1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion were made \n the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer^ 486 Modern History. A. d. tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, or the person of the true discoverer." The French ascribe the invention to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the first steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to improve the steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possi- ble to use these machines in the most various industries, was James "Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is disputed between the French, English, and Americans. The French ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count of Auxiron, and in 1775 Perier, are said to have sailed the first little steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the JDoubs, and in 1780 on the Saone at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the inven- tion is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester ; it would seem, however, that the first steamboat m Great Britain was built in 1786 by Sym- ington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first consul, Napoleon, and had in vain oif ered to apply steam to the French ships of war (1803). 3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used I in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to rail- roads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithick. Gradual im- provement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an im- proved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad for passenger traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. The first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fiirth to Nuremberg (1835), at first a horse railroad ; the first larger line worked by locomotives was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass. ; cars drawn by horses. First roads to use locomotives : South Carolina, Baltimore ^ Ohio, 1830-31. After England and North America were covered with an iron network, Germany, and much later France, began the construc- tion of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other in- dustries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock specula- tion,] 4. The first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sommeringj A. T>. Continental Europe. 487 a German, in Munich. The invention was offered to Napoleon I., who dismissed it as a " German notion." After the Dane, Orsted, had discovered electro-magnetism in 1819, the Frenchmen Ampere and Pdtschie conceived the idea of applying the new discovery to the tele- graph. The first electro-magnetic telegraph which was actually con- structed and used was set up in Gottingen by Gauss and Weber in 1S33. Somewhat later an electro-magnetic telegraph was invented in Russia by a German, Schilling. Schilling's invention was carried to England by Cooke, an Englishman. There it was improved by "Wheatstone, and this perfected telegraph was first practically worked in London, between Euston Square and Camden Town. After the invention had undergone many improvements, especially in Ger- many and America (Morse, 1844), Great Britain, the continent of Europe, and North America were covered with telegraph wires. The first submarine telegraph was laid in 1851 between England and France {Dover to Cape Gris-nez). Submarine cables were then laid from England to Ireland and Belgium (1851, 1853), and in many other locations. The gigantic undertaking of coimecting Europe and America by a cable failed in 1857. A second attempt in 1858 was crowned with success, but only for a time. In 1866 the undertaking was again renewed and brought to a successful close. ( Valencia in Ireland to Neiufoundland, 1,650 English miles.) Since that time, many others have been laid. In 1902 a Pacific cable was laid. §2. CONTINENTAL EUROPE.i 18 17-1882. 1817. Jubilee festival for the 300th anniversary of the Reformation. Festival of the Wartburg. Burning of a number of absolut- ist writings (Ancilloji, Schmalz, Haller, etc.). 1818. Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. The great powers resolved, at the request of the French minister, the duke of Richelieu^ to withdraw the army of occupation from France. 1819. " Demagogic machinations." Murder of the German writer and Russian counselor, Kotzebue (Mar. 23), by the fanatic Sand in Mannheim. Secret organization among German ^tn- dents (Burschenscha ft). Reaction in Prussia. W. v. Humboldt, Beyme, Boy en, withdrew from the service of the state. Aug. Congress of ministers at Carlsbad controlled by Metternich. Censorship of the press. Supervision of the universities re- solved upon. The congress continued its sittings at Vienna, where the 1820. May. Final Act of Vienna was signed. In Spain rising of the liberals on behalf of the suspended constitution of 1812, which was restored. Oct. Congress at Troppau, > 1821. Congress at Laybach, | assembled to consult about the revolutionary movements in Naples and Piedmont. 1821. Victorious campaign of the Austrians against the Liberals in J For France see p. 526. 488 Modern History. A. d. Naples {Pepe, Caracosa) and Sardinia {Santa Rosa, battle of No vara). In both countries absolutism in its severest form was restored. 1822. Congress of Verona on account of the Spanish and Grecian disturbances. 1823. French intervention in Spain under the lead of the duke of Angouleme. The French entered Madrid, forced Cadiz to capitulate, and liberated king Ferdinand VII., who had been detained a prisoner there. Cruel reaction, numerous execu- tions {Riego). 1810-1825. Conversion of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central America and South America into independent states. Colombia, a republic since 1819 (Bolivar dictator), was divided, in 1830, into three republics : New Granada (now Colombia in the narrower sense), Venezuela, Ecuador. Peru a free state in 1821; La Plata, too, Uruguay, Chili, and southern Peru, under the name of Bolivia, became independent. In the Jesuit state, Paraguay, Dr. (Joseph Gaspard Roderic de) Francia (and afterwards Lopez) long governed with dictatorial power. Mexico freed from Spanish rule 1821 by Iturhide, who became emperor in 1822, but was obliged to abdicate and leave the country. Mexico a republic 1823 ; Iturbide returned, but was executed 1824. Brazil an independent empire since 1822. 1820-1834. Revolutions and civil wars in Portugal. Don Miguel^ the younger son of king John VI. (f 1826), after a long civil war and unlieard-of barbarities, was conquered by his elder brother, Don Pedro (since 1822 emperor of Brazil). Don Pedro (t 1834) delegated the government of Portugal in j 1826 to his daughter. Donna Maria ; in 1831 he delegated the crown of Brazil to his son, Pedro II. 1821-1829. "War of Grecian Independence, Secret societies (hetaries). Prince Alexander Ypsilanti, at the head of a Grecian revolt in Moldavia and Wallachia (March- June, 1821), was defeated and fled to Austria, where he was de- tained a prisoner in Munkatsch for six years. Uprising in Morea {Mainots, April, 1821). Turkish attacks upon the Christians in Con- gtantinople, Adi-ianople, etc. ; terrible barbarities in Chios, which had revolted ; over 20,000 Greeks murdered. Canaris burned a part of the Turkish fleet and put 3,000 Turks to death (1822). Lord Byron (t Apr. 24, 1824), Eynard from Geneva. William Milller the Ger- man poet. German Philohellenists. [Philo-hellenists in England and America (Dr. Howe)^. Brave defense of Missolonghi (1825, 1826). 1824-1830. Charles X., king of France (p. 527). 1825-1855- Nicholas I., emperor of Russia, his elder brother Constantine having renounced the crown. 1825-1827. Ibrahim Pasha, Khedive of Egypt, ravaged Morea, England, Russia, and France interfered in behalf of the Greeks, who were hard pressed and at variance among themselves. A. D. Continental Europe. 488 1826. Massacre of the Janizaries in Constantinople by Sultan Mah- mud II., after a mutiny. The troop was entirely abolished. 1827. Battle of Navarino. The Turkish fleet was destroyed by Oct. 20. the English, French, and Russian fleets (" untoward event "), and Ibrahim was compelled to retreat from Morea. 1828-1829. Russo-Turkish War. The Russian general, Diebitch, crossed the Balkans (whence his surname, Sabalkanski), and took Adrianople. In Asia Kars and Erzeroum were captured by Paskevitch, who had captured Erivan in 1827 in a war with Persia, and thereby gained the name of Erivanski. 1829. Peace of Adrianople. Russia restored almost all her conquests to Turkey, the latter power recognizing, in advance, the resolves of the London Conference which announced in 1830 the independence of Greece. Provisional administration of the count Capo d'Istria as president, who in 1831 was murdered in Napoli di Romania (Nauplia), the seat of government. The guardian powers, England, France, Russia, raised to the Grecian throne the Bavarian prince, 1832-1862. Otto I., f 1867. 1830. Capture of Algiers by the French (p. 527). 1830, July 27-29. July Revolution at Paris. Abdication of Charles X. ; accession of 1830-1848. Louis Philippe I. For the details see p. 529. This revolution was followed by liberal uprisings throughout Europe. 1830-1837. William IV. (heretofore duke of Clarence) king of England. Whig ministry. 1830. Revolution in Belgium. Cause : The kingdom of the Netherlands, created by the congress of Vienna, had been formed by the enforced union of two utterly differ- ent elements, the protestant commercial state of Holland, which was of like nationality with its sovereign, and the catholic manufacturing country of Belgium, which was divided between the Flemish and Walloon nationalities, but was pervaded by French culture. The suc- cess of the July revolution in Paris inflamed the long smouldering dissatisfaction in Brussels. 1830, Aug. 25. Outbreak in Brussels after a performance of the " Masaniello." The mediation of prince William of Orange, the eldest son of king William I., faUed of success. Prince Frederic, the king's second son, who had occupied a part of Brussels with a division of the army, was expelled from the city during the night of Sept. 26-27. On Nov. 18, Declaration of Independence passed by the Belgian congress. First universal industrial exhibition in Lon- don. 1851. In Paris, coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon, who be- Dec. 2. came president of the republic for ten years (p. 531). 1852, May 8. Treaty of London (protocol) signed by the five great poTversr and Sweden. In order to guarantee the in- tegrity of the Danish monarchy, a successor was appointed for the crown of Denmark and for the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, with- L D. Continental Europe, 499 mt consulting the estates of the duchies. Tlie female line next n succession having renounced its rights, Christian of Sonderhurg' jrlucksburg was proclaimed heir of the childless king Frederic Vil. 'or the entire monarchy. This treaty was recognized by HanoveTf Saxony, and Wurteinberg, but not by the German confederation. L852, Dec. 1. Napoleon III., emperor of the French (1852- 1870). l853-1856. War of Russia against Turkey and L854-1856. War of the western powers against Russia. Crimean War. Uause : Resuscitation of the old Russian plans of conquest (Catha- rine II. p. 411) against Turkey by Nicholas I, Thinking an illiance between England and France impossible, and believing that le had made sure of Austria and Prussia, he pressed forward with- )ut hesitation. He developed his views, concealmg but little, to the English ambassador in St. Petersburg, Seymour : Servia, Bosnia, But- jaria, and the principalities of the Danube should become independent itates under Russian protection. Constantinople should be occupied rrovisionally, by Russian troops ; the prospect of the acquisition of Crete and Egypt was held out to England. In spite of the unfavor- ible attitude of England, the emperor pursued his plans. Demand :or a protectorate over all Christians of the Greek church in the Furkish empire, urged in an overbearing manner, by the Russian am- jassador prince Mentchikoff. The Porte refused to listen to the prop- )sition. Mentchikoff left Constantinople with threats (May 21, 1853). L853. A united French and English fleet was placed at the entrance to the Dardanelles, afterwards in the Bosphorus, for purposes )f observation. 80,000 Russians crossed the Pruth and occupied the principalities of the Danube (July). Meeting between Nicholas and the jmperor of Austria and the king of Prussia in Olmiltz (Sept.), where aowever, he did not obtain the desired alliance, but only an assur- mce of neutrality under certain conditions. The Porte declared war ipon Russia (Oct.). Omer Pacha crossed the Danube and held his abound against the Rxissians at Oltenitza (Nov. 4). The Russian 3eet surprised and defeated a Turkish squadron at Sinope, Nov. 4. Upon the refusal of the emperor to evacuate the principalities of the Danube, 1854, March 12. Alliance of the western powers with Turkey, and Search 28. declaration of war by England and France upon Rus- sia. Paskevitch appointed to the chief command of the Russian irmy which crossed the Danube, but besieged Silistria in vain (June). England and France sent troops to the aid of Turkey, which concen- a^ted in Gallipoli. Alliance between Prussia and Austria; these itates declared the passage of the Balkans by the Russians an act of JTSiT, and soon demanded the evacuation of the principalities. The jmperor Nicholas ordered the evacuation " for strategic reasons " [July). With the consent of the Porte the principalities were pro- irisionaUy occupied by the Austrians. 500 Modern History. A. i A second French and English fleet {Napier') appeared in the Baltic but could make no impression upon the fortress of Kronstadt and cap tured only the small fortress of Bomarsund^ upon one of the Alani Islands. At the southern seat of war, the allies landed at Varna, on th Black Sea (June). Marshal St. Arnaud and lord Raglan command ers-in-chief. The French invasion of the Dohrudsha was followed b; great losses through sickness. At Varna the expedition to thi Crimea was resolved upon, in order to destroy Sebaatopol and an' nihilate the Russian naval power in the Black Sea. The French an) English (50,000 men together) and 6,000 Turks landed at Eupatorki on the west coast of the Crimea, Sept. 14, and defeated the Russian in the 1854, Sept. 20. Battle of the Alma. Marshal St. Arnaud died of the cholera. The command i the French given to Canrohert. After the English had establish! themselves on the bay of Balaklava, and the French on the bay ( Kamieschy the 1854-1855. Siege of Sebastopol Oct. Nov. began. The city was surrounded by new fortresses h Mentchikoff, under the superintendence of Totleben, and tb; harbor closed by sunken ships of war. An attack of the allies upo: Sebastopol failed (Oct. 17). The Russian general Liprandi attackei the English at Balaklava (Oct. 25) and inflicted a severe loss upol them (charge of the Light Brigade). After Metitchikoff had receivej reinforcements, he attacked the allies anew, but was defeated in th bloody 1854, Nov. 5. Battle of Inkermann. Slow progress of the siege works during the winter. Aftej the emperor of Russia had rejected the conditions of peace wliic, were supported by Prussia and Austria, the latter power joined tl; alliance of the western powers (Dec. 1854), and placed a considei; able force upon the Russian boundary without, however, commencinj actual operations of war. Prussia persisted in her neutral attitud Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia concluded an alliance with the wester powers and sent 15,000 men under La Marmora to the Crimea. Russian attack upon Eupatoria was repulsed by the Turks. 1855, March 2. Death of Nicholas I. His son 1855-1881. Alexander II. (abolition of serfdom 1858 1863). Prince Gortchdkoffvec,e,\\edi the chief command in Sebastopol. AftC; fruitless negotiations in Vienna, Austria again assumed an attitud of waiting and withdrew a portion of the troops on the Russian horde i Enormous losses among the besiegers, from sickness {Florence Nigh mgale). Privations and daily skirmishes. At the request of Cann hert the command of the French forces was transferred to genen Pelissier (May 16). A general storm was repulsed, with great lor to the allies (June 18). Lord Raglan died June 28, and Simpson h came commander-in-chief of the English army. A. D. Continental Europe. 501 After a continuous bombardment and many bloody engagements 1855. Storm of the Malakoff tower by the French, and of the 'Sept. 8. Redan by the English, who were, however, soon driven out again by the Russians. Sept. 11. The Russians, by means of a pontoon bridge, withdrew into the northern part of the fortress. Occupation of the city of Sebastopol by the allies. Nov. 28. In Asia, capture of the fortress of Kars by the Russians. At the congress of Paris {France, England, Russia, Turkey, Sar- dinia, Austria, and at the last Prussia), the 1856, March 30. Peace of Paris was agreed upon. 1. Russia ceded the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of Bessarabia on the left bank of the lower Danube. 2. Russia re- nounced the one-sided protectorate over the Christians in Turkey , (whose elevation to equality with the Mohammedan population was promised by the Porte), and over the principalities of the Danube, whose relations were to be settled later. 3. Russia restored Kars, and promised not to establish any arsenals upon the Black Sea, nor to maintain there more ships than the Porte. 4. The western powers ■restored Sebastopol to Russia, after having destroyed the docks, the I constructions in the harbor, and the fortifications. [5. Adoption of I the four rules : 1. Privateering is and remains abolished. 2. The neutral flag covers an enemy's goods, except contraband of war. 3. Neutral goods, except contraband of war, not liable to capture under . an enemy's flag. 4. Blockades, to be binding, must be effective.] j 1856-1857. Dispute between the king of Prussia and Switzerland, in consequence of a hasty suppression of a royalistic outbreak in NeucTidtel (Neuenburg), settled by the release of the royalistic pris- i oners by the Swiss, and the renunciation of Neuchdtel by the king of V Prussia. (1857-1860. French and English expedition against China. ^ Cause : infractions of the treaty with the English (of 1842) \ by the Chinese led to hostilities in Oct., 1856, between the English ] and the Chinese officials of Canton. The French government, which ■ purposed an alteration of the commercial treaty with China, jomed in . supporting the English demands. 1857, Dec. Occupation of Canton by the allies. 1858. Treaty of Tien- Tsin, which opened to European trade and the June, missionaries entrance to the interior of China, and allowed • standing embassies to be established in the capital, Pekin. ' 1859, June. Infraction of the treaty of Tien- Tsin. The English, f French, and American ambassadors, who were on their way to I Pekin, were turned back at the mouth of the Pei-ho. [1 The attempt of the English and French to force their passage failed; an attack upon the forts, undertaken with bit few troops, was repulsed with great loss. : 18G0. Landing of a French (general Montauban) and English (gen- May, eral Grant) corps at Shang-hai ; storm of the fortified camp, while the flotilla of the allies proceeded up the Pei-ho. Negotiations commenced by the Chinese. In consequence of their 502 Modern History, A. D* dubious and faithless conduct the allies made a new advance, defeated a Tatar army of 25,000 men in the 1860. Battle of Palikao, and marched upon Pekin. Destruction oi Sept. 21. the summer palace of the emperor as punishment for the cruel mutilation and execution of several persons whom the Cliinese had treacherously captured. In affright prince Kong( the emperor's brother, concluded the 1860. Peace of Pekin, which ratified the treaty of Tien-Tsin and Oct. 24, 25. imposed upon the Cliinese the payment of a large in- demnity. 1857. Illness of Frederic William IV. The prince of Prussia a* Oct. sumed the vice-regency, and later (Oct. 7, 1858) the regencj as provided by the constitution of Prussia. The prince re- gent replaced the ministry of Manteuffel by an old liberal ministrj (prince of Hohenzollern, Auerstvald, Schleinitz, Bonin, Bethmann-HolU weg, and afterwards count Schwerin). 1859. War of France and Sardinia with Austria. April-July. An Austrian ultimatum having been rejected, field] marshal Gyulay crossed the Ticino, but his inactivity gavi; the French time to come to the assistance of the Piedmontese Napoleon III. assumed the chief command. An extensive reconnoitring expedition of Gyulay's led to the May 20. Engagement of Montebello ; the Austrians, after obsti^ nate resistance, driven back. Garibaldi and his volunteers iui vaded Lombardy. The allies assuming the offensive, Gyulay retiree across the Ticino and was defeated in the June 4. Battle of Magenta (Napoleon III., Canrohert, MacMahon). Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. The emi peror Francis Joseph took the chief command in person. Th< Austrian army was defeated by the allies in the June 24. Battle of Solferino. The emperor Francis Joseph in a meeting with Napoleon III July 11, in Villafranca was induced to accept preliminaries of peac( (exchanged July 8) which were ratified and completed in th<| 1859, Nov. 10. Peace of Zurich. 1. The emperor Francis Joseph ceded Lombardy (with the exj ception of Mantua and Peschiera) to Napoleon III., who surrendere(! it to Sardinia. 2. Italy was to form a confederation {Staatenbund} under the honorary presidency of the Pope. 3. The sovereigns o< Tuscany and Modena, who had been expelled in April and July, wen to be reinstated; the revolted legations (Bologna, etc.), were to bi given back to the Pope, but "without foreign intervention." Despite these enactments of the peace of Ziirich 1860. Tuscany, Parma (whose sovereigns had likewise been expelled) Spring. Modena, and the papal legations were united with the mon| archy of Victor Emmanuel, who, in return, was obliged to sui' render Savoy and Nice to France. Descent of Gariiaaldi with 1,000 volunteers (soon 4,000, May 11)1 A. D. Continental Europe. 503 upon Sicily. He marched upon Palermo. Bombardment of the city ,by the Neapolitan general Lanza, whereupon the city capitulated on condition of the free withdrawal of 25,000 Neapolitan troops (June 6). Messina evacuated by the Neapolitans, with the exception of the citadel (June 28). Garibaldi landed on the mainland (Aug*. 20). Surrender of Reggio, triumphal progress through the southern half of the peninsula. King Francis II. left his capital, Naples, and retired behind the Volturno with 40,000 men, retreating to the for- tresses of Gaeta and Capua (Sept.). Meanwliile the Piedmontese troops under Fanti and Cialdini had entered Umbria and the Marches, where the desire for annexation had long since made itself manifest. 'The French general Lamoriciere, who had entered the papal service, was defeated in the 'I860. Engagement at Castelfidardo by Cialdini. The Papal Sept. 18. States (excepting the Patrimonium Petri) were annexed by Victor Emmanuel, who thereupon invaded the Neapolitan terri- tory (Oct.) and jomed Garibaldi. The Neapolitan army retreated behind the Garigliano, Capua was taken. Francis II. and his troops retired to Gaeta. 1860-1861. Siege of Gaeta. Francis II. capitulated after a bravo Nov. 12-reb. 13. defence and went to Rome. 1861> March 17. Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. With the exception of Venice and the Patrimonium Petri the .whole peninsula was united under one sceptre. Death of CavouVy June 6, 1861. New expedition of Garibaldi, with volunteer bands, to liberate Rome, against the wishes of the government. He was wounded and captured at Aspromonte, the southern point of Italy, Aug. 29, 1862. Treaty between France and Italy (Sept. 15, 1864), whereby the duration of the French occupation of Rome was limited to two years, and the Italian government undertook to protect the Patrimonium Petri against any foreign invasion. Florence made the capital of Italy. 1861, Jan 2. Death of Frederic William IV. The prince regent mounted the throne as 1861-1888. William I., king of Prussia. 1861-1867. Mesdoan Expedition, undertaken, at first, by France, England, and Spain in common. 1861. Treaty of London between these three powers. The purpose Oct. 31. of the expedition was to force the republic of Mexico to fulfill certain treaty obligations towards these nations. 1861, Dec.-1862, Jan. Occupation of La Vera Cruz and the fort of San Juan d' Ulloa by the alUes. 1862. Treaty of La Soledad with Juarez, president of Mexico, who Feb. 19. promised to pay the indemnity and the arrears of debt, as I required. Juarez did not fulfill the obligations incurred, and demanded the delivery of his opponent, Almonte, who had come to the : French camp from Paris. England and Spain withdrew from the expedition. Napoleon III., acting on the expectation that the republic of the United States of America would be broken up by the war between the North and the 604 Modern History. A. d. South, resolved to create a monarchy in Mexico. Magnificent plan to check the spread of the Anglo-Germanic race by this expedition, and induce a regeneration of the Latin race. 1862. An attack upon Puehla by 5,000 French repulsed. Retreat to May. Orizaba. The emperor sent 25,000 men as reinforcements, fol- lowed by more considerable numbers, to Mexico. After a long and bloody contest 1863. Puebla, bravely defended by Ortega, was captured by the May. French general Forey, who entered Mexico. The French called an assembly of notables, composed of opponents of Juarez, caused the monarchy to be proclaimed by this body, and the imperial crown of Mexico to be offered to the archduke Maximilian, brother of the emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This young and ambitious prince, gifted with excellent abilities, suffered himself to be inveigled by Napoleon III. into accepting the crown. 1864. June. Arrival of Maximilian in Mexico. Prolonged contest with the republican armies. The new monarchy constantly in financial difficulties. Impossibility of establishing a settled state of! affairs in a land so torn with party feuds. Meanwhile the end of the civil war in the United States had com- pletely altered the political relations. The decisive demand of thei United States government that the French troops should be with- drawn from Mexico, put a sudden end to the magnificent plans of thet French emperor. He submitted at once to the request of the United^ States. 1867. Withdrawal of the French troops from Mexico. The emperor;' Spring. Maximilian, who refused to leave with the French, continued, the war alone. After a brave resistance he was surrounded ini Queretaro, captured by treachery (Lopez ?), brought to trial before a^ court-martial at Juarez* command, and shot (June 19, 1867). In Austria, in spite of the vehement opposition of the nobility and the clergy, 1861. Publication of a new, liberal constitution for the unite< Feb. 26. monarchy with a close diet for the Germano-Slavonii lands, and a wider diet (only projected, however) which by the participation of Hungarian members was to represent the united mon^ archy, with the exception of Venice, for which the introduction of special constitution was promised. Resistance to the February consti'* tution, not only by the Hungarians, who demanded the restoration of' their separate constitution with a special ministry, but also by thei| national parties of the other non-Germanic peoples of the empire. 1861. Coronation of the king of Prussia, William I. in Konigsberg; Oct. 18. soon after there broke out a constitutional conjlict in conse- quence of a reorganization of the army which the government had carried out. Dissolution of the house of representatives (March, 1862). Res ignation of the Schwerin ministry. Heydt ministry. The opposi-i tion majority returned from the new elections (May) with increased strength {party of progress (Fortschritt), and the left centre). Von Bismarck (Otto Edward Leopold, prince of Bismarck-Schot lausenf born 1815, 1848 member of the united Prussian legislatiire|i i.. D. Continental Europe. 505 L851 member of the diet of the confederation at Frankfort, after- svai'ds ambassador at St. Petersburg and at Paris) became president 3f t]ie ministry. The ministry governed without the passage of a money bill. [Especial care bestowed upon the army, in which, accord- ing to Bismarck, the hope of Prussia and Germany rested (" Blood and Iron ")]. 1862. Revolution in Greece. King Otto (f 1867) compelled to leave the country by an insurrection. Provisional government. After a long search the Greeks found in George of Denmark a prince who accepted their throne (1863). England ceded to Greece tho Ionian Islands (p. 483). 1863, Jan. Uprising in Poland and Lithuania suppressed in the spring of 1864. 1863. Congress of German princes at Frankfort o. M., under iAug. the presidency of Francis Joseph, emperor of Austria, to con- sider a reorganization of Germany. The meeting was without result, Prussia refusing to take any part in the deliberations. The " Eider-Danes " in Copenhagen having brought about the 1863. Incorporation of Schleswig with Denmark, the patience of March 30. the diet of the German confederation, so well preserved in face of the encroachments of the Danes since 1852, was ex- hausted, and an immediate execution of the decree of the confederation was decreed (Oct. 1). 1863, Nov. 15. Death of Frederic VII., king of Denmark. According to the London Protocol (p. 498), Christian IX. suc- ceeded for the entire monarchy. In spite of this and regardless of his father's renunciation, the hereditary prince of Augustenburg pro- claimed himself duke of Schlesvng-Holstein as Frederic VIII. Yielding to the pressure of the influential party of the Eider-Danes in Copenhagen, Christian IX. accepted the new Danish constitution which incorporated Schleswig with Denmark. Great excitement in Germany. Public opinion decidedly favored the complete separation of Schleswig-Holstein from Denmark, and demanded of the German confederation at least a preliminary occupation of the duchies. On the motion of Austria and Prussia, however, who were bound by the London Protocol, the confederation undertook nothing but the execu- tion of its decree, and caused Hanoverians and Saxons (general Hake} to enter the duchies of Holstein and Lauenhurg, which belonged to the confederation. Frederic VIII. proclaimed duke throughout Holstein. 1864, Feb.-Oct. War of Austria and Prussia with Denmark. Cause: Austria and Prussia demanded the repeal of the No- vember constitution as being inconsistent with former agreements. (Denmark in 1852, when the two powers handed over Schleswig-Hol- stein to her, had promised " to respect the rights of the duchies," which clearly excluded an incorporation of Schleswig.) Refusal of Denmark. Advance of the Austro-Prussian army (Feb. 1, field-mar- shal V. Wrangel, prince Frederic Charles ; Austrian general v. Gab- hnz) into Schleswig. (Holstein continued in possession of the troops of the confederation.) The Auatrians advanced upon the Danewerkf 506 Modern History. A. d. under heavy fighting; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at Missunde, crossed the Schlei at Amis. The Danish commander Dej Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by gen-i eral Gerlach. The Austrians under Gahlenz undertook to clear North Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian ad- vance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederio Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments of Diippel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the Feb. 22-March 12. siege artillery. March 15-April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Diippel. April 18. Brilliant storming of Diippel by the Prussians. Cap-< ture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated t9 Alsen, evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jutland occu-^ pied by the allies, as a ransom. May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at London. Prussia and Austria seceded from the London Protocol. As no agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the duchies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representa-t tive of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schlesioig according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief com-t mand) accomplished the June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jiit-: land occupied by the allies. At sea a Prussian squadron under Jachmarn had fought success^ fully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet undei Tegethoff had won a victory at Heligoland^ and after the truce had captured the islands ofP Friesland. These misfortunes induced ChrisH tian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna. 1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenhurg in favor of the emperoi of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize what-: ever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states. Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed ; the troops of the confederation {Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the city of Schlesvng. While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and the 1865. Treaty of Gastein was concluded between Prussia and Aus- Aug. 14. tria. A. D. Austro-Prussian War, 507 1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of both duchies, in com- mon ; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, Prussia that of Schleswig. 2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of the confederation ; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but Prussia received the chief command there; a military road, a tele- graph and postal line through Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia. 3. The emperor of Austria surrendered all his rights to the duchy of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dol- lars. In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig (governor, v. Manteuffel) and Austria the duchy of Holstein (governor, V. Gablenz). The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prus- sia. Deep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Germany. Be- tween the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real in- crease of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confed- eration upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 1866. The Austro-Prussian War.^ June 16-July 22. The war proper lasted one month : June 22 to (Aug. 23). July 22. Allies of Prussia : the smaller North German states and Italy. Allies of Austria : Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, Han^ ver, Bade7i, the two Hesses. Cause of the war : the desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government as long as two great powers con- fronted one another in the German confederation, one having a pop- ulation largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests. Special cause : the quarrel about the future of the North Al- bingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augusten- burg should be recognized as duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was cre- ated : 1. its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia ; 2. that several miportant military posts (Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable her to undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark. Reason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable op- portunity of acquiring Venice. 1 Ber Feldzug von 1866 in Deutschland (by the Prussian General Staff) and Oesterreichs Kampfim Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff). 508 Modern History, A. Dl Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to thai step by the preparations of its opponent. The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Mo ravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men) who made his headquarters at Olmiitz. The command of the arm; in Venice (southern army) given to archduke Albert. Prussia placed five armies in the field : — 1. First army in Lusatla (93,000) under prince Frederic Charle^ 2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince Frederic William. 3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under genera; Herwarth von Bittenfeld. 4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. MUlbe (24,000). ^ 5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first dividet into three corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Schles wig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-chief o all forces, king William I. ; chief of the great general staff, gen; eral v. Moltke. The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frank fort. May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that a any peace conference which might be held there should be no refer ence to an alteration of boundaries. The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (Jime 2) bj the Austrian governor, v. Gablenz, led to an open rupture. Prussi; declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Man teuffel entered Holstein (June 7) ; v. Gablenz, under protest, retreatec to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian terri tory. j On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confedt eration broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein 1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army o* June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussia)] corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the Germaii confederation June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disre gard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troo; upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians vaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King George retreated the south ; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a pri oner. The Prussians invaded Saxony (Herwarth) ; the Saxon armj] king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupiei (June 18) ; all Saxony, excepting Konigsteiny in the hands of t' Prussians (June 20). Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxori\ opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and th Jirst army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration 0( the Austrian power about Olmiitz threatened the province of Silesiaj but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians d( ^termined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia. \ A. D. Austro- Prussian War, 509 A. Principal Scene of War in Bohemia. June 22-25. Prussian invasion of Bohemia. June 26, 27. Prussian victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the crown prince) at Hiihnerwasser, Nachod (June 27) ; victory of the Austrians at Trautenau (June 27). June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Miinchengratz forced back the Austrians and Saxons. Meantime the Silesian army defeated v. Gahlentz at Soor (June 28), and the crown prince occupied Trautenau. Prussian victories of Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of Kbniginhof. The engagement at Schweinschddel completed the purposed ap- proach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were pur- posely not united, but kept asunder in a manner " which, being without danger strategically considered, secured great tactical ad- vantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been directed by telegraph from Berlm. June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war. On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole force on the next day, they being stationed behmd the Bistritz brookf with the fortress of Koniggrdtz and the Elbe in their rear. 1866. July 3. Battle of Konigratz or Sadowa. The first Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe {king William /., prince Frederic Charles, v. Hericarth), had a severe contest "with the northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, wiiA.ev Benedek ; in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, and in combination with the first army secured the complete vic- tory of thje Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the exhaustion of the troops. Ketreat of the Austrians toward Olmiitz. Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was re- jected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern army was transferred to the northern seat of war. Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (July 8), of Brunn (July 12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna. Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpa- thians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary. July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the an- nomicement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which was converted into July 26. The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510). B. Western Seat of War. The entire army of the confederation was under the command of prince Charles of Bavaria. 610 Modern History. A. D. 1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and June 27. troops of Coburg-Gotha, at Langensalza ; the junction of the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, prevented. June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. July 4-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in five battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German troops (Hammelburg, Kissingen, Friedrichshall, Hansen, Wal- daschach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. July 14. Engagement at Aschaffenburg ; victory over the united Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frayik- fort (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Wilr7> burg and Nuremberg. Aug. 2. Truce. C. Seat of War in Italy. 1866. Battle of Custozza ; victory of the Austrians (archduke June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Aus- trian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the north, the Italians again advanced. July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians {Tegethoff) at Lissa over the Italians (Persano). 1866. Peace of Prague Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria. 1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Aus- tria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the \ reservation that the northern districts of Schleswig should be reunited with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such re- union by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid I twenty million rix dollars ($15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy. Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and I the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was in- creased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) to 140,000 square miles (twenty-three and a half million inhabitants). Peace between Prussia and Wiirtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21). The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in the main given up, masmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a rectification of boundaries as regarded Germany ; conclusion of an offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern states placed their entire military force under the command of tho king of Prussia in the even^ of war. The demand of Napoleon III* rejected. A. D. AtistrO'Prussian War. 511 1866. Peace of Vienna Oct. 3. between Austria and Italy. Austria recognized the king- dom of Italy, with which Venice was united. Prussia hav- ing concluded an alliance with the North German states in August, 1866, elections for a North German diet were prescribed on a basis of manhood and direct suffrage. 1867. First diet of the North German Confederation. Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreed with the govern- ments upon a constitution for the North German Confed- eration : presidency of the league united with the crown of Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international re- lations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited ambassadors in its name. The governments were represented in the council of the confederation (Bundesrath) , in which Prussia had seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes altogether. Imperial diet (Reichstag) originating from direct man- hood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the king of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. United customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancelloi' of the confederation. 1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, after- wards (uutil 1871) chancellor of the empire. Agreement with Hungary. Kestoration of the Hungarian constitution. Solemn corona- tion of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. Reunion of the dependent lands (Croatia, Transylvania) with Hun- gary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the monarchy this side of the Leith (Cisleithania). (The constitution of 1861, p. 504, was suspended in 1865.) Germano-Slavonic Reichstag. 1867. Luxemburg question. Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His nego- tiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Un- der the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 1867, London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great May 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree- ments : 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison evacuated Luxemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 1867. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian govern- Sept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Napo- leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 503) broken, and sent assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentancu Home received a new French garrison. 612 Modem History. A. D. 1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 1868. Outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in Cadiz. The royal- Sept, ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of a constitutional cartes. The majority of the cortes established, m spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new constitutional monarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many 'negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) ac- cepted the Spanish crown. After his withdrawal, duruig the Franco- Prussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 1870-1873. Amadeus I., kmg of Spain. 1869. In France general election for the corps legislatif ; for the first time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, espe- cially the country population, gave the government a good majority, though weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the govern- ment and the dynasty. 1869, Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projec- tor, the Frenchman, Ferdina7id de Lesseps. 1869, Dec. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. Vacillating and indecisive conduct of the emperor Napoleon III. in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the " vice emperor " Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar re- actionary elements ; then, as the different factions of the opposition ( Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, forma- tion of the 1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of the Seine, Hausmann. The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, a cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder ?), produced an ex- traordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprison- ment of Rochefort, in consequence of his mcendiary newspaper arti- cles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte declared not guilty by the court in Tours. April A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of confidence was demanded from the people by a "plebiscite " (May), which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million • nays, the latter being cast in Paris and the larger cities. In the A.. D. Franco- German War. 513 army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted " no." In view of this grave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant agitation of the parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions whicn had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more and more strongly urged by his intimate councillors (the empress, marshal Leboeuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs). 1870, July 19-1871, March 3. Franco-Prussian War.^ General Causes : 1. The idea entertamed by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontieres naturelles^). 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an impermissible encroach- ment upon their own military fame. Special causes ; 1. The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the " compensation " de- manded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching in- troduction of an improved weapon for the north German infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot. Immediate cause : The election of the prince of Hohenzollem to the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prus- sian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king AVilliam I. in person, that he should forbid the prince of HohenzoUern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the prince, the French goverimaent looked to the king of Prussia for a distmct announcement " that he would never again permit the candi- dacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the tele- graphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, artificially fermented (cries of "a Berlin ! "). In the corps legislatif (July 15), opposition of a small minority {Thiers: "because France is not prepared for war ") to the declaration of war, which the imperial government declared was forced upon them by Prussia (" La France accepte la guerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 1 Btr deutsch-franz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prus- sian General Staff on military history. Niemann, Derfranz. Feldzug von 1870-71, 2 vols. An English rendering of the French view of the war will be found in Jerrold's Life of Napoleon I J I., vol. iv. 2 The first use of this idea, which can be established, was by king Charle* r//..1444. 514 Modern History. a. d. In Germany quiet but decided attitude of the government and the people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received (July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. Opening of the north German Reichstag^ wliich unanimously voted a war credit (July 23). South Germany understood that the French attack, although ap- parently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of German territory and the establishment of a new confederation of the Rhine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the con- federation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Ba- varian army, had a decisive influence upon Wiirtemberg. Patriotic attitude of Baden. The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former (250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria and Italy. This should be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expedi- tions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising in Hanover and secure the assistance of Denmark. In reality the strategic advance of the French army took place as follows : — 1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 4. Corps under general Ladmirault at Thionville (Diedenhofen). The corps of marshal Canrobert at Chalons, of general F. Douay at Belfort, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III. ; chief of the general staff, marshal Leboeuf. It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. The German forces moved in three great armies. I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (134,000, with the reserve 194,000). III. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mann- heim (130,000). The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 198,000 were Landwehr) ; of the south German 100,000. Commander- in-chief, king William I. ; chief of the general staff, general Von Moltke. The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Ger- mans could take the offensive the French made an A. D. Franco-German War. 515 2.3, ^3 o «* c^^ ^-s^- w>3 CO is. 5? 5?? >■ fe£t ipS,3- 3 ^S' ^53 2 (t 2 2iS.- ir 2 £ P ?q?- O • 3 616 Modern History, A. d. 1870. Attack upon Saarbriicken. The repulse of a single bat- Aug. 2. talion by three divisions was represented in the French re- ports as an important victory. Aug. 4. Engagement at Weissenburg. MacMahon after a most courageous defense defeated in the Aug. 6. Battle of "Worth (Reichshofen) by the army of the crown prince, which was numerically greatly his superior. Aug. 6. German victory at Spicheren (Saarbriicken). In consequence of these defeats the French army commenced its retreat to the Moselle. The crown prince detached a corps to besiege Strashurg and other Alsatian fortresses, and advanced upon Nancy ; the I. army marched upon Metz ; the II. army upon Pont a Mousson, with the intention of surrounding the main force of the French about Metz and cutting them off from Paris. To prevent this Bazaine, upon whom the emperor had conferred the chief command, resolved, after some indecision, to retreat upon Chdlons-sur-Marne and join there the remnants of MacMahon 's com- mand and a newly formed army. To prevent such juncture the ad- vance guard of the I. army attacked Bazaine and in the Aug. 14. Battle of Colonibey-Nouilly and the Aug. 16. Battle of Vionville (drawn battle), with great losses, prevented the retreat of the French to Verdun. Upon the arrival of the delayed corps of the I. and II. army on the next day, the French were again attacked in their excellently chosen and partially strongly fortified positions. In the Aug. 18. Battle of Gravelotte and St. Privat (Eezon- ville) the Germans under command of king William I. gained an advantageous position after eight hours' hot fighting, in spite of the desperate resistance of the French. Aug. 19. Retreat of the French under the guns of Metz. The result of these three bloody battles near Metz was to separate the French force into two parts, and to surround their main army in and about a fortress which was not provisioned for so large a body of troops. 1870. Aug. 19-Oct. 27. Siege of Metz. Aug. 14-Sept. 27. Siege of Strasburg by general Von Werder. After the battles near Metz, advance upon Chalons. MacMahon evacuated Chalons, but instead of retreating to Paris, as was expected at the German headquarters, he attempted to reach Metz and liberate Bazaine by a circuitous flank march to the northeast. Napoleon III. accompanied the army. On learning of this manoeuvre the Germans made a detour toward the right (north). Bazaine's attempt to break through the German lines and join Mac- Mahon frustrated by the Aug. 31 and Sept. 1. Engagements at Noisseville. MacMahon saw the impossibility of reaching Metz, and con- centrated his forces at Sedan. The Germans (240,000) far outnum- bering the French (about 100,000) decided to send a part of their ^. D. Franco- German War. 517 troops over the Meuse and surround the French army. This wa£* accomplished by the Sept. 1. Battle of Sedan. MacMahon, wounded in the morning, gave up the command to Ducrot, who afterwards transferred it to the older general Wimpffen. The victorious advance of the Germans on all sides was not checked by the brilliant charges of the French cavalry. At three o'clock the French army was surrounded. Napoleon III. delivered his sword to "William I. and acknowledged himself a prisoner. Negotiations between Von Moltke and Wimpffen, and between Napoleon III. and Bismarck. The following forenoon the 1870> Sept. 2. Capitulation of Sedan was signed. The entire French army prisoners of war : 39 generals, 2,300 offi- cers, 83,000 men, 20,000 having been captured during the battle (3,000 escaped to Belgium). Napoleon III. conducted to Wilhelms- hohe. In Paris the news of the first defeats, which had been long con- cealed, produced great excitement and the fall of the ministry of Ollivier (Aug. 10). Montauban-Palikao, the minister of war, formed a new ministry composed of ultra-Bonapartists. Falsification of war news. Paris in a state of siege. The receipt of the news of the ca- pitulation of Sedan caused the 1870. Fall of the Empire and Proclamation of the Sept. 4. (third) Republic. Flight of the empress Eugenie to England. Provisional gov- ernment of the " National defense." Trochu (president and gover- nor of Paris), Favre (foreign affairs), Gamhetta (interior), Creinieux (justice), Simon (religion and education), Lejio (war), Fourichon (navy). Sept. 4-16. March of the German armies upon Paris. Defenses of Paris : continuous line of bastions and trenches, sur- rounding the suburbs ; around this on the inside a belt railroad ; six- teen detached forts, two of which, Mont Valerien in the west and St. Denis in the north, were actual fortresses, all connected by continu- ous entrenchments and liberally provided with heavy artillery and military stores. Including the sailors and garrison, about 72,000 veterans ; with the mobilized guards from the provinces, the guard mobile and national guard of Paris, over 300,000 men. Extensive accumulation of provisions. The negotiations between Bismarck and Favre leading to no result (refusal of any cession of territory), the great city was invested by the IV.i army on the north and east, by the III. army on the S. and W. Headquarters at Versailles. 1870, Sept. 19-1871, Jan. 28. Siege of Paris. After the capitulation of Sedan the whole war was a struggle for Paris. Excepting the conquest of Alsace and German Lorraine. 1 The IV. army was formed, after Gravelotte, from corps of the I. and 11. 618 Modern History. A. d. which Germany had regarded as the prize of victory, from the com- mencement of the war, all the military operations of the Germans had the object of preserving the positions and the lines of connection of the armies about Paris, and of preventing any attempt to raise the siege ; the raising of the siege was, on the contrary, the object of all the French operations. 1870. In consequence of the withdrawal of the French garrison Sept. 20. from Rome, capture of that city by the Italian army and abolition of the secular power of the Pope. Sept. 23. Capture of Toul. Sept. 27. Capitulation of Strasburg. The delegation of the French government in Tours, since Oct. 9, under the dictatorship of Gambetta, who had left Paris in a bal- loon, formed two armies for the relief of Paris : a. army of the Loire (not 30,000) ; h. northern army. The former defeated by the Ba- varian general Von der Tann in the 1870, Oct. 10. Engagement at Artenay. Occupation of Orleans. While Gambetta with the greatest energy was strengthening and ; arming forces for relief, Bazaine, who, as leader of the largest regu- lar army in France, had thought to play a political role, by meana of negotiations, was forced, after several unsuccessful sorties, to the 1870, Oct. 27. Capitulation of Metz. (3 marshals, 6,000 officers, 187,000 men, 622 field artillery, 876 fortress cannon). A part of the besieging army was sent! to reinforce the armies before Paris ; a part was dispatched under Manteuffel against the French army of the north ; the largest part, under prince Frederic Charles, was sent against i the army of the Loire. Nov. 28. Defeat of the army of the Loire at Beaune la Rolande i (by prince Frederic Charles), whereby the purpose of the- French commander to force his passage to Paris was frus-' trated. Nov. 27. Defeat of the army of the north at Amiens by ikfan- teuffel. Nov. 30. At Paris, sortie under Trochu and Ducrot, in cooperar tion with the intended advance of the Loire army. Storm and capture of Champigny and Brie. Successful defense of Vil- liers and Cceuily by Wtirtemberg troops. Further French ad- vance was checked, but they kept Brie. After great losses in i the fight and through cold the French troops returned toi Paris (Dec. 3). Dec. 2-A:. Battle of Orleans, the name given to a number of engagements in which thei Germans defeated the army of the Loire, with the following! results : 1. Capture of the strong French entrenchments on thei right bank of the Loire, and re-occupation of Orleans. 2. Sep- aration of the army of the Loire into two parts. Flight of thei delegation of the government to Bordeaux (Dec. 9). The larger part of the Loire army driven behind Vendome ; Frederic Charles, at Orleans, covered the besieging armies be^' fore Paris from the south. A. D. Franco- German War. 519 Dec. 27. Opening of the bombardment of the forts of Paris, after the transportation of heavy artillery and munitions had been accomplished with the greatest difficulty. Bombardment of the city, Jan. 8, 1871. 1871, Jan. 12. Battle of Le Mans. Defeat of Chatizy by Frederic Charles. The French army al- most annihilated. Jan. 6-12. Sortie from Paris against Meudon and Clamart, and one against Le Bourget repulsed. In the south, Bourbaki with 150,000 men forced von Werder, who was besieging Belfort, without giving up the siege, to take up a favor- able position along the Lisaine by a masterly retreat. In the three days Jan. 15-17. Battle of Belfort, Von Werder successfully defended his position, and forced Bourbaki to retreat. Jan. 18. Renewal of the title and office of German Emperor in the palace of Louis XIV. at Versailles, all the sovereign princes and the three free cities having offered the crowni to king William I. Jan. 19. Last great sortie from Paris, with 100,000 men, under Trochu, repulsed after severe fighting. On the same day, Jan. 19. Battle of St. Quentin, in which general Von Goben completely defeated and scattered the French army of the north. In the south Manteuffel forced the French to take refuge in the neutral territory of Switzer- land, where they were disarmed. 1871, Jan. 28. Capitulation of Paris by the convention of Versailles : 1. surrender of all the forts with munitions of war, disarmament of the city wall ; 2. all French soldiers in Paris considered as prisoners of war, with exception of 12,000 men, which, with the national guard, preserved order ; the French officials to provision the city ; 3. the city of Paris paid 200 million francs ; 4. truce (excepting the departments of Doubs, Jura, and Cote d^or) for three weeks, for the purpose of allowing a free elec- tion for a national assembly, which was to meet in Bordeaux, and de- cide between peace and war. Gambetta's resistance to this agreement was soon broken ; his resignation (Feb. 6). Elections throughout France (Feb. 8). The national assembly formed in Bordeaux (Feb. 12). Truce prolonged to 24th Feb., and afterwards to March 3. Thiers, elected head of the executive department, conducted the negotiations with Bismarck which resulted in the Feb. 26. Preliminaries of peace at Versailles. 1. France ceded to the German Empire : Alsace (except Belfort and territory) and German Lorraine, with Metz and Die- denhofen (Thionville), in all 4,700 square miles, with one and a half million inhabitants ; 2. France agreed to pay five milliards of francs for indemnification in three years, which were secured by an occupa* tion of French territory. 520 Modern History, A. jy, March 1. Entrance of 30,000 German troops into Paris (addi- tional article), and temporary occupation of a small part of the city ; evacuated again on March 3d. The preliminaries of peace were rati- fied, and the details settled in the definitive 1871. May 10. Peace of Frankfort on Main, The results of the war were : 1. destruction of the military power of France ; 2. acquisition of a secure military boundary for Germany on the west ; 3. the realization of the political unity of the German nation. March 21-June 15. First imperial Parliament of the new German federal state (Bundestaat), which on April 14 almost unanimously adopted the following constitution for the em- pire : presidency hereditarily connected with the crown of Prussia, whose king bore the title of German emperor, and represented the empire in international relations, declared war and peace (with the consent of the Bwidesrath), concluded alliances, and had the chief I command of the army and navy. The representatives of the 25 gov- ernments formed the federal council (Bwidesrath) under the pres- idency of the chancellor of the empire (the first : prince Bis- marck). (In all, 58 votes : Prussia 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony and Wiir- temberg each 4, Baden and Hesse each 3, Meckleuburg-Schwerin and I Brunswick each 2, the rest each 1.) The representatives of the people ! formed the imperial parliament {Reichstag), consisting of 382 mem- bers, chosen by direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military sys- tem ; universal compulsory service (3 years in standing army, 4 years in reserve, 5 years in the Landwehr), uniform postal and telegraph service, uniform system of coinage, weights and measures. The new German empire comprised 216,770 sq. miles, and more than 41,000,000 inhabitants. 1871, July 1. Rome became seat of the government and capital of \ Italy, now completely united under the sceptre of Victor Em- manuel (guarantee for the Pope). Sept. Opening of the Mt. Cenis tunnel across the Alps (begun I 1859 ; 7.6 miles long). 1872, June 29. New agreement between Germany and France^ which fixed the payment of the fourth milliard for March 1, 1874 ; the fifth, March 1, 1875 ; and permitted the substitution of a financial security for this last milliard, for the occupation of French territory. 1873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon HI. in Chiselhurst (England). Feb. Amadeus I. resigned the Spanish crown. Spain a republic. Anarchy. Civil war against the Federalists in Cartagena (cap- tured 1874), and against Don Carlos in the north. July-Sept. The German troops, after an anticipation of the indem- nity, leave the French territory. In Italy, in Switzerland, and in Prussia, struggle between the state and the Roman catholic hierarchy. In Italy, dissolution of all mon- asteries in Rome and the former papal states (May, 1873). In Swit- "^eiland, complete rupture with the Roman chair and establishment ' A. D. Franco- German War. 521 . of a catholic clergy elected by the people. In Prussia, in conse- ; qiience of the May laws (afterwards extended), which the catholic '. clergy openly resisted, numerous arrests and removals of ecclesias- tics. This contest led to the 1874. Introduction of compulsory civil marriage and the civil Oct. 1. registration of births and deaths, which afterwards became an imperial law (Jan. 1, 1876). Oct. International Postal Congress in Bern. The regulations agreed upon went into force July 1, 1875 (for France, Jan. 1, 1876). Dec. 29-31. Military " pronunciamientos " for Alfonso, prince of As- j turia, son of queen Isabella, led to the ,: 1875, Jan. Restoration of monarchy in Spain. 