# s 551 THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE BULLETIN NO. 2. REVISED :!^A The District School. Seeds and Seed Selection. Suggestions for Industrial Contest. Types of Wheat. Oats, Barley and Corn. Rules for Judging. Suggestions for Rotating Crops. Cooking Contest and Suggestions. Sewing Contest and Suggestions. Fruit Growing Contest and Suggestions. Vegetable Growing Contest and Suggestions. God's gift to the New World's yreat need That helped to build the Nation's Strength, Up thro beginnings rode to lead A liigher race of men at length. — Thaxter. Co^ected s«4 School Gardens near villages or in cities may properly consist largely of shrubs and flowers. "An ■unlessoned sirl Unskilled, Ur.pra.etieed, HaDpy in this, she is not yet so old But she maj learn." — Shakespeare. BULLETIN No. 2. REVISED RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE PREPARED BY C. P. BULL DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 1907 St. Anthony Park Minn. -.;*■ if-i-h DEC % i9\0 6S- FOREWORD "Here let us breathe, and happily institute A course of learning and ingenious studies." Taming of the Shrew. The successful introduction of the study of the elements of agriculture into the rural schools of Minnesota depends upon placing comprehensive studies before the superintendents, teachers and pupils of these institutions, and upon the intelligence with which they execute the plan of introduction. Rural School Bulletin No. i supplied the teachers with simple outlines of experi- ments that could be carried out in any rural school by the yoimg- est pupils, thus introducing the elementary studies in such a way as to make them both interesting and instructive. In accord v/ith the movement to introduce agriculture in our public schools, Rural School Bulletin No. 2 is ofifered as a text for teachers and pupils who are interested in the improvement of seed and crop conditions in Minnesota, It is thought best to include in the work only the common grains : wheat, oats, barley and corn, with an introductory chapter on seeds, their parts, germination, selec- tion, weight, classes, etc. Definite rules for score cards and judging are also included for the benefit of the teachers and judges of the contest. At the back of the outlines for the grains and corn is an appen- dix upon the subject of Field Alanagement and Crop Rotation. This is offered to the teachers as a guide to a general understand- ing of the subject of farming and handling of crops. Following this are suggestions for practical exercises, which if followed out will greatly increase the pupil's interest in his work and in the value of good seed. Upon the basis of these rules it is planned to have a contest in each county in the state. A plan for the 1907 state contest is herewith included. The contestants are to be pupils of the schools, both boys and girls or any other boy or girl in the state under 18 years of age. County contests may be planned as best suits the local condit.ons or the desires of those in charge. In connection with the state contest a "good seed" meeting will be held, at which time the prizes will be awarded and methods of growing the crops and car- ing for the seeds will be discussed. Other matters of interest in relation to rural scln:)ol aiTairs may also be brought up in these meetings. The original Rural School Bulletin No. 2 was published in connection with the seed contest for rural school pupils for 1906. This revised edition is more complete and includes barley as well as wheat, corn and oats, also a brief discussion of sewing, cook- ing, vegetable and fruit growing. It is published by the Minne- sota Experiment Station. The IVIinnesota Field Crop Breeders, as before, will provide judges for making the awards. All inquiries in regard to the contest should be addressed to The Farmers' Club, St. Anthony Park, St. Paul., Minn. For valuable suggestions and assistance in preparing this Bull- etin the writer is deepy indebted to Prof D. D. Mayne, Principal of the School of Agriculture ; Andrew Boss, Professor of Agri- culture and Animal Husbandry, and others of the Department of Agriculture. Miss Mary L. Bull, Assistant Instructor in Domestic Science. Mrs. Margaret J. Blair, Instructor in Domestic Art, and Le Roy Cady, Assistant in Florticulture, prepared the copy in cooking, sewing, and fruit and vegetable growing respectively. INTRODUCTION. Minnesota is an agricultural state. About one-half of the peo- ple are living in country districts, and of the total population 40.1 per cent are engaged in agricultural pursuits. At the last census there were 154,659 farms. The average size of each farm is about 169 acres. Of all the farm crops grown in Minnesota, wheat, oats, barley and corn are the most important. Wheat is grown on 35 y.K fWW' '^ S ^ /ry^'^M, W y^ ?^ Ml ''ff.^/y/n tr, i % m Fig. 1. The chart contains 100 little squares. Each square represents one per cent. Therefore, the number of squares darkened in each corner shows the percentage or proportion of etch ci'op. as compared with the entire culti- vated area in the state. per cent (more than one-third~) of the improved land; oats on \2 per cent (about one-eighth) ; barley on .048 per cent. Mess than one one-hundredth part), and corn on 8 per cent (about one- twelfth). These four crops form more than one-half of the total acreage of the improved farm lands of the state. The total amount of wheat, oats, barley and corn grown in Minnesota is small compared with rhe acreage. The average yields per acre for the state are: Wheat, 14.26 bushels, oats 33.5 bushels, barley 27.3 bushels and corn 29.00 bushels per acre. These low yields are largely due to ini!)rooer care in selecting the grain used for seed. By the use of well-c-elected seed the yields can be very much increasd. The Minnesota Experiment Station has shown that by selecting the largest, plumpest, and heaviest seeds the yields can United K'tijdom-jafc- Note. — Comparative yields per States and the United Kiugdom. tTlinne'bota- i i^.