Class __^IBLliu Book ' (D tff Copyright]^". COPYRIGHT DEPOSm MODERN SILAGE METHODS &^9 WITH ILLUSTRATIONS. An entirely new and practical work on Silos, their construction and the process of filling, to which is added complete and reliable information regarding Silage and its compo- sition; feeding, and a treatise on rations, being a Feeders' and Dairymens' Guide. •1 J / PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED BY THE SILVER MANUFACTURING CO. SALEM, OHIO, U. S. A. 1903. THt LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, Two Copies Receivae APR n 1903 Capyn^iit Entry CLA^S CL XXc. No. COPY ». Copyrig-hted 1903, bj- The Silver Mfg. Co. •-• •-• , • • • . • ^^■\^ ^ L> SALEM, OHIO : THE A. K. TATEM LABEL CO. 190:{. MODERN SILAGE METHODS. < • f O t> ' PREFACE. This book has been written and published for the pur- pose of furnishing" our patrons and others with accurate and full information on the subject of silo construction and the making" of silag^e. It has been the aim of the authors to present the subject in a clear matter-of-fact manner, with- out flourish of rhetoric or flights of imag"ination, believing" that the truth concerning" the advantag"es of the siloing" sys- tem is g"ood enoug"h. The testimony presented, which is pur- posely kept close to the experiences of authorities on feeding" subjects in and outside of experiment stations, will abund- antly prove, we believe, that the equipment of an American dairy or stock farm is no long"er complete without one or more silos on it. In order that a work of this kind be accurate and reliable, and bear the scrutiny of scientific readers, the use of a number of scientific terms and phrases is rendered necessary, and in order that these may be more ready com- prehended by Ag"riculturists, a comprehensive g"lossary or dictionary of such terms is included, following" the last chapter, which can be referred to from time to time, or can be studied previous to reading" the book. In the compilation of certain parts of the book we have had the valuable assistance of Prof. Woll, of Wisconsin Kxperiment Station, author of "A Book on Silage" and "A Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen". Free use of the former book has been made in the preparation of this vol- ume, as well as of experiment station publications treating" the subject of silage. , Hoping that '|Modern Silage Methods" will prove help- ,",fui,to'!Q^i^ patrons, -and incidentally suggest to them that the ' Ohi<) S.rja:gA Puttf fis ;dKd >31ower Elevators are manufactured by us, we are •. '.•.«. .V, ... . Very truly, '. » :♦ :•»•*».•* : '. .' THE SIIvVER MFG. CO. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Preface 6 Intkoduction . 9 • CHAPTER I. Advantages of the Silo — Preservation of a larger quar- tity of original food value enabled by the use of the Silo than any method known — Losses of nutritive value in dry curing — Small losses in the Siloing pro- cess— The Silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality — Economy of making — Economy of Storage — No danger of rain — No danger of late summer droughts — Food from thistles — Value in intensive farming. CHAPTER n. How TO Build a Silo. Silos — General requirements for silo structures — On the size of silo required — On the form of silos- Relation of horizontal feeding — Area and number of cows kept — Location of the silo — Different types of silo structures — Round wooden silos — The silo roof — Modifications of the Wisconsin Silo — Plaster- ed round wooden Silos — Brick-lined Silos — Stave Silos — Cheap Stave Silos — A modification of a Stave Silo — Connecting round silos with the barn — Other forms of round silos — Brick and Stone Silos — Silos in the barn— A small $30 Silo — Octagonal Silos — Cost and estimates for different kinds of Si os. CHAPTER III. Silage Crops — Indian Corn — Soils best adapted to corn culture and preparation of land— Varieties of corn for the silo — Time of cutting corn for the silo — Methods of planting corn — Other silage crops. CHAPTER IV. Filling the Silo — Indian Corn — Siloing corn "ears and all" — The filling process — The proper distribution of cut material in the silo — Size of cutter and power required — Length of chain elevator required — Direc- tions for operating "Ohio" Blower Cutters — Danger from carbonic-acid poisoning in silos — Covering the siloed fodder — Use of water in filling silos — Clover for summer silage — Freezing of silage. CHAPTER V. How to feed silage — Silage for milch cows — Silage in the production of certified milk — Silage for beef cattle — for Horses— for Sheep — for Swine — Silage for poultry — Additional testimony as to the advant- age of silage— Corn silage as compared with root crops — Corn silage as compared with hay — Corn silage compared with fodder corn. CHAPTER VI. A feeder's guide — Composition of the animal body — Composition of feeding stuffs — Digestibility of foods — Relative value of feeding stuffs — Feeding stand- ards — How to figure out rations- Grain mixtures for dairy cows — Average composition of Silage crops of different kinds, in per cent — Analysis of Feeding stuffs — Ready reference tables. CONCLUSION. Modern Silage Methods. INTRODUCTION. Twenty years ago few farmers knew what a silo was, and fewer still, had ever seen a silo or fed silage to their stock. Today silos are as common as barn buildings in many farming districts in this country, and thousands of farmers w^ould want to quit farming if they could not have silage to feed to their stock dur- ing the larger portion of the year. Twenty years ago it would have been necessary to begin a book describ- ing the siloing system with definitions, what is meant by silos and silage : now all farmers who read agricul- tural papers or attend agricultural or dair}^ conventions are at least familiar with these words, even if they had not had a chance to become familiar with the appear- ance and properties of silage. They know that a SllyO is an air-tight structure used for the preserva- tion of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition, and that SILAGE is the feed taken out of a silo. We shall later see which crops are adapted for silage making, but want to state here at the outset that In- dian corn is pre-eminently the American crop suited to be preserved in silos, and that this crop is siloed far more than all other kinds of crops put together. When the word silage is mentioned we, therefore, instinct- ively think of corn silage. We shall also follov^' this plan in the discussions in this book ; when only silage is spoken of we mean silage made from the corn plant ; if made from other crops the name of the crop is al- ways given, as clover silage, peavine silage, etc. History of the silo. While the silo in one form or another dates back to antiquity, it was not until the lO INTRODUCTION. latter part of the seventies that the building of silos intended for manufacture of silage began in this coun- try. In 1882 the United States Department of Agri- culture could find only ninety-one farmers in this country who used silos. During the last twent}^ years, however, silos have gradually become general in all sections of the country where dairying and stock-rais- ing are important industries ; it is likely, if a census were taken of the number of silos in this county to- day, that we would find between a third and a half million of them. The silo is today considered a neces- sity on thousands of dair}^ farms, and we find most of them in the states that rank first as dairy states, viz : New York, Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, etc. The farmers that have had most experience with silage are the most enthusiastic advocates of the silo- ing S3^stem, and the testimony of intelligent dairymen all over the country is strongly in favor of the silo. Said a New York farmer recently in one of our main agricultural papers : "I would as soon try to farm w^ithout a barn as without a silo," and another wrote " I wouldn't take a thousand dollars for my silo if I could not replace it." The well-known agricultural writer, Joseph E. Wing, says, " No stock feeder who grows corn can afford to ignore the silo." " Buff Jer- sey," an Illinois dairy farmer and writer on agricult- ural topics, declares his faith in silage as follows : "I am fully satisfied that silage is a better feed, and a cheaper one, than our pastures." Another writer says : "The silo to my mind presents so many ad- vantages over the system of soiling that it is bound to eventually do away with the use of soiling crops." According to the Cornell Experiment Station, "the silo, especially to the dairy farmer, has become an al- most necessary adjunct to the equipment of the farm." Our first effort in writing this book wall be to pre- sent facts that will back up these statements, and how the reader the many advantages of the silo over s INTRODUCTION. II other systems of growing and curing crops for the feeding of farm animals. We shall show that up-to- date dairy or stock farming is well nigh impossible without the aid of a silo. The silo enables us to feed live stock succulent feeds the year around, and pre- serves the fodder in a better condition and with less waste than any other system can. We shall see the why and wherefore of this in the following pages, and shall deal with the best way of making and feeding silage to farm animals. We wnsh to state at the out- set that we do not propose to indulge in unwarranted statements or claims that will not stand the closest in- vestigation. In the early days of the history of the silo movement it was thought necessary to make exag- gerated claims, but this is no longer the case. Naked facts are sufficient to secure for the silo a permanent place among the necessary equipment of a modern dairy or stock farm. I»n discussing the silo we shall keep close to what has been found out at our experi- ment stations, and, we believe, shall be able to prove to an}^ fair-minded reader that the silo is the greatest boon that has come to modern agriculture since the first reaper was manufactured, and that with competi- tion and resulting low prices, it will be likely to be- come more of a necessity to our farmers in the future than it has been in the past. We aim to convince our readers that the most sensible thing they can do is to plan to build a silo at once if they do not now have one. It is unnecessary to argue with those who are already the happy possessors of a silo, for it is a general expe- rience where a farmer has only provided for immediate wants in building his silo that he will build another as soon as he has had some experience with silage and finds out how his stock likes it, and how well they do on it. Modern practice has proved that no man need say " I cannot afford a silo," because any farmer who is at all handy with hammer and saw can provide a silo 1 2 INTRODUCTION . large enough for a medium-sized dairy with very little actual outlay of money. And this same built-at-home silo will earn for its owner money to build another, and enlarge his herd. We shall give directions for building several kinds of such silos on the following pages. While they will not be apt to last as long, and therefore are not per- haps as economical in the long run as more substan- tiall3^-built silos, still the}' do excellent service until some experience with making and feeding silage has been obtained, or until the farmer can afford to put up a more substantial structure. We mention this fact here to show farmers who may be considering the matter of building a silo, or who may be inclined to think that the silo is an expensive luxury, only for rich farmers, that the cost of a silo need not debar them from the advantages of having one on their farm, and thus secure a uniform succulent feed for their stock through the whole winter. Farm- ers who have not as yet informed themselves in regard to the value of the silo and silage on dairy or stock farms, are respectfully asked to read carefully the fol- lowing statements of the advantages of the silo system over other methods of preserving green forage for winter or summer feeding. It has been said "Whoever makes two blades of grass grow where but one grew before is a benefactor to mankind." A silo makes it possible to keep two cows where but one was kept before, and who would not gladly double his income ? Does not this interest youf CHAPTER I. ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. I. The silo e7iables us to preserve a larger quantity of the food materials of the original fodder for the feed- irig of farm animals than is possible by any other system of preservatio7i 7iow know?i. Pasture grass is the ideal feed for live stock, but it is not available more than a few months in the year. The same holds true witb all soiling crops or tame grasses as well. When made into hay the grasses and other green crops lose some of the food material contained therein, both on account of unavoidable losses of leaves and other tender p^arts, and on account of fermentations which take place while the plants are drying out or being cured. In case of Indian corn the losses from the latter source are considerable, owing the coarse stalks of the plant and the large number of air-cells in the pith of these. Under the best of conditions cured fodder corn will lose at least ten per cent, of its food value when cured in shocks ; such a low loss can only be obtained when the shocks are cared for under cover, or out in the field under ideal weather conditions. In ordinary farm practice the loss in nutritive value will approach twenty-five per cent. , and will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are taken in handling the fodder, and it is not left exposed to all kinds of weath- er in shocks in the field through the whole winter. These figures may seem surprisingly large to many farmers who have left fodder out all winter long, and find the corn in the inside of the shock bright and green, almost as it was when put up. But appear- ances are deceitful ; if the shocks had been weighed as they were put up. and again in the late winter, another story would be told, and it would be found 14 ADVANTAGES OF THE SIEO. that the shocks only weighed anywhere from a third to a half as much as when they were cured and ready to be put in the barn late in the fall ; if chemical anal- yses of the corn in the shocks were made in the fall, and when taken down, it would be found that the de- crease in weight was not caused by evaporation of wa- ter from the fodder, but by waste of food materials contained therein from fermentations, or the action of enzymes. (See Glossar}^ ) The correctness of the figures given above has been abundantl}^ proved by careful experiments conducted at a number of different experiment stations, notably the Wisconsin, New Jersey, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Colorado experiment stations. A summary of the main work in this line is given in Prof. WoU's Book on Silage. In the Wisconsin experiments there was an average loss of 23.8 percent, in the dry matter (see Glossary), and 24.3 per cent, of protein, during four different years, when over 36 tons of green fodder had been put up in shocl^s and carefully weighed and sampled at the beginning and end of the experiment. These shocks had been left out for different lengths of time, under varying conditions of weather, and made from dift'erent kinds of corn, so as to present a variety of conditions. The Colorado experiments are perhaps the most convincing as to the losses which unavoidably take place in the curing of Indian corn in shocks. The following account is taken from Prof. Cook's report of the experiments. As the conditions described in the investigation w411 apply to most places on our con- tinent where Indian corn is cured for fodder, it will be well for farmers to carefull}^ look into the results of the experiment. " It is believed by most farmers that, in the dry cli- mate of Colorado, fodder corn, where cut and shocked in good shape, cures without loss of feeding value, and that the loss of weight that occurs is merely due to the drying out of the water. A test of this question w^as I^OSSKS IN DRY CURING. 15 made in the fall of 1893, ^^^^ the results obtained seemed to indicate that fully a third of the feeding value was lost in the curing. This result was so sur- prising that the figures were not published, fearing that some error had crept in, though we could not see where there was the possibility of a mistake. *' In the fall of 1894 ^^e te.st was repeated on a lar- ger scale. A lot of corn was carefully weighed and sampled. It was then divided into three portions : one was spread on the ground in a thin layer, the sec- ond part was set up in large shocks, containing about five hundred pounds of green fodder in each, while the rest was shocked in small bundles. After remaining thus for some months, until thoroughly cured, the por- tions were weighed, sampled, and analyzed separately. The table gives the losses that occurred in the curing. Large Shocks. Small Shocks. On le Ground i Total Weight Dry Matter. Total Weight Dry Matter- Total Weight Dry Matter. When Shocked After Curing lyoss in Weight .... Per Cent, of Loss. . . Lbs. 952 258 694 73 Lbs. 217 150 67 31 Lbs. 294 64 230 78 Lbs. 77 44 33 43 Lbs. 186 33 153 82 Lbs. 42 19 23 55 " So far as could be told by the eye, there had been no loss. The fodder had cured in nice shape, and the stalks on the inside of the bundles retained their green color, with no sign of molding or heating. And yet the large shocks had lost 31 percent, of their dry matter, or feeding value ; the small shocks 43 percent, and the corn spread on the ground 55 per cent. "On breaking or cutting the stalks these losses were explained. The juice was acid, and there was a very strong acid odor, showing that an active fermen- tation was taking place in this seemingly dry fodder. 1 6 ADVANTAGES OF THE SILO. We had noticed this strong odor the fall before and all through the winter. When the fodder corn for the steers is put through the feed cutter that same strong smell is present. " It can be said, then, that the dryness of the clim- ate in Colorado does not prevent fodder corn from los- ing a large part of its feeding value through fermenta- tion. Indeed, the loss from this source is fully as great as in the damp climate of New England. "As compared with the losses by fermentation in the silo, the cured fodder shows considerably the higher loss." In experiments at the Wisconsin station eleven shocks cured under cover in the barn lost on an aver- age over 8 per cent, of dry matter and toward 14 per cent, of protein. In an experiment at the Maine Sta- tion over 14 per cent, of dr}' matter was lost in the process of slow drying of a large sample of fodder corn under the most favorable circumstances. " It is interesting to note that this loss falls almost entirely on the nitrogen-free extract, or carbohydrates (see' Glossar}^), more than two- thirds of it being actually accounted for by^ the diminished percentage of sugars." Since such losses will occur in fodder cured under cover with all possible care, it is evident that the aver- age losses of dry matter in field-curing fodder corn, given in the preceding, by no means can be considered exaggerated. Exposure to rain and storm, abrasion of dry^ leaves and thin stalks, and other factors tend to diminish the nutritive value of the fodder, aside from the losses from fermentations, so that ver}- often onl}^ one-half of the food materials originally present in the fodder is left by the time it is fed out. The re- maining portion of the fodder has, furthermore, a lower digestibility and a lower feeding value than the fodder corn when put up, for the reason that the fer- mentations occurring during the curing process de- stro}^ the most valuable and easily digestible part, i. « ♦ • * • • • . * • • 9 • « • t . • • • • • ■ / • • • • • • ^ , • , , « o e • • e • • • • • P'i^. 7. Showing the construction of the door for the all-wood silo. THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 47 sill and carefully stayed and plumbed on the side to- ward the center. When a number of these have been set they should be tied together by bending a strip of half-inch sheeting around the outside as high up as a man can reach, taking care to plumb each stud on the side before nailing. When the alternate studs have been set in this wa}- the balance may be placed and toe-nailed to the sill and stayed to the rib, first plumb- ing them sideways and toward the center. Setting Studding for Doors. — On the side of the silo where the doors are to be placed the studding should be set double and the distance apart to give the de- sired width. A stud should be set between the two door studs as though no door were to be there, and the doors cut out at the places desired afterwards. The construction of the door is represented in Fig. 7. Silo Sheetijig and Siding. — The character of the siding and sheeting will vary considerably according to conditions, and the size of the silo. Where the diameter of the silo is less than 18 feet inside and not much attention need be paid to frost, a single layer of beveled siding, rabbetted on the inside of the thick edge deep enough to receive the thin edge of the board below, will be all that is absolutely nec- essar}' on the outside for strength and protection against weather. This statement is made on the sup- position that the lining is made of two la^-ers of fenc- ing split in two, the three layers constituting the hoops. If the silo is larger than 18 feet inside diameter,, there should be a la3^er of half -inch sheeting outside, under the siding. If basswood is used for siding, care should be taken to paint it at once, otherwise it will warp badh- if it gets wet before painting. In applying the sheeting begin at the bottom, car- rying the w^ork upward until staging is needed, fol- lowing this at once with the siding. Two 8-penny 48 HOW TO BUILD A SII.O. nails should be used in each board in every stud, and to prevent the walls from getting ' ' out of round ' ' the succeeding courses of boards should begin on the next stud, thus making the ends of the boards break joints. When the stagings are put up, new stays should be tacked to the studs above, taking care to plumb each one from side to side ; the siding itself will bring them into place and keep them plumb the other way, if care is taken to start new courses as described above. Forming the Plate. — When the last staging is up V'i^. 8. Shou'inr construction of conical roof of round silo, where rafters are not used. The outer cirele is the lower edge of the roof. THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 49 the plate should be formed by spiking 2x4' s cut in two-foot lengths, in the manner of sill, and as repre- sented in Fig. 8, down upon the tops of the studs, using two courses, making the second break joints with the first. The Lining of the Wooden Silo. — There are several ways of making a good lining for the all-wood round silo, but whichever method is adopted it must be kept in mind that there are two very important ends to be secured with a certainty. These are (i) a lining which shall be and remain strictly, air-tight, (2) a lining which will be reasonably permanent. All Wood Lining of ^- inch Flooring. — If one is wil- ling to permit a loss of 10 to 12 per cent, of the silage by heating, then a lining of tongued and grooved or- dinary 4-inch white pine flooring may be made in the manner represented in Fig. 9, where the flooring runs up and down. When this lumber is put on in the seasoned condition a single layer would make tighter walls than can be secured with the stave silo where the staves are neither beveled nor tongued and grooved. In the silos smaller than 18 feet inside diameter the two layers of boards outside will give the needed strength, but when the silo is larger than this and deep, there would be needed a layer of the split fenc- ing on the inside for strength ; -and if in addition to this there is added a layer of 3-pl3^ Giant P. and B. paper a lining of very superior quality would be thus secured. Lining of Hal finch Boards and Paper — Where paper is used to make the joints between boards air- tight, as represented in Fig. 4, it is extremely import- ant that a quality which will not decay, and which is both acid- and water-proof be used. A paper which is not acid- and water-proof will disintegrate at the joints in a very short time, and thus leave the lining very defective. The best paper for silo purposes with which we are 50 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. acquainted is a 3 -pi}' Giant P. and B. brand manufac- tured by the Standard Paint Co., of Chicago and New York. It is thick, strong, and acid- and water-proof. A silo lining with two thicknesses of good fencing FJ^. 9. S/iOii'!fijr the construction of the all-wood round silo 'iUhere the lining is made of ordinary four-inch flooring running up and down, and nailed to girts cut in hetiveeyi the studding every four feet. THE "WISCONSIN" SILO. 5 1 having only small knots, and these thoroughly sound and not black, will make an excellent lining. Great care should be taken to have the two layers of boards break joints at their centers, and the paper should lap not less than 8 to 12 inches. The great danger with this t3'pe of lining will be that the boards may not press the two la3'ers of paper together close enough but that some air may rise between the two sheets where they overlap, and thus gain access to the silage. It would be an excellent precaution to take to tack down closely with small carpet tacks the edges of the paper where they over- lap, and if this is done a lap of 4 inches will be suffi- cient. The first layer of lining should be put on with 8 -penny nails, two in each board and stud, and the second or inner layer with lo-penny nails, the funda- mental object being to draw the two laj-ers of boards as closely together as possible. Such a lining as this will be very durable because the paper will keep all the lumber dry except the inner layer of half -inch boards, and this will be kept wet by the paper and silage until empty, and then the small thickness of wood will dry too quickly to permit rot- ting to set in. A still more substantial lining of the same type may be secured by using two layers of paper between three layers of boards, as represented in Fig. 4, and if the climate is not extremely severe, or if the silo is only to be fed from in the summer; it would be better to do away with the layer of sheeting and paper out- side, putting on the inside, thus securing two layers of paper and three layers of boards for the lining with the equivalent of only 2 inches of lumber. The Silo Roof. The roof of cylindrical silos may be made in several ways, but the simplest type of construction and the 52 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. one requiring the least amount of material is that rep- resented in Figs. 7 and 8, and which is the cone. If the silo is not larger than 15 feet inside diameter no rafters need be used, and onl}^ a single circle like that in the center of Fig. 8, this is made of 2-inch stuff cut in sections in the form of a circle and two layers spiked together, breaking joints. The roof boards are put on by nailing them to the inner circle and to the plate, as shown in the drawing, the boards having been sawed diagonally as represent- ed at H, Fig. 2, making the wide and narrow ends the same relative widths as the circumferences of the out- er edge of the roof and of the inner circle. If the silo has an inside diameter exceeding 15 feet it will be necessary to use two or three hoops accord- ing to diameter. When the diameter is greater than 25 feet it wnll usually be best to use rafters and head- ers cut in for circles 4 feet apart to nail the roof boards to, which are cut as represented at H, Fig. 2. The conical roof may be covered with ordinary shingles, splitting those wider than 8 inches. By lay- ing the butts of the shingles }i to }{ of an inch apart it is not necessary to taper any of the shingles except a few courses near the peak of the roof. In laying the shingles to a true circle, and with the right exposure to the weather, a good method is to use a strip of wood as a radius which works on a cen- ter set at the peak of the roof and provided with a nail or pencil to make a mark on the shingle where the butts of the next course are to come. The radius may be bored with a series of holes the right distance apart to slip over the center pivot, or the nail may be drawn and reset as desired. Some carpenters file a notch in the shingling hatchet, and use this to bring the shingle to place. Ventilation of the Silo. Every silo which has a roof should be provided with VENTILATION OF THE SILO. 53 ample ventilation to keep the under side of the roof dry, and in the case of wood silos, to prevent the walls and lining from rotting. One of the most serious mis- takes in the early construction of wood silos was the making of the walls with dead- air spaces, which, on account of dampness from the silage, lead to rapid "dry rot" of the lining. In the wood silo and in the brick lined silo it is im- portant to provide ample ventilation for the spaces between the studs, as well as for the roof and the in- side of the silo, and a good method of doing this is represented in Fig. 3, where the lower portion repre- sents the sill and the upper the plate of the silo. Between each pair of stucs where needed a i)4^-inch auger hole to admit air is bored through the siding and sheeting and covered with a piece of wire netting to keep out mice and rats. At the top of the silo on the inside the lining is only covered to within two inches of the plate and this space is covered with wire netting to prevent silage from being thrown over when filling. This arrangement permits dry air from out- side to enter at the bottom between each pair of studs and to pass up and into the silo, thus keeping the lining and studding dry and at the same time drying the under side of the