1875-1885. Alfonso XII., king of Spain. In the north, in spite of some successes of the royal troops, the civil war continued against Don Carlos, whom the new king declared to be an usurper. 1875. Revolt against Turkish government in Herzegovina, sup- July, ported by Montenegro and Servia. March. End of the civil war in Spain. Don Carlos was obliged to leave the country, and went to England. May. The Turks proved unable to suppress the revolt in Herzego- vina. Murder of the German and French consuls in Salonica. The three northern great powers invited the other three to join in making a common representation to the Porte (memo- randum of Berlin). Great Britain refused to join. Before the memorandum could be presented a May 29. Palace Revolution occurred in Constantinople. Deposi- _ * tion of the Sultan Abdul- Aziz, who died shortly afterwards. ■fe Murad V. succeeded. 1876. July. Servia (prince Milan) and Montenegro (prince Nikita) declared war upon the Porte. A revolt which had broken out m Bulgaria bloodily suppressed by the Turks. The Turkish troops and the Turkish militia exercised shameful cruelties, which produced the greatest indignation through- out Europe, particularly in Russia, thereby giving the Russian gov- ernment a welcome excuse to proclaim itself the protector of the oppressed Christians, and especially of the Slavonic population in Turkey. Military preparations in Russia. Meanwhile the war was waged unsuccessfully by Servia, in spite of the open Russian assistance, and the presence of Russian volunteers in the Servian army, which obtained a Russian commander in Tsher- aajefif, while the Montenegrins were several times victorious. 1876. New, bloodless palace revolution in Constantinople. Murad Aug. v., who sufPered from an incurable mental disorder, deposed. He was succeeded by his brother, Abdul Hamid II. The Turkish army crossed the Servian frontier, and was prevented from marching further only by an ultimatum of the Russian government. The Porte agreed to a truce for two months at first, and afterward for six months. Russia being unable to induce any other power to join her in an 622 Modern History, A. D, armed interference with Turkey, and being herself unprepared for war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great powers was arranged to meet in Constantinople. Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitu- tion for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Christian sub- jects, to be guaranteed by the powers. 1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference in spite of the Turkish constitution, but which had been grad- ually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consulta- tion with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The am- bassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople. Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the status quo ante helium. Montenegro continued in arms. After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no result, and after completion of its preparations, the Russian govern- ment concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a formal declaration that it had no conquests in view. 1877» April-1878, March. Turco-Russian War. A. Seat of war in Europe : A Russian army under the grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Roume* lia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmermann, which occupied the Dohrudsha ; the main army, which Alexander II. had meanwliile joined, forced the 1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova. June 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an un- guarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the impor- tant Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while one division of the main army, under the crown prince, fronted east and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra and Lorn, held in check the Turkish army uu^qt Abdul Kerim (after- wards under Mehemed Ali, and finally under Suleiman). The other division of the Russian army captured Nicopolis (July 15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna (S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha had collected Turkish troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was forced to wait for reinforcements. Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on the Lorn, where his troops had been sadly missed. Arrival of Roumanian troops and Russian reinforcements before Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a reg- ular siege was undertaken (gen. Totlehen), and Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the Rus- ^ sian lines. Return of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander |a. d. TurcO'Russian War, 523 //. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Dec. 14) declared war upon the Porte anew. Dec-Jan. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Bal- kans and occupied Sophia ; a second under Radetzki and Sko- Je^e^ poured through the Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the Balkans, advanced by way of PUlippopolis (victory of Gurko over remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 16 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople (occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople. B. Seat of -war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand duke Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish fleet to the Caucas- ian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army (Loris-Melikoff) forced its way to Kars, which it invested (May, 1877). Two other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The reverses suffered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests. In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 1877. Storm of Kars Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum. The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkeij appealed for mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Mean- while the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which in the 1878. Agreement of Adrianople Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a future peace. 1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessalyy but was induced to withdraw them after a few days. After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about Constantinople and had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of the English fleet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered the Sea of Marmora, the March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople) was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, and were recognized as independent ; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bul- garia, i. e. the larger part of ancient Moesia, Thrace, and Macedonia (boundaries : Danube, the Black Sea and jtEgean Sea, Albania and Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian prince, separate administration and militia ; a Russian commissary with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his European possessions which remained to him. 4. Turkey paid Rus- sia 300 million rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to Roumania in return for the part of Bessarabia (p. 501) which she had ceded in 1856. 524 Modern History. A. d. This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in Eng- land, which showed herself ready to go to war with Russia in case the latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also began to arm. June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against Russian conquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus occupied July 11). Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to prevent war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding, the 1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin met under the presidency of prince Bismarck. Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but the cessions to be made to the two former states were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the Danube and the Balkans, including, however, Sophia and its territory. (An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg (Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably nar- rowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-gen- eral ; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 5. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum (as a free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, there should be political equality of all confessions. 1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (p. 503). Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umberto {Humherf) I. Feb. 7. Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIII. (Pecci). May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German em- peror William I., who at the second attempt was somewhat dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the ex- cesses of the social democrats. 1878. Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and Herzego- July 29. Vina, where part of the inhabitants offered armed resist- ance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The A. D. Turco-Russian War, 525 Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired ; his successor, Von Puttkamer (July 14). Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an al- liance with France against Germany, Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was concluded between Prussia and Austria. Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German em- pire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig). 1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three des- perate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten months), general Loris-Melikoff W2is clothed with a sort of dictatorial power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by conces- sions. Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply in Bel- gium (liberal ministry of Frere Orban smce 1878). In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 620) were introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political leg- islation. The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been com- pletely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a sur- render of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propo- sitions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration produced the Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro. 1881. March 13. ^Zexanc^er //. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was succeeded by his son, 1881-1894. Alexander III. Roumania made a kingdom. March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the Berlin conference. Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of Russia at Danzig. 1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points. Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and an- nouncing that all persons in government service were expected to support the government at elections. 626 Modern History. a. d. 1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste ; muiority representation in districts returning five or more deputies. Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague. Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive meas- ures, undaunted activity of the nihilists. March 6. Servia made a kingdom ; prince Milan king as Milan 1 March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and south- ern Dalmatia by the Austrians. Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kulturkampf. April 10. Retirement of Gortsohakoff, minister of foreign affairs in Russia ; he was succeeded by De Giers ; this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehen- sions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives of Sknheleff in Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, f July 7). May 22. Opening of the St, Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 9^ miles long.) June 2. Death of Giuseppe Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice ; conspira- tor in 1833 ; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835 ; defense of Rome, 1849 ; in North America, 1851 ; service against Aus- tria, 1859, 1860 ; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867 ; participation in the Franco- Prussian war, 1870, 1871 ; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875). Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag. 1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti- Jewish riots, especially at Presshurg (Sept. 27-30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norway. Return of an increased radical majority. {See p. 573.) §3. FRANCE. (Seep.4S5.) 1815-1882. 1814(1815)1824. Louis XVIIL First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814 : hereditary mon- archy ; two chambers {peers nominated by the king, loioer house ' elected by the people) ; freedom of the press ; religious liberty ; re- sponsible ministers ; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Kapoleon. A. D. France, t27 1815, July 8. Second restoration. 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29: Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485). An ultra-royalist chamber {ckamhre introuvahle j compare the " Cav- alier " parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur hlanche. Parties : court (^Richelieu), advocating return to the old monarchy ; legitimists {Decazes); doctrinaires (Guizot), advocates of constitutional monarchy with strong administration ; liberals (inde- pendents, Perier, Lafayette) ; Bonapariists j republicans. Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie). Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.) ; of Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.). 1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws re- stricting freedom of the press and of elections. Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the duke of Berry ; " Henry V. ; " " Europe's child." Presenta- tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription. 1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena. 1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of ViUdle (ultra-royalist). 1823, French intervention in Spain ; capture of Madrid and Cadiz; liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of Angouldme. Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ul- tra-royalists (chambre retrouve'e, 1824). 1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII. 1824-1830. Charles X. 1825, March. Grant of a milliard ($200,000,000) to returned refugees as compensation for their confiscated estates.^ Growth of the liberal party : Collaud, Constant, Perier, Broglie, Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits. 1827, April 30. National guard disbanded. 1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return of a liberal majority at the election. 1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry (" too liberal for the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals "). 1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry ; reactionary, ultra-roy- alist. " No more concessions ! " 1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech ; vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May 16. July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French. Reasons for the expedition : 1. An insult offered the French ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French gov- ernment to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in France, by some outside success. Algeria (Afriqtie Frangaise) subjugated by a tedious war Avitli the Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader (1827, captured by Lamoriciere and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of 1 The ruined cavaliers in England got #3,000,000 in 1G61. 528 3Iodern History, A. D. ^ SB bo O to 5 1 Z H .S — O — ^ H ^ PQ >? Ph a t3 § s w CS4 o » PQ p o tn ■^ ^ ^■ ?3 ^ « ''^ a 00 fl-l OH— LS_^o6. fiO' «3 o a>c5 PQ ^ g »:- a rH l-H a>£:l 3 bjD ^' 1 Louis lis XV fin th mple, : •»— -a 3 Ms 1 hI > 'BZ 3 uis the uphin, 1789. -"S. — °3 - -'3- 2 -3 >3 ^ ^ a 3-S^« M2! -^ "SIT o oT A. D. France. 529 Louis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Na- poleon). New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority ; 202 of the 221 reelected ("aide toi"). 1830, July 27-29. The July Revolution. The Three Days of July. The Great Week. Cause : publication of the three (five) ordinances on July 26, professedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared illegal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to rich land-owners. 3. Prohibition of the publication of newspapers and pamplilets without a royal permit. This violation of the charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests (Thiers, Mignet). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie ; imper- fect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who in part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of the Hotel de Ville. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of the troops. Provisional government : Lajitte, Perier, Barrot. Lafayette commander of the national guard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. Duke of Orleans lieutenant general of France (" the charter hence- forward to be a reality "). Charles X. (f in Gbrz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke of Angouleme, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke of Bordeaux (who subsequently called himself count of Chambord, p. 527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line of Bourbon (Orleans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the throne in the person of 1830-1848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French (le roi bourgeois; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Bro- glie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.) ; of Lafitte (1830, Nov. 2-1831, March 13) ; of Casimir P^ier (1831, Mar. 13-1832, May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832). 1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April). 1835, July 28. FieschVs infernal machine. By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of laws limiting the freedom of the press (la-ws of September). Re- tirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires) ; ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 (Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 (Mole', Guizot; Thiers out). 1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I., see the genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse). ^ 1 Guizot, Memoires, vol. iv. chap. 24. 34 530 Modern History. a. d. Ministry of April 15 (1837), Mol6 without Guizot. Union of Guizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris (May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12-1840, Mar. 1), without Guizot, Thiers, Odilon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt of Mehemet Ali (p. 491). 1840. Second adventurous attempt of Louis Napoleon. He sailed from Margate with only fifty adherents to Bologne, where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of peers, and condemned to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham under the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846). The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the prince of Joinville, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15); anger of France. Fall of Thiers. 1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot. Death of the duke of Orleans (1842, July 13). Trouble with England : Tahiti {Pritchard) ; Spanish marriages (1843-44). De- mand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensee immiiable). Durmg this reign development of the parties : Legitimists (count of Chambord); Orleanists ; Bonapartists ; Republicans. 1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February. Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned (Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orleans (f 1842) and the princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orleans in the chamber of deputies. {Uemeute etait devenue une revolution.) Provisional government at the Hotel de Ville (Dupont de I Eure, Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, Marie, Cremieux, Arago, Gamier-Pages, the elder). Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress') with a view to the " organization of labor," but accomplished nothing prac- tical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution for the new democratic republic. Establishment of costly public workshops (ateliers nationaux) and recognition of the " right to work." ^ Establishment of the garde mobile. 1848-1851 (1852). France (for the second time) a repub- lic. June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of June) in Paris in con- sequence of the closing of the ateliers. Bloody fights in the 1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their pro- jector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times, p. 113, where authorities are quoted. Ll>. France, 531 'Teets. Murder of archbishop Affre and of general Brea. General ^avaignac clothed with dictatorial power. The continued efforts of le troops and the national guard subdued the insurrection of the .borers. Nov. 4, constitution of 1848. •ec. 20. Proclamation of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte as president of the republic (5,327,345 to 1,879,298 votes). 349, Apr .-Aug. Expedition to Rome. Legislative assembly (one house) with a monarchical majority, ►eath of Louis Philippe at Claremont (1850, Aug. 26). 851, I^ec. 2. Coup d']6tat of Louis Napoleon, who, in complicity with St. Arnaud, MaupaSy Morny, etc., caused the aders of the republicans and Orleanists (Cavaignac, Charras, Chan- jmier, Lamoriciere, Bedeau, Thiers, Victor Hugo, and others) to be u*prised in their dwellings at night and imprisoned, dissolved the jecond) national assembly (1849-1851), annulled the constitution hich he had sworn to defend, crushed (with some shedding of blood) le revolt which broke out in the streets of Paris on Dec. 3 and 4 1 I consequence of these measures, and summoned the whole people to general election (plebiscite). This resulted in the election of 'ec. 20, 21. Louis Napoleon as president for ten years by a majority, it was asserted, of more than six million votes, he president was clothed with monarchical power, and permitted to 3ue a constitution. By a decree of Jan. 9, 1852, the president arbi- •arily banished his most important opponents ; by a decree of Jan. 1 he established a constitution like that of the first empire (senatf rps legislatif, see p. 464). A third decree confiscated the appanages : the house of Orleans, and compelled the members of this house to '11 their whole private property in land in France within a year, reedom of the press restricted. 852, Deo. 2-1870. Napoleon III., emperor of the French. Proclaimed by a senatus consultum, Nov. 7, and rati- td hj 2i plebiscite (Nov. 21, 22), with 7,824,189 votes against 253,145. apoleon recognized by all European powers. Assertions of peace- il intentions with regard to Europe, particularly in an address at ordeaux {''U Empire c'est la paix"). Napoleon III. married (Jan. ?, 1853) the Spaniard Eugenie Montijo, countess of Teba. Birth of 16 prince imperial, 1856, Mar. 16. B54-1856. Crimean war (p. 499) ended by the loQ, May 30. Peace of Paris (p. 501). The empire at its height of power and respect. ?57. French expedition to China (p. 501). 558, Jan. 14. OrsinVs attempt upon the life of Napoleon III* Bombs. Orsini, under sentence of death, urged Napoleon to ndertake the liberation of Italy (Orsini's " Testament," published in 16 Moniteur). Loi de surete' gene'rale, allowing the government to ar- st and banish, in certain cases, without trial (Feb. 19). Meeting of ^nnoleon III. and the Sardinian minister Cavour. Marriage of the riiice Napoleon Bonaparte (geneal. table, p. 466) with Clotilde, iughter of Victor Emmanuel. 532 Modern History, A. n 1859. Austro-Sardinian war (p. 502). 1860. Nov. 24. Decree allowing the address to the throne, and cre- ating ministers without portfolios. 1861. Debates permitted to be inserted in full in the Journal Officiel 1861-1867. Mexican expedition (p. 503). 1867. Great Exposition at Paris. 1867. Luxembourg question (p. 511). 1867. Expedition to Rome (p. 511). 1869, May. New elections ; for the first time during the second em pire active participation of the parties and a large vote. Thi government received a good majority. In Paris and Lyons, victorj of the ultra-radical party. 1870, Jan. 2. Ministry OUivier. Eepeal of the loi de surete. Al teration of the constitution by senatus consultum and plehisdU Apr. 20, May 8. (5,679,000 majority for the governmeni large vote of no in the army.) 1870-1871. Franco-German war, p. 513 fol. 1871 — X. France (for the third time) a Republic. During the siege of Paris the numerous socialist party hai made several attempts to seize the supreme power, which had bee frustrated by the troops and the national guard. After the capituU tion the workingmen had, under various pretexts, got possession < several hundred cannon, and converted the northeastern part of tlj city {Montmartre and Belleville) almost into fortresses. The attemj of general Vinoy, commander of the city, to repossess himself of thetj arms led to a general 1871, March 18. Uprising of the Commune (murder of genera] Lecomte and Thomas), and, after the defection of several reg ments, to the March 28-May 22. Rule of the Socialistic Comraun, (Blanqui, Pyat, Flourens, Delescluze, Cluseret, Rossel, etc.] Seat of the regular government, Versailles. The comite des interm tionalistes held a reign of terror in Paris. Spoliation of the churchej Several million " advances " exacted from the Bank for the payme: of the armed mob called the National Guard, whose ranks we:l swollen by socialists of all nations. The march upon Versailles end(i in a shameful retreat, the insurgents being fired upon from Moj Valerien. Arrest of archbishop Darhoy and other " hostages" aftd wards murdered. Proclamation resolving France into a number municipal republics. ^.pril 6-May 22. Second siege of Paris by marshal MacMahon, commander of the troops of the n tional assembly, on the south and west sides, the German troops pr| serving a strict neutrality in the forts which they occupied on tlj northeast. Bombardment of the southern forts, and the city itself, by the Ve sailles troops from the parallels which the Germans had constructe Meantime socialistic violence in Paris. Destruction of the house | Thiers, and overthrow of the Colonne Vendome, May 16, 1871 (i, erected 1874). !7I t. D. France. 533 liay 21. The Versailles troops entered the city through the Porte St. Cloud, of whose imguarded condition they were apprised by a 'arisian. Bloody contest against barricades (May 21-ii8) in the Heart of Paris. The commune caused the principal buildings of Paris be set on fire. (The TuUeries, a part of the Palais Royal, the li- >rary of the Louvre, the whole of the Hotel de Ville, the palace of the jcgion of Honor, the building of the ministry of finance, etc., actu- lly destroyed.) .871, May 28. Bloody suppression of the insurrection ; executions 1 en masse ; 40,000 or 50,000 socialists captured, or afterwards [ arrested. The leaders court-martialed, many shot, many trans- ported to Neiv Caledonia. J.871, Aug. 31. Thiers elected president of the republic for the I session of the national assembly. l>iay 10. Definitive treaty of Frankfort (p. 520). .873, Jan. 9. Death of Napoleon III. at Chiselhurst, in England, day 24. Thiers forced to resign by a parliamentary coalition of the monarchical parties (^Legitimists, Orleanists, Bonapartists). Mar- shal MacMahon elected president by the national assembly. rov. 19. After the attempt at a restoration of the monarchy under Henry V. (count of Chambord) had failed, marshal Mac- 1 Mahon was entrusted with the regency for seven years (sep- tennat) under the title " President of the Republic." (873, Oct.-Dec. Trial of Bazaine in the Trianon at Versailles before i' a court-martial, the duke of Aumale (fourth son of Louis Phi- Hppe) presiding. Bazaine was condemned to degradation and death, ■ut the sentence was remitted to twenty years' imprisonment. Ba- zaine conveyed to the island of Ste. Marguerite, near Cannes, whence !ie escaped in the summer of 1874. L875) Feb. After a long struggle between the parties in the I national assembly a republican constitution was finally agreed upon. Tlie legislative power was exercised by two chambers : the ,5hamber of deputies, which was elected by direct elections and manhood suffrage for four years, and the senate (300 senators : 75 rbr life, elected by the national assembly, and afterwards by the sen- [i,te itself ; and 225 elected for nine years by electoral colleges, com- t>osed of deputies, councils of the departments and districts, and dele- (jates of the communes). The executive power was entrusted to a !)resident, who, after the expiration of the septennat (above), was o be elected by the senate and chamber of deputies united in a na- ional assembly for this purpose, for seven years, and at the expira- ion of his term of office should be again eligible. The president, \rho governed by a responsible ministry, exercised almost all the ights of a constitutional monarchy, but could be impeached by the harnber of deputies before the senate for high treason. L875, Dec. After the adoption of a new electoral law (scrutin ^ d^ar- B 1 By the scrutin a'' arrondissement, the voters in each district voted for one delegate only ; by the scrutin de liste (favored by Gamhetta), the voters of each lepartment voted for the whole list of delegates from that department. — Mijii* JCK, Political History of Recent Times. A 534 Modern History, rondissement), the national assembly, which, had been in b< sion since 1871, separated. 1876, Jan., Feb. The new elections resulted in a senate composedj] half of republicans and half of the three monarchical part while in the chamber of deputies the republicans had a cisive majority. Dufaure ministry (March), Simon minis (Dec). 1877, May 16. Simon ministry displaced by the arbitrary act oj MacMahon ("coup d'etat"). Broglie ministry. Protest o: 363 members of the lower house against the action of the pres ident. Sept. 4. Death of Thiers (1797-1877). 1877, Oct. New elections. Maintenance of the republic. In spiti of the return of a republican majority, MacMahon formed ji royalist ministry (Rochebouet). As the house refused to def^ with such a ministry, formation of the ministry Dufaure (ra publican). 1878, International Exhibition. ji879, Jan. 16. Pardon of over 2,000 communists. ^ 1879, Jan. 30. MacMahon, involved in inextricable conflict with m chamber of deputies, resigned his office, and was succeeded b; Gr6vy. 1879-1887. Jules Gr^vy president of the republic. GamJ betta succeeded him as speaker of the house. Ministry ol Waddington. Amnesty for communists. Removal of the legislatur from Versailles to Paris. Secularization of education ; debate an) agitation over the bill introduced by Jules Ferry, minister of publij instruction, limiting the influence of religious orders in educatioj (§ 7 : total exclusion of unauthorized religious orders from giving in struction). Ministry of Freycinet (1879, Dec). 1879, June 1. Death of prince Louis Napoleon in South Africa. I spite of the nomination in his will of prince Victor, son c Jerome (son of the king of Westphalia), the latter ("PlwJ Plon ") was generally recognized by the Bonapartists. 1880, Mar. 30. Proclamation disbanding the order of Jesuits. June. General amnesty for convicted communists. (Rochefort.') Sept. 19. Ministry of Jules Ferry. Nov. Expulsion of unauthorized orders from their religious houses 1881, Expedition to Tunis, ostensibly to punish marauding bordd tribes, and to uphold the claims of the Societe Marseillaise t certain lands in Tunis, resulting in an attempt to establish protectorate over Tunis. Complications with Great Britair Italy, Spain. Nov. 13. Ministry of Gambetta (Foreign Affairs) ; M. Paul Ber minister of public worship. 1882, Jan. 30. Ministry of M. Freycinet (Foreigii Affairs) ; Leo Say (Finance) ; Jules Ferry (Public Instruction). Gambetta having been defeated on a motion to adopt the scrutin de list*] had resigned Jan 27. Jan. Failure of the Union Gcnerale (founded 1881). I t. D. Great Britain, 535 uly 29. Resignation of the ministry Freycinet after defeat upon a question of supplies for protecting the Suez canal. Min- \ istry Duclerc (Gambettist). j French claims upon Madagascar, especially to a protectorate over tie northwest coast, opposed by the native Hovas, and discussed be- ween France and England. The French protectorate over Annam (1874) being threatened by be presence of Taiping refugees (" Black Flags," p. 462) in Ton- uin, the government resolved upon energetic measures for the as- '^rtion of the rights of France. )ec. 31. Death of Leon Gambetta (b. 1838, Oct. 30). {Seep. 573.) § 4. GREAT BRITAIN. {Seep.U^.) 1783-1882. 783, Nov. Pox brought forward a bill to reform the government of India, which was thrown out in the lords. The king, thereupon, dismissed the coalition ministry, and William Pitt became |783, Dec. 26-1801, March 17. Pirst lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer. He introduced an India hill, which was rejected, and 784, March 25. Parliament was dissolved. May 18. The Pifth parliament of George III. (XVI.) Aug. 13. Pitt''s India hill became law (p. 442). 787. The first convicts sent to Australia (Botany Bay). j788, Oct. 12. The king became insane. Fox proposed that the Prince of Wales should assume the regency as of right. Pitt, though admitting the prince's claims, insisted that the legislature had the right to make the appointment. Pending 789, Feb. the discussion the king recovered. 791, Representative institutions granted Canada. 792, June. Pox's libel bill, which gave the Jury power to render a general verdict of guilty or not guilty upon the whole matter in issue, received the royal assent. 793, Jan. Alien bill. Traitorous correspondence bill. 793, Feb. 1. The Prench republic declared war against Great Britain, etc. (p. 453). 794. Spread of revolutionary principles. Suspension of the habeas corpus act. [ay. Trial of Hardy, Home Tooke, and Thelioall, all of whom, ct.-Dec. through the efforts of Erskine, were acquitted. 794, Nov. Treaty with the United States (Jay^s treaty, p. 548). 795, July-Nov. Holland having joined the French against Eng- land, the latter seized the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and other possessions of the Dutch in the East. 796, Sept. 17. Sixth parliament of George III. (XVII.) ct. 11. Spain declared war against England (p. 458). . r97, Feb. 27. Bank of England stopped specie payments. , r97, April 15. A mutiny broke out in the fleet at Spithead (off 536 Modern History, A. R May 17. sonable, were granted and the fleet put to sea. Another and more violent mutiny broke out at the May 22. Nore (mouth of the Thames), which was finally put downj June 30. by force and the ringleader hanged. 1797, Oct. 11. Victory of Camperdown (Duncan) puts an end to the danger of immediate invasion. 1798, Apr. 20. Habeas corpus act again suspended. Aug. 1. Battle of the Nile (p. 460). 1799, Failure of the expedition to the Netherlands (p. 461). 1800, Dec. 16. Armed neutrality of 1780 revived (p. 412). The United Irishmen, an association of malcontents, mainly ' Protestants, was formed in 1791 to secure the entire separatior- of Ireland from England. The French sent more than one expedition to their aid ; of these the most formidable, undei 1796, Dec. Hoche, was scattered by a storm, while a smaller ont 1798, Sept. 8. was defeated at Ballinamuck. 1798, June 21. The United Irishmen were beaten at Vinegar Hill, 1799. and the insurrection put down with cruel severities. ThescI events led to the 1801) Jan. 1. Legislative Union of Great Britain witti Ireland under the name of the United Kingdom. The aci of union provided, among other things, that there should \n one imperial parliament, to which L?eland should send/ow' spiritual lords, sittmg by rotation of sessions ; twenty-eight tern poral peers, elected for life by the Irish peerage ; and one hun. dred members of the commons ; and that the churches of tht' two countries should be united into one protestant episcopa^ church. Mr. Pitt proposed to bring in a bill making certain concession to the Roman catholics. The kmg being persuaded that sudj concessions would be a breach of the coronation oath refusetj 1801, Feb. 3. his consent, and Mr. Pitt resigned. Mar. 17-1804, May 15. Addington administration. Lord Eldon. lord chancellor. Apr. 2. Battle of Copenhagen (Nelson). Convention between Em June 17. land and Russia. End of the second armed neutrality Q 463). Apr. 19. Habeas corpus act again suspended. 1802, Nov. 16. Seventh parliament of George III. (2nd impf rial). 1802, Mar. 27. Peace of Amiens (p. 464). 1803. The English ambassador (lord Whitworth), publicly insultd Mar. 13. by Napoleon. May. "War renewed between England and France (p. 465). 1803. Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, easily suppressed, but showe • the deep-seated hostility of the Irish, and led to the suspensic of the habeas corpus act in Ireland. 1804. May 10-1806, Jan. 23. Pitt's second ministry. 1805. Third coalition against France (p. 467). ,Oct. 21. Trafalgar (Nelson, p. 467). *^A. D. Great Britain. 537 1806, Jan. 23. Death of Pitt. 1806, Feb. 10.-1807, March 31. All the Talents : Zorrf Grenville, prime minister ; Charles James Fox, foreign secretary, -j- Sept. 13 ; lord Erskine, lord chancellor ; lord Howick (afterwards earl Grey), first lord of the admiralty. Nov. 21. Berlin Decree (p. 469). Dec. 15. Eighth (3d imperial) parliament of George III. 1807, March 23. Abolition of the slave trade in the British I dominions. The ministry went out on the catholic question, and were suc- ceeded by the '1807, Mar. 31.-1809, Oct. 29. duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury ; Canning and Castlereagh, home and foreign secre- taries ; Spencer Perceval, chancellor of the exchequer. (George Camiing, b. 1770, entered parliament 1793, under sec- retary 1796, t 1827). (Castlereagh, afterwards marquis of Londonderry, b. 1769, f 1822.) June 22. Ninth (4th imperial) parliament of George in. July 7-9. Treaty of Tilsit (p. 469). Sept. 7. Second bombardment of Copenhagen (p. 470). Jan.-Nov. Orders in Council which declared France, and all countries under her control, to he in a state of blockade. 1807, Nov. 8. Russia declared war against England. . Dec. 17. Milan decree, a supplement to the Berlin decree (p. 469). 1 1808, Aug. Convention of Cintra (p. 471). 1808, The failure of the Walcheren expedition sent to destroy , July-Nov. the docks and shipping at Antwerp, caused a rupture be- tween Castlereagh and Canning, both of whom resigned. 1 1809. Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769, entered the army 1787 ; As- May. saye 1803 ; entered parliament 1806 ; commanded in the Peninsular War. Commander-in-chief 1842, f 1852), after- wards duke of Wellington, enters Spain, and the ' 1808-1814. Peninsular w^ar was fairly begun (p. 471). 1809, Oct. 29. Death of the duke of Portland. 1809, Dec. 6-1812, May 11. Mr. Perceval /rs< lord of the treasury. 1810, Oct. and Nov. Lines of Torres Vedras (p. 473). Nov. The king became hopelessly insane, and 1811, Feb. 5. The Prince of Wales was appointed re- * gent. ' Nov. The breaking of machinery by the Luddites became so fre- quent that frame breaking was made a capital offense. ' 1812, May 11. Assassination of Perceval by Bellingham. 1812, June 8-1827, Apr. 24. Liverpool ministry : Castlereagh, foreign secretary. I 1812, June 18. War with the United States ended bv the treaty of Ghent, 1814, Dec. 24 (p. 551). Nov. 24. Tenth (5th imperial) parliament of George III. 1813, June 21. Vittoria (p. 479). 1814, May 30. Peace of Paris followed by 1815, March 25. Treaty of Vienna. England gained Cape of 638 Modern History, A. D. Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, Malta, Tobago, St. Lucia, and Mauritius. Hanover became a separate kingdom, with George III. first king, and descent to heirs male (p. 491). 1815, June 15. "Waterloo (p. 484). The English national debt had grown from less than 250 mill- ion pounds in 1793 to over 850 millions ; the laboring classes found it difficult to obtain the bare necessaries of life. Consequently riots took place in the agricultural districts, while the Luddites broke out with fresh vehemence. Incited by the Weekly Political Register (^William Cobbett, 1762-1835), the cry oi parliamentary reform was raised, and Hampden clubs were formed throughout the country. 1816, Mar. 3. The habeas corpus act was suspended. Mar. 10. The Blanket meeting at Manchester broken up by the military; lord Sidmouth's (Addington) circular letter. Dec. Acquittal of Hone. 1816, July. Dey of Algiers compelled to abolish christian slavery. 1819, Jan. 14. Eleventh (6th imperial) parliament of George III. 1819, Aug. 16. A meeting of the Radicals at St. Peter's Fields, Man- chester, dispersed by the military with bloodshed ; hence called the Manchester Massacre, or Peterloo. In consequence of these disturbances, the Six Acts, strengthening the bands of government, were passed. 1820, Jan. 29. Death of George III. Chief descendants: — George in. == Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oeorge IV., t without issue. William IV., 1830-1837. t without issue. Frederic, Edward, Ernest, d. of York. d. of Kent. d. of Cum- 1 1827, 1 1820. berland ; k. without issue. I of Hanover. I 1837-1851. Albert of =r Victoria, Saxe-Coburg- I tl901. Gotha. tl861. Adolphus, d. of Cambridge. tl850. Victoria, Edward VII. Alice, Alfred, Helena, Louise, Arthur, m. Ger- m. Alexandra m. gr. d. of Edin- m. pr. of m. mar- d. of man Em- d. of k. of d. of burgh, f 1900, Schleswig- quis of Con- peror. Denmark. Hesse, as d. of Holstein. Lome, naught. tiaOl. I tl878. Saxe-Coburg- Gotha. Leopold, d. of Al- bany, tl884. Beatrice^ m. pr. .: Henry ofi Batteu berg. Albert Victor, d. of Clarence, tl8b2. I George, Prince of Wales, m. Mary of Teck, g. g. d. of George III. Louise, m. d. of Fife. Victoria Maud, m. Charles, pr. of Den- mark, Edward Albert. Victoria. Henry. George. 1820-1830. George IV. (prince regent since 1811). 1820, Apr. 21. First (7th imperial) parliament of George IV.^ 1820. Cato street conspiracy for assassinating the king's minis«l ters discovered. May 1. The leader, Thistlewood, and four accomplices executed. 1820, Aug.-Nov. The king, while prince of Wales, had been, in f manner, forced to marry his cousin. The marriage was an unhappy one, and not long after his accession ministers brought f ow A. D. Great Britain. 539 ward a bill of pains and penalties to degrade and divorce the queen on charges of misconduct. In the trial of queen Caroline which followed, Mr. (afterwards lord) Brougham and Mr. (afterwards lord) Denman so shook the evidence against her, on the cross-examination (1821, July 18), that the bill was abandoned. She was, however, ex- cluded from the coronation, and not long after died. 1821. May. Bank of England resumed specie payments (p. 535). 1822. Castlereagh (lord Londonderry) committed suicide, and was succeeded at the foreign office by George Canning. Mr Peel home secretary. 1823. The next year Huskisson became president of the board of trade, and Mr. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich) chancellor of the exchequer. 1825, Commercial panic ; modification of the monopoly of the Bank of England. 1826, Nov. 14. Second (8th imperial) parliament of George IV. 1827, Aug. 8-1828, Jan. 25. Lord Goderich premier. 1827, Oct. 20. Navarino ; " untoward event " (p. 489). 1828, Jan. 26-1830, Nov. 22. Duke of Wellington prime min- ister. Robert Peel, home secretary (b. 1788 ; M. P. 1809 ; colo- nial secretary 1810 ; f 1850). 1828, Feb. 26. Lord John Russell (b. 1792 ; M. P. 1813 ; earl Rus- sell 1861 ; t 1878) moved the repeal of the corporation and test acts (p. 380), which was carried (May). m A declaration containing the words " on the true faith of a " christian " was substituted for the sacramental test, thus ad- mitting protestant dissenters to office. 1828, July 15. The restrictions on the importation of breadstuffs were modified by the adoption of the sliding scale. The duke of Wellington and Mr. Peel became convinced of the necessity of catholic emancipation. 1829, April 13. The catholic relief act substituted a new form of oath for the oaths of supremacy, allegiance, and abjuration, and ' there were now no offices from which catholics were excluded, ex- cept those of regent, lord chancellor of England and Ireland, and vice- roy of Ireland. The franchise in Ireland was raised from 40^. to lOZ., and certain regulations were made respecting the exercise of tho Roman catholic religion. 1830, June 26. Death of Gem-ge IV. 1830-1837. WiUiam IV. I 1830, Sept. 15. Opening of the Manchester and Liverpool rail* way (Rocket locomotive), f of Huskisson. 1830, Oct. 26. First (9th imperial) parliament of William IV. '• When parliament opened earl Grey declared that, in his opin- ion, the only way to avert political convulsions was by a reform in parliament. The duke of Wellington expressed himself as opposed to ! reform, and being defeated on a minor question resigned Nov. 16. ,; 1830, Nov. 24-1834, July 18. Earl Grey, prime minister. Lord r Althorp, chancellor of exchequer ; lord Brougham, lord chan- cellor; lord John Russell, paymaster-general of the forces ; and lord Melboumey home secretary. 540 Modem History, A. D. I 1831, March 31. Lord John Russell introduced his reform bill. It soon became apparent that there was no prospect of passing Apr. 22. the bUl, and parliament was dissolved. June 14. Second (10th imperial) parliament of William IV. The reform bill again introduced; passed the commons Sept. 21, but was thrown out by the lords, and riots ensued through- out the country. i 1832, Mar. 19. The reform bill, with some alterations, was again passed by the commons. In the lords an amendment was car- ried against ministers, who resigned May 7, but resumed office May 18, the king having consented to create a sufficient number of new | peers to secure the passage of the bill ; but this proved unnecessary, as many tory peers refrained from voting, and the bill received the royal assent June 7. 1882. By this, the First Reform Act, 143 boroughs lost one or both members, and the seats thus obtained were given to several large towns (Manchester, Birmingham, etc.), to the larger coun- ■ ties, and to new boroughs. At the same time the franchise was ex- tended. The Scotch reform act, July 17; the Irish reform act, Aug. 7. 1833, Jan. 29. Third (11th imperial) parliament of William IV. Apr. 2. The Irish coercion act. In August the bill for the abolition of slavery throughout thai British empire was passed. The sum of 20,000,000Z. was: voted to the slave-owners. 1833. Renewal of the charter of the Bank of England ; and of the Easti India Company for twenty years, but the trade with Chinai was thrown open (p. 561). 1834. The question of an extension of the Irish coercion act led toij the resignation of earl Grey. \ 1834, July 16-Nov. 14. Lord Melbourne became premier. Lord Alihorp, lord John Russell, and lord Brougham retained their places. 1834. Poor la-w amendment act. Local boards abolished in favor Aug. of a central board of commissioners. Poor law unions took the place of work-houses, and the system of out-door relief was in a great measure reformed. Nov. The king dismissed the mmistry, and the duke of Welling-; ton took control of affairs until sir Robert Peel could be summoned from Rome. 1834, Dec. 8-1835, Apr. 18. Peel's first administration. ( WeU lington, foreign secretary.) The majority in the commons 1834, Dec. 30. was against ministers, parliament was dissolved, and Peel issued the Tamworth manifesto. j 1835, Feb. 19. Fourth (12th imperial) parliament of Williai IV. The conservatives, as the supporters of Peel termed then Apr. selves, being in a minority in the commons, ministers resignedli 1835, Apr. 18-1841, Sept. 3. Second Melbourne ministry. Palmerston, foreign secretary (b. 1784 ; M. P. 1807 ; f Oct 18, 1865) ; lord John Russell, home secretary ; viscount Howick secretary of war, — succeeded in 1839 by T. B. Macaulai (b. 1800 ; M. P. 1830 ; raised to the peerage 1857 ; f 1859> .. D. Great Britain. 541 835, Sept. Reform of municipal corporations act, London not included. S.'^n. Commutation of tithes act. 8LJ7, June 20. Death of William IV. {See p. 542.) The British in India. {See p. 4W 7S0-1793. Lord Cornwallis, governor-general. 79-. War with Tipu Sultan, ended by the cession of one half of Mysore to the English and allies. 793. Capture of Pondicherri, sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth), governor-general, succeeded by 798-1805. lord Mornington (afterwards marquis of Wellesley). 799. Tipu Sultan, trusting in the promises of Bonaparte, again took up arms, was killed, and his dominions were divided be- tween the English and the Nizam. ,802. Holkar, one of the Mahrattd chiefs, drove the Peshwa from Poona. By the treaty of Bassein the English agreed to assist the Peshwa provided he would surrender his independence, and maintain a body of European troops {the subsidiary policy). Sindhia and the Raja of Nagpur united with Holkar against the English. The latter under sir Arthur Wellesley (after- wards duke of Wellington), brother of the governor-general, .803. gained the battles of Assaye, Sept. 3, and Argaum, Nov. 29, while another army under general (afterwards lord) Lake won the battle of Las-wari, Nov. 1, and captured Delhi. The Raja of Nagpur and Sindhia, by treaties, surrendered much :804. territory to the English. In the next year Holkar was de- feated by Lake at Furrukabad, and again near Bhartpur 1805, and made peace with the English 1806, Jan. 7. ,805, July-Oet. Lord Cornwallis again governor-general; f Oct. ; t and was succeeded by 805-1807. sir G. Barlow. I 806. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Vellore. ! 807-1813. Lord Minto, governor-general. I 809. Mutiny of the European officers at Seringapatam. 813-1823. Lord Moira (afterwards marquis of Hastings), gov- ernor-general, i 814-1815. War with the Gurkhas of Nepal. 817. Pindari war. I- .817-1818. Last Mahratta vrar. The dominions of the Peshwa S were annexed and the Raja of Nagpur was put under British || guardianship, while the states of Rajputana placed themselves '' under British protection. \ v823-1828. Lord Amherst, governor-general. 't .824^1826. First Burmese war, English acquire Assam, etc. 1 .828-1835. Lord William Bentinck, governor-general. Financial reforms ; abolition of sati (suttee) or wadow-burning ; sup- ; pression of the thagi (thugs) or hereditary assassins. ' .833. Company^s charter renewed for twenty years, but the trade was thrown open, and Europeans allowed to settle in the coun- k 542 Modern History. A. D; try. A legal member added to the governor's council, and a commission appointed to revise and codify the laws. Macau- lay, first legal member, and president of the commission. The only annexation of this time was that of Coorg. 1835-1836. Short administration of sir Charles (afterwards lord) Metcalfe, memorable for giving entire freedom to the press. (See p. 546.J Great Britain. (See p. 54i.)il 1837-1901. Victoria (only child of the late duke of Kent) f Separation of Hanover from Great Britain ; duke of Cumber-l land, the eldest surviving son of George III., became king. 1837, Nov. 15. First (13th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1837. Rebellion in Canada. Burning of the American steamer Car oline. The rebels finally reduced to obedience in 1839. Thj two provinces, upper and loTver Canada, were united ii 1840, and in 1847 responsible government was introduced int« the colony. 1838, Aug. Meeting of working people near Birmingham. A na tional petition or peoples' charter was drawn up. Th petitioners or chartists demanded, 1. annual parliaments ; 2 universal (manhood) suffrage ; 3. vote by ballot ; 4. abolitioj of the property qualification of members of parliament j and I payment for their services. To these " five points " a sixth, tha of equal electoral districts, was afterwards added. The petitio; was presented to the commons, 1839, June 14, and its rejection wa followed by riots which were easily suppressed. 1838, Sept. The anti-corn law league formed at Manchester undel the leadership of John Bright (b. 1811 ; M. P. 1843 ; f 18891 and Richard Cobden (b. 1804 ; M. P. 1847; f 1865). 1839, Opium war with China ended by treaty of Nankin, 1849 Aug. 29 (p. 561). 1840, Jan. Penny postage introduced (sir Rowland Hill). Feb. 10. The queen married her cousin Albert of Saxe-Coburg anj Gotha. 1841, Aug. 19. Second (14th imperial) parliament of Victorif 1841, Sept. 6-1846, June 29. Peel's second administratioi Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office ; earl Ripo^ board of trade, succeeded in 1843 by "W. E. Gladstone (It 1809 ; M. P. 1832 ; f 1898). ■ 1842. Second sliding scale adopted ; and the duties on over 7C articles either removed or reduced, the deficiency so created W ing made up by an income tax (June 22). 1844. Charter of the Bank of England renewed (Peel act). Tl issue department established, weekly returns to be publishedl and circulation limited to 14,000,060Z. i 1846. Total repeal of the corn laws. The sliding scale abolished ; the duty on wheat imported at 47. Commercial panic in England. >47, Nov. 18. Third (15th imperial) parliament of Victoria. This distress coupled with the excitement produced by the rev- 148. olutions of 1848 (p. 492) roused rebellion in Ireland, which was easily suppressed, and its leaders Smith O^Brien and Mit- 548, April 10. chell transported ; while in England the chartists held a monster meeting on Kennington common, and presented a petition to parliament. 549, June. Repeal of the navigation latva. Encumbered estates ily. act (Ireland). )50, Sept. 30. Papal bull establishing a Roman catholic hie- rarchy in England. 551, July. Ecclesiastical titles bill, imposing a fine of lOOZ. on all who should endeavor to carry this papal bull into effect, passed (never executed). J51. Telegraphic communication between France and Eng- land. ?51. Great exhibition of the industries of all nations in Hyde Park, London. ?52, Feb. 27-Dec. 18. Earl Derby's first ministry, Disraeli, chancellor of exchequer (b. 1805 ; " Vivian Grey " 1825 ; M. P. 1837 ; earl of Beaconsfield, 1876 ; f 1881). ept. 14. Death of the duke of Wellington. 352, Nov. 4. Fourth (16th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 562, Dec. 28-1855, Feb. 5. Aberdeen administration. 'W. E. Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer; lord Palmerston, home secretary ; lord John Russell, foreign secretary. End of Caffir ivar in South Africa. 856. Treaty of Paris ended the Crimean war (p. 501). War flar. 30. with China. Treaty of Tien-tsin, June 26, 1859. Peace ofPekin Aug. 24, 1860 (p. 562). 857, Apr. 30. Fifth (17th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 544 Modern History. A. d. Nov. 12. Great commercial panic. Suspension of the hank charter act of 1^'^. In consequence of the attempted assassination of Napoleon III. by Orsifii, lord Palmerston introduced the conspiracy to murder hill. On its rejection in the commons the ministry resigned, and the f 1858, Feb. 22-1859, June 11. Second Derby ministry took office ; Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer. | 1858, June. Property qualification of members of parliament abolished. I July. Jews admitted to parliament. Act for the better government of India. Aug. 5. The successful laying of the first Atlantic cable (ceased! working Sept. 4). Aug. 26. Treaty with the tycoon (shogun) of Japan (p. 563). 1858. The queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India^ The government of the East India company ceased. The ministry, defeated on a reform bill introduced by Disraelil Apr. 13. dissolved parliament, but being in a minority in the 1859, May 31. Sixth (18th imperial) parliament of Victoriai resigned, and the 1859, June 13-1865, Nov. 6. Second Palmerston ministry came in. Gladstone, chancellor of the exchequer ; earl Russell (formerly lord John), foreign secretary ; lord Campbell, lorcJ chancellor. 1860, Jan. 23. Commercial treaty between Great Britain and Frances July-Oct. The prince of Wales visits the United States and Cam ada. 1861, July 27. Rupture of diplomatic relations with Mexico. Nov. 8. Mason and Slidell taken from the British mail steamei Trent (p. 557). Dec. 23. Death of the prince consort. 1862, Second Exhibition of the industry of all nations opened ill May 1. London. 1863, The Maori (native) war in New Zealand, ended in 1869. 1864, The Schleswig-Holstein question (p. 505). June. Final cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece (p. 483). July. The Thames embankment begun. 1865, June. Commencement of the Cattle Plague. Oct. Insurrection in Jamaica. j Oct. 18. Death of lord Palmerston. 1865, Nov. 6-1866, June 26. Earl Russell premier. 1866, Feb. 1. Seventh (19th imperial) parliament of Victoria. Feb. Habeas corpus act suspended in Ireland. May. Failure of Overend, Gurney and Co. (liabilities over 19,000i OOOZ.). Panic in London. July Telegraphic communication with America finally establishedj 1866, July 6-1868, Feb. 27. Third Derby ministry. Disraeli chancellor of the exchequer. 1867, Aug. 15. The second reform act, — "a leap in the dark,"- which greatly extended the franchise, received the royal as sent. A. D. Great Britain. 545 1867. The Fenians attempted the seizure of the arsenal at Chester (Feb.). Rising in Ireland, easily suppressed. Attempt to release Fenians confined in Clerkenwell prison, by exploding gunpowder under the walls. 1867. Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick were combined into one Dominion of Canada, with power to take in new provinces. Each province retained its own legislature for local affairs. All British America, with the exception of Newfoundland, now belongs to this confederation. 1867. Abyssinia expedition, Magdala. 1868, Feb. 27-Dec. 3. Lord Derby resigned, and Mr. Disraeli be- came premier. The general elections to the new parliament were so decidedly in favor of the liberals that the ministry re- signed, and 1868, Dec. 9-1874, Feb. 21. Mr. Gladstone became prime minister. 1868, Dec. lO. Eighth (20th imperial) parliament of Victoria. July 26. Disestablishment and disendowment of the Irish church. A portion of the money so obtained given to the Roman catholic college of Maynooth, and another portion ap- plied to educational purposes. The royal assent was at the same time given to the bankruptcy bill, and to a bill abolishing imprisonment for debt. (Debtors' prisons : Fleets Marshal' sea, etc.) 1868, Oct. 16. Openmg of the Suez canal. 1870. Irish land act provided, among other things, for compen- sation to out-going tenants ; for loans to landlords for im- provements, and to tenants desirous of purchasing their hold* ings (Bright clauses). At the same session a system of 1870. national education was established by law. 1871. Purchase in the army abolished. Treaty of Washington with the United States, by which the Alabama claims were settled by 1872. Arbitration at Geneva and the so-called northwestern boun- dary dispute, decided by the emperor of Germany as arbiter (p. 560). 1872. Vote by ballot introduced. 1873. Ashantee "war. Coomassie taken by 1874. the British, commanded by general Wolseley. 1874, Feb. 21.-1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Disraeli (1876, Aug., earl of Beaconsfield), premier ; sir Stafford Northcote, chancellor of the exchequer. 1874, March 5. Ninth (21st imperial) parliament of Victoria, 1875. Purchase of Suez canal shares from the khedive of Egypt. 1875, 1876. Visit of the Prince of Wales to India. The queen pro- claimed empress of India. Commercial panic. 1878, July 13. Treaty of Berlin. British take possession of Cyprus July 14 (p. 624). 1879. Irish land league, supported by Pamellf Dillon, etc. 1879^ 1880, famine in Ireland. 1879. War with the Zulus (" Jingoism "). 35 546 Modem History, A. D. ' 1880, Feb. 23. Parliament dissolved. Elections in favor of liberals ; resignation of ministers, Apr. 22. 1880, Apr. 28. Mr. Gladstone, prime minister ; marquis of Har' tington, secretary for India; W. E. Forster, chief secretary for Ireland, succeeded by lord F. Cavendish, and be by G. 0. Tre' vellyan. John Bright, chancellor of the duchy. 1880, Apr. 29. Tenth (22d imperial) parliament of Victoria. 1881, March 3, Irish coercion act. Aug. 22. Irish land act provided for a court of commission to try differences between landlords and tenants ; and in a measure granted the " three F's : " 1. free sale ; 2. fair rents ; 3. fx- ity of tenure. 1882, May 6. Murder of lord Frederick Cavendish and an under-secretary in Dublin. July 11. Bombardment of Alexandria (Egypt). Resignation of John Bright. July 14. A new Irish coercion act went into force. Sept. Total defeat of Egyptian rebels by the British, commanded by sir Garnet Wolseley. Capture of Tel-el-Kehir. (See p. 565.) The British in India. {Seep. 542.) 1836-1842. Lord Auckland, governor-general. 1839. First Afghan war, occasioned by an attempt to place a ruler in Afghanistan who should be subservient to the British. Kabul was easily occupied. Dost Muhammad taken prisoner, and Shah Shujd installed. In November, 1841, the Afghdns rose, and, led by Akhar Khan, drove the British from Kabul. Terrible "winter retreat to Jalalabad. 1842-1844. Earl of Ellenborough, governor-general. Two ar- mies sent to Afghanistan. Relief of Kandahar and Jalalabad. Capture of Kabul. The bazar blown up. Dost Muhammad re- placed, and the British withdrawn. 1844-1848. Sir Henry (afterwards lord) Hardinge, governor- general. 1845. First Sikh war. 1848-1856. Earl of Dalhousie, governor-general. 1848, 1849. Second Sikh war ended in the annexation of the Punjab. 1852. Second Burmese war. British Burma annexed, 1856. Annexation of Oudh on the ground of misrule. 1856-1862. Earl Canning, governor-general. 1857, May 10. Mutiny of the Sepoys at Mirath (Meerut). Rising of the Muhammadans at Delhi. Massacre at Cawnpore (N^na Sdhib), June 27. First relief of Lucknow by Have- locky Sept. 25 ; final deliverance of the garrison by sir Colin Campbell, Nov. 16. Siege and capture of Delhi, June-Sept. The mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah, captured, deposed, and banished to Rangoon ; f 1862. End of the mughal empire. 1868. The government of India transferred to the crown; gov- ernor-general to be viceroy. I. D. United States. 547 L862-1863. Lord Elgin, viceroy ; 1864-1869, lord Lawrence, viceroy. Famine in Orissa, 1866 ; in Bundelkhand and Upper Hindustan, 1868, 1869. 1869-1872. Lord Mayo, viceroy. Internal improvements. L872-1876. Lord Northbrook, viceroy. Dethronement of the Mahrattd Gdekwdr of Baroda. Visit of the prince of Wales to India. 1876-1880. Lord Lytton, viceroy. 1877> Jan. 1. The queen proclaimed empress of India. 1877, 1878. Famine in southern India. 1878-1881. Second Afghan war. E-efusal of Sher AH to admit a British embassy. The Khaibar (Kyber), the Kuram, and the Boldn passes occupied by the Britisli troops, f Sher Alt. Abdication )f his son, Ydkub Khan. Defeat of a brigade of British troops by Ayiib Khan. Brilliant march of sir F. Roberts from Kabul to Kanda- \dry and rout of Ayyb Khdn, 1880, Sept. 1. Abdurrahman Khan, ihe eldest male representative of Dost Muhammad, recognized by the British as Amir, and their troops withdrawn from Kabul and Kanda- har. 1880. Marquis of Ripon, viceroy. 1881. Population of all India 252,541,210, an increase in ten years of over twelve millions. {^See p. 565) §5. UNITED STATES. {Seep. 433.) 1789-1882. 1789. First congress met at New York, March 4. 1789. George "Washington (Virginia), president. John Apr. 30. Adams, vice-president. Nov. 1. North Carolina accepted the constitution. 1789. Three executive departments created. Thomas Jefferson (b. 1743, f 1825^, secretary of state ; Alexander Hamilton (b. 1757, f 1804), secretary of the treasury ; Henry Knox, sec- retary of war. These with the attorney general formed the cabinet. A national judiciary was also established. John Jay, chief justice of the supreme court. 1789. First ten amendments (in the nature of a bill of rights) to the constitution proposed by congress to the state legislatures, and ratified, in the course of two years, by three fourths of the states. 1790, May 29. Rhode Island accepted the constitution. 1790. The financial affairs of the country were put on a firm basis - The seat of government to be at Philadelphia for ten years, and after that permanently located on the Potomac, where land was ceded by the states of Maryland and Virginia {Distnct of Columbia), and the city of Washington laid out. 1790-1795. Lidian war. Defeat of Harmar 1790 ; St, Clair 1791 ; and victory of Wayne 1794. 1790. Death of Franklin. Population 3,921,326 (1st census). National debt Jan. 1, 1791, ^75,463,476.52. 1791, Aug. George Hammond, minister from Great Britain, received. Vermont admitted (14th state). 548 Modern History. A. d A national bank (United States bank) chartered for twent} 1792, Apr. 2. years, and a mint, were established at Philadelphia. 1792. Two parties now came into prominence : the republican, afterwards democratic, led by /e^erson; and the federalist, whose leaders were Hamilton and Adams. 1792. Kentucky admitted (15th state). Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. Washington and Adams reelected. 1793. France declared war against Great Britain, and sent Genet as minister to the United States. He arrived at Charleston in April, and proceeded to fit out privateers, etc. Washington issued a proclamation of neutrality, Apr. 22 ; and the next year (1794) the neutrality act was passed. Genet appealed from the executive to the people, and, upon the demand of the government, was recalled. 1793. Fugitive slave act, substantially a dead letter until revived in 1850. 1794. "Whiskey insurrection in -western Pennsylvania. It was caused by an internal revenue law of 1791, which laid an excise on domestic spirits, and was put down by an army com- posed of the militia of Pennsylvania and adjoining states. 1794. Eleventh amendment, securmg the non-suability of states, proposed by congress, and declared ratified Jan. 1798. 1794. Peace purchased from Algiers, and from Tripoli and Tunis in the following years. 