^t tu United States- 13.5 tu e of wheat in .Miiiiit )ta. the I'nited be increased so that on good land, wheat will yield 25 bushels, oats 70 bushels, and corn 75 bushels. If this were done by ever\- farmer in the state the yearly income from wheat, oats, barley and corn in the state would be greatly increased with but very little extra expense. A SEED? RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE. THE SEED WHAT IS ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ \^ti\Q storehouse in which a tiny plant has a separate room and gets its nourishment or food from the material stored up in the other room, when the conditions for germination* are right. Usually the little plant lies along one side at the end of the seed. The stcred- up material fills all the rest of the space and is separated from the plantlet by a very thin wall. THE PARTS A seed has three distinct parts: (i) The little OF THE plant or germ (this germ in corn is often called SEED ^'^^ heart) ; (2) the stored-up food for the little plant; and (3) the seed coat which cover;- all A-St..,d ut. food. -B-SeedCal. C-G«'r,orL.tlIe +U.,l Fig. 2. Kernels of 1 wheat, 2 oats, and 3corn, cut through lengthwise to show the three parts of the seed : viz., A. the stored-up food ; B. the seed coat ; and C the germ. and protects the inner parts. All true seeds, whether large or small have these three parts, which may be seen with the naked eye if a grain of corn be cut lengthwise in two parts. Some seeds, such as oats, appear to have an extra covering, but these extra parts are only the parts of the flower or blossom which stay with the seed when it is ripe. ♦Germination is the "sprouting" or " growing" of a seed. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE CLASSES OF SEEDS. Nature ha^ divided seeds into two classes: viz., those where the stored-up food is in one part, Hke corn, and those where it is in two parts, like the bean. When the one-part seed, like corn, is planted the seed remains in the ground, while leaves are sent up through the soil to get air and sunlight. But when the two-part seeds are planted the seed coat is broken and the two parts are pushed to the sur- tace taking the place of leaves until regular leaves are formed. In both cases, however, the little plant gets its food largely from the stored-up material until the roots and leaves arc well de- veloped.'^ Fiu. :i. Shows seeds of 1 oats, 2 bean, 3 pea. 4 corn, and 5 wheat. After three days in a germinator. note that the bean is being pushed up at the end of the sprout while the other seeds are sending the sprouts up. JJ'H -iT IS (lermination — sometimes called sprouting — CFRMJX' 4TJn\ ? '^ ^^^ growing of the little plant in the seed when it is placed under certain conditions. These conditions are heat, air and moisture. The heat is neces- sary to make the stored-up food useful and to cause growth in the plantlet in the seed. Air, together with moisture and heat, causes a change in the .stored-up food. Air also permits the little *Teaeher — Germinate some corn and some beans to illustrate the above. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fig. 4. Shows two plants resulting from good seed (outside) and two plants from poor seed (inside) ; also a plump and shrunken kernel of wheat. Note the relative extent of the root systems and the size of the little plants. to RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE plant to breathe. Ivloisture is needed to carry food substances and to give the plant what it needs. If any one or all of these three things are lacking, germination or growth will not take place. In a thoroughly ripe seed, stored away for the winter, the plantlet is dormant or asleep, and awakens into activity and growth when planted in the warm soil. When in spring germma- tion or sprouting takes place the food stored up in the seed is used by the plantlet to feed the first leaves and the roots. By the time the roots and leaves are well formed the stored-up food is all gone. The plantlet then draws its food from the soil and the air through the roots and leaves. Nearly all of the plant's food comes from the air. The ashes left after burning the straw or the wood are the only parts of the plant taken from the soil. CERMIM ^TIWC '^'^^^ germinating power is the strength and rapidity with which a seed sprouts and grows A great deal depends upon the germinating V p :^hhu^. power of a seed. Some seeds of the same kind may be slow to start and weak in growing while others may be quick and strong, or others may fail to germinate at all. Some kinds of seeds are much stronger and quicker than others ; for example wheat is quick to start and grows strong and steady while sorghum starts slowly and is weak when young. Therefore, more care must be used in plowing and harrowing and rolling the field in seeding, when the weaker seeds are to be used. There is also a great difference in seeds, of the same kind as between the large and small kernels of corn. The largest and plumpest seeds with a large germ always give the strongest and best plants. Upon the same ear of corn, for example, the germinating power of the middle kernels is much stronger than the tip and butt kernels. (See figure on subsequent page illustrating.) The age of the seed has much to do with the relative vitality or germinating power. Some seeds do not germinate after the first year, while others will keep their power of growth for several vears. Wild mustard will live in the soil for twenty years and then grow under favorable conditions. On the other hand wild oats will live only a vear or two. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICL'LTURE II FVIDFNCES OF There are certain outside appearances which more or less determine the vitahty of tlie LrhKMiJ\ A 1 Il\ Lr , seeds : rUvy hK ^J^J Age, as is seen by the dull condition of the seed coat and by the hardness of seed. Hard seeds are mostly well stored and ripe. Young, bright, shiny seeds are best ; (2) Shrunkenness, as is shown by the wrinkled seed coat, gives evidence that there is not enough plant food stored up and that the little plant is stunted. Its room is too small for it ; (3) Lack of luster and color indicate alternate wetting and drying and such seeds should never be used ; (4) Frozen condition, shown by a blistered, watery appear- ance of the seed coat, is often fatal to the germ ; (5) Bin-burned is shown by the dull, dark appearance of the entire seed. This is caused by too much moisture in the bin where the wheat is stored. Bin-burning kills the germ ; (6) Sprouted grain is shown by the presence of dried roots at the germ end of the seed. These will sometimes sprout again, but they cannot be relied upon. There are cases where seed bears every appearance of life and vigor but will not germinate. The only way to prove the power of growth of any grain is to test it. TF'\TTNr Every farmer should test all classes of seed cn/p ^^^^^ ^^ intends to plant. Why? Because he expects the seed to grow when planted and LrhKMiISAl 1J\ Gr j^g expects that the amount of seed grown will POWER. make the proper stand. If only part of the seed planted will grow, the yield of the crop will not be as large as it should be, and the work of planting the poor seed will be useless. HOW Take two c mmon plates and get two pieces of J, -pc-er cotton cloth a little larger than thei plates. Dip the cloths in warm water and spread one of them out on one of the plates. From the seed that is to be tested, take a handful and place on the table. Count out one hundred seeds just as they come from the edge of the pile. Do not try to make 12 RL'KAL SCHOOL A( -.RICL'LTL'RI-: Fij;. 5. A Seed tester consisting of two plates and two pieces of clotli. The seeds are placed between the cloths. The clotlis are kept wet. RL'RAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE I3 a selection. Scatter these lOO seeds upon the \vet cloth on the plate. Spread the other cloth over the seed and press it dowft closely. Then turn the other plate upside down on the plate with the seeds, leaving the corners of the cloths sticking out between the plates. This makes a complete little tester and is sufficient for all kinds of seeds. Place it where it will keep reasonably warm and keep the cloths moist by sprinkling with water two or three times a day if necessary. TA15LE FOR SHOWING THE METHOD OF RECORDING THE TEST OF SEED FOR GERMINATION. Name — Paul Jones. Date — March lo, 1906. Record test of Seeds. Number of seeds used 100. Number Wheat Germinated March 3 27 March 4 ^7 March 5 16 March 6 5 March 7 i Total 86 Seeds not germinating 14 Such a test is too slow. The grain should be bettei selected ; or, if it has been selected, more seed must be used to make up for the 14% that did not grow. In this way a good stand may be obtained. ^- - j^ About the third day, the counting may begin. Count carefully and keep a record of the number of seeds that have sprouted each day until the test is complete, or until no more seeds shows signs of life. .\ week is as long as this should take. 14 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE FIGURING ''^<^1'1 ^'le counts of the dilicrent days together THE GERM I- '"'"^'^ ^^^'^ total number will be the per cent of the seed germinating. If 90 to 95 seeds grow the germmation is pretty good, but below QO the value of the grain for seed begins to be doubtful and another test should be made a little later to see if the grain is losing its power. A little more seed may then be added in sowing, to make up for the dead ones. If the germination is too low, new seed should be secured. If the seeds all sprout about the same time, it is a sign of uniform strength, but if a few sprout each day it shows that the vitality is injured in some way. SELECTING ^^^^'^ ciuality of seed as indicated by the color, the pn?? ^''^^' ^'■'^ plumpness, etc., is a great help in select- ing seed to improve our field crops. It has been PI ~l \'T I NG ' ^hown that by running grain through a fanning mill a good selection can be made. In this way the heaviest seeds are obtained, and these always give better results than light seeds. I ♦♦If ft I • i «l f 11 ffif « Mil fit Ml Fi.i;-. (1. ShowiiiiT thf different desreos of pluminicss of barley seeds. In other words, the weight per bushel is a fairly correct index of the value of grain for seed purposes. Too much care cannot be taken in getting the best possil)le seed for planting. So much depends ujjon the quality of the seed that a farmer shoukl always get the best. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICLTLTLTRE 15 WEIGHT PER BUSHEL. All seeds have a definite weight per bushel. Some are very heavy while others are very light. For example, a bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds, while a bushel of oats weighs only ^2 pounds, and ji The weighing kettle i cliroiidronictrr i is used to (len-rniine the weight per bushel. The sacks indicate how the "seed grain" may be selected from the whole harvest. bushel of Kentuckey Blue Grass seed weighs 14 pounds. In order that the weights for the different seeds may be the r.ame in all parts of the state, the weight per bushel of all classes of seeds has been fixed by law. When a farmer sells his grain at the mill or elevator the number of bushels he has on his load is determined by the weight. For example : The farmer takes a load of wheat to the mill. The miller weighs the load and finds that it weighs 5.400 pounds. The farmer unloads the wheat and the miller weighs the wagon. It weighs 1,200 pounds. 5,400 pounds equals weight of load. 1,200 pounds equals weight of wagon. 4,200 pounds equals weight of wheat. Wheat weighs 60 pounds per bushel. 