roof and the inside of the lining as fast as exposed. In those cases where the sill is made of 2X4's cut in 2- foot lengths there will be space enough left between the curved edge of the siding and sheeting and the sill for air to enter so that no holes need be bored as described above and represented in Fig. 3. The openings at the plate should always be provided and the silo should have some sort of venti- lator in the roof. This ventilator may take the form of a cupola to serve for an ornament as well, or it may be a simple galvanized iron pipe 12 to 24 inches in diameter, rising a foot or two through the peak of the roof. 54 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Painting the Silo Joining. It is impossible to so paint a wood lining that it will not become wholly or partly saturated with the silage juices. This being true, when the lining is again ex- posed when feeding the silage out, the paint greatly retards the drying of the wood work and the result is deca}^ sets in, favored by the prolonged dampness. For this reason it is best to leave a wood lining naked or to use some antiseptic which does not form a water- proof coat. The cost of such a silo as that described in the fore- going pages, is estimated by Prof. King at about 12.75 cents per square foot of outside surface, when the lin- ing consists of two layers of half-inch split fencing, with a 3-ply Giant P. & B. paper between, and with one layer of split fencing outside, covered with rab- beted house siding. If built inside of the barn, with- out a roof and not painted, the cost would be reduced 3 cents per square foot, or more. Silos of this type, 30 feet deep, built outside, provided with a roof and including 6 feet of foundation, are stated to cost as follows: 13 feet inside diameter (80 tons capacity), $183.00; 15 feet diameter (105 tons capacity), $211.00; 21 feet diameter (206 tons capacity;, $298.00; and 25 feet diameter (300 tons capacity), $358.00. Complete specifications and building plans for a 300- ton silo, of the kind described in the preceding pages, are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage (Rand, Mc- Nally & Co., Chicago, publishers). The dimensions of this silo are : Diameter 26 feet, height 30 feet. According to our present knowledge this form of silo is most likely the best that can be built ; it is a somewhat complicated structure, calls for more time and skill for its construction, and costs more than other kinds of wooden circular silos, especially more than the stave silo soon to be described; but once built, it needs but little attention, and it is durable THE MODIFIED "WISCONSIN" SILO. 55 and economical ; being practically air-tight, the losses of food materials in the siloed fodder are reduced to a minimum. Modifications of tfie Wisconsin Silo. Several modifications of the Wisconsin silo have been proposed and have given good satisfaction ; one is described by Prof. Plumb in Purdue Experiment Station Bulletin No. 91, as follows: The studs are 18 inches apart, and for about half way up there are three layers of sheeting against the studs with tarred paper betwe-en. The upper half of the studs has but two layers of sheeting. The sheet- ing was made by taking 2x6-inch white pine planks and sawing to make four boards. The silo rests on a stone wall 18 inches deep and 16 inches wide. It is 30 feet high, 18 feet 4 inches inside diameter, and holds about 150 tons. An inexpensive but durable roof was placed upon it. The cost of this structure is as follows : As the work was all done by the regular farm help at odd hours, the item of labor is given at estimated cost : Studding, $1303 : sheeting, $63.00 ; 5 rolls paper, $6.25 ; nails, $2.40; cement for wall, $2.40; labor, $20.00; total, $107.08. The owner of the silo was so pleased with the service this one had rendered since its construction, that he built another like it during the summer of 1902. This silo is con- nected by a covered passage and chute with the feed- ing floor of the cattle barn. "» The construction of this type of silo calls for as much care in putting on sheeting, making doors and keeping out the air at these places and at the founda- tion, as is required with the more expensive form pre- viously described. The need for outer siding will depend in a large measure on circumstances. The farmer building the silo (living in Central Indiana ) has had no trouble with his silage freezing. In Northern Indiana the siding would naturally be more 56 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. necessary than in the southern part of this state, but generally speaking, siding is not necessary, although it does materially add to the attractiveness of the silo. Plastered Round Wooden Silos. Plastered round wooden silos have met with favor among farmers who have tried them, and are preferred by many for either the original or the modified Wis- consin silo, on account of their ease of construction and their durability. In the experience of H. B. Gurler, a well known Illinois dairyman, who has built several silos on his farm in the course of the last dozen years, the walls of plastered silos keep perfectly and Jo«4- ^ =/-<»■• J^^*^' 9%' Elevation and section of plast^ered rqund wooden ,sitQf PLASTERKD ROUND WOODEN SILO. 57 there is no waste from moldy silage along the wall ; neither is there any difficulty about cracking of the plaster, if this is put on properly and a good quality of cement is used. Gurler described the construction of his plastered silo in a recent number of Breeder's Gazette, accompanying his description with building plans of his silo. We have reproduced the latter, changed and improved in some points of minor impor- tance, and give below a brief description of the method of building silos of this type. (See Figs. g% and lo.) The foundation may be made of stone, brick or cement, and is carried to the proper distance above ground. Sills composed of pieces of 2x4, two feet long, beveled at the ends so as to be toe-nailed togeth- , Ma/ Aoep, -^ er'/xnd"- .f-oV/w^- At> p^ f/vcK f Z'n-t'six/i /a" centfrs. ,/«*/ Jsth S /.Intr /i "fhiCK 3'-<>' Lonp Fig. lO. Foundation plan and section of plastered round wooden silo. 58 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. er to form a circle of the same diameter as the interior diameter of the silo, are placed on the foundation bedded in asphalt or cement mortar, and on this the studding is erected, using two by fours, placed 15 or 16 inches apart. Inside sheeting was secured by having 6 inch fencing re-sawed, making the material a little less than ^^ inch thick. On this was nailed laths made from the same material, the laths being made with beveled edges so that when nailed onto the sheeting horizontally, the same way as the sheeting is put on, there are dove-tailed joints between the laths, to receive the cement, preventing its loosening until it is broken. The patent grooved laths might be used, but they cannot be sprung to a twenty-foot circle. Better than either kind of wooden laths, however, is wire netting or metal lath of one form or another, such as is now generally used in outside plastering of houses, nailed on strips of ix2's which are placed 15 inches apart, and nailed onto the studding through the sheeting. Metal lath will not take up moisture from the silage juices, and thus expand and possibly cause the plaster to crack, as would be likely to occur in case of wooden laths. For outside sheeting similar material as that used for inside sheeting may be used. If built inside of a barn or in a sheltered place, no outside sheeting would be required, although it would add greatly to the looks of the silo. Not being cer- tain that the inside sheeting, laths and cement offered sufficient resistance to the outward pressure in the silo, Mr. Gurler put on wooden hoops outside of the studding, of the same material as for the inside sheet- ing, putting it on double thickness and breaking joints. The silo described, which would hold 250-300 tons, cost $300, without a roof. Mr. Gurler considers this silo the best that can be built, and estimates that it will last for at least fifty years, if given a wash of cement every three years and if any cracks that may start be filled before the silo is filled again. H N ^ I *** ■ to 3 Si, 6o HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Brick-I^ined Silos. As an illustration of silos of this type we give be- low a description of the silo built in connection with the Dairy Barn of the Wisconsin Experiment Station: the accompan 3' ing figures, ii and 12, will show the exterior appearance of the barn and silo, and a plan of the eastern half of the first floor of this barn. The silo is circular in form, 18 feet inside diameter and 33 feet deep. It is a frame structure lined inside and outside with brick. On 2x6 inch uprights, two wTappings of ^s inch stuff, 6 inches wide, are put, breaking joints, with no paper between. Brick is laid tight against this lining, and on the brick surface is a heavy coating of Portland cement (i part cement, I part sand). On the outside brick is laid up against the lining with a small open space between (about % inch). The silo is filled from the third floor of the barn, the loads of corn being hauled directly on to this floor over the trestle showm to the right in Fig. II, and there run through the feed cutter. When the silage is taken out for feeding, it falls through a box chute to the main floor where it is received into a truck (Fig. 30) in which it is conveyed to the man- gers of the animals. An illustration and description of the original round silo, with a capacity of 90 tons, built at the same Station in 1891 are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage, where descriptions and illustrations of a number of other first-class round wooden silos will also be found, like those constructed at the Experi- ment Stations in New Jersey, Missouri, and South Dakota. Stave Silos. The stave silo is the simplest type of separate silo buildings, and partly for this reason, partly on account of its cheapness of construction, more silos of this PLAN OF WIS. STA. DAIRY BARN, 6l CJO. N Si Co I o (/) 1 - o o ■^■fi > c z If) H G) H H Pi > n :3 .^,^ r 01 62 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. kind have been built during the past few years than an}^ other silo type. Since their first introduction Stave Silos have been favorabl}^ mentioned by most writers on agricultural topics, as well as b}^ experiment station men. In a recent bulletin from Cornell Experiment Station, we find the stave silo spoken of as " the most practical and successful silo which can be constructed ' ' ; and the Ottawa Experiment Station is on record for the following statement in regard to the stave silo : ' ' From extensive observation and study of silos and silo con- struction, and from experience here with a number of different silos, it would appear that the stave silo is the form of cheap silos that for various reasons is most worthy of recommendation. It combines simplicity and cheapness of construction with the requisite con- ditions to preserve the silage in the ver}- best condition for feeding." Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfac- tory silos should be built as well as a No. i water tank. The first stave silos were built in this country in the beginning of the nineties ; the}' soon found some enthusiastic friends, while most people, includ- ing nearly all writers and lecturers on silo construc- tion, were inclined to be skeptical as to their practica- bility. It was objected that the staves would expand so as to burst the hoops when the silo was filled with green fodder ; that the}' would shrink after having been left empty during the summer months, so that the silo would fall to pieces, or at least so that it could not again be made air-tight ; and finalh', that the silage would freeze in such silos, and its feeding value thereb}- greath' lowered. In addition to this, it was claimed that a substantial stave silo would cost as much as a first-class ordinary all -wood silo of the same capacit5^ which would not have the objectionable features of the former. THE vSTAVE SILO 63 111 Spite of these objections the stave silo has, how- ever, gradually gained ground, until of late years it has quite generally been adopted in preference to other kinds of silos, particularly in the Eastern and Central states. This being a fact, it follows that the objec- tions previously made to the stave silos, can not be valid, that the staves do not swell so as to burst the hoops, or shrink so as to cause the silo to fall to pieces, or become leaky. As regards the danger from freez- ing of the silage, the criticisms of the stave silo are in order, as silage in outdoor stave silos will be likely to freeze in cold weather, in any of the Northern states or Canada ; but, according to the testimony of farmers who have had experience with frozen silage, this is more an inconvenience than a loss. The freez- ing does not injure the feeding value of the silage, or its palatability. When the silage is thawed out it is as good as ever, and eaten b}^ cattle with a relish. Why Stave Silos have Become Numerous. The main reasons why stave silos have been pre- ferred by a majority of farmers during late years are that they can be put up 6fesily, quickly, and cheaply, and the expense for a small silo of this kind is com- paratively small. Many a farmer has built a stave silo who could not afford to build a high-priced silo, and others have preferred to build two small silos for one large one, or a small one in addition to an old, larger one that they may already have. Manufactur- ing firms have, furthermore, made a specialty of stave- silo construction, and pushed the sale of such silos through advertisements and neat circulars. Having made a special business of the building of stave silos, and having had several 3'ears' experience as to the re- quirements and precautions to be observed in building such silos, these firms furnish silos complete with all necessary- fixtures, that are greatly superior to any 64 HOW To BUILD A SILO. which a farmer would be apt to build according to more or less incomplete directions. It follows that the stave silos sent out by manufact- uring firms will generally be more expensive than such as a farmer can build himself, because they are built better. It does not pay to build a poor silo, however, except to bridge over an emergency. Poor, cheap silos are a constant source of annoyance, expense and trouble, whether built square, rectangular or round. The cheap silos described in other places of this book have not been given for the purpose of en- couraging the building of such silos, but rather to show that if a farmer cannot afford to build a perma- nent, ^ 84 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. ^ commended to bed in the wall between the doors f^ inch iron rods, bent to the curve of the silo circle, and about 12 feet long. The two ends should be turned short at right angles, so as to anchor better in the mortar. In deep stone silos, which rise more than i8 feet above the surface of the ground, it will be safest to strengthen the wall between the two lower doors with iron tie rods, and, if such a silo is built of bould- ers, it will be well to use rods enough to make a com- plete Hne or hoop around the silo about two feet above the ground, as represented in Fig. 21. Fig. 21. Showing- metJwd of bedding iron rods in stone, brick, or coficrete walls to increase the streiigth. Too great care cannot be taken in making the part of the wall below and near the ground solid, and es- BRICK SILOS. 85 pecially its outer face, so that it will be strong where the greatest strain will come. It is best also to dig the pit for the silo large enough so as to have plenty of room outside of the finished wall to permit the earth filled in behind to be very thoroughly tamped, so as to act as a strong backing for the wall. This is urged because a large per cent, of the stone founda- tions of wood silos have cracked more or less from one cause or another, and these cracks lead to the spoiling of silage. Flat quarry rock, like limestone, will make the strongest silo wall, because they bond much better than boulders do, and when built of limestone they will not need to be reinforced much with iron rods. It wili be best even in this case, however, to use the iron tie rods between the lower two doors. (King.) Brick Silos. — In constructing a brick silo it will be well to guard the following points : Make the foun- dation of stone if practicable, and let the first course of brick come flush on the inside with the stone work. Bed a five-eighths inch iron hoop in the stone work in the upper part before laying the brick, in order to keep the pressure of brick from spreading the wall before the mortar becomes set and hard. Make a two- inch air space in the walls up to within one-third of the top. This will make a 14 inch wall of three courses of brick. If, however, the silo is to be over 24 feet inside diameter, then a four-brick wall is really necessary one-third the way up, then the next third of three bricks and the last third of two bricks. The air space should be in the outer part of the wall. Iron tie rods should also be laid around in the wall between the doors, as recommended in the stone work. It is also important that the brick should be wet when laid, otherwise the mortar in which they are laid will be dried out too rapidly. The walls should be plastered over very smoothly with a coat of rich cement, one- fourth to one-half inch thick, and then every two or 86 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. three years this should be well whitewashed with thin cement, to keep the wall protected from the effects of acid in the silage. King recommends that the floor jambs be made of 3x6's or 3x8's, rabbetted two in- ches deep to receive the door on the inside. The cen- ter of the jambs outside should be grooved and a tongue inserted projecting three-fourths of an inch outward to set back into the mortar, and thus secure a thoroughly air-tight joint between wall and jamb. The doors may be made of two layers of matched flooring wuth tarred paper between, and lag screw bolted to the jamb, so as to give a perfectly smooth face next to the silage. Stone Silos. — The stone silo should have a wall about two feet thick below the surface of the ground, and this may be laid in the cheaper grades of cement. Above the surface a good grade of Portland cement should be used. A thickness of wall of i8 inches at the surface of the ground is desirable, but this may be gradually reduced to 12 inches at the top, keeping the inner surface of the silo perpendicular. It is im- portant to have five-eighths inch iron rods, with an- gles on the ends, laid in the wall at intervals between each door, to keep the walls from cracking or spread- ing before the mortar or cement is thoroughly set. These rods may be of several lengths, laid to the curve of the wall, and the angled ends should lap by each other for three or four inches. It will be well to place silos a distance below the surface. This should not be deep enough on level land, however, to require great exertion to get out the silage. Under such circustances four feet is deep enough. (Plumb.) Details concerning the construction of stone, brick, and cement silos are given in Prof. Woll's Book on Silage, and in Bulletin No, 83 of Wisconsin Experi- ment Station, by Prof. King, as well as in numerous other silo pamphlets, and we shall not take up fur- SIIvOS IN THE BARN. 87 ther space here with the discussioji thereof. The same holds true with all other forms of silo construc- tion than those already explained, except the one kind, where silos are built in a ba}^ of the barn. In order to use the space economically, these silos are built in a rectangular form. Silos in the Barn. A large number of silos have been built in the barn, especially in the early days of silo construction. Where the necessary depth can be obtained and where the room can be spared, such silos can be built very easily and at a less cost than a separate structure, since lighter materials in construction may be used in this case, and no roof will be required for the silo. Silos built in this manner have generally the advant- age of being near at hand. Since feeding time comes twice a day, at least, throughout the winter and spring, a few steps saved in hauling the silage mean a good deal in the aggregate. Many farmers first made silos of this kind, and, later on, when familiar with the silage and siloing process, built additional separate structures. A very cheap rectangular silo may be constructed by erecting strong 3x10 studding around a bay or part of a bay, and lining wnth one-ply good matched lum- ber one inch thick. Such a silo has been in use at the Ottawa Station for eight years, and has given good results. The following detailed directions for chang- ing bays in a barn into silos were originally published by the N. H. Experiment Station. Remove floors, and if there is a barn cellar place sills on the bottom of this, and set 2x8 scantling ver- tically, bringing up the inside edges even with the sills of the barn. The bottom may or may not be cement- ed, according as the ground is wet or dry. If it be cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount of sharp sand or gravel will cover a bottom 16x16 and 88 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. turn up on the sides two feet, which wall give a tight silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square- edged and planed on one side, are best for boarding the inside of the silo ; these are to be put on in two courses, breaking joints, and, if thoroughly nailed, will give a tight silo. No tongueing or matching is needed. Tarred paper may be put between the board- ing, if desired, but I doubt if it is of great utility. At some point most easily accessible, an opening ex- tending nearly the height of the silo must be made, to put in the corn and take out the silage. The courses of boards should be cut shorter than the open- ing, to allow loose boards to be set in, lapping on the door studding and making an air-tight joint. For all this work medium lumber is good enough, and a very limited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools, which all farms should have, will enable most farmers to build their own silo. A few iron rods, one-half inch in diameter, may be necessary to prevent spread- ing b}^ side pressure, but this will depend upon the strength of the original frame of the barn. Narrow boards, from five to eight inches wide, are better than wide ones, as they are not likely to swell and split. Eight-penny nails for the first boarding and twelve- penny nails for the second course will hold the boards in place. A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from 50 cents to $1.00 for each ton of 'its capacity, accord- ing as all materfals, including lumber and stone, are charged, or only labor and nails, rods, and cement. A Small $jo Silo. — The illustration herewith given. Fig. 22, shows a small, square silo, built inside a Michigan barn ; dimensions 8 feet square and 22 feet deep. The capacity of the silo is about 28 tons. It is built of 2x8 horizontal studding, placed lapped at the corners, and held together with 5 twenty-penny nails, wire spikes, in each corner. The space be- A THIRTY-DOLLAR SILO. 89 Fig. 22. View of a silo Sfeet square; 22 Jeet deep, built inside of barn. ( Smith. ) tween these frames, from the bottom to the top, are 2>^, 2^2 3, 4, 5, and 5 feet. The siding consists of one thickness of matched white-pine flooring, six inches wide ; it is nailed on vertically and painted on both sides with Venetian red and oil. No paper is used. The corners are filled out by 2x6 scantling properly beveled and nailed in vertically. Each door is 2 feet wide, and made of sufficient length to lap an inch when placed between a certain pair of horizontal ribs ; toward the bottom of the silo the doors are, therefore, 2>^ feet high, while toward the top they are 5 feet high. Battens of 1x4 pine are placed over the cracks on the sides of the doors and nailed to the wall of the silo. No hinges are used, the pressure of the silage keeping the doors in place. The bottom frame, formed by the 2x8 studdings, 90 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. rests on the clay bottom of the barn cellar. The silo has no foundation, but the hard clay bottom is cement- ed with Buffalo cement, one inch thick, to keep out rats. Cost of materials, $30.00. The main objection to rectangular or square silos is that it is very difficult to make the corners perfectly tight, so that air will not enter at these points and cause more or less of the silage to spoil here. Even if carefully built, the lateral pressure in a silo filled with green fodder is often great enough to cause the boards to spring and thus let air in, unless special pre- cautions have been taken to prevent it. One way of avoiding this difficulty is to partially round off the corners, by placing a square timber, split diagonally, in each of the corners. Another plan is to bevel the edge of a ten-inch plank and nail it in the corners, filling in behind with dry dirt or sand. Sawdust has been recommended, but should not be used, as it will draw moisture and cause the plank and silo lining to decay. The space back of the plank may also be left empty. The arrangement for making the corners of a square or rectangular silo air-tight shown in Fig. 23 was pub- lished by the Geneva Experiment Station. The cor- Fig. 23. Corner of Rectangular Silo. Wheeler. OCTAGONAL SILOS. 91 ners are boarded up, as shown in the figure, a sheeting of paper going between the two courses of boards. The partitions at the corners can be put across after the first course of boards, instead of after the lining is in place, as shown in the illustration. The silos of the form mentioned may be strengthen- ed at the corners by the arrangement recommended by Prof. Spillman and shown in Fig. 24. Half-inch /6c I 1^1^. 24. Cross-sedioji of tJit studding at the corner of a rectangular silo. Spillman. bolts are used to hold the 2x4 and 2x6 together. The bolts are not more than eighteen inches apart from the bottom up to about the middle of the studding. Above the middle they may be two feet apart ; they may be reinforced by 3od. nails. Octagonal Silos. A number of octagonal silos have built in recent years, and find favor with their owners in most in- stances. If properly put up and care taken to fasten the girts securely at the corners with plenty of spikes, the octagonal silo is greatly superior to the square 92 HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. type and has nearly every advantage of the round si- lo, and can readily be constructed by anyone handy with tools with the assistance of the ordinary farm help. The foundation should be of stone or brick as de- scribed for various other forms of silos, and should be laid out with proper dimensions for the size decided upon. Brief details are here given for an octagonal silo of about the same capacity as a round silo, 20 feet in diameter and of equal height. If the foundation is laid out so that the corners are in the circumference of a circle 21 feet in diameter the horizontal girts will be about 8 feet long, and will be much stronger and better able to withstand the lateral pressure than the sides of a square silo of equal capac- JEi^. 25. Perspective showing construction of Frame, and double lining with paper between. The door is 7nade of two thicknesses with paper between, as shown. OCTAGONAL SILOS. 93 ity. Details of construction are shown in the drawings, Figs. 25 and 26. The girts should be 3x8 in. and spiked at the corners with 6 inch spikes, up to nearly one-half of the height of the silo, and 2x8 in. the rest of the way, fastened with 20 penny spikes. The girts should be 16 inches apart at the bottom for one-third the height of the silo. They may be 18 inches apart the second third of the distance, and above that the dis- tance between them can be increased till they are 2 feet or more at the very top. A double row^ may be used for a plate. Sound timber only should be used. Care should be taken to have the girts securely spiked at the corners, so that the joints will not give. The horizontal girt sections take the place of hoops in the round silo and must be strong. Not less than six or eight spikes should be used at each splice. One of the causes of failure in home-made silos of every kind is that the ordinary carpenter, who has probably never built a silo before, has but a limited idea of the pres- sure on the sides of a silo 30 or more feet deep, and does not realize the disappointment and loss occasioned by a poorly built silo. A simple method of getting the walls perpendicular is to first lay the sill, which should be fastened to the wall securely, by means of bolts set in the wall, and then erect at each corner and on the inside a temporary post or scantling to serve as a guide, braced in position so that it is perpendicular both ways, and the girts then laid and spiked in position, one above the other. The lining is, of course, put on up and down and should be matched and of good thickness, say 134^ or i^ if but one layer is used. If two layers, it need not be so thick, _^-inch flooring, and the outer layer not necessarily matched. The corners should be fitted as nicely as possible, and it is a good plan to block out the corners, as shown at Fig. 26, a, a, a, so that the tongues and grooves can be properly adjusted to each other. 94 HOW TO BUII.D A SILO. John Gould, a prominent dair}- writer and lecturer, recommends, where one thickness of matched lumber Fi^. 