1794. The treaty of peace (p. 432) had been fully carried out by neither party. Great Britain had not delivered the posts held by her on the northern frontier. And she was accused of inciting the Indians to hostility, of impressing American seamen, and of capturing American trading vessels ; and besides, many slaves had been carried away by the British when they evacuated New York. On the other! side, it was alleged that the provisions of the treaty with regard to' the collection of debts due to British subjects had not been observed. To settle these differences John Jay was sent to England, and a 1794, Nov. 19. Treaty of amity, commerce, and navigation (Jay's treaty) was concluded. It provided for the delivery of the posts before June, 1796 ; for a commission to decide what river was the " St. Croix " (p. 432) ; for compensation in certain cases to British subjects and American citizens, to be as- certained by commissioners ; for the regulation of trade betweem the two countries ; for the extradition of criminals, etc. Thai treaty met with great opposition; the ratif cations were not ex- changed till Oct. 1795 ; and the money necessary to carry it out was not voted till 1796 (speech of Fisher Ames). 1795. Treaty with Spain established the southern boundary of theJ United States, and secured the free navigation of the Missis* sippi, with right of deposit at New Orleans. 1796. Tennessee admitted (16th state). Sept. 18. Washington's farewell address. 1797, Mar. 4. John Adams (Massachusetts), federalist, 2 March 4. James Madison (Virginia), democrat, 4th president. James Monroe, secretary of state. 1810. Population 7,239,881 (3d census). 1810, March 23. Rambouillet decree, ordering the sale of all American vessels which had been seized for violating the French decrees. 1810, May 1. Act known as Macon's No. 2 provided that in case either Great Britain or France should revoke its edicts the United States would prohibit trade with the other. Napoleon revoked the Berlin and Milan decrees, but not the Rambouillet decree, Aug. 6, to take efiPect Nov. 1, as to American vessels. This was considered by the president as a sufficient compliance with the condition of A. D. United States, 551 Macon's No. 2, and a proclamation declared the non-importation act revived as to Great Britain after Feb. 2, 1811. 1811, May 16. Engagement between the American frigate Presi- dent and the British ship Little Belt. 1812. Louisiana admitted (18th state). 1812, Apr. 4. Embargo for ninety days. War declared against Great Britain. The orders in council of Jan. and Apr. 1807, revoked (June 23). 1812-1814. "War with Great Britain. Events of 1812. Unsuccessful invasion of Canada, surrender of Detroit (Aug. 16), defeat at Queens town (Oct. 13). On the water, however, the American ship Essex (Porter) captured the Alert; the Constitution (Hull), the Guerriere ; the Wasp, the Frolic (both taken by the Poic- tiers, a British 74) ; the United States (Decatur), the Macedonian ; and the Constitution (Bainbridge), the Java. In 1813 the Amer- icans were defeated at Frenchtown (Jan.) ; gamed the battle of Lake Erie (Perry) ; but were driven from their posts on the Niagara. The English blockaded the Atlantic seaboard, and June 1 the British frigate Shannon captured the Chesapeake ; the Pelican, the Argus ; but on the other hand the American ship Hornet took the Peacock ; the Enterprise, the Boxer. In 1814 there was another attempt to invade Canada; the Americans captured Fort Erie and won the battles of Chippewa (July 5) and Lundy's Lane (July 15), but these victories led to nothing. Battle of Lake Champlain won by McDonough (Sept. 11). Aug. 24, the British under Ross defeated the Americans at Bladenshurgh ; entered Washington the next day and burnt all the public buildings ; but were repulsed in an at- tempt on Baltimore (Sept. 13) ; and with great loss at New Or- leans (Dec, Jackson). At sea the American ship Essex (Porter), after a successful cruise in the Pacific, was captured by the Phoebe and Cherub ; the Peacock captured the Epervier ; the Wasp, the Reindeer and Avon. In 1815 the Constitution captured the Cyane and Levant ; and the Hornet, the Penguin ; while the President sur- rendered to a British squadron. Peace, however, had been made at Ghent, December 24, 1814, by a treaty by which none of the ques- tions which led to the war were settled, but which provided for com- missions to run the boundaries, as determined in previous treaties. The eastern states had resisted the embargo, and later had taken a very lukewarm interest m the war, and had consequently been left to shift for themselves. This dissatisfaction led to the summoninoj of the Hartford convention, 1814, Dec. 15, which adjourned in three weeks without accomplishing anything. 1815. Squadron, under Decatur, sent to the Mediterranean, and a treaty negotiated with Algiers. 1816. The second United States bank chartered for twenty years (charter of 1st expired in 1811). Protective tariff. In- diana admitted (19th state). 1817-1825. James Monroe (Virginia), democrat, 5th pres- ident. Era of good feeling. J. Q. Adams, secretary of state ; W. H. Crawford, secretary of the treasury ; and John C. Calhoun, secretary of war (res. 1817). 552 Modern History. A. D. 1817. Mississippi admitted (20th state). 1817-1818. Seminole war (Jackson). Invasion of Florida, then a colony of Spain. Execution of two British subjects. 1818. Illinois admitted (21st state). Pensions granted to the survivors of the revolutionary war, in needy circumstances. Convention with Great Britain as to tl[ie fisheries ; the coun- try west of the " Stony [Kocky] Mountains " to be occu- pied by the tw^o powers in common for ten years, etc. 1819. Treaty with Spain. She gave up all claim to west Florida, (p. 432) which had been occupied by the United States since 1810, and ceded east Florida. The United States gave up all claim to Texas, and agreed to pay an indemnity of five mill- ions to its own citizens for claims which they had against Spain. 1819. Alabama (22d state). Financial crisis. 1820. Maine (23d state). Population of the United States 9,638,453. 1820. Missouri compromise, by which it was agreed that slavery should he prohibited in the United States west of the Mississippi, north of 36° 30' north latitude, this being the 1821. southern border of Missouri, which was admitted as a slave state (24th state). 1823, Dec. 2. The president in his annual message enunciated the Monroe doctrine : " That tlie American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects iov future colonization, by any European power ; " and that the extension of the system of the Holy alliance (p. 485) to America would not be viewed " in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States." Neither of the candidates for president receiving a majority of the electoral vote, the house of representatives chose 1825-1829. John Quincy Adams (b. 1767, f 1848) (Massachusetts), democrat, president, although Andrew Jack- son had received a plurality in the electoral college ; John C. Calhoun (b. 1782, f 1850), vice-president ; Henry Clay (b. 1777, t 1852), secretary of state. 1825. The Erie canal was finished ; the first raiboad in America (at Quincy, Mass.) was completed in 1827, although steam was not used on such a road in this country until 1829. 1826. Failure of the Panama congress, and 1827 of another ap- pointed to meet near the city of Mexico. These were at- tempts to put the Monroe doctrine into practice. 1828. Tariff of abominations. 1829-1837. Andrew Jackson (b. 1767, 1 1845), (Tennes- see), democrat, 7th president; John C. Calhoun, vice-president (res. 1831); Martin Van Buren (b. 1782, f 1862), secretary of state. Inauguration of the spoils system ; about 690 office holders removed by the president during the first year of his admin- _ A. !>• United States. 553 istration, in contrast with only seventy-four removals hy all former presidents. The government was now in the hands of those who, according to senator Marcy of New York, saw " nothing wrong in the rule that to the victor belong the spoils of the enemy." 1829. The merchants of Boston protested against the tariff acts, and were followed by the legislatures of South Carolina, Virginia^ Alabama, and North Carolina. 1830. Population 12,866,020 (5th census). 1830, Jan. 27. Speech of Daniel Webster (b. 1782, f 1852), in the senate of the United States in reply to colonel Hayne of South Carolina, who upheld extreme states-rights views. 1831. William Lloyd Garrison established in Boston a paper called the Liberator, advocating the immediate and uncondi- tional emancipation of the negroes. This led to the organization of the abolitionists. 1831. Convention with France, mutual settlement of claims. France to pay the United States 25,000,000 francs, and to be paid 1,300,000 francs, such sums to be distributed to claimants in either country. The tariff act of 1832, while containing a reduction of duties, retained the protective principle. A convention held in South Carolina reported 1832. A nullification ordinance (Nov. 1832), which de- clared that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitu- tional " and are null and void, and no law, nor binding upon this state,^^ etc. Colonel Hayne was elected governor of South Carolina, and Cal- houn took the seat thus vacated in the senate. Dec. 10 president Jackson issued the nullification proclamation, in which the doc- trine of states-rights was refuted and the national theory set forth ; and he declared his intention of executing the laws of the United States. This was followed by the nullification message, 1833, Jan. 16. This trouble was finally ended by the compromise tariff act, introduced into the senate by Henry Clay, 1833, Feb. 12. Both sides claimed the victory. 1835-1842. War with the Seminole Indians. 1836. Arkansas (25th state). 1837. Michigan (26th state). 1837-1841. Martin Van Buren (New York), democrat, 8th president. 1837. Financial crisis : causes, removal (1833) of deposits from the United States bank to the local banks ; great extension of credit, and over-issue of paper money ; contraction of the vol- ume of the currency by the (1836, July 11) specie circular, which produced a great scarcity of money. 1837. Rebellion in Canada, burning of the American steamer Car- oline by the royalists. AIcLeod's case. 1838-1839. The gag resolutions, by which congress declared that petitions praying for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia or against the inter-state slave trade should be tabled without being debated, referred, or printed. 654 Modern History, A. d. 1 1' 1840. Independent treasury established ; the national funds to be ^ kept in the treasury at Washington and in the sub-treasuries established in certain cities, subject to the order of the treasurer. 1840. Population 17,069,453 (6th census). After an exciting contest was elected 1841-1845. 'Williani Henry Harrison (Ohio), wiiig, 9th '■ president, f 1841, Apr., succeeded by John Tyler (b. 1790, f 1862) of Virginia, vice-president. Daniel Webster^ secretary li of state (res. 1843). 1842. The northeastern boundary dispute with Great Britain set- tled by the Ashburton treaty. 1842. Dorr rebellion in Rhode Island. 1844. Experimental telegraph line between Washington and Balti-i more built by professor S. F. B. Morse with money appro- priated by congress. 1845. Florida (27th state). In 1821 Mexico had separated from Spain, and in 1836 Texas, declared itself independent of Mexico. Houston with eight hundred Texans defeated Satita Anna at the San Jacinto (1836, Apr. 21), and drove the Mexicans across the Rio Grande ; and 1845, March. Texas was annexed to the United States. 1845-1849. James K. Polk (Tennessee), democrat, 11th president; James Buchanan (b. 1781, f 1868), secretary of I state. 1845. Texas (28th state) ; 1846, Iowa (29th state). The United States and Great Britain claimed the territory/ west of the Rocky Mountains from the northern boundary of Mexico, , 42° north latitude, to the southern boundary of Alaska, 54° 40' north i latitude. By the 1846. Oregon treaty this tract was divided between them, the 49th « parallel forming the boundary, and the southern portion, which fell to the United States, retained the name of Oregon. The annexation of Texas led to a 1846-1848. War with Mexico, which was invaded by an army from the north commanded by Zachary Taylor (b. 1786, f 1850); battles of Palo Alto (May 8), Resaca (May 9). Surrender of Monterey (Sept. 24), Buena Vista (1847, Feb. 22 and 23). In March, 1847, another army under general Scott landed near Vera Cruz, which surrendered March 29th. He then set out for the city of Mexico, and won the battles of Cerro Gordo (April 18), Churubusco (Aug. 20), captured the fortress of Chapultepec (Sept. 12 and 13), and en- tered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14). On the Pacific the Amer- icans had been equally successful, and the war was ended by the 1848, Feb. 2. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Mexico gave up all claim to Texas, the Rio Grande to he the boundary, and ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California, in all about 522,955 square miles, in consideration of fifteen milUons of dollars. u D. United States, 555 1.848. "Wisconsin (30th state). In 1846 the Wilmot proviso, which provided that slavery hould not be permitted iu whatever territory should be acquired from Mexico, was defeated ; but the agitation it occasioned led to the organ- zation of L848. The Free soil party, the precursor of the present republican party. 1849-1853. Zachary Taylor (Louisiana), whig, 12th presi- dent, t July 9, 1850 ; succeeded by Millard Fillmore of New York, vice-president. John M. Clayton, secretary of state ; fol- lowed by Daniel Webster 1850, July 20, f 1852 ; who was suc- ceeded by Edward Everett (b. 1794, f 1865). 1850. Population 23,191,876 (7th census). The discovery of gold in California (1848) had led to the rapid population of that territory, and in 1850 it became the 31st state. 1850, Sept. Clay's compromises provided for the admission of Cal- ifornia as a free state ; for the payment to Texas of ten millions for her claim to New Mexico ; for the organization of Utah and New Mexico as territories without any mention of slavery ; for the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia ; and for the rendition of slaves who had escaped to free states, this last known as the 1850. Fugitive Slave Law. 1850, April 19. Clay ton-Bul-wrer treaty with Great Britain settled certain questions with regard to communication between the Atlantic and Pacific ; which, owing to the acquisition of Cali- fornia, had become of importance to the United States. 1853-1857. Franklin Pierce (New Hampshire), demo- crat, 14th president ; William L. Marcy, secretary of state ; Jefferson Davis (b. 1808 ; f 1889), secretary of war. 1853, Dec. 30. Boundary dispute with Mexico settled by the Gadsden purchase ; by which the boundary was to be the Rio Grande from its mouth to 31° 20' north latitude ; thence due west to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich ; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado river twenty miles below the junction of the Gila ; thence up the middle of the Colorado river until it intersects the boundary of California as determined by the treaty of 1848. The price was ten millions, and the area thus acquired was 45,000 square mile8. 1854. Treaty with Japan, wliich opened that country to commer- cial intercourse with the United States, negotiated by commo- dore Perry (p. 563). 1854. Reciprocity treaty with Great Britain secured to the Americans the right to the ^^ fisheries ; " and certain articles were to be admitted free of duty into the United States and the British p^o^^nces. This treaty was terminated in 1866 by the United Stata*. •1854. Kansas-Nebraska bill passed. It provided for the organ- ization of two territories, Kansas and Nebraska, and left the question of slavery to those who should there settle (squatter sov- ereignty)f thus repealing in part the Missoiuri compromise. A 556 Modern History, A. D. struggle immediately ensued between the slave-holders and the aboli- tionists as to which party should colonize these territories first. Sack of Lawrence by " border ruffians " (1856, May 21) ; battle of Ossawat- tomie (John Brown). At last the anti-slavery party proved successful. 1856. Rise of " Know-Nothingism,^^ or secret opposition to foreign influence in national legislation. 1857-1861. James Buchanan (Pennsylvania), democrat, 15th president. 1857. In the Dred Scott case the supreme court decided that un- der the constitution neither negro slaves nor their descen- dants, slave or free, could become citizens of the United States ; and added, as a dictum, that the Missouri compromise was unconstitu- tional, and that therefore a slave did not become free by being carried to a territory where slavery had been prohibited under that compro- mise. 1857. Great commercial distress throughout the country. 1858. Minnesota (32d state) ; 1859, Oregon (33d state). 1859. John Brown with a handful of men seized the United Oct. 19. States arsenal at Harper's Ferry ; but, after half his men were killed, was captured, and hanged December 2d of the same year. 1860. Population of the United States 31,443,332 (8th census). 1860, Nov. Abraham Lincoln (b. 1809, f 1865) of Illinois, re- publican, received the electoral votes of all the free states, — New Jersey excepted, — but none from the slave states, and was de- clared president-elect. (New Jersey gave Lincoln 4, Douglas 3 votes.) 1860, Dec. 20. South Carolina seceded from the union, and was followed by Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Lou- isiana, and North Carolina in January, 1861 ; by Texas in Febru- ary ; Virginia in April ; and by Tennessee and Arkansas in May. Missouri and Kentucky declared themselves neutral. Delegates from the seceded states met in convention at Montgomery, Alabama, 1861, Feb. 4 ; and formed a provisional government under the style of the Confederate States of America, Feb. 8. Jefferson Davis was i elected president ; Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president. The se- ceding states endeavored to seize all the national property within their borders, and were successful except at Pensacola (Florida) and Charleston (South Carolina). At the latter place the commander of the United States forces withdrew to an unfinished fort, Sumter, on an island in the harbor, Dec. 26, 1860 ; and on the 9th of January, 1861, a steamer, the Star of the West, bringing him supplies, -was i fired on by the state forces, and forced to return. 1861, Jan. 29. Kansas admitted to the union as a/ree (34th) state. 1861. Lincoln reached Washington in safety Feb. 23 ; and I was inaugurated (16th) president of the United States on ' March 4 without disturbance. "William H. Seward, secretary of state ; Simon Cameron, succeeded Jan. 1862, by Edwin M. Stan- ton, secretary of war ; Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury. The government of the so-called confederate states attempted to open ^negotiations, with the federal authorities, for a peaceful separation^ A. D. United States. 557 but the president declined to entertain any such propositions. On the contrary, it was determined to succour the garrison in Charleston harbor. The insurgents fired on fort Sumter 1861, Apr. 12, which surrendered Apr. 14. 1 1861-1865. The Civil War. Apr. 15, the president issued a proclamation calling for 75,000 volunteers to serve for three months j and summoned congress to meet July 4. April 18 a few companies of Pennsylvania mili- tia reached Washington ; and on April 19, the anniversary of the bat- tle of Lexington, the sixth Massachusetts regiment was attacked by a mob while passing through Baltimore. The same day the pres- ident declared the ports of the seceded states to be in a state of blockade. On May 3d he issued a call for 42,000 men to serve for three years or the war. May 13, Great Britain recognized the so-called confederate states as belligerents. June 10 the union troops were repulsed at Big Bethelf and July 21 were routed at Bull Run or Manassas. Nov. 1. George B. McClellan succeeded general Scott in command of the wiion forces. Nov. 8, Mason and Slidell, commissioners from the confederate states to Great Britain and France, were taken from the British mail steamer Trent by the American steamer San Jacinto. War with Great Britain averted through the prudence and skill of Mr. Seward. The commissioners were given up, and thus was established a principle of inter- national law for which the United States had invariably con- tended. Events of 1862. Feb. 6, capture of Fort Henry (in Ten- nessee) by the union forces. Feb. 16, " unconditional sur- render " of Fort Donelson to general U. S. Grant (b. 1822 ; f 1885). Mar. 9, Monitor and Merrimac. Mar. 14, cap- ture of Newbern. Apr. 6 and 7, battle of Shiloh or Pitts- burgh landing (Grant); retreat of the confederates. Apr. 16, slavery abolished in the District of Columbia. April 24, a fleet under flag-officer (afterwards admiral) David G. Far- ragut ran the forts below New Orleans, and received the surrender of that city the next day. March to July, Peninsular campaign (McClellan). Battle of Fair Oaks May 31 and June 1 ; seven days battles before Rich- mond (Mechanicsville, Gaines's Mill, White Oak swamp, and Malvern Hill July 1); withdrawal from the peninsula. The confederate army, now under the command of general Rob- ert E. Lee (b. 1807, f 1870), pressed forward toward Wash- mgton. Battle of Cedar Mountain (Aug. 5) ; defeat of the union army under Pope at the second battle of Bull Run, Aug. 30. Lee crossed the Potomac into Maryland, but was de- feated at South Mountain, and after the battle of the Antie- tam (Sept. 17) recrossed the Potomac. McClellan superseded by Burnside, who was repulsed with great loss at Fredericks- burg (Dec. 13), and was succeeded (Jan 26) by general Hooker. 658 Modern History. A. D. Events of 1863. After the battle of the Antietam the presi- dent had issued a proclamation declaring that all slaves in states or parts of states in rebellion Jan. 1, 1863, should then be free ; and on that day he issued the formal emancipation proclamation. The army of the Potomac, under general Hooker, defeated at Chancellorsville (May 3). f Stonewall Jackson (b. 1826). Lee again attempted an invasion of the north, but was de- feated by the army of the Potomac, now commanded by gen- eral George G. IVIeade (b. 1816, f 1872), at Gettysburg (July 1-3). July 4, Vicksburg surrendered to Grant. These two events were the turning points of the war. Grant assumed command of the military division of the Mississippi, and with force composed of the army of the Cumberland commanded by Thomas (b. 1816, f 1870), and reinforcements from Vicksburg under William T. Sherman (b. 1820 ; f 1891), and from the Potomac under Hooker, fought and won the battles of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge at Chatta- nooga, Tennessee, Nov. 24 and 25. West Virginia (loyal portion of Virginia) (35th state). Events of 1864. Grant made a lieutenant-general (March 9), and commander-in-chief (Mar. 12) of all the armies of the United States which henceforth operated on a settled plan. May 3, Grant with the army of the Potomac under general Meade crossed the Rapidan, fought the battles of the Wilderness (May 5 to 12), Spottsylvania (May 12-21), North Anna (May 21-31), Cold Harbor (June 1-3), and sat down before Petersburg, June 19. A confederate force under Early was sent to threaten Washington, and thus to secure the with- drawal of Grant. Early penetrated into Maryland and Penn- sylvania, but was defeated by Sheridan (b. 1831) at Opequan (Sept. 19), Fisher's Hill (Sept. 21), and at Cedar Creek (Oct. 19). The Shenandoah valley was then devastated, and Sheridan rejoined Grant before Petersburg. The western armies under Sherman began a campaign against the confed- erates led by general Joe Johnston (b. 1807) May 6, and after a series of engagements reached Atlanta, which was evacuated by the confederates Sept. 2. A portion of his army was then sent north under Thomas to watch Hood (the suc- cessor of Johnston), who was finally defeated before Nash- ville, Dec. 15 and 16. Meanwhile Sherman, after burning At- lanta, started on the march through Georgia. He reached the sea Dec. 12, and took Savamiah Dec. 22. On the water the Kearsarge ( Winslov)) sank the confederate steamer Ala- bama off Cherbourg (Alabama claims, p. 560) ; and a fleet under vice-admiral Farragut ran the forts at Mobile, Aug. 5. 1864, Nov. Nevada (36th state). Nov. 8. Reelection of Abraham Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice- president. 1865. The Thirteenth Amendment, prohibiting slav* A. D. United States. 559 ery "within the United States, was proposed by congress Feb. 1, and was declared ratified Dec. 18th. Events of 1865- Surrender of Fort Fisher to general Terry, Jan. 15. Grant had gradually drawn his lines around Lee's right flank, and on April 1st Sheridan won the battle of Five Forks, which compelled the evacuation of Petersburg April 2, and the surrender of Richmond April 3. Grant, with his whole army, under Meade and Sheridan, pursued Lee, who, being surrounded, capitulated at Appomattox Court House, April 9. Meantime Sherman had set out from Sa- vannah for the north, Feb. 1. On Feb. 17, he compelled the evacuation of Charleston, and on April 26 received the surren- der of the last confederate army, under Johnston. 1865, April 15. Assassination of Lincoln. Andrew Johnson, vice-president, succeeds. Cost of the war. National debt m 1860, $64,842,287 ; in 1866, $2,773,236,173, which great increase was in addition to the debts incurred by the states and municipalities. 1865, May 22. The southern ports declared open. May 29. Amnesty to all persons engaged in the rebellion, with the exception of fourteen specified classes. 1866, Apr. 9. Civil rights bill passed over the president's veto. June 16. Fourteenth amendment, securing to the freedmen the right of citizenship, declaring the validity of the national debt, and regulating the basis of representation and disqualifi- cation from office, proposed by congress, and declared ratified 1868, July 28. 1866, July 16. Act to continue the freedmen's bureau, which had charge of the loyal and suffering classes, black and white, in the southern states, passed over the president's veto. 1866, July 27. Telegraphic communication finally established v^ith Great Britain. 1867, March 1. Nebraska (37th state). Mar. 2. Reconstruction act passed over the president's veto. It divided the ten southern states into five military districts, each commanded by an army officer, who should see to the protection of life and property. The seceded states to be restored to their place in the union, whenever a con- vention of delegates, "elected by the male citizens, ... of whatever race, color, or previous condition," except those dis- franchised for participation in rebellion^ etc., should frame a con- stitution, which, being ratified by the people and approved by con- gress, should go into operation, and the legislature thereupon elected should adopt the fourteenth amendment. 1867, Mar. 4. Tenure of office bill passed over the president's veto. 1867, Mar. 30. Alaska purchase Area 577,340 square miles: price a little over seven million dollars. 1868, Feb. 24-May 26. Impeachment of president An* drew Johnson by the house of representatives. He had op« 560 Modern History. A. tk posed the reconstruction measures of congress ; but the immew diate cause of the impeachment was an alleged violation of the tenure of office act of ] 867, Mar. 4. The senate acquitted him by one vote (35 to 19, the constitution requiring a two thirds majority). 1868, Dec. 25. Amnesty extended. 1869, Feb. 26. Fifteenth amendnient, that the right to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of " race, color, or previous condition of servitude" proposed by congress, and declared ratified, 1870, Mar. 30. 1869, Mar. 4-1877, Mar. 5. Ulysses S. Grant (Illinois), republican, 18th president. 1870, Population 38,555,983 (9th census). 1871, Mar. 3. A clause in the appropriation bill authorized the president to appoint a civil service commission to prescribe rules, etc. 1871, May 8. Treaty of "Washington with Great Britain provided : 1. For the reference to the emperor of Germany of the dispute as to the Oregon boundary (decided in favor of the United States, 1872, Oct. 21). 2. For a partial settlement of the fishery dispute (Halifax award, 1877, gave Great Britain five and one half million dollars) ; this part of the treaty abrogated by act of the United States, 1883. 3. For the settlement of the Alabama claims ( Geneva tribunal of arbitration awarded to the United States over fifteen nullion dollars). 1873. Commercial crisis. 1875. Colorado (38th state). 1876. Centennial exhibition at Philadelphia. 1876. The national elections of this year were very close, and con- gress appointed an electoral commission (five senators, five representatives, and five justices of the supreme court), which declared the republican candidate elected. 1877, Mar. 5-1881, Mar. 4. Rutherford B. Hayes (Ohio), republican, 19th president. 1879, Jan. 1. Resumption of specie payments. 1880, Population 50,155,783 (10th census). 1881, Mar. 4. James A. Garfield (Ohio), republican, 20th president. July 2, shot and mortally wounded, f Sept. 19. Succeeded by the vice-president, Chester A. Arthur, of New York, republican. 1882, May 6. Immigration of Chinese laborers suspended for ten years, in accordance with a treaty with China, con- cluded 1880, Nov. 7. 1883, Jan. 9. Civil service act (Pendleton bill) introduced the principle of compulsory competitive examination into the civil service of the United States. (See p. 586.) §6. CHINA. (See p. 443.) 1796-1882. 1796-1820. Kiaking. Frequent insurrections, rampant piracy. Embassy of lord Amherst (1816). L China, 561 1820-1850. Taukwang. The exclusive privilege of the East India company ceasing ia 1834, lord Napier was appointed superintendent of British trade (t 1834). Imperial proliibition of the opium trade. Commissioner Lin sent to Canton with extraordinary powers (1838). Surrender of opium by Capt. Elliot, British commissioner to the Chinese, by whom it was destroyed (over 20,000 chests), 1839, Mar .-June. The con- tinuance of the trade, and the English demands that the loss be made good to their traders, caused the 1840-1842. First war with Great Britain (Opium war). A treaty concluded by Keshin, successor of Lin (Hong-kong ceded to England), was rejected by the emperor. The English cap- tured Amoy (1842, Aug. 27), Ning-po (Oct. 13), Shang-hai (1842, June 19), and stormed Ching-keang (July 21). 1842, Aug. 29. Treaty of Nanking. 1. Canton, Amoy, Fuhchau, Ning-po, Shanghai, opened to British trade. 2. Hong-kong ceded to England. 3. The Chinese paid {$21,000,000. 4. Establishment of a regular tariff. 6. Official inter- course to be on a basis of equality. 1844, July 3. Treaty with the United States (Caleb Cushing, am- bassador). Treaty with France (Oct. 23). 1850-1860. Hienfung. 1850, Aug. Outbreak of the Tai-ping rebellion (1850-1864). The leader was Hung Sui-tsuen, who called himself Tien-teh (" ce- lestial virtue "), and claimed to have been coiimiissioned by heaven to conduct a political and religious reform of the empire. Promulga- tion of a religious system based on some knowledge of Christianity. 1853. Capture of Nanking (Mar. 19), Shanghai (Sept. 7). Sui- tsuen proclaimed emperor. 1855. Failure of the attack made by the rebels on Peking. 1856, Oct. 8. The lorcha ^ Arrow, owned by a Chinese, but com- manded by an Irishman and flying the British flag, was boarded at Canton by Chinese officers in search of suspected pirates ; twelve natives were carried off and the flag pulled down. 1856, Nov. Three Chinese forts destroyed by the American fleet under commodore Armstrong, the Chinese having fired upon American boats. The attempt of the English government (JPalmerston, p. 643) to ob- tain a disavowal of the attack upon the Arrowy or an apology there- for, resulted in the 1857-1860. (Second) war with Great Britain allied with France. Lord Elgin, English envoy. Destruction of the Chinese fleet (1857, May 26, 27). Capture of Canton (Dec. 28, 29). Treaties of Tientsin (June, 1858) with Great Britain, France, the United States. Infraction of the treaty (1859, June), renewal of the war. Repulse of the English attempt to force the passage of the Pei-ho forts (June 1 Lorcha: a light Chinese sailing vessel, carrying guns, built after the Euro- pean model, but rigged like a Chinese junk. — ImtekiaLi Dictiona&y. as 562 Modern History, A. d. 25). Chinese defeat at Palikao (1860, Sept. 21). Destruction of the summer palace (Oct. 6), surrender of Peking (Oct. 12). 1860, Oct. 24. Treaty of Peking. Ratification of the treaty of Tientsin ; toleration of Chris- tianity ; revised tariff ; payment of an indemnity ; resident ambassa- dors at Peking. 1860-1875. Tungchi, six years old. Palace revolution. Administration of prince Kung. Reor- ganization of the imperial army under general Ward, an American (f 1861), and colonel Gordon^ an Englishman. The " ever victorious force." 1862-1864. Suppression of the rebellion. Capture of Nanking (1864, July 19). Suicide of Hung Sui-tsuen. 1866. Successful rebellion of Yakub Beg (f 1877) in Kashgar. 1868. Embassy of Anson Burlingame (and two Chinese envoys) to the treaty powers. (Burlingame f 1870.) 1870, May. Mohammedan rebellion in the northwest CYun-nan, Kan-suh). 1871. Russia annexed Kuldja, until the Chinese power should be reestablished in that region. 1873. Settlement of the audience question ; foreign ambassadors re-, ceived by the emperor without the ceremony of prostration (kotow). Suppression of the Mohammedan rebellion. 1875-1908. Kwangsii, three years old {Tsai-tien). 1876, June 30. Opening of the first railroad in China {Shanghai to Woosung, eleven miles). 1877-1878. Terrible famine in the north of China. 1877, Dec. Defeat and assassination of Yakub Beg. Capture of Kashgar. 1879, June. Treaty with Russia negotiated by Chung-how : China obtained only a portion of Kuldja and paid an indemnity. Re- jection of the treaty. 1881, Aug. Peace with Russia negotiated by the marquis Tseng. Cession of nearly all of the Kuldja district ; China paid the expenses of Russian occupation. 1882. A threatened war with Japan avoided by Chinese diplomacy. Dispute with the French over Tonquin (p. 535). (Seep. 594.) §7. JAPAN. {See p. 445.) 1817-1882. Mlkados. Shoguns (Tokugawa family). 1817-1846, Ninko 1787-1838 lyenori. (1838-1853 lyeyoshi. 1846-1866, Komei ^ 1853-1859 lyesada. ( 1859-1866 lyemochi. 1867 — X. Mutsuhito 1866-1868 Keiki (Hitotsubashi-yoshi- nobu ; Noriyoshi). Growing dissatisfaction with the usurped power of the shoguns among the samurai ; jealousy of the long possession of the shogunate by the Tokugawa family (1603-1868) among the great daimios. 1853, July 7. Commodore Perry, of the United States navy, en- tered the harbor of Yedo with four vessels, but soon departed } ^in Feb. 1854, he returned, and concluded a Id. Japan. 563 1)4, Mar. 21. Treaty between Japan and the United States, which was signed by the shogun, whom Perry took to be the "ocular emperor " of Japan, under the newly assumed title of tai- \i (tycoon, "great prince," properly a title of the mikado). Trea- ts with Great Britain (1854, Oct. 14), and Russia (1855, Jan. 26). I 1858 treaties (peace, amity, unrestricted commerce) concluded jli the United States (Townshend Harris), Great Britain (Elgin), Eance, Russia, — all signed by the shogun. 159. Yokohama, Nagasaki, Hakodate, opened to trade. These unwarranted assumptions of power on the part of the |)gun angered the mikado and the Kioto court, where the foreigners ire regarded with deep distrust. 130. First Japanese embassy to the United States sent out by li, prime minister of the shogun (assassinated Mar. 23). 151-1865. Civil dissensions. Outrages upon foreign representa- tives. Death of an Englishman (Richardson) in a broil with j) train of the brother of the prince of Satsuma, avenged by the I'mbardment of Kagoshima (in Satsuma), and the exaction of 125,000 (1862). 32. The daimios, released from compulsory residence at Yedo, flocked to Kioto. 63. Some American, Dutch, and French vessels, having anchored in the forbidden roadstead of Shimonoseki after due warning, sre fired upon. In reprisal these powers bombarded the batteries, iiicting considerable loss. In spite of this 164, Sept. 4. Bombardment and destruction of the Shimonoseki j batteries by English, French, Dutch, and American vessels. JKiction of an indemnity of ^3,000,000, of which the United States iceived $785,000.1 i65, Nov. 25. Ratification of treaties extorted by the foreign pow- ers. 1^67, Nov. 19. Resignation of Keiki, the last shogun. 568. Restoration of the mikado. End of the dual gov- ernment. The proclamation setting forth the resumption of government ' the mikado (1868, Jan. 3) was followed by the revolt of Keiki and -■ open war, which, after severe fighting (battles of Fushimi, 1868, m. 27-30 ; Wakamatsu, Hakodate), ended in favor of the imperial- :s (June, 1869). •69, Nov. Residence of the mikado transferred from Kioto to Yedo {Jeddo), the name of the latter place having been previously langed to Tokio (" the eastern capital "). >70. The mikado, by advice of the leading samurai (Okuho), changed front, and welcomed the foreigners. 571. Embassy to the United States and Europe. 371. Abolition of feudalism ; relegation of the daimios to private life ; abolition of the title ; exchange of their rev- lues for pensions. 1 In Feb. 1883, the house of representatives accepted a favorable report upon e Japanese indemnity bill. Repayment of the $785,000 without interest. 564 Modern History, A. d. Assimilation to western civilization. Issue of a code of criminal law (revised 1881) ; establishment of a government post ; introduc- tion of the telegraph ; railroad from Yokohama to Shinogana (1872) ; bureau of education ; adoption of the Gregorian calendar (1874, Jau 1) ; female normal school (1875) ; university of Tokio (1873); rees- tablishment of the Shinto faith (p. 32) ; new military system. 1874. Expedition to Formosa^ avenging the murder of Japanese sail- ors on that island. 1876. Enforcement of a treaty with Corea. 1877. Rebellion in Satsuma {Saigo, Kirimo) suppressed after heavj fighting (Saigo, f Sept. 24). Large issue of inconvertible papei money to defray the expenses. 1878. Establishment of local elective assemblies for regulating loca taxation, and with right of petitioning the central government ij franchise secured to all males twenty-one years of age who pay fjj land tax of $5.00. 1881. Negotiations with the foreign powers relative to the adoptio of a higher tariff, and to the abolition of the privilege enjoyei by foreigners of living under the jurisdiction of their native country Dispute with China over the Loo-Choo islands. 1882, Oct. Imperial decree establishing a new constitution ; promiB'j of a national assembly in 1890 (p. 594). i^See p. 594. APPENDIX (1883— x), §8. GREAT BRITAIN. {See p. 646.) 1883-1903. 883, Jan. 18. France having declined to join in the expedition against A rabif the dual control ^ was abolished by the khedive (Teiufik Pasha), and a British financial agent appointed in place of the controllers. Sir Evelyn Baring (later Lord Cro- mer), British diplomatic agent and consul-general. In the Soudan the mahdi Muhammad Ahmad was conducting a reli- gious revolt. Hicks Pasha's Egyptian army annihilated (Nov. 3-5, 1883); (Valentine) Baker Pasha defeated (Feb. 4, 1884). Great Britain insisted on evacuation of the Soudan, and 884, Feb. 18. Gen. Charles Gordon (" Chinese " Gordon, p. 562) arrived at Khartum to withdraw the garrisons and establish a native government. ?eb. 27. By the Convention of London the South African republic, now first so-called, was granted practical inde- pendence in internal affairs, but Great Britain reserved a veto over treaties with other states, except the Orange Free State and native tribes. Draft guaranteeing fidl independence was rejected by Great Britain; but the new convention made no mention oi preamble of convention of 1881, in which the suzer- ainty of Great Britain was asserted, while it expressly substi- tuted its articles for the articles of 1881. Western boundary established. Tov. 6. Protectorate proclaimed over southeastern New Guinea. )ee. 6. Third reform act received royal assent (pp. 540, 544). Uniform franchise in counties and boroughs, and in the three kingdoms; about 2,500,000 enfranchised. Redistribution of seats act (June 25, 1885) ; counties now have more seats than boroughs have ; single member seats. Total members of par- liament, 670. 885, Jan. 26. Khartum captured by the mahdi; death of gen. Gordon. A relief expedition which had been demanded by the opposition since March, 1884, had started under lord Wolseley in Sept. After severe fighting {Abu Klea, Jan, 14) 1 Egypt became bankrupt in 1876 in consequence of loans contracted by le khedive Ismail Pasha (deposed, 1879), and the financial affairs were under- iken by the nations representing the chief creditors. In 1881 France and •reat Britain practically assumed the adniinibtration of the country. 566 Modern History. A. d. an advanced guard approached Khartum, Jan. 28, but the ex- pedition was withdrawn. March 30. Russians occupied Penjdeh, driving out Afghan force. Rupture imminent, but an adjustment was finally made and the Russian- Afghan frontier delimited by joint commission (1886), Russia retaining Penjdeh. March-May. Rebellion of Louis Riel in Northwest territory, Canada. Riel surrendered, May 15 ; executed, Nov. 16. June 23. Lord Salisbury (b. 1830 ; M. P., 1854 ; lord, 1868 ; 1 1903), prime minister. Sept. 30. British Bechuanaland made a crown colony ; protectorate over Northern Bechuanaland. 1886. Canadian and Bering sea fisheries (p. 586). Jan. 1. Upper Burma annexed to British India as result of the defeat of king Theebaw. Jan. 12. Eleventh (23d imperial) parliament of Victoria met, Irish nationalists (86) holding balance of power. Bradlaugh, after repeated exclusions because of his religious opinions, was allowed to take the oath. Government defeated, and Feb. 12. Gladstone became premier for the third time ; sir W. Vernon Harcourt (exchequer), lord Rosehery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), Joseph Chamberlain (local government board). April 8. Gladstone introduced a Home rule bill for Ireland. Separate parliament, and Irish members excluded from the imperial parliament ; lord-lieutenant appointed by the crown with right of veto ; prerogatives of crown untouched; customs and excise under British treasury; Ireland to pay J^ of inter-! est on national debt. Secession of liberal unionists under lord Hartington and Chamberlain (resigned in March) followed. Land purchase bill for Ireland introduced. Home rule bill was defeated on second reading, June 7 (341-311), and par-i liament was dissolved (June 26). The elections gave 316 conservatives, 191 home-rule liberals, 78 liberal unionists, and 85 Irish home-rulers. Gladstone resigned (July 20) and July 21. Lord Salisbury became prime minister ; lord Iddeslelgh (sir Stafford Northcote) (foreign); lord Randolph Churchih (exchequer and leader of the Commons), succeeded by G. J Goschen, Jan., 1887; sir M. Hicks Beach (Ireland), succeeded by ^. /. Balfour, March 5, 1887. Aug. 5. Twelfth (24th imperial) parliament of Victoria met A tenant's relief bill introduced by Parnell failing, the Oct. 17. plan of campaign was put into force in Ireland ; rent; offered and refused were formed into a joint fund for the sup port of evicted tenants. 1887, May. Canadian Pacific railway opened (2905 miles). June 21. Jubilee day in commemoration of the fiftieth anniver sary of the accession of queen Victoria. July 19. Criminal land amendment (Ireland) act (" Crimes act ") Irish land act, Aug. 23; Sept. 9, disturbances at Mitchela town, Ireland. ',1. D. Great Britain. 567 L888, March 27. Conversion of the national debt (Gosehen's act). Tune 11. Lord Stanley appointed governor-general of Canada. k\xg. 13. Local government act (England and Wales) received royal assent. County administration (except judicial and licensing powers) transferred from justices of the peace to elective county councils. London county council (p. 570). Jklay-Sept. Protectorate established over North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak. Dec. 10. Lord Lansdowne appointed viceroy of India. 1889, June 14. Samoan treaty (p. 587). 3ct. 29. Royal charter granted to British South Africa Company. L890, Feb. 13. Report of the special (" Parnell ") commission on charges against the Irish leaders. In Feb. R. Pigott con- fessed the forgery of the letter {Times, April 18, 1887) in which Parnell was made to approve the murder of Burke (p. 546). Commission found that the personal charges against Parnell were false; that direct complicity with crime was not proved as to the respondents collectively, but that they " en- tered into a conspiracy to promote, by a system of coercion and intimidation an agrarian agitation for the purpose of impoverishing and expelling the Irish landlords," and did not denounce a system which they knew led to crime. ^arcb 17. Convention signed with China on boundary of Thibet and India. Julj 1. Treaty with Germany signed, fixing boundaries of German East and West Africa and British possessions, with recip- rocal free transit for commerce; Heligoland ceded to Ger- many in exchange for Zanzibar (protectorate proclaimed, Nov. 7). Lug. 5. Convention signed recognizing French protectorate over Madagascar, and French sphere of influence from Algeria to the Niger and lake Chad. STov. 28-Dec. 6. Division of Irish nationalists following conviction of Parnell of adultery; Justin McCarthy leader of the major- ity. Parnell f Oct. 6, 1891. 1891, Feb. 26. Population of all India, 287,314,671. ilarch 24. Protocol signed with Italy on African spheres of influ- I ence ; Abyssinia within Italy^s sphere. \pril 5. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 38,104,975. 1891, June 11. Treaty with Portugal signed, regulating the bound- aries of African possessions. Agreement on spheres of influ- ence. May 31, 1893. lug. 6. Elementary education act (England and Wales) received royal assent; public grant to denominational and board schools. Assent also given to &.ug. 5. Land purchase (Ireland) act; voluntary agreement of sale between landlord and tenant; landlord paid by government bonds. L892, Jan. 7. f Tewfik Pasha, khedive of Egypt, succeeded by Abbas II. Pasha. A.ug. 4. Thirteenth (25th imperial) parliament of Victoria. 568 Modern History, a. d, The government was defeated on a motion of want of confi- dence and resigned, and Aug. 16. Gladstone became (4th time) premier; sir W. Vernon Har court (exchequer), lord Rosehery (foreign), John Morley (Ireland), James Bryce (chancellor of Lancaster), H. Camp- hell Bannerman (war). 1893, Jan. 16-19. Ministerial crisis in Egypt; khedive informed that British advice must be followed. Feb. 13. Home rule bill for Ireland introduced by Gladstone. It was like the earlier bill except that 80 Irish members were to sit in the imperial parliament with (by amendment in com- mittee) right to vote on all matters. The bill passed the Commons on Sept. 1 (301-267) but was Sept. 8. rejected by the House of Lords by vote of 419 to 41. July-Nov. Matahele wary ending in the defeat of chief Lobengula (t Jan. 23, 1894). Aug. 15. Bering sea arbitration award (p. 588). 1894, March 1. Anglo-Chinese agreement (p. 595). March 3. Resignation of Gladstone ; lord Rosebery prime min- ister. March 5. Parish council (England and Wales) act; elective coun- cils to supersede vestries except in church matters. March 20. Sovereignty over Pondoland proclaimed; annexed to Cape Colony (June 7). May 21. Manchester ship canal opened. Aug. 7. Evicted tenants (Ireland) bill passed the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords (Aug. 14). Aug. 27. Treaty with Uganda signed ; protectorate. 1895, Jan. 21. Agreement on Sierra Leone hinterland signed with France. March 5 -April 20. English garrison at Chitral besieged by Afghan freebooters. The government sanctioned permanent occupation of Chitral (Aug. 10), and several punitive expedi- tions against frontier tribes followed (1897). June 22. Rosebery ministry resigned after a defeat on a side issue, and was succeeded by the June 25 third ministry of lord Salisbury (foreign); A. J. Bal- four (treasury and leader of the Commons), sir M. Hicks Beach (exchequer), Joseph Chamberlain (colonies), G. J. Goschen (admiralty), lord Lansdowne (war, after 1900, foreign). Aug. 12. Fourteenth (26th imperial) parliament of Victoria met ; government majority, 152. Dec. Venezuela boundary controversy (p. 590). 1895, Dec. 29. Jameson Raid. Causes : development of gold mines in South African republic (discovery of gold, 1884) by foreigners (uitlanders), who outnumbered the burghers but were allowed no political rights i by president Kruger (b. 1825; pres. 1883 ; 1 1904) and the Boer oli- garchy, while they were oppressed by the burdens of citizenship^ ' monopolies (especially of dynamite), and maladministration j growth! D. Great Britain. 569 f British control north and west of Transvaal ; rejection by the ioers of the British claim of suzerainty over them (p. 565) ; desire f the Cape authorities to place the Dutch states under British control, iecil Rhodes (b. 1853 ; f 1902), premier of Cape Colony and head f the British South Africa Company, which controlled the region oith and west of Transvaal, fostered a conspiracy of uitlanders at .ohannesburg and collected a body of troops under L. S. Jameson at lafeking to aid them. Jameson, without orders or cooperation of be uitlanders, crossed the frontier (Dec. 29) and marched on ohannesburg with 600 horse. He was captured (Jan. 2) and turned ver to the British authorities (Jan. 14). Secretary Chamberlain enounced the raid. 896-1903. Plague in India; also during earlier years, famine. 89(3, Jan. Expedition against Ashantee ; king Prempeh deported. an. 15. Convention signed with France on China and Siam (p. 696). liarch-Sept. Advance of British and Egyptians in Soudan under gen. Herbert (later lord) Kitchener ; opposed by Osman Digna. The Egyptians were established near Dongola. i897, Jan. 11. General arbitration treaty signed with the United States ; but it was rejected by the Senate (May 5). Tune 22. Jubilee of the sixtieth anniversary of the accession of queen Victoria; prominent participation of colonies and de- pendencies. Conferences of colonial premiers with secretary Chamberlain. Fnly. Gold discovered at Klondike in Canadian Northwest territories, iug. 6. Workmen^s compensation act ; employers made liable for injuries, but " contracting out " allowed. Oct. 1. Chamberlain reasserted British suzerainty over South African republic in answer to Kruger^s demand for for- eign arbitration on the Convention of London (p. 565). Dec. 25. Italians evacuated Kassala, which the Egyptians occupied. 1898, April 8. The Anglo-Egyptian army under Kitchener de- feated the dervishes near Atbara, securing Berber. The advance was continued during the summer and Sept. 2. the forces of the mahdi (Abdullahi) were defeated at Om- durman and Khartum occupied. This was followed by the final defeat and death of the mahdi near Gedid (Nov. 24, 1899), and the capture of Osman Digna (Jan. 19, 1900). 1898, May 19. ^Gladstone. I June 13. Act of the Canadian parliament approved, giving to Great Britain and some of her colonies a tariff preferential of 25%. j This was increased in 1900 to 33^%. Germany retaliated^ July 7, 1899, by depriving Canada of the most favored nation ' treatment. ijuly 25. Lord Minto appointed governor-general of Canada. iAug. 10. George N. (later lord) Curzon appointed viceroy of India. iAug. 12. Local government (Ireland) act received the royal assent ; extension to Ireland of county and district councils (p. 567), but not of parish councils. 1 Sept.-Nov. Fashoda incident. A French expedition under major 570 Modern History. A. b. Marchand declined to comply with Kitchener*s request to with- draw from Fashoda on the White Nile (Sept. 19). Nov. 4 the French government agreed to withdraw the force, and on March 21, 1899, a convention was signed as to possessions and spheres of influence in central Africa. France renounced any claim to the Nile valley. Nov. 1. Old age pension law enacted in New Zealand. Dec. 25. An imperial penny postage rate went into operation with most of the colonies. Australia included, April 24, 1902. 1899, Feb. Attempt of France to obtain territory at Muscat from sultan of Oman prevented by Great Britain. March 15, Oct. 28. Agreements between Germany and Rhodes fori, the construction of the Cape to Cairo telegraph through Ger- ' man East Africa. July 13. London (outside the City) divided into separate boroughs, with powers previously held by the county council (p. 567). Aug. 9. Central board of education established. 1899-1902. South African War. Unsuccessful negotiations followed the Jameson raid (p, 568). ' To the demand of Great Britain for recognition of the rights of the i uitlanders, the Transvaal responded with a claim of entire inde- pendence not only in such (internal) affairs but in foreign matters, a request for indemnity, and active military preparation. Violation r of London convention (p. 565). March 24, 1899, petition of British 1 citizens at the mines for intervention. Various projects, including:, an offer (Aug. 19) of the franchise on five years' residence and af' quarter representation in the rand, in return for Great Britain's re- nunciation of the claim of suzerainty, were refused by England. Both t sides prepared for war, and the Oct. 12. Boers issued an ultimatum, demanding the immediate ( withdrawal of British troops from the frontier and the removal of all reinforcements from South Africa. When this waS! refused the forces of the Oct. 12. two Dutch republics (in offensive alliance) invaded: Natal and Cape Colony, and also laid siege to Kimberley and Mafeking. \ The Boers had the advantage of better preparation and more^' mobility, and besieged sir George White and 12,000 men at Ladysmith. Sir Redvers Buller, marching to relieve the town, was defeated at Dec. 15. Colenso, on the Tugela, at 1900, Jan. 23. Spion Kop, and at , Feb. 5. Vaal Krantz ; but finally succeeded in Feb. 28. relieving Ladysmith. Lord Methuen, advancing om Kimberley, was defeated at 1899, Dec. 10, 11. Maagersfontein on the Modder by gen. Cronje; and gen. Gatacre at Dec. 10. Stormberg by the Boers who had invaded Cape Colony.f Lord Roberts was sent out as commander-in-chief, withi! Kitchener as chief of staff. The A.. D. South African War. 571 1900, Feb. 15. relief of Kimherley (where Rhodes, the " evil genius I of the Boers," was) was accomplished by gen. French ^ while I Roberts iFeb. 17. surrounded Cronje at Paardesburg, and after ten days I received his surrender and that of 4000 men. The rMay 24. annexation of the Orange Free State was proclaimed by lord Roberts, who soon after June 5. occupied Pretoria. This advance had also May 17. raised the siege of Ma/eking (held by col. Baden-Powell). The Boers were defeated at June 11. Diamond Hill, and the railroad to the Portuguese frontier having been cleared, the Sept. 1. South African republic was annexed. Kruger retired to Europe, and Roberts left the command to Kitchener. The Boers, under Botha, De Wet, and Delarey, began a guerilla warfare : coramunications were cut, supplies captured, and isolated garrisons "rushed," while engagements were avoided. The British built lines of blockhouses, connected them by means of entanglements t established concentration camps for noncombatants, and kept an army ,of 250,000 in the field against a force averaging 45,000. The !l902, May 31. Boers finally submitted, receiving honorable terms, but renouncing independence. British force during the war, 450,000 ; Boer force, about 75,000 ; British loss, 22,000 ; Boer iloss, about 5000. Deficiency in organization and administration of the British army (report of royal commission, Aug. 26, 1903) and participation of colonial troops were features of the war. The con- quered states became the crown colonies of Orange River and Transvaal, with appointive legislative councils. 1900, Jan. 10. First train from Cairo to Khartum. July 9. Royal assent given to the act constituting the Common- I -wealth of Australia. All of Australasia united in one •government except New Zealand. Bicameral parliament of des- ignated powers ; an equal number of senators from each colony, pop- lularly elected ; representatives apportioned according to population, ;and given control of revenue bills ; bills to receive the royal assent direct or through the governor-general. Executive composed of the governor-general and a responsible ministry. Federal judiciary of supreme and lower courts, with regulation of appeal to king in council; appointed justices ; jurisdiction over interstate and state and federal relationships. Special provisions for trade and f nances, new states, and amendment. Lord Hopetoun was appointed first gov- ernor-general. The government was inaugurated, Jan. 1, 1901 ; first parliament met, May 9 ; first ministry formed by Edmund Barton. Oct. 31. Union of Free and United Presbyterians in Scotland. Thirty ministers and 100 congregations of the Free church refused to accede to the union, and the House of Lords (Aug. 1, 1904) decided they were the legal holders of all of the property of the Free church. Dec. 3. Fifteenth (27th imperial) parliament of Victoria ; gov- ernment majority, 134. 672 Modern History, A. \ 1901 — X. Expeditions by British and Abyssinians against the Mullah in Somaliland. A force of British, Indians, Boers, and natives, under gen. Manning was in the field in 1902. British defeated, Oct. 6, 1902. Jan. 22. f Queen Victoria ; succeeded by her son as 1901-1910. Edward VII. March 15. Population of all India, 294,361,056. April 1. Population of Great Britain and Ireland, 41,607,552. July 22. House of Lords decided that trade unions could be sued as corporations (Tatf Vale case). Nov. 18. Abrogation of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (p. 593). 1902. Renewed trouble in Ireland over rent questions, influ- enced also by pro-Boer demonstrations. Members of parlia- ment convicted for conspiracy under the summary jurisdictiou of the crimes act of 1887. Industrial depression in England, ji Jan. 30. Defensive alliance with Japan as to the eastern ques4| tion(p.598). ^' May 15. Treaty signed with Abyssinia ; Soudan boundary, railway. March 26. f Rhodes. His will provided for the education of colonial,«> American, and German students at Oxford (^Rhodes scholar^ ships). July 11. Resignation of lord Salisbury. A. J. Balfour, prime minister ; George Wyndham (Ireland). Aug. 9. Coronation of Edward VII. Oct. 31. First message sent over British Pacific cable between Canada and Australia, completing the all British cable round the world, 1902, Nov., 1903, March. Visit of Chamberlain to South Africa on an official tour of investigation and to promote reconciliation and unity. Nov. 21. Lord Tennyson appointed governor-general of Australia. Dec. Coercion of Venezuela (p. 585). Dec. 10. Opening of the Assuan dam on the Nile. Dec. 19. Education act for England and Wales received royal assent. Voluntary (denominational) schools entitled to public support on equal footing with board schools ; local councils to control aided schools in secular matters. Passive resistance by nonconformists. Dec. 21. Wireless telegraphic messages exchanged between England and Canada. 1903. Cape to Cairo railway completed to near the Zambesi. Agitation in South Africa for coolie labor in the mines. Dec. 30, favorable vote by the legislative council of Transvaal, and first Chinese arrived on June 22, 1904. May 5. Declaration by lord Lansdowne, foreign minister, as to British control of Persian gulf. May 15. Secretary Chamberlain began his campaign for imperial unification through a colonial preferential tariff. The ministry divided on the question ; Balfour showed leanings toward a retaliatory tariff. Sept. 9 Chamberlain resigned from the cabinet, as did several free trade members. ^i D. Continental Europe. 573 Aug. 8. Lord Northcote appointed governor-general of Australia. Aug. 11. Prohibition of bounty-fed sugar (p. 584). Aug. 14:. Irish land purchase act received royal assent. Three methods of nou-eouipulsory sale to tenants: (1) As under former law (p. 5G7); (2) sale of entire estate to tenants at annuity less than present rent; (3) sale to aland commission for resale to tenants. Landlords paid in cash, the govern- ment issuing British bonds for that purpose. Aug. 22. t Lord Salisbury. July-x. Thibet mission. China and Thibet agreed to send com- missioners to meet the British commissioner, col. F. E. Young- husband, at Kamba (July) to discuss frontier and trade rela- tions; but failed (as often before) to do so. Preparations were made to advance the mission under military protection to Lhasa, and movement began Dec. 11. Oct. 14. General arbitration treaty with France signed ; phase of a rapprochement shown also in official visits of king Edtvard to Paris (May 1) and president Loubet to London (July 6). Oct. 20. Alaskan boundary award announced (p. 594). (See p. 599.) § 9. CONTINENTAL EUROPE. {See pp. 526, 535.) 1883-1903. 1883, Jan. 16. Manifesto and arrest of prince Napoleon Bon- aparte (Plon-Plon) (released Feb. 9), followed by attempt to expel the princes. Resignation of ministry Duclerc I (Jan. 28) and ministry Fallieres (Feb. 21). Ministry Ferry took office (Feb. 21); Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), Tirard ' (finance). Princes placed in inactivity. i Feb. 8-March 10. An international conference at London regulated the navigation of the Danube. [March 15. Triple alliance (Dreibund) of Germany , Austria, and Italy, acknowledged in Italy. ' May- July. Railway convention in France; abandonment of Frey- cinet's policy of state ownership. May 31. German act prescribing the insurance of workmen against illness {Krankenkassengeseiz) ; employer to pay ^ of premium. In 1888, 5,400,000 insured. May 2. Consecration of the tzar Alexander III. at Moscow. June 13. French occupied Tamatave in Madagascar; continued resistance of the Hovas. Anti-Semitism in Hungary; accusations of ritual murder; severe persecutions at Pressbnrg and elsewhere. Aug. 24. f Count of Chambord ( " Henry V."). Legitimists acknowl- ' edged the count of Paris (table, p. 528). Aug. 25. Preliminary peace between France and Anam ; French protectorate. War with Black Flags continued. ' Sept. 29. Alfonso XII. of Spain insulted by a mob in Paris for hav- 1 ing received the honorary colonelcy of a German regiment ' stationed at Strasburg, Dec. 17. Visit of the German crown prince to the pope ('* sec- 574 Modern History. A. d. ond journey to Canossa"). The German government had gradually withdrawn from the position of the May laws, as Bismarck found support of catholics necessary. 1884. In Belgium the extension of the suffrage was followed by a cath- olic reaction; communes allowed to adopt clerical schools. Feb. 11. Annexation of Merv and Sarakhs by Russia, bringing the frontier within 200 miles of Herat. June 26. Under the liberal minister Sverdrup royal assent was given to an act for a responsible ministry in Norway. May 11. Treaty of Tientsin between France and China; China to retire from Tonquin and respect French protectorate over Anam. Definitive treaty with Anam, June 6; also with Cam- bodia, June 17. Dispute over construction of Chinese treaty, and direct war. French attacked Formosa (Aug. 3) and Fuohau (Aug. 23). June 27. Workmen'' s accident insurance act ( Unfallversicherungsge- setz) enacted in Germany. In 1888, 10,340,000 insured. July 28. Earthquake at Ischia; 2000 killed. Aug. French constitution revised; republican form of govern- ment not subject to future proposals of revision, princes not eligible for the presidency. Reform in the organization of the senate (Dec.) ; proportional representation in the electoral con- gress, no more life members to be created. The establishment of the Deutsche Colonialverein in 1882 foreshadowed German imperialism. In Jan. 1884, Bis- marck announced the protectorate over Angra Pequena in southwestern Africa. After a controversy with Great Britain Aug. 13. the protectorate was extended from Cape Frio to Orange River (except Walfish Bay), and over Kamerun and Togoland. Bismarck^s policy was to protect mercantile undertakings rather than to inaugurate state colonization. Aug. 18. Vatican library opened to scholars for research. Oct. 28. Elections for the German Reichstag; gains by conserva- tives and socialists. 1885. Hereditary house of peers abolished in Portugal; house of 100 life peers and 50 elective peers substituted. Jan., Feb. Italy, after an understanding with England (Jan. 1, 1884), occupied Assab and Massawa. Unfriendly relations with king John of Abyssinia. Jan., Feb. Earthquakes in Spain, great loss of life; cholera. Feb. 17. Imperial charter granted to German East Africa Company! Feb. 26. General act of Congo conference signed at Berlin. Provisions for freedom of trade, eradication of slave trade, neutrality of the basin, and regulation of future occupations on coast of Africa. March 30. Resignation of ministry Ferry in France in consequence of defeat in Tonquin. Ministry Brisson (justice) formed; Freycinet (foreign), Sadi-Carnot (public works, later, finance). Russia at Penjdeh (p. 566). May. In Germany, increase in agrarian duties. May. Recidivist law in France; transportation of habitual criminal^ 3 . D. Continental Europe, 575 June 8. Adoption of the scrutin de lisle (note, p. 533) in the election of deputies in France. June 9. Franco-Chinese treaty of -peace^ recognizing the treaty of Tientsin. Aug. 25. Germany took possession of the Caroline Islands, but the pope, as referee, upheld Spain\ept. 15. captured Piengyang, the Chinese fleeing across the Yalu River. In the >ept. 17. naval battle of Yalu River (first battle of modern men-of-war), the fleets being of about equal size (12 vessels each), the Japanese under Ito dispersed the enemy's fleet (^Ting) and destroyed five of the ships. The Japanese army ( Yam£Lgata) 3ct. 25. forced the Yalu and invaded Manchuria, meeting with little resistance. A second army of 20,000 under Oyama landed on Liaotung peninsula (Oct. 24), and, after capturing Kingchau (Nov. 6) and Talien (Nov. 7), began the Sox. 21. attack on Port Arthur, the strongest port in China, with modern defences. Several forts were stormed during the day, and at night the Chinese garrison of 10,000 abandoned the rest. The Japanese army and navy then 1895, Jan. 30-Feb. 12. besieged and captured Weihaiwei and Tinges fleet there. The feature of the siege was the night jttacks by Japanese torpedo boats (Feb. 5, 8). Meanwhile the first irmy (Yamagata) captured Haicheng (Dec. 13, 1894); Nogi, ad- v^ancing from Port Arthur, occupied Kaiping (Jan. 10, 1895); and the imited forces took Niuchuang (March 4) and its port (March 7). The war had shown the rottenness of China's military strength and the impotence of her administration. The burden of it fell on Li Hungchang (b. 1823; f 1901), who was also sent to make peace. By the 596 Modern History, A. I April 17. treaty of Shimonoseki, China acknowledged the in^ pendence of Corea, ceded Formosa^ the Pescadores, and Liao- tung peninsula (Port Arthur) to Japan, and paid an indemnity of $158,000,000. But Russia, France, and Germany protested against the cession of the peninsula (" integrity of Chinese territory"), and Japan yielded (May 10), receiving an additional indemnity of $22,200,000. Japan began to reform Corea, but queen Min espoused a reaction, and was murdered (Oct. 8) by natives and Japanese partisans (soshi). This destroyed Japan's prestige, but there was a gradual extension of the reforms. 