4,200 divided by 60 gives 70, or the number of bushels of wdieat. Thus it is easy to tell how many bushels he had on the load. i6 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTL'RE FANNING MILL SELECTION: A SECTION OF A FANNING MILL SHOWING ARRANGEMENTS OF SIEVES AND DIVIDING BOARDS. '■Sii>e-Shaki:" Mii.r, Fort Sp;rARATixG Seeh (thain. Screen No. 1 slmnld be just coarse enongh to let the grain through. It is used simply to run off sticlt weigh at least 58 pounds. No. I Northern spring wheat must weigh at least 57 pounds. No. 2 Northern spring wheat must weigh at least 56 pounds. No. 3 spring wheat must weigh at least 54 pounds. No. 4 spring wheat must weigh at least 49 pounds. No. I white oats must weigh not less than 32 piiunds No. 2 white oats must weigh not less than 31 pounds. No. 3 white oats must weigh not less than 29 pounds. No. 4 wliite oats must weigh not less than 25 pounds. The grades of grain used for seed are not regulated by law. The seedsmen and others selHng seed offer certain brands of seed which are graded generally according to the germination of the seed. Each year may Ijring forth a somewhat dift'erent grade ot seed, according to the crop. It may Idc very poor one year and the next year it mav be the very Ix'st. Thtis it is not possible to make standard grades of seed grain and keep them ni use, but 100 is taken as perfect and the seed graded accordingly. In buying seeds it is always advisable to btiy the best grade, even though it costs more. ^ In order to tell if seed is good, a person must be accustomed, when looking at grain, to pick out the • particular points which go to make up good seed, and to tell how nearly they compare with what he considers per- fect for these points. He must also be able to give the most con- sideration to those points or characters which are of most im- portance. For example : Plumpness is of more importance than mere color. Plumpness, therefore, should have more influence than color in judging. A grain having the l:)est of color and yet not plump would not be worth one -third as much as one that was plump and well filled but having a liad color. In order to have the important points always in mind, they are made into a score card and given a certain comparati\'e value. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICL'LTURE 19 To aid in judging" the different kinds of seed grain a set of points (called a score card) is arranged to show the relative value of each point. One hundred ( 100) is taken as perfect for the sum of all points. It is noticed that each one has a cer- IV HAT THE SCORE CARD IS. Fig:. 9. Getting tlie weight per busliel with the testing kettle. When grad- ing grain for seed tlie weight per bushel should be taken. The heaviest is the best. tain number or part of the 100. This number represents the relative value of the point. Men who judge chickens often pay 20 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE too much attention to the feathers. They give more attention in some cases to a certain mark of a feather than they do to the amount of meat there is or the number of eggs laid. But this is a mistake. The score cards should be arranged so as to give greatest vahie to the points that show the true value of the grain, or chicken, or horse, as the case may be. SCORE CARD FOR SEED WHEAT 1. Weight per bushel 25 2. Uniform and purit\' 10 3- Color 15 4. Plumpness 25 5. Condition of bran (seed coat) 5 6. Diseased or injured kernels 10 (Market Condition) — ■ 100 RULES FOR In order to make the score card useful it is neces- sary to have a rigid set of rules to follow in giving the proper credit to the samples being judged. The J UVLrllMLr. score card is divided into several heads or points to be considered. These headings will differ somewhat accord- ing to the kind of crop to be judged. Wheat, for example, is quite different from corn and cannot be governed by the same rules. Each heading in the score card will have a separate rule, which should be followed very closely when judging a sample. In looking at the sample and passing upon any one point in the score card, all other points should be forgotten for the time. In other words, judge only the one point regardless of the others. See bulletins listed in back on this subject. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 21 WHEAT HISTORY ^^^^^^ is one of the oldest crops grown. The people who lived in Egypt along the valley of the Nile River, more than five thousand years ago, . grew wheat, and it was used for food by the richer classes. The tombs in which many of these people were buried have been found to contain grains of wheat. From Egypt wheat was carried across the Mediterranean Sea to Greece, and from there to Rome. In the hands of the Romans wheat spread all over Europe, and was taken into England about two thousand years ago. Finally wheat was introduced into America. It has spread into every state and country of both North and South America. It is used so much for human food that it is often called "the staff of life." Wheat is nearly always the first crop to be grown in a new country, especially on our w^estern prairies and in west central Canada. In the United States, Minnesota stands third in the list as a wheat state. It produces more wheat annually than any other state except Kansas and North Dakota, and the largest flour mills in the world are located at Minneapolis on the Falls of St Anthony. One of these mills alone makes over 16,800 barrels of flour in a day's work of twenty-four hours. ^„^„^^^„^„., Wheat belongs to the great family of grasses. It grows like most grasses, sendmg up several stalks from the planting of one seed. It requires planting every year if a crop is to be harvested. Plants which ripen their seed the same year they are planted are called annuals. The stems of a wheat plant often grow to be five feet high. They are hollow except at the joints. This gives lightness and elasticity to them so they will not break in the wind and storm. The number of joints in each stalk above ground is usually five — one just at the surface and four above. The space between the joints is greater near the top than at the bottom. The seed-bearing part of the plant is called a spike. It is made 22 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE Fis. 1(1. Two wheat plnnts. Each JfiMm a single seed. Note the stems. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 23 up of a zig-zag" stem upon which are grown small bunches of flowers. These are called spikelets. There are usually about nineteen of these spikelets on each stem, and they have from two to four seeds each. I ^ % ^ i I $ %_ t e « t f f t ^ Fig. 11. Type keruels of wheat, also srinkiag smut-balls. 