Selections for reading Agriculture Farm Stock 1919-1920 State board of education Hartford Connecticut ". of 1). JAN 6 |920 SF6>7 Calendar for Farm Stock — Standards vii-viii Pupils — i Cut pictures and articles from farm papers about the subjects listed below 2 Paste into note-books according to monthly topics Month Lesson Subject September 1 Exhibiting garden produce 2 Exhibiting farm stock and poultry October 1 Types of horses 2 Breeds of horses 3 and 4 Feeding horses November 1 and 2 The care of horses 3 and 4 Harness and harnessing December 1 Types of sheep 2 Breeds of sheep 3 Feeding of sheep 4 Care of sheep January 1 Types and breeds of dairy cattle 2 Types and breeds of beef cattle 3 and 4 Types and kinds of feed February 1 and 2 Feeding of dairy cattle 3 and 4 The care and management of the herd March 1 Types of hogs 2 and 3 Breeds of hogs April 4 Housing of hogs 1 and 2 Feeding of hogs 3 and 4 The care and diseases of hogs May 1 Milk 2 The Babcock tester and its uses 3 and 4 Dairy products June 1 Calves 2 Rabbits and hares 3 and 4 Care and feeding of rabbits July 1 and 2 Bees 3 and 4 Care and diseases of bees August 1 and 2 Pastures 3 and 4 Soiling crops Supplementary Reading — Farm Stock The Farmers' Bulletins given below may be secured free of charge by making a list of the numbers wanted and sending it to the United States Senator or Congressman who represents your district Prices of books may be learned through inquiry from publisher Horses types and breeds Farmers' bulletins Numbers 179 619 779 803 952 Text book— C W Gay Productive Horse Husbandry J B Lippincott Company Care and feeding of horses Farmers' bulletins Numbers 587 667 779 803 Text Book— W H Jordan The Feeding of Animals Macmillan Co Sheep Feeding Farmers' bulletins Numbers 455 485 508 576 578 5526 810 840 929 Text Book-nDoane Sheep Feeding and Farm Management Ginn &Co Cows Dairy type Farmers' bulletin Number 893 Feeding Farmers' bulletins Numbers 578 743 Care of dairy cows Farmers' bulletins Numbers 55 355 518 602 743 777 Text Book— C H Eckles Dairy and Milk Production Mac- millan Company Hogs Breeds Farmers bulletins Numbers 566 614 765 840 874 906 913 Text Book— William Diertich Swine Saunders Publishing Com- pany Dairy products Milk and dairy products Farmers' bulletins Numbers 413 490 541 602 623 689 748 876 Care of calf Farmers' bulletin Number 777 Sanitary milk production Farmers' bulletins Numbers 413 602 748 Text Book— H H Wing Milk and its Products Macmillan Co Rabbits Farmers' bulletin Number 496 Dairy study Pasturage Alfalfa Farmers' bulletin Number 339 Silage Farmers' bulletins Numbers 578 855 Cattle breeders associations Pictures and literature concerning pure bred stock may be secured by writing to the following American Jersey Cattle Club 324 W 23rd St New York City Ayrshire Breeders' Association Brandon Vt Brown Swiss Breeders' Association Middleburgh N Y Dutch Belted Breeders' Association Easton Pa Guernsey Breeders' Association Peterboro N H Holstein-Friesian Association Brattleboro Vt Beef cattle Farmers' bulletins Numbers 22 346 578 612 635 Text Book— H W Mumford Beef Production Published by the Author Urbana 111 Armour and Company Chicago 111 will send an illustrated colored calendar of beef cattle sheep and hogs Bees Farmers' bulletin 496 Swine breeders' associations The following swine breeders' associations will send illustrated material American Berkshire Association Springfield 111 Chester White Record Association Rochester Ind American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Association Chicago 111 American Yorkshire Club White Bear Lake Minn American Tamworth Swine Record Association Hamburg Mich Sheep breeders' associations The following sheep breeders' associations will send illustrated material Hampshire Down Breeders' Association Nottawa Mich American Rambouillett Sheep Breeders' Association Milford Ohio American Shropshire Registry Assocation LaFayette Ind American Southdown Breeders' Association Springfield 111 Horse breeders' associations The following horse breeders' associations have illustated materials American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association Lawrenceburg Ky American Trotting Register Association Chicago 111 The Thoroughbred Horse The Jocky Club New York City Projects Garden and field produce 1 Unit Garden 2 One or more square rods of corn potatoes onions soy beans any vegetable hay clover alfalfa. 3 One or more square rods of any one of the following grains wheat rye oats millet buckwheat Farm stock projects 1 Feeding and care of a horse for four months 2 Raising of a colt (2 years) 3 Raising of a calf (2 years) 4 Milk record with Babcock tester for one or more cows for three months 5 Care and feeding of one or more pigs (one season) 6 Care and feeding of one or more lambs (one season) 7 Making 25 pounds butter (project for girls) 8 Making 25 pounds cottage cheese (project for girls) 9 Care and rearing of one pair of rabbits 10 Raising of bees Those who have no opportunity for the above may do extra note- book work and reading. Possibly models of farm stock equipment may be made An Accomplishment Certificate in Agriculture will be given for the successful completion of each of the above projects Facts — Farm Stock for Standards vii-viii i Good vegetables must be perfect and true to variety type 2 Animals for exhibition must be carefully selected cleaned and housed 3 Different kinds of work demand a suitable type of horse 4 Big horses and big farms keep pace with each other 5 Successful horsemen vary the amounts and kinds of feed to the working needs of individual animals 6 Kindly treatment regular care and proper housing keep the farm horse in condition to do good work 7 A collar oiled twice a month and a harness oiled twice a year increases the usefulness of both harness and horse 8 For centuries sheep have provided men with both food and clothing 9 New breeds indicate improvement in type io Cleanliness is the first essential to good feeding. Feeding is the first essential to good stock ii New England farms are well equipped to profitably raise more mutton sheep 12 Pure bred dairy cows produce the largest financial returns 13 Carloads of beef cattle are being shipped from the New England hills 14 A balanced ratio produces the most milk at the least cost 15 New England farmers save money by growing legumes and ensilage for their cattle 16 Loud talking swearing and rough handling are not per- mitted in well managed dairies 17 The market is demanding pigs raised to 200 pounds in six months 18 Hogs are among the most important animals raised on the farm for meat or profit 19 Hogs need as clean wholesome well-lighted quarters as other animals 20 Hogs do not relish sour putrid swill nor does it make as clean pork as will good pasturage and grain 21 Most hog diseases may be prevented by cleanliness 22 Freshly drawn milk is pure. The dairy man is responsible for allowing bacteria to enter it 23 The Babcock Tester has developed the science of dairying; more than any other invention 24 The dairy products from one cow are worth more than the meat produced from five beef cattle 25 Whole and skimmed milk contains substance called vitamines without which young animals would die 26 The people of Europe eat great quantities of rabbit meat 2j Rabbits may be grown in locations and on premises where- other live stock would not be permitted 28 Bees are useful to man to pollenize fruit blossoms and to. produce honey 29 A hive of bees may make from 50 to 100 pounds of surplus honey in good seasons 30 A well-kept pasture saves time money and labor for every dairyman 31 When summer patsures dry green crops must be fed to cows to keep up their milk supply Review Chart for Farm Stock Horses Sheep Cattle Swine Rabbits i Types (based upon purpose) ii Breeds iii Uses iv Products 1 names 2 manufactured v Selection of stock vi Care of young vii Care of mature stock viii Feeding 1 type to be fed 2 feeds a composition — nutrients b home grown c purchased 3 feeding a amount of grain b amount of roughage c pasture d green food e water f salt 4 ratio a purpose for balancing b ratio 5 systems a summer b winter _^ c young stock d mature stock ix Housing x Disease and insects First September Lesson Exhibiting Garden Produce Probably the largest display in every school fair is the vegetable section. Three important things must be remembered about this class of products. They are when to gather products what to pick and how to prepare products Vegetables should be picked when in prime condition for eating provided crops gathered are not out of season. An in- stance of this out-of -season harvesting is picking summer squash or sweet corn for an October exhibit. In this event those speci- mens best suited for seed would be placed first. As to the hour of the day vegetables should be gathered when not wilted and as near the hour of entering the exhibit as possible Only the best products should be gathered but a few extra ones should be selected to allow for grading and to replace those injured by accident. Uniformity is of great importance. Pro- ducts must be uniform in size shape color texture degree of ripeness and if a root crop in length of leaf stem. They must be true to type. By this is meant that if a tomato is a Bonny Best it must have Bonny Best characteristics and not have large size and rough green shoulders like the Ponderosa nor irregular lobes like the Earliana. In the case of corn if there are a few kernels of yellow seed in an ear of Stowell's Evergreen it is probable that the ear is partly Stowell's and partly Golden Bantam. Another point is the matter of blemishes. Products injured by weeds diseases harvesting or preparing should be culled out. Last but not least is quality. Products that have made slow growth are woody tough or bitter. Those making too rapid growth tend to be too soft and tender. Overgrowth causes lack of. flavor. Overripeness or wilting leads to loss of good eating qualities The number of specimens will vary as shown in the follow- ing table and may vary according to the demands of different catalogs. How each is prepared varies also. In general how- ever washing is done with a sponge or cloth never with a brush before the dirt dries on. Stems are invariably left on. With the root crops about two inches of the stems are left on. Clipping should be done with shears or sharp knife. With leeks and radishes the entire top is left on. If late in the season the en- tire tops of root crops are removed and the scar neatly trimmed. In the case of corn the husk is removed and the butt nearly cut down. The greens and garnishes are generally left with root on but the roots however must be as carefully washed as the tops Group i Several specimens Group i Dried product 20 each h Pt each a string beans a peas b peas in pod b beans c Brussels sprouts Group iii Sin *le specimens Group iv Root crops 1 each 5 each a cabbage a carrots b cauliflower b kohl-rabi c celery c leeks d chard d onions e cucumber e parsnips f egg plant f radishes g melons cr rutabagas h i pumpkins squashes h i salsify turnips Group v Plates Gi •oup vi Greens and 5 each a okra b peppers c tomatoes d sweet corn 1 plant each a kale b lettuce c parsley d sage e spinacr garnishes Fact Good vegetables must be perfect and true to variety and type Words to be defined specimens uniformity characteristics garnishes flavor Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Exhibiting farm stock and poultry 2 Aim To learn how to prepare farm stock and poultry for the fair 3 Home questions a What special care is taken of farm stock or poultry in preparation for exhibiting? b What qualities are considered in selecting animals for exhibition c How are they housed and fed?' d What animals can you exhibit? b Work for home or school activity a Make clippings of farm stock which has won prizes 5 For reading and study "Exhibiting Farm Stock" — Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Second September Lesson Exhibiting Farm Stock and Poultry- Rabbits and poultry may be brought to the school fair. See to it that the best animal or bird has been selected with regard to breed type individual excellence and coat or feathers An exhibitor may bring as many rabbits as desired. Be- fore the show keep the hutches or boxes in which the rabbits are to be exhibited carefully cleaned so that the fur may be in the best posssible condition of cleanliness and order. Shavings and coarse straw should be the litter at this time. A rabbit is a cleanly animal and will slick its coat if given the opportunity. A little linseed meal in the grain feed will help to give a gloss to the animal's fur Good standard hutches or boxes such as are described and illustrated in the June lesson will help to show the animal to the best advantage. The floor of the hutch should be covered with clean shavings or cut straw on the day of the fair. The water can should be fastened to the side of the hutch so that the animal can not overturn it and soak the litter. Food for one day should be provided A card must be nailed to each cage stating the name of the exhibitor the breed of the animal and its age All entries should be in the hall at noon on the day set for the fair Several weeks before the fair the exhibitor of poultry should begin to select and care for the birds which are to be shown. Select pictures of the pure bred type of bird and try to select the specimen which most nearly approaches the perfect type. Special attention should be given to the comb to see that it has the proper characteristics and to the legs that they are feathered and unfeathered when necessary. If the birds have plumage peculiar to breed the specimen most nearly approaching the standard for coloring and marking should be selected. Re- move all dead broken and defective feathers. No bird having scaly legs should ever be exhibited. It is cured by scrubbing the shanks with soap and water with a tooth brush drying and rubbing with sweet oil or linseed oil White birds should never be shown with dirty feathers. They are washed with soap and water of 85-90 degree tem- perature. Rinse in warm water which has a trace of blueing in it to whiten the feathers. Thoroughly dry in a warm room. A little corn starch sprinkled among the feathers when thoroughly dry will give an added gloss to them. The poultry cages may be similar to the rabbit hutches described and should be cared for and marked in the same manner Fact Animals for exhibition must be carefully selected cleaned and housed Words to be defined exhibitor hutch litter characteristics Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types of horses 2 Aim To learn the types of horses 3 Home questions a Have pupils write down at home and bring to class the various colors of horses seen during the week. Horses of certain types and colors indicate certain breeds b Have the children observe the horses kept strictly for driving and those kept for working. Have them bring to school a report upon the differences they saw in size length and thickness of legs legs and neck roundness of body size of feet and style of action c Have some one tell the story or have all write a com- position on "Black Beauty" 4 Work for home or school activity a Have children bring to school pictures and articles about horses and other farm animals which have been cut from farm papers. Have them pasted into notebooks accord- ing to monthly outline given in front of this book b Use these articles to illustrate and supplement the lessons when taught. Many assignment questions may be answered from them 5 For reading and study "Types of Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First October Lesson Types of Horses Possibly a million years ago the ancestor of the modern horse originated in America. It was then nearly the size of a fox and had five toes. Only the fossil remains of these animals have been found in places like the old lake basins of Utah and Wyoming. Scientists believe that while Alaska and northeastern Asia were still connected by land the wild horses migrated across the isthmus and spread over the fertile plains of the old world. The original wild horses of America became extinct for none were found here when the Spaniards made their first explorations Horses were domesticated in Europe before Greece and Rome became prominent in human affairs. The methods of warfare during the Middle Ages had much to do with develop- ing our modern types of horses. During the age of heavy armor when a well armed knight weighed about 400 pounds heavy horses were necessary to support them. The invention of firearms and gunpowder made ponderous horses less necessary than those fleet of foot and quick in action Heavy horses have been bred and developed for draft purposes in which weight size and strength are essential. Draft horses weigh 1500 to 2000 pounds and more. They have large round heavily-muscled bodies and necks, which are thick and broad. Their legs are comparatively short and feet large. These massive horses ate docile steady and willingly pull great loads The light horses unlike the draft class are intended for work where extreme style action or speed and endurance in harness or under the saddle are of first importance. These horses are quick in action firey high strung and intelligent Table of contrasting types Heavy or draft Light or speed weight more than 1500 pounds less than 1500 pounds appearance blocky massive compact high active smooth neck short thick broad long thin narrow body round heavily muscled deep light muscled legs short long feet large small action slow quick Fact Different kinds of work demand a suitable type of horse Words to be defined ancestor originate domesticated armed knight ponderous Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Breeds of horses 2 Aim To learn the different breeds of horses 3 Home questions a Look for horses with long hair on legs white feet and white spot on face b Look for heavy horses whose color is dapple gray or black c Find record of fast horses in community ■ d How may the age of a horse be told?' e With which foot does a horse begin to walk?' 4 Work for home or school activity Note-book work with pictures and clippings of horses 5 For reading and study "Breeds of Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Second October Lesson Breeds of Horses The Percheron is the most popular and most widely dis- tributed breed of draft horses in the United States. This breed originated in a small district of northeastern France known as La Perche. It was developed from the descendants of two of the oldest known breeds the ponderous Black Horse of Flanders and the Arabian which the French government took to that dis- trict in 1820 Individuals weigh from 1600 to 