1894, July 16. Japanese treaty of commerce signed with Great Britain. Cessation of the right of exterritoriality in Japan, freedom of trade and residence. Similar treaties were made by Japan with the other maritime powers (1894-! 1897), and all of them went into efPect (July 17, Aug. 4, 1899) after the new code of civil procedure and commercial law had been tested. 1895, June- Aug. Attack on missionaries in China. June 20. China ceded to France territory acquired from England (p. 595), and concessions and railway rights in southern China (reward for intervention). 1896, Japan entered upon an elaborate policy of military and navak expansion. Jan. 1. Convention between France and Great Britain. Spheres of^ influence in Siam and independence of that nation. No exclusive privileges to be sought in southern China. Feb. 10. A small Russian force landed and marched to Seoul, anci next day the king ( Yi Hi) Jied to the Russian legation, where he remained until Feb. 20, 1897. While there, he granted t(t Russians the right to cut timber in the Yalu valley. May 1. Shah of Persia (Nasr-ed-din) assassinated, succeeded h} his son, Muzaffar-ed-din. May 14, June 9. Russian-Japanese agreements on Corea signed. June 15. Tidal wave in northern Japan, 30,000 perished. Sept. 8. Chinese-Russian rail^way convention signed at Peking; Chinese Eastern Railway Company to build the Transaii berian railvray across Manchuria. 1896-1898. Railway concessions granted by China to French, Bel gian, American, British, Russian, and German companies; alsi for exploiting mines. 1897, Feb. 20. King of Corea returned to his palace, but Russian ascendency continued. On Nov. 5 a Russian agent was ap pointed to control the finances, but the British incumbent re: fused to resign, England and Japan sent ships to Chemulpo and the Russian agent was dismissed (March 15, 1898) afte; anti-Russian demonstrations. March 29. Japan adopted the gold standard ; ratio, 32| to 1. Nov. 14. Germany seized Kiaochau, because of the murder o^ two German missionaries in Shantung. Prince Henry, broth« of the emperor, sent to command the German fleet in Chine lA. D. Asia. 597 waters, the emperor speaking of his intention to extend the empire ("mailed fist"). Dec. 18. A Russian Heet entered Port Arthur to winter. 1898. A series of progressive edicts issued by the emperor of China; but a reaction ensued, the empress do"wager ob- tained control, and virtually deposed the emperor (Sept. 21). The reforms were repealed (Sept. 27), and anti-Christian riots ensued. March 6. China leased Kiaochau to Germany for 99 years, with a sphere of influence 30 miles inland, and railway and mining concessions. Kiaochau a treaty port (Sept. 2). March 27, May 7. China leased to Russia for 25 years Port Arthur, Talien-iuan, and the territory/ and waters north to Port Adams, with a neutralized zone beyond, within which conces- sions to other powers were forbidden. Port Arthur to be a closed naval base, but Talien-wan to have an open port. Rus- sia also received the right to connect the leased territory ■with the Transsiberian railTvay in Manchuria. April 10. China leased to France Kwangchau--wan for 99 years, with railway concessions. Kwangchau a free port (1900). April 25. Russian-Japanese agreement on Corea ; Japanese para- mount interest recognized, Corea temporarily out of Eussia''s sphere. June 9. Territory on mainland adjoining Hongkong leased to Great Britain, also July 1. Weihaiwei for as long as Russia occupied Port Arthur. 1899. Feb. 28. Italy demanded the lease of Sammun Bay, but China refused. April 29. Agreement between Russia and Great Britain; the former not to seek concessions in the Yangtze valley, and the latter not to seek them north of the Great Wall. "July 17. End of exterritoriality in Japan (p. 596). Sept. 1. First Corean railroad opened from Seoul to Chemulpo. Sept. 6. Open-door policy. Secretary Hay of the United States asked assurance from the Powers that there should be no in- terference with free commerce or vested interests within leased territory or spheres of influence in China. Favorable responses were received (1899-1900) from London, Paris, Berlin, Rome, St. Petersburg, and Tokio. 1900. Boxer Rising. Causes : Reaction against drastic reforms; antagonism of foreign exploitation of the country and the efforts of the missionaries, whose actions sometimes gave an excuse for the false charges made against them. A secret society called the Boxers (" patriotic harmonious fists ") spread throughout China, especially in the northern provinces, committing outrages on missionaries and converts. Countenanced by the government and aided by the army, they cut the communica- tion between Peking and the coast (June 6), and threatened the foreign legations, for whose defense 450 legation guards had been sent by the different nations. 598 Modern History, A. d, June 10. An international relief column of 2000 started from the coast under admiral Seymour, but it was obliged to retreat. June 17. The Taku forts were bombarded and captured by the allied ships, which increased the rage of the Boxers, and June 20. baron v. Ketteler, the German minister, was slain in the street in Peking. The same day the legations were besieged. The allied nations (Japan, Russia, Great Britain, United States, France) sent a relieving force of 18,000, which, after the July 14. reduction of Tientsin, marched to Peking and Aug. 14. rescued the legations. The empress dowager and em- peror fled to Singan-fu, and the allied forces occupied the Sacred City. Li Hungchang and prince Ching were appointed envoys to negotiate a peace. The joint powers presented an ultimatum (Dec. 22), and 1901, Sept. 7. a protocol was signed embodying these condi- tions : an expiatory mission to Germany and monument to Ketteler; punishment of the chief Boxers (this had already been done); prohibition of the importation of arms; an indemnity of $334,000,000 in gold; the forts between Peking and the sea to be razed; anti-foreign societies to be forbidden, and provincial and local officials made responsible for good order; reform in the foreign office and court ceremonial. 1900, July. Massacre of Chinese at Blagovestchensk by Russian troops, followed by an invasion of Manchuria, which the Russians occupied and held on the plea of protecting the railway and preserving order. The opposition of the other powers especially Japan, prevented China from acquiescing in this. Oct. 16. Germany and Great Britain signed an agreement upholdingi the territorial integrity of China, the " open door," and non-inter-ij ference in her internal affairs. 1901, July 6. A mission from the Dalai Lama of Lhasa was received by the tzar ; political significance disavowed. Great Britairii (Sept. 2) protested against any proceedings tending to disturb existing conditions in Thibet. Oct. 1. f Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan; succeeded by hiji son, Hahihullah. Nov. 9. Persian-Russian treaty secretly signed, giving Russia iiv creased control over Persian trade. 1902, Jan. Transsiberian railway opened. Jan. 30. Anglo-Japanese defensive alliance concluded to main-i tain the territorial integrity of China and Corea. Assist ance to be given if either signatory power in defending thii integrity was opposed by two nations. This alliance war answered by the March 16. declaration of " allied " Russia and France. April 8. Russia agreed to restore Manchuria to China; evacm ation to be completed by Oct. 9, 1903. Sept. 5. Anglo-Chinese commercial treaty signed ; uniform coinage in China, abolition of transit dues (likin), improvement in navi gation, protection of investments, new treaty ports, missioD A. D. Asia, 599 aries, trade marks, copyright, tariff, mining, exterritoriality. Similar treaties with Jiipan and United States (Oct. 8, 1903). Oct. 7. Siamese-French treaty signed; caused by French encroach- ments. Siam ceded additional territory. 1903. Russian-Japanese Crisis. Russia not -withdrawing from Manchuria as agreed, and sliowing evidences of settlement and fortification at Yoganipo in Corea, Japan remonstrated, considering her own independence in- volved. As a basis of agreement Aug. 12. Japan proposed that the territorial integrity and in- dependence of China and Corea and the " open door " should be recognized, aXso the preponderating interest of Russia in MancJiuria and of Japan in Corea, subject to the first stipulation. Japan to II have the exclusive right to aid Corea when necessary, and the \ right to connect the Corean and Manchurian railway systems. I Oct. 3. Russia's reply ignored Manchuria and China, and pro- ] posed restrictions on Japanese rights in Corea. Nego- ;, tiations continued until Feb. 6, 1904, when Japan, her last note I of Jan. 13 not having been answered, severed diplomatic relations and 1904, Feb. 8. began the war. § 12. LEADING EVENTS, 1904-1914. 1904, March 14. The United States supreme court pronounced the merger of the Northern Paeitic R. li. and the Great Northern R. R. in the Northern securities co. illegal ; the first result of an attempt by the government to check, under the Sherman act (p. 588) the development of combinations of capital in place of competition. April 8. Anglo-French treaty. France recognized the position of Great Britain in Egypt, and Great Britain the special interests of France in Morocco. France abandoned her exclu- sive fishery rights on the French shore in Nevrfoundland under the treaty of tJtrecht (1713), receiving an indemnity and territorial con- cessions in Senegamhia and Nigeria. Great Britain withdrew her i protests against the French customs rdgime in Madagascar. De- limitation of spheres of influence in Siam. Differences in the New Hebrides to be settled by a special agreement (Convention of Oct. 20, 1906). April 9. Death of Isabella II.j former queen of Spain. , April 24-30. President Loubet visited the king of Italy, ignoring the Pope, who protested to the powers. French ambassador I to the Vatican withdrawn (May 21). V The Japanese under Kuroki, having occupied Corea, May 1. defeated the Russians at the Yalu river. May 21-26. Oku won the battles of Kinchau and Nanshan ^ Dalny occupied May 29. Nogi began the siege of Port Arthur. Three armies moving northward united under marshal Oyama I and ( Aug, 25-Sept. 4. defeated the Russians at Liauyang. Kuro' j patkin withdrew in good order to Mukden. 600 Modern History. 1904, July 8. Law forbidding all teaching by religious orders in France for ten years (p. 584). July 14. Death of ex-president Kruger of the Transvaal in Switzer- land ; buried at Pretoria Dec. 16. Aug. 12. Birth of an heir to the tzar of Russia {Alexis). Aug. 13. On the arrival of American warships the sultan of Tur- key granted the claims of the United States as to treatment of their citizens and schools. Aug. 29. Death of Murad F., former sultan of Turkey (p. 621). Sept. 7. Anglo-Thibetan treaty signed at Lhasa, where the British mission (p. 573) arrived Aug. 3 after armed resist- ance. Thibet to open three trade marts ; not to grant territorial concessions to foreign powers, nor to admit their representatives or agents. The treaty was ratified by China and, after a protest, acknowledged by Russia (Aug. 31, 1907). Sept. 16. Birth of an heir to the king of Italy (Umberto). Oct. 9-18. Russian advance repulsed at the Shaho. Oct. 22. The Russian fleet under Rozhestvensky starting for the East fired on English trawlers in the North sea, killing two men. After detention of the fleet at Vigo, war was averted by reference of the matter to an international commission, which reported (Feb. 25, 1905) that the firing was in point of fact unjustifiable ; no torpedo boats being present. £65,000 paid. After a siege lasting from May, 1904, and marked by very se- vere fighting 1905, Jan. 2. Port Arthur -was surrendered by Stoessel with 41,000 men, over 500 guns, and much ammunition and pro- visions. Jan. 18-24. Cabinet crisis in France on account of the espionage (delation) scandal in the army. Rouvier succeeded Combes. Jan. 22. In St. Petersburg a large body of strikers marching to the Winter palace, led by father Gapon, to present a petition to the tzar were fired upon and many killed. (Red Sunday.) Feb. 12. The United States senate amended the arbitration treaties signed with the European nations and Mexico so as to require a special treaty for each case of arbitration. The adminis- tration thereupon declined to present the treaties. Feb. 20-March 9. The Russians defeated in a great battle at Mukden by the five Japanese armies (Kuroki, Oku, Nogi, Nodzu, Kawamura) under Oyama. Kuropatkin superseded by Linievitch. 1905, March 4 — 1909. Theodore Roosevelt, president of the United States ; C. W. Fairbanks, vice-president. At the elections (Nov. 8, 1904) the republicans had 336 electoral votes, the democrats (A. B. Parker, H. G. Davis) 140 ; popular majority, 2,541,635. March 31. The German emperor visited the sultan of Morocco at I Tangier. April 4. Violent earthquake in northern India ; 20,000 killed. Leading Events, 190^-1914- ^01 *1905, April 27. The United States purchased the Panama canal property of the French company. May 27-29. Naval battle of Tsushima straits ; the Kussian fleet of 32 vessels annihilated by the Japanese under I'ogo. May 28. The sultan of Morocco rejected the French reform pro- posals and asked for a conference of the powers. After the June 6. resignation of Delcasse, the French foreign minister, France and Germany agreed to the suggestion. June. Dissension in the management of the Equitable life assurance soc. in New York led to the disclosure of grave irregularities in the conduct of the affairs of the great insurance compa- nies. The report of the Armstrong investigating committee (Feb. 21, 1906) resulted in more stringent legislative regulation, and similar action was taken in other states, sometimes with undue severity. June 7. The king of Sweden refusing to sign an act establishing separate Norwegian consulates, the Norwegian ministry re- signed, and no one would accept office, whereupon the Nor- wegian storthing voted that the union between Norway and Sweden had been dissolved, since the king of Sweden had acknowledged himself unable to form a Norwegian min- istry and could not discharge his constitutional functions. July 1. Death of John Hay, secretary of state of the United States ; Elihu Root succeeded him. July. Chinese boycott of American goods as a protest against the application of the exclusion act to merchants and scholars. July 24. The body of John Paul Jones (p. 430), discovered at Paris, April 14, was received at Annapolis. Aug. 11. Executive committee appointed by parliament in accord- ance with the report of the Elgin commission (April 19), to apportion the property claimed by the Free church and the United Free church of Scotland (p. 671). Aug. 12. Anglo-Japanese alliance renewed for ten years, — to secure peace in the East and the independence and integrity of China, with equal commercial rights for all nations. Special interests of Japan in Corea and of Great Britain on the Indian frontier recognized. Each nation to assist the other in case of war in defence of territorial rights in the East. Aug. 21. The earl of Minto viceroy of India ; lord Curzon re- signed, Aug. 12, in consequence of the decision of the home government in favor of the proposals of lord Kitchener, com- mander-in-chief, concerning the military administration in India. In Russia strikes, riots, and assassinations continued ; muti- nies at Odessa, etc. Increasing dissatisfaction over the war ; difficulties in securing new loans. On Aug. 19. the tzar announced that a representative assembly (duma) would be summoned. Sept. 5. Treaty of peace between Japan and Russia signed at Portsmouth navy yard, after a conference whicli began Aug. 5. Russia acknowledged Japan's paramount interest in Corea, 602 Modem History, transferred to Japan the lease of Port Arthur, and the rail- road to Chang-chung, and ceded the southern half of Sakhalin, Manchuria to be evacuated by both powers and restored to China. On account of the failure to obtain an indemnity the treaty was unpopular in Japan ; riots in Tokio. Sept. 24. Treaty of separation signed by S^weden and Nor-way after a referendum in Norway (Aug.) : — 368,208 for sepa- ration, 184 against. A congress of Russian provincial assemblies (zemstvos) having declared (Sept. 25) in favor of a broader basis of represen- tation, and a general strike following, Oct. 30. the tzar granted an extension of the franchise, the neces- sary approval of laws by the duma, and inviolability of person, freedom of conscience, speech, and association. Count Witte prime minister. Oct. 30. Report of the commission appointed by the king of Bel- gium to inquire into conditions in the Congo Free State; the work of the state commended, but some abuses admitted and reforms suggested in the treatment of the natives. Nov. 4. The tzar restored the constitution of Finland as it existed prior to 1899 (pp. 583, 585). Nov. 17. Japan secured (by treaty) control of the foreign relations of Corea. Marquis Ito resident-general. Japanese abuses. Nov. 27. Prince Charles, grandson of king of Denmark, took the oath as 1905 — X. Hakon VII., king of Norway. (Crowned June 22, 1906.) Dec. 4. Resignation of Mr. Balfour, English prime minister ; liberal ministry formed under sir Henry Campbell-Bannernian. 'M.v.Asquith (exchequer); John Morley (lord Morley in 1908) (India) ; sir Edward Grey (foreign) ; James Bryce (Ireland ; afterward ambassador to the United States); John Burns (local government board); A, Birrell (board of education; afterwards Ireland). Dec. 9. Law for the separation of church and state in France. The concordat of 1802 (p. 463) abrogated and control of the state over the choice of bishops thereby ended. All payments for support of public worship, catholic, protestant, or Jewish, ceased, but diminishing pensions were granted. Churches and other ecclesiastical buildings remained the property of the state, but were to be loaned gratuitously to boards of public worship (associations cultuelles) to be formed by adher- ents of the several faiths. 1906, Jan. 29. Death of Christian IX., king of Denmark ; his son succeeded as 1906 — X. Frederick VIII. Feb.-July. Insurrection of the natives in Natal. Feb. 13. Second (28th imperial) parliament of Edward VII. The elections following the dissolution of Jan. 8 returned 376 Leading Events, 190^-191Jf, 603 liberals, 130 conservatives, 83 nationalists, 64 labor, 27 liberal unionists. 1906, Feb. 17. Falliferes elected president of France. On Mar. 12. a new ministry was formed uuder Sarrien : — Bourgeois (foreign), Clemenceau (interior), Briand (public instruction). April 5-12. Violent and destructive eruptions of Vesuvius. The conference on Morocco which met at Algeciras in Spain, Jan. 16, included the chief European powers and the United States. On April 7. a convention was signed. A police force for coast towns to be established under French and Spanish instructors and a Swiss inspector-general. International state bank founded. Freedom of trade and settlement for foreigners. Germany did not insist on equality of footing with France. April 5. Act reorganizing the United States consular service. April 18-21. Earthquake and fire at San Francisco ; thb greater portion of the city destroyed. April 21. A new record of farthest north was made hy R. E. Peary at 87° 6'. May 6. General election in France resulting in a large majority for the government. May. The United States congress adopted plans for a lock canal for Panama. Work began at once under the special canal commission ; in April, 1907, it was placed in charge of army engineers. May 10-July 22. First Russian duma ; 524 deputies ; about 200 constitutional democrats and 125 independents (peasants) formed the left. Goremykin prime minister (May 2). The insistence of the duma on a general amnesty, responsible ministers, and compulsory expropriation of land for the peas- ants led to a dissolution. Stolypin prime minister. On July 23. a manifesto advocating non-payment of taxes and refusal to enter the army, signed at Viborg in Finland by about 200 members of the duma, who were later tried and condemned therefor. Despite government measures for agrarian relief, mutinies, strikes, riots (Moscow, Dec. 21), massacres of Jews (Bialystok, June 14), and peasant outrages prevailed until forcibly controlled. (Field courts-martial.) Famine. May 30. Formal opening of the Simplon tunnel, the longest in the world (12^ miles). May 31. Marriage of Alfonso XIII., king of Spain, and princess Victoria of Battenberg. Attempt at assassination. June 1. Synod of French bishops, the first held since the Revolution. June 29. Railway rate act in the United States (Hepburn act). Interstate commerce commission given power to fix rates for interstate traffic of railroads, pipe lines, and express com- panies. Appeals to the courts allowed. June 30. Pure food and drugs act, and meat inspection act in the United States. July 12. The French court of cassation reversed the decision of the Rennes tribunal in the Dreyfus case (p. 582). 604 Modern Histoi'y, Dreyfus restored to his rank and promoted ; Picquarf also promoted. 1906, July 23-Aug. 27. Third international conference of American states at Rio de Janeiro. Drago doctrine against forcible collection of debts referred to the second Hague con- ference. Sec. Root attended and afterwards visited other South American countries. Aug. 10. Papal encyclical ; French catholics not permitted to form associations cultuelles. Protestants and Jews conformed to the law. Aug. 13-14. Negro troops at Brownsville^ Texas, fired on towns- people ; the discharge of a battalion by order of the president for " conspiracy of silence" caused much discussion in congress. Aug. 13. Capt. Roald Amundsen reached Nome after a three years' expedition in search of the magnetic pole, having made the V Northwest passage for the first time by sea. Aug. 16-17. Destructive earthquake in Chile. An insurrection (Aug.) in Cuba, resulting from dissatisfaction over the reelection of president Palma, led to the landing of troops and Sept 29. the establishment of a provisional government by the United States. (Gov. Magoon.) Oct. 7. Meeting of the first national representative assembly in Persia. Oct. The segregation of Japanese children in the public schools in San Francisco led to strained relations between the United States and Japan and between the city and federal govern- ment. Upon the inclusion in the new immigration law (Feb. 20, 1907) of restrictions on the immigration of Japanese laborers the rule was rescinded (March). Oct. 21. Clemenceau ministry in Prance ; Picquart (war). Nov. 8-26. President Roosevelt visited the canal zone; at Panama, president of the United States for the first time outside its jurisdiction. Not. The Chinese government issued a decree ordering the growth and importation of opium to be diminished 10 <^ annually for ten years, and restricting opium smoking. During 1906-07, reforms in education in China ; creation of a new army. Nov. 25. Russian peasants granted ownership of allotments re- ceived at the time of emancipation ; unpaid dues remitted. The peasants had been previously released from the control of the communes and much land had been sold to them. Dec. 12. Constitution granted the Transvaal ; bicameral legis- lature; manhood suffrage for whites. Dec. 20. English education bill abandoned, the commons refus- ing to accept the lords' amendments. The intention of the bill was to make rate-supported schools undenominational while providing moral teaching and opportunity for denomi- national instruction where desired. Dec. 21. Universal manhood suffrage in Austria. Dec. 21. Trades disputes act iu England exempts trade union Leading Events, IQOJ^-lQl^., 605 funds trova. liability for damages committed during a strike, thus reversing the Taff Vale decision (p. 572). 1907. Jan. 8. -— 1909. Muhammad Ali Mirza, shah of Persia, on the death of his father, Muzaffar ed-din. Jan. 25-Feb. 5. Elections for the German Reichstag, which was dissolved Dec. 15 after rejecting the grants asked for the war in German Southwest Africa. The social democrats lost 39 of their 82 seats, though their total vote was not reduced. Feb. Treaty between the United States and San Domingo rati- fied; the United States to collect customs revenues and pay foreign claims on basis of the agreement of Feb. 1905. In the United States during the spring and summer many states enlarged the powers of railroad commissions, regulated the hours of employees, and Jixed passenger rates at 2 to 2^ cents per mile. Conflicts with the federal courts. The gen- eral government brought numerous prosecutions for rebating. Investigation of the Harriman roads. March 5-June 16. Second Russian duma ; proving equally radi- cal with the first, it was dissolved. April. Land fraud scandal in the United States. Since 1902 the government had been tracing the fraudulent acquisition of public lands ; many suits were brought and some convictions obtained. April 5. At the elections for the legislative assembly in Finland 19 women chosen as deputies. May-July. Agitation by winegrowers in the south of France secures legislation against adulteration and sugaring of wine. May 7. Irish council bill introduced in parliament. It placed the ad- ministration of Ireland in the hands of an elective body, allow- ing a veto to the lord-lieuteuant ; being unsatisfactory to the nationalists, it was withdrawn (June 3). May 9. Trial of Haywood, sec. of the Western federation of miners, who with the president was indicted for the murder of ex-gov. Steunenberg of Idaho; acquitted July 28. Startling testi- mony as to violence during the Colorado strikes of 1903-04. May 10. Birth of a son and heir to the king of Spain. June 15-Oct. 18. Second international peace conference at the Hague (p. 583). Forty-four states represented (Corea not received). Further restrictions were placed on naval and land warfare in the interests of non-combatants and neutrals. International prize court established (court of appeal); Eng- land and the United States reserved assent. The establish- ment of a court of arbitral Justice was advocated by the United States and recommended by the conference, which could not agree on a plan for the choice of judges. Forcible collection of debts to be allowed only after failure of arbitration. July 19. Abdication of the emperor of Corea in favor of his son. Japan obtained by treaty a protectorate over Corea (July 25). July 30i-Aug. 5. Several Europeans killed in an outbreak at Casa- 606 Modern History. • hlanca in Morocco. The French bombarded the town and landed troops. 1907, Aug. 3. Fine of S29,240,000 imposed by a federal court on the Standard oil co. of Indiana for receiving rebate. (Re- versed on appeal, July 22, 1908.) Aug. 6. The state of Georgia adopted a prohibition act. Similar legislation in Alabama (Dec), Mississippi (Feb. 1908), North Carolina (May, 1908), constitutional prohibition in Oklahoma. Aug. 16. Muley Hafid, brother of the sultan of Morocco, pro- claimed sultan at Marrakesh ; civil war; the new sultan, though opposed by the French, gradually obtained control of the greater part of the country. Aug. 28. Parliament passes an act (retro-active) legalizing mar- riage with a deceased wife^s sister, Aug. 31. Anglo-Russian convention. Russia to have commer- cial control in the northern half of Persia, Great Britain in the southern half. Great Britain agrees not to annex Afghan- istan nor to alter the government ; Russia acknowledges that country to be outside her sphere of influence. Russia recognizes the Anglo-Thibetan treaty. Oct. 16. Opening of the first Philippine legislative assembly. Oct. 17. Wireless telegraph service opened between Cape Breton and Ireland. Oct. 22. Panic in New York. The financial disturbances which began in March followed by shortage of currency throughout the country ; commercial depression. Nov. 14. Third Russian duma, elected under a new decree ; number of deputies 442, Poles, Caucasians, etc., reduced ; the influence of landed proprietors and privileged classes largely increased. The duma, however, resolves that the tzar has divested himself of his autocratic power. Nov. 16. Oklahoma (united with the Indian territory) 46th state of the United States. Nov. 30. Loss of the successful French war balloon, La patrie. Marked development in 1906-08 of dirigible balloons and aeroplanes. 1907, Dec. 8 — X. Gustav V., king of Sweden, succeeds on the death of his father, Oscar II. Dec. 16. The United States Jleet sailed on a cruise to the Pacific coast and around the world. Dec. 20. Treaty of peace and seven conventions between the Central American states signed at Washington ; Central Americac court of justice established. 1908, Feb. 1. Carlos /., king of Portugal, and the crown prince assassinated ; the second son of Carlos succeeded as 1908 — X. Manuel II. April 5. Resignation of sir Henry Camphell-Bannertnan (f April 22) ; Mr. Asquith became prime minister. Leading Events, 190^^-1914. 607 1908, April 23. North sea treaty between Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Sweden, and Denmark. Baltic sea treaty be- tween Germany, Russia, Sweden, and Denmark. May 13. United States. Conference of governors of the states at Washington on the conservation of national resources. May 25. The United States remitted its claim to $13,000,000 of the Chinese boxer indemnity (p. 598). June. Civil war in Persia between the shah and the parliament. June 18-19. Republican convention in the United States (Chi- cago) nominated W. H. Taft (Ohio) for president, and J. S. Sherman (New York) for vice-president. June 24. Death of Grover Clevelandf ex-president of the United States. July 10. Democratic convention at Denver nominated W. J. Bryan (Nebraska) for president and /. W. Kern (Indiana) for vice- president. July 25. The Irish universities bill passed in the house of com- mons ; two universities without religious tests created in Ireland. July 30. Old age pensions act in Great Britain ; it is supposed to affect 500,000 persons. July 24. The sultan of Turkey proclaimed the restoration of the constitution of 1876 and ordered the assembling of a chamber of deputies elected by the people. A peaceful revo- lution by the young Turks. Oct. 1. Two cent postal rate between the United States and Great Britain. Oct. 6. The independence of Bulgaria proclaimed by prince Ferdinand. Oct. 7. The emperor of Austro-Hungary asserted rights of sover- eignty and succession in Bosnia and Herzegovina (compare treaty of Berlin, p. 524). The popular assembly in Crete proclaimed union with Greece. Negotiations looking toward a European conference. Nov. 3. United States presidential election; Taft chosen (321 electoral votes to 162). Nov. 15. Death of the emperor of China (Kwangsu) and of the empress-dowager announced. Nov. 30. Agreement between the United States and Japan. 1908, Dec. 2 — X. Hsuan-tung, emperor of China (Pi-yi, 3 years old, son of the regent prince Chung). Dec. 17. Opening of the Turkish parliament. Dec. 17-19. In Venezuela president Cipriano Castro (1899-1908), who had suspended intercourse with nearly all foreign coun- tries, deposed (while in Europe) in favor of Juan Vicente Gomez. Dec. 28. Destructive earthquake in Sicily and Calabria. 608 Modern History. 1909, Jan. 28. President Gomez inaugurated in Cuba; United States' provisional government ceases. 1909, March 4-1913. William Howard Taft, 26tli^ pres- ident of the United States; /. S. Sherman, vice-president. April 6. The North Pole reached by R. E. Peary, U. S. N. (An- nouncement made Sept. 6.) Revolt in Turkey against Young Turks suppressed. Abdul Hamid II deposed; his brother ] 1909, April 27 — x. Muhammad V. sultan. Massacres of Arme- nian Christians. 1909, July 16 — X. Sultan Ahmad, shah of Persia; his father, Muhammad Ali, deposed. July 20. In France M. Briand premier in place of M. Clemenceau. Aug. 5. In the United States new ( Payne- Aldrich) tariff act. Few changes downward; hides free. Free trade with Philip- pines. "Tariff board." The act unpopular in the middle west. " Insurgents." Nov. 15. Indian Councils act operative in India ; powers of legis- lative councils increased, and a minority of members directly elective. Separate electorate for Mohammedans. 1909, Dec. 17-x. Albert I, king of the Belgians, on the death of his uncle, Leopold II. In England the House of Lords having rejected Mr. Lloyd- George's budget (Lord Lansdowne's motion, Nov. 30) which increased taxes on wealth, and introduced new taxes on land (general valuation'), parliament was dissolved, and the 1910, Feb. 21. third (29th imperial) parliament of Edward VII opened with unionist gains (275 unionists, 273 liberals), but a government majority of 124. Resolve of the Commons that the Lords' veto should be limited. The budget received royal assent April 29. Ou May 6 Edward VII died, and was succeeded by bis son 1910-X. George V. May 31. Union of South Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, Trans- vaal, Orange Free State) inaugurated. Aug. 22. Japan annexes Korea. Sept. 7. The International Court of Arbitration gives its decision in the Nevrfoundland fisheries case between the United States and Great Britain. Oct. 3. The new Chinese senate opened. Oct. 5. Revolution in Portugal; King Manuel dethroned; a repub- lic established. Nov. State elections in the United States; great democratic gains. Nov. 28. British parliament dissolved. The elections return 272 unionists and 272 liberals; government majority 126. Dec. 10. Population of the United States (exclusive of the Philip- pines) announced as 93,402,151. (13th census.) 1 If Mr. Cleveland's second term were counted, Mr. Taft would be the 27th president. Leading Events, 1904-19U, 609 IL911) Feb. 22. British house of commons passed bill substitu- ting a suspensory veto for the absolute veto of the house of lords. This act provides that if a bill passes the commons in three successive sessions it may become law in spite of ad- verse action by the lords. Veto hill accepted by house of lords, Aug. 10. May 25. President Porfirio Diaz of Mexico resigned as the result of a revolution, and minister De la Barra was inaugurated pro- visional president. Francisco I. Madero, Jr., elected presi- dent Oct. 1, and inaugurated Nov. 6. June 13. W. Morgan SJiuster, an American, given full control of Persians finances. The deposed shah attacked Teheran, July t 30, but was defeated. Dec. 24, Shuster was removed in com- pliance with the demand of Russia. Aug. 2. Arbitration treaties signed between the United States and Great Britain and between the United States and France. Sept. 29. Italy declared war against Turkey. Oct. 5, Tripoli cap- tured by an Italian fleet after a bombardment of several days. Oct. Chinese insurrection against the Manchu dynasty in full progress. Nanking taken by insurgents, Dec. 2. Nov. 3. France ceded to Germany a portion of the French Congo in exchange for a free hand in Morocco. Dec. 14. Capt. Roald Amundsen, Norwegian, reached the South Pole. Dec. 29. Outer Mongolia declared itself independent of China and formed a separate government. 1912, Jan. 2. A provisional republican government for China estab- lished at Nanking with Sun Yat-sen as president. Feb. 12, the emperor of China abdicated and the republic assmned con- trol. Feb. 15, Yuan Shih-kai elected provisional president by the national assembly. Mar. 10, Yuan inaugurated and general amnesty proclaimed. Jan. 6. New Mexico admitted to the Union as the forty-seventh state. Jan. 18. Capt. R. P. Scott of the British navy reached the South Pole. Perished of cold and starvation with the remaining members of his party, March 29. Feb. 14. Arizona admitted to the Union as the forty-eighth state. Feb. 22. Italy annexed Tripoli by act of parliament. Feb. 29. Coal-miners^ strike in Great Britain ; a million men left their work. The passage of an act fixing a minimum wage for coal-miners brought about the end of the strike early in April. March 7. Discovery of South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911, announced by Amundsen. April. Floods in Mississippi valley left 30,000 persons homeless and occasioned a property loss of $50,000,000. April 15. The steamship I'itanic sank in mid-ocean after striking an iceberg late in the evening of the 14th ; 1503 persons drowned, including a number of well-known men ; 703 saved. May 13. Constitutional amendment providing for direct elec tion of United States senators by the people passed congress. 610 Modern History. 1912, May 14- X. Christian X., king of Denmark, suc- ceeded on the death of his father, Frederick VIII. June 22. President Taft and vice-president Sherman renominated by the republican national convention at Chicago. Dissatis- fied element withdrew from convention and the progressive party was organized, which, in a convention at Chicago, Aug. 7, nominated Theodore Roosevelt and Hiram W. Johnson (Cali- fornia). July 2, democratic convention nominated Woodrow Wilson (New Jersey) for president and (July 3) Thomas R. Marshall (Indiana) for vice-president. Nov. 5, Wilson and Marshall were elected and a democratic majority of the house of representatives. July 15. State insurance went into effect in Great Britain. 1912, July 30 -X. Yoshihito succeeded to the imperial throne of Japan on the death of his father, Mutsuhito. Aug. 9. Sultan Mulai Hafid of Morocco abdicated. Oct. 8. Discontent with Turkish rule in Macedonia culminated in a declaration of war against Turkey by Montenegro. Bul- garia, Servia, and Greece joined Montenegro as allies, and (Oct. 9) the allies invaded Turkish territory. After severe defeats by the Bulgarians at Kirk Kilisseh and Lule Burgasy Turkey appealed to the powers, Nov. 3, for intervention, and an armistice was signed Dec. 3, ending one of the bloodiest wars in history. Oct. 15. Treaty of Lausanne between Italy and Turkey; Tri- poli ceded to Italy. Oct. 16. Felix Diaz rebelled against the Madero government in Mexico and took possession of Vera Cruz. Being defeated, he surrendered Oct, 23 and was imprisoned. 1913, Jan. 1. Parcel post system instituted in the United States> Feb. 9. Felix Diaz released from prison by Mexican revolutionists. His partisans took president Madero prisoner, Feb. 18, and proclaimed Victoriano Huerta provisional president. Feb. 23, Madero was killed " while attempting escape." Feb. 10. News of the death on March 29, 1912, of Capt. Robert F. Scott on his return from the South Pole was brought to New Zealand. 1913, Feb. 18 -X. Raymond Poincar^ president of the French Republic. (Elected Jan. 17.) Feb. 25. The sixteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States, empowering Congress to lay and collect in- come taxes, was declared in force, having been ratified by the requisite number of states. March 4. President Taft signed bill creating the Department of Labor. 1913, March 4 -X. Woodrow Wilson, 27th president of the United States ; Thomas R. Marshall, vice-president. March 18. King George of Greece assassinated at Salonica; the crown prince succeeding as 1913, March 18- X. Constantine, king of Greece. I leading Events^ 1904-19U. 611 1913, March and April. Serious floods in Ohio valley. Loss of 454 lives and $350,000,000 in Ohio. April 1. Turkey accepted terms of peace proposed by the powers. After long discussion on the part of the Balkan allies, the treaty was signed. May 30. May 31. The seventeenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States, providing for direct election of senators by the people, was declared in force, having been duly rati- fied by the states. July 8. Disputes over the division of Macedonia among the Balkan allies having led to acts of hostility between Bulgaria and the others, Servia declared war against Bulgaria. Bulgaria withdrew her troops from the disputed territory, July 10, and on July 17, sued for peace with Rumania, which had invaded her territory on the north and east. July 20, the Turks took and reoccupied Adrianople, which they were permitted by the powers to retain. Aug. 10, peace between the Balkan states signed at Bucharest. This second Balkan war remarkable for its atrocities. An international commission investigating on the ground reported in 1914, placing the blame for these upon Bulgaria, Servia, and Greece in equal proportions. The reorganization of the Balkan states made Albania independent under an international commission of control ; Crete was ceded to Greece ; Macedonia was divided among Greece, Servia, and Bulgaria ; and Rumania gained a strip from the northwest of Bulgaria. Prince William of Wied was chosen ruler of Albania with the title of Mpret (= Im- perator). Sept. 17. Agreement between Bulgaria and Turkey by which the latter retains Adrianople, Kirk Kilisseh, and Dimotika. Sept. 28, treaty between Bulgaria and Turkey signed at Constanti- nople. Oct. 3. The Under^^^ood tariff act went into effect on its signa- ture by the president. Oct. 6. Yuan Shih-kai elected president of China. Oct. 10. Last obstruction to water removed from the Panama Canal by the blowing-up of the Gamhoa dike. Nov. 3. Otto, the mad king of Bavaria, was deposed, and was suc- ceeded by the prince regent as 1913 - X. Louis III. Dec. 23. Currency and banking bill providing for regional banks in the United States signed by the president. 1914, Jan. 18. The island of Sakura near Kagoshima in Japan de- vastated by a volcano. Jan. Serious railroad and mining strikes in South Africa. Syndicalism arrayed against the state. Suppressed by the firm measures of premier Botha. April 21. United States Jleet seized custom-house at Vera Cruz, Mexico, and navy and marines occupied the city, for the pur- pose of exacting an apology from president Huerta for tlie arrest of United States blue-jackets. American losses 18 612 Modern History. killed and 70 wounded. April 25, the diplomatic representa- tives of Argentina, Brazil^ and Chile at Washington offered the services of their respective governments in mediation be- tween the United States and Mexico. The offer was accepted by the United States. May 25. Irish Home Rule bill passed the British house of com- mons by a vote of 351 to 274, in spite of threats of armed re- sistance in Ulster and trouble among army officers who agreed to resign if ordered to attack the Ulster men. (Resignation of sir John French, Chief of Imperial Staff, not accepted.) The bill, having passed the commons in three sessions of parlia- ment, became law without the approval of the lords. Con- tinued disturbances in Protestant Ulster under the leadership of sir Edward Carson. Large importations of arms smuggled into the country. Nationalist volunteers organize in opposition to the Ulster volunteers. July 6. House of lords passed to its second reading, by a vote of 273 to 10, the home rule amending bill, providing that each county of Ulster shall decide by vote whether or not it shall be excluded from the operation of the home rule act for a period of 6 years. Later the house of lords passed unionist amend- ments not acceptable to the commons. Riot at Dublin, July 26, in which troops fired upon nationalists and killed 4 persons. June 24. Protocol signed at Niagara, Canada, by American and Mexican delegates sitting with the mediators. It provided for a provisional government of Mexico to be constituted by agree- ment of Huerta^s representatives and the insurgent constitution- alist party, and the United States agreed to waive claims for war indemnity or other international satisfaction and to recognize the provisional government. The mediators then adjourned. July 5. Huerta was elected president of Mexico by a large majority of a very small vote. July 15. Huerta resigned presidency of Mexico and was succeeded by minister of foreign affairs Carhajal, who, according to an understanding with the mediators, was to resign in favor of a constitutionalist. The constitutionalist forces, under Carranza as president and Villa as commanding general, in control of the greater part of Mexico. June 28. Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir presumptive to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his morganatic wife, the duchess of Hohenberg, assassinated at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by a Serb student, a native of Bosnia. Austria-Hungary accused Servia of fomenting conspiracies against the internal tran- quillity of the dual monarchy and (July 23) sent her an ulti- matum, Servia's reply to which (July 25) being deemed un- satisfactory. July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war against Servia, and (July 29) bombarded Belgrade. July 31, Russia proclaimed a gen- eral mobilization. Stock markets of the world closed. Aug. 1. Germany declared war against Russia. France ordered a general mobilization for the next day. Discount in I^ondon Leading Events, 1904-1914. 613 raised to 10*^, highest in the history of the Bank of England. A-Ug. 2. Hostilities on border between Germany and France. Ger- many viohited the neutrality of Luxemburg, promising indem- nity. Germany asked Belgium to allow her troops to cross Belgian territory. Belgium refused. Aug. 3. Italy declared her neutrality, on the ground that her treaty of alliance with Germany and Austria did not require her to assist them in an offensive war. Germany began an invasion of Belgium. German troops also invaded Russia. A-Ug. 4. Germany having refused to respect the neutrality of Bel- gium after a demand from England, England declared war on Germany. Germany attacked Liege. Aug. 5. Pres. Wilson offered the services of the United States in mediation between the warring nations of Europe. Aug. 7. Liege occupied by the Germans, but the outlying forts not taken. Discount in London cut to 6<^. Aug. 8. Discount in London further cut to 5of^. Aug. 10. France and Austria severed diplomatic relations. Aug. 12. England formally declared war on Austria. Aug. 13. Pres. Carbajal and his cabinet, together with the federal forces, having left the city of Mexico the night before, a formal peace agreement was signed between gen. Obregon for the constitutionalists and Eduardo Iturbide, gov. of the federal dis- trict, preliminary to the entrance of Carranza and his follow- ers into the city. Aug. 15. The Panama Canal officially opened. Aug. 15. Japan sent an ultimatum to Germany demanding the evacuation of Kiaochau and allowing one week for a reply. SUPPLEMENT THE WAR OF 1914 June 28. Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and the Duch- ess of Hohenberg at Sarajevo, Bosnia, by Servian student. July 2. Gabrinovics, who made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the archduke, implicates the Secretary of the Pan-Servian Union and others in the murder of the Austrian heir. July 23. Austrian note to Servia, demanding the suppression of Pan- Servianism and the punishment of the assassins. July 25. Servia concedes all of Austria's demands save that of Austrian participation in the investigation of the murder. Austrian note to Servia saying the latter's reply was unsatis- factory. Ambassador leaves Belgrade. July 27. England's appeal to Austria, Servia, and Russia to suspend hostilities pending a cooperative mediation conference to which France, Germany, and Italy were invited. General mobilization of Servian army. Mobilization of five Russian army corps. Partial mobilization by Austria. Strict Austrian censorship. July 28. Austria declares -war on Servia and hostilities com- mence, after Germany and Austria refuse England's invita- tion to a conference. German Jieet ordered mobilized. Russian guards placed along the Prussian frontier. July 29. Bombardment of Belgrade begun by Austrians. Russia mobilizes a million and a quarter troops for Austrian frontier. Germany also sends troops to Russian frontier. Kaiser and czar exchange telegrams in a final effort for peace France quietly prepares for war and troops concentrate neai the frontier. July 30. Germanreserveofficersof theGuardsArmyCorpscalledout. France prepared for war. July 31. Germany sends ultimatum to Russia giving her twelve hours to explain her intentions in regard to mobilization. General Russian mobilization formally ordered. Martial law declared in Germany. Belgium mobilizes. Partial Swiss mobilization. Stock markets all over the world close their doors. Bank of England raises rate of exchange to eight per cent. Aug. 1. Germany formally declares war on Russia, and troops are ordered mobilized. France mobilizes. 616 Supplement Aivg. 2. Germany occupies Luxemburg. Aug. 3. Both Russian and German guards cross frontiers, the latter also making raids across the French border. Germany declares war on France. German troops enter Belgium. British Jieet officially mobilized. Italy proclaims her neutrality. Aug. 4. Germany appropriates a billion for war expenditures. England's ultimatum to Germany demanding the latter's atti- tude respecting Belgian neutrality. British army ordered mobilized and a half billion voted for emergency purposes. War declared by England on Germany. Germans begin their attack on Liege. President Wilson proclaims the neutrality of the United States. Aug. 5. Wilson offers offices for peace between the several warring nations. Kitchener appointed Secretary of State for War. German cables in the Atlantic cut and communication severed. German attack on Liege repulsed with heavy losses. Montenegro declares war on Austria. Aug. 6. Kitchener asks for a half-million more men and an additional appropriation of a half-billion dollars. Two Liege forts silenced. — General Leman taken prisoner. Holland declares her neutrality. Austria declares war against Russia. Aug. 7. Germans occupy Liege although the forts still hold out. U.S.S. Tennessee leaves with $6,000,000 in gold for Europe for stranded Americans. British cruiser Amphion mined and sunk. French troops enter Alsace. Aug. 8. Bombardment of Libau by Germans. First British troops land on French soil. French capture Alt- kirk in Alsace. Aug. 9. French occupy Muelhausen. Servia declares war on Germany. Aug. 10. German troops massing on their eastern border. France and Austria sever diplomatic relations. British admiralty closes the North Sea to fishermen. Aug. 11. Germans penetrate France. French fall back in Alsace, abandoning Muelhausen. Montenegro declares war on Germany. France declares war on Austria-Hungary. Aug. 12. German troops move north towards Brussels. England declares war on Austria. Turkey buys German cruisers Goeben and Breslau. Montenegrins and Servians invade Bosnia. Aug 14. Allied troops massing in Belgium. The War of 1914 617 Aug. 15. Russia issues manifesto offering Poles their freedom if loyal. Japanese ultimatum to Germany, (Aug. 16. Landing of first British Expeditionary force in France completed. Russian advance begun. Aug. 17. Austrian advance into Poland checked. Belgian Government transferred from Brussels to Antwerp. Aug. 20. Brussels abandoned by Belgians, occupied by the Ger- mans. Aug. 22. German attack on Kamur. Levy of forty million dollars on Brussels. Allies driven from Charleroi. Germans occupy Ghent. Russia takes the offensive in East Prussia. Japanese fleet sails against Kiaochau. Aug. 23. Japan in state of w^ar with Germany. British army engaged at Mons. A.ug. 24. Fall of Namur annoimced. Allied forces abandon the Sambre. Bombardment of Tsingtau by the Japanese. Zeppelin drops bombs on Antwerp. A.ug. 25. Louvain partially destroyed by the Germans. Allies con- tinue retreat to Cambrai-Le-Cateau. Russians invading Galicia begin the battle of Lemberg. Austria declares war on Japan. Aug. 26. Togoland surrenders to Great Britain. British forces en- gaged at Tournai and Landrecies. Kitchener announces that Britain will have an army of one million men. French Cabinet reorganized upon a non-partisan basis. Aug. 27. British marines occupy Ostend. Allies retreat to the Somme. Lille, Roubaix, and Valenciennes occupied by the Germans. Tilsit, East Prussia, occupied by Russians. Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse sunk by British cruiser High- flyer. Austria withdraws from Novibazar. Official declaration of Kiaochau blockade. Aug. 28. Allies continue retreat through northern France. British naval victory off Heligoland ; five German warships sunk. Aug. 29. New Zealand force occupies German Samoa. Austria declares war on Belgium. Aug. 30. Germans capture Amiens. Allies retreating to the line of the Seine. Paris prepares for a siege. Aug. 31. German aeroplane bombs dropped on Paris. Sept. 1. The name of St. Petersburg changed to Petrograd by im- perial decree. Germans win victory over Russians at Allenstein, East Prussia, capturing 70,000 prisoners. 618 Supplement Sept. 2. Allies hold the line of the Seine, the Marne, and the Mei above Verdun. Austrians defeated with heavy losses by Russians at Lem< berg after seven days' fighting. First British casualty list issued 5127. Japan lands 10,000 troops in Shantung. Sept. 3. French Government withdrawn from Paris to Bordeaux. Troops of the Allies assume the offensive, the Germans ap- proaching the valley of the Marne. Russia occupies the city of Lemberg, Galicia. Sept. 4. Germans cross the river Marne. Sept. 6. British cruiser Pathfinder blown up by submarine; 259 lives lost. England^ France, and Russia agree not to treat for peace sepa- rately. German right wing changes course to the east in front of Paris. Rheims taken by the Germans. Germany strengthens forces in East Prussia. •§ept. 7. Extreme German right begins the retreat back across the Marne, closely followed by the Allied forces. Germans capture Mauheuge. Sept. 8. Allies accelerate German retreat, capturing German prison^ ers and guns. Sept. 9. Seventy thousand Indian troops dispatched to France. German retreat continues. Emperor William protests to President Wilson against the use of dumdum bullets by the Allies. Sept. 10. Germans driven out of Vitry-Le-Fran^ois, retreating to- wards the Aisne. Parliament votes British army increase of 500,000. German cruiser Emden captures six British steamers off coast of India. Sept. ll. Germans cross the Aisne and take up intrenched position. Turkey ends capitulations. Belgian Peace Commission reaches America. France replies to Kaiser's protest against dumdum bullets. Sept. 12. Allies advance against German intrenchments on the Aisne. Russians win second victory in Galicia. Australian force takes Bismarck Archipelago and ICaiser Wilhelm's Land. Sept. 13. Battle of the Aisne continues. Sept. 14. Russians before Koenigsberg, East Prussia. Sept. 15. Russians advancing on Przemysl. Rheims occupied by the Allies. German cruiser Hela sunk by British submarine. Sept. 17. Berlin casualty list issued shows 4564 names, with total for war of 35,786 killed, wounded, or missing. President Wilson replies in non-committal terms to the Ger- man and Belgian protests on atrocities. The War of 1914. 619 Sefjyv. 18. Rheims Cathedral damaged by German artillery fire. Sept. 19. Allies' movement to turn the German right flank becomes more defined, the latter making vigorous counter attacks. Germans evacuate Termonde, Belgium. Sept. 20. German cruiser Koenigsberg damages British cruiser Pegasus in Zanzibar harbor. "Sept. 21. France protests to America of the destruction of the Rheims Cathedral. Allies' left wing advances to the heights of Lassigny, seek- ing to envelop the German right. Kussians bombarding Przemysl. Duke of Connaught reviews 25,000 Canadian troops before their departure for Europe. Sept. 22. German submarine U-9 sinks British cruisers A boukir, Cressy, and Hogue, with a total loss of 1433 lives, exclusive of officers. German cruiser Emden shells Madras. Sept. 23. British aviator drops bomb on Zeppelin shed at DUsseldorf. Sept. 25. German army on East Prussian border, after having de- feated Rennenkampff, reaches Niemen. Montenegrins enter Mostar in Herzegovina. British Indian troops land in Marseilles. Sept. 26. Germans cross Meuse between Verdun and Toul. Zeppelin over Warsaw. Sept. 27. Germans attempt to pierce Allies' left near Roye. Belgians evacuate Alost. German aeroplane drops four bombs on Paris, killing one. Russians occupy Uzsoc Pass through the Carpathians into Hungary. France denies military use of Rheims Cathedral. Sept. 28. Allies' flanking movement extends north ; violent fighting on left wing. Russians resume the offensive in northern Poland. Japanese occupy heights around Tsingtau. Sept. 29. German attempt to pierce Allies' centre fails. Sept. 30. Italian torpedo-boat blown up by Austrian mine in the Adriatic. Italy protests against the use of mines to Austria. Oct. 1. German assault on outer Antwerp forts. Oct. 2. Britain officially announces that it has decided to lay mines in certain areas. Oct. 3. Allies repulse German attempt to take Roye. Russian victory at Augustow, East Prussia. Oct. 4. British force cooperating with the Belgians. Peace Sunday in all of the churches of America. Oct. 5. French forced to give ground north of the Oise. Japanese repulse German sortie at Tsingtau. Oct. 6. Russians force German retreat from Wierzbolo-Lyck dis- trict in East Prussia. Japanese capture Jaluit Island in the Marshall group. Oct. 7. German Zeppelins drop bombs on Antwerp, killing twenty. Japanese capture Yap Island, in the Carolina group. 620 Supplement Shells from German siege guns fall on Antwerp. Berlin admits loss of 300,000 men. Belgian Government moved to Ostend from Antwerp. Oct. 8. Russians bombarding Przemysl forts. Oct. 9. Japanese siege guns placed to dominate Tsingtau. Germans capture Antwerp. Oct. 10. King Charles of Roumania dead. Oct. 11. Russian cruiser Pallada sunk by German submarine. Russia claims further advances in East Prussia. Oct. 12. Ferdinand proclaimed King of Roumania. Germans occupy Ghent. Oct. 13. Germans occupy Lille, Revolt in South Africa. Belgian Government removed from Ostend to Havre, France.) Trial of alleged assassin of Archduke Ferdinand and hisj wife opens at Sarajevo. Austria claims to have relieved Przemysl. Oct. 14. Allies occupy Ypres. Oct. 15. German civilians evacuate Goldap in East Prussia. British cruiser Hawke sunk by German submarine. Oct. 16. Germans occupy Ostend. Rebel Colonel Maritz's force defeated in South Africa. German advance guard moves up the Vistula opposite WaV" saw. Oct. 17. British cruiser Undaunted sinks four German destroyers off Holland. German troops appear before Warsaw. Oct. 18. Allies check German advance on Dunkirk, holding line from Nieuport to Dixmude. Japanese cruiser Takachibo mined in Kiaochau Bay. Oct. 19. Allies advance to Roulers, Belgium. Belgian army repulses Germans at the Yser River, Austria claims advance south of Przemysl. Fourth British casualty list issued 13,541. Oct. 20. Germans admit check at the Yser. British fleet aids operations in Belgium. Russia repulses Germans from Warsaw. Oct. 21. Allies maintain lines in southern Belgium. Oct. 22. Britain protests against German mine-laying on the high American commission organized in London to save Belgians from starvation. Prussian Diet passes war credit of $375,000,000. Oct. 23. Announcement that German cruiser Karlsruhe has sunk thirteen British merchantmen in the Atlantic. Russia reports German retirement from Warsaw. Britain insures Westminster Abbey against bombs. Germans gain ground towards Dunkirk. Germans cross the Yser. Russians cross the Vistula. Rus- sians in great battle with Austrians along San from Sambor to Przemysl. The War of 1914 621 Oct. 24. Union of South Africa troops completely defeat rebel forces under Maritz at Kakamas. Oct. 25. Russians press pursuit of Germans retiring from War- saw. Oct. 26. Generals De Wet and Beyers start new rebellion in South Africa. Oct. 27. Continued attacks by Germans on Allies' western lines. General Von Falkenhayn succeeds Von Moltke as chief of German General Staff. General Beyers's rebel forces put to rout by Union troops. British dreadnought Audacious strikes miue off north coast of Ireland. Oct. 28. German attack towards Dunkirk becomes weaker. German cruiser Emden sinks Russian cruiser Zemtchug and French destroyer in Penang harbor. Oct. 29. Assassin of Prince Ferdinand sentenced to twenty years in prison ; four accessories to be hanged. Turkish warships bombard Russian ports on the Black Sea, bringing Turkey into the war. Belgians force Germans back across the Yser by inundating the country. Austrians and Germans retreat from the Vistula. Oct. 30. Admiral Sir John Fisher appointed to succeed Prince Louis of Battenberg as First Lord of the British Admiralty. Russia declares state of •war exists with Turkey and withdraws ambassador from Constantinople. Oct. 31. Japanese open general attack on Tsingtau. Nov. 1. Russia orders all Germans and Austrians deported. German squadron victorious in naval battle with British off the coast of Chile. Nov. 2. Martial law proclaimed in Egypt. British cruisor Minerva shells and occupies Akabah, Arab port on Red Sea. Germans evacuate left bank of the Yser. Russia clears right wing by advance into East Prussia ; con- tinues progress towards German border in Poland. Nov. 3. Mohammedans in India show loyalty to Great Britain. German fleet makes raid on British coast, sinking submarine and two drifters. Nov. 4. Russians occupy cities in Turkish Armenia. German cruiser Yorck sunk by mine in Wilhelmshafen har- bor; 266 lives lost. Nov. 5. Great Britain officially announces state of war with Turkey. Army of 90,000 Turks massed on Caucasian border. Germans continue retreat from the Vistula. Russians capture Jaroslau, Galicia. Great Britain formally annexes the island of Cyprus. Beyers and Maritz rebellions in South Africa crushed. Servia severs diplomatic relations with Turkey. Nov. 6. Berlin reports that 25,000 Turks invade Egypt. 622 Supplement Germans lighten pressure along the Yser, the Allies' lines holding firm. Nov. 7. Japanese capture Kiaochau. Russians attack Sierradz on the Warthe, the last fortified German position in Russian Poland. Germany reports she holds 433,247 prisoners of war. Germans concentrate efforts on the Ypres- Arras line. Nov. 8. Russians penetrate into Prussia along the left bank of the Vistula. Nov. 9. Russians bombard Turkish ports on Black Sea. Nov. 10. German cruiser Emden driven ashore and burned by Aus- tralian cruiser Sydney ; 230 casualties. Berlin claims Russian defeat on East Prussian border. Nov. 11. Germans capture Dixmude. Russians press on toward Cracow. British gunboat Niger torpedoed in the Downs off Deal. Nov. 13. Germans unable to move Allies from Ypres, key to coast campaign. British casualties announced as 57,000 up to Oct. 31. Nov. 14. Russians advance on Cracow. Lord Roberts dies in France of pneumonia. Nov. 16. Premier Asquith asks $1,125,000,000 more for the con- tinuance of the war ; alsO one million more men. Snow and inundations cause deadlock in Flanders fighting. Japanese troops enter Tsingtau. Nov. 17. Germans fall back in East Prussia along whole front be- tween Angeburg and Gumbinnen ; advance between Warthe and Vistula. German auxiliary cruiser Berlin interned at Trondhjem. Nov. 18. Flanders flooded from seacoast almost to Ypres, restrict- ing the fighting to an artillery engagement. Russians take fortified position in East Prussia ; battle in Poland continues. British naval losses given out as 6013. German fleet bombards Libau. Nov. 19. Cruiser Goeben reported damaged in engagement with Russians in Black Sea. Battle in Poland assumes greater proportions ; no advantage for either side. Nov. 20. German invasion of Poland on the Warthe-Vistula line checked. Arabs advance on the Suez Canal. Von Buelow made German ambassador to Rome. Nov. 21. Russian reinforcements from the East reach point before Lodz. Austria crosses Kolubara River in Servia. Russians continue advance through Galieia toward Cracow. British aviators drop bombs on Zeppelin sheds at Friedrichs- hafen. Nov. 22. Russians capture Gumbinnen in East Prussia. Austria orders all civilians out of Cracow. TJie War of 19 U 623 Servia in retreat. Nov. 23. Germans forced to retreat on Warthe- Vistula line in Po- land ; German forces in precarious position. Nov. 24. Russians check German advance south of the Warthe. British warships bombard Zeebrugge. Nov. 25. Germans attempt to relieve forces in western Poland by movement south from East Prussia. Britain asks the United States to warn South American countries that they must observe neutrality. Nov. 26. Two German army corps surrounded by Russians in vicinity of Lodz. British battleship Bulwark blown up off Sheemess; 750 lives lost. Nov. 27. Germans lose 33,000 men at Lodz, Poland. Nov. 28. New York Stock Exchange opens for restricted trading in bonds. Germans on the defensive in Belgium. Russians move towards the Carpathian passes. Nov. 29. Russians begin the bombardment of Cracow. Nov. 30. General French reports that western battle is in its last stages. Dec. 1. Rebel general Christian De Wet captured. Germans cut their way out of the enveloping Russian lines in Russian Poland. Dec. 2. Austrians capture Belgrade^ Servia. Dec. 3. German Reichstag votes $1,250,000,000. Dec. 4. Allies take the oflrensive in portions of Flanders. Dec. 6. Germans report capture of Lodz in Russian Poland. Dec. 7. Servians break up Austrian army of invasion, inflicting con- siderable losses. Dec. 8. German cruisers Leipzig, Scharnhorst, Gneisenau, and Niirn- berg sunk by British fleet off Falkland Islands. Russia checks advance of Germans in northern Poland; fighting continues in the vicinity of Cracow. Dec. 11. South African rebellion virtually ended. Turkish fleet bombards Batoum. Dec. 12. Allies drive Germans from the Yser and occupy the west bank of the canal. Dec. 13. British submarine enters Dardanelles, dives under five rows of mines, and torpedoes Turkish battleship Messudieh. Dec. 14. Servians reoccupy Belgrade. Dec. 15. Austrians cross passes of the Carpathians into Galicia. Dec. 16. German cruisers raid British seacoast towns of Scar- borough, Hartlepool, and Whitby, killing ninety-nine persons. Germans drive wedge in Russian lines thirty miles from Warsaw. De3. 17. Germans claim decisive victory in Russian Poland. Dec. 18. British protectorate proclaimed throughout Egypt. Dec. 19. German casualty list shows losses of 30,000 men along the Yser. Allies bombard Dardanelles forts. 