1. Emmer (Speltz.) in the liulls and tlie berries alone. 2, Macaroni wlieat. 3, Blue stem wheat. 4, Fife. 5, Smut-balls. The grain is usually held fast in the chaff when it is ripe, but it should be cut before it is too ripe and dry, as the grain shells easily afterward. The grains are a little longer than broad and 24 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE have a crease on one side running' the entire length. They also have fine hairs at the top or end opposite the germ. The color of the grain is sometimes white and sometimes red, depending upon the variety grown. TYPES OF DIFFERENT There are several ditlerent types or kinds of wheat grown in the world. Not all of these types are grown in Minnesota. The types of IVHEAI. wheat are divided according to the looks of the spikes and the seeds. Those most common in ^Minnesota are as follows : The Common Bread Wheats, mostly grown in North Amer- ica. — In Minnesota the Fife and Blue-stem wheats are the com- - '-,'! \ wh/ Fig. 12. Types of wheat. 1. Bmmer (speltz). roni. 4. Fife. 5. Bearded common. -. Blue-.stem. 3. Maca- mon varieties of this class. Blue-stem yields better, but the quality of the grain is not so good as that of the Fife. Blue- stem is more successful in southern Minnesota than Fife. Fife is mostly used in the north. The Macaroni of Durum Wheat, mostly grown in the coimtries bordering- on the Mediterranean Sea. — It was recentlv RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE . 2~, brought into this country, and is rapidly spreading through the Northwest. It is not Hked by the millers. It does best upon the poor, sandy soils, where there is not much rainfall. It yields more per acre than the Fifes and Blue-stems, but is more diffi- cult to make into flour. Emmer* — This is a kind of wdieat that looks like barley and is often called "Speltz." Speltz is still another class or type of wheat, and is not grown in this country. The chafif of Emmet- holds the seed like oats and barley when threshed. In the United States Emmer is used only for food for live stock. Polish Wheat is popular in some parts of the world, but is npt much grown in this country. When grown it is useful only in gruels or as stock food. There are still other types of wheat, but they are so little grown that their importance is slight. There are also two classes of wheat — the winter wheat and the spring wheat. These look just alike, "but the winter varieties must be planted in the fall and remain over winter before they will produce seed, while the spring varieties are planted in the spring and produce seed the same year. These two classes — • winter and spring wheat — are found in nearly all of the types. Plow TO GROW WHEAT. _ Plowing for wheat should be done in the fall. Fall PLOWING. , . "^ ,, -1 ,1 , • 1 , plowmg opens the soil so that air and water can pass through it. The frost then breaks it up and makes it fine and more productive. If the plowing is left until spring the soil does not go through this treatment and is not so productive. Spring plowing should be shallow, as it is likely to make the soil too loose. ^,,.,,,^ Harrowing should be done at iust the proper HARROn IhG . -r,'' ^ ... ^ , 1 . -11 time. It a wet sou is not harrowed it will Itih ^UIL. form a hard crust on top or be lumpy. If left too long after plowing the soil dries out and the seeds do not get *It is not intended to have Emmer as one of tlie varieties in the growing contest. 26 RURAL SCHOOL Ai-R JCl"LTL"RE the moisture needed for germination. The seeds do not sprout evenly and the crop looks poor. Harrowing" is not intended for making the soil loose, but for compacting it. and making a fine, firm seed bed. Fall plowed land should not be harrowed until spring. Spring plowed land should be harrowed the same day as plowed and again before or just after ])lanting. Fig. 3^. A ut'H made shock will shed rain. PLAXriXG THE SEED. The best way to plant wheat is with a drill. This gets the seed buried at an even depth and places it in contact with moist soil. Farmers use from 1-^4 to i-Jj bushels of seed per acre. The seed should be drilled as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. Many farmers who have many acres of grain to put in, begin before the soil is in the best condition. After the seed is all planted it is a good plan to harrow or roll the field just as the wheat is coming u]). This presses the soil about the roots of the little l)lants so they can get moisture easily. It also helps to keep the RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 27 moisture in the soil. If the ground is wet it should not be rolled as it makes the surface too hard and dry. HARVESTING Wheat is usually cut just before the last of the WHEAT. green color is gone from the top of the stems and spikes. The grain should not be allowed to get dead ripe Fig. 14. A poorly made shock permits the rain to soali into the heads of the bundles and spoil the grain. A shock contains about one bushel of grain. Cant you afford to spend a little more time on the shocks and make them good? or will you let them go like this one and lose from five to ten cents per bushel on the crop? and dry. It is well to have the binder in good order before har- vest time, so that no time will be lost in saving the crop. The bundles should not be allowed to lie on the ground, but should be shocked up at once. The shocking should be well done. Poorly shocked wheat is worse than no shocking at all. Shocks should have one or two bundles on top for caps to shed the rain. The bundles must be firmly set on the ground or the shock will fall over to one side, which lets many of the heads of the wheat touch the damp ground and damage the grain. 28 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE THRESHING. After wheat has been in the shock lonsf enough to get thoroughly dry it should be either threshed or stacked. When once dry in the shock it must be kept dry. If the grain is damp it will heat in the bin or stack and be injured. As far as the cost is concerned, there is not much difference between threshing from the stack or the shock. Fig. 15. Well luado s'ac coldi- of sraiu l)v '"swcatiiii jram lu a )nditi**'- ■ Zjt- ' '-^- le - II 1 II ■ ■ ■ - £+- Ki.ff. 17. Samplos of Milled prodnrts illustrating the vai-iotis operations 111 Millini; wheat. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICLT.'I TRI-. ^t KEY TO FKi n 1. Wheat as it is received at tlie mil. 2. Screenings taken out of wheat. 3. Clean wlieat ready to grind. 4. After 1st grinding or breali. 5. Middlings sifted out of No. 4. 6. Ready for id grinding. 7. After second grinding. S. Middlings sifted out of No. 7. 9. Ready for 3d grinding. 10. No. 1 coarse Middlings before purifying. 11. Fine bran talien out of No. 10. 12. No. 1 or coarse Middlings after purifyi' 13. No. 2 Middlings before purifying. 14. Fine bran and dust taken out of No. 13. 1.5. No. 2 Middlings after purifying. 16. Best grade flour. 17. 1st Clears (2d Grade of flour^. 15. 2d Clears (3d Grade of flour). 19. Red dog (1st Grade of feed). 20. Shorts or standard Middlings. 21. Bran. 22. Pure wheat germ. 23. Flour Middlings. 24. Entire Wheat Flour. OUTLINE OF THE PROCESS OF MILLING. "Sample No. 1 shows the wheat as it comes to the mill in the cars from the country. Here it is shoveled by means of power shovels into large Hopper Scales which weigh it accurately. From the Hopper Scales by means of Con- veyors and Elevators, it is carried into the storage bins. From the storage bins the wheat goes to the first cleaning process, wlibh is known as a Milling Separator. It is a series of metal sieves. Perforations of the first two are just large enough for a kernel of wheat to pass through and therefore oats, straw, and other impurities larger than a kernel of wheat are separated from the wheat on these sieves. The lowest sieve of the series has perforations considerably smaller than a kernel of wheat, through which the small mustard seeds and other impurities which are smaller than a wheat ker- nel pass. Some of these impurities are shown in sample No. 2. From the Milling Separator the wheat is passed through what is called the wheat scourer, which is in the form of an upright perforated cylinder, in the center of which, revolving about the shaft, are large beaters. The wheat falls down in the center, is struck by the beaters, and is thrown against the outer wall, and after revolving a number of times against the casting it passes out 32 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE through the bottom of the cylinder. While it is falling through the cylinder there is a strong current of air passing upward which carries off the dust. After the wheat passes through these cleaning systems it is all ready to go on to the rolls and is shown in No 3. After being thoroughly cleaned, it passes to the first set of corrugated rolls. — that is, rolls having ridges cut lengthwise, about 10 to 14 of these ridges to every inch of circumference. This is called the first reduction as shown in No. 4. After passing through these rolls it goes into one end of a long reel cov- ered with coarse bolting cloth. The Middlings shown in No. 5 pass througli this cloth and what remains of the wheat passes over the end of the reel and from there goes to the second reduction rolls, which are similar to the first. This process is repeated five times and after the Middlings are taken out after the fifth reduction, all that is left of the wheat is the Bran, which is shown in sample No. i;i. Before the Middlings can be reduced into flour, the fine Bran and dust must be taken out of them, or, in other words, they must be purified. Before the purification can be accomplished thoroughly the Middlings must be divided into various grades with respect to size. This is accomplished by running all the Middlings into the end of a long reel, which is covered with various sizes of bolting cloth. On the head jf the reel is a very fine cioth through which the flour passes : the next section is covered with a cloth a little coarser, through which the finest grade of Middlings pass: the next section still coarser, and so on up to the end of the reel. What is too coarse to go through the last section of the reel passes over the end. After the Middlings are graded they pass over the end known as the Mid- dlings Purifier. This is a long narrow sieve with a strong current of air passing upwards through the cloth. The Middlings travel from one end of the sieve very gradually to the other end. The strong current of air carries off the tine dust to the Dust Collector and the tine Bran being much lighter than the' Mid- dlings, Ls suspended by the air current from the cloth, while the Middlings go through the cloth, the Bran being carried by the current of air to the tail of the machine and is thus separated from the Middlings. This fine Bran is shown in No. 11, and the Middlings after the Bran is taken out in No. 12. This process is the same for the various grades of Middlings. After the Middlings are thoroughly purified they are reduced similar to the gradual reduc- tion of the wheat except thnt instead of having the rolls corrugated, they are smooth ; that is, the coarsest grade of Middlings is ground, then passed on to a reel clothed with a very fine cloth through which the fine dust passes and goes to the flour bin. I'articles of me Middlings that are too coarse to pass through the cloth go over the end of the refl and on to another set of rolls, being ground again, and pass through another reel, the flour being taken out . This process is repeated for all grades of Middlings until all have been re- duced to tlour. The Clears and lower grades of flour are made from, the fine Bran and dust that is taken out of the Middlings during the process of purification. This is done by grinding on smooth rolls this fine Bran and dust. The Bran will not break up, but will fiatten out and when the product is passed on to a reel clothed with a fine '-loth, the Bran will not go through the cloth but will go over the end of the reel, and the flour passes through the cloth. This flour, of course, contains very fine particles of Bran which it is im- possible to separate from it and, therefore, cannot be run into the highest grades of flour and is sold for either ' st. Clears, 2d Clears, or Red Dog, according to the amount of Bran it contains. Entire Wheat Flour (shown in sample No. 24 1 is made by simply grinding the entire wheat on a corragat^d roll, removing only the coarse fibrous part of the Bran. ' From Washlmrn-Crosby Co. Sample Case. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 33 Breakfast foods and macaroni are also made from wheat. It is supposed that macaroni is all made from the JMacaroni or Durum wheat, but whether this be true or not, macaroni can be made from the fife and blue-stem wheats. The process of milling wheat is very interesting. The intricate methods and machinery used in separating FLOUR. the various parts of the kernels into so many "milled" products is little less than wonderful. The wheat received from the elevators is first thoroly cleaned of dirt and weed seed. If it is infested with smut it is passed thru a scouring device, which removes the smut particles from the wheat. The next process is tempering. This is usually done by steam. By passing the grain thru steam it takes on a little moisture. This is for the purpose of softening the kernels so that in grinding the bran does not break up into small particles and mix with the flour. After tempering, the grain is passed thro the break or rollers. The breaking is not all done at once, but in five processes. It is com- monly supposed that in passing between these rolls the wheat is crushed, but such is not the case. The rolls are so geared that one revolves slowly while the other revolves very rapidly. The rollers are corrugated, — thus the wheat, in passing between them is cut or broken rather than pressed or crushed. On this account the grain coming thro the first pair of rolls is called "ist Break." After the first break the wheat goes into one end of a large reel covered with coarse bolting cloth. The fine "middlings" pass thro the cloth while the coarse parts pass over the end of the reel into a second pair of rolls similar to the first. This process is repeated five times. Each time the separation is more and more complete until at last only the bran is left. Before the separation is complete and the pure flour obtained, the fine bran and dust must be purified. Before this process is complete the middlings are passed thro a long reel covered with difl^erent sizes of bolting cloth — thus the various grades are divided. After being graded the middlings pass thro a "purifier." — This 34 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE is a long, narrow, cloth sieve, with a strong air blast passing up- wards thro it. The dust is, in this w'ay, blown out while the bran particles are held in suspension in the air and the fine middlings pass thro the cloth. After this process the middlings again go thro a reduction pro- cess similar to that of the wheat except that the rolls are smooth. This goes on until all the flour has been worked out. Some of the flour of the last reduction process will have many particles of fine bran in it. It cannot be run in with the highest grades of flour, but is left unmixed and sold as ist Clear, 2d Clear or Red Dog — according to the amount of bran it contains. ( SeeFig. ) -r\/^ The judging of wheat is based upon points or characters. These characters have some relation to // tibAl . i-j-j^, jiniount and kind of flour the wheat will make. The wheat score card is made up so as to give most emphasis to the points that are of most importance. For example : Shrunken grain does not make good flour. Therefore, plump grain is desirable and is given 25 points out of the total 100 for a perfect lot. On the other hand, uniform size and shape are an advantage to the miller, but these are given only 10 points. SEED FOR CONTEST An exhibit shall consist of one peck of selected grain and ten selected seed heads with stalks at least six inches long. To select the twelve heads watch the field from the time the wheat begins to head until it is ripe. When an extra good head is found mark the place with a stake and tie a small white rag on the stalk of the selected head. In this way mark fifty or more heads that come out first and grow tallest and have the largest, best-filled heads. Harvest all of these and then select the ten best from them. Make a small bundle of the selected heads and tie the bundle loosely just below the heads and tig^-.tly at the base of the stem. RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 35 SCORE CARD FOR SEED WHEAT - Minnesota Judging School Division of Agriculture. St. Anthony Park, Minn. POINTS NOTED Stand- ard Score ;S'mple No. Score S'mple S'mple No. !No. Score j Score S'mple No. Score S'mple No. Score 1. Weight per bushel 25 2 Uniformity and Purity 10 3. Color 15 4. Plumpness 25 5. Condition of Bran 5 6. Market Condition 20 Total Points 100 i 36 RL'KAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE EXPLANATION AND RULES OF SCORE CARD Weight per Bushel. The standard weight is 60 pounds per bushel. Any sample weighing less should be given a lower score than the standard. Rule. — By means of a testing kettle get the weight per bushel. This may also be determined by weighing very carefully an even peck of the grain, then multiplying by 4, the number of pecks in a bushel. If the sample has a weight less than 60 pounds per bushel, ciit one point off the score card for eacJi pound less than the standard. Thus, if the sample weighed 55 pounds per bushel it would score only 20 points. Uniformity and Purity. This is an important point in all grain intended for seed purposes, and should be closely observed. The size and shape of the kernels will often help in judging the purity of the seed. For example : Fife and blue-stem wheat ker- nels are different. The one short and thick and the other long. xAll the kernels should closely resemble each other. Rule. — To judge the score of uniformity of a sample examine it closely and estimate the relative amount of difterence in size and in shape. Then judge about how near it comes to being pure. Cut