26. Shoct'ifig method of laying sill, and bolting same to foundation for an octagonal silo. is used in the above manner, that the lining be thor- oughly coated on the outside with heavy application of coal tar, or other similar substance, so as to prevent the air penetrating the pores of the lumber, and causing the silage to dry on to the inner surface. Any style of door can be used, but an effective con- tinuous door is shown in the illustration. If any of the girts be cut out to make the door spaces larger, the remaining ones should be correspondinglj- reinforced. The making of a roof for such a silo is a simple matter, and a dormer window will assist in filling, .al- though a trap door ma}^ be used in case the filling be done with a blower. Any style of siding maybe used. Such a silo if well built will be durable, satisfactory, have nearly all the advantages of a round silo, and in COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF SILOS. 95 addition will be a much more stable structure, requir- ing no tightening of the hoops from time to time. Bill of materials for a silo built to 21 -foot circle and 30 feet high are given below. The cost wall, of course, vary with the locality. Bill of materials for Octagonal Silo 20x30 feet out- side measurement : Foundation 10 perches. Girts iioo feet 3x8 ] 8 or 16 foot 900 " 2x8 j lengths. Rafters 230 feet 2x4x14 feet Siding 2500 feet Lining 2800 feet, 1 3^ inch thick, matched Dormer Window Nails and spikes 300 lbs Shingles 4 M Paint 6 gallons Cost of Different Kinds of Silos. The cost of a silo wall depend on local conditions as to price of labor and materials ; how much labor has to be paid for ; the size of the silo, etc. The compar- ative data for the cost of tvv^o round silos, 13 and 25 feet in diameter, and 30 feet deep, is given by Prof. King, as shown in the following table : Kinds of Silo. 13 Fbkt Inside Diameter. 25 Feet Inside Diameter. Without roof. With roof. Without roof. With roof. Stone Silo, S151 243 142 131 133 168 128 127 101 SI 75 273 230 190 185 185 222 183 144 S264 437 310 239 244 308 235 136 195 $328 Brick Silo 494 Brick-lined Silo, 4 inches thick . . Brick lined, 2 inches thick Lathed and plastered Silo Wood Silo with g-alvanized iron.. Wood Silo with paper Stave Silo 442 369 363 432 358 289 Cheapest wood Silo 240 96 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. During the spring of 1895 Prof. WoU made inqui- ries in regard to the cost of silos of different kinds (not only circular ones) , built b}' farmers in different states in the Union. The results of this inquiry are summarized briefly below. The cheapest silos are those built in bays of barns, as would be expected, since roof and outside lining are here already at hand. Number of silos included, fourteen ; ayerage capacit}^ 140 tons ; ayerage cost of silos, $92, or 65 cents per ton capacity. Next come the square or rectangular wooden silos. Number of silos included, twent3-fiye ; average capa- city, 194 tons; ayerage cost of silos, $285, or:^i.46 per ton capacity. The round silos follow closely the square wooden ones in point of cost. Onh'seyen silos were included, all but one of which were made of wood. Ayerage capacity, 237 tons; average cost $368, or $1.54 per ton capacity. The data for the six round wooden silos are as follows ; Ayerage capacit}-, 228 tons ; aver- age cost, $346, or $1.52 per ton capacity. The one round cement silo cost $500, and had a capacity of 300 tons (dimensions: diameter, 30 feet; depth 21 feet); cost per ton capacity, $1.67. The stone or cement silos are the most expensive in first cost, as is shown by the data obtained. Number of silos included, nine ; average capacit}', 288 tons ; ayerage cost, $577, or $1.93 per ton capacity. The great difference in the- cost of different silos of the same kind is apparent without much reflection. The range in cost per ton capacity in the 25 square wooden silos included in the preceding summar}^ was from 70 cents to $3.60. The former figure was ob- tained with a 144-ton silo, 20x18x20 feet; and the latter with a 140-ton silo, built as follows : Dimen- sions, 14x28x18 feet; 2x12x18 feet studdings, set 12 inches apart ; two thicknesses of dimension boards in- side, with paper between, sheeting outside with paper COMPARATIVE COST OF SII.OS. 97 nailed on studding ; cement floor. Particulars are lacking as regards the construction of the first silo, beyond its dimensions. It may be in order to state, in comparing the aver- age data for the cost of the different silo types, that the round silos were uniformly built better than the rectangular wooden silos included, and according to modern requirements, while many of the latter were old and of comparatively cheap construction, so that the figures cannot be taken to represent the relative value of rectangular and round silos built equally well. A good many figures entering into the preceding summaries are doubtless somewhat too low, if all labor put on the silo is to be paid for, for in some cases the ■cost of work done by the farmers themselves was not figured in with other expenses. As most farmers would do some of the work themselves, the figures giv- en may, however, be taken to represent the cash outlay in building silos. In a general way, it may be said that a silo can be built in the bay of a barn for less than 75 cents per ton capacity ; a round or a good square or rectangular wooden silo for about $1.50, aitd a stone or cement silo for about $2 per ton capacity, all figures being subject to variations according to lo- cal prices of labor and materials. Rennie, a Canadian writer, gives the following com- parative figures as to cost of silos ; Round stave silos, 75 cents per ton capacity ; round wooden silos, $1.25 and cement silos, $1.25 to $1.50 per ton capacity. The cost of stave silos will of course vary with the kind of lumber used, cost of labor, and other expenses, as in case of other types of silos. It is evident that stave silos can as a rule be built cheaper than other kinds of silos, both from the fact that less material is used in their construction, and because the labor bill is smaller. One of the first stave silos described, built in Ontario, Canada, cost $75.00 ; capacity, 140 tons. 98 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Other and better built stave silos have been put up for $ioo for a loo-ton silo, and this may be considered an average price for such a silo, made of white pine, hemlock or any lumber that is cheapest in the particu- lar locality where the silo is to be built. If built of Southern cypress, and complete with conical roof and doors, the price of stave silos will in the North come to about $1.50 per ton capacity, small silos being a little dearer, and larger ones a little cheaper than this average figure. Estimating Materials and Cost of Silos. Several writers on silo construction have published bills of materials used in the construction of silos of moderate sizes of the following three types : Wiscon- sin Improved Silo, Modified Wisconsin Silo, and Stave Silo. Farmers contemplating building a silo, can use these estimates for figuring out the approximate cost of silos of the three kinds under his conditions as to cost of materials and labor. The estimates are made for silos built in the open, on level land. On hillsides deeper walls maj^ be made to advantage, and where the silo is located within a building no roof will be needed. Consequently various factors may alter the application of these estimates, which are only offered as suggestive, with the hope they may prove helpful. The first three estimates of materials are published by Prof. Plumb, while the others have been furnished by Professors King and Withycombe. Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin l77ip7'oved Silos. Size, 30 feet deep, 14 feet diameter. Capacity 90 tons. Brick — 3375 for foundation, I foot thick, 3 feet deep. Studs — 50 pieces 2x4, 16 feet long-. Studs— 50 pieces 2x4, 14 feet long-. Flooring for doors — 32 feet, 4 matched. Sheeting^— 3000 feet. Yz inch, resawed from 2x6—16 foot plank sawed 3 times, dressed one side to uniform thickness, for inside lining- of two layers. ESTIMATE OF MATERIALS. 99 L/ining- — 1500 feet of same for outside. Tar building- paper — 200 yards, water- and acid proof. - Nails— 200 lbs. 8-penny ; 200 lbs. 10-penny. Spikes— 20 lbs. Rafters — 22, 2x4, 10 feet long, for usual ridge roof. Sheeting- for roof — 350 feet of 16 foot boards. Shing-les- 3000. Shingle nails — 12 lbs. Dormer window for filling through. Paint — 7 gallons, providing- two coats. Cement — 2 barrels, for cementing- bottom. Estimate of Material for a Modified Wisco7isin Silo. Same capacity as preceding-. Brick-350 for foundation, 8 in. wide, 5 in. thick. S.tuds-50 pieces 2x4, 16 ft. long-. Studs-50 pieces 2x4, 14 ft. long. Sheeting--3000 ft. >4 in. resawed from 2x6, 16 ft. plank sawed three times, dressed to uniform thickness for inside lining- of two layers. Tar building- paper 200 yards water-and acid proof. Nails-150 lbs. 8 penny. Spikes-12 lbs. No outer siding, roof or floor is figured on or pro- vided for in this construction. Estimate of Materials Jor Stave Silo. Size 12x28 ft. capacity, 60 tons. Brick-1800 for foundation, i foot thick, 2 ft. deep. Staves-77 2x6, 16 ft. dressed 4 sides. Staves-77 2x6, 12 ft. dressed 4 sides. Rods-10, 19>^ ft. long- Yz in iron, with yi threaded ends and nuts. Staples-2 gross ^x2 in. Iron tighteners-20 holding- ends of hoops. Rafters-2 2x6 pieces, 14 ft. long for roof center. Rafters-2 2x6 pieces 13 ft. long for roof, next center. Side rafters-48 ft. 2x4 pieces. Roof sheeting-lyO ft. common. Tin sheeting-196 ft. Cement for floor-2 bbls. LofC. lOO HOW TO BUILD A SILO. Estimate of Materials for Wisconsin Improved Silo. Size, 30 ft. deep, 20 ft. inside diameter, capacity, 200 tons. Stone foundation, 7.5 perch. Studs, 2x4, 14 and 16 feet, 1,491 feet. Rafters, 2x4, 12 feet, 208 feet. Roof boards, fencing, 500 feet. Shingles, 6 M. Siding, rabbeted, 2,660 feet. Lining, fencing, ripped, 2,800 feet. Tarred paper, 740 lbs. Coal tar, i barrel. Hardware, $6.00. Painting (60 cents per sqaure) $13.20. Cementing bottom, /5.00. Carpenter labor (at $3 per M. and board) $33.17. The estimated cost of the last silo is $246.39; it is an outside, wholly independent structure, except con- nected with the barn in the manner shown in fig. 20, with entrance and feeding chute toward the barn. Estimate of Materials for Stave Silo. 12 ft. in diameter, 24 ft. deep, capacity, 49 tons. 1 2-3 yards of rock or g-ravel. 4 barrels of sand. 1 barrel of cement. 2260 ft. tong-ued and g-rooyed staves. 72 ft. 3x6, 24 ft. door frames. 358 ft. }i in. round iron for hoops and bolts, weig"ht, 465 lbs. 9 lug-s. 54 nuts. Preservative (SI. 50). If the silo is constructed outside, materials for roof and painting are to be added to the preceding list. Although most of the foregoing descriptions of stave silos do not mention tongued and grooved staves, the latest practices indicate that, if properly done, it is a PRESERVATION OF SILOS. lOI decided advantage to have the staves matched, also slightly beveled. The silo made in this manner will not be so liable to go to pieces when empty. This is the chief objection to the stave silo, and numerous cases are on record where stave silos standing in ex- posed places have blown over when empty. It is recommended, therefore, that stave silos be attached, to the barn by means of a feeding chute, and in the case of high or exposed silos it is well to make use of guy rods or wires in addition. Indeed, some manu- facturers of stave silos now recommend these on some of their silos, and make provision for them. Preservation of Silos, A silo building will not remain sound for many years unless special precautions are taken to preserve it. This holds good of all kinds of silos, but more es- pecially of wooden ones, since a cement coating in a stone silo, even if only fairly well made, will better resist the action of the silage juices than the wood- work will be able to keep sound in the presence of moisture, high temperature, and an abundance of bacterial life. In case of wooden silos it is necessary to apply some material which will render the wood impervious to water, and preserv^e it from decay. A great variety of preparation have been recommended and used for this purpose. Coal tar has been applied by a large number of farmers, and has been found effective and durable. It may be put on either hot, alone or mixed with resin, or dissolved in gasoline. If it is to be applied hot, some of the oil contained in the tar must pre- viously be burnt off. The tar is poured into an iron kettle, a handful of straw is ignited and thrown into the kettle, which will cause the oil to flash and burn off. The tar is sufficiently burnt when it will string out in fine threads, a foot or more in length, from a stick which has been thrust into the blazino kettle and I02 HOW TO BUILD A SILO. afterward plunged into cold water. The fire is then put out by placing a tight cover over the kettle. The kettle must be kept over the fire until the silo lining has been gone over. A mop or a small whisk broom cut short, so it is stiff, may serve for putting on the tar. Coal tar and gasoline have also been used by many with good success. About half a gallon of coal tar and two-thirds of a gallon of gasoline are mixed at a time, stirring it while it is being put on. Since gasoline is highly inflammable, care must be taken not to have any fire around when this mixture is applied. Asbestos paint has also been recommended for the preservation of silo walls, and would seem to be well adapted for this purpose. Many silos are preserved by application of a mix- ture of equal parts of boiled linseed oil and black oil, or one part of the former to two of the latter. This mixture, applied every other year, before filling time, seems to preserve the lining perfectly. In building round silos, it is recommended topaint the boards with hot coal tar, and placing the painted sides face to face. Manufacturers of stave silos and fixtures put up special prepartions for preserving th-e silos, which they send out with the staves. These are generally simply compounds similar to those given in the pre- ceding, and are sold to customers at practically cost price. Walls of wooden silos that have been preserved by one or the other of these methods will only keep sound and free from decay if the silos are built so as to insure good ventilation. Preservatives will not save a non-ventilated silo structure from decay. Plastered wooden silos are preserved, as we have seen by applying a whitewash of pure cement as often as found necessary, which may be every two or three years. The same applies to stone and cement silos. The degree of moisture and acidity in the silage corn PRESERVATION OF SILOS. I03 will doubtless determine how often the silo walls have to be gone over with a cement wash; a very acid silage, made from immature corn will be likely to soften the cement coating sooner than so-called sweet silage made from nearly mature corn. A considerable number of wood siles are in use that were not treated on the inside with any preservative or paint and have stood very well. Indeed, some writers maintain that if the silo is well protected on the outside that a stave silo receives little if any benefit from inside coatings. CHAPTER III. SILAGE CROPS. Indian Corn. — Indian corn is, as has already been stated, the main silage crop in this country, and is likely to always remain so. Before explaining the filling of the silo and the making of silage, it will be well, therefore, to state briefly the main conditions which govern the production of a large crop of corn for the silo, and to examine which varieties of corn are best adapted for silage making. Soils best adapted to corn culture a?id preparation of land. The soils best adapted to the culture of Indian corn are well-drained medium soils, loams, or sandy loams, in a good state of fertility. Corn will give best results coming after clover. The preparation of the land for growing corn is the same whether ear corn or forage is the object. Fall plowing is practiced by many successful corn growers. The seed is plant- ed on carefully prepared ground at such a time as con- venient and advisable. Other things being equal, the earlier the planting the better, after the danger of frost is ordinarily over. "The early crop may fail, but the late crop is almost sure to fail." After plant- ing, the soil should be kept pulverized and thoroughly cultivated. Shallow cultivation will ordinarily give better results than deep cultivation, as the former method suffices to destroy the weeds and to preserve the soil moisture, which are the essential points sought in cultivating crops. The cultivation should be no more frequent than is necessary for the complete erad- ication of weeds. It has been found that the yield of corn may be decreased by too frequent, as well as by insufiicient cultivation. The general rule may be VARIETIES OF CORN FOR SILAGE. 105 given to cultivate as often, but no oftener, than is necessary to kill the weeds, or to keep the soil pulver- ized. The cultivator may be started to advantage as soon as the young plants break through the surface, and the soil kept stirred and weeds detroyed, until culti- vation is no longer practicable. 1ZZD Varieties of corn for the silo. — The best corn for the silo, in any locality, is that variety which will be reasonably sure to mature before frost, and which produces a large amount of foliage and ears. The best varieties for the New England States, are the Leaming, Sanford, and Flint corn ; for the Middle States, Leaming, White and Ye-llow Dent ; in the Central and Western States, the Leaming, Sanford, Flint and White Dent will be apt to give the best re- sults, while in the South, the Southern Horse Tooth, Mosby Prolific, and other large dent corns are pre- ferred. For Canada, Rennie gives, as the varieties best adapted tor the silo ; for Northern Ontario, North Dakota and Compton's Early Flint ; for Central On- tario, larger and heavier-yielding varieties may be grown, viz.. Mammoth Cuban and Wisconsin Earliest White Dent. It is useless to grow a variety for silage w^hich will not be in a firm, dough state by the time the first frosts are likel}^ to appear. In the early stages of siloing corn in this country, the effort was to obtain an immense yield of fodder per acre, no matter whether the corn ripened or not. Large yields were, doubtless, often obtained with these big varieties, although it is uncertain that the actual jdelds ever came up to the claims made. Bailey's Mammoth Ensilage Corn, "if planted upon good corn land, in good condition, well matured, with proper cultivation," was guaranteed to produce from forty to to seventy-five tons of green fodder to the acre, " just right for ensilage." We now^ know^ that the immense io6 SILAGE CROPS. Southern varieties of corn, when grown to an imma- ture stage, as must necessarily be the case in Northern States, may contain less than ten per cent, of dry matter, the rest (more than nine-tenths of the total weight) being made up of water. This is certainly a remarkable fact, when we remember that skim-milk, even when obtained by the separator process, will con- tain nearly ten per cent, of solid matter. In speaking of corn intended to be cut for forage at an immature stage. Professor Robertson, of Canada, said at a Wisconsin Farmers' Institute, " Fodder corn sowed broadcast does not meet the needs of milking cows. Such a fodder is mainly a device of a thought- less farmer to fool his cows into believing that they have been fed, when they have only been filled up." The same applies with equal strength to the use of large, immature Southern varieties for fodder, or for the silo, in Northern States. In comparative variety tests with corn in the North, Southern varieties have usuallj^ been found to furnish larger quantities per acre of both green fodder and to- tal dry matter in the fodder, than the smaller North- ern varieties. As an average of seven culture trials, Professor Jordan thus obtained the following results at the Maine Station. Comparative Yiei^ds of Southern Corn and Maine F1E1.D Corn Grown in Maine, 1888-1893. Southern Corn. Maine Field Corn. Green Fod- der. Dry Substance. Digestible Matter. Green Fod- der. Dry Substance. Dig-estible Matter. Per Cent. I,bs. Per ct. Lbs. Per Cent. Lbs. Per Ct. Lbs. Maximum. .. Minimum — Averag^e 46,340 26,295 34,761 16.58 12,30 14.50 6,237 3,234 5,036 69 61 65 3,923 2,102 3,251 29,400 14,212 22,269 25.43 13,55 18.75 7.064 2,415 4,224 78 70 72 4,945 1,715 3,076 TIME OF CUTTING CORN FOR vSILAGK. 107 The average percentage digestibility of the dry sub- stance IS 65 per cent for the Southern corn, and 72 per cent for the Maine field corn, all the results obtained for the former varieties being lower than those ob- tained for the latter. While the general result for the five years, so far as the yield of digestible matter is concerned, is slightly in favor of the Southern varie- ties, the fact should not be lost sight of that an aver- age of 6^ tons more of material has annually to be handled over several times, in case of these varieties of corn, in order to gain 175 pounds more of digestible matter per acre ; we, therefore, conclude that the smaller, less watery, variet}^ of corn really proved the more profitable. At other Northern stations similar results, or results more favorable to the Northern varieties, have been obtained, showing that the modern practice of growing only such corn for the silo as will mature in the par- ticular locality of each farmer, is borne out by the results of careful culture tests. Time of cutting corn for the silo. In order to deter- mine at what stage of growth corn had better be cut when intended for the silo, it is necessary to ascertain the amounts of food materials which the corn plant contains at the different stages, and the proportion of different ingredients at each stage. From careful and exhaustive studies of the changes occurring in the composition of the corn plant, which have been con- ducted both in this country and abroad, we know that as the corn approaches maturity the nitrogenous or flesh- forming substances decrease in proportio?i to the other components, while the non-nitrogenous compon- ents, especially starch (see Glossary), increase very markedly ; this increase continues until the crop is nearly mature, so long as the leaves are still green. Several experiment stations have made investigations in regard to this point. As an illustration we give below data obtained by Prof. I^add, in an investiga- io8 SILAGE CROPS. tion in which fodder corn was cut and analyzed at five different stages of growth, from full tasseling to maturity. Chemicai. Chan'ges in the Corn Crop. Yield per Acre. Gross Weight Water in the Crop Dry Matter Ash Crude Protein Crude Fiber . Nitrogen-free Kxtract (starch, sugar, etc) Crude Fat Tas- seled, July 30 Pounds 18045 16426 1619 138 9 239.8 514 2 653 9 72.2 Silked Aug. 9. Pounds 25745 22666 3078 201 . 3 436 8 872.9 Milk, Aug. 21 Pounds 32600 27957 4643 232 2 478.7 1262.0 1399 3 j 2441 3 167. 8i 228.9 Glazed Ripe Sept. 7,! Sept. 23 Pounds Pounds 32295 1 28460 25093 20542 7202 7918 302.5 364 2 643.9' 677 8 2755. 9| 1734 4239.8:4827.6 260. O; 314.3 The data given above show how rapidly the yield of food materials increases with the advancing age of the corn, and also that the increase during the later stages of growth comes largely on the nitrogen-free extract (starch, sugar, etc.). The results as to this point obtained at several ex- periment stations have been summarized and are given in the following table, showing the increase in food ingredients during the stages previous to maturity. We thus find that the largest amount of food ma- terials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total growth in height it has, as shown by the results given in the last table, attained only one-third to one- half of the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to maturity; hence we see the wisdom of postponing cut- ting the corn for the silo, as in general for forage pur- poses, until rather late in the season, when it can be done without danger of frost. The table given in the preceding, and our discussion FOOD INGREDIENTS AT VARIOUS STAGES. 109 Increase in Food Ingredients from Tassewng to Maturity. Experiment Station. Cornell, N. Y. Geneva, N. Y. New Hamp. Pennsylvania Vermont. Averag-es of Variety Pride of the North Pride of the North King- Philip Av. of 4Var. Av.of lOVar Av. of 2 Var all trials Stage of Maturity-. First Cutting. Bloom Tasseled (( a Bloom Ivast Cutting >.2 Mature Nearly mature Mature G-lazed Mature Glazed Gain in per cent between first and last cutting. ■H o 150 217 389 112 155 122 204 193 90 134 183 50 50 81 98 cc 129 169 374 300 335 462 84 130 230 265 SO far, have taken into account only the total, and not the digestible components of the corn. It has been found through careful digestion trials that older plants are somewhat less digestible than young plants. There is, however, no such difference in the digestibility of the total dry matter or its com- ponents as is found in the total quantities obtained from plants at the different stages of growth, and the total yields of dig'estible matter in the corn will there- fore be greater at maturity, or directly before this time, than at any earlier stage of grow^th. Hence we find that the general practice of cutting corn for the* silo at the time when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, when the kernels have become rather firm, and are dented or beginning to glaze, is good science and in accord with our best knowledge on the subject. Other reasons why cutting at a late period of growth is preferable in siloing corn are found in the fact that the quality of the silage made from such corn is greatly better than that obtained from green 1 lO SILAGE CROPS. immature corn, and in the fact that the sugar is most abundant in the corn plant in the early stages of ear development, but the loss of non-nitrogenous com- ponents in the silo falls first of all on the sugar; hence it is the best policy to postpone cutting until the grain is full-size and the sugar has largely been changed to starch. It does not do, however, as related under Uniformity in the first chapter to delaj'- the cutting so long that the corn plant becomes too dry, for the reasons stated. Silage does not spoil when too wet, but will mold if too dry. Experience will be the best guide, but the foregoing pages should enable the reader to form the right idea as to time for filling, which to secure the best results, is nearly as important as to have ma- terial with which to fill the silo. Methods of Planting Corn. When the corn crop is intended for the silo, it should be planted somewhat closer than is ordinarily the case when the production of a large crop of ear corn is the primary object sought. Thin seeding favors the development of well- developed, strong plants, but not the production of a large amount of green forage. The number of plants which can be brought to perfect development on a cer- tain piece of land depends upon the state of fertility of the land, the character of the season, especiallj" whether it is a wet or a dry season, as well as on other factors, hence no absolute rule can be given as to the best thickness of planting corn for the silo. Numerous •experiments conducted in different parts of the country have shown, however, that the largest quan- tities of green fodder per acre can ordinarily be ob- tained by planting the corn in hills three or even two feet apart, or in drills three or four feet apart, with plants six or eight inches apart in the row. It makes little if any difference, so far as the yield obtained is concerned, whether the corn be planted in hills or in drills, when the land is kept free from weeds METHODS OF PLANTING CORN. Ill in both cases, but it facilitates the cutting considerably to plant the corn in drills if this is done by means of a oorn harvester or sled cutter; as is now generally the case. The yield seems more dependent on the num- ber of plants growing on a certain area of land than on the arrangements of planting the corn. Hills four feet each way, with four stalks to the hill, with thus usually give about the same yields as hills two feet apart, with two stalks in the hill, or drills four feet apart, with stalks one foot apart in the row, etc. The question of planting corn in hills or in drills is there- fore largely one of greater or less labor in keeping the land free from weeds by the two methods. This will depend on the character of the land; where the land is uneven, and check-rowing of the corn difficult, or when the land is free from weeds, drill planting is preferable, while, conversely, on fields where this can be done, the corn may more easily and cheaply be kept free from weeds if planted in hills and check-rowed. Since one of the advantages of the silo is the economi- cal production and preservation of a good quality of feed, the economy and certainty in caring for the growing crop is of considerable importance, and gen- erally, planting in hills not too far apart will be found to facilitate this, especially during wet seasons. Corn is planted in hills or in drills, and not broad- cast, whether intended for the silo, or for production of ear corn; when sown broadcast, the corn cannot be kept free from weeds, except by hand labor. More seed is moreover required, the plants shade each other and will therefore not reach full development, from lack of sufficient sunshine and moisture, and a less amount of available food constituents per acre will be produced. Other Silage Crops. Clover. -Clover is second to Indian corn in im- portance as a silage crop. We are but beginning to 112 SILAGE CROPS. appreciate the value of clover in modern agriculture. It has been shown that the legumes, the family to which clover belongs, are the only common forage plants able to convert the free nitrogen of the air into compounds that may be utilized for the nutrition of animals. Clover and other legumes, therefore, draw largely on the air for the most expensive and valuable fertilizing ingredient, nitrogen, and for this reason, as well as on account of their deep roots, which bring fertilizing elements up near the surface, they enrich the land upon which they grow. Being a more nitro- genous feed than corn or the grasses, clover supplies a good deal of the protein compounds required by farm animals for the maintenance of their bodies and for the production of milk, wool, or meat. By feeding clover, a smaller purchase of high-priced concentrated feed stuffs, like flour-mill or oil-mill refuse products, is therefore rendered necessary than when corn is fed; on account of its high fertilizing value it furthermore enables the farmer feeding it to maintain the fertility of his land. When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein content it has an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production. A Wisconsin dairy farmer who has siloed large quantities of clover es- timates the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to $1, against $1 to $1.25 per ton of corn silage. His average yields per acre of green clover are about twelve tons. Clover silage is superior to clover hay on account of its succulence and greater palatability, as well as its higher feeding value. The last-mentioned point is mainly due to the fact that all the parts of the clover plant are preserved in the silo, with a small unavoid- able loss in fermentation, while in hay- making, leaves and tender parts, which contain about two- thirds of CLOVER . II the protein compounds, are often largely lost by abrasion. Clover may easily and cheaply be placed in a modern silo and preserved in a perfect condition. The failures reported in the early stages of silo filling were largely due to a faulty construction of the silo. Clover does not pack as well as the heavy green corn, and therefore requires to be cut and w^eighted, or calls for greater depth in the silo, in order that the air may be sufficietitly excluded. When to Cut Clover for the Silo. The yield of food materials obtained from clover at different stages of growth has been studied by a number of scientists. The following table giving the results of an investi- gation conducted by Professor Atwater will show the total quantities of food materials secured at four different stages of growth of red clover. Y1E1.D PER Acre of Red Ci^over — in Pounds. Stage of Green Dry Crude Crude N-free Crude Ash Cutting. Weig-ht. Matter. Protein Fiber. Extract Fat. Just before bloom 3,570 1,385 198 384 664 24 115 Full bloom. . 