J^ J. »* * > v »# ^^ »i •ArK' ^ .^z- •,-^ -r^ * * . ^^ ■r W. W.Payne. 347 vanced our knowledge of them greatly during the last two years. It is a natural question to ask wh}'^ it is that all this detailed knowledge of the surface of Mars was not observed by others sooner, especially after its announcement by Schiaparelli. It could not be that his telescope was better than all others, for it was a small one. It could not be that his sharp and trained eye was so much superior to all others, that what he could see w^ell and minutely describe should be wholly invisible to all other ob- servers for a period of nine years after announcement. This question almost more than any other has interested astronomers very greatly of late, and induced thoughtful study of it as never before. The trial of mountain stations for observation, those in regions of quiet, clear air of lower altitude and those of broad high plateaus have all been made, to learn by actual use the best conditions for difficult telescopic work. The planet Mars has re- cently been in favorable position in regard to distance from the Earth for the study of surface markings, and the opportunity has been most diligently and persistently used by the aid of telescopes of all sizes and in all favorable latitudes for the sake of learning something new and helpful in making astronomical observations that would bring into use the hightest powers of the modern telescope. Those who desire the sources of best information in regard to what is now known about the planet Mars, and a delightful ac- count of how astronomers have gained their knowledge should read t'wo important books: one by CamilleFlammarion, of Paris, published in 1892, and the other by Percival Lowell, of Boston, recentl}? published by Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Flammarion's book v/as by far the most complete and comprehensive study of Mars that had appeared up to its date. It is indeed a scholarly compendium of what was known of the planet, involving much illustration and great pains-taking in gathering materials. On the other hand Mr. Lowell showed good judgment in not at- tempting to write another book on the same subject like that of Flammarion, but by the aid of a fine 18-inch refractor he has tried most industriously and effectively to widen the range of knowledge concerning a score of vitally interesting questions chiefly about the phj'sical conditions that exist on the planet Mars. How well he has succeeded in this any thoughtful reader can judge for himself after a perusal of his book which is written in plain popular language, but crowded with an arra}' of facts that are made tosignify much that isnew by thegifted and ready reasoning power which Mr. Lowell possesses as a writer, in a re~ a^-S Aluskn Boundary Survey markabic degree. Later wc wish to make n carcliil comparison of his views wliich are decnicHl new with those of others Ijearing on tlie (|ucstioii of Martian atmosphere, temperature, canals, water iminiiation. desert re^'ionsand other similar features which Mr. LoweU's hook discusses. ALASKA BOUNDARY SURVEY. OTTO J. KLOT/C. PoH rolTl.AH ASTHONO.MV. The surveys that have been made during the past three years were not made witli the object of defining the boundary line of southeastern Alaska, but for the ]nirpose of gathering data so that the question of delimitation may l)e more intelligenth' dis- cussed, prior to actual marking on the ground. The survey was carried on under a joint Commission, \V. F. King being Her Majesty's Commissioner, and T. C. Mendenhall, now succeeded by Genl. \V. \V. Dufiield, Superintendent of the Coast and Geo- detic Survey, rejiresenting the United States. In 18i)3 the V . S. Coast and Geodetic Survey had twelve officers in the field, of whom three had charge of parties, three were as- tronomers and the remaining six were attached to six Canadian survey parties. Canada had seven parties in the field and all engaged in topographic work. There was a Canadian represen- tative, too, on each of the United States Stikine and Taku River parties. Furthermore each country had a vessel for inter- communication between the parties. The area covered by the Canadian parties during this season included nearly all the territory adjoining the shore line from Burrough's Bay or the Unuk River which emi)ties there, to the west side of Taku Inlet. The United States parties were engaged in the survey of the Stikine and Taku Rivers and Taku Inlet; and in the determina- tion of the latitude and longitude of the mouth of the Unuk, Wrangell, and the mouth of the Taku. Sitka served as base station for longitude, whence chronometers were carried fort- iiightlv by the United States survey vessel to the three astro- nomic stations mentioned. In 1894 the operations were con- tinued and extended, and on similar lines. The close of this season left little remaining to be done for the present. Canada had only one party in the field this year (1895), and its work was along the base of the Mt. St. Elias Alps, otto J. Klotz. 