2200 pounds and stand 16 to 17 hands high (four inches equals one hand). The usual colors are dapple gray or black. They have a thick double mane an indicator of the breed. They are intelligent gentle capable of pulling heavy loads at a quick pace. The Percherons are the foundation stock of many of our present day farm horses The Clydesdale came from Scotland where there is today one of the largest horse farms in the world. It is next to the Percheron the most popular type of draft horse in this country. It also is a descendant of the Black Horse of Flanders and is about the same size and weight as the Percheron The colors are usually bay or brown with a white blaze on the face. The lower portion of their legs are also usually white. This together with the fact that long silky hair always grows upon the legs below the knees serve to mark the animal as a Clydesdale or Shire. Scottish breeders pride themselves upon the fact that they have developed in these animals the soundest feet and the quickest walk among the draft breeds The English Shire horse is a native of the low-lying coun- tries of east-central England. This horse is quite similar in appearance to the Clydesdale. Without doubt the Shire and the Belgian horses are the largest breeds in the world and many people do not care for them because of their sluggishness and 10 ponderous awkwardness. Yet for hauling great heavy loads through city streets they are unexcelled The Hackney French Coach German Coach are of English French and German origin respectively. These horses are known also as heavy harness horses and in some particulars are rather intermediate in their characteristics between the light type like the Thoroughbred, and the draft horses. The horses which be- long to this class have the ability to draw a heavy carriage or wagon at a fair rate of 'Speed. They present a stylish appear- ance and to this end have been developed to show a high knee action and a well arched neck. If there is any breed of horses which may profitably be raised by the New England farmer it should be these for they are still held in great favor and the supply has hardly equaled the demand. These animals range from 15.3 to 16 hands high and weigh 1100 to 1400 pounds. In the show ring fashion seems to decree that their tails shall be docked The English Thoroughbred and the Arabian have been the foundation for most of the present day light harness saddle and road horses. The Arabian the first established breed has di- rectly or indirectly influenced nearly every modern type of both' light and draft horses. They weigh 800 to 1000 pounds but since they were the constant companions of their masters in the deserts they became exceedingly intelligent and second to none in beauty stylish action as well as stamina and endurance. The American Standard bred pacer and trotter much speedier than the original Thoroughbred and Arabian have been developed in America for those qualities of speed smart action and courage most desired for track horses as well as for pleasure Mules are a cross between the donkey and the horse. It is a patient gentle creature of great strength and long endurance. It will stand hard usage and thrive on rough feed. Mules will stand hot climates much better than horses. For this reason and because they are comparatively immune to all disease afflicting the horse they are largely used in the cotton and sugar planta- tions of the south Fact Big horses and big farms keep pace with each other Words to be defined descendants draft horse sluggishness 16 hands high stamina sugar plantation Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Feeding of horses 2 Aim To find how much and what kinds of food to feed horses 3 Home questions a What kinds and how much food is fed horses on the home farm? b Kinds of commercial horse feeds c Watering of horses d May ensilage be fed to horses? e How does the horse move its head when biting off grass? why? f Does the horse eat facing the wind or facing from the wind? 11 4 Work for home or school activity Note-book clippings on the feeding of horses Collect samples of feed few grains of each only 5 For reading and study "Feeding Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth October Lessons Feeding Horses Compared with other farm animals the digestive tracts of the horse are limited in capacity. Its digestive apparatus not only is unable to assimilate a great bulk of food but it is more delicate than that of the ox hog or sheep. As a result digestive troubles are common among horses. The proper feeding °of the horse requires greater care and intelligence than the feeding of any other farm animal. It is necessary to feed horses frequently and in moderate amounts with food that is palatable and of medium bulk The feeding of the horse is a different problem from the feeding of most other animals. This is because it is fed to do work which requires muscle and energy while other animals are fed for meat milk eggs and so on. Consequently food which serves to supply this energy rather than that which lays on fat should be fed The standard horse ration of this country is oats and tim- othy hay or a combination of oats and corn and a mixture of timothy and clover hay. For a hard worked or driven horse weighing about iooo pounds 12 pounds of oats and 12 pounds of timothy hay per day is considered a good ration. Six pounds of oats and 6 pounds of corn with 12 pounds of mixed hay is a standard ration for farm horses. It has been found by experi- mentation however that horses doing moderate work such as that on farms will thrive equally as well on some cheaper grain when mixed in the proper proportions. The following general ration has proven satisfactory. Three parts bran 3 parts oats 1 part linseed meal. In winter add 3 parts corn meal. Feed mixed hay twice daily. In general a horse should be daily supplied with about 2.y 2 pounds of food for every 100 pounds of weight. Two thirds of this amount should be in the form of grain. It is interesting to note the many different things fed to horses throughout the world. It seems to show that the horse will relish many kinds of food if they are clean and whole- some. In Arabia where stamina and sinew are famous the prin- cipal food is barley and scant herbage. In Ireland most curiously dried fish forms a part of the standard diet. In England hay oats and beans are fed. On the continent of Europe rye barley and inferior wheat make up a large part of the ration. It is not so much the kind of food fed but its purity that is essential. The label of a well known horse feed shows that the following variety 12 of grain and by products are used to make up the ration. Ground oats corn and barley wheat middlings hominy feed oat shorts oat middlings oat hulls linseed meal corn gluten feed y 2 of i% salt. In the south molasses diluted with water one pint to one quart per feed and mixed with coarse grains and roughage, has kept horses and mules in good working order The importance of regularity in feeding cannot be over- emphasized. Whatever the feeding stuffs may be the horse should be fed regularly and uniformly at all times. It anticipates the feeding hour and neighs and coaxes for food with great regularity. The work horse should be fed three times each day. The morning meal may consist of Y\ the daily ration and must be given at least an hour before going to work. The midday meal may be another fourth with at least an hour to consume it. At night feed the remainder or y 2 the daily ration. Thus the heaviest feed comes at night when the horse has ample time to chew and digest the food During the idle winter months the horse may be roughed through by feeding mixed hay well cured corn fodder or other roughage and perhaps a little grain. On days when work horses are allowed to stand idle the amount of grain should be reduced about one half. If the idleness continues beyond three or four days the amount of grain may be gradually increased but should not reach the full work ration It makes little difference when horses are watered provided it is not given before meals on one day and on the next day after meals. Horses seem to relish a drink before eating then to eat roughage and grain. Do not permit a horse to drink to excess when it is warm however it is inhumane to deprive an animal of all water while doing hot sweaty work Salt is an essential of all animal rations. If they do not have a piece of rock salt in the manger constantly they often chew the wood or old bones or eat dirt in the search for the salt which they lack. Horses are fond of carrots. It serves to cool the system and assists in the digestion of other foods. Corn silage has been fed to horses with varying success. If mouldy frozen or sour it is likely to cause severe colic and other in- testinal troubles. If of good quality and fed moderately horses Team to relish and profit from its succulence Fact Successful horsemen vary the amount and kinds of feed to the working needs of individual animals Words to be defined palatable stamina roughage colic relish Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic The care of horses 2 Aim To learn how to care for horses 13 Home questions & Collect instances of good memory in horses b Bring to school a description of interior of best horse barn seen c Bring to school a list of common ailments of the horse which have occurred on the home farm Work for home or school activity a Look up common unsoundnesses and their cause Secure pictures to illustrate b Stop at a blacksmith shop. Write down for class dis- cussion each operation of the farrier as he shoes a horse c becure advertisements giving remedies for common ail- ments For reading and study "The Care of Horses" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First and Second November Lessons The Care of Horses The horse is not especially intelligent but it has a remark- able memory. A lesson or habit once learned is difficult to change. It long remembers ill-treatment and lack of care. On the other hand it readily responds to consideration and good treatment. A driver who strikes or jerks because of his anger deserves the contempt of all lovers of animal life. Rough handling uses up the horse's nervous energy and greatly lessens its usefulness. One who will work a team in the heat and dust and then allow it to stand over night without cleaning shows lack of intelligence about horses or cruelty. Be gentle with horses. Nervous excitement deranges the digestive organs. Even a horse appreciates a musical voice and kindly intonations Too many farmers keep their faithful animals in poorly built sheds that have little or no conveniences and that are draughty and ill drained. Draughts should be carefully excluded from the barn. A horse may stand in the open field without taking cold but cannot remain in a draught without suffering ill effects^ There should be a good light in the stable. It will cer- tainly injure perhaps in time permanently blind a horse to re- peatedly take it from a dark stable into the glare of sunlight re- flected from snow. Have plenty of clean windows through which the purifying sunlight may shine into the stable. Barns in which manure dust and cobwebs collect is not one in which horses will remain in the best of health. Most farm horses are kept in straight stalls. If there is room to provide a box stall it will be useful at many times in the life of a horse. If there is plenty of little available undrained plank stalls are most practical for coun- try conditions but a rack made of two or three inch planks nailed one half to three fourths inches apart over a sloping under floor is more sanitary. In summer many straight stalls are very hot. It should be possible to remove the lowest side plank to permit a cooling circulation of air. Bedding serves several purposes. To 14 insure comfort to the horse inducing it to lie down thereby resting its legs and feet as much as possible. Bedding keeps the horse free from stable stains and absorbs the liquid manure. Bedding material consists of straws coarse hay sawdust shav- ings peat cornstover and leaves. Shavings are clean to use but decay with difficulty when spread over the fields The work horses appreciate a good grooming night and morning. Rubbing and cleaning the skin removes the dandruff and stimulates a circulation thereby resting the tired horse and renewing vigor for the following day. If the horses' legs are muddy or wet at night thoroughly clean them with a short handle broom or burlap bag. Without fail horses' shoulders must be bathed each night after a day of sweaty hard work. The encrusted salt on the shoulders causes sores to form Horses that have never been shod have feet well fitted by nature for hard usage. Only when horses must constantly travel over hard roads is it necessary that they be shod. In some parts of the United States shoes are never put on the horses' feet. When shoeing is found essential see to it that the farrier brings. the outer circular crust of horn to a level with the firm unpared sole. This may either be cut or rasped off. Never permit him to pare or concave the sole. It is nature's protection against injury and disease. The frog in the horse's foot serves, as a cushion to help relieve the shock of stepping. Only the broken edges should ever be trimmed. Never use a knife to open con- tracted heel. To help this trouble have the farrier make the shoe slightly higher on the inner upper edge of the shoe on which the wall of the hoof will rest. This manner for shoeing will tend to spread a hoof and to open the heel Horses Care Not a few of the defects common to the horse should be blamed to their owners or users. For example poll evil is fre- quently caused by striking the head against a door or stall beam. Bit sores indicate a careless or cruel driver. Perhaps an un- warmed bit has been thrust into a horse's tender mouth on a cold morning and the skin has been pulled off. Fistula on the withers and shoulder sores seldom come unless the collar is ill- fitting or dirty. Sweeny is the result of a wrench or strain due to an ill-fitting collar worn when the horse was young In a similar way splints spavins curbs thorough-pins and other injuries of the legs are often caused by excessive driving or pulling especially of young horses. Misshapen knees and ankles are an evidence of hard usage. Greased heel foul smell- ing thrush and scratches come from damp and filthy stalls. Roaring or wind broken horses is the result of too rapid and prolonged driving. Heaves usually come from eating dusty food. Cribbing is the sign 'of neglected teeth 15 When the horse is young teach it carefully just the things that shall be done in later life. The vices which reduce the value of many horses and make them difficult to handle are often due to improper training of the colt. Halter pulling starts when the colt is frightened and breaks away or else being tied with an old and easily broken halter finds that it can gain its freedom easily in this manner. Balking often is an indication of the lack of intelligence and patience on the part of the trainer fully as much as stubbornness on the part of the horse. Biting often starts from teasing and kicking often has its origin in fright caused by something loose about the harness or wagon when the colt was first broken Fact kindly treatment regular care and proper housing keep the farm horse in condition to do good work Words to be defined memory intonation farrier fistula cribbing colt Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Harness and harnessing 2 Aim To learn the parts of a harness and how to harness a work horse 3 Home questions a Why are blinders useful and harmful? b Why are bits warmed in winter before putting them into the horses' mouths?' c Observe and describe a single harness and a double harness 4 Work for home or school activity a Observe the way tugs are made on various heavy harness b Observe harnesses which have saddles over the horse's back and those which do not. To what are the hold- back straps hitched in each kind c If possible have some farmer teach the children how to harness a pair of horses 5 For reading and study "Harness and Harnessing Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth November Lessons Harness and Harnessing Names of parts of heavy truck and farm harness i Bridle The harness on the head of the horse 1 crown piece the strap behind the ears 2 brow band the strap in front of the ears 3 winker stays connecting the brow band with blinders 4 winker or blinders flat leather pieces beside the eyes 5 throat latch strap under the throat from side to side 6 cheek piece strap holding blinders 7 nose band strap across nose 8 bit in horse's mouth 9 check strap from bit to hames holding up horse's head 16 ii Collar and hames 10 11 12 13 collar goes around neck of horse small end up hames concord bolt pole straps 14 Martingales iii Back harness 15 forked back straps 16 belly girt 17 saddle 18 breeching or hold back 19 hip straps 20 traces 21 heel chains 22 lazy straps 23 hold back straps 24 lines Iron or wooden pieces fitting into collar joins traces to hames running from one side of hames through ring in one end of neck yoke to hames on the other side. The neck yoke is the cross pole in front of the horse. On wagons it is often double on farm im- plements single run from neck yoke between two front legs to belly girt sometimes from collar also to neck yoke straps running from both sides of hames meeting in ring over rump of horses strap connecting traces under belly over horse's back straps running around thighs holds up breeching connect hames with wagon chains hitching traces to evener on wagon holds up traces at breeching on some harnesses run from breeching rings through belly girt and back on others runs from breeching rings through rings in the tugs at the saddle and back to breeching forked reins running from bit to driver 22 21 17 Harnessing in thTee" parts 1 ^ hameSS ^ PUt ° n and taken from the horse i the collar 2 the names and back harness 3 the bridle fK i, The b u St C ,° lla - S are made of leather - Tt sh ould be put upon the horse by slipping the bottom or large end over the horse" head and when on turn it so that the small end is up. Or un- buckle the clasp at the small end. Spread the end apart put around the horse's neck and buckle. The collar should fit snuggly to the shoulder but leave enough room at the wind pipe thelTJ G ^J °l! tH f hand - D0 , n0t P Ut a SWeat P ad 0" u^ the horse s neck shrinks in size and requires one °ver the collar throw one side of the names and upon the back the back harness. Put the hame strap through both ends of hames and pull as tightly as possible. Good collars are ruined by loose hames. Fasten the belly girt