2,650 1,401 189 390 682 Z7> 107 Nearly out of bloom 4,960 1,750 230 523 837 31 129 Nearly ripe. . 3,910 1,523 158 484 746 36 99 Professor Hunt obtained 3,600 pounds of ha^^ per acre from clover cut in full bloom, and 3,260 pounds when three-fourths of the heads were dead. The yields of dry matter, in the two cases were 2,526 pounds, and 2,427 pounds respectively. All compo- nents, except crude fibre (see Glossary), yielded less per acre in the second cutting. Jordan found the same result, comparing the yields and composition of clover cut when in bloom, some heads dead, and heads all dead , the earliest cutting giving the maximum .114 SILAGE CROPS. yield of dry matter, and of all components except crude fibre. The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for hay making, and we notice that the teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this prac- tice. Alfalfa (lucern) is the great, coarse forage plant of the West, and during late years, it is being grown con- siderably in the Northern and Central States. In irri- gated districts it will 3'ield more food materials per acre of land than perhaps an 3' other crop. Four to five cuttings, each yielding a ton to a ton and a half of hay, are common in these regions, and the yields ob- tained are often much higher. In humid regions three cuttings ma}^ ordinarily be obtained, each of one to one and a half tons of hay. While the large bulk of the crop is cured as hay, alfalfa is also of considerable importance as a silage crop in dairy sections of the Western States. As with red clover, reports of failure in siloing alfalfa are on record, but first-class alfalfa silage can be readily made in deep, modern silos, when the crop is cut when in full bloom, and the plants are not allowed to wilt much before being run through a cutter and siloed. In the opinion of dairymen who have had large expe- rience in siloing alfalfa, sweet alfalfa silage is more easily made than good alfalfa hay. What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares fa- vorably with clover silage, both in chemical composi- tion and in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-form- ing substances (protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy •cows. Cow peas are to the South what alfalfa is to the cow PEAS 115 West, and when properly handled makes excellent and most valuable silage. The cow peas are sown early in the season, either broadcast, about \}i bushels to the acre and turned under with a one-horse turning plow, or drilled in rows about two feet apart. They are cut with a mower when one-half or more of the peas on the vines are fully ripe, and are immediately raked in winrows and hauled to the silo, where they are run through a feed cutter and cut into inch lengths. Cow-pea silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor ; farmers who have had considerable practical experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal for cows and sheep. It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is considered greatl}^ superior to pea- vine hay. In feed- ing experiments at a Delaware experiment station six pounds of pea-vine silage fully took the place of one pound of wheat bran, and the product of one acre was found equivalent to two tons of bran. Instead of placing only cow peas in the silo, alternate loads of cow peas and corn may be cut and filled into the silo, which will make a very satisfactory mixed silage. A modification of this practice is known as Getty' s method, in which corn and cow peas are grown in alternate rows, and harvested together with a corn harvester. Corn for this combination crop is prefer- ably a large Southern variety, drilled in rows 4^ feet apart, with stalks 9 to 16 inches apart in the row. Whippoorwill peas are planted in drills close to the rows of corn when this is about six inches high, and has been cultivated once. The crop is cut when the corn is beginning to glaze, and when three-fourths of the pea pods are ripe. The corn and peas are tied into bundles and these run through the silage cutter. The cut corn and peas are carefully levelled off and trampled down in the silo, and about a foot cover of green corn, straw or Il6 SILAGE CROPS. cotton-seed hulls placed on top of the siloed mass. As in case of all legumes, it is safest to wet the cover thoroughly with at least two gallons of water per square foot of surface. This will seal the siloed mass thoroughly and will prevent the air from working in from the surface and spoiling considerable of the silage on top. A similar effort of combining several feeds for the silo is found in the so-called Robertson Ensilage Mix- ture for the silo, named after Prof. Robertson in Canada; this is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and horse beans in the proportion of i acre corn, ^ acre horse beans, and % acre sunflowers. The principle back of the practice is to furnish a feed richer in protein substances than corn, and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities of expensive pro- tein foods like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experi- ments conducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several experiment stations have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain ration of milch cows without causing loss of flesh or lessening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent to three or four pounds of grain feeds. The practice has not, however, been adopted to any great extent, so iar as is known, owing to the difficulty of securing a •good quality of silage from the mixture and of grow- ing the horsebeans successfully. Soja beajis (soy beans) are another valuable silage •crop. According to the U. S. Department of Agricul- ture the soy bean is highly nutritive, gives a heavy yield, and is easily cultivated. The vigorous late varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is fre- quently siloed with corn (2 parts of the latter to i of the former), and like other legumes it improves the silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of corn silage. Of other Southern crops that are used MISCEIvIvANEOUS SILAGE CROPS. II7 for silage crops may be mentioned Kaffir com, chicken corn and teosinte. Sorgum is sometimes siloed in the Western and Middle States. It is sown in drills, 3^ inches apart, with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and is cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or be- fore. According to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all ex- cellent for silage. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn, and they remain green far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach 20 tons, or one-half as much again as a good crop of corn. These considerations lead Professor Shelton to pronounce sorghum greatly superior to corn as silage materials, in Kansas, and generally throughout the Central Western States. The Ottawa (Can.) states that sorghum, where it can be grown makes an excellent crop for silage. It needs to be cut, the best length, as in the case of corn be- ing three-quarters or an inch long, or less. Miscellayieous Silage Crops. In Northern Europe, especially in England, and in the Scandinavian countries, meadow grass and after-math {rowen) are usually siloed; in England, at the present time^ large- ly in stacks. In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar- beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a low cost, stock feeders and dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent of water; it packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, and es- pecially clover and other crops of similar character. ,If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is pre- il8 SILAGE CROPS. ferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp are often siloed in alternate layers in pits 3 to 4 feet deep, and covered with boards and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp can also be successfully placed in any modern deep silo, and is preferably siloed in such silos as there will then be much smaller losses of food materials than in case of shallow silos or trenches in the field. Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash and carbohydrates (nutr. ratio 1:5.7; see Glossary). Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn silage. Occasional mention has furthermore been made in the agricultural literature of the siloing of a large number of plants, or products, like vetches, small grains (cut green), cabbage leaves, sugar beets, potatoes, potato leaves, turnips, brewers' grains, apple pomace, refuse from corn and pea canning factories; twigs, and leaves, and hop vines; even fern (brake), thistles, and ordinary weeds have been made into silage, and used with more or less success as foods for farm animals. At a recent convention of the Cal. Dairy Association, the president, Mr. A. P. Martin, stated that the best silage he ever made, besides corn, was made of w^eeds. A piece of wheat which was sowed early, was drowned out, and the field came up with tar weed and sorrel. This was made into silage, and when fed to milch cows, produced most satisfactory results. Alvord says that a silo may be found a handy and profitable thing to have on a farm even if silage crops are not regularly raised to fill it. There are always waste products, green or half-dry, wnth coarse ma- terials like swale hay, that are generally used for compost or bedding, which may be made into pala- table silage. A mixture, in equal parts, of rag- weed, swamp grass or swale hay, old corn stalks or straw, and second-crop green clover, nearly three- fourths of MISCEIvI.ANKOUS SII.AGE CROPS. II9 which would otherwise be almost useless, will make a superior silage, surprising to those who have never tried it. The following description of the contents filled into a New York silo, which was used as a sort of catch- all, is given by the same writer: i, 18 in. deep of green oats; 2, 6 in. of red clover; 3, 6 in. of Canada field peas; 4, 3 in. of brewers' grains; 5, 2 feet of whole corn plants, sowed broadcast, and more rag- weed than corn; 6, 5 in. of second-crop grass; 7, 12 in. of sorghum: 8, a lot immature corn cut in short lengths. The silage came out pretty acid, but made good forage, and was all eaten up clean. Damaged crops like frosted beets, potatoes, cabbages, etc. ; rutabages which showed signs of de- cay, and clover that could not be made into hay be- cause of rain, may all be placed in a silo and thus made to contribute to the food supply on the farm. A peculiar use of the silo is reported from California, viz., for rendering foxtail in alfalfa fields harmless in feeding cattle. The foxtail which almost takes the first crop of alfalfa in many parts of California, is a nutritious grass, but on account of its beards, is dan- gerous to feed. By siloing the crop the grass is said to be rendered perfectly harmless; the alfalfa- foxtail silage thus obtained is eaten by stock with great relish and without any injurious effects (Wall). CHAPTER IV. HOW TO MAKE SII.AGE. Filling the Silo, A. Indian Corn. As previously stated, corn should be left in the field before cutting until it has passed through the dough stage i. e., when the kernels are well dented, or glazed, in case of flint varieties. Where very large silos are filled, and in cases of ex- treme dry weather when the corn is fast drying up, it will be well to begin filling the silo a little before it has reached this stage, as the greater portion of the corn would otherwise be apt to be too dry. There is, however, less danger in this respect now than former- ly, on account of our modern deep silos, and because we have found that water applied directly to the fodder in the silo acts in the same way as water in the fodder, and keeps the fermentations in the silo in check and in the right track. Ctitting the Corn in the Field. The cutting of corn for the silo is usually on small farms done by hand by means of a corn knife. Manj^ farmers have been using self-raking and binding corn harvesters for this pur- pose, while others report good success with a sled or platform cutter. If the corn stands up well, and is not of a very large variety, the end sought may be reached in a satisfactory manner by either of these methods. If, on the other hand, much of the corn is down, hand cutting is to be preferred. A number of different makes of corn harvesters and corn cutters are now on the market; and, it is very likely that hand' cutting of fodder corn will be largely done away with in years to come, at least on large farms, indeed, it looks as if the day of the corn knife was passing away, CUTTING THE CORN. 121 and as if this implement will soon be relegated to ob- scurity with the sickle of our fathers' time. If a corn harvester is used, it will be found to be a great advantage to have the bundles made what seems rather small. It will take a little more twine, but the loaders, the haulers, the unloaders, and even the Silage Cutter itself will handle much more corn in a day if the bundles are small and light, and it will be found to be economy to see that this is done. A platform cutter, which was used with great suc- cess, is described by a veteran Wisconsin dairj^man, the late Mr. Charles R. Beach. "We use two wagons, with platforms built upon two timbers, eighteen feet long, suspended beneath the axles. These platforms are about eighteen inches from the ground and are seven feet wide. The cutting- knife is fastened upon a small removable platform, two feet by about three and one-half feet, which is at- tached to the side of the large platform, and is about six or eight inches lower. One row is cut at a time, the knife striking the corn at an angle of about forty- five degrees. One man kneels on the small platform and takes the corn with his arm; two or three men stand upon the wagon, and as soon as he has gotten an armful, the men, each in turn, take it from him and pile it on the wagon. If the rows are long enough a load of one and one-half to two tons can be cut and loaded on in about eight to ten minutes. The small platform is detached from the wagon, the load driven to the silo, the platform attached to the other wagon, and another load is cut and loaded. None of the corn reaches the ground; no bending down to pick up. One team will draw^ men, cutter, and load, and I do not now well see how the method could be im- proved. With a steam engine, a large cutter, two teams and wagons, and ten men, we filled our silo 22x24x18 feet (190 tons), fast, in less than two days." Professor Georgeson, %as described a one-horse 122 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. sledge-cutter which has given better satisfaction than any fodder-cutter tried at the Kansas Experiment Station. It is provided with two knives, which are hinged to the body of the sled, and can be folded in on the sled when not in use. It has been improved and made easier to pull b}^ providing it with four low and broad cast-iron wheels. It is pulled b}^ a single horse and cuts two rows at a time. Two men stand upon the cutter, each facing a row; as the corn is cut they gather it into armfuls, which they drop into heaps on the ground. A wagon with a low, broad rack follows, on which the corn is loaded and hauled to the silo. Similar corn cutters have been made by various manufacturers of late years and have proved quite sat- isfactory, although they require more hand labor than the corn har\'esters and do not leave the corn tied up and in as convenient shape for loading on the wagons as these do. It is also necessary to use care with the sledge tj'pe of corn cutter, as numerous cases are on record where both men and horses have been injured by getting in front of the knives, which project from the sides. Fig. 27. Low-down Rack for hauling fodder corn. A low-down rack for hauling the corn from the field is shown in the accompanjdng illustration (Fig. 27 K It has been used for some years past at the Wis- consin Station, and is a great convenience in handling corn, saving both labor an(P time. These racks not SILOING CORN "ears AND ALI.." 1 23 only dispense with a man upon the wagon when load- ing, but they materially lessen the labor of the man who takes the corn from the ground, for it is only the top of the load which needs to be raised shoulder-high; again, when it comes to unloading, the man can stand on the floor or ground and simply draw the corn toward him and lay it upon the table of the cutter, without stooping over and without raising the corn up to again throw it down. A plank that can easily be hitched on behind the truck will prove convenient for loading, so that the loader can pick up his armful and, walking up the plank, can drop it without much ex- ertion. I»f wilted fodder corn is to be siloed it should be shocked in the field to protect it as much as possible from rain before hauling it to the cutter. SILOING CORN, "ears AND ALL." The best practice in putting corn into the silo, is to silo the corn plant " ears and all," without previously husking it. If the ear corn is not needed for hogs and horses, or for seed purposes, this practice is in the line of economy, as it saves the expense of husk- ing, cribbing, shelling, and grinding the ear corn. The possible loss of food materials sustained in siloing the ear corn speaks against the practice, but this is very small, and more than couterbalanced by the ad- vantages gained by this method of procedure. In proof of this statement we will refer to an extended feeding trial with milch cows, conducted by Professor Woll at the Wisconsin Station in 1891. Corresponding row^s of a large corn field were siloed, "ears and all," and without ears, the ears belonging to the latter lot being carefully saved and air-dried. The total yield of silage with ears in it (whole-corn silage) w^as 56,459 pounds ; of silage without ears (stover silage) 34,496 pounds and of ear corn, 10,511 pounds. The dry matter content of the lots obtained 124 HOW TO MAKE SII.AGE. by the two methods of treatment was, in whole-corn silage, 19,950 pounds ; in stover silage 9,484 pounds, and in ear corn, 9,122 pounds, or 18,606 pounds of dry matter in the stover silage and ear corn combined. This shows a loss of 1,344 pounds of dry matter, or nearly 7 per cent, sustained by handling the fodder and ear corn separately instead of siloing the corn "ears and all." In feeding the two kinds of silage against each other, adding the dry ear corn to the stover silage, it was found that seventeen tons of whole-corn silage fed to sixteen cows produced somewhat better results than fourteen tons of stover silage, and more than two tons of dry ear corn, both kinds of silage having been supplemented by the same quantities of hay and grain feed. The jdeld of milk from the cows was 4 per cent higher on the whole corn silage ration than on the stover silage ration, and the jaeld of fat was 6.9 per cent higher on the same ration. It would seem then that the cheapest and best way of preserv- ing the corn crop for feeding purposes, at least in case of milch cows, is to fill it directly into the silo ; the greater portion of the corn may be cut and siloed when the corn is in the roasting-ear stage, and the corn plat which is to furnish ear corn ma}" be left in the field until the corn is fully matured, when it may be husked, and the stalks and leaves may be filled into the silo on top of the corn siloed "ears and all." This will then need some heav}' weighting or one or two applications of water on top of the corn, to in- sure a good qualit}' of silage from the rather dry stalks. (See page 133.) An experiment similar to the preceding one, con- ducted at the Vermont Station, in which the product from six acres of land was fed to dairy cows, gave similar results. We are justified in concluding, there- fore, that husking, shelling, and grinding the corn (proceSvSes that may cost more than a quarter of the FILLING THE SILO. 1 25 market value of the meal) are labor and expense more than wasted, since the cows do better on the corn si- loed "ears and all" than on that siloed after the ears were picked off and fed ground with it. THE FILLING PROCESS. The corn, having been hauled from the field to the silo, has still to be reduced to a fine, homogeneous mass, convenient for feeding and economical as far as utilization of the silage for feed. In order to do this, the whole of the corn, ears and all, may be run through an " Ohio" Ensilage Cutter. The corn is unloaded on the table of the cutter and run through the cutter, after which the carrier or blower elevates it to the silo window and delivers it into the silo. The length of cutting practiced differs, somewhat with different farmers, and with the variety of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut the corn in one-half to one inch lengths. The corn will pack better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cat- tle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut fine, and the majorit}^ of farmers filling silos practice cutting corn rather fine for the silo. *The carriers should deliver the corn as nearly in the middle of the silo as possible ; by means of a chute attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered to any part of the silo desired, and the labor of dis- tributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. A simple method of distribution is to attach to the blow- er a tube made of a number of sacks sewed together with bottoms out, through which the silage will then descend. Such a device does not last very long, how- ever, as the cut corn soon wears holes through the sacks. If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is being fill- ed, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners ; if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will 126 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come nearest the discharge ; as a result the corn will not settle evenly, and the different layers of silage wall have a different feeding value. To assist in the distribution of the corn, a pyramidal box may be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ; this may be made about three feet square at the base and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached for hanging to rafters. The falling mass of cut corn wnll strike the top of the box and be divided so as to distribute to all parts of the silo. i\.nother simple de- vice is to place a board vertically, or nearly so, in front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut corn will strike. These devices must be nicely ad- justed as to position, however, or they will not be of much advantage. The Proper Distribution of the Cut Material in the Silo. The proper distribution of the cut corn after it has been elevated or blown into the silo is a matter which should have proper attention at the time of filling. If the cut material is allowed to drop all in one place and then have no further attention the constant fall- ing of the material in one place will tend to make that portion solid while the outside will not be so, and be- sides the pieces of ears and heavier portions will con- tinually roll to the outside. As a result the silage cannot settle evenly, and good results will not follow. As the filling progresses, the cut material should be leveled off and the common and most successful practice is to keep the material higher at the sides than at the centre and do all the tramping at and close to the sides, where the friction of the walls tends to pre- vent as rapid settling as takes place at the centre. For this reason, no tramping, or at least, as little as possible, should be done, except close to the walls. In the modern deep silos, the weight of the silage ac- SIZE OF CUTTER REQUIRED. 1 27 complishes more than would any amount of tramping, and all that is necessary, is to see that the cut ma- terial is rather evenly distributed, for better results in feeding, and to assist the settling by some tramping at the sides. Size of Cutter and Power Required. The "Ohio" Cutters are made in a variety of sizes, suited to all requirements. The cutter used in JSlling the silo should have ample capacity to give satisfaction and do the work rapidly; a rather large cutter is therefore better than a cutter that is barely large enough. The size required depends on the rapidity with which it is desired to fill the silo and on the power at hand. Where a steam engine is available it is the cheapest power for filling a large silo, as the w^ork can then be finished in a few days. For small farms and silos, where an engine is not to be had, a two or three- horse tread-powder may be used, but it will be found that the work of filling will progress much more slowly than when steam power, such as is suitable for thrCvShing, is used. The filling may be done as rapidly as possible, or may be done slowly, and no harm will result if, for any reason, the work be interrupted for some time. More silage can be put into a silo with slow, than with rapid filling. If the farmer owns his own machine, he can , of course, fill his silo, and then refill after the silage has settled, so that the silo will be nearly full after all settling has taken place. If, however, the farmer must depend on hiring an outfit, he will wish to do the filling as rapidly as possible, as a matter of economy. It is, therefore, desirable for the farmer to own his own machine, and that being the case, a smaller machine will suffice; wherein if the machine be hired the largest possible capacity will be desired. This has created a demand for various sizes of 128 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. •cutters, and to meet this demand, the "Ohio" En- silage Cutters are made in six sizes, with knives •eleven to twenty four inches long, and with Metal Bucket Elevators, or Blower Elevators, as desired, adaptable to any height of silo. The traveling feed table, as supplied on the "Ohio" Cutters is a valuable feature, and practically does away with the labor of feeding the heavy green corn into the feed rolls, be- sides increasing the capacity of the machines about one- third, on account of its being so much easier to keep the feed rolls supplied. The Metal Bucket Elevator, which delivers the cut silage corn into the silo through a window or opening at the top, must be longer than the silo is high as it is necessary to run the carrier at somewhat of an angle, (see illustration. Fig. 28). The length of the carrier required may be obtained bj- adding about 40 per cent. to the perpendicular height from the ground to the window; thus, for a 20 ft. silo a 28 ft. carrier is re- quired, and for a 30 ft. silo, about 42 ft. of carrier will be necessary. The Metal Bucket Elevators for the "Ohio" Cut- ters are made both straight away and with swivel base, which enables the operator to set the cutter in the de- sired position, and as the swivel base gives the carrier a range of adjustment extending over nearly a half cir- cle, the carrier can be run directly to the window, or in the case of two silos setting side by side, both can be filled with one setting of the cutter. The No. 13 "Ohio" Silage Cutter, ^ the number of the machine indicates the length of knives and width of throat), has a capacit}- of 8 to 12 tons of green corn per hour, and requires 4 to 6 horse-power to run it to full capacity, although it can be operated successfully with less power, b}^ feeding in proportion to the power at hand. The 16 and 18 inch and larger sizes of "Ohio" Cutters have correspondingly larger capacities, and in the case of the larger sizes the amount that can be cut ILI.USTRATION. 