349 Of the methods of work in the field I will only speak of those adopted by Canada. Knowing beforehand the intensely mountainous character of the country under discussion, it was obvious — based on experi- ence in the Rocky Mountains — that the most practical and cheap- est method for a topographic survey was by means of the transit and camera. The idea of the application of the camera for topographic purposes is not new, but its practical applica- tion on a large scale is of recent date. Germany, France and Italy have done photographic work, but only the last named country has done any on an extensive scale. However, Canada has done considerably more, and has raised the art from its ex- perimental stage to one of permanency, through the labors of her Surveyor General, E. Deville. Without following photo-topography through its various stages of development in Canada, we will confine ourselves to a statement of the modus operandi of the Boundary Survey. The greatest drawback to the progress of the work was the continuous saturated condition of the atmosphere showing itself either as rain, fog or fog banks, and clouds so that the area covered by survey in a season is not a fair estimate of what the parties could have accomplished under ordinary climatic conditions. Many a time did an early morning bode a fair day, when a start would be made from a seashore where camp was almost invariably pitched, for an ascent of perhaps five thousand feet, only to find after hours of scrambling through Devil's Club (Fatsia horrida), knee-deep moss, windfalls, alder brush on land slides; then emerging through timber line onto rock and snow and glaciers with their treacherous crevasses; skirting chasms and abysses, at times with only slender foot-hold to save from the yawning depths; again lying full length with arms extended on smooth, slippery glaciated rock and creeping along, onward — upwards to the goal, and when reached, oneself enveloped in a bank of clouds hovering around the peak and completely shutting out the world. Perhaps it will lift is the ardent hope. One waits, shivers. At times it snows to add to the discomfort, often miser3^ In vain, the day advances, the Sun is seeking its western home, and with faint heart the party has to begin the descent. It is made more quickly than the ascent but often with more danger, as the men indulge in the expedi- tious method of glissade — sliding on the ice or snow^ crest with the imminent danger of a crevasse or precipice. But camp, like the word home, has a magic and magnetic spell. Almost nothing save destruction stops the powerful attraction. 350 Alnsku Iloiuuhiry Survey. However dishearteninp^ such work is, success can onl\- be ac- complished by workin;^ until one ck)es succeed. Hence many a mountain peak was climbed more than once, one in fact ci«^ht times. Success is good naturcd and immediately forgets all pre- vit)us trials and tribulations. The season of 1893 ditl not give a dozen really gootl days for instrumental and photograpliic work. A good view from a peak has been aptly described by " What a scene of (ksolalioii 1 saw Irom llie mDiintain ]>eak; Cra^s. snowtields, ;ilaeiatioii, rnuttcrable to sjjcaU." The shore hue of the northwestern part of the continent is very tiuieh indented by bays, inlets and fn)rds or canals. Adjoining the sea the vegetation is rank, and the luxuriant mosses and ferns give it a semi-tropical ap])earanee. Tind)er line is reached at about 2,500 feet. The forest is almost exclusively coniferous. Nearly the whole of the shore of tlie territory under considera- tion has been surveyed and charted by ofhcers of the Tnited States Xavy, and this, in a mciisure, served ^is a l)ase for the topographic work. However, e£ich party meiisured, by means of steel tape, a Ijase line at some ktiown point on the shore, and from ic expanded a triangulation over the area wliose topogra- ])hy was to be delineated. It is scarcely necessary to state that for mountain work everylhitig must be made as portrible as pos- sible, and instruments reduced to a minimum ot weight. The outfit of each jjarty consisted of a Troughton c\: Simms 3-ineh transit theodolite in a leatlier covered box and carried like i\ knapsack ; an extension tripod ; a camera, to be described more fully hereafter; several anerc>itls by Hughes; a sidereal chrt)nt)me- ter; a field glass, and one or two box compasses; and each ir.an was j)rovided with the indispensible alpetistock. For transport each party was supplied with one Mackinac boat, which served its purp(3se admirably, and one or two Peterborough canoes, those marvelous water sprites that dance on rai)ids or on the ocean billows with a steadiness wonderful. I recollect one of of our American iViends thought them at least "cranky " looking and had some hesitation in getting into one of them, saying that for safety he ought to liavc his liair ])arled in the middle. Both the horizontal and vertical circles of the transit read to minutes of arc. Angles were read in the usual way, /. c, one set —circle right; the other— circle left. The sides of the triangles were mostly between six and ten miles, although distant ])caks \vere tied by sides upA'ards of forty miles long, and St. lilias b}' Otto J. Klotz. 351 lines over sixty miles long. It may be stated right here that the photographs of these latter distances came out sharp and clear and flat, and were hence available for outline topographic pur- poses. At each station horizontal and vertical angles w^ere read on all the principal peaks and points in the terrene. From the horizontal angles the triangulation or skeleton, upon which the topography is based, is obtained ; and from the vertical angles the heights of such peaks, which are later checked by the photo- graphs themselves. As some of the peaks occupied were isolated, sharp and well defined, signals or cairns were not placed at all the summit stations. The azimuth was controlled by solar ob- servations Vk'hen obtainable. Stellar observations were imprac- ticable at mountain stations, although some were taken at sea shore. As the camera is the characteristic instrument of the Canadian Survey, a somewhat detailed account of it will be given. As be- fore intimated, the camera, in its present form, is the outcome of yearly experiments and experience since its first application by Canada in the Rocky Mountains in 1886. The first distinctive feature about the camera is that it has no focusing adjustment, as all views taken are distant, the rays are practically parallel and converge at the same distance from the lens. The camera box is therefore very rigid, of well seasoned mahogany and brass bound. For use it is attached to a brass foot with levelling screws, and held by a stout screw, with milled head, passing through the middle of the foot, and into a brass block in the box. The foot itself fits onto the transit tripod, the latter serving for both instruments. As it is essential that the camera be horizontal, it is provided with two levels in the form of a T, attachable to a brass grove on top of the box. In the middle of each side and directly in front of and close to the sensitive plate is fixed a narrow (%'') brass comb. The four are consequently photographed on each view^ and serve the purpose of readily drawing the horizon and princi- pal Hues on the photograph or enlarged print, for these are the lines of reference or axes of coordinates for interpreting the prints. Each camera is provided with six double holders, num- bered and carrying a dozen glass plates, which are generally suf- ficient for a day's climb. The plates are 4% x 61/2", isochromatic and made by Edwards, London. The plates before being put into the holders are marked in one corner with consecutive num- bers, together with the initial of the chief of party, and a note is made of the corresponding number of the holder, so as to be able 352 Alaska Boundnry Survey. to enter in the field book, when exposing, the number of the neg- ative, its corresponding station and view. Each party was ])ro- vidcd witli a small black tent, lined with red, and a red light lantern for changing i)latcs. The tent was just large enough to admit one, and was generally suspended from the ridge pole in one of the camp tents and overhanging the small camp table, so that the changing could be done with ease and comfort. There being really no night in midsummer in Alaska, it would scarcely be safe to change in an ordinar}' tent, even at midnight. The camerti could also be set on end on the tripod. This was for the jjurpose of being rdjle to ])hotograph deej) ravines or canons where the vertical element exceeded the horizontal. The lens or objective is a wide angle one: by