624 Supplement Scandinavian kings agree to pool interests during the war. Dec. 20. Russians check German advance along the Hue of the Bzura River. Dec. 21. Russians mass troops before Warsaw. Dec. 22. General Joffre retires twenty-four French generals. Dec. 23. Germans repulsed in attempt to cross Bzura and Ravka rivers. Dec. 24. Near St. Hubert Anglo-Indian troops lose 3000 killed and 837 taken prisoners by Germans. Dec. 25. Seven British seaplanes attack German naval base of Cu3>- haven. Dec. 26. Russians claim victory at Krosno in Galicia and capture of 10,000 Austrians. Dec. 27. Germans regain Mlawa in northern Poland. Dec. 29. President Wilson protests against detention of American ships in search for contraband. Dec. 31. French attack village of Steinbach, Alsace. 1915 Jan. 1. British battleship Formidable sunk in the English Channel; 500 lost. Jan. 2. Russians invade Hungary at four points. Germany declares all exequaturs in Belgium invalid. Jan. 4. French capture heights west of Sennheim and village of Steinbach, Alsace. Jan. 6. Russians defeat Turks at Sarikamysh, annihilating one whole army corps. Austria reports taking heights south of Gorlice after fierce struggle with Russians. Jan. 8. Britain replies to American note on detention of neutral French Alpine troops on skis drive Germans back five miles on Alsatian frontier. Jan. 9. Germans make fourth great effort to take Warsaw. British reply to American note on detention of shipping " friendly," but gives way on no important issue. Germans recapture Steinbach. Jan. 12. French take offensive between the Meuse and the Moselle, gaining half a mile. Jan. 15. North bank of the Aisne, northeast of Soissons, cleared of French troops with the capture of six villages and heavy French losses. Jan. 16. British take Swakopmund, German West Africa. Jan. 18. French take several German field works northwest of Pont- a-Mousson. German aircraft bombard Sandringham and other Norfolk towns, Jan. 20. A gain of 500 yards in the Argonne reported by the Getw man War Office. The War of 1914 625 Jan. 21. Germans retake positions lost to the French iu the St. Mihiel region. Krupp works at Essen bombarded by aeroplanes of Allies. Jan. 24. German armored cruiser Bluecher sunk iu the North Sea by British squadron in running fight with German fleet. British defeat 1200 Boer rebels at Uppington, Bechuana^ land, South Africa. Jan. 26. Germany orders all grain to be confiscated Feb. 1. Jan. 28. Berlin official report says Germans gained two victories iu Craonne region and in Alsace, 1500 French being killed. Jan. 30. Russians have reoccupied Tabriz, Persia, inflicting heavy losses upon the Turks. Feb. 2. Great Britain places all food on contraband list. Feb. 4. Lieut.-Col. Kemp and his commando of Boer rebels sur- render to British. Germany proclaims the waters around Great Britain, in- cluding the whole English Channel, a war zone after Feb. 18. Three assassins concerned in murder of A rchduke Ferdinand are executed. Feb. 5. German attack with 100,000 men and 100 batteries of artil- lery to break through Russian lines at Borjimow fails, and Austrians admit loss of Tarnow (Galicia). Feb. 8. Russians break Austrian defence at Mezo Laborez, south- ern Carpathian coast, inflicting heavy losses. Feb. 10. Austrians claim to have defeated Russians near Volvolec in the Carpathians. Russians abandon Czernowitz, capital of Bukowina. Feb. 11. United States warns Great Britain and Germany not to abuse flag nor to attack American ships. Allies capture hill at Notre Dame de Lorette, and Britisn make gain at La Bass^e. Feb. 12. Germans force retirement of Russians in Lotzen district into their own territory. Feb. 14. Austrian fleet bombards Antivari, Montenegro. Feb. 15. Germans drive Russians out of Pitkupoenen, East Prussia. Feb. 16. United States protests against German threatened " block- ade " of British Isles. Holland, Italy, and other neutral countries also protest. Forty British and French aeroplanes raid Ostend and other Belgian towns. Feb. 18. Germans begin submarine " blockade " by sinking British collier without warning. Russia officially admits capture by Germans of Nadworna and gains in Northern Poland. Feb. 19. Germany rejects American protest against threatened sinking of neutral shipping in "war zone" around Great Britain. Feb. 20. Allied fleets bombard Turkish forts in the Dardanelles. Russians withdraw from Augustowo, but hold strongly Id the Carpathians. American steamship Evelyn sunk by mine. 626 Supplement Feb. 24. American steamer Carib sunk by mine in the North Sea. Turks defeated by Russians in vicinity of Tchoruk. Germans add Orkney and Shetland Islands to war zone. Feb. 27. Allies destroy Fort Intepe in the Dardanelles. South African Union forces, under General Botha, invade German West Africa. Mar. 1. Great Britain declares virtual blockade of German coast. Germans admit defeat by Russians at Przasnysz. Mar. 2. Russians take Khopa, Turkish port on the Black Sea. Mar. 3. Berlin admits German troops w^ere forced by Russians to withdraw near Kysziniec. Germans use liquid fire in Vosges battle. Mar. 4. Official German reply received at Washington to Ameri- can protest against " war zone." Mar. 5. Antivari again bombarded by Austrian warships. Mar. 6. Greek premier Venizelos resigns. Mar, 8. Great Britain bars cotton from Germany. Mar. 10. Prinz Eitel Friedrichy German auxiliary cruiser, puts into Newport News and announces sinking of American ship William P. Frye. British capture Neuve Chapelle. Mar. 11. British troops capture mile and a half of German trenches in French Flanders and advance on Aubers. Mar. 13. Allied fleet resumes attack on the Dardanelles. Mar. 14. German cruiser Dresden sunk in the Pacific. Mar. 15. British council order prohibits all traffic to and from Ger- many. German submarine U-29 torpedoes five British and French steamers in three days, two being lost. Mar. 17. Russia reports capture of German position at Yednorozec, East Prussian frontier. Mar. 18. Russians take Black Sea port, Archawa. British battleships Irresistible and Ocean and French battle- ship Bouvet sunk in the Dardanelles. Mar. 20. Berlin admits Memel, Prussian fort on the Baltic, is occu- pied by Russians. Mar. 21. Zeppelins bombard Paris. Mar. 22. Przemysl, Austrian fortress in Galicia, surrenders after al- most continuous siege by Russians since Sept. 21. Mar. 23. Germans recapture Memel. Mar. 25. Russia begins terrific battle in the Carpathians, capturing heights at Lupkow Pass and 5700 Austrian prisoners. U-29 reported sunk with all of crew. Turks massacre American missionaries and other Christians in Persia, 20,000 being reported killed. Mar. 26. British airmen bombard Zeebrugge and Hoboken, near Antwerp, destroying two German submarines, naval construc- tion works, and killing 43 workmen. Mar. 27. French capture Heights of Hartmanns-Weilerkopf. Mar. 28. Germans torpedo British steamer Falaba off South Wales, 112 passengers being lost. The War of 1914 627 Germans Btorm Tauroggen, northeast of Tilsit, Kussian border. Mar. 30. Russians capture Artwin, Caucasus, throwing Turks back to the south. American note protesting blockade reaches London. Mar. 31. Germans abandon siege of Ossovvitz, Russian Poland. [Apr. 2. German African stronghold, Aus, captured by Britisii forces. Russians make important gain at Bartfeld, Hungary, and capture 2000 Austrians. Apr. 5. United States demands reparation from Germany for sink- ing of the William P. Frye. f Apr. 7. German cruiser Prinz Eitel Friedrich interns. Apr. 8. Russians capture Smolnik, east of Lupkow Pass, and cut Austrian line in two. Apr. 9. French capture Les Eparges, dominating the plains of Woevre. Germany agrees to compensate owners for sinking of the William P. Frye. Apr. 11. German auxiliary cruiser Kronprinz Wilhelm arrives at Newport News. Apr. 12. German ambassador, in note to State Department, calls upon American people to stop export of arms to Allies. Apr. 18. British capture German trenches near Zwartalenn, Bel- gium, while French make advance in southern Vosges, gain- ing possession of Burgkorpfeld. Apr. 19. British capture Hill 60, important strategic position south- east of Ypres. Apr. 20. British forces capture Keetmanshop, German Southwest Africa. Apr. 21. American reply to Von Bernstorff's proposed embargo of arms sent to Berlin. Apr. 22. French driven out of trenches north of Ypres, but gain 700 yards near St. Mihiel. Apr. 23. British blockade of German West Africa officially de- clared. Apr. 24. Germans capture Lizerne, west of the Yser Canal. Apr. 26. Allies land armies at the Dardanelles. French cruiser Leon Gambetta torpedoed, and 552 lost, in- cluding Admiral Senes. Kronprinz Wilhelm interns. Apr. 27. Belgians force Germans out of Lizerne. Allies recover positions lost to the Germans in Ypres region. British admit loss of St. Julien. French regain Hartmanns-Weilerkopf, Alsace. Germans use poisonous gas in driving French out of trenches. Apr. 28. Allies advance up Gallipoli, landing armies, occupying several fortified positions. Apr. 29. Turks reported to have resumed massacre of Armenians in Lake Van district. Apr. 30. Germans report important successes in Poland. Germans shell Dunkirk. 628 Supplement American tanker GulfligJit is torpedoed. May 2. Russians in West Galicia lose 30,000 prisoners. French evacuate Kum Kaleh, Dardanelles, after facilitating landing of British troops on European side of Gallipoli penin- sula. British occupy Maidos, near the Narrows, and Ephesuf, Smyrna. British troops in German West Africa capture Otymbingue>. May 4. Turks, after two days' fighting, severely defeated by Rus- sians in Khori-Dalmon region, Caucasus, 3500 dead being found on battlefield. May 6. Constantinople bombarded by Russian aviators, while war- ships shell the suburbs. General Botha with British forces occupies important rail- road junction of Karibib, German West Africa. May 7. British liner Lusitania sunk by German submarine off Kin- sale, Ireland, 1396 persons, including about 100 Americans, being lost. May 8. Germans annoimce capture of Libau, Russian Baltic port. May 10. Russia admits withdrawing for thirty miles in West Ga- licia before German and Austrian forces. May 11. French troops capture more ground between Carency and Souchez, more than 2000 Germans being taken prisoners. May 12. British Commission issues report on German atrocities in Belgium. British battleship Goliath torpedoed and sunk by Turks in Dardanelles, more than 500 lives being lost. British subma- rine penetrates the Straits and sinks three Turkish ships. Russians oust German troops from Shavli, Baltic province, Russia. General Botha captures Windhoek, capital of German South- west Africa. May 13. President Wilson sends stern note to Germany demanding reparation for loss of American lives on the Lusitania and in- sisting that submarine attacks on merchant vessels carrying non-combatants stop at once. May 16. British break German lines, making notable progress north of La Bassee. May 18. Russians admit that Germans and Austrians have crossed the San. May 21. Great battle rages in Western Galicia. Germans making progress against the Russian centre, but both wings of the Teuton army are thrown back. Australians and New Zealanders repulse Turkish attacks on Gallipoli peninsula, casualties numbering 7000, while Brit- ish lose 500. May 22. Italy declares -w^ar on Austria. May 24. Italians invade Austria. May 25. British battleship Triumph sunk by Turks in Dardanelles; Turkish gunboat also destroyed. May 26. Italy declares blockade of Austria. TheWaroflOU 629 Great Britain forms coalition cabinet. May 28. Great Britain loses battlesliip Majestic in Dardanelles. Russians capture Uruniiah, Persia, thus relieving the Ar- menians and other Christians hard pressed by Turks and Kurds. May 30. Russia checks German offensive in Central Galicia ; fur- ther gains reported by the French, German position east of the Yser Canal being captured. May 31. German reply to American note on the Lusitania seeks de- lay by asking for information about status of Cunarder, alleg- ing ship was armed, carried ammunition and Canadian reserv- ists. German positions captured in " The Labyrinth," southeast of Neuville St. Vaast, organized by French. British army casualties since the beginning of the war an- nounced as 50,342 killed, 153,980 wounded, 53,747 missing. June 3. Austro-German forces recapture Przemysl. San Marino republic aligns herself with Italy. British advance in Mesopotamia, thirty-three miles north of Kurna. June 4. Allies advance 500 yards along three-mile front at the Dardanelles, capturing two Turkish trenches after heavy fighting. British occupy Amara, Asiatic Turkey, capturing more than 2000 in campaign on the Tigris. June 5. Naval engagement in the Baltic between Russians and Ger- mans. June 6. French gain in heavy fighting north of Arras. Investment of Neuville continues. Austro-German s continue battle east of Przemysl, driving Russians toward Wysznia. northeast of Mosciska. June 8. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resigns. June 10. Italians capture Monfalcone, sixteen miles from Trieste, and connected by railroad. President Wilson sends another note to Germany demand- ing reparation for Lusitania victims and pledge not to repeat attacks on merchantmen without observing international rules. June 11. Servian troops invade Albania, occupying Elbassan and pushing on in the direction of Durazzo on the Adriatic coast. The French continue to drive the Germans back at the ■ "Labyrinth," and capture several more German side trenches on the road from Arras to Lille. Russians defeat the Austro-German forces that had crossed the Dniester River east of Stry, taking 6700 prisoners, seven- teen cannon, and fortjwiine machine guns. Garua, important German station on the Bemie River, Ger- man West Africa, surrenders to Anglo-French force. June 13. French capture by assault powerfully fortified ridge near Souchez sugar refinery north of Arras, and maintain it despite intense German bombardment. 630 Supplement Italians capture Monte Zngna in the Trentlno, four miles northeast of Ala and within sight of Trent. In week's battle Russians finally drive Austro-German forces back over the Dniester with great losses, many thousands of prisoners and much booty being captured. June 14. French suffer severe defeat on front between Li^vin and Arras, on both sides of Lorette Hills and on Neuville-Rochin- court front, Berlin reports. General von Mackensen attacks over 43-mile front, captur- ing Russian positions from Czerniawa, northwest of Mosciska, to Lienawa, and taking 16,600 prisoners, Berlin asserts. From Tonale to Carnia all the Austrian attempts against positions captured by Italians repulsed; Valeutina, in Carnia section, occupied by Italians. French repulse German attacks north of Arras, near Souchez, and make advance of 150 meters to the rght of these positions and progress in the " Labyrinth." In Lorraine French carry lines forward in region of Embeiv menil and forest of Parroy. June 15. Twenty-three French aeroplanes drop 285 bombs into Karlsruhe, capital of the Grand Duchy of Baden, starting a number of fires and causing a panic at the railway station. Mosciska, on the Przemysl-Lemberg railroad, captured by the Austro-German troops under General von der MarwitZy Berlin reports. German troops storm Dankaze, east of Shavli, Baltic prov- inces, taking 1660 Russian prisoners. The whole of the German first-line trenches on a 1000-yard front north of Hooge, east of Ypres, and parts of the second line captured by the British. North of Arras the French forces gain in the " Labyrinth," taking 300 German prisoners and several machine guns. French troops win an important victory on both banks of the upper Fecht in the Vosges, capturing 340 prisoners and much war material, including 500,000 cartridges. Russian troops, hotly pursued by Austro-German forces, continue their flight from Galicia, retreating across Newkow, Lubaczow, and Javorow, Vienna reports. South of the Lemberg Railway in Galicia the Austro-Ger- man force stormed the Russian positions on the entire front, driving the Russians across Sadowa, Wisznia, and Rudki. June 17. French carry several lines of German trenches north of I Arras, making marked progress toward Souchez; also capture cemetery of Souchez and gain ground on slopes southeast of I Souchez (Hill 119). Russians abandon positions north of Sieniava on the San, in Galicia, and retreat toward Tarnogrod, Russian Poland. Germans occupy several villages in Shavli district and in : region east of Mariopol. June 18. Austro-German troops occupy the Russian town of Tarno- grod. The War of 1914. 631 In Alsace tbe French continue their advance on both banks of the Fecht. The British make slight advances east of Festubert, inflict- ing heavy losses on the Germans. East of Ypres the British repulse all German counter- attacks to retake the first line trenches, but lose some of the second line previously captured. Advancing Austro-Germun troops in Galicia drive the Rus- sians back as far as prepared positions at Grodek. June 20. North of Arras, following the capture of Fond du Buval, the French troops advance about two-thirds of a mile in the direction of Souchez. An attempt of the Austro-Germans to cut their way through the Grodek Lakes, southwest of Lemberg, repulsed by the Russians. German troops, following up the capture of Grodek, drive Russians back on a twenty-four-mile front north of Sanow, Berlin reports. June 21. Austro-Germans capture Rawa Ruska, thirty-two miles northwest of Lemberg, driving Russians back. French penetrate German position in Meuse Hills west of Les Eparges. Germans withdraw east of Luneville. In the Vosges Germans evacuate Metzeral. Gen. De Wet found guilty of treason. June 22. Austro-German forces occupy Lemberg, Russian army having abandoned Galician capital. June 23. Germans capture village of Kopaczyska, south of the Vis- tula, in Poland. General von Linsingen's army crosses the Dniester between Halicz and Zurawno, engages in fierce battle on northern bank. June 25. Along the Isonzo the Italians continue their advance. Near Martinow, the Germans, under General von Linsingen, are forced back across the Dniester by a Russian counter- attack, losing 1700 prisoners. June 26. Italian troops occupy the summit of Zellenkofel, west of Monte Croce, in the Carniola section of the Austrian frontier. German troops capture the hill on the northern bank of the Dniester River, between Bukaszowyo, northwest of Halicz, and Chodorow. Hanoverian troops take Russian positions north of Rawa Ruska. Halicz, in Galicia, on the Dniester, captured by Austro- Germans. June 29. The Russians are defeated along the entire front between Halicz and Firjelow, in Galicia, by the Austro-Germans, who drove the Russians across the GnilaLipa River, Berlin asserts. German troops reach Kamionka, twenty-five miles north- east of Lemberg. By the defeat of a Russian force at Tomaszow, the German forces hitherto operating in Galicia have crossed the Russian frontier and are advancing northward in Poland. 632 Supplement Montenegrin troops seize Scutari, in northern Albania. British drive Turks out of trenches for half a mile at Krithiii, Gallipoli Peumsula. Dominion liner Armenian sunk by Germans, 11 Americans being lost. Allies make important advances at Gallipoli, taking two lines of trenches east and three west of Saghir Dere. June 30. British troops capture Turkish redoubt known as the Quad- rilateral, with heavy losses. July 2. Russians win Baltic naval battle with German fleet in at- tack on Windau. July 4. Austro-Germans under Archduke Joseph Ferdinand break through Russian line at Krasnik. July 5. Germans retake lines along front on two-thirds of mile in Le Pretre Forest. Russians check Teutonic advance toward Warsaw by defeat- ing Austro-German army near Krasnik. Desperate Turkish attack on Allied positions at the Darda- nelles driven back by British and French, with heavy losses. July 7. Austrians again defeated north of Krasnik in southern Po- land, and fall back. French take German trenches on two-fifths of a mile front in renewal of battle at Souchez. Italian armored cruiser Amalfi sunk by Austrian submarine. United States declines to negotiate informally with Ger- many on Berlin's expected reply to submarine note. July 8. Sayville, N. Y., wireless plant, German-owned, taken under control by the Navy Department. After a bombing duel lasting two days and two nights, the Germans are driven back along the canal north of Ypres by the British and French, the German losses being reported by Sir John French as extremely heavy. German Southwest Africa surrendered to British forces under General Botha after a five months' campaign. A French attack north of the sugar refinery at Souchez, in the Arras region, is repulsed by the Germans. East of Ailly, in the St. Mihiel region, the Germans cap- ture by storm several lines of French trenches. French attack on Hill 31, near Ban-de-Sapt, in the Vosges on the Alsatian frontier, forces the Germans to evacuate the trenches. July 10. Germans evacuate all the trenches taken from the Rus- sians on the left bank of the Vistiila near Goumine. Near Lublin, southeast of Warsaw, desperate German counter-attacks on Bystritza are repulsed by the Russian re- serves. Austro-German attacks are repulsed by the Russians be- tween the Vieprz and Western Bug rivers near Mieniany. French attacks are repulsed by the Germans north of Souchez, south of Albert and on both sides of the St. Mihiel wedge. The War of 19U 633 July 12. German cruiser Konigsberg destroyed by British on east coast of Africa. July 14. City of Frzasnysz in northern Poland captured, Russian lines near Suwalki stormed and 2400 prisoners taken, Berlin reports. Germans regain foothold in Beaurain Woods in the Argonne, which the French took July 13. July 15. Russia reports German attacks in every section from Baltic Sea to Bessarabiau frontier; admits Teuton gains in northern drive on Warsaw. French recapture Hill 285 in the Argonne, west of Ver- dun. Italians heavily bombard Austrians in coast district and in Carinthia; Italian assault in the Dolomites repelled. British and French capture large town in central Kamerun. July 19. Italians gain five miles in Cadore and lesser amounts in Carnia and the Isonzo. Germans capture Windau and Radom and several smaller positions about Warsaw. July 20. Russians check the Teuton advance from the northward of Warsaw. Italians report that they have pierced the Austrian front of the Isonzo in three places. July 21. Germans force Russians back toward Warsaw from south of the Vistula, Berlin reports. Austrian troops now closely investing Ivangorod fortress, fifty-six miles southwest from Warsaw. Turkish redoubt and line of trenches at the Dardanelles surrender to British. July 24. French capture powerfully defended German position at Ban-de-Sapt, together with 825 prisoners. July 25. Germans push Russians still farther back north of Wojsla- wice and south of Chelm, on the River Bug. British take town of Nasiriyeh, on the Euphrates, after shelling by gunboat. German artillery attacks, fail to regain lost positions in the Vosges. Italians repulse Austrian attacks at Somdogna Pass in Car- nia, and in Monte Nero region. North of River Niemen, army under General von Buelow reaches district of Poswal-Ponicwitz. Austrians gain important strategic position south of Sokal, in northern Galicia, on eastern bank of the Bug. July 26. Russians check German attempt to take Warsaw by re- pulsing assaults against advanced forts of Ivangorod and by driving back Germans who had crossed the Narew River. Strongly organized position of Germans in Alsac at alti- tude of 650 feet, dominating French advanced trenches cap- tured by the French. July 28. German forces are stopped west and south of Mitau. At Lingekopf and Barrenkopf 600 German dead, 200 rifles, 634 Supplement two machine guns and a large quantity of munitions and equipment were found by the French. In Asiatic Turkey, the British have driven the Turks back twenty-five miles, capturing a large amount of war equipment. Turkish loss was 2500 men and British loss 564. Northeast of Suwalki (Warsaw section) Germans occupy a portion of the Russian position, capturing 2910 prisoners and two machine guns. July 30. Germans who crossed the Vistula, north of Ivangorod, re- pulse heavy Russian attacks, and capture heights near Podza- moze, with more than 10,000 prisoners. Germans eject Russians from positions southwest and south of Chelm and southwest of Dubienka. Russians retreat on both banks of the Bug. July 31. Germans capture Mitau, capital of the Russian province of Courlaud, Berlin reports. Austrians occupy Lublin. Aug. 4. British reply to American protest against blockade received. It upholds the blockade as strictly within international law, but is willing to submit disputed cases of seizure to arbitra- tion. Germans assail Warsaw's outer forts, after driving Rus- sians out of Bloni, fifteen miles west of the city. Russians defeated near Ostrolenka, and German force crosses the Narew River, German note on the Frye insists sinking of ship was legal and accepts commission plan to name damages. Aug. 5. Germans capture Warsaw. Most of Russian army escapes. Germans defeated before Riga. Aug. 8. British take 1200 yards of German trenches at Hooge. Germans capture Praga and junction of railways across the Vistula from Warsaw. Italians report capture of Austrian positions in the Carnian front and the Carso Plateau. Aug. 10. Allies make new landing at Gallipoli and treble gains east of Krithia. Turkish army of 90,000 defeated and driven back into Ar- menia by the Russians. Russians stop desperate Teuton assaults north of Chelm. Von Mackensen gains in the south and Russians fall back to the northeast, says German report. Allies invade Turkey, landing at Karachal, Thrace, north of Gulf of Saros. Aug. 14. British transport Royal Edward sunk by German sub- marine in ^gean Sea, nearly 1000 troops and crew being re- ported lost. Aug. 18. Fortress of Kovno captured by Germans and over 400 cannon and much war material taken. British report another advance against the Turks, a gain of 600 yards being made at one point. Russians gain naval victory in the Gulf of Riga. TheWaroflOU 635 Aug. 19. White Star liner Arabic torpedoed and sunk by German submarine ; 20 lives lost. Russian fortress of Novogeorgievsk captured with 20,000 men and 700 cannon. Aug. 21. Venizelos. again becomes premier of Greece. Italy declares that state of war exists -with Turkey. Aug. 25. Russian troops occupy Konarzy Momitains, Caucasus, after hard fighting. Aug. 26. Germans occupy Brest-Litovsk, important Russian fort- ress. Sept. 1. Germany agrees to sink no more liners without warning. Von Bernstorff notifies State Department. British make important tactical gain at Buyok-Anafarta region on the Gallipoli. Sept. 2. Austrians occupy Grodno. Sept. 8. Czar takes over supreme command of Russian armies from Grand Duke Nicholas, who is transferred to command in the Caucasus. Sept. 10. Recall of Dr. Dumba, Austrian Ambassador, demanded by President Wilson. Sept. 19. Vilna occupied by the Germans. Sept. 22. Bulgaria orders mobilization of her army, for the preser- vation of armed neutrality. Still driving the Austrians back in the Volhynian region, the Russians capture Sapanof and Dunaeff, taking a large number of prisoners. Southwest of Dvinsk the Germans penetrate nearly two miles into the Russian positions, taking 2000 prisoners. Ostrow, south of the Volhynian triangle, is captured by the Germans after house-to-house fighting. Sept. 24. Greece orders mobilization of her land and sea forces as a reply to Bulgaria's war movements. At Wilejka German forces are defeated by Russians and several cannon teams captured. Northwest of Dubur the Russians occupy Woinitsy, tak- ing 28 officers, 1400 men, and 3 machine guns. Sept. 25. Long-expected drive by Allies is begun in West. Ger- man trenches captured at Hooge, Vermelles, Loos, Souchez, Perthes, in general offensive from North Sea to Verdun ; 20,000 imwounded prisoners taken. Sept. 28. British push on toward Lens. Sept. 29. French continue advances on the slopes of the Tahure hill, and north of Massiges, in Champagne. British defeat Turks on the River Tigris in Mesopotamia. German attacks southwest of Dvinsk, Russia, have advanced as far as the region of Lake Swenton. Sept. 30. French report further gains in Champagne and capture important defensive south of Ripont. Germans lose Hill 191, north of Massiges. Oct. 4. Loan of $500,000,000 to French and British governments completed. 636 Supplement Time limit expires on Allies' ultimatum to Bulgaria. Oct. 5. Germany disavows sinking of White Star liner Arabic and offers to pay indemnity. United States notifies Turks Armenian massacres must cease, it being estimated 800,000 have already perished. Oct. 6. French and British troops landed at Saloniki, Greece. Greek king dismisses Premier Venizelos. Forms coalition cabinet. Oct. 7. Austro-German invasion of Servia begins, crossings being made over the Drina, the Save, and the Danube. Oct. 8. Russians gain in the south, taking more than 3000 prisoners in Volhynia and East Galicia. Oct. 9. Germans occupy Belgrade. Oct. 10. Bulgarians invade Servia. Germans capture Semendria and push Servians south. Oct. 13. Greek Government, replying to Servia, says their alliance does not hold. Russians pierce Austrian line in Galicia and drive Hinden- hurg back from Dvinsk. Oct. 14. British army recaptures HohenzoUern redoubt and two other trenches near La Bassde. Bulgaria oflRcially declares war on Servia. Oct. 15. Great Britain declares war on Bulgaria. Bulgarians attack Servia throughout the frontier and cap- ture heights. Servian capital removed to Metrovitza. British gain further ground at HohenzoUern redoubt and repel German assaults east of Vermelles. Germans recapture trenches east of Auberive in Champagne and the summit of Hartmanns-Weilerkopf. Russians drive Germans out of fortified line before Dvinsk. Get. 16. Italians storm Pregasina, important Riva defence in Tren- tino. Serbo-Anglo-French forces attack Strumitsa in Bulgaria. France declares war on Bulgaria. Oct. 18. Allies land at Enos, in Bulgaria, near Dedeaghatch, and capture Strumitsa, near Servian border. Oct. 19. Manifesto by Czar announces Russia draws her sword against Bulgaria. Italy declares war against Bulgaria, and an Italian fleet sails for the -^gean. Anglo-French army advances into Servia by forced marches. Bulgarians capture Vranya, on Saloniki-Nish Railway; Aus- trians take Obrenovatz. Oct. 20. England has offered Cyprus to Greece on condition the Greeks join the Allies, it is announced. Oct. 21. Germany admits a defeat at Czartorisk, on the Styr River in Russia, and loss of cannon. Russians defeat Germans at Baranovichi, near the Pripet, and capture 3500. Von Hindenburg secures long stretch of Dvina River bank in drive on Risa. The War of 1914 637 French stop German assaults on a five-mile front in Cham- pagne. French army crosses the River Vardar and threatens flank of Bulgarians who attack Servians. 3ct. 23. German cruiser Prinz Adalbert sunk by British submarine near Libau. 3ct. 28. French Cabinet reorganized yfith Aristide Briand as Prem- ier. Nov. 2. Russians compel Von Hindenburg to retreat in Dvinsk re- ■v ^^^"'■ N"ov. 5. Kitchener leaves London for the Near East. Nov. 6. Berlin reports capture of Nish by Bulgarians. Nov. 7. Small German cruiser Undine sunk by British submarine off the Swedish coast. Nov. 8. Lansing sends note to Great Britain declaring blockade illegal. Nov. 10. Italian steamer Ancona torpedoed and sunk by Austrian submarine. Nov. 11. French forces officially reported to hold two important heights between Strumitsa and Robova, Bulgaria, both com- manding the railroad. Nov. 12. British, French, and Russian ministers in Athens demand Greek premier announce attitude he would take if Allied troops were driven back into Greece. Nov. 16. Bulgarian forces capture Krusevo and advance east to within six miles of Prilip. Russians claim Germans retire west of Dvinsk, Lake Sven- ten district. Nov. 17. Bulgars reported to have captured Prilip. Nov. 22. Kitchener has interview with Greek king, outlining situation. Germans capture Novibazar, Servia, and claim capture of 80,000 prisoners in campaign. Nov. 25. British defeat Turks at Ctesipbon, near Bagdad. Nov. 26. Kitchener reaches Rome. Italians capture heights northeast of Gorizia. Nov. 30. Bulgaria declares campaign against Servians is closed. Dec. 1. British army approaching Bagdad is driven back by Turks and forced to retire to Kut-el-Amara. American Ambassador Penfield renews demand that Aus- tria explain torpedoing Italian steamer Ancona. Dec. 4. Greece grants Allies right to use Macedonia for military purposes. Henry Ford and peace party sail for Europe. Dec. 5. Bulgarians reported to have occupied Monastir, the last re- maining Servian city. Dec. 7. Anglo-French army in Balkans retires toward base at Sa- loniki, Greece. Dec. 9. Teutons clear Servia of all enemies; Anglo-French troops pushed back into Greece, Berlin claims. Dec. 16. Austria in reply to Ancona note evades issue; says respou- sibility lies with United States to show legal liability. 638 Supplement Dec. 17. Field-Marshal Sir John French succeeded by Gen. Sir Douglas Haig as commander of British forces in France and Flanders. Small German cruiser Bremen sunk by British submarine in the eastern Baltic. Dec. 19. British withdraw Anzac army, estimated at 100,000 men, from the Gallipoli. Still hold tip of peninsula. Dec. 21. French capture important position on Hartmanns-Weiler- kopf in the Vosges. Gen. de Wet released from prison. Dec. 23. Text of second American Ancona note demands full dis- avowal, but in milder tone than first note. German reply to latest American note on the Frye case fails to satisfy American demands. Japanese passenger steamship Yasaka Maru sunk by sub- marine in Mediterranean without warning. Dec. 25. Henry Ford, ill, leaves peace party to return home. Dec. 27. Bulgars withdraw four miles from Greek frontier between Gievgeli and Doiran. Indian army corps moved from British front in France to another sphere of action. Dec. 29. Russians capture important city of Kashan, Persia. Dec. 30. Allied troops make new landings at Kavala and Orfana, Greek coast. Russians make furious attacks on Austrian front in Galicia. Austrian note on Ancona yields in part, punishing subma- rine commander and admitting principle of safety of passen- gers. British passenger steamer Persia sunk without warning in the Mediterranean, American consul R. M. McNeely being drowned, with more than 200 others. Dec. 31. Semi-official reports give the total Italian losses as 134,- 500 : killed, 31,000 ; wounded, 94,000 ; missing, 5000 ; prison- ers, 4500. Newspaper figures make the Russian losses to date, 2,542,- 639. 1916 Jan. 2. Russians occupy heights near Czernowitz. Turks shell Kut-el-Aniara. Jan. 6. British Parliament by 4 to 1 votes in favor of compulsory military service bill ; Labor leaders resign ; Labor Congress overwhelmingly opposes the measure. Jan. 7. Von 5erns/or^ undertakes no merchantship shall be torpe- doed in Mediterranean till all aboard are safe. Full satisfac- tion in case of Persia to be given if circumstances require. Russians announce capture of cemetery at Czartorysk. Jan. 9. Battleship King Edward VII, a vessel of 16,350 tons, hit a( mine and sunk, but crew of over 700 men was saved. TheWaroflQU 639 Entire Gallipoli Peninsula evacuated by the Allies. Austro-Gernians finally driven from the eastern bank of the middle iStripa. German capture of adjoining hill compels French to with- draw from summit of Hirzstein, near Hartmanns-Weilerkopf. Total British casualties to date, as announced by Premier Asquith, 549,467: killed, 128,138; wounded, 353,283; missing, 68,046. (At the Dardanelles alone there were 28,200 killed, 78,095 wounded, and 11,254 missing.) Jan. 10. German ollensive in Champagne, participated in by three army divisions, is repulsed by the French. Austrians capture Lovcen on the western Montenegrin frontier, and Berane, in the interior of Montenegro. Jan. 12. French seize the island of Corfu. Jan. 14. Austrians take Cettinje, Montenegrin capital, securing 150 cannon, 10,000 rifles, and stores of ammunition. Russians conduct drive against Austrians in Bessarabia re- gion, terrible hand-to-hand fighting being reported. Jan. 16. Reenforced Russian columns begin new offensive against the Turks in the Caucasus, along a 100-mile front. The Turkish forces below Kut-el-Amara in Mesopotamia retreat before the British, having been defeated by General Aylmer's troops on the Tigris at Orah, 25 miles from Kut. British artillery bombards Lille, in northern France. Jan. 17. Montenegro obtains separate peace on terms of uncondi- tional surrender. Austrians driven out of recently captured positions at Osla- via by Italians. Jan. 18. Austria claims to have won the great battle with the Rus- sians in East Galicia and on the Bessarabian frontier, after 17 days of hot fighting. Despite desperate Austrian resistance, the Italians recap- ture all their lost trenches on the heights northwest of Gori- zia and reestablish their original lines. Jan. 19. Paris reports peace negotiations between Montenegro and Austria broken off. Russians begin a new offensive on the Bessarabian front, east of Czernowitz, making four separate attacks. Total German casualties to date, as shown by Berlin casu- alty lists, are said to be 2,535,768: killed, 588,986; wounded and missing, 1,566,549; prisoners, 356,153; deaths from other causes, 24,080. Jan. 20. Turks thrown from their positions in the Caucasus and compelled to retreat, with loss of guns, munitions, and pris- oners. Allied warships bombard the Bulgarian port of Dedeag- hatch, causing fires and much damage. Montenegrins resume hostilities against Austria, peace nego- tiations having fallen through. Jan. 21. Russians drive Turks to shelter in forts of Erzerum. Occupy Sultanabad in Persia. 640 Supplement United States' good offices secure release of consuls arrested in Saloniki. Allies announce discovery of two German submarine bases about Corfu. Jan. 23. Austro-Hungarian troops occupy the important town of Scutari, in northern Albania. Jan. 25. Germans destroy Nieuport Cathedral. A French socialist deputy sets the total French losses at 2,500,000: killed, 800,000; wounded, 1,400,000; missing and prisoners, 300,000. Jan. 28. Wilson asks all belligerents to agree to disarmament of merchant ships and to rules regulating submarine warfare. Feb. 1. British steamer Appam, supposed to have been lost, brought into Norfolk, Va., by German prize crew. England raided by Zeppelin fleet, 54 persons being killed, many injured. Feb. 4. Germans refuse to admit sinking of Lusitania was illegal. Feb. 9. Germans capture quarter-mile of French trenches northeast of Neuville. Feb. 14. All single men in Great Britain called to the colors. Germans capture third of a mile of British trenches near Ypres. Lusitania settlement held up pending consideration of effect of Germany's declared intention to sink armed merchantmen without warning. Feb. 16. Capture of Erzerum by Russians officially announced. Feb. 19. Complete conquest of the Kamerun announced by the Allies. The Kaiser begins new attempt to capture Verdun. Feb. 21. Germans capture 800 yards of French positions near Sou- chez, but lose most of them later. Feb. 23. Germans capture two miles of trenches in the Woevre dis- trict. Feb. 25. Germans take Fort Douaumont, Verdun, after terrific losses. Mar. 2. Russians capture Bitlis, Turkish Armenia. Mar. 4. French report that auxiliary cruiser Provence was sunk Feb. 26 in Mediterranean with nearly 4000 men aboard; loss of life probably 3000. Mar. 9. Germany declares -war on Portugal. Mar. 11. Russians capture Korind, 64 miles from Kermanshah, Persia. General Smuts, British commander, captures important positions in Kitovo hills, German East Africa. Mar. 15. Dutch steamer Tuhantia torpedoed or mined, presumably by Germans. Mar. 16. Admiral von Tirpitz, German naval head, retired on ac- count of " ill-health." French repulse five terrific attacks by Germans to capture Fort Vaux, Verdun. Mar. 20. Sixty-five Allied airmen raid Zeebrugge, Belgian coast, doing great damage. The War of 1914 641 Russians overpower Anstrians at Uscieczko, on the Dniester. Ispahan, old capital of Persia, taken by czar's troops. Mar. 22. Germans gain Haucourt Hill, west of the Mease. Mar. 23. Russians pierce German line at Jacobstadt. Mar. 24. British steamer Sussex torpedoed with Americans on board. Mar. 27. Wilson demands Germany explain attack on steamer Sus- sex. British capture German salient at St. Eloi over 600 yard front, and mile deep. Mar. 29. French counter-attacks carry German works in Avocourt wood, west of the Meuse. Mar. 31. Germans storm Malancourt, Verdun, capturing the village. Apr. 1. Zeppelin raid on England kills twenty-eight, injures forty- four. Germans take Vaux. Apr. 2. French regain most of Caillette wood, between Douaumont and Vaux, Verdun. Another Zeppelin raid on England kills sixteen and injures 100 persons. Apr. 4. Holland orders troops massed on Teuton border. New British budget $9,000,000,000; largest in world's his- tory. Apr. 6. Germans capture Haucourt village, Verdun. British rout Turks 20 miles below Kut. Kaiser ready for peace, says German Chancellor; blames Allies for continuing war. Apr. 8. Germany denies sinking British steamer Sussex. Apr. 10. German general offensive begins on 13-mile front, from Hill 304 to Fort Douaumont, Verdun. French evacuate Bethincourt salient. Apr. 14. Three British naval aeroplanes drop bombs on Constanti- nople, flying 300 miles, said to be the longest air journey in the war. Apr. 18, Russian army and fleet capture Trebizond, one of the strongest and most important ports on the Black Sea. Apr. 19. Russians storm heights of Ashkala, 30 miles west of Erzerum. Italians capture Col di Lani, a point of great strategic im- portance. North of Ypres the Germans carry 650 yards of British trenches. Apr. 20. Russian troops land at Marseilles. Apr. 24. British relief expedition makes an unsuccessful attempt to send a steamboat load of provisions into Kut-el-Amara. Apr. 25. Second detachment of Russian troops land at Marseilles. German battle cruiser squadron, submarines, and Zeppelins raid Lowestoft, about 100 miles northeast of London. Eight British aeroplanes destroy hostile camp at Quatia in Egypt. Apr. 26. Zeppelins raid English coast for third consecutive night. 642 Supplement Germans renew attack on Dead Man*s Hill and Hill 304, without much success. Apr. 28. Germans take 5600 Russian prisoners at Narocz Lake. British battleship Russell suuk by mine in the Mediterra- nean, with a loss of 125 lives. Apr. 29. Gen. Townshend surrenders Kut-el-Amara to the Turks after a siege of 143 days. Apr. 30. Russians repulse Turks near Diarbekr. May 2. Five Zeppelins raid British coast. May 5. Germans take trenches on Hill 304. May 8. Turks defeat Russians west of Mush, Armenia. Germans gain crest of Hill 304. May 11. Germans capture British trenches at Hulluch. May 15. Austrians advance in the Trentino. May 18. Germans take trenches on Hill 304. May 19. Austrians capture Col Santo, south of Rovereto. May 20. Germans repulsed on Dead Man's Hill. May 21. French regain Haudromont quarries, east of the Meuse. May 23. French take Fort Douaumont in furious attack. British lose 1500 yards of trenches near Vimy ridge. Seven French and six German aeroplanes destroyed in one day's fighting. May 25. Fort Douaumont retaken by Germans. May 26. Austrians continue advance in northwestern Italy. May 27. United States demands that illegal seizure of American mails by allies stop. May 31. Great naval battle in the North Sea off the west of Jutland, between British and Germans, with loss of at least 6 ships and 6 to 8 torpedo craft on each side. June 3. Allies take over administration of Salonica. June 4. Russian armies begin an offensive against the Austro-Hun- garian lines in Volliynia, Galicia, and Bukowina. June 5. British cruiser Hampshire sunk off the Orkney Islands ; Lord Kitchener drowned. June 6. Fort Vaux, Verdun, occupied by the Germans. June 13. British forces under Gen. Smuts take Wilhelmsthal, cap- ital of German East Africa. June 17. Russians enter Czernowitz, capital of Bukowina. June 22. The Greek government, under Za^7n^s, premier, accedes to the demands of the Entente and guarantees an attitude of benevolent neutrality. June 23. Germans take the Thiaumont Field Work at Verdun. June 25. Allies begin artillery preparation for the great Somme offensive. Russians in possession of the whole of Bukowina. June 29. The Irishman Sir Roger Casement convicted of high treason and sentenced to death for conspiring with Germany to detach the Irish from loyalty to the British Empire. June 30, French recapture Thiaumont Work. July 1. Allies begin infantry attack in the Battle of the Somme. July 4. Germans again capture Thiaumont Work. ' The War of 19 U 643 July 6. David Lloyd George appointed British Secretary of State for War. July 9. The German merchant submarine Deutschland arrives at Norfolk, Va., on her first trip. July 11. Germans at Verdun advance east of the Meuse. July 14. British pierce second German line north of the Somnie. July 26. Capt. Charles Fryatt, commander of a British merchant- man, sentenced to death in Germany for attempting to ram an attacking submarine in March. Aug. 3. Sir Roger Casement hanged in London. Aug. 4. French again retake Thiaumont at Verdun. Turkish attack on Suez Canal atRomaui decisively repulsed. Aug. 9. Italian forces cross Isonzo River and occupy Gorizia. Aug. 20. Allies under French general Sarrail launch an offensive at Salonica. Aug. 26. Gen. Smuts takes Mrogoro, seat of the German govern- ment in East Africa. Aug. 27. Italy declares war on Germany as from Aug. 28. Rumania declares war on Austria and invades Tran- sylvania. Aug. 28. Germany declares war on Rumania. A»g. 30. Turkey declares war on Rumania. The Austro-Hungarian forces retire before the Kumanians who seize the Carpathian passes into Hmigary. Sept. 1. Bulgaria declares war on Rumania. Sept. 3. Bulgarian and German troops invade the Dobrudja district of Rumania. Sept. 15. British break third German line north of the Somme. " Tanks " used for the first time in battle. Sept. 23. Air raid over London by 12 zeppelins. Sept. 24. Venizelos leaves Athens for Crete to head the Nationalist movement at Salonica. Sept. 25. Another airship raid on England. Sept. 28. A provisional government to aid the Allies is proclaimed in Greece. Oct. 8. A number of ships sunk by German submarine U-53 off the New England coast. Oct. 11. On demand of Great Britain and France the entire Greek fleet and all Greek seacoast forts are either dismantled or turned over to the Allies. Oct. 14. Italians take the enemy's second line on the Carso. Oct. 18. Germans attack Russia on a 300-mile front. Oct. 23. Bulfi^ariaus, Turks, and Germans take Constanza in Rumania. Oct. 25. The German general Von Mackensen occupies Cernavoda in Rumania. Nov. 2. Germans evacuate Fort Vaux, Verdun. Nov. 5. A new kingdom of Poland proclaimed by Germany. Nov. 7. Wondrmv Wilson reelected President of the United States. Cardinal Mercier, Primate of Belgium, issues a protest to the world against the German deportation of Belgians. 644 Supplement Nov. 13. New offensive successfully launched by British on both sides of the Aucre Brook at the northern end of the Somme battle-line. Nov. 19. Monastir captured by the Allies. Nov. 21. Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria-Hungary dies and is succeeded by his grand-nephew Charles. The British hospital ship Britannic, Great Britain's largest steamship, is sunk by a torpedo or mine off the Greek coast. Nov. 24. Machensen's army crosses the Danube at several points ; Rumanians in retreat. Nov. 25. The Greek provisional government under Venize- los declares war on Germany and Bulgaria. Nov. 29. The United States government makes a formal protest to Germany against the deportation of Belgians for forced labor. Dec. 5. Asquith resigns as British Prime Minister. Dec. 6. German Crown Prince renews the attack on Verdun. Bucharest captured by Germans, the Rumanian government having removed to Jassy. Dec. 7. David Lloyd George made British Prime Minister. Dec. 8. A Rumanian army surrenders to Von Mackensen. Dec. 12. The German government proposes peace negotiations. Gen. Robert-Georges Nivelle is chosen to command the French armies in France and Gen. Joffre is made president of the Allied Military Council. Dec. 15. The Russian Duma unanimously favors a refusal by the Allies to enter into peace negotiations. French successes at Verdun. Dec. 19. Lloyd George in the House of Commons replies to the German peace proposals, declaring peace without reparation on Germany's part impossible. Dec. 20. President Wilson makes public a note to all belligerent governments asking on what terms they will consider peace. Dec. 26. Germany and her allies reply to President Wilson''s note and propose a conference of belligerents to be held immedi- ately in a neutral country. Dec. 27. Joffre is created a Marshal of France. Dec. 29. The notorious monk Rasputin, who had acquired great in- fluence over the Russian Imperial family and court, is mur- dered. Dec. 30. The Entente Allies " refuse to consider a proposal which is empty and insincere." 1917 Jan. 2. Entente's reply rejecting peace proposals is forwarded to Berlin from Washington. Russian army driven entirely out of the Dobmdja. Jan. 8. Germans capture the fortress of Fokshani in Moldavia. Jan. 22. President Wilson in an address to the Senate outlines a progranmie for a permanent world peace^ a " peace without victory." The War of 1914 645 Jan. 25. British auxiliary cruiser Laurentic torpedoed with loss of 260 meu. Jau. 31. Germany declares unrestricted submarine -warfare iu zones surrounding the coasts of the Entente powers, to be- gin Feb 1. Feb. 3. The United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany. Feb. 4. President Wilson appeals to the neutral nations to take simi- lar action against Germany. Feb. 12. The United States declines to discuss differences with Germany so long as ruthless submarine warfare is going on. Mexico proposes that neutral nations stop the war by stop- ping trade with belligerents. Feb. 14. The German government reiterates its declaration of ruth- less submarine warfare. Feb. 24. Germans on the Ancre River retreat before British. British capture Kut-el-Amara in Mesopotamia. Feb. 25. Germans torpedo Cunard ship Laconia, committing an " overt act " against the United States. Feb. 26. President Wilson asks Congress for permission to arm merchant ships and to establish armed neutrality. Feb. 28. The United States government makes public a German plot to involve the United States in war with Mexico and Japan. Mar. 9. President Wilson signs the order for arming merchantmen and calls an extra session of Congress for April 16. Mar. 11. British take Bagdad. Mar. 12. American steamer Algonquin shelled and sunk off Penzance. The Russian Duma meets iu defiance of Czar's decree of dissolution. Mar. 13. China breaks with Germany. Mar. 15. The Czar abdicates and a new cabinet is formed in Russia. Mar. 17. British take Bapaume. Russians occupy Van in Armenia. Mar. 18. Foreign minister Milyukoff announces that the new regime in Russia will remain in the war against the Teutonic allies until the end. Mar. 21. President Wilson calls the extra session of Congress for Apr. 2 instead of Apr. 16. Mar. 22. United States formally recognizes the new government of Russia. Mar. 23. Russia sustains defeat on Rumanian front. Mar. 24. Gen. M. V. Alexeieff made commander-in-chief of Rus- sian armies. United States withdraws Minister Brand Whitlock from German Belgium. Mar. 25. President Wilson orders emergency increase of navy per- sonnel to maximum strength of 87,000 and calls out many units of the National Guard. Apr. 1. Steamer Aztec, first armed American merchantman to be torpedoed, is sunk near Brest. 646 Supplement Apr. 2. President Wilson reads war message to Congress and asks for an army of 500,000. Apr. 4. ^ United States Senate passes resolution declaring a state of war with Germany. Apr. 6. House passes and President Wilson signs resolution declaring a state of "war. Apr. 7. Cuba declares war against Germany. Apr. 8. Austria-Hungary severs diplomatic relations with United States. Apr. 9. Canadians open Battle of Arras and take Vimy Ridge. Apr. 11. Brazil breaks with Germany. Apr. 12. British pierce " Hindenburg line " at Arras. Apr. 13. Bolivia breaks with Germany. Apr. 14. United States House of Representatives passes bill author- izing a bond and note issue of 37,000,000,000, of which $3,000,000,000 is to be loaned to the Entente Allies. Apr. 16. Second Battle of the Aisne opened with French suc- cesses amounting to an average advance of 2 miles. Apr. 17. United States Senate passes the loan bill. Apr. 19. United States Navy takes over patrol of American coast. Germans admit abandonment of Hindenburg line. Apr. 20. Turkey severs diplomatic relations with United States. Apr. 21. British general Haig begins new offensive. Apr. 23. An Allied conference begins at Washington. Apr. 25. German destroyers bombard Dunkirk. Apr. 27. Guatemala breaks with Germany. May 3. New Greek cabinet formed with Zaimis as premier. May 4. American destroyer flotilla begins duty in submarine zone. British transport Transylvania torpedoed in Mediterranean with loss of 413. May 5. Allied war conference at Paris with Admiral Sims repre- senting United States. May 8. United States House of Representatives passes bill increas- ing Navy strength to 150,000 men and Marine Corps to 30,000. Liberia breaks with Germany. May 10. Russian Duma repudiates idea of a separate peace. May 15. United States Senate passes bill increasing strength of Navy and Marine Corps. Petain succeeds Nivelle in supreme command of the French armies. May 16. Both houses of the United States Congress pass a Selec- tive Draft bill, providing for the registration of men between the ages of 21 and 31 for military service. Coalition Russian government formed with Lvoff as pre- mier and Kerensky as war minister. May 17. Honduras breaks with Germany. May 18. President Wilson signs the Selective Draft bill. May 19. Russian Coalition Government repudiates a separate peace. Nicaragua breaks with Germany. United States Senate passes war appropriation bill of 83,- 342,300,000, the largest appropriation in United States history. The War of 19 U 647 President Wilson appoints Herbert C. Hoover Food Com- missioner. May 27. Italians reach third line of Austrian defense ; take San Giovanni and cross the Timavo. June 4. Gen. Brusiloff succeeds Alexeieff as commander-in-chief of the Russian armies. June 5. Nearly 10,000,000 men register in United States under Selective Draft law. French C liamber of Deputies declares that peace terms must include restoration of Alsace-Lorraine and reparation for damage done in occupied territory. June 8. Gen. John J. Penthing, commanding the American Expe- ditionary Force, arrives with his staff in London. An Ameri- can aviation force lands in France. June 12. Constantine, pro-German King of Greece, abdicates in favor of his second sou, Alexander, in response to demands of the Entente powers. June 13. The fourth air raid on London within three weeks ; 15 aeroplanes take part in the bombardment and 104 persons are killed. June 15. United States bond issue (first Liberty Loan) greatly over- subscribed. American Commission headed by Elihu Root welcomed at Petrograd by the Provisional Government. June 18. Haiti breaks with Germany. June 23. Zaimis resigns as Greek premier. June 26. New Greek Cabinet formed with Venizelos as premier. First American regulars land in France. June 28. British capture strong positions defending Lens. June 29. Greece breaks -with central powers. July 1. Russians resume offensive in Galicia. July 6. Crisis in Germany resulting from Matthias Erzherger's de- mand in the Reichstag for far-reaching reforms and peace without annexations or indemnities. July 8. Embargo upon unlicensed exports proclaimed by President Wilson. July 9. Presidential proclamation drafts the entire National Guard into United States service, Aug. 5. On the Italian front the Austro-Hungarian main force re- treats behind the river Lomnica. July 14. United States House of Representatives passes bill ap- propriating $640,000,000 for aircraft. Von BethmaJin-Hollweg resigns as German Chancellor and is succeeded by Dr. Georg Michaelis. July 16. Greece declares a state of war against the central powers. July 17. French retake nearly all Verdun positions previously lost. July 19. German successes in Galicia. Russian regiments mutiny and abandon their positions. July 20. Selective draft takes place at Washington. July 21. United States Senate passes the aircraft appropriation bill. 648 Supxdement July 22. Extensive Russian retreat and insubordination of troops. iuojf resigns as premier and is succeeded by Kerensky. Siam declares war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. July 23. Continued retreat and disorganization of Russian armies. July 24. United States Treasury Department asks Congress for new war budget of -^5,000,000,000. July 26. Russians retreating in Galicia but standing firm in Vol- hynia and Rumania. July 27. Rumanians win 6 villages. July 31. Great Battle of Flanders begins with British and French successes. Aug. 2. Gen. Brusiloff succeeded by Korniloff as commander-in- chief of Russian armies. German raider Seeadler wrecked off Mopeka Island in the South Pacific. Aug. 3. Teutons recapture Czernowitz in the Bukowina. Aug. 5. The United States National Guard to the number of about 300,000 men enter the Federal service. Aug. 7. Liberia declares war on Germany. Aug. 10. President Wilson appoints //ooyer Food Administrator un- der the Food Control bill signed the same day. Aug. 14. China declares war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. Aug. 16. Field-Marshal Haig captures Langemarck. Aug. 17. Ill French aeroplanes drop 14 tons of bombs behind Ger- man lines. Aug. 19. Italians launch a strong attack on a 30-mile front from the Isonzo to the sea and carry the entire Austrian first line from Plava to the sea. They also cross the Isonzo and attack the Bainsizza Plateau. Aug. 21. Germany launches a great offensive against the Russian Riga front. Aug. 24. Italians take the Monte Santo stronghold in the Isonzo region and secure command of the Gorizia plains. Aug. 26. German aeroplanes bomb American base hospitals near Verdun. Aug. 28. President Wilson rejects peace proposals from the Pope. Great air battle won by Italians before Gorizia. Aug. 31. United States Shipping Board contracts for 3 new ship- yards to cost $30,000,000. 200 new vessels planned. Sept. 2. Russians forced to evacuate Riga. Sept. 6. Austrians drive Italians from siunmit of Mt. San Gabriele. Sept. 8. United States Department of State makes public the dis- covery that the German charg^ at Buenos Ayres has been for- warding letters concerning the sinking of Argentine ships through the Swedish legation. (The " Spurlos Versenkt (sunk without trace) " letter.) Great Britain indorses President Wilson's reply to the Pope's peace proposal. Kerensky dismisses Korniloff, who marches on Petrograd. Sept. 10. Russia on the point of civil war. Kerensky takes personal command of the armies. The WaroflOU 649 Sept. 11. The Russian Council of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies votes to support Kerensky and orders the arrest of KorniloJ 's generals. Sept. 12. New French cabinet formed with Paul Painleve as pre- mier. Argentine government hands the German charge, Count Luxburg, his passports. Anti-German riots in Buenos Ayres. Sept. 13. General Korniloff's counter-revolutionary army surrenders. Sept. 14. Russiaus defeat Germans on Riga front and retake sev- eral towns. Italians regain summit of Mt. San Gabriele. Sept. 15. Kerensky proclaims Russia a republic. Sept. 21. The State Department at Washington publishes Ambas- sador Bernstorff^s cabled request to his government for money to influence American Congressmen against a declaration of war. Congress passes $11,000,000,000 war credit bill. Sept. 25. British resume drive on Menin Road. Sept. 28. Federal Grand Jury indicts 165 members of the Industrial Workers of the World for treasonable conspiracy to hamper the war activities of the United States. Secretary-Treasurer W. D. Haywood and many others arrested. Oct. 1. Twenty German aeroplanes bombard London. Oct. 4. British under Haig win brilliant victory at Passchendaele Ridge, near Ypres. Oct. 6. Peru breaks with Germany. Oct. 8. Uruguay breaks with Germany. Oct. 18. Two German raiders scatter a British convoy in the North Sea, sinking 2 destroyers and 9 merchant ships. Oct. 20. Five zeppelins on their way back from a raid on England are brought down by French aeroplanes. Oct. 22. French break Crown Prince's lines northeast of Soissons. Oct. 23. United States Secret Service discloses a German conspir- acy to foment an Irish uprising. Oct. 24. Germans reenforce Austrians on the Isonzo front and de- feat Italians northeast of Gorizia, piercing the Italian boun- dary. Oct. 26. Continued retreat of Italians. Bainsizza Plateau evacu- ated. Brazil declares war against Germany. French take Malmaison fort. Oct. 27. First American contingent officially reported as occupying French first-line trenches, supported by American artillery. Oct. 28. Gorizia falls and Italians retreat towards the Taglia- mento. Oct. 29. The Italian Isonzo front collapses and Teutons reach out- posts before Udine. Oct. 30. Austro-Gerraans take Udine. Nov. 1. Count Georg von HertUng succeeds Michaelis as German Chancellor. Nov. 2. Crown Prince's army driven across the Ailette River. 650 Supplement Nov. 3. First United States soldiers killed in battle in France. Nov. 4. Austro-Germans cross the Tagliamento River in Italy. Nov. 6. Canadians establish themselves at and beyond Passchen- daele. Italians retreat along a 150-mile line. Nov. 7. Maximalists, or Bolsheviki, with the assistance of the garrison, seize Petrograd, depose Kerensky, and declare for peace. British take Gaza in Palestine. Nov. 8. Germans land troops on Aland Islands in the Baltic. Nov. 9. Gen. Diaz succeeds Cadorna in command of Italian armies. Nov. 10. The Bolshevik government of Russia makes Nicholas Lenine premier and Leo Trotzhy minister of foreign affairs. Nov. 13. Austro-German invaders cross the lower Piave River at the point nearest Venice. Italians counter-attack and drive them back towards the river; also repulse enemy in Asiago region. Nov. 14. Venice partially evacuated by citizens. Nov. 15. Georges Clemenceau made premier of French Republic. Bolsheviki defeat government troops near Petrograd. Mos- cow in hands of the rebels. Kerensky a fugitive. Nov. 17. Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, is taken by the British. Nov. 18. Italians stop the Austro-German advance on the Piave and begin an offensive on the Asiago Plateau. Nov. 20. A British-American war council opens in London. British start a great drive against Cambrai without the cus- tomary artillery preparation and gain nearly 5 miles on a wide front. Tanks and cavalry play an important part. Nov. 21. British break the Hindenburg supporting line from St, Quentin to the Scarpe River. Nov. 22. Russian commander-in-chief Dukhonin deposed by Lenine for refusing to offer an armistice and Ensign Krylenko ap- pointed in his place. Nov. 28. Germany agrees to negotiate with the Russian Bolshevik government for peace. Nov. 29. Austria-Hungary accepts the Bolshevik offer of an ar- mistice. Nov. 30. Germans counter-attack successfully near Cambrai, but British get back most of ground lost. American engineers behind British lines sustain losses near Gouzeaucourt. Dec. 1. British declare their conquest of German East Africa com- plete. Supreme War Council of Allies and United States holds first sessions at Versailles. Text of an alleged secret agreement entered into by France, Great Britain, Russia, and Italy in 1915 published by the. Bol- shevik government at Petrograd. Italy was to enter the war on the side of tlie Entente, and certain accessions of territory and other considerations were guaranteed her in return for her cooperation. The War of 1914 651 The Scandinavian kings reach an agreement for neutrality and mutual help. Dec. 5. British withdraw from salient in Cambrai district, aban- doning nearly a third of ground recently gained. Gen. Dukhonin killed by being thrown from a railroad train, Dec. 6. Great explosion at Halifax resulting from a collision in- volving a French munition ship carrying 4000 tons of high explosives. 150 killed, 4000 seriously injured, 20,000 home- less; property damage, {§40,000,000. Dec. 7. Congress passes and President Wilson signs resolution de- claring a state of war with Austria-Hungary. Finland proclaims her independence. Dec. 8. Ecuador breaks with Germany. Dec. 9. Cossacks announced to be in revolt against the Bolsheviki. Dec. 10. Jerusalem surrenders to British. Bolsheviki declare civil war against Cossacks. Rumania accepts armistice. Panama declares war against Austria-Hungary. Dec. 11. Russian Black Sea fleet joins Bolsheviki. Pec. 12. President Wilson issues the declaration of "wrar against Austria-Hungary. Ex-Premier Caillaux of France indicted for plot to bring about a dishonorable peace. Dec. 15. Formal armistice between Russia and the Teutonic powers signed at Brest-Litovsk to continue till Jan. 14. Dec. 28. United States government takes control of American rail- roads. 1918 Jan. 8. President Wilson's address to Congress outlines an Amer- ican peace programme, enumerating " fourteen points." Jan. 11. Russo-German armistice extended one month from Jan. 12. Jan. 28. German aeroplane raid over London; 58 killed and 173 injured. Jan. 30. Aeroplane raid over Paris; 45 killed. An AU-Russian Congress of Workmen's and Soldiers' Dele- gates adopts a constitution of the " Russian Socialistic Soviet Republic." Feb. 9. Ukrainia signs a peace treaty with the central powers at Brest-Litovsk. Feb. 11. Russian government declares the war at an end and orders demobilization. Feb. 14. Bolo Pasha found'guilty of treason and sentenced to death. Feb. 18. Germany resumes hostilities against Russia and moves towards Petrograd. Mar. 2. Kiev, capital of Ukrainia, under control of Bolsheviki since Feb. 8, is occupied by German and Ukrainian troops. Mar. 3. A treaty very disadvantageous to Russia is signed at Brest-Litovsk between the Bolshevik government and the four central powers. 