129 Fig. 28, Illustration showing a new stave silo in connection ivith an old barn on the Bossert Farm, east of Salem, Ohio. The ''Ohio'' Self-Feed Cutter and Metal Bucket Elevator are in operation, tlie engine not being shown in the photograph. I30 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. is only limited by the amount that can be convenient- ly gotten to them. The largest sizes can be run by an ordinar}' threshing engine. These machines have been on the market for upwards of twentj^-five years, and have been brought to a wonderful state of perfection. For durability, ease and reliability of operation, capacity and general utility, they are doubtless the most practical means of filling the silo. The Nos. 1 6, i8, and 19 "Ohio" Cutters are the sizes mostly in use by farmers and dairymen, and the travelling feed table, which is long enough to receive a bundle of corn, is a most valuable feature, and has ,4C, Fig. 2g. Illustration showing "0///6>" No. ig Blower in operation at the New Jersey State Experiment Station, New Brunswick, N./., filling the silos there in the fall of igo2. BLOWER OR PNEUMATIC EI.KVATORS. ^31 "become almost universal on the ' ' Ohio ' ' machines used for silo filling. It decreases the labor of feeding and makes any size of machine about equal in capa- city to the next size larger without it. A new method of elevating the fodder in filling si- los, has been introduced by the use of a blower-eleva- tor, which blows the cut fodder into the silo through a continuous pipe. This device, therefore, takes the place of the carrier elevator described above. Blower elevators (see illustration of "Ohio" Cutter with Blower Elevator, Fig. 29) have been in use to a con- siderable extent for two or three 3^ears past, and in the opinion of a good many persons the Blower or Exhaust Elevator is likely to come into general use in the fu- ture, and where sufficient power is available there is no difficulty in elevating the cut fodder into the highest silos. Although the Blower Machines require somewhat more power than the older style carrier, there are numerous advantages over the metal bucket elevator, so that the ' ' Ohio ' ' Blowers are more in demand each year, and their popularity is now an assured fact; we mention below some of the features that have serv- ed to bring this style of the ' ' Ohio ' ' Cutters to the notice and favor of farmers and dairymen so rapidly. The Blower Machine is quickly set up, taken down or moved, as all that is necessary is to remove the pipe, which is in sections of various lengths (from four to ten feet as desired), which requires but a few moments. This operation requires but little time as compared with that occupied in setting up or taking apart the chain elevator. The Blower Machine is clean in operation, placing all of the corn in the silo and there is no litter around the machine when the filling is finished. The action of the fan paddles is such that the corn is made much finer, and it therefore packs closer in the silo, thus enabling more fodder to be stored in the 132 HOW TO MAKE SIIvAGE. silo; the corn is all knocked off of the pieces of cobs and distributed through the cut fodder better, and the pieces of the heavy butts and joints are also split and knocked to pieces, all of which reduces the silage to a fine condition so that it is eaten up cleaner by the stock. The fan or blower device is also likely to be more durable than the chain elevator. Being somewhat of a new type of machine, the ' ' Ohio ' ' Blower is perhaps not as well known as the "Ohio" with Chain Elevator, thousands of which are in use the world over, to the entire satisfaction of their owners. The filling of silos by means of a wind blast, doing it as rapidly as the "Ohio" machines cut the fodder, is entirely feasible and a successful propo- sition, however, and there need be no fear on this point if the following points be kept in mind. The machines must be run at the proper speed as recommended by the manufacturers. A fan can only create a sufficient blast b}^ running fast enough to force the air through the pipe at the rate of nine to ten thousand feet per minute. Green corn is heavy stuff, and requires a strong current of air to carry it through 30 or 40 feet of pipe at the rate of 10 to 20 tons per hour. It will be seen, therefore, that unless proper speed be maintained there will be no elevation of the material whatever. Thus, it will be seen that if the power at hand is not sufficient to maintain full speed when the cutters are fed to full capacity all that is necessary is to feed the machines accordingly, as is necessary with other kinds of machinery, such as threshing machines, grinding mills etc. In setting a Blower Machine it is necessary tb have the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possible, so that the current of air within the pipe will lift the material. This is especially true where the pipe is long, say 20 feet or more, because the green fodder being heavy will settle down on to the lower side of the pipe, if CARBONIC ACID GAS IN SILOS 133 this has much slant, and the wind blast will pass over the fodder, thus allowing it to lodge, whereas if the pipe be perpendicular, or nearly so, no stoppage will occur. It is also necessary to see that full speed is attained before beginning to feed the machine, and also to stop the feeding while the machine is in full motion so that the Blower will have an opportunity to clear itself before shutting off the power. There must be ample vent in the silo to prevent back pressure, as the tremendous volume of air forced into the silo with the cut fodder must have some means of escape. If these few points be kept in mind there can be no possible doubt as to the successful operation of the blower elevator, and as previously stated, the increas- ed demand for the "Ohio" machines is ample evidence on this point, and, as stated elsewhere in this volume, in the opinion of some of the most prominent dairy- men and experiment station officials, blast elevators are likely to supersede the chain elevator within a few years. (N. B. At the end of this volume will be found illustrations and descriptions of several sizes and styles of "Ohio" cutters, which the reader can refer to, in ^ addition to the illustrations given here.) Danger from Carbo7iic- Acid Poisoning in Silos. — As soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbonic- acid gas is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight the gas will gradually accumulate directly above the fod- der, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the conditions given. If a man or an animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more days, and men have then gone into the silo to tramp down the cut corn. If the doors above the siloed mass are left open 134 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. when the filling is stopped, and the silo thus ventilat- ed, carbonic acid poisoning cannot take place, since the gas will then slowly diffuse into the air. Carbonic acid being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it cannot be directly observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into the silo there is an accumulation of carbonic acid in it, and a person should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going down into it. After the silage is made and the temperature in the silo has gone down considerably, there is no further evolution of carbonic acid, and therefore no danger in entering the silo even if this has been shut up tight. The maximum evolution of carbonic acid, and conse- quently the danger of carbonic-acid poisoning comes during or directly after the filling of the silo. Covering the Siloed Fodder. Many devices for covering the siloed fodder have been recommended and tried, with varying success. The original method was to put boards on top of the fodder, and to weight them heavily b}^ means of a foot layer of dirt or sand, or with stone. The weighting having later on been done away with, lighter material, as straw, hay, sawdust, etc., was substituted for the stone or sand. Building paper was often placed over the fodder, and boards on top of the paper. There is no special advantage derived from the use of building- paper, and it is now never used. Many farmers run some corn stalks, or green hnsked fodder, through the cutter after the fodder is all in. In the South, cotton- seed hulls are easily obtained, and form a ftiost effi- cient and cheap cover. None of these materials or any other recommended for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of silage, some four to six inches of the top lay- er being usually spoilt. Occasionally this spoilt silage USE OF WATER IN FILLING SILOS. 1 35 may not be so bad but that cattle or hogs will eat it up nearly clean, but it is at best very poor food, and should not be used by any farmer who cares for the quality of his products. The wet or green materials are better for cover than dry substances, since they prevent evaporation of water from the top layer ; when this is dry, air will be admitted to the fodder below, thus making it possible for putrefactive bacteria and molds to continue the destructive work begun by the fermentation bacteria, and causing more of the silage to spoil. Use of Water in Filling Silos. — During late years the practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in a large number of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water added. In applying the method at the Wisconsin Station, Prof. King, a few days after the completion of the filling of the silo, added water to the fodder corn at the rate of about ten pounds per square foot of surface, repeating the same process about ten days afterwards. By this method a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will preserve all but a few inches of the top. The method can be recommended in cases where the corn or clover goes into the silo in a rather dry condition, on account of drought or extreme hot weather, so as not to pack sufficiently by its own weight. While weighting of the siloed fodder has long since been done away with, it may still prove advantageous to resort to it where very dry fodder is siloed, or in case of shallow silos. Under ordinary conditions neither weighting nor ap- plications of water should be necessary. There is only one way in which all of the silage can be preserved intact, viz., by beginning to feed the silage within a few days after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by many farmers, espe- 136 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. cially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall pastures. By beginning to feed at once from the silo, the silo- ing system is brought to perfection, provided the silo structure is air-tight, and constructed so as to admit of no unnecessary losses of nutrients. Under these con- ditions there is a very considerable saving of food ma- terials over silage made in poorly-constructed silos, or over field-cured shocked fodder corn, as we have al- ready seen. CLOVER SILAGE. Green clover may be siloed whole or cut, but the latter method is to be recommended. The clover should not be left to wilt between cutting and siloing, and the silo should be filled rapidly, so as to cause no unnecessary losses by fermentations. The different species of clover will prove satisfactory silo crops ; ordinary red or medium clover is most used in Northwestern States, along with mammoth clover ; the latter matures later than medium or red clover, and may therefore be siloed later than these. Alfalfa, or lucern, is, as previously stated, often siloed in the West. Under the conditions present there it will gen- erally produce much larger yields than corn, and, pre- serv^ed in a silo, will furnish a large supply of most valuable feed. Prof. Neale and others recommend the use of scarlet clover for summer silage, for Delaware and States under similar climatic conditions. Says a Canadian dair}^ farmer : "If we were asked for our opinion as to what will most help the average dairy farmer, I think we should reply : Knowledge of a balanced ration, the Babcock test, and a summer silo ; then varying the feed of individual animals ac- cording to capacity, as shown by scales and close ob- servation. ' ' CLOVER FOR, SUMMER SILAGE. By filling clover into the silo at midsummer, or be- CI.OVER FOR SUMMER SILAGE. 1 37 fore, space is utilized that would otherwise be empty ; the silage will, furthermore, be available for feeding in the latter part of the summer and during the fall, when the pastures are apt to run short. This makes it possible to keep a larger number of stock on the farm than can be the case if pastures alone are to be relied upon, and thus greatly facilitates intensive far- ming. Now that stave silos of any size may be easily and cheaply put up, it will be found very convenient, at least on dairy farms, to keep a small separate silo for making clover silage that may be fed out during the summer, or at any time simultaneousl}^ with the feeding of the corn silage. This extra silo may also be used for the siloing of odd lots of forage that may happen to be available (see page 60). It is a good plan in siloing clover or other comparatively light crops in rather small silos, to put a layer of corn on top that will weight down the mass below, and secure a more thorough packing and thereby al^o a better quality of silage. In several instances where there has still been a sup- ply of clover silage in the silo, green corn has been filled in on top of the clover, and the latter has been sealed and thus preserved for a number of years. Corn silage once settled and "sealed," will also keep per- haps indefinitely when left undisturbed in the silo, without deteriorating appreciably in feeding value or palatability. Prof. Cottrell writing for Kansas farmers, says : "Silage will keep as long as the silo is not opened, and has been kept in good condition for seven years. This is a special advantage to Kansas dairymen, as in years of heavy crops the surplus can be stored in silos for years of drought, making all years good crop years for silo dairymen." FREEZING OF SILAGE. Freezing of silage has sometimes been a source of 138 HOW TO MAKE SILAGE. annoyance and loss to farmers in Northern States, and in the future, with the progress of the stave silo, we shall most likely hear more about frozen silage than we have in the past. As stated in the discussion of ! the stave silo, however, the freezing of silage must be • considered an inconvenience rather than a positive j detriment ; when the silage is thawed out it is eaten \ with the same relish by stock as is silage that has never been frozen, and apparently with equally good results. If frozen silage is not fed out directly after thawed it will spoil and soon become unfit to be used for cattle food ; thawed silage will spoil much sooner than ordi- nary silage that has not been frozen and thawed out. There is no evidence that silage which has been frozen * and slowly thawed out, is less palatable or nutritious than silage of the same kind which had been kept free from frost. The difficulty of the freezing of silage may be avoided by checking the ventilation in the silo and by leaving the door to the silo carefully closed in severe weather. If the top layer of silage freezes some of the warm silage may be mixed with the frozen silage an hour or two before feeding time, and all the silage will then be found in good condition when fed out. A layer of straw may be kept as a cover over the si- lage ; this will prevent it from freezing, and is easily cleared off when silage is to be taken out. CHAPTER V HOW TO FEED SILAQE. Silage is eaten with a relish by all kinds of farm animals, dairy and beef cattle, horses, mules, sheep, goats, swine, and even poultr3\ It should never be fed as sole roughage to any of these classes of stock, however, but always in connection with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when cut for the silo, the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it excess- ively. The silo should alwa3'S be emptied from the top in ' horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It should be fed out sufficiently rapidly to avoid spoiling of the silage ; in ordinary Northern winter weather a layer a couple of inches deep should be fed off daily. -F'i^. 30, Silage Truck. SILAGE FOR MILCH COWS. Silage is par excellence a cow feed, says Prof. WoU 140 HOW TO FEED SILAG^. in his Book on Silage. Since the introduction of the silo in this country, the dairymen, more than any other class of farmers, have been among the most en- thusiastic siloists, and up to the present time a larger number of silos are found in dairy districts than in any other regions where animal husbandry is a promi- nent industry. As with other farm animals, cows fed silage should receive other roughage in the shape of corn stalks, hay, etc. The quantities of silage fed should not exceed forty, or at the outside, fifty pounds per day per head. It is possible that a maximum al- lowance of only 25 or 30 pounds per head daily is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an important consideration, especially if the silage was made from somew^hat immature corn. The silage may be given in one or two feeds daily, and, incase of cows in milk, always after milking, and not before or dur- ing same, as the peculiar silage odor may, in the latter case, in our experience reappear in the milk. (See below.) Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secre- tion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually drop considerably in milk towards spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of the lactation period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk un- til late in summer, or early in the fall, w^hen they are dried up prior to calving. Silage has a similar effect on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, is more like these feeds than any other feed the farmer can produce. The feeding of silage to milch cows has sometimes been objected to when the milk was intended for the manufacture of certain kinds of cheese, or of condens- ed milk, and there are instances where such factories have enjoined their patrons from feeding silage to SILAGE FOR "certified MILK." 14 1 their cows. When the silage is properly prepared and properly fed, there can be no foundation whatever for this injunction ; it has been repeatedly demonstrated that Swiss cheese of superior quality can be made from the milk of silage-fed cows, and condensing fac- tories among whose patrons silage is fed have been able to manufacture a superior product. The qualily of the silage made during the first dozen years of silo experience in this country was very poor, being sour and often spoilt in large quantities, and, what may have been still more important, it was sometimes fed in an injudicious manner, cows being made to subsist on this feed as sole roughage. Under these conditions it is only natural that the quality of the milk should be impaired, and that manufacturers preferred to en- tirel}^ prohibit the use of it rather than to teach their patrons to follow proper methods in the making and feeding of silage. There is an abundance of evidence at hand showing that good silage fed in moderate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter experts, silage not only does not injure the flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is produced \)y judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry feed. Silage in the production of ^'certified milk.'''' — In an- swer to a question raised wdiether there is any objec- tion made to the milk when the cows are fed silage, Mr. H. B. Gurler, the well-known Illinois dairyman, whose certified milk sent to the Paris Exposition in 1900, kept sweet for one month without having any preservatives added to it, and was awarded a gold medal, gave the following information: "No, there is not. I have had persons who knew I was feeding silage imagine they could taste it. I caught one of the leading Chicago doctors a while ago. He imagined that he could taste silage in the milk, and I was not feeding it at all. When I» first went into the business 142 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. I did not feed any silage to the cows from which the certified milk was produced. I knew it was all right for butter making, as I had made butter from the milk of cows fed with silage, and sent it to New York in competition with butter made from dry food, and it proved to be the finer butter of the two. The first winter I had samples sent down to my family in De Kalb from the stable where we fed silage and from the stable where we were making the certified milk for Chicago, and in which we fed no silage. I presume I made one hundred comparative tests that winter of the milk from these two stables. My wife and daughter could not tell the difference between the two samples. In the large majority of cases they would select the milk from the cows fed silage as the sweeter milk." It will serve as an illustration of the general use of silage among progressive dairymen in our country, to state that of one hundred farmers furnishing the feed rations fed to their dairy cows, in an investigation of this subject conducted by Prof. Woll in 1894, sixty- four w^ere feeding silage to their stock, this feed being used a larger number of times than any other single cattle food, wheat bran only excepted. The combinations in which corn silage will be used in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local conditions ; it may be said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair proportion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc. As it may be of some help to our readers a number of balanced rations or such as are near enough balanced to produce good results at the pail, are presented below. Silage Rations for Milch Cows. No. I. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; ground oats, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 lbs. No. 2. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ; SILAGE RATIONS. 143 corn meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, i lb. No. 3. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover and timothy mixed, 10 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 3 lbs. ; gluten feed, 3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs. No. 4. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; corn stalks, 10 lbs. ; hay 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; gluten meal, 3 lbs. ; ground oats, 3 lbs. No. 5. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; oat feed, 4 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; gluten feed, 3 lbs. No. 6. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; corn stalks, 5 lbs. ; oat straw, 5 lbs. ; dried brewers' grains, 4 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 4 lbs. No. 7. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; oats, 3 lbs. No. 8. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; corn stover, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 lbs. No. 9. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay, 15 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; ground oats, 3 lbs. ; oil meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton seed meal, i lb. No. 10. Clover silage, 25 lbs. ; corn stover, 10 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; oat feed, 4 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs. No. II. Clover silage, 30 lbs. ; dry fodder corn, 10 lbs. ; oat straw, 4 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 2 lbs. ; oil meal 2 lbs. No. 12. Clover silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; roots, 20 lbs. ; corn meal, 4 lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs. The preceding rations are only intended as approxi- mate guides in feeding dairy cows. Every dairy far- mer knows that there are hardly two cows that will act in exactly the same manner and will need exactly the same amount of feed. It is then important to adapt the quantities and kinds of feed given to the special needs of the different cows ; one cow will fat- ten on corn meal, where another will be able to eat 144 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. and make good use of two or three quarts of it. In the same way some cows will eat more roughage than others and do equally well on it as those that get more of the food in the form of more concentrated and highly digestible feeding stuffs. The only safe rule to go by is to feed according to the different needs of the cows ; to study each cow and find out how much food she can take care of without laying on flesh, and how she responds to the feeding of foods of different character, like wheat, bran, and corn meal, for in- stance. The specimen rations given in the preceding can, therefore, only be used to show the average amounts of common feeds which a good dairy cow can take in and give proper returns for. The popularity of the silo with owners of dairy cattle has increased very greatly, says Prof. Plumb. Few owners of stock of this class, who have properly- built silos, and well-preserved silage, would discard silage as an adjunct to feeding. Silage certainly pro- motes milk flow. One great argument in favor of its use lies in the cheapness of production per ton, and the ability to store and secure a palatable, nutritious food in weather conditions that would seriously injure hay or dry fodder. There is one important point that owners of milk cattle should bear in mind, and that is when the silo is first opened only a small feed should be given. In changing from grass or dry feed to silage, if a regular full ration is given, the silage will perhaps slightly af- fect the taste of the milk for a few milkings, and if the change is from dry feed it may cause too great activity of the bowels. SILAGE FOR BEEF CATTLE. Silage may be fed with advantage to beef cattle, in moderate quantities, up to about forty pounds a daj^ The health of the animals and the quality of the beef produced on moderate silage feeding, leave nothing to SII.AGK FOR BEEF CATTI.E. 145 be wished for. If the silage is made from immature corn care must be taken not to feed too large quanti- ties at the start, and to feed carefully, so as not to make the animals scour. Prof. Henry says in regard to the value of silage for fattening steers : " As with roots, silage makes the carcass watery and soft to the touch. Some have considered this a disadvantage, but is it not a desirable condition in the fattening steer ? Corn and roughage produce a hard dry car- cass, and corn burns out the digestive tract in the shortest possible time. With silage and roots, diges- tion certainly must be more nearly normal, and its profitable action longer continued. The tissues of the body are juicy, and the whole system must be in just that condition which permits rapid fattening. While believing in a large use of silage in the preliminary stages, and its continuance during most of the fatten- ing period, I would recommend that gradually more dry food be substituted as the period advances, in order that the flesh may become more solid. Used in this way, I believe silage will become an important aid in steer feeding in man}^ sections of the country. Results from Canada, Wisconsin, and Texas experiment sta- tions show the broad adaptation of this food for stock feeding purposes." Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed a few pounds only as a rel- ish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls are said to lose virility and become slow and uncertain breeders. SILAGE FOR HORSES. When fed in small quantities, not to exceed fifteen pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at first and gradually increased as the animals become 146 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two-thirds of straw, and one-third of silage, and feed all horses will eat of this mixed feed. Some horses object to silage at first on account of its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. Other horses take it willingh' from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed larger quantities than work horses, but in neither case should the silage form more than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the horses. Silage-fed horses will look Avell and come out in the spring in better condition than when fed almost any other food. Professor Cook saA-s in regard to silage as a horse food: " It has been suggested b}' even men of high scientific attainments that silage is pre-eminently the food for cattle and not for other farm stock. This is certainl}^ a mistake. If we raise fall colts, which I find very profitable, then silage is just what we need, and will enable us to produce colts as excellent as though dropped in the spring. This gives us our brood mares in first-class trim for the hard summer's work. I find silage just as good for young colts and other horses." An extensive Michigan farmer and horse breeder, gives his experience in regard to silage for horses as follows : ' ' Last winter we had nearly two hundred horses, including Ch'desdales, standard-bred trotters, and Shetland ponies. The}^ were wintered entirely upon straw and corn silage, and this in face of the fact that I had read a long article in a prominent horse journal cautioning farmers from the use of silage, and ■citing instances where man}- animals had died, and brood mares had aborted from the liberal use of corn :silage. " Desiring to test the matter to the fullest extent, •our stallions and brood mares, as well as all the young stock, were fed two full rations of silage daily, and SII.AGK FOR HORSES. 1 47 one liberal ration of wheat or oat straw. The result with our brood mares was most phenomenal, for we now have to represent every mare that was then in foal on the farm, a weanling, strong and vigorous, and ap- parentl}" right in every way, with only one exception, where the colt was lost by accident. Of course there may have been something in the season more favorable than usual, but this was the first j^ear in my experi- ence when every colt dropped on the farm was saved.'