Dallmeyer, London. Between the two lenses forming the objective is inserted the dia- jjliriigm or stop. Of those sup[)lied with each camera, the smal- lest one Vs" is always used. The focal length of the lens is 5%". The lens screws onto the detachable front piece of the camera, and when not in use is carried in a leather C£ise. In screwing it in place it is alwavs brought up to the mark cut on the collar so as to preserve a uniform distance from the sensitive plate. (TO BE CONTINUED.) Note. — Forgiving an idea of the country in which the work was carried on, and also of the result of photographing distant views the reproduction of pho- tographs is given as frontispiece. One of our grandest views is that of photographs covering parts of the vast complex of the Muir Glacier System. On view No. 1 will be noticed the comi) marks in the middle of the sides. The two straight lines joining the proper points on opposite combs constitute the axes of rectangular co-ordinates for measurements on the photograph. This view is taken from an elevation of 5913 ft. The station is situated between the two main branches of the Baird Glacier emptying into the northern part of Tliomas Bay, Frederick Sound. The pointing of the camera is southeasterly, across the eastern branch and along one of its aHliients onto the Devil's Thumb, (shown on left hand side) 910") ft. hi.nh, and distant si.xteen miles. Most of the other mountains shown are more distant, some over thirty miles. Comijaring this photograph with ones taken about Borrough's Hay — in gen- eral with those of the more southerly areas where the heights are niostlv con- fined to heights of less than six thousand feet — a marked contrast is noted and that is, that mountains of less than the latter height are invariably rounded showing no sharp pinnacles or peaks, while those to the north, exceeding such height, have very angular and sharp crests. The former have been subject to glacial abrasion, the latter not. /. e., not above say six thousand feet. View No. 2 is from a station, altitude 4-,H81 ft., on the east side of Thomas Ba\', and looking northeasterly, also showing the shaft of the Devil's Thumb. This station with the preceding one and the Devil's Thumb form approximately an c(|uilaleral triangle of IG-mile sides. It will thus be seen that these two views Alaska Boundary Survey. 39o ''1^:^:;,^^^^^^^^'^^^^ described in detail with such ac- The ^^^^^'^^ Haven instrument as was necessary to show Thrnature ontroperation. The diameter of the Earth's orb^ 'the bl^e Hne for measurement of parallax and accordingly ob- .fions of the position of the star are taken at intervals of servations of ^^ e P^« ^^^^^ed with reference to its ^Ino:::" ^-.e Z,Zr To^panion stars in four directions being :j;:r;i: this ^mp.rison. The ^^^^ suited from these measurements is the paiallax, anu ™«v be determined the distance of the star from us Of -e nature is the problem of the distance of the St,n, and n°on this Dr Ell n has' been at work with results which at first were ree ived with caution on account of their apparent small- Tess b„ Thich have since been supported by new determ.nattons n other ways. The close relationships which have been proven between The elements which compose our solar system are such tharthe exact determination of the distance of any one planet win afford a means of computing all the other d.menstons and di ances It was therefore suggested that the observat.ons of Ip nt the asteroids might be of value, and accordingly Dr. ElSn made a s'tes of mea'sures of Sappho and Victoria, wuh a "ifaddi'lio'lrofttt matters attention has been given at New Haven to he triangulation of some seventy stars ,n the Pletades, fachof which was independently measured for pos.tton at mter- vals, standard stars ontside of the group hav.ng been selected '" Ttniffe'ent accomphshments," said Dr. Chandler in finish- in. "constitute a record of faithful, zealous, and vigorous prose- cution "a tronomy in its very highest plane, and the presence of such a man as Dr. Elkin in our country gives standmg and ciedit to American astronomy." ALASKA. BOUNDARY SURVEY OTTO J. KLOTZ. For Popular Astronomy. For popular amkuixv....^. r +v,a The second distinctive and most important feature of the camera is the attachment of a plano^glass orange --n to th lens. It is screwed to the back of the objective. It is obvious * Continued from page 353. 396 Alaska Boundary Survey. that it is (Ifsiial)k' to have on iIk- nc-^alivc not only what we can sec, and especially is this true ol the distance, but also that dis- tinct and not blurred. Now the ne