the score according to hozv near the sample comes to being perfect. Color. The color of wheat has much to do with the quality. For example: If it has been frequently wet with rains, or has been heated in the bin, or has been frosted, the natural color is changed and the seed has been somewhat injured. Good seed wheat has a hard, flinty clear color and good luster. Rule. — Keep in mind what perfect wheat should look like. Then see how near the sample comes to your idea and mark accord- ingly. It is very seldom that a sample is marked perfect. Plumpness. The plumpness of wheat is important to millers in mak- ing flour. The plumpest kernels have the most flour. For RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 37 seed purposes plump grain is the best and gives larger yields. Rule. — The rule for judging this point is the same as for judging color. See about how near the sample comes to being perfectly plump, and cut the score card in proportion to zvhat it Jacks in being plump. Condition of Bran. If the bran or seed coat is wrinkled the milling qual- ities are reduced. The cause for the wrinkled con- dition may have been such as to injure the value of the grain for seed purposes. Ride. — Cut the score card according to the e.rtent of the zvrinkled or otherivise injured condition of the bran. Market Condition. Under this head are considered the amount of dis- eased or injured kernels and the dirt. All injured seeds are detrimental to the grain for seed purposes, therefore no such seeds should be found in samples of seed grain. Smutted or moldy kernels, cracked kernels, and dust or dirt .-hould not be tolerated in seed grain. Ride. — Cut the score card according to the amount of dirt and dust, and the number of diseased or otherivise injured kernels. Adding the Score. Add all the scores given under the six heads. The sum of these will be the standing or score of the sample. After all the samples have been judged, the scores can be compared and the best ones picked out of those with highest score. See appendix for bulletins on this subject. 38 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE HISTORY OATS Cultivated oats are supposed to have been origin- ated from wild oats. There is very little difference between the cultivated and the wild oats. The earliest mention of oats is found in the history of Roman Agriculture about four Fig. IN. Types of Oat kernels; Top low, Wild oats: Middle row, slen- der type ; Bottom row, potato type. Note the beard, the basal hairs and oval base of the wild oat. The slender oats commonly have a thinner hull than the potato type. hundred years before Christ. The oat is a native of the country north of the Mediterranean Sea, probably Central Europe, and has been introduced into the newer countries early in their development. DESCRIPTION The oat plant is very much like wheat when it is young. When fully developed the stems also resemble wheat, but are generallv coarser. The seed heads of RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE 39 oats are very different from wheat. The flowers are borne at the top of the straw in clusters called panicles. The kernels are borne in twos at the ends of very small slender branches. J V HERE Oats are grown in nearly every country in the tem- OATS ARE perate zone. They do best in fairly cool climates. GROWN. In the United States oats are not much grown south of the old Mason and Dixon line, except in Texas. The Fig. 1'.). Two types of oat panicles. 1. The side or horse mane ; and, 2. the open or spreading. states growing the largest amounts are Illinois, Iowa, Nebraska, Minnesota and Wisconsin. There is hardly a farmer who does 40 RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTURE not i^row some oats. In Scotland, oats are given the first place on the farms and are more extensively grown than any other crop. rjr'p(^ Most of the oats grown are used for feed for horses. They make an excellent food for all kinds of OF O 4TS stock, especially the young animals. The greatest good can be obtained when the oats are ground before feeding, but this is not essential. Oats are extensively used as a food for man. The Scotch have always been noted as oatmeal eaters. In recent years the English and American people have used oats, in various forms, as a breakfast food. The straw, though not so good as hay, is used by the farmers for feeding horses and other stock during the winter months. It is also used for bed- ding animals. TVPn<^ Oats are divided into two classes, according to the shape of the panicles, viz., the spreading and the side oats. The side oat is so called because the seeds appear mostly on one side of the panicle, whereas in the spreading type the panicle is open and branching in all direc- tions. Oats are also divided into classes according to color, as white, black, yellow, red and gray. The white oats are the most common and are generally preferred. PREP -IT^ING ^Vhatever is true in regard to getting land ready ^ ,,,^ r-.-. ,-, for wheat is also true for oats. Fall plowed land LAND FOR , 1 1 , r 1 1 11 1 should be disced or harrowed early to cause weeds to germinate. A harrowing later, just before planting, will then kill them. The ground should be free from weeds (especially wild oats) and should be made smooth and fine before seeding. Manure should not be applied to land the same year that oats are to be sown. It makes too heavy a growth of straw, which causes the oats to lodge. Oats should not be planted as early in the spring as wheat, tor the plants are not so hardy m the soil and weather. Sow oats when the weather and soil are fairly RURAL SCHOOL AGRICULTL'RE 4I warm. In Minnesota this is about May first. In nearly every case it is preferable to sow with a drill. The broadcast seeder requires more seed and does not get the seed in evenly. Farmers use about two to two and one-half bushels of seed to sow an acre. On heavy, rich soils it is generally thought best to use more seed than on light soils. Plant deeper on light than on heavy soils. Two and one-half inches is about an average depth for planting. Tj A-D77T-