652 Supplement Mar. 5. Preliminary peace treaty signed between Rumania and the central powers. Mar. 13. German troops occupy Odessa. Mar. 14. All-Russiau Congress of Soviets at Moscow ratifies treaty. Turks reoccupy Erzerum in Armenia. Mar. 21. Great German offensive begun from Arras to La F^re along 50 miles of the British and French line. Mar. 23. Paris bombarded by a German long-range gun from a distance of more than 70 miles. Mar. 27. Prime Minister Lloyd George appeals for American reen- forcements "in the shortest possible space of time." Mar. 28. The German drive in Picardy thrusts a new wedge into the French line at Montdidier. Mar. 29. French general Ferdinand Foch made commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in France — British, French, American, Italian, Belgian, and Portuguese. Shell from a long-range gun kills 75 persons at a Good Friday service in a Paris church. Apr. 4. German offensive renewed near Amiens, but British and French lines hold. Armenians recapture Erzerum. Apr. 15. Count Czernin, Austrian Minister of Foreign Affairs, re- signs on account of disclosure of a peace letter from Em- peror Charles to his relative Prince Sixtus of the Belgian army. Apr. 16. In the Ypres salient the Germans capture the village of Bailleul and force British to evacuate parts of Messines Ridge and Passchendaele Ridge. Bolo Pasha executed. Charles M. Schwab made Director-General of the United States Emergency Fleet Corporation. Apr. 23. British in early morning sink 5 concrete-laden vessels at Zeebrugge, German submarine base, and blow up a portion of the mole ; harbor blocked. Apr. 24-25. German drive toward Amiens renewed, but Allies and Americans hold. Apr. 25. Drive for Ypres renewed. Apr. 26. Germans take Mont Kemmel. Apr. 29. Germans attack heavily upon entire Franco-British front from Zillebeke Lake to Meteren, with no permanent suc- cesses. May 1. Germans occupy Sebastopol. May 4. Subscriptions to third United States Liberty Loan close, totalling $4,170,000,000, from 17,000,000 subscribers. May 6. Treaty at Bucharest, supplementing agreement of Mar. 5. May 7, Nicarale, e. of, trial, 382, 383. Arianism, 159. Ariosto, 328. Arioviatus, 138, 167. Aristagoras, 28. Aristion, 130. Ariatobulua, k. of the Jews, 11. Aristodemus, 51. Aristogiton, 54. Aristomenes, 51. Aristophanes, 64. Aristotle, 73. Ark of the Covenant, 8. Arkansas admitted to the Union, 553. Aries, kingdom of, 198. Arlington, 380. Armada, Great, 331, 339. Armagnacs, attack Basle, 253 ; massacred, 259. Armed neutrality, 412 ; renewed, 536. Armenia, 12, 78 ; invaded by Asshur-natzir pal I., 14 ; subject to Assyria, 14, to Me- dia, 25, to Cyrus the Persian, 26 ; attacked by the Parthians, 30 ; Roman province, 153 ; conquered by Sapor, 188 ; reduced by M. Aurelius, 193 ; ceded to Russia, 623. Arminius defeats Varus, 149 ; after-history, 167. Armorica, Venetii in, 138; Britons emi- grate to, 172. Arnim, 312. Arnold of Brescia, 221. Arnold, Benedict, siege of Quebec, 427 ; defeat on Champlain, 428 ; his treason, 430. Arnulf of Carinthia, 193. Arpads in Hungary, 277. Arques, battle of, 324. Arsaces, founder of the Parthian mon- archy, 29 ; dynastic name of all the Par- thian monarchs (I.-XXX.), 29, 30. Arsacidae, 155. Arses, emp. of Persia, 29. Art in Greece, 64 ; in Italy, 327. Artabanus I., k. of Parthia (Arsaces VIII., 30; III. (Arsaces XXX.), last k. of Parthia, defeated by Artaxerxes. 30, 187. Artaphernes, 57. Artavasdes, k. of Armenia, 146. Artaxata, 135 ; captured, 150, 154. Artaxerxes, k. of Persia, I., 28 ; II., defeats the younger Cyrus, 29 ; III., 29 ; Artax- erxes I. founds the new Persian empire, 30, 187 ; II., 189. Artemis, 21. Artemisium, battle of, 59. Artenay, battle of, 518. Artevelde, Jacob van, 257. Arthur, k. of the Silures, 37; traditions concerning him in the N. and S., 178; cycle of romances, 235. Arthur, d. of Brittany, 226; death, 233. Arthur, Chester A., pres. of the United States, 660. Articles of confederation, 429 ; of Perth. 341. Artois, c. of, 450. Arundel, e. of , impeached, 270 ; executed 339. ' Aryans, uncertainty concerning, Introd. iv. ; in Asia Minor, 21 ; primiUive homek 24 ; Celts, 34. Aschaffenburg, battle of, 510. Asculum, battle of, 108. Ashantee war, 545. Ashburton treaty, 554. Ashby and White, case of, 434. Ashera, Phoenician goddess, 17. Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355. Ashley, 380. Asia, Roman province, 124. Aske, Robert, rebellion of, 336 Aspasia, 64. Aspern, battle of, 472. Assam, 389, 541. Assandun, battle of, 205. Assay e, battle of, 541. Asshur, 12, 13. Asshurbanipal, emp. of Assyria, 6, 15. Asshur-ebil-lli, k. of Nineveh, 15. Asshur-natzir-pal I., emp. of Assyria, 14. Assignats, issued, 450 ; decline two thirds, 454 ; total amount issued, 457. Set Mandats. Assizes of Clarendon, 232. Associations of nobles, 250. Assyria, geography, religion, 12 ; civiliza- r tion, chronology, 13; art, 15; no Assyp. ian conquest of Egypt under Shashang i I., 5 n. 2 ; conquest of Egypt by Esar- , haddon, 6; independent empire, 18;: height of power, 15 ; fall of the empire, ' 15, 25 ; attacks Iran, 25 ; northern A. 8U^>- '• ject to Rome, 30, 153. Astarte, 16, 17. Asturia, kingdom of, 183, 209. Astyages, k. of Media, 21, 25, 26. Atahuallpa, inca of Peru, 287. Athalaric, k. of West Goths, 174. Athanasius, 159. Athaulf, 171, 172. Athena, identified with Ne'ith, 2. Athenion, 128. Athens, ally of the Ionian cities, 28,40; founded, 44 ; old con.stitution, 51 : re- forms of Solon, 52 ; Pisistratus, reforms of Clisthenes, 54 ; burned by Xerxes, 69 ; hegemony of, 61 ; war with Sparta, 64 ; under Pericles, 64 ; surrender of, 69 ; thirty tyrants, 69 ; Demetrius Po- ll orcetea in, 79 ; captured by Sulla, 130 ; adorned by Hadrian, 153 ; duchy of, 216 ; captured by Venetians, 416. Set Greece. Athos, Mt., 56, 58. Atlanta evacuated, 558. Atlantic cable laid, 487, 644. Atreus, 44. Attains, kings of Pergamus, 78; I. joint iEtolian league, 116 ; implores aid oi Rome, 118 ; III. bequeaths Pergamus tc Rome, 124. Attains, appointed emp. of Rome by Ala ric, 171. Attila in Gaul and Italy, 173. Attyadae, first Lydian dynasty, 21. Index. lekland, lord, gov. gen. in India, 646. aerstadt, battle of, 46^. aghriui, battle of, 387. ug.-^burg, founded, 167 ; diet at, 303 ; confes.sion of, 303 ; religiou.s peace of, 306 ; peace of, 317 ; league of, 370. ugurea, college of, 85. gustine in Britain, 179. uguf!tus, Caesar Octavianus, emp. of Rome, his reign, 147 ; family, 148 ; death, 149. ugustus II., elector of Ssixony, elected k. of Poland, 374 : part in northern war, ' , 396 ; III., elected k. of Poland, 398 ; claimant for the Austrian succession, 400 ; death, 411. urangzeb, emp. of India, depo.'*tios, 3'i ; brilliant epoch, 32 ; the three kingdoms, 32; Buddhism in, 23; brilliant period, 211 ; conquered by Mon- gols, 242 ; in the 15th cent., 278 ; Tatar conquest, 354 ; war with Russia, 390 ; French and English exp. against, 501 ; opium war, 542, 561 ; treaties with Krrmce and U. S.,661; war with Great Britain and France, 561 ; famine, 662 ; treaty with Russia, 662. Chinese emigration to U. S. suspended, 660. Chios, battle of, 412 ; 416; revolt, 488. Chippewa, battle of, 651. Chlodwig, k. of the Franks, 173. Chlopicki, 490. Chlotar I., k. of Franks, 181. Choiseul.d. de., 446. Chosroes, k. of Parthia, war with Trajan, 30 ; k. of Armenia, 153; deposed, 1S9. Chosroes, k. of Persia, I., (Anushirwan)^ reign, 190, 191 ; II,, Eberwiz, 191. Chotusit.z, battle of, 401. Chow dynasty in China. 32 ; later Chow, 211. Chowaresmians, empire of the, 240. Chremonidcs, 79. Christ, birth of , 11, 149. Christian of Anhalt, 309; of Brunswick, defeatedby Tilly, 310. Christian, k. of Denmark, I., of Olden- burg, 351 ; II., union of Calmar broken, 351,352; III., 352; IV., head of lower Saxon circle, in thirty years' war, 310 ; war with Sweden, 314, 352; VI., VII., 409; VIII., annexes Schleswig-Holstein, 409 ; IX., accepts the constitution, 505, 506. Christiania founded, 209. Christianity, first persecution, 151 ; under Decius, 156 ; under Diocletian, 15o ; made state religion by Constantine, 169 ; aban- doned by Julian, 160; reinstated by Jovi- anus, 160 ; adoption of pagan customs, 165 ; conversion of Goths, 170 ; of the Franks, 173 ; of Langobards, 175 ; begin- ning of the papacy, 175 ; conversion of Britons, 38 ; of the Anglo-Saxons, 179 ; of the Germans, 184; Christians persecuted in Persia, 189 ; tolerated in Persia, 190 ; conversion of the North, 207, 208, 209 ; tolerated in China, 211 ; conversion of Po- land, Prussia, Hungary, 277 ; preached in China, 355 ; introduced in Japan, but re- jected, 356; Jesuits in Canada, 364 ; per- secution in China, 444; Christians in Turkey, 522, 624 ; toleration secured in China, 662. Christina of Sweden, 352. Christopher II., k. of Denmark, 236. Chrysanthemums, war of the, 243. Church, high and low, 4^3. Churchill. See Marlborough. Cibola, seven cities of, 287. Cicero, birthplace of, 82; sketch of life, 136; speeches against Catiline, 137; banished, 138 ; recalled, 139 ; procongul, 140 ; murdered, 146. 12 Index. Cid, 209. Cilicia, Semitic, 21 ; under Persia, 26, 27, 184 ; Romaa province, 136. Cimbri, invade Italy, 127, 128, 167. Cimon, 57, 61 ; rivalry with Tiiemistocles, 62 ; recalled to Athens, death, 63. Cimon, peace of, 63. Cincinnati, society of the, 432. Cincinnatus, L. Quinctius, 98. Cineas, 108. Cinua, 130, 131. Cinq-Mars, marquis of, 326. Cinque Ports, 264. Circles of the H. R. E.,300. Cisalpine republic, founded, 459 ; included in Italian republic, 454. Ciudad Rodrigo, captured, 473. Civil marriage compulsory, 521. Civil rights bill, 559. Civil service act, 560. Civil war, in England (Roses), 272 ; great rebellion, 347, 350 ; in France, 321, 322 ; in Portugal, ^%%; in Rome, 130, 140; in Spain, 490, 520 ; mSivitzerland, 492; in United Slates, Shays's rebellion, 433 ; whiskey, 548 ; great rebellion, 557. Civilis, CI., 168. Clarence, d. of, 274. Clarendon, e. of, iirst interview with the king, 346 ; receives grant of South Caro- lina, 358 ; chancellor, 378 ; fall, 379. Clark, John, settles Rhode Island, 297. Claudia, 148, 319. Claudius, Roman emp., conquest of Brit- ain, 37 ; reign, 157. Claudius Pulcher, HI. Claverhouse, defeat, 381 ; victory and death, 386. Clay, Henry, U. S. sec. of state, 652. Clay's compromises, 565. Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 555. Clemens Maximus, 161. Clement II., pope, 199 ; III., 200 ; V., 254 ; goes to Avignon, 263 ; XIV., 416. Cleomenes, k. of Sparta, 65 ; III. , 79. Cleon, 65, 66. Cleopatra placed over Egypt by Caesar, 142 ; meets Antonius, 145 ; fails to charm Octavian, death, 147. Clermont, council of, 214. Cleve-Jiilich, contested succession begun, 308 ; ended, 372. [Geneal. table, 307.] Clientes, 90. Cliff temples in India, 23. Clinton, Sir Henry, 429, 430. Clisthenes, reforms of, 64. Clitus, murder of, 76 Clive , lord, 442 ; sketch of life, 443 ; in India, 443, 444. Clodius, P., 135 ; tribune exiles Cicero, 128 ; ultra democrat, 139 ; death, 140. Cloten, 37. Clovis. See Chlodwig. Cnut. Ste Knut. Coalition ministrv, 441. Cobbet, William, 538. Cobden, Richard, 542. Cochin China, 30 ; annexed to China, 278 ; invasion of, 444. Code Najioleon, 462. Codrus, k. of Athens, 48. Coercion act, 646. Coke, Sir Edward, 341, 342. Colbert, 366. Colchester, taken by Fairfax, 851. Coleman, execution, 381. Coligny, adm. de, attempts to found tk Huguenot colony in America, 288 ; mu> dered, 321. Collatinus, 89, 93. College, execution of, 383. Colleges of sacred lore, 85 ; founded, 170. Colmar, 186. Cologne, diet of, 300 ; archbishop of, elec- tor, 248. Colombia, 488. Colonies, Greek, 48, 49 ; Roman and Latin, 109; in America: Spanish, 'l'6'l, ecc. ; English, 291; Dutch, Swedish, 298: French, 299, 363. Colosseum, 82, 152. Columbey-Nouilly, battle of, 516. Columbus, Bartholomew ,2%^ ; Christopher, voyages to America, 282, 283, 284 ; state of Japan at the time of his voyage, 278 ; D/eg-0,284. Comitia, centuriata, origin, 92 ; growth of power, 94, 102 ; chooses censors, 99 ; de- cline, 107 ; democratic reform of, 112 ; reformed by Sulla, 130 ; further conser- vative changes, 132; powers transferred to the senate, 149 : curiata, original con- stitution, 91, 92 ; changes in the consti- tution, 94 and n. ; constitution in the 4th rent. b. c, 102 : tributa, established, 96; summons Coriolanus, 97 ; made equal with centuriata, 98 ; constitution in 4th cent. B. c, 102 ; resolves made univer- sally binding, 107. Commercial panic in England, 539 ; in U. S., 556, 560. Committee of public safety, in England, 347 ; in France, 453, 455. Commodus, Roman emp., 164. Common law, 266. Commune of Paris 451, 454, 455; upris- ing, 532. Comnenes, dynasty, 240 : house. 240. Compton, b. of London, 383, 384. Compurgation, abolition of, 232. Concilium Germanicum, 184. Concini (Mar^chal d'Ancre), 325. Concord, battle of, 426. Concordat in France, 319, 463. Cond(^, 315, 366, 368, 450. Condillac, 448. Confederate States of America, 556 ; recog- nized by Great Britain, 555. Confederation of the Rhine, establishment, 468 ; dissolution, 479. Confession of faith, 338. Confirmatio chartarum, 266. Conflans, treaty of, 250. Confucius, 31, 32. Congress, Continental, 426, 427 ; of United States, 547. Connecticut, colony of, 296 ; charter, 358 ; united with New Haven, 358 ; govern- ment, 361, 362; slavery partially abol- ished, 432. Conrad, emp. of the H. R. E., I. (of Fran- conia), 194 ; II. (the Salian), 198 ; III., , crusade, 215; reign, 219 ; IV., 225. Conrad the Red, of Lotharingia, 195. I Index. 13 Conradin, 225, 226. Conseil dii Roi, 44R. Consiytorium priucipis, 159. Constance, couucil of, 251 : peace of, 222. Constance, of Sicily, married Henry VI., 222. Constans, Roman emp., 160, Constiint, B., 527. Constantine, Roman emp., I. (the Great), 169; II., 160. Constantinople, fall of, 260, 278 ; palace, revolution in, 521 ; conference of, 522. See Byzantium. Constantius, Roman emp., 158, 160; Per- sian war, 188. Constantius Chlorua, 158. Constituent assembly in France, 447, 449. Constitutio Antouiana, 155. Constitution of Austria, of 1849, 495 ; Feb- ruary c, 604 ; c. of 1866, 511. Constitution, French, Jirst, accepted by Louis XIV., 450 ; second (Republican), never executed, 454 ; third (of 1795), 457; /ourth, 461; Ji/th, 464; of the First Empire, 465; c. of Louis XVIII., 666 ; c. of Louis Philippe, 529 ; c. of 1848, 631 ; c. of Louis Napoleon, 531 ; third re- public, 532 ; c. of 1875, 533. Con.''titution of Germany. See Bull, Gold- en, and diet of Regensburg. End of the H R. E., 464; German confederatiou, 483; attempt to frame a new c, 493; new c. completed, 497 ; return to the confederation, 493 ; confederation dis- solved, 459 ; North German confedera- tion, 511 ; c. of the German empire, 520. Constitution of Hungary. -See Bull, gold- en. Under Joseph II., 408 ; in 1848, 494 ; abrogated, 495; in 1861, 504; restored, 611. Constitution of Naples, 493. Constitution of Poland, old, 374 ; c. of 1791, 413 ; abrogated, 490. Constitution of Prussia, 497. Constitution of 1812 in Spain formed, 473 ; abrogated, 483 ; restored, 487 ; abrogated, 488. Constitution of United States signed, 433. See Amendments. Constitutions of Clarendon, 232. Consulate, French, 448, 461 ; Roman, es- tablished, 93 ; first plebeian consul, 101 ; age of eligibility, 120 ; treatment under the empire, 147. Conventicle act, 379. Convention parliament, 378, 385. Convocation, 340, 437. Convulsionnaires, 446. Cook, James, voyages of, 442. Coote, Sir Eyre, 444. Copenhagen, capture of, 249; If^t bom- bardment, 470 ; battle of, 536 ; 2d bom- bardment, 537 ; peace of, 373. Corcyra, 64, 66. Corday, Charlotte, 454. Cordeliers, 451. Cordova, Caliphate of, 183, 209. Cordova, Gon.«alvo de 318. Corea, conquered by Chinese, 32 ; by Jap- anese, 33 ; treaty with Japan, 564. Corfinium, capital of Italia, 129. Corinth, origin, 48 ; national assembly at, 37 73 ; joins Achaean league, 79 ; destroyed 80, 122. Corinthian war, 70. Coriolauus, 97 Corn laws repealed, 642. Cornaro, Catherine, 262. Corneille, 371. Cornwallis, lord, in the Southern Statea, 430 ; surrender of, 431, 441 ; in India, 541. Coroebus, 51. Coronado, Francisco Vasquez, 287. Coronea, battle of, 63, 70. Corporation act, 379, 539. Corpus Catholicorum, 371. Corpus Evangelicorum, 371. Corpus juris eivilis, 210. Correggio, 328. Corsica, Phocaeans driven from, 19, 26, 84; assigned to Sextus Pompeius 146 ; king- dom of, 415. Cortenuova, battle of, 224. Cortereal, Gaspar and Miguel de, 284. Cortes at Cadiz, 473. Cortez, Hernando, conquers Mexico, 285; discovers Lower California, 287. Corvinus, Matthia.s, k. of Hungary, 253. Cosa, Juan de la, 284. Council of ten, 262. Council of the church, first oecumenical, 159 ; last, 159, 512. Count of the Saxon Shore, 38. Courcelles, gov. of New France, 364. Court of Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, 266. Courtrai, battle of, 264. Couthon, 454, 456. Covenant. See Solemn League. Covenanters, defeat of, 379. Covilham, 353. Cowpens, battle of, 431. Coxe, 365. Cracow, 414 ; free state of, 483. Cradock, Matthew, gov. of Mass. Bay, 295. Cranmer, archb. of Canterburj, 335 ; burnt 338. Crassus, expedition against Parthia, 30, 133 ; democrat, 136. 137 ; consul, 140. Craterus, 74 ; regent of West, 76 ; in the Lamian war, 79. Craven, gov. of Carolina, 417. Crawford, W. H., U. S. sec. of the treas., 551. Cr^cy, battle of, 248, 267. Crefeld, battle of, 405. Cremona, 35 ; founded, 112 ; battle of, 151 ; diet, 224. Crescentius, 197. Crespy, peace of, 305. Crete, Phoenician settlements in, 17 ; un- der Mino.s, 18, 41; assigned to Brutus, 144 ; belongs to Venice, 326 ; yielded to Turks, 416. Crimean war, 499, 500, 543; end of, 531. Critias slain, 69. Croatia, 511. Croesus, k. of Lydia, conquers Grecian cities, intercourse with Greece, war with Persia, 21, 22; defeated, 22, 26; story of his miraculous rescue, 26. Cromwell, Oliver, sketch of life, 375: first speech, 343; " Ironsides,'' 347; Marston 14 Index. Moor, 348 ; lieutenant-general, 349 ; lord protector, 376 ; turas out the rump, 376 ; rejects title of king, 377 ; death, 377. Cromwell, Richard, 375, 377. Cromwell, Thomas, 335. Crown Point, 421, 428. Crozat, sieur Antoine, 365. Crusades, cause, 213; I., 214; II., III., 215; IV., v., 216; VI., VII., 217; re- sults, 217. Ctesiphon, 153, 192. Cuba discovered, 278, 282 ; circumnavigat- ed, 284 ; conquered, 284; attack on, 419. Culloden, battle of, 438. Culpepper, lord, grant in America, 357. Cumberland, d. of, became k. of Hanover, 542. Cumberland Straits, discovery of, 289. Cunaxa, battle of, 29. Cunctator. See Fabius. Cup-bearer, 195. Curiae, 91. Curio subjugated Sicily, 141. Curius Deatatus, M'., 106. Curland, incorporated with Russia, 414. Curland, d of, restored, 373. Custine, gen. 453, 454. Custouza, battle of, 494, 510. Cyaxares, overthrows Nineveh, 15, 16; war with Alyattes, 21, 25. Cybele, Lydian goddess, 21. Cylon, insurrection of, 51. Cymbeline, 37. Cynoscephalse, battle of, 71, 80, 119. Cynric, 178. Cyprus, tributary to Assyria, 14 ; Phoeni- cian colonies in, 17, 41 ; given to Guy of Lusignan, by Richard of England, 215 ; given by Catherine Cornaro to Venice, 262; surrendered to the Turks, 326; given to England, 524 ; British take pos- session, 545. Cyrene in Africa, hostilities with Egypt, 6 ; founded, 19 ; submits to Cambyses, 27 ; conquered by Darius, 28 ; assigned to Cassius, 144. Cyrus, emp. of Persia, deposes Astyages, 62 ; defeats Croesus, 21, 26 ; takes Baby- lon, 16, 26 ; death, 27 ; the younger, 29. Cyzicus, battle of, 68, 134. Czartoryski, 490. Czaslau, battle of , 401. Czechs, 493. Dablon, 364. Dacia, war with Rome, 152, 153 ; made a Roman province, 152 ; given up by Au- relian, 157. Diedalus, 18. r>ale. Sir Thomas, 292. r>alecarlians, revolt of the, 352. Dalhousie, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. Dalmatia, 525, 526. Dalziel, 379. Damascus, defection from Solomon, 9 ; captured by Ramannarari, 14, 136 ; sul- tanate of, 210. Damiens, 446. Bamietta, captured, 217. Dm no ura, battle of, 242. Dan the Famous, k. of Norway, 207. Dauaus, 44. Danby, impeachment, 381,383,384; prea of privy council, 385. Dandolo, Henry, doge of Venice, 216, 262. Danegeld, instituted, 205 ; abolished, 231. Danelagh, 204 ; reconquered and lost, 205. Danes. See Denmark, Northmen. In Eng land ; three epochs of their ravages, 203 ; treaty of Wedmore, 204 ; massacre ol Danes, 805 ; political conquest of Eng. laud, 206. Dangerfield, 382, 383. Danish vespers, 205. Danneborg, 235. Dannevirke, 207. Dante Alighieri, 263. Danton, member of Cordeliers, 451, 462, 453 ; of the Committee of Public Safety, 454 ; execution, 455. Danzig, annexed to Poland, 413 ; captured by Napoleon, 469. Daras, battle of, 190. Dare, Jeanne, career, 260. Dardanos, peace of, 131. Dare, Virginia, 289. Darien, discovered by Columbus, 284 ; at- tacked by Drake, 289 ; Scotch settlement at, 362. Darius, name of several k.'s of Persia, I. succeeds Bardija, recaptures Babylon, 27 ; war with Scythians, reforms, war with Ionian Greeks, with European Greeks, death, 28: II. Nothus, 29 ; III., Codomannus, defeated by Alexander, death, 29, 74. Darnley, murdered, 338. Datis, 57. Daun, marshal, 404, 405. Dauphin, title of the heir to the French crown, 258. Dauphin(5 of Vienne, transferred to the crown of France, 258. David, k. of the Jews, 8, 9. David II., k. of Scotland, capture of, 268. Davila, 285. Davis, Jeflferson, U. S. sec. of war, 555; pres. of the Confederate States, 556. Davis, John, Arctic voyages, 289, 290. Davout, on the Rhine, 467 ; defeated at Eylau, 469 ; in Hamburg, 476, 479. Day of the sections, 457. Decazes, ministry of, 527. Deccan, in India, geographical position, 22 •, arrival of Hindus, 23 ; state of, in 1498,353; independence of, 442; passes under the control of the British, 541. Decebalus, 152, 153. Decelean war, 67. Decemvirs, 98. Decius, Roman emp., 156. Decius Mus P., 108. Declaration of Independence in Belgium, 489 ; in the United States 428. Declaration of indulgence, 380. Declaration of rights, 385. Declaration of rights and liberties, 424. Deerfield, Indian attack, 363. Defoe, Daniel, 389, 436. Deiotarus, k. of Galatia, 78, 136 ; submits to Caesar, 142. Deira. 178. Dejoces, Median chief, 25. Delawaxe, lord, gov. of S. Virginia, 29fL Index, 15 Blhi, In India. 22; sultans of, 241, 868 ; captured by Lake, 641 ; revolt, 646. "jlos,41,62. jlphi, advice to Croesus, 21 ; attacked by GaulK, 35 ; oracle, 51 .; plundered by Krisa, 64 ; by Phocians, 72. smades, peace of, 73. smaratus, 65, 68. Bmes, 52. iDemetrius, the false, 352. llXemetrius Poliorcetes, 77 ; in Athens, 79. Democratic party in U. S., 548. Demosthenes, the general, 66, 67. [Demosthenes, the onitor, opposition to Philip, 72 ; forms alliance with Thebes, 73; poisons himself, 79. Denain, battle of, 392. Denmark, people of, 164; early history, 207; war with Charles the Great, 185; with Otto I., 195 ; with Otto II., 197 ; in- vasion of England, 2(i3, 204 ; conquest of England, 205, 206 ; under W'aldemar the conqueror, 235 ; capitulation, 236 ; Union of Calmar, 2.37, 276 ; share in thii-ty years' war, 310 ; war with Sweden, 314 ; feuds of the counts in, 352 ; lex regia, 374; treaty with Sweden, 397; alliance with France, 470 ; receives Lauenberg, 483 ; Schleswig-IIolstein, 496 ; incorpora- tion of the duchies, 505 ; war with Aus- tria and Prussia, 505. Dennewitz, battle of, 477. Denys, Jean, 284. Deorham, battle of, 178. Derby, e. of, impeachment, 270. Derby, e., 1st ministry of , 543 ; 2d, 644 ; 3d, 544. Dermod, k. of Leinster, 232. Derwentwater, execution of, 437. Desaix, 460. Desiderius, k. of Langobards, 184. Desmoulins, Camille, at the storm of the Bastile, 449 ; member of Cordeliers, 461 ; executed, 455. Despensers, 267. Dessau, bridge of, battle, 310. Dessoles-Decazes, ministry of, 527. Detmold, battle of, 185. Detroit, besieged by Pontiac,423. Dettingen, battle of, 402. Deutsch-Brod, battle of, 252. Deuxponts. See Zweibriicken. Devolution, war of, 366. Diadochi, wars of, 76. Diaeus, 122. Diana of Poitiers, 320. Diaz, Bartholomaeus, 280. Dictatorship, established, 93 ; nature, 94 ; opened to plebeians, 101 ; disappearance, 123 ; Sulla assumes the office, 132. Diderot, 448. Didius, Julianus, Roman emp., 164. Dido, 17, 18. Diebitch, 490. Dieskau,421. Digges, sir Dudley, 343. Dijon, battle of, 174, 253. Dillon, 545. Dinwiddle, Robert, gov. of Virginia, 420. Diocletianus, Roman emp , 158. Dionysius, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. Directory, in France, 448; government of, 457 ; l^th Fructidor, change within the directory, 459 ; 3d Prairial, reorgauizedi 18th Brumaire, overthrown, 4GI. Disrsuli. See Beaconsfield. DissenterM, 379. Dobrudsha, invaded by French , 500 ; occu- pied by Russians, 522 ; ceded to Russia and exchanged for Bessarabia, 623, 624. Dodecarchy in Egypt, 6. Dodona, 43. Doffingen, battle of, 260. Doge of Venice, 262. Dolabella, consul, 144. Dolgoruky, family of , 410. Domitianus, Roman emp., conquest of Brit- ain, 37 ; reign, 152. Donauworth, 308. Doomsday book, 229. Dorea, Andrea, doge of Genoa, 303, 326. Dorians in Asia Minor, subjugated by Croe- sus, 21; Dorus, mythical ancestor, 43; migration of, 48 ; Doric communities, 48, 49 ; colonies, 49. Dorr rebellion, 554. Dorylaeum, battle of, 214. Dost Muhammad, 646. Douglas, e. of, 270. Dover, secret treaty of, 380. Draco, 51. Dragon nades, 369. Drake, Francis, voyage around the world, 289; New Albion, 289: expedition to West Indies, rescues Virginia colony, 290, 339. Dred Scott case, 556. Drepanum, sea-fight at, 111. Dresden, peace of, 402 ; battle of, 477 ; up- rising in, 497 ; conference at, 498. Drogheda, statute of, 333. Drogheda, storm of, 376. Drogo, 199. Druids, 34. Drumclog, battle of, 381. Drusus, M. Livius, 125, 126, 128. Drusus (the younger), son of TiberiuB, campaigns in Germany, 167 ; poisoned, 149. Drvden,.Tohn, 389. Dubienka, battle of, 413. Dublin, conquest of, 208, 209. Dubois, card., 445. Ducas, dynasty, 240. Duclerc, ministry, 636. Ducrot, 617, 518. Dudley, Joseph, pres. of New England, 361; gov. of Mass., 363. Dufaure, ministry in France, 634. Duilius, C. 110. Dulcigno. ceded to Montenegro, 625. Dumouriez, 452, 453. Dunbar, battle of, 266, 375. Dundee. -See Claverhouse, 386. Dunes, battle of the, 377. Dunkirk, siege of, 377 ; sold to Franco 379. Dunse, pacification of, 345. Dunstan, archb. of Canterbury, 206. Dupleix, gov. of Pondicherri, 443. Diippel, storming of, 506. Durazzo, house of, in Naples, 263. Dur-Sarrukin, 12, 15. Dutch in Americai 298 ] in India, 354. 16 Index. Dutch war, 376. Dutch West India Company, 298. Duttlingen, battle of, 314. Duumviri eacrorum, 86. Dyaush-pitar, 22. Dyrrhachium, battle of, 141. Eadberht, 180. Eadgar, 205. Eadgar, iEtheling, 206. Eadgar, k. of Scotland, 230. Eadmund Ironside, 205. Eadred, 205. Eadward (the elder), k. of England, 204 ; the confessor, 206. Eadwig, 205. Eadwin, earl of Mercia, 206 ; revolt of Eng- lish under, 229 ; k. of Northumbria, 179. Eastern empire, separated from western, 161 ; under Justinian I., 210, 216 ; under Macedonian house, 210 ; under the houses of Ducas, C/omnenes, and Angelus, 240 ; conquest of Constantinople, 278 ; plan to restore, 413. East Goths, in Southern Rijesia, 170 ; king- dom of, in Italy, 174 ; destroyed by Nar- ses, 175. East India bill, 442. East India Company of London, origin, 354 ; charter renewed, 540 ; government of India ceases, 544 ; exclusive trade •with China ceases, 561. East Indies, ocean route to, discovered, 279. See, also, India. Eastphalia, 185. East Roumelia, province of, 524. Eberhard, d. of Franconia, 195 ; d. of Wiirtemberg, wars with Rudolf I., 244 ; der Greiner, wars with cities, 249. Eberw^iz. See Chosroes II. Ecbatana, 24, 25, 26, 28. Ecclesiastical commission, new court of, 383. Ecclesiastical titles bill, 543. Ecgberht, k. of Wessex, lord of England south of the Forth, 180, 181, 203. Eck, 301. Eckmiihl, battle of, 471. Eclipse of the sun, 21. Ecnomus, battle of, 110. Ecuador, republic of, 488. Edda, elder and younger, 165. Edessa, captured, 215. Edgehill, battle of, 347. Edict of Nantes, promulgation, 324; revo- cation of, 369; of restitution, 310; of tolerance of Joseph II., 407. Edinburgh, treaty of, 338 ; liturgy in, 344 ; general assembly, 345. Edmund, St., k. of England, 203. Edward I., k. of England, agreement with Philip IV., of France, 254 ; reign, 263, 264 ; reforms. 266 ; II., reign, 267 ; III., reign, 268 ; war with France, 257 ; laws in Ireland, 269 ; IV., reign, 272, 274 ; invades France, 260; V., reign, 275; VI., reign, 3;36. Edward the Black Prince, victorv of Poitiers, 2.58; aids Peter the Cruel, 276; death, 209. Egmont, at Oravelines, 321 ; sketch of life, execuciob, aM, Egremont, sec. of state, 439. i^gypt. geography, religion, 2; civiliza»» tion, chronology, 3 ; old empire, new empire, 4 ; stories of Sesostris, 5 ; not con- quered by Assyrians 961 B. C, 5 n. 2 ; con- quered by Ethiopians, 6 ; by Assyrians, 6, 14 ; revolt of Psamethik, 6 ; becomes a province of Persia, 7 ; conquered by Cambyses, 27 ; under the Ptolemies, 77 ; conquered by Caesar, 143 ; Roman prov- ince, 147 ; reconquered by Aurelian, 157 ; by Muhammedans, 182 ; sixth crusade, 217 ; revolt of Mehemed Ali, 491 ; revolt of Arabi Pasha, 546. Eider-Danes, 505. El, 13. El Dorado, 288. Elagabalus, Roman emp., 155. Elam, empire of, 13. Elba, conferred upon Napoleon, 481. Eldon, lord chan., 536. Eleanor of Poitou, married Louis VII., and afterward Henry of Anjou, 226. Eleanor, wife of Edward I. of England, death of, 264. Electoral reform bill in Italy, 526. Electors of the H. R. E., 248. Electro-magnetism discovered, 487. Elgin, lord, viceroy of India, 546; enyoy to China, 561. Elijah, 9. Eliot, John, missionary, 357. Eliot, sir John, 341, 343. Elisha, 9. Elissa, founds Carthage, 18. Elizabeth of Bohemia, 341. Elizabeth of Valois, 324, 330. Elizabeth, q. of England, reign, 338, 339. Elizabeth, tsarina of Russia, ally of Aus- tria, 403 ; death relieves Frederic, 406 ; reign, 411. Elizabeth Islands, 290. Ellenborough, e. of, gov. gen. in India, 546. Ellichpur, kingdom founded, 363 ; con- quered by Auranzeb, 389. Elster, battle of the, 478. Ely, capture of, 229. Emadeddin Zeuki, 215. Emancipation of the serfs in Russia, uOO. Emancipation proclamation, 558. Embargo policy of U. 8., 550. Emir-al-Mumenin, 182 ; al Omra, 210. Emmanuel Philibert, d. of Savoy, 326. Emmanuel the Great, k. of Portugal, 332, Emmet's insurrection in Ireland, 536. Emund Gammle, k. of Sweden, 208. Enactment of the delegates, iGi. Encumbered estates act, 543. Endicott, John, 295, 296. Enghien, d. of. See Cond6. Enghien, d. of executed, 465 England, ^ee Britain. Teutonic conquest, 176; West Saxon kings, 2u3; Danish su- premacy, 206 ; Norman conquest, 206 ; Norman kings, 229 ; house of Plantagenet, large possessions in France, 231 ; conquest of Ireland, 232 ; magna charta, 233 ; par- liament, 234; hundred years' war, 257; loses French possessions, 260 ; annexation of Wales, 264 ; reforms under Edward I.. 266 ; first perfect parliament, 267 ; Scot land lost, 268 ; black death, 268 ; peace Index. 17 of Bretipy, 268 ; peasant revolt, 269 ; house ol Lancaster, 270 ; wars of the Roses, 272 ; house of York, 272 ; Mettle- meuts iu America, 289, 291-298 ; house of Tudor, 333 ; secession from the Ro- man Catholic church, 336 ; house of Stuart, personal uniun with Scotland, 339 ; long parliament, 345 ; great rebel- lion, 347; execution, of Charles 1., 351; British in India, 354 ; commonwealth, 375 ; monarchy restored, 378 ; interreg- num, 384 ; revolution, 385 ; bill of rights, 386 ; war of the Spanish succession, 3S8, 390 ; protestaut succession secured, 393 ; union with Scotland, 434 ; peace of Utrecht, 435 ; house of Hanover, 436 ; war with Spain, 419, 437 ; war of the Aus- trian succession, 419, 438 ; peace of Aix- la-Chapelle, 404, 419, 438 , adoption of new style, 438 ; seven years' war, 404, 420, 438, 445 ; peace of Paris, 422, 489 ; war with the revolted American colonies, 424, 426, 440 : peace of Versailles, 432, 441 ; armed neutrality, 413, 441; British in India, 443 ; war with France, 453, 535 ; with Holland, 535; with Spain, 535; union with Ireland, 463, 536 ; Peninsula ■war, 471, 479 ; treaty of Vienna, 482, 537 ; Waterloo, 538 ; war with United States, 474, 551 ; commercial panic, Catholic emancipation, 539 ; reform act, 540 ; ab- olition of slavery, 540 ; India, 541 ; Vic- toria, 542 ; queen, sovereign of India, 644 ; Irish troubles, 645 ; India, 545. English Pale, 270, Enkoeping, battle of, 238. Enzio, k. of Sardinia, 225. Epaminondas, 71. Ephialtes, law of, 62. Ephialtes, the traitor, 59. Ephthialites, wars with Persia, 189, 190. Epigoni, war of the, 47. Epirus, 41 ; allied with Macedonia, 79 ; sub- dued by Flamininus, 119 ; punished, 121. Episcopacy in England, 338 ; restored in Scotland, 340 ; abolished, 344 ; attempt to introduce, 379 ; abolished 386 ; not introduced at the union, 434. Equity, 266. Eresburg, captured, 185 ; battle of, 195. Eretria, deserts the lonians, 28 ; captured, 57. Erfurt, assembly of princes at, 471. Erfurt, parliament of, 498. Erie canal, 552. Erigena. See Joannes Scotus. Erik, Ejegod, k. of Denmark, 208 ; Glip- ping, k. of Denmark, 236 ; Menved, k. of Denmark, 236. Erik, Blod'oxe, k. of Norway, 208 ; Graa- fell, k. of Norway, 208; Priest-hater, k. of Norway, 238. Erik Erimundsson, k. of Sweden, 208; IX., the saint, k. of Sweden, 2.37; Eriksson L(tsp€, k. of Sweden, 287; XIV. of Sweden, 352. Erik the Red, discovery and settlement of Greenland by, 209. Erikson, Leif and Thorwald, 281. Ermanarich, k. of Kast Onths, 170. Ermeland, bishopric of, 373. fimeetiue line in Saxony, 8U6. Kmst, d. of Swabia, revolt of, 198. Ernst August, k. of Hanover, 491. Erskine, lord chan., 537. Eryx, 111. E.sarhaddon, k. of Assyria, 6, 16. Espartero, 490. Essex, settled, 178. Essex, e. of, rebellion, 3.39. Essex, e. of, iu cabinet, 381 ; suicide, 882. Essling, battle at, 472. Estaing, c. d', in America, 430. Kstaples, peace of, 333. Este map, 284. Esthonia, retained by Denmark, 236; IW" nouuced by Poland, 373. Estridsen, dynasty iu Denmark, 207; ex- tinct. of, 235. Etats-Generaux, summoned by Louis XIII. the last time before 1789, 324; sum- moned by Louis XVI., 449. Ethandun," battle of, 204. Ethiopians, attacked by Seti I., 5 ; founda- tion of the kingdom of Napata, 5; con- quer Egypt, expelled by Eserhaddon, 6, 15 ; war against, 148. Etruria, kingdom of, 463. Etruscans, expel the Phocaeans from Cor- sica, 19 ; country of, 81 ; ethnography, 86; war with Rome, 95; Veil taken by Rome, 99; all southern Etruria submits to Rome, It 3; share in second Samnite war, 105 ; in the second, 106 ; peace with Rome, 108. Euboea, 41; land given to Athenians, 65; Persian ships lost at, 59 ; second division of land, 63. Euclides, laws of, 69. Eudes, c. of Paris, 201, 202. Eugene, pr., sketch of life, 370 ; war with Turks, 372; head of grand alliance, 391, 392 : war with Turks, 397, 398. Eugene, viceroy, 472. Eugenie de Montijo, 531. Eugenius, Roman emp., 161. Eugenius IV., pope, 253. Eumenes, k. of Pergamus, 76, 78 ; ally ol Rome, 119, 120, Eumolpus, 44. Eupatridae, 45, 51 , .54. Euphrates, expedition of Seti I. to, 5; Babylon built on, 12; diverted by Cy« rus,'26 ; battle of, 136. Euripides, 64. Europa, 18. Eurybiades, 69. Eurymedon, battle of the, 62. Eutaw, battle of, 431. Everett, Edward, U. S. sec, of state, 556. Eve.sham, battle of, 234, Exarchate, 175 ; given to the papacy, 184. Exchequer, reestablished, 231; closed by Charles II., 380. Exodus of the Jews, 8. Eylau, battle of, 469, Ezekiel, 11. Fabii, 97, 100, Faliius Maximufl, Q, (Cunctator), 114, 116 Rullianu-*, Q., 103, 105, 106. Fahricius, C., victory of, 107, 108. Fairfax, sir Thomas, 348, 349 ; superieded by Cromwell, 376. 18 Index. Faliero, Marino, doge of Venice, 262. Falk, 525. Falkirk, battle of, 266. Falkirk Moor, battle of, 438. Falkland, lord, 3-16, 348. Falkoeping, battle of, 237, 238. Farmer, pres., of Magdalen college, 383. Farnese, extinction of the family, 398. Fatima, 182. Fatimites, 213, 214. Faust. See Fust. Faventia, battle, 131. Favre, 512, 617. Fawkes, Guy, 340. February revolution, 492. Federalist party, 548. Fehrbellin, battle of, 368, 374. Fenelon, 371. Fenians, 545. Fen wick, condemned, 388. Feodor, tsar of Russia, 374. Ferdinand, archd. of Austria, 467. Ferdinand the Catholic, k. of Aragon, 276, 31S ; marries Isabella of Castile, 328. Ferdinand I., emp. of Austria, 491 ; abdi- cates, 495. Ferdinand, d. of Brunswick. See Bruns- wick. Ferdinand emp. of H. R. E., relation to Spain, 301. 303; reign, 306; II., 308, 309; III., 314. Ferdinand VI., k. of Spain, reign, 414 ; VII. , 479, 482, 490. Ferdinand, k. of Naples, expelled by Napo- leon, 468 ; reinsfcited. 484. Ferdinand, k. of Two Sicilies, 416. Ferdinand Joseph, of Tuscany, 416. Ferrex, 37. Ferry, Jules, ministry of, 534. Ferry Bridge, battle of, 274. Fetiales, college of, 85. Feudal system in China, 32 ; in Europe, 166 ; in Japan, 212 ; in Norway, 208 ; in England, 229, Feuillants, 451. Fidense, 88. Fiefs declared hereditary, 201. " Field of Lies," 186. Fieschi's infernal machine, 629. Fiesco, conspiracy of, 326. Fillmore, Millard, 555. Fimbria, 131. Financial crisis in U. S., 552, 553. Finch, sir H., e. of Nottingham, 380. Firbolgs, in Ireland, 39. Firdusi, 25. Fire worship, 25. Fisher's Hill, battle of, 558. Fisheries, in peace of Paris, 432 ; partially settled, 560. Fitz Peter, Geoffrey, 233. Five Forks, battle of, 559. Flaccus, L. Valerius, 130. Flaccus, M. Fulvius, 126. Flambard, Ranulf, 23a Flamines, 85. Flamininus, T. Quinctius, 119. Flaminius, 114. Flanders, independence recognized, 254; acquired by Burgundy, 329 ; ceded to Fi-ance, 456. Flavian emperors, 141. Fleix, treaty of, 822. Fletcher, gov. of New York, 862. Fleurus, battle of, 370, 456. Fleury, card., 446. Flodden Field, battle of, 334. Florence, under the Medici, 263 ; Savona rola, 327; peace of, 463; becomes capi tal of Italy, 503. Florida discovered, 284 ; ceded by Spain to England in 1763, 437 ; restored to Spain in 1783, 441 ; sold by Spain to the United States, 552 ; admitted to the Union, 554. Foix, Gaston de, 318. Fokchany, battle at, 413. Folkunger dynasty, 237. Fontainebleau, peace at, 406 ; preliminary articles, 422 ; Napoleon at, 481. Fontanetum, battle of, 186. Fontenoy, battle of, 402, 438, 446. Formosa, island of, 31 ; conquered, 390 ; re- bellion, 444 ; Japanese expedition, 664. Forster, W. E., chief sec. for Ireland, 646. Fort Christiana, 208; Donelson surren- dered, 557 ; Du Quesne, 420 ; expedition against, 421 ; Edward, construction, 421 ; Erie, captured, 551 ; Fisher, surrendered, 569; George, captured by Montcalm, 421 ; Henry, captured by Union forces, 557 ; Moultrie, see Fort Sullivan ; Ne- cessity, 420 ; Orange, built, 298 ; St. George, built, 294 {see Madras) ; Pitt, 423; Sullivan, 427; Sumter fired upon, 657; Washington, 428 ; William Henry, captured by Montcalm, 421. Forum Romanum, 82. Fossalta, battle of, 225. Fotheringay, treaty of, 274. Fouque, 405. Fouquier-Tinville, 466, 456. Fox, voyage of, 300. Fox, Charles James, sketch of life, 441; India bill, libel bill, 535 ; for. sec, 637. Fox, Henry. See lord Holland. France. See Franks. Capetian dynasty of French kingdom, capital at Paris, 202 : royal weakness, 203 ; loss of Poitouj Guyenne,and Gascony, 226 : administra- tion of Suger,226; Philip II., Augustus, crusades, 226 ; Bouvines, St. Louis, growth of royal domain, 227 ; quarre with Boniface VIII., 254; Courtrai, 254 ; Salic law, 265 ; house of Valois, 257 ; hun- dred years' war, Cr^cy, 257 ; black death, Poitiers, 258 ; peace of Bretigny, 258 •, Agincourt, 259 ; Jeanne Dare, English expelled, 260; Burgundy united with crown of France, 262 ; houses of Orleans and Angouleme, 317, 318 ; Francis I., 319; wars with Charles V., 302; house of Lorraine and Guise, 320 ; Brittany united with crown, 320 ; capture of Ca- lais, 321 ; St. Bartholomew, 321 ; wars of the Huguenots 321, 324 ; house of Bour- bon, 324; Henry IV., edict of Nantes, 324 ; last states-general, 325 : Richelieu, 325: era of Louis XIV., 365; Mazarin^ Fronde, 366 ; France in thirty years' war, 314 ; peace of Pyrenees, 366 ; peace of Nimwegen, 368 ; reunions, 368 ; revo- cation of edict of Nantes, 369 ; peace of Ryswick, 371 ; golden age of iltexa Index. 19 ture, 371 ■. war of Spanish BucrefiMon, 390 ; partition treaties, 391 , peace of Utrecht 393; Fleury's administration, 44tj ; France in Austrian succession, 400 ; eeven years' war, 404, 424 , peace of Paris, 441 ; Louis XVI., 440; France in war of American independence, 431 ; first French revolution, 448 ; storm of Bas- tile, 449; constituent, 449; legislative, 451 ; convention, 452 ; first coalition, 452 ; first republic, 453 ; directory, 457 ; second coalition, 460 , consulate, 457 ; third coa- lition, 407 ; first empire, 465 ; wars, 468, 471, 474,475; congress of Vienna, 482; hundred days, 483 ; restoration of the Bourbons, Louis XVllI., 529 ; July rev- olution, 529 ; second republic, 530 ; sec- ond empire, 531; Crimean war, 499; Franco - German, 513; third republic, 632; excesses of the socialistic com- mune, 5o2 ; fall of MacMahon, 534 ; Tonquin, 535. Franche-Comtt^, 367, 368. Francis, d. of Alen^on, 322. Francis, d. of Guise, 319, 321. Francis I., emp. of Austria, 468. Francis I., k. of France, reign, 319 ; IJ... 321, 338 Francis I., emp. of H. R. E.,402; II., 452; abdicated the crown of the H. R. E.,468. Hee Francis I., emp. of Austria. Francis II., Ic. of Two Sicilies, 503. Francis Joseph I., emp. of Austria, 495, 602, 505, 509 ; k. of Hungary, 511. Francis, Philip, 444. Francis Stephen, d. of Lorraine, 398. See Francis 1., emp, of II. R. E. Franco-German war, 513, 632. Franconia, duchy of, 181, 194, 313. Franconian or Salian emperors, 198. Frankfort, imperial chamber at, 300 ; grand duchy of, 468, 478 ; uprising, 490 ; pre- liminary parliament, 492 ; parliament re- opened, 498 ; incorporated with Prussia, 510 ; peace of, 520. Fraukland, organization of, 432. Franklin, Benjamin, 420; minister to France, 430 : death, 547. Frank-pledge, 232. Franks, Ripuarian and Salian, 170, 171; Chlodwig, ruler of, 173 ; under the Mero- wingians, 181 ; under t^tte Carolingians, 183 ; Charles the Great, 184 ; treaty of Verdun, 187 ; later Carolingians, 201 ; Northmen in F'rance, 209 ; extinction of Carolingians, 209. See France. Fratres arvales, 85. Fredegunde, 181. Frederic, burgr. of Nuremberg, 251. Frederic I., k. of Denmark and Norway, 352 ; IV., 394, 409 ; V., 409 ; VII., 505. Frederic I., Barbarossa, emp. of II. R. E., crusade, 215 ; reign, 219 ; expeditions to Italy, 219, 221, 222, 235; II., 223, 224; cession to the Danes, 235 ; charter to Schwyz,245; III. (of Austria), 247; IIL (IV.), reign of, 253. Frederic of Ilohenstaufen, 200. Frederic of IlohenzoUern, 244. Frederic the Warlike, d. of Austria, 224. Frederic the Warlike, uiarg. of Meissen, 251. Frederic the Warlike, d. of Saxony, 252. Frederic V., elector palatine, elected to throne of Bohemia, .3'J9. Frederic I., k. of Prussia, 372; IL, the Great, reign. 400 ; fir.nt t^ilesian war, 400 ; second, 402; seven years' war, 403 ; war of Bavarian succession, 406 ; league of princes, death, 408. Frederic VIII., d. of Schleswig-IIolstein, 505. Frederic, d. of Swabia, 218, 219. Frederic of llesse-Caesel, k. of Sweden, 396, 409. Frederic Charles, pr. of Prussia, 605, 506, 608, 509, 514, 518. Frederic William, el. of Brandenburg (tho great elector;, accession, 314 ; peace of Vossem, 367 ; Fehrbellin, 368 ; Polish affairs, 373; Silesian duchies, 401. Frederic William I., k. of Prussia, 397; death, 398; II., 451; III., 459; con- quered by Napoleon, 469 ; appeal to the people, 475, 476 ; war of liberation, 477 ; in London, 482; IV., 491 ; declines the German crown, 497 ; death, 503. Frederic William, crown pr. of Prussia, war with Austria, 608 ; with France, 514. Fredericia, siege of, 496. Fredericksburg, battle of, 557. Free soil party, 555. Preedmen's bureau, 559. Freiburg, battle of, 406; treaty of (la pais pcrpetuelle), 319. French revolution, 443. See, also, France, and Table of Contents, p. vi. French settlements in America, 363. Frey Yngve, k. of Sweden, 208. Freycinet, ministry of, 634, 535. Fribourg. See Freiburg. Fridigern, k. of West Goths, 171. Friedewaid, treaty of, 305. Fried land, battle of, 469. Friedrichsburg, peace of, 396. Friedrichshall, siege, 396. Friedrichsham, peace of, 473. Friedrichstadt, storm of, 497. Frobisher, Martin, voyages, 2S9. Frode the Peaceful, k. of Denmark, 207. Fronde, old and new, 366. Frontenac, gov. of Canada, 362, 364. F'rontieres naturelles, 513. Fuca, Juan de la, 290. Fugitive slave act of 1793, 648 ; revived in 1850, 555. Fujiwara, family of, 212, 213, 243. F'ulco of Anjou, k. of Jerusalem, 214. Fulton, Robert, 486, 650. Fulvius, M., 126. Fulvius Flaccus, Q., 118. Furrukabad, 641. F'iirstenwalde, treaty of, 249. Fushimi, battle of, 563. Fiissen, separate peace of, 402. Fust, Johann, 253. Gabelle, 258. Gades, Phoenician colony, 17 ; capture bj Scipio, 117, 141. Gadsden purchase, 666. Gackwars, 443. Gaels, 38, 176. 20 Index. QttStsL. siege of, 503. Gag resolutions, 553. Gage, general, gov. of Massachusetts, 425. Gaillard, CMteau, erection, 226, 232; fall, 227. Galatia, 35, 37, 78. Galba, Sulpicius, Roman emp., 151. Galerius, 158, 159. Galilaea, 7, 11. Galileo Galilei, 327. Gallas, 313, 315. Gallatin, Albert, U. S. sec. of treas., 549. Gallia Oisalpina, 81, 144. Gallia Narbonensis, 36; Roman province, Gallienus, 156, 157. Gallus, Roman emp,, 156. Gama, Vasco da, 279, 353. flambetta, in opposition, 512 ; member of national defense, 517, 518, 519 ; speaker, 534 ; ministry, 534 ; death, 535. Garay, gov. of Jamaica, 285. Gardiner, lord chan., 336. Garfield, James A., pres. U. S., 560. Garibaldi, invades Lombardy, Sicily, 502 ; death, sketch of life, 526. Garigliano, battle, 318. Garrison, William Lloyd, 553. Gasca, Pedro de, pres. of Peru, 288. Gascony (Gascogne), 182 ; gained and lost with Eleanor, 226, 231 ; ceded to Eng- land, 258 ; lost by England, 260. Gaspee, destroyed, 425. Gaspereaux, 421. Gast, Pierre du, 290. Gastein, treaty of, 506. Gates, general, succeeds Schuyler; Bur- goyne surrenders to, 429 ; defeated by Comwallis, 430. Gaugamela, battle of, 29, 74. Gauls, geography, religion, 34 ; civiliza- tion, chronology, emigrations, 35 ; con- quest of Gaul by Caesar, ending 51 b. c, 36, 138 ; in Asia Minor, 78 ; invade La- tium, 100 ; w^ars with Rome, 103 ; Cisal- pine Gaul subjugated, 118 ; Cispadane and Transpadane Gauls Latinized, 118. Gaurus, battle of, 104. Gauta, 237. Gaveston, Piers, 267. Geert, c. of Ilolstein, 236. Gelimer, 174. Bellius Egnatius, 106. Gelon, tyrant of Syracuse, 20. Genealogies. Angouleme, 318. Anjou, 201. Augustus, family of, 148. Bonaparte family, 466. Bourbon, Louis IX., to Henry III., 323 ; Henry IV. to " Henry V.," 628. Brittany, descent of, 320. Brunswick, 43(3. Buckingham, 275. Burgundy, 261,329. Oleves-Jiihch, 307. County Palatine, 369. Denmark, 2-39. England, sovereigns from Ecgbehrt to Henry III., 228 ; succession in 1553- 1603, 337 ; descendants of Geo, III., Flanders, counts of, 228. France, succession in 1328, 256. France, succession from Louis VIII. to Charles VIII.. 261. Guise, 320 Hanover or Brunswick, 436. Hapsburg, 301. Hapsburg, German branch, 309. Hohenstaufen, 220. HohenzoUern, since the assumption ot the royal title, 515. Lancaster and York, 273. Lorraine, 320. Naples, kings of, 261. Normandy, dukes of, 228. Norway, sovereigns of, 239. Orleans, 318. Portugal, illegitimate house of Burjran- dy, 332. Russia, descendants of Alexis, 410. Scottish succession, 265, Spanish succession, 390. Sweden, sovereigns of, 239. Valois, 257. Welfs, 220. General fundamentals, 297. General warrants, 440. Geneva annexed to France, 460 ; restored to Switzerland, 483 ; treaty of, 319. Gengis Khan. See Jenghiz Khan. Genji. See Minamoto. Genoa, war with Venice, 262 ; government, 263, 326 ; republic of, 415 ; transformed into Ligurian republic, 459; given to Sardinia, 483. Genseric conquered Carthage, 172. Geoffrey of Anjou, 230 ; of Monmouth, 235. George I. k. of England, 436; death of, 437; IL, 403, 437 ; III., 439; insanity, 537 ; death, 538 ; IV., 538, 539. George, k. of Greece, 505. George Podiebrad, k. of Bohemia, 253. George William, el. of Brandenburg, 311. Georgia, in America, settlement of, 418, 420 ; Spanish attack upon, 419 ; pro- vincial gov. restored, 430 ; Sherman's march through, 558. Georgia, in Europe. See Iberia. Gepidae, 175. Gerbert, archb. of Rheims, 202. See Syl- vester II. Gergovia, siege of, 139. Germania magna, 163, 167. Germanicus, expeditions, 149, 167. Germantown, battle of, 429. Germany, geography, 162 ; high and low Germans, 163 ; ancient religion, 164 ; civ- ilization, 166 ; early history, 167 ; futile attempt of Rome to subdue, 148 ; habita- tions of the tribes in 4th cent., a. d. 170 ; migrations and settlements, 170-175; Prankish empire under Merovvingians, 181 ; under Carolingians, 183 ; Charles the Great, 184 ; renewal of the Roman em- pire, 185 ; treaty of Verdun, separation of French and German nationalities, 187 ; Carolingians in Germany, 193 ; Saxon house, 194 ; Ho/y Roman empire, 196 ; Frankish, or Swabian emperors, 198 ; in vestiture strife, 199 ; concordat of Worms, 201; house of Hohenstaufen, 219; Bar Index, 21 l)ftro88a,219; Welf and WaibHnj?en (IIo- lienstaufen), 223 : iutcrreguum, 225 ; Ku- (lolf of llap.>iburg, 244 ; Ludwij,' and Frederic, 247 ; Luxemburg emperors, golden bull, 248; city leagues, 24y ; council of Constance, 251 ; house of Ilapsburg, 253; Max, 300; reformation, 301; Charles V, 302; peace of Augs- burg, o06 ; anti-reformation, 306 ; thirty years' war, 308 ; peace of Westphalia, 815; Leopold 1., 371; war of the i«pan- ish succession, 390 ; pragmatic sanction, 893 ; Polish succession, 398 ; male line of Hapsburg extinct, 400 ; war of Austrian Buccesfion, Maria Theresa, and Frederic the Great of Prussia, 400 ; seven years' war, 403 ; Joseph II. , 407 ; war with first French republic, 453; peace of Lune- ■ville, 462; enactment of imperial dele- gates, 464 ; end of the Holy Roman em- pire, 468. Confederation of the Rhine, 468 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; establishment of the German confederation, 483 ; reactionary measures in Germany, 487, 490 ; founda- tion of the Zollverein, 491 ; Gottingen professors expelled, 491 ; reTolutionary movements, 492 ; national assembly, 493 ; constitution completed, 497 ; conference at Olmiitz, 498 ; confedenition renewed, 498 ; German (Austro-Prussian) war, 5t'7 ; North Uerman confederation, 510, 511 ; Franco-German war, 513 ; capture of Paris, 519 ; German empire founded, 519, 520; Kulturkampf, 521, 525; congress of Berlin, 524 ; tobacco monopoly de- feated, 526. Gero, margr., 194, 195. Gerontes, 50. Gerson, 251. Gertruydenburg, 393. Gessler, 246 Geta, 155. Gettysburg, battle of, 558. Ghazni, supremacy of the sultans of, 211. Ghent, pacification of, 331 ; peace of, 474, 537, 551. Ghibel lines, 219. Gibraltar, whence named, 183 n. ; taken by English, 392, 434 ; ceded to England, 437 ; defended bv Elliott, 440. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 289, Gilbert, Raleigh, 293. Ginkell, 387. Girondists, party, 451 ; execution of, 456. Giselbert, 195. Glabrio, M. Acilius, 119, 135. Gladiators, war of the, 133. Gladstone, W. E., 542; chancellor of the exchequer, 643, 544 ; Ist administration, 545 ; 2d administration, 546. Glasgow, general assembly at, 344. Glaucia, C. Servilius, praetor, 128. Glencoe, massacre of, 387. Glendower, Owen, revolt of, 270. Gloucester, d. of, protector, 271. Gloucester, d. of, 274; becomes king Rich- ard III., 275. Gneisenau, defeats Kolberg, 469; reforms the army, 471 ; at Waterloo, 484. 3nesen, archbishopric, 197- Qoa,358. Goben, gen. von,519L Oo-D.iigo, 243. Goderich, lord, premier, 539. Godfrey of Bouillon, 213, 214. Godfrey, k. of Denmark, 207. Godfrey the Bearded, d. of Lotharingia, 199. Godfrey, Sir Edmondbury, 381. Godolphin, e. of, in council, 382; cham« berlain, 383 ; lord high trea8.,4S3; dis- missed, 435. Godoy, 470. Godwine, e. of Wessex, 206. Goffe, 359, 3tj0. Goidelic Celts, 37. Golconda kingdom, 353 ; annexed to Mu» ghal empire, 389 ; Nizam of, 443 Golden bull, of II. R. E., 248 ; of Hungary 277. Golden rule enunciated bv Confucius, 31, Giillheim, battle of, 245, 246. Gomez, Estevan, voyage of, 286. " Good " parliament, 269. Gordianus 1., II., III., Roman emp., 166; Persian exp., 188. Gordias, kings of Phrygia, 22. Gordon assists Peter the Great, 374. Gordon, col. (" Chinese"'), suppresses Tai- ping rebellion, 662. Gordon, lord George, 440. Gorges, sir Fernando, 295-297. Gorgey, 495. Gorkhas, conquest by Chinese, 444. Gorm the Old, k. of Denmark, 207. Gortschakofif, in Sebastopol, 500 ; retires, 526. Gorz, baron von, 396, 406. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 290, 291. Goths, 164 ; location, 170 ; defeated by De- cius, 156 ; Goths in Sweden, 208. See Gauta, East Goths, West Goths. Gourges, Dominique de, 289. Graagaas, 209. Gracchus, Caius, attempts revolutionary reforms, 124 ; tribune, 125 ; death, 126. Gracchus, Tiberius, victory over the Celti- berians, 118. Gracchus, Tiberius Sempronius, attempts revolutionary reforms, 124. Grafton, d. of, 424; administration, 424, 440. Granada, kingdom of, 275 ; conquest of, 276. Grand alliance between England, Holland, and others, 370, 391. Grand remonstrance presented to Charles I., 346. Granicus, battle of the, 74. Granson, battle of, 262. Grant, U. S., takes Fort Donelson, 567; Vicksburg, 658; lieut.-gen., 558; Lee capitulates to, 569 ; president of U. S. 560. Granvella, b., 330. Grasse, de, 441. Gratianus, Roman emp., 160. Gravamina ecclesiastica, 317. Gravelines, battle of, 321. Gravelotte, battle of, 616. Great Britain. See England. Great contract, 341. Great protwtation, 842. 22 Index, Great rebellion, in England, 347; In the United States, 557. Great wall of China, 32. Great war of liberation, 475. Greece, geography, 39; religion, 41; my- thological history, 43 ; Thessalian and Dorean migrations, 47; early constitu- tions, 50, 52 ; Persian wars, 28, 56-60 ; "*iegemony of Sparta, 56 ; hegemony of Uhens, 61 ; age of Pericles, 64 ; Pelopon- aesian war, 64-69 ; hegemony of Sparta, o9 ; hegemony of Thebes, 70 ; rise of Macedonia, 71 ; Macedonian supremacy, 73 ; empire of Alexander, 73-76 , strug- gles of the Diadochi, 76; formation^of separate kingdoms, 77 ; Lamian war, 79 ; Achaean and ^tolian leagues, 79 ; de- clared independent, 119 ; Macedonia, Roman province, 122 ; Achaia, Roman province, 147 ; Morea, conquered by Ven- ice, 372 ; by Turks, 397, 416 ; war of in- dependence, 488 ; revolution, 505. Greek colonies, 19, 2U. Greene, gen., 431. Greenland, discovery of, 209, 280. Gregorian calendar introduced, 327 ; adopted by England, 420, 438. Gregory I., pope, 175 ; VI., 199 ; VII. (Ilil- debrand), 199, 200 ; IX., 224 ; XII., 251 ; abdicated, 252 ; XIII.. reformed the cal- endar, 3k!7 ; XVI., 492. Grenville, George, prime minister, 423; leader of Commons, 439. Grenville, lord, prime minister, 637. Grenville, sir Richard, 289. Grt^vy, Jules, pres. of the French republic, 634. Grey.e., prime minister, 539 ; resigned, 540. Grey, lady Jane, 336. Grijalva, Juan de, 285. Grimoald, 175. Grochow, battle of, 490. Grodno, diet of, 413. Grosbeeren, battle of, 477. Gross-Gorschen, battle of, 476. Grossjjigerndorf , battle of, 404. Grumbach, execution of, 306. Guadaloupe, Hidalgo, treaty of, 554. Guanahani, its identification, 282. Guastalla, house of, 311,416. Guatimozin, k. of Mexico, 285. Gu^briant, French marshal, 314. Guelfs. See Welfs. Guesclin, Bertrand du, 259, 276. Gueux, 330. Guilford, battle of, 431. Guinegate, " battle of the spurs," 319, 334. Guinea captured from the English, 321. Guise, house of, 319,321. Guizot, 527 ; ministry of, 497, 529 ; with Soult, 530 Gunpowder lirst used, 279. Gunpowder plot, 340. Gunther of Schwarzburg, 248. Guntram, 181. Guptas in India, 24, 210. Gurko, 522, 523. Sustavus I., Vasa, k. of Sweden, 352 ; II., Adolphus, reign in Sweden, 362 ; in the thirty years' war, 311 ; death of, 312 ; III., 409 ; IV., abdication of, 472. Gutenberg, John, early printer, 253. Guthorm, 204. Guy of Lusignan, k. of Jerusalam, 214, 215, 216. Guyenne, transferred from France to Eng- land, 226, 231 ; ceded to England, 258 ; lost, 260. See Aquitania. Guzerat, expedition of Mahmud to, 211; conquest of, 241 : Afghan kings, 353. Gyges, k. of Lydia, 6, 21. Gylippus, 67. Gyulay,502. Habeas corpus act, 381 ; suspended, 388, 535, 536, 538 ; in Ireland, 544. Hadrian, Roman emp., revolt of Jews un- der, 12, 37 ; reign, 153 ; in Britain, 176. Hafurstfjord, battle of, 208. Ilagelberg, battle of, 477. "Tf ^Hague, convention of the, 396. ttaidar Ali of Mysore, 442, 444. ' Haidarabad, nizam of, 443. Hakem II., 209. Hakodate, battle of, 563. Hakon, k. of Norway, 208 ; IV., 238 ; V., 238 ; VII., 237, 238 ; VIII.. 238. Hakon Jarl, k. of Norway, 208. Hale, Nathan, 428. Hales, sir Edward, 3^3. llalfdan the Black, k. of Norway, 208. Haliartus, battle of, 70 Halifax, member of council, 381 ; in oppo- sition, 3S2 ; pres. of council, 383 ; pres. of provisional council, 3S5 ; resigns, 387 ; impeached, 338 ; not in council, 433 ; whig leader, 435 ; first lord of treas. 436. Halifax, e. of, sec. of state, 439. Ilalland, 236, 238. Halys, 21, 134. Hamburg, free city, 222 ; conquered by Knut VI., 235 ; alliance with Liibeck, 249 ; Davout in, 476 ; siege of, 479 ; peace of, 405. Hamilcar, 20. Hamilear Barak or Barcas, 111, 113. Hamilton, Alexander, 547, 649. Hampden, John, refuses to pay ship money, 344 ; impeached, 346 ; death, 347. Hampden clubs, 538. Hampton court conference, 340. Han, dynasty in China, 32 ; later Han, 211. Hanau, battle at, 478. Hancock, John, 424. Hanging gardens in Babylon, 12. Hannibal, destroys Saguntum, 113 ; crosses the Alps, 113 ; arouses the Gauls, 35, 114 ; Canna3, 115 ; before the gates of Rome, 110 ; leaves Italy, 117 ; defeated at Zama, 118 ; received by Antiochus, 119 ; death, 120. Hanover, ninth electorate, 372 ; treaty with Sweden, -396 ; allied with Prussia, 404 : treaty with England, 437 ; receives Osnabriick, 465 ; Prussia receives H., 467 ; Napoleon wishes to take away, 468 ; occupied by French, 469 ; becomes king- dom under Geo. HI. of England, 53ai ; separation from Great Britain, 491, 542 ; invaded by Prussians, 508 ; incorporated with Prussia, 510. Hanseatic cities annexed to France, 473. Hanseatic league, 237, 249. Ilapsburg counts in Switaerland, 2i&. Index. 23 Hapsburg, house of, 253; male line ex- tinct, 4U0 ; deposition, 495. Harilekuut. Set Ilartliacnut. Hanleuberg, 457,482. Hardiuge, pir Henry, gov. gen. in India, 646. Ilarley, Robert, speaker, 388, 433; dis- niinKcd from cabinet, 434 ; attempted as- sassination, 435 ; created earl of Oxford and Mortimer, 435. Harmodiu.s, 54. Harold Hildetand, k. of Denmark, 207; Blue-tooth, k. of Denmark, 207; Htyn, k. of Denmark, 208. Harold I., Harefoot (son of Cnut), k. of England, 206; II. (sow of Godwine), 206. Harold Haarfager, k. of Norway, 208; Hardrada, k. of Norway, invaded Eng- land, 206; war with Denmark, 207 ; founds Opsla, 209 ; GiUe, k. of Norway, 238 Haroun-al-Rashid, 186, 210. Harpagus, 26. Harrison, \Vm. II., pres. of U. S., 554. Hartford convention, 551. Hanhacnut, k. of England, 206 ; k. of Den- mark (Ilardeknut), 207. Hartington, marquis of, sec. for India, 546. Harvard College, 297. Hasdrubal, in Spain, 113; defeated, 115; death, 117. Hasdrubal, son of Gisgo, 117. Hastenbeck, battle of, 404. Hastings, battle of, 206. Hastings, Warren, sketch of life of, gov.- gen. of India, 444. Hatto, archb. of Mainz, 194. Havana, surrendered to English, 422 ; re- stored to Spain, 423. Hawaii, 442. Hayes, R. B., pres. of the United States, 560. Haynau, 495, 496, 498. Hayne, colonel, 553. Heathfield, battle of, 179. Herbert, 451, 454, 455. Hebrides, conquest of, 209. Hector, 47. Hegemony of Argos, 48 ; of Sparta, 56, 69 ; of Athens, 61 ; of Thebes, 70 ; of Mace- donia, 73. Hegira, 182. Hei. See Ueike. Heidelberger Stallung, 250. Heike. See Taira. Heilbronn, league of, 313. Heinrich Raspe, 225. Heinsius, A., 391. Helena, 47. Heliasts, 53. Heliogabalus. See Elagabalua. Heliopolis, battle of, 463. Helle, 46. Hellen, 43. Heiluland, 281. Helot?, 50; revolt, 62. Hel.-^ingborg, battle of, 249. Helvetian republic, 460. Helvetius, 448. Helvoetsluys, 384. Uemmiug, k. of Denmark, 207. Ilengestesdun, battle of, 181, 203. lleiigist, 177. lleum-pin, discovers Mississippi, 364. Henry, d. of Anjou. See Henry III., k. of France. Henry the Bastard, k. of Castile, 276. Henry the Quarrelsome, d. of Bavaria, 196, 197 ; the Fraud, d. of Bavaria, 218, 21y; Jasoinirtiott, d. of Bavaria, 21'J. Henry I., k. of England, reign, 230; II., Benuderc, acquired I'oitou, Guyenne, and Gascony by marriage, 226; reign, 231 ; conquest of Ireland, Becket, 282 ; III. of England, reign, 234; IV. (d. of Lancaster), reign, 270 ; V., war with France, 259; reign, 271; VI. in France, 259; reign, 271; captared, 277; put to death, 274 ; VII. (e. of Richmond), 275; reign, 333 ; VIII., alliance with Charles v., 305 ; reign, 334 ; head of church, 335. Henry I.,k. of France, 203 ; II., treaty with Charles V., 305; reign, 319 ; acquisition of Brittany, 320 ; of Calais, Metz, Toul, and Verdun, 321 ; III., reign, 322 ; k. of Poland, 352; IV. (Navarre), part in the wars of religion, 322 ; reign, 324 ; '' V.," 533. Henry I., k. of Germany, 194, 195 ; II. (the Saint), emp. H. R. E., 197, 198; III. (the Black), 199 ; IV., 199, 200 ; V., 201 ; VI., 222, 223; VII., 245. Henry of Champagne, k. of Jerusalem, 216. Henry of Guise, 321. Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV., k. of France. Henry of Plauen, 277. Henry, k. of Portugal, 240, 332. Henry, pr. of Prussia, 406, 407. Henry, e. of Richmond. See Henry VII. of England. Henry the Lion, d. of Saxony, 219; fiefs forfeited, 222 ; war with Henry VI., 223. Henry the Navigator, 276, 279. Henry, pr. of Wales, death of, 34L IIenry,Patrick, 424, 426. Henrvfi, war of the three, 322. Heraclea, battle of, 108. Heracles, 45. Heraclidae, Lydian dynasty, 21 ; Dorian dynasty, 45 ; conquest of the Pelopon- nesus, 48 ; kings of Sparta, 50. Heraclius, Grecian emp., 191. Herbert, adm.,384. Herbert of Vermandois, 202. Herbois, Collot d", 453, 454, 466. Herculaneum, 83, 152. Hercules. See Heracles. Herdonius, 97. Hereward, 229. Hermandad, 328. Hermann of Balk, 218 ; of Salm, 200 ; of Salza, 218 ; BiUung, marg. of Schleswig, 195. Hermann, d. of Swabia, 197. Hermanrich. See Ermauarich, 170. Hermanstadt, battle of, 495. Hermiuones, 163, 1G4. Hermuuduri, 104, 1('>7, 1C8. Hermus, battle on the, 26. Hernici join Latin league, 97 ; war with Rome, 103 ; Hernician league dissolvedi 106. 24 Index, Herod (the Great), k. of Judea, 11. Herod Agrippa, I., k. of Judea, 11. Uerrenhauseu, alliance of, 398. Herzegovina, revolt, 521 ; given to Aus- tria, 524 ; disturbance in, 525 ; sup- pressed, 526. Hesse, origin, 225, 492. Hesse-Cassel, in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; becomes an electorate, 464 ; not in con- federacy of the Rhine, 468 ; revolution in, 492 ; invaded by Prussians, 504 ; in- corporated with Prussia, 510. Hesse-Darmstadt, joins confederacy of the Rhine, 468; joins allies, 479. Hia, dynasty of, in China, 31. Hideyoshi, government of, 355,356. Iliempsal, 126. Hienfung, 561. Hiero, k. of Syracuse, 110, 115. Hieroglyphics, 3. High Commission, 346. Hildebrand. Set Gregory VII. Himera, battle of, 20. Hincmar of Rheims, 201. Hindus. See India. Hipparchus, 54. Hippias, 54, 57. Hippo, 17, 19. Hiram, k. of Tyre, 18. Hirhor, k. of Egypt, 5. Hirtius, 144. Hispania, citerior, 118 ; ulterior, 118, 141. Histieeus of Miletus, 28. Hobkirk's Hill, battle of, 431. Hoche, 455, 457 ; expedition to Ireland, 536. Hochelaga. See St. Lawrence. Hochkirch, battle of, 405. Hochst, battle of, 310. Hochstadt, battle of. See Blenheim. Hofer, Andreas, 471, 472. Hohenfriedberg, battle of, 402. Hohenlinden, battle of, 462. Hohenstaufen, house of. See Frederic of H., 219, 220. Hohenzollern. See Frederic, burggrave of Nuremberg, 244 ; acquires Brandenburg ; in Prussia, 302 ; in thirty years" war, 311, 812 ; in peace of Westphalia, 316 ; kings of Prussia, 372 ; in the north and east, un- der the great elector, 368, 373, 374 ; gene- alogy, 515 ; emperors of Germany, 519. Hohenzoilern, pr. of, 512, 513. Hojeda, Alonzo de, 283, 284. Hojo, familv of, 243. Holbach,448. Holkar, 443, 541. Holland, kingdom of, under Louis Bona- parte, 468 ; merged in kingdom of the Netherlands, 483 ; separated from Bel- gium, 439. iS^ejalso, Netherlands. Holland, lord, 439, 441. Holies, impeachment of, 346, 351. Holstein, given to Adolf of Schaumberg, 218 ; Adolf capt. by Knut VI. of Den- mark, cedes H. to Waldemar, II., k. of Denmark, 235 ; ceded to Adolf the young, 235 ; peace of Travendal, 394 ; united with Denmark, 409 ; war with Denmark, 496 ; occupied by the German confedera- tion, 505 ; united with Prussia, 610. Holstein-Gottorp, d. of, 394, 397. Holstein-Gottorp, house of in Sweden, 409,* in Russia, 411. Holy alliance, 485 •, Monroe's attitude coa- cerning, 562. Holy league against France, 300, 318, 326, 334. Holy league in France, 322. Holy Roman Empire, revival of Roman ens pire under Otto, 196 ; end of, 462, 468. See Gei-many. Holy wars, I., 52 ; II., 71 ; III., 72. Homer, 49. Homildon Hill, battle of, 270. Hone, acquittal of, 538. Honorius, Roman emp., 38, 161. Honorius III., pope, 224. Hooker, gen., 557, 558. Hoorn, c. von, executed, 330. Hophra, k. of Egypt, 6. Hopital, de 1', 321. Horatii, 89. Horatius, laws of, 98. Horatius, Flaccus, Q., 83, 147. Horatius, Marcus, 93. Horatius Codes, 95. Hormisdas I., emp. of Persia, 188 , II., 188 '- IV., 191. Hormuz, battle of, 187. Hormuzan, 192. Horn, Gustavus, 312. Horsa, 177. Hortensius, dictator, 107. Hospitalers. See Knights of St. John. Hotel de Ville destroyed, 533. Hotham, adm., 484. Hotspur. See Percy. Howe, lord, occupies Philadelphia, 429. Howick, first lord of the admiralty, 637 ; sec. of war, 640. See earl Grey. Hubert de Burgh, 234. Hubertsburg, peace of, 406. Hudson Bay Company, incorporation of, 358. Hudson's Bay, discovery of, 299, 363. Hudson, Henry, voyage of, 298. Hudson river, 294, 298. Hugh the White, d. of France, 202. Hugh Capet, k. of France, 202. Huguenot colony in America, 288. Huguenots, wars of the, 321. Humbert I., k. of Italy, 524. Humboldt, W. von, 477, 482, 487. Hundred days in France, 526. Hundred years' war, 257. Hungary, occupied by Magyars, 193,277; Hungarians ravage Germany, 194 ; de- feated by Henry, 195; and Otto (Lech- feld), 196 ; lose Styria to Bohemia, 244 ; emp. Albert, II., k. of, 253; history to 1490, 277 ; golden bull, 277 ; H. united with Bohemia and secured to emp. Max., 278 ; war with Turks (Mohacs), disputed election, 303 ; Ferdinand I., elected k., 306 ; succession secured to Hapsburg, 372 ; Maria Theresa, q. of H., 400 ; Mo- riamur, etc., disputed, 401, n. ; revolt under Kossuth, 494 ; constitution abol- ished, 496 ; Feb. constitution, 504; con- stitution of H. restored, Austrian emp., k. of H. 511. Hung Sui-tsuen, leader of the Tai-ping re beUion, 661 ; suicide, 562. Index, 25 Buns cross the Volga, 170 ; under Attila, 173. Hunyadi, John, k. of Hungary, 278. Hurous, 364. ilusain Ali, 442. Huskissou, 539. iluss, Jolin, 252. Hussite war, 252. Hutchinson, gov. of Mass, 424, 425. llutten, Ulrich Ton, 3U2. Hwang-ho, in China, 30 ; first settlements of Chinese made along, 31. Hydaspes, battle of, 75. Hyde, Anne, 3S3. Hyde, sir Edward. See Clarendon, earl of. Hyder Ali. Set Haidar Ali. Hyksos, 4. Hyphasis, 75. Hyrcanus, 136. lapygians, 85. Iberia, 34, 188. Iberville, 362. Ibrahim Pasha, 488, 491. Iceland, settled by Northmen, 280 ; con- quered by Hakon V., of Norway, 238. Iconium, sultanate of, 210. Iconoclasts, 210. Ida, *' the flame bearer," 178. Idistaviso, battle of, 149. Idstedt, battle of, 497. Ilerda, 141. Illinois, 364 ; admitted to the Union, 552. Illiturgi, battle of, 115. Illyrian provinces, 472. Illyrians, war with Rome, 112 ; conquered, 121. Imperial chamber, 300. Impositions, 340. Imprisonment for debt abolished in Eng- land, 545. Inaros, 28. Independents, 349, 350. India, visited by Tyrians, 18 ; geography, early religion, 22 ; arrival of Hindus in the Punjab, 22; settlement and con- quest, 23 , castes, ib. ; rise of Brahmism, ib. ; of Buddhism, ib. ; invasion of Alex- ander, 23, 75 ; Bactrian rulers, 24 ; Scyth- ians, Guptas, ib.; early history, 210; sul- tans of Ghazni, of Ghor, 211 ; sultans of Delhi, Timur Shah, 241 ; western route to India, 2S2 ; Mughal empire, 353 ; Portuguese, Dutch, English in I., East India companies, 354 ; Aurangzeb, 389 ; decline of Mughal empire, M2 ; Mah- ratta power, 443 ; British in India, Black, Hole, 443 ; Clive, Hastings, 444 , East India Company subordinated to government, 442 ; Cornwallis and Wel- Ungton ; Mahratta wars, 541 ; queen of England proclaimed sovereign of India, 544 ; Afghan wars, 546, 547 ; Sepoy re- bellion, 546 , government transferred to crown, 544 ; famine, 547. India bill, 535. Indians of America ; rapid disappearance from VVest Indies, 284 ; .lohn Smith cap- tured by, 291 ; intercourse with Plym- outh colony, 295 ; Pequot war, 297 ; Champlain among, 299 ; John Eliot ajmong, 357 \ Uurous massacred by Iro- quois, 357 ; King Philip's war, 359 ; Peun's treaty, 360, Kiug William's war, 361 , Queen Anne's war, Deerheld de- stroyed, 363 ; FreucU among tlie ilurons. wars with Iroquois, 364 ; war in Caro- lina, and New England, 417 ; old French and Indian war, 42U ; conspiracy of i ou- tiac, 423; Wyoming massacre, 43U; In- dian war, 547; Seminole war, 552, 553. Indo-European family. Introduction, x., 85, 86. Ine, kiug of Wessex, 180. luge Baardsen, k. of Norway, 238. lngebord,'220, 235, 238. Ingjald lU-raada, k. of Sweden, 208. lng;evones, 1(33. Inkermaun, battle of, 500. Innocent III., pope, originates tht. 4th crusade, 216 ; obtains Matliilda's estates from Otho IV., 223; contest with John of England, 233 , IV., 2:^5. Inquisition, establishment of, bv Gregory IX., 227; by Paul 111., 3'27 ; in Spain, 330. Interim of Augsburg, 305. International postal congress, 521 Interregnum in the Holy Roman Empire, 225 ; in England, 384. Intibili, battle of, 116. Inverlochv, battle of. 348 Investiture strife, 200, 201. Ionian Islands, retained by Venice, 326; occupied by French, ceded to France, 459; Republic of the Seven I. I. 461; forms a part of the Illyriun provinces, 472 ; protectorate over, given to Eng- land, 483 ; ceded to Greece, 505, 544. lonians in Greece, 43 ; colonize Asia Mi- nor, 49 ; subdued by Croesus, 21 ; revolt from Persia, 28. Ipsus, battle of, 77. Iran, plateau of, 12; subjugated by Tiglath- Pileser II., 14; inhabited by Bactrians, Medes, Persians, 24 ; attacked by Assyr- ians, 25 ; conquered by Cyrus, 26 ; sul- tanate of, 210. Ireland, ancient, geography, religion, and civilization, 38 ; mythical history, 38, 39; Norwegians take Dublin, 209; con- quered by Henry II., 232 ; English Pale, 270 ; statute of Drogheda, 333 ; rebellion of Tyrone, 339; government of Went- worth (Strafford), 344 ; Ulster rebellion. 