* The following experience as to the value of silage as a food for horse and other farm animals comes from the Ohio Station: "Our silo was planned and filled with special reference to our dairy stock, but after opening the silo we decided to try feeding the silage to our horses, calves, and hogs. The result was eminently satisfactory. We did not find a cow, calf, horse, colt, or hog that refused to eat, or that did not eat it with apparent relish, not only for a few days, but for full two months. The horses were given one feed of twenty pounds each per day in place of the usual amount of hay, for tlie period above name'd, and it was certainly a benefit. Their appetites were sharpened, and the healthfulness of the food was. further manifest in the new coat of hair which came with the usual spring shedding. The coat was glossy,, the skin loose, and the general appearance was that of horses running upon pasture.'' Doctor Bailey states that silage has as good an effect on work and driving horses as an occasional feed of carrots or other roots, and Rew informs us that there is a demand for silage in Loudon and other English cities, especially for omnibus, cab, and tram horses. According to the testimony of Mr. H. J. Elwes, the cart horses fed silage "looked in better condition and brighter in their coats than usual at this time of the year." From experiments conducted at Virginia Station, Prof. Nourse concluded that "it would appear that 148 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. silage would make a good roughage for horses, when used iu connection with hay or stover or grain, but that these animals should become accustomed to the food b}^ degrees, and that this is as important as when changing from old to new corn, or from hay to grass. ' ' What has been said about silage as a food for horses will most likely apply equally well to mules, although only very limited experience has so far been gained with silage for this class of farm animals. Silage for Sheep. Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men, says Prof . Woll in his book on Silage; sheep do well on it, and silage- fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening; for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. Professor Cook reports as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep: "I have fed ensilage liberally to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased with the results. I make ensilage half the daily ration, the other half being corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or o>ats. The sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main cause. It is positively proved that ensilage is a most valuable food material, when properly fed, for all our domestic animals." Mr. J. S. Woodward, a well-known New York farmer and Farmers' Institue worker, who has made a specialty of early-lamb raising, says, in an address SILAGE FOR SHEEP. I49 before the New York Agricultural Society, regarding silage as feed for lambs: "In order to be successful in raising fine lambs it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have plenty of succulent food. Nothing can supply the deficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, rutabagas, mangolds are all good. Corn silage is excellent. Could I have my choice I would prefer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for succulent food I would give four pounds per hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the forenoon feed; but when feeding both silage and roots I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the afternoon. ' ' Mr. J. M. Turner of Michigan says concerning silage for sheep: "Of late years we have annually put up 3,200 tons of corn ensilage, and this has been the principal ration of all the live stock at Springdale Farm, our Shropshire sheep having been maintained on a ration of ensilage night and morning, coupled with a small ration of clover hay in the middle of the day. This we found to fully meet the require- ments of our flock until after lambing, from which time forward we of course added liberal rations of wheat bran, oats, and old-process linseed meal to the ewes, with a view of increasing their flow of milk and bringing forward the lambs in the most vigorous possible condition. Our flock-master was somewhat anxious until after the lambs dropped, but now that he saved 196 lambs from 122 ewes, his face is wreathed in smiles, and he gives the ensilage system the strongest endorsement." Mr. Turner states that, after becoming accustomed to the silage, his horses, cattle, and sheep would all push their noses down through the hay, if there was silage at the bottom of the manger, and little or no hay would be eaten until the silage was first taken. ' The following interesting experience illustrating 150 HOW TO FKED SILAGE. the value of silage for sheep feeding is given by Mr. William Woods, a celebrated English breeder of Hampshire-Downs: "Last year, in August, I found myself with a flock of some 1,200 Hampshire-Down ewes, and about twelve or fourteen acres of swedes, on a farm of 4,000 acres, and these were all the roots there were to feed them and their lambs during the winter. Knowing how we should suffer from want of milk after lambing in January and February, I thought I would try (which no doubt has often been tried else- where, though not in this district) the effect of en- silage on ewes after lambing, having learned by hear- say that it increased the milk of cows nearly 30 per cent. I at once set to work to irrigate what w^ater meadows I could spare, and in the month of October had a crop of grass that, had it been possible to make it into hay, would have made a ton of hay to the acre. I bought from the Aylesbury Dairy Company one of their Johnson's ensilage lick presses, and put some seventy to eighty tons of cut meadow grass under pressure. It must, however, be borne in mind that second cut water meadow grass is some of the poorest stuff that is consumed, either green or in hay, and, therefore, my ensilage was not as good, and con- sequently not as favorable a trial, as if it had been made of better material. "In January, when well into lambing, I opened the stack, and began to feed it to the ewes that had lambed. At first they hardly cared to eat it, but by degrees they seemed to like it more. They had a night and morning meal of best sainfoin hay, and a small lot of ensilage with the cake given at midday. After three weeks' trial, what the shepherd observed was this: That when best sainfoin hay worth £^ a ton, was put in the cages, and ensilage in the troughs at the same time, half the sheep would go to the hay and half to the ensilage, although there was sufficient accommodation for the whole flock at either sort, and SIIvAGK FOR SWINE. 151 we now observe that with the ewes that are most con- stant to the ensilage, their lambs are nourished better than the others. We have not lost a single lamb from scours, and have some 470 lambs from 380 ewes lambed as yet, which I think proves the value of the experi- ment. As soon as the stuff arrives in carts the ewes are crazy for it, and almost come over the hurdles, so eager are they to get at this new sort of feed, which, as I have stated, is only water meadow^ grass en- silaged." Silage for Swine. The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and un- favorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On the other hand, a number of hog- raisers have had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It is possible that the differences in the quality of the silage and of the methods of feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed concerning silage as hog food. According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American authority on the swine industry, states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations of our swine. Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs: "We have fed our sows, about twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the young, equal to when they are running on clover. We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to nursing much sooner and better than they did in winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet. We al- so feed it to our sheep. To sixty head we put out about six bushels of ensilage." Dr. Bailey, the author 152 HOW TO FEED SIIvAGE. of ''The Book on Ensilage," fed large hogs ten pounds of silage, and one pound of wheat bran, with good results; the cost of the ration did not exceed 2 cents per day. He states that clover silage would be excellent, and would require no additional grain. Young pigs are exceedingly fond of the silage. Feed- ing experiments conducted at Virginia Experiment Station show that silage is an economical maintenance feed for hogs, when fed in connection with corn, but not when fed alone. In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mix- ing it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should be largely made up of easily digested grain food; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in case of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed with care to brood sows, keeping the system in order, and producing a good flow of milk. Silage for Poultry, But little experience is at hand as to the use of silage as a poultry food; some farmers however, are feeding a little silage to their poultry with good suc- cess. Only small quantities should of course be fed, and it is beneficial as a stimulant and a regulator, as much as a food. A poultry raiser writes as follows in Orange Judd Fanner, concerning his experience in making and feeding silage to fowls. Devices similar to that here described have repeatedly been explained in the agricultural press. "Clover and corn silage is one of the best winter foods for poulty raisers. Let me tell you how to build four silos for $1. Buy four coal-oil barrels at the drug store, burn them out on the inside, and take the heads out. Go to the clover field when the second crop of the small June clover i^ CORN SII.AGE VS. ROOT CROPS. 1 53 in the bloom, and cut one-half ton three-eights of an inch in length, also one-half ton of sweet corn, and run this through the feed cutter. Put into the barrel a layer of clover, then a layer of corn. Having done this, take a common building jack-screw and press the silage down as firmly as possible. Then put 'on this a very light sprinkling of pulverized charcoal, and keep on putting in clover and corn until you get the barrel as full as will admit of the cover being put back. After your four barrel silos are filled, roll them out beside the barn, and cover them with horse manure, allowing them to remain there thirty days. Then put them away, covering with cut straw or hay. When the cold, chilling winds of December come, open one of these 'poultrymen's silos,' take about twenty pounds for one hundred hens, add equal parts of potatoes, ground oats, and winter rye, place same in a kettle and bring to a boiling state. Feed warm in the morn- ing, and the result will be that you will be enabled to market seven or eight dozen eggs per day from one hundred hens through the winter, when eggs bring good returns." ADDITION AI, TESTIMONY AS TO THE VAI^UK OF SIIyAGE. Corn Silage co-mpared with root crops. — Root crops are not grown to any large extent in this country, but occasionally an old-country farmer is met with who grows roots for his stock, because his father did so, and his grandfather and great-grandfather before him. This is what a well-known English writer, R. Henry Rew, says as to the comparative value of roots and silage, from the standpoint of an English farmer : ** The root crop has, for about a century and a half, formed the keystone of arable farming ; yet it is the root crop whose position is most boldly challenged by silage. No doubt roots are expensive — say ;^io per acre as the cost of producing an ordinary crop of tur- nips — and precarious, as the experience of the winter 154 HOW TO FEED SILAGE. of 1887-8 has once more notably exemplified in many parts of the country. In a suggestive article in the Farming World Almanac for 1888 Mr. Primrose McConnell discusses the question : ' Are Turnips a Necessary Crop ? ' and sums up his answer in the fol- lowing definite conclusion : " 'Everything, in short, is against the use of roots, either as a cheap and desirable food for any kind of live stock, as a crop suited for the fallow break, which cleans the land at little outlay, or as one which pre- serves or increases the fertility of the vSoil.' * ' If the growth of turnips is abandoned or restrict- ed ensilage comes in usually to assist the farmer in supplying their place. . . When one comes to com- pare the cultivation of silage crops with that of roots, there are two essential points in favor of the former. One is their smaller expense, and the other is their practical certainty. The farmer who makes silage can make certain of his winter store of food, whereas he who has only his root crop may find himself left in the lurch at a time when there is little chance of making other provision." We have accurate information as to the yields and cost of production of roots and corn silage in this country from a number of American Experiment Sta- tions. This shows that the tonnage of green or suc- culent feed per acre is not materially different in case of the two crops, generally speaking. But when the quantities of dry matter harvested in the crop are con- sidered, the corn has been found to yield about twnce as much as the ordinary root crops. According to data published by the Pennsylvania Station, the cost of an acre of beets in the pit amounts to about $56, and of an acre of corn in the silo about $21, only half the quantities of food materials obtained, and at more than double cost. When the feeding of these two crops has been de- termined, as has been the case in numerous trials at CORN SILAGK COMPARED WITH HAY. 1 55 experiment stations, it has been found that the dry matter of beets certainly has no higher, and in many cases has been found to have a lower value than that of corn silage ; the general conclusion to be drawn, therefore, is that "beets cost more to grow, harvest and store, yield less per acre, and produce at best no more and no better milk or other farm products than corn silage." Corn silage compared with hay. A ton and a half of hay per acre is generally considered a good average crop in humid regions. Since hay contains sbout 86 per cent, dry matter, a crop of 1^2 tons means 2,580 pounds of dry matter. Against this yield we have yields of 5,000 to 9,000 pounds of dry matter, or twice to three and a half times as much, in case of fodder corn. An average crop of green fodder will weigh twelve tons, of Northern varieties, and eighteen tons, of Southern varieties. Estimating the percentage of dry matter in the former at 30 per cent, and in the latter at 20 per cent, we shall have in either case a yield of 7,200 pounds of dry matter. If we allow for 10 per cent, of loss of dry matter in the silo there is still 6,500 pounds of dry matter to be credited to the corn. The expense of growing the corn crop is, of course, higher than that of growing hay, but by no means sufficiently so to offset the larger 3'ields. It is a fact generally conceded by all who have given the subject any study, that the hay crop is the most ex- pensive crop used for the feeding of our farm animals. The late Sir John B. Lawes, of Rothamsted Ex- periment Station (England) said, respecting the relative value of hay and (grass) silage: "It is probable that when both (i. e. , hay and silage) are of the very best quality that can be made, if part of the grass is cut and placed in a silo, and another part is secured in the stack without rain, one might prove as good food as the other. But it must be borne in mind that while the production of good bay is a matter of 156 HOW TO FEED SILAGK. uncertainty — from the elements of success being be- yond the control of the farmer — good silage, by taking proper precautions, can be made with a certainty." A few feeding experiments with corn silage vs. hay will be mentioned in the following. In an experiment with milch cows conducted at the New Hampshire Station, the silage ration, containing 16.45 pounds of digestible matter, produced 21.0 pounds of milk, and the hay ration, containing 16.83 pounds digestible matter, produced 18.4 pounds milk; calculating the quantities of milk produced by 100 pounds of digestible matter in either case, we find on the silage ration 127.7 pounds of milk, on the hay ration, 109.3 pounds, or 17 per cent, in favor of the silage ration. In a feeding experiment with milch cows at the Maine Station, in which silage likewise was compared with hay, the addition of silage to the ration resulted in a somewhat increased production of milk solids, which was not caused by an increase in the digestible food materials eaten, but which must have been due either to the superior value of the nutriments of the silage over those of the hay or to the general physiological effect of feeding a greater variety of foods. 8.8 pounds of silage proved to be somewhat superior to 1.98 pounds of hay (mostly timothy), the quantity of digestible material being the same in the two cases. In another experiment, conducted at the same station,, where silage was compared with hay for steers, a pound of digestible matter from the corn silage pro- duced somewhat more growth than a pound of digestible matter from timothy hay. The difference was small, however, amounting in the case of the last two periods, where the more accurate comparison is possible, to an increased growth of only 15 pounds of live weight for each ton of silage fed. Corn Silage compared with fodder corn. The cost of CORN SII.AGE AND FODDER CORN. 1 57 production is the same for the green fodder up to the time of siloing, incase of both systems; as against the expense of siloing the crop comes that of shocking, and later on, placing the fodder under shelter in the field-curing process; further husking, cribbing, and grinding the corn, and cutting the corn stalks, since this is the most economical way of handling the crop, and the only way in which it can be fully utilized so as to be of as great value as possible for dry fodder. Professor King, found the cost of placing corn in the silo to be 58.6 cents per ton, on the average for five Wisconsin farms, or, adding to this amount, interest and taxes on silo investment, and insurance and maintenance of silo per ton, 73.2 cents. The expense of shocking and sheltering the cured fodder and, later cutting the same, will greatly exceed that of siloing the crop; to obtain the full value in feeding the ear corn, it must, furthermore, in most cases, be ground, costing 10 cents or more a bushel of 70 lbs. The ad- vantage is, therefore, decidedly with the siloed fodder in economy of handling, as well as in the cost of pro- duction. • The comparative feeding value of corn silage and fodder corn has been determined in a large number of trials at different experiment stations. The earlier ones of these experiments were made with only a couple of animals each, and no reliance can, therefore, be placed on the results obtained in any single ex- periment. In the later experiments a larger number of cows have been included, and these have been con- tinued for sufficiently long time to show what the animals could do on each feed. A few experiments illustrating the value of silage as a stock food may be quoted. Prof. Henry fed two lots of steers on a silage experiment. One lot of four steers was fed corn silage exclusively, and another similar lot corn silage with shelled corn. The former lot gained 222 pounds in thirty-six days, and the latter 158 HOW TO FEED SIIv AGE. lot 535 pounds, or a gain of 1.5 pounds per da}' per head for the silage-fed steers, and 3.7 pounds per day for the silage and shelled- corn fed steers. Prof. Emery fed corn silage and cotton-seed meal, in the proportion of eight to one, to two three-3'ear-old steers, at the North Carolina Experiment Station. The gain made during thirty-two days was, for one steer 78 pounds, and for the other 85.5 pounds, or 2.56 pounds per head per day. The late well-known Wisconsin dairyman, Hon. Hiram Smith, in 1888 gave the following testimony concerning the value of silage for milch cows : " My silo was opened December ist, and thirty pounds of ensilage was fed to each of the ninety cows for the night's feed, or 2,700 pounds perda}-, until March 10, one hundred days, or a total of 135 tons, leaving suf- ficient ensilage to last until May loth. The thirty pounds took and well filled the place of ten pounds of good hay. Had hay been fed for the night's feed in place of the ensilage, it would have required 900 pounds per day for the ninety cows, or a total for the one hundred days of forty- five tons. ''It would have required, in the year 1887, forty- five acres of meadow to have produced the ha}', which, if bought or sold, would have amounted to $14.00 per acre. The 135 tons of ensilage were produced on S% acres of land, and had a feeding value, as compared with hay, of $74.11 per acre." As the conclusion of the whole matter, Mr. Smith stated that ' ' three cows can be wintered seven months on one acre producing 16 tons of ensilage, while it required two acres of mead- ow in the same 3^ear of 1887, to winter o?ie cow, with the same amount of ground feed in both cases. Professor Shelton, formerly of Kansas Agricultural College, gives a powerful plea for silage in the follow- ing simple statement : ' ' The single fact that the pro- duct of about two acres of ground kept our herd of fifty head of cattle five weeks with no other feed of the CONCLUDING TESTIMONY. 1 59 fodder kind, except a small ration of corn fodder given at noon, speaks whole cyclopedias for the possibilities of Kansas fields when the silo is called in as an ad- junct." In conclusion. We will bring our discussions of the silo and its importance in American agriculture, to a close by quoting the opinions of a few recognized lead- ers on agricultural matters as the value of silo and silage : Says Ex-Gov. Hoard, the editor of Hoard's Dairy- man, and a noted dairy lecturer: " For dairying all the year around the silo is almost indispensable. ' ' Prof, Hills, the director of Vermont Experiment Station : "It was long ago clearly shown that the most economical farm-grown carboliydrates raised in New England are derived from the corn plant, and that they are more economically preserved for cattle feeding in the silo than in an}^ other way. ' ' H. C. Wallace, editor Creamer}^ Gazette : ' ' While not an absolute necessity, the silo is a great conve- nience in the winter, and in times of protracted dry- ness almost a necessity in summer. ' ' Prof. Carlyle, of Wisconsin Agricultural College : "A silo is a great labor-saving device for preserving the cheapest green fodder in the best form." C. P. Goodrich, conductor of Farmers' Institutes in Wisconsin, and a well-known lecturer and authority on dairy topics : "A farmer can keep cows profitably without a silo, but he can make more profit with one, because he can keep his cows with less expense and they will produce more. ' ' Prof. Dea7i, of Ontario Agricultural College : " The silo is becoming a greater necessity every year in On- tario." Thus it will be seen that from all parts of the world wherever the silo is in. use, the evidence points in favor of silage, there no longer being an argument against l6o HOW TO FEED SII.AGE. it, in connection with the dairy, and especially in lati- tudes where corn can be grown. Economy in production of feed materials means in- creased profits. Competition establishes the price at which the farmer and dairyman must market his prod- ucts, but by the study of approved and modern meth- ods the farmer can regulate his profits. CHAPTER VI. A feeders' guide. It has been thought best, in order to increase the u.sefulness of this Httle book to practical farmers, to add to the specific information ,siven in the preceding as to the making and feeding of silage, a brief general outline of the main principles that should govern the feeding of farm animals. This will include a state- ment of the character of the various components of the feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of farm stock, with tables of composition, and a glossary of scientific agricultural terms often met with in agricultural pa- pers, experiment station reports, and similar publica- tions. Man}^ of these terms are used constantl}^ in discussion of agricultural topics, and unless the farmer has a fairly clear idea of their meaning the discussions will often be of no value to him. The information given in the following is put in as plain and simple language as possible, and only such facts are given as are considered of fundamental importance to the feed- er of farm stock. COMPOSITION OF THE ANIMAL BODY. The most important components of the animal body are: water, ash, protein, and fat. We shall briefly describe these components. Water is found in larger quantities in the animal body than any other substance. It makes up for about a third to nearly two-thirds of the live weight of farm animals. The fatter the animal is the less water is found in its body . We may consider 50 per cent of the body weight a general average for the water con- tent of the body of farm animals. When it comes to 1 62 A feeders' guide. animal products used for food purposes, there are wide variations in the water content ; from between 80 and 90 per cent in case of milk, to between 40 and 60 per cent in meat of various kinds, about 1 2 per cent in butter, and less than 10 per cent in fat salt pork. Ash or mineral matter is that portion of the animal body which remains behind when the body is burned. The bones of animals contain large quantities of min- eral matter while the muscles and other parts of the body contain only small amounts ; it mUvSt not be con- cluded, however, that the ash materials are of minor importance for this reason ; both the young and full grown animal require a constant supply of ash mate- rials in their food ; if the food should not contain a certain minimum amount of ash materials, and of vari- ous compounds contained therein which are essential to life, the animal will turn sick very soon, and if the deficiency is not made up will die, no matter how much of other food components is supplied. As both ash and water are either present in sufficient quantities in feeding stuffs, or can be easily supplied, the feeder does not ordinarily need to give much thought to these components in the selection of foods for his stock. Protein is not the name of any single substance, but for a large group of very complex substances that have certain characteristics in common, the more important of which is that the}' all contain the element nitrogen. Hence these substances are also known as nitrogenous components. The most important protein substances found in the animal body are : lean meat, fibrin, all kinds of tendons, ligaments, nerves, skin, brain, in fact the entire working machinery of th'e animal body. The casein of milk and the white of the ^'g% are, fur- thermore, protein substances. It is evident from the enumeration made that protein is to the animal bod}^ what the word implies, the most important, the first. Fat is a familiar component of the animal body ; it is distributed throughout the body in ordinary cases, COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 6 J but is found deposited on certain organs, or under the skin, in thick laj^ers, in the case of very fat animals. The animal cannot, as is well known, live on air ; it must manufacture its body substances and products from the food it eats, hence the next subject for con- sideration should be : Composition of Feeding Stuffs. The feeding stuffs used for the nutrition of our farm animals are composed of similar compounds as those which are found in the body of the animal itself, although the components in the two cases are rarely identical, but can be distinguished from each other in most cases b\' certain chemical reactions. The animal body through its vital functions has the faculty of changing the various food substances which it finds in the food in such a way that they are in many instances different from an}- substances found in the vegetable world. The components of feeding stuffs which are generally enumerated and taken into account in ordinary chemical fodder anah^sis, or in discussions of feeding- problems are: Water (or Moisture, as it is often called), ash materials^ fat {or ether-extracf) , protein, crude Jiber, and 7iitrogen-free extract; the two components last given are sometimes grouped together under the name Carbhydrates. These components are in nearh' all cases mixtures of substances that possess certain properties in common ; and as the mixtures are often made up of different components, or of the same com- ponents in varying proportions, it follows that even if a substance is given in a table of composition of feed- ing stuffs, in the same quantities in case of two differ- ent feeds, these feeds do not necessarily have the same food value as far as this component alone is concerned. Water or moisture is found in all feeding stuffs, whether succulent or apparently dry. Green fodders contain from 60 to 90 per cent of water, according to 164 A feeders' guide. the stage of maturity of the fodder ; root crops con- tain between 80 and 90 per cent, while hay of different kinds, straw, and concentrated feeds ordinarily have water contents ranging between 15 and 8 per cent. Ash or mineral matter is found in all plant tissues and feeding stuffs. We find most ash in leafy plants, or in refuse feeds made up from the outer covering of grains or other seeds, viz. , from 4 to 8 per cent ; less in the cereals and green fodder, and least of all in roots. A fair amount of ash materials is a necessity in feeding young stock and pregnant animals, and only limited amounts of foods low in ash should be fed to such animals ; refuse feed