and hold back straps con- nected with the belly girt. One end of some martingales also run through the belly girt The bridle is adjusted by putting the bit into the horse's mouth with the left hand and at the same time holding the bridle as high as possible over the horse's head. Slip the crown piece over the ears and fasten the throat latch. If the horse refuses to take the bit shove the thumb into the corner of the horse's mouth. A horse has no teeth at this point and feeling the thumb on its gums opens its mouth Stand the off horse on the left side of the pole and the near horse on the right side of the pole. Horses become accustomed to working on the same side and are more contented if placed there. If a single neck yoke is to be used put it on the end of the pole and raise both pole and neck yoke. Fasten the pole strap by running it through the single ring directly in front of the horse and snap the end into the ring on the hame on the other side. Fasten the martingale to the neck yoke. Run the breeching strap through the ring in the tugs near the hames and back to the breeching ring and buckle tightly. In some harnesses the breeching straps are fastened to the belly girt Hook up the traces by means of the heel chains with the evener on the wagon. The pole straps and heel chains should be so adjusted that there will be but little play in the harness when the horse moves forward or backward A forked line runs to each horse. Run the outside line of each horse to the outside of the bit on that horse. Run the inside line on the near horse through the rein ring on the inside of its hames and then to the bit on the off horse. The inside rein of the off horse goes to the bit of the near horse 18 Fact A collar oiled twice a month and a harness oiled twice a year increase the usefulness of both harness and horse Words to be defined neck yoke bit bridle traces hold back strap Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types of sheep 2 Aim To learn the history and types of sheep 3 Home questions Ask the town clerk how much is paid by the town for sheep killed by dogs. What is the dog tax? 4 Work for home or school activity Bring piece of wool cloth to school. Separate the threads. Light them. Cotton burps freely. Wool slowly. Wool dis- solved by sodium hydroxide. Cotton is dissolved by acids. Locate the great sheep raising districts from the geography lesson Have some one write or tell a story of sheep herding in the National Park in the west 5 For reading and study "Types of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First December Lesson Types of Sheep After the dog sheep were probably the next animals to be domesticated by man principally for their wool to serve for clothing. It is not definitely known just where sheep originated but it is believed to be Central Asia. Wild species are still existant in different parts of the world chiefly in mountainous regions and in dry climates. The Big Horn Sheep of the Rocky Mountains are a wild variety of North America. Sheep origin- ally were extremely wild and timid. They fled at the slightest noise which they heard from great distances. Their strength and agility enabled them to spring among the most inaccessible rocks which they sought for safety. In the evolution from wild to domestic life many changes have taken place but none more striking than in personal safety. Sheep have become so entirely dependent upon man that they could not exist without his pro- tection and care Varieties of sheep have existed as distinct breeds since the written history of man. Abraham the founder of Israel measured his wealth in cattle and sheep. The fine robes of the Roman emperors were made from the wool of the Merino sheep, a variety brought by them to Spain from the Far East. Columbus on his second voyage in 1493 brought some of these Spanish Merinos to South America. Until quite recently most of the sheep raised in Mexico and in South Western United States were direct descendants of these sheep brought by Columbus. Eng- lish planters as early as 1609 brought to Virginia breeds of mutton sheep which had been developed in England from sheep imported from Spain 19 While there are many breeds of sheep there are but two main types the distinctly wool type and the mutton type. Farm- ers of eastern United States are raising a dual purpose sheep which will produce in the same animal both a fair quality and quantity of wool and also good mutton Types of Sheep To produce mutton most profitably sheep should have a low stocky form shortness of leg and a wide broad back. It is essential also that they mature early. When the animal is killed the carcass should be full and plump especially in the regions of the valuable meat cuts. The largest and heaviest sheep on record is a Lincoln ram weighing 456 pounds. Most sheep of the mut- ton type are polled that is hornless The wool type of sheep are covered with very fine thick wool which is a dirty black on the outside due to an exuding oil called the yolk. The rams of this type are horned. The heaviest fleece ever recorded as being sheared from sheep of this type weighed 52 pounds Fact For centuries sheep have provided man with both food and cloth ing Words to be denned existant timid agility carcass inaccessible Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Breeds of sheep 2 Aim To learn the breeds of sheep 3 Home questions a What breeds of sheep are kept in the neighborhood b Who will sell lambs for home projects in the spring? c Learn the current prices paid for wool mutton and lamb 4 Work for home or school activity a What climatic reasons have made animal industry im- portant in England? Answer Warmth and moisture re- ceived from the Gulf Stream b Bring to school specimens of various kinds of wool from the fleece c Bulletin 593 U S Department of Agriculture gives score card for judging sheep. If possible score local specimen for school judging 5 For reading and study "Breeds of sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Second December Lesson Breeds of Sheep The mutton type of sheep contains two classes called the medium wool and the long wool sheep. The medium wool sheep contain the breeds which were developed on the rolling rich grass lands of England called Downs and from which the breeds 20 took their names. These are Southdown Shropshire down Ox- ford down Hampshire down Suffolk down Horned-Dorset. The long wooled type contain the following breeds Leicester Lincoln Cotswold Cheviot. The wool breeds are the various Merinos the two most noted being the American and the Delaine Merino and the Rombouillet Of all the mutton breeds the Shrogshires are the most im- portant popular and extensively grown in the United States and Canada. Although they are not the largest of the mutton breeds the rams weigh around 225 pounds and shear at 12-16 pounds of wool. The breed is hornless has dark brown face and ears and legs. Wool covers the whole face scarcely leaving visible the eyes and the black tip of the nose. Its legs are also covered with wool while most of the other Down breeds have legs free from wool The Southdown is the accepted type of mutton and medium wooled sheep of England. It is the smallest of the mutton types but its flesh has for years been considered the finest in the market. Its face and legs are a lighter brown than the Shrop- shire and are free from wool The largest and heaviest of the Down breeds and the one which in that class gives the heaviest fleece is the Oxford down. They are best adapted to intensive farming and will thrive upon abundant pasturage which is inclined to be rather rank and coarse. The rams weigh 250 to 300 pounds and shear 12 to 16 pounds of wool The Leicester Coltswold and Lincoln are English sheep of greasy size and are covered with long curling fleeces whose staple is sometimes 21 inches long. These great animals have coarse flesh weigh between 300-425 pounds and shear 15 to 30 pounds of wool The fine wool sheep are included in a group called the Merinos. The characteristics of the breed other than those relating to the fleece are small compact bodies almost totally lacking in mutton qualities hardiness an active alert tempera- ment fine grazing qualities a remarkably strong flocking^ instinct a loose elastic skin which often rolls and folds materially in- creasing the wool producing surface and weight of fleece The Spanish or American Merino were developed in the mountains of Spain from sheep brought from the Far East by the Romans. From about the beginning of the Christian Era up to the 19th century Spain led the world in wool production. The practice of herding sheep in southern Spain and driving them north to pasture in summer served to fix in the breed the herding instinct that has since made it so valuable throughout the world There are three classes within this fine wool breed. Class A represents the extreme wool-producing type. The skin is wrinkled and folded over the entire body. The fleece is dense 21 and fine but only 2 to 2^4 inches long. Class B shows a medium amount of skin folded and shears 23 to 25 pounds of wool. Class C of the Delaine Merino carries a few skin folds. Its body exhibits more of the mutton type. Ram weighs 160 to 200 pounds. The fleece weighs 18 to 25 pounds and its staple is 3-5 inches long. The heaviest fleece recorded as sheared from any breed came from the American Merino and weighed 52 pounds The Rambouillet was developed in France from the Spanish stock. Compared with the original type the Rambouillet is larger more robust heavier in bone and frame, more "growthy" of earlier maturity with distinct mutton qualities and a very slightly wrinkled skin. The rams weigh 225 to 300 pounds and shear 18 to 25 pounds of wool Fact New breeds indicate an improvement in type Words to be defined fleece temperament staple Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Feeding of sheep 2 Aim To learn how to feed sheep 3 Home questions a Ask someone who knows about sheep to explain how when and what they feed to lambs which have lost their mothers b What use may be made of hay which sheep will not eat?' Answer Fed to horses 4 Work for home or school activity a iMake a list of foods which may be fed to older sheep b Find a meaning and how "hot house lambs" are fed Answer Lambs raised in winter c Have boys make a sheep creep hay rack and feed trough from pieces of box. Bring to school for exhibition 5 For reading and study "Feeding of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third December Lesson Feeding of Sheep In the more favored sections of New England where nat- ural grazing land is to be found little else than good pasturage is necessary for sheep in summer. It has been found imprac- tical to keep sheep in large numbers unless good pasturage can be depended upon during the entire pasturage season or at least until the regular field crops are harvested. Most of the flocks kept in New England are found running in good pasture land with cattle Sheep will eat a great variety of herbage and weeds which cows will not touch but they will not grow profitably unless good grass or a substitute is provided in the later summer when the lambs are fattening for market. This good feed is often provided by turning the sheep into the second growth clover crop or permitting them to run over the entire farm after the crops have been harvested 22 A safer practice is to grow a forage crop for late summer and fall feeding. Dwarf essex rape is an excellent crop for this purpose and is well adapted to New England conditions. Broad- cast on land free from weeds or sow in corn at the last cultiva- tion 2-3 pounds of rape seed. This will be ready for feeding in 8-12 weeks. One acre sown alone or two acres after corn will fatten 30 to 40 lambs. Sheep are very dainty creatures and re- fuse to eat food which has been tramped over. A movable fence of some kind will make it possible to provide a new feeding area each day. Do not permit the lambs to eat greedily of this fresh green food the first few days. Bloats are likely to occur A good fattening ration which may be fed in late fall or winter three months before marketing is first month equal parts corn meal and oats Yi pound per day. Second month 2 parts corn meal 1 part oats 1/4 pound per day. Third month 3 parts corn meal 1 part oats 1 pound per day and as much more as they will eat up clean. Add to this feed 5 pounds of bran to every bushel of grain and once in a while a little linseed meal. In addition feed fine hay at night and give some succulent feed such as turnips beets or ensilage daily Sheep to be kept over the winter may be fed any of the finer hays preferably the clover if not too coarse. Alsike clover red top and rowen are considered the best. It should be fed in racks which prevent the sheep scattering and tramping their ration. Ensilage and roots are excellent to keep sheep in good condition. Sheep will clean up considerable corn fodder if it is stacked outside their winter quarters and it will at the same time provide necessary exercise in getting to it through the snow Just before lambing time in the spring most New England farmers begin to feed grain. Whole or ground oats and wheat bran sometimes with a little linseed oil meal is the mixture most commonly used. The amounts to be fed depends upon the quality and quantity of the roughage used More than most farm animals sheep are especially partic- ular about the condition of their drinking water. If it becomes stale or foul they refuse to drink it. A pasture with running water shade abundant grass and on high ground is ideal for sheep raising. Sheep should be given salt while at pasture at least twice a week and while in the barns in winter keep a box full at all times where it may be easily reached When it is desired to grow young mutton lambs quickly they must be taught to eat grain as early as possible. Some nibble at it when but 10 days old. Build a little yard called a "creep" into which the young sheep may pass to get gram in shallow boxes but into which the older sheep cannot enter The first feed may be bran to which has been added a little brown 23 sugar. It may be necessary to place some of this on the lambs mouth at first. After they have learned to eat grain the follow- ing mixture should be fed Five parts wheat bran 4 parts cracked corn 1 part linseed meal. By the time lambs are 10 to 12 weeks old they should weigh from 50 to 60 pounds Lambs should be weened when four to five months old somewhere about August 1st. At this time put the lambs on a newly mowed clover meadow Fact Cleanliness is the first essential to good feeding. Feeding is the first essential to good stock Words to be defined dwarf ensilage fodder stale ween Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Care of sheep 2 Aim To learn how to care for sheep 3 Home questions a Ask some farmer in the locality why more sheep are not kept on the farms b Why is it that if one sheep goes through a hole in the fence the whole flock will? c Why are goats cattle or horses sometimes pastured with sheep? Answer As a partial protection against dogs 4 Work for home or school activity a Secure a picture illustrating the cuts of mutton. Have it copied on the board b Propose the raising of a lamb as an animal project. Appoint someone to be responsible for learning prices and when lambs may be purchased 5 For reading and study "Care of Sheep" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Fourth December Lesson Care of Sheep In New England the large and numerous flocks of earlier years were kept almost entirely for wool production. At present there is a great demand for lambs marketed when four to five months old making wool a secondary consideration. Today shipments of mutton from the west have not only ceased to in- crease but have actually grown less as a result of the breaking up of the great sheep ranches. The present production of mut- ton sheep might be increased in New England three-fold with- out materially lessening the number of other live stock which is kept The decline of the sheep industry in the East cannot be attributed entirely to the ravages of dogs alone. They are still a serious menace and call for further remedial legislation by the States but it is quite likely that disease low prices cheaper 24 grazing land of the West and the lack of proper care were greatly to blame for the falling off in the industry. With the increasing prices paid for mutton and lamb the keeping of sheep is once more a paying industry A sheep project is interesting and profitable. Boys and girls might well undertake the entire responsibility for caring for a single animal or a small flock. Of all the farm animals sheep are the least understood by the general farmer. The baby lamb is a delicate leggy wabbly creature that is often so help- less the first day or two that they must be helped to their meals. If the mother refuses to recognize her bleating child put them both into a corner where the mother cannot turn about. It sometimes happens that a young lamb becomes dangerously chilled. If this occurs immerse it in warm water when it is thoroughly warmed rub it dry and put it in a warm place for a short time. In a few days it becomes decidedly stronger and is able to keep up with its mother as she grazes about the pasture. After a week or two it begins to nibble at solid food such as grain and hay. Encourage it to do this for more rapid gains will be made with the additional food. Do not fail to cut off the tails of those sheep intended to be mature. When ten to four- teen days old docking as it is called is a simple process. Take a mallet and a chisel lay the tail upon a block and with one sharp blow between the two joints the operation is done. The boy or girl who raises sheep should be something of a nurse. The little lamb is likely to be taken by many ills such as sore eyes sore mouth constipation stomach worms and the like. Each trouble requires special treatment and the advice of an ex- perienced shepherd should be sought. Better still the help given in the Government bulletins published by the Department of Agriculture Washington D C will be of great assistance Sheep do not require elaborate quarters but they must be made in such a manner that they will be thoroughly dry and draft proof. Have plenty of windows and doors on the south side which should be open most of the time during the winter Close them only in severe and stormy weather. Pure air and sunlight are nature's disinfectants and help to ward off cold and snuffles from which sheen suffer and thereby possibly contract worse diseases. There should be plenty of bedding used on the dirt barn floor. Change the bedding every six to eight weeks or oftener A yard should also be connected with