346, 348 ; Cromwell in Ireland, storm of Drogheda, 375; war for James 11., 386; battle of the Boyue, 387 ; treaty of Limerick, ib. ; Iri.-;h catholic laws, 4-33 , United Irishmen, 536; union with Great Britain, ib. : Irish reform act, 540 ; fam- ine of 1846-47, 543 ; uprising under OBrien, ib. ; habeas corpus act suspend- ed, 544; disestablishment of the Irish (Episcopal) church, 545; land league, ib. ; coercion act, land act, 546. Irene, 210. Ire ton, 376. Iroquois, war with Hurons and Canada 364. See Indians of America. Isaac, 7. Isaac Angelus, Grecian emp., 216. Isabeau of Bavaria, 259 Isabella heiress of Castile 276 328. 26 Index. Isabella II , q. of Spain, claims of ,490, 512. Isagoras, 55. Isdigerd I., k. of Persia, 189 ; II., 189 ; III. , 192, 193. Isis, Egyptian goddess, 3. Islam, 182. Isle of Sable, 290. Ismail, 413. Israel, a separate kingdom, 9 ; contest over idolatry, ib. ; tributary to Assyrians, 10; destroyed by Sargon, 10, 14. Issus, battle of, 74. Istaevones, 163. Istar, Ph(jcnician goddess, 13, 14, 16. Isthmian festival, 42. Italia, federal republic of, 129. Italy, geographical survey of, 81 ; ethno- graphical sketch, 85 ; ancient history, see Rome ; Odovaker, ruler, 173 ; East Goths, Theodoric, 174; Langobards in Lombardy, papacy, 175 ; Charles the Great, king of Italy, 184 ; Carolingians in Italy, 193 ; Berengar of Ivrea,195; Otto, II. III., in Italy, 197 ; Orescentius, ib. ; Normans in Italy, 199; Frederic Barba- rossaand the Lombard cities, Quelfs and Ghibelins, 221 ; peace of Constance, 222 ; Frederic II., in Sicily, 224,225; Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France, 262 ; league of Cambray, 300 ; holy league, 300, 318 ; campaigns of Napoleon in Italy, 458 ; Cisalpine and Ligurian and Roman republics founded, 459 ; Par- thenopaean republic founded, 460 ; abol- ished, 461 ; Roman republic abolished, 461 ; Napoleon in Italy, 46:^ ; Cisalpine and Ligurian republics recognized, 463 ; Napoleon president of Italian (Cisalpine) republic, 464 ; Napoleon king of Italy, Ligurian republic incorporated with France, 467 ; Italy restored to its condi- tion before 1789, 483 ; absolutism, 488 ; uprisings suppressed by Austrians, 490 ; Austro-Sardinian war, 494 ; liberation of Italy, Garibaldi, 502 ; Victor Emmanuel king of Italy, 503 : war with Austria, Venice acquired, 510 ; recognized as sixth great power, 511 ; Rome the capital, 520 ; dissolution of monasteries, 520 ; electo- ral reform act, 626. See, also, Florence, Genoa, Naples, Papal States, Sardinia, Sicily, Tuscany, Venice. Ithome, 51. Iturbide, emp. of Mexico, 488. Ivan, brother of Peter the Great, 374. Ivan Til., the Great, of Russia, 277. Ivan IV. (or VI.), 411. Ivar Vidfadme, k. of Skaania, 208. Ivry, battle of, 324. Jackson, Andrew, pres. of U. S., 552. Jackson, Stonewall, 558. Jacob, his sons, 8. Jacobins, 451 ; club closed, 456. Jacobite rebellions, I., 437 : 11., 438. Jacqueline, of Holland, her inheritance goes to Burgundy, 259. Jacquerie in France, 258. Jaffa stormed by Bonaparte, 460. Jagello, house of, 277, 352. Jahandar Shah, emp. of India, 442. Jahangir, emp. of India. 354. Jail delivery at Paris, 452. Jamaica, discovery of, 283 ; taken by Penn and Venables, 377 ; insurrection, 644. James Bay discovered, 300. James, e. of Douglas, 2b8. James I., k. of England (VI. of Scotland), reign in England, 339 ; II., reign, 383 ; flight, 384 ; deposition, 385 ; takes refuge with Louis XIV., 370; death, 391. See duke of York. James I., k. of Scotland, murdered, 271; II., 272 ; IV., invaded England, 333 ; de. feat and death, 334 ; VI., of Scotland, abdication of Mary in favor of, 338. See James I. of England. James Edward, the old pretender, 389, 435. Jamestown, foundation of, 291. Janizaries, 353 ; massacre of, 489. Jankau, battle of, 315. Japan, Buddhism in, 23 ; geography, relig- ion, 32 ; chronology, 33 ; early rulers, 33 ; conversion of native names into Chi- nese, 33, n. 2 ; origin, 33 ; development of dual gov., mikado superseded by shogun, 212 ; war of Gen and Hei, 242 ; Hojo supremacy, repulse of the Mongols, war of the Chrysanthemums, develop- ment of feudalism, 243 ; Ashikaga sho- guns, dynastic wars, J. in the time of Columbus, 278 ; domination of Nobu- nagaandHideyoshi, 355; Tokugawa .sho- guns, 356 ; extirpation of Christianity, 357 ; later Tokugawas, 446 ; Perry's treaty, 563 ; restoration of the mikado, abolition of feudalism, ib. ; assimilation to western civilization, 564. Jason, 46. Jassy, peace of, 413. Jay, John, in continental congress, 426 ; chief justice, 547. Jay's treaty, 535, 548. Jeanne d'Arc. See Dare. Jefferson, Thomas, 427 ; drafts declaration of independence, 427 ; sec. of state, 647 ; vice-pres., 548 ; pres., 649. Jeiferson's embargo, 550. Jeffreys, chief justice, 382; "bloody as- sizes," 383; death, 384. Jemmapes, battle of, 453. Jena, battle of, 469. Jenghiz Khan, leader of the Mongols, 240 ; conquered China, 242. Jeremiah, 11. Jersey, east and west, 359. Jerusalem conquered by Shisak, 5 ; names, 7 ; captured by David, 9 ; taken by Is- raelites, 10 ; besieged in vain by Assyr- ians, 10 ; captured by Nebuchadnezzar, and destroyed, 11, 16 ; destroyed by Ti- tus, 12, 152 ; storm of, 214 ; kingdom of, 214; finally lost, 217. Jesuits, order of, founded, 304 ; banished from Spain and Portugal, 415 ; abol- ished, 416 ; expelled from France in 1672. Jews, geography, chronology, 7 ; settled in Egypt, exodus, 8; government, ib.; di- vision into Israel and Judah, 9; carried to Assyria, 10 ; to Babylon, 11 ; sent back by Cyrus, 11, 27; subject to Per- sians, etc., 11 ; revolt under the Macca Index. 27 be«B, 11, 78; Bubdued by Rom«, 11; revolt, fall of Jerusalem, 12 ; dispersal, ib. ; accused of firing Rome, 161 ; perse- cution, 15'2 ; revolt, loS ; expelled from England, 264; admitted to parliament, 644. Jimmu Tenno, mikado of Japan, 33. Joachim II., elector of Brandenburg, 401. Joanna, heiress of Castile, 301, 328. Joanna, heiress of Navarre, 254. Joannes, the usurper, 161. Joannes Scotus Erigena, 201. Jobst, of Moravia, 251. John, archduke of Austria, administrator of the German empire, 471, 493. John, don, of Austria, Lepanto, 326; in the Netherlands. 330, 331 ; popish plot atcributed to, 381. John, k. of Bohemia, 247 ; death, 267. John, k. of England, Lackland, reign, 233. John II., le Boa, k. of France, reign, 258. John of Brienue, " king of Jerusalem," 21o. John of Gaunt, 269. John de Moutfort, 267. John of Procida, 226. John the Fearless, d. of Burgundy, 259. John XXIII., pope, 261. John IV., k. of Portugal, 332 ; VI., 488. John III., k. of Sweden, 362. John Oasimir, k. of Poland, 362, 374. John Frederic, el. of Saxony, 3U5. John George, el. of Saxony, 312, 401. John Parricida, 245. John Sobieski, k. of Poland, 374. John Zimisces, Grecian emp., 210. Johnson, Andrew, 558, 559. Johnson, Sir William. 421, 423. Johnston, .)oe, gen., 558 Joint committee of the two kingdoms, 348. Jones, John Paul, 430. Jonson, Ben, 339. Joseph, 8. Joseph I., emp. of the Holy Roman Em- pire, 390 ; reign, 392 ; death, 393, 397 ; II., co-regent, 406; reign, 407; plan of an exchange of territory, 408. Joseph, k. of Naples. See Bonaparte, Jo- seph. Joseph I., k. of Portugal, reign, 415. Joseph I., k. of Spain. Ste Bonaparte, Jo- seph. Joshua, 8. Joubert, 461. Jourdan, 455, 457, 458, 460, 479. Jovianus, Roman emp., 160; peace with Persia, 1^8. Juan de la Fuca strait, 290. Juarez, 503, 504. Juba, k. of Numidia. 141, 142. Judae I, attacked by Shisak, 5 ; geograph- ical position, 7; dependent kingdom un- der llcrod, 11 ; part of Roman province of Syria, 11 ; Roman province, 150. Judah, kingdom of, geography, 7 ; founda- tion, 9; idolatry in, lU ; allied with Egyptians, ib. ; tributary to the Assyri- ans, 10, 14; subject to Babylonians, 11 ; to the Egyptians,!*.; ravaged by Scvth- ians, ib. Judges among th« Jews 8. Jugurthan war, 126, 127. Julia, the elder and younger, 148. Julian, count, 183, n. Julian emperors, 147. Julianus, Roman emp., 160; invaded Pep» 8ia, 188. Jiilich-Cleves succession, quarrel begun, 3f»8 ; ended, 372. Julius II., pope, 327. July revolution at Paris, 489,529; its re- sults, 490. Junius, 440. Juno, 84. Junonia, colony of, established, 126. Junot, duke of Abrantes, 47o, 471. Junto, 435. Jupiter, 84 ; Ammon, his temple in Africa, 27, 74 ; Capitolinus, temple of, 82. Jury, grand, 232. Jury trial, its Norman origin, 204. Jus auxilii, intercessionis, 96 ; reformandi, 306, 317. Justinian I., Grecian emp., victories in Italy and Africa, 174 ; war with Persia, 190 ; reign, 210. Jutes, 176. Juvenum, foundation of, 167. Kaempfer in Japan, 445. Kasoshima, bombardment of, 663. Kahror, battle of, 24. Kaiserslautem, battle of, 455, 456. Kalb, de, 430. Kaled, expedition of, 192. Kalish, alliance of, 476. Kamakura, 242, 243. Kameel, sultan, 217. Kandahar, 442. Kanishka, Scythian k. in India, 24. Kansas admitted to the Union, 566. Kansas-Nebraska bill, 555. Kapolna, battle of, 495. Kara, Mustapha, 372. Karl Martel, 183, 184. Karlmann, brother of Charles the Great, 184. Karlmann, k. of Aquitaine, 201. Karlsefne, Thorfinn, 281. Kars, storm of, 489, 501, 523. Kashgar, rebellion of Yakub Beg in, 562,' capture of, ib. Katzbach, battle, 477. Kaunitz, prince, 403. Kay, battle of, 405. Keiki, the last shogun, 563. Kellermann, 452. Kelso, battle of, 348. Kenmure, execution of, 437. Kentucky admitted to the Union, 648. Kentucky and Virginia resolutions of 1798-1799, 649. Kepler, 306. Kerman, sultanate of, 210. Kertk, Louis, Thomas, and David, 299. Khafra, k. of Egypt, 4. Khanates, 241. Khazars, war with Persia, 189, 190. Khorsabad, 12. Khufu, k. of Egypt, 4 Khu.^ru in India, 211. Kieff, grand prince of, 276. Kieft, gov. of New Netherlands 867. 28 Index. Kiel, peace of, 479. Kiew. See Iviett'. Kilij Arslan, sultan of Iconlum, 214. Kilkenny, statute, 269. Killiecrankie, battle of, 386. Kilsyth, battle of, 348. Kinibolton, lord, 346. Kin dynasty, in China, fall of, 242. King George's war. 419 ; Philip's war, 359 ; Williams war, 361. King's Mountain, battle of, 431. Kinsale captured, 387. Kioto, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the mikado, 213, 242 ; false mikado at, 278 ; capital transferred to Tokio, 663. Kirke, 386 ; appointed gov. of Mass., 361 ; Kirke's lambs, 383 ; raises siege of Lon- donderry, 386. Klapka, 495, 496. K16ber, 463. Klissow, battle of, 395. Knighthood, religious orders of, 217 ; Span- ish orders, 240, 328. Knights at Rome, 3 centuries, 88 ; number doubled, 89 ; in the army, 91 ; farm the taxes, 123 ; change in nature, 125 ; de- prived of jury service, 132 ; which is par- tially restored, 133. Knights in Athens, 53. Kniprode, Winrich von, 277. Knowles in Boston, 419. Knox, Henry, U. S. sec. of war, 547. Knox, John, 304, 338. Knut the Great, k. of England and Den- mark, visit to Rome, 198 ; reign in Eng- land, 205, 206 ; in Denmark, 207. Knut, St., k. of Denmark, 208 ; VI., 235. Kobad I., k. of Persia, first reign, 189; second reign, 190 ; II., 192. Kblhapur, 443. Kollin, battle of, 404. Kong, prince, 502. Koniggriitz, battle of, 509. Konigsberg, treaty of, 373, 470. Konigsmark, 315, 416. Koran, the, 182. Kosciuszko, 413, 414. Kossuth, 494, 495, 496. Kotzebue, murder of, 487. Krasnoy, battle of, 475. Kublai Khan in China, 242. Kuldja, disputed between China and Rus- sia, 562. Kulm, battle at, 477. KuJturkampf in Italy, Switzerland, and Prussia, 520 ; in Prussia, France, Bel- gium, 526 ; approaching end, 526. Kunersdorf , battle of, 405. Kurile islands given to Japan by Russia, 32, n. 3. Kusunoki-Masashig^, 243. Kutab-ud-din, sultan of Delhi, 241. Kutschouc Kainardji, peace of, 412. Kutusoff, 467, 476. Labiau, treaty of, 373. Labienus, 139, 142, 143. Laborers, statute of, 268. Labrador, discovery of the coast of, 284. Labyrinth, in Egypt, 4, 6 ; in Crete, 18. Xiacedemonians, in Sparta, 50. See Greece And Sparta. Laconia, name first given to Maine, 295. Lade, battle of, 28. Ladislaus II., k. of Hungary and Boh^ mia, 278. Ladislaus Postumus, k. of Hungary, 278. Lady of England, 231. Lady of the Mercians, 204. Laets, 177. Lafayette, in America, 428 ; commander of national guard, 450; proscribed, 452; a liberal, 527 ; commander of national guard, 529. La Fere-Champenoise, battle of, 481. Lafitte, ministry of, 529. La Fontaine, 371. Lagidae. See Ptolemies. La Hogue, battle of, 370, 387. Lahore, Muhamniedan dynasty at, 211. Lake Erie, battle of, 551 ; George, battle o^ 421. Lally, 444. Lamachus, 67. Lamberg, count, 494. Lamian war, 79. Lamoriciere, 503, 527. Lancaster, house of, 270. Lancaster Sound, 299. Land act, 545, 546. Land league in Ireland, 545. Landshut, battle of, 405, 471. Landwehr.-sturm, established, 476. Lanfranc, archb. of Canterbury, 229. Langensalza, 510. Langobards, location, 170 ; found kingdom in Italy, 175 ; crushed by Charles the Great, 184. Langside, battle of, 338. Langton, Stephen, 233, 234. Lansdowne Hill, battle of, 347. Laon, capital of German kingdom of the Franks, 202 ; battle of, 481. L3Lotsze, Chinese philosopher, 31. La Plata, discovery of, 286; a free state, 488. La Rochelle, granted to Huguenots, 221; siege of, 325. La Rothiere, battle of, 480. La Salle, discoveries of, 364, 365. Lascaris, Theodore, 216. Las Casas, Bartholomew de, 285. La Soledad, treaty of, 503. Laswari, battle of, 541. Lateran council, 201. Lateranus, L. Sextus, 101. Latham house, siege of, 348. Latimer, 338. Latin empire, 216, 240. Latin league, Rome's hegemony over, 90 ; dissolution of, 104. Latin war, great, 104. Laud, William, 344, 345; execution, 34S. Lauderdale, 380, 381. Laudon, 405, 413. Laudonniere, Rt^u^, 288. Launay, de, murder of, 449. Lautrec, invaded Naples, 303. Laval, Franpois de, 364. Law's Mississippi scheme, 445. Lawrence, lord, viceroy in India, 546. Law of Edward the Confessor, 230. Laws of Ine, of Offa 180 ; of the twelve tables. 98. Index. 29 liftybacb, congre!f!» at, 487. Lazit-a, ceiied to Rome, 190; invaded by lloruiisdas, lyl ; lleraclius iu, ly2. League in Fnmce, 322. See H0I3 league. League of the German princes, 408. League of the public weal, 200. Lear (Leir),37. Leboeuf , marshal, 513, 614. Le Bourget, battle of, 619. Lechfeld, battle of, 196. Lee, Charles, 430. Lee, Richard Henry, 427. Lee, Robert E., in command of Confederate army, 657; Gettysburg, 658; surrender, 658. Lefort, in Switzerland, 374. *' Legacy of Igeyasu," 350. Leges Cornelia?, 132 ; duodecim tabularum, 98 ; Liciniae, 101 ; Publiliae, 102 ; Valeriae Iloratiae, 98. Legion, in the Servian constitution, 92; change in the 4th cent., b. c, 103; change under Marius, 128. Legion of honor, created, 4G4. Legislative assembly in France, 447, 451. Legitimitists, in France, 530. Legnano, battle of, 222. Leipzig, battle of, 312 ; second battle, 314 ; battle of the nations, 478 ; supreme court in, 525 ; university founded, 251. Le Mans, battle of, 519. Lenthall, 345, 377. Lenzen, battle of, 194. Leo the Great, pope, 173 ; X., 327 ; XIII., 624. Leo the Isaurian, Grecian emp., 210. Leoben, peace of, 458. Leofric, e. of Mercia, 206. Leon, name changed from Asturia, 209 ; finally united with Castile, 240. Leonidas, 58. Leopold, IV. (V.) d. of Austria, receives Bavaria, 219 ; V. detains Richard Coeur de Lion, 216. Leopold, archd. of Austria, defeated by the Swiss, 247 ; III., Sempach, 250. Leopold I., k. of the Belgians, 490. Leopold of Dessau, 392, 397, 402. Leopold I., emp of the IL R.E. ; reign of, 371, 372 ; Spanish claimant, 390 ; death, 392; II., 408, 416, 451. Leotychidas, 60. Lepanto, battle of, 326, 330. Lepidus, M. JSmilius, 133, 14L Leptis, 17, 19. Lerma, d. of, 331. Lesbos, 41,66. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 512. Lestocq, in Russia, 411. Leucopetra, battle of, 80, 122. Leuctra, battle of, 70. Leuthen, battle of, 404. Leverett, John, gov., of Mass. 360. Levites, 8. Lewes, battle of, 234. Lex agraria, 128. See agrarian laws ; an- nalis, 12u ; Aurelia, 13^3 : Canuleia de couubio, 99 ; de civitate sociis danda, 128 ; Clodia, 138 ; de falso, 122, 1.S2 ; Ga- binia, 134 ; Ilortensia, 107 ; judiciaria, 125, 12s ; Julia de agro campano, 137 ; Julia, 149 ; Mseoia 107 ; de maiestate 149 ; Manilla, 185 ; Papia Popprpa, 149 •, Pedia, 145; Plautia-Fupiria, 12^ ; l' Index, 33 !etellu8, L. Ctecilius, defeats Hasdrubal at Panormus, 111. etellua (Macedonicus), Q. Cseciliufl, in the 4th Macedoaian and Achaean war, 122. etellus (Numanticus), Q. Csecilius, cap- tures Numantia, 123 ; defeats Jugurtha, 126 ; superseded by Marius, 127. [etellus (Pius), Q. Caecilius, war with Ser- torius, 133 ; subdues Crete, 134. [ethuen treaty, 434. letoeci, 52. [etternich, at the congress of Prague, 476 ; of Vienna, 482 ; of Carlsbad, 487 ; head of the conservative party, 491 ; driven from Vienna, 492. [etz, siege of, 306, 516, 618. lexican expedition, 503, 532. lexico conquered by Cortez, 285 ; freed from Spanish rule, 488 ; war with the United States, 554. Ichael Angel o Buonarotti, 328. " "gan admitted to the Union, 553. ichillimachinac, Jesuit mission, 364. " psa, 126. idas, k. of Phrygia, 22. ■liddle Kingdom, 32, liddlesex, 178. lieczeslav II., leader of the Poles, 198. -liguel, Don, of Portugal, 488. •likado. See Japan. rlilan, captured by Scipio, 35 ; captured by Barbarossa and destroyed, 221 ; rebuilt, ib. ; under the Viscouti and Sforza, 262 ; war between Charles V. , and Francis I. , concerning, 304, 319 ; Philip invested with, ib. ; claims of Louis XII. to, 318 ; appanage of Spain, 326 : assigned to the emperor, 393 ; Victor Emmanuel in, 562. ililan decree, 550. Milan, pr. of Servia, 521 ; becomes k., 526. Milesians settle at the mouth of the Tigris, 28 ; in Ireland, 39. Miletus, in league with Croesus, 21, 28 ; lonians settle, 49 ; battle of, 67. Mil hand, confederation of, 322. Military roads in Persia, 28 ; constructed in Italy, 82 ; in Britain, 176. Millenary petition, 340. Millesimo, battle of, 458. jMilo, S. Annius, 139. iMiltiades, 28 ; at Marathon, 57. Milton, John, 389. Minamoto family, 212, 213, 242. Miuden, battle of, 405. Mineptah, k. of Egypt, 5. Minerva, 84. Ming dynasty in China, 242. Minnesota admitted to Union, 656. Minos, k. of Crete, 18, 46. Minotaur, 18. Minto, lord, gov. gen. in India, 541. Minucius, M., 114. Minuit, Peter, 298. Minvc^, 43. 46, 48, 49. Mir Jafar, 443, 444 ; Kosim, 444. Mirabeau, C, 449, 451. Miramichi Bay, discovery of, 287. Miranda, 550. Misenum, treaty of, 146. Missi regis, 186. Misfiionary Ridge battle of, 568 Mississippi admitted to the Union, 561. Mississippi rivtr. discov. 287,364; possession taken for France, 302, 363 ; claimed by France, 420 ; navigation free to England and France, 422 ; to England and the United States, 432. Missolonghi, 488. Missouri admitted to the Union, 552. Missouri compromise, 652. Mitbra, 25. Mithrkdates, I., founded Parthian empire, 30; 11., k. of Parthia, 30. Mithridates VI., k. of Pontus, his power, 129; Sulla concluded peace with, 131: alliance of Sertorius with, 133 ; killed himself, 136. Mitbridatic wars, I., 129 j XL, 132 ; III., 134. Mobile colony, 366. Mocenigo, adm., 416. Mockern, battle of, 478. Modena, 416, 458. Moeaia, 148, 163. Mohacs, battle of, 303, 372, Mohammed, 182. Moira, lord, gov. gen. in India, 54L Molai, Jacques de, 266. Moldavia, 395, 488. Mol6, ministry of, 630. Moliere, 371. MoUwitz, battle of, 401. Moloch, 17, 18. Moltke, 608, 509, 517. Momemphis, battle of, 6. Mompeson, impeachment of, 342. Monasteries in Ireland, 39 ; suppressed in England, 335 ; in Austria, 407 ; in France, 534 ; in Rome and Papal states, 520. Mondovi, battle of, 458. Mongols, defeated by the Chinese, 32; in- vasion of Germany, 240 ; conquest ol China, 242 ; repulse from Japan, 243; supremacy in Russia, 277 ; check the Os- man power, 278. Monk, 376, 377, 378. See Albemarle. Monmouth, battle of, 430. Monmouth, d. of, 382, 383. Monroe doctrine, 552. Monroe, James, 550, 551. Mons sacer, 96, 98. Montague, proceedings against, 342, 387. Montaigne, Michael, 324. Montcalm, 421, 422. Monteagle, lord, 340. Montebello, battle of, 502. Montecuculi, 368, 372. Montenegro, war with the Porte, 521, 522 ; became independent, 624. Montereau, 259 ; battle of, 480. Monterey, battle of, 654. Montesquieu, 448. Montezuma, Mexican empire of, 285* Montgomery, general, 427. Montiel, battle of, 276. Montrhery, battle of, 260. Montmartre, storm of, 481. Montmirail, battle at, 480. ^Inntmorency, 320 ; execution, 326. Montpellier, 258. Montreal, settled by Maisonnetive, 300 ; sur- rendered to English, 422; captured by Montgomery, 427. Montrose, marquis of, plots against Argylo, 34 Index. 346 ; campaign, In Scotland, 348 ; execu- tion, 375. Monts, sieur de, 290. Moors, origin, 183; conquer Spain, 183; caliphate, 209 ; conquered by Almora- vides, 209 ; by Almohades, 240 ; conquest of Granada, 276. Moqui Can on, 287- Morabethes, 209, 240. More, Sir Thomas, 335. Morea (see Greece), conquered by Turks, 397 ; ravaged, 488. Moreau, 458, 460, 462, 465, 477. Morgan, 431. Morgarten, battle of, 247. Morkere, 206, 229. Momington, lord, gov. gen. in India, 641. Moro, Ludovico, 318. Morosini, 416. Morse, 487. Mortier, 481. Mortimer, Edmund, 270 ; Roger, 267, 268. Mortimer's Cross, battle of, 272. Mortmain, statute of, 266. Moscow, national centre of Russia, 277; burning of, 475. Moses, 8. Moshaisk, battle of, 475. Moslems, 182. Mt. Cenis tunnel, 620. Mount Desert, 292, 299. Mountain, the, in the legislative assembly, 451, 453. Mowbray, conspiracy of, 270. Muawwiyah I., caliph, 182. Mucins Scaevola, 95. Mughal empire, founded, 353; end of, 646. See, also, India. Muhammed II., destroyed eastern empire, 278. Muhammed Ghori, 211, 241 ; Shah, 442 ; Tughlak, 241. Muhammedanism, in China, 31 ; origin in Arabia, 182 ; conquests in west, 183 : in Persia 192, 193. Miihlberg, battle of, 305. Muhldorf, battle of, 247. Mukhtar Pasha, 523. Mummius, 122. Miinchengratz, 491, 509. Munda, battle of, 143. Miinger, Thomas, 302. Munich, 312, 492. Municipal corporations reform act, 541. Miinnich, 410, 411. Munro, major, 444. Miinster, anabaptists in, 304 ; negotiations for peace at, 315. Murad, I., sultan of the Turks, 278; V., deposed, 521. Murat, 460, 467 ; g. d. of Berg, 468 ; k. of Naples, 470 ; driven from Naples, 484 ; executed, 485. Murray. See Mansfield, lord. Murray, earl of, regent, 338. Murray, lord George, 438. Murten, battle of, 262. Musa, 183. Muthul, battle of, 126. Mutina, founded, 112 ; battle of, 36, 144. Mutiny act, 386. ilutsu-Hito, 33, 562. Mycale, 61. Mylffi, battle of, 110, 146. Myonnesus, battle of, 119. Mysia, 20, 21. Nabis, 80, 119. Nabonetus, k. of Babylon, 16. Nabopolassar, k. of Babylon, 16, 16, 25l Nachod, battle of, 5i»9. Nadir Shah, invades India, 442. Nafels, battle of, 250. Nagpur, raja of, 541. Najara, battle of, 259. Nancy, battle of, 262. Nangis, battle of, 480. Nankin, treaty of, 542, 561. Nantes, edict, see edict of, 369; reTol* tionary tribunal of, 454. Nantwich, battle of, 348. Napata, kingdom of, 5. Napier, 500. Napier, lord, 561. Naples (see Sicily), separated from Sicily, under Charles of Anjou, 226 ; conquered by Charles VIII., 262 ; by Alphonso of Ar- agon, 263 ; by Louis XII. and Ferdinand, 318 ; revolt of Masaniello, 327 ; ceded by Austria to Spain, 398, 416 ; transferred into Parthenopaean republic, 460 ; French garrison, 463 ; Bourbons banished, 468 ; restored, 483 ; revolutionary movements, 487, 493 ; liberated by Garibaldi, 503. Napoleon I., emp. of the French {see Bona- parte, Napoleon), crowned, 465; k. o£ Italy, 467 ; protector of the confederacy of the Rhine, 468 ; divorced from Jose- phine, 473 ; birth of the k. of Rome, 474 ; campaign of Feb., 1814, 480; abdicated, 481 ; removed to Elba, 481 ; return, 483, 526 ; hundred days, 483 ; Waterloo, 484; transported to St. Helena, 484 ; death, 527 ; entombment in Paris, 530. Napoleon III., emp. of the French (see Louis Napoleon), elected, 499, 531; at- tempted assassination, 531, 544 ; war with Italy, 502, 532 ; Mexican expedi- tion, 503; Luxembourg question, 511; Franco-Prussian war, 513 ; surrenders to William III., 517 ; death, 520, 533. Narragansett Indians, 359. Nar.ses, 175, 188. Narva, battle of, 396. 1 Narvaez, 285, 286. ' Naseby, battle of, 349. Nassau incorporated with Prussia, 610. National convention, 447, 451, 452 ; fedenk tion, 450 ; petition, 542. Naucraries, 53, 55, 58. Navarino, battle of, 489, 539. Navarre, origin, 209; Joanna, heiress of, marries Philip IV., 264 ; Charles the Bad, k. of, 258 ; in the Huguenot wars, 321. Navarrete, battle of, 276. Navigation act, 376 ; repealed, 543. Nayler, 377. 'if Nebraska, admitted to the Union, 559. Nebuchadnezzar, k. of Babylon, 6, 11, 16. Necker 447 449. Neerwinden', battle of, 370, 388, 453. Nehavend, battle of, 182, 193. Neku, k. of Egypt, 6, 11, 16. Nelson at Aboukir, 460; at Trafalgar 467 Index. 35 Nemean fectiral, 42. Nemed. 3 J. Nepalcse, conquered by Chinese, 444. Neptunus, S4. Nero, C. Claudius, consul, 117. Nero, Roman emp. , 15'', 151. Nerva, Roman emp., 152. Nes.selrode, 482. Netherlands, acquisition by the house of Burgundy, 328, 329 ; war of liberation, 330 ; indept-ndence recognized, 331 ; war with Louis XIV., 367 ; with England, 379, 380 ; New Amsterdam lost, 358 ; Spanish Netherlands given to Austria, strife with Joseph II., 408 ; trans- formed into the Batavian republic, 4o6 ; into the kingdom of Holland, 468 ; in- corporated with France, 473 ; the French expelled, 479; kingdom of the Nether- lands formed, 483 ; Belgium separated from Holland, 489. Neuchatel, given to Prussia 893; to Ber- thier, 468 ; as principality restored to Prussia, 482 ; as canton joined to the Swi-is confederacy, 483; revolt from Prussia, 492 ; given up by Prussia, 601. Neuhof, baron, k. of Corsica, 415. Neustria, decay of, 35 ; in the 2d division of the Frankish kingdom, 181 ; in the 3d, 182, 183 ; in treaty of Verdun, 187. Neutrality act, 648. Nevada admitted to the Union, 558. Nevers, house of, 311. Neville's Cross, battle of, 268. New Albion, west, discovered bv Drake, 289 ; east, granted to Plowden, 293. New Amsterdam, founded, 298 ; captured by English, 358, 379. Newbury, battles of, 348. Newcastle, ministry of, 438, 439. I Newcomen, 486. 1 New England, named, 294 ; presidency of, \ 361 ; Indian hostilities in, 417. \ New Forest, 230. , Newfoundland, discovery, 284, 287 ; Gilbert f takes pos.session of, 289 ; grant of a part to sir Geo. Calvert, 299. \ New France, French settlements in, 299 ; name extended to the west, 364, 365 ; ceded to England, 422. New Granada, 488. New Hampshire, granted to Mason, 296; separated from ^Slassachusetts, 3o9 ; in- surrection in, 432. New Haven, colony of, 357 ; union with Connecticut, 358. New .Ter.94, 30u Penrith, battle of, 438. Penruddock, rebellion of, 376. " Pensioned," parliament, 378, 381. Pensions, 552. Pentarchy of the great powers, 482. Pentland Hills, battle of, 379. Pepperell, William, 419. Pequigny, peace of, 274. Pequot war, 297. Perceval, 537. Percy, Harry (Hotspur), 270. Perdiccas, 74, 76. Pere la Chaise, 381. Pergamon, kingdom of, 78, 124. Pericles, rival of Cimon, 62; administra- tion of, 64 ; death, 65. Purler, 486, 527 ; ministry of, 529. Perioeci, 50. Perozes, k. of Persia, 189. Perperna, 132, 133. Perpetual peace, 319. Perry, com., at Yedo, 562. Perseus, k. of Macedonia, 78, 120. Persia, geography, 24 ; religion, 24, 25; revolt under Cyrus, 26 ; old Persian em- pire, ih. ; conquests of Cambyses and Da- rius, 27 ; administration of the empire, 28 ; war with the Greeks of Asia Minor, ib. ; of Europe, 28, 56 ; decline and fall of the empire, 29; subject to Parthia, 30; new Persian empire founded, ib., 155, 187 ; wars with Rome, 190 ; restored to the limits reached under Darius, 191; conquest by Arabs, 192, 193. Persian wars, I., II., 56; III., 58; IV., 60. Pert, sir Thomas, 285. Pertinax, Roman emp., 154. Peru, exploration of, 286 ; conquest of by Pizarro, 287 ; a free state, 488. Perusia, civil war of, 145. Pescennius Niger, 155. Peshwi, 443, 641. Peter, k. of Aragon, 226; III., 276; IV., 276. Peter the Cruel, k. of Castile, war with, 258, 276. Peter I., the Great, tsar of Russia, 374 ; ill England, 388 ; war with Charles XII., k. of Sweden, 394, 396, 396, 410 ; II., 410 III., 406, 411. Peter the Hermit, 200, 213. Peter de la Mare, 269. Peter des Roches, 234. Peter de Vinea, 226. Peterborough, lord, 434. Peterborough, sack of, 204. Peterloo. See Manchester Massacre- Peterwardein, battle of, 397. Petion, 451, 454. Petition of Right, 343. Petrarca, Francesco, 263. Index. 39 Petre, father, 884, Petreius, 141. 142. Petroiiius Maximus, Roman emp., 161. Pfaffendorf , battle of, 4U5. Pharaoh, 2, n. Pharisees, 11. Pharuabazus, 68, 70. Phariiuces, 142, 143. Pharsalus, battle of, 141. Phidias, 64. Philadelphia, foundation of, 360 ; occupied by British, evacuated, 429 ; centennial exhibition at, 600. Philadelphia, burning of the frigate, 649. Philseni, altars of, 19. Philip, d. of Anjou. See Philip V., k. of Spain. Philip the Fair, archd. of Austria, 263, 301, 328. PhUip the Bold, d. of Burgundy, 268 ; the Good, 269. Philip I., k. of France, 203, 226 ; II., Au- gustus, crusade, 215 : Bouvines, 223 ; reign, 226 ; intrigue.>( against Richard of England, 232 : trouble over Ingebord, 235 ; III., /e Hardi, 254 : IV., le Bel, 254 ; v., le Lons,'^>S; VI., 267. Philip, landgr. of Hesse, 304, 305. Philip, k. of Macedonia, 71 ; V., k., war with Rome, 116, 118: with Antiochus, 119. Philip, d. of Orleans. See Orleans. Philip II., k. of Spain, war with Henry II., of France, 321; claim to French crown, 324: reign, 330; III., 331 ; IV., 331 ; v., claim urged by Louis XIV., 391 ; war of Spanish succession 392 ; recog nized in Spain, 393 ; claimant for Aus- trian succession, 400 ; reign, 414. Philip of Swabia, emp. of the H. R. E., 223. Philip, king, Indian chief, 359. Philiphaugh, battle of, 348. Philippi, founded, 71 ; battle of, 145. Philippics of Demosthenes, 72; of Cicero, 144. Philippus Arabs, Roman emp., 166, 188. Philistines, 7, 8, 14. Philocratcs, peace of, 72. philomelus, 72. Philopoemen, 80. Phips, sir \Vm., gov. of Mass., 361. Phocffians, 19, 26. Phocion, 70, 79. Phoebidas, 70. Phoenicia, Phoenicians, expeditions of Ra- messu T., 6 ; war of Psamethik I., 6 ; subject to Tiglath-Pileser I., 14: geog- raphy, 16 : religion, 16, 17 ; constitution of the cities, 17 ; Sidon's greatest power, ib. ; voyages and colonies, ib. ; rise of Tyre, 18; foundation of Carthage, ib.; decline of Phoenician cities, 19 ; subject to Assyria, Egypt, Babylon, Persia, ib. ; to Macedon, the Seleucidae, the Ptole- mies, 20 ; retains native rulers under Persia, 26, 27 ; P. refuse to assist Camby- ses against Carthage, 27 ; revolt sup- pressed by Artaxerxes III., 29; never visited Britain, 37. t*hraates, name of several Parthian kings, 1 , 29 ; II., 30 ; III., first war with Rome, 30; IV , attacked by Antoii.MaB, 80. wat with Augustus, 148. Phraortes, 15, 25. Phratries, 54. Phrixos, 46. Phrygia, 21, 22. Phylffi, 45, 54. Piacenza, 416, 467. Piasts, Poland under the, 277. Piccolomini, 313, 314. See .^neas Silvius. Picenum, 81, 83, 141. Pichegru, 455, 456, 459, 466. Piedmont, settled by Celts, conquered by Rome, 36, 118 ; under the East Goth«, 174 ; under the Laiigobards, 175 , con- quered by Charles the Great, 184 ; Caro- lingians in, 193; Otto I. conquers Be- rengar of Ivrea, 195, 196 ; Henry II. conquers Ardoin, 197; Lombard league and Frederic Barbarossa, 219-222 ; Fred- eric I., 224 ; divided into small states, 262; under dukes of Savoy, 327; who became kings of Sardinia, 415 ; Napoleon occupies P., 468 ; Cisalpine republic, 459 ; abolished 460 ; restored, 462 ; Italian re- public, 464 ; Napoleon, k. of Italy, 467 ; ceded to France, 467 ; Lombardo- Vene- tian kingdom ceded to Austria, 483 ; rev- olutionary movements, 487 ; war between Austria and Sardinia, 494; intervention of France, Austrians expelled, 502, 503. Pierce, Franklin, 505. Piers Plowman, 268. Pignerol ceded to France, 325. Pilgrims, 294. Pillnitz, conference, 461 ; declaration 462. Pilpay, fables of, lyL Pindar, 73. Pinerolo, pacification of, 877. Pinto in Japan, 355. Pinzon Vincent Yanez, 284. Pipin, d'Heristal, 183 ; the Small, k. of the Franks, 175, 184. Piraeus, fortified, 68,61,64; blockade of, 69, 70. Pirates, war against, 134. Pisa, conquered by Genoa, 263; council of, 251. Pisistratus, 54. Pistoria, battle of, 137. Pitt, William, the elder. See Chatham. Pitt, William the younger, sketch of life, 441 ; first administration, 442, 635 ; sec- ond administration, 536 ; death, 537. Pius II., pope, 253 ; VI , 407 ; Vll., con- secrated Napoleon I.,4G5; imprisoned^ 473; returned to Rome, 482; IX., at- tempted reforms of, 492; death, 524. Pizarro, Francisco, 286, 287. Placida, 161. Plague in Germany, 248 ; in London, 879. Plains of Abraham, battle of, 422. Plantagenet, hou.«e of, 231. Plassey, battle of, 443. Platffiae, battle of, 60 ; surrenders, 66. Plato, 69. Plebeians, traditional origin, 89; true ori- gin, 90, 91, 92; admitted to senate, 94; contest with patricians, 95 ; tribunes, 96; comitia tributa, 96, 97; secession, 96 ; one plebeian consul, 101 ; all offlcel opened to, 101, 107. 40 Index. Plevna, capture of, 622. Plinius, the elder, 152. Plistoanax, 63. 'Plon-Plon,"466, 534. Plowden, sir Edward, 293. Plunkett, execution of, 382. Plymouth, council of, 294 ; surrenders charter, 297 ; settlement of, in New Ene- land, 294. Plymouth Company, 291, 293. Pooahontas, 291. Poischwizt, armistice of, 476. Poitiers, battle of (Charles Maxtel), 183 ; (Black Prince), 258. Poitou, acquired by England, 226, 231, 258 ; lost, 260. Poland, kingdom formed, 168 ; war with Henry II., 197; with Conrad II.; sub- mits to empire, 198 ; under the Piasts, united with Lithuania, 277 ; Jagallons ; P. an elective monarchy, 352 ; elector of Saxony, k. of P., 372; republic, 374; Stanislaus, k., 395; truce of, 397; war of the Polish succession, 398, 414 ; first division, 411 ; second, 413 ; third, 414 ; kingdom of, 483 ; revolution in 490 Pole, Michael de la, 269. Pole, Reginald, card.. 335, 338. Polignac ministry, 527. Polk, James K., 554. PoUentia, battle at, 171. Polo, Marco, 242, 2S2. Polycrates of Samoa, 7. Polygnotus, 64. Polysperchon, 76. Pombal, marquis of, 415. Pomerania, extinction of the ducal house, 314 ; given to Sweden and Brandenburg, 316 ; lost by Sweden, Hither P. given to Prussia, 396 ; Hither P. ceded to Den- mark, 479 ; to Prussia, 482. Pompadour, marquise de, 403, 446. Pompeii, 83, 152. Pompeius(Mag'nws), subjected the Jews to Rome 11; consul, 129; joined Sulla, 131 ; war with Sertorius, 133 ; defeats the pirates, 134; command in Asia, 135 first triumvirate, 137 ; consul, 140 ; de feat at Pharsalus, 141 ; death, 142, 143 Sextus escaped to Spain, 142 ; repulsed Caesar, 143 ; treaty with triumTirs, 145 defeated and died, 146. Pence de Leon, 284. Pondicherri, 443. Ponlatowski, 413. Pontef ract, castle of, 270. Pontiac, conspiracy of, 423. Pontifices, college of, 85. >ontius Gavius, 105, 106. .^ontus, kingdom of, 78 ; first Mithridatic war, 129; second, 132; third, 134; P. Roman province, 136. Poona, confederacy of, 443. Poor-law amendment act, 540. Pope, Alexander, 436. Popham, George, 293. Popillius Laenas, 121. Popish plot, 381. Poplicola, L. Valerius, 93. Poppaea Sabina, 150. Populonia, battle of, 107. Porrex, k. of Britain, 37. Porsena of Clusium, 95. Port Royal, foundation of, 290 ; razed by Argal, 292 ; captured by Phips, 361 ; by English, 3*33. Porteous riots in Edinburgh, 438. Portland, d. of, administration, 537. Porto Bello captured by Vernon, 438. Portocarrero, card., 391. Portugal granted to Henry, count of Bur. gundy, 240 ; his son becomes king of Portugal, ib. ; P. reaches its greatest power, discoveries, and settlements, 276, 280 ; Portuguese in India, 354 ; Emman- uel the Great ; Spanish province ; revolt, 332, 393; house of Braganza ; earth- quake of Lisbon, 415 ; refuses to join continental system ; occupied by French, 470 ; peninsula war, 471 ; revolution, 488. Poscherun, treaty of, 475. Potemkin, 412, 413. Potocki, Felix and Ignaz, 413. Potosi, mines of, 288. Poutrincourt, 290. Powhattan, 291. Poyning's law. See statute of Drogheda. Praemunire, statute of, 269, 270. Praetorship, established, 101 ; first ple- beian, 102 ; limit of age for, 120 ; num- ber of, 122 ; pro-praetors, 122. Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis, of France, 227; of Charles VII., revoked, 260; of the emp. Charles VI., 398, 403. Prague, battle of, 404 ; compact of, 252 ; congress at, 476 ; peace of, 314, 510 ; uni- versity of, founded, 248 ; secession of Germans, 251 ; lectures in Czechish lan- guage established, 526. Presbyterians, 350. President, engagement with the Little Belt, 551. Pressburg, anti-Jewish riots, 526 ; peace of, 467. Preston, 425. Preston, battle of, 437. Preston Pans, battle of, 351, 438. Pretender, old P., 437 ; young P., 438. Priam, 47. Pride's Purge, 351. Prie, marquise de, 446. Prim, murdered, 512. Prince Edward's Island, 287. Princes in the Tower, murder of, 275. Princeton, battle of, 428 ; foundation of college at, 419. Pring, Martin, 290. Printing, invention of, 211, 253, 279. Probus, Roman emp., 157. Proconsuls, the first, 105; proconsular provinces, 123. Propertius,S., 148. Property qualification abolished, 644. Prophets in Israel, 9. Pro-praetors, 122, Proscriptions, under Sulla, 132; under the second triumvirate, 145. Protectorate in England, 376. Protestant union, 308. Protestants, 303. Providence, foundation of, 297. Providence Plantations, charter of, 358» Provisions of Oxford, 234. Prusias, 78, 120. Index, 41 PruBsift (see also Brandemburg), inhabited by Wends, IPS ; conquered by the Teu- tonic order, 218,277 ; Went Prussia ceded to Poland, 277 ; reformation in, Albert of Brandenburg becomes d. of P. under Polish suzerainty, 302; elector of Bran- denburg becomes k. of Prussia, 372, 373; P. obtains Neuchatel, and upfier Ouel- ders, relinquishes claims upon Orange to France, 3D3 ; cessions from Sweden, 396 ; P. under Frederic the Great, 405-408; claims upon Silesia, 400; proposed parti- tion of P., 404; Silesia retained, 406; shares in the partition of Poland, 411, 413, 414 ; joins first coalition against France, 452 ; alliance with England, 465 ; peace of Basle, 457 ; indemnifica- tions, 465 ; treaty with Napoleon, 467 ; not in the confederacy of the Rhine, 468 ; war with France, 468 ; peace of Til- pit, 470; reform of the state and army, 471 ; war of liberation, 475 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; receives Saarbriicken, 485; Zo//rerei'n, 491 ; united Landtag, \^1\ up- rising in Berlin, 492 ; Schleswig-Hol- Btein, 496 ; offer of German crown to king of Prussia, 497 ; revised constitu- tion, 497 ; conference of Olmiitz, 498 ; William I., 503; constitutional conflict, Bismarck, 504 ; war with Denmark, &i5; with Austria, 507-510 ; Luxemburg question, 511 ; war with France, 613- 520; king of Prussia German emp.,519; number of votes in the Bunriesratk, 520 ; May laws, civil marriage, 521 ; alliance with Austria, 525 ; royal rescript of Jan., 1882, 525. Pruth, peace of the, 395. Prynne, William, 344. Prytanies, 56. Psamethik, ks. of Egypt : I. revolted against Assyria, 6, 15; II., 6; III., de- feated by Cambyses, 7. Psammeticus. See Psamethik I. Pseudo-Philippus, 122 ; Smerdis, 27 Pteria, battle at, 21, 26. Ptolemais. See Acre. Ptolemies, kings of Egypt, 11, 20, 74, 76, 77, 142. Public peace, 300. Publilius Philo, 102, 105. Pugacheff, 412. Pul, Ohaldean king, 13. Pulaski, death of, 43n. Pultowa, battle of, 395. Pultusk, battle of, 395. Punic wars, I., 109; II., 35, 113; in., 121. Punitz, battle of, 395. Punjab, 22 ; invaded by Alexander, 23 ; conquered by Graeco-Bactrian*. ib.; by Scythians, 24, 241 ; annexed, 546. Pupienus Maximus, 156. Purandocht, reigu of, 192. Puritans in America, 295 ; in England, 345. Putnam, general, 428. Puttkamor, v., 52i5. Pydna, battle of, 120. Pjgmalion, of Tyre, 18. Pylo8.66. Pym, John, M. P., 341 ; Imprisoned, 342 ; impeached, 346 ; death, 348. pyramids, 3; battle of the, 460. Pyrenees, battle of, 479; peace of the, 866. Pyrrhus, k. of Britain, 37. Pyrrhus, k of Epirus, aids the Syracn- sans, 20 ; war with the Romans, 107- 109 ; death, 108. Pytheas of Massilia, 37, 167. Pythian festival, ^. Quadi, war with Rome, 154. Quadruple alliance, 39(. 437, 445. Quaestiones perpetuae, 122. Quajstors appointed, 93 ; two more added. 99 ; accompany pro-praetors, 122 ; 20 quaestors, 132. Quaker Hill, battle of, 430. Quatre-Bras, battle of, 484. Quebec, founded, 299 ; taken by the Kertka, 299; surrendered to the English, 422; besieged in vain by Arnold, 427 ; battle of, 439. Queen Anne's bounty, 434 ; war, 363, 366 Queenstown, battle of, 651. Quiberon Bay, battle of, 439. Quincy, Josiah, 426. Quito, 287. Quivira, 287. Rabelais 319. Racine, 371. Radagais, 171. Radetzki, 494, 523. Radowitz, 497, 498. Radzivil, 490. Raedwald, k. of East Anglia, 179. Raetia, 148, 167. Rafn, descripton of Vinland, 281. Ragaz, battle of, 263. Raglan, lord, 600. Ragnarok, 166. Railroads, invention, 486: in the United States, 486, 652. Rain, battle of, 312. Rajputana, 22 ; conquered by Akbar, 354; unsuccessful wars of Aurangzeb in, 389 ; independent, 442. Raleigh, Sir Walter, grant of Virginia, 289 j expedition to Guiana, 290 ; expedition to the Orinoco and ezeeation 841. Ramannarari, 14. Ramayana, Indian epic, 23. Rambouillet decree, 650. Ramessu, k. of Egypt, II., the Greek Sesos< tris, 5 ; III., Rhampsinitus, 6. Ramillies, battle of, 392, 434. Ramses. See Ramessu II. Randolph, Edward, 361 ; Peyton, 426. Raphael, Santi, 327. Rastadt, peace of, 394 ; congress of, 459 j dissolution, 461. Ratisbon. See Regensburg. Raucoux, battle of, 402. Ravaillac, 325. Ravenna, imperial residence, 161 ; res! dence of Theodore, 174 ; battle of, 318 Recimir, 162. Reciprocity treatv, 543, 555. Recoinage act, 3§8. Reconstruction act, 559. Redan, storm of the. 501. Reform act, first, 540 ; Scotch, 640 ; secoo4 644 42 Index, Reformation, beginning of, 301; ir, Eng- land, 336 ; in France, 321 ; introduced Into Geneva by Calvin, 304 ; in Switzer- land, 301. Regensburg, founded, 167, 215; electoral assembly at, 311 ; permanent diet at, 316, 371 ; battle of, 471. ftegillus, battle of, 96. Kegulus, M. Atilius, 110, 111, 112. Reichenbach, battle of, 406 ; conference at, 408 ; treaty of, 476. Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, 464. Reichshofen, battle of, 516. Reichskammergericht, 300. Reichstag, German, 511, 520, 526. Reign of terror, 454. Rekenitz, battle of, 196. Remigiua, b. of Rheims, 174. Rense, electoral meeting at, 248. Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. See Ionian Islands. Republican party in U. S., 548; in France, 630. Bepublics founded by the French during the revolution: Batavian, 456; Cisal- pine, 459 ; Helvetian, 460 ; Ligurian, 459 ; Parthenopaean, 460 ; Roman, 469. [Seven Ionian Islands, founded by Rus- sia, 461.] Reservatum ecclesiasticum, 306, 310. Restoration of the Bourbons, 481, 484, 526, 527; of the Stuarts, 378. Resumption of specie payments, 560. Reutlingen, battle of, 250. Revolution, American^ 426 ; Belgian, 408 ; of 1830, 489 ; Central American, 488 ; English, I., 347,375; II., 384; French, I., 447; II. (July), 529; III. (Feb.), 530 ; IV. (Sept.), 517; German, 492; Greek, 488; Hungarian, 4:M; /ia^ian, 490, 493, 602 ; Japanese, 563 ; Polish, 490, 506 ; Portuguese, 488 ; South American, 488 ; Spanish, 488, 512. Revolutionary tribunal, 453. Rezonville, battle of, 516. Rhampsinitus. See Ramessu III. Rh6, Isle of, 343. Rhett, William, 363. Rhine cities, league of, 249. Rhode Island, colony, founded, 297 ; pe- tition of, to be admitted to the colonial union rejected, 357 ; charter, 358 ; gov- ernment, 361, 302 ; accepted the consti- tution of U. S., 547; Dorr rebellion, 554. Rhodes, colonized by Phoenicians, 17, 41 ; independent, 78 ; Roman province, 79 ; war with Antiochus III., 119, 120 ; cap- tured by Persians, 191 ; given to knights of St. John, lost to Turks, 217. Ribault, Jean, 288. Ricci, Jesuit general, 416. Richard of Clare, e. of Leinster, 232. Richard of Cornwall, elected emp. of H. R. E., 225. Bichard I., Coeur-de-Lion, k. of England, crusade, 215; imprisoned, 216; released, 223 ; war with Philip Augustus, 22Q ; Treign in England, 232; II., 269, 270', in., 275. iikhard, d. of York, 271. Bichelieu, card., in thirty years' war, 311, 314; administration, 825; a. of, 487 ministry , 527. Richmond, surrender of, 559. Richmond, e. of, 275. See Henry VII^ k. of England. Ridley, 338. Ried, treaty of, 478. Rienzi, Cola di, 263. Riga, siege of, 474. Rimnik, battle of, 413. Rio de la Plata, discovery, 285. Ripon, marq. of, viceroy of India, 547. Ripon, treaty of, 345. Rivers, e. of, execution, 274. Rizzio murdered, 338. Roanoke Island, colony, 289. Roberjot, murder of, 461. Robert of Belesme, 230. Robert, c. of Clermont, 324. Robert, d. of France, proclaimed k., 202 Robert I., k. of France, 203. Robert, d. of Normandy, 214, 230. Robert Guiscard, 200. Roberval, gov. of Canada, 287, 288. Robespierre, member of the Jacobins, 451 •• in the convention, 453 ; at the head ol the reign of terror, 454 : crushes the moderates and radicals, 455 ; overthrow and execution, 466. Robinson, John, 294. Rochambeau, 430, 452. Roche, marquis de la, 290. Rochefort, 512. Rochester, e. of, 382, 383. Rockingham, first administration, 424, 440 J second, 431, 441. Rocroy, battle of, 366. Rodney, 441. Roe, sir Thomas, 354. Roeskild, peace of, 373. Roger II., k. of the Two Sicilies, 218. Rogers, Wood, capt., 417. Rohan, card., 447. Roland, death of, 185. Roland, madame, executed, 455. Roldan, revolt of, 283. ' Rolf, 208 ; siege of Paris by, 201 ; first d. of Normandy, 202. Roman republic, proclaimed, 459 ; abo)« ished, 461. Romanow, house of, 353, 374. Rome, geography, 81 ; religion, 84 ; eth- nography, 85 ; origin, mythical and real, 87 ; the kings in legend, 88 ; in history, 90 ; constitution, 91 ; republic, constitu- tion, 93 ; patricians and plebeians, 95 ; decemvirs, 98; conquest by the Gauls, 35, 99 ; equalization of the old orders, 100 ; Samnite and Latin wars, 104, 106, 106 ; war with Tarentum, conquest of Italy, 107 ; Punic war, I., 109 ; II., 113 ; Hannibal in Italy, 114-117 ; Macedonian wars, 116, 118, 120, 121 ; war with Antio- chus, 119; Punic war. Til., destruction of Carthage, 121 ; destruction of Corinth, 122 ; provinces of Rome, 122 ; civil dis- turbances, the Gracchi, 124 ; Jugurthian war, 126 ; Cimbri and Teutones, 127 *, Mithridatic wars, 129, 132, 134 ; Marina and Sulla, 130 ; conservative reforms of Sulla, 132 ; war with the gladiators, 133; with the pirates, 134 ; organization of Index. 43 Asia. 136 ; Catiline, 136 ; Cicero, 137 ; let triumvirate, 137 ; conquest of Giiul, 138 ; civil war, 140; constitutiou under Caecar. 143 ; a.ssa.ssinatiou of Cresar, 144 ; 2d tri- umvirate, 145 ; war between Octavianua and Antonius, 146 ; Octavianua ruler and emperor, 147 ; Julian emperors, 147-161 ; Flavian, 151 ; the good emperors, 152- 154 ; emperors appointed by the soldiers, 154 ; Aurelian, 157 ; Diocletian, 158 ; Constantine, 159 ; division of the empire into the eastern, or Greek, and the west- em empire, 161 ; fall of the western em- pire, 162 ; Persian wars, 187, 188 ; Par- thian wars, 3(). See Holy Koman Em- pire, and Eastern Empire. Rome (the city), described, 82; founded, 87 ; Cloacae, Servian wall, 89 ; sacked by Gauls, 100 ; fire in, under Nero, 151 ; Backed by Alaric, 171 ; by the Vandals, 173 ; seat of the papacy, 176 ; Pipin pa- tricius, 184 ; Charles the Great crowned in, 185 ; Arnulf, 194; Otto 1., 195; Fred- eric III. (IV.), last emp. , crowned in Rome, 263 ; sacked by the army of the constable of Bourbon, 303 ; occupied by the French, 459, 473 ; return of pope, 482; occupied by French, 503; captured by Italians, 518 ; capital of Italy, 520. Romulus and Remus, 87. Romulus Augustulus, Roman emp., 162. Roncevaux, 185. Rooke, sir George, 434. Rosamunda, 175. Roses, wars of the, 272. Rosny. See Sully. Rossbach, battle of, 404. Rostra, 82, 104. Rothari, 175. Rouher, 512. Roum, sultanate of, 210. Roumania, independent, 524 ; kingdom, 524. Roumanian language, 153. Roundheads, 350. Roundway Down, battle of, 347. Rousseau, 448. Royalists, 350. Rudolf, archd. of Austria, 249. Rudolf, of Burgundy, k. of France, 202. Rudolf in., k. of Burgundy (Aries), be- queaths kingdom to Henry II., 198. Rudolf I., of Hapsburg, emp. of H. R. E., reign, 244; II., reign, 308. Rudolf, of Rheinfeld, d. of Swabia, 199 ; anti-king of Germany, 200. Rudolfian line, 316. Ruel, treaty of, 366, Rullianus, 102, 106. Rump parliament, in England, 351, 376 ; in Germany, 496. Rupert, count palatine, 250. 251. Rupert, pr., at Edgehill,347; at Marston Moor, 348 ; in cabinet, 380. Rurik, house of, 276, 352, Russell, adm. See Orford. Russell, lord, executed, 382. Russell, lord .lohn, 539; home sec, 540; first ministry of, 543 : foreign sec, 543; earl Russell, 544 ; second ministry. 544. Russia, Swedes subjugate the Slavs around Novgorod, 208; R. under the Mongols, 241; under the house of Rurik, rise of Moscow, 276 i house of Rurik surcoeded by that of Romanow, 3;')3 ; Pet4;r tuo Great, 374 ; war with Chnrles XII., 394 ; peace of Nystadt, 397 : seven years' war, 4li3; Elizabeth succeeded by I'eter 111., Frederic's friend, 405; Catherine II., neutral, 406; war with Sweden, 409; hou.-;chadel, battle of, 5U9. Schweppermann, 247. Scipio, On., 112; killed, 116. Scipio (Asiaticus), L. Cornelius, 119. Scipio (Barbatus), L. Cornelius, 106. Scipio, P. Corneliu.", 113, 115 ; killed, 116. Scipio, P. Cornelius (Africanus major), elected consul, 117 ; defeated Antiochus, 119 ; death, 120. Scipio, P. Cornelius, JEmilianus (Africanus minor), captures Carthage, 121 ; takes Numantia, 12-3. Scipio, P. Nasica, 124. Scotland, geography, 36 ; Scots ravage Britain, 38, 176 ; war with Edward I., 264 ; conteHted succession, 264, 266 ; Scot- land independent after Bannockbum, 268; capture of James, prince of Scot- land, 270 : James IV. invades England, 333; Flodden field, 334; Mary queen of Scots, 3.38, 339 ; James VI. succeeds in England as James I., 339 ; episcopacy in Scotland, 340 ; riot in Edinburgh, solemn league and covenant, 344 : bishops" war, 345 ; Scotch invade England, 348 ; Mon- troFe in Scotland, 348 ; Charles surren- ders to Scotch, 349; secret treaty with, 350; Cromwell in Scotland, 375 ; perse- cution of covenanters, 382 : William and Mary receive the crown, 386 ; union with England, 434. Scroop, archb. of York, 270. Scurcola, battle of, 226. Scutage, introduction of, 231. Scythians, invade VIedia, 15, 25 ; India, 24 ; attacked by Darius without success, 28. Sebastian, k." of Portugal, 332. Sebastopol, siege of, 5(Xt. Secessio plebis, 96, 98, 107. Secession of the Southern States in North America, 558. Sedan, battle of, 517. Sedgemoor, battle of, 383. Seisachtheia, 52. Sejanus, 149. Sekigahara, battle of, a56. SeleucidcTR, conquer the Jews, 11 ; over the Phoenicians, 20 ; kings of Syria, 77 ; con- quered by Rome, 120, 153. Seleucus, 76. Self-denying ordinance, 349. Selim II., sultan of Turkey, 306 ; III., 473. Seminole war, 552. Semiramis, 14, 16. See Sammuramit. Semitic peoples, religion of, 12. Sempach, battle of, 250. Sempronius Longus, T., 114. Sena gallica, battle of, 117. Senate, French, under the 4th constitu- tion, 461 ; receives greater power, 464 ; under Louis Napoleon, 531 ; constitution of 1875, 5.33. Senate, Roman, origin, 87 ; enlargement, 89 : in the monarchical constitution, 91 ; under the republican constitution, 94; grow ing importance, 102 ; conflict with the Gracchi, 124; loses the jury duty, 125 ; the reforms of Suila give the S. a temporary representative character, 132; power of revision restored to censor.H, 183 ; reduced to a council under ('jpsar, 143 ; receives the power of appointing ofll- cials, 149. Senate in the United States, 433. Seneca, 150. Senlac. See Hastings. Sennacherib, 10, 15. Senones, 34, 35, 107. Sentinum, battle of, 106. Sepoy mutiny, 546. September laws in France, 529. Septennial parliament, 437. Septimania, 174, 201. Septimius Severus, Roman emp., 154. Serfdom, 166 ; abolished by Joseph II., 407 ; by Alexander II., 500. Sertorius, Q., 130, 133. Servia, 521, 523; independent, 624; king- dom, 626. Servian constitution, 91. Servile wars, I., 123 ; II., 128 ; III, 133. Servilius, P., consul, 134, 14L Servilius Ahala, C, 99. Servius Tullius, 89. Sesonchis. See Shashang I. Sesostris, 5. Seti I., k. of Egypt, 6. Seven years' war, 403 : in America, 420 ; in India, 443 ; participation of Spain, 414. Severus Alexander, Roman emp., 154. Seville, treaty of, 437. Seward, William II., 656. Sextius Lateranus, L., 100, 101. Seydlitz, 404,405. Seymour, lord, execution of, 336. Sforza, Francesco, becomes d. of Milan 262, 302, 303, 304. Shabak, 6. Shaftesbury, lord chan., 380, 381, 382. Shah Alam II., emp. of India, 442, 444 ; Jahan, emp. of India, reign of, 354. Shahnameh, Persian epic, refers to old Bao- trian empire, 25, 191. Shahr-Barz, Persian general, 191, 192. Shakespeare, 339. Shalmaneser, ks. of Assyria, II., 14 ; IV. Ut, 14. Shang, mythical dynasty in China, 31. Shanghai, 31, 501 ; opened to British trade- 561. Sharpe, archb., murdered, 381. Shashang I., k. of Egypt, 5, 10. Shays "s rebellion, 433. Sheeah, 182. Shelburne, lord, administration, 431, 441 ; sec. of state. 44(>. Shenandoah valley, 558. Shepherd kings in Egypt, 5 Sher Ali, death of, 547. Sheridan, general, Opequan, 658 ; FiT* Forks, 559. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 441. Sheriff muir, battle of, 437. Sherman, gen., campaign against John- ston, 558 ; march through Georgia, 558; received the surrender of the la&t confed- erate army, 659. Shiloh, battle of, 557. Shimonoseki batteries destroyed, 563 Shinto religion, 32, 33; reestablished, 564 46 Index. Bhipka pasn, 522. Ship-money, writs for, 344. Shisak. See Shasliaug I. Shoguns, Japanese mayors of the palace, rise of, 213; Yoritomo, 243; Ashikaga shoguns, 278, 355 ; Tokugawa shoguns, 30 J, 445 ; OTertlwow of the shoguu, 563. Shore, sir John, gov.-gen. in India, 541. " Short '■ parliament, 345. Shovel, SirOloudesley, 434. Shrewsbury, battle of, 2i'0. Shrewsbury, e. of. See Talbot. Shrewsbury, e. of, 384 ; secretary of state, 3S5; resignation, 387; last lord high treas., 435, 436. Sicilian vespers, 226. Sicily, Phoenician colonies in, 17 ; wars of Carthaginians and Greeks in, 20 ; Messe- nians settle in, 51 ; Syracusan expedition of the Athenians, 67 ; geographical de- Bcription, 83 ; collision between Rome and Carthage, 110 ; ceded to Rome, west- em S. the first Roman province. 111 ; war in Sicily, 116 ; subjugated, 117 ; re- volt of slaves in, 123, 128 ; war with Sex- tus Pompeius in, 146. Bicily, kingdom of, Roger II. assumes title of k. of the Two S., 218 ; Constance, heiress of the kingdom, wife of the emp. Henrv VI., 222 ; war with Tancred, 223 ; Frederic II., 223 ; xManfred, 225 ; Charles of Anjou receives kingdom from tne pope, 226 ; Sicilian vespers, French driven from S.. which falls to Peter of Aragon, 226 {see Naples) ; S. united with .iragon, 263 ; given as kingdom to Savoy, 393 ; seized by Spain, but abandoned, and, by Savoy , exchanged with Austria for Sardinia, 3J7 ; after the war of the Polish succession ceded by Austria to Spain, witli Naples, 398 ; S. and Naples (as kingdom of the Two Sici- lies) given to Ferdinand, 3d son of Charles III. of Spain, 416 ; deprived of Naples by Napoleon, the court retires to S., 468 ; dynasty restored, 483 ; revolt, 493; Gari- baldi liberates S., 502. Sickingen, Franz von, 302. Sicyon, 40, 48 ; joins Achfean league, 72. Sidney, execution of, 382 ; pir Philip, death of, 339. Sidon, chief town of the Sidonians, 16 ; greatest power, 17 ; superseded by Tyre, 18 ; first city of Phoenicia under Persia, 19 ; abandoned by crusaders, 2l7. Sievershausen, battle of, 306. Sieyes, 449, 461. Sigibert I., k. of the Franks, 181. Sigismund, emp. of the H. R. E., 251. Sigismund, k. of Hungary, 277. Sigismund III., k. of Poland, 352. Sigurd, k. of Norway, 238. Sigurd Ring, k. of Sweden, 207, 208. Sikhs, revolt, 442 ; two wars with the Brit- ish, 546. Silarus, battle of, 133. Silesia united with Bohemia, 248 ; claims of Prussia, 400; retained by Prussia, 406. Silesian wars, I., 400 ; II., 402 ; III., 404. Simon, J , 517 ; ministry, 534. Bimon of Moutfort, the elder, 227. Simon of Montfort, e. of Leicester, his p»- liament, 234. Simony, 200. Sindhia, 443, 541. Sinope, battle of, 499. Sipylus, battle of, 119. Siraj-ud-Daula, 443. Sistova, peace of, 413. Sivaji, 389, 443. Siward, e. of Northumberland, 206. Six articles, 335. Sixtus v., pope, 327. Skaania, 236, 237, 238. Skobeleff, 523, 526, Skrzynecki, 490. Slavery abolished throughout the British empire, 540 ; partially abolished in Conn., 432; abolished in Massachusetts, 431 ; in Pennsylvania, 431 ; in the Unitea States, 433. Slave-trade abolished in British dominion, 537; in the United States, 550. Slaves in Athens, 52; in Germany, 186, 177. Slavonic congress in Prague, 493. Slavs, great monarchy of, 168 ; religion, 169 ; regain their liberty, 173. Slawata, 309. Slidell, 544, 557. Sluys, battle of, 257. Smerdes. See Hirhor. Smith, John, in Virginia, 291, 292 ; explo- ration of coast of New England by, 294. Smolensk, 474, 475. Sobieski, John, k. of Poland, relieves Vi- enna, 372 ; in Poland, 374. Social democrats in Germany, 524. Socialistic commune, in France, 532. Socrates, 64, 69. Sogdianus, k. of Persia, 29. Soissons, battle of, 173, 181. Solemn league and covenant, in Scotland, 344 ; in England, 348. Solferino, battle of, 602. Soliman II., sultan of Turkey, besieged Vienna, 303 ; alliance with Francis 1., 304, 305 ; death, 306 ; reign, 353. Soliman Pasha, 522. Soils, Juan Diaz de, 284, 285. Solomon, k. of the Jews, 9. Solon, of Athens, visited Croesus of Lydia, 21 ; constitution of, 52. Solway Moss, battle of, 335. Somers, lord keeper, 387 ; lord chan., 388; whig leader, 435. Somerset, execution of, 336. Sommering, 486. Soonees, 182. Soor, battle of, 402, 509. Sophia, princess of Hanover, 435. Sophia of Russia, 374. Sophocles, 64. Sophonisbe, 117. Soto, Ferdinando de, 287. Sou It, marshal, on the Rhine. 467 ; In Spain, 471, 473, 479 ; in France, 481. Soult, ministry of, 530. South Sea bubble, 435, 437, 445. Southwold Bay, battle of, 380. Spain, Phoenician settlements in, 17; Car- thagiuian colonies in, 19 : war with Car. thaginians in, 115 ; regarded as a Roiuaa Index. proTince, 118 ; invaded by Vandals, Suevi Alani, 171 ; West (Jothic kingdom in, ITli, 174 ; Suevi and West Goths unite and are converted, 176; conquered by Moors, 183 ; fall of Cordova, rise of Cliristian kingdoms, 75&-1035, ^9 ; revolt of Por- tugal, union of Castile and Leon, 240 ; conquest of Granada, wars between Castile and Aragon, 276 ; union of Aragon and Castile, 328 ; discoveries in America, 282 ; war with France, peace of the Pyre- nees, 366 ; war with England, 377 ; war of the Spanish succession, 3^K) ; partition treaties, 391 ; peace of Utrecht, 393 ; house of Bourbon, 414 ; Jesuits expelled, 416 ; war with England in America, 419, 437, 438 ; Florida ceded to England, 423, 439; war with England, 440 ; Florida re- stored to Spain, 432,441 ; France declares war against, 463 ; Bourbons displaced in favor of Joseph Bonaparte, 470 ; penin- sula war, 471,473 ; constitution of 1812, ib. ; French driven from Spain, 479 ; Bourbons restored, 483; liberal rising, const, of 1812 restored, 4^7 ; French in- tervention, 488 ; revolt of the American colonies, 488 ; revolution of 1868, 612 ; S. a republic, 520 ; monarchy restored, 621 ; treaties with the United States, 648, 552. Spanish succession, 388 ; war of, 390. Bparta, founded, 48 ; constitution of Ly- curgus, 60; first hegemony, 66 ; Ther- mopylae, 68 ; Plataeae, 60 ; hegemony transferred to Athens, 61 ; war with Athens, 62 ; Peloponnesian war, 64 ; sec- ond hegemony, 69 ; loss of hegemony to Thebes, 70 ; war with the Achaean league, 79, 122 ; Nabis defeated by Ro- mans, 80. Spartacus, 133. Spectator, 436. Speier, diet at, 224 ; imperial chamber at, 300; diet of , 302 303. Spenser, Edmund, 339. Speyer. See Speier. Sphacteria, 66. Sphinx, 3, 46. Spicheren, battle of, 516. Spinola, 309, 310. Spitamas, 26. Spithead, mutiny at. 535. Spoils system, in U. S., 552. Spottsyivania, battle of, 668 Spurlus Cassius. 97. Stadtlohn, battle of, 310. Stahremberg, 372. Stamford, battle of, 274. Stamfordbridge, battle of, 206. Stamp act, pas.sage of, 423, 440 ; repeal of, 424, 440. Standard, battle of the, 230. Standish, Miles, 295. Stanislaus Le^czinski, k. of Poland, 395; abdicates, 398, 445. Stanislaus Poniatowski, k. of Poland, 411. Statiton, Edwin .M., 556. Star chamber, 333 ; abolition of, 346. Stargard, truce of, 406. Stark, gen., 429. States General. See Etats G«^n^raux. Btatthaltership, in the Netherlands 331 bteam, first attempt to utilize, 485 ', first steam-engine, 486 ,- applied to navigation. 486 Steele, sir Richard, 436. Steenkirke, battle of, 370, 387. Stein, baron of, reorganizes Prussia, 471 \ central uduiiuistration, 47b, 479 ; at con« gress of Vienna, 4!>2. Steinmetz, 514. Stenbock, Swedish general, 396. Stenkil, k. of Sweden, 208, 237. Stephen, archd. palatin*-, 494. Stephen of Blois, k. of England, 230. Stephen, St., k. of Hungary, 277. Stephen Bathory, elected k. of Poland, 362. Stevenson, George, 486. Steward, ofRce of, 195. Steyer, truce of, 462. Stilicho, 161, 171. Stillwater, battles of, 429. Stockach, battles of, 460, 462. Stockholm, massacre of, 352 : treaty oL 396, 437. Stonv Point, storm of, 430. Strafford, earl of, sketch of life, 344 ; im- peachment, 345 : execution, 346. Stralsund, peace of, 237, 249 ; siege of, 310; lost by Sweden, 396. Strassburg, remains to the empire, 316 i seized by Louis XIV., 369; siege, 516, capitulation, 518 ; ceded to the German empire, 519 ; bi-lingual oath of, 186. Strategi, 55. Strathclyde subjected to Northumbria, 180 j submits to England, 204. Stratton Hill, battle of, 347. Strelitzes, 374. Struensee, 409. Stuart, house of, succeedfl in England* 339; expelled, 375; restored, 378; ex- pel led, 385. Stuart, Arabella, 840 ; imprisonment and death, 341. Stuyvesant, Peter, 357, 358. Suessula, battle of, 104, Suevi, location, 164, 170 ; invade Spain, 171 ; unite with West Goths, 175. Suez Canal, 512, 545. Suffolk, d. of (Wm. de la Pole), impeach- ment, 271. Sugar act, passage of. 423. Suger, abbot of St. Denis, 226. Suleiman. See Soliman. Sulla, L. Cornelius, takes Jugurtha, 127 ; in the social war, 129 : war with Marius, 130 ; war against .Mithridates, 130 ; ap- pointed dictator in Rome, 132 ; abdicated, 133; death. V6. Sully, d. of, 325, 340. Sulpicius Galba, P., 118 ; Rufus, 130. Sumir, 13. Sumter, Thoma«, 430. Sunderland, (2d) e. of f Spencer), in cabinet, 381 ; sec. of state, 382 ; becomes Catho- lic, 383; dismissed, 384: refnmed to parliament, 387. lord chamberlain, 388 ; (3d) e. of, whig leader, 435 ; lord lieut. of Ireland, 436. Sung, kingdom of, 242. Surajah Dowlah. See Sirsij-ud Dauia- Surat, English factory at, 353. Surinan^, discovery of, 2S3> 48 Index* Surrey, earl of, executed, 336. Busiana in Persia, 24, 3U ; invaded by- Arabs, 192. Sutras, Hindu scriptures, 23. Suttee, abolition of, 541. Suvaroff, Turkish war, 413 ; storms Prague, 414 ; in Italy and Switzerland, 460, 461. Buy dynasty in China, 32. Svatopluk II., k. of Moravia, 194. Svea, 208, 237. Svend, Forked Beard, k. of Denmark, 207 ; in England (Swegen),205 ; Eslridsen, k. of Denmark, 207. Bverre, k. of Norway, 238. gvold, battle of, 209. Bwabia, duchy of, 194 ; revolt of duke Ernst, 198 ; Rudolf of, anti-king, 200 ; rise of Wurtemberg and Baden, 244 , league of cities, conflict with counts of Wiirtemberg, 250. Bwabian city league, 249. Ewally, battle of, 354. Sweden, Svea and Gota, mythical history, 208 ; Christianity introduced ; union of Caluiar, 238 ; settlements in America, 298 ; in the thirty years' war (Gustavus Adol- phus), 311-314; at the peace of West- phalia acquires Pomerania, RUgen, Wismar, Bremen, Werden, 316 ; house of Vasa, 352; house of Zweibriicken, 373 ; war with Brandenburg, 374 ; Charles XII. 