from starch and glucose factories which have been treated with large quantities of water should, therefore, be fed with care in such cases. Fat or ether extract is the portion of the feeding vStuff which is dissolved by ether or benzine. It is found in large quantities in the oil-bearing seeds, more than one-third of these being composed of oil or fat ; the oil-mill refuse feeds are also rich in fat, especially cottonseed meal and old-process linseed meal ; other feeds rich in fat are gluten meal and feed, grano-glu- ten and rice meal. The ether extract of the coarse fodders contains considerable wax, resins, and other substances which have a low feeding value, while that of the seeds and by-products from these are essentially pure fat or oil. Protein or Jlesh forming- substances are considered of the highest importance in feeding animals, because they supply the material required for building up the tissues of the body, and for maintaining these under the wear caused by the vital functions. Ordinarily the feed rations of most farmers are deficient in protein since most of the farm-grown foods (not including clover, alfalfa, peas and similar crops) contain only small amounts of these substances. The feeding stuffs richest in protein are, among the coarse foods : those already mentioned ; among the concentrated foods : COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 65 cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed, grano-gluten, buckwheat middlings, and the flour-mill, brewery, and distillery refuse feeds. The protein substances are also called nitrogenous bodies, for the reason given above, and the other organic (combustible) components in the feeding stuffs are spoken of as non-7iitroge7io2is substances. The non ni- trogenous components of feeding stuffs, therefore, in- clude fat and the two following groups, crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract. Crude fiber \s the framework of the plants, forming the walls of the cells. It is usually the least digestible portion of plants and vegetable foods, and the larger proportion present thereof the less valuable the food is. We find, accordingly, that the fodders containing most crude fiber are the cheapest foods and least prized among feeders, as, e. g. , straw of the various cereal and seed producing crops, corncobs, oat and rice hulls, cotton-seed hulls, buckwheat hulls, and the like. These feeding stuffs, in so far as they can be consid- ered as such, contain as a rule between 35 and 50 per cent of crude fiber. Concentrated feeding stuffs, on the other hand, often contain less than 5 per cent of crude fiber, and in the cereals only a couple of per cent of crude fiber are found. Nitrogen- free extract is a general name for all that is left of the organic matter of plants and fodders af- ter deducting the preceding groups of compounds. It includes some of the most valuable constituents of feeding stuffs, which make up the largest bulk of the food materials ; first in importance among these con- stituents are starch and sugar, and, in addition, a number of less well-known substances of similar com- positions, like pentosans, gums, organic acids, etc. Together with crude fiber the nitrogen- free extract forms the group of substances known as carbohydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-producing substances, since this is one important function which 1 66 A feeders' guide. they fill ; they are not as valuable for this purpose, pound for pound, as fat, which also is often used for the purpose by the animal organism, but on account of the large quantities in which the carbohydrates are found in most feeding stuffs they form a group of food materials second to none in importance. Since it has been found that fat will produce about 2 j^ times as much heat as carboh3'drates on combustion, the two components are often considered together in tables of composition of feeding stuffs and in discussions of the feeding value of different foods, the per cent of fat being multiplied by 2 5^ in such cases, and added to the per cent of carbohydrates (i. e., crude fiber plus nitrogen-free extract) in the foods. As this renders comparisons much easier, and simplifies discussions for the beginner, we shall adopt this plan in the tables and discussions given in this Guide. Carbohydrates and fat not only supply heat on being oxidized or burned in the body, but also furnish ma- terials for energy used in muscular action, whether this be voluntary or involuntary. They also in all probability^ are largely used for the purpose of storing fatty tissue in the body of fattening animals, or of other animals that are fed an excess of nutrients above what is required for the production of the necessary body heat and muscular force. To summarize briefly the uses of the various food elements : Protein is required for building up muscu- lar tissue, and to supply the breaking down and waste of nitrogenous components constantly taking place in the living body. If fed in excess of this requirement it is used for production of heat and energy. The non-nitrogenous organic components, i. e., carbohy- drates and fat, furnish material for supply of heat and muscular exertion, as well as for the production of fat in the body or in the milk, in case of milch cows giv- ing milk. Digestibility of foods. Only a certain portion of a COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 1 67 feeding stuff is of actual value t(tthe animal, viz., the portion which the digestive juices of the animal can render soluble, and thus bring into a condition in which the system can make the uses of it called for ; this digestible portion ranges from half or less to more than 96 per cent in case of highly digestible foods. The rest is simply ballast, and the more ballast, i. e., the less of digestible matter a food contains, the more the value of the digestible portion is reduced. Straw, e. g., is found, by means of digestion experiments, to contain between 30 and 40 per cent of digestible mat- ter in all, but it is very doubtful whether an animal can be kept alive for any length of time when fed straw alone. It very likely costs him more effort to extract the digestible matter therefrom than the ener- gy this can supply. An animal lives on and produces not from what he eats but from what he digests. Relative value of feeding stuffs. Since the price of different feeding stuffs varies greatly with the locality and season, it is impossible to give definite statements as to the relative economy which will hold good al- ways. It may be said, in general, that the feeding stuffs richest in protein are our most costly and at the same time our most valuable foods. Experience has shown to a certainty that a liberal supply of protein is an advantage in feeding most classes of farm animals, so that if such feeding stuffs can be obtained at fair prices, it will pay to feed them quite extensively, and they must enter into all food rations in fair quantities in order that the animals may produce as much milk, meat, or other farm products, as is necessary to render them profitable to their owner. The following state- ment shows a classification of feeding stuffs w^hich may prove helpful in deciding upon kinds and amounts of feeds to be purchased or fed. 1 68 A feeders' guide. Classificaiion of Cattle Foods. COARSK FEEDS. 1 2 3 Low in protein. Medium in pro- Ivow in protein. Hig-h in carbohy- tein. High in carbo- drates. Medium in carbo- hydrates, 50 to 65 per cent hydrates. 85 to 95 per cent dig-estible. 55 to 65 per cent digestible. dig-estible. Hays, straws, Clovers, Carrots pota- corn fodder, pasture g-rass, toes. sug-ar corn stover. vetches, pea beets. man- silag-e, cereal and bean fod- golds. turnips. fodders. der. Very high in protein (above 40 per cent. ) Dried blood. Meat scraps. Cotton-seed meal High in protein (25-40 per ct. ) Gluten meal. Atlas meal. Linseed meal. Buckwheat middling-3. Buckwheat shorts Soja-bean. Grano-g-luten. Fairly hig-h in protein (12-25 per ct.) Malt sprouts. Dried brew- ers' g-rains. Gluten feed. Cow pea. Pea meal. Wheat shorts. Rye shorts. Oats shorts. Wheat mid- dling-s. Wheat bran. L/Ow-g-rade flour. Low in pro- tein ( below 12 per cent) Wheat. Barley. Oats. Rye. Corn. Rice polish. Rice. Hominy chops. Germ meal. Oat feeds. FEEDING STANDARDS. Investigations by scientists have brought to light the fact that the different classes of farm animals re- FEEDING STANDARDS. 1 69 quire certain amounts of food materials for keeping the body functions in regular healthy activity ; this is known as the maintenance ration of the animal, an allowance of feed which will cause him to maintain his live weight without either gaining or losing, or producing animal products like milk, wool, meat, eggs, etc. If the animal is expected to manufacture these products in addition, it is necessary to supply enough extra food to furnish materials for this manufacture. The food requirements for different purposes have been carefully studied, and we know now with a fair amount of accurac}^ how much food it takes in the different cases to reach the objects sought. Since there is a great variety of different foods, and almost infinite possible combinations of these, it would not do to ex- press these requirements in so and so many pounds of corn or oats, or wheat bran, but they are in all cases expressed in amounts of digestible protein, carbohy- drates and fat. This enables the feeder to supply these food materials in such feeding stuffs as he has on hand or can procure. The feeding standards common- ly adopted as basis for calculations of this kind are those of the German scientists, Wolff and Lehmann. Those standards give, then, the approximate amount of dry matter, digestible protein, carbohydrates, and fat which the different classes of farm animals should receive in their daily food in order to produce maxi- mum returns. We have seen that a fair amount of digestible protein in the food is essential in order to obtain good results. The proportion of digestible ni- trogenous to digestible non-nitrogenous food sub- stances therefore becomes important. This proportion is technically known as Nutritive Ratio, and we speak of wide nutritive ratio, when there are six or more times as much digestible carbohydrates and fat in a ration as there is digestible protein, and a narrow ratio, when the proportion of the two kinds of food materials is as i to 6, or less. I70 A FEEDERS GUIDE. 3. FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS (Wolff-Lehmann.) (Per day and per 1000 lbs. live weight. Steers at rest in stall Steers slightly worked Steers moderately worked Steers heavily worked Fattening steers. 1st period " ' " 2d " ^^ 3d '^ Milch cows, daily milk vield, 11 lbs... '' 10.5 " . .. .. 22 "... '^ 27.6 " ... 4. Wool sheep, coarser breeds " ^ finer breeds 5. Breeding ewes, with lambs 6. Fattening sheep, 1st period " 2d *' 7. Horses lightly worked Horses moderately worked Horses heavily worked 8. Brood sows, with pigs 0. Fattening swine, 1st period " 2d " " 3d •' 10. Growing cattle : Dairy Breeds. Azer. Live Weight Age, Months. per head. 2-3 154 lbs 3-6 309 " 6-12 507 " 12-18 705 " 18.24 882 " lbs. 18 22 25 28 30 30 26 25 27 29 32 20 23 25 30 26 20 24 26 22 36 32 25 Nutriti ve [A (Digestible) o Substances. ^1 c 'h ^ 4 lbs. cottonseed meal. (6) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. oats straw, 2 lbs. oats, 4 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. Cy) 20 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn. (8) 15 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. alfalfa, 5 lbs. Kafir corn. (9) 20 lbs. com silage, 15 lbs. alfalfa, 4 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. bran. GRAIN MIXTURE FOR DAIRY COWvS. 1 77 (10) 40 lbs. corn silao:e, 5 lbs. alfalfa, 3 lbs. corn, 3 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. O. P. linseed meal, i lb. cottonseed meal. Tennessee Experiment Station: 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. clover or cow pea hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 3 lbs. of corn, 2 lbs. cottonseed meal. North Carolina Experiment Station: (i) 40 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. cottonseed hulls, 5 lbs. cottonseed meal. (2) 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. orchard grass hay, 4^2 lbs. cottonseed meal. (3) 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 5 lbs. cottonseed hulls. (4) 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow pea vine hay. (5) 40 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. wheat bran, 6 lbs. field peas ground. (6) 40 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. cut corn fodder, 3 lbs. ground corn, 4 lbs bran, i lb. cottonseed meal (ra- tion fed at Biltmore Estate to dairy cows. Silage is fed to steers and cows, and corn, peas, teosinte, cow- peas, millet and crimson clover are used as silage crops. These crops ate put into the silo in alternate layers. " Will never stop using the silo and silage"). South Carolina : 30 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. cottonseed meal, 12 lbs. cottonseed hulls. Georgia Experiment Station : 40 lbs. corn silage, 15 lbs. cow- pea hay, 5 lbs. bran. Ontario Agr. College : 45 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover ha3^ 8 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. barley. Nappan Experiment Station (Canada) : 30 lbs. corn silage, 20 lbs. hay, 8 lbs. bran and meal. The criticism may properly be made with a large number of the rations given in the preceding, that it is only in case of low prices of grain or concentrated feeds in general, and with good dairy cows, that it is possible to feed such large quantities of grain profit- ably as those often given. In the central and north- western states it will not pay to feed grain heavily 17^ A FEEDERS' GUIDE. with corn at fifty cents a bushel , and oats at thirty cents a bushel or more. In times of high prices of feeds, it is only in exceptional cases that more than six to eight pounds of concentrated feeds can be fed with economy per head daily. Some few cows can give proper returns for more than this quantity of grain even when this is high, but more cows will not do so. The farmer should aim to grow protein foods like clover, alfalfa, peas, etc., to as large extent as practicable, and thus reduce his feed bills. Average Composition of Silage Crops of Dif- ferent Kinds, in per cent. Crude Crude Nitrogen Ether Water Ash protein fiber free ex- tract extract Corn silage mature corn 73.7 1.6 2.2 6.5 15.1 .9 immature corn 79.1 1.4 l'.7 6.0 11.0 .8 ears removed 80.7 1.8 1.8 5.6 9.5 .6 Clover silage 72.0 2.6 4.2 8.4 11.6 1.2 Soja bean silage 74.2 2.8 4.1 9.7 6.9 2.2 Cow-pea vine silage 79.3 2.9 2.7 6.0 7.6 l!5 Field-pea vine silage 50.0 3.6 5.9 13.0 26.0 1.6 Corn cannery refuse- husks 83.8 .6 1.4 5.2 7.9 1.1 Corn cannery refuse- cobs 74.1 .5 1.5 7.9 14.3 1.7 Pea cannery refuse 76 8 1.3 ,2.8 6.5 11.3 1.3 •Sorghum silag"e 76.1 1.1 .8 6.4 15 3 3 Corn-soja bean silage 76 2.4 2.5 7.2 11.1 .8 Millet-soja bean silage 79.0 2.8 2.8 7.2 7.2 1.0 Rye silag-e 80.8 1.6 2.4 58 9.2 .3 Apple pomace silage 85.0 .6 1.2 3.3, 8.8 1.1 Cow-pea and soja bean mixed 69 8 45 3.8 9.5 11.1 1.3 Corn-kernels 41.3 1.0 6.0 1.5 46.6 3.6 Mixed g-rasses (rowen) 18.4 7.1 10.1 22.8 36.0 5.7 Brewers' g-rain silag-e 69.8 1.2 6.6 4.7 15.6 2.1 The above table gives actual chemical analyses of ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. 179 the products mentioned and includes the entire 100 per cent, of the contents and weight. The following table, compiled by the Editors of Hoard's Dairymen, Fort Atkinson, Wis., shows the average amounts of digestible nutrients in the more common American fodders, grains and by-products, and is the table that should be used in formulating rations. The tables give the amounts of digestible nutrients contained in 100 lbs. in pounds, and the figures can, therefore, be taken as per cents in figuring out the amount of digestible nutrients in any given amount of food material, and it is by such methods that the tables given on pages 185 to 1 89 are obtained. ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. Table Showing Average Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in the More Common American Fodders, Grains and By- Products. Complied by the Editors of Hoard's Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis. Name of Feed. GREEN FODDERS. Pasture Grasses mixed 20.0 Fodder Corn 20.7 Sorg-utn 20.6 Red Clover 29.2 Alfalfa 28.2 Cow Pea 16.4 Soja Bean 24.9 Oat Fodder 37.8 Rye iFodder •. 23.4 Rape 14.0 Peas and Oats 16,0 Beet Pulp 10.2 Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds. c 'I Carbohy- drates. Ether Extract. (Crude Fat.) Lbs. Ivbs. Lbs. Lbs^ 2.5 10.2 0.5, 1.0 11.6 0.4 0.6 12.2 0.4- 2.9 14.8 0.7 3.9 12.7 0.5 1.8 8.7 0.2 3.2 11.0 0.5 2.6 18.9 1.0 2.1 14.1 0.4 1.5 8.1 0.2 1.8 7.1 0.2 0.6 7.3 i8o A feeders' guide. Name ob- Feed. Digestible Nutrients in loo Pounds. SII^AGE. Ivbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Corn 20.9 0.9 Corn, Wisconsin analyses 26.4 1.3 Sorg"hum 23.9 0.6 Red Clover 28.0 2.0 Alfalfa 27.5 3.0 Cow Pea 20.7 1.5 Soja Bean 25*8 2.7 DRY FODDER AND HAY. Corn Fodder 57.8 2.5 Corn Fodder, Wis. analyses 71.0 3.7 Corn Stover 59.5 1.7 Sorghum Fodder 59.7 1.5 Red Clover 84.7 6.8 Alfalfa 91.6 11.0 Barley 85.2 6.2 Blue Grass 78.8 4.8 Cow Pea 89.3 10.8 Crab Grass 82.4 5.7 Johnson Grass 87.7 2.4 Marsh Grass 88.4 2*4 Millet 92.3 4.5 Oat Hay 91.1 4.3 Oat and Pea Hay 85.4 9.2 Orchard Grass 90.1 4.9 Prairie Grass. 87,5 3.5 Red Top 91.1 4.8 Timothy 86.8 2,8 Timothy and Clover 85.3 4.8 Vetch 88,7 12.9 White Daisy 85,0 3.8 STRAW. Barley ". 85.8 0,7 Oat 90.8 1,2 Rye 92,9 0.6 Wheat 90.4 0.4 11.3 14.0 14,9 13.5 8.5 8.6 8,7 34,6 40,4 32.4 37.3 35.8 39.6 46.6 37.3 38.6 39.7 47.8 29.9 51,7 46.4 36.8 42.3 41,8 46.9 43.4 39.6 47,5 40.7 41.2 38.6 40.6 36.3 0.7 0.7 0.2 1.0 1-9 0.9 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.7 0.4 1.7 1.2 1.5 2.0 1.1 1.4 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.5 1.2 1.4 1.4 1.0 1.4 1.6 1.4 1.2 0,6 0.8 0,4 0.4 ANALYSES OF FEEDING STUFFS. I5l Name of Feed. .5 Digestible Nutrients , tn in rnn Pounds. ■^ s 1^ ■53 ohy- tes. Ether Extract. (Crude Fat. u Carb dra ROOTS AND TUBERS. Ivbs. Lbs. Artichokes 20.0 2.0 Beets common 13.0 1.2 Beets, stig-ar 13.5 1.1 Carrots 11.4 0.8 Mang-els 9.1 1.1 Parsnips 11.7 1.6 Potatoes 21.1 0.9 Rutabagas 11.4 1.0 Turnips 9.5 1.0 Sweet Potatoes 29.0 0.9 GRAIN AND BY-PRODUCTS. Barley 89.1 8.7 Brewers' Grains, dry 91.8 15.7 Brewers' Grains, wet 24.3 3.9 Malt Sprouts 89.8 18.6 Buckwheat 87.4 7.7 Buckwheat Bran 89.5 7.4 Buckwheat Middlings 87.3 22.0 Corn 89.1 7.9 Corn and Cob Meal 89.0 6.4 Corn Cob 89.3 0.4 Corn Bran 90.9 7.4 Atlas Gluten Meal 92.0 24.6 Gluten Meal 88.0 32.1 Germ Oil Meal 90.0 20.2 Gluten Feed 90.0 23.3 Hominy Chop 88.9 7.5 Starch Feed, wet 34.6 5.5 Cotton Seed 89.7 12.5 Cotton Seed Meal 91.8 37.2 Cotton Seed Hulls 88.9 0.3 Cocoanut Meal 89.7 15.6 Cow Peas 85.2 18.3 Flax Seed 90.8 20.6 Oil Meal, old process 90.8 29.3 Oil Meal, new process 89.9 28.2 [ybs. I.bs. 16.8 0.2 8.8 0.1 10.2 0.1 7.8 0.2 5.4 0.1 11.2 0.2 16.3 0.1 8.1 0.2 7.2 0.2 22.2 0.3 65.6 1.6 36.3 5.1 9.3 1.4 37.1 1.7 49.2 1.8 30.4 1.9 33.4 5.4 66.7 4.3 63.0 3.5 52.5 0.3 59.8 4.6 38.8 11.5 41.2 2.5 44.5 8.8 50.7 2.7 55.2 6.8 21.7 2.3 30.0 17.3 16.9 8.4 33.1 1.7 38.3 10.5 54.2 1.1 17.1 29.0 32.7 7.0 40.1 2.8 I82 A feeders' guide. .s Digestible Nutrients in 100 Pounds. '- Name of Feed. ii c •5 ohy tes. - u Carb dra OJ >- « Cleveland Oil Meal 89.6 Kaffir Corn 84.8 Millet 86.0 Oats 89.0 Oat Feed or Shorts 92.3 Oat Dust 93.5 Peas . 89.5 Quaker Dairy Feed 92.5 Rve ." 88.4 Rye Bran 88.4 Wheat 89.5 Wheat Bran 88.1 Wheat Middling:s 87.9 Wheat Shorts 88.2 32.1 25.1 2.6 7.8 57.1 2.7 8.9 45.0 3.2 9.2 47.3 4.2 12.5 46.9 2.8 8.9 38.4 5.1 16.8 51.8 0.7 9.4 50.1 3.0 9.9 67.6 1.1 11.5 50.3 2.0 10.2 69.2 1.7 12.6 38.6 3.0 12.8 53.0 3.4 12.2 50.0 3.8 Weight of Concentrated Feeds. Kind of Feed. Cottonseed Meal Linseed Meal, old process Gluten Meal Gluten Feed Germ Oil Meal Brewers' Grains Malt Sprouts Wheat Bran Wheat Middling-s standard Wheat Middlings flour. . . . Corn Kernels Corn Meal . Corn and Cob Meal Corn Bran Oat Kernels Oats ( g-round) Wheat Kernels. H-0 Dairy Feed Quaker Dairy Feed Viotor Corn and Oat Feed One Ouart One Pound Equals Equals 1.4 pounds 0.71 quarts 1.1 •' 0.90 ' 1.8 " 0.55 ' 1,3 " 0.71 ' 1.4 " 0.71 ' 0.6 " 1.70 ' 0.6 " 1.70 ' 0.5 " 2.00 ' 0.8 " 1.25 ' 1.2 " 0.83 • 1.7 " 0.60 ' 1.5 " 0.70 ' 1.4 " 0.67 ' 0.5 " 2.00 ' 1.1 " 0.90 ' 0.7 " 1.40 ' 1.9 " 0.53 ' 0.7 " 1.43 ' 1.0 " 1.00 • 0.7 " 1.43 '• i83 Soiling crops Adapted to Northern New England States. (Lindsey) (For 10 cows' entire soiling-.) Kind. Rye Wheat Red clover. . Grass and clover Vetch and oats J Peas and oats Barnyard millet Soja bean (me- dium green) Corn Hung-arian Barley and peas j Seeds per Acre 2bu. 20 lbs % bu. redtop.. 1 pk. timothy lOlbs. red clover 3 bu. oats 50 lbs. vetch 1% bu. Canada 1% bu. oats 1 peck. 18 quarts. 1 bu... VA bu. VA bu. peas . . . barley. Time of Seeding- Sept. 10-15 July 15-Aug-. ,' Sept. April 20 " 30 " 20 " 30 Mav 10 "' 25 " 20 •• 20 " 30 July 15 Aug-. 5 Area A acre % acre A acre Yi acre A acre 1 acre Time of Cutting- May 20— May 30 June 1— June 15 June 15— June 25 June 15— June 30 June 25— July 10 July 10— July 20 June 25— July 10 July 10— July 20 July 25— Aug. 10 Aug-. 10— Aug-. 20 Aug. 25— Sept. 15 Aug. 25— Sept. 10 Sept. 10— Sept. 20 Sept. 20— Sept. 30 Oct. 1— Oct. 20 Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops. (Phelps.) Kind of Fodder. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Rye fodder Wheat fodder Clover Grass (from 'grass-lands) . Oats and peas Oats and peas Oats and peas Hungarian Clover rowen (from 3) Soja beans (from 3) Cow-peas Rowen grass (from g-rass- lands) Barley and peas Amount of Approxi- Seed [mate Time per Acre, of Seeding-. 2^2 to 3 bu. VA to 3 bu. 20 lbs. 2 bu. each 2 '' 2 " VA bushels 1 bushel 1 2 bu. each Sept. 1 Sept. 5-10 July 20-30 April 10 '' 20 '• 30 June 1 May 25 June 5-10 Aug. 5-10 Ajjproximate Time of Feeding. Mav 10-20 May 20, June 5 June 5-15 June 15-25 June 25, July 10 July 10-20 " 20, Aug-. 1 Aug. 1-10 " 10-20 " 20, Sept. 5 Sept. 5-20 20-30 Oct. 1-30 The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions under approximately similar conditions. 1 84 A feeders' guide. Cost of a Pound of Digestible Dry Matter in Different Feeding Stuffs. 03 03 ible for trien ^- -22 o "ii 3 0) bco) 9 0/ i ^^ as o o rH ^"S 8.2 U Otal nu per ?est 5 3 -■- - ^ y ^-^ g |n g-c c oj-O u ^ u O U Feeds $ lbs. cts. Feeds $ lbs. cts. Corn meal . . . ..0.80 79.5 1.01 Mixed (wheat) feed0.90 64.8 1.39 Cob meal. . . . 0.78 71.3 1.09 Cottonseed meal 1.20 80.3 1.50 Oats . 0.90 67.0 1.34 Linseedmeal O.P.I. 30 77.1 1.69 Provender . . . . 0.85 72.3 1.18 " N.P.I. 30 74.5 1.74 Quaker dairy feedO.85 60.9 1.40 Flax meal 1.30 75.5 1.72 Chicag-o gluten H. O. dairy feedl. 00 63.7 1.57 meal 1.20 78.9 1.52 Cream gluten Corn and oat feedO.85 70.4 1.21 meal 1.20 81.11.48 Hominy chop. . 0.90 88.8 1.01 King gluten meall.20 86.7 1.38 Buffalo gluten Wheat Bran . . .0.85 57.9 1.47 feed 1.00 80.11.25 Diamond gluten Wheat Middliu gsO.95 70.6 1.35 feed 1.00 82.3 1.22 READY REFERENCE TABLE OF (CONTENTS 185 IN VAKYINCi WEIGHTS OF FEED, IN POUNDS. Note.— These tables save calculations of percentages, since, the weights and contents being given in pounds, it is only necessary to find the kind and desired amount of a certain feed, and the table gives the exact food contents in pounds, as in the first table. 15 lbs. of Green Oat Fodder contains 5.7 lbs. of dry matter. 0.35 lbs. of protein and 3.1 lbs' carbohydrates. Pounds oJ fodder Total dry matter '5 Oh 4 .. .. 2.1 0.18 1.0 2.3 0.21 1.2 2.3 0.03 1.2 5 4.2 0.36 2.1 4.5 0.42 2.3 4.6 0.06 2.3 1% 6.4 0.53 3.2 6.8 0.63 3.5 6.8 0.09 3.5 10 8.5 0.71 4.2 9.0 0.84 4.6 9.1 0.12 4.6 12>^ 10.6 0.89 5.2 11.3 1.05 5.8 11.4 0.15 5.8 15 12.7 1.07 6.3 13.5 1.26 6.9 13.9 0.18 6.9 nVz 14.8 1.24 7.3 15.8 1.47 8.1 16.0 0.21 8.1 20 16.9 1.42 8.3 18.1 1.68 9.2 18.2 0.24 9.2 25 .... 21.2 1.78 10.5 22.6 2.10 11.6 22.7 0.30 11.5 Drv fodder Corn fodder, 1:14.3 Corn stover, i :23 6 Wheat straw, 1:95.0 2y^ 1.4 0.06 0.9 1.5 0.04 0.8 2.3 0.01 0.9 5 . 2.9 0.13 1.8 3.0 0.07 1.7 4.5 0.02 1.9 7^ . 4.3 0.19 2.7 4.0 0.11 2.5 6.8 0.03 2.8 10 . 5.8 0.25 3.6 6.0 0.14 Z.7> 9.0 0.04 3.7 12'^. 7.2 0.32 4.5 7.5 0.18 4.1 11.3 0.05 4.6 15 . 8.7 0.38 5.4 9.0 0.21 5.0 13.5 0.06 5.6 nv^. 10.1 0.44 6.2 10.5 0.25 5.8 15.8 0.07 6.5 20 . 11.6 0.50 7.1 12.0 0.28 6.6 18.1 0.08 7-4 25 . 14.5 0.63 8.9 15.0 0.35 8.3 22.6 0.10 9.3 Grains Corn meal, i :ii.3 Corn& cob meal, 1:13.9 Oats, 1:6. 3 X 0.2 0.02 0.2 0.2 0.01 0.2 0.2 0.02 0.1 V7. 0.4 0.03 0.4 0.4 0.02 0.3 0.4 0.05 0.3 1 0.9 0.06 0.7 0.9 0.05 0.7 0.9 0.09 0.6 2 1.7 0.13 1.4 1.7 0.10 1.3 1.8 0.18 1.1 3 2.6 0.19 2.1 2.6 0.14 2.0 2.7 0.28 1.7 4 3.4 0.25 2.9 3.4 0.19 2.7 3.6 0.37 2.3 5 4.3 0.32 3.6 4.3 0.24 3.4 4.5 0.46 2.8 1V7. 6.4 0.48 5.4 64 0.36 5.1 6.7 0.69 4.3 10 8 5 0.63 7.1 8.5 0.48 6.7 8.9 0.92 5.7 1 88 READY REFERENCE TABLES— Continued. Pounds of feed By products 'A 1 2 3 4 5 10 By products A- % 1 2 3 4 5 7>^ 10 By products 1 2 3 4 5 10 1 2 3 4 5 7^ 10 By products Barley, 1:8.0 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 6.7 8.9 0.02 O.O4 0.09 0.17 0.26 0.35 0.44 0.65 0.87 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 5.2 6.9 Wheat middlings. 1 :4.6 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.6 3.5 4.4 6.6 8.8 0.03 0.06 0.13 0.25 0.38 0.50 0.63 0.94 1.25 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.9 4.4 5.8 Eye 1:7.8 0.2 0.02 0.4 0.04 0.9 0.09 1.8 0.18 2.7 0.27 3.5 0.36 4.4 0.46 6.6 0.67 8.8 0.89 02 0.3 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 5.2 6.9 ~ 4) Barley 3creenings,l:7.7 0.2 0.02 0.4 0.04 0.9 0.09 1.8 0.17 2.6 0.26 3.5 0.34 4.4 0.43 6.6 0.65 8.8 0.86 0.2 0.3 0.7 1.3 2.0 2.7 3.3 5.0 6.6 o S rtT3 U Wheat bran, 1:3.8 Wheat screenings, 1:5.2 0.2 0.02 0.4 0.05 0.9 0.10 1.8 0.20 2.7 0.29 3.5 0.39 4.4 0.49 6.6 0.74 8.8 0.98 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.8 5.1 Cottonseed hulls, - 0.2 0.4 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.5 6.7 8.9 O.L 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.7 3.7 Eye bran, 1;5.1 0.2 0.03 0.4 0.-06 0.9 0-12 1.8 0.25 2.7 0.37 3.5 0.49 4.4 0.62 6.6 0.92 8.8 1.23 0.2 0.3 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.5 3.1 4.6 6.3 0.2 0.03 0.4 0.06 0.9 0.12 1.8 0.24 2.6 0.36 3.5 0.48 4.4 0.60 6.6 0.90 8.8 1.20 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.3 3.4 4.6 Eed-dog flour, 1:3.3 0.2 0.04 0.5 *0.09 0.9 0.18 1.8 0.36 2.7 0.53 3.6 0.71 4.6 0.89 6.8 1.34 9.1 1.78 0.1 0.3 0.6 1.2 1.7 2.3 2.9 4.4 5.8 Csttcnseed meal, 1:1.0 Linseed meal o.p. 1:1.5 0.2 0.5 0.9 1.8 2.7 3.6 4.9 6.8 9.0 O.O81 0.15 0.31 0.62 0.92 1.23 1.54 2.31 3.08 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.3 3.4 4.6 0.2 0.10 0.5 0.20 0.9 0.40 1.8 0.80 2.9 1.20 3.7 1.60 4.6 2.00 6.9 3.00 9.2 4.00 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 3.0 4.0 Linseed meal, n p. 1:1.3 0.2 0.08 0.4 0.16 0.9 0.32 1.8 0.65 2.7 0.97 3.6 1.30 4.5 1.62 6.7 2.43 8.9 3.24 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.3 1.7 2.1 3.2 4.2 i89 READY REFERENCE TABLES-( Continued. Pounds of feed u ►^ a; -a a; 1 £■5 Hi s "5 u 'J By Products Flax meal, 1:1,4 Gluten mcal(Chi.)l:1.5 Gluten meal, Cream, 1:1.7 %■■ . 0.2 0.08 O.I 0.2 0.08 O.I 0.2 0.07 O.I %■■ . 0.4 0.16 0.2 0.4 0.16 0.2 0.4 0.15 0.2 I 0.9 0.32 0.4 0.9 0.32 0.5 0.9 0.30 0.5 2 • 1-9 0.64 0.9 1.8 0.64 0.9 1.8 0.59 I.O 3 • ■ 2.7 0.96 1-3 2.6 0.96 1.4 2.7 0.89 1.5 4 • • 3-6 1.28 1-7 3-5 1.28 1.9 3.6 1. 19 2.1 5 • • 4-5 1.60 2.2 4.4 1.60 2.3 4.5 1.49 2.6 7/2.. . 6.7 2.40 3-3 6.6 2.40 3-5 6.7 2.23 3.9 lO 8.9 3.21 4.3 8.8 3.21 4.7 9.0 2.97 5.1 By Products Gluten food, Buffalo, 1:2. 4 Hominy chop, 1:9.2 Dried brewers grain 1:3.0 %.r..... . 0.2 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.02 0.2 0.2 0.04 O.I %■■ 0.4 0.12 0.3 0.5 0.04 0.4 0.5 0.08 0.3 I 0.9 0.23 0.6 0.9 0.09 0.8 0.9 0.16 0.5 2 . . 1.8 0.47 l.i 1.8 0.17 1.6 1.8 0.31 0.9 3 •• 2.7 0.70 1.7 2.8 0.26 2.4 2.8 0.47 1.4 4 .. 3.6 0-93 2.3 3.7 0.35 3-2 3-7 0.63 1.9 5 •- 4-5 1. 17 2.8 4.6 0.44 4.0 4.6 0.79 2.4 7/2 . . 6.8 1.74 4.3 6.9 0.65 6.0 6.9 1. 18 3-5 lO 9.0 2.33 5.9 9.2 0.87 8.0 9.2 1.57 4.7 By Products Atlas gluten nioal, 1:2. (i Malt sprouts, 1:2.2 Pea meal, 1:3.2 y^.. 0.2 0.06 0.2 0.2 0.05 0. 1 0.2 0.04 0.1 %.. 0-5 0. 12 0.3 0.4 0.09 0.2 0.4 0.08 0.3 I 0.9 0.25 0.6 0.9 0.I9 0.4 0.9 0.17 0.5 2 1.8 0.49 1-3 1.8 0.37 0.8 1.8 0.33 I.I 3 •• 2.8 0.74 1.9 2.7 0.56 1.2 2.7 0.50 1.6 4 .. ■ 3-7 0.98 2.6 3.6 0.74 1.6 3-6 0.67 2.1 5 •■ . 4.6 1.23 3-2 4-5 0.93 2.0 4.5 0.84 2.7 7/.. 6.9 1.85 4.9 6.7 1.40 3.0 6.7 1.26 4.0 lO 9.2 2.46 6.5 9.0 1.86 4.0 9.0 1.68 5.3 CONCLUSION. In conclusion we desire to state that the object of this book is to place before the farmer and dairyman such information as will be valuable and practical, in as concise and plain a manner as possible, and to make a plea in behalf of the silo as an improver of the finan- cial condition of the farmer. That the silo is a prime factor in modern agriculture is no longer a matter of doubt. The silo is not the sum total in itself, but as an adjunct, and, in the case of dairying, a Jiecessary adjunct to successful and profitable methods, its value is difficult to overestimate. One of the greatest values of the silo is that as an innovation it becomes a stepping-stone to better meth- ods in general ; it stimulates its owner and spurs him on to see just how good and far reaching results he can obtain from his revised system of management. It invites a little honest effort, and coupled with this it never fails. It enables its owner not onlj' to do what he has been unable to do before, but things he has done without its help the silo enables him to do at less cost than before. The solution of the problem of cost of manufacture is necessary to every successful producer, and as the proposition is constantly chang- ing, the solutions of our forefathers, or even of a gen- eration ago, no longer avail. The silo is not an entic- ing speculation b}^ means of which something can be gotten out of nothing, but a sound business proposi- tion, and has come to stay. The voices of thousands of our best farmers and dair^^men sing its praises, be- cause it has brought dollars into their pockets, and increased enjoyment to them in their occupations and their homes. CONCI.USION. 