the barn where a part of the hay or cornstalk are fed in the snow in order to induce sheep to exercise. At no time however should sheep be exposed to driving wet snows and drenching rains, lnis yard as well as the stable should be kept clean since from an accumu- lation of filth in the hoofs sheep are likely to contract foot rot a disease very difficult to cure . Better results in raising sheep seem to be secured in Wew England by changing sheep often from pasture to pasture put- ting them on new seeded second growth clover or feeding them 25 upon forage crops of rape and the like. This may be due to the fact that on wet pastures where old sheep have run before stomach worms grow upon the stems of pasture grass and get into the digestive tracts of the young lambs. A lamb which has worms becomes pale thin and weak. Its skin has a white paper like appearance due to the parasites sucking its blood. If the sheep contract the trouble, the following remedy will help to remove the worms from the sheeps' stomach. Make a drench by putting a small rubber hose over the neck of a bottle let the following mixture run into the sheep's stomach 4 tablespoons full of gasoline shaken up in 2 tablespoons full of raw linseed oil and 8 to 10 tablespoons full of fresh milk Ticks on sheep correspond in discomfort to lice on fowl. Do not allow sheep to go into winter quarters with ticks on them. They may be removed by using a sheep dip such as may be purchased at stores handling animal supplies The cost of fencing has seemed prohibitive to many farm- ers. Stonewalls may be made sheep proof by removing a few stones from the top and inclining posts over the wall into the pasture. Replace the stones on the posts and nail boards or chicken wire between the ends of the posts which project into the pasture. Sheep have no footing to climb upon being kept down by the overhang. Woven wire fence is without doubt better than barbed or smooth wire where a new fence must be erected The wool sheared from the sheep in the spring will pay for their care and feed. The price received for the fleece will be the profit made upon the venture. Sheep were formerly sheared by hand and are so still where the flocks are small. Modern clip- ping machines shear sheep more quickly and without the danger of cutting the sheep as so often happens when sheep are inex- pertly hand-sheared Fact New England farms are well equipped to profitably raise more mutton sheep Words to be defined menace drench parasite sheep tick Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types and breeds of dairy cattle 2 Aim To learn the types and breeds of dairy cattle 3 'Home questions a Do any farmers in your locality own pure bred stock > Have some pupil interview the owner and read a paper telling about what was learned at the visit b Bring to school a description of the best cow in the home herd. Tell of her performance that is what amounts of milk she has made c How are the legs of a cow placed when it lies down — gets up? d How may the age of a cow be told? 26 4 Work for home or school activity a Bring to school mounted on cardboard pictures of the various dairy breeds b Secure from Government Farmers bulletin #893 Conn State Agricultural College Storrs Conn or farm papers a score card for dairy cattle. Have your parents help score the best cows in the herd. If herds are visited from the school invite a good herdsman to help score the cattle visited c Draw upon the board a picture of a dairy cow showing the various parts of the animal 5 For reading and study "Types and breeds of dairy cattle" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First January Lesson Type and Breeds of Dairy Cattle Cattle are raised to supply meat hides milk and many use- . ful products of milk such as cream butter cheese and at the same time supply a large quantity of manure which serves to maintain the fertility of the soil In outline the dairy cow shows more or less clearly three distinct wedges. If she is looked at from one side her upper and lower body lines should come together if these lines were extended out beyond her head. The second wedge appears when the animal is looked at from the top and rear. Her body be- comes wider from the chest to the hips. Looked at from the top and front her body gradually widens from the withers (the place where the neck and back join) backward over the ab- domen. This is the third wedge. In general the members of the dairy type are angular and show broken sharp body line while beef cattle have rounded lines and smooth surface. In dairy cattle the organs of the body seem to exist for and to radiate from the udders or milk bag of the cow The head of the dairy cow should be lean with large nostrils and with a little hollow called the dish in a broad intelligent face. Her eyes should be calm and bright. The neck should be long and thin. The front legs straight the ribs well arched showing large capacity for taking care of her food. The hips should be prominent and sharp the thighs muscular but not fatty. Fine hair covering a soft skin indicates high quality. When purchasing a cow the most important part of the body to consider is the udder. When milked dry this should hang limp and be soft and pliable to the touch showing good tissues for making milk rather than meaty flesh. When full the bag should form a graceful curve from a point high up in the rear to an- other well advanced in front. Prominent and winding milk reins along the under side of the body carrying the blood from the udder into the large holes in the body called milk wells in- dicate an ample supply of blood. The quarters of the udder should be even teats medium sized and squarely placed seem- ingly on each corner of the bag 27 Dairy cattle fall within two special classes one where the milk yield is of moderate quantity but the fat proportionally high the second where the quantity of milk is larger but the fat much lower. To the first class belongs the Jerseys and the Guernseys known as the butter breeds. To the second belong the Holsteins and Ayrshire known as the milk and cheese breeds The Jersey cow was developed on the island of Jersey in the English Channel. The color ranges from almost a black through a dark brown to a very light fawn. The hair about the nostrils is grayish or cream colored. A black tongue and nose and black tips to amber colored horns are partial marks of identification. The breed is rather small weighing but 800 to 1200 pounds and needs good pasturage and ample food. Jersey cows in the Register of Merit average 7,808 pounds of milk making 419 pounds of fat. Sophie 19 of Hood Farm is a cham- pion cow of this breed. $50,000 has been refused for the sale of this cow. She made 999.1 pounds of butter fat from 17,557.8 pounds of milk. The breed will test from 4% to 8% butter fat in the milk The Guernsey is another breed developed in the Channel Islands. It is reddish fawn or tan and white rarely with solid coloring) with rings of light colored hair around the eyes and muzzel. It is a little heavier larger and coarser than the Jersey and gives on the average slightly more milk. The milk of the breed is more yellow than that of any other breed. The milk of this breed averages about 5.3% butter fat. A cow called Murne Cowan holds a record of 24.008 pounds of milk containing 1,098.8 pounds of fat The Holsteins are now a very popular breed particularly where milk is sold by the quart rather than on the fat contained in the milk. Cows of this breed in order to be reigstered as pure bred cattle must be both black and white in patches. They are the heaviest of the purely dairy type weighing from 1200 to 1800 pounds. The breed was developed in the Netherlands to produce milk for making cheese and large enough to provide meat when killed. The quantity of milk produced by the breed is astonishing. Tilly Alcartra gave 33,424.8 pounds of milk in one year. Considerable over 16 tons of milk. The world's record for butter fat production is also held by this breed not because their milk is so rich but because there is such a quantity of it. Duchess Skylark Ormsby holds world's record for milk production with 1,506.36 pounds of butter fat from 27,761.7 pounds of milk in one year Average butter fat content for this breed is 3.36% The Ayrshire takes its name from the county of Ayr in southwestern Scotland. These cows are noted for their hardi- ness foraging ability and economical keep qualities. In color they are red and white. The striking Ayrshire characteristics are the graceful upcurving horns and an almost perfect udder 28 carried far out in front and attached high behind. Ayrshire milk ranges in richness between the average Holstein and the average Jersey or Guernsey There are several other minor breeds of dairy cattle whose performance does not equal those mentioned. There are the Brown Swiss the Dutch Belted Kerry the Dexter and the French Canadian Fact Pure bred dairy cows produce the largest financial returns Words to be defined beef identification milk fat Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types and breeds of beef cattle 2 Aim To learn the types and breeds of beef cattle 3 Home questions a What are the areas of the great beef production in the United States?' In the world? 4 Work for home or school activity a Locate a pair of steers in the neighborhood. Report on the description breed care feeding and work of these animals b Secure a picture giving the cuts of beef c Assign some pupil the task of telling the story of a Western Round-up 5 For reading and study "Types and Breeds of Beef Cattle" Readings in Agricul- ture Farm Stock Second January Lesson Type and Breeds of Beef Cattle The value of beef cattle in the United States exceed the value of all other farm stock combined. More than two thirds of the beef cattle are raised west of the Mississippi River. The western pastures are rapidly being converted into farms and not since the country was first settled has it contained so few beef cattle in proportion to the population as at present. If sufficient beef is to be raised in this country to supply the need for the amount eaten here the beef industry will have to be extended to the general farms of the eastern half of the United States. There is no other animal which can use so large an amount of coarse food which can thrive in so wide a range of conditions and attention or which is so nearly free from disease and mis- fortune as the beef animal. There is a surplus of milk in New England and it will likely continue for a time. Beef is always in demand. Many of our New England farms can raise and winter a herd of beef animals The beef breeds are built on rather heavy square stocky lines. The outline of the body is rectangular like a brick stand- ing on the long edge. The body is well rounded compact broad on the back the bones not protruding and the flesh tender 29 The shorthorn or Durham grows to be the largest of the beef breeds weighing 1900 to 2300 pounds. Fortunately the strains of this breed has for years been developed for milk pro- duction. The shorthorns are well recognized as the source of much of the milk from which the great quantities of butter are made in the middle west. Six thousand pounds of milk per year is the minimum requirement for registry. A record for this breed is 17,241.5 pounds of milk and 653.35 pounds of butter fat in one year. No other breed of beef animals can approach this amount of milk and beef produced. The color ranges from pure white red and white pure red and roan. Roan is a grow- ing together of red and white hair without forming solid patches of either color The Hereford ranks, second to the Shorthorn in beef pro- duction. Its milking qualities are very poor. It is easily recog- nized by its red body white face white brush and often white top lines and under lines. It is hardy makes good use of rough forage and matures early which especially fits it for the produc- tion of "Baby beef." These animals weigh 1700 to 2200 pounds Aberdeen Angus cattle are black in color with short smooth coats and are hornless. In conformation they are more cylin- drical than other beef breeds. They are not as heavy as either the Shorthorn or Hereford but prime steers of this breed meet the butchers' ideal because they are more evenly fleshed Other breeds of beef cattle are the Galloways Devon Sussex and West Highland Fact Carloads of beef cattle are being shipped from the New England hills' Words to be defined surplus registry cylindrical butcher Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types and kinds of feeds 2 Aim To learn the types and kinds of feeds 3 Home questions a Secure samples of corn oats barley and other grains b Make a canvas of all the commercial stock feeds found in the locality. Tabulate the names ingredients prices the percentages of Protein carbonhydrate fat and crude fibre c Compare cost and quality of each 4 Work for home or school activity a Bring to school samples of mill feeds such as bran middlings cottonseed meal linseed meal gluten. Label and have pupils learn to identify b bring samples of timothy hay clover hay alfalfa en- silage and other roughage such as roots beet pulp 5 For reading and study "Types and kinds of feeds" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 30 Third and Fourth January Lessons Types and Kinds of Feeds Just as the soil must contain the food elements needed for the growth of plants so the cow's ration must contain the ele- ments required to build up the body and produce milk Only three different food elements are necessary to be taken into account when considering what and how much the cow shall be fed. These are protein carbohydrate and fat and are found in varying proportions in nearly all vegetables and grains. Much protein is found in clover hay alfalfa linseed meal cottonseed meal wheat middlings and gluten meal. Pro- tein occurs nearly pure in the white of egg. This food com- pound builds up the fleshy structure of the body called the tissue. It enters largely into the make up of muscles blood milk tendons nerves skin hair and wool Carbohydrate is found in high proportions in corn gluten meal wheat bran. The roughages such as timothy hay ensilage and roots are also very useful in providing carbohydrate and the necessary bulk to the food demanded by most farm animals. This food compound contains the starch sugar and fat which produces energy yields heat and makes motion possible. In contrasting the two types of food the protein may be likened to the boiler of an engine and the carbohydrate to the fuel The following table shows the varying proportions of protein carbohydrate and fat in common farm feeds. The nutritive ratio column expresses the number of pounds of carboydrate to one pound of protein found in the feeds Table 1 Carbo 100 pounds of Dry matter Protein hydrates Nutritive & fat ratio Alfalfa 91.6 luf" 42.3 1:3.8 Clover hay 84.7 6.8 34.7 1:5.8 Corn silage 20.9 9 12.9 1:14* Corn grain 89.1 7.9 76.4 :9.7 Gluten meal 91.8 25.8 68.1 J 3.6 Linseed meal 90.8 29.3 48.5 1:1.7 Oats grain 89.0 9.2 56.8 1:6 2 Timothy hay 86.8 2.8 46.6 1:16.6 Wheat bran 88.1 12.2 45.3 1:3.7 Wheat middlings 87.9 2.8 60.7 1:4.7 Cottonseed meal 92.0 40.0 40.0 1:1 Scientists have determined quite accurately just the amount of food required to keep an animal in normal condition without increasing or decreasing in weight and without giving any pro- duct or labor. When work milk wool eggs are demanded the amount of food fed must be increased to produce these addi- tional substances 31 A balanced ration is one which has the proper proportions of protein carbohydrate and fat to keep the animal and to sup- ply the product desired The following table shows the amounts of protein carbohy- drate and fat required by various animals when doing certain kinds of work Table 2 For 1000 pounds weight Dry matter Protein Carbo hydrates &fat Nutritive ratio Horses moderately worked 24 Cows giving 11 lbs milk daily... 25 Cows giving 22 lbs milk daily... 29 Cows giving 27£ lbs milk daily. 32 Fattening cattle 30 Fattening swine 32 Poultry for eggs 55 Table 3 The following table gives ration for d 2.0 12.4 1:6.2 1.6 10.7 1:6.7 2.5 14.1 1:5.6 3.3 14.8 1:4.6 3.0 16.1 1:5.4 4.0 25.1 1:6.3 8.2 39.4 1:4.8 airy cows Dry matter Protein Carbohydrates .36 5.16 .68 3.47 .37 1.35 1.29 3.40 Nutritive ratio 2.69 13.38 1:4.9 Corn silage 40 lbs 8.36 Clover hay 10 lbs 8.47 Wheat bran 3 lbs 2.64 Gluten 5 lbs 4.59 24.06 Solution From table I it will be seen that ioo pounds of silage con- tains 20.9 pounds of dry matter. In table 3 40 pounds of silage in the ration contains .40 or 20.9 pounds or 8.36 pounds Continue the operations for all the ingredients of the ration as .40 of .9 equals .36 pounds of protein in 40 pounds of silage Divide the total carbohydrate by the total protein to find the nutritive ratio Below are other dairy rations. Work out these and from those products which are fed on the home farm devise a bal- anced ration for the live stock. Using table 1 as a standard Sample dairy rations corn silage clover hay cottonseed meal ground corn 40 lbs 15 1 3 corn stover wheat bran gluten meal corn meal linseed meal 15 lbs 4 4 1 2 corn silage wheat bran gluten meal corn meal linseed meal 45 lbs 4 3 2 1 mixed hay wheat bran cottonseed meal hominy meal 20 lbs 2 2 2 32 Fact A balanced ratio produces the most milk at the least cost Words to be defined element protein ratio gluten meal Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Feeding of dairy cattle 2 Aim To learn how to feed dairy cattle 3 Home questions a How many pastures in the locality are plowed and re- seeded every few years ? b Name the farmers of the locality who have silos. De- scribe the kinds of construction c Ask a farmer how he knows the proper amount of grain to be given each cow d How does a cow move its head when biting off grass? e Note whether the cow eats facing or with the wind 4 Work for home or school activity a Describe the various methods used for watering stocks 5 For reading and study "Feeding of Dairy 'Cattle" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First and Second February Lessons To Teach the Feeding of Dairy Cattle To obtain the greatest returns from the dairy herd the animals must be fed properly. The cow is a machine for con- verting feed into milk butter and meat. Nature teaches us how the cow should be fed. The cow does her best work in May and June when she is receiving nature's ration-fresh grass. There- fore when pastures begin to dry and the grass turns yellow their lean pastures should be supplemented with some growing crop cut while green and succulent. Such crops are corn oats and peas green alfalfa millet. It is difficult and often requires much labor to sow care for cut haul and feed these additional crops during the summer. To do away with these extra labors the farmers store sufficient silage in the fall to last through the following winter and summer. To feed a cow during this length of time requires four to five tons of silage per cow. It is im- portant that the flow of milk be kept up for it is difficult to bring a cow back to her milk when once she has dropped The amount of grain fed should be regulated somewhat by the amount of milk produced. The rule of feeding i pound of grain for each three or four pounds of milk received is con- sidered safe. Better rule is i pound of grain fed each day for every pound of butter fat produced during the week. Each cow however must be studied and given individual attention in order to have her produce the largest quantity of milk Every farmer should grow as many leguminous feeds as possible. Legumes are those which produce the proteins. Some of these crops are clover alfalfa cow peas Canada field peas and soja beans. They will take the place of the high priced 33 protein containing concentrates which are purchased at the feed store. Alfalfa and silage are almost a balanced ration in them- selves. Corn and cow peas or soja beans grown separately and cut together into the silo is another well balanced combination which can be grown at home. Cows should have plenty of salt at all times The lump form made up in cakes to hang beside the stanchion affords the cow an opportunity to have it every day Eighty-seven pounds in every one hundred pounds of milk is made up of water. The cow must have in summer and win- ter a bountiful supply of cool clean fresh water Fact New England farmers save money by growing legumes and en- silage for their cattle Words to be defined convert succulent silage leguminous balanced ration Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic The care and management of the herd 2 Aim To learn how to care for the cow 3 Home questions a How many barns in the community have concrete manure pits ?' b Look up in farm papers the barn equipment which help get the chores more easily done c 'Bring in the names of various milking machines adver- tised. How is each operated? d Name farmers within two miles of the school who have any of the following silos hay forks manure spreaders concrete floors in the cow barns litter carriers e What farmer has had his herds tested for tuberculosis? 