's war with Peter the Great, 394, 376 ; loss of Bremen, Werden to Han- over; Stettin, WoUen, Usedom, Hither Pomerania to Prussia, 396 ; " Hats " and " Caps," 409 ; house of Holstein-Got- torp ; war with Russia, 4(i9; joins third coalition against France, 467 ; forced ab- dication of Gustavus IV., 472; loss of Finland, 473 ; Bernadotte crown prince, 473 ; alliance with Russia, promise of Norway, 474 ; alliance with England, 476 ; peace with Denmark, loss of Pom- erania and Riigen, 479; at congress of Vienna receives Norway, 483 ; which has to be subdued, 484. Swegen. See Svend. Swift, Jonathan, 436. Switzerland, 162 ; origin of the confeder- acy, 245 ,- story of Tell, 246 ; war with Austria, 247 ; Berne joins the confed- eracy, 248 ; Sempach, 250 ; Armagnacs attack Basle, 253 ; practically indepen- dent, 300 ; reformation, Zwingli, 301 ; in- dependence acknowledged, 316 ; Berne takes the Waadtland from Savoy, 327 ; transformed into the Helvetian republic, 460 ; restoration of thp independent can- tons, 464; addition oJ: Geneva, AVallis, and Neuchtitcl, 483 ; civil war, new con- stitution, 492 ; Neuchatel resigned by the king of Prussia, 501 ; rupture with the papacy, 520. Syagrinus, 173. Sybota, battle of, 65. Sylvester II., pope, 197 ; III., 199. Symington, 486. Sypliax, 116, 118. Syracuse besieged by Carthaginians, 20 ; foundation of, 51 ; expedition of Athe- nians as;ainst, 67 ; war under Hiero ; war with Rome, 111 ; sack of, 116. Syria, Egyptian supremacy over, 4 ; lost by Rannessu II. , 5 ; wars of Psamethik in, 6 ; subject to Assyria, 14 ; conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, 16 ; under the Seleu- cidse, 77 ; taken possession of by Ti- granes, 134 ; a Roman province, 136 i subdued by Aurelian, 157. Szczekoziny, 414. Tixoernacle, 8. Taborites, 252. Tacitus, Roman emp., 157. Tadmor, foundation of, 9. Tadoussac, 290. Taginac, battle of, 175. Tagliacozzo, battle of, 226. Taharak, k. of Egypt, 6. Tai-ping rebellion, 5bl. Taira family in Japan, 212, 213,242. Talavera, battle of, 471. Talbot, e. of Shrewsbury, 272. Talikot, battle of, 354. Tallagio, de non concedendo, 267. Talleyrand, 481, 482. Tamerlane, defeats Bajazet, 278, 353. Tanagra, battle of, 63. Tancred of Hauteville, 199, 214 ; of Lecce 223. Tang dynasty in China, 211. Tanneguy Duchatel, 259. Tannenberg, battle of, 277 Taoism, in China, 31. Tarentum, 51 ; war with the Samnitea, 104 ; war with Rome, 107. Targowitz, confederacy of, 413. Tariff of abominations, 562. Tarik. 183. 'i'arleton, 431. Tarpeian rock, 82. Tarquinius Priscus, 35, 89 ; Superbus, 89. Tarquins, expulsion of, 93; war with, 103, Tassilo, d. of Bavaria, revolt of, 185. Tasso, Torquato, 328. Tatars, Mons:ols, 240 ; Khitans in China, 241 ; Mongols in China, 242 ; Manchoos invade China, 355 ; become independent, 412. Tatler, 436. Ta-tsing dynasty in China, 355. Tauroggen, treaty of, 475. Taylor, Zachary, 555. Tegethoff . &06, 510. Teja, k. of East Goths, 175. Telamon, battle of, 112. Telegraph invented, 486 ; first submarine, 487 ; communication between France and England, 543 ; experimental line built by S. F. B. Morse, 554 ; communi- cation between U. S and Great Britain, 559. Tel-el-Kebir, capture of, 546. Tell, William, 246. Temesvar, 372, 397, 496. Templars, 217. Temple, in Jerusalem, erection of, 9; dd* struction, reerection, 11. Temple, sir William, 382. Temuchin, 240. Tennessee, admitted to the Union, 548. Tenure of office bill, 559. Teplitz, alliance of, 477; conference a*- Index, 49 Terentilius Area, 97. Terreur blanche, 527. Territory N. \V. of Ohio, 433. Terry, general, 669. Teschou, peace of, 407. Test .net, 380 ; repealed, 639. Testri, battle of, 183. Tetricua, 157. Tetzel, Dominican monk, 801. Teuta, queen of the lUyriana, 112. '" Teutobod, king of Teutoues, 127. Teutoburg fore.st, Roman legions annihi- lated in, 149, 167. Teutonea, invade Italy, 127, 167. Teutonic knights, 217, 464. Teutons, 3t) ; geography, 162 ; ethnology, 163; religion, 164; civilization, 166; history, 167 ; migration of Teutonic tribes, 170 ; Teutonic monarchies in the Roman empire, 171 ; in Britain, 176. Tewksbury, battle of, 274. Texas, annexed to United States, and ad- mitted to the Union, 564. Thales, 21. Thankmar, 195. Thapsus, battle of, 142. Thebes, in Egypt, 2, 4. Thebes, in Boeotia, founded, 45 ; war of the Seven against, 46 ; subdued, 48 ; Thebans at Thermopylae, 59; allied with Sparta against Athens, 62, 65 ; war with Sparta, hegemony of, 70 ; destruction, 73. Themistocles, 57 ; rebuilds walls of Ath- ens, 61 ; death, 61. Theodelinde, 175. Theodora, 210. Theodore, archb. of Canterbury, 180. Theodore l., k. of Corsica, 415. Theodoric the Great, k. of East Goths, 174. Theodoric I., k. of the Franks, 181. Theodoric I., k. of West Goths, 173. Theodosius, Roman emp. , 161, 171. Theophano, wife of Otto II., 196, 197. Theramene.'i, 69. Thermidorians, 456. Thermopylae, battle of, 58, 119. Theron of Agrigentum, 20. Theseus, 45, 61. Thesprotians, 41. Thessalian migration, 47. Thessalonica, kingdom of, 216. Thessaly, 40, 79, 141, 523. Thevet, Andrt?, 288. Thibet, Buddhism in, 23; conquered by Kang-he, 390. Thierry, k. of the Franks. See Theodoric Thiers, fall of the mini.stry of, 491 ; in op- position, 612; head of the executiye 519 ; ministry, 6:i9 ; fall , 530 ; president, 533 ; resigns, ib. ; death, 634. Thirty-nine articles, 338. Thirty tyrants, 69, 157. Thirty years' war, 308. Thistlewood, executed, 638. Thomas, gen., 668. Thor, 164, 165. Thoni, peace of, first and second, 277. Thracia, 28, 160. Thrasybulus, 68, 69, 70. Three bishoprics (Toul, Metz, Verdun), taken by France, 306, 321; ceded to France, 316 ; taken by Germany, 618. Three kingdoms in China, 83. Throgmortoii, Spanish plot of, 339. Tliucydides (sou of Melasias), 64. Thucydides (the historian), 64; banish* uieiit, 66. Thugs, suppression of the, 541. Thuringia, kingdom of, conquered by The- odoric I., 181; landgraves become ex- tinct, territory divided, 226. Thusnelda, 149. Thutmes III., k. of Egypt, 4. Thyrea. battle of, 56. Tiberias, battle of, 21.5. Tiberius, Romau emp., 149 ; adopted by Au- gustus, 148; subjugated Paunouia, 149. TibuUus, Albius, 148. Ticinus, battle of. 114. Ticond<'roga, fortification of, 421 ; captured by Ethan Allen, 427 ; by Burgoyne, 428. Tien-Tsin, treaty of, 601, 602, 643, 661, 562. Tifata, battle of, 131. Tiglath-Adar, k. of Assyria, 14. Tiglath-Pileser, ks. of Assyria, I., II., 14. Tigraues, k. of Armenia, 30, 134, 136. Tigranocerta, battle of, 135. Tillotson, archb. of ( anterbury, 387. Tilly, White Hill, 3h9; in Uolstein, 310; Magdeburg, 311 ; death, 312. Tilsit, peace of, 469, 537. Timoleon, 20. Tin not brought from England by Phoeni* ciaus, 17, n. Tinchebrai, battle of, 230. Tingitana, 150. Tippamuir, battle of, 348. Tipu sultan, 442, 444, 541. Tirhakah. See Taharak. Tiridates, k. of Armenia, 160, 188. Tiridates, k. of Parthia, 29. Tissaphernes, 67, 70. Titian, 328. Titus, Roman emp., 151, 152 ; destroys J*' rusalem, 12. Togrul Beg, 210. Tokio. See Yedo. Ttikoly, count, 372. Tokugawa Iyeya.su, 355. Tokugawa shoguus, 3o6. Tolbiacum, 173. Tolentino, battle of, 484 ; peace of, 458. Toleration act, 386. ToUv, Barclay de, 472, 474. Tolosa, kingdom of, 172; battle of, 240. Tonningen, surrender of, 396. Tonquin, annexed to China, 278; disputi with the French over, 662. Tooran-shah, 217. Torbay, 384. Torgau, alliance of, 302; bsttle of, 406. Tories, origin of the name, 382. Torres Vedras, lines of, 473, 637. Torstenson, 314, 315. Tostig. 206. Totila, k. of East Goths, 174, 175b Totleben, 405, 500. Toul. See Three bishoprics. Toulouse, battle of. 48L Tours, battle of, 183. Tourville, 370, 387. Tower of Babel, 12. Townshend, 436, 440. 50 Index, Towton, battle of, 274. / Trafalgar, battle of, 467. Traitorous correspondence bill, 636. Trajan, Kouian emp. ; Parthian exp. 30 ; reign, 152, 153. Transubstantiation, 269. Transylvania, 3n9, 315, 416, 611. Trasimenus, battle of lake, 114. Trautenau, battle of, 509. Travendal, peace of, 394. Treason, statute of, 269. Trebia, battle of the, 114, 461. Trebizond, Greek empire of, 216. Trelawney, b., 384. Trent, affair of the, 657. Trent, council of, 305. Trenton, battle of, 428. Trevelyan, Q. 0., sec. for Ireland, 546. Treves. See Trier. Trevithick, 486. Trevor, sir John, 388. Trial of the bishops under James II., 384. Tribes of Israel, 8. Tribunes, appointment, 96, 97 ; military tribunes created, 99 ; abolished, 101 ; lose their revolutionary character, 102 ; their power limited by Sulla, 132 ; re- stored, 133 ; conferred upon Caesar, 143. Tribur, imperial diet at, 199, 200. Tribus, 92. Triennial act, 345, 388. Trier, archb. of, 248. Trierarchy, 58. Trifanum, battle at, 104. Trifels, 216. Triple alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden, 367, 380 ; between England, France, and Holland, 437. Tripoli tan war, 549. Triumvirate, first, 137 ; second, 145. Trochu, 517, 518, 619. Trojan war, 47. Troppau, congress at, 487. Troyes, peace of, 259, 271, 338. Truce of God, 199, 203. Tschesme, battle of, 412. Tseng, marquis, 562. Tshernajeff, 521. Tsin dynasty in Ohina, 32 ; later Tsin, 211. Tuathal, 39. Tudor, house of, 333. Tughlak, sultan of Delhi, 241. Tuileries, storm of the, 452 ; burnt, 633. TuUus Hostilius, 89. Tunes, battle of, 111. Tunis, Louis IX. at, 217 ; expedition of Charles V. against, 304; French expe- dition to, 634. Turco-Russian war in Europe, 522 ; in Asia, 623. Turenne, marshal, 315, 366 ; death, 368. Turgot, 447. Turin, peace of, 371 ; battle of, 392, 434. lurks, Turkey, empire of the Seljuk T., 210 ; supremacy of the Osman or Otto- man T., 278 ; war with Charles V., 303 ; alliance with Francis I., 306 ; war with Max. II., 806 ; with Venice (Lepanto), 326 ; highest development of the em- pire, decline, 353 ; wars with Leopold I. (siege of Vienna), 872 ; peace of Carlo- witz, T. receives Temesvar, loses Morea to Venice, Hungary and Transylyania to Austria, 372, 416 , Azoff lost to Russia, 375; Charles XII. in T., 395; Azoff re- gained, 396 ; conquest of Morea, war with Austria, peace of Passarovvitz, Aus- tria receives Temesvar, Little Wallachia, Belgrade, part of Servia, 397 ; war with Poland and Russia, regains Belgrade, Servia, Little Wallachia, 398 ; war with Russia and Austria, 408, 410 ; Azoff finally lost, 410; with Catharine II. (1), peace of Kutschouc Kainardji, Bug the boun- dary, 412 ; (2) peace of J assy, Dniestei the boundary, 413 ; war with Russia, peace of Bucharest, Pruth the boun- dary, 473 ; revolt of Greece, 488 ; mas- sacre of Janizaries, Navarino, 489 ; war with Russia, peace of Adrianople, 489 ; Crimean war, 499 ; peace of Paris, 601 ; revolt of Herzegovina, etc., " Bulgarian atrocities," 521; war with Russia, 622: peace of San Stefano, 623 ; congress of Berlin, 624 ; loss of much territory, 624; conference of Berlin, surrender of Dul- cigno, 525. Tuscany, Cosimo de Medici of Florence becomes grand duke of T., 327 ; Francis Stephen, of Lorraine, receives T., 398, 416 ; becomes an appanage of Austria, 416 ; grand duke expelled, 461 ; ceded to Parma, as kingdom of Etruria, 463 ; old dynasty restored, 483 ; united with Sar- dinia, 502. Tuscaroras, 363, 417. Two Sicilies. See Naples, Sicily. Tycoon. See Shogun. Tyler, John, 654. Tyler, Wat, 269. Tyndale's translation of the Bible, 335. Tyndaris. battle off, 110. Tyrant, 49. Tyrconnel, 383, 387. Tyre, 16; subdued by Nebuchadnezzar, 16; surpasses Sidon, 18; height of its pros- perity under Hiram, 18 ; decline, 19 ; be- sieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 19 ; captured by Alexander, 20. Tyrol, acquired Carinthia, 244 ; given to Austria by Margaret Maultasch, 249 ; falls to archduke Maximilian, 253 ; in- vaded by Bavarians, 392 ; ceded to Ba- varia, 468 ; revolt of Tyrol under Hofer, 471 ; revolt subdued, southern Tyrol an- nexed to Italy, 472 ; T. restored to Aus- tria, 482. Tyrone, e, of, rebellion, 339, 341. Ulf-Jari, 207. Ulm, 260 ; truce of, 315 ; surrender o^ 467. Ulrica Eleanora, q. of Sweden, 396. Ulrich, d. of Wdrtemberg, victory of Sw» bian league over, 250. Ulrich, d of Wiirtemberg, restored, 304. Umbria, 81, 83, 141. Umbro-Sabellian tribe, 86. " Unam Sanctam," 264. Union of Calmar, 237, 238, 240, 35L Union G^n^rale, failure of, 534. Union, German, 498. TTninn. Prr.t«Pt!,nt. 308, 309. Union Jack, 434 Index. 61 tJnitcd colonlfls of New England, 298. United Irishmen, 53 i. United Iviii^jdoin of Great Britain and Ire- land. M'\. United Netherlands, republic of, 316. See Netiierlauds. United New N'etherland company, 298. United rrovinces. See Netherlands. Unite'l States of America, independence proelainied, 428; articles of confedera- tion, 429 ; iude^jendence recognized and boundaries established, 432 ; first con- gress at New York, 547 ; first meets at Washington, 649; Jays treaties, 548; Louisiana purchase, 549 ; war of 1812, 651 ; Missouri compromise, 552 ; war with Mexico, 654 J fugitive slave law, 548, 565 ; civil war, 657, prohibition of slavery, 658 ; resumption, civil service reform, 660. United States bank, 547 ; second, 651. Unstrut, battle of, 196, 199. Unma, Pedro de, 288. Urban II., pope, 213. Urchan, 278. Uruguay, 4i8covery of, 286 ; independent, 4SS. Usurtasen, ks. of Egypt, I., II., III., 4. Utica, Phoenician colony, 17 ; battle, 141. Utraquists, 232. Utrecht, peace of, 393, 435 ; treaty of, 363; union of, 331. Uxbridpe, tre.aty of, 349. Uzeda, d. of, 331. Vapa, Cabepa de, 286. Vadinionium lake, battle of, 105, 107. Valdivia, 2S7. "Valens, Roman emp., 160. Valentin ianus, I., Roman emp., 160; II., 160; III., 161, 173. Valerianus, Roman emp., 156, 188. Valei'ius, laws of, 98. Valerius Corvus, M., 103, 104 ; Maximus, 110 ; Poplicola, 93. Valley Forge, 429. Valmy, battle at, 452. Valois, house of, 257. Van Buren, Martin, 652, 663. Vandals, location, 170 ; invaded Spain, 171; kingdom in Africa, 172 ; power in Africa destroyed, 174. Vane, air Henry, execution of, 379. Vaa Tromp, 376. Va^ahran I., k. of Persia, II.. in., 188; IV., v., 189 ; VI., see Bahram. Vama, battle of, 278. Varro, C Terentius, 115; Varus, Quintilius, 143, 149, 167. Vasa, house of, 352. Vae.sals, IG'5. Vatican council, 512. Vaucelles, truce of, 306. Vauchamps, battle of, 480. Vedas, 22, 23. Veil, war of Romulus with, 88; siege of, 99. Velasquez, Diego, 2S4, 286. Venaissin, annexed to France, 452. Vendee, royalistic revolt in the, 453, 454 ; conclusion of the war, 467 ; new revolt repressed, ii>. Vendome, 392, 4.'55. Vendouie, column, 532. Venezuela, discovery of, 283 ; republic ol 488. Venice founded by Italian fugitives, 173: shares in 4th crusade, 216 ; constitu tiou, 697-1464, 262 ; acquisition of Corfu and Cyprus, height of its power, i6.,- league of Cambray , 300, 318 ; holy league, 318 ; decline in power, loses Cyprus to the Turks, 326 ; at the peace of Carlo- witz receives Morea, 372 ; which it loses at the peace of Passarowitz, 397 ; these wars described, 415 ; V- seized by France, gov. overthrown, 459 ; ceded to Austria, except Ionian Islands, 459; at the con- gress of \ ieuna, Austria retains V., which forms with Milan the Lombard o- Venetian kingdom, 482 ; revolt and subjugation, 494 ; ceded to Napoleon III., 609 ; ceded to Italy, 510, and united with that king- dom, 511. Venus, 84. Vera Cruz, 285 ; surrender of, to gen, Scott, 664. Vercellae, battle of, 128. Vercingetorix, 139. Verden, ceded to Sweden, 316; conquered by Denmark and sold to Hanover, 396. Verdun, see the Three bishoprics ; treaty of, 187. Vere, Robert de, impeachment, 269. Vergennes, c. de, 447. Vergilius Maro, P., 81, 147. Vergniaud, 451, 452, 454. Vermont, organized, 429 ; admitted to Union, 547. Verona, congress of, 488. Veronese, Paul, 328. Verrazzano, Giovanni di, 286. Versailles, convention of, 519 ; prelimin&> ries of peace at, 619 ; treaty of, 408 ; peace of, 432, 441. Verus, Lucius, 154. Vervins, treaty of, 324. Vesontio, battle of, 138. Vespasianus, Roman emp.. 37, 150, 161. Vespucci, Amerigo, 283, 284. Vestal virgins, 85. Vesuvius, eruption of, 162 , battle of, 104, 176. Vexin, 2'^3. Via .Emilia, 118; Appia. construction of, 105 ; Flaminia, construction of, 106, 113; Valeria, 1U6. Vicksburg, 558. Victor Amadeus, k. of Sardinia, 458. Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, returns to Turin, 482. Victor Emmanuel, k. of Sardinia, succeeds to the throne, 494; in Crimean war, 600; k. of Italy, 503; death, 624. Victoria, q. of Great Britain and Ireland, 491 ; marriage, 642 ; empress of India, 645, 647. Vienna, grand alliance of, 370. See Grand alliance. Vienna, alliance of, against Napoleon (1816), 483 ; concordat of, 253 ; conference in, 491 • congress of, 482, 537 ; final act, 487 ; peace of (en ling war of Polish succession )k '^'6 ; peace of between France and Au^* 52 Index, tria (1809), 472; peace of, ending the war of Austria and Prussia with Denmark (1864), 506; peace of, between Austria and Italy (1866), 511; treaty of (1731), 437 i siege by the Turks, 303, 372 ; foun- dation of, 167 ; outbreak in, 492 ; second, 499; third, 493. Vienne. See Dauphin^. Vijayanagar, Hindu kingdom of, 241, 363; destruction, 354. Vilagos, capitulation of, 495. Villafafila, treaty of, 328. Villafranca, meeting at, 602. Yillars, 366, 392, 393. Villegagnon, 288. Villehardouin, 216. "Villele, ministry of, 627. Villeroi, 370, 392. Vinci, Leonardo da, 327. Vindelicia, 34, 148, 167. Vindex, 0. Julius, 151. Vinegar Hill, battle of, 536. Vinland (America), 209, 281. Vinoy, general, 532. Vio, cardinal de, 301. Vionville, battle of, 516. Virginia, 98. Virginia, named, 289 ; division of, 291 ; first general assembly in, 292 ; massacre of colonists in, 357 ; Bacon's rebellion, 359 ; resolutions of the house of bur- gesses, 424 ; secedes, 556. Viriathus, 123. Visconti, John Galeazzo becomes duke of Milan, 251 ; extinction of the line, 262, 318. Visigoths. See West Goths. Vitellius, Roman emp., 151. Vitiges, k. of East Goths, 174. Vittoria, battle of, 479, 537. Vladimir the Great, of Russia, 276. Vladislas 111., of Poland, elected k., of Hungary, 278; IV., 352. Volabhis in India, 210. Volero, Publiiius, 9/. Vologeses, ks. of Parthia, III., war with M. Aurelius, 30 ; IV., loses northern Assyria, 30. Volscii, wars with Romans, 97, 98, 100, 103 : receive citizenship without suf- frage, 104. Voltaire, 400, 448. Voltri, battle of, 462. Vortigern, 37, 38. Vossem, peace of, 367. Vote by ballot in England, 546. Vouill^, battle of, 174. Vul-lush III., see Ramannarari. Wachau, battle at, 478. Waddington, ministry of, in France, 634. Wads worth, 362. Wagram, battle of, 472. Wahlstatt, battle of, 240, 477. Waiblingen. See Welfs. Wakefield, battle of, 272. Walcheren expedition, 471. Waldemar I., k. of Denmark, the Great, 235; II., the Conqueror, 224,235; III., 237. Waldemar the False, 248. Waidenses, 227. Wales, migration of Britons to, 172 ; con- quest by Edward 1. , 264 ; annexed to Eng., 264. Wales, pr of, visits United States and Can- ada, 544 ; India, 545. Walja, k. of the West Goths, 172. Wall of China, 32. Wallace, sir Wm., 266. Wallenstein, Albert of, 310, 313. Waller, 347. Walpole, 434; administration 437; fall, 438. Walsingham, 339. Walter the Penniless, 200, 213. Walter, Hubert, archb. of Canterbury, 233. Waltzemiiller, Martin, 283. Wandewash, battle of, 444. Warbeck, Perkin, 333. Warsaw, battle of, 373 : besieged by Prus- sians, 414 ; captured by Russians, 490. Warsaw, duchy of, created for the k. of Saxony, 470 ; West Galicia ceded to, 472 ; a portion ceded to Prussia, 482 ; the rest, as kingdom of Poland, to Rus- sia, 483. Wartburg, Luther at the, 302; festival of the, 487. Wartenburg, battle of, 478. Warwick, e. of, impeachment, 270. Warwick, e. of (the King-maker), takes up arms, 272, 274. Warwick, e. of, grant in America, 296. Warwick, e. of, executed, 333. Washington city laid out, 547. Washington, treaty of, 545, 560. Washington, George, expedition to the forts on the Alleghany, 420 ; at Braddock's defeat, 421 ; in continental congress, 426: commander-in-chief, 427 ; war of inde- pendence, 427^31 ; resigned his commis- ission, 432 ; first pres. of U. S., 547 ; re- elected, 548 ; death, 549. Waterloo, battle of, 484, 638. Watt, James, 486. Wayne, 430, 547. Webster, Daniel, speech in reply to Hayne, 553 ; U. S. sec. of state, 554, 556. Wedmore, treaty of, 204. Wehlau, treaty of, 373. Weinsberg, battle of, 219. Weissenburg, engagement at, 516. Welf, 186, 199; V., marries Matilda of Tuscany, 200. Welfs, contest with the Hohenstaufen (Waiblingen), 219, 224; genealogy of, 220. Welfesholze, battle of, 201. Wellesley, sir Arthur, in India 541. See Wellington. Wellington, d. of, 537 ; sketch of life, pen- insula war, 471 ; in Portugal, 473 ; Vit- toria, 479 ; in France, 481 ; congress of Vienna, 482 ; Waterloo, 484 ; administra- tion, 539 ; for. sec, 540 ; death, 543. Welser, 286. Wencesiaus. See Wenzel. Wends, 168; wars with Henry I., 194 f Otto I., 195; Otto II., 197; Teutonic knights, 218 ; subjugated by Waldemar 235, 249. Went worth, Thomas. See Strafford. Wenzel, emp. of H. R. E., 250. Index. 53 Werder, gen. von, 616, 619. Wer«la>, peace of, 40y. Werth, 313, 314, 315. Wetistjx, fouiidid, 178; growth of, 180; kings of, become kings of England, 208 ; Panes in, 204. West, Pnincis, 295. West Franks, separation from the East Franks, 187 ; Carolingian rulers, 201 ; develop into the French nation, 202. Western empire separated from the eastern empire, 10 ; fall of, 162, 173 ; revival by Charles the Great, 185 ; by Otto 1., 190. West (Joths, location, 170 ; enter the Komaa empire, 171 ; found kingdom in Spain, 172; under Theodoric, k. of the East Goths, 174 ; conquered by the Arabs, 183. Westminster assembly, 347. Westminster, treaty of, 380. 403. Weston, lord treasurer, 344. Westphalia, 184; kingdom of, formed, 470 ; fall of, 478 ; peace of, 315 ; coaditioos of the peace, 310, 317. West Point, 430. West Virginia admitted to the Union. 558. Wettin, house of, in Meissen, 218 ; receives electoral Saxony, 252 ; division of the line, 305 Wetzlar, imperial chamber at, 300. Wexford, massacre of, 375. Weymouth, George, 290. Wharron, Thomas, sec. of state, 387 ; in the whig junto, 435. Wheatstone, 487. Whigs, origin of the name, 382. WHisliev insurrection 548. White, John, gov., 289. White Hill, battle on, 309. White Plains, battle of, 428. Whitney, Eli, invented cotton gin, 648. Whittington, sir Richard, 271. Wiclif, doctrine as taught by Huss con- demned, 252 ; in England, 269. Widukind, 185. Wiesloch, battle of, 310. Wilderness, battle of the, 658. Wilkes, John, 439, 440. William I., the Conqueror, k. of England, Hastings, 206 ; reign, 229. See William duke of Normandy ; II., the Red, reign of, 280. William and Mary sovereigns of England, 370, 371 ; reign, 385 ; of Scotland, 386 ; wars with France, 370, 371 ; death of Mary, 388. See William, prince of Or- ange. William TIT. ,k. of England, reign alone, 388, 389 : war of Spanish succession, 390- 394; death, 389, 392; IV., 4Siy ; reign, 639; death, 491, 541. yilliam I., emperor of Germany, election, 519 ; attempted assassination, 524. William I., k. of Holland, 489. William Longsword, d. of Normandy, 202. William, d. of Normandy's claim to the English succession, 200, 206 ; conquest of England, 206. .S** William I., k. of England. William I., of Orange, the Silent, aSl. William of Orange, 367 ; marriage with Mary, 36S, .381 ; b^-comes stadtholder, 380 ; declaration to the people of Eng- land, 884. See William III., k. of Eng- land. William I.,k. of Pruisia, 503; coronation of, 504 ; commander of the army, 508, 609,514. See William I.,emp. of Ger- many. William the Lion, k. of Scotland, 282. William II., k. of Sicily, 222. William and Mary college, 362. William and Miiry, war of, 365. Williams, Roger, 297, 357. Wilmington, e. of, 438. Wilmot proviso, 555. Wimbledon, expedition against Cadiz, 842, Wimpfen, battle of, 310. Wimpffeu, general, 617. Winchester, statute of, 267. Windischgratz, pr., 495. Winfrith. See Boniface. Winkelried, Arnold of, 260. Winlhrop, John, 296. Winthrop, John, son of gov. W., founda* tion of Conn, colony by, 297. Winwa^d, battle of, 180. Wisconsin exploration of, 364 ; admitted to the Union. 555. Witt, de, 367, 383 ; commander, 379. Wittelsbach, house of, in Bavaria, 222; count palatine, 223; head of the union and the league both of this house, 308 ; AVilhelmiau and Rudolfian line, 316; Bavarian succession, 406. Wittstock, battle of, 314. Wladimir. See Vladimir. Wocokon, island of, 289. Woden. See Odin. Wolfe, gen., 421, 422. Wollaston, 295. Wolseley, sir Garnet, 645, 646. Wolsey, Thomas, card., 334. Wolstenholme's Sound, 299. " Wonderful " parliament, 269. Worcester, battle of, S75. Worcester, e. of, conspiracy against Henrj IV., 270. Worcester, marquis of, 486. Worms, capital of the old kingdom of Bur- gundy, 170; concordat of, 201; diet of, Worth, battle of, 616. Wrangel, German commander, 494, 496 605. Wrangel, Swedish commander, 315. Wrede, 480. Wren, sir Christopher, 379. Writs of assistance in Massachusetts, 422. Wurschen, battle of, 476. Wurtemberg, rise of the Swabian counts of, 244 ; contests with the league of Swa- bian cities, 249, 250; duke Ulrich forced to abdicate, 304 ; becomes an electorate, 464 ; enriched by the mediatization of many imperial cities, 465 ; troops join Napoleon, 467; becomes a kingdom and acquires lands from Austria, 4t5S ; be- longs to the confederation of the Rhine 468; joins the allies, 479; joins tha North German cf)nfedei:ition, 514 Wiirzburg, diet at, 223; battle of, 458. Wusterhausen, treaty of, 398. Wyandots, 423. Wyat, sir Francis, gov. of S. Virginia, 29i 54 Index. Wyclif. See WicHf . Wykeham, William of, 269. X. Y. Z. affair, 549. Xauthippus accuses Miltiades, 57; leads Athenian fleet, 60 ; father of Pericles, Xauthippus, the Spartan, ill. Xenophon, leads the Greek mercenaries under Cyrus the youuger, 29, 69. Xeres de la Froutera, battle of, 183. Xerxes, ks. of Persia: 1., war with Greece, 28, 58-60 i II., 29. Yakub Beg, 562. Yakut Khan, abdication of, 547. Yale college, founded, 363. Yamassees, Indian war, 417, 418. Yeardley, Bir George, gov. gen. of S. Vir- ginia, 292. Yedo, in Japan, 32 ; capital of the shogun, 356; name changed to Tokio, becomes capital of the mikado, 563. Ynglingar dynasty in Sweden, 208. Yokohama, 32 ; opened to trade, 563. York, .James, duke of, grant of New N_etherlands, 358 ; lord high admiral, 378 ; professes Catholicism, 380 ; thrown out by the test act, 380; exclusion bill, 381 ; succeeds as James II., k. of Eng- land, 383. York, gen., 474, 475, 478, 480. York, house of, in the wars of the roses, 272. ^Torktown, siege of, 431. Yoritomo, 242, 243. Ypsilauti, 488. Yucatan, di.scovery of, 284, 285. Yussuf, 209. Zama, battle of, 118. Zamasp, k. of Persia, 189. Zapolya, John, pr. of Transylvania^ 308. Zcerneboh, 169. Zela, battle of, 135, 142. Zendavesta, 24, n. Zenger, arrest of, for libel, 419. Zeno, 64, 162. Zenobia, 157. Zenta, battle of, 372. Ziela. See Zela. Zipangu,32, n, 282. Ziska, 252. Znaim. truce of, 472. ZoUverein, founded, 491 ; first parliament^ Zopyrus, 27. Zorndorf , battle of, 405. Zoroaster, reforms the Iranic religion, 24; his religion restored, 187. Zrinv, 306. Zul-fikar Khin, 442. Ziilpich, battle of, 173. Zulus, war of England with, 545. Zurich, battle of, 461 ; peace of, 502. Zutphen, battle of, 339. Zweibrucken, house of, in Sweden, 842. 373. ZwingU, SOL INDEX TO APPENDIX Abbas IT., khedive of Egypt, 567. Abdul Hamid II., deposed, 608. AbduUahi, mahdi, 569. Abdurrahman, ameer of Afghanistan, death, 598. Abu Klea, battle, 565. Abyssinia, and Italy, 567, 574, 580; British treaty, 57^. Addi's Abeda, peace, 680. Adrianople, 611. Adua, battle, 580. Aeroplanes, 606. Afghanistan, frontier deliminated, 566; Chitral, 568; HabibuUah, 598; conven- tion between England and Russia on, 606. Agrarinn agitation, Germany, 580; Russia, 58-1. Aguinaldo, Emilio, insurrection, 592. Ahmad Mirza, shah of Persia, 608. Alabama, adopts prohibition, 606. Alaska boundary. 5Qi, 594. Albania, made independent with Prince William of W"\ed as ruler, 611. Albert, k. of the Belgians, 608. Alexander, p. of Bulgaria, and East Ru- melia, 575; kidnapped, resigns, 575. Alexander III., tzar of Russia, consecrated, 673; death, 579. Alexander, k. of Servia, 577; coup d'etat, 678 ; liberal constitution, 584 ; assassi- nated, 585. Alexis, heir to Russian throne, 600. Alfonso XII., k. of Spain, Paris mob, 573; death, 575; XIII., 575; accession, 585; marriage, 603; birth of an heir, 605. Algeciras convention, 603. Alsace-Lorraine, dictator paragraph abol- ished, 585. American Railroad Union strike, 589. Amundsen, Capt. Roald, makes Northwest passage, 604; reaches South Pole, 609; announces discovery, 609. Anam, French war, 573, 574. Anarchistic activity, 577, 578, 583, 593. Andr^ in ministry, 582, 585. Angra Pequena, German protectorate, 574. Arbitration, Anglo-French treaty, 573; Hague conference, 583; French-Italian treaty, 585; Bering sea, 588; Venezuela boundary, 590; Anglo-American treaties, 690, 609; action of U.S. senate on, 600; Franco-American treaty, 609. Arizona, admitted to the Union, 609. Armenian massacres, 579, 608. Armies, increase in Continental, 575, 578; Swedish conscription, 584; increase in U.S., 592; general staff, 594. Armstrong investigating committee, 601. Ashantee expedition, 569, Asquith, sec. of exchequer, 602; prime min., 606. Assab, Italy occupies, 574. Associations law, French, 684, 685. Assuan dam, 572. Atbara, battle, 569. Ausgleich renewed, 682. Australia, constitution, 571. Australian ballot, 587. Austria, triple alliance, 673, 685; electoral reform, 580; language controversy, 582; Augleich renewed, 582; empress assassi- nated, 583; universal manhood suffrage in, 604; asserts rights of sovereignty in Bosnia and Herzegovina, 607; assassina- tion of the heir presumptive, 612; war with Ser\na, 612; in European war of 1914,612, 613. Baden-Powell, col., Mafeking, 571. Baker Pasha, 565. Balfour, A. J., sec. for Ireland, 566; of treas- ury, 568; premier, 572; and tariff, 572; resigns as prime minister, 602. Balkan states, war with Turkey, 610; treaty of peace with Turkey, 611; war among, 611; peace signed, 611; reorganization, 611. Balkan wars, war of 1912, 610; war of 191S, 611. Balloons, 606. Baltic sea treaty, 607. Bank scandal in Italy, .578. Bankruptcy, uniform law, 591. Baring, Evelyn, in Egypt, 565. Barra, de la, provisional pres. of Mexico, 609. Barton, Edmund, 571. Bavaria, k. Otto deposed and succeeded by Louis IIL, 611. Bayard, T. F., sec. of state, 586. Beach, M. H., sec. for Ireland, 566; ex- chequer, 568. Bechuanaland, British, 566. Belgium, suffrage, 574, 578, 583, 584; social- istic demonstrations, 583, 584; death of k. Leopold II. and succession of Albert, 608; in European war of 1914, 613. Belgrade, bombarded, 612. Berber, 569. Bering sea, sealing controversy, 586, 588. Berthelot in ministry, 580. Bialystok, 603. Bimetallism, international conference, 678. See Silver. Birrell, A., 602. Bismarck, pr. von., and catholics, 574; colonial policy, 574; resigns, 577; death, 58.'J. Blaine, J. G., republican nominee, 686; sea of state, 587. Bodrikoff a.ssassinated, 686. Bogolepoff assassinated, 584. 56 Index to Appendix Bonaparte, prince Napoleon, manifesto, 573; death, 577. Bosnia, emp. of Austria-Hungary asserts rights of sovereignty and succession in, 607. Botha, gen., S. African war, 571; premier of the Union of South Africa, 611. Boulanger, in ministry, 575; agitation, 675, 576; flight, 57fi: suicide, 577. Bourbon, house of, extinct, 573. Bourgeois, minister of the interior, 580; for- eign minister, 603. Boxer rising, 597. Bradlaugh, in parliament, 566. Briand, minister of public instruction, 603; premier, 608. Brisson ministry, 574, 582. British South Africa company, 667, 669. Brownsville, Tex., 604. Brunei, protectorate, 567. Bryan, W. J., democratic nominee, 690, 592, 607. Bryce, James, in cabinet, 568, 602. Bucharest, 611. Bulgaria, Servian war, 575; Alexander re- signs, 575; Ferdinand, 576; Russian as- cendency, 580; independenceiproclaimed, 607; war with Turkey, 610; peace with Turkey, 611; war with other Balkan states, 611; agreement with Turkey, 611. Buller, Redvers, S. African war, 570. Bulow, c. von, German chancellor, 584. Burma, upper, annexed, 566; Anglo-Chinese agreements, 594, 595. Burns, John, 602. Calabria, earthquake, 607. Campbell-Bannerman, Sir H., sec. oi war, 568; prime minister, 602; resignation and death, 606. Campos, premier of Spain, 575. Canada, Pacific railway, 566; Riel's rebel- lion, 666; tariff preferential, 569; fisheries, 586; joint high commission, 591. Canals, Manchester, 568; Suez convention, 576; Panama, 578, 594; Kiel, 579. Caprivi, v., German chancellor, 577, 579. Carbajal, pres. of Mexico, 612, 613. Carlos I., k. of Portugal, 577; assassinated, 606. Carnovas, premier of Spain, 575. Caroline Islands, Germany secures, 675, 583. Carranza, 612, 613. Carson, sir Edward, 612. Casablanca, 605, 606. Casimir-Perier, pres. of France, 578; resigns, 580. Castro, Cipriano, pres. of Venezuela, 607. Caucasia, railway, 576. Cavaignac, in ministry, 580. Central America, treaty and conventions, 606. Cervera, admiral, 591. Chad, lake, control, 567, 578. Chamberlain, Joseph, in cabinet, resigns, liberal unionist, 566; colonial sec, 568; and Transvaal, 569; and colonial pre- miers, 569; in S. Africa, 672; tariff cam- paign, 572. Chambord, c. of, death, 573. Chang-chung, 602. Charleston earthquake, 586. Chile, and U. S., 588; earthquake, 604. China, French war, 574, 575; and Japan in Corea, 594; floods and famine, 594; missionaries, 595; empress dowager, 695, 597; Japanese war, 595; concessions, 596; territorial leases, 596, 597; reforms, 597; open-door policy, 597, 598; Boxer rising, 597; commercial treaties, 598; ratifies Anglo-Thibetan treaty, 600; boy- cotts American goods, 601; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601: decree in regard to opium, 604; education reforms, 604; a new army, 604; boxer indemnity claim remitted by U. S., 607; death of the emp. and the empress-dowager, 607; succession of Hsuan-tung, 607; senate opened, 608; insurrection against the Manchu dynasty, 609; provisional republican government established, 609; emperor abdicates, 609; Yuan Shih-kai provisional pres., 609; Yuan elected pres., 611. Chinese exclusion act, 587, 689. Ching, pr.. Boxer rising, 598. Chitral, 568. Cholera in Europe, 577. Christian IX., k. of Denmark, death, 602; X., 610. Chung, regent prince of China, 607. Chungking, treaty port, 595. Churches of Scotland, 601. Churchill, lord Randolph, in cabinet, 566. Clayton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 593. Clemenceau, minister of the interior, 603; premier, 604; succeeded by Briand, 608. Cleveland, Grover, democratic nominee, 586, 688; pres. of U. S., 586, 689; tariff, 686; and Hawaii, 689; silver purchase law, 689; bond issues, 689, 690; Vene- zuela, 690; death, 607. Coal-miners* strike, 609. Colenso, battle, 570. Colombia, canal treaty, 693. Colonies, German African, 574. Colorado, strikes in, 605. Combes, in ministry, 580; premier, 685; succeeded by Rouvier, 600. Concordat, agitation against, 585. Congo Free State, conference, 574; bound- ary, 579; report of commission on, 602. Conservation, 607. Constans, in ministry, 576. Constantine, k. of Greece, 610. Constitution, French, revised, 674; Aus- tralian, 571; Japanese, 594. Consular service, U. S., 603. Contract laborers, U. S. law, 586. Coolie labor in S. Africa, 572. Copyright, international, 588. Corea, opened to trade, 594; China and Japan (1883), 594; (1894), 595; Russian intrigue, 594, 596; Japanese prestige, 596; Russia and Japan, 596. 597. 599; occupied by Japan, 599; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601; and the Russo- Japanese treaty, 601; Japan secures con- trol of foreign relations, 602; not received at the Hague, 606; abdication of the emp. in favor of his son, 605; Japan obtains Index to Appendix 67 protectorate over, 605; annexed by Japan, 008. Crete, revolt in, 581; popular assemblv pro- claims union with Greece, 607; ceded to Greece, 611. Crimes act, 566, Crispi, premier of Italy, 576; bank scandal, 578. Cronje, gen., S. African war, 670, 571. Cuba, rebellion, 590; Spanish-American war, 590; U. S. disclaims desire for, 591; Spain relinquishes, 691; conditions of U. S. withdrawal, 59'i; independent govern- ment, 593; reciprocity with U. S., 593; insurrection and establishment of a pro- visional government by the U. S., 604; inauguration of pres. Gomez and cessa- tion of provisional government, 608. Currency and banking bill, 611. Curzon, lord, viceroy of India, 669; resigns, 601. Dahomey, French protectorate, 578; bound- ary, 682. Dalny, occupied by Japan, 599. Danish West Indies, failure of purchase, 593. Danube, navigation, 673, 681. Davis, H. G., 600. Deceased wife's sister act, 606. Delarey, gen., S. African war, 671. Delcasse, in ministry, 578, 582, 585, 601. Denmark, death of k. Christian and succes- sion of Frederick VIII., 610. Department, of labor, 587, 594; of agricul- ture, 587; of commerce, 594. Deutsche Colonialverein, 574. De Wet, gen., S. African war, 571. Dewev, George, Manila bay, 591, Diaz, Felix, 610. Diaz, Porfirio, resigns as pres. of Mexico, 609. Dimotika, 611. Dongola, 569. Drago doctrine, 604, Dreyfus case, 579, 582; decision reversed, 603. Dublin, riot at, 612. Dupuy, in ministry, 678; premier, 578, 682. East Rumelia, revolution, 575. Education, English acts, 567, 572; central board, 570; French laws, 575, 584. Edward VII., k. of Great Britain, 672; death, 608. Egypt, foreign control, 566; Soudan, 665, 569; Abbas II., 567; crisis, 568; Anglo- French treaty in connection with, 599. Eiffel tower, 577. El Caney, battle, 591. Electoral vote, regulation, 586. Election laws, French, 575-577, See Suf- frage. Emma, q. regent of Netherlands, 577. England, Egypt, 565, 568, 569; South African republic, 565, 568; Afghanistan, 566, 568; Fashoda, 569; imperial post, 570; Persian gulf, 570, 572; South African war, 570; Edward VII., 572; tariff agita- tion, 572; Thibet, 673, 598; Pamirs, 580; Venezuela-Guiana boundary, 690; Corea, 694, 696; China, 697, 698; Japanese alii- ance, 598; treaty of 1904 with France, 599; treaty with Thibet, 600; war with Russia averted, 600; alliance with Japan renewed, 601; 28th imperial parliament, 602; education bill fails. 604; trades dis- putes act, 604; deceased wife's sister act, 606; convention with Russia on Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, 606; Irish universities l)ill, 607; old age pensions act, 607; 29th imperial narliament, 608; com- mons resolve that lords' veto should be limited. 608; death of Edward VII. and succession of George V., 608; Newfound- land fisheries case, 608; parliament dis- solved, 608; return of a government majority, 608; suspensory veto act, lim- iting the power of the house of lords, 609; coal-miners' strike, 609; state insurance, 610 ; Irish home rule act and troubles in Ireland, 612 ; in European war of 1914, 613. Eritrea, beginning, 574; Abyssinian war, 680. Esterhazy, Dreyfus affair, 682. Evicted tenants bill, 568. _ Exterritoriality, cessation in Japan, 596. Fairbanks, C W., v.-pres. of U. S., 600. Fallieres, premier, 573; in ministry, 576; pres. of France, 603. Fashoda incident, 569. Faure, Felix, in ministry, 578; pres. of France, 580; death, 583. Ferdinand, cr. p. of Austria, 576. Ferdinand, p. of Bulgaria, 576; and Russia, 580. Ferron, in ministry, 575. Ferry, Jules, ministry, 573. Finland, Russification, 583-585; famine, 584; constitution restored, 602; women chosen to the legislative assembly, 605. Fisheries, controversy, 586; Bering sea, 586, 588; Newfoundland, 599, 608. Floods, in Mississippi valley, 609; in Ohio valley, 611. Floquet, premier, 576. Flourens, in ministry, 676. Force bill, 587. Formosa, French attack, 574; ceded to Japan, 596. France, Egypt, 565; Africa, 567, 578-580, 582, 583; Fashoda, 569; Oman, 570; princes, 573, 575; Anam and China, 573-575; constitution revised, 574; elec- tion laws, 575-577; Grevy, 575; Bou- langer affair, 576, 576; Sadi-Carnot, 576; republicanism strengthened, 577, 585 ; Russian friendship and alliance, 577, 581, 582; and Papacy, 578, 585; Panama scandal, 578; Casimir-P^rier, 578; Dreyfus affair, 579, 582; Faure, 580; Loubet, 583; associations law, 584, 585; and catholics in east, 584; and Turkey, 584; Siam, 595, 596, 599; interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty, 596; conces- sions in China, 596; Kwangchau, 597; and Anglo-Japanese alliance, 598; treaty of 1904 with England, 599; and the Vatican, 599; forbids teaching by religious orders, 600; cabinet crisis on account of espionage scandal in the army, 600; rela- 58 Index to Appendix tions with Morocco, 601, 603; separation of church and state, 602; Fallieres elected president, 603; new ministry, 603; general election, 603; synod of bishops, 603; Briand ministry, 608; obtains a free hand in Morocco, 609; Raymond Poincare pres., 610; in war of 1914, 612, 613. Francis Ferdinand, Archduke, assassination, 618. Frederick III., German emp., accession, death, 576. Frederick VIII., k. of Denmark, 602; death, 610. French, sir John, 612. French Congo, boundary, 678; a portion ceded to Germany, 609. Freycinet, in ministry, 574, 676, 578, 682; premier, 575. Fuchau, French attack, 674. Gallifet in ministry, 582. Galveston tornado, 592. Gamboa dike, 611. Gapon, father, 600. Gatacie, gen., Stormberg, 570. George, k. of Greece, assassinated, 610. George, p. of Greece, gov.-gen. of Crete, 581. George V., k. of Great Britain, 608. Georgia, adopts prohibition, 606. German East Africa company, 574. German East Africa and West Africa, boundaries, 567. Germany, Africa, 567, 574, 578, 679, 582; and Canadian tariff, 569; triple alliance, 673, 685; catholics, 573; Caroline islands, 675, 583; army increased, 575, 578; Frederick III., 576; William II., 576; forced development, 577; naval increase, 680; agrarian agitation, 580; socialism, 580, 683; depression, 584; and Chinese- Japanese treaty, 696; Kiaochau, 596, 597; upholds integrity of China, 598; emp. visits sultan of Morocco, 600; Algeciras conference on Morocco, 601, 603; elections for the Reichstag in 1907, 605; gives France a free hand in Morocco in ex- change for a part of the French Congo, 609; in European war of 1914, 612, 613. Giolitti, premier of Italy, 676; bank scan- dal, 578. Gladstone, W. E., 3d administration, 556; home rule, 566, 668; 4th administration, 568; resigns, 568; death, 569. Gold reserve of U. S., 589, 590. Gold standard, Russia, 582; U. S., 692; Japan, 598. Gomez, pres. of Cuba, 608, Gomez, Juan Vicente, pres. of Venezuela, 607. Gordon, Charles, at Khartum, killed, 666. Goremykin, prime minister, 603. Goschen, G. J., in cabinet, 566, 668. Goschen act, 567. Greece, coerced by powers, 576; and Crete, 681; Turkish war of 1897, 581; Balkan war of 1912, 610; k. George assassinated and succeeded by Constantine, 610; Bal- kan war of 1913, 611. Gresham, W. Q., sec. of state, 589. Grevy, Jules, re-elected pres. of France, 676; resigns, 576. Grey, sir Edward, 602. Guerin, in ministry, 578. Gustav v., k. of Sweden, 606. Habibullah, ameer of Afghanistan, 698. Hague, the, peace conference, 683; second international peace conference, 605. Hakon VIl., k. of Norway, 602. Hanotaux, in ministry, 578, 680. Harcourt, W. V., in cabinet, 566, 568. Harriman railroads, 605. Harrison, Benjamin, republican nominee, 586, 588; pres. of U. S., 587, Hawaii, attempted annexation, 688; an- nexed, territory, 591. Hay, John, sec. of state, 690; open-door policy, 597; death, 601. Haymarket riot, 686. Haywood, acquitted of murder of ex-gov. Steunenberg, 605. Heligoland ceded to Germany, 567. Hendricks, T. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 686. Henry, p. of Prussia, in China, 596. Henry, major, Dreyfus affair, 679, 582. Hepburn act, 603. Herzegovina, emp. of Austria-Hungary asserts rights of sovereignty and succes- sion in, 607. Hicks, Pasha, 666. Hobart, G. A., v.-pres. of U. S., 590. Hohenlohe, p. von, German chancellor, 679. Home rule bills, 566, 568, 612. Homestead strike, 588. Hopetoun, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 571. House of representatives, quorum counting, 587. Hsuan-tung, emp. of China, 607; abdicates, 609. Huerta, Victoriano, proclaimed provisional pres. of Mexico, 610; U. S. demands an apology from, 611; elected pres., 612; resigns, 612, Humbert, k. of Italy, assassinated, 583. Hungary, anti-Semitism, 573; civil mar- riage, 578; recognizes Jewish faith, 580; Ausgleich renewed, 682; language ques- tion, 685. Idaho admitted, 588. Iddesleigh, lord, foreign sec, 566. Immigration law, 604. Income tax in U. S., 589, 590, 610, India, Chitral, 568; plague, 569; Thibet mis- sion, 673; earthquake, 600; and the Anglo- Japanese alliance, 601; Indian councils act, 608. Injunction, government by, 589. Insular cases, 593. Insurance, workmen's accident, 569, 574; illness, 573; old age, 577, 583; miners', 578; state, in Great Britain, 610. Insurance companies, investigation, 601. International prize court, 605. Interstate commerce act, 586. Ireland, nationalists, 566, 567; home rule bills, 566, 568; plan of campaign, 566; crimes act, 666; Parnell commission, 567; land purchase acts, 567, 573; local government, 569; rent disturbances, 572; Irish council bill, 605; universities bill, 607; home rule bill becomes law, 612; Index to Appendix 59 disturbances in Ulster, 612; home rule amfQciiiiK bill, 6H; riot at Dublin, 612. Irish coumil l)ill, 605. Irish universities bill, 607. Isabella II. of Spain, death, 599. Ischia, earthquake, 574. Ismail Pasha, khedive of Egypt, 565. Isthmian canal. See Panama canal. Italy, Eritrea, 667, 574; triple alliance, 573, 585; increase in army, 575; premiers, 676; bank scandal, 578; Abyssinian war, 68U; socialistic riots, 582, 583; Victor Emmanuel III., 583; and New Orleans lynchinjj, 588; Sammun IJay, 597; birth of an heir to the throne, 600 ; declares war against Turkey and captures Tripoli, 609; annexes Tripoli, 609; treaty of peace with Turkey, 610; declares neutrality in Euro- pean war, 613. Ito, admiral, in Chinese war, 595; marquis, in Corea, 602. Iturbide, Eduardo, 613. Jameson raid, 568. Japan, and China in Corea, 594, 695; con- stitution, 594; Chinese war, 595; tidal •wave, 596; end of exterritoriality, 596; military expansion, 59(5; and Russia in Corea, 596, 597; English alliance, 598; Russan crisis, 593; war with Russia, 599- 601; alliance with England renewed, 601; treaty of Portsmouth with Russia, 601, 602; secures by treaty control of foreign relations of Corea, 602; obtains a protec- torate over Corea, 605; agreement with U. S., 607; annexes Corea, 60S; death of emp. Mutsuhito and succession of Yoshi- hito, 610; and European war of 1914, 613. Japanese, children in California schools, 604. Jews, anti-Semitism, 573, 577; Russian May laws, 577; recognized in Hungary, 680; Kishinef riot, 585. John, k. of Abysiinia, 574. Johnson, Hiram W., 610. Johnstown flood, 587. Jones, Paul, body taken from Paris to I Annapolis, 601. j Kagoshima, 611. Kamerun, German protectorate, 674; I boundary, 678, 579. Kawamura, 600. ; Kern, J. W., 607. , Ketteler, b. von, killed, 598. Khartum, captured by mahdi, 665; retaken, 569; railway, 571. Kiaochau, Germany seizes, 696; leased, 597; evacuation demanded by Japan, 613. Kiel canal, 579. Kimberley, siege, 570, 671. Kinchau, battle, 599. ! Kirk Kilisseh, battle, 610; retained by \ Turkey, 611. i Kishinef, anti-Semitic riot, 585. ' Kitchener, lord, Soudan, 569; Fashoda, 570; ; South African war, 570, 571; and India, j 601. j Klondike, gold discovered, 669. i Knights of Labor, 586. Krakatua, mount, eruption, 694. Kruger, S. J. P., pres. of S. African republic^ and Uitlandcrs, 568; and England, 669, 671; death, 600. Kuroki, 599, 600. Kuropatkin, gen., 699,600. Kwangchau-wan, French lease, 597. Kwangsu, emp. of China, accession, 696; reforms, 597; virtual deposition, 697; death, 607. Labor, unions as corporations, 672; inter- national conference, 577; strikes in Eu- rope, 577, 582, 584; strikes in U. S., 586, 688, 589; U. S. department, 587, 694, 610; growth of unions, 587. See Insurance. Ladysmith, siege, 570. Land fraud scandal, 605. Land purchase acts, Ireland, 567, 573. Lansdowne, lord, viceroy of India, 567; ia cabinet, 568; and Persian gulf, 572; and Lloyd-George's budget, 608. Larissa, Greeks evacuate, 581. Lausanne, treaty of, 610. Leo XIII., pope, jubilees, 676, 678, 585; death, 585. Leopold II., k. of the Belgians, death, 608. Lesseps, Ferdinand de, Panama scandal, 578. Lhasa, 600. Li Hungchang, Japanese war, 695; Boxer rising, 598. Liauyang, battle, 599. Liberal unionists, 566. Liege, 613. Liliuokalani, q. of Hawaii, 688. Linievitch, gen., 600. Lloyd-George, 608. Ix)bengula, 568. Local government, England, 567, 568, 670; Ireland, 569. London, convention of 1884, 665; govern- ment, 567, 570. Loubet, Kmile, premier, 578; pres. of France, 583; and the pope, 599. Louis III., k. of Bavaria, 611. Luis, k. of Portugal, death, 577. Lule Burgas, battle, 610. Luxemburg, neutrality violated by Ger- many, 613. Lynching, 587, 688. Maagersfontein, battle, 570. McCarthy, Justin, 567. Macedonia, revolt, 584; war in, 610 ; divi- sion of, 611. McKinley, William, republican nominee, 590, 592; pres. of U. S., 590; war mes- sage, 591, 593; Philippine commission, 592; assassinated, 593. Madagascar, French in, 567, 573, 675, 580; .\nglo-French treaty, 599. Madero, Francisco I., jr., pres. of Mexico^ 609; taken prisoner and killed, 610. Magoon, gov., 604. Maf eking, siege, 570, 571. Maine, U. S. S., blown un, 591. Manchester ship canal, 568. Manchuria, Japan invades, 595; rnilwayg, 596, 597; Russia occupies, 598; Russian- Japanese crisis, 599; in the Russian- Japanese treaty, 602. See Port Arthur. 60 Index to Appendix Manila, captured, 591; insurgents attack, 69i. Manila bay, battle, 591. Manning, gen., Somaliland, 572. Manuel II., k. of Portugal, 606; dethroned, 608. Marchand, major, Fashoda, 570. Maria Christina, regent of Spain, 575. Marrakesh, 606. Marshall. Thomas R., 610. Massawa, Italy occupies, 574. Matabele war, 568. May laws, in Prussia relaxed, 574; in Russia, 577. Meline ministry, 580. Menelek, k. of Abyssinia, Italian war, 580. Mercier, in ministry, 578; Dreyfus affair, 579. Merritt, gen., in Philippines, 591. Merv, Russia annexes, 574. Methuen, lord, Maagersfontein, 570. Mexico, pres. Diaz resigns, 609; Madero elected pres., 609; Felix Diaz rebels and is defeated, 610; revolutionists release Felix Diaz and take pres. Madero prisoner, 610; Victoriano Huerta proclaimed provisional pres., 610; Madero killed, 610; difficulties with U. S., 611; mediation, 61-2; Huerta elected pres., 61'-2; Huerta resigns and is succeeded by Carbajal, 61'2; constitution- alist forces in control of most of the coun- try, Q\i; pres. Carbajal retires in favor of Carranza, 613. Milan, k. of Servia, abdicates, 577. Miles, gen., in Porto Rico, 591. Milouna pass, battle, 581. Minto, lord, gov.-gen. of Canada, 569; vice- roy of India, 601. Missionaries in China, 595-597. Mississippi, adopts prohibition, 606. Mississippi valley, floods in, 609. Moltke, von, resigns, 576; and establish- ment of empire, 576. Mongolia, Outer, declares its independence, 609. Montana admitted, 587. Montenegro, war with Turkey, 610. Morley, John (lord), sec. for Ireland, 566, 568; sec. for India, 602. Morocco, Anglo-French treaty, 599; Ger- man emp. xnsits sultan, 600; conference of powers, 601, 603; Algeciras convention signed, 603; outbreak at Casablanca, 605, 606; civil war and success of Mulai Hafid, 606; France obtains a free hand in, 609; sultan Mulai Hafid abdicates, 610. Morton, L. P., v.-pres. of U. S., 587. Moscow, 603. Muhammad V., sultan of Turkey, 608. Muhammad Ahmad, mahdi, 565. Muhammad Ali Mirza, shah of Persia, 605; deposed, 608. Mukden, battle, 600. Mulai Hafid, proclaimed sultan of Morocco and gets control, 606; abdicates, 610. Murad v., death, 600. Muscat, French attempt, 570. Mutsuhito, emp. of Japan, death, 610. Muzaffar-ed-din, shah of Persia, 596; death, 605. Namur, 613. Nanking, 609. Nansen, farthest north, 580. Nanshan, battle, 599. Nasr-ed-din, shah of Persia, killed, 596. Natal, insurrection of natives, 60:2. Natalie, q. of Servia, banished, 577. Navy, increase in Germany, 580; in U. S^ 586; in Japan, 596. Negroes, condition, 587; force bill, 587. Netherlands, VVilhelmina, 577; electoral reform, 580. Newfoundland, French fishing rights, 599. Newfoundland fisheries case, 608. New Guinea, protectorate, 565. New Hebrides, 599. New Mexico admitted, 609. New Orleans, Mafia lynching, 688. New York city, Greater, 590. New Zealand, old age pensions, 570. : Niagara, 612. Nicholas II., tzar of Riossia, 579, 580. Niger river, spheres of influence, 583. Nigeria, 599. Nile valley, French-Enghsh conventions, 570, 583; Assuan dam, 572. Nodzu, gen., in Chinese war, 595; in Russian war, 600. Nogi, gen., in Chinese war, 595; in Russian war, 600. North Borneo, protectorate, 567. North Carohna, adopts prohibition, 606. Northcote, lord, gov.-gen. of AustraUa, 573. Northcote, Stafford. See Iddesleigh. North Dakota admitted, 587. North pole, exploration, 580; reached, 608. North sea treaty, 607. Norway, responsible ministry, 574; separate consuls, 577; suffrage, 583; union with Sweden dissolved, 601, 602. Obregon, gen., 613. Ohio valley, floods in, 611. Oklahoma, opened, 587; adopts constitu- tional prohibition, 606; admitted, 606. Oku, 599, 600. Old age pensions act, 607. Olnev, Richard, sec. of state, <89; doctrine, 590. Omdurman, battle, 569. Open-door policy, 597. Orange Free State, war with Englai d, 570; annexed, 571; colony, 571. Oscar II., k. of Sweden, death, 606. Osman Digna, 569. Otto, k. of Bavaria, deposed, 611. Oyama, gen., in Chinese war, 595; marshal, 'in Russian war, 599, 600. Paardesburg, battle, 571. Palma, pres., 604. Pamirs deliminated, 580." Panama, revolt, 594. Panama canal, French scandal. 578; Clay- ton-Bulwer treaty abrogated, 593; act, 593; abortive treaty with Colombia, 593; treaty with Panama, 594; U. S. purchases property of French company, 601; work begun on, 603; last obstruction to water removed, 611; opened, 613. Pan-American congresses, 687, 604. Index to Appendix 61 Panics in U. S., 589. 606. Papacy, and Germany, 573; Vatican library opened, 57-t; and France, 578, 585; Fiiu X.. 585. Papal encvclical, 604. Parctl post, 610. Parih. c. of, death, 578. Paris expositions, 577, 583. Parish council act, 568. Parlier. A. B., 600. Parliament, English, reform act, 565; seats redistributed. 565; i3d imperial, 566; home rule bills, 566, 508; 24th, 566; i5th, 667; 26th, 568; 27th, 571; 28th, 602; edu- cation bill fails, 604; trades disputes act, 604; Irish council bill, 605; deceased wife's sister act, 603; Irish universities bill, 607; old age pensions act, 607; 29th, 608; com- mons resolve that lords' veto should be limited, 608; dissolved, 608; return of a government majority, 608; suspensory veto act, 609; home rule bill passed, 612; home rule amending bill, 612. Parnell. C. S., commission, 567; death, 567. Payne-Aldrich tariff, 608. Pearv, R. E., makes new record of farthest north, 603; reaches North Pole, 608. Peking, Boxer rising, 597, 598. Pelee, mount, eruption, 585. Penjdeh, Russia occupies, 566. Pensions, old age, 570; U. S. military, 588. See Insurance. Persia, Muzaffar-ed-din, 596; Russian trade treaty, 598; first national representative assembly, 604; Muhammad Ali Mirza succeeds his father as shah, 605; civil war between shah and parliament, 607; deposi- tion of Muhammad Ali and succession of Ahmad, 608. Persian gulf, British control, 570, 572. Pescadores Islands, ceded to Japan, 596. Peter Karageorgevitch, k. of Servia, 585. Philippine Islands, ceded to U. S., 591; commission, 591; insurrection, 592; gov- ernment, 592, 593; purchase of friars' lands, 594; first legislative assembly, 606. Picquart, col., Drej-fus affair, 582; pro- moted, 604; war minister, 604. Piengyang, battle, 695. Pigott, R., 567. Pius X., pope, 585. Pi-.vi, 607. Plague in India, 569. Plehve, assassinated, 584. Poincare, Raymond, in ministry, 678, 580; pres. of French republic, 610. Pondoland, sovereignty over, 568. Pope, the. and president Loubet, 599. Population, India, 567, 572; Great Britain and Ireland. 567, 572; France, 575, 577, 580, 584; Germany, 575, 577, 580, 584; Austria-Hungary, 577; Russia, 582; Italy, 584; U. S., 587, 592. 008. Port Arthur, Japanese capture, 595; pro- test against cession, 596; leased to Russia, 697; siege of, 599; surrender, 600; lease transferred by Russia to Japan, 602. Port Hamilton, English occupation, 594. Porto Rico, campaign, 591; ceded to U. S., 591; government, 592. Portsmouth, N. H., 601. Portugal, Africa, 667; bouse of peers, 574; Carlos, 577; assassination of k. Carlos and the crown prince and succession of Man- uel II., 606; revolution and establishment of republic. 608. Post, imperial penny. 570; U. S. rural free delivery. 590; U.S. parcel, 610. Postal rates, 607. Prempeh. king, 569. Presbyterian church, dispute in Scotland, 571. Presidential succession law, 586. Prohibition, adopted in several states of the U. S.. 606. Proportional representation. Belgium, 683. Prussia, Poland, 584. See Germany. Pure food and drugs act, 603. Railroads, Canadian Pacific, 566; Cairo- Khartum, 571; Cape to Cairo, 572; French convention, 573; Transcaucasian, Calais-Constantinople, Hungarian zone tariff, 576; Swiss state ownership, 582; Transsiberian, 584, 596, 598; Asia Minor, 584; Bagdad convention, 585; U. S. strikes, 586, 589; interstate commerce act, 586; first Chinese, 694; Chinese concessions, 596; Transmanchurian 596, 597; first Corean, 597; mergers, 599; Hepburn act, 603 ; state and federal action in 1907. 605. Recidivist law, French, 574. Reciprocity, U. S. pronsions, 588-690; with Cuba, 593. See Tariff. Red Sunday. 600. Reform act, third, 565. Reichstag. German, elections, 674, 578, 583; period. 576. Rhodes, Cecil. Jameson raid, 569; conti- nental telegraph, 570; at Kimberley, 571; death, 572; scholarships, 572. Ribot, in ministry, 578; premier, 678, 680. Riel, Louis, rebellion, 566. Rio de Janeiro, 604. Roberts, lord, S. African war, 670, 671. Rochefort and Boulanger, 576. Roosevelt, Theodore. \.-pres. of U. S., 593; pres.. 593, 600; visits canal zone, 604; progressive candidate for pres., 610. Root, Elihu, 601, 604. Rosebery, lord, foreign sec, 666, 668; premier, 568. Rouvier, premier, 575, 600; in ministry, 576, 585. Rozhestvensky, admiral, 600. Rudini, premier of Italy, 676, 680; bank scandal, 578. Rudolf, cr. p. of Austria, suicide, 576. Rumania, war with Bulgaria, 611. Rural communication, development, 587; postal delivery, 590. Russia, Penjdeh, 566; Merv, 574; and Bul- garia, 575, 580; anti-Semitism, 577, 585; forced development, 577; French friend'^hip and alliance, 577, 581, 582; Nicholas II., 579; Pamirs, 580; gold standard, 582; Finland, 583-585; agita- tion, 584; Corea, 594, 596; interference in Chinese-Japanese treaty, 596; Port Arthur, 597; Manchuria, 598; Persia, 598; Thibet, 598; and Anglo-Japanese 62 Index to Appendix alliance, 598; Japanese crisis, 599; war with Japan, 599-601; birth of an heir to the throne, 600; acknowledges Anglo- Thibetan treaty, 600; war with England over firing upon British trawlers averted, 600; strikes in, 000-602; duma instituted, 601; treaty of Portsmouth with Japan, 601; extension of franchise in, 602; first duma, 603; dissolution of the duma, 603; strikes, riots, aud famine, 603 ; owner- ship of land granted to peasants, 604; second duma, 605; convention with Eng- land on Persia, Afghanistan, and Thibet, 606; third duma, 606; war with Austria and Germany, 612, 613. Sadi-Carnot, in ministry, 574, 575; pres. of France, 576; assassinated, 578. Sagasta, premier of Spain, 575; and Cuba, 591. Sahara, boundary, 583. St. Petersburg, red Sunday at, 600. Sakhalin, 602. Sakura, 611. Salisbury, lord, 1st administration, 566; 2d, 566; 3d, 668; resigns, 572; death, 573. Salonica, 610. Sammun Bay, Italy demands, 597. Samoa, treaties, 587, 592. Sampson, admiral, Spanish war, 591. San Domingo, treaty with U. S., 605. San Francisco, earthquake and fire, 603. San Juan Hill, battle, 591. Santiago, Cuba, campaign, naval battle, 591. Sarafof, Boris, 584. Sarajevo, 612. Sarakhs, Russia annexes, 574. Sarawak, protectorate, 567. Sarrien, premier of France, 603. Schnabele affair, 575. Scotland, church controversy, 571. Scott, capt. R. F., dies after reaching South Pole, 609; news of his death brought to New Zealand, 610. Senegambia, 599. Servia, Bulgarian war, 575; Alexander, 577; coup d'etat, 578; liberal constitution, 584; regicide, Peter, 585; war with Turkey, 610; peace with Turkey, 611; war with Bulgaria, 611; war with Austria, 612. Seymour, admiral. Boxer rising, 598. Shafter, gen., Santiago campaign, 591. Shaho river, battle, 600. Sherman, J. S., 607, 610. Shimonoseki, treaty, 596. Shuster, W. Morgan, 609. Siam, and France, 595, 599; Anglo-French agreement, 696; spheres of influence in, 699. Siberia, railway, 584, 596. Sicily, earthquake in, 607. Sierra Leone hinterland, 563. Silver, purchase law, 588; repeal, 589; _ agitation for free, 589. Simplon tunnel, 603. Sipiagin assassinated, 584. Slivnitza, battle, 575. Socialism, activity in Europe, 577; gains in Germanv, 578, 583; German bill against, 580; Italian riots, 582, 583; Bel- gium demonstration, 583. Somaliland expeditions, 57?. Soudan expeditions, 565, 569. South Africa, strikes in, 611. South Africa, Union of, inaugurated, 608. South African republic, convention of London, 565; Jameson raid, 568; Eng- lish suzerainty, 569; English war, 570; annexed, 571; colony, 571; Chamber- lain in, 572; coolie labor, 572. South African war, 570. South Dakota admitted, 587, South Pole, reached by Amundsen, 609; reached by Scott, 609; discovery an- nounced, 609. Spain, earthquakes, 574; premiers, Alfonso XIII., 575; Cuban insurrection, 590; American war, 590; birth of an heir to the throne, 605. Spanish-American war, 590. Spion Kop, battle, 570. Stambouloff, Bulgarian leader, 675; mur- dered, 580. Standard oil co., 606. Stanley, lord, gov.-gen. of Canada, 567. State insurance, 610. Steunenberg, ex-gov., 605. Stevenson, A. E., v.-pres. of U. S., 589. Stoessel, general, 600. Stolypin, prime minister, 603. Stormberg, battle, 570. Strikes. See Labor. Students' revolt, Russia, 584. Suez canal convention, 576. Suffrage, extension in Belgium, 574, 578, 584; Netherlands reform, 580; Austrian, 580; Norwegian, 583. Sugar bounty, 573, 584. Sun Yat-sen, 609. Sunday, red, 600. Sverdrup, Norway minister, 574.^ Sweden, conscription, 584; famine, 584; union with Norway dissolved, 601, 602; death of k. Oscar and succession of Gus- tav v., 606. Switzerland, asylum for political offenders, 576; state railways, 582. Syndicalism, 611. Taff Vale case, 572, 605. Taft, W. H., Philippine commission, 592; nominated for pres. of U. S., 607; elected, 607; inaugurated, 608; renominated, 610. Talien-wan, 597. Tariff, Canadian preferential, 569; Cham- berlain's campaign, 570; German, 574, 578, 585; French, 577; Russo-German war, 578; U. S., 586, 588-590, 608, 611; board in U. S., 608. Telegraph, Pacific cables, 572, 594; wire- less, 572; first Chinese, 594. Tennyson, lord, gov.-gen. of Australia, 572. Tewfik, khedive of Egypt, 565; death, 567. Theebaw, k. of Burma, 566. Thevenet, in ministry, 576. Thibet, boundary, 567; British mission, 573; and Russia, 598; treaty with Eng- land, 600. Tientsin, treaty, 574; reduced, 598. Ting, admiral, in Japanese war, 595. Tirard, in ministry, 573; premier, 676. Titanic, ss., sinking of, 609. Index to Appendix 63 ToRo, admiral, 601. Toffoland, German protectorate, 574; boundary, 58i. Tradoi disputes act, 604. Transvaal, colony, 571; constitution grant- ed, 604. Sec South African republic. Triple alliance, 573; renewed, 585. Tripoli, captured by Italy, 609; annexed to Italy by act of parliament, 609 ; ceded to Italy by Turkey, 610. Trusts, development, 587; anti-trust law, 588. 599. Tsushima straits, battle, 601. Turkey, Armenian massacre, 579; Cretan revolt and Greek war, 581; Macedonian revolt, 584; and France, 584; grants claims of United States as to treatment of its citizens and schools, 600; restoration of the constitution of 1876, 607; opening of parliament, 607; revolt against young Turks suppressed, 608; Sultan Abdul Hamid II. deposed and Muhammad V. succeeds, 608; massacres of Armenians, 608; war with Italy, 609; war with Balkan allies, 610; treaty of peace with Italy, 610; peace with Balkan allies, 611; reoccupies Adrianople, 611; agreement with Bul- garia, 611. Uganda protectorate, 568. Ulster, disturbances over home rule, 612. Umberto, heir to the Italian throne, 600. Underwood tariff, 611. United States, and coercion of Venezuela, 585; elections of 1884, 586; fishery con- troversy, 586; Bering sea, 536, 588; elec- tions of 1888, 586, 587; world power, 587; Chile, 588; elections of 1892, 588; panic and depression, 589; Venezuela-Guiana boundary, 590; elections of 1896, 590; Spanish war, 590; joint high commission, 691; elections of 1900, 592; insular cases, 693; pres. election of 1904, 600; reor^ani- zalion of consular service, 603; financial disturbances of 1907, 606; fleet sails round the world, 606; conference of govs, on conservation, 607; remits its claims to Chinese boxer indemnity, 607; national conventions of 1908, 607; presidential election of 1908, 607; agreement with Japan, 607; Taft administration, 608; Payne-AIdrich tariff, 60S; Newfoundland fisheries case, 608; democratic gains in state elections, 608; l.'5th census, 608; arbitration treaties with Great Britain and France, 609; 17th amendment to the constitution, 609, 611; national conven- tions and elections of 1912, 610; parcel post system instituted, 610; 16th amend- ment to the coQstitutioD, 610; Under- wood tariff act, 611; currency and bank- ing bill, fill; occupies Vera ('ruz, 611; accepts offers of mediation in Mox'ran dispute, 612; settlement of Mexican dis- pute, 612. Utah admitted, 690. Vaal Krantz, battle, 570. Venezuela, coerced, 585; boundary dispute, 590; pres. Castro deposed in favor of Juan v'icente Gomez, 607. Vera Cruz, 610; occupied by U. S. forces, 611. Vesuvius, eruptions of, 603. Veto bill, 609. Viborg, 603. Victor Emmanuel III., k. of Italy, 58.9. Victoria, q. of England, jubilees', 566, 669; death, 572. Villa, gen. Francisco, 612. Volos, Turks occupy, 581. Waldeck-Rousseau, in ministry, 573; pre- mier, 582. Washington admitted, 587. Weaver, J. B., populist nominee, 588. Weihaiwei, Japanese capture, 595; leased to England, 597. Weyler, capt.-gen. of Cuba, 590. W'hite, George, Ladysmith, 570. Wilhelmina, q. of Netherlands, 577; acces- sion, 583. William, German emp., I., death, 576; II., 576; in Holy Land, 583; mailed fist, 697; visits sultan of Morocco, 600. William III., k. of Netherlands, death, 577. William of Wied, prince, mpret of Albania, 611. Wilson, Woodrow, nominated and elected pres. of U. S., 610; inaugurated. 610; of- fers mediation in European war, 613. Wine, legislation against adulteration of, 605. Wireless telegraph, 606. Witte, count, 602. Wolseley, lord, in Soudan, 565. Workmen. Sec Insurance, Labor. World's Columbian exposition, 589. W'yndham, George, sec. for Ireland, 57*. Wyoming admitted, 588. Yalu river, battle, 595; second battle, 599. Yamagata, gen., in Chinese war, 595. Yi Hi, k. of Corea, and Russia, 596. Yoshihito, emp. of Japan, 610. Younghusband, F. E., Thibet mission, 573. Yuan Shih-kai, provisional pres. of China, 609; elected pres., 611. Zanzibar, protectorate, 667. iij 1 9 "6 ^^^^^ ,.V'«^ . '^b .^^^ aV V- ■v ..- ^s ^ - Deacidified using the Bookkeeper pr( Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxidi Treatnnent Date: ^pR 20 ^ PreservationTechnolot pi A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRCSERV |r^ 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township. 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