191 Have you coWvS ? Do you feed stock ? Do you not need a silo ? Is it not worthy of A^our best thought and consideration ? You owe it to yourself to make the most you can out of the opportunities before you. Do IT NOW ! GLOSSARY. Ad libitum. At pleasure ; in case of feeding farm animals, all they will eat of a particular feeding stuff. Albuminoids. A group of substances of the highest importance in feeding farm animals, as they furnish the material from which flesh, blood, skin, wool, ca- sein of milk, and other animal products are manu- factured. Another name for albuminoids is flesh- forming substances or protein. Ash. The portion of a feeding stuff which remains when it is burned, the incombustible part of foods. The ash of feeding stuffs goes to make the skeleton of young animals, and in case of milch cow^s a portion thereof goes into the milk as milk ash. Bacteria. Microscopic vegetable organisms, usually in the form of a jointed rod-like filament, and found in putrefying organic infusions. They are widely diffused in nature, and multiply wnth marvelous rapidity. Certain species are active agents in fermen- tation, while others appear to be the cause of certain infectious diseases. Balanced j'ation. A combination of feeding stuffs containing the various nutrients in such proportions and amounts as will nurture the animals for twenty- four hours, with the least \vaste of nutrients. By- Products. A secondary product of an industry ; cottonseed meal is a by-product of the cotton oil in- dustry; skim milk and butter milk are by-products of butter making. Carbhydrates. A group of nutrients rich in carbon and containing oxygen and hydrogen in the propor- tion in which they form water. The most important carbhydrates found in feeding stuffs are starch, gums and crude fiber f celulose.-) GI.OSSARY. 193 Carbon. A chemical element, which with the ele- ments of water makes up the larger part of the dry matter of plants and animals. Carbonic acid. A poisonous gas arising from the combustion of coal or wood It is formed in all kinds of fermentations and therefore occurs in the siloing of fodders. Cellulose. See Crude fiber. Crude fiber. The frame work forming the walls of cells of plants. It is composed of cellulose and lignin, the latter being the woody portion of plants and wholly indigestible. Digestible matter. The portion of feeding stuffs which is digested by animals, i. e., brought into solu- tion or semi solution by the digestive fluids, so that it may serve as nourishment for the animal and furnish material for the production of meat, milk, wool, eggs, etc. Dry matter. The portion of a feeding stuff remain- ing after the water contained therein has been re- moved . Ensilage. An obsolete word for Silage. Used as verb, likewise obsolete, for to silo; to ensile also some- times incorrectly used for the process of placing green fodders into a silo. Enzemes. An unorganized or chemical compound of vegetable or animal origin, that causes fermenta- tion, as, pepsin, or rennet. Ether extract. The portion of a feeding stuff dis- solved by ether ; mainly fat or oil in case of concen- trated feeding stuffs ; in coarse fodders, fat mixed with a number of substances of uncertain feeding value, like wax, chlorophyll (the green coloring matter of plants), etc. Fat. See Ether extract. Feeding standard. A numerical expression of the amounts of the various digestible subtances in a com- bination of feeding stuffs best adapted to give good 194 GIvOSSARY. results as regards production of animal products, like beef, pork, milk, etc. Indian corn. Zea Mays, the great American cereal and fodder-producing plant. Hydrogen. A chemical element, a gas. Combined with oxygen it forms water, with oxgen and carbon it forms carbhydrates and fat; with oxygen, carbon and nitrogen (with small amounts of sulphur and phos- phorus) it forms the complex organic nitrogenous sub- stances known 2,'^ protein albumiyioid substances. Legumes. Plants bearing seeds in pods and capable of fixing the gaseous nitrogen of the air, so that it be- comes of value to the farmer and wall supply nitro- genous food substances to farm animals. Examples, the different kinds of clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc. Of the highest importance agriculturally, as soil re- novators, and in supplying farm- grown protein foods. Nitrogen. A chemical element, making up four- fifths of the air. The central element of protein. See under Hydrogeji. Nitrogen-free extract. The portion of a feeding stuff remaining when w^ater, fat. protein, crude fiber, and ash are deducted. It includes starch, sugar, pentosans, and other substances. It is so called because it does not contain any^ nitrogen. Nitrogenous substances. Substances containing nitrogen (w^hich Sfe). Nutrient. A food constituent or group of food con- stituents capable of nourishing animals. Nutritive ratio. The proportion of digestible pro- tein to the sum of digestible carbhydrates and fat in a ration, the per cent of fat being multiplied by 2^, and added to the per cent of carbhydrates (crude fiber plus nitrogen-free extract). Orga?iic matter. The portion of the dry matter which is destroyed on combustion (dry^ matter minus ash). Oxygen. A chemical element found in a free state I GLOSSARY. 195 in the air, of which it makes up about one-fifth, and in combination with hydrogen in water; oxygen is also a rarely-lacking component of organic substances. See Car bhy drat es and liydrogen. Protein. A general name for complex organic com- pounds mainly made up from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxj^gen and nitrogen. Crude protein in- cludes all organic nitrogen compounds, while true pro- tein or albiwiinoids (which see) only includes such nitrogenous substances in feeding stuffs as are capable of forming muscle and other tissues in the animal body. Ration. The amount of food that an animal eats during twenty-four hours. Roughage. The coarse portion of a ration, includ- ing such feeding stuffs as hay, silage, straw, corn fodder, roots, etc. Concentrated feeding stuffs are sometimes called graiji-feeds or concentrates, in con- tradistinction to roughage. Silage. The succulent feed taken out of a silo. Formerly called ensilage. Silo. An air-tight structure used for the preserva- tion of green, coarse fodders in a succulent condition. As verb, to place green fodders in a silo. Soiling. The system of feeding farm animals in a barn or enclosure with fresh grass or green fodders, as rye, corn, oats, Hungarian grass, etc. Starch. One of the most common carbhydrates in feeding stuffs insoluble in water, but readily digested and changed into sugar in the process of digestion. Succulent feeds. Feeding stuffs containing consider- able water, like green fodders, silage, roots and pasture. SuTnnier silage. Silage intended to be fed out dur- ing the summer and early fall to help out short pastures. Summer silo. A Silo used for the making of sum- mer silage. INDEX. PAGE Advantages of the silo 13, 153 Alfalfa silage 114 Animal body, composition of the 161 Analyses of feeding- stuffs. 179 Ash 162, 164 Average composition of silage crops . . 178 Beet-pulp silage 117 Beets, cost of, per acre 154 Beef cattle, silage for 144 Blower elevators 131 Brick silos 85 Capacity of round silos 31 Carbonic-acid poisoning in silos, danger from 133 Certified milk, silage in production of 141 Chemical composition of silage 178 Chute for a round wooden silo. ... 82 Circles, circumferences and areas of 81 Clover silage Ill, 136 Clover silage, cost of 112 Clover, time of cutting for the silo 113 Clover, j'ield per acre of 113 Corn, cutting of, in the field 120 Corn land, preparation of 104 Corn, methods of planting 110 Corn silage vs. fodder corn 156 Corn silage vs. hay 155 Corn silage vs. roots 153 Corn, siloing of, "ears and all" 123 Corn, see also Indian corn and Fodder corn. Corners of square silos methods of excluding air from 90 Cost of beets per acre 154 Cost of a pound of digestible dry matter in different feeding stuffs 184 Conclusion 190 Cost of corn silage 112, 154 Cost of silos 95 Covering silage ^ 134 Cow-pea silage 114 Comparative losses in dry curing 15 Corn time of cutting for silo 107 Composition oj the animal body 161 Composition of the silage crops 178 Composition of feeding stuffs 163 Crude fiber 165 Cutter and power, size of 127 Definitions of terms used 192 INDEX. 197 Description of round wooden silos 38, 60 Description of "Ohio" silag-e cutters 128, 131 Digestibility of Foods . . 166 Doors for silos 46, 73 Ears and all, siloing- of corn. 123 Economy of storage 21 Elevators, pneumatic 131 Ensilage, see Silage. Estimating of materials for silos 98 Feeders's guide, etc 161 Feeding stuffs, composition of 163 Feeding standards 168, 170, 171 Feeding of silage 139 Field-curing of fodder corn, losses in 13, 16 Filling of silo 22, 120, 125 Freezing of silage. 137 General requirements for silos 26 Grain mixtures for dairy cows 175 Guide, a feeders' 161 Hauling corn from field, rack or sled for 122 Hills or drills, planting of corn in 110 History of the silo ... 9 Horizontal girts, silos with 91 Horses, silage for 145 How to feed silage 139 How to figure out rations 172 Indian corn, soil adapted for 104 Indian corn, methods of planting 110 Indian corn . 104 Indian corn, chemical changes in 108 Indian corn, increase in food ingredients from tasseling to ripeness . 109 Indian corn, varieties of, to be planted for the silo 105 Indian corn, see also Corn and Fodder Corn, Introduction. 9 Eining for silos '. . 49, 54 Eosses in dry curing 13, 16 Eosses in the siloing process 17 Eosses in siloing Alfalfa 19 Eow wagon for hauling corn 122 Eucern, See Alfalfa. Materials for the silo 69 Metal bucket chain elevators 128 Milch cows, silage rations for 142 Milch cows, silage for ... 139 Mineral Matter 162, 164 Modifications of "Wisconsin" silo 55 198 INDEX. New Jersey Experient Station silo 130 Nitrogen-free extract. 165 Number of staves required for stave silos 81 Nutritive Ratio . 169' Octagonal silos 91 "Ohio" silage cutters, description of 128, 131 Painting the silo lining 54 Plastered round wooden silos 56 Planting corn, in hills or in drills 110 Planting corn, methods of 110 Planting corn, thickness of 110 Pneumatic elevators 131 "Poultrymen's silos"-.. 153 Poultrjs silage for 152 Preparation of corn land 110 Preservation of silos 101 Protein 162, 164- Rations, how to figure out 172 Rack, low-down, for hauling- corn 122 Rations, silage, for dairy cows 142 Relative value of feeding stuffs 167 Read3^ reference tables 185 Roof for the silo 51, 67, 75, 76 Round silos , 38 Round silos, capacity of 31 Sheep, silage for 148 Silage, alfalfa 114 Silage cart 139 Silage, chemical composition of 178 Silage, clover Ill Silage, cost of 112 Silage crops 104 Silage, feeding of 139 Silage for horses 145 Silage for milch cows 139, 142 Silage for poultry 152 Silage for sheep * 148 Silage for beef cattle 144 Silage for swine I5I Silage, freezing of 137 Silage, quantities of, required for different herds 32 Silage rations for milch cows 142 Silage, how to feed 139 Silos, acreage to fill 32 Silos, how to build 26 Silos, general requirements for 26 Silos, on the form of 32, 37 INDEX. 1 99 Silos, the fillifig" process 125 Silos, time of filling 22, 120 Silos, roof for 51 ■Silos, round all-stone 82, 86 Silos, round wooden 38 Silos, round wooden, capacity of.., 31 Silos, chute for 82 Silos, cost of ,.... 54, 55, 58, 76,90, 95 Silds, location of ,. 36 Silos, specifications for •.... 38, 55, 56, 64, 92 Silos, square, methods of excluding- air from corners of 90 Silos, stone 86 Silos, value in intensive farming- 24 Silos, ventilation of 52 Silos with horizontal g"irts >. 91 Silos, foundation of 38, 39, 41, 43, 64, 92 Size of silo required ..., 29 Silos, brick lined 60 Silos, all brick 85 Silos, in the barn 87 Silos, Octag-onal .... 91 Size of cutter and power required 127 Sorg-hum silag-e 117 Southern and Northern varieties of ^ corn, comparative yields of . . . 106 Soiling- crops, table of . 183 Soiling- crops, time of planting and feeding 183 Soja Beans 116 Specifications for a round wooden silof "'Wisconsin" . . 38 Specifications for a stave silo 64 Stave silos 60, 77, 79 Stave silos, calculation of staves required for . . 81 Stave silos, roof of 67 Stave silos, specifications for 64 Staves, calculation of number required 81 Steers, silage for 144 Stone silos 86 Succulence 20 Swine, silage for 151 Thickness of planting corn 110 Time of filling the silo 22, 120 Time of cutting corn for the silo 107 Varieties of corn to be planted for the silo 105 Water, use of in filling silos 135 Weight of concentrated feeds 182 Wisconsin Experiment Station silos, descriptions of 59, 60 Yields of clover per acre 113 03 ^ IB o e/> t^ r^ <» (O •^ « ft) 0) u. »s. *^ 1© *: f <» o _» ;j ^ o ft} «> ft» (= o ^s u ^ o <« o CO ^ ^ ftD z >^ o ^ .£ 1^ 20I iH 'Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter Showing New Metal Bucket Carrier, Set for Right-Angle Delivery. Fig. 784, No. n. SIZES AND PRICES. No. 11 With two knives, 11 inches long. 4 lengths cut $40.00 No. 1 1 With four knives, 1 1 inches long, 4 lengths cut. . 45.00 Extira gears to cut 4 inches long 3.00 Reversible carrier, angle or straight delivery. 12 feet long or less. • • • • 33.75 Straight-delivery carrier, without reversible at- tachments 30.25 Additional length over 12 feet, extra per foot . 1.70 Write for Discounts. 202 Smallest Size Mnsilage Cutter. The illustration is a good representation of the smallest size ensilage cutter and it shows also the new metal bucket carrier set for right- angle delivery. This is the style carrier manufactured for this machine and it can be set at right or left angle, or straightaway. Carrhr Any Length. Has best tool steel knives, readily adjusted to cut- ter bar. Strong, simple gearing ; safety fly wheel, safety throw-out feed lever, four lengths of cut. Has Capacity to Fill 50- Ton Silos The cutter is substantial, has large capacity, and is adapted to cut all kinds of dry feed as well as ensilage. It has capacity to fill 50-ton silos, and even larger ones, but as this work necessitates a force of men and teams, and taking also into account the liability of frost, own- ers of silos usually give preference to a larger machine, so that the cutting may be done more quickly. Mnsilage Maintains More Cows, Produces More Milk. Use of an ^levator. The first and principal use of elevators of this kind is to convey cut ensilage into the silo. Other uses are to deliver dry cut feed, of whatever kind, into bays, bins, lofts and other places away from the machine, which saves the expense of a man. Capacity, Speed, Power, Size of Pulley. Dry feed, 2500 to 3000 pounds; ensilage, 3 to 4 tons per hour. Speed, 450 to 600 revolutions per minute. Power, 2 horse-power. Can also be run by one or two horse tread power. Pulleys, size sent, 12 x 4-inch face; diameters 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches can be furnished. Weight. No. II Cutter, 420 pounds. Reversible carrier, 12 feet long, 200 pounds. Extension, per foot, 8 pounds. 203 ''Ohio" Standard Feed and Ensilage Cutter And New Straightaway IMetal Bucket Carrier Connected Up Ready for Use. Fig. 784, Nos. 13, J6 and 18. sizp:vS and prices. No. 15 With 2 knives, 13 inches long-, 4 leng-ths of cut $60.00 No. 13 With 4 knives, 13 inches long-, 4 lengths of cut . 65.00 No. 16 With 4 knives, 16 inches long-, 4 lengths of cut. . 90.00 No. 18 With 4 knives, 18 inches long. 4 lengths of cut 120.00 Extra gears to cut 4 inches long-, vvrith 2 knives. . 4.00 Straight delivery carrier for either size, 12 ft. long- 33.50 Swivel carrier for either size, 12 ft. long or under 45.00 Carrier, additional length over 12 ft. long, per foot 1.70 Wood cover, to fasten w^ith hooks and eyes, per foot .25 204 Brief Comment on General Construction. The frame or stand is heav^' and substantial, wliich makes it stiff and enduring". The feed box is wide and roomy, and reinforced at the top by a screw throug'h the iron work and at the rear by ang-le irons. It also has an extension at the bottom to receive a platform, which is sometimes needed in feeding. The iron work is of sufficient weig-ht to give streng-th, and the bearing-s are heavy and close up to machine. The shaft, knives and knife heads are of the best and every part is properly put tog'ether. It has the I'WO extended front and hood, the safety iiy wheel, guards over g'ears, metal delivery chute, and ever3- point throug-hout of the latest and best. Feeding Device Clearly Outlined in Cut. The chain of feed g^ear pinions which operate the upper feed roller, the backwardl3'-inclined curved slot that the upper roller moves in, the adjust- able feed lever and the spring-s underneath, are all nicely- defined here. This chain of g'ears vibrate as the feed roller raises and lowers, j-et their movable bearings maintain their respective distances to each other and keep the g'ears properlv in mesh without binding- or friction, which gives a uniform motion to the roller. These features make the machine a strong- feeder. This feeding- device is made under U. S. patents. The feed lever is adjustable and its first use is to disconnect the chain of g'ears to chang-e the leng-thof cut. The length of cut is readily chang-ed by either reversing- the gear pinion on lower roller shaft or substituting a d liferent pinion. Another use ef this lever is to start and stop the feed. If the power runs down, or the machine clogs for any re&son whatever, or an accident occurs, the feed can be stopped instantly b.v grasping this lever. New Straight Metal Bucket Carrier. The cut shows, first, the new straightaway metal bucket carrier and how to attach it to the machine; second, the front to the cutter and how it gives room for the cut feed to get awa^' from the cylinder and how it will conduct the ensilage into the carrier. '■'' The illustration is made from a photograph of the "Ohio" Standard Cutter No. 16 and a new straightaway- bucket carrier. This is the present style straight carrier and it is made for sizes Nos. 13. 16, 18 and 19. It is applicable to cutters with extended tables and traveling feed aprons, as well as those like the illustration, and is recommended wherever a straight carrier can be used. It is easier to set up and move than the reversible carrier. Metal buckets upwards of two inches high are now used, instead of low wood slats, and the sides oj the carrier are more than one inch higher. This gives the carrier ample capacity- to take awaj- the.cnt feed a> fast as it comes from the cutter, and ii lessens the necessity' for a cover, except when there is a high wind or verv steep elevation. Carriers 50, 60 and jo Fetft Long. At this time the average lengths of carriers are 34 to 42 feet; they have been supplied as long as 50, 60 and 70 feet, and work perfectl}-, driven in the regular way from the bottom. Adjustment Provided to Take Up Wear. There is adjustment provided at the top. to take up wear in the chain or make anv necessary adjustment. The oil cups in top irons are filled with waste, which holds the oil. Keep all bearings well oiled with good qnalitv machine oil. Capacity, Power Speed and Weight. Capacity, cutting ensilasre. No. 13.4 to 6 tons; No. 16, 4 to 10 tons; N(). 18, S to 12 tons per hour. Power, No. 13, 2 to 4; No. 16,2 to 8; No. IS, 4 to 8 actual horse-power each. Speed, either size, 45ii to 60J revolutions per minute. Size of pullevs furnished with machines, 12 .x 6-inch face. Di- ameters 6, 8, 10 and 14 inches when wanted. Cutters: No. 13, 560 pounds; No. 16, 620 pounds; No. 18, 700 pounds. Carrier: 12-foot straightaway complete, 240 pounds; 12-foot swivel com- plete. 315 pounds. Extra length per foot, either style, 10 pounds. The special features described under the different machines are dis- tinctive "Ohio" features, and are on all "Ohio" machines. The safety feed levers, patent adjustable gears, safety fly wheel, full width throat, etc., are on all "Ohio" machines alike, and are some of the points that have made these machines so universallv successful and satisfactory. -205 "Ohio" Sell-feed Ensilage Cutter And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier. Fig. 785, Nos. 13, 16 and 18. SIZE.S AND PRICES. No. 13 With four 13-inch knives, cuts 14,.'^, 54; and 1 inch S 95.00 No. 1 6 With four 1 6-inch knives, cuts }i, M, H and 1 inch 1 20.00 No. 1 8 With four 1 8-inch knives, cuts U, '^, % and 1 inch 155.00 Extra gears to cut four inches long,for Nos. 13, 1 6 or 18 4.00 Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 3 Cutter 45.00 Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 6 Cutter 45.00 Swivel carrier 1 2 feet long, for No. 1 8 Cutter 45.00 Extra length, per foot, for Nos. 13, 1 6 or 18 Cutters 1.70 Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, for Nos. 13, 16 or 1 8 Cutters, per foot ■ .25 Write for Discounts. 2o6 The Illustratian^ It correctly represents the new "Ofiio" Self- Feed Ensilage Cutter and the present pattern metal bucket swivel carrier, and shows how the two are connected up ready for use and how the carrier is driven from the cutter. The traveling feed table, long enough to receive a bundle of corn is also shown, and is a valuable feature. Self- feed means that it is only necessary to deliver the corn into the feed box. It goes through itself^ which point alone saves the user one of the hard jobs on the farm. It increases capacity 33^ per cent, and more. It saves 75 per cent, of labor feeding and two men constantly pushing to get the feed through the rolls are no longer needed. Customers frequentl}^ write: "We have to hustle to keep the machine sup- plied with corn." "Machine has done more than you recommended," etc. The corn can be fed in armfuls or in bundles from the harvester, the feed box being ample for either. The swivel carrier, also shown in the cut, enables the user to set the machine in any desired position. The base and wearing parts are self-contained, free from dirt and rigid and durable. Power, Capacity, Speed and Pulley. No. 13 requires 4 to 6 horse- power and its capacity is 8 to 12 tons of ensilage corn per hour. No. 16 requires 6 to 8 horse-power and its capacity is 12 to 15 tons ensilage corn per hour. No. 18 requires 6 to 10 horse-power and its capacity is 14 to 20 tons ensilage corn per hour. The pulley is 12 x 6-inch face, and sizes 6, 8, 10 and 15 inches diameter, when wanted. The proper speed is 450 to 600 revolutions per minute. ^q7 ''OWo^ Monarch Selt-feed Ensilage Cutter And New Metal Bucket Swivel Carrier. Fig, 794. SIZE AND PRICE. No. \ 9 CuttBr with four 1 9*inch knives, cuts '2. H and 1 inch • • • • $200.00 Extra gears which cut 4 inches long- with two knives 5.50 1 2-foot straight carrier 40.00 12-foot swivel carrier 55.00 Additional length, per foot • 2.23 Wood cover, with hooks and eyes to fasten, per foot .35 2oS A new machine, heavy and powerful, to meet the demand for a heavy unbreakable machine for larger users and transient work. It has heavy, strong frame and gears; self-feed, two safety levers; steel knife shaft i^ inches in diameter; strong knife heads, four bolts in each knife: simple adjustment arrangement for knives; enormous capacitv; great durability, and is guaranteed in every retpect, as are all Ohio machines. It cannot fail to please. Capacity. 17 to 25 tons of ensilage per hour. Size of Pulley f Power, Speed and Weight. The pulle}' is idx8-inch face and is leather covered. Necessary power, 8 to 12 horse-power. Speed, 600 revolutions per minute. Weight of cutter, iioo pounds; straight carrier i2feetlong, 355 pounds; swiv- el carrier same length, 480 pounds. Extra length per foot, 14 pounds. "Ohio'' Ensilage Cutters are also made with 20 and 24 inch knives, these sizes being heavy and pro- portioned correspondingly. They are not illustrated here, but are shown and described in the regular catalogue describing "Ohio"' Ensilage Cutters. "OHIO" STANDS FOR BEST. 209 "Ohio" Self -reed Ensilage Cutter With Direct-Blast Blower Elevator. Fig. 793. SIZES AND PRICKS. No. 13 Cutter, with four 13-inch knives, cuts }4, K and 1 inch $ 95.00 No. 1 6 Cutter, with four 1 6-inch knives, cuts }4, % and 1 inch ..... 1 20.00 No. 1 8 Cutter, with four 1 8-inch knives, cuts >^, ^ and 1 inch 155.00 Extra gears which will cut 4 inches long with two knives 4.00 No. 1 9 Cutter, with four 1 9-inch knives, cuts }4, H and 1 inch 200.00 Extra gears to cut 4 inches long with two knives 5.50 Blower comp ete with 2-foot hood for top of pipe 75.00 8-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6 and 10-foot lengths for No. 13, per foot .80 1 0-inch galvanized pipe in 4, 6, 8 and 1 0-foot lengths for No. 16, No. 18 or No. 19, per foot 1.00 Liberal Discounts given. 2IO A Successful Blower ^levator for the ''Ohio" Cutters. The picture on the opposite pag-e clearly outlines a new blower or wind elevator in connection with the "Ohio" Self- Feed Bnsilag-e Cutter, and one that is adapted for use with the four sizes, Nos. 13, 16, 18 and 19. The blower is wide and stands 5}^ feet in diameter, which g-ives ample capacity to carry away and elevate the cut ensilag^e as fast as it comes from these larg-e capacity cutters. The Blower levator and What It Will Do. The Blower ^levator is a new method for elevating- cut silage into the silo. The one shown here will do this work perfectly, the only point being- to maintain proper speed, and to set the pipe as nearly perpendicular as possibie. Running- under these conditions, the blower will elevate the cut corn as fast as the machines cut it. How Constructed. The fan case being- made of heavy sheet steel and painted with an iron-clad paint, insures strength and durability. The fan wing-s are made of 34^ -inch steel, riveted to heavy bar iron arms which are bolted to rim of solid center wheel, then the ends hooked and let into the wheel, making- the fan absolutely safe. The fan wheel is mounted on the oppo- site end of pulley shaft, which makes the drive direct. Inlet in Fan Case. The inlet is just below the center, a little forward under the knife cylinder, where the exhaust catches the cut corn and by aid of the ag-itator draws it into the fan. The Pipe and Pipe Connection. The pipe is 10 inches in dianeter and made of heavy galvan- ized steel with seams on outside, and is very rigid. It is made in 4, 6, 8 and 10-foot lengths, with 10-inch slip joints and a clamping band at each joint. The upper end of pipe is a curved elbow, which conducts the corn into the silo. The pipe con- nection to fan case is a ball and-socket joint, which allows the pipe to oscillate to the right or left and straightaway. How the Pipe Must be Set. The pipe must be set as nearly perpendicular as possible. Kxperience has proven this to be the case. If lateral deliv- er^^ is desired it should be accomplished by means of a long, easy elbow at the top, and not by giviug^ a low slant to the entire leng-th of pipe. 211. *'Ohio^^ Self-Feed Cntter Well Known. Upwards of one-half of the trade for ensilag-e cutters spec- ifies the self-feed machine. They have been used success- fully in every part of the country and hundreds of letters have been written commenting- upon their merits. The new blowef or wind elevator increases their efficiency in this point. The blower is made fast to the machine and the pipe can be erected and taken down in about one-tenth the time required to set up and move a chain elevator, Self-Feed S&ves Labor and Dollars, Self-feed saves more labor and earns more dollars than any other point about an ensilage cutter. It saves three-fourths of the labor feeding ensilage and the cutting capacity is in- creased 333<3 per cent. Capacity and Length of Pipe. No. 13, 8 to 12 tons; No. 16, 12 to 15 tons; and No. 18, 14 to 20 tons of ensilage per hour; No. 19, 17 to 25 tons of ensilage per hour. Feed the cutter regularly and keep speed up, and the blower will elevate the ensilage as stated and to the satisfaction of the user. These four machines will cut all kinds of dry feed, and with blower elevator and pipe it can be conveyed to any part of the barn. The perpendicular height from ground to center of opening in silo is ample length of pipe for cutter. Size of Pulley, Power, Speed and Weight. The pulley is 14x6-inch face and is leather covered. The necessary power to drive these machines up to capacity and properly elevate the ensilage is as follows: No. 13, 8 to 10 horse-power; No. 16, 10 to 12 horse-power; No. 18, 12 to 16 horse-power; No. 19, 16 horse-power. Speed, 650 revolutions per minute. Weight of No. 13, 850 pounds; No. 16, 925 pounds; No, 18, 965 pounds; No, 19, 1145, pounds; blower and fan wings, 450 pound; pipe, 4 pounds per foot. Will Do Successful Work With Less Power Than Indicated Under ordinary conditions either size will cut and elevate green corn at the rate ( f one ton of ensilage, for each horse- power applied, per hour. The power indicated is necessary to run the machines to full capacity, and it is ample. Some may not have that much power and might not want to provide a sufficient force of men and teams to d liver corn to keep the cutters supplied. The machines are light running, and know- ing the power necessary to cut and elevate green corn, parties with less power than indicated can run these machines success- fully, and will know how to feed them and what capacity to ex- pect. The only point is to keep the speed up and the machine will do its work. 212' GUARANTEE. The "Ohio" machines are warranted to be well made of good materials. They will do what is claimed for them if operated according ro instructions, and they are so guaranteed to every purchaser. THE SII.VER MFG. CO., Salem, Ohio, U. S. A. Established 1854. Catalogues, descriptive matter, testimonials and photographs will be cheerfully furnished on request to the manufacturers. BiNDERY