4 Work for home or school activity a Drawing lesson 1 Draw a barn to scale showing ground plan out- side dimensions including silo 2 Showing arrangement of stalls feed room car- riage room hay bays and the like 5 For reading and study "The care and management of the herd" Readings in Agrir culture Farm Stock Third and Fourth February Lessons Care and Management of the Herd The dairy cow is one of the most peculiar animals with which man has ever dealt. Nature intended that she should give milk only to supply her young with food. Man however con- ceived the idea of using this product as a food for himself. He has studied breeds feeding the best methods for care and hous- ing until as a result a Holstein cow has made the astonishing record of producing over 16 tons of milk in one year. Such a per- formance taxes a cow's strength and weakens her resistance to disease unless she receives the best of care and management 34 In winter the barn must be warm but not close and humid. The cow must have ventilation but there must be no drafts. Her yield of milk will surely decrease if she shivers for any length of time because a cold wind is blowing around her. Foul air from the animals and manure lies near the floor and should be removed. A shaft or flue two feet square open at one end 12 to 15 inches from the floor and the other end projecting through the roof will provide ventilation for 20 cows. Fresh* air is admitted by covering some of the window spaces with muslin or a fresh air inlet is built in the walls beginning near the ground on the outside and carried up to the ceiling on the inside where the air drops to the floor. This system of ventila- tion is called the King system. Some farms have only muslin tacked over the window spaces. This is preferable to having no fresh air Cows must be kept clean. Use plenty of straw if obtain- able otherwise spread at night swale or coarse hay sawdust or shavings. Bedding adds greatly to the comfort of the cow when she lies down and prevents lumps on her knees. Bedding also absorbs the liquid which is the most valuable part of the manure. If possible clip the hair from the thighs and flanks of the cows. They may more easily be washed and dirt removed when the hair is short. The cow's udder must be cleaned before milking Simple brushing with the hand is useless. Wipe it clean with a damp cloth. As for the rest of her body she enjoys and profits by a good daily currying and brushing. While milking in fly time throw an opened fertilizer bag over her withers. Much of the dirt and filth found in milk causing tuberculosis comes from the filth dropped into the milk from the dirty sides and body of the cow All animals should have regular exercise. This means that during the winter months dairy cattle must be let out into a clean yard each day excepting when it is raw and blustering Regularity is one of the most important things leading to successful dairying. Work by the clock. Milk feed water and clean the barn just as promptly as the hours arrive. The sense of regularity of action is felt by the cow and she gives more milk because she is contented. The following order of work is followed in many dairy barns. Milk first then grain feeding the ensilage or roots followed by stable cleaning while watering following this comes hay feeding and grooming In winter the water given a cow should have the chill re- moved warmed is better. It is wasteful of costly grain to per- mit her to heat it in her body The stable and gutters should be cleaned at least twice daily. The manure should be hauled and spread directly on the fields both summer and winter as soon as it is made or when there is a load 35 A cow that does not produce 6500 pounds of milk if grain fed is not making a respectable profit for the owner. Weigh the milk each day. Test its butter fat content by means of the- Babcock test and if the animal is not making a profit over her board sell her. Buy or raise calves from high producing an- cestors. Buy a little pure bred stock and watch the herd im- prove No cattle disease has been more discussed than tuberculosis. It is spread by germs from the mouth and from the manure. The United States Government is assisting to stamp it out in this country. From July 1 1918 to May 1 1919 252,114 cattle were tested by veternarians and those found not having the dis- ease were placed upon the "accredited" list. These cattle sell for a higher price than those not tested Now that lumber has become so expensive more economical methods for building barns are being sought. Instead of the square frame timber such as were formerly used modern barns are erected with plank to support the roof and hay loft. Not only is there less timber used but there is more available space in the hay mow when this plan is adopted Fact Loud talking swearing and rough handling are not permitted in well managed dairies Words to be defined management humid drafts absorb Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Types of hogs 2 Aim To learn the history and types of hogs 3 Home questions a Learn how hams and bacon are smoked in the neighbor- hood b Report on the size and construction of local barns 4 Work for home or school activity a Secure pictures and descriptions of the many different kinds of knots in use about the farm. Let pupils demon- strate tying them before the class b Secure a picture of the cuts of pork. Have it copied on the blackboard c Have a collection of types and breeds of hogs pasted onto cardboard thus making a picture chart 5 For reading and study "Types of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First March Lesson Types of Hogs All of our important breeds of hogs have come from the wild hog that still roam over Europe Asia and Africa. In the wild state this animal is active and powerful. It is as speedy as a deer coarse and rough in flesh and a vicious fighter. His head is large and bony strong and provided with two tusks that inflict severe wounds and make a no mean foe for lion 36 or tiger. This animal in his wild home selects places that are moist and rather well concealed by the forest growth where he may feed upon plants roots and fruits. When hungry however it is not adverse to eating worms snakes and flesh of any kind. Today the wild hog is a favorite animal hunted by the sportsmen of Europe. The sense of smell is well developed in a hog and it is able to detect the presence of food even under the ground. In France this faculty is made of commercial use by using them to search the forests for truffles a kind of an edible fungus. For meat hog flesh has long been considered a delicacy. The Romans served little pigs whole stuffed with dates as well as nightingales and larks covered with rich gravies In previous lessons it has been pointed out that special types of horses cows and sheep are raised for particular purposes. The pig is no exception. The best bacon requires one type of hog and a good growth of lard and fat tissues requires another type The bacon swine are long and narrow. They have light loins and shoulders and produce a high proportion of lean meat. Comparatively few bacon hogs are raised in the United States for the reason that corn is not a profitable feed for them also the foreign trade in them has never been developed to the extent as has been the exportation of the lard type. The United States exports more hog products than the value of all exported cattle hogs and sheep combined. In the northern parts of the country where corn is still a doubtful crop to raise it is becoming more and more common to raise the bacon type of hog Canada is noted for its excellent bacon. The bacon hog should weigh around 200 pounds. The body is long smooth and flat sided. The hams are long and tapering the legs fairly long and strong. The shoulders neck and jowls are rather light. The back not too broad and slightly arched and the flesh smooth firm and without wrinkles in the skin. The whole effect should be a firm meaty carcass with the side as the most important and most developed part As most farmers know the ideal lard hog is practically a healthy evenly developed, "mountain of meat and fat." Round- ness compactness breadth depth fullness of form fineness but cleanness of bone even distribution of tender flesh mellow smoothness of skin and soft hair are its distinguishing char- acteristics. The hams back and shoulders are the parts in which greatest development is desired but the jowl neck loin rump and all other regions should show thorough development smooth- ness and a high degree of fatness Chester white hogs of this type have weighed over 1000 pounds Fact The market is demanding pigs raised to 200 pounds in six months Words to be defined vicious tusks inflict fungus edible bacon 37 Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Breeds of hogs 2 Aim To learn the breeds of hogs 3 Home questions a Name the farmers of the community who own registered hogs and what are the breeds?' b What prices were paid for pigs last spring?' c Assign some pupils to take charge of pig project looking up where pigs may be purchased prices time for delivery 4 Work for home or school activity a Have pupils look for stories about wild hogs of the Old World and Razorback hogs of our South 5 IFor reading and study "Breeds of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Second and Third March Lessons Breeds of Hogs The Berkshire is of English origin and is a lard hog of great popularity in the south. It is at once recognized by its "six white points" one on the face another on the tail and one on each foot. The rest of the body is black. The face is short and dished with small erect ears slightly inclined forward the neck is short and back arched and broad. In England this is a bacon hog. In the south a feed high in protein with little oil tends to give this animal the bacon form. But in the middle west in the land of corn clover and alfalfa the lard and pork characteristics have been intensified and developed. Hogs of this breed readily attain the weight of 500 to 600 pounds at maturity and if fattened at 8 or 9 months will reach 225 pounds and up. They are excellent grazers reach maturity at an early age and fit a great many varying farm conditions The Poland-China originated in the Miami valley of the Ohio and is considered the most popular American lard hog. Its fame and prestige are due to its great lard and pork pro- duction. It thrives best in the corn belt where clover alfalfa and corn are abundant. In color the Poland-China is spotted black and white in size and form it is similar to the Berkshire except that the frame averages a little larger and stronger the ears lop over the eyes while on the Berkshire they are short pointed and straight. These hogs are early maturing compact blocky and noted for easily making meat and lard. They are ready for the market under usual farm conditions in 8 or 9 months and at maturity weigh 500 to 600 pounds and over The Duroc-Jersey hog resembles the Poland^China but is red in color. The standard is cherry red without spots. Their origin is not well known but it has been developed solely in America. They are very prolific grow rapidly and make pork and lard cheaply. The breed is becoming exceedingly popular in the corn belt due to its good grazing qualities and because it 38 produces a large rich flavored carcass with a fair proportion of lean meat. They also will reach 250 to 275 pounds in weight at 8 or 9 months and 500 to 700 pounds at maturity Chester county Pennsylvania produced the breed of Ches- ter whites. They grow to be the largest of all breeds but since the public have been demanding smaller and sweeter meat large sized hogs are not the fashion. At maturity they average 600 to 700 pounds. This breed possesses great grazing qualities the hogs are quiet and fatten rapidly. They have not been popular in the south because the sun scalds their pure white thin skin Farm papers often carry advertisement of O I C hogs. This stands for Ohio Improved Chester White. Chester White breeders believed they could improve some of the points of the older hog and still keep its large size solid frame and fine length. The Improved Chester White is the result. These hogs are a little smaller in bone the face is more dished and the snout shorter The large Yorkshire is a typical breed of the bacon class. It is noted for great length being longer than any other breed. They weigh about the same as the Chester White but their backs are not as broad. Their sides are deep and smooth ideal for bacon. They have strong legs can forage far and are hardy. They graze well and their carcass cuts bacon of the richest and best quality. The Smaller Yorkshire as the name indicates be- longs to the same breed but it is smaller in size. These hogs are finer in quality and present greater symmetry and compactness than the larger The mulefoot hog is a very old breed 'developed from the Berkshire and Razorback wild hog. Unlike other hogs which have a cloven hoof this has a solid foot like the mule. The hogs are black in color of very large size and have large litters. The meat is considered very good because of its excellent qual- ity. The hogs are said to be immune from hog cholera but convincing proof is still lacking on this point The Hampshire breed is characterized by a white band of hair 4 to 12 inches in width encircling the body and including the front legs. The breed is still in process of development and the tendency seems to be towards the lard hog rather than the bacon type in which class it is now included The Tarn worth is of extreme bacon type and of English origin. In color the hogs are red in light and dark shades. They are easily raised for bacon and do not fatten rapidly. They however grow quite large weighing up to 600 pounds. The head is very long and straight. The ears are large and coarse the body narrow and the legs long. The carcass shows a large proportion of lean meat Some of the less important breeds of hogs are the Cheshire a white pig developed in New York State the Essex a small English breed the American Suffolk a little known breed which stands confinement well and the Victoria 39 Fact Hogs are among the most important animals raised on the farm for meat or profit and no farm is complete unless some are kept Words to be defined grazer prestige thrive average Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Housing of hogs 2 Aim To learn how to house hogs 3 Home questions a Learn which farmers of the community best care for their hog houses and pens b Ask children to find out why farmers keep pigs in dirty pens rather than allowing them to run on pasture 4 Work for home or school activity a Have pupils bring to school a small movable hog house which has been made from pieces of a wooden box. Use leather for hinges b What farmers of the community have permanent winter hog houses and movable hog cots? 5 For reading and study "Housing of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Fourth March Lesson Housing of Hogs "The hog does not need a palace or an upholstered cage nor does it prosper in a dungeon." Some farmers go to the extreme of erecting expensive hog houses with conveniences that add little to the comfort of the animals. But on the other hand many seem to think that any filthy hole under a pile of boards will suffice for the hog Hogs are more sensitive to cold than horses or cattle which have thick coats to protect them. Hogs lie down more than other animals and need a better bed. They live close to the ground and easily breath in dust and impurities. They need sunshine and pure air more than most farm animals yet they are often provided with the dirtiest of places for a shelter. Swine need quarters which are well-lighted well-aired dry and clean. Hogs take cold very easily. Little pigs especially need to be kept warm dry and away from drafts if not they are likely to have their growth checked or even lose their lives by catching cold. Neglect of these simple rules indicates shiftless farming and cause great losses Every farmer who makes a business of raising pigs will find a well built hog house a paying investment. The most economical and convenient hog-house has a row of pens along each side of a central alley which in larger houses should be wide enough to drive through. The pens should be from 5 to 8 feet wide and from 8 to 12 feet long. The partitions should be movable. The floors made of concrete will prevent the entrance of rats which are destructive to young pigs. It is not uncommon to find hog houses that cost several thousands of 40 dollars built with almost no windows for admitting sunshine light and air. Through windows in the roof sunlight should reach the farthest corners of the building Many pig raisers are providing two types of hog houses the permanent long house for little pigs in winter and small individual cots for the sow and her litter as soon as the litter are old enough to be put out of doors. These individual cots are frnada 6 by 10 feet or 8 by 8 feet in the shape of a letter A. These houses are built on skids so that they may be moved from pasture to pasture. They have doors at each end and the roof or sides are fitted with hinges so that when roof is laid back the entire interior is exposed to the sunlight. The portable hog house is easily and economically constructed it can easily be moved and put wherever desired and of all the systems of housing swine it is the most natural and sanitary. Only the simplest workmanship is needed to build the house and much old lumber may be worked into it Pact Hogs need as clean wholesome well-lighted quarters as other animals Words to be defined dungeon suffice shelter shiftless economical Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Feeding hogs 2 Aim To learn how to feed hogs 3 Home questions a Name the farmers who allow pigs to run on pasture b If any farmers grow rape or clover for hogs learn about it c Find the profit desired from 1 Raising a hog in pens 2 On pasture d Is city garbage fed to pig near the school? e Learn how and what the farmers of the neighborhood feed their pigs 4 Work for home or school activity a Why do hogs root in the ground?' Answer For roots and worms b Ask the grain man to give a sample of the dry mush prepared for hogs. Have the names of the ingredients as found on the bag brought to school 5 For reading and study "Feeding of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 41 Individual or colony hog house First and Second April Lessons Feeding Hogs When compared with other farm stock which produces meat the hog consumes less food for its weight than any other animal. To produce ioo pounds of increase in weight the steer will con- sume I ioo pounds of dry food the sheep 910 but the hog needs only 420. A great many people who raise hogs make the mis- take of keeping their pigs too long in order to fatten them A pig weighing under 100 pounds will require less than 300 pounds of food to make the next 100 pounds of increase while a pig weighing 300 pounds will use 500 pounds of feed to pro- duce the next 100 pounds of increase. There is therefore a decided economy in raising hog to weigh 175 to 250 pounds only The food for pigs is milk for the first two or three weeks. When they are this age they will begin to nibble on shelled corn. By the time they are from 3 to 4 weeks old they may also be fed a small amount of skim-milk three parts in which has been mixed a little ground feed such as middlings one part. If skim- milk is not available a mixture of five parts corn meal four parts middlings and one part tankage fed as a slop is good. This should be placed in a creep that is a little pen into which the 42 little pigs will go but the mother may not. The amount of mixed feed and shelled corn may be increased until they are ten weeks old when they should be weaned. It is very desirable that little pigs at this time be allowed to run upon a clover or rape pasture if possible. At all events let them run where they may get green foodi. On pasture more corn may be fed while if con- fined -more soft feeds will have to be supplied. Up to the age of 6 to 7 months old is not the time to fatten pigs but they should be fed rations which will build up their bodies rather than lay- ing on fat. They need exercise to promote their growth. They cannot get this when cooped up in a little pen into which the sun beats unmercifully. Sow some clover alfalfa peas rape corn and other succulent food and let the pigs "hog it down." These are the cheapest and best food between weaning and fattening. To this green food add corn and other grain to make a balanced, ration. The poorest and most expensive manner to grow pigs is to shut them up in a pen and dirty yard and feed them a ration of corn alone as is frequently done. Two lots of hogs were fed 180 days. At the end of that time the average weight of the pigs fed on corn alone was 75 pounds. Those fed on corn and alfalfa pasture hay weighed 185 pounds. The farm not providing good pasturage for hogs is not ready for the busi- ness of making money out of pork. The following are some ra- tions for growing pigs which have good pasturage 1 Corn meal 60% middlings 30% tankage 10% 2 Corn meal 60% middlings 20% linseed meal 20% Quicker and cheaper gains may be made by putting dry feeds such as middlings corn meal tankage bran into self feed- ers or boxes and letting the pigs on pasture or when fed green foods eat these dry foods at any time. Under this dry mash system keep fresh water before the pigs at all times. If skimmed milk is available keep this before the hogs also The old-fashioned way of feeding hogs was to make a slop of all the sour skim milk dish water potato peelings apple par- ings and other decaying refuse about the farm mixed with a little middlings called swill. If swill must be fed have two barrels at least. Use one barrel while the other is being scalded and stood in the sun to kill the germs. At the same time scald out the hogs' trough. Even a pig has as keen a sense of smell as most dogs Pigs should be ready for fattening when they are about six and one half months old. When fattening begins a much larger proportion of corn should be fed. At this time corn alone with green food and a little milk will be a good ration. When the fields are properly fenced off the best way to finish hogs is to allow them to do their own harvesting. Turn the hogs into the ripening corn. They will eat the stalks and grain giving them about the right amount of exercise and saving the farmer the labor of husking hauling and feeding. The same amount of corn will also produce more pork 43 There should be before hogs at all times a mixture of salt ashes and charcoal Keep the troughs quarters and food clean. There is no reason why hogs should be more subject to disease than other farm animals. Filth is responsible for four-fifths of the "hog cholera" Fact -Hogs do not relish sour putrid swill nor does it make as clean pork as will good pasturage and grain Words to be defined consume mixture rations trough rape corn husking putrid Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Care and diseases of hogs 2 Aim To learn how to care for hogs 3 Home questions a Ask some farmer whether hog cholera has ever developed in the locality. What was done to cure it? What is meant by quarantine? b How do farmers of the community rid their sheep and hogs of worms? 1 Look up advertisements for prepara- tions intended for this purpose 4 Work for home or school activity a What produces rheumatism in hogs? Answer Wet pens b Why do some hogs lose the use of their hind legs? Answer 1 Lack of bone making material 2 Lack of exercise 3 Overfeeding c What is mange?' Answer A skin disease. How is it cured ? d How can hogs be prevented from rooting? Answer 1 By putting a ring in the nose 2 By cutting a nerve in the nose e Why do farmers keep hogs on the manure pile? 1 Answer The working over and trampling of the manure prevents heating and spoiling. It is not healthy for the hogs 5 For reading and study 'ICare and Diseases of Hogs" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth April Lessons Care and Diseases of Hogs Swine of all ages should be kept free from lice and other insects. Some swine growers in order to free hogs from these insects construct dipping vats io to 12 feet square and about 10 inches deep. They may be built of concrete or timber. These vats should be partially filled with water and a quart of one of the coal tar hog dips added. The hogs will get into this for the purpose of keeping cool during the hot summer days and at the same time spread over their bodies the oily substance _ which tends to destroy lice. No harm will come to the hogs if they drink some of the liquid. If a vat cannot be built this dip materal should be sprayed over or rubbed on the back and be- hind the ears of the hog 44 Some successful hog men heartily favor hog wallows but when these mud holes are allowed to become filthy a vat as described above is preferable since it may be cleaned frequently. Pigs must have some means for keeping cool and ridding them- selves of flies. Mud and water which is kept from becoming filthy will help keep hogs in good condition Hogs do not seem to have quite so many ailments as do horses cattle and sheep but there are two or three prevalent diseases which are a scourge to the breed. The most dreaded of these are hog cholera swine plague and tuberculosis. In the corn belt of the United States the loss caused by these diseases is not equalled by any other class of disease affecting farm animals. They are all contagious or infectious germ diseases and therefore with proper sanitary measures they may be pre- vented. If the animals once become afflicted there is no cure. Sometimes swine breeders or feeders will have a drove ready for market when hog cholera will attack the herd and in a few weeks the entire drove will be dead The effects of hog cholera are so marked in its symptoms that it is not difficult to distinguish it from most other hog dis- eases. In hog cholera the lymphatic glands lungs intestines kidneys and liver are highly inflamed. The appetite is lost the gait becomes staggering and the eyes inflamed. Not unfre- quently bleeding at the nose and vomiting occur. As the dis- ease reaches its height red or purplish blotches are likely to appear upon the skin of the ears of the belly and on the inner surface of the legs. The first one of the herd to be taken with this disease will usually die within a few days. Those that take the disease later may live several weeks or even recover. Those that do recover will never again be attacked by the disease. It is this fact which led scientists to discover means for inoculat- ing hogs with the germs which give the animals a mild case of the disease. A serum taken from hogs which have survived the disease is injected into the hog. This second injection contains substance which combat the disease and build up a protective system against the disease in the body of the hog making them immune for life. If little pigs are purchased for pig projects ask that the pigs be given the "simultaneous inoculation" treat- ment before they are purchased Tubercular cattle are the principal sources of tuberculosis in hogs the disease being transmitted by feeding hogs upon the unpasturized (meaning uncooked) milk by allowing hogs to work in the manure from tubercular cows or by feeding un- cooked city garbage. Tuberculosis in its early stages cannot be easily detected and only when the animals are killed can one be sure the hogs are infected. It is best to dispose of the entire herd troubled with the disease to some slaughter house where the Federal inspector may dispose of the carcasses in the best manner 45 Thumps is a disease which 'affects the breathing of little pigs. It is usually a digestve trouble caused by over feeding and the lack of exercise. The best preventative for thumps is to give plenty of opportunity for exercising on a pasture well stocked with green food Scours or too great laxness in the digestive tract are caused in young pigs by over feeding sour food dirty troughs or some other unsanitary condition connected with their eating Worms are a great source of trouble in raising pigs. While feeding on dirty floors pigs pick up certain kinds of worms which continue to live in the digestive tracts of the animal. Pigs do not thrive when troubled with worms. The coat is rough growth is hindered and a large proportion of the feed is wasted. A simple remedy is to give one teaspoon of turpentine to every 60 to 80 pounds of hog. Repeat the dose in three days. Starve the animal for 12 hours before giving the dose Fact Most hog diseases may be prevented by cleanliness Words to be defined vat lice herd laxness Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Milk 2 Aim To learn the value and quality of milk 3 Home questions a Do any farmers of the locality use milking machines? Take the class or send some pupil to visit a farm using one. Have an account of the visit read to the class b What prices are the farmers receiving for milk? 4 Work for home or school activity a Where are the nearest milk stations or creameries? Have an account read of a visit to those places b Why are all milk cans scalded with steam at creamery? Answer To kill bacteria 5 For reading and study "Milk" Readings in Agrictulture Farm Stock First May Lesson Milk Milk is one of the commonest articles of diet. In dairy regions each person consumes on an average of one pint of milk per day. It contains all the food elements necessary for growth. Milk not only ranks high in nutritive value but unlike vegetables it is almost completely digested. Milk is also a very cheap food. Four pounds of milk (about 2 qts) will build the same amount of tissue as 1 pound of sirloin steak and 5 pounds of skim milk contains as much nourishment as a pound of the best beef 46 One quart of milk equals 1.7 lbs bananas Approximate equivalents 2.9 lbs oranges 8 eggs 2.4 lbs apples 3% lbs cabbage 24 lb beefsteak 2 lbs chicken One pound of cheese equals 4.4 lbs chicken 2 lb beefsteak 20 eggs 5.6 lbs apples 4 lbs bananas A safe milk supply demands 1 the cow must be healthy 2 milk must be handled by healthy people 3 the cows must be kept clean 4 utensils must be properly cleaned 5 the milk should be thoroughly cooled. The only disease to be feared in cows is tuberculosis which may be determined by having a veterinarian give the tuberculin test. There is however a danger in having people handle milk who have or have had tuberculosis typhoid fever scarlet fever and diphtheria. These germ diseases will often be carried in the milk from people infected with these diseases Most of the dirt which gets into the milk comes from the cow's body during milking. It is rare that the milk of the cow itself is impure or diseased. Germs are found in milk usually because they have dropped into it from the air of dirty barns or been carried into it by the filth and dirt falling from the sides of the cow into the pail The open top milk pail should never be used. Milk will contain far less dirt and disease if milked into a pail having a cover built up 6 inches and rounded over the top. The milk is then let into the pail through a hold in the side of the rounded cover. The cow should never be milked by people having dirty hands nor should these hands ever come in contact with the milk One of the greatest labor saving devices and preventative of disease is the milking machine. It is practically impossible for dust and dirt to enter the machine and the whole question of sanitation depends upon whether the pipes and pails are thoroughly cleaned after each milking After the cows have been milked the milk should be cooled to a temperature of 50 degrees by running it over a cooler inside of which is ice-water Milk is an opaque yellowish-white fluid which is made from the blood of cows in its udder by some unknown process. Every 100 pounds of average milk contains 87^ pounds of water 3.2 pounds of protein 3.9 pounds of fat 5.1 pounds of carbohydrate .7 pounds of salts. Protein is present in the milk in the form 47 of casein and albumin. Casein is the curd formed in milk when it sours. The greater part of cheese is curd and contains the protein. The carbohydrate occurs as milk sugar. Together with the casein it gives skimmed milk and butter milk their value as foods. Milk sugar is separated from the milk by- evaporating the whey. The salts supply the minerals needed in the bone For commercial purposes several grades of milk are now recognized. Among these are i certified milk or milk produced under all conditions necessary to avoid infection. Among the require- ments for certified milk are tuberculin tested cows proper ventilation thorough washing and cleaning of the stables and cows and the sanitary handling and* bottling of the milk 2 Inspected or cleaned raw milk from healthy cows as determined by the tuberculin test and physical exam- ination the milk being kept at a low temperature and restricted as to the number of bacteria it may contain 3 Pasteurized milk from dairies not able to comply with the requirements of certified and inspected milk the cow must show no sign of tuberculosis or other dis- ease. Pasteurizing consists in warming milk to 145 degrees for 40 or 50 minutes by which process nearly all of the bacteria whch caused disease and quick sour- ing of milk are destroyed 4 Cooking milk or milk not produced under close regula- tion and not pasteurized and of such poor quality that it cannot be sold excepting for cooking purposes Fact Freshly drawn milk is pure. The dairy man is responsible for allowing bacteria to enter it Words to be defined nourishment utensils veterinary bacteria pasteurize Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic The Babcock Tester and its use 2 Aim To learn about the Babcock Tester 3 Home questions Secure a Babcock milk tester if possible from some farmer or creamery. Every school in a dairy section should own an outfit. Many farmers would be glad to pay for having milk tested. A four bottle outfit may be purchased for less than $5 4 Work for home or school activity How much butter fat is produced by a cow which gives 10,000 pounds of average milk in a year? Answer 3.9% x 10,000 pounds = Fat— 390 pounds 1 pound of butter fat will produce 1.2 pounds of butter How many pounds of butter will the cow produce in a year? Answer 459 pounds of butter 5 For reading and study "The Babcock Tester and its Use" Readings in Agricul- ture Farm Stock 48 Second May Lesson The Babcock. Tester and Its Use Some instances of high producing cows have been given in previous lessons. Every farmer should know which cows of his herd are producing a profit and which are merely being kept as boarders. The farmer should know actually how many pounds of milk his cows give each year. It will not do to guess at it. The only manner in which this may be determined is by weigh- ing the milk each day. Every farmer should have a set of dairy scales suspended behind the cows and a record sheet fastened to the wall. After every milking the number of pounds given by each cow should be recorded and the totals found for each month. The little time needed for this is more than repaid in the knowledge that the actual production and profitableness of every cow is accurately known. A fairly certain knowledge of the cow's yield may be secured however if milk is weighed only once a week night and morning. It cannot be too strongly urged that this amount of record work be done in every dairy barn. To note the amount of milk produced is but half of what every farmer should know concerning his cows. At nearly all cream- eries and milk stations farmer's checks depend not only upon the quantity but upon the richness in butter fat of the milk which he brings. A farmer cannot tell accurately the richness of his cow's milk unless he uses the Babcock test. He is much more likely to be wrong in this guess than when he guesses about quantity of milk. The amount of cream on the milk is not a safe-guide because some cream contains twice the butter fat that is found in other creams seemingly as rich. Cows of the same breed differ widely in the amount of fat in their milk. It is necessary to test each cow's milk or have it tested at the creamery or school to know what kind of milk she gives If a cow in a herd gives 6,000 pounds of milk per year it is considered a good cow. Her milk however may test 3% of butter fat. Another cow giving only 4,000 pounds may test 5%. The second is decidedly the more profitable inasmuch as a bonus is usually given at all creameries for each additional 10th of 1% of butter fat above the standard. A farmer who uses the scales for quantity and the Babcock test for quality can tell which of his cows pay for her keep and turns a profit. Many a farmer by adopting these devices has learned that he has paid for the privilege of milking 700 times a year because his cows have actually eaten more than the money he has received in milk pro- duced. Every school especially every country school should have a Babcock milk tester. On account of its simplicity and accuracy this tester has become the standard for determining the value of milk and cream. Some inexpensive machines may be bought from supply and mail order houses and will be found invaluable in determining the worth of cows to the farmer Directions for using the tester come with every machine and 49 Milk scales Babcook tester for a small herd or 4-Bottle Hand Tester should be carefully studied and closely followed. The directions for using the machine need not be given here but the teacher and pupils will find no difficulty in using it if the directions sent with the tester are carefully followed There is a device on the market which is used to show the amount of dirt or sediment in a sample of milk. The apparatus consists of a metal cylinder about 2 inches in diameter and 6 inches long in the bottom of which is a piece of copper pierced with many small holes the top is fitted with a cover and a rubber bulb which when squeezed forces a sample of milk in the cylinder through a filter or disk of cotton placed over the metal plate at the bottom. The cotton filter is so fine and dense that all the sediment in the sample is collected on its surface. It then can be removed and the cleanliness of the milk judged by the amount and character of the dirt Milk powder is becoming a valuable product where it is im- possible to ship milk long distances in its liquid form. The water is evaporated in various ways from liquid milk and the result is milk powder. It is liked much in baking and is used often directly with flour. There is much demand for dried milk by confectionery establishments by bakers and in the army 50 Two kinds of condensed milk are prepared— sweetened and unsweetened— the sweetened is preserved with cane sugar Both forms are sterilized with steam under pressure and evaporated until a suitable degree of thickness is secured. The unsweetened condensed milk is not concentrated to quite the same decree as the sweetened. Both forms if properly manufactured and canned will keep for years Fact The Babcock tester has developed the science of dairying more than any other invention Words to be defined profit creamery test bonus apparatus filter Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Dairy products 2 Aim To learn about dairy products . 3 Home questions Why are milk bottling machines likely to cause milk to sour quickly? Answer Unless thoroughly cleaned germs re- main in joints and pipes 4 Work for home or school activity a Have 6 samples of milk brought to school in sterilized small bottles each having a cork made from absorbent cotton Aim To show the effect of dirt in the keeping qualities of milk Bottle 1 Set aside at room temperature 2 Add a few hairs taken from cow's body 3 Add a piece of dusty cobweb '! 4 Add some hay dust 5 Expose for a few minutes in an open pail to dust after sweep- ing 6 Add two or three small pieces of hay Shake well. Set all aside for 4 or 5 days, and note time of curding and odor and appearance of each curd. Compare with untreated sample. Changes are due to bacteria carried on the added dirt b Have sample of cottage cheese made in school or at home Describe how it was made 5 For reading and study "Dairy Products" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth May Lessons Dairy Products Thousands of years ago even before the time of Abraham Isaac and Jacob cows goats and horses were kept for the skins their bodies gave for clothing milk and food. Milk in those early days was churned into butter or made into cheese. The Arabs ftrst discovered the art of butter making by carrying milk in goats skins on camel's backs. The milk rolled back and forth on the animal's back until the fat globules collected and butter resulted 51 There are three ways of separating butter fat commonly called cream from the milk. The shallow pan method where the cream is skimmed from the top of the milk by means of a spoon or ladle. The deep setting method where cans of milk are set in ice-water and the milk drawn off from under the cream after it has risen and the third method is the cream separator by far the most economical of the three. The milk and the cream are separate because in this machine the milk is whirled in a bowl at a high rate of speed. The heavier part of the milk which is the water is drawn towards the circumference of the bowl and the lighter part or the cream is drawn off near the center. The saving in butter from the milk of one cow is over 25 pounds per year when a separator is used instead of the shallow pan system Cream only is used in making butter. Commonly the cream is first ripened that is it is kept at a temperature of 60 and 75 degrees for about 12 hours for the proper bacteria to multiply. In factories where much butter is made the cream is ripened by a "starter" (lactic acid bacteria) which gives to all the cream an even ripeness. At the end of this time the cream is slightly sour smooth and glossy and it is ready for churning a process which combines the butter fat and parts of other mate- rials into granules or lumps the size of wheat grains. The butter is now removed from the churn washed in cold water worked salted and placed in tubs or made up into 1 pound pack- ages to sell The most common kind of American cheese is called Ched- der. This is made by curdling the casein of milk by the use of rennet a substance secured from the fourth stomach of a calf. The milk or cream is then heated in a vat until hardened. When the whey has been strained off the curd is cut salted pressed and cured. Cottage cheese is merely the curd of milk that has been curdled without the use of rennet. This kind of cheese is eaten fresh. Ninety-five per cent of the nutrients in cheese are digested when eaten. Limburger cheese is the result of adding certain kinds of bacteria to the cheese while it is ripening. Swiss cheese is flavored with herbs. In France the delicious Roque- fort is made the milk of both the sheep and cow being used. The cheese is made by mixing clotted milk with moistened bread. The mixture is placed into porcelain molds with holes in the sides. It is then dried and salted in a peculiar manner and placed to mature in caves in the mountains. The round red cheeses are made in Holland: and are called Edam cheese. Camembert is a French cheese sold in small flat round boxes. It is soft with a fine flavor of creamy interior. In all 150 kinds of cheeses are made in various parts of the world One of the valuable products of milk liked by nearly all people is ice cream. Ice cream is usually a mixture of frozen milk cream sugar and a flavoring material. To this mixture are often added eggs corn starch and gelatine. Ice cream is 52 highly nutritious and is an excellent food if clean materials are handled in a sanitary manner during the process of manufactur- ing Fact The dairy products from one cow are worth more than the meat produced from five beef cattle Words to be defined cream separator churn casein nutrient sanitary Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Calves 2 Aim To learn how to feed calves 3 Home questions a What is meant by veal calf? b On which do calves seem to thrive the best on milk on a home mixed calf food or a prepared calf meal?' c Why is a Jersey calf thought to be more difficult to raise than Holstein calves? 4 Work for home or school activity a Start the discussion about raising a calf for a home project b Make a rope halter for a calf 5 For reading and study "Calves" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First June Lesson Calves Raising a calf is an excellent project for boys and girls to undertake. Much care must be given the little creature but it is a pleasure to see it grow from day to day into a fine healthy stocky animal It is especially important that the calf get its first or colo- strum milk from its dam. This milk is very necessary for the health of the calf. The calf should be allowed to suck the dam a few times. Some recommend until the milk is fit for human consumption which is usually after the eighth or ninth milking. Others recommend the separating of the calf and mother after the second day, since the calf may more easily be taught to drink When feeding by hand there is much danger of giving the calf too much to eat causing serious digestive troubles such as scours or indigestion. A great deal of this stomach trouble is also often caused by not having the feeding bucket thoroughly sweet and clean.' It is best to feed the cow's mother for three weeks using from i to i/ 2 gallons per day fed at frequent in- tervals. Then change to skimmed milk taking about a month and substituting exactly y 2 pound of skim milk for whole milk morn- ing and night. Mixed with the skimmed milk for a time should be some grain which will replace the fat removed from the milk. Flaxseed seems to be one of the best for this purpose. Cook the flaxseed in water in the proportion of I to 6 by volume. At first add tea cup full of the mixture which should be jelly like 53 to nine or ten quarts of skimmed milk. Increase the quantity of meal until in four weeks I pound per day is being fed. The temperature of the milk should be 90 to 95 degrees. The calf must be taught to drink by putting a couple of fingers into its mouth gradually lowering its head into the pail of milk. There let it learn to drink by sucking some of the milk between the fingers. It will not be long before your patience will be rewarded and the calf will readily drink. At about two weeks old the"calf will begin to nibble on some bright clover hay if placed before it. It will also eat a little grain if some of it is placed on its tongue. At six weeks old the calf should be eating one pound daily of the following ration. Three parts corn meal 3 parts ground oats 3 parts wheat bran 1 part linseed meal. Feed this grain after the calf has finished drinking its milk. Never let the grain sour in the feed box. At five months old the calf should be taking not more than 20 pounds of skimmed milk per day If skimmed milk is scarce calves may be raised as follows. Let the calf stay with the dam until four or five days old when it should be bucket fed. At seven days of age 6 or 7 tablespoons full of the following home mixed calf meal may be put with the milk. (Equal parts by weight of hominy feed linseed meal red dog flour and dried blood.) Increase this material and mix with water in the proportion of one part meal to 7 parts water. As this mixture increases decrease the whole milk until at five weeks of age it is receiving about 18 to 20 ounces of meal per day in 4^ quarts of water. Teach the calf to eat ground oats and corn clover hay and corn silage or let it run on pasture No more grain should be fed than the calf will eat up clean at each feeding. Feed all the hay and water the calf will con- sume Fact Whole and skimmed milk contains a substance called vitamines without which young animals will die Words to be defined flaxseed vitamines interval Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Rabbits and hares 2 Aim To learn the value and breeds of rabbits and hares 3 Home questions a Who keeps rabbits in the town? b What damage will rabbits do to young trees in winter?' Answer Gnaw the bark c What use may be made of the skin of rabbits? d Find some recipes for cooking rabbit meat 4 Work for home or school activity a How may rabbits skins be tanned? b If pupils in the school keep rabbits have them tell where and how they secured their stock c Have interested pupils build rabbit hutches and bring them to school for exhibition 5 For reading and study "Rabbits and Hares" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 54 Second June Lesson Rabbits and Hares Since the price of meat has risen to a height where many people are unable to purchase the better cuts, a substitute which will afford cheap meat is sure to be accepted. The people of Europe eat large quantities of horse meat but Americans do not relish the idea of adopting this substitute. A far more promis- ing meat animal is the rabbit which both wild and domesticated has long been used extensively as food in Europe and. to a com • paratively small degree in this country. There are four animals which may be kept by thrifty people to convert farm and garden green food into meat the chicken the goat the pig and the rabbit. Any one of the first three are likely to become a nuis- ance in thickly settled communities unless great care is taken but scores of wholesome silent rabbits may easily be kept on a city lot without the slightest offence There are about 20 varieties of rabbits of which seven be- cause of size are classified as utility rabbits. These seven com- prise three types represented by the so called "Giants" Belgian hares and New Zealand Red rabbits The giants according to their color are named gray steel gray checkered and solid colored as black white or steel. All are long-bodied and massive weighing when adult from 11 to 12 pounds each. Giants are mature when about 15 months old. Those raised for meat purposes are sold before attaining full size as the flesh of young rabbits is preferred to that of old ones. They grow rapidly withstand cold weather and when a heavy type of rabbit is demanded they are highly recommended The Belgian hare is a slender muscular graceful animal weighing about 8 pounds. The color of the Belgian hare varies from a bright orange brown or tan to mahogany varied by a mingling of black hairs which gives the effect known as ticking. The "Rufus Red" Belgian conforms to the American standard as to color which is a dark cherry-red or mahogany uniform over head ears chest feet back and sides varied by scattered black hairs A third type of utility rabbits is the New Zealand red animal intermediate in size and form between the Flemish and the Belgian. The back and sides of this breed are clear reddish buff free from black hairs. ' At maturity which is attained in one year New Zealand breeds should weigh 9 pounds and does 10 pounds. The doe has a development similar to that of the Giants Fact The people of Europe eat great quantities of rabbit meat Words to be defined domesticated Belgian hare adult utility doe 55 Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic The care and feeding of rabbits 2 Aim To learn the care and feeding of rabbits 3 Home questions a How do rabbits get the dirt out of their burrows when digging them in the ground? b Describe some place at home which might be used for keeping rabbits 4 Work for home or school activity a Make a list of green foods which may be fed to chickens and rabbits b How are the people of Australia protecting their con- tinent from the ravages of wild rabbits? Answer Erect- ing a wire fence entirely across the continent c Start the discussion for a rabbit project. Appoint some interested pupil to look for stock 5 For reading and study "Care and Feeding of Rabbits" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth June Lessons Care and Feeding of Rabbits Rabbits may be managed successfully in two ways. Entirely in hutches or boxes or in outdoor fenced runs with hutches connected. Hutches for the Giants and Belgian should be somewhat larger than those intended for smaller breeds. They should be built of good lumber have tight floors and have at least 12 square feet of floor space and a height of 2 feet Each box or hutch is separate. A convenient indoor hutch" is one 6 feet by 2 by 2 feet with a movable partition dividing off a third of the space at one end for a nest and sleeping quar- ters, The partition has a smooth hole to let the rabbits go from the nest into the pen yard. The front of the hutch has two doors one of wire netting the other of wood. The wooden door opens into the sleeping chamber and should close tightly. The partition may slide between the doors If rabbits are kept on the ground and given a court to run in a chicken wire should be let into the ground io to n inches deep so that the rabbits may not dig out No animal is more adaptable to sudden changes of diet so that one can feed what is available or cheap the idea being to produce weight with the least possible outlay of money The best grain for rabbits is oats either whole or crushed though corn meal barley or other grain may often be fed by way of change. The crushed oats are best when freshly broken and a hand mill for preparing them is a valuable adjunct to a rabbitry Hay is a necessary part of the rabbit's diet and if possible that of the very best quality of clover hay should be used. It should be entirely free from moldiness and the unsweated is always preferable. If one has small grounds where suitable 56 grass grows the mowing may be done at short intervals and the hay thoroughly cured in such small quantities that no sweat- ing takes place. However if sweet hay is not available the sweated may be fed to the rabbits without injury unless it be moldy A convenient rabbit hutch Rabbits require some green foods for winter. Cabbages kale spinach and rape leaves are recommended. Turnips beets and mangels are often fed and have been recommended by many rabbit breeders but they do not keep so well as the foods just named unless stored in sand. Beets and mangels keep better and the latter are the main dependence of some English rab- bitries but on the whole cabbages are more economical as well as more satisfactory in every way. They are usually available until green stuff grows in the spring. Whatever green food is put away for winter use must be stored where frost can not touch it as freezing unfits it for rabbits. Parsnips left in the ground all winter make an excellent early spring rabbit food The general rule is to feed only as much grain or green stuff as the animal will consume. Hay is put into the hutch to be available at any time. The exact amount of grain or green stuff for each rabbit at a meal can not be stated as the appetite varies greatly at different times. Observations of the quantity left over when the animals quit feeding will soon enable the feeder to adjust the meals to the needs of the rabbits. Over- feeding is a much more common mistake than underfeeding In winter one of the meals each day should be chiefly of green food and the other mainly of grain. Roots cabbage celery and other green things should be washed clean of soil but should not be wet when given to the rabbit. If green food is given in the morning the evening meal should be whole oats or other grain for mature animals. Those under 3 months of age should be given crushed oats with a little bran as they can not so well masticate whole grain. Also a little hay should be given with each meal 57 In summer green food should be the chief reliance and only a small quantity of hay or grain is needed. Rabbits are fond" of all kinds of garden vegetables besides wild parsley dandelion plantain dock and other weeds as well as lawn clippings and' other grasses. Agreeable changes in diet are always possible in summer but overfeeding should be avoided and also the feeding of stuff that is wet with dew or rain. It is best to cut clover or other green food in the afternoon before the dew falls and to spread it under shelter so that it will not heat but be still fresh at feeding time Occasionally a warm mash of cooked potatoes or the leaves of clover hay mixed with "chops" or a little bran is desirable. Sometimes a little sulphur may be sprinkled with the mash al- though a little flour mixed with the ordinary grain has about as good effect in correcting looseness of the bowels. In cold weather some breeders feed a warm mash each evening Unless green food is abundant rabbits should be given water daily. In warm weather the water pans should be filled with fresh water twice a day. The dose suckling young or soon to have young should be given milk diluted with one-third warm water. A piece of rock salt kept in each hutch affords a steady supply as needed and makes it unnecessary to supply salt in the food Rabbits under 3 or 4 months old should be limited in the amount of green food. If allowed too much they are likely to become "potbellied." When a young rabbit is seen to grow big about its belly the use of green food should be discontinued and the animal given plenty of exercise. Under such treatment it will soon recover but if the green food is continued the dis- ease usually terminates in convulsions and death. Old rabbits are not subject to this trouble If properly cared for rabbits are remarkably free from diseases. The more common ailments result from insanitary surroundings lack of care in feeding and improper ventilation. The hutches should be cleaned frequently and fresh sawdust or other fine litter used to take up liquids so that the hutches do not become foul. Such ailments as mange scurf surfeit and disease of the eyes known as ophthalmia are due usually to foul hutches. Cold snuffles and the like result from improper venti- lation sudden drafts of cold air in over-heated buildings and similar causes. The disorders of the digestive organs come from feeding young rabbits too freely of wet and juicy green foods or from too radically changing their diet. Most diseases are preventable, and if the cause is understood remedies will sug- gest themselves. For pot-belly constipation and_ other ailments exercise is the best remedy. If constipation continues a diet of soft foods or a little castor oil usually gives relief. For diarrhea a little dry barley meal is good and sometimes powdered acorns in skim milk are an effective remedy 58 Incrustations known as ear canker and accumulations of ear wax may be cured by removing the incrustations with the aid of lukewarm water and then washing with a soft sponge and applying powdered boracic acid. The animal should be held by an assistant. The treatment must often be repeated daily The most serious disease known among hutch rabbits in America is coccidiosis. It is caused by internal parasites and when present in the rabbitry kills many young rabbits. Extreme caution is needed to prevent its introduction and new stock obtained should for a time be kept isolated from the regular hutches. Keeping the hutches in stacks aid in spreading the infection. Absolute cleanliness may do much to prevent the disease. Whenever a number of the young rabbits under good care develop a pot-bellied appearance there is reason to suspect that old and apparently healthy animals may be afflicted with chronic coccidiosis and are expelling cocida from their bodies. Isolation of the affected hutch and its occupants together with disinfection is the first step to be taken while the exact nature of the trouble is being determined Fact Rabbits may be grown in locations and on premises where other live stock would not be permitted Words to be defined partition diet adjunk mangels mash diluted surfeit chronic disinfection Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Bees 2 Aim To learn how to rear bees 3 Home questions a What are some of the uses of bees-wax? b Why does the spot swell where a bee has stung? Answer Acid poisoning 4 Work for home or school activity a If possible have a beekeeper visit the school and tell about his beekeeping experiences b Have some of the pupils visit an apiary and write a story of their visit 5 For reading and study "Bees" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First and Second July Lessons Bees Bees are one of the most helpful insects which man may use. Every person who owns an orchard should have one or two hives of bees. The fruit blossoms are pollonized in the spring by the bees and wind. Should the spring happen to be damp the bees will be the principle factors in securing a good" set of fruit. Black or wild bees are seldom kept since Italian bees have been developed 59 With the passing of the black bees from the apiary also went the box hives, since it is much more convenient to take honey from the new hives built with moveable sections. When plants are in flower they have a substance called nectar which when worked over by the bees is known as honey. This sub- stance is deposited in the combs of the hives and loses its sur- plus water by evaporation. Honey is the food which supplies food to bees over winter and upon which the young bees feed Young bees just hatched would surely die if not carefully looked after by nurse bees. These nurse bees prepare in their stomach what is called bee bread for the tiny bees and feed it to them for the first two or three days after which ^ ordinary honey is substituted for it. A most curious thing happens when the grubs or infant bees have grown a little. A small amount of food placed in the cell with it and the cell sealed up with wax. The grub sleeps for thirteen days when it breaks open its skins and gnaws the cover of the cell. It is now a full grown bee A queen bee lays from a few to hundreds of eggs per day depending upon the amount of honey in the hives. Usually there is but one queen in a colony. In the spring the worker bees decide that there should be new queens and proceed to build queen cells. The larva of a worker bee is fed a special substance called royal jelly and soon develops into another queen. The first thing observed is fighting between the new queens. They keep it up until only one of the new queens is left. When this occurs the old queen of the hive issues forth and taking with her a host of worker bees to start a new colony. This is called swarming. The old queen should always have her wings clipped. If this is done the swarm will not leave the apairy. A empty hive should be ready into which a new swarm may be placed. There is little danger of being stung at this time for the bees are so full of honey that it is nearly impossible for them to use their stingers. The worker bees in the new hive immediately set to work to manufacture wax from the honey brought with them. This is made into cells. The cells arejised 1 for storing honey and in which the eggs are hatched. Suc- cessful bee keepers place wax made in strong sheets in frames from which the bees manufacture their cells. A great deal of honey and time is saved by this method Fact Bees are useful to man to pollenize fruit blossoms and producing honey Words to be defined apiary colony of bees swarming cell Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Care and diseases of bees 2 Aim To learn how to care for bees 3 Home questions „,., Have someone find out how to track bees to their wild home in a tree 60 4 Work for home or school activity a Bring some dead bees to school and note the coloring of the Italian bees b Secure a hive of bees for a school project. The hive may be kept in the room with an entrance made to fit into the window or kept in the school yard or in a nearby yard c Have some boys secure a modern hive for a model and make a hive for the school. The interior fittings may be secured from A I Root Co Medina Ohio 5 For reading and study "(Care and Diseases of Bees" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock Third and Fourth July Lessons Care and Diseases of Bees Various kinds of hives are on the market to-day. Prac- tically all modern hives are good. The common requirements are that the hives should have a moveable roof and a moveable comb frame. Most hives are built in two compartments — an upper and a lower story — in the bottom compartment the queen lays her eggs and considerable honey is stored for winter. The upper compartment is the place in which the bees store the sur- plus honey In good seasons these bees not only gather much honey for winter food but also provide considerable surplus which gives to the beekeeper his profit for looking after the hives. Some times during a long winter or when the bees have not stored sufficient honey to carry them through the winter they must be fed. This may be done by suppyling bee candy. It is made by boiling to- gether sugar and water until it forms a soft cake upon cooling. This cake may be put into a super which the top story of the hive is called directly over the frames. The bees will soon carry it down There are three kinds of honey on the market chunk sec- tion-comb and extracted honey. Chunk honey is cut out from the frames and packed in jars. Section-comb honey is made by the bees in boxes of I pound each. Extracted honey is made in large frames both in the hive and above in the super and when ready to be removed is drawn from the combs with a machine called an extractor There are two methods of wintering bees — indoor and out- door. In cool climates where there is freezing weather between December and March without any warm days the hives are usually placed in the cellars. Where there are occasional warm days in winter in which bees may fly the hives may be left out of doors. They should be protected however by building around them an extra wall and filling the space between the hives and the wall with leaves saw dust or other material. Hives covered with building or tar paper will in some climates be sufficent with- out using double walls 61 Dysentery A winter disease due to a long low temperature and bad food is usually cured by a free flight in the spring American foul brood A bacterial disease which reaches healthy larvae in infected food. Grubs settled to the lower side of the cell in shapeless yellowish masses which later turns brown sticky and ill smelling. In European foul brood also bacterial the larvae turn yellowish or gray. To cure infected comb honey must be removed in- the evening during a honey flow and healthy food given. Brood from badly diseased colonies should be burned at once the combs melted in the wax the hives cleaned and disinfected by slightly charring the inside with a gasoline torch Fact A hive of bees may make from 50 to 100 pounds of surplus honey in good seasons Words to be defined hives surplus chunk larvae disinfected comb frame Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Pastures 2 Aim To learn how to care for pastures 3 'Home questions a Make a list of the grasses which will grow on wet and dry pastures b Why should cows be kept off the pastures in early spring Answer Tramples and kills grass roots c Name the farmers of the community who rotate their pastures e g Pasture meadows after cutting hay for three or four years d What are the advantages and disadvantages of such a practice? 4 Work for home or school activity a What animals will browse down brush and weeds in a pasture? 1 Answer Goats and sheep b Why are woods so often used for pastures? Answer Ground is too rough for other purposes 5 For reading and study "Pastures" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock First and Second August Lessons Pastures In many sections of the country hay is the chief money crop. But few farmers have attempted to increase the yield of the meadows and pastures by methods similar to those employed to increase grain. The statement is made that the same amount of money used for the purchase of fertilizer for grass lands will bring a greater profit than when applied to field crops. In a rotation hay is usually cut for three years when the field is turned in to pastures for two years. A good pasture should be thoroughly and evenly covered with plants that will form a sod 62 of such a nature as not to be injured by the tramping of animals or be checked in its growth by too close cropping. Pastures on most New England farms usually receive little attention. In but few cases have the pastures been artificially seeded. The pastures as a rule are rough partly grown up with trees ferns and hardhack. To sow expensive mixtures of grass seeds in such pastures would be unwise. But many of our best farmers are no longer satisfied with pastures of this description. To have the best results the pastures should be good so that the cows' wall find the needed food within a few hours and have time for rest and chewing the cud. Nearly all New England pastures are sorely in need of lime a state indicated by the absence of clover and the thick covering of mosses and sorrel which are to be found on many of them. It is almost unneces- sary to say that bushes and weeds should not be tolerated in a good pasture. If the soil is so rough and rocky that ploughing cannot be done it may be possible to spread lime and fertilizer and a mixture of grass seed on the surface and to harrow or possibly cultivate them in. A cheap grass mixture for a reno- vated pasture is a mixture of three pounds Timothy five pounds Red Top five pounds Alsike Clover two pounds White Clover three pounds Sweet Clover. This will help to increase the grass yield and to bring in the legumes which are so necessary for milk production A grass seed mixture for land which is to cut hay for three years and to be pastured for two years is given below timothy 6 lb meadow fercue 4 lb orchard grass 4 lb Kentucky blue grass 4 lb red top 2 lb alsike clover 2 lb white clover 2 lb N alfalfa 2 lb Occasionally run the weeder or harrow over the pasture to break up the manure chips Fact A well-kept pasture saves time money and labor tor every dairy- man Words to be defined pasture artificially hardhack cud timothy legumes Assignment in preparation for next lesson 1 Topic Soiling crops 2 Aim To learn how to soil crops 3 Home questions . . a Name the farmers of the. community who sow grain tor summer pastures b Make a list of those farms where the permanent pastures need supplementing with soiling crops 4 Work for home or school activity a Learn at what stage of growth the green crops are cut 5 For reading and study . "Soiling Crops" Readings in Agriculture Farm Stock 63 Third and Fourth August Lessons Soiling Crops Many of the New England pastures are so situated on poor thin upland soil that during the hot summer weather they often dry. In such a case feeding of green crops called soiling must be resorted to in order to keep up the flow of milk. Soiling is profitable because more feed may be produced per acre than by pasturing. The animals may be" kept in greater comfort in the barn protected from the flies and from the intense heat of the sun Manure is saved if cows are to be kept in the barn during the entire summer. The following plan for sowing and harvest- ing a soiling crop is given below. If it is believed that pastures will be short during a particular time of the year such parts of this scheme may be used as will best fit the need. The great expense incurred in planting cutting and drawing these crops to the barn is a hindrance to their general use Summer Forage Crops for 10 cows kind seed for an acre approximate time of seeding Wheat or rye 2 bushel Grass mixture and 8 lbs clover 8 lbs tall clover oat grass 6 lbs orchard grass 6 lbs Kentucky blue grass Clover 15-20 lbs Oats and peas li bushel each Oats and peas li bushel each Oats and peas li bushel each Japanese barnyard mil- 8 qts millet, li bushel let and peas peas Japanese barnyard mil- let 14 qts Corn and soy beans 10 qts Corn and soy beans 10 qts corn, 7 qts beans.. Barley and peas li bushel each approximate time of cutting Sept 1 i acre May 25-June 8 Aug § acre June 10-June 25 Aug s acre June 10-June 25 April i acre June 25-July 6 May 5 i acre July 6-July 17 May 20 i acre July 17- July 28 May 15 i acre Aug 1-Aug 10 May 15 i acre Aug 10-Aug 20 May 15 i acre Aug 20- Sept 4 June 5 i acre Sept 4-Sept 20 July 25-^ Aug 1 § acre Oct 5-Oct 20 Fact When summer pastures dry green crops must be fed to cows to keep up their milk supply Words to